JPRS ID: 8738 TRANSLATION INFRARED TECHNOLOGY AND OUTER SPACE BY YU. P. SAFRONOV AND YU. G. ANDRIANOV

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• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 232
• Document Creation Date: November 1, 2016
• Sequence Number: 7
• Content Type: REPORTS

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.
6Y
29 OCT06ER 1979 YU. P. SAFRONOV ANO YU. G. ANDIt I ANOV i OF 3
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JPRS L/8738
29 October 1979
~
FOR OFHICIAI. USE ONLY
Translation
- INFRARED TECHNOLOGY AND O-UTER SPACE
BY
~
Yu. P. Safronov and Yu. G. Andrianov r
FOREIGRI BROADCAST INFORMATION SERVICE
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JPRS L/8738
29 October 1979
; INFRARED TECHNOLOGY AND OUTER SPACE
Moscow INFRA.YRASNAYA TEKHNIKA I KOSMO5 in Russian 1978 signed
to press 4 Ju1 78 pp 1-248
[Book by Yu. P. Safronov and Yu. G.Andrianov, "Soviet Radio"
- PL�blishers, 5,150 copies]
CONTENTS PAGE
_ ANNOTATION 1
FOREWORD 2
CHAPTER 1. BASIC AREAS OF APPLICATION AND OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
OF INFRARED SYSTEMS IN SPACE 4
1.1. Basic Areas of Use of Infrared Engineering in Space 4
1.2. Operating Characteristics of Infrared Systems in Space 10
1.3. Technical Experiments in the Infrared Range and Support
of the Operation of On-Board Systems 13
CHAPTER 2. SPACE NAVIGATION 16
~
2.1. Space Navigation Problems 16
2.2. Sensors for Sensing the Horizon of the Planet Operating
- by Thermal Emission 19
- 2.3. Infrared Sensors Operating by.the Radiation of the Sun,
the Stars and Solar Radiation Reflected from the Planets 34
CHAPTER 3. ASTROPHYSICAL RESEARCH 42
3.1. Problems and Characteristics of Astrophysical Research,
Conducted With the Help of Infrared Equipment 42
3.2. Astrophysical Studies from the Earth's Surface 45
3.3. Astrophysical Studies Using Equipment on Board p.ircraft,
Balloons and Rocket Probes 48
3.4. Astrophysical Studies Using Spacecraft 50
3.5. Astrophysical Studies on Manned Spacecraft 68
- a - [I - US5R - E,FOUO]
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CONTENTS (Continued)
Page _
CHAPTER 4. INFRARED EQUIPMENT FOR TARGET OBSERVATIONS, TRACKING
AND RANGE MEASUREMENTS 76
4.1. Principles of Constructing I-nfrared Observation and Tracking
Instruments 76
4.2. Passive Infrared Observation and Tracking Means 84
4.3. Plans for Building Antisatellites in the United States 92
4.4. Tracking Targets Equipped with Optical Corner Reflectors 94
4.5. Tracking Targets Equipped with Optical Beacons and
Also Having Scattered Reflection and Luminescent Re-
radiation 99
CHAPTER 5. MLTEOROLOGICA.L STUDIES USING SPACE INFRARED EQUIPMENT 103
5.1. General Problems of Meteorological Research from Space 103
5.2. Some Peculiarities of Utilizing Meteorological
Satellites 105
5.3. Synoptic Meteorology and Satellites 111
' 5.4. Thermal Sounding of the Atmosphere ' 113
5.5. Infrared Equipment Used on Meteorological Earth
Satellites 118
5.6. Space Infrared Radiometers for Thermal Sounding of the
Upper Atmosphere 129
CHAPTER 6. APPLICATION OF INFRARED DEVICES DEVELOPED FOR USE IN
OUTER SPACE TO INVESTIGATE NATURAL RESOURCES, IN GEOLOGY
AND FOR FOREST FIRE DETECTION 132
' 6.1.
Use of Pattern Recognition Methods
as Applied to Multi-
channel Infrared Systems Developed
for Use in Outer Space
132 -
6.2.
Geological Resource Exploration and Investigation Us3ng
Infrared Systems i:i Space
140
6.3.
Satellites with Infrared Equipment
for Investigating
Geological Resources
1'Z9
6.4.
Detection of Forest Fires by Space
Infrared Systems
161
- CHAPTER 7. SPACE COMMLTNICATIONS
7.1. Characteristics of Laser Communications Systems 171
7.2,. Designs of Space Laser Communication Systems 173
7.3. Space Laser Communications Systems Equipment 177
' 7.4. Search and Tracking Systems of the Laser Communica-
_ tions Systems 188
7.5. Practical Operations in the Creation of Space Infrared
_ Laser Communications Systems 191
- b
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CONTENTS (Continued) Page
CHAP'.CER 8. INFRARED SPACE SYSTEMS FOR MONITORING NUCLEAR BLASTS,
DETECTION OF THE UUIvCHTNG OF BALLISTIC MISSILES AND
' SPACECRAFT 195
8.1. Some Characteristics of Nuclear Blast Radiation 195
8.2. Infrared Radiation of the Jets of Ballistic Missiles 198
8.3. Satellites u;ith Infrared Equipment for Detecting Rocket
Launc.hes and Nuclear B::a.its 208
PLBLIOGRAPHY 212
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PUBLICATION DATA
_ English title : INFRARED TECHNOLOGY AND OUTER SPACE
Russian ticle ; INFRAKRASNAYA TEKHN3KA I KOSMOS
_ Author (s) . ; Yu. P. Safronov and Yu. G. Andrianov
Editor (s) ,
Publishing House ; Soviet Radio
Place of Publication ; Moscow
Date of Publication ; 1978
Signed to press , 4 July 1978
Copies , 5150
COPYRIGHT , Izdatel`stvo "Sovetskoye radio," 1978
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UDC 621.384.3:629.78
T;1FItARED TECIMOLOGY AND OUTER SPACE
P4oscow INFREIKRASNAYA TEKHNIKA I KOSMOS in Russian 1973 pp signed to press
4 Jul 78 pp 1-248
[Book by Yu. P. Safronov) Sovetskoye Publishing House, 248 pages, 5,150
copies] [Text]' A study is made of the prospective areas of application of infrared
~ technology: space navigation, range measurerients, tracking of targets in
_ outer space, space communications, astrophysical research and investigation
of the earth's resources.
The book is.intended for specialists in the field of infrared engineering _
- and a broad class of readers interested in its application in the national
economy.
.
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FOREWORD
After the first.ar*ificial earth satellite was launched on 4 October 1957,
significant means were invested in the exploitation of space. In turn,
the devzlopment of space research is yielding ever newer perceptible,
at times entirely unexpected results with every passing year which confirm
the validity of the selected path and justify the expenditures on the
creation of space equipment and the development of cosmonautics. The great
progress which has been ma.de both in the exploitation and discovery of the
secrets of the earth and in investigating the planets of the solar system
are svidence of this.
The space systems and objects are equipped with sensitive receptor elements,
by means of which information is picked up from the environment. These
include radio engineering, optical, barometric, magnetic, radiation and
other sensors which permit us to obtain a concept of the corre:;ponding
characteristics of the outside world. Sensitive elements and systems
operating in the infrared range are playing an ever greater role in this
large complex of varied space receptors.
As is known, the instruments of infrared technology were used in a numbei
- of areas in the national economy before the conquest of outer space begari,
In industry the comparatively high penetrating capacity of infrared radia=
tion is used to dry paint and wood, which offers the possibility of improv-
ing the quality of products. Infrared instruments permit remote detection
- of significant (to 0.01�C) local overheating of parts of various devices
by the infrared radiation (engines, electronic equipment, and so on).
Spectral measurements in the infrared range offer the possibility of chemical
analysis of materials. When using infrared photography it is,possible to
read inscriptions and detect fingerprints which are not visible to the
naked eye and also to discover pictures hidden under a layer of paint.
Infrared technology has found application also in medicine, navigation and
other areas.
Along with its use in science and engineering, infrared technology has been
more and more wide~y introduced into military science, and, in the opinion
o� foreign authors, there is every possibility o:f increasing its role and,
~ significance in military engineering. By using infrared devices heat"
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dir.ection .`_inders it is possible to determine the directions of ships,
aircraft, tanks and other targets which constitute heated bodies. The
tieat direcLion finders mal:e it possible to detect targets also by the
negative thermal contrast, for exainple, icebergs against the background of
the ocean. Some forms of missi.les are equipped with heat--sensitive homing
devices. Communications systems have been developed on the basis of infraT
red radiation which permit secret transmission of a variety ot information.
The conquest of apace is opening iip new areas of application of infrared
technolagy. They include the following: weather forecasting on the earth,
space communications, the study of lif e on other planets, the investigation
of the earth's resources, orientation of satellites and spacecraft, tracking
of missiles and satellites and the solu tion of groblems connected uTith the
application of equ.ipment for military purposes. _
The various areas of application of infrared technology do not, hawever,
mean that it holds a privileged position among other types of technology, -
By using inf rared devices it is technically simpler to solve certain prablems
- a.t the same time as other probleins are better solved, for example, by
using television or radar equipment.
In tnis book a skudy is made of the basic areas of r.he application of infra-
red technology connected with the conquest of space. The book was written
by published Soviet and foreign materials.
Yu. G. Andrianov wrote 51.2, 1.3, Chapter 2, �3.1-3.4, 4.4, 4.5, 7.4 and 7.5;
Yu. P. Safronov w-rote 4,3, Chapter 5, Chapter 6 and Chapter 3. The fore-
word to the book was written by the authors jointly. The scientific editor
of the book, A. S. Batrakov,.vrote 91.1, 3.5, 4.1, 4.2, 7.1-7.3.
I.et us take this opportunity to express our appreciation to candidates of
technical sciences G. I. Leshev and A. S. Batrakov for careful examination
_ of the manuscript and valuable suggestions.
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CHAPTER 1. BASIC AREAS OF APPLICATION AND OPERATTNG CHARkCTERISTICS OF
INFRARED SYSTEMS IN SPACE
1.1. Basic Areas of Use of Infrared Engineering in Space
In infrarecl aquipment the information about the targets is obtained by
analyzing the polarization intensity and the spectrum of their emission
or the measurement of optical characteristics (integral and spectral radiav
tion, reflection and transmission coefficients) in the infrared part of the
spectrum.
The majority of infrared devices are passive type devices and record the
characteristic thermal emission of the targets or the radi.atio.n of natural
sources reflected by them (the sun, moons, stars) in the infrared range.
The characteristic thermal emission of bodies is most completely describecl
by Planck's law characterizing the radiation distribution with r.espect to
the spectrum as a function of the temperature of the emitter: -
C,
ra. T - `a, r j,s eXp (Cs /XT)
- where rX , T is the spectral density of the radiation power, watts-m 2-micron 1;
a is the wave length, microns; T is the absolute temperature, K;
eA , T is the spectral radiation coefficient; C1 and CZ are constants; ~
C1=3.74�1012 watts-microns4 m 2; C2=14385 micrans-deg. _
f
For an aUsolutely black body (eX, T=1) and "gray" bodies (EX'T=Esible part of the spectrum these fluctuations are still greater:
from 3-6 to 55-78% for the same reflecting formations. In addition, the
magnitude of the reflected solar radiat3on is influenced by a number of
other factors, in particular, the optical thickness of the atmosphere, the
sun height, and so on.
As the sensitive elements in the sensors operating by reflected radiation,
usually silicon photovoltaic elements are used which are sensitive to
radiation in the spectral range of 0.35 to 1.1 microns, that is, the
- visible and near infrared regions of the spectrum. The use of this
spectral range permits us to decrease the range of oscillations of the
initial signals by comparison with the visible radiation sensors. In
- addition, the silicon elements are distinguished by the.highest stability
of the characteristics under the conditions of inconstancy of the input
signals and also the effect of the external environment (radiation, variable
thermal conditions, and so on). The use of the reflected solar radiation
sensors is limited, of course, only to the day side af the planet.
For angular dimensions of the earth of 0.2 to 12� usually sensors are used
with shadow masks whi.ch a,nsure the required f ield of view and also
radiation and balance sensors analogous to the infrared horizon sensors.
The high signal level permits us to get along with a simpler optical system,
in particular, a slit optical system. For rotation-stabilized satellites,
sensors with slits and irises for limiting the field of view and the
digital equipment for processing the signals are used. Thus, for the
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_ Neos artific-ial earth satellite stabilized by rotation the VAS Company
developed a sensor with two slit (fan) fields of view. One f ield of view
is meridiona]_ parallel to the axis of rotation of the satellite and the
other is inclined by 30� to the mer.idional target, Three eylj:ndrical
- lenses create an image of the earth illuminated by the sun on silicon
phatoelements. The f ields of view of the sensors are created jointly by
the slits and cylinders 120x1�. The sensor is capable of operating with
irradiation of no less than 0.6�10'6 watts-cin 2 in the spectral range of
0.35 to 1.1 microns. The accuracy of orientation is +0.5�. Shutters are
used which exclude the interference of the sun at an altitiide to 15�. The
sun is the most powerful source of radiation for optical sensors in flight
within the limits of the solar system, and therefore it is used as one of
' the basic navigational reference points. Its angular dimensions are about
32'.
s'
The maximum in the radiation spectrum of the sun is in the m3ddle of the
visible part of the spectrum (about 0.5 microns). However, in the visible
and the ultraviolet parts of the spectrum, the scattering of the solar
radiation by the earth's a�:mosphere is large; therefore the brightness of
the solar disc observed from the earth's surface depends to a signif icant
degree on its altitude and the meteorological conditions. As a result of
significant fluctuations of the output signals of the equipment on variation
of the observation conditions of the sun, the use of the visible part of
the spectrum for operation of solar spnsors is inconvenient when tuning
the equipment under ground conditions. From this point of view it is more
efficient to use the short wave infrared part of the spectrum. Therefore
in the solar sensors basically silicon photoelements are used which are
sensitive to the spectral range of 0.35 to 1.1 micron and distinguished by
the best stability of the characteristics for high sensitivity. In addition,
cadnlium selenide photoresistors are used which have a number of advantages
when oPerating under high illumination conditions. These advantages include
the following: a decrease in internal resistance leading to a decrease in
noise level, and a decrease in its periodicity with an increase in the light
- flux -incident on it. When using cadmium selenide photoresistors with red
, optical filters, maximum spectral sens.itivity of about 0.25 microns is
insured with a long wave boundary of about 1.1 microns. ,
The solar orientation systems usually have rough arientation sensors which
have a wide viewing angle and provide for the initial search and lockon of
the target (the sun) and precision orientation sensors having a narrow
viewing angle and permitting orientation of the spacecraft with respect to
the sun with the required accuracy. The rough orientation system is used
to stop the rotation of the spacecraft obtained as a result of the effect
of various disturbances and it:�insures that the sun will fall into the
field of view of the exact orientation system. Tn addition, the orientation
system has a sensor which generates tfie iock on signal for the precision
orientation system.
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There are several basic tyYes [2.71 of solar sensors; analog sensors with
the application of shadow gratings and masks, analog sensors with a square
mosaic made up of four photoelements, sensors with slits and rasters and
also digital sensors.
In the analog sensors with the application of txratinRs and masks, the rela-
tion is used for the output signal of the detector (usually a silicon
photoelement) as a function of the magnitude of the incident radiation flux
which, in turn, is connected with the angle of incidence of the solar radia-
tion. The diagram af one of the analog sensors with the application of a
shadow mask is shown in Fig 2.8, a. In this sensor, with an increase in the
angle of inclination of the solar rad3,ation a, the area of the illuminated
section of the photoelement decreases, For a quadratic photoelement with
a length of side L the operating signal will be
1=k,PA cos a=k,P(L-d tg a) cos a-
_ =kcos a-k3 sin a:~-- k2cos a,
- where P is the solar constant; A is the area of the illuminated section
of the,photoelement; d is the distance from the masks to the photoelement;
kl, k2, k3 are constants.
One of the deficiencies of the sensors with shadow gratings and masks is
their weak noise resistance to the radiation of the earth illuminated by the
sun. The investigated type of sensor is used on rockets and artif icial
earth satellitea. The typical sensor built by the Ball Brothers has a
- heading accuracy of +5� with an angle of field of view of +90 and +0.02�
with respect to the precision channel with a viewing angle of 15�.
One of the sensars of the same type which has come to be called the "multi-
slit shadow direction sensor" was used for exact orientation of the photo-
electric spectrometer for extraatmospheric studies of the sun [2.16]. The
sensor provided for aiming the spectrometer with a precision up to +7".
It uses a set of z-prof ile irises which are in the form of gratings behind
which two counter-included silicon photoelements are installed which
generate a mismatch signal with respect to one axis. On coincidence of the
optical axis of the sensor with the direction of the center of the solar
disc, both photoelements are in the shadow, and the signal is equal to zero.
On the appearance of the mismatch angle, one of the photoelements is lit,
and the level of its illumination depends on the size of the mismatch angle.
In order to obtain data on the orientation with respect to the second axis,
a second sensor of analogous structural design is used. Each sensor con-
tains 3 z-type plates 6 mm wide each. The height of the plates is 60 mm.
The sensor has a 13:near output characteristic within the limits of the
field of view of about +20�. High requirements of identity of the counter-
included two photoelements are not imposed on these sensors inasmuch as
on coincidence of the optical axis.of the sensor with the center of the
sun hoth photoelements are not illuminated. The mutual divergence in the
operating process of tfie parameters of the photoelements used in one sensor
by 10% leads to an angle error of a total of 0.54'.
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I~
~
%I
I
, I
.
I J A B
MQCKU ,
,
C D
~ I
4~nmo3neneHmbi ~
(2) � ~
a
Key:
1.
2.
3.
4.
D~-HPOCBP!!(CN (5
D2- ocBerueH (6) 017muylt
/71
D3-acBeu~eH
(3) le
Q ~amodunda~ '
nHevyangyu (8) /fBrldpdmHdA M03dunr! (10)
C4 ~TCNCBDA 1OdUp,I/1a4QR MdCKG �
. b C'
Figure 2.8. Optical systems of the sensors for orientation
by the sun:
a-- analog sensor with shadow mask; b analog sensor with
square mosaic of four.nhotoelements; c digital pickup
Mask 5,
Photoelements g,
Sunbeams 7,
Shadow coding mask 8.
9.
10.
D1-not iiluminated
D2--illuminated
D3--illuminated
Photodiodes
Optical system
Quadratic mosaic
In the analog solar sensors with quadratic mosaic, the.image of the sun or
the shadow from the mask is projected on the mosaic of four photoelements
form3:ng a square. The schematic of one version of the sensor [2.7] is
shown in Fig 2.8, b. When tihe mismatch error is equal to zero, the image
is located in the center of the mogaic, and all of the photoelements are
illuminated identically. When a Tnismatch error appears,tfie photoelements
are illuminated di,fferently, and the angular errors with respect to the
two axes can be defi,ned in the following order with respect to magnitude
of the photoelement signals:
Pitch error equal to (A-FB)- CC-FD) ;
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Error with respect to yawing angle equal to (A+C)- (fi+D).
Linearity of the characteristic depends on the shape of the image of the
sun. The greatest linearity is achieved for a rectangular shape which is
created by using a mask. In order to provide for search for the sun
usually additional peripheral elementa are uaed.
The Bendix Corporation has developed several sensors with quadratic mosa3.c.
- One of the sensors searches for the sun wlthin the angular limits of +90�
using peripheral photoelements, and exact tracking within the limits of
the angle of +10�. In the other sensor of the same company, exact tracking
is realized to 1" within the limits of a small viewing angle (40') which
= is insured using a long focal:-length lens (50 cm). In the sensor made by
RAE Company, an accuracy of +10" is achieved in the viewing angle of 20x10�.
It is possible to include the sensors using photoelements~having longitudinal
- photoeffect among the same type of sensors (these are the so-called
coordinate photoelements) [2.17], in which the signal characterizing the
position of the light spots on the sensitive layer of the photoelement is
picked up from two pairs of contacts arranged with respect to two mutually
perpendicular axes of the photoelements.
The sun sensors with slits or rasters are used to insure a specific shape
of the field of view, usually narrow. Most frequently these sensors are
used in rotating spacecraft to determine the speed of rotation and the
angle between the axis of rotation and the direction of the sun. One of
the simplest sensors-of this type developed by the RAE Company has been
installed on the Sl.;ylark research rocket [2.7]. In the sensor two narrow
slits are used w3_th an angular size of 1x180� intersecting at an angle 6.
Each field of view is formed by a narrow slit notch in a hemisphere above -
a silicon photodiode. On rotation of the rocket, sunbeams hit the slit
notches, and photocurrent pulses arise. The time between these pulses can
be converted to the angle of rotation The angle 0 between the direction
of the sun and the axis of rotation is determined from the expression
ctg4)=sin ~ ctg 6. The accuracy of this sensor is no less than 0.25�.
The optical system of the 3-bit digital solar sensor [2.7] is illustrated in
Fig 2.8, c. The sunbeams reach the three silicon photodiodes through the
shadow cc:ding mask. Between the photodiodes there are opaque baffles
which insure that the sunlight will hit the photodiodes only through the
holes located directly in front of them. Here defined combinations of
illumination of the photodiodes are insured for different rising angles
of the sun. The accuracy of ora.entatton depends on the digital capacity
o.f_ the sensor. The field of view is Broken down into 2n--1 segments for
a number of binary detectors (photodiodes) n. The code of the investigated
3-bit detector is presented i,n Table 2,2.
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Table 2.2.
NoMep cerwMTe I HoNeP ANOqa (2)
IIDAA 9j)efWA ~ I 2 I 3
0
i ~
2 1
_ 3 1 1
4 ~
5 1 1
s 1 1
7 1 1 1
Key:
1. No of the segment of the field of view
2. Na of the diode
- The digital sun sensors have the following advantages: the digital form
of the signals permits direct transmission of the orientation data over the
telemetric channel; the radiatiori reflected from the earth can be selected
as a result of choosing the response threshold of the triggers at the
- photodiode output; the small energy consumption, mass and dimensions; they
can be used both in rotating spacecraft and in vehicles with triaxial
stabilization. A seven-bit digital solar sensor built by the Alcole
Corporation with seven photodiodes is used in practice. Its field of
view is +64�, the angular resolution is 1�. The dimensions of the device,
including the optical system and the diodes are 3.2 x 3.2 x 1.4 cm3, and
it weights 112 grams.
During interplanetary flights the stars are the most important reference
points. They have different temperature and different spectral composi-
tion of their radiation--from ultraviolet to the near infrared. The
radiation characteristics of some of the brightest stars beyond the Earth's
atmosphere are presented in Table 2.3. ~
Tab1e 2.3
Maximum spectral density of
Star irradia~ion, watts-cm 2-
micron
Sirius 4�10 11
Canopus 3�10 12 .
Antares 8�10 13
39
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Wave length corresponding
to the spectral maximum
of the irradiation, microns
0.3
0.6
1.3
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, In the stellar orientation sensors, photomultipliers are used as the sensi-
tive elements. When operating with respect to the stars having maximum
radiation'in the infrared part of the spectrum, usually photomultipliers
_ are used with oxygen-cesium photocathode sensitive to the near infrared
radiation (to wavelengths of about 1.4 microna). Several basic types of
stellar seneors are diatinguished [2.9]: atatic, aensors with optomech-
anical and electronic acanning.
The static sensors usually contain an objective, a light divider in the
form of a two-sided grism and two photomultipliers. The angular position _
of the star is determined by the difference of the signals from two photo-
multipliers.
The sensors with mechanical scanning are made with different raster type
rotating discs which realize amplitude, frequency or phase modulation of
the radiation fluxes from the star.
The sensors with electronic scanning can be used as the radiation receiver.s
of the photomultipliers or cathode-ray tube with an image dissector.
Thus, the infrared devices are used primarily in nagivation for the con-
struction of the local vertical of the planets and also for orientation
with respect to the sun and certain stars.
The general ized characteristics of the standard orientatian sensors [2.7]
- using infrared radiation of the planets, the sun and the stars are presented
in Table 2.4. 40
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CHAPTER 3. ASTROPHYSICAL RESEARCH
3.1. Problems and Characteristics of Astrophysical Research, Conducted
With the Help of Infrared EquipmenC
The problems and characteristics of astrophysical research performed
_ at the observatories throughout the world iuake it possible to obtain
various information about the stars and planets. When studying the
heavenly bodies astronomers usually use direct photography, photometry
and spectrography.
At first the majority of astrophysical measurements were Performed using
photographic plates. In the last decades, fn connection with the appearance
of highly sensitive*infrared radiation receivers, these studies have begun
to be performed not only in the visible but also in the infrared parts of
the spectrum using highly sensitive photomultipliers (includiiig with oxygen-
cesium photocathode) and various photoresistors having high sensitivity in
a wide band of the infr.ared spectrum. The spectral analysis of the emission
of the heavenly bodies is of the greatest interest in astrophysical research.
The spectral measurements permit, for example, determination of the tempera=
ture of the heavenly body, the chemical composition and structure of the
atmosphere, the direction of motion with respect to the observer, the
distance and even the age of stars. A significant part of these data are -
obtained during spectral studies in the infrared part of the spectrum.
The overwhelming majority of astrophysical data available at the present
time were obtained during observations from the earth's surface. However.,
the observation through the earth's atmosphere creates a number of diffi-
culties when performing astronomical measurements. Thus, the atmosphere is
not transparent for an entire series of sections of the infrared spectrum.
The absorption bands of water vapor and gases containeci in the earth's
atmosphererare superposed on the absorption bands of the same gases and
vapor in the atmosphere of other planets, which complicates:thb spectroscogic
studies of�the properties of their atmospheres.
The observation contiitions from the earth change continuously degending an
the time of day and the state of the atmosphere (clouds, air humidity and
so on). Th.e turbulence of the atmosphere does not permit realization of
the theoretical resolution of the telescopes, and the glow of the sky re-
strictsthe Iimits of resolution of the telescopes with respect to brightness.
42
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The glow of t-.he daytime sk}* in thn spectral range to 4 micrans is caused
by scattering of the sunbeams in the atmosphere. In the rangc of
a>4 TMicrons, the thermal emission of the atmosphere predominates. The
bri,.tness of the daytime sky depends on the angular distance of the investi-
gated point of the sky from the sun and 3ts altitude. Fig 3.1 shows the
spectral brightnesses of various points in the sky for infrared part of
the spectrum [3.1J. The glow of the daytime sky is a serious obstacle for
astrophysical studies in the short wave pawrt of the infrared spectrum.
The glow of the night sky is caused by several things. About 7% of the
light flux of the night sky is sunlight which is scattered in the lower
layers of the atmosphere. The luminescent glow of the upper layers of the
atmosphere is about 40%. The latter does not interfere with observations
by telescopes at an altitude of more than 800 km. The zodiacaZ light is
sunlight scattered by meteoritic dust and gases within the boundaries of
the solar system. It amounts to about 20%. Approximately 20% falls to
the lat of starlight the light from stars and galaxies which are not
zoned as individual stars by the telescopes. The remaining 13% is light
from the stars scattered by the interstellar (cosmic) dust and gases. The
starlight and the glow of cosmic dust gases will limit the observation
possibilities also at great distance from the surface of the earth.
x>0
(a)
~
~ p
�
t
m
2 3
Figure 3.1. Spectral
part of the spectrum
horizon).
4 1,NKI'! ~b )
radiance of the daytime sky and the infrared
(for various angles of elevation above the
Key: (a) watts-m -2 -steradians -1 -micron -1
(b) micrort
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Ba , omH. ed
4
� 0
as 0,9 1,0 2)
d Ba,ff,71.H ~.C~"~MKM ~ (3) Birem'M 1'CP ~MKM 1(3) .
5 10 -s ~H GHOON
I I ~ 
;0 1,5 2,0 2,5
b
Figure 3.2. Spectral radiance of the night sky '
Key:
1. Relative units
_ 2. a, microns
3. Ba, watts-m 2-steradians-1-microns-1
- The total brightness of the night sky in the darkest sections during
observation on large telescopes is approximately equal to the mean overall
brightness of one magnitude 20 star* for the solid angle formed by a
cone with the angle at the apex equal to one are second. This glow
limits the resolution with respeet to brightness of the astronomical
instruments. With a f ield of view of several are seconds. it is impossible
to detect a magnitude 23 star.
In Fig 3.2, a, the spectral brightness of the night sky in the spec.tral
region of 0.8-1.1 microns is presented in relative units [3.2]. The
bands existing in the spectrum are caused basically by the radiation of
molecular oxygen 02.
The infrared part of the spectrum to 1.1 micron exceeds by 100-200 times
the radiation of the green line of the night sky with the center at `
0.5577 microns.
*By the stellar magnitude of a heavenly body we mean the value of
m=14.2-.2.5 lg E, where E is the illumination 3:n lux created by the heavenly
; hody at the obsezvati,on point in the plane perpendicular to the beams.
The illumination,created by a magnitude 20 star on the ground surface is
equal ta 2.1 � 10 714 lux,
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In.the 1.2-2.5 micron band there axe intense radiation bands (k'ig 3.2, b)
caused by the presence of hydroxyl OH in the upper Iayers of the atmosphere
[3.3]. In tt-,e A>2.5 micron region, tfi e thermal radiation of the atmosphere
is noticeable even in low air temperature (-45�C),
On wave lengths of more than 4 microns the radiation of bot.h the day and
night skies is caused by the natural emission of the atmosphere which
basically depends on the air temperature in the lower l.ayers and the water
vapor content. The spectra of the thermal emission of the atmospYeere
are presented in Fig 3.3 [3.4].
>000
Z
N
~
~ 500
m
~
~
(1)
D
0
2 S 1O 1S .t,NHM ( 2)
Figure 3.3. Thermal radiation of the atmosphere at various
angles of elevation above the horizon
Key:
1. Microwatts-cm"27steradians-1-microns`1
2. a, microns
3.2. Astrophysical Studies f.rom the Earth's Surface
In the infrared region of the spectrum studies were made of the radiation
of the sun, the moon, the planets and some of the stars.
In 1947 Koyper published a series of planetary spectra in the infrared
band of 0.7-2.5 microns [3, 5]. The study of the planetary spectra made
it possible to discover the composition of their atmospheres. Thus,
Koyper detected very strong absorption bands of inethane CH4 and ammonia
NH3 in the spectra of the sun and Jupiter. A quantitative estimate is also
made of the content of the various gases in the atmosphere of the planets.
For example, according to Koyper's estimate, in the atmosphere of Saturn
the methane content is equivalent to a layer 350 meters thick under normal
cond.itions, that is, at a temperature of 0�C and a pressure of 760 mm Hg.
The spectrum of the rings of Sa.turn investigated in the wave length band
of 0.7-2.0 microns was identified with the reflection spectrum of frost.
KoyperTs hypothesis was confixmed by the measurements of V. I, Moroz [3.6],
who compared the spectra of the rings of Saturn with the spectrum of frost
and snow also in the 2.0-2.5 micron region and detected a diffuse maximum
at 2.22 microns characteristic of the selective reflection of frost.
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A large volume of research to study the spectra of the moon was performed
_ when selecting the landing sites fox the Apollo spaceczaft.
Ttie selection of the landing aites on the moon had to insure maximum
- safety. In addition, the saraples of lunar rock picked up at the landing
sites and delivered to the earth had to give the most complete inforcuation
_ about the lunar surface. The California Tnstitute of Technology [3.7]
performed ground studies of the spectral reflectivity ot the moon in the
visible and near infrared part of the spectrum and the spectral emittance
in the far infrared part of the spectrum of 5 of the f irst landing sites
of the Apollo spacecraft. In addition, studzes were made of photographs
obtained by the Lunar Orbiter to estimate the comparative age of the sur-
face l.ayer.
In order to determine the difference in structure and composition of the
surface layer of the first five proposed landing sites for Apollo the
measurements of the spectral emittance of the surface of the moon were
performed in the range of 0.4-1.1 microns. The measurements were performed
during summer and fall of 1968 from Mt Wilson using the 51 and 152-cm
telescopes and a special twin-beam photoelectric multichannel photometer
with filters. The narrow band interchangeable interference filters used
to separate the entire spectral range into section every 0.02 to 0.05
microns were installed behind the active izis. In the 61-cm telescope
an iris was used which provided a field of view of 10" (18 lan on the sur-
_ face of the moon at the center of the observed disc), and on the 152-cm
telescope, 6" (10 km). Cooled photomultipliers were used, and an analog '
synchronous and high-speed two-channel pulse counting system were used to
record the signals. By using each filter, the intensity of the signal
reflected from the surface of one section was measured with respect to
the signal from the other section (usually the section in the Mare
. Serenitatis with the coordinates 21.4� east longitude, 18.7� north latitude).
` For each point 6 to 18 measurements were taken with each filter with an
identical phase angle of the sun for all points. A large difference in
the reflecting properties of points 1, 2 and 3 was noted. The properties
of points 4 and 5 are close. No strict correlation was detected between
the reflecting properties in the visible and near infrared regions of the
spectrum. In addition to the effect of the phase angle of the sun, no
other dependence of the reflecting properties on time, in particular9
luminescence, was found.'. The results-of the measurem~!nts with different
fields of view agree well with the exception of some of the measurements
- and points 1 and 2.
The measurements of the spectral emi,ssivity were performed in the range of
8.2-13.4 microns for nine sections of the lunar surface, including five
landing sites for the Apollo spacecraf t. The ratios of the difference
in the radiation spectra of two different sites to the spectrum of one
of them obtained in series were determined, The results were processed
by the least squares method to exclude the effect of the surface tempera-
ture difference and the variations of the transparency of the atmosphere.
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The measurements were performed using the Ebert-Fastie spectrometer with
= a mercury-alloyed germanium receiver. The average spectral resolution
is 0.08 microns: The angle of the conical field of view was 27" (the
size of the site on the surf ace of the moon was 40 1m), The spectrometer
output was digital. From June to October-1968, 12 to 24 spectra were
- obtained for each of nine sections of the moon. In acldition to the five
landing sites for Apollo, the emissivities of the c irques and craters
- were also measured: Plato, Copernicus, Aristirchus and the southern part
of the c rater Gassendi. As a result of the measurements, significant
differences were detected in the spectra of five Apo11o landing sites and
other sections with the exception of the anomaly in the spectrum of Plato.
When analyzing the results, a study was made of several different hypotheses.
" The most probable explanation is that the differences in surface structure
for small, the Si and 0 ratios in the surface layer are different, and
the observed spectral diff erence is caused by the Christiansen vibration
frequency. This hypothesis agrees with the particle distribution with
- respect to size obtained using the 9urveyor spacecraft with investigation,
of the morphology by the Lunar Orbiter photographs.
_ In addit ion [3.8] measurements were made of the relative reflectivity of
sections of the moon in the spectral range of 0.72-1.1 micron which are
joined to the results of the preceding measurements of the same sections
of the moon in the spectral range of 0.4-0.8 microns.
No less than 3 measurements of each part of the moon were taken in one
night. The measurements were performed on several nights over the extent
of several lunar months. A total of 22 sections of the lunar surface were
examined. The spectra were normalized with respect to reflectivity on the
wave ler.gth of 0.52 microns. In the visible range of the spectrum the
color contrast decreases with a decrease in the phase angle of the moor_.,;
In the spectral range of 0.4-0.8 microns when changing the phase angle by
90� the maximum variation of the color contrast reaches 2 to 3%. This
effect was not detected in the spectral range of 0.8-1.1 micron. The
measurement errors basically do not exceed 1%. The spectra obtained are
distinguished by great variety. In some spectra the maximum of about
1 micron, the rise and fall in the light blue part of them are noted. The
amplitud es on different spectral sections are poorly correlated. The
correlat ion is detected between the form of the spectrum and the morphology
o� the observed section, The spectra are grouped in the following groups:
plateaus, seas and the bottoms of bright craters. Possible causes of the
differer.ce in spectra of the sections of the moon are the difference in
physical characteristics of tfie suxfaice (the particle sizes, density,
and sa on), physical or chemical effects, aging processes and also the
difference in chemical composition. Tn accordance with the results of the
laborato ry studies the conclusion was drawn tfiat the difference in
reflectivities is connected w~th the mineralogical difference and difference
in composition.
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3.3. Astrophysical Studies Using Equipment on Soard Aircraft, Balloons
and Rocket Probes
On rising above the atmosphere, the reaolution of the equipment with respect
to angle and brightness increases signiftcantly. At an altitude of 25 km
the atmospheric interference is already insignificant, and even the scattered
- solar emission at night does not disturb the astronomical research. The
ascent to this altitude made it possible to reach the theoretical resolu-
tion of a 30-cm telescope, In order to perform studies from altitudes of
more than 10 km, balloons are used which can make extended measurements
without great material expenditures. The ii:stallation of the astronomical
measuring equipment on balloons was the first step along the path of
expanding the possibilities of radiation of the universe using infrared
_ equipment. The measurements in the infrared range of the spectrum performed
from the balloons made it possible to obtain some new data on planets.
Thus, when analyzing the spectrum of the reflected radiation of Venus
obtained in 1959 using the equipment installed on the balloon, the water
- vapor absorption bands were detected. On observing through the earth's
atmosphere, which contains a large amount of moisture, it was not possible
to detect these bands in the atmosphere of Venus. The discovery made per-
_ mitted advancement of the proposition of the possibility of the existence
of certain forms of life on this planet.
It is proposed that further use be made of inflated balloons to investigate
the planets of the solar system. In 1983 it is planned to deliver inflated
balloons to Venus on a Soviet automatic interplanetary station, the .
gondolas of which will contain Soviet and French instruments [3.25]. The research rockets are used for astrogeophysical, biological and iono-
spheric studies, for the development azd testing of spacecraft equipment.
These problems were solved by the R2A and B5V Soviet geophysical rockets
in the interest of creating the first artificial earth satellites [l.lJ.
The complex studies of the solar emission were performed by the Vertikal'
type rockets (1970-1977) by the nrogram of cooperation of socialist coun-
tries in the field of the investigation and use of outer spaae for peace-
ful purposes [1.1].
The tests of some of the instruments for the Apollo and Skylab American
spacecraf t were performed on the Aerobee 150 rockets [3.27].
A great_deal of attention has been given to the-investigation of the
nature of the emission of the sky in the far infrared part of the spectrum
using equipment installed on research rockets. Thus, on the Black Brant
VB rocket launched from the test area on Wallops Island CVi,rginia, USA)
on 24 February 1971 13.9], there was a liquid,fielium cooled telescope
constructed for astronomical studies in the far infrared and submillimeter
part-s of the specCrum. The photometer had two channels; with Ge:Ga
receiver for measurements in the spectral band with the center at
a=100 microns and with the GaAs receiver at a-280 microna.. Helium cooling
was realized for 216 seconds of flight. The ilata were obtained at alti-
tudes of 130-275 km. The orientation of the `I-ocket at the ti.me of the
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measurements was with the help of a gyroplatform of the MIDAS system and
an ordinary sidereal photometer. The calibration was done by a model of
dn absolutely black body at an ambient temperature of 4,2 K, The laboratory
studies demonstrated that the sensitivity of the Ge:Ga receiver in practice -
does not change on variation of the temperature within the limits of 4.2-
2.8 K, and the sensitivity of the GaAs receiver is cut in half. Equivalent
- t)ower of the rece7.ver noise is 6110-14 and 4�10rT12 watts�hertz'1/2
respectively at a temperature of 4.2 K. The absolute calibration was -
made with no more than twofold error.
T}le measurements demonstrated that the energy brightness in the two spectral
sections is constant at zenith distances of 0-20�, and it is equal to
1.4�10-9 watts-cm-2--steradians'1 on ~=100 microns and 2.5�10-9 watts-cm 2-
steradians-1 on a=280 microns. At large zenith distances the signals
increase, which is explained by scattering of radiation reflected from
ttie earth inside the instrument, especially in the spectral channel
of 280 microns, inasmuch as in-the given part of the spectrum the blackened
surEaces inside the phoLometer have a large reflection coefficient. Insig-
I nificant variation of the energy brightness in time (at altitudes to
' 275 km) is noted. By the measurement results the conclusion is drawn that
the radiation is not connected with the ionosphere.
_ .
On 29 May 1971, measurements were made of the infrared radiation of the
_ uight sky from on-board a rocket launched from the test area in the
Hawaiian Islands. The measurement data were obtained [3.10] on two spectral
_ channels: with center oP A=100 microns and in the range of 0.8-6 microns (maximum sensitivi-ty about a=1.1 micron). The radiometer had a conical
optical system and germanium bolometers with optical filters. The size
of the sensitive area was 4x4 mm2, and the viewing angle was about 0.1
steradian. The bolometers and the entire optical systems were cooled by
helium. A radiation calibration of the instrument was made periodically
_ on board, which excluded the effect of the decrease in the amplification
coefficient of the amplifiers observed during the flight on the accuracy
of the measurements. At an altitude of 120 km, the nose cone was jettisoned,
the axis of the instrun.ent was directed at an angle of 11� to the zenith
in an easter.ly directio!-,, and scanning began in the north-south plane
within the limits to 65� from the zenith. A total of two complete scans
were made. The measurements were performed at altitudes of 185-340 km
for 420 seconds.
The emission near the horizon in the range of 0.8--6 microns turned out to `
be somewhat higher than expected. The average radiation temperature is
3.1+2065 K. The upper radiance limxt was 1. 5~ 10'''l0 watts,cm"2�-�steradians-1.
The mean square value of *-he equivalent noise powex of the instxument is
3�10"11 watts,cm"2-steradians-1. Considering the instrument noise, tlie
nonlinearity of the electronics and the telemetric system and also the
cai.ibration errors, the accuxacy of tfie measurements of the rad3ation
temperature (maximum error) is 40%. Tn the spectral channel with center
near X=100 microns, the maximum value of the energy brightness of the sky
is 1,2�10-10 watts-cm 2-steradi:ans-1.
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3.4. Astrophysical Studi,es Using Spacecraft
_ The astrophysical studies on board artificial earth satellites and auto-
' matic interplanetary stataions have become the basis for a qualitative
discontinuity in the study of space targets and outer space. Space
astrophysics takes its origins from the launching of the second Soviet
satellite. The astronomical and astroph}rsical observations, the study of
_ interplanetary space constitute a component part of the research program
of the majority of artifictal earth satellites that have been launched
and are to be launched. In the USSR such studies have been performed by
the satellites in the Prognoz series, which are solar observatories, the
Proton and Elektron series. Complex studies of the upper layers of the
atmosphere, radiation belts, the ionosphere and the radiation of the sun
are made by satellites of the Tnterkosmos and Kosmos series [1.1].
In the United States astrophysical srudies are being performed by a series
of four orbital astronomical observatories (OAO). The studies of the sun
are realized using the OSO series satellites, and a broad program of
astrophysical studies is being performed by the-Explorer series of satellites.
The scientific data on the moon and the planets of the solar system obtained
using automatic intierplanetary stations in flight near planets and in
planetocentric orbits are of grea* value. The beginning of these studies
was the flights by the Soviet automatic interplanetary stations "Luna-1"
("Mechta") in 1959, Venera-1" in 1961, "Mars-1" in 1962 [1.1]. The studies
of the moon were made by the Soviet automatic interplanetary stations in
the "Luna" and "Zond" seri2s, the American Luna Orbiter, and Surveyor series.
The American automatic interplanetary stations of the Mariner, Pioneer and
Viking type performed studies of the planets of the solar system. The
automatic interplanetary stations Mariner 4, 6, 7, 9 and Viking 1, 2
investigated Mars, Mariner 10 investigated Venus and riercury, and Pioneer
10 and 11 investigated Jupiter and Saturn.
Table 3.1
Total volume_ 'Maximum resolution
of data on the surface, Total cost
Type of observations obtained, ' km dollars.10~
bits .
All ground observations
7,107
100 -
(telescopes)
6
Mariner 4(14651
3,511Q
3 1,25
f ly--by
Mariner 6 and 7C19691
5,10$
0.,3 1,5
fly-by
Mariner 9(1971)
5,1010
0,06 1.5
orbital
50
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- The flights of the automati_c interpl,anetary stati.ons in planetary
satellite orbits permit periodic examination of in pxactice the entire
= surface with high resolution, and they pxovide large volumes of i.nformation.
The comparative estimate of the inJ'ormativeness and cost of the Mars
observations from earth and using automatic interplanetary stations [3.11]
- is made in Table 3.1. The in�rared equipment plays a signi�icant role in
obtaining information about the moon and planets of the solar system.
The first astrophysical investigations to study the infrared spectrum of
the solar emission reflected from the surface of Mars were to be performed
from on board the "Mars" and Mariner automatic space stations in 1962-1964
to c_Yieck out the hypotheses of the presence of certain forms of vegetable
life on Mars advanced by Soviet scientists headed by G. A, Tikhov and
based on seasanal chaages in color on its surface and the presence of
absorption bands near 3.5 microns in the Martian spectrum analogous to the
absorption band of terrestrial lichens and certain forms of desert vegeta-
- tion.
In recent years the hopes to detect certain forms of life on Mars have
diminished significantly, especially after the flights of Vi?cing 1 and 2
(1976). Now some astronomers f3.121 exnlain the seasonal changes by
fluctuations of the water content in the rock; the evaporation of moisture
can influence the color oP organic and inorganic materials. Another
important cause is considered to be the change in structuLe- and the
particle size as a result of dust storms. Large particles settle on the
high plateaus and fine ones in the lowlands.
In 1969 Mar.s was examined by the Mariner-6 and 7 space st,3tions on fl.ying
past the planet.
Marine+r 6 was.designed to observe the equatorial zegion, and Mariner
thel southern polar cap. The following equipment was installed on board:
two te.levision cameras, an IRS infrared spectrometer for detecting water
vapor, ca.rbon dioxide, methane, ethylene, acetylene,and other organic -
gases; a.n IRR infrared radiometer for determining the surface temperature; _
a UVS ultraviolet spectrometer for ideritification of gases in theupper
layers of the atmosphere and determination of the quantity of them.
In the IRS spectrometer [3.13] a monochromator was used with rotating
interference filters with vari.able pass hands, In,order to encompass
the range of 1,9--14.4 microns, two optical channels are used with differ-
ent radiation receivers. The Hg;Ge photoresistor cooled to a temperature of 22�K by using the two-stage.(IJZ and H2) Joule-Thomson cryostat is used
in the f3,rst long wave channel C4,0,14:4 micronsZ. In the second channel
(1,9-,6.0 microns).t aPbFe photoresistor is used which operates at a
temperature of 175�K as a result of radiation cooling.
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In order to lower the level of inteznal interference and decrease the
_ sensitivity, the entire spectrcmeter was cooled to a temperature af 280�K
as a result of radiation cooling of the heat xegulating surface lOx8,3 cm,
The input objective of the instrument was a two-component Da11-Kirkhal
mirror oUjective. The radiant flux at the output of the objective is
split into two parts using a light dividing prism. Part of the aperture
and shielding used for the long wave channel has a temperature of 175�K.
The focused radiant flux in each channel is modulated by a moving dipole
and passes through the corresponding varialile interference and cutoff
- filters. Then the radlant fluxes-are incident on the ellipsoidal mirrors
~ and are focused on the detectors. The objective has a focal length of
49.8 cm and a relative aperture of 1:2. In the center of the second mirror
is an opening'w3th a diameter of 2.86 cm behind which a conical mirror
reflector is placed (with apex angle of 90�) insuring viewing of the cosmic
background (effective radiation temperature 4�K). Alloof the mirrors are
aluminum with a surface layer of silicon monoxide 500 A thick. The -
reflection coeff icient is 96% in the range of 1.9-14.4 microns. A special
system for attaching the mirrorsexcludes vibration of them.
The variable f ilters are in the form of two semicircular interference
filters joined with cutoff filters. The spectral resolution varies accord-
ing to the spectrum within the limits of 0.7-1,1%, The average trans-
mission coefficient of the filters is 45%. At the junction of the two
halves of the filters there is a slit through which the reference signal
passes (the long wave mark) through the cutoff filter. The total light
losses are 89%. The detectors have sensitive areas lx5 mm in size.
The detecting capacities of the detectors of the Mariner 6(Mariner 7)
detectors are as follows: PbFe 2.4 (2.6)�1010 watts^1�cm�hertz1/2;
Hg:Ge 2.52 (2.73)�1010 watts-1�cm�heitz1/2. In channels 1 azd 2 the
~ flux modulation frequency is 500 hertz. The modulators are simultaneously
absolutely black supporting emitters (degree of blackness 96%). The mod-
ulator temperature is 175 and 238�K respectively. The detector signals
go to the amplif iers, the demodulators, logarithmic and digital converters
and then to the memory or telemetric system. The total mass of the instru-
ment is 70.4 kg, including the cooling system, 5.9 kg. The intake power
is 11 watts for measurements and 8.7 watts in- flight. The monochromator
dimensions are 32x23x18 cm3. The spectrometer of the Mariner 6 spacecra�t
' made it possible to obtain 108 spectra using channel 2. Channel 1 did not
operate as a result of failure of the cooling system, Two channels
operated correctly on the spectromer of the Mariner 7 spacecraft, and up
to 130 spectra were obtained in each. The on-board calibration of the
spectrometer w9.th respect to the absorption spectrum of polystyrene was
performed in flight usa.ng a model of an absoluteljr black emitter. The
results of the cala.bration confixmed the operating reliabi.li.ty of the
spectx'ometer. ~
52
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The spectra obtained were used to determine the composition of the Martian
- atmosphere [3,14]. Brightly expressed absorption bands of carbon dioxide
(the basic component), carbon monoxide and water vapor were recorded in
the spectra. The content of about 40 small components in the atmosphere
was estimated.
The IRR infrared radiometer [3.15] developed by the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory has two separate spectral cha-_Znels: 8--12 and 18-,25 microns.
The diameter of the objectives is 254 cm, and the field of view is 0.70.7�.
As the radiation receivers, thermocouples are used which were developed by
the Santa Barbara Research Center, The thermocouples fiave five bismuth
and antimony contacts applied to a thin layer of aluminum oxide film'
applied to a sapphire disc. The thermocouples are under a pressure of
133�10-5 Pa. Tne size of the sensitive area is 0,25x0.25 mm2,lthe
resistance is 10 kilohms, the time constant is 75 milliseconds, the
sensit~vity is 150 volts/watt, and the detecting capacity is 4.2x108 cm-
hertzl 2-watts-1. In the 8-12 micron channel, a primary uncoated lens of Irtran 2 glass arid
a secondary germanium lens coated with a layer if zinc sulfide are used.
In the 18-25 micron channel, both lenses are uncoated and are made of
Irtran 6 glass. The instrument has a 3-position scanning mirror which
provides for viewing the planet, space and a standard emitter. The mirror
is made of beryllium electrolytically coated with nickel, polished and
aluminum coated. The scanning mirror is placed at an ungle of 45� to the
optical axis. The mirror is rotated by a stepping motor. The mirror can
be locked in one of three positions by an electromagnetic lock, The
scanning cycle is 63 seconds. The viewing of space (the zero reference
point) takes place in 4.2 seconds during which time the memory circuit
returns to the initial position. The mirror turns toward the planet in
27.3 seconds, The mirror turns to the on-board calibration source in -
2.1 seconds. In 29.4 seconds the mirror agaa.n returns to the planet.
Pulses 60 milliseconds long are-used for the mirror rotations. The average
power of the rotating mechanism is 0.2 watts.
The signal from the thermocouple.output is modulated with a frequency of
200 hertz, it is then intensified and demodulated by a synchronous
demodulator. In order to decrease the effect of the dependence of the
sensitivity of the thermocouple on the ambient temperature, a thermistor
circuit is used which regulates the amplif ication coefficient of the _
amplifier. The use of a filter with a 0,68 hertz band insures that the
mean square value of the noise level will be reduced to 0,1% of the
dynamic range of output-signals of the equipment. The electrical output
is connected to the DC memory circuit. [�]hen vi.ewing space the capacitors .
of the memory circuit are charged to a level corresponding to the signals -
as a result of thermal emission of the optical system and electrical mix,
ing in tfie circuit which makes it possiTile to record the zero level of
reckoning.
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The ~alibration of the equipment under ground conditions was performed
in a vacuum chamber at a presaure o� > (s)
Key: 1. outside; 2. m solar; 3. refl; 4. m refl; 5. pl; 6. m gl
7. mol; 8. m ,iol
where ac is the absorption coeff icient of the solar radiation; e is the
degree of brightness of the outside surface of the spacecraft; qC, Qrefl'
- qpl' Qmol are the specif ic heat fluxes (per unit area of the midship
eross section); Sm solar' Sm refl, Sm pl' Sm mol are the areas of the
midship cross section of the spacecraft with respect to the direction of
each flux. The value of Orad is determined by the total radiation of
all elements of the spacecraft in all directions.
The general solution to the nroblem of determining the temperature of the
spacecraft and its thermaI emission is possible only with significant
simplifications, for example, for the model of a spherical or cylindrical
satellite having constcant temperature, absorption coefficient aC and
= degree of brightness e over the entixe surface w1thouto-considering the
heat capaci*yo uf the inside elements o� the spacecraft. The ratio
aC/E has basic a,nfluence on the temQexatuxe of the spacecraft, and the
selection of this ratio insures def~ned thermal conditions [4.4]. Usually
foz neax,earth.oxbits in order to insure Tn300�K the value of qSIE can be
within the latmi ts of 0,2--0,8 [4, 4 J, ~or a cyrlindrical satellite made of
sheet titanium;0.4 mm thick and moving in an elliptic orbit, the values
- of the outside surface temperature in the range of 160 to 450�K were
calculated [4.6]. F'or spheriLal satellites of diff erent types at an
86
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orbital altitude of 480 km the calculated temperature range is 250-350�K
[4.7].
- For real satellites the temperature range is limited to more narrow limits.
By selecting the parameters aC and e, tistng the active methods of tempera-
ture stabilization (tlie uae of internal heating, variation in area of the
cooling radiators) a spacecraft hull temperature of about 273�K is insured
with deviation of 30-40�K in the direct ion of a decrease or increase. For
example, for the hull of the Mariner 10 spacecraft, a heat protective
coating made of elastomer organosilicon material_ 92-007 of Dow Corning
Company was used with the parameters e=0.84-0.90, aC=0.14-0.20, whicti insured
a hull temperature within the limits of 275-.297�K, The maximum temperature
of the radiators reached 311�K. The greatest temperature f luctuations of
244-383�K were observed for the panels of the solar cells. These tempera-
ture conditions occurred on variation of the intensity of the solar radia-
tion by 5 times [4.8].
The nose cones of intercontinental ballistic missiles in the middle (trans-
atmospheric) part of the trajectory have approximately the same temperature
conditions as the spacecraft.
Thus, the space targets are low--temperature emitters (T=250-300�K). The
spectra of their emission are distinguished insignificantly; a maximum is
observed near 10 microns.
The radiation flux of the spacecraft can be approximately estimated by the
- total magnitude of the energy fluxes coming to the spacecraf t from the
outside and the internal heat generation. The value of Qoutside is
detQrmined by the midship cross section of the spacecraft and its orbital
altitude.
_ The specific direct solar radiation flux QC even at significant distances
oF the earth (h1000 km the eff ect of the radiation of the
earth can be neglected by comparison with the direct solar radiation.
qora,Bm/MZ (1)
800
60[l
400
TOD
D
.
h
O
I

j-
MQ7C
~
~
�
~
I
-

j
i
T 7-

I-!
I ~
r- i
I
eo~c
I
~
40 bo 120 5.
Figure 4.3. Variation of the specific heat fIux of reflected
solar radiation at different orbital altitudes of
- the spacecraft.
Key:
Qrefl, watts/m2
The specific molecular heat flux ~s deter'm1ned by the density of the
medium p at orbital alt3,tude and speed of the spacecraft
9 11=0,5apv3,
Key: 1. mol '
where a is tbe accommodation factor (a=0,9-1.0). The value of qmol
quickly decreases with an 3ncrease in orliital altitude (Fig 4.5).
$8
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The intexnal heat flux 0int can vary as a f.unction of the purpose o� the
' spacecraft within very broad limits from values of somewhat less than
100 watts for small satellites to units, and in the future to tens o�
kilowatts [4,9).
The approximate estimate of the flux emitted by the spacecraft by the
_ sum Qoutside+Qinside for a midship cross sectional area of 1 m2 givea
a value of several hundreds of watts at orbital altitudes from 200 to
1000 km, which makes it possible to obtain irradiation on the surface
within the limits from 10-12 to 10'14 watts/cm2. For direct measurements
of the infrared radiation of a number of satellites [4.10], radiation was
recorded from 2�10'12 to 10-14 watts/cm2 in the range of 1-3 microns
and 3�10-12 watts/cmZ in the range of 2-6 microns.
~i, qnn.BmfM2
400 F:T
Z00
G
IV
2000 4000 6000 h,AW
Figure 4.4. Variation of the
specific heat' flux of the
earth's radiation as a function
of the orbital altitude of the
spacecraft
Key:
1. qp1, watts/m2
2. ap1=0.37
qMM+~, Of (1)
a-1
104
fU~
IDo ~ ' -
100 700 30D h,KM
Figure 4.5. Variation of the specif ic
molecular heat flux as a function
of the orbital altitude of the
spacecraft
Key:
1. qmol, watts/m2
The nose cones of the intercontinental ballistic missiles in the trans-
atmospheric section of the trajectory are also characterized by a radiation
f lux of several hundreds of watts.
Although the space targets are not intensive sources of radiation, their
detection by infrared devices is possible at ranges of about 100 km in a
f ield of view of 10x10� f or a diameter of the optical system D co p
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108
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Table 5.2
- Characteristics of Meteoxological Satellites. _
Mass of Volume * ~ Output
the t4ass of of power of
Spacecraft Orbit space,,~, pay- satel- Usable the
ara�t, load, lite, power, solar cell,
kg ' ' kg 'm3 , watts watts
Nimbus Circular, almost polar 775 222 1.14 156 550
- (81�); heliosynchronous; intersection of the
equator at noon;
orbital altitude 1000 km ' ITOS Circular, almost polar 396 113 1.43 125 400
(78�), heliosynchronous;
intersection of the
equator at 0900 hours;
' orbital altitude -
� 1500 km
TIROS-N
Circular, almost polar
545
122
1.71
125
400
(81�), heliosynchronous;
intersection of the
equator at 0800 or 1500
hours; orbital altitude
833 1m
ERTS
Circular, almost polar
940
200
1.48
271
550
(82�), heliosynchronous;
intersection of the
equator at 0930 hours;
orbital altitude 930 km
Skylab
Circular, inclination
90600
3940
2565
500
22000
50�
ATS .
Geostationary
1340
236
1.37
400
600 =
In Table 5.3 values are presented for the numbers of the parallel-included
detectors ri in each.channel and the diameter of the entrance pupil of the
objective D for the existing MSS and VTSSR scannexs and also the values of
the parameters a and D which woLld be selected for increasing the resolution
of these scanners by two and ten t;i,mes while keep3ng the remaining parameters
- constant. When selecting these values it i.s necessa7Cy to give preference
to an increase in the pa,rameter nt and not D, inasmuch as this is connected _
with a smaller incxease in mass= cost, scanning rate and speed of the
xecei,vers. From the table it is obvious that a twofold increase in resolu-
tion can be achteved basically as a result of the increase in n} and in
or.der to increase the resolution by tenfold it is necessary significantly
to increase both paxametexst Increasing the aperture diameter and number
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' . Table 5.3
Vg.1.ues of n and Dfor the existi,ng MSS and VZSSR scannera
-
and values af theae paxa,meters
required to increase the
resolution by 2 and 10 times

qfta o
0 2.a
(1) (2)
C
a~
6
3 a~
ee1
)
e
M
Ha M3
mnQ
i
n
pa
er-
p
H
we
co
no
m
poe
e 2 pa3a (9) e l0 paa
~
'
~
e
M~
CKaeep
o u o
Y o 2
v
n O r e
O C tl O C
~
MSS IP3Y(8 0-086 22,86 6 0,043
33 100 0,0086 125 2000
4'ISSR IP3 0,025 40,6~ A 0,0125
~
75 40 0,0025 250 1000
-
MSS 4)oro
~a~A 0,086 33,86 6 0,043
23 200 0,0086 175 2!000
:
MSS ~oroco- 0,258 21.86 2 0,129
40 10 0,0258 240 200
nporNg1 )
aeaa
Key:
l.
Scanner
- 2.
Type of receiver
3.
Existing values of the parameters
4.
Values of the parameters required
to increase the resolution
5.
by twofold
6.
by tenfold
7,
a, 10-3 radians
8.
Photomultiplier
9.
Photodiode
10.
Photoresistance
of detectors in order to increase the resolution of the instrument leads
to an increase of the scanner.
Structurally the electromechanical scanners are divided into two groups:
with surface (plane) scanning af the survey target and with scanning of
the image plane.
For systems in which it is necessary to have a large number of resolution
elements with respect to width of the image Cfor examplep in the MSS
scanner of the ERTS satelliteZ, the only acceptable method is:.the survey
with scanni.ng i,n the plane of the taxget. Thi,s procedure makes it possible
to reduce the requirements on the deyelopment of the optical systems by
almost an axdex, that is, it actually* makes pzactical execution of them
possible. The existing process for manufacturing optical systems will
perma.t an increase in resolution near the optical axis from 2 to 10 times.
The increase in aberrations on deviation from the main axis is the limiting
factor and requires the use of scanning in the plane of the objective in
the wide-angle optical scanning systems.
F
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5.3. Synoptic Meteorology and Satellites
' Synoptic meteorology, which studies the physical processes in the atmosphere
determining the weather conditions and changes in the weather is based on
the physical laws determining the variati,on in properties oP the air and
its movement. The operating method of synoptic meteorology is simultaneous
spatial analysis of the weather conditons using synoptic maps. The state of the atmosphere at various altitudes in synoptic meteorology is basically
- characterized by rhe data on the pressure distribution, temperature and
humidity of the air and also the wind. The meteorological satellites make -
it possible in a comparatively short time to obtain all of the necessary
data for synoptic forecasting over an enormous territory.
_ The wind data can be obtained from the satellite using direct measurements
_ by several techniques, but in practice most frequently one is used
successive cloud images. Here it is proposed that the cloud moves
- jointly with the air surrounding it. The velocity vector of the clouds
is with an error of 2 to 3 knots (.1 knot=1.852 km/hr). The magnitude of
the error depends on the resolution of the image, the gridding errors of -
the successive images and the change in shape of the cloud. The principal
_ source of the error in determining the wind velocity consists in the
difficulty in gridding the altitude corresponding to the wind vector that
is found. After launching the SNS satellite which was inserted in orbit on
17 May 1974, images in the visible and infrared parts of.the spectrum
_ can be used to find the altitude of the upper cloud boundary. The altitude
- of the upper cloud boundary is determined by the radiationtemperature and
_ local temperature profile as the altitude at which the radiation temperature
is equal to the air temperature. In practice the determination of the wind
velocity by the observation data from the SNS satellite is made using a
semiautomatic device in which the successive images of the clouds are =
stored on discs with output to vidicons, which permits automatic tracking
~ of certain peculiarities of the clouds and obtaining of the corresponding
velocity vector.
Another method of determining the wind velocity from the satellite is based
on observing the reflection of the sun on the ocean surface. The sun is
reflected in the form of a disc 0.50 in diameter from entirely smooth
water; on a wavy surface a large diffuse spot is formed, the dimensions _
and the brightness distribution in which are determined by the wind velocity
at the surface. This method is interesting, but the limited nature of the
surface on which it is possible to observe the sun significantly decreases
its value, The difficulty in working with this method cansists in consider-
ing the effect of clouds which can both increase the bxightness as a result
of reflection a,nd decxease i:t as a result of absarpt3,on. On the images
from operative NOAA satellites the path of the sun looks entirely different.
These images are line recorded by a scanna,ng rad~ometer as tbe satellite
moves, and the view of tbe sun is elongated along its path located on the
sunny (eastern) side of the nadir line, -
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At the present time satellites are findi.ng application in the solution of
the problems uf cyclogenesis (that is, the processes of the birth and
development oi cyclones) also in synoptic analysis. Hut the tmages of _
tropical cyclones are fast--changing elements of the photographs received _
from satellttes; therefore tropical c,yclones have immediately attr.acted -
tlle attention of tlie meteorologists. There is a procedure for classifying
cyclones based on satellite images, including dail,y forecasting of the
variation of their intensity. This procedure is used for operative
estimation of the maximum wind velocity, especially for storms that are
not very severe. The greatest accuracy is insure for wind velocity to
50 knots; medium accuracy in the case of severe storms (wind velocity more
than 100 knots), and least accuracy for medium storms.
For a more than 14-day period the meteorologists primarily used observations
from satellites with an orbit at low altitude and passing over the same
area twice a day once in the daytime and cnce at night. Therefore
the satellites having a system i'or-obtaining images only in the visible
part of the spectrum could make observations of the given region only once
a day, whereas the satellites of infrared sensors could observe -the same
re.gion twice a day. Therefore the satellites appear to be valuable primarily
for studying phenomena not changing significantly in 12 or 24 hours.
The f irst operative SNS-1 geostationary satellite was developed by NASA
and inserted into orbit on 17 May 1974. A two-channel scanning radiometer
was installed on it which operated in the visible and infrared parts of
the spectrum (VISSR). The possibility -f continuous observation and track-
ing oF the mesoscale phenomena (small scale phenomena) was checked out in
acco-rdance with the new experimental program for "operative" forecasting
in July 1974, in the vicinity of Chesapeake Bay in the northwestern part
of the Atlantic Ocean off'the coast of the United States. On that day a
cold front passed through the bay approximately from east to west. The
images received from the satellite made it possible to discover the convec-
- tive cells before they reached thunderstorm dimensions and began to rain.
The possibility of observing a frontal break even in the absence of clouds
was proved.
The observations of the cloud cover received from artificial earth
satellites have been used many times to estimate the mean diurnal precipita-
tion in the tropical and subtropical regions with spatial resolution,
intermediate between mesoscale and synoptic. By the existing procedure
provision is made for determining the pzoportion of the surface of the
planet covered with clouds in one of three nimbus forms; cumulonimbus,
nimbostratus and cumulus congestust and tfi e use of the empirical
coeffici.ent to predict the possible amaunt of precipa.tation, The experi-
ments performed in the terr~toxy of Zambi.a (Afrj.ca) indicate quite good
coi.ncidence of the data -on precip3.tati.on ob.ta3.ned by the images of the
clotid cover from satellites in the tropical and subtropical regions with
axial observation data for January 1970.
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5.4. Thermal Sounding of the Atmosphere
The thermal emission of the atmosphere contains inform3tion in the vertical
~ temperature distribution and concentration of the radiating components
which are both optically active gases and other components (aerosol,
clouds, precipitation). Pieasuring the thermal emission of the atmos.phere
by using a receiver installed on the satellite, it is possible to determine
the temperature of various layers of the atmosphere. The infrared absorp-
tion spectrum of the atmosphere has sharply expressed selectivtty. In
accordance with this, the intensity of the thermal emission of the
atmospnere essentially depends on the wave length.
In the regions of the spectrum where the absorption of the infrared r3diation
- is i-ntense (the absorption bands of different atmospheric gases), only
the emission of the uppermost layers of the atmosphere will reach the
infrared space instruments.
One of the most characteristic features of the atmosphere is its vertical
nonuniformity, the presence of which is expressed in the existence of a -
defined vertical zonalness, and it permits us to talk about separation of
the atmosphere into a number of layers having specific properties. This
separation depends on the difference in the defining properties used as the -
basis for it. The most obvious difference in the properties of the layers
is manif ested in the temperature distribution with respect to altitude.
The names of the basic and the transitional layers of the atmosphere
corresponding to the generally accepted classification are presented in
Table 5.4.
Table 5.4
Average altitudes of the Transitional
Layer (sphere) upper and lower boundaries, lm layer
Troposphere 0-13 Tropopause
Stratosphere 13-25 Stratopause
Mesosphere 25-80 Mesopause
Thermosphere 80-800 Thermopause
Exosphere Above 800 -
The basic atmospheric components using radiation are water vapor, carbon
dioxide and ozone. The conoettration of all oX these gases beyond the
- limits of the stratosphexe and mesosphere is negligibly small. Thus, in
the region of strong radi,ation absorption tfie radiating layers can be
various layers loca,ted i,n th.e stratosphere and the mesosphere, In the
weak absorption region (wi,ndows of txansparency) of the atmosphere,
- the radiation will reach a satellite infrared unit in the form of a mixture
of the radiation of the earth's surface and the great body of the
atmosphere. In this case the infrared radiation of the earth is a complex
function of the temperature of tfie earWs surface and the stratification
of the atmosphere.
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The intensity of the monochromat3.c thermal emiss3.on wi,th a wave length a
passing in the direction of the zenith angle 6 through the upper boundary
of the atmosphere is defined by the expression
co
Ba Ba (ti) e c � (5.1)
u
Here T is the optical thickness of the atmosphere reckoned from the upper
boundary of it; U=cos6; Ba (T) is the intensity of the monochromatic
radiation of an absolutely black body at the T level, being a function of
temperature on this level (Planck function). The expression (5.1) .
- clearly reflects the fact that the intensity of the thermal radiation
' measured using radiometers 3nstalled on the spacecraft is a function of
the stratification of the atmosphere. From the mathematical point of view
the problem of determining the temperature distr3bution with respect to
altitude of the atmosphere reduces to the necessity for inversion of the
integral (5.1), that is, solution of the first type Fredholm integral
integration. The procedure for temperature sounding of the atmosphere was
developed by L. Kaplan, who proposed determination of the temperature
distribution in the atmosphere by the result of simultaneous satellite
measurement of the infrared radiation in the vic3:nity of the absorption
band of carbon dioxide a=15 microns in 10 defined narrow spectral intervals
about 5 cm 1 wide. _
In the given section of the spectrum the spectral interval of 5 cm 1
corresponds to resolution 0.1 microns. Ten measurements permit calculation
- of the temperature in nine layers of the atmosphere. L. Kaplan [5.9-
5.11] proposed measurements in the 15 micron range of the absorption band
of carbon dioxide in connection with the fact that in the given case it
presents no difficulty to give the concentration of the component of the
atmosphere absorbing and emitting radiation, which is necessary to solve
the integral equation (5.1). A significant advantage of ineasurements in
the absorption band of carbon dioxide consists in the fact that the
specific concentration in the atmosphere changes little with altitude and
is on the average 0.03%. In determining the temperature stratification
by the data on the outgoing radiation iii the carbon dioxide band it is
possible to extend the results of analogous measurements in the vicinity
of the absorption of radiation by water vapor to the solution of the prob-
lem of the vertical distr3.bution of water vapor in the:atmosphere. The
procedure of L. Kaplan is based on the fact that the spectral brightness
in the atmosphere in the given part of the spectrum depen3s on the concen-
tration of the carbon dioxide in vaxious layers of the atmospherea and
its a.bsorbing propexties and dsitribution w;tth.respect to altitude of the
temperature.
It is obvious tfiat 3n the given case tfie transmissa.on function and also
the distribution with respect to the vertical of tfie concentration of
_ absorbing and emitting materi:als must be known ['5.3],
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~
~
~
0
(1)~
0 50 100
% ( 2 )
Figure 5.1. Transmission coefficients along the vertical
of the layer of the atmosphere in the vicinity
_ of the carbon dioxide absorption band at
667 , 4 cm 1C14.98 microns)
Key:
1. Pressure, 102 Pa
2. Transmission, %
In Fig 5.1 the relation is presented foz the transmission coefficient of
carbon dioxide for layers of the atmosphere above the indicated pressure
selected from one side as a function of the absorption band with the
center at 667.4 cm 1(14.98 microns). The pressure at the surface of the
earth is 105 Pa. 8atisfac;:ory results of Lhe use of the discussed
procedure were obtained by Work [5.12] when calculating the temperatures
of three spectral intervals. He determined the temperature distributions
for three different cases of stratification of the atmosphere. During
the calculation, the spectral intervals were used with centers at 680
(14.70 microns), 690 (14.49 microns) and 695 cmi 1(14.39 microns). In
the calculations the atmosphere was broken down into layers with pressure
along the boundary layers of 1.1�102, 4�104 Pa. In Fig 5.$ the solid lines
indicate the calculated temperature da.stributions, and the dotted lines,
the given (true) temperature distributions. The fractions indicate the
temperatures in the following layers: in the numerator, for the calculated
distributions; in the denominator, for the true distribution. As is
obvious from the figure, the divergence between the true and calculatea
values of the temperatures is low. With an increase in the number of layers,
and, consequently, the numbex of spectral bands in which the emission of
the "earth-atmosphexe" systeat is measured, the tempezature distribution
can be deteXmilned with.even gxeater accuxacy,
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/ l17
Hc 10
- � / 218~Zf7 ( 12126
~ f00
~ ?21~125 ~~228
aoo ~
~ >000 ~
~
(3)
/
; Z>9/2
>B
223~T2
.
~
- 100 Z40 ?80 20 140 280 200 240 TBO
Tennepamypa.X
Figure 5.2. True temperature distribution and.
- calculated temperature distribution )
by the brightness values in three spectral
intervals of 680 and 695 cm'1
Key:
1. Pressure, 102 Pa
2, Temperature, �K
~ In the presence of solid clouds it is possible to consider the upper boundary
- of the cloudy layer to be opaque. It is obvious that in this case the
measurements can give information about tYce temperature and altitude of the
upper cloud boundary. However, under actual conditions of partial cloudiness
and the absence of sharp transitions from the cloudy to the uncloudy part
of the atmosphere, the interpretation of the measurement data of the out-
_ going radiation is possible only for simultaneous television tracking of .
the clouds.
= The estimatesma.de by Kaplan show that a significant source of ineasurement
errors can be the noise of radioengineering devices. Even with a signal/
noise ratio of 30:1, the errors in measuring the temperature caused by the
noise can reach a value of 3-4�. The primary difficulty in solving the
problem of thermal sounding of the atmosphere from a satellite consists in
- sharply expressed selectivity of the thermal emission of the atmosphere.
The halfwidth of the absorption lines (and radiation respectively) near
the earth's surface is less than 0.1 cm 1, and it decreases with an
increase in altitude proportionally to the pressure. Therefore the effect
of the selectivity can be low only along the extent of the limitingly
narrow sections of the spectrum having a width on the order of 10-~ to
10-3 cm-l,
The idea or the interferometr:Cc method of filtration of radiation was
stated by J,govghton [5.13]. At the present time interferometers of
various t;rpes are wi.deJ.y used for thermal sounding of the atmosphere from
satellites k'see 95.4). The i,nterferometers are devices, the effect of which
is based on tfie phenomenon of light interference. According to the wave
theory of light when two light oscillations are imposed on each other
having equal intensity 11 and phase difference the intensity of the
resultant oscillation is
I = 4I1 cos20/2.
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Here ~=2nY/a, where d is the diffexence in path of the intexfering beams;
a is the wave length of the light oscillati,ons. Dependi,ng on the values of
the intens:[ty of the resultant osci.llations can assume various values
_ from 0 to 41 11 Here, o� course, there is no disturbance of the law of
conservation of energy, for the decrease in energy in certain sections of
- space is completely compensated for by an increase in energy in other
sections. In many cases interferometers give significantly higher accuracy
than other instruments, and sometimes they permit the solution of the
problems which cannot be solved in general By means of other instruments.
Figure 5.3. Schematic diagram of a Michelson interferometer
Fig 5.3 shows the schematic diagram of a Michelson interferometer. The
pencil of beams A coming from the radiation source is split by the semi-
- transparent plate 1 into two beams: reflected A1 and refracted A2. .After
reflection from mirrors 3 and 4, both beams again are combined by the
. plate I and interfere. The plate 2 is used to compensate for the thick-
ness of the glass of plate 1 and permits observation of the interference
~ in white light. On displacement of one of the mirrors along the optical
axis the interference bands shift: measuring the shift of the bands with
~ an accuracy to 0.1 of the width of the band (the higher accuracy is possible),
! the magnitude of the displacement of the mirror is determined with an
accuracy to 0.05 of the length of the light wave or with an acci:racy
approximately to 0.03 microns.
The results of the work of R. Wexler [5.14] indicate that the geographic
distribution of the outgoing radiation obtained by observations from
satellites in different regions of the spectrum can be a source of very
important information about the horizontal nonuniformity of the temperature
f ield. A comparison of the ground synoptic maps with satellite measure-
ments makes it possible to draw the conclusion of high effectiveness of
this method. Especially clear results are obtained when analyzing the
geographic da.stributi.on of the outgoi.ng zadiation in the vicinity of the
atmospheric window of 8-13 microns. Znasmuch as the regions of heat and
cold are nevextheless zones of ascending and descending movementst the
analysis of the geographic d3,stribution of the effective temperatures can
be useful also from the point of view of global tracki.ng of the large-
scale fields of vertical movements. The data on tFie temperature sounding
from the satellite can be used directly for determining, the vertj.cal
distributian of the water vapor in the atmosphere.
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= 5.5. T.n�r.ared Cqulpment Used on Meteor,ological L"arth Satelliees
One o� the firyt spectrometezs designed for thermal sounding of the
atmosphere of the earth was built in the United States by the Barnes
Engineering Company [1.2]. The instantaneous solid viewing angle of the _
instxument is 0.04 ste�radians. Here the near resolution of the insirument
at the earth's aurface is equal to approximately 220 km at a flight altitude
of 1100 km.
The spectrometer determines the spectral composition of the radiation of
ehis area, and the values of the spectral brightness in five narrow spectral
intervals 698.8, 694.5, 688.5, 677.5 and 776.5 cm 1(12.31, 14.40, 14.52,
14.76, 14.98 microns) are recorded simultaneously by f ive recording
channels. The requirement of providing for the measuremeiit of the spectral
brightness is within the limits of 25.10-7 watts-cm 2-steradians-1-cm'1
to 180�107 watts-cm2-steradians'1-cvi 1, which corresponds to the brightness
of an absolutely black body with a temperature from -70 to +60�C, in the
section of the spectrum in the vicinity of 15 microns, that is, in the
_ vicinity of the carbon dioxide absorption band, was imposed o n bhe spec-
trometer. In this case the accuracy of the measurements must be no
worse than 25�10-5 cm2-steradians'"1-cm l. This value is equivalent to the
variation in brightness of an absolutely black body having a temperature
of -70�C for a change in its temperature by 0.5�C. The monochromator
has a spherical mirror with a diameter of about 41 cm and a focal length -
of about 64 cm. The expansion with respect to the spectrum is realized
_ by a diffraction grating about 30 cm2 in area. About 490 lines/cm are
applied to the grating. The radiation from the earth and its atmosphere is-directed on the spectrometer
by a plane mirror and is modulated using a two-sectiun disc rotating at
a speed of 450 rpm. The surface of the disc has a mirror coating. The
axis of rotation of the disc makes an angle of 45� with the axis of the
spectrometer. At the same time when the disc overlaps the pencil of beams
from the earth, ttie radiation from space reflected from the mirrcrsurface
of the disc is incident on the spectrometeL. Thus, the radiation fluxes of
the earth and outer space f.all alternately on the input slit of the mono-
chromator. Inasmuch as the radiation of outer space in the investigated
wave length range of the infrared part of the spectrum is close to zero,
it is gossible to consider that on rotation of the disc in practice complete
modulat.ion of the radiation of the earth is realized. The control of the
calibration of the spectrometer sensit:ivzty is by periodic rotation of a
plane mirror insuring that the radiation from the calibrated absolutely
hlack body hits the spectxometer. The temperature of the absolutely black
body is not stabilized and is equal to the temperature of the spectrometer
which can vary from 0 to +60�C. The temperature of the aBsolutely black
body is measured continuousl-y to zntxoduce the required corrections by
calculation,
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'rhe radiaCion of the earth i.ncident on the input slit of the monochromator
is collected by a spherical mirror and is d3,rected on the diffraction
= grating. The diffraction grating reflects the radiation which is expanded
with respect ta the spectrum again on the mirror which focuses the beams
on the exit slits. Each exit slit isolates a defined narrow section of
the infrared spectrum. The thermistor bolometers are placed directly
behind the output s1iCs. The calibration o� the monochromator with respect
to wave lengths is checked during the viewing by the instrument of an
, absolutely black body using a narrow-band interference f ilter installted
in front of the exit slits, The spectral transmission of the filter is
highly stable and in practice does not depend on the temperature gradient
which can occur on the satellite. The checking of the correctness of the
spectral calibration of the monochromator is realized by comparing the
' radiation from the black body in four narrow spectral ranges. As the
receivers of infrared energy in the spectrograph, immersion thermistor
bolometers are used. The sensitivity of the bolometer is increased sig-
nificantly as a result of the fact that the application of the germanium
- collecting immersion lens with which the plates have optical contact (are
glued), permitted the dimensions of the sensitive area to be kept to a
minimum. The instrument tests demonstrated that by using the instruments
the temperature gradients on the order of 0.2�C can be detected at room
temperature.
The measuring infrared equipment of the meteorological satellites has been
continuously improved and developed. The class of problems which are
solved with the help of these satellites is growing. Thus, on the Nimbus F
meteorological satellite an infrared scanning radiometer was installed
for measuring the energy brightness of the edge of the observed earth'a'�
disc in four spectral ranges of 8.5 to 30 microns. These measurements
make it possible to determine not only the vertical temperature profile
in the atmosphere but also the verti.cal distribution of the ozone and
water vapor from the lower stratosphere to the lower mesosphere, that is, approximately in the altitude range of 15-60 km on a global scale.
The radiometer has been called the LRIM (Limb Rudiance Inversion Radiometer)
inasmuch as the scanning is done through a limb or the edge zone of the
planet earth with intersection of the horizon along the vertical, and
the vertical distributions are obtained using a special algorithm of
inverse conversion of the measured values of the energy brightness. The
measurements are made in two regions of absorption of carbon dioxide near
the wave length of 15 micxons in one (ahout 9.6 ma.crons) absorption band
of czone and in another encompassing the rotata.anal band of water vapor.
Vertical scanning through the fioxizon of the earth U done by scanning
mirror which displaces the fzelds of v:iew of the four xadiation receivers
of the radi;ometer corxespondingly,
. The radiometer is made up of an optical-mechanical part with two-stage
- cryostat using solid ammonia and methane, the electronics module with
- systems for preliminary processing of the signal of the scanning mirror
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' drive, the electronic coupling module which contains systems for processing
and quantizing the s3,gna1, the converter of the feed voltage and the
coupling circuit with the telemetxic system of the meteorological satellite, -
The optical-mechanical part of the radiometer includes a specially designed
shutter, a scanning mirror, an extraaxial parabolic mirror and other _
optical elements. The multielement radiation receiver, each element of
- which has its own spectral f3lter and the lens of the receiver are placed
in a cryogenic compartment and are there at a temperature of 65�K.
In the radiometer of the Nimbus F meteorological satellite, the structural
design of the shutter, the optical system with cryostat using solid
cooling agents and the drive of the scanning mirror are of great interest
(see Fig 5.4). Inasmuch as the optical axis of the radiometer can pass
at a distance a total of 10� from the sun, to avoid direct illumination
and to decrease the incidence of the scattered radiation of the lens of the
- receiver the radiometer is equipped with a shutter made of two segments.
In the first segment there are ring depressions, formed by sharp projections
and used to absorb the solar energy incident on the exit opening of the radiometer at large angles with respect to its optical axis. The sharp
edges oF the V-type annular projections are located at different distances,
and the slope of the generatrices varies as a function of distance to the
= input opening (Fig 5.4). The front surfaces of the annuiar projections
are at an angle such that the direct sunbeams will be incident on them,
and the rear surfaces are inclined so that they will reflect the beams
incident on the instrument at large angles. These beams must be reflected
on the inside walls of the shutter of go back into outer space as a result
of multiple reflection. The second segment of the shutter has the usual
structural design which has already been widely used in space equipment.
Here there are a number of annular baffles located perpendicular to the =
optical axis with intervals increasing as they go away from the input
opening. These intervals are selected sa that the beams passina from the
edge of the input opening to the edge of the baffle will be incident on
rhe wall of the shutter and on the next baffle. This arrangement of the
baffles greatly weakens both the diffusely reflected light and the mirror
reflected light. The housing of the shutter and its internal baffles
are made of aluminum by milling with subsequent pickling to obtain ma.ximum
_ sharp edges which is highly important to prevent diffuse reflection on the
edges. All of the internal surface of the shutter is colored black so _
that it absorbs infrared ra}rs well. The calculations show that this
design of the shutter insures a decrease by several orders of magnitude
of the radiation scattered inside the instrument and penetrating to the
recei.ver.
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' S
r-~
Figure 5.4. OpticaZ-mechanical part of the infrared spectro-
radiometer of the Nimbus F satellite: 1--Shutter;
2--Scanning mirror; 3--Primary optical systems;
" 4--Preamplifier; S--Parallel pencil of beams reaching
the receiver; 6--Stop aperture; 7--Parabolic mirror -
15 cm in diameter; 8--Dial.
The optical system provides angular resolution of 0.5�10 3 radians
(approximately 1.5') in the entire field of view 2� wide. It is an afocal
system witfi tenfold diminishing. The objective of the receiver is irradiated
by a collimated beam of infrared radiation; therefore the focusing of the
instrument is noncritical. In addition, the optical diminishing of the _
system improves the effect of angular deviation. Tlie objective of the
receiver enco~apasses the field of vi.ew of about 6� and fias a speed of 1:1.
It. is made of the material Irtran-VI which transmits radiation in the
infrared band well, and it is at a temperature of 300�K. The ofijective
focusses the beam on the stop aperature which is cooled by the cryostat
to 152�K. Directly after the stop aper ture there is a window made of
Irtran-VI which forms a relatively small entrance into the cryostat with
respect to diameter. Then comes the system of parabolic mirrors which also
operate at a temperature of 152�K and, finally, the last correcting lens
in front of the receiver which together with the radiation receiver is
in the solid cryostat chamber with a temperature of 65�K. The sensitive
elements of the radiation receiver are made of HgCdTe inasmuch as they
do require cooling that is too deep, and the operating temperature~Xf 65�K
is selected considering ensurance of the minimum varialiility of the de-
tecting capacity on the different wavelengths. The stop aperture de-
termining the field of view of the receiver is located at a distance of
- 50 microns above the mosaic of sensitive elements, and the spectral filter
- for each of them 3s superposed on the aper,ture plate which overlaps the
field of view. The radiation receiver in the form of a mosaic of sensitive elements, the
stop aperture, the aperture- plate and lens are placed inside the
cryostat, which is a ternary Dewar cryogenic system with solid cooling
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agents. The cryostat is made of a cylindrical tank with solid methane
with a temperature of 65�K surrounded tiy a heat shield whicli is. in close
thermal contact with another tank containing solid ammonia with a temperature
of 152�K. Both tanks are included in a common Dewar flask. Each of them
has its own multilayered thermal insulation. The multielement receiver is
, fastened to the upper end of the tank with the methane. Tfie radiation in
the form of a collimated beam is incident on it through an opening in the ~
~
shell of the Dewar flask and the thermal insulation. Each tank for methane -
. and aunonia has one outlet tube each which serves simultaneously for filling
with the coolir:g agents and the release of gas. Inside eacfi tank there are
coils for hardening of the cooling agents added in liquid =orm. The tanks
- of the cryostat are fastened by four concentric tubes of fiberglass passing
through the central opening of the tank with ammonia and the central well
of tfi e tank with metfiane. A capsule with radiation receiver is in contact
with the cryogenic tanks liy special structural elements operating by
shrinkage as the temperature is lowered. They ensure reliable thermal and
mechanical connections.
4
5
Figure 5.5. Simplified diagram of a Michelson interferometer
installed on the Nimb.us 3 a�u 4 1ilCLCUT'UZOg1C21
satellites: 1--Rotating -mirror of the interferometer
compensating for the displacement of the image as -
a result of rotation of the satellite; 2--Interference
filter; 3--Radiation receiver; 4--System of parallel
spring suspensions; S--Linear displacement'.drive;
6--Movingmirror; 7--Beam-refracting plane-parallel _
plate; 8--Stationary mirror; 9--Mirror; 10--Thermistor
bolometer; 11--Objective that focuses the infrared
radiation; 12--Source of infrared radiation with
wavelength of 5852 X; 13--Input opening--filter.
On the meteorological satellites of the Nimbus series, infrared radiometers
and other types were used tiy means of which the data on the thermal sounding
of the earth's atmosphere, relative humidity with respect to altitude and
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and ozone content at different altitudes were obtained from outer space.
Thus, for example, on the artificial earth satellites the Nimlius 3 and
4 performed spectroscopic measurements of the thermal emission of the earth
in the wave numlier range of 400 to 1600 cm 1, which corresponds to the -
- wavelength of the infrared band of approximately 25-6.25 microns. The
spectral band used in these measurements encompassed numerous absorption
and emission bands of the atmospfieric gases. The resolution with respect
to wavelengths inside the indicated range was 5-2.8 cm 1 for these in-
struments.
Figure 5.6. Standard i.nterferograms recorded in orbit,
1, 2, and 4 obtained during observation of
the earth; 3--On observation of a heated black
body; 1 and 4--On observation of Arctic region;
2--On observation of a fiot desert.
The radiation of the infrared band of the spectrum measured by the spectro-
radiometer was caused by several factors: the vertical distribution .
profiles of the temperature in the atmosphere,the distr3bution of the
_ relative humidity and ozone with respect to altitude. Tlie accuracy of
the measurements was 0.5�10-7 to 10-7 watts/steradians-1-cm 1 for weak -
signals. The interferometer of themeteorological earth satellite,
Nimbus 3, operated continuously for 3.5 months and measured more than 1
million spectra in orbit. The spectrometer was called the IRIS (infrared -
spectroscopy experiment). ,
Figure 5.5 shows a simplified diagram of a Michelson interferometer used on
the Nimbus 3 and 4 American meteorological satellites. The rotating mirror
of the interferometer compensates for displacement of the image occurring
as a result of the satellite. This planemirror can be directed at the
earth, space or an emitter built into the instrument with known character-
istics (an absolutely black body) for calibration during operation. The
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temperature :inside the instrument is maintained on the level of 250�K v
with sufficient accuracy for practice. The telemetry data indicate that
the spectral sensitivity and equivalent power density of the interferometer
noise remained in practice unchanged for the year of operation in orbit,
wfiich is quite good result. The operating principle of tbe Michelson
interferometer was investigated in �5.3. The standard interferograms are
shown in Figure 5.6. In the upper graph of 5.7 we have the radiation
spectrum olitained from the Nimbus 3 meteorological satellite as a function
of wave numbers in the 400-2000 cm 1 band (25-5 microns) without phase cor-
rection. In the lower graph we liave the phase-correction. In the lower
= graph we have the phase-corrected emission spectrum liefore calibration
in absolute units. The rotation liy 180� of the initial spectogram
(the upper graph) in the wave number range of 600-800 cm 1 is easily seen.
Analogous rotations of the initial spectrograph were carried out also for
the remaining wave numbers in accordance with the recorded phase. These
corrections can be noted in tfie lower graph.
� 15 16,7 12,5 %0 8,3 71 6,1 5,>
Arbitrary units F Wavelength,.microns
= w ~nk
0
400 600 800 1000 00 1400 1600 1800
Wave number, cm 1 ,
Figure 5.7. Radiation spectrum obtained from the Ni.mbus 3
Meteorological satellite.
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(1) ~~---~,.VoK (2) cuxa,a~
N 40 30\0
V ` ABINOC~ ~ ~ ~
/a ~ PitMO~ \
- ~ i ~Z,~ 280`

ro
~
. ~ ~
H 0-
b
~ 25 746 12,5 fD I t;3 ~~,rlrrn
. ~
naps
t
i ; C$) . (5)
i
q
~ N .
_ CC v -
_ >p ANmrrp.ymuaT~
i
~ (6)
0 (g
. ~ p - -
~ 400 600 900 f000 1200 ~400
' B017HOBDC yllC/!O~ CM^~ )
Figure 5.8. Radiation spectra ofitained from themeteorologicall
satellite Nimbus 4. Spectral resolution 2.7-3 cm
Key: l. Spectral energy transmission
2. Sahara
3. Atmospheric window
4. a, micrans
5. Mediterranean Sea
6. Antarctica
7. Wave number, cm 1
8. 10-3 watts-microns-1-cm 1
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b
w
~
Z
a 100
~
. /C~OCd!lJSMHOC I
- - Hope
l0 anae~A ;970e.~
(2)
1000
200 220 240 160 280 300
(3 ) TermePamyPx, K
Figure 5.9. Vertical temperature profile in the earth's atmosphere
obtained by the data from the Nimbus 4 meteorological
satelYite (curve 1) and by the radiosonde data (.curve 2).
Key: 1. Pressure, 102 Pa
2. Mediterranean Sea, 10 April 1970
3. Temperature, K
300 Cpe~'u,~er,NOC i
~ nope (3 ~ ~ l0anpenA>9702. ~
400
_ .u~ I I i I
O ~
~ I
C1) ~ 6M . , I
~ 7p
T,...

B00
900 ~ ; -j-f
f000 l ! ~ -1
0 ?C 40 60 80
OmNacamen6NaA ,fnn,~,vocma,'~ (2)
Figure 5.10. Distribution of the relative humidity of the air with
respect to altitude according to the data of the
Nimbus 4 meteorological satellite (curve 1) and
according to the radiosonde data (ooo).
Key: 1. Pressure, 102 Pa
- 2. Relative humidity, %
3. Mediterranean Sea, 10 April 1970.
~ The radiation spectra in the wavelength band of 25-66 microns (.400-1500 cm 1)
are presented in Figure 5.8 which were obtained when the Nimbus 4 meteoro-
logical satellite flew over the Sahara desert, the Mediterranean Sea and
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Antarctica. In all three graphs. a grid of dotted curves is plotted cor-
responding to the radiation in this spectral range of an absolutely black
body at various temperatures with a step size of 20�K. In the upper graph
the chemical cumponents of the atmosphere H20, C02, 03, and CH4 are presented
giving the rise to the presence of brightly expressed absorption bands in
defined spectral ranges. The wavelength scale on the upper graph is con-
verted from wave numbers to microns. It is obvious that in the presence
of the most heated underlying surface (.the Sahara Desert) the maximum ra-
dia~ion falls to the window of transparency of the atmosphere of 700-1100
cm and corresponds to the radiation of an absolutely black body with a
temperature of 320�K. The picture changes if the underlying surface is
cold, as when observing the surface of Antarctica from a satellite. In
the lower graph it is noticeable that above Antarctica the maximum radiation
corresponds not to the windows of transparency of the atmosphere through
wfiich the cold surface of this continent is observed but to the C02
~ absorption bands between the wavelengths of 600-800-i and atmospheric
ozone 03. The atmosphere ataove Antar.ctica turns out to Fie warmer than the
continent itself, which explains this radiation distritiutfon with respect
to the spectrum. By using tfie data presented in Figure 5.8, by tfie algorithm
for inverse conversion of the radiation, the vertical temperature profile
of the atmosphere above the Mediterranean Sea and also the profile of re-
lative humidity of the atmosphere in the ozone distribution with respect
to altitude were found (see Figure 5.9-5.11). The data obtained using
the IRIS interferometer correspond well to the results of the direct
measurements of the values using radiosondes launched from the northern
part of tfie Straits of Gibraltar at 1200 hours Greenwich time.
~
- Altitude, km
- 0.0> 0,01? 0,03
1(0N4eN4V'(!/1P p,lONQ
= Ozone concentration
Figure 5.11. Vertical concentration distribution of ozone with
- respect to altitude obtained using the Nimbus 4
meteorological satellite.
The results of the studies from the meteorological satellites completely
confirmed the expediency of using infrared measuring equipment on them,
which determined its stormy development in recent years. A brief description
and the basic characteristics of some models of infrared instruments designed
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for measurements of ineteorological data from rockets and satellites are
presented below.
_ The high resolution two-channel radiometer built by the French CNES company
for the Meteosat satellite is designed for studying the cloud cover in the
visible (0.5-1.0 micron) band of the spectrum. The satellite is stabilized
by rotation around the axis perpendicular to the orbital plane, as a result
of whicli one of the two mutually perpendicular scanning movements required
for complete encompassing of the earth's surface is ensured. The second
movement is achieved by discrete displacement of the housing of the radiometer
by +9� in the plane passing through the axis of rotation of the satellite.
The complete scanning cycle lasts 25 minutes. The objective of the radiometer
is constructed by the Ritchi-Kret'yen system (a version of the Cassse-
grainian system with two hyperbolic surfaces). The diameter of the entrance
pupil of the target is 400 mm and the dispersion circle is 4" within the
limits of the field of view of 30'. Two photodiodes are placed in the
focal plane to investigate the emission in the visible part of the spectrum
and two receivers for investigating the infrared radiation based on cadmium
mercury teluride. The infrared receiver assembly is cooled to an
operating temperature 77�K by radiation removal of the heat into outer
space. The system of shields protects the radiating cooling cavity from
direct illumination by the sun and the earth. The radiometer is calibrated
- in flight by a built-in absolutely black body or the sun. The total mass
of the equipment does not exceed 50 kg, and the useful service life is 2
years.
An estimate of the effect of the radiometric errors in measuring the infrared
radiation of the underlying surface from a satellite on the accuracy of
measuring the temperature profile of th.e earth and the other planets by the
mettiod of spectral scanning using ab.sorption-emission pyrometry is presented
in [5.19]. There is a reference thQre to the'development of a spectral
radiometer with high spatial resolution for indirect sounding of the
atmosphere 15.20]. The liznits of accuracy of ineasuring the surface temperature
of the sea from a satellite by the results of ineasuring the infrared ra-
diation are analyzed [5.21]. The structural design and the operating
_ principle of the radiometer for remote sounding of the upper atmosphere are
presented in [5.20]. The use of diamond elements in the optical systems
_ of the Nimbus earth meteorological satellites is descrilied in 15.231 and
the use of the onboard instruments of the meteorological satellites and
analysis of the results olitained by using them are presented in .[5.28-
5.34]. The onboard equipment of the ITOS-D meteorological satellite launched in the
United States in the fourth quarter of 1472 includes an eight-channel VTPR
radiometer designed to obtain a vertical temperature profile of the atmosphere
in the altitude range of 0 to 30,000 meters above the earth's surface on
6 different levels. Every second this radiometer makes 16 measurements,
_ that is, 1,382,400 measurements a day, which makes it possible to estimate
the meteorological situation on a global scale and to compile more detailed
and accurate 5-day weather forecasts, and makes it possible to investigate
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the factors influencing the weather conditions more completely. A pyro-
electric radiation receiver combined with eight optical filters is used
in the radiometer. Six of them provide for recording the radiation of
the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, a seventh filter makes it possible
- to determine the temperature of the earth's surface, and an eightfi filter,
the water vapor content in the atmosphere. On the basis of this information,
the vertical temperature distribution in the atmosphere is calculated.
The information obtained using the radiometer is recorded on magnetic
tape for subsequent transmission to ground stations. The radiometer realizes
scanning in the latitudinal direction within the limits of the angle of
+30� with respect to the local vertical. Each scanning cycle gives in-
formation for 23 vertical temperature profiles, and each orbit around the
earth, information f or 12,600 prof iles. The accuracy of the radiometer
is no less than 0.5 percent. The instrument is calibrated to ensure this
accuracy of ineasuring the radiation in flight every 5 to 10 minutes .15.2].
5.6. Space Infrared Radiometers for Thermal Sounding of the Upper
Atmosphere
~ The bgst of the modern space spectroradiometers have spectral resolution of
5 cm , and Michelson interferometers suitable for use in satellite
equipment, give a resolution of 1 cm i in the best case. The instrument for
obtaining the temperature profile of the upper layers of the atmosphere
must have spectral resolution which significantly exceeds the possibilities
of any modern spectrometer or interferometer. This is explained by the fact
that the width of an spectral emission line generated by gas in the at-
mosphere at an altitude of 60 km is less than 0.001 cm . Therefore, the
resolution of a space infrared radiometer for investigating the radiation
- of_1the upper layers of the atmosphere must be just as high--less than 0.001
cm . The creation of this type of infrared space instrument is a highly
complex scientific and engineering profilem.
In the United States the plan calls for equipping the Nimbus F meteorological
satellite with such a radiometer in 1474. The radiometer is designed to
obtain a temperature profile in the layer of 40-80 km. Up to now the
temperatures of these altitudes have been measured only by rocket probing
at individual points on the earth. Even such separate observations have
made it possible to detect large temperature fluctuations in the stratosphere
and the intense movements of air masses connected with them. It is assumed
that by using temperature sounding of the high layers of the atmosphere
from onboard the meteorolugical satellite it will be possible to make new,
important discoveries with respect to the thermodynamics and stratification
of the atmosphere. For the Nimbus F meteorological satellite the Clarendon
laboratory of Oxford University (Great Britain) has developed the PMR radio-
_ meter with selective radiation modulation by changing the pressure in the
gas couvette. The cost of developing this radiometer by contract was
defined at 442,000pounds sterling [5.30, 5.31]. All of the difficulties of
matching the elements of the optical channels characteristic of the pre-
ceding designs of radiometers have been eliminated in this new type instrument,
and possitiilities are provided for using the method of selective lnodulation
' to its theoretical limit which will permit thermal sounding of the atmosphere
to levels approaching the mesopause (on the order of 80 km).
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a va, v-Lv..- Wvu v-ua
FiKure 5.12 shows the structuxal diagxam of a radiometer with selective
radiation modulation by varying the pressure in a glass couvette. The
~ intrared radiation from the earth.'s atmosphere goes to the infrared ra-
diation receiver equipped witli the corresponding optical system through
a couvette containing a sma:l.l amount of C02 under low pressure. This pres-
sure is varied by using a special modulator with frequency m according
to a sinusoidal law. As a result, the transmission of the carbon dioxide
in the couvette on all frequencies corresponding to the lines of the
rotational-oscillational absorption spectrum of C02 changes. The system
includes an interference filter which transmits all of the 15-micron
absorption band of C02, but excludes all other bands. Thus, the signal
at the output of the receiver contains a component with modulation fre-
quency w. The amplitude of this component depends on the radiation
intensity of the atmospheric C02 on a 15-micron wave which, in turn,
depends on the temperature. The synchronous detection of the output signal
of the receiver using an electronic circuit tuned to a frequency w makes
it possible effectively to supress any signal caused by radiation beyond
the limits of the C02 band for a= 15 microns. The calculations show that
this type of instrument ensures discrimination by temperature inasmuch as
the modulation of the radiation with a small amount of gas in the couvette
talces place near the centers of the ahsorption lines.
Figure 5.12. The structural diagram of a radiometer with selective
modulation of the infrared radiation tiy pressure variation
in a gas couvette: 1--Investigated radiation; 2--Couvette
wi.th C02; 3--Filter; 4--Collecting optical system; 5--
Receivers; 6--Electron detector; 7--Output signal;
8--Reference signal; 9--Electronic modulator; 10-=
Pressure modulator. .
The basic structural element of the radiometer is the pressure modulator
with duralumin piston, the pushrod of which is suspended on two flat beryllium
bronze springs. The pushrod of the piston contains a permanent magnet in
the form of a rod. Both ends of this magnetic rod are surrounded by coils
connected across by the Helmholtz pendulum system. An exciting voltage is
fed to the coils from a special electronic circuit placed inside the modula-
tor itself. The mass of the piston with the pushrod and the structure of
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- the flat springs are selected so that the resonance oscillations will take
place on a frequency of about 15 hertz. The structural design of the springs
- ensures a double amp litude of the piston oscillations to 1 cm with a gap
between the piston skirt and the cylinder wall of the modulator of 0.5 mm.
This gap with a leng th of the pist.on skirt of 1 csn ensures negligibly small
- leakage during oscillations of the piston and sufficient modulation of the
pressure inside the gas couvette. - In the first models of the radiometer, a thermister bolometer was used as
the radiation.receiver, and in subsequent models, a pyroelectric receiver
made of triglycine sulfate. The receiver was installed at the top of the
goldplated conical light tube, the wide end of which is covered with a
- planoconvex germanium length with focal length of 5.5 cm. The interference
filter is made directly on the flat side of this lens. The field of view
of the entire system is 5 degrees. The output signal goes to the three-
stage low-noise amplifier with amplification coefficient of 2.5�104 and then
through a synchronous filter to a phase-sensitive detector. Then comes
integration using th e system with time constant of S seconds and the
resultant signal is f ed to a pen recorder, and in the satellite version of
the radiometer, to the telemetry.
The method of ground testing of the radiometer consists in measuring the
radiation passing through a large reservoir with a mixture of nitrogen and
carbon dioxide, the ratio of which is calculated so that the transmission
of the gases in the reservoir and the equivalent values of the line width
are the same as on passage through the entire thicknPSS of the atmosphere
from the earth to its upper boundary. The pressures in the reservoir,
the ratio of the components of the mixture and the path length are equal
to 73�102 Pa, 0.2544 and 998 cm, r.espectively. The pressure of the gas
- mixture in the reservoir is reduced in stages so as to obtain correspondence
to the lengths of th e optical path between various levels and the upper
_ lioundary of the atmosphere.
In addition to the ground tests, the operation of the radiometer is checked
out in flight on an aerostat with ascent to an altitude of up to 38 km.
The radiometer is also equipped with a mirror system for standardizing the
measurements every two minutes. The standardization is realized by receiving
radiation successively from the blackened copper cone cooled by liquid air
and then from the heated cone, the temperature of which is continuously
controlled. The results of the measurements are reduced to a single-channel
eight-bit digital telemetric unit and are transmitted to the ground by
an FM transmitter operating in the ordinary radiosonde frequency band of
about 28 megahertz.
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CHAPTER 6. APPLICATION OF INFRARED DEYICES DEVELOPED FOR USE IN OUTER
- SPACE TO INVESTIGATE NATURAL RESOURCES, IN GEOLOGY AND FOR FOREST FIRE
DETECTION
6.1. L'se of Pattern Recognition Methods as Applied to Multichannel Infrared
Systems Developed for Use in Outer Space
In pattern recognition theory, the term "object" is a component part of the
broader term "pattern," including such terms as "phenomenon" and "situation."
- Farm crops and forest fires, thermal maps of the terrain and weather fore-
casting, space objects and marine currents, volcanic eruptions and outcrops
of geological rocks, and so on can constitute patterns [6.1]. In recent
years infrared recognition devices liave come to be used in space engineering
which utilize spectral brightness, radiance (of tfie objects of recognition
in the various spectral ranges are used as attritiutes. Hereafter, we shall
stipulate that the term "attribiite" means any characteristic of an object
subject to quantitative description 16.21.
Inasmuch as in the final analysis an attribute is a def ined number, it is
possible to apply mathematical methods to the analysis of attributes and
recognition of objects. In tfie general case it is possible tn use N attri- -
butes for the recognition of objects. Then the object can be represented
by a geometric point in an N-dimensional space of attributes. The objects _
(patterns) having similar attributes are combined into classes. It is pos-
sible to recognize an object by comparing its attributes with the attributes
of several standards of the classes and classifying the object in one class
or another on the basis of tfiis comparison. The classes do not actually
- exist in the sense of the objects making them up. In the world of things, _
for example, there is no "satellite in general" as a special object, but there
are only individual satellites wfiich have common attributes by whick they
can be combined into a class. Usually the numlier of classes subject to
recognition makes up a finite set which is called the "alphabet of classes."
- When using statistical recognition techniques, every class is assumed to be
characterized by a differential distribution law of attributes.
In the graphical representation of classes, the differential laws are bounded
by a line equal to the probability density which for the normal law in a
two-dimensional space, is an ellipse. The boundary probaliility density is
selected from the condition tfiat a defined, usually previously given _
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- percentage of all possible rrl,dom combinations of primary attributes charac-
terizing a given class will fall iciside the ellipse of the given class.
- Thus, f or example, in the two-dimensional space of primary aCtributes, the
probability of falling in the ellipse, the half-axis ratio of which to the
principal probable deviations is equal to k is defined by the formula [6.3]
p((xi, x2)cA)-1-exP[-(kP)2], (6.1)
where p= 0.477; A is the class of the object. The probab ilities that a random
point will fall in ellipses with different values of k for the two dimensional
space are presented in Table 6.1
- Table 6.1.
k ~ I
z I
3
4 I
5
P((x� x,)C:A)
I
0,203
I
0,598
0,871 ' 0,974 ~
~
0,995
k I 6
7 I
8 I 9
I !0
1-P(s" z!)
I 2,77�10'-
I 1,44.10'5
I 4,7�10'T I 9,9�10-0
I 1,3�10'~i.
- Values are presented in this table for the probability that a random point
will go lieyond the limits of the ellipse at k> 5. It is obvious that for
k= 5 in practice all of tlie random points of the given class fa11 inside
the ellipse. With an increase in the dimensions of the half-axis of the
ellipse to k= 10 the probability that a random point of the given class
~ will go beyond the boundary of the ellipse becomes negligibly small. From
Table 6.1 it is obvious that even a small increa.se in the dimensions of the
half-axes of the ellipse will lead to a sharp decrease in the probability
that a random point of the given class wi11 go beyond its limits.
When using three atitributes simultaneously for pattern recognition, a three-
dimensional space is formed. For a normal distribution law the random
points belonging to the given class are grouped into a spatial configuration
--an e1liFsoid, the probability of incidence within which is determined by _
the known relation '
x>> x.) C. A) _
(k) (2kP/ll;) exP (kP)'li (6.2)
where ~(k} is the reduced Laplace function. Table 6.2 gives the probabilities
- that a random point of the given class will fa11 inside an ellipsoid of
equal probability density, tre half-axes of which are equal to k princip al
probable deviations for comparison with the two-dimensional case.
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- Table 6.2.
k
Probabiltty
1 I 2 I- - 3 I 4
- !P(z,. z,, x,) I 0,0715 I 0,389 0,828 IL0,937 I 0,989
If the boundaries of th.e classes of objects do not intersect in the attri-
bute space, then any point appearing in the space of the primary attributes
can in practice reliably be classified in one of the classes. If the classes _
forming the alphabet intersect, then the point presented for recognition
can simultaneously fall into the regions of several classes. In this case
recognition can be accomplislied, for example, by the probability method.
It is obvious that recognition must be accomplished considering some criterion ~
wliich is used as the basis for this process and ensures the required re-,
cognition reliability. In a numtier of cases the recognition criterion 3.s
identified with the so-called separating function, the problem of which in-
cludes the classification of the presented point in one of the classes of the
alphabet to which it is similar. In the final analysis, the boundary is
. drawn in the attribute space which optimally (from the point of view of the
selective criterion) separates all of the points of tfie given space into the -
classes.
Lee two classes A1 and A2 exist in the attribute space, the random points of
which are distributed according to a normal law. The a priori probability
of the appearance of both classes and their value are identical. It is
necessary to draw the optimal decision tioundary lietween them. The most
general form of writing then normal distribution law in a plane has the
form
f (xII xZ)'
X eXP
(x: - xz)2
az
x,
_ (2=xl�x. Y 1 - T2)-1 x
~ 2(1 - r2) osX~ +
2r(x, - x,)(z, - xz)
Qx`Qx' )
The distribution depends on five parameters: xl, x2, 6X1, 6x2, r, which,
as is known, are the mathematical expectations of the values of xl and x2,
their mean square deviations, and the correlation coefficient.
Let the random points in the plane of two attributes X1, X2 be classified
in the classes A1 or A2 by comparing the probability densities. If an
inequality of the type fAl (xl, x2) > fA2 (xi, x2) is observed for a specific
point of the coordinate pIane, then the point belongs to the class A1. Other-
wise the point belongs to the class A2. It is obvious that in this case
the equation of the optimal decisior boundary separating the two classes
A1 and A can be obtained from the equation of the normal law in a plane
under th3 contiion fAl (xl, x2) = fA2 (xl, x2).
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It is easy to show that in the given case the optimal decision boundary
equation can be represented in a plane in the form of the secorid-order line
equation:
- AX2,-1-BX02-I-CXIX2+DX,+EX2+F=O (6.3)
where A, B, C, D, E, and F are constant coeff icients defined by the formulas:
_ 1 . 1
~ 2 11 - r'� 001 Q', (A2) 2[1- r' (AJ! Q', (As)'
l 1
B-2 (1-r' (A:)1 a's (Ai) 2I1 -r' (Q) a2s (A,)'
_ r (At) r (As) ,
X, (A,) T (AJ X: (A,) -
D = [1 _rs (AJ] �'i (A,) �1__(A1) as (A,) [ 1- r2 (A,) ~
- Qsl (Aa~t{-~~ ~A,)] +0,- ( s) (A.~[i r' ( s)] ~ .
X: (A~) r (A~) 7, (A.)
~ Q's (A,) [I -r' (A,)1 Q, (At) Qs (AJ [1-r' (AI)1 ~
X: (Aa) r (A:) X t (A:) .
Q�e (A:) (1 - r_ TA:) J +�s (A,) o: (�1s) [I _'rs (A:) ] ~ -
r(A,) X, (A,) X, (A,) r(As) X, (A,) X, (A,)
F Qi (Ai) as (Ai) ~1-r' (Ai)] ~As) ~As) I1 r~ ~A:)]
i ( X' (As)
(A ) (1A~r' (A,) j ~2vst (As) [1-r' (A:))
s(2a~a (A~' [1 At r2 (A~)] +21 ~2 (A~ 11 Az r2 (As)] + ~
C,
+in C2aa, (Ai) (Ai) 1 -tz (,Ql)
ln ( 1--
/ C,
2aol (A:) �s (A:) Y1 -r' (As)
where raI+�z,.a, xt,A , . are the corresponding numerical cfiaracteristics of the
1
primary attributes of one of the classes. From analytical geometry it is -
known that the equation (6.3) defines the second-order curves in general
form in a plane: a c:ircle, ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola. The form of
each specific curve depends on the ratio of the numerical characteristics
of the distribution laws of each of the classes subject to recognition.
In particuJ,ar, the decision boundary can be a straight line in a plane.
This der_ision rule is the most convenient for practical realization. Figure
6.1 shows the decision boundaries optimally separating tlie class F from the
classes A1, A2, A3 and A4 under the condition chat the point belongs to
class A or F according to rule (6.3), wfiich corresponds to making the deci-
sion by the criterion of the minimum average risk. The distribution laws _
are normal. The solid e'llipses were constructed for all classes with iden-
tical two-dimensional distribution probability densities equal to
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f (Xi, XZ) =10-1.
The ontimal decision boundaries are plotted by dashed lines and are denoted
for each pair of separating classes -
R (As, F), R (Az, F), . . R (At, F).
Fr,r clarity, the values of the decimal logarithm of the two-dimensional
distribution density are plotted on the optimal decision boundaries:
, n=1 g l On_lg f (xi, x2) �
JAFl
6FJ
Figure 6.1. Decision boundaries R(A l., F) wFiich separate the classes
A1, A2, A3, A4 from theclass F in the space of the
primary attributes xl, x2. The boundary probability
density for all classes is assumed equal to lg f(xl; x2).
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-16~13 ~0 B q
-21! ~ -5
-16'`-*�...- 5 ~R~A3,f I
-13 -f0-8 �

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X2
� %
_ / Y- B
,9-7
46
k-7
-
fi-6 +-3 �
5
~ I
t-y
~-3 I �
A2
t 1

I
IF

At 1
I
i t-3
-
Z S ~
~
t-3 k-6
i-4
8
4-5 k
1-6
. ~ R(A,.fl ~
Figure 6.2. Optimal open decision boundaries for near values
of themean square deviations for different classes.
The decision boundaries pass through the points of equal probability densities
of the two classes Ai and F. From the figure it is obvious that for classes
the mean square deviations of which differ by two or three times, open optimal boundaries are characteristic: parabolas or hyperbolas R(A2, F)
ana R(A4, F). For the classes the mean square deviations of which differ
by four or more times, closed decision boundaries are characteristic:
circles and ellipses R(A1, F), R(A3, F). The direction of the principal
axes of the optimal decision boundaries does not coincide with the direction of the principle axes of the separated classes. .
In certain places near the points of tangency of the ellipses R(A1, F),
R(A2, F) the optimal decision boundaries are close to straiglit lines
(see Figure 6.2). This approximation is more exact, the smaller the angle
between the principal axes of the contact ellipses and tlie closer the
values of their mean square deviations. Here the optimal decision boundaries
can exist considering replacement by straight lines of the simplest from
the point of view of practical realization.
A characzeristic feature of infrared devices made for use in outer space
designed for the detection of geological resources, forest fires, the
investigation of the flora of the planet and other ground objects consists
in remote use of them. For infrared recognition devices made for use from
space, the primary attributes can only be the characteristics of the
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electromagnetic field of the object. These include the field intensity, -
- the degree oi polarization of the emission, the spectral composition, the
direction of propagation and variation of these characteristics in time.
The majority of modern infrared devices for use from outer space are scanning
- systems. A given segment of the terrain is examined in a narrow instantan-
eous zone viewing angle. The primary attribute in any infrared space
system is the magnitude of the average (with respect to the instantaneous
field of view) effective energy brightness of the radiation sources which -
are located outside the field of view at a given point in time:
xt (t) ba ~w) Ya (w) d1[lm, (6 . 4)
lp j)(m)
where xi (t) is the average eff ective brightness of the radiation sources
with respect to the instantaneous field of view of the instrument, watts- .
cm 2�steradians-l; bX(w) is the spectral energy brightness of an arbitrary
point inside the instantaneous f ield of view of the system, watts-cm 1- -
micron 1-steradiari 1; ~X(w) is the spectral sensitivity of the infrared -
radiation receiver, relative units; TiX(W) is the spectral transmission
coefficient of the infrared optical system of the device in the ith spectral
range, relative units; a is the wavelength, microns; w is the solid instan-
taneous angle of the field of view of the instrument, steradians.
The procassing of the primary attributes of the objects permits us to
establish the secondary attributes: the shape of the objects, their mutual
range, the interrelation, and var.iation in time. The secondary attributes
- of the objects are also widely used for recognition. In the infrared
recognition system for use from outer space, there can be several receptors
operating simultaneously. Then it is considered to be a multichannel
device. The spectral range in each channel is separated by means of optical
fil.ters, diffraction gratings or prism systems so that in the space of the
primary attributes that is formed, optimal recognition of a given alphabet
of classes will be ensured. The general principles of tlie construction of
recognition systems discussed above can be applied fully to the multichannel
infrared recognition systems. The primary goal of the receptors of the
infrared devices to be used from outer space consist in measuring the values =
of the primary attributes with given accuracy, speed, resolution and con-
ver.sion of them to electric signals which are also used to solve recognition
pr.oblems. The relation between the primary attributes and the electric
signals at the output of the radiation receiver is described by the expression
U{(t)=k1Xt(t)Sow-I-Unoise (t)q (6.5)
where kl is the proportionality coefficient lietween the effective radiant -
f1ux, reaching the radiation receiver and the useful signal at the output
of the radiation receiver; in general form this coefficient can depend on
the magnitude of the radiant flux when making the transition from the space
of the primary attriliutes to the space of the signals nonlinear transfor-
mations can be observed; Sp is the area of the entrance pupil of tlie objective
of the infrared system; U (t) is the signal caused by the internal noise
of tfie radiant energy rece~ver and the amplifier. -
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It is obvious that the expression for the signal which is processed by the
decision-making system includes two components: the useful component
caused by the measured primary attribute and the component which distorts
- the investigated picture caused liy the internal noise of the receiver and
the amplifiers. An effort is made to reduce the second component to a
minimum by the corresponding projection and manufacture of the amplifying
systems. In order to reduce their relative contribution to the distortion
of the observed picture on making the transition from the space of the
primary attributes to the space of the signals, either the sensitivity of
the radiation receiver or the area of the olijective or the magnitude of the
instantaneous solid viewing angle of the system is increased. From equation
- (6.5) it follows that as a result of increasing one of the parameters kl,
So, w(or several simuJ.taneously) the former can be increased so much tliat
the latter can be neglected. If for any reason this increase in the indicated
system parameters turns out to be impossible, then the separation of classes
in the space of the signals is carried out considering the distortion of the
boundaries of the classes by the internal noise of the amplifying and
, receiving channel of the instrument. Here, as a rule, the reliability of
the recognition of the classes is reduced.
In spite of the variety of modern infrared systems for use from outer space
both with respect to purpose and with respect to structural design, it is
possible, nevertheless, to represent the structural diagram of the recogni-
tion system in the most general form (see Figure 6.3). On exiting from the
receiving device, the electric signals go to a comparison circuit where the
- value of the presented realization is automatically compared at each point
in time with the description of all classes--standards. The comparison
_ circuit outputs quantitative indexes whicfi characterize the closeness of
the presented realization to a11 of the classes--standards. The realization,
that is, the point in space of the signals is shifted continuously as a
result of scanning in the general case. At each subsequent point in time,
its closeness to one standard class or anotlier is different. The comparison _
circuit must continuously Arovide for quantitattve estimatian of all of the _
information coming from the receiving module. The description of the standard
classes is stored in the memory module. A comparison of the probability _
character.istics found with respect to the given criterion and classification
of the object in one of the classes are accomplished in the decision-making ~
device. In addition to the primary attributes, the recognition systems can
_ include modules which use the secondary attributes of the objects for
decision making such as the angular coordinates and their derivatives, the
distance to the oliject and other parameters. In this case the recognition
system can contain goniometric and range finding units.
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(1~ Xf 2 4,
cmp(3)Bo (4)
0~'aeK.a X_ ~n0~ cpaeHeHUn 6ncK ~
parnc.fNnBa- ' dOtnp;NU- movnu eaeKmu nPu~~~ ~(5)
X3 NxA74fIX c lmanoNNamt
, NUA ; ~mpoticmB q~~~M~
6naN
nariAnxr
. (6~ . .
Figure 6.3. Structural diagram of the infrared rer_ognition
system.
Y.ey : 1.
2.
3.
Object of recognition
Receiving module
Device for comparing
the point of the
object with the
standard patterns
4. Decision making module
5. Decisions
6. Memory module
6.2. Geological Resource Exploration and Investigation Using Infrared
Systems in Space
The remote study of geological resources using the infrared systems made
for use from outer space is based on the fact that various natural forcnations
have different spectral reflection curves both in the visible and in the
infrared ranges of the spectrum. Tliis difference will permit the detection
- and recognition of natural resources with respect to the reflected solar
or natural thermal radiation. The spectral characteristics of tlie radiation
of the same natural formation, for example, a forest, fields, soil, and so
_ on, do not remain constant in time. In a number of cases they depend
highly significantly on the seasonal conditions, the relative position of
the sun and the observation instrument, the soil moisture and many other
. caLises. Therefore such specific natural formations as, for example, a
"green meadow," can be represented in the primary attribute space not as a
single point, but as a set of points grouped in some region.
This situation can be clearly illustrated in the example of analyzing the
spectral brightness coefficients for numerous natural background formations
presented in [6.4]. By the brightness coefficient we mean the value of
r-Bq,/B
where B is the true brightness of the natural background formation under
defined~conditions of illumination and observation; B is the brightness of
an absolutely white plate reflecting tlie radiant flux according to Lambert's
Law under the same illumination conditions. As the primary attributes in
Figure 6.4, the spectral brightness coefficients are selected on the wave-
lengths of 0.56 microns, which corresponds to tfie characteristic reflection
band of vegetation explained by the presence of cliloropliyll and 0.8 microns
wnere the Wood effect is sufficiently well manifested for a number of back-
ground formations.
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It is obvious that the background formations of the investigated classes '
are grouped into clearly expressed regions: "soil," "vegetation," "sand,"
"snow," "water." For defined values of the attributes, the "soil," "water,"
"vegetation," and "sand" classes partially intersect each other, as a result
of which for given values of the primary attriliutes the solution of the
problem of whether a random point belongs to one of the enumerated classes
is not entirely defined. In order to draw the optimal decision boundary
in intersecting sections of tliese classes, statistical methods discussed
previously in this chapter can be used. Tn Figure 6.4 each point which -
enters into one class or another is numbered. These numbers correspond to
the following natural formations: 1--liark of a birch tree, 2--spruce, 3--
jumiper, 4--alder, 5-8--aspen in various seasons, 9-10--saxaul, 11-13--
- pine in different seasons, 14--weeds, 15-16--alpine meadow, 17--pasture in -
the chernozem region, 18-20--meadow with profusely flowering crowfoot,
21-26--dry valley meadow with sun height of 25 degrees, 27-30--grass,
31-37--barhan [sand dune] sand without shadows, 38-50--barhan sand with
shadows across the crests, 51-59--wet sandy loam, 60--grey soil, 61--leached
chernozem soil, 62-65--chernozem, 66--wet clayey loam, 67,78--cobblestone
roads, 69-70--water, 71--freshly fallen snow, 72-74--dry snow witfi frozen
crust.
The mutual arrangement of the classes presented in the figure is characteristic
only for the given combination ot primary attributes. On variation of the
spectral bands, which can be achieved, for example, by replacement of the
optical f ilters in each of tfie channels of the infrared system, the mutual
arrangement of the classes changes. The distance between some of them _
increases, as a result of which their recognition becomes more reliable,
and between others, on the contrary, it decreases. Consequently, the -
problem of selecting the optimal combination of primary attributes is
closely connected witli the specific problem of recognition of a defined
alphabet of classes. Each alphabet of classes can have its own optimal
combination of primary attributes. This is well illustrated by the fol-
- lowing example. In [6.5, 6.6] data are presented on the reflectivity of
clouds, snow covers and inversion trails of jet aircraft lit by the sun
in the infrared range of the spectrum. In Figure 6.5, the position of the
random points of some objects are plotted according to data of 16.5, 6.6]
in the xl, x2 coordinate system representing the spectral background
radiances on wavelengths of 1.7 and 2.1 microns (milliwatts-cm 2-microns-1).
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r/D,B microns)
pp ~ Ve$~tion
30
26~
gB ' �20I
~ Sand ~
' 025 i37 `
35.
I B 190 61
12.T1B
I pl I
yo o' ~932 1
~ I 3yi 033 ~
1
770 x6B ~
? o� 11 � #9/
I ~ J;YS 17 yj,5,q y8/
17 ~79 ; x �
03, 43~ ~ ~~11
~0 15g�3f69 f ' 6" " ~42 � ~
1 , 6
39 / : ~ .
I
0,2 1 .
~ 61x x57 X56f �
0,1
~ 65x53x5~f
~?`#se Water
FX251 ~ Soil -
O 0,f 0,2 0,3 0,# 0,5 0,6 r(0,56, '
microns)
Figure 6.4. Arrangement of the spectral brightness coefficients
- of random points of various natural formations in
- two-diTnensional space,
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(3) x=,a~Bm�CM-~'MKM f
= Q ~ O4 �
(1) ~
w 4
K B4 OO B6
Z B1
B3(D qDBO
Z 4 _ 6 8 0 xf,M0m-Ai (2)
,Zl=17MKM ~1
Figure 6.5. Position of the points of various objects in
a two-dimensional space of primary attributes
. xl 91.7 microns), x(2.1 microns): 61--cirrus
(H = 11.89 km); 62--stratiformis (water); 03--
cirrus; 84--cirrostratus (H = 7.62 km); 65--
snow on the surface of the earth; Ag--inversion
trail of a jet aircraft. All of the measurements
were taken in the daytime from an aircraft at an
altitude of 13.1 km.
Key: l. Microns
2. xl, milliwatts-cm 2-micron_i
3. x2, milliwatts-cm 2-micron
Xv,#9m�e* 6A W
(1~ ~
f0 BS . @4 f _ .
6.
ZO 40 60 X,, MBin-c*'';AW0
.Z3=0r75MA'M (1) (2)
Figure 6.6. Measurement of the position of random points of
objects with different classes on variation of
the primary attributes 04 = 567 microns, a3 = 0.76
microns.
Key: 1. Micron
2. Milliwatts-cm 2-microri 1.
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7
6
5
.
t
~ 4
C1) ~
T
~ 3
7
1
0
f S 1O 15 PO .i~ MKM (2)
Ftgure 6.7. Spectral distribution of the radiance (the
energy lirightness) of terrestrial liaclcgrounds
and an absolute lilack fiody with a temperature of
180, 290, and 350� K: the x curve corresponds to
the mathematical expectation of the spectral
radiance of the background; xM corresponds to
the mode; cr corresponds to the mean square
deviation.
Key: 1. X, milliwatts-cm 2-micron 1
2. X, microns
3. Absolutely black body
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With thi.s combination of primary attriliutes the distance between the
potnts of different otijects is entirely defined, which offers the possibility
- of stating the problem of the recognition of tfiese classes of objects with
specific probability. Tfie position of the points of different objects in
- the coordinate plane of the primary attributes changes significantly if the
- primary attributes change--the spectral ranges in whtch the reception of the
racliant energy takes place. In Figure 6.6 (in contrast to Figure 6,5), the
spectral radiances on a wavelength of 0.76 microns (x3) corresponding to
the oxygen absorption band, and 1.567 microns (x4) corresponding to the
window of transparency of atmospheric gases are selected as the primary
attributes. The designati:ons of the points on the figures tiy classes of
objects are identical. Tfie fact that the points 63 and 66 liave changed
their relative posifi_ion along the x-axis by comparison witfi their position
- in Figure 6.5 attracts attention; the points 61 and 66 have changed their
relative position liotfi witfi respect to the x-axis and with respect to the
y-axis. The spacing between these points fias increased nofiiceably. Thus,
- the spacing between 6 1 and 8 5 and the xl, x2 coordinate systems equal to
0.5 milliwatts-cm 2�microns-1, and in the xg, x4 coordinate sys-tem, 6.7
milliwatts-cm 2-micron'1, that is, 13.4 ti:mes more. Tfius, proper selection
of the attributes plays the primary role in the recognition of olijects by
multichannel infrared systems. Tfius, for recognition of certain classes
forming the alphabet, one comliination of primary attributes can be favorable,
and for the recognition of other classes, another comtiination. The use of
multichannel systems instead of two-channel systems and the transition from
the two-dimensional space of primary attributes to the multidimensional
space will in a number of cases permit the distance between classes to tip
- increased and, consequently, the probaliility of their proper recognition
- to be increased.
The recognition of various classes of objects using infrared multichannel
systems can be carried out not only in the short wave part of the spectrum,
but also in the long wave part of the spectrum. Figure 6.7 shows the
spectral distribution of the radiance (energy brightness of the terrestrial
backgrounds constructed by the data of 12.5, 6.5 and 6.62 and an absolutely
black body with temperatures of 180, 290, and 350� K in the infrared range
of 1-25 microns. It is obvious that at certain temperatures the spectral
density curves of the radiation of an aboslutely black body a:id the ter-
restrial backgrounds intersect. The mutual arrangement of the region of
national background f ormations on the surface of the earth and an atisolutely
black body with diff erent temperatures in two-dimensional space of the
primary attributes is presented in Figure 6.8. Two pairs of spectral
radiances, xl, x2 on wavelength of 12 and 15 microns respectively and xl,
x3 on wavelength of 12 and 21 microns respectively were used as the primary
attributes. In order to construct the region of natural background forma-
tions, data were used on the correlation coefficients of the radiances of
- the background on different wavelengths presented in I2�5]. When construc-
- ting Figure 6.8, the correlation coeff icients were taken equal to 0.47 for
the combination of X = 12 and 15 microns and 0.82 for the comliination of
a= 12 and 21 microns respectively.
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XI,MBm�CM?MNai ~
\1~
K
3
2
1
X2
0
1 2 j 4' .r~,e+Bin�c,~i ~x~i '
. a . (1)
xj,mBm�CM?MKM ~
(1)2
f
X3
0
Figure 6.8. Mutual arrangement of the region of terrestrial
backgrounds and F and points corresponding to
an absolutely black body with different temperatures
(180, 290, 350� K), for two combinations of primary
attributes: a) x1--12 microns, x2--15 microns;
b) x1--12 microns, x3--21 microns.
Key: 1. x2, milliwatts-cm'2-micron 1
For the known mean square deviations and correlation coefficients, the
angles of inclination of the primary axis of the background region are
determined by the known formula of mathematical statistics
tg 2y = `l/ox ox.I z. - a'x/), .
t ~ ~
and the mean square deviations with respect to the principal axes of the
region of background formations, by the formulas
C E~ = C�x& COS� ox, sin' roxtox, sin 2Y;
, a=E~- a=x, Slil' + o=zi COS' Y-1'ax&oX, SiII 2Y.
Considering Figure 6.3, let us draw the conclusion that in the long-wave
- part of the infrared spectrum, just as.in the short-wave part, tlie variation
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11
of combinations of primary attributes can noticeably change the relat_ie
position of the various objects in the space of the primary attributes.
Thus, in Figure 6.8, a the curve corresponding to the absolutely black
body with different temperatures intersects with the region of natural
background formations in a significantly smaller section than Figure 6.8, b.
The region of natural background formations in these figures is outlined
by the boundary at the level of three mean square deviations.
An important condition of using the multichannel infrared systetns to in-
vestiga te the geological resources and farm crops is simultaneousness of
obtaining the information from tTie same sectian of the terrain in all of the
spectral regions. After special computer processing the information is
output in the form of tables or charts in whicli very simple classifications
can be used such as green vegetation, soil, surface of water or more complex
classif ication, for example, areas where corn, soy beans, wfieat, oats, or
alf.alfa is grown and also data from geological surveys. At the present time
data are available on tlie spectral densities of the energy lirigfitness of
real farm areas taken up by various plantings, althougli they are not so
numerous as tfie data on individual types of plants and types of soil. Refer-
ences [6.7, 6.8] include a quite complete bitiliography of publications in
this field.
30 ~ 4444miiIA4444r4414 As 4444y44NIHHINIH1111~ .
411 41
( �~Vw~i~
~ 1 Cop (3) a
.
0 50 ,04Na~~1,4,4~++~4lw
4 ~~4
, IN111 1444*I41.N,NN+#o 44II44444�
KyKyPyia
50
. 0 . oA �C
,~;i�.~~~;~~~~~~~�~
50 ;~;'jjii~Jj~JJJ1~JiJJJ1JJJJJ11JU~~:,~~i~;..�.� ~
Ji~NI/~HJ14.j,,,
~ ~yH1+INIl+~iil
n as . (yKypysa 4 0 .f,5 � Z30 AgMXM (2)
Figure 6.9. Statistical composition of the results of -
measuring reflection within the limits of
a hemisphere for the following: a) 108 soy .
leaves; b) 184 corn leaves on 25-30 July 1966; _
c) 97 corn leaves on 11-15 September 1966.
Key: 1. Reflection, % 4. Corn
2, a, microns 5. Soy
_ 3. Soy 6. Corn
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Figure 6.9 shows the reflection spectra for normally developed fields of
soy beans and corn. Each curve is a statistical composition of more than
100 discrete measurements. The significant absorption of chlorophyll on
_ a wavelenght of 0.66 microns is obvious from the two upper curves. After
a wavelength of 0.72 microns, an increase in the reflection coefficient
- to approximately 50 percent is observed. In the fall the spectral reflection
coefficient of these fields changes as a result of loss of chlorophyll. The
- typical reflection curves for tfie visible and infrared radiation from the
soil in the range of 0.5-2.6 microns are presented in Figure 6.10. The
reflection curves for natural soil with undisturbed structure are similar
to those depicted in 6.10, tiut, depending on the�surface roughness, the
- values of the reflection coefficient can vary within broad limits [6.9.].
-
~
0
~ 30 (1) ~
~ 'o ,
o �

0
45 0,9 1,3 7,7 2,1 2,5
( 2 ~ ,Q/IUNd 80/INb/MKN
Figure 6.10. Results of ineasuring reflection within the limits
of a hemisphere using laboratory samples of soil:
sandy soil containing 5-12 percent moisture;
.....sandy soil containing 22-32 percent moisture.
Key: l. Reflection, % 2. Wavelength, microns
Under actual conditions it is not the individual leaves of individual plants
oriented in a defined way that fall into the instantaneous infrared f ield
of view of the recognition device, but the set of these leaves both illuminated
by the sun and in shadow and also the soil elements seen in the middles. The
spectral energy brightness of such a section averaged over the instantaneous
field of view of the instrument is of interest also for remote measurement.
Figure 6.11 shows some results of similarly taken measurements of the spectral
energy brightness of agricultural areas using the SG-4 high-speed scanning
spectrometer built by the Perkin-Elmer Company. The gently sloping hump of
the curves in the green part of the spectrum corresponding to the vegetation,
the depression in the red region corresponding to the spectral density of
energy brightness of chlorophyll and the high peak in the near infrared
region play a significant role in many problems of recognizing farm crops.
For each type of field different measurements will unavoidably be character-
ized under the same conditions by statistical scattering caused liy variation
of the slope of the leaves, the number of plants inside the instantaneous
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- field of view of the instrument, the specific value of the soil moisture -
in each spectfic measurement, and so on, as a result of wliich groups of -
pc.ints characterizing certain oli,jects ax'e for.ned in the space of the
primary attributes. -
- The investigated experimental diagrams pertain, to the conditions of il- -
luminating the plants by direct sun rays. In the case where the fields -
are in the shadows of clouds (which can occur for a defined sun altitude
_ and in the presence of variable cloudiness as experiments shcwed) the
radiation spectrum changes mildly, which only leads to a portional decrease
in the vectors, and their direction remains in practice unchanged, which
is highly important for pattern recognition. It is proposed that the radiation
variation during the day caused liy variation of the position of the sun
leads to an analogous effect. Thus, the parameters of the separating sur-
faces in the recognition technique can be corrected by a simple change in
scale. This is the first hypothesis within the limits of the working re-
flection region of 0.35-2.5 microns. Several families of spectral
radiation curves of different formations are presented in Figures 6.12-6.15.
(1
_
. ~
T a
C
V
Figure 6.11. Relative spectral densities of the energy brightness
~ (S) of clifferent agrotechnical areas in the range of 0.4 to 1.05
micron; green maturing soy beans; mixture of brown -
- and green grass; packed sandy road; powdery loam.
Key: (1) spectral density of energy brightness
(2) wavelength, microns
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44 0,5 46 47 O0B 0,9 40 4>
(2 ) AT/1!!NQ BO/IHN, NKM

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~a
E~
~
~s
dE
aB >,0 41 1,4 4.8
E 2, ~ Q/XINQ 40/l.Y61, A1KN
Figure 6.12. RelativE spectral densities of the energy =
brightness (S) for four fields measured in
range of 0.7 to 1.9 microns: yellow _
mature wheat; --corn; --oats;
......--green maturing wheat. The data were
obtained on 30 June 1966.
Key: 1, Spectral density of brightness
2. Wavelength, microns
(1)
- - 40 � 1,1 Z4 2,6 B
- (2) Qnuw donyv,r..rH
Figure 6.13. Relative spectral densities of energy brightness
(S): wet soil; green alfalfa;
, ' yellow alfalfa; wasteland
severely overgrown with weeds. The data were
obtained 11 August 1966.
Key: 1. Energy brightness density 2. Wavelength, microns
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O,BB"O, 7Z HKN
(2)
30
f0
v 199 09 179 f69 159 A
- , y 0,72-480MKH (2) .
,0 50
30 I
~
~ >0
- >99 >89 f79 169 159
A
799 1B9 f79 f69 f39 A
- Figure 6.14. Standard histograms of the data obtained from
a soy bean field in three spectral bands as
a function of the signal amplitude in provisional
units (A).
Key: 1. Number of observations
2. Microns
d
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L'va\ vt'a iVta'LJ Uv" VL\uL
79
54
30
6
~ 79$ f99
~ 5k
~
a
6
Iys
91
63
35
7
199 0 >79 169 159 AFigure 6.15. Standard histograms of data oUtained from a
wheat field in three spectral bands as a function of the signal amplitude in provisional units (A).
Key: 1. Number of observations
2. Microns
When recognizing farm crops the calibration of the infrared equipment has
primary significance. Usually standard radi.ation sources are used for this
purpose which overlap the field of view of the system after defined time
intervals.
When using computers for pattern recognition the initial data on the radiation
value in each channel are subjected to preliminary statistical processing
[6.11], which can be illustrated in the example of a 12-channel system
operating in the following visible and infrared bands.
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>79 >69 >59 e
199 179 169 159 .4

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Band Number
Band, miczons
Band number
Band, microns
1
0,40-0.44
7

0055-0158
-Z
0,44-0,46
..:8,
�
O.bB-0,62 ,
3
0:4",48
, 9

0,62-0,66
4
0.48--0.50
10
b46--0,72
5
0, 50-0 .52
11
0,72-0.88
g
0.52-0.55
12
0180.-1.00
The preliminary data processing consists in digitalization of the signals
in all 12 channels with respect to amplitude and accumulation in the
corresponding memories. In order to estimate the statistical charac:ter-
istics of each class, objects from a training sequence were used the
classification of which was precisely known. For each class a uiiiform
histogram was constructed which was in the majority of cases unimodal. The
provisional (for each class) distribution functions were approximated by
mu.ltidimensional normal di.stribution functions. The vectors of the average
and covariation matrices for each class were estimated by selective mean
and covariation matrices which were determined by training sequences.
Figure 6.14 and 6.15 depict the standard histograms of three spectral bands
respectively for soy liean and wheat fields. Beginning with the proposition
of normalness of the distributions, the vector of the values of the at-
tribures X of eacli class has a multidimensional normal distribution, that
is, .
P(X1��J) _(2uJ N12 I Ri I-~~' exP I-' (X ---.Mr)r X
X 1(i' (X-1NI)]+ i-1, 2, m,
where N- 12; Mi and Ki are the vectors of the average and the covariation
_ matrices of the ith class wi, respectively. As the criterion for selecting
the attributes for normally distributed classes the Kuhlbach divergence
was used [6.12]. In the presence of many classes, the criterion was used
which maximizes the miniumum.of the pairwise divergences and expected
divergence. As applied to the problem of classification of farm crops it
is very difficult to determine the number of possible classes of the
patterns in advance. Some of the observed ground objects can be classified
in none of the previously defined classes (for example, roads, structures,
and so on). In this case the approach based on the formation of a special
"class of patterns" which includes the objects not belonging to any of the
previously selected classes is the most practical. This is done when the
magnitude of the discriminate function calculated for each object does not
exceed some threshold the magnitude of which depends on the criterion that
is used. The studies with respect to separation of fields into eight classes
(oats, soy beans, corn, alfalfa, red clover, rye, wheat and bare ground)
- gave the following results (6.3).
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Table 6.4
Class Class
number
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
Rejected Per- Number of objects classified
with cent- in a class numtier
regard age
to cor-
thres- rect
hold classi-
ficationl
a
1 I
2
F g--I
- 4-
~ 5-I
.._.6 I
~
e

-
- ,
1
Soy beans
131
95,7
6 860
126
0
35
10
I
7
1
'
2
Corn
12
9i,4
126
2535
0
24
0
73
6
t
0
3
Wheat
4
9912
0
0
2645
12
6
0
0
0
4
Oats
3
91,7
12
7
18
1 463
3
69
20
0
5
Rye
0
97,4
0
0
14
2
605
0
0
0
6
Red clover
14
91,0
21
26
3
23
0
2120
'0
0
7
Alfalfa ,
10
8719
0
5
0
47
0
47
802
0
.
8
Bare ground
0,
~
, 9818
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
328
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Tao classes of wheat were combined into one
w3s not required that they be aeparated in
from the presented examples it is possible
recognition of the fields of different crop
of year an entirely realizable goal.
Table 6.4
in the table inasmuch as it
the given experiments. Thus,
to draw the conclusion that the
s is at least for defined times
Channel
Spectral band,
Channel
Spectral band,
-
microns
microns
I
0,41-0,46
7
' 0,78-0,88
2
0,46-0.51
8
0,98-1,08
3
0, 52-U, 56
9
1109-1 119
4
0,56-0,61
10
1,20-1.30
5
0,62-0,67
11
1,55--1,75
6
0, 68-0.76
12
2,10-2.35 '
13
10 ,20-12 .50
For further improvement of the methods of remote recognition of farm crops
in the f ie1d, additional studies are needed over broad areas during the entire
growth period of the plants in order to discover what factors connected with
agricultural practice and variability of the agricultural targets wi11
significantly influence the radiation curves and, consequently, the recogni-
tion of the various classes.
Hopeful data on the possibility of resnote recognition of a number of objects
using an optical-electronic space unit have also been obtained from the
skylab space station. The spectral bands of the MSS equipment on board the
skylab are presented Table 6.4 15.371.
The results of classifying objects of defined classes have demonstrated
(see Table 6.5) that the color infrared photographs presented in digital
form for the characteristics are found to lie better everywhere than the
_ digitalized black and white photographs taken in individual spectral bands.
The four best channels for distinguishing the classes were selected in this
eYp.eriment. The set of four channels was selected with respect to the largest
value of the minimum transformed divergence for all possible combinations of
pairs of elements of the image.
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Table 6.5
(a )
MSS cratt4Hx
Skylab
Nh
Knacc
6. 11 I
B.
8
.
1
x(Nnbie MaccHSbi
. 97
81
97
91 84
2
Toproeo-npoMbutJ1eHHwe o6~
73
33
61
76 46
exrbl
3
PagoHw r0pxoAO6mearoweA
51
59
61
32 34
Rp061L1Ill:I2HH0CTN
4
Cloyaa
87
78
83
67 78
5'
TpaeRHOy noKpoe
95
86
93
82 ' 69
G
PO[1(H-:INCTBeHHb10 ,ieca
81
80
86
84 77
7
XsoY{Hbie neca
99
68
95
85 43
8
Pexe
87
27
77
16 64
9
Osepa
89
86
86
98 93
10
06uAas xapaxTepHCTinta
87
80
88
83 76
11
Cpe,qiiee s xnacce;
84
66
82
70 65
Key: a. Class 3. Mining regions
b. iHSS of the skylali 4. Soi1
station 5. Crass cover
c. MSS ERTS 6. Woods--desiduous
d. Color infrared forests
photographs 7. Coniferous forests
e. Black and wh'ite 8. Rivers
photographs 9. Lakes
1. Populated areas 10. General characteristics
2. Commercial-industrial 11. Average in the class
sites
, In Table 6.5, the general characteristics (item 10) means the ratio of the
number of all correctly classified.elements of an image to the total number
- of th-em in the control section of the terrain, and the term "average in the
, class" means the arithmetic mean of the results of classifying all nine
classes. In the headings to Table 6.5 the channel numbers are presented
by means of which the indicated data are ot tained. In the multispectral
scanner of the skylab station 256 equals 2 brightness quantization levels
were used. The performed experiments made it possible to draw the conclusion
that it is necessary to exercise great caution when giving preference to one
spectral band over another when describing the various classes of objects,
inasmuch as the choice of a solution regarding classification can be signi-
ficantly different depending on the magnitude of the noise in the channel
- which depends on the structural design of the optical and electronic systems
of the scanner.
When processing the obtained data the results of reducing the effectiveness
of the multispectral devices as a result of the impossiliility of exact
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spatial matching of the photographs in all four spectral bands were dis-
- cussed. When comparing the results pertaining to each individual class
of objects, there is a case where the addition of one spectral channel in
the middle infrared region greatly improves the classification characteristics,
- helping to distinguish rivers from commercial-industrial areas and heavy
soil. If a channel belonging to the-middle of the infrared spectrum is
~ not used, then the distinguishing of such o6jects as rivers, commercial-
- industrial areas and heavy soils becomes znuch more difficult. When per-
forming the investigation on skylab, in the opinion of the American
specialists, optimal results of classifying the objects were not olitained.
When analyzing each set of data and not using the same training patterns
for all of the combined data, it is expected that better classif ication
results will be obtained for some or even for all sets of multispectral
data [5.37]. The described methods do not differ with respect to their theorectical
basis when conducting a remote search for natural resources, for oceano-
logical and glaciological studies, the study of the condition of the soil
and the discovery of regions prospective for finding minerals, when analyzing
soil moisture and river conditions, and so on. By using a multispectral
device on board a satellite, it is possible more precisely to establish the
time when the runoff of the water begins after the spring floods, which
permits the yield of some farm crops to be increased by 25-50 percent without
increasing the planted ground area. By increasing the accuracy of the
prediction of how the seasonal changes take place in the water regime of the
rivers, it is possible to increase the power of hydroelectric power plants
without equipping them with additional generators.
The multichannel thermal infrared scanners operating in the 8-14 micron range
have important significance for remote geological studies inasmuch as this
region of the spectrum has minimum ratios of the radiation intensity of the
rock material to the radiation intensity of a black body at the same tem-
perature, that is, the minima of the so-called emittance which for polished
surfaces coincides with the relative radiated power. At the minimum emit-
tances the various spectral positions primarily depend on tfiemineral
composition. Information about the composition which is based on inter-
atomic vibrations cannot be obtained in others parts of the spectrum, for
in this case the reflective properties of silicate rock will be explained
by a physical phenomenon of another type, the intra-atomic electron transi-
tions of the metal ions of the transition group.
The data obtained by a multichannel scanner [5.37] showed that the two-channel
images obtained on the basis of the ratio of the radiation intensities in
the range of 8.2-12.1 microns emphasize the variations in the emittance in
open denudations of silicate rock with simultaneous elimination of the
the temperature variations. The spectrometric studies on various aircraft
~ and spacecraft also demonstrated that important information about the con-
dition of the emitting surfaces can be obtained using remote infrared pick-
ups and several channels. In the opinion of the American specialists, the
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mul.tichannel infrared scanning systems, for example, witfi 11 channels
in the 8-14 micron range, will permit us to olitain images whicli can be
used to determine the type of silicate rock. In remote geological studies
the basic limiting factor is still the infrared pickups themselves. It is
considered possible that on a transport spaceship an 11-channel spectr.o-
meter will be installed with spatial resolution of 100 meters. The ap-
plication of the mul.tichannel infrared scanner for geological mapping is
the best illustration of the possibilities of remote studies during regional-
scale mapping.
The main goal of the satellite equipment is not direct detection of the
deposits deep in the earth which theoretically is impossilile using infrared
equipment, but discovery of the composition of the rock in the explored region,
its tectonic structure, the presence of oil-producing rock and the nature of
its occurrence. It is natural that the satellite method of exploring natural
resources must be used in comtiination with well-developed ground methods.
The satellite infrared equipment can also be used in oceanological studies.
Photosynthesis which takes place in the surface layer of the ocean is the
y key process of the marine ecologic system. The "health" of the ocean can
be adequately established liy the spectral composition of its emission. In
the visible part of the spectrum the b lue color of the ocean indicates the
absence of chlorophyll and, consequently, the low nutrient value of the
given part of the ocean for zooplankton. The greater part of the plants
making up the plankton are diatomic algae; the zooplankton are predominately
Copepoda. In the tropics over the course of an entire year the composition
arid quantity of plankton are agproximately constant. In temperate lattidues,
seasonal variations of the composition and quantity of plankton are observed.
Rising in layers abundantly populated with phytoplankton, the Copepoda absorb
an enormous quantity of food as a result of which the quantity of phyto-
plankton changes significantly during the day. For example, in the Black
Sea at night the quantity of phytoplankton decreases on the average by two
times, and in the daytime it recovers again. Phytoplankton is the basic
food of the greater part of the animate population of bodies*of water, in-
cluding the most important commercial fish. In a region Yaith abundant
plankton mass accumulations of fish are observed migrating after them. There-
- fore the territorial accumulation of commercial fish liy years and the quantity
_ of them are subject to serious variations. Chlorophyll has a number of
characteristic bands in the infrared region of the spectrum. Tfie measurement
of the spectral composition of the radiation of the ocean combined with the
possibility of remote measurement of the ocean water temperature permits us
to obtain important information for the fishing industry about the possible
presence of commercial varieties of fish in a given part of the ocean at
in practice any point in time--an operativeness unavailable through any other
means.
The advantage of the satellite infrared equipment is fast surveying of large
areas in the world ocean which is especially important in connection with
variation in the chlorophyll concentration sometimes over the course of
several days.
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- 6.3. Satel.lites with Infrared Equipment fox Investigating Geological
Resources
On 21 July 1972 the specialized ERTS-1 satellite [Earth Resources Technology
Satellite] designed for remote exploration of the earth's resources [6.22]
was inserted into a circular near-polar orbit by a Delta rocket from the
test grounds in the western United States on 21 July 1972. The altitude of
the orbit was 920 km, and the mass was 820 kg. The primary goal of the
- launch was demonstration of the usefulness of multiple remote surveying of
the earth's surface on a global scale. The goals established for the first
satellite designed for exploration of geological resources reduced to the
following: discovery of the composition of the natural and crop resources
and also the environmental characteristics which can be best studied from
on board a space vehicle with remote measurements; testing and demonstration
of the procedures for gathering and processing data and also interpretation
' of the data as applied to agriculture, forestry, geography, geology, hydrology,
oceanography and aerology; determination of what economic or social value
multiple synoptic obervations have in many bands of the spectrum for com-
, mercial, scientific and governmental organizations.
Before the beginning of satellite studies, spectrozonal aerial photographic
surveying in sevEral spectral bands simultaneously was in second place after
seismic methods in the study of mineral resources. For example, in Canada
the combination of the method of aerial photographic surveying with electro-
magnetic and magnetic surveys and also the gravometric method made it
possible to conduct fruitful studies of the raw material reserves and in
particular, led to the discovery of large deposits of nickel and other
metal ores. These methods also were the basis for the optical instruments
used on board satellites to search for geo logical resources.
The basic instrument on board the ERTS-1 satellite was the multispectral
scanner developed by Hughes Aircraft Company, which weighed 54 kg; it made
simultaneous measurements of reflected solar radiation from the earth's
surface in four spectral bands: 0.7-0.8; 0.8-1.1; 0.5-0.6; 0.6-0.7 microns.
The instrument scans a strip on the ground 185 km wide I6.29]. The complete
survey of the entire surface of the earth is realized with great overlap
in 18 days. The satellite appears over various parts of the earth approximate-
ly at the same local time of about 0930 ho urs. This type of orliit is called
- heliosynchronous. The instrument scans mechanically. (A plane mirror
2303 cm in size oriented at an angle of 45 degrees.) The radiant energy
coming from the objective is transmitted through a fiber optical system to
the radiant energy receivers. In the equipment a calibration tube is
provided to provide for measuring the radiant energy in absolute units.
The spectral bands are separated by optical filters installed in f ront the
radiant energy receivers.
Amer4can specialists consider that every dollar invested in the ERTS-1
satellite brings in five dollars of net profit as a result of studies in the
agricultural area alone. At the present time an inventory of areas and
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crops is made in America on numerous small farms once every five yea;-s.
The use of this type of satellite wi11 make it possible to obtain such
inEormation annually and to trace the deyelopment of various farm crops in
various seasons. Such crops as wheat, sugar beets or alfalfa, sago, beans,
soy beans, potatoes, cotton, and so on sfiould be identified from on board
the Ei:.TS-1 satellite. It is proposed that multispectral observation be
used both to estimate the sizes of the areas and for early detection of
diseased plants, determination of seasonal changes in their development,
germination of crops and the general condition of one crop or another to
predict its harvest not only in the United States but on a world scale.
Statistical studies of the cloud characteristics in a givea region are of
indirect value to agriculture in order ta determine the illumination during
various periods and the selection of the most appropriate crops for the
fields in the given region. The use of the ERTS satellite will make it
possible to analyze the possibility of studying structures and the produc-
tivity of forested regions. The ERTS satellite also has the following
- goals: the performance of studies in oceanology, geology, hydrology, and
- cartcgraphy, evaluation of the degree and nature of environmental pollution,
the structure and dynamics of clouds and also the dynamics of the freezing
of lakes in the central United States.
Plans have been made to investigate natural resources of the earth by the
data obtained from the Skylab Orbital Station.using the EREP equipment
(Earth Resources Experiment Package) [6.24, 5.25] which includes the following:
a six-spectral camera; a camera for photographing tfie earth's surface with
a telescopic lens; an infrared spectrometer; a 13-channel multispectral
scanning radiometer; a microwave radiometer-scatterometer with altimeter
(K-band); and a passive microwave radiometer (L-band).
The data obtained with the help of the above-enumerated set of instruments
can be used in the areas of ecology, geology, geography, meteorology and
oceanography for compiling snow-cover maps, studying the nature of environ-
mental pollution and determining the composition of the pollutants.
The Skylab space laboratory with the indicated equipment was put into orbit
with a declination of 50 degrees and an altitude of 435 km with a crew ship
of three people. The photographic film and magnetic sensors were returned
to the earth 16.33.J. The S-192 multispectral scanner used to investigate
the earth's natural resources from on board the American Skylab orbital
station wao developed in accordance with the NASA specifications. The
device contains a primary spherical mirror 61 cm in diameter, two scanning
mirrors and a system of dispersing elements which splits the radiant flux,
forming 12 spectral channels in the visifile and near infrared band cor-
responding to reflected solar radiation, and one longer wave infrared
channel corresponding to the natural radiation of the earth's surface. The
photoreceiver module is made up of 13 cooled s.ensitive elements based on
a ternary compound (mercury-cadmium-tellurium), the output signals of which
are recorded on magnetic tape delivered to the ground when the Skylab crew
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changed. The ground equipment which contazns a cAmputer converts the magnetic
recordings to color photographs which are transmitted f or analysis.
At orbital velocity of the station equal to 444 km/min and a transver9 e
scanning speed of 6,000 rpm, information from approximately 30,000 lan of
the earth's surface is recorded every minute of operation of tfie device.
The data obtained are used to determine water and air pollution, to observe
the maturing of farm crops and for geological research and many other
purposes.
6.4. Detection of Forest Fires by Space Infrared Systems
The detection of forest fires and the control of them constitute an important
- national economic problem. Tfie development of modern infrared equipment
will permit us to detect foresr fires from aircraft and spacecraft in the
' most initial stage of their occurrence. Infrared systems have been built
and operated in a number of countries [6.16-6.19]. In the opinion of the
American specialists, the economic gain from using space systems to monitor
forest fires, for determining the harvest and losses, to study the migration
of animals and for ecologic problems can result in an annual gain for the
world on the whole in the amount of 11�109 dollars I6.17].
A forest is a global formation on the surface of the planet. The higher
above it the observatiou point is located, the greater the area that can
be inspected. Thus, from the orbital altitude of an artificial earth satellite
of 250 km it is possible to inspect atiout 2 percent of thP surface of our
planet which corresponds to approximately 107�106 km2. For comparison let
us remember that the area of r,he Arctic Ocean is a little more than 13�106 km2.
Thus, for example, forest fires can be detected over an enormous territory
- from satellites. Unconditionally, not all of the planet's surface observed
- from a satellite is equivalent from the point of view of accuracy of deter-
mining the coordinates of the forest fire. A simple geometric analysis
indicates that with an identical error in measuring the angular coordinates
of the forest fire, the location of its center directly under the satellit,
that is, in the nadir, is determined with appreciably greater accuracy than
on the horizon. The linear error in locating the center of the forest
fire on the earth's surface Ak is connected with its position and error in
' determining the angular coordinates Aa liy the expressidn
Al =((N 123 Rs cos a _ R310a~ .
~ ~ llRz3 -(N + R3)2 sin' a ~
where H is the orbital altitude of the satellite, km; R3 is the average
radius of the earth equal to 6,371 lan; a is the angular coordinate of the
forest fire. Thus, with an error in measuring the angular coordinates
of the f orest fire equal to 1/4�, its location directly under the satellite,
= that is, in the nadir, can be determined with a linear error on the order
of 1 km � and for the edge of the f ield of view at an angle of 70� to t.
vertical, the linear error in determining the coordinates of the forest
fire increased to 18 lan. With a decrease in the orb:ital altitude of the
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satellite un(ier other equal conditions the accuracy in determining the
coordinates increases.
The length of the scanning line from the satellite (from horizon to horizon)
at an orbital altitude of 250 lan on tfie earth's surface is atiout 3,500 km.
The satellite makes one turn around the earth in approximately 1.5 hours.
During this time a forest fire occ.urring at a lattitude of 55� is displaced
as a result of the diurnal rotation of the earth from west to east by a
distance of over 1,450 km. Consequently, a satellite circling the earth
in a polar orbit will detect tFie same forest fire twice in a ti.me interval
- of 1.5 hours. Then an approximately 12-hour break takes place (the forest
fire is beyond the scanning area of the satellite during this time). Then
the fire again is detected witfi an interval of 1.5 hours and again a 12-
hour break comes. This is the cyclogram for the detection of a forest fire
from one satellite in a polar orliit. During the day the coordinates and
characteristics of the forest fire radiation can be measured four t:tmes _ indepeizdently of wliere it is located. It is impossible to achieve such
operativeness by any other modern means, -
The periodic measurement of the readition characteristics of a forest fire
will permit determination of its scale, the phases of development and ef-
fectiveness of the measures to control the f ire. Half of the forest f ires -
arise from thunderstorms. In Yakutia this number reaches 70 percent
[6.20]. Statistics indicate that the majority of forest fires can occur
also from other "point " sources of fire--sparks from a steam engine, a
campfire that has not been put out, matches, and so on. The area of a
forest fire arising from a point source of f ire grows with time a geometric
progression and af ter several days can reach hundreds and thousands of
, hectares [6.19].
From the light engineering point of view such elemental phenomena as the
forest fires are very powerful, complex sources of radiation, the exact
calculation of the intensity of the spectral composition of wh3ch is a highly
complex theoretical problem. In the majority of cases, in the initial stage
forest fires are of a low nature--the dry grass, the forest litter made up
of fallen leaves, branches, and twigs, small trees and brush burn first.
The flame height in these cases reaches 2 to 3 meters wi.th a width of the
burning edge of 0.5 to 1.5 meters. The flame temperature fluctuates from
600 to 1200�C at the edge of the fire encompassing the burned outi area with
a temperature of 80-120�C around the perimeter. In a forest fire it is
possible to isolate at least four radiating components having different
spect-ral composition of the radiation: The incandescent solid surface of
the burning wood, coal, flame and smoke. They a11 make their contribution
- to the total spectral composition of the radiation of the forest fire, but
the contribution of each component is different. The incandPSCent surface
- of the burning wood (1400-1500�K) and coal having different temperature
are sources with continuous energy distrilitioa of the radiation with respect
to the spectrum, that is, by wavelengths. The flame of a forest fire is a
highly complex source of emission having a band structure of the energy
- distribution by wavelengths. The energy emitted by the flame belongs
- 162
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- primarily to wavelengths corresponding to the absorption bands of the
materials contained in the flame. The products generated on liurning wood
(basically these are water vapor and carbon dioxide) have several character-
istic absorption bands in the near infrared part of the spectrum with centers
on wavelengths on the order of 1.3, 1.87, 2.7, 3.6 and 6.3 microns for H20 _
and 2.7 and 4.3 microns for CO2. The intensity of each spectral band
varies as function of the flame temperature. In addition, inside the flame
there are unburned particles which in addition to the band structure give
off a continuous component of the radiation both in the visible ar.d in the
infrared regions of the spectrum. Tfie total band composition of the emission
of the flame is highly complex and varies continuously with time inasmuch
as various parts of it are observed as a result of turliulence of the medium
in the fire zone. Thus, a random band component of the flame radiation is _
superposed on the continuous component of the emission of the incandescent
' wood and charcoal. Finely, the last radiattng component is the smoke (the
remaining small particles suspended in the lieated air). It is also an
emitter with a continuous spectrum. The temperature of the smoke is
appreciably above the flame temperature. Therefore the natural emission
- of this component is in the infrared part of the spectrum. Smoke scatters
and alisorbs the shorter wave emission of the flame, charcoal and burning
wood. As a result of the presence of smoke, the intensity of the emission
and spectral composition of the radiation of a forest fire vary randomly
in time. Thus, the overall characteristics of the forest fire emission
= are complex random functions wh'ich vary with time and depend on a number of
- factors, The investigation of the characteristics of infrared radiation of a forest fire and its indiv:tdual elements is the initial link in the
process of creating equipment for remote detection of forest fires.
The results are presented in 16.271 from measuring the characteristics of the
inErared emission of two models of a forest fire (burning moss atid charcoal)
- obtained using a multichannel infrared unit. As the measuring equipment a
four-channel spectroradiometer was sued. The investigated center of the
- forest fire was located at a distance of abnut 17 meters from the spectro-
- radiometer. The radiation was focused using four objectives based on
sensitive elements made of lead sulfide photoresistances. The radiant flux
was chopped by a disc modulator witfi a�requency equal to the resonance
frequency of the amplifiers. The signal from each cfiannel was recorded on
- a separate loop oscillograph.
The characteristics of the spectral transparency of the filters and the
spectral sensitivity of the photoresistances used in each channel are
presented in Figure 6.16. By the experimental data obtained, some of the
basic characteristics of the infrared emission of a forest fire are defined.
These include the following: the maximum radiation density (energy emittance)
in each of the investigated spectral bands, the mutual time relation (mutual
correlation function) between the radiation intensity and the individual
spectral bands, the correlation between the radiation in the different
bands with respect to the set of investigated variables, the time character-
istics of the development of the combustion process of an elementary section
of the forest fire and so on.
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49 ZO 2,4 $8 R,r,�rr/
I d d 8 micrans
Figure 6.16. Spectral transmission coefficients TX of a four-
channel spectroradiometer: ~X--spectral sensitivity -
of an uncooled lead s.ulf ite photoresistance; 1-4--
spectral transmission characteristics of optical r
f ilters
Table 6.6
Channel number Correlation coefficients
1
1100
0.93
0,71
0190
2
0,93
1,00
0,86
0,83
3
0,71
0,86
1100
0,52
4
0,90
. ~
0,83
0,52�
1.00
Figure 6.17 shows the time characteristics of the variation of the radiation density (energy emittance) of the center of the fire in the ignition and
for powerful fire stages. The mathQmatical analysis of the characteristics -
of the infrared radiation of tlie forest fire model (burning moss) demonstra- -
ted that the nature of variation of the radiation in the various spectral
bands of the forest fire model in tiTae is identical in practice, which
causes large values of tlie correlation coefficients presented in Talile 6.6. .
The normalized autocorrelations functions characterizing, as is known, the
relacion between the preceding and subsequent values of the brightness in
the combustion process have quite long duration of tlie correlation, which
indicates the small width of the spectrum of the process power (see -
Figure 6.18). The presence of low-frequency components in the variation of.
brightness of burning mass, which obviously is a characteristic feature
oF the variation in intensity of the infrared emission of a forest fire,
attracts attention.
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W�D,fO"'Bm�cM'r (1)
1, 5 ~ 2r~ ,raNan
i~
I
.
0 _ SO f00 150 c
w,~,f0"IBm�cM ~1) (3)
f . Z-d ,rayan
. I n
0 5 ,
ia'~,10'i9m�cM'Z~ 1~ 100 150 c
(4)
5 j-ti KaNCr/ll
' I
I
I
A
I
Figure 6.17. Variation of the radiation density (Y') of the center
of a forest fire in time in the ignition and power
fire phases.
Key: 1. 'Yef, 10-1 W-cm 2
2. First channel
3. Second channel
4. Third channel
5. Fourth channel
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ec
Figure 6.18. Normalized mutual and autocorrelation functions of
the radiation intensity of a model of forest fires
(burning moss). The cfiannel numbers are indicated
in parentheses.
The emission of a forest fire was picked up from artificial satellites by
infrared equipment only on the wavelength for which the entire body of the
earth's atmosphere was transparent. Figure 6.19 gives the graphs of the
spectral energy emittance of radiation sources with a temperature of 1500�K
(burning wood) and 700�K (charcoal) when observing then in the nadir from
a satellite. It is obvions that th.e forest fire emission received on the
satellite has-a clearly expressed band composition. The radiation intensity
in each spectral band is different. Attention is attracted by the relation
between the power of the forest fire emission in the visible and infrared
bands of the spectrum. The visible part includes only an insignificant
proportion of the overall energy emitted by the forest fire. Figure 6.19
shows the part of the spectrum a with wavelength less 0.77 microns complezely
blacked out. The remaining part b emitted,by the forest ffre is in the
invisible infrared part of the spectrum. The energy of the infrared part
o� the spectrum exceeds by hundreds of times the energy emitted by forest
fire in the visible part of the spectrum. Thus, the incandescent surface
of the wood in the visible band of tlie spectrum emits a total of 0.1 percent,
and 99.9 percent is in the infrared part of the spectrum. The cooling coals
emit approximately 0.002 percent of the energy in the visible part of the
spectrum, and 99.98 percent in the infrared part, that is, in practice all
- of the energy. The emission of the smoke is entirely in the infrared part
of the spectrum; therefore infrared equipment is used for detection of
forest .fires from artificial satellites [6.17, 6.18, 6.221.
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fu
~
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
T-1500K
$
(20pAlL~QA
dpeBecu~ra
6
4
6 2
~ f 1 3 4 6 6
(2) 4/1!!NC d0/NbI t, NA'N
w
I:
~
(3)
~
(1)
(4)
o > z 3 4 s s
,Qnuyaevn,veR,)Yrn (2)
Figure 6.14. Spectral distribution of the radiation energy
from an absolutely black body passing through'the
entire thickness o� tfie atmosphere vertically:
small lilack section (a)--energy in the visible
part of the spectrum; cross-hatched part (b)--
energy in the infrared part of the spectrum.
Key: 1. (Burning wood)
2. Wavelength, a, microns
3. XX, W-cm 2-�micron 1
4. Coals
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rVn Urrl%,itit, uoz U1VLY
Table 6.7.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)
i
v
-
~
i
~
s
ituporonna 4ye-
cTUtrrenwiocTe
~ ~
~
n~
� ~
$ a
3 ~ ;
~ Y
~
aunapaTy{w+,
E~T�CM-x
~
]ut i
"~aj
s*
a~iq d
~q
X
p h
X Ctl-I /2
C~
aS I
200 600
80
90
2 400 10-'
10-'
300
200 1 j200
120
10
2 400 10 - 0
10' ~
30U
200 1;?00
120
lU
1 400 10-12
10-6
300
400 600
80
90
2 800 10-�
10-�
300
400 600
SO
90
1 800 10'12
10-�
300
400 1200
120
10
l 800 10-12
10-�
300
Key: 1. Orbital altitude, km
2. Temperature of the edge of the fire, �C
3. Temperature inside the ring, �C
4. Background temperature, � C
5. Width of edge, meters
6. Linear resolution on the.ground, meters 7. Threshold sensitivity of the equipment, W-cm 1 x Hertz-1/2
8. False alarm probability
9. Lens diameter, mm
An evaluation of the noiseproofness of space-type infrared equipmen*_ designed
for forest fire detection is presented in [6>19] for the siznplest amplitude
selection. Some results of these estimates are presented in Table 6.7.
During the calculations the degrees of blackness were assumed to be equal
to the following: 0.3-0.4 for the edge of the forest fire; 0.9-0.95 inside
the ring; 0.8 background. The outside diameter of the fire of 100 meters
was considered constant. The safety margin was 4. Tke calculations showed
that using infrared equipment with multielement ridiant ene5gy receivers
with 30 areas for a threshold flux of 10-11 W-cm -Hertz will permit us
to ensure a high value of probability of proper detection of weak and in-
tense forest fires from space altitudes.
In recent years the methods of controlling forest fires by artificially
induced rain have been successfully used. The development of convective
clouds is quite frequently observed aver the taiga over the hot period of
the year. During forest fires sometimes there are hundreds of thousands of
tons of water hovering over the taiga which can be used to control the fire.
Successful experiments have been conducted in extinguishing fires by arti-
f icially induced rain from cumulus clouds in the vicinity of the f ire
[6.20]. Artificial rain which begins approximately 11 minutes after the
introductin of a special reagent into the cloud reaches a maximum after
30 to 40 minutes. Conse.quently, for successful application of this method
it is necessary that powerful cumulus clouds be present in the vicinity of
teh fire and that their distance from tlie center be in a defined combination
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with the wind directfon and velocity. It must be noted that the combination
of such conditions is not a rare occurrence over the taiga. In 1969 aircraft _
prolies extinguished forest fires covering an area of aliout 60�103 hectares
in Yakutia alone by this lnetfiod. In 1974 experimental production groups
extinguistied 76 fires in the forests of the Krasnoyarsk and Khabarovsk krays,
Irkutsk Otilas t and Yakuti a, -
x1, Bm/cn+z
~ 10
~
Cq
11~ 10
'
10
I
13 -f
500K
p
~
~
~
i
~ arn
1=?X
K

, A
,
~
I'y-500K
f
10"f f0-3 >e xf,BmhN2
11=1-ZMKh1
_ Figure 6.20. Location in two-dimensional space of the primary
attributes of the regions of values of the
energy emittance of the natural background
formations under the day conditions F and at
the points M1, M2 and M3 corresponding to -
emittance of the forest fire ii; various
stages.
Key: 1. Watts/cm2
2. a = 2-3 microns
3. a = 1-2 microns
The infrared satellite equipment can be of assistance when introducing this
method of controlling forest fires. As has already been noted, in the _
vicinity of the fire it is necessary to select an approaching cloud from
which it is possible to extract rain. This search can be conducted from
- the satellite. In particular, multichannel infrared equipment investgated
previously can be used here (see �6.1, 6.2). As an illustration of this
method Figure 6.20 shows the location in three-d3mensional space of the
primary attributes fo tfie region of natural background formations F at
points Ml, M2, and M3 corresponding to different phases of forest fire:
M1 (500�R) and M2 (700�K)--coals with a different temperature; M3 (1500�K)
--burning wood. The region Pp of possible values of the energy emittance
of natural backgrouns illuminated Uy sunlight in the absence of forest fires
is constructed in the same system of coordinates. In the selected system of
coordinates of the primary attributes, the points of the values of the
energy emittance of a forest fire in different phases lie outside the
background region. This means that the multichannel infrared equipment is
on the basis of the analysis of tfie spectral composition of the emission
capable not only of detecting the fact of the forest fire itself, but also
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to some degxee recpgnition o� its phase (ignition, if for the previous
coordinates at the given point of the earth's surface no forest fire was
detected, or extinguishing). If the signals are grouped in the vicinity of
the point M3, this indicates a continuing forest fire. When the signals
from the point M3 are shifted at the point M2 or M1 on repeated measurements,
this is a sign of extinguishing of the forest f ire.
By using the same infrared equipment detection and recognition of not only
the forest fires, but also the clouds needed for control of them is possible. Prospective cloudiness for extinguishing forest fires is considered to be
the cloudiness, the upper edge of wfiich is located at an altitude of 2 km
and more above the eartfi's surface. This includes clouds witfi great vertical
extent. It is these clouds whicfi on otiservation from space are the brightest
background formations, for tlie solar energy reflected from them passes through
the thinnest layer of the earth's atmosphere by comparison with the energy
reflected from the earth's surface. This means that the clouds that are
"useful" for extinguishing forest firest will be grouped with respect to
their light engineering characteristics in the investigated two dimensional
space of primary attributes in the upper right hand part of the bacicground
region. Tfi is part of the tiackground region is indicated in Figure 6.20
as Pp and it is separated from tlie rest liy the provisional linear boundary
A-A. The aircraft probes can be directed by the signal from the satellite
to the regions wliere favorable conditions exist for forest fire control.
The occurrence of a forest fire in different regions can be predicted before
its appearance with defined probability. It was mentioned above that many
forest fires occur from thunderstorms. Consequently, when observing the
global development and displacement of thunderstorms over the earth from
satellites, it is possible with defined probability to depict the appearance
of torest fires in the dry regions.
The problem of the control of forest fires must be solved complexly. The
space system equipped with infrared equipment must be considered as a com-
ponent part of this large complex already actually used. The performed
space experiments have made it possible to olitain images of forest fires
that have started by using infrared equipment and in time to determine their
coordinates on the earth's surface [6.21]. Thus, for example, by using the
artificial earth's satellite inserted into synchronous polar orbit by the
US Air Force, forest fires were photographed in the northwestern part of
the United States. The observations from the satellite were performed in
the visible and the infrared bands with wavelengths of 0.4-1.1 and 8-13
microns. The resolution on tlie earth was about 3.6 km in the nadir.
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CHAPTER 7. SPACE COMMUNICATIONS
7.1. Characteristics of Laser Communications Syste.ms
The creation of reliable and economtcal lasers, the development of effective
methods of modulation and reception of optical signals liave made the applica-
tion of optical communications systems operating in the visible and infra-
red bands a realistic possibiltty in space.
By comparison with the radio engineering systems, the laser systems have
high directionalness of emission achieyed by using comparatively small
optical devices and large width of the spectrinn which can be used for in-
formation transmission [7.1, 7.2J. As a result, tfiey are highly secret,
_ they fiave insignificant mutual interference, broad possibilities for
creating multichannel systems, small mass and low energy intake.
The gain of the transmitting antenna G equals 4ffAtr s/X2 in the visible
and infrared bands (0.5-10 microns) can reach 100-118decibels with an
apperature of no more than 5 cm. The achievement of sucli a gain in the
millimeter and centimeter bands would require the creation of enormous
antennas with a diameter of 1000 to 10,000 meters. As a result of the
high directionalness of the optical antennas, it is possible to decrease the
energy consumption in the laser communication lines by comparison with
radio engineering lines in spite of the lower sensitivity of the optical
receivers.
_ 100~
LAMDSAT 1
10 ~
- Data transmission ~ r1ROSN. �
rate, Mbits /sec ~
4>
4X s
�
4WI �
1960 1979 >980 Years
Figure 7.1. Requirements on the data transmission rate over space
lines.
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With high directionalness of the transmitting and .receiving antennas in
the laser transmission lines exact aiYning of tfiem is necessary, and when
- the target mcves, continuous tracking w3th high angular accuracy is re-
quired. The possibility of solving the aiming and tracking problem has
been demonstrated experimentally when working with active models under
laboratory conditions and in space on board the orbital astronomical
observatories (OAO).
The aiming and tracking system usually is made as a two-step system. It
includes a mirror system for rougfit sighting witfi mechanical drive placed
after the primary optical s,ystem and providing for sighting within a given
angular field of view, and the precision sighting mirror system located in
front of the primary optical system and sigfiting within the limits of a
small angle with required precision. For the precision sighting mirrors a
piezoelectric drive is widely used wfiich permits tracking with high accuracy
and speed.
The expediency of creating space laser communication systems arises from the
increased volume of information and increased requirements on the data
transmission rate. This trend is especially clearly manifested for the
earth studies satellites (see Figure 7.1). For the prospective satellite
of the 1980's, the volume of received information, primarily images, will
reach 1011 bits/day, and the required data transmission rate, 300-500
Mbits /sec. For transmission rates of more than 100 Mbits /sec radio engin-
eering systems probably cannot compete with laser systems with respect to
dimensions, mass and energy intake which are rigidly limited for on board
spacecraft equipment.
1'he development of space laser communications systems basically is proceeding
along two primary lines: 1) pulse systems with photodetector reception with
the application of YAG lasers operating in the visible (0.53 microns) or
near infrared (1.06 microns) bands; 2) heterodyne systems on a wavelength
_ of a= 10.6 microns with the application of COZ lasers. For these two types
of laser communication systems almost all of the elements suitable for use
under space conditions have tieen built at the present time.
Theoretically heterodyne optical signal receivers have higher sensitivity,
which exceeds by three decibels the limiting sensitivity of photodetector
receivers. However, for photoheterodyning, high accuracy of the spatial
matching of the heterodyne and received optical lieams is required so that the
phase difference of these beams will not exceed one rad within the limits
of the photosensitive surfacn [7.3].
In heterodyne systems, optical systems of the focusing type are used in the
receiving channel, for which the angular field of view Arac is
erec = 2.44 adPh/(d)dDrec)'
where dPh is the diameter of the photosensitive surface; dd is the diameter
of the spot bounded by the diffraction limit; Drec is the diameter of the
receiver antenna.
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On optimal selection of the photosensitive element DPh = 0.74-1.0)dd
[7.5] the angular f ield of view of tfie receiving antenna and the accuracy
of sighting it are determined Drec� Tfie possibilities of increasing the
area of the receiving antenna to tncrease the signal are limited in this
_ case. The necessity for matching the phasea of the signal and Tieterodyne
beam are imposing high requirements on the quality of the optical system.
These requirements can in practice be satisfied for a= 10.6 microns;
serious difficulties arise in the visilile and near infrared bands [7.5].
For the photodetector receivers the phase of the optical signal plays no
role; these receivers react to the intensity of the optical signal. The
angle of the field of view of the receiver in this case is not connected
with Drecg but is determined by the dimensions of the field-stop aperature.
In order to increase the signal level this permits antennas to be used wi.th
large area without increasing the sighting accuracy requirements. In order
to suppress the background in the photodetector receivers, narrow band,
spectral filtration and time selection are used.
7.2. Designs of Space Laser Communication Systems
Space laser systems are planned for use to provide communications during
flights of interplanetary stations at distances exceeding hundreds of
thousands of kilometers (deep space) and for communications with space-
craft in earth orbits (near space).
Figure 7.2. Ten-meter optical collector for direct detection of
pulse signals from space.
Rigid restrictions on the dimensions and mass of onboard equipment and its
energy intake are characteristic of deep space. As analysis of the problem
indicates, these requirements are more easily satisfied if a system is used
which operates in the photodetector reception regime in the visible or near
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infrared region [7.2, 7.4, 7.7]. In the visib].e range in order to obtain
given beam divergence for the onboard equipment, an optical system is
needed with a diameter which is 10 to 20 times less than for a= 10.6
microns. For photodetector reception in ground equipment it is possible
to use optical devices with large effective area (collectors) made from
segmented mirrors or a set of individual optical systems (Figure 7.2).
For the modern level of equipment, the diameter of the optical collectors
can exceed 10 meters. The direct detection conditions will permit practical
exclusion of the effect of the pfiase distortions in the atmosphere on the
operation of the system.
For the deep space communication systems it is expedient for the laser spot
to cover the entire earth. Tfi is greatly simplifies the aiming problem, for
there is no longer any problem with respect to orientation of the trans-
mitter beam relative to the ground stations or transfer of it from one
station to another as the meteorological conditions vary. The set of
separate ground stations will in this case permit certain reception of the
signals to be ensured. The directionalness of the emission of the onboard
. laser transmitter when communicating from Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune
orbit must be about 10 microrads [7.2, 7.61. The problem of sighting and
tracking with this type of directionalness turns out to be highly complica-
ted as a result of the large transmission time of the signal and the
large (by comparison with the beam divergence) required angular leads.
Significant duration of the cornmunications sessions (to 12 hours) and slow
changes in the angular position and radial velocity of the targets favor
the solution of the sighting problem.
In near space the laser communications systems are proposed for use in
data transmission from low-orbital artificial earth satellites to ground
receiving stations in real time 17.4, 7.5]. An effective means of operative
transmission of a large volume of data and information about emergencies
(fires, floods, stor,ns, and so on] is u.tilization of a system of stationary
(geosynchronous) ra.,:.!L*o relay satellites (see Figure 7.3). Information
from the low-orbital artificial earth satellites is transmitted to one of
the stationary radio relay satellites; if necessary it is relayed to the
main stationary satellite and from it to the ground station. The transmission
rate in the lines of this sytem must be no less than 10$ bytes/sec [7.9].
- It is considered that the application of lasers will be preferable for
transmitting data from low-orbital satellites to stationary ones and between
stationary satellites. The problem of using lasers to transmit information
from a stationary radio relay satellite to ground stations has not been
finally solved. In the case of unfavorable meteorological conditions it
� is proposed that aircraft stations be used to receive information rrom the
- stationary earth satellites in the optical band and that it be transmitted
to the earth by radio'[7.1].
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3
_ Figure 7.3. Satellite data radio relay system: 1, 2, 3--
stationary earth satellite; 4, 5, 6--Low-
orbital satellite; 7--Ground station.
The analysis of the operating conditions of the system with the application
of stationary radio relay satellites permits determination of the basic
technical requirements on the communications equipment [7.5]. The maximum
range between the low-orbital and stationary satellites can be 43,000 to
` 47,000 km, and between stationary satellites, 83,400 km. On the stationary
satellite the angular field of view within the limits of which sighting
and tracking must be realized must encompass the highest of the orbits of
the low-o rbital satellite. The circular cone with apex angle of 22.5 degrees
encompasses circular orbits with altitudes to 1,852 km (Figure 7.4, a).
The angular field of view of the low-orbital satellite station must in the
general case encompass a hemisphere (Figure 7.4, b) so that the laser beam
can be directed to the stationary satellite station from any point of the.
low orbit. Angular velocities are also different which must be traced by
two of the indicated stations: on the stationary satellite within the limits
from 0 to 220 microrads/sec, and the low-orbital satellite, from 0 to 1460
microrads/sec. The maximum values of the angular velocities decrease some-
what with an increase in altitude of the low orbit.
I'or development of the sighting and tracking system the lead angle which is
determined by the relative angular velocity of the communications stations
is impor tant. Tfie important role of the lead angles in 'Eh,e laser space
communications systems is explained by the fact that theirvalues are
comparab le to the angles of divergence of the radiation as the output of
- the transmitter. The lead angle in the line between the two stationary
earth sa tellites can reach 40 microrads; between the ground station and
the stationary artificial earth satellite it will vary from 15 to 20 micro-
rads depending on the position of the ground station. For communication
between the low-orbital and stationary satellites the lead angle can reach
70 microrads.
~ 175
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yznoGoe none , yaHU~
. ~1~ apeNUp 21,5� nyv
- S/skurX (2)
n.
/lonyc~epuvecrrae
y2noBae nane
apeyuA
(3)
a b
Figure 7.4. Angular fields of view of laser stations:
a--On the stationary earth satellite; b--
On the low-orbital satellite.
Key: 1.. Narrow beam
2. Angular field of view 22.5 degrees
3. Atmospherical angular field of view
_ The sighting and tracking system of the laser station must also compensate
for imprecision in the stabilization of the spacecrat.t (within the limits
from 0.1 degrees) and its angular velocity (to 0.01 degrees/sec). The rigid
~ operating conditions of the sighting and tracking systems in the laser lines
require establishment of two-way communications in which both stations
actively tract each other. In the communications system depicted in Figure
7.3, the wide-band data from the low-orbital satellites are transmitted only
in one direction (to the ground.station). A narrow band laser beacon line
operates in the opposite direction, ensuring mutual tracking of the stations.
(1) P,Bm G,aa p D,cH
240 2 60 ~ 24 Z
BO 4 20 8 - ,
V 300 900 M6um/c (2~ 300 900 P16um/c (2~ 300 S{~ OAfum/c ~ 2~
Figure 7.5.
Key: 1.
2.
- 3.
- 4.
Optimal characteristics of receiving (1) and
transmitting (2) space communications stations
using C02 laser (range 46,72- km).
P, watts
Mbits /sec G, kg
D, cm
The basic parameters of the laser equipment--the transmitter power, the
- transmitting and receiving antenna equipment-- are selected by solving the
optimization problem [7.3, 7.5], in which the minimum mass or cost of
the equipment providing for the given inf ormation band and the signal/noise
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ratio is determined. Figure 7.5 shows the dependence of the aperature
- diameter D, the intake power P and the mass G of the optimal equipment
with a C02 laser designed for a space communications line with 46,720 km
range as a function of the data transtnission rate. -
- 7.3. Space Laser Communications Systems Equipment
The structural diagram of the laser equipment, the methods of signal modula-
tion and reception are determined by the purpose of the communication line
and to a significant degree depend on the type of laser. In the designs
for the space laser systems provision is made for the use of two types of
lasers: the YAG lasers which emit un the liasic wavelengtfi of X = 1.06
- microns and on the second harmonic of a= 0.53 microns and the C02 lasers
operating in the a= 10.6 micron band. The selection of these types of
lasers is explained by comparatively high efficiency and the possibility
of creating highly sensitive recetvers on the indicated wavelength. For
an average radiation power of several watts the YAG laser have an efficiency
_ from 0.62 to 1.0 percent, and the C02 lasers develop specially for reception
have an efficiency of up to 9 percent 17.1, 7.5].
Direct detection is used for recQpti.on of the YAG laser emission. In this
case the receiver i4lcl.udes an optical system, the elements of which determine
the angle of the field of view, the narrow-band filter for spectral selection
- of the background and the photadetector, from the output of which the signal
goes to the electronic amplification and processing system. On reception of -
the laser radiation, the value of the output signal of the photodetector -
does not depend on frequency, phase or polarization of the carrier, and it is theoretically determined by the intensity of the input optical signal.
This fact permits significant simplification of the receiver. The necessity
drops out for tracking the Doppler frequency shift occurring as a result of _
displacement of the receiving and transrAitting stations. Reception can be
realized through a nonuniform turbulent medium (in particular, the atmos-
phere) causing significant phase fluctuations. The requirements on the
frequency stability of the transmitter are reduced., On wavelength of -
0.53 and 1.06 microns these advantages of direct detection are decisive.
As the photodetectors in the visible and near infrared bands predominately
photomultipliers are used. The sensitivity of the photomultipliers is
determined by quantum noise and background illumination. The thermal noise
of the load and the electronic circuitry have no noticeable effect as a
result of the high internal gain of the photomultiplier. For analog
data transmission the maximum signal power recorded at the output of tile
photomultiplier is

2hvAf~F~J.S/11f)
PIMM* X
,m
**ig min
f~ noise (7.1)
Xf1+lI+ *
hve F (:i jN) ~ . ***background
- ~ ****signal
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1 where hv is the quantum energy; F is the noise coefficient of the
photomultiplier; Afsignal is the in~ormation band; rj is the efficiency of
the photocathode; S/N is the required signal/noise ratio (for data trans-
mission usually S/N > 10); Pbackground is the background illumination powers
m is the modulation coefficient.
The magnitude of the background illumination is defined by the formula
(%/4~,A;.e'np,i(~
"nP,~ba~~np~r . (7.2)
* *receiver
**background
where Aa is the transmission band o� the filter; Sreceiver and Areceiver
are the Prror and the viewing angle of the receiving opcical system;
' bxbackgroundois the spectral brightness of the background, watts-cm 2- '
_ steradians-lA-1.
For a receiver on a stationary satellite recording information from a low-
- orbital satellite, bX k is determined by the solar emission refl.ected
_ from the earth and itsacl~u~ucover, and it is within the limits of (10-6 to
10-5) watts-cm 2-steradians'1X-1. The effect of the background emission
can be reduced significantly, by selecting the narrow band filter (Aa) and
the viewing angle (BrPC)� Thus, in many cases the limiting sensitivity can
be achieved
4hvF, (S/N) G/c
p, WeA--tyn (7.3)
*sig lim
**noise
_ ***signal
The intake power at the output of the transmitter is
aL�9=~sL
p.M= 4S Pcmae+ *ic** (7.4)
~t~
*emission, **transmitting
***receivi:ng, ****sig min
_ -where L is the range; 0tr mitt n is the angle of divergence of the beam
at the exit of the transm~~t~ing ~e3escope; TL is the damping enroute.
For the pulse methods of data trar.smission the magnitude of the received
� signal is determinFd by the number of photoelectrons Esi formed in the
photodetector receiver in the symbol duration time Tsig ~or a gicen
~ probability of erroneous reception of the signal Perr (transmission and"
false alarm)
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. PRN.=hvNol+1T9ThvNoMo/Yi (7.5)
*sig lntn
' **signal
where Ms is the number of transmitted signals per second (data trans-
missionr~~te~.
For data transmission usually Perr < 10-3. For this value of Perr the number
of photoelectrons per symbol must be 5-10 for the most economical types of
pulse-code modulation [7.3, 7.8]. The value of Psig min increases by no
more than 20 percent for an average number of background photoelectrons
per symbol within the limits of -.1-0.3:
N.D=--qp(bTc/hV=t1p,t/ (hvM,) OL

!000
onn
TTiT equivalent, tons
I im ~ 20�10, I
10- I
5.101
~ Hm
190
470
220
4100
5 400
1
3
10
19
24
In the case of a ground nuclear lilast, a glowing hemisphere is formed,
the radius of which is approximately 1.3 times greater than the radius of
the fireball of the air blast of the same power.
The high altitude nuclear blasts differ significantly from air and ground
blasts. In the summer of 1958, two nuclear blasts were produced in the
United Statas at an altitude of 43 and 77 km [8.2]. In one of them with a
_ power of several megatons at an altitude of 77 km the diameter of the fireball
- 0.3 seconds after the blast was already 17.6 km, and it increased to 29 lan
after 3.5 seconds. In this case the fizeball rose at high velocity. Its
initial rate of ascent was about 1.6 km/sec. Approximately a minute after -
the blast the fireball was at an altitude of 145 km. The rate of its ascent
was at this time about 1 km/sec. The ball grew in tfie horizontal direction
at a rate of approximately 0.3 km/sec.
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10 19
f0 f5
, Magnitude of
of the light g?+
pulse,
,~oules/cm2-seC-
A 10 7
/d 3
f0-
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
Photon energy
1M38 41M38 10K38 1108 O,1K38 10/f38 13B
10--j T 10 /f ~
~
111
~
ppp
> >p f0` 10� f0y 10� Wavelength, A
I
~
Figure 8.2. Intensity of the emission of an absolutely black '
body as a result of tlie wavelength at different
temperatures. _
At altitudes of 60-110 km, the light emission of nuclear blast exceeds 50
percent of all of the energy released during the explosion. A characteristic
feature of a high-aititude nuclear blast is the presPnce of a red glowing
- spherica'L wave of very large size surrounding the fireball. This sphere
was vbserved for several minutes; 6 minutes aftet the explosion its diameter ,
was about 960 km. The spectroscoi,ic investigatioi;.performed during the
~ tests demonstrated that the fireball behaves not exactly li-ke an absolutely
body [8.2], but when cal.culating the light emission this difference can be
neglected. The spectral energy distribution of the radition of a nuclear
blast as a function of temperature calculated with Planc formula is presented
in Figure 8.2. From the figure it is obvious that the total magnitude of
pulse proportional to the area under each curve inc.reases significantly
~ with a decrease in temperature [8.2]. With a change in temperature, the
spectrum of the radiant energy changes. At high temperatures, the short- _
wave r,adiation predominates, and at low temperatures,.the long-wave
radiation. For example, for a nuclear lilast before the formation of the
fireball the temperature is several tens of millions of degreeG and the
radiation during this period basically takes place in the range of 0.01 to 10 nm corresponding approximately to tlie spectrum of soft x-radiation. This
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raciiation is absorbed by the surrounding mass of air, as a result of which
the fireball is created. Later (t > 0.01 seconds) the surface temperature
of the fireball usually is below 10,000�K, the radiation predominantly takes
place in the ultraviolet, visible and infrared bands of the spectrum.. The
total radiatior_ energy fcz all wavelengths from the entire of ttle surface
of the fireball can be found tiy the Stefan-Boltzman law. The magnitude of
_ the light pulses with a nuclear blast is a time function. The maximum
magnitude of the li_ght pulse Pmax corresponding to the maximum temperature
- in the second phase and the time tmax during which this maximum is reached
are related to the power of the blast by the simple expression 18.21.
PMBKC'~'-4W1/2, [xT/c]; *max
~
4axc--3,2� 10-2 W112, c, **[kilotons/sec]
~ where W is the power of the bYast in kilotons (1 kiloton = 1012 cal).
For blasts in the megaton range the value of tmax can be somewha
calculated value. For a ground (above-water blast) the fireball
approximately the same as during an air blast of twice the pawer
as the energy of the shockwave is reflected from the surface and
dir.ected to the fireball. Hence, tmax for a ground blast can be
greater than for an air blast of the same power.
t less the
is formed
inasmuch
is again
somewhat
For calculating the light pulse on the limits of the atmosphere it is -
necessary to consider the spectral transparency of the atmosphere.
8.2. Infrared Radiation of the Jets of Ballistic Missiles
T.he jets issuing from the engines of ballistic missiles are powerful sources
of infrared radiation. This radiation is used to detect missile launches
from satellites and for early warning about launches (see �8.3). The jet
behind a rocket is made up of the gases formed during combustion of the
- rocket propeilant and solid particles heated to high temperatures (about
2000�K). The gaseous composition of the jet depends on the type of fuel
used. In the majority of cases, the jet includes water vapor and carbon
- dioxide 18.4]. Thus, for example, the J-2 engine installed on the Saturn
5 space rocket operates on liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen fuel; therefore
its jet is basically made up of water vapor. The S-1 engine operates on
oxygen-kerosene fuel, and its jet includes a mixture of carbon dioxide and
water vapor. The solid fuel engines have a jet basically made up of carbon
dioxide, water, carbon monoxide and solid particles of aluminum and carbon
heated to high temperatures. In the spectrogram of the rocket jet it is
possible to observe a set of different emission lines of water vapor, carbon
dioxide and carbon monoxide and also the condinuous radiation of the heated
partices. The jet is a complex gas dynamic structure which has thermo-
dynamic parameters that vary from point to point: pressure, temperature -
and density. In order to calculate the radiation of the jet they are -
needed on the temperature distribution, the density distribution, pressure _
and other characteristics of the gases in the entire jet region. As an
example, in Figure 8.3 the temperature field of the jet of one of the rocket _
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engines is presented in two operating modes. The solid lines--tfie isotherms--
belong to mode A, and the dotted lines, to mede B. The comliustile component
of the propellant is RP-1 kerosene rocket fuel, and the oxidizing agent is
_ liquid oxygen. In mode A the tfirust was 68 tons, and in mode B, ?0.7 tons,
and the pressure in the combustion cfiamlier is 39.3 and 51.4 kg/cm , repsective-
ly. The density of the combustion products in mode B is 30 percent higher
than in mode A. The pressure at the tip of the nozzle is 0.727 kg/cm2 in mode
A and 0.917 kg/cm2 in mode B. From the figure it is obvious that the jet
zone with a temperature to 540�C reaches 60 meters in length and about 4
meters in width. Consequently, the glowing area of the jet of the given
engine will be 200-250 m2, respectively [8.4].
~
S
` 2 ~ -4_-� ~

(2) p

~
6
~
f0 `
0 1l1 ?0 30 40 SO 60 70
QnuNa ~anrna,,r (3)
'
Figure 8.3. Temperature field of the jet of a rocket engine
- Key: 1. Supersonic nucleus
2. Radius, meters
3. Length of jet, meters
_ As numerous studies of the structure of the jets behind rocket engines in
the Uinted States have demonstrated, their radiation can be theoretically
calculated only approximately by tireaking down the jet into a number of
isothermal zones with constant thermodynamic parameters. The intensity o�
the radiation in each zone can be calculated quite precisely. Accordingly,
- the problem of the theoretical calculation is broken down into two steps:
determination of the spectral intensity of the radiation in the zone with
def ined values of the thermodynamic parameters and calculation of the
radiation of the jets presented in the form of a number of isothermal zones,
with the use of values obtained for the spectral density of the radiation
- intensity foi each zone. In the case of a jet that is uniform in composition
and uniform with respect to its invariant thermodynamic parameters in the
frequency band av, the magnitude of tfie radiation intensity will be [8.4].
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' 1= f IYdv Ibv (1 - e-kY u) dv,
_ (iV) ' (vY)
where Iv is the spectral radiation intensity of the spectral line at a
frequency v; kv is the absorption index of the gas; U is the mass of the
absorbing gas; Ibv is the spectral intensity of the radiation of an
absolutely�black body at a frequency v.
When calculating the spectral intensity of the radiation of the jet, a
model of the Alsasser bands with subsequent good modification [8.4] is of
the greatest interest. In this model it is assumed that the position and
the intensity of the lines with identical halfwidth of them are subject
to probability laws. Accordingly, the spectral intensity of the radiation
in some frequency range can tie considered as the statistical mean. If the
probability of the line distribution witfi mean intensity SD in some frequency
range Av is described by the expression
P (S) _ SO-' exp $f S,),
then for the dispersion loop the absorption index will be expressed as
S. v
kY - ;T ~v - Yo)' + Y' ,
where y is the halfwidth; vo is the position of the center of the line.
The application of the dispersion loop to calculate the lines in practical
cases turns out to be highly valid. Considering the abov2-presented
expressions it is possible to obtain the formula for the mean value of the
spectral intensity
1-16~1-expIl- d Vi={-USo/d(8.2)
where di is the distance between lines, I is the total radiation of an
absolutely black body in the investigated frequency range.
If the jet is sufficiently fine, that is, the condition US0 /27Y � 1 is
satisfied (the weak line), the magnitude of the spectral radiation intensity
turns out to be
1-1 b USo/d.
(8.3)
If the jet satisfies the condition USp/27ry � 1 with respect tb thickness
(strong line), then
1-1,,D (YUYSo!~'),
where (D (x) is the probability integral.
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For a nonunif orm jet, that is, a jet which is a mixture of gases with variable
thermodynamic parameters, the spectral intensity of the emission is calculated,
as was pointed out above, by lireakcloam into n isothermal zones.
In this case the total spectral intensity of the emission of the entire jet
with respect to all zones in the given direction turns out to be
n !-I
1= -f ~ fa).r1 ~l - ~~~l 11 �na da,
aa t~i n-u
(8.5)
where IbXTl is the spectral intensity of the radiation of the absolutely
black body for the given wavelength a and temperature Ti in the ith zone.
TiX is the spectral transmission coeff icient of the gases for a wavelength
X in the given ith zone. Tfie total amount of transmission witli respect to
all zones in the given direction is defined by the expression
T = exp
I
t
n
~ `
x
1
ln T~ 2
! R
x`
- In :i
f~�Yt)
'1
~
~
~
1
~
i I
n
-tn2i j
~
n
}
~
2
r
x`
~lxi)
x` [
1
Iltii) I
t~~
where f(x) is the Ladenliurg-Reich f unction.
In the special case where xi < 0.2; f(x) ~ x= US/27rY, tfien
( n 1/2
- ln ti ln z, )Z
I c=~
(.8.6)
(8.7)
and for all x> 2 the function f(x) is approximately equal to 2 and
the equation (8.6) also assumes the f orm
r.. ,
n U2
-ln~= ~ (--~lntii)' .
rmi
(8.8)
The above-presented equations (8.5-8.8) permit sufficiently accurate cal-
culation of thn radiation of the jet if the pressure and temperature fields
of the jet are known and also the spectral alisorption or transmission coef-
ficients.
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ex
018
0,6
aG
0,1
0
~ L - 600HP!
P-606MM r- ff 77+6 Ir
N20-47MKM
\
~ 243 nn. ~
\ .
\
I ~ \
I 77MM \ ~ ~
2,2 2,4 2,6 2,9 40 3,2 442, , mlerons
Figure 8.4. Spectral alisorption capacity of water vapor in the
2.7 micron band as a function of wavelength.
The values of the absorption coefficients ob tained in the special experi-
ments on the models of the J-2 engine agree well witfi the theoretical
values. In Table 8.2 tlie calculated and experimental values T are presented
for water vapor (a = 2.7 microns). The calculations are performed for the
two-zone model at different pressures in each zone and at a temperature of
1273�K. The optical thickness of each zone was 610 mm, X= 3.49, t is the
mean value of the transmission coefficient with respect to two zones..
T.he relation is presented in Figure 8.4 for the spectral absorption capacity
el as functa.on of wavelength in the range of X = 2.7 microns. The dotted
line indica;es the curves- obtained b.y the calculations.
Table 8.2
Pressure, Pa Measured spectral Calculated
transmission values of the
coefficients equations
p, I
p' I
z, I
z, I i I (8.8) I
(8.8)
7 049
7 049
0,720
0,729 ~
0,621
0,628
0,634
13 566
13 965
0,571
0,566
0,425
0,443
0,450
19950
20 349
0,438
0,443
0,289-
0,306
0,314
20 083
13 832
0,793
0,571
0,515
0,524
0,530
7448
19418 �
0', 724
0.454
0,419
0,428
0.435
- As a result of the laboratory experiments it was established that at high
temperatures the absorption coefficient of the water vapor is higher than
at room temperature. Thus, at 2,750�K the adsorption index kX is 40 percent
higher than room temperature for the 6.3 micron band and 15 percent higher
for the 2.7 micron band. 202
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Ix,Bm'CM-r�MN
.1 ~
48 gZ
- 4yr J4 i E o,
_ Qt^r 2k~.. i a
2,0 40 410 111MK (2)
a
7,0 4U *'U '"K (2)
b
Figure 8.5. Radiation spectra of the jet.behind the F-1 model engine:
a--distance 15.2 mm; b--distance 250 mm; --measurement;
- calculation; - - - curve for a black body (900�K).
Key: 1. IX, watts-cui 2-microri 1-steradians-1
2. Microns
The theoretical calculation of the radiation spectra made for jets of the
F-1 and .?-2 model engines using zone theory gives good agreement with the
experimentally obtained spectra of the corresponding jets. In Figure 8.5
the radiat'Lon spectra are presented for the jet behind the F-1 model
- engine cn the axis of the nozzle for two different distances fram the
nozzle tip. The pressure when testing the model corresponded to an altitude
_ of 40 km. From comparing graphs a and b it is easy to see a decrease in the
emission peak by 2.7 microns on going away from t;e tip of the nozzle.
Analogous data are presented in [8,4] for the J-2 model engine.
When burning hydrocarbon fuels the main radiating components of the jet
b ehind the rocket are carbon dioxide, water and solid carbon particles.
The amount of carbon depends on the structural design of the chamber and
the composition of the mixture (the oxi.dizer-fuel consumption ratio). In
[8.4] relations are presented for the total emissivity as a function of
wavelength. In these calculations the gravimeCric concentration of the
carbon was used which was determined from measuring the spectral emission
of the jet of the Atlas sustainer engine. For large optical thickness
characteristic of rockets of the Saturn class, the mission of the carbon
particles is more than half the radiation er,ergy.
For the calculations, the emissivity of the carbon particles in the gas jet
of the rocket engine models operating on oxygen-kerosene RP-1 was measured.
By the measured spectral intensities and temperature, the spectral emissivity
of eX of the mixture of gas with solid particles was determined. The pre-
sented values of the spectral absorption index kA multiplied by the gravi-
metric concentration of carbon particles in the flow pc were found from
the expression
kapc =1-' ln (1- e).} - kH,oUH~o - kco~Uro,],
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where U is the length of the optical path in the measured sample at normal
temperatures considering pressure; 1L is the path length, cm. In order to
calculate the H20 contribution, a statistical model of the band was used
kH,oUH,o = Uk (1- Uk/4a)-1/2
,
where k is the local absorption index averaged with respect to wavelengttis,
a is the term caused by averaging with respect to the fine structure of the
_ band. The molar concentration of H20 and C02 varies within the limits of
0.10-0.05 on variation of the ratio of the fuel compositions x from 1.2
to 0.09, and X= 2, it was 0.3. The particle sizes were taken equal to
40 nm. In [8.4] relations are presented for kXpc a tunction of wavelengths
for various temperatures with a geometric expansinn of the nozzle equal to
three.
The difficulties of the experimental investigation of the radiation of the
rocket jets consists in the fact that the radiation characteristics of the
jets vary with altitude. This leads to the necessity for using barochambers
- to simulate altitude, In the barochr.,nbers, as a result of the limited
nature of their size, it is impDss4:6le to study rocket systems with large
thrusts. Accordingly, in the United States broad use is made of the method
of investigating the models of engines which are copies of real rocket
engines which have been decreased to a fine field. However, in the closed
volume of a barochamber, the pressure rises during the short period of the
tests. In order to eliminate errors connected witli this, spectrometers
with high-speed scanning have been developed in the United States and are
being successively used. An exper3:mental study was jade of the jets of the
F-1 and J-2 model engines fo the Saturn V booster rocket. Some character-
istics of the models are presented in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3.
_ Component Engine Gas temperature at Diameter of Scale of the model
ratio the nozzel tip, the model,
�K nozzle, mn
2.25 F= 1 16 00 79 1:45
5.50 J= 2 1300 ' 76 1:25
The measurements were performed through a saphire window transparent
approximately to a wavelength 4f 7 micx�ons in order to eliminate the dis-
torting effect of the atmosphere, nitrogen filling of spectroradiometer
was used. The pressure in the baro cfiamber corresponded to an altitude
about 73 km for the J-2 engine and 10-67 lan for the F-1 comparison with the
measurements at the corresponding points of the het indicates that the
remission of the H20 tiands with wavelentghs of 1.9 and 2.7 Tnicrons is more
intense for tfie F-1 engine operating at higher temperatures. For the F-1
engine in the C02 emission tiand of 1.6-5 microns, the band with a wave
length of 4.3 microns is the strongest.
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_ An experimental study was made of t:ie variation of the spectral radiation
density with respect to lengtfi of the jet on a fixed wavelength of 4.3
microns on interaction of tfie fiets of two closely arranged nozzles. The
spacing between the axes of the nozzles was approximately equal to one
and a half nozzle diameters. Tfie spectral density of the radiation on the
axis of interaction of the two jets is appreciably greater (by approximately
three times) than the emission of each of the nozzles individually on the
same axis [8.4]. In the absence of interaction, the emission of the
carbon dioxide on the axis of the engine attenuates more sharply an going
away from the nozzle tip and on the axis of interaction of the jet. For
the zone of finteraction of the jets tfie calculated data with respect to
spectral density of the radiation of the jet agree well wfth the ex-
perimenoal data is we assume that for an average of cartion particle radius
of 200 A and a proportion of solid particles of 2 percent, the degree of
- blackness on a wavelength of 2.2 microns is approximately 0.10.
~ 0,4
(1) N 0,3
~
E
~ 0,2
~
Q>
Figure 8.6. Spectral intensity of the radiation of a jet as a
function of wavelength for five types of solid-
propellent jet engines of the Saturn booster
rocket. ~
Key: l. 1M, watts-cm 2-microns71-steradians-1 _
2. a, microns
Experimental studies were also performed in the United States with respect
to the radiation of the jets of the solid-propellent rocket engines [8.4]
In particular, the results have lieen published from measuring the spectral
radiation density of the jets of five auxiliary solid-propellent jet engines
of the Saturn booster rocket in the wavelength range of 1.6-5 microns. From
Figure 8.6 it is obvious that in the jet behind the solid-fuel engines, in
addition to the already inves-tigated radiation bands of water vapor at 2.7
microns and carbon dioxide at 4.3 microns, tfiere is a radiation band of
hydrogen chloride on a wavelength of 3.37 microns. As a result of
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>,S 1 45 3 aS 4 4,5 32,nrr
. (2)

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insufficient resolution of the spectrograph, the bands of carbon monoxide
- CO on a wavelength of 4.7 microns and carbon dioxide C02 on a wavelength
of 4.3 microns did not differ. In addition to the emission bands caused
by the gas components of the jet, in the spectrum of the jets a continuous
radiation component of the solid particles is well noticeable. For the
solid-propellent jet engine for the system of separating the first stage
there is a high level of continuous radiation well-approximated by the -
radiation of a grey body with a degree of blackness of 0.03 at 1800�K.
r
Studies are also being made of the spectral composition of the radiation
of the jets in the visible part of the spectrum of liquid and solid propel-
lent engines. Some measurements were taken of the characteristics of the
jets on the trajectory when ballistic missiles are launctied from Cape
Kennedy. During the measurements a spectral television camera was tised
with a spectral resolution of 1-2 rnn operating in the waveband of 4()0-
650 nm. The spectrum was photographed from the kinescope screen on 35-
nm film. The intensity of the radiation of the spectral bands was de-
termined by the degree of blackening of the photographic film. In this
part o� the spectrum, the continuous component of the radiation is well
noted, on which the spectral bands of comparatively low intensity are
superposed. The spectrum was obtained from the jet behind a rocket opera-
ting on oxygen and kerosene. The continuous component of the radiation
of this jet is determined by the radiation of a b?ack body with a temperature
of about 2,000�K.
- Figure 8.7. Variation of brightr.~ess and configuration of the
jet during flight of a rocket.
By the movie films recording the flight of the roci;at, it was possible to
trace the dynamics of the development of the jet with an increase in altitude.
Several interesting phenomena were noted. One of them includes the increase
in brightness of the visible part of the jet when the rocket passes through
the ozone layer at an altitude of 35-40 km. Witfi a further increase flight
altitude of the rocket, the brightness of the jet first decreases and then
again increases somewhat. Tlie variation of the observed tirigfitness of the
jet as a function of altitude is illustrated in Figure 8.7. The rocket
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jet was photographed from the Great Baliamas Islands during riigfi t launches -
when the rocket trajectory was tielow the solar horizon. With an increase
in flight alcitude, the shape of the visible part of the jet changes
sharply. Beginning witli some altitude, the jet assumes a clearly expressed
crescent shape. A long radiat3:ng trail forms behind the jet. With a
further increase in flight altitude, the crescent-shaped jet again becomes
an ordinary glowing region.
The characteristics of the jet behind rocket engines in the United States
have also been investigated to determine the contamination of the optical
su.rfaces by the combustion products of jet fuels. A great deal of attention
has been given to the study of the angular distribution of the thermal
emission from the particles in the jet of a rocket engine in order to de-
termine their spectral emittance'and also the scattering of the radiant
energy by them.
The investigation of the radiation characteristics of the jet behind the
rocket engine at high altitudes- was performed in the United States not only
in the infrared part of the spectrum but also in the ultraviolet part. During
the course of the st.udy of the ultraviolet radiation of artificial targets
in space in the United States, the OAO-2 orbital astranomical oBservatory
found application wliicli was designed to oliserve heavenly bodies in the
vacuum ultraviolet reg,ion (100-400 nm) and has a platform with high orienta-
tion precision. Photometric measurements were made in bands near 298,
238, 192 and 150 nm. In the shortest wave band (150 nm), the signal from
_ the jet after the booster rocket did not exceed the noise level of the
system.
The creation in the United States of a three-stage, multipurpose Titan-3
C rocket required the solution of a number of complex problems, one of
which was the determination of the thermal emission of the jet of the zero
stage so:iid-propellent jet engine and the heating of the bottom part of
the stage. The development of rocket engines in accordance with the new
technical specifications for higher initial temperature at lauch has led
to a significant program with respect to volume and expense in firing testing
of liquid-propellent jet engines [8.5]. For a sufficiently accurate evalua-
tion of the effects of the jets and the subsequent development of the
corresponding means of heat protection of the liquid-propellent jet engines,
studies have been started with respect to estimating the radiant and
convective heatinn of the bottom part of the first stage of the rocket.
The tests run a barrow chamber demonstrated a significant decrease in
thermal emission of the jet behind the solid-propellent jet engines at
high altitudes. The average values of the incidEnt heat flux detennined
during f iring tests were witliin the limits of 20.38 to 35.58 watts-cm 2.
On injection of liquid into the engine nozzle, the average density of the -
incident radiation flux increased by 61 percent. Taking this coefficieut
as the criterion when designing the heat sfiielding of the bottom part of -
the booster rocket, a value of the radiation flux density of the jet of
46 watts-Z was taken.
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8.3. Sate_llites with Infrared Equipment for Detecting Rocket Launches and _
Nuclear Blas*s
The problem of early detection of the launching of intercontinental
ballastic missiles tiy the infrared emission of their engine jets from -
artificial earth satellites has been at the center of attention of the
American military specialists in practice since the beginning of space -
engineering I1.3]. By usfng the MIDAS-IV satellite in October 1961, a
specially launched TITAN rocket was dected at an altitude of 60 lan 90
seconds after launching by the radiation of the engine jet. In 1965 the
satellite development program for early detection of launches of ballastic
missiles was reexamined, and the decision was made to create a multipurpose -
synchronous satellite wfiich was to provide for 18.7] early detection of
_ the launches of ballastic missiles and, in particular, missiles launched
from submarines; it was to provide for the recording of nuclear blasts,
' the evaluatian of the damage to targets from nuclear rocket weapons, the
monitoring of the agreement to forbid nuclear tests, the observation of -
the entry of the nosecones of rockets into the atmosphere, the observation
of the rocket stages in the passive part of the trajectory by the infrared radiation, and constant oliservation of the cloud cover.
The first multipurose satelli:te IMEWS (using the first letters of the English
words "Intercontinental Multipurpose Early Warning Earth Satellite" program
647) was launched in the United on 6 Novemtier 1970 18.8].
- At the present time 1$.11], three of the 647 satellites are in orbit near
the earth carrying out the mission of early warning of the lav.nching of
intercontinental ballasticmissiles. One of them was inserted at a point
located above the Indian Ocean over the equator at approximately 65� east
longitude. The other two are in the Western Hemisphere and record launches
of ballastic missiles from submarines.
The overall length of a 647 satellite is 6.45 meters, and it is 2.7 meters
in diameter and weighs about 1,130 kg. The basic equipment for detecting
ballastic missile launches is infrared. On the satellite there is an infrared
- telescope of the Schmidt system with a diameter of the entrance opening of
_ 0.9 meters. The axis of the telescope is directed at the earth's surface.
- In the Schmidt telescopes, the image is formed using a conLave spherical
mirror and a correcting aspherical lens at a distance of the radius of
curvature in front it, one of the surfaces of which is flat, and the other
is a complex surface of rotation. The Schmidt optical system is in practice
free of all aberations, which permits creation of a camera with high speed
and large field of view. Tlie pri.mary focal surface is in the middle between
the correcting lens and the mirror and is a sphere which is concentric with
the surface of themirror. Its radius of curvature is equal to fialf the
radius of curvature of the spliericalinirror.
The infrared radiation from the engine jet passes through the correcting
lens and is focused by the spherical mirror on a two-dimensional mosaic
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of infrared receivers which has spherical shape, repeating the shape of the
pri.ncipal focal surface. Each of the receivers of this mosaic made of
lead sulfide is covered with a narrow-band filter with maximum transmission
on a wavelen;th of about 2.7 microns (according to other reports the infr'a-
red receive�r:s are made up of 2,000 sensitive elements operating in the
- wavelength 6and of 3-5 microns with znaximum spectral sensitivity on a
wavelengtn on the order of 3.5 microns) 18.8]. Each elementary receiver of
the mosaic corresponds on the surface of the earth to a section of the
terrain with linear dimensions and a size of approximately 3.5 x 3.5 km,
which for the standard orbit is appraxi~nately 10'3 x 10-j radia�a or
3.5 x 3.5'
It is stated [8.11], that the selection of the lead sulfide receivers having
sufficient sensitivity with comparatively high temperature equal to 193�K
made it possible to do away with the activity cooling system and use a
passive radiatinon system which ensures high reliability of the infrared
satellite system for an operating time measured in years. The optical
axis of the telescope is shif ted witli respect to the longitudinal axis of
the satellite around which the satellite turns slowly with an angular
velocity on the order of 5-7 rpm. This provides for scanning of the
mosaic of infrared receivers and increases the field of view of the tele-
scope. The electronic equipment on board the satellite sees tu the forma-
tion, amplification and quantization of the signal from eacli infrared
receiver of the matrix and also multiplexing of the resultant signal in
digital form for transmission over the telemetric channel simultaneously
with the information from various other satellite systems. The threshold
level of the detectors can be regulated by comnand from the eartli.
The signals are received from the satellites by two ground stations. One
of them is on Guam which is part of the system of American military bases,
and the other in the central part of Australia near the city of Alice
Springs. Information received from the 647 satellites is transmitted
directly by these stations via the military communications satellites to
the Joint Command Headquarters of the North American continent near Colorado
Springs. The reception of the signals from the military communications
satellites is accomplished by two American ground stations located near
Denver [8.8-8.10]. The data coming to the ground station contains information for identification
of each infrared receiver and the voltage of the output signal in digital
form corresponding to the intensity of the infrared radiation. The in-
- formation is processed at the ground stations almost in real time. The
launch detection signal arrives no more than 90 seconds after the actual
launching of a missile. The arrangement of the equipment on a satellite
is presented in Figure 8.8 [8.9].
American specialists confirm [8.1I] that on launchingthe first satellite in
this series in 1971 more than 1,000 launches of intercontinental ballistic
missiles and ballistic missiles from submarines by the United States, USSR,
Cfiina and France were detected. In order to reduce tfie probability of
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false alarms caused, for example, by such natural sources as fcrest fires,
reflections Eor the upper edges of clouds, and so on, the onboard satellite
_ system is equipped w;th logical circuits which provide for confirmation that
the detected signal is an intercontinental ballistic missile launch based
on analyzing the sequence of signals when scanning the mosaic. The analysis
of the signal sequence in time also permits determination of the flight
_ trajectory o� the intercontinental ballistic missile and the proposed target
area.
Figure 8.8. IMEWS satellite. 1--Solar shielding of the infrared
detector; 2--Infrared detector telescope; 3--Stellar
sensors of the orientation system; 4--Electronic equipment
compartment; S--Antenna used for transmission of data from
the infrared detector to the earth; 6--Additional
detectors for detecting nuclear blasts; 7--Basic detectors
f.or detecting nuclear blasts; 8--Additional panels with
solar elements (the basic ones are mounted on the side
surface of the hull); 9--Engine module of the triaxial
orientation system; 10--Antenna of the command system;
11--Antenna for transmitting data to the ground from the
VLS television�.camera; 12--VLS telev'ision came.ra;
13--Solar tensor of the orientation system.
In the early articles devoted to the description of the series 647 satellites
it was reported that in addition to the infrared receivers which are sensitive
in the short infrared range, infrared detectors were installed on the
satellite which operated in the 8-12 micron band (according to other reports
8-14 microns). These detectors were intended for tracking the slightly
heated objects against the background of "cold" outer space. Primarily
the warheads of ballistic missiles after separation of the last stage of
the booster rocket are in the category of such targets [8.8-8.10]. However,
in later papers [8.11] it is noted that the effort to use the longer wave -
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infrared receivers (8-14 microns) wnicfi would make it possible to track the
intercontinental ballistic misstle in the central part of the tra,jectory
encountered difficulties connected with the necessity for using a system
for cryogentc cooling of the sensitive elements of these receivers on the
_ satellite which, in turn, is connected with the reliability of tlie equipment.
- In the given phase the U.S. Air Force has ordered a Gotal of 13 of the -
series 647 satellites. A large amount of work is lieing done to ensure
noiseproofness of the equipment on board the satellite. In particular,
on tfie new satellites of these series it is proposed that silicon receivers
be installed which can detect a laser beam aimed at the satellite and
provide timely response of a sliutter to protect its optical system. `
In addition to the infrared equipment, proton and x-radiation sensors have
been installed on the satellite which wi11 make it possible to record
nuclear blasts [8.11].
In 1976 the U.S. Air Force had at its disposal six satellites for subsequent
launches. At the present time the possitiility of improving the character-
istics of the manufactured, tiut as-yet unlaunched satellites is being
considered. Uuring the modification process it is proposed that the satel-
lites will tie provided with protection against antisatellite defense means,
the effects of laser radiation and a decrease in detection time. In par-
ticular, the possibility of replacing the infrared detectors made of lead
sulfide by detectors made of cadmium telluride alloys of inercury and also
replacement of the electronic system for processing the signals from the
infrared detectors by an improved one is being considered.
In addition to the modification of the already manufactured satellites,
a study is being made of the possibility of creating improved satellites
which could in the next decade replace the IMEWS satellites [8.12].
On the improved satellites it is proposed that "monolithic" detectors of
mosaic structure be installed. The use of the new mosaic photoreceiver
will permit elimination of scanning, continuous observation of the entire
controlled zone, recording of the variation and intenaity of the radiation
sources, more exact prediction of the flight trajectory of intercontinental
ballastic missiles. In the nonscanning instruments it is possible signifi-
cantly to attenuzte the effect of the background by selecting invariant
and stationary radiation sources, to ensure recording of brief phenomena
which can be missed by a scanning instrument, to improve the recognizability
of the targets by analyzing the variation in intensity of the radiation with
time. For the improved satellite it is proposed that significant redundancy
of the onboard systems be used along with the possibility of transmitting
the information througli radio relay satellites. In addition, effective
measures must be provided to defend the i.mproved satellites against anti-
satellite defense systems.
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COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Sovetskoye radio," 1978
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