JPRS ID: 8484 TRANSLATIONS ON USSR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: JPRS
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP82-00850R000100050055-5
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• Document Page Count: 212
• Document Creation Date: November 1, 2016
• Sequence Number: 55
• Content Type: REPORTS

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29 MAY 1979
(FOUO i8l79)
m "
D
i OF 3
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JPR5 L/8484
29 Mgy 1979
TRANSLATIONS ON USSR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
(FOUO 18./79)
:
U. S. JOINT PUBLICATIONS RESEARCH SERVICE
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NO'TE
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- JPR5 L/8484
29 May 1979
TRANSLATIONS ON USSR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
BIOMEDICAL AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
- (FdUO 18/79) -
'
CON1'ENTS PAGE
BIOCHEMISTR.Y
Effect of Cadmium on the Human Body and Its M stribution
in the Biosphere
(V. P. Drebitskas; FIZIOLO(}IYA CHELOVEKA, No 2, 1979)�� 1
INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT
Heat Sterilization Using Laminar Flow of Air -
(L. aail; KHIMIKO-FARMATSEVTICHESKIY ZHURNAL, No 3,1979) 4
Pneumoconveyance of Tablets
(Ye. D. Novikov, et al.; KHIMIKO-FARMATSEVTICHESKIY
ZHURNAL, No 3, 1979) 13
Determination of the Power of the Electric Motor of an _
Apparatus for Pneumoconveyance of Tablet Mixes and Tablets
(0. I. Bespalov, et al.; KHIMIKO-FARMATSEVTICHESKIY
ZHURNAZ, xo 32 1979) 17
Experience of Work in Fulfillment of the Plan of
Organizational-Technical Measures for the Zhdanov
Plant for Technological Equipment �
(Ye. A. Boyev; KHIMIKO-FARMATSEVTICHESKIY ZHURNAL,
. Na 3, 1979) 23
PHARMACOI.OGY
Microbial Contamination of Soft Medicinals
(G. ya. Kivman, S. V. Denisova; KHIMIKO-
FARMATSEVTICHESKIY ZHURNAL, No 3, 1979) 26
- a- IIII - USSR - 22 S&T FOUO]
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N~
CONTEN'PS (Continued)
Page
PHYSZOLOC}Y
'
Effect of Vestibular Stimulation on My03lectrie Activity
(E. V. Lapayev, et al.; FIZIOLOGIYA CHELOVEKAO
No 2, 1979)
38 ~
Nystagmographic Description of Reactions to Rotation bf
People With Different Degrees of Vestibular-Autonomic
Stab3lity
'
(B. I. Polyakov, et a1.; FIZIOLOGIYA CHELOVEKA,
,
No 2, 1979)
47
Features of Tachistosaopic Texture Perception
(V. M. Krol', L. I. Tanengol'ts; FIZIOLOGIYA
_ CHEI,OVEKA, No 2, 1979)
55
Immunophysiological Aspects of Man's Adaptation to
High Elevations
~
(M. M. Mirrakhimov, et a1.; FIZIOLOGIYA CHELOVEKA,
No 2, 1979)
61
Some Features of Man's Adaptation to High Altitudes
(V. P. Kaznacheyev, et al.; FIZIOLOGIYA CHEIAVEKA,
- No 2, 1979)
70
Biochemical Changes Occurring in Healthy People Visiting
the Aretic for a Short Time
(Yu. P. Gichev, Qt al.; FIZIOLOGIYA CHELOVEKA,
;
No 2, 1979)
82 ;
PSYCHOPHYSICS
Problems of Psychophysics '
(B. F. Lomov; PROBZEMY PSIKHOFIZIKI, 1974) 91
PUBLIC HEALTH
Some Features of the Efficiency of Female Athletes in
Different Phases of the Menstrual Cyc1e
(V. A. Doskin, et al.; FIZIOLOGIYA CHELOVEKA,
No 2, 1979) 196 -
- b -
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BIOCHEMISTRY
EFFECT OF CADMIUM ON THE HUMAN BODY AND ITS DISTRIBUTION IN THE BIOSPHERE
Moscow FIZIOLOGIYA CHELONEKA in Russian No 2, 1979 pp 370-371.
(Report by V. P. Drebitskas on the International Cadmium Conference, 1-3
August 1977, GDRj
[Text] Cadmium compounds are enjoying increasingly greater use in 'in3ustry;
this is why metallurgy, especially nonferrous metallurgy, is producing
continually larger aznounts of wastes containing cadmium. All of this is
leading to accumulation of cadmium in the biosphere.
However, the problem of saturating the biosphere with cadmium and the
mechanism of cadmium's action on the human body have not been studied
sufficiently as yet, and thus the International Cadmium Conference was
extremely important.
The International Cadmium Conference, which was organized by Karl Marx
University in Leipzig and Friedrich Schiller University in Jena, was held
in Jena (GDR) from 1 to,3 August 1977.
The conference proceedings were attended by 142 scientists from 18 countries,
and 60 reports were given.
The following problems were exaained at the conference: Research on the
biological significance of cadmium; cadmium biochemistry; the cadmium load
in the biosphere; the harmful action of cadmium on the human and animal
body.
The reports discussed the dynamics of cadmium accumulation by the body
- depending on various external and internal factors. Observed data showed
that the cadmium concentration grows gradually with age. Nbre cadmium
accumulates in men than in women (M. Anke, GDR, and others). Cadmium is
concentrated mostly in the kidneys and liver, but it can also be found in
the lungs, heart, muscles, bones, blood, hair, panareas, spleen, thyroid,
adrenal glands, and the brain (M. Anke and'I. Shneyder, GDR; G. Makhata,
Austria, and others). When identical quantities of zinc and cadmium are
taken up by the body, more cadmium than zinc is accumulated in the kidneys
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and liver. Irrespective of the pathway by whioh cadmium enter.s the body
(through the lungs, with food or water, as an injection), within a short
time it is deposited in the liver and kidneys.
Cadmium is ak,sorbed in the digestive tract and in the lungs very quickly,
sinco the body's barrier membranes are fully ,permeable to it.
The reports emphasized physiological interaction of cadmium with other bio-
elements in the body (with zinc and capper). It was found that cadmium
accumulation by the body leads to insignificant disturbance of the metabolism
of iron, phosphorus, and calcium, and tn more-pronounced changes in zinc
metabolism. Changes in copper metabolism are very dangerous to life. An
organism poisoned by cadmium suffers �rom a lack of copper elicited by
cadmium uptake, and it may die from this lack. Cadmium blocks the action of
zinc and copper. Large cadmium c]oses inactiivate zinc-containing enzymes.
Cadmium also reduces iron absorption in the digestive tract (V. Groppel, A.
Hennig, and M. Anke, GDR; S. Elinder, and M. Piskator, Sweden, and others).
~ The possibility of cadmium poisoning increases when there is a copper
deficiency in the ration.
Addition of cadmium salts to the rations of laboratory and agricultural
animals elicits a large number of disturbances in their bodies. Cadmium
alters the activit,y of alanine-aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phos-
phatase, aldolase, and succinate oxidase. Cadmium elicits redistribution
of zinc, followed by impoverishment of the body's zinc, copper, and iron
supply; it reduces zinc absorption ard causes disturbances in mineral
metabolism of zinc, iron, copper, calcium, and phosphorus.. Enzymatic
systems participating in diaestion are impaired by cadmium. Cadmium has
a negative action on immunobiological reactions and erythropoiesis (A.
Hennig, GDR; V. Drebitskas, USSR, and others).
Cadmium is eliminated from the body with urine. Small quantities are
eliminated with chyle and mi1k. A guod criterion for determining the
cadmium load in a given territory is its concentration in animal kidneys.
A discussion was conducted on the way (and from where) cadmiucr, enters the
animal and human body. Date were presented on its concentration in foocl,
drinking water, air, and so on in different areas. Interesting data were
presented on the concentration of cadmium in the biosphere of the GDR,
Czechoslovakia, Romania, and other countries (A. Rippel', Czechos]ovakia;
V. Kharland,USA, A. Regyus, Hungary, and others). There is more cadmium in
food in certain industrial regions. lt is faund in cigarettes, and it
enters the smoker's body. It is inhaleki with air at enterprises working
with substances rich in cadmium. Air is enriched by cadmium from coal
smoke as well as smoke from metallurgical plants. Cadmium precipitated from
the air enters the soil, plants, vegetables, and fruits, and subsequently
the human and animal body.
2
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It has been established that cadmium has a negative influence mainly on
kidney and liver function, and that it cauges developmant of anemia, head-
acha, chronic pneumonia and pulmonary emphysema, chronic kidney inflammation,
chronic gastritiis, hypertension, and so on.. Long contact with cadmium
causes disappearance of the sense of taste and smell. There is a certain
dependence between human mortality caused by hypertension and atherosclerotic
damage to the heart, and the concentration o� cadmium in the air. It is
still not clear whether or not cadmium is carcinogenic. But people dying
of cancer have a high cadmium concentration in their bodies.
When birds were fed cadmium salts, it was �ound that cadmium has a negative
effect on egg laying, that .it causes atrophy of sex organs, and that it has
negative action on the growth and development of subsequent generations
(A. Aennig, GDR; N. Khardebek, FRG, and others).
Thus it was demonstirated in the conference reports that cadmium is a micro-
element that is toxic to the human body.
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Nauka", "Fiziologiya Cheloveka", 1979
11004
CSO: 1870
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INSTRUMENTS AND EQUSPMENT
UDC 615.014.83.014.45
HEAT STERILIZATION USING LAMINAR FLOW OF AIR
Moscow ItHIMIKO-FARMATSEVTICHESKI'Y ZHURNAL in Russian No 3,1979 pp 92-97
LArticle by L. Gail, "Babcock-BSK" Company, Federal Republic of Germanx7
LText7 There ia great interest in epecial fields of use of technology for
creation of ultra-clean compartments when the air-current, in addition to
its function of purif ication, also fulfills the function of heat exchange.
These systems are widely used to carry on varioua acientific inveatigationh
and in industrial production.
For several yeara now, to achieve continuoua sterilization o� open, uncon-
taminated, glasa vessels more and more use has been made of tunnels in
which the procesa of sterilization has employed infrared and heated air.
While all working operationa connected with filling Af vessels has been
accomplished in working zones on assemblies which operate on the principle
of laminar flow, the process of sterilization itself has been carried out
under condiCions where the concentration of particles, 0.5 mcm ia aize, has
reached up to 104 in 1 1 of air. These particles appear due to formation
' of scale fram the heating elements, wear from a tranaporter belt and, also,
by introduction with diaturbed air.
The high degree of purity of the air in the asaemblies which work on the
principle of laminar f low, giving an air current with weak manifestation
of turbulence, auggested uae of the principle of laminar f low for the
sterilization process. The highlyvpurified air currenC fulfills in this
case, along with the heat-exchange function, the function of protecting
(screening) the product being sterilized fram unpurified sir entering from
ouCside.
Figure 1 presents in cross-section a tunnel for sterilization by a heated
laminar flow af air. Glass vessels on a transporter belt are moved through
the zone of heating, being rapidly and uniformly heated hereby with purified
hot air (temperature 3500C, speed 0.7 m/s). Creation of such a aterili-
zation set-up was preceded by extensive research to resolve a number of
technical questions such as, for example, the atability of the current at
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Fig. 1. Sterilized tunr.cl with
laminar f low of heated a9,r
1-produr.t being sterilized; 2-belt
tranaporter; 3-tisaue filter; 4-
air blower; 5-heater
Fig. 3. Formulas Co calculate
heating of a vessel. Parameters of
air flow: Woa -speed; & -temperature;
C-heat cap acity; Parameters of the
vessel: V-volume; p-density; C-heat
capacity; A-surface; e -temperature;
Q-amount of heat trans�erred to
vessel; K-heat exchange coefficient;
tR-time to heat to a constant
temperature -
Words at top: air flow
Word at bo ttom: vessel
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

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7 -�a..-_t__7-~_Tr--
~ -~---~{.--~-.~_~.-~__3
~r--
2
-~'-r--~ L
~C Z-
0
rso 200 250 J00 aso acn
Ten+nepomS/pp Bqx&ap. �C,19�
Fig. 2. Reaults of biological Cests.
abscieEa: temperature of air
;in �C); orciinate: duration of
exposure (in min). Ampules, 25 ml;
speed of sir f low 0.7 m/s
/xa~xw da~dspv .
w�:0-;c; Q- ,
r>>
~ ~N�A�(~rV) . .
' f21
d V_6., . x�A dt.
A
~
131
.
~ S�vc
K A "ijQ
(4)
. v-d,(0.-Q� e yti�
(S)
1d=/~~0 19A~' ~
(B)
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Fig. 4. Heating of vesael
' at different temperatures
oF air and value of t,
AsAUming sterility (A~.
abscissa: time of hear-
ing (in min);
- ordinate: temperature
of vessel (in �C) . Vel-
ocity of air 0.7 m/s,
- temperature of air assuring
steri.lity:
1-5--350�C at t s1~9-18 min;
6-8--2600C " "Ra2.9-5.4 min;
9-11--1700C " "m5.4 min;
12--temperature of glass
vgta210-7t
o0
u1AC
2Gt7
too
0
0
C q O B !O
Fig. 5. Comparison of apace required
for usual sterilization and laminar
air flow sterilization.
1 -heated zone; 2--cold zone;
a--tunnel with laminar �air f low
( ea, =3500C in 3.5 min) ;
b--usual aterilization tunnel
( 8)ST -280�C in 20 min)
N ~
a
M ~
~ ~ �
2
6 ~ \ -y---- ~
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high, varied Cemperatures and selecCion of high temperature-resistant
materials for filters,hermetization and construction of the assembly, with
due regard for the work of the air-cir'culation system. At the center of
a ttention was the quesCion of development of opCimal conditiona for sterili-
zaCion, i.e., should there be interlinkage of such facCors a5 the non-
stationary character of the heaCing process, assurance of maxima].1y low
temperaCure of the object being sterilized and provision of conditions f or
sterilizaCion. It was f ound that, thanks to the system which works under
the laminar flow principle, it was possible Co create maximnlly-favorable,
uniform and powerful conditions for heat exchange cited earlier, which lead
to very rapid and conCrolled sterilixatiion. The fj.lter Eor suspended par-
ticles plays here--as for any assembly for u1Cra-fine purificaCion of air--
a dual role: it serves for sterilizing-filtration of air and for rectifi-
cation of the air current. Since, in this case, the heating of the object
is a function of the velociCy of the sir, a uniform air velocity is of es-
p ecial importance here.
P'�jz. 2 shows the results obtained in sterilizaCion of 25-m1 ampules. Taking
into account the large number of factors affecCing the procesa, a calcu-
lated model was creaCed (Fig. 3). Among these factors must be mentioned,
for example, such things as the ratio of surface to mass, geometry of the
ob3ect, temperature of the air, 'velocity of flow of the air current; the
process of heating of each glass object is stiown as the time of relaxation
(achievemenC of constant tempprature; tR) (Fig. 4).
Results of our studies can be briefly summarized in this way: we achieve
the process of sterilization in the shortest interval of time; the degree
of purity is rv 1 particle, size more than 0.5 mcm, in 1 1 of air.
The short time needed for sterilization (for example, it amounts to several
minutes for ampules) requires even substantially less time depending on
the volume of the sterilization apparatus. The high degree of purity of
a ir completely exc ludes the possibility of contamination of the ampule by
extraneous particles in the process of sterilization.
A decrease in duratioo of processing the ampules in the sterilizer lowers
the probability of contamination of the purified ampv'es and less product-
ion space is required f or setting up the sterilizer (Fig. 5).
Further shortening of the time the ampules are in the sterilizer can be
achieved by raising the temperature of the gas for heating. In Chis case,
the filter for catching the suspended particles should not be located in
the heating zone. In stationing it, as shown in Fig. 6, it appeared that
here, too, the process of sterilization takes place in a medium practically
cleansed of suspended particles.
In heated-air sCerilization of large vessels the duration of Cheir presence
in the sterilizer and, also, in small number, plays an even greater role.
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Fig. 6. High-temperature ateriliza -
tion wirh f3re heating and zone of
laminar f low.
1-sterilizing product; 2-pre-fi.lter;
3-main filter; 4-directing canal;
:03 5-support device; 6-burning without
cinders; 1-zone of laminar flow;
8-transport system; 9-auction hous-
� ing; 10-regulating exhaust; 11-
sterilizing gases exit
3-1,i -
3440kr Y�1ADKe
~
. .
Fig. 7. Ratio of masses in the Fig. 8. Double-chamber aterilizer
chamber sterilizer with laminar flow of heated air
1-heating chamber (1500 kg); 1-hea-Zing part; 2-cooling part;
2-sterilizing product; 3-trans- 3-partitioning glass
port belt and tare
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Since the work is conducted in s cyciically-deeerminQd rhyrhm, then) in -
addition to the product being eteril~,zed, k of the tilg88 of the loaded belr
and the maes of the heating room--larger by a factor of 15--ie being heated
(Fig. 7); this meang that, herte, extremely little use of the space occurg.
For 8 hr work in the ueual gterilixer, 1 m3 in volume, only 1 cycle--in-
cluding heeCing and cooling--can be realized. In 8ddition, the product of
the eteril+zation is, dur:ng this time, under most unfavorable conditions,
from the point of view of purity of the eurrounding air. If the zone of
heating ig united with the zone of cooling, then the mAge of the hes.ting ch.Lmber is no longer pertinene (Fig. 8). In both zonem there ie eetablighed
the required conerant temperature to rea.h which a substanrially shorCer
time is needed. As a reault, there is no longer any neceseity for heating
and cooliag large "dead" masaes and thie aubstantially increaees the co-
efficient of use of the working volume of the apparatus.
Fig,, 9showe the curve of change in tempereture of one of the objects of
, gterilization at the stages of heating and cooling. Total duraCion of the
procees of aterilization ie determined by the temperature curve in the
enldest place in the sterilizer, dor thia case, this ie the lowest level.
With loading of the sterilizer with lowwolume objecte, the process ie
shorter in duraCion (Fig. 10). Intensive circulation of the air in the
flaw-t!:rough part of the double-chamber aterilizer promotes creation of
conatant and reproducible conditions of heat exchange. Heating of the
product being sterilized proceede evenly in a hot laminar current ao thar,
degpite the high rate of heating, internal aCreases in the glase leading to
cracking do not arise. The procesa of heating and the regimen of eterili-
r.ation can be controlled by the temperature of the exiting air (see F'ig. 10).
As a result, the poeaibility has appeared, for the first time in practise,
to accomplish the heating, in a chamber sterilizer, precisely by thie regi-
men, necessary for neutralization of a given type of microorganism. By
simplifying experimental conditions, it is possible to establish, by cal-
culation, the temperature curve of the regimen in the process of heating.
Fig. 11 presents the parameters learned in a calculated model. Within the
limit8 of the segment of time p t for each place of location p x which
corresponds to a definite level of the load, calculation is made of the
magnitude of heat trangfer to the object beiag sterilized and to the in-
- terior wall of the sterilizer. Then, a balance is set up of th e tempera-
tures of the air, of the aterilized product the loaded belt) and of the
interior wall of the sterilizer for the following segment of time.
Temperature curves obtained by calculatioa, and experimentally, are brought
into conformity. This method of calculation of the temperature regimen
makes it possible to establish the relatioaship between the heat of iso-
lation, mass of product and velocity of air and to calculate the dimen-
sions of the apparatus for this cyclic regimen of work.
If, in a continuous regimen of work, the heating in the sterilization
process depends on the form and size of each individual item, thea, in the
work in a cyclic regimen ueing a double-chamber method, the heating ia
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40i0
~
2GD
too
o av 40 60 eo xav
"uv
xo
3
~
200
2
tQO
D
VV
� W
J
f/ 0
Nf
Fig. 9. Curves of temperature
change ir. double-chamber eterilizer,
with mass of glass 80 kg.
abc3esa-time (in min);
ordinate-temperature of glasa on
surface (in �C): 1-upper; 2-
~ middle; 3-lower; 4-entering
P':; 5-exiting air
Fig. 10. Curvee of temperatur.e change
in double-chamber eterilizert with
mase of $lase 40 kg.
absciara-time (in mir);
ordinate-tem 9 erature of glaes on
surface (in C): 1-upper; 2-lower;
3-eatering air; 4-exiting air
determined only by the total mass of the sterilization producta. The time
of preaence of the product in the sterilizer, needed for eterilization, ie
determined with the help of m3crobiological teste.
L
l
It appeared that, as also in the tunnel aterilization, maximum temperature
oE heaCing can be represented as a linear function of time of exposure.
For ater3lizers which work on the principle of laminar flow it ie not re- Fl-
quired to detexmine the duration of pYesence o: the eterilization product
at this or that temperature level.
Results of teata are represented in Fig. 12. The maximum curve of sterili-
zation develops at 1400C vith ejqliration of approximately 40 min on a
straight line running parallel ti the abaciesa axis; shown independently
of the rate of heating and the temperature of the air fed, is the maximum
point of temperature at longer expoaure, in Which the sterilization proceas
is ended.
Ttie proceas of sterilization of spores of microorganieme under the action
of dry heat is represented by the Arrhenius equatioa:
alnK F
d~1 !
10
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1.11 , CL
AX
19~'"'0 \ t~�mWPAw
A~,CQ.KQ , CN,- Kw
u 15 JO 4S 60
Fig. ll. Calculated parameters of
change of tempereture of glass
Parametere: -temperature;
m-mass; C-specific heat capacity;
Q-amount of heat.
Indices: L-air; G-glass; W-wall
Fig. 13. Change in temperature
of vessel with curves of
temperatures of aterili-
zation (a) and disruption
of pyrogens (b)
abscissa-time of exposure
(in min)
ordinate-temperature of
vessel (in �C);
velocity of air 0.7 m/s;
air temperature assuring
gterility (a) end diarup-
tion of pyrogens (b)
1-5--3500C at tR=1.9+18 min;
6-8--2600C at CR=1.9+5.4 min;
9-11--1700C at tR71.9+5.4 min.
Fig. 12. LimiCing curves of eterili-
zation and of dieruption of pyrogena.
abacissa-Cime (in mia);
ordinate-temperature of object (in �C):
1-curve of disruption of pyrogen;
2-curve of aterilization constructed
with uee of literature data.
u
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4, `
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AnoCher empirical function wae found by 8igelovs
log NU ~ -h 109 ND, ,
~ From thie logarithmi.c relationehip is derivad time D needed for eCerilizing
apores in the courea of which 90% of ehe epore population at a defirite
eemperature is tnactivated. The indices obtainel are altogether dietinct
fr an each otiher and this led ue to the conclueion that, here, a definire
role 38 played by interference factore in the heat exchange procee$. Theae
factors do not exiat in eterilizers working on the principle of iaminar flow
thanke to the intanaive movement of the air and the poeeibility of esCablish-
ing atrictly def3ned temperaturee for the object of eterilizarion.
Thermal diaruption of pyrogene ie of great importance in production of in-
fueion solutiona. It wae neceasary to determine the oriented, buti closely
practical, indices for thermal proceseing of the product, contained in a
glaee vessel, in a aterilizer, which warke on the principle of lamtnar
flow. The firet etep to prevent formation of pyrogene has been elready
made thanka to circulatiou in the sterilizer of aterile-clean air which
goes through the filters for the suepended particles. In measuring concen-
tration of particles in a sterilizer under a loaded belt, 10-20 particlee,
0.5 mcm in size, in 1 1 of air were found. The index of concentration-of
particles at that place in the sterilizer ie higher than directly under
the filter but it is so small that the interior apace of the sterilizer
can be characterized ae an ultra-clean zone. `
The heat resistance of pyrogens is substantiglly higher than that of micro-
organisms. Tn break up pyrogens it ie usually neceaeary to piace the pro-
duct of sterilization under the action of dry heat about 2 hr at a tempera-
- ture of 3000C.
The obtained oriented indices Were experimentally confirme.i and gave re-
sults compietely correlated with the procese of eterilixatiLm (Fig. 13).
Recently, we attacked work on the taek of cooling the produets in the xone
of flow-through cold air. After resolutioa of a number of qaestiona, in-
cluding selection of the material for filtera and of regimenB of flow, we
hope to devise a promiaing method for preliminary handling of producta of
sublimatioa drying.
Relying on a directed current of air, purified of suspended particles and
almoat free of turbulence, ire succeeded ia devising more progressive methods
of heat inactivatiou of microorganisms.
Copyright: "Khimiko-Farmatsevticheskiy Zhurnal", 1979
8586
CSO: 1870 12
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INSTRUMENT3 AND EQUIPMENT
UDC 615.453.6:661.122:62.867.8
PNEUMOCONVEYANCE OF TABLETS
Moscow itHIMIKO-FARMATSEVTICHESKIY 2HURNAL in Ruesian No 3j1979 pp 98-100
manuacript received 10 Jul 78
LArticle by Ye. D. Novikov, 0. 2. Bespalov, L. M. Obrazhey and N. G. Tanka-
yan, Leningrad Chemico-PharmaceuCical InatiCutO

/Text7 Use of pneumotransport for movement of tablets L17 has a number of
advantagea, the main one being the abaence of contact between man and tab-
leta.
I
There are attendant difficulties that have to be met in aetting up tablet = pneumoconveyance, the basic one being asaurance that the tablets remain in-
tact during the conveyance. In addition, the weight of a tablet, which ~
has paseed throLgh all of the equipment of the pneumoconveyer sybrem,
should be within the limita allowed by the GFKh.
In conaonance with the traditional method of :etermining the hardussa of
tablets, it can be reckoned that the "safe" apeed of impact of the tablets
with a metal obstacle 3s equal approximately to 4.5 m/s (epeed of a fall
from a height of 1 m).
It is necessary to take into account that, according to the impact theory,
the maximum stress upon collision of bodies arises aot at the surface but
at some depth. This situation can lead to the fgct that the initial poei-
tive consequence will be adefective one--some time after the teet, the ~
- tablets will disintegrate. Such has been the case in our preliminary teata
(cyclone-s2parators, With diameter lesa than 290 mm, were used). Due to
the collisioa of tablets moving at substantial apeeds, internal cracks
_ arose Which also led, after some time, to disintegration of the surface of the tablets. It was especially neceasary to be cautious in the ultimate
deciaion on applicability of a pneumoconveyor if it is set up with a cover
for tablets eince the hardness of the cover, ae a rule, is higher than the
strength of the tablets snd damage of the surface can ensue after a auff-
iciently large interval of time.
13
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In setting up a pneumoconveyer of tablete it is necessary to eelecC those
dimenaions of the cyclone-separator with which effective deceleratiion of
the tablete is provided on the way into the cyclone. It ie known tha~ in
cyclone chambers with a 1ow relat3va area of entry (fpg/FC  4�AE1 D,
where fAE is the area of entry, FC is Che area of the cyclone crose-eection,
D is the diameter of the cyclone-8eparator), due to redistributiion of epeeda
in the jet enCering the cyclone and due to local vortex formatione, a eub- _
atantial drop occura in the speed level at the entrance. Eepecially eub-
stantial deceleration of tablets is to be expected when fAE/FC\ ~ . ~ . . ~ ~ . , ,
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setup was checked by comparison of loaseg of preseure on a line calculated
by this method using experimental data, with data obtained by measurements
of these lossee on an actual pneumoconveyance setup at the "Farmakon" plant.
Ie was found thae calculations by the choaen method agree well witih experi-
mental resulta. Based on the devised method, an algorithm and a program
were composed for the "Mir-2" computer for computiing the baeic characCeris-
tics of the pneumoconveyance setup. The mettod of organized excess of para-
meters was used to calculate Che required powers of the electric motor of
the pneumoconveyance serup. The algorithm for calculation of the parametere
of the pneumoconveyance setup is preaented below.
Computer Algorithm.
_ Varying parametera:
Q is the productivity of the aetup (2509 500 kg/h), Vg ia the air apeed
64,20,30,40 m/s), Ln-p ie the adjusted length of the line (20,40,174,348 m)
[o, is ehe weight concentration of vanilin in air (1,2,3,4 kg/kg).
The order of calculation is as follows
Qs @=~ (1)
where QA is the flow-rate of air (in nm3/s), B is the apecif ic masa of
"normal air (1.2 kg/m3). a
40 4 W (2)
~ n,Ya,
- Y
~
where dTP is the diameter of the pipeline (in m)
R= 100�deD
Va (3)
where R is the coefficient of resistance

y�d?v ~ (4) 18
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where R is the Reynold's number; v is tha coeFficient of cinematiic vis-
coaity ?or "normal." air (14.9xl0-6, in m/82);
1d 0,248R; 0-22 0 (5)
where is the coefficienti of friction of pure air
. I&ps Yt, .(8)
,
where LNPB is loasea of pre8aure in movement of pure air over a 1 m path
(in kg/m2 per 1 m); g is the normal acceleration of the force of gravity
(9.81 m/s2)
AP,*y -ep, (t + R�).
Cn
where L, P~m is losses of presaure in movement of a mix over a 1 m path
(in kg/m2 per 1 m)
pn a APclx�Lap, (8)
where Pn is the Cotal losaes of pressure on function (in kg/m2)
Yitz = 1.2 (1 -f' 1 -1Pn� 10'4) . (9)
where YBgg is the specific mass of air at the start of the line (in kg/m3)
pnost = Ys.sz�� E !i, (10)
where P77-o a is the losses in pressure on elevation (in kg/m2); F-lg is the
summary lengtt of vertical sections of the pipeline (7.7 m)
19
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~
,
. .
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. a '
16
f5 _~~`e 20
.
14
, 13
12
7 ...o,.~ !5
!D �-a.
9 9
10
5.-0-----b--
6
S ~~~+o..~ 3~o-~~~�o~
4 ,S
3 ~
P
!
1 2' 3 4 1 2 3 4
d
50
~
S 7
40 c .
5
50
30
40
5
5 5
20 0
S
20
!0 54,
10-
S
3 4 1 2 3 4
Computation of the power of an electric motor of a pneumoconveyance aet-up.
abscissa- k.; ordinate N(in kwt); solid line-Q = 250 kg/g; dotted line-
Q= 500 kg/g; K,-,p20 (a), 40 (b), 174 (c), 348 (d); VB = 14 (1 and 3),
20 (2 and 5), 30 (4 and 7), 40 (6 and 8) m/s
' 20
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Y0, sx've
pnae � N 2g ~
where PttNN is loases of presaure on acceleratian (in kg/m2)
PP a Ia -I- 1(Pn -I- Pnwc -I- pwtx) � 10-41, (12) ,
,
where P is the pre:saure of air before the feeder (in kg/cm2); of is the
coefficient of losses in the loader apparatus, equal to 1.2
m- 2,303- 106 (Ig pa ~ P�, 1
` (13)
where (t) is the theoretical work of the air-blower machine, referred to
1 m3 of drawn-in air under isometric campressiom (in kg/m3); Po is the ;
pressure of the normal atmosphere (in kg/m2) ~
~
;
IIQB '
, 1V = 102q (14) ;
where N is the required gower of the motor of the air-blower machine
(in kwt); Yi is the coeff icient of uaeful activity of the;air-blawer
machine, equal to 0.55.
Based on results of computation, graphs were constructed and are shown in
the figures. Analysis of the results obtained showed that optimum values
of vt and VA--which assure the minimum power Nmi of an electric motor in
the studied range of hourly delivery (250,4 Qp ~ 500 kg/hr), with an ad-
justed length of material-pipe L-,rp, > 40 m-lie at the limit of the maxi-
ma11y permissible concentrations and minimally permissible speeds of feed-
in Vmin� At a corrected length of material-pipe L , the optimum indices
of concentration are a function of the adopted speeds of feed-in. Thus,
at Vg 20 m/s, the optimum values of concentration also lie at the limit
of maximally permissible concentrations (Lmax. At V 20 m/s the optimum
values of concentration f~ * are in the area 14 (t *4. Hence, to each
fixed value of Qp, L-7rp Vg there correspond concentrations j-c. * which
assure minimum power of the electric motor of the pneumoconveyance setup.
It can be found fram the graphs obtained or determined by the developed
algoriChm.
21
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Optimum agreemenCa of the parametera V* at govem Qp and L np. deCermine
the minimally permiasible power of the eleciromotor N. From analyeis of
computation reaulta iti f ollows also that there is need for theoretical and
experimental atudiea of maximally percaissible concentrations of tablet mixes
- in and minimally permissib].e--~at theae concentrations---apeeds of feed-in
VB ~or tablet mixea with various propertiea.
COPYRIGHT: "Khimiko-Farmatsevticheskiy 2hurnal", 1979
8586.
cso: 1870
22
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IN3TFtUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT
UDC 615.47:62t338.984
EXPERIENCE OF WORK IN FULFILLMENT OF THE PLAN OF ORGANIZATIONAL-TECENICAL
ME-ASURES FOR THE 2KDANOV PLANT FOR T8CHN0LOGICAL EQUIPMT
Moacow KHIMIKO-FARMATSEVTICHBSKIY ZHURNAL in Rueeian No 3,1979 pp 120-122
manuacript received 28 Aug 78
[Article by Ye. A. Boyevo Zhdanov Plant for Technological Equipment.7
~t
/TexL/ Fulfilling Decisions of the 25th Congreas of the CPSU, diracCed
toward raieing the productivity of labor, the p1anC devised a complex plan
for introduction of leading technology, mechanization and automation of
production processee for the yeara 1976-1980; each year the plan is de-
veloped for organiz8tional-technical meaeures, mechanization and eutomat-
ion for the current year. -For thie, the pisnt director issuee an arder,
at the end of each.year, proposing that all of Che pereonnel collective
of the enterprise take part in aetting up such a plan for the folloaing
year. All plant units, knowing their owa "tight apots" and shortcominge, ~
project measures for their eradication. Theae measurea are discueeed in
the active units and transmitted to the Department of Mechanization and
Automation for entry into a common, combined plan ahicho in turn, 38 die-
cussed in the Technical Council of the Scientific Technical Society vhere
the question of expediency of introducing this or that meaeure is reaolved.
Into that particular yearly plan, measures are introduced designed for
fulfillment in the cambined Five Year Plan.
Guided by the plans affirmed by the plant admiuistration, the Department
of Mechanization and Automation of ProductioA Processes prepares the tech-
nical documentation which, depending on its readinese, it tranemits to the
Department of the Head Mechanic where there is a group of specialiats who
execuCe theae developmente in metal.
The plant has worlced out an enterprise standard, STP 640428-196-77, which
provides for the sequence of preparatioa of non-standardized technologica:
instruaentation, mechanization and automation of production procesaes,
starting with design and ending with handing over for exploitation. The
plan of organizational-technical measures has 2 sections: 1) orgaaization-
al-technical measures and preparation of non-standardized equipmeat and
23
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Z) mechanizarion and aukamation of produeeion and auxiliary proceesee.
A apecial form has been worked out, provided for by ehe enterpriee atgn-
derd, wherein are eetabliehQd the tiime framee Eor fulfillment of deeign-
conetrucCion jobe, t3mes for rhei,r realization in metai, expenditureB, `
eource of financing, economic effect and number of freed working foreee.
The Departmenr of Mechanization worke in ciose cooperation with the 8ureau
of Technical Information of the plaet, from which it continuauely raceives
information on achievemente of ecience and technology ar ieading entar-
prieee o� the natian; field tr3pa eo these enterprisee for exchange of
experience are arranged.
In addition, the Depertment of Mechanizatioa is occupied in development of
projecte for improvement of technology and betterment of labor conditione;
measures are being arorked out for proteceion of ehe atmoephere and wateY
baeine from contamination.
For improvment of work on mechanization and auComation of production
procesees a competition is announced yearly ae the plant With the input of
succeeees of the year, in December. Al1 of the plant pereonnel coliective
are included ia thie vork. On the basie of euggeeCione receivedg e eupp-
lementary plsn of ineasuree is aet up, the most preseing uf theee ara eelec-
ted and get priority realization.
A etimulus to the search for production reeervee has been the result of
work of the induetrial enterpriseB of the Zaporozhe Oblast. The peraonnel
collective of our plant also began to occupy itself with the question of
certification of manual Work based oa the exampla of enterpriaes of the
Zaporozhe Obiast.
At the preeent time organizational meaeuree are projected and epecial
forme developed. Thia work is echeduled for carrying out over a 2 year
period.
Along with this, difficulties do exist. In the period of aetting up the
plan it is impossible to foreeee all the Work for rhe next yeare since in
the courge of a year new ideas manifest themaelves, new measures arise
which might not be taken care of by the initial plang and then, ia conson-
ance with the devised enterprise etaadard, they take the same path as that
in creation of the basic plan. If realization of additional measures is
expedient, it is entered into the common plan upon ite reviaion. Fulfill-
ment of aork in mechanization and automation of production procesees is
often complicated due to absence of easeatial equipment and materials.
Hence, it is expedient that equipment and materials for mechanization and
automation of existing productioa and auxiliary procesaes be released
just as it is for the basic production.
In the laet Five Year Plan at our enterprise a combined-mechaaized sector
24
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r
was �reated for prepareeion of an induntrial mix in a foundry aliop which
$ave the factory 6 ehousand rnbiea saving and the release of 4 people from
heavy manual iabor; a centinuous, mechanized iine for preparaeidn of a
container from expanded polyetyren@ une pue onerreamo replacing the procens
d[ prep8raeien of the ceneainer Erom wood, which was made by hAnd; the
seeeors for preparation of heavy naericegt aesenbiiea, traneport and load-
ing of meeA1 ahevinge on aurneatic mechinds, the preperation of rods, etc.,
were a1l mechanized.
Deveiop@d and introduced were a paint chamber With hydrofiltere, speaial
weiding poer for e1eQtric aeldera, a duat-catehing device Wieh washing
action (a USD) for eystems of exheuse ventiiatiwa which provide BubsCenrial
improvenent of labor condition8.
Much Wnrk hee been executed in mechanization of load-lifting and transport
job9 With development end introduction of a eeriee of apecial devices end
acromodationa. Neavy manual iabor ia practically ebeent at thQ plant. Ag
a reau1r, the total economie effect of the measure9 in the Tenth Pive-Year
P1an amounted to about 100 tnoueand rubleg.
'I'he most important of 16 measures realized in 1978 are the centreifzed
supply of emulsion for the machinee located on the third floor; n epecigl
elpctric closet with automatic regularion of tmperature for heating plates
oE organic glags under prafile bendtng; g aelding scctor has been organized
With effective ventileting end mechanization of getting the heavy parte
being Welded; a stend has been prepered for rolling reductorst and eo on.
According to the complex plan for the Tenth PivQ Year Plan, design is fore-
seen of a mechanized, continuous line for painting serial itema in an eiec-
rrogtatic f ield with an anticipated yearly economic effect of about 30
thousgnd rubles; galvanic shope vil1 be reconstructed in order to lntro-
duce leading experience of other plants; a cupola furnace which run8 on
fuel, Will be replaced by an induction furnace, moYe productive; also a
number of other meaeures Whose introduction is technica:ty and eronomically
expedient for our enterprise are foreseen.
In the bepartment of Meehanization and Automation oE production processeg
of our plent there is a special archivee Wherein ate kept designs for mech-
anization, the preparation of g different 9ort of non-staadardized pquip-
saent, including that for technological, foundry, aelding, mechanical end
ather $hops. These designs can be obtained by interested services cf enter-
prises of the Miniatry of Medical Industry to use at their am enterprises.
This will facilitate betterment of Work in the fulfillment of ~lana of
arganizational-technical measures and of 8ocigiigr obligationa in improving
technological proceases, mechanization and automation of production and
auxiliary operatic,ns in mechanical repair shops of the chemical-pharmareuti-
cal industry and manufacture of inedical glasa and of polymeric materials
and,it Will yield a defirtite econamic effect.
COPYRIGHT:
8586
CSO: 1870
"Khimiko-Parmateevticheskiy Zhurnal", 1979
25
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~
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PNARMACOLOOY
UDC 615.454.076.7(049.8)
MICR08iAL CONTAM3NATION OF SOFT MEDTC2NAL3
Moecoa Ktt'IMIKO-FARMAT38VTICHESKIY ZHURNAt in Rueeian No 311979 pp 103-111
manuecript r8ceived 29 Aug 78
lAreicle by G. Ya. Kivman and S. V. Denieova, State Scieetific Reaearch
fneeitute for Seavdardizaeion and Conrroi of Madicinai Agenta, U33R Minietry of Health]' ~
LTaW In the problem topic, microbial cc,aeamination of non-injection
medicinal agenes, a speciai plaae ie occupied by queetions of contemination
ef soft medicinal forme. This is ralated to conditione of aurvivai of
microorgartiems in ointmente due to tfie preeence in the druge, ae a rulep
of eao phases and the inclusion of preearvativee in the ovenhelming maj-
ority of caeeag (evan if aatibiotice, eulfanilamide8 and oeher eimilar
8ubatancea are preeent ae the prlmary nutriant) ir the compoeitiat of tlte
ointmente. Both native and foraiga resaarch vorkere have found thaC tha
preaence of antimicrobtal agente does not alaays guarantea microbial, purity
of these medicinal fotme.
The task of exposure of microbial contamination of ointmente and of other
goft medicinala should be reeolved With due ateention to their phyeical
chemical propertiee and componeat makeuo vhich, as a rule, hamper the
aeparatioa of the miaroorganisme.
Necessity for Control of Microbial Contasination of Soft Medicinale.
In recent years much attention has been devoted ta microbial contamination
of non-injection medicinals. This problem ig of great intereet eince it
involves the uratesirable consequence8 vhich eneued ae a result of use of
preparatione conraminated by microorganiemay including pathogene. Deecrip-
tiona exist of eevere infections caused by presence, in medicinal prepar-
ations, of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, itlebaiella pneu-
moniae, Salmonella typhi or Alcaligenes faecalis L1_/
Aa incident is reported 117 of the finding of an antibiotic-resistaat etrain
of Ps. aeruginosa in aa eye oiAtment into the composition of ahich neomycin
26
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and amphoc311in hed beea added. Thie eame microorganism was ieolated fr an
a ateroid cream prescr3bed gor appiication on the sk3n. The preservative
hgent edded to the cream was 0.1% chiorocresoi a�hich ae thi.e concentraeion
hae an inhibiting action on Pa. aeruginoae, in aqueoue solutions. Eowever,
the presence of chiorocreso1 in the cr@gm did not have such an effect.
Analyais ehowed ehat the lowering of aeeion of the antiseptic Wae eaueed
by passege of it into the fatty phaee and ingctivation, by 902 LZ/. The
authore aleo fcund ehat the praeence in the fatty phase of even l% ehloro-
cresol doee noe repel growth of Pe. aeruginoea.
Among the pathogenic microorganisms found in ointmente, including coometical
the greateet attention, in addition to Pgeudomonae, hns to ba devoted to
Staph. aureue. Reporte on ite isolation are met quite often r3-97. A1eo
Eound in skin oin4nentt Were Proteu8 vulgarie, Enterococeus, Streptococcue
faecalis and other microorgaeieme A0,107�
Staphylococci, gtireptococci, various fungi, inciuding 'the Candida family,
can evoke eevere diseaseg of the ekin and mucous membr.anes, which, in a
number of eaees, are hard to cure.
Especially to be noCed are the oumarou9 cases (one of which we recalled
above) of isolation, from ointments and other soft medicinale, of micro-
organiema, including pathogenic, which are resietant to antibiotics, aulfe-
nilamides and the 1Ske. Thus, in eye ointment containing oxytetracyclin,
a tetracyclin-reeistant, hemolytic streptococcua Was found L87� The same
author ieolated--from some ointmenta far external use--other microorganiems,
re8istant Co tetracyclin: an aerobic spore-forming rod, Str. faecalie and
Staph. albus. A1ong with thieg Ps. fluore9cens Wae ieolated, reeiatant
to tetracyclin, etreptomycin, neomyc3n and penicillin (minimum bacterio-
static concentration, respectively, 31,125,250 and over 500 mcg/ml).
In discusaing the cited data, it must be noted that in the majority of
cases the index of resistance of the microorganisms to antibiotics is aig-
nificantly, at the least by an order of one, lower than the concentrations
of these preparation8.in the ointments. Lvidently, under these conditions,
there are impedimenta to the manifestation of the antimicrobial action of
the antibiotice. Confirmation of this ig the result of analysig of micro-
bial centamination of penicillin-and furacillin-ointmQnts preparpd in phgr--
macies L37� Along with isolation from them of microorganisms resistant to
the cited preparations, various gram-positive rods and cocci sensitive to
them aere isoleted.
In addition to the danger of infection, the presence of microorganisms in
medicinals can negatively affect their stability, therapeutic properties,
and so on /11,127. Under the influence of enzymes of the microorganisms,
changes can occur in the inttial consistencq of the ointiaent base, and,
also, it can turn rancid and unpleasant odors can appear, substantially
lowering the quality of the ointment.
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3urvival ef Microorganisma in Oinement Sases and Oiie.
Reports on eurvival of microorgenieme in oinement baaes end oils, i.e.,
actualiy, in the aux3liery eubeeancee for soft medicinel formel sre con-
tradictory, due, ro a cereain degree, to the methode of etudy uead by
different authors.
3eaph. 8ureue has been found in yeliow vageline 3n ehe couree of 10 daye
_ 1131, 14 daye L147 and 25 days L157 after contaminarion. In etudy of the
infiuence of lannlin on 3taph. aureue, ie r!pn found rhat, ie ehie medium,
it eurvived 2 daye 157; according to others, it wae nor seeded afeer e
iApge of 7 daye L16~ and 10 days L137. Cocnparison of the maeeriala of
ehe rwo laeter reporte permite the aesumption that increaee of temperature
, of incubation of the etaphylococcue in lanolin from 4-20 up to 370C leade
eo eome decrease in the term of survival of tha microorganiem. In laYd,
Staph. aureus eurvived 28 daye; ie eolid peanue oil, 18 deye; in eolid
repeseed o31, 25 daya ,L157; in eucerin, 10-30 days L13,1574 in whiee
vaseline, 15 deye at 40:: and 10 daye at 200C L137; ie lanolinwaepline-
and emulsified-bases, 7 days L177.
E. coli in white vaseline, lanolin atid auc~jrin ae 4�C died afeer 40 dayet
and in ye11oW vaseline, after 20 daya. Al: tha eame time, in the bases
maintained at 20�CO ie died in eome caeer, in shorte.r periode of tima:
in White vaseline, aftex 20 days; in yellaw vaseline, after 1.9. uaya; in
lanolin, after 30 days; and in eucerin, after 40 days L137; in l8nolin-
vaseline baee, it died after 7 daye; in Lhe emuleified baee, after 14
daye L177.
The hay bacillue (Bac. subtilis) survived, 3n lard. 40 daye; in yellow
vasel3ne and lanolin, 60 days; in eolid peanut and eolid rapeeeed oil,
over 60 days; and, in Qucerin, over 90 daye LlSr�
Mold and yeast fungi appeared, as a rule, to be quite resiatant to the
action of ointment bases; in vaeeline, emulaified and hydrophilic basea
and lanolin, they survived, in the majority of caees, from 6 montha to 1
year L17,187.
Literature data indicate that survival of microorganisms, including one
and the same species, varies in different ofntment baees and oils. There
is reason to think of the possibility of antimicrobial action of sane of
them; one r.an't exclude an autoeterilization effect under certain conditions.
Research L197 carried out to resolve this question made it poaeible to es-
tablish the following. Maintenaace at room temperature of non-sterile oint-
ment bases and oils--pork fat, white and yellow vaseline, lanolin, rapeseed
oil and fish oi~~-led to complete autosterilizatioa of lanolin in the course
of the very firat daye, whereas, in pork fat and in White vaseline, aeroBic
bacteria were found, and, in the remainder, aerobic, anaerobic bacteria and
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molde, Afeer 2~ monthe, the pork fat was seeri1e. In addition to this,
glowed growth af aerobic baetQria wae naeed (eheir appearance on the 8th-
14th day of incubation of the media) on geeding of whiee and yellow vaseline
and, aieo, of o31e. In analyeis of an ointrnnnti wieh fieh uil, andt also nf
borie aeid and sulfathiazole ointment prepar@d from non-gterise baeee and
9Ub9tafiC@8l bacterie were found. After 1 month of gtorage at room tempera-
ture, Che boric eeid ointment was aterile, and tha orhers, gfter 3mdnehs,
aere noe eter31e. The authors apeek of complete and pareial autooteriliza-
tion of a number of ointmene baeee and ointments eeud3ed by them, which
_ were contaminated by microorganieme from the environment.
Microbial Contaminaeion of Hedicinal Forme on an Ointment Baee, Including
'CharapeuCic Coametice.
We pregented, above, deecYiptions of caaeg of aevere injuries of Che ey@s
evoked by uee of ointment medicinals, contam3nated by P8. aeruginosa.
According to data of a number of authors, ointmentg are lesa contaminated
than ottier non-injection forms /;,5,8,10,200217 but etudies are encountered
1I,8,21-247 in whiWhigh indices are presented.
This testifies, primarily, to the great difference in microbial contamin-
atfon of ointments,*despite the difference in methoda of performing the
analysis.
Eye ointmentg prepaYed with observation of the rules of gsepeis, all con-
tain microorganisms in a certain percentage ot cases. Of 79 examined phar-
macy itema of ointments and ointment bases, 16% contained bacteria and 6%,
fungi L227. In another case, of 83 eye ointments, contained in unopened
tubea, 71 vere non-sterile L267.
The number of microorganisms in eye ointments can be quite large. Thus, in
4 eye ointments of 13 studied, prepared in pharmacies, 180-900 microorgan-
isms were f ound in 1 9 [247. AtCention is attracted by a case described
in Sweden, where, of 60 studied series of eye hydrocortigone ointment with
anCibioCics, 27 contained Ps. aeruginosa, and in large amounts--2000 micro-
bial cells in 1 g L17. In eye ointments prepared in pha:macies, staphylo-
cocci were also found, including Staph. aureus L3,24,257, Str. haemolyticus,
capsule pneumococci [37, Bac. subtilis L1,247, Alcaligeneg [17, individual
, species of microorganisms of the Micrococcus genera L247, yeaet and mold
fungi and saprophytic bacteria L3,24,257. The majority of the isolated
microorganisms were saprophytes. In eye ointments conCaining antibiotics,
beta hemolyzing streptococcus and mold fungi were found L87.
Among the other soft medicinals prepared in pharraacies, suppoaitories can
be Mentioned; in one case alone in a preparation with extract of belladona
more than 1000 non-pathogenic microorganisms were faund in 1 g L227.
According to data of a number of authors, industrially produced ointments,
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which can be non-etarila, showed, generally, re1atively low microbial con-
tamination: 10-1000 more rarely 300-400 microorganieme ie 1 g L1,5,217.
A trial was made on ateriliLy of 208 eamplea of var3ous ointmente, in-
cluding medicinal coametice, w3th subeequent etudy of microbial contamin-
ation of preparaeione which appeared non-eeerila. The majority of tihem
(93X) were stierile; 6 eampl8e ehowed up tc 100 bactaria, 1, up to 1000,
2, up Co 10,000, 1, up to 50,000 end 4, more than 50,000 baeeerta in 1 ml.
Ae foY fungi) 98% of Che eamples had none, only 2 had up to 100 mold fungi,
and 1, up to 1000 in 1 m1.
Thexe are data on the baeis of which, w3th reepect to indicatore of micro-
bial contamination, eoft medicinal forms containing antibiotica, 3n eome
casee can be regarded as cloae to the eof t medicinal forme into whoee com-
poeiCion antibiotics were not added. Of 15 aeriee of examined dermatologi-
cal ointmente, 3 were non-eterile; of 5 earies of granulates for emulsiona
and 5 eeries of emuleione, 9 ware non-eterile. From dermeCological oint-
mente which appearad non-sCeriie, smAli'amounte of microorganisme ware ieo-
1ateo--2 to 68 from 1 g. A granulate for emuleions (Polfamucin-Cetracyclin),
4 eeries in 5 which were non-seerile, conta3ned from 12 to 2400 bacteria in
1 g, and an emulsion (Diaropectp S series of S)--from 1160 to 50,750 bac-
teria and from 230 to 1780 yeast fungi in 1 g18r.
Other soft medicinal forms do not differ fundamentally from thoae cited, on
the basis of indices of microbial contamination L1,49221.
The apecies makeup of microf lora found in indusCrially produced ointmenCe
.-ie quite variegated.
Of the number of epore-forming aerobic bactaria in ointments, the moet fre-
quently found are non-pathogenic species--Bac. eubtilis, Bac. cereus, Bac.
megatherium [1,5,10,227� Many investigators report finding fungi, predamin-
antly non-pathogenic L10,107. In the opinion of a number of authore
L195,8,9,10, in the number of pathogenic mfcroorganisms, staphylococci are
found most often in the ointments. Also to be mentioned are Str. faecalis,
gama-Streptococcus, Pr. vulgaris, Gaffkya tetragena, Ps. fluoreacens,
representatives of the Enterococcus genua and Alcaligenes L1,8,10,227. In
industrially prepared suppoaitories, along with non-pathogenic apecies, in-
cluding mold fungi L2270 Bac. eubtilis were found, Staph. albus, gamma-Strep-
tococcug and Alcaligenea were also feund [17; in vaginal globules and
beadg, Staph. haemoliticus and Bac. subtilis L1,47.
A. number of inedicinal cosmeCics are a good nutrient medium for microorgan-
isma 167. Thus, in a pediatric cream from 85 to 1000 bacteria and 110
fungi were found in 1 g; in cream for the face, skin, massage, vaseline
camrnnile, 155-338 bacteria and 47-850 fungi in 1 g L1077. Isolated from
cosmetic agents were yeast fungi, Bac. subtilis, gamma-Streptococcus, A1-
~~caligenes, and, which needs apecial attention, Staph. aureus, Str. haemo-
lyticus and Ps. aeruginosa /6,7,127.
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Packaging can be viawed as a noeeneiai gouraa of microb3.a1 coneaminntion of
a mpdici,nal.` However, in tubes for ointmene, not in asingle case wera mora
than 10 eaprophytic microorganiemo found and, in the majority of ehem,
mieroorganieme were not found ae a11 /Z2~.
rtethodg Eor Determinat:ton of Microbial Contamination of Sofe Medicinale,
Control of eterility and of microb3al canramination of ointments involvae
gubeeantial diff icultiea since liberation of microorganisms from eurround-
ing fatty layers with the aid of fat-diesolving organic eubetances can be
accompanied by an effect of the laeter on the microorganiema.
The simpleat and, at the same time, according to data of eome authora LI07,
a sufficienCly exact method of f3nding aerobic microorganisme in o3ntmenCe,
is direct saeding of 0.01 g of a preliminarily preparod eample on the sur-
face of an agar medium. Accuracy of the method is 70-80%. A method of
definite inCerest is one where the ointment ie emulsi�ied in 0.25% agar,
melted and cooled to 500C, with eubsequent seeding on eolid and in liquid
nutriene media L31.
More ofren, soft medicinals are emulaified in warmed physiological $olution
while stirring with glnse beads L277 or without Chem 126/. Also used are
buffer eolution, peptone water and the like. Various emulsifiers are ueed
--tween-80, apan-80, paraffin oil, etc. The tempsrature at which emuleifi-
cation is carried out ia 37-450C, time 5 min to 1 hr L'4,5,22,28-317� Cos-
metic agenta are treated likewise LI2,327� At the time of incubation of
the studied subsrances, when the temperature exceeda 37�C, caution must be
observed. There are data indicating that in emulsifying some ointments
at 450C for 20 min, substanti.al necroeis of ataphylococci and E. coli occurs.
The membrane filtration method--which has a definite advantage in a number
of cases, in camparison with the direct seeding method--found use in deter-
mination of sterility and of microbial contamination of soft medicinale.
At the present time, dissolving the ointaents, ointment bases, oils, etc.
frequenCly is done in isopropylmyristate usually heated to 470C L34-497� It
is emphasized that the time betaeen solution and filtration of the sample
should be minimal aince prolonged presence of microorganisms in the ieo-
propylmyristate at 470C promotes death of vegetative forms. To emulsify
ointments before filtration , in order to study their aterility and micro-
bial conCamination, use is made--as in the case of direct seeding--of
phosphaee buffer solution, peptone water, tween-80 as the emulaifier and,
also glass beads and heating [8/21/24,36,417 Ointments containing
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antibiotice are proceseed in the eame way but,moreover, afCer filerar3on,
the giltiati is washed three rimee with pepCone aaeer and tween-80 /8/.
The number of eolvente and emulai.fiers used in testing eoft medicinals for
srerility or microbial contamination is quite large at tha presanC t3me.
We have 3ndicated the moet-widely used. In addition to those can be men-
t3oned n. hexane, dimethylsulfoxide, triCon X-100, peanut oil, sesame oil,
etc. /34036,39,40,43-46/. Thare are data that preparatione of taeen /85,
80,60 and 40/ and triton are ut3lized by cells of microorganieme (47) i.e.,
they can be etimulators of their groweh /48,49/; however, other authore
report an antimicrobiai effect of triton and a number of non-ionogenic de-
tergents /48,50/. In srudy of the microbial contamination of coamaCics
and of the use, for thie purpose, of the ieopropyimyristate and tweeng
nuthors /12/ prefer ieopropyLnyristate eince 3r is a good solvent and has
minimum effect on microorganiame.
Of esaential interest is work which compares the varioue methode for deter-
minaeion of microbial conCamination of soft medicinals. Thus, in compar3-
son of two methods: emulaificatlon of the ointment (1 g) in physiological
solution (10 ml) with glass beada at 37�C and atirring for 1 hr with aub-
sequent seeding ot 0.1 ml of Che emulsion on solid nuCrient mediump and,
direct aeeding of 0.01 g of ointmenC, preference was given to the second
method as the aimplest, use of which Sives sufficiently reliable results
/23/. The method of direct seeding, at any rate in study of eye oititmenC,/25/
is defective and cannot be recommended. Carrying ouC a comparative study
of microbial contamination of an oinCment using three methods (membrane
filtration, hanogenization in aqueoua solution of tween-80 and aequential
dilution /38/) indicated that with Che help of the firsC two methada it
is possible to obtain good reproducible, reliable results. The third
method is regarded as less acceptable by authors /21/. No essential differ-
ence was found in determination of microbial conCamination of ointmenta
which do not have antimicrobial action, in use of the method of inembrane
filtration and hanogenizati4n of samples in 1% solution of tween-80 in
peptone water /9/. Other auChors /15/ give preference to the last of the
three methods of study of microbial contamination of ointment bases (use
of aqueous extraction, direct seeding on agar medium or sugar bouillon, and
membrane filtration).
Requirements and Norms Which Limit Microbial Contamination of 5oft Medicinals.
Proceeding Co direct description of normaCive requirements which limit
microbial contamination of non-injection medicinals, it is necessary es-
pecially to separate preparations in reupect to which the=e exista a re-
quirement for sterility or the quite-close-to-it requirement for absenca of
microorganisms in 1 g or 1 ml of the preparation.
This refers f irst of all to eye agents. Question of their sterility is not
a subject of discussion. One must apeak just of sterility of eye agenCs,
not distinguiehing the medicinal forms.
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it ie sereeeed /24,42,51,52/ ehat many auehhrs involved in etudy of micro-
bial contgmination of non-injection of inedicinals gre of one m3nd about the
need of a requirement of aCfrility (or absenea of microorganisms in 1 g or
1 m1 of a preparation) for eubetances appl3ed on the skin aurface, andg n1so,
intraducible into a aterile cav3ty. Some authore /53-55/ consider it neces-
eary to introduce tha requirement for aterility with respect to preparatione
used to treat diseaeea of rhe eye nnd nose, and also for all drugs contain-
ing steroide. �
Medicinale can be separated with respect to whether Cheir requirement for
sterility is unneceseary but tha number of microorganismg in them should
be sharply limi.ted. Thia should 3nclude, evidenCly, preparations used to
Creat diseases of the ear and nose, those introduced 3nto the vaginal
cavity, those used to treat skin dieeaseg and several othera /42,51/. Moet
basic 3s the requirement to limit, in theaQ drugs, the number of apaCho-
genic microorganisms up to 100 in 1 g or 1 ml, but with full absence of
pathogenic nnd condiCionally pathogenic, which should include /34,51/ bac-
teria of the Enterobacteriaceae family, and, also Ps. aeruginosa and Staph.
dureus. According to another opinion /42/, this list should bQ supplemQn-
ted with Str. pyogenes and Dipl. pneumoniae.
Finally, there is a large group of inedicinals with respect to which re-
quirements limiting their microbial contamination can be minimal: up to
1000 bacteria and 100 fungi in 1 g or 1 ml in the abaence of pathogenic
and condiCionally pathogenic microorganisms. Precisely these requirements
with respect to microbial purity of industrially produced preparations
are contained in the CSSR Pharmacopeia, Edition III /56/. However, as for
drugs prepared in pharmacies, requiranents ori limitaCion of their microbial
contaminaCion are somewhat different: allowable is the presence, in lg or
1 ml of the preparation, of up to 10,000 bacteria; none of the remaining
criteria is differenC than that formulated for industrially produced agents.
On the basis of experimental data /22/ for ointments and supposiCories,
the following requirements are proposed: preparations should not contain,
in 1 g, pathogenic microorganisms, indication of fecal contamination or
more than 1000 non-pathogenic microorganiams, including 100 non-pathogeaic
fungi and yeasts. An excepCion is ointmenCs for which requiremenCs for
sterility are broadened.
Aa for cosmetics, whose nunber includes therapeutic cosmetic agenta, a
number of authors /12,57/ are of the opinion that they cannot have more
than 100 apathogenic microorganisms in 1 g or 1 ml. Along with this, it
is stressed /12/ for example, that cosmetics and tooth paste should not
contain pathogenic and conditionally pathogenic microorganiams, namely,
Salmonella, E. coli, Ps. aeruginosa, A. serogenea, Klebsiella, Staph.
aureus, Streptococcus and several fungi. Some authors (Wallhaeuaer, cited
in /32/) divide cosmetics into two groups according to permissible amount
of microorganisms in them: children's powder, tooth pomade, agents for
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eye cosmetiics, eun protectants, and the like, should have no more Chan 100
microorganiame in 1 g or imi; otihere, no more tihan 1000, and eome, even
10,000 microorganiams.
At the present time it 3s poes3ble to leolaCe a number of direceione in the
problem topic, to which the review ie devoted, warranting From our point of
view, great attention,
EveryChing bearing on aseurance of production of eoft medicinal forme which
guarantea their harmlessness on the baeie of microbiological indices is
very 3mportant. An indiepeneable condiCion here is control of raw material
and observation of requirements of hygiene and sanitation at enterprises.
The latter include /1/ regular control of personnel health at tha enter-
priaes and in the pharmacies, asaurance o� appropriate purity of equipment
and eite, including the storage.
No lese 3.mportant ie prevenCior of increase of microbial contamination of
soft medicinal fnrmn in the process of their uae. Gregt inCereat is warran-
ted in zne search for new preaervaCivee and in study of the peculiaritiies
of actiion of antimicrobial agents in reapecti to microorganisme which eur-
vive in ointments. Along w3Ch this, there is coneiderable promiee in
creation of packaging with a minimum amount of the preparation and-for
eye agents -aingle dose packages.
BIBLIOGRAP1iY
1. Wozniak, W., FARM. POL., Vol 26, 1970, p 523
2. Noble, W. C. and Savin, J. A., LANCET, Vol l, 1966, pp 347-349
3. Pivnenko, G. P., Chuyko, 0. V., Pertsev, I. M. eC al., APTECH. DELO,
No 2, 1964, pp 59-63
4. SzepieCowska, B., ACTA POL. PHARM., Vol 28, 1971, pp 101-105
5. Wozniak, W. and Bojarska, J., Ibid., pp 93-100
6. Bean, H. S., ANN. PHARM. FRANC., Vol 25, 1967, pp 265-270
7. Mohr, T. and Kovacs, M,., GYOGYSZERESZET, Vol 16, 1972, pp 138-141 _
8. Jastalska, D., FARM. POL., Vol 30, 1974, pp 343-347
9. Wozniak-Parnowska, W. and Werakso, B., ACTA POL. PHARM., Vol 33, 1976,
pp 259-263
10. Eper3 essy, E. and Fodory, Th., PHARMA2IE, Vol 21, 1966, pp 430-431
11. Berezovakaya, I. V., FARMATSIYA, No 2, 1976, pp 74-78
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12. Dzhambasov, B., Grigorova, P. and Ovcharov, R., FARMATSIYA (Sofia),
Vol 26, No 6, 1976, pp 38-41
13. Modrzejewski, F. and Gogoleweka-Mikucka, V., FARM. POL., Vo1 19, 1963,
pp 149-151
_ 14. Loehr, W. and Treusch, K,, ZBL. CHIR,, Vol 61, 1.934, pp 1807-1815
15, Barteczko, J. and Stachny, J., FARM. POL., Vo1`l5, 1969, pp 103-109
16, JermaCad, A. and Baerheim, A., PHARM. ACTA HELV., Vol 22, 1947,
pp 608-612
17. Ivanova, L. A., FARMATSIYA, No 2, 1971, pp 57-59
18. Aneolik, P. and Hudec, J., CSI,. FARM., Vol 15, 1966, pp 146-147
19. Nerlo, H. and Sykut, W. B., ANN. UNIV. M. CURIE SKLODOWSKA (Med.), Vol',25, 1970, pp 461-465
20. Browman, F. N. and� Holdowaky, S., J. AM. PHARM. ASS. SCI. ED., Vol 48, -
1959, pp 95-96
21. Wozniak-Parnowska, W. and Werakso, B., ACTA POL. PHARM., Vol 31, 1974,
- pp 819-823
22. Ludva, J., CSL. FARM., Vol 16, 1961, pp 214-216
23. Ivanova, L. A. and Kondrat'yeva, T. S., FARMATSIYA, No 1, 1969,
pp 62-65
24. Tynecka, Z. and Chodnikiewicz, G., FARM. POL., Vol 30, 1974, pp 337-341
25. Wurm, G., Ibid., Vol 28, 1972, pp 439-442
26. Van der Wyk, R. W. and GransCon, A. E., J. AM. PHARM. ASS. SCI. ED.,
Vol 47, 1958, pp 193-196
27. Bul'varova, Z. I., Nikitina, L. I. et al., APTECH. DELO, No 2, 1963,
pp 28-35
28. Pedersen, E. and Szabo, L., DANSK. T. FARM, Vol 42, 1968, pp 50-55
29. Woxniak, W. and Werakso, B., ACTA POL. PHARM., Vol 26, 1969, pp 187-193
30. Werakso, B., Ibid., pp 569-576
31. Buehlmann, X., Gay M., Heas H. et al., PHARM. ACTA HELV., Vol 43, 1968,
pp 374-381
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32. Lotti, G., CHEM. RDSCH., Vo1 29, No 8, 1976, pp 1-2
33. Pferdekaemper, G., PHARM. INDUSTRIE, Vol 28, 19669 pp 379-384
34. Wallhaeuser, K. G., AERZTL. LAB., Vol 16, 19709 pp 171-186; 216-227
, 35, Sokolski, W. T. and Chidester, C. G., J. PHARM, SCI., Vo1 53, 1964,
pp 103-107
36. Hart, A. and Ratansi, M. B., J. PHARM, PHARMACOL., Vol 27, 1975,
pp 142-144
37. Teuji, K., Starpert, E. M., Robertson, J. A. eC al., APPL. MICROBIOL.,
Vol 20, 1970, pp 798-801
38. Pharmacopeia of the United States of America , XVIIZ, Aethesda, 1970
39. Hambleton, R. and Allwood, M. C., J. PHARM. PHARMACOL., Vol 25, 1973
- , pp 559-562
40. Ibid., Vol 24, 1972, PP 671-672
41. Oie, S. H. and Fyatro, D., APPI,. MICROBIOL., Vol 30, 1975, pp 514-516
42. Wozniak-Parnowaka, W., FARM. POL., Vol 32, 1976, pp 309-313
43. Tsuji, K. and Robertaon, J. H., APPL. MICROBIOL., Vol 20, 1970,
- pp 802-804
44. British Pharmacopeia, London, 1973
45. White, M., Bowman, F. W. and Kirshbaum, A., J. PHARM. SCI., Vol 57,
1968, pp 1061-1063
46. Trandafilova, Ye., FARMATSIYA (Sofia), Vol 23, No 1, 1973, pp 53-55
47. Odintsova, Ye. N., Microbiological fifethods of Vitamin Aasay (in Rusaian)
Moscow, 1959
48. Kawai, Fus;.nn, Hanado, Keizo, Tani, Yoahiki et al., J. FERMENT. TECHIJOL.,
Vol 55, 1977, pp 89-96
49. Calcott, P. H. and MacLeod, R. A., CANAD. J. MICROBIOL., Vol 21, 1975,
pp 1960-1968
50. Kofkina, Ye. P., Yermachenko, V. A., Dzhemukhadze, G. K., Lukoyanova,
M. Ya. et al., PRIKLADNAYA BIOKHIM., Bol 13, No 3, 1977, pp 365-369
51. Buehlmann, X. and Hess, H. K., 2BL. PHARM. Vol 3, 1972, pp 675-687
36
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52. Wozniak, W., PA3T'EPY MIKROBIOL.j Vol 10, 1971, pp 406-415
53. Engel, A., ciCed in 53 /eic/
54. COMM. BRIT. MED. J. 11j 1965, p 13161 cited in 53 /eic/
55. Dony, J. and Gerard, P., J. MOND. PNARM., Vol 1, No 11, 1968, pp 19-32
56. CESKOSLOVENSKY LEKOPIS, 111, Praha, 1970
57. Adatok a Mikrobiologiache von Kosmetika /aic/ cited in 7
COPYRIGHT: !'Khimiko-Farmatsevticheskiy 2hurnal", 1979
8586
CSO: 1870
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PHY3IOLOQY
UDC 613.693:612.89/88
EFF'ECT OF tU5TI8ULAR STIMULATION ON MYOEI.ECTRIC ACTIVITY
- Moscow PtZ=OLOGiYA CHELOVEKA in Rugaian No 2, 1979 pp 270-275
(Article- by E. V. Lapayov, V. I. zorile, G. I. Pavlov, and P. B. Solodkov)
IText) Wo know that when the human vegtibular analyzer is stimulnted, wQ
" obscrve sensory, autionomic, tnd somatiic rettctions which may be accompanied
by a worsening of the gonarnl gubjective sengation of health and by a
decline in efficfency. In order to determinQ tihe suitiability of An indi-
vidual for occupations associated with the effect of adequate stimuli on
the vestiibular analyzer, various methods have been created for selectiing
tund developinq the criterfa by whfch to assess individua2 vestibular
stabflftiy. Neveriheless the problem of preventing unfavorable vestfbular
reactions in aviation and cosmonautiics and during sea cruiaes contiinues
to be one of tha most pressing problems today.
Thus according to Markaryan et al. (1) 12.6 percent of the pilots, students,
and flfght schoo2 applfcants exhibited instability in response to vestibular
stimuli. This sftuatfon is explained in part by absence of sufficiently fnfor-
matfve criteria by whfch to make an objective assessment ui tolerance to
vestibular stimuli, and in part by the fact tihat expert conclusions are
made on the basis of a subjective means for evaluating autonomic vestibular
reactions, suggested by Khilov in 1927 (2).
Research has shown that certain vestibular-autonomic and sensory reactions
to vestibular stimuli are very variable (3-9). Because inc]ividual reac-
tions are not informative enough to permit a judgment concerning resistance
to motion sickness, Yuganov et al. (10) suqgested using integral indices
such as, for example, systolic and minute blood volume. In addition t;ey _
suggested utilizing various vestibular-somatic reactions which, owing to
an inadequate quantitative assessment, never saw practical use. In addi-
tion to this some authors (11-14) concede that motion sickness may have
a latent course which would be even more difficult to diaqnose.
The research that has been conducted indicates that the electramyographic
method provides a certain amount of information on the influence of ves-
tibular stimuli. It has been established in particular that impairment of
labyrfnth functions leads to change in muscle tone (15-25).
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Ar increase in tlie e1@etric aceiviey of ind,ividual okutetal muoeieo of e
heaithy inclivl,dual was revaaled in re8ponce to nptieakir.a+:ie and enloric
stinulation (16, 23-26) at the time of $ctiidn of h#.qh angular accelerationa
(29).
tltilizing tihe otectromyographic metho9, Yemel'yandv (38) riQmonstiYated that
threshold and gubthreshold vestibular stiimuli cause arifia1 of veotiibular-
eomatir reflex-es in the obsence PtO -.,ensory rodetion in man. But a
quantitntive dssessmcnt of etiangag in myoelectric actiivity in r@spong@ to
vegtibular stimuli hag not been publinhod. nifferancon 'in the exparimantal
data can apparently be expiained by the fact ehtte the authors ampioyecl
dif�erent functianal tiaotis, the,y studied diEferanti nugciea with the motior
apparatus in dif�erant in3r3a1 atatiQg, and they aseci procedurQg diffQring
fram one annthQr. in addi,c.;;n author8 studying changes in muscla electrfr
actS.vity 3n response to simulatfan of the vestibuldr analyxer do nat Cite
datia concQrning individual sengitiivitiy of thQir subjects to thege gtimulf.
Methods
The research was cdnducted with the nbjectivQ uf dcttiermintng changou i.n the
elcctxfc actiivity of human skeletal musclee in response to Coriolia arcel-
oratiions. ElectromyogrAphic research methods werr cmployed. Dosed stiatic
-'and rhythmie tenging of the musclcs wan used es the funetfonal test. Stntiic
tiensing of mugcles to one-hAlf of maximum effort, dQtermined by wristi
dynamometry, was achieved by prcssing on a rubber balloon for 40 aeconds.
Tha effort exerted by the sub jeet and experimQnticr wag mdnitored aiy thQ
basis af the positifon of the pofnter of a pressure gauge connected tio the
rubber balloon. 5:cin electrodes secured in pairs to a textnlite pad were '
used to pick off the biopotentials. Electirfc activity was picked off from
. muscles of the upper arm and from the flexor digitorum sublimi.s and the
extensor digitorum communis of the right hand. The subjeati's hand was
secured in a strictly fdentical position to the armrest of the vestiibulo-
metric chair. Muscle bfopotentials were intensified with A Disa
electromyagraph and recorded synchronously on paper (Mingograph 42 8) And'
on magnetic tape with a two-channel NagrA-IV tiape recorder. We autiomaCically
processed the EMG's with an electromyographic analyzer which we developed
and tested, the ANiG-1 (29,30).
We determined the mean frequency and integral (area) of the EMG for a 16
second interval, beginnfng 5 seconds after the functional test was started.
Continuous accumulation of Coriolis accelerations (CACA) was achieved on
the electrically operatied swivel chafr by the following procedures: The
subjects were turned with their eyes closed while actively tilting the head
30� toward one shoulder and then the other. The time of head movement
(fr(xm the right to the left and back) was 2 seconds. The time of exposure
depended on the expressfveness of motfon sickness symptoms (hyperhydrosis,
paleness, nausea, vomiting), while when such symptoms di8 not occur the
exposure time did not exceed 3 minutes in most cases. In some studies the
CACA time was increased to 15 mfnutes. EMG's were recorded prior to the
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;i
CACA teeC, immediaeely after the CACA, and 10-15 minutee after expoaure to
Coriolie aceelerabione.
tn ail we studied 299 healthy individuais (97 of theta twice) fram 19 to 35
year8 old. We obtained EMti'e from boeh Btudied muecl4a in 296 experimenta.
Reaearch Ra8ult8 and Diecuesion
The research ehowed thet the bioalectric activity of one or both musci.es
experiences significant chanqee ae a rula in all oubjects in re8ponge eo
Coriolis accelerations. On diflerent day8 of no exposure to accelerati;lons,
th@ EMG perameters we 8tu9ied vaYied by about t10 percant. The integrul
(area) og the EMtt chanqa9 mo8t of aii. in the preeence of accolerations We
ob9erved boeh a decrea8e and an increase in mu8cie bioeiectric activity,
the expressiveneea of which depended on the time of exposure to aaceleration
(Figure 1).
The research materials ahow that chanqea in electric ectivity of dif�erent
muscles varied depending on the tolerance of the subjects to accelerations
(see table).
A
b
1WITM
L J 200MKB
B

Fiqure 1. Changes in Bioelectric Activity of tte Triceps
Extensor Cubitf in Response to Dosed 5tatic
Tensinq (Subject S.): 14--EMG prior to rotation,
B--EMG after 2 minutes of rotation, B--EMG after
rotation but prior to arisal of motion sickness
s}mptoms (6 minuntes)= horizontal bracket fndicates
1 second interval.
Key: l. Nv
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Chanqea in EMG of the Flexor Digitorum Sublimie
and tihs Extiensor diqitioruen Communis Dspending on Tolerance
of t1p to 3 Minutes of the CACA (Averaqe &ate for 139 Tested Persons,
MUSCie Grou and Acceleration 4b1@rance
EMG Zndex
Fiexor
Extensor
~d Poor
Good Poor
tntegral (area)
Frequ@ncy
19.0 33.2
7.9 12.3
24.3 40.3
14.0 17.3
ee
` S6 ZA,
= yd 1 f-
~ 40 ~
!Q '
e ~~0
NNmeepan (2) VecmomQ (3)
Figure 2. integral and Frequency of EMG's From Tested
Subjects Depending on Tolerance of Acceleration
Operating for Up to 3 Minutes (Average Data for
60 Persons): I, II, III--Tolerance Groups
Key:
1� Chanqes, t 2. Integral 3. Frequency
We can see from the table that changes in bioelectric activity are more
pronounced with the extensor, especfally amonq persons exhibiting vestibular-
autonomic and vestibular-sensory reactions (poor tolerance).
There is a certain amount of interest in analyzinq the experimental materials
dependinq on the groupinq of subjects in relation to their tolerance of
vestibular influence. Wfth this purpose the subjects were subdivided into
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Mlt
.i~:..~
- 8
~ 20to 2
.
C
Figure 3. Changes in Response to Dosed Static Muscle Tensing
in Different Conditiions (Subject Ya.): A--Before
CACA exposure, Fr-2 minutes after a 10-mfnute CACA
exposure, with motion sickness symptoms present=
1--flexor digitorum sublimis, 2--extensnr digitorum
communis
Key: i. uv
2. sec
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three groups dependinq on axpresgivenegs o� tihe v@stibular-autonomic
r@aetions in .response tio different times of CACA exposurr. Tho firsr
group Containe8 euljjects axhibitinq no objectiive or subjective sign$ of
motion sickneas in rasponse tio 3 minueag of CACA exposure. The bacond
group wag made up o� subjects who compiained of unpleasanti sengationg
(nausea, weaknesg, dixzinega, warmth, heat) or exhibiting objpctive signs
o� mdtion sickneas (palpnegs, hyperhydrosis of skin on the face, forehead,
and wrists, and the urge to vomit) following 3 minutes of CACA exposure.
7'he third group consistod of persons who developed signs of motion sicknegs
in regponse to 1-2 minuties of CACA exposure.
7'he dQgree of change experienced in the frequency and, Qspecially, the
integral of the EMG'g of gubjects in the second and third groups was siqni-
ficantly higher (p0
05
c,N%f.K~, r~~~~nlc (9
CB~. I' C~Zo
~Z
~,oo_
f 1,no
Q~Z5+24,81
:ci,75�-7,;,1~
60,J0~h30,J0
f!t,ou+7.~n
%~i,J~~:h/12, la
o,os
>0,05
Tp c
)
}~~,YA,~121
8
i1
,1,43
5U ,ii
BJ,OU�f9*
I
44,58-�~16,2;1
iS,UU-~:b,l5
42,45�f3,f)SI
7R,00-h25.fi
>0,05
0,05
,
>0,05
,
0,05
Key:
l.
Parametar
S.
FFC, 1/sec
2.
Low VAS
9.
RSC, c3egrees/sec
3.
Average VAS
10.
RFC, degrees/sec
4.
High VA5
11.
T, sec
5,
ASC, degrees
12.
Nr jerks
6.
AFC, degrees
13.
T1, sec
7.
FSC, 1/sec
Table 2, Indices of Postrotational Nystagmus in People with Different
Levels of Vestibular-Autonomic Stability (VAS)
fla
aM
t
I wuun yev
I CpeAw~ll YBY
I nwro~wn vBy
n
p
1e
p
( i )
hf1~a1
(2)
(A.-
d1f,~a
(4)
)
(
A,ti1K,rpaA(~)
AEiK
t)
7,41�2,5G
6
56
3
43
6,45-�2,S!1
1
6
�
5,0;)�'L,f2
~0,05
10,05
0,05
~
, rpad
7
t
�
,
,
,
2
2, 7S
4,6712,33
>0,05
~0,05
Q,O5
lA1K, 1/c S
~
0,11�0,0!
0,0~1-!-O,Q3
0,0:)�0,2fi
0,05
>0,05
t(hK, i/c (S
0,42+0,10
0,33-!-1,20
0,33-+-0,12
>0,05
n,U~)
,
^-0 01
0
o.'1
Tnn. C(13)
0,34-~0,35
1
0~66-0, i i
0,38-F0,55
>0,05
>0,05
'
~0,05
Key: [See Key, Table 11
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mable 3. Correlation of the Paramters of Rotiatiional and Pogtrotatianal
Nystagmug with Ventibular-Autonomic Stiability
(3

Key:
BxA MiMrw I
~
AMK I
CMK
A6K
CgK
(tIMK
IIGK
Tnn
TP I~{
BpaweTeabuWA (2)
ftocrupawaTe~bNwA
I--O,W
-~0,38
I--0,2i
-0,3U
-�0,13
--O,3f3
I~-n,181
-0,41
`0,16I
0,1g
--0,1~ =0
--U,
O,1G I
O,UU
-0,20I
-0,:7
-0~l8
--0,Z8
~
~
1. Type of nyatagmus 7. RFC
2. Ratational S. F'SC
3. Postrotatiional 9. FFC
, 4. ASC 10. T1
5. RSC 11. T
6. AFC 12. Nr
Tables 1 and 2 show tihe siqnificance statistics for differencea between the
mean values of the parameterg of rotational and postrotatfonal nystagmus
for groups with low, average, and high stabflity. As we can see from these ' .
tables significant di�ferences (p11 (2.2,2)
The result noted in expreseion (2.2.2) remains true �or a large
aree of aensation in the middle and upper Yangee of intensity
sinca it is well known thet the value of Weber's fraction is
canstant (and leeeC) pracisely in Che middle range of eensatian
intengity. Thus, in Che situation described, we ehould obeerve
a uniform decline in the probability of detecCion when etimu-
lus intensity increases.
The experimenCal verification of Chie propoeiCion wae conducted
ag follows: a rendom gtream of signals wus made up; ite inten- .
aity could change in fixed gradaCione of 2 db within n range
of + 10 db from the stream's average intensity. Within this
rnnge, the gradgtiong of intensity had an equal probability
of occuring. The sequence of arrival for aignale with different
intenBitiee was rnndom. The energy distribution for the entire
signal stream conforma to (Reley's) Law. The average level
of the signal strenm served as a point of refereace fo. the ~
initial inteneiCy (the analog Af value I in expression 2.2.2). _
Three signal gradations were selected for the analysie: 2 db
higher; 4 and 8 db lower than the initial level of inteneity.
in uddition, average detection reeults for all signals within
+ 10 db of the initial level Were estimated. Pive different
versions of valuea for the stream'e avernge level of intenoity
were studied: four fixed (stat3onary) leveLs o� 40, 60, 80,
90 db and one dynamic (movable)--with the level being ad3usted
by the subject himself so that iC was conveniant for the
observer. Mareover, the relative position of signalg on the
intensity axis was not changed.
The results of the experiment are presented in Table 2 and
Figures 4 and S. The results show thaC detection efficiency
declines significantly when the average (stationary) level
of signal stream intensity (for all signals) is increased.
Moreover, the average reaction time increases and this also
confirms the well known result (R. Shosholl', 1966) on the
inverse relationship between the probabiliCy of correct rea-
ponses and reaction time during a change in the relative dif-
ference between signals. Unfortunately, the daCa cbtained were
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nnt auEEicienr to calculatQ precige parameLerg for tho
re1-Ationship between detection ptiobnbiliCiee and tialative
eignal differenceg for changeg in the inittnl level of
intensity.
odM
t3) ilc "
dP,crx.
11: !,B Q6 . ~
,,e ?
0,4 d

~ d0 60 BO 10 aw (4)
Pigure 5. Relationship Between Detection ProbabiliCy Reaction
Timr and Average Stream IntensiCy.
Key: .
1. Dstection probability (pD)�
2. Average reaction time (RT)
3. RT, in seconds.
4. Intensity (I), in decibels.
(5)
oo~M
0,4
q1
~ �F -4 D
Pigure 6. Relationship Between DetecCion Probability and
Signal Intensity for Different Signal Noise Ratios (Paycho-
metric Curve)
Key:
2. 3:1.
3. 2:1.
4. l:l
5. Detection probability (PD)�
6. Signal intensity (I8), in decibels.
164
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Tnb1Q 2. Felntionship Between Detection Efficiency Yndicas
and Average Signal Stream Intensity (ProbabiliCy of Falee
Alarms ia 0.005 Eor Al1 Exparimenrs).
(1~
CpeAUaN 1"irettc115�
IAItlI1CNpIN{b cnrnahu c66t
oriroaxr!.11,uo cpennert iuitela
cuMNUCtu uoroua
Cpequee ;eoaemfe nn rceM
cNreuneK
noces nomNa cucun�
noo, Od
re wocri
r
6~
+a
,
enun
oax.py
~c
P
oueuT~
eak�
uNn gp. ceK.
tl61t
.
Cetoporynnpoeicn
0,60
0,88
I 0,05
0,05
i,25
40
0.82
0,73
0,8:
0,85
1,08
80 .
0,58
0,67
0,78
0,77
1,35
80
0,42
0,57
0,75
0,721
1,42
00
0,10
0,45
0,72
0,88
1,58
KPy:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Average signal aCream
Self-regulated.
Signal intensity (db)
stream intensity.
Average value for a11
Detection probability
Reaction time (RT), in
intensity, in db.
in relation to average
aignals.
(pD) �
sec.
Nevertheleas, the result is not quite normal. We assumed that
the detection probability within this range shuuld not change
significantly since the relative difference between aignals
measured on a decibel scale does not change when the average
level of signal stream intensity is changed. The analog of
Weber's fraction which was calculated for this case also does
not change. Nevertheless, the detection probability declines
as if formula(2.2.2) is correct, i.e., as if there was a change
in the relative difference between signals. It follows from
this that either Weber's Law does not operate in thia range of
changes for complex signals (from 40 to 90 db) or the relative
difference between signals does not remain subjectively consCant.
It is also necessary to dwell on the results obtained for the
variable level of signal stream i.nput intensity. As seen from
Table 2, the probability of correct detection was the highest
when the subject regulated the level himself. It would be
logical to assume that the subjects worked at average stream
intensities less than 40 db in this case. However, this is noC
so. During the course of the experiment, we had Che opportunity--
with a special device--to record the current level of intensity
for the input stream and its dynamics when regulated by the
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subjecC himeelf. It turned our that thie 1ave1 nevar dropped
below 40 db and never raieed above 80 db. Moreover, a11 20
eubjectg who pareicipnted in the exper3menCg chaaged the
level of intensity Eor the gtrpam within very broad limits 3n
this range during tha experiment. The individual strategies
were extYemely diverae both for the 3nitiel arrangemenC and
for the dynamically regulated 1eve1.
2.3. The Effect of the Signal/Noiae Ratio on Detection
Chnracterietice
According Co the logic of the preceding parggraph and bas8d on
purely physical concepts, it ie ciear that tha relntive difference
in Y can be dependent upoe the characterigtics of noise or
interference and, primarily, upon the aigaal/noioe ratio in Che
aignal stream. The effect of noiee on detecting and discrim-
inating simple signal8 hea been described in the works by
J. Swets, V. Tanner and T. Birdsail (1964), D. GreEn and
J. Swete (1966), V. Tanner (1967), K. V. Bardin and Yu. N.
Zabrodin (1969, 1972) and others. At rhis point, we are
primarily intereated in the effect of the intengity of noise
on the detection efficiency indices for complex acousCic
signals. In the majority of cases--as wae revenled in the
research on visual forms--complex signals are more efficiently
discriminated and identified (see, for example, V. Gayda et al,
1971).
In our experiment, the signal/noise ratio wag coneidered as the
relationship between the average signal stream intensity and
the average white Gaussian noise iatensity within the 50- 1
10,000 hz range. Four gradations were selected for the
signal/noise ratio-- clo (no noise); 3:1; 2:1; 1:1.
The resulta of the experiments are prasented in Table 3 und ~
Figure 6. The resulta show that a decrease in the signal/ ~
noise ratio reduces detecCion efficiency: the probability of
correct detection falls from 0.84 to 0.62 when the signal/noise
ratio is changed by 10 db, i.e., from 3:1 to 1:1. It can be
seen from Figure 6 that the paychometric curves (Che relation-
ship between the probability of a corrECt response and signal
intensity) drops sharply as the noise intensity is increased,
especially in the area for the weakest signals. It can also
be seen that a significant reduction in the probability of
correct responses only occurs when signals are detected whose
intensity is lower than the average stream intensity. The
detection of signals whose intensity is higher than the average
sCream intensity (in Figure 6, the signals with a positive
value for intensity in decibels) practically remains at the
previous level. Moreover, as can be noCed, the detectian
threshold increases and signals 4-6 db lower than the average
stream intensity level become threshold signals.
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Tab1e 3. Relationehip Hetween Detection Effic3,ency Indices
gnd 3ignal/Noiee Ratio
~~io~
IlumnaNOu+r,rb curna.w t66 01110011tentiuo
y~M~nlut 11tIr~HCnU11i~CT11 Itufilrq
CjwqH14 10.iInt11t11n
nnn raex cirita,tue
ItIr11N! QMI'�
e~nlWyM
-A
-8
-1
-7 I
+s I +4
4-6
+8
t
'uGH
P
nr
g
N:
~
o
e
00
0,58
0, i0
0,75
U,!!:
0,85
11,$1
0,412
O,U;i
0,78
O,OO.i
l,tl'l
3: t
0,5t
0,07
0,72
0,84
0,lid
0,88
0,00
0,02
O,iiS
0,002
1,25
2:1
O, :tb
0,54
0,48
0,80
0,85
0,87
0,80
0,01
0,78
0,00
1,40
1:1
0,111
0,32
0,32
0,67
0,81
0,88
0,89
0,00
0,62
0,02
f,18
Key:
i.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Signal,noise ratio.
Signal intenaity (db) in relation to the
average level of etream intenaiCy.
Average value for ali signale.
Detection probability (Pfl).
Probability of falae alarme (PgA).
Iteaction Cime (RT), in seconde.
As can be seen from Table 3, when Che observer is working with
aeak noiae (a signal/noise ratio of 3:1), the detecCion
efficiency indices are on the average higher than when he is
Working with noise (confidence level is p 6 0.05). A aimilar
improvement in detection efficiency hae also been obaerved in
other etudies in engineering psychology and experimental
paychology.
The experimental fact of a possible shift in the observer's
criterion for small signal/noise ratias which we observed
can be considered a vtry important result. (aA definition
of the observer's criterion as the dividing line for the
intersection of the characteristics of detecCed and un-
detected signals is provided in the works by J. Swets,
V. Tanner,'T. Birdsall, 1964; and K. V. Bardfn's article
in this collection.) The criCerion shift can be illustrated
by the increase in the probability of false alarms with a
simultaneous reduction in the probability of correct detection
when the signal/noise ratio changes by 10 db--from 3:1 to 1:1
(aee Figure 9, curve 1).
This dynamic relationship between the probability of correct
detection and the probability of false alarms also experimen-
tally demonstrates that there is a certain reduction in the
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obeerver's sensory ability within the range being
eCudied.
A compar3son of the reeulCe preseneed in Tnbles 2 and 3
ahows thae a 10 db change in the signal/noise ratio has n
significantly greater affect on the change in the probability
of correct detection than the sgme 10 db change in the average
sigr.al stream intensity has within the most unfavorable range
(from 80 to 90 db). This change in the probabillty of correcti
detection e 0.22 for the signal/noise ratio change nnd 0.05
for the change in the average intensiry of the stream; the
differencea are eignificant aC a level p& 0.01. The second
difference in the results presented in Tables 2 and 3 congisrs
of the facti that a change in aignal etream intensity which
reduces the indices for the probabiliey of correct detection
and reaction time does not change the value for the probability
of false alarms. A change in the noise level leads to a decrense
in all three indices for detection efficiency. This fact
requires a theoretical explanation.
3. The Effect of Internal Acoustic Signal CharacCeristica on
the Efficiency of Their Detection
In the previous sections, we stated that the random stream
used as the basic material fnr the stimulus in our experimenta
was composed of signals which differed in their physical charac-
teristics.
We used a set of 2,000 nonsense syllables for the signals which
made up the stream; they primarily differed from each other in
phonetic strucCure. In addition, the signals had different
intensities within a+ 10 db range of the average level of
stream intensity. Within this range, ten gradations of inCen-
sity with 3.ntervals of 2 db were selected. The intensity of
each syllable could take any of these ten values. Furthermore,
the duration of each signal could take any of ten fixed values
wiehin a range of 1 to 10 arbitrary units. This range was within -
the limits of 0.3 to 3 sec. on a real-time scale for a stream
with an average density of 30 signals/min. Finally, four
values were used in our experiments for the probability of a
significant signal's appearance (Pg = 0.01; 0.05; 0.10; 0.20) .
and four values were used for the probability of reinforcing
the significant signal with a simultaneous flash of light
(Pr = 0.0; 0.50; 0.80; 1.0). Twenty subjects--experienced
observers--participated in the experiment.
The results of the experimental research in this section make
it possible to evaluate the general principles for the effect
of the isolated signal characteristics on efficiency indices for
their detection.
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Tha experiments being deacribed uaed acougtic signals whose
intensity changed within a 20 db runge 10 dh from the
nvnrnge level of the signal atream inteneity). We -selected
10 gradations of 2 db intensity each. This aelection made
it poasible tn evaluate certain features for detecting signals
whoae relative position remained unchanged on the intensity _
ecale boeh when the overall level fox the stream was changed
and when white Gauseian noise wae added.
The results of the experimental study are shown in Tables
4 and 5 arad Figure 7. These results show that, when there
is a change in signal intenaity, Che curve for the probability
of coxrect deCection is like a normal S-shaped psychometric .
curve. With a reduction in Che siAnal/noiae ration, i.e.,
as the conditions of obaervation become worae, the paychometric
curve shifta to the right along the axis of intensity and :
its slope increases during this shift. If the signal/noise
ratio = 1;1--which corresponds to curve 2 in Figure 7--for
the conditons of observation, then the value of the detection
threshold measured at the level where PD = 0.5 is -4.2 db.
This means that the threshold signals have an intensity 4.2 db ~
lower than the average level of signal stream intensity. In
the absence of noise, all the signals in the selected range of
intensity changes are above threshold signals. This means that
an increase in the detection threshold is observed when noise
is present. �
Table 4. Relationship Between the Probability of Correct
Detection and Significant Signal Intensity (PFA - 0.005 when
there is no noise; PFA - 0.01 for a signal/noise ratio of
1:1.)
(1) currtana (D6) orrz~ocI+renb~ro cneaxero ypoexa
YCJIOOIIq 3itCRC� IM1111MCH8110M MHTlItCNB110CTN ifOTOttII
paatetna ~
-8 i-g I-i I-2 1 0 I-4~2 I-F6 I'~g 1+8
Key:
B01 IUyHfl (3; I 0,58 I 0,70 I 0,75 I 0,78 I 0,82 I 0,85 I 0,89 I O,~J2 I 0,95
Cnraan/niyu 4 0,11 0,32 0,52 0,65 0,80 0~83 0,87 0,8J 0,93
!:i
1. Experimental conditions.
2. Signal intensity (db) in relation to the
average level of stream intensity.
3. Without noise. .
4. 1:1 signal/noise.
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Table 5. Relntionship Between Reaction Time nnd Signi�icanC
Signxl InCensity.
1. (2`{1H[lNCN9HOCTL CI ~~~HTII Ce11HHOCT ICtl tNPt11tQU CrI''~IInPO y(h1111Ut
YC:1ft91111 ~
OHCIItlDitillllT+l
..8 --1 -l 0 2 +1 '}'g '}'8
603 wyua (3) f,78 i'88 l,56 i,53 i,35 i,30 i,21 !,!6 11t3
CurNnn/tuy~~(4) 1,72 1,70 1,78 i,83 i,88 i,53 1,513 t,51 i,5t
1.1 .
Key:
l. ExperimenCal conditiona.
2. Signal intensity (db) in relation to the
average level of stream intensity.
3. Without noise.
4. 1:1 signal/noise.
(3)
pa6N
~o
qs
44
L _B -9 v' ~ 4 Q 7S, PJ (4)
Figure 7. Relationship Between Detection Probability and
Signal Intensity. (Psychometric Curve)
Key:
1. Without noise.
z. With noise.
3. Detection probability (PD)�
4. Signal intensity, in db.
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(3)
46
4a
G,
t ycnt eO (5)
F
Figure 8. RelaCionship Between Signal Detection Probability
and Duration (each divi.sion on the abscissa is 0.3 sec.). -
Key:
1. Without noise. '
2. With noise.
3. Detection prcibability (PD).
4. Intensity in arbitrary units.
, The standard deviation for correct detection responses, which
is proposed by certain researchers as a measure of sensitivity
(Gilford, 1954), can be calculated in the following manner:
6=1,5� 412 Q`=-o'Z+s'S�1,5~4,506
In expression (3.1.1), Q3 and Q1 correspond to the third and
first quartiles of the psychometric curve (see Figure 7).
The good match between the threshold value (4.2 db) and the
value for the standard deviation of the psychometric curve
(4.5 db) can be pointecl out. We can see that the psychametric
curve shifts to the lei:t along the abscissa toward the lower
values for the intensiL�y of detected signals as the signal/
noise ratio increases. At the same time, its slope decreases .
and, consequently, the standard deviation of the psychometric
curve increases.
The curve for reacCion time when signals with different inten-
sities are detected has a somewhat unusual appearance. A devia-
tion from the well known inverse relationship between detection
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and discrimination reaction time and the value of the difference
between signals in the threshold zone is obaerved. The greatest
deviation and even, contrary to the expected decrease, a certuin
increase 3n reaction time for correct detection was noted in our
experiment in the area for signals whose intensity was 0; -2 db.
Remember that the 1eve1 of average intensity for the stream was
selected as the initial reference level. Thus, the deviations
noted exper3mentally by the observed curve for reaction time
correspond to signals very cloae to this level.
This result is not easily explained. It is possible that, ~
when working with signals close to the average 1eve1 of 9.ntens3ty
for tihe stream, Che observer begins to experience some doubt in
the correctness of his actions. These doubts may not be reflected ;
in the value for the probability of correct detection but they '
may objectively manifest Chemselves as an increase in reaction i
Cime. 5uch an experimental case was recorded, for example, by !
K. V. Bardin (1968). It is also possible that the observer some-
how reorganizes his detection strategy when approaching the
level of average intensity for the signal stream and this re-
organization is objectively reflected by an increase in reaction
Cime. In,.any case, the RT curves obtained are very similar to i
the multilevel curves for adaptive reorganization in the sensory
system (Krakov, 1946). ~
3.2. The Effect of Signal Duration on Signal Detection Efficiency
Indices
In Section 2.1, we stated that the duration of an acoustic signal
is one of the most important factors in discriminating iC. We
were interested in the problem of within what limits can the
duration of a complex acoustic signal ('cs) have an effect on
the human capability to detect it within a random stream of
different signals with a sufficiently large density for the
stream and with noise. In the experiment described below, the
subjects had to detect acous'?:ic signals with different durations
(within 10 gradations in a stream with an average density of
30 signals/min. and an intensity of 60 db on a background of
white Gaussian noise with a signal/noise ratio of 1:1. The
intensity cf the signals subject to detection was selected to
equal the average intensity of the stream (0 db). Minimal
signal duration was 0.3 sec. and maximum signal duration was
3 sec. The results of the experiment are shown in Table 6
(see also Figure 8).
.
~
~
It is possible to approximate a curve similar to the normal
psychometric curve with the data obtained. However, a further
clarification of the type of relationship obtained is required.
Our resulCs make it possible to draw a conclusion on the existence
of the signal duration's definite effect on signal detection
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TAble 6. Relationship BeCween Signal Detection Probabilitiy and
Signal Duration.
AnirronbnceTI,
c~rciinnu n ycn, en.
i L
J
4
5
8
7
8
g
i0
ptiaR. I
O,i2I 0,18I
0,30I
0,43 I
0051 I
0,60 I
0,80
1 0,85 1
0.80 I
0,05
Key :
1. Signal duration in arbitrary unita.
2. DeCection ProbabiliCy (PD).
prob ability. Under conditions similar to ours, the threshold
signal duration (deCermined for a detection probability P- 0.5)
equals 4.5 arbitrary units which is about 1.5 sec. on a real
time scale. A correction to the result obtained in Section 2.1
for the maximum density of the stream of different signals which
an observer can process immediately follows from this.
Let's rewrite expression (2.1.4) and determine the value of the
signal stream threshold density for our specific case using
the parameters for this expression which were refined by our
experiment. n,}-1 = 10 c` �10c:n~
Assuming that all the c4mponents of reaction time increase
proportionally under the difficult condiCions of detecting
signals in a signal stream with noise, let's calculate the
refined value for T'm in the following manner:
Tm = T. - , (3.2.1)
.o
where Tm is an imperical constant whose value was selected as
0.2 sec. when calculating (2.1.4);tot is the experimentally
obtained average reaction time for detecting a signal with
noise (a signal/noise ratio of 1:1); ta is the average
reaction time for detecting a signal when there is no noise.
Let's take the data on average reaction time from Table 3.
Then : Tm = 4,2 � 1'02 = 0,35.
It is clear that if we want to calculate the value of n directly
fronl expression (2.1.4), then we will encounter certain difficul-
ties. Since t., which is experimentally established, exceeds
1 sec., expression (2.1.4) loses its significance. Therefore,
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for the convenience of our cnlculaCions, 1et's nor dntiermine ,
n--whinh is Uy definition the number of signals per second--
but the val.ue n'--the Average number of signals in 2 sec. :
Then, the modified formula for calculating the threshol.d
densiCy of the signal arream takee the following form:
r'�, 2-l. (3.2,2)
n'+ 4-ip" C, 1p;77
Using (3.2.2), we can calculate the value of the threshold ~
density o� the stream for the average observer working under
conditions similar to ours. AfCer making T'm = 0.35; ;
c= 0.5 and ~ 1.5 sec., we get: o,ti
, n' -f-1 - 10-0.7. 10^ o
or:
W 1 ~ !p -0.'
From the last expression it follows that n' - 1 or n= 30 ;
signals/min.
If our assumption about the proportional change for all com-
ponents of reaction time during correct detection is incorrect,
then T'm should not change significantly, i. e. , T~_-; T.
.
After making T'm = 0.2; c= 0.5; 's= 1.5 sec., expression (3.2.2) ~
will look like this:
0.5
(3) n' i ~ 10-0,e.10n1
.o,s
or; '
i
(4) n, + 1 _ 10 n. -o,+ After making the calculations, we will find that n' = 1.33;
from this, it follows that n=,40 signals/min.
The results obtained for n make it possible to conclude that
- the threshold density of a signal stream for an average
observer will be within 30-40 signals/min under conditions
close to ours. The values of the Chreshold density for the
signal stream which were calculated on the basis of the experi-
mentally refined data are in good agreement with the results
of the other experiment described in Section 2.1. This
agreement between the calculated and experimental data confirras
- the reliability of the formula for calculating the threshold
density of a stream for an average observer with previously
determined empirical constants, the�main one being i.�
3.3. The Effect of the Structural Similarity of Acoustic
S'Lgnals on Signal Detection
The previous experiments have shown that the effect of basic
signal characteristics on detection efficiency indices nasicaily
complies with the general principles established in the research
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on eimple signal detecCion. The aignificance of signal similar-
ities in the detection procesa became the next iasue for experi-
mental study. We were intereaeed in the effect of aimilarit3es
between signals on certain detection efficiency indices, epecifical-
ly, the probability of correct detection and the probabilitiy of
false alarms. The following group of experiments was undertaken
to aCudy the special features of thia ef�ect. A atream of
differenC s3gnals with an average density of 30 signals/min.
and a 60 db average level of intenaity for the stream served
as the material for the stimulus. The subjecta had to detecti
the significant signals among the others in the stream on a
background of white Gaussian noiae (a signal/noise ratio of 1:1)
and without noiae. The significant ai gnals (syllables like
~ sgs) were aelecCed to form three groups of equal value according
to their physical characteristics (number of signals, average
signal intensity, duration, etc.). The basic difference between
the groupe consisted of the degree of similarity in the phonetic
structure of the signals within a group. The firat group was
made up of signals wh3ch had the greatest phonetic similarity.
The firsC phonemes for these signals actually matched ("r" and
"ya"). The third group was made up of signals with the maximum
possible difference in their phonetic strucCure. The second,
intermediate group united signals which had a sufficiently notice-
able similarity in structure: signals with the same first
phoneme ("r") were collected here. It is clear that the intra-
group similarity was less pronounced in the second group than
in the first. The difference in detection efficiency indices for
each group of signals was studied independently for the same
group of trained subjects. The results of the experiment are
presented in Table 7 and Figure 9.
Table 7. Detection Efficiency Indices Related to the Degree
of Structural Similarity for Signals.
GTCneiIiI 2) I'aboTa 6ea tu~-ma Coomowenue curHaa;wyx 1:1 cXOACrea
coreaaae I
(rpynna) 3~ po6tt (!})Par (3~'o6rt 1(L}) i'Jir
1 1 O,WS 0,83 0,009 .
' II 0,13 0,01/i 0,76 0,020
11I 0,66 0,03+ 0,39 0,050
Key:
1. Degree of signal similarity (group).
2. Working without noise.
3. Detection probability (PD).
4. Probability of false alarms (PFA)'
5. 1:1 Signal/noise ratio.
175
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7
0,9
0,6
Q4
pnr (5)
Figure 9. Receptor Operating Characteristics for Different
Modes of Detection.
Key:
1. When the signal/nofse ratio is changed.
2. For signals with different phonetic
similarity without noise. ~
3. For signals with different phonetic similarity
and a 1:1 signal/noise ratio.
4. When the probability of the signal appearing
is changed. �
5. Probability of false alarma.
6. Detection probability. .
Since the isolated groups of signals do not have a clearly
pronounced measure (estimate) of the degree of similarity,
they are not depicted on a metric scale. The numbers correspond-
ing to the groups only reflect the fact of their ordered nature
according to the degree of intragroup similarity for signals.
Thus, the difference between the groups is described by an
ordinal scale and, therefore, iC does not make any sense to make
irLdividual relationships between the detection efficiency indice
and the value for phonetic similarity (or the number of the
group): This can 5e explained in the following manner. It is
normally accepted to estimate the characteristics of the observ-
er's sensitivity according to a certain psychometric curve. The
form and location of this curve makes it possible to find the
basic indices of sensitivity--the threshold value and the standard
deviation for correct detecCion responses. However, it is well
known that an ordinal scale remains invariant for any uniform
transformations. This means that, if we had attempted to,construct
a psychometric curve based on data measured according to an ordinal
scale, we would have obtained any uniformly increasing function
176
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ns n regulC, for exnmpl@, S-ehnped, linear, logerirhmic,
BCept ttCc.
From our point of vieW+ ie regulte greater
significance to depict th
teceptor operating characterietics (ROC) eince the experimental
date ncquire a certChp ~~aerimentnlrreeultgid~acribeddinh@y
can be compared to P
Qectton 2,3. >
It followg from pigure 9 ChaC a gradual decline in the observets'
ability to detecC gi.gnals ocauYe ne the de;;ree of phonetic
similnriCy for the Eignale changee from the mgximum to theThimin-
imum (during the Criinsition from gignal group I Co III).
is manifested in n clecli.ne in the probability of correct
detection nnd a eimtltnneous incYease in the probability o�
fulse nlarms. Accoxding to Chenretical concepte, thie dynamic
relationghip betwceti the probability of correcC deCection and
the probnbility of fglee a].arms may be relaCad Co the decline in
the observer's sensury capability ehift in the observer's
criCerion along the decieion makin8 axie
The ROC curvee in F:Lgure 9 have a curvatureawsiththoeut
noise (curve 2) and with noiee (curve 3).
degrec of similarity between Chese signalq which must be
detecCed on the background of rather strong noise (curve 2),
changes, the ROC curve is very reminiscent of the ROC cuYVe
for the chAnge in eignal/noiae ratio as an overoll characteris-
Cic of the signal stream (curve 1). Let's recall that curve
1 in Figure 9 illustrates the experimental results described
in 5ection 2.3 (the curve is construcCed based on the data
from Table 3); in this exi~rcgnnbe seencfromeFigurei9ethatthe
basic operative factor.
curve 1 also chAnges abruptly under the effect of noise.
In considering these results, it can be assumed that the
form of the ROC chunges in a certain manner under the effect
of intensive, externul noise and this form describes a reduction
in detecCion cApab:iliCy. In any case, the upward curvature of
the ROC mogti explains
this conclusi 9uires
The following can be pointed out regarding the form of curve
3 in Figure 9. It is well known that almosC any signal, the
totality of signals or a mixture of signal and noise can be
geometrically represenCed as a certain point or as a lifi~~ed
volume in the appropriate multidinensional space (see,
example, J. Pierce, 1967). Moreover, it is natural to believe which
that a group of si.gnalsion occupies
of thesetvolumesa iThenBCa geometric
is made up of the combinaC
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inrerhretiation of the observer's rask in our cose consieeg of
de�ining the borderg of this nrea and also ehe best merhod
for defining the borders of rhe signals ag cerCnin volumes
within Che signal area.
WiCh additionnl inteYference, the tegks become extremely com-
plicated--it is neceaggry to rhoroughly isolate the signal
area from the nonsignal (interference) area and, only after
Chie, is it poasible to begin estimating the bordere for the
signal clnages. With noiee, all the enumerated borders nre ,
"washed out" and the oreag do not yield to an unambiguous '
(correct) division, eapecially when, based on its characterietics,
the inCerference is close to the borders of the signal classes.
The tgsk becomea even more complicated if the interrelationships
between the signal classes within the signal area ere not
clearly defined. For practical purposes, in our case, the
observer's task is somewhaC simpler--it is enough to define
the border or to separate the entire signal area from�ehe ;
area of inCerference. Moreover, the eimpler and more c:ompact ;
the signal area is, the easier it is to detiect signals. It
cun be assumed that groups of more similar signuls are reflected
in a more compact area or, in any case, in an area of smaller
volume in the observer's subjective sensory space. Th:is area
can be relatively easily isolated from the area of interference.
G;�oups of signals which have sharp differencea in their pro-
peLties may be reflected in areas which are pourly related
to each oCher or they may even be reflected as isolated
volumes. In the latter case, it is natural Chat the aearch
for and deter,Cion of the torders of the areas or volumes
may be extremely cumplicaCed and, consequently, the detection ;
of Che signals themselves may decline. _
The discussion cited here is something of an attempt to explain
these poorl.y gtudied phenomena. There is still not a lot of
experimental data in this area and it is necessary to conduct
a large number of experiments and accumulate factual data
before proceeding to a Cheoretical syn*_hesis. However, it
scems to us that the research method presenCed here, which
Iinks the experimental results of signal detection for dif-
ferent degrees of similarity with the construction and ana-
lysis of the receptor operating characteristics, may signifi-
cantly expand our concepts about the characteristics of the
structure of subjective sensory space. The possibility of
using more or less prec.ise methods in analyzing the detection
situation fer nonmetric characteristics of input signals is
very encouraging to us.
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3.4. Evaluating the Effeat of the Probgbili.ty nf the
Signnl Appearing on the Probnbility of 51gnu1 UeGection
Changing the probability of a eignificant signal's appearance
to sCudy the special features for detecting thig signal has
been employed for a rather long time. Therefore, followi.ng
tradition, we decided to verify whether the probability of
the aignal's appearance has any effect on the probability of
its detection when working with complex acoueCical signal
streams. An experiment was conducted for this purpoae; it
included aeveral series within which the probability of
the signifiCant signal's appearance was changed in accordance
with the following gradations: 0.01; 0.05; 0.10; 0.20. The
average signal stream denaity was equal to 30/min. The
btream intenaity was 60 db; the signal/nuise ration was 1:1.
The regulCs of the experimenCa are presented in Table 8
and in Figures 9(curve 4) and 10.
( 1) oaeie
Figure 10. Relationehip 1,0
Between the Probability '
of Correct Detection and the Che ProbabiliCy ofthe 0,6
Signal's Appearance

ps(2)
Key:
1. Detection Probability.
2. Probability of appearance.
Table 8. Relationship Between Detection Efficiency Indices
and Probability of Signal Appearance.
11~ P,
0,01
0,05
0,1
0,2
P068
I 0,49
I 0.64
0,75
I 0,83
;2,
(g) PaT I
0,017
I 0,015 (
0,008 I
0,005
Key:
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1. Probability of appearance
2. Detection probability.
3. Probability of false alarms.
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Tlie experimental deCu showQd thaC a nonlinear incrense in Che
probability of correcti detection (P D) occurs ag the probability
of the aignificant signal's appeargnce (pg) increaseg. Thn
nature of the relntionghip noted between PD atd P. cnn indi-
caee a ghift in the observer'e criterion toward n lower value
for the Chreahold when the probability of the significant
aignnl's appearance increases. However, thig sliift dnQg noe
completely agree with the we11 known resulta obtained for
simple aignnls (.i. Swete, V. Tanner, T. Birdgnll, 1964).
Curve G in Figure 9 depicte the receptor opergting character-
isCic far a change in Pg. This ROC hae an unugual appenrance.
It is rather similar to thP ROC curve consCructed for the dara
from the experimental sCudies deacribed in Sections 2.3 and
3.3. It could be thought that Che ROC curves obtained as a
result of our experimenCs reflect some kind of spetial features
for detecting complex signals. However, such a conclusion
may be premature aince our ROC's were obtained for an extremely
low probability of false alarms. The latter fact also makea it
posaible to assume Chat such an unusual appearance for the
opergting characteristics might be linked to an as yet unknown
property of the observer's operations within a zone with a vcry
low probability of errors like false alarms. A similar result
could have been obtained for the ROC if the shifC in crirerion
for a small number of false-alarm type errors had not been suf-
ficienCly compensaCed for.
3.5 Probability Reinforcement Qf the Significant Signal and
Its Effect on Detection Efficiency Indices
As is well known, human sensory capabilities are limited.
In experimental and applied psychology, it has become accepted
to describe these limitations as different kinds of threshold
or maximum crzsracteristics of human sensory and perceptual
systems. Thus, it is accepted to talk about the maximum
throughput capability, absoluCe sensitivity thresholds, detectiun,
discrimination and identification thresholds,etc. These
maximum characteristics are usually examined in relation to
the physical characteristics of streams of actual signals;
the following are the most important of these physical character-
istics: the spatial-temporal characteristics of the stream and
the signals making up the stream; the probability structure of
the signal stream; the amount of information transmitted; the
intensity characteristics of the stream and the signals making
up the stream; the level and nature of interference.
In the majority of studies, the maximum characteristics for
sensory and perceptual systems are examined when signals directed
at a single modality are being received.
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Undar xenl conditiona, ehe individual is at the eame t3me
perceiving e number of aimultaneouely operatiing e3gnals of
different moda11t3ea. The practical tnsks of rpceiving and
procegsing information present a number of probleme for
peychologists and paychophyaiologiats, problems connectied with
studying Che interaction among the anglyzer's differenti
systiems. In connection witih this, the problem of Che specigl
features of interaction gnd the mutual effect of the different
systems of analyzers on each other (Krakov, 1948; Sokolov, 1958)
and the special feaCures of humgn aensory and perceptual
organitation (Anan'yev, 1970) iaemerging.
The experimental work of paychophyaiologiats and psychologisCs, work
which srudies the joint activity of differenC sensory and
percepCual systems,,can be arbitrarily divided into several
groups. Work strictly in the field of the psychophysiology
of sensory systems can be placed in the first group. It
studi.es the special operating features of each system and
Che changes in its characteristics effected by signals arriving
at the input of other analyzers. The mechanisms for simultan-
eous functioning of different systems of analyzers a.::e atudied.
Thus, it primarily studiea changea 3n the aensitivity for
signals of different modalities when signals of other modalities
are operative (Krakov, 1948; Danilova, 1960; Steklova, 1959,
and others). It is assumed that interaction among the analyzers
takes place within the overall system of the directional reflex
caused by the effect of these signals (Sokolov, 1958; SCeklova,
1959). Moreover, it turns out that, under certain conditions,
the functional characteristics of one of the analyzer systems
can be increased by including other analyzera in the work.
The next group of studies is linked to a study of the possibiliCy
of concurrent human information reception when using signals
of different modalities. This group of studies is linked Co
evaluating the conditons which make it possible to increase
human throughput capability by increasing the amount of informa-
tion being simultaneously (and independently) processed
(for example, the works of Webster, Hazlerood, 1967; Dem'yanenko,
1958 and others). It has been shown that the so-called "inte-
grated effect" can appear as insignificant interference to the
primary activity in certain cases. However, the possibility of
concurrent human information processing is extremely limited:
the introduction of an additonal task frequently reduces the
level of quality in carrying out the primary task.
The group of studies of greatest interest to us are linked to
a study of the possibility of iticreasing human work efficiency
when receiving information duplicaCed along several sensory
channels. It has been proven, for example, that the reaction
time for sionals simultaneously appearing along two and three
modalities (auditory, visual, tactile analyzer) are shoriter
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ttan Che reaction time for the same signals individunlly
(Shosholl', 1966; Bernstiein, 1971). In addition, it hus
been shown thaC polymodnl informaCion duplicaeion caa signifi-
cnntly increase the efficiency of aignal deCection and identifi-
caCion. Signalg arriving nlong severul sensory channels can
provide a more compleCe deacription of the atate of the object
being controlled.
Thus, in his research, Griahin (1968) studied tihe comparative
efficiency (detection prec3sion) for receiving audio-viaual
3nformarion: monomodal (purely acousCic) and bimodgl (sound
preaented simultaneously with a dynamic specCrogram of iC); the
meehods of presenting acoustic information were compared. The
results of this aCudy, which are part3.ally presented in Table 9,
make iC possible to conclude thar bimodal presentiation of
information makes it possible to sharply increase the detecCion
and identification efficiency. ,
Table 9. Signal DetecCion Characteristics for DifferenC
Methods of Presenting Information (in percenCages).
'fpem+ponax� HerpeRup0-
Cnoco6 npeA16Aeaa111H HcnwTyeMUe �cnierryetaae
Baay Antn~~t 59 f 7 G2 ~ i3
Cnyxoao~C 3(~ts 22�12
Iioa~nnexcHWA ~ 6 97 �5
Key:
1.
Method of presentatian
2.
Visual
3.
Auditory
4.
Combined
5.
Trained subjects
6.
Untrained subjects
Similar data were obtained by Pomiluyko and Tutushkina (1972);
they studied the problem of the efficiency for deCecting new
signals when visual information was presented by tachistoscope.
Data from the study L~re partially preseni�ed in Table 10. In
our terms, the first series is work without duplicating the
visual information; the second series is speech dsplication
before the visual information appears; the third series is
speech duplication when the data card appears with new signs.
The results of the study show that duplicating information
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actiuully does not reduce the time in aearching for a first,
new sign (Cl) buC iti gignificantly decreases the overall time
in searching for new aigna (t2) and it reducea detection
errore.
Table 10. Effect o� Bimodal Information Presentation on
Reaction Time-and Number and Quality of Errors.
(1~
S~~ vpewa (ceKJ
Oroubke,',6
J11 COpNN
(1 I t~
4/ lpl! 11CN S)T~BVOTi
3,31, 1),25 '
43,2 16,0
11
3,16 7,70
6,8 8,8
lli
3,27 7,40
' 0,2 9,4
Key :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Series number.
Time (in seconds).
Errors in percentagea
Target misses.
False alarms.
At the same time, there are a number of works which cite data
on the lack of any advantages for audio-visual information
presentation over monomodal, specifically, in those cases where
information is processed logically (see, for example, Devoe,
1966).
In sunimarizing the results for polysensory information presenta-
tion (polysensory information models), Filippov (1972)
singles out different types of information models, specifically,
those where the basic signal is duplicaCed by a signal of
another modality. Moreover, the duplication can be continued
either throughout the entire period for receiving and processing
information or only during certain phases for receiving it.
In our study, we propcsed to show how information duplication
has an effect on tha efficiency indiGes for Qetecting and
identifying complex acoustical signals. We examined two
versions of information duplication; multiple repetitions of
a message along the same sensory chaanel (monomodal duplication)
and inform