JPRS ID: 8418 TRANSLATIONS ON USSR SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY PHYSICAL SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

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JPRS L/8418
25 Apz~i~ ~9~9
r
TRANSLATIQNS ON U~SR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
PHYSICAL SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY
(FOUO 24/79)
U. S. JOINT PUBLIC~?TIONS RESEARCH SERVICE
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NOT~ -
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JPRS L/8418
_ 25 Apri1 1g~ 79
r
- TRRlVSLAI'IONS ON USSR SCIE~ICE AND TECHNOLOGY
PNYS, I CAL ~SC I ENCES. AND. TE~HNOLOGY ~ -
- (FOUO 24/7g)
~
CONTENTS PAGE
CYBERNETICS, COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION TECHNOLOGY
Computera in Experimental Physi.^.s ~"1
(A.N. Vyatavkin; VESTNIK AKADEMII NAUK SSSR, No 1, 1979)..
' Activiti,ea at Inatitute of Automation and Electrometry
. ~Yu. Ye. Neaterikhin; VESTNIK AKADEMII NAUK SSSR, No 1,
1979) 13
G~OPHYSICS, ASTRONOMY ANfl SPACE
'AIR & COSMOS' Reports on 'Salyut-6' Miseion Operations
(Serge Berg; AIR & COSMOS~ 7 Apr 79) 24 -
PHYSICS
Generation and Utilization of Powerful Nanosecond Pulses,
A Scientific Communication
~(G.A. Mesyats; VESTNIK AKi4DII~ITI .,yAUK SSSR, No 2, 1,979) 26
= PUBLICATIONS
= Organizing the Operation of a Computing Center '
_ (I.A. Orlov; ORGANIZATSIYA RABOTY VYCHISLITEL'NOGO
' TSENTRA, 1978) 38
. ~
- a- [III - USSR - 23 S& T FOUO]
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CYBCRN~TICS, COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION TECHNOLOGY
- UDC o01.812
C01~'U`I~RS IN EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS
Moscow VESTNIK AKADEMII NAUK SSSR in Russian No 1, 1979 pp 53-61
[Art3cle by A. N. Vystavkin, doctor of technical sciences]
(Text] The growing scale and sophisticstion of exper3mental physics and the
- untnterrupted upward trend in the amount of information gained during exper-
imentation have led to the need of automating experiments with computers and
numerical methoda.
One of the first automated experiments that were computer-aided in the -
research centers of the Division of General Physics and Astronomy, USSR Aca-
derrqr of Sciences, were radar &tudies of the planets. These experiments began
in 1961 in the Institute of Raaiotechnolo~r and El~ctronics, su~ervised by -
academician V. A. Kotel'nikov. In 1965-1970, the first automated diffracto-
meters for monocrystals were developed in the Institute of Crystallo~raphy
under the guidance of academician B. K. Vaynshteyn. In 1968-1972 the first -
automated systems for spectral studies in the submillimeter range were built
in the Pliysics Institute imeni P. N. Lebedeov and the Institute of Radiotech-
nology and Fle~tronics. Today in the research centers of the Division of
General Physics and Stronon~y there are upwards of 70 large and small systems
for automating experiments. Unquestior_ably, this is a notable su~cess, all
the more so in that numerous systems ere original developments. Even so, -
mar.y more automated systems are needed.
~atuc~y of the operating experience with the systems for automating experi-
~ ~tients built in our country and elsewhere shows that one of the main efY'ects
of their application is shortened times in conducting the cycle of ineasure-
ment~ and processing their results. For example, the flow and volume of
infarmation in spectral investigati~ns and studies~of ~lectrophysical pro.-
perties of semiconductors are 10-10 bits/s and 10 10 bits per workday;
the:se times were reduced by a factor of 10 to 30, that is, instead of one
to three yeara in conductin~ ~che cycle of studies, nnly from one to several
motiths is required.
, '!'here are times when experimentation is simply not possible without automa-
~ion. For example, in radar studies of planets digital filtering and signal
1
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~ Fig. 1. Structure of peptide structure obtained, inter-
preted and displqyed on a graphics plotter using an
automated system
- processing on a computer, data can be obtained concerning distances to the
_ planets to a precision of hundreds of ineters and concerning planetary velo- '
cities to a precision of sev~ral centime~:Qrs per second immediately after
reception of the eeho signal, that is, in the real-time mode. Thi~ is im-
_ portant in refining the ephemeris times and stuc~ying the properties of pla-
netary surface and atmosphere; the data acquired in the real-time mode are
- necessary to the landing of interplanetary stations.
Another example: investigation--by pt~ysical methods-.,of natural resources on
earth from space (these studies are being dane by the Institute of Space
3L�udies, the Institute of Radiot?chnology and Electronics and other insti-
tutes of the tTSSR Academy of Sciences). The computer processes and dis-
plays in conventional colors images of the different parts of the earth's
' surfacel.
- 1 See: R. Z. Sagdeyev, VESTNIK AN SSSR, No 3, 1977.
_ 2
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A syRtem for nutomatin~ crystal growth for laser appllcation, in the
Phyaic3 Institute imeni P. N. Lebedev. maintaina the electric power fed -
into the cryetallati7,r~tiop unit in aecordance with a given'l~w in time to
within a precision of 10-4. The system affords cryatal homogeneity that
is pre~ctically ideal for the given application; this makes it possible to.
build new high-capacity infrared cryatals. The syatema for automating _
crystallographic investi~{ationa, developed in the Institute of Cryetallo-
~;raphy, can form and interpret the diffraction patterns of crystals con- -
tained in a cell to a prec3sion of hundreds of atoms in different posi-
tions. Fig. 1 showa the etructure of the peptide crystal. A X-ray dif-
- fraction pattern of this crystal, its interpretation and the image of the
- structure were obtained with a computer.
- Apart from the automation system it is not possible to rapicl].y control the _
hundreds of element-panela of the RATAN-600 radiotelescope in the source
tracking mode; without automation systems it is also not possible to con-
ceive of the funetioning of facilities built in the Physics Institute for
studies of laser thermonuclear fusion and so on.
These examples tell us that the computer can rapidly and precisely control -
a facility for information flows up to 107 bits/s, as well as process large
data files (106-108 and larger) in a multiplicity of operations.
Today virtually all research in general physics and astronoiqy calls for
automation. Roughly speaking, these investigations can be divided into
the following groups:
space stuc~y of the earth, the solar system and deep space
land-based studies of thz sun, near-earth and neax-solar space and the pro- -
pagation of radio wc~ves and laser radiation in the atmosphere
astronorr~y, radio astro*~ou~y and radar astronorqy
- pla3ma physics ~ _
spectroscopy and crystallography
laboratory studies of solid-state pt~ysics, low-temperature physics, physical
r~nd quantum electronics, hydrodynamics, thermoc~ynamics and so on
Specific requirements on automation develop in each of these groups. An _
nnalogous situation exists also in chemistry, in biolo~, in earth sciences -
~nd in other fields of knowledge.
The heavy demand for automating scientific investigations, as well ~,s the
need for working out a uni;iPd apprnach led to the automation of scientific
3tudie~ taking shape as an autonomous scientific discipline. Finc~ing deve-
lopment in it are both methods of investigation and measurement in diffe.rent
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fielda of acience and a number of mathematical subdisciplines; there are
a~.sa.aubdivisions in automation dea7.ing with the designing and buildirig of
- c~ystems for automatinR ~cien~ific experimentation and deve7.oping ne~w methods
of investigation.
Designing automation systems ia preceded by an analysis of the process of
scientific inveatigation. As we know~, the following stagea can be distin-
~iti~hed in scien�cifYc research, in pa,rticula~, in exp~rimental physics:
Cor~nulation of the t;oal of the investigation; literature search and review;~
c}ioice of the model of the phenomenon or process under stuc~y; theoretical
- analysis and modeling of the phenomen~n o~ process; experimental design;
expPrimental preparations (designing and fabricating the parts and aosem- -
blies of the experimental setups and producing,materials arfd structures
' with new propertiea); monitoring parameters and states and control of the
experimental setup; conducting measur.ements (acquisition, accumulation and
- storage of ineasurement data); data procesaing, reduction and diaplay; 3nter-
pretation of ineasurements end their comparison with the model and formula- ~
tion of concluaions;�:and documentation of dQta snd conclusions and place-
ment in archives (reports, publicationa and data banks).
These stagea mqy overlap, be conducted in parallel and be repeated, but in
some volume they are present in ar~y investigation. The computer can be
assigned, to a significant extent, the performance of fwnctions that are
amenable to formalizQtion and, thus, to programming. This amounts to most
of the atagea enumerated, save for those steges associated with goal formu-
lation, choice of model and interpretation of results--stages that are heu-
ristic by their very nature, that is, they re~}r on the investigator's~ intu-
ition. Still, even at these atages the computer can render much help, by
rapidl.y supp]ying the necessaxy information and assisting in displeying the
. reaults of the investigation in the desired form. ~
If one consider~ that the investigation stages interrelate, one faces the ~
problem of the integrated automation of scientific research, that is, the ,
automation of virtually all research stages.
Besides the stages listed, thaught must be giver to controlling investiga-
tions (monitoring the course of scientific resea.;sh studies, recording the '
labor and computing ~alaries, recording the consun?~;:ion oP material values
- and so on) , whicli can also be automated.
~ i
- Domestic and foreign experience showa that it is preferable that the pro- i
blem of integrated automation of scientific investigations--when there is . ~
a large number of tasks diverse in type and size--be solved on an institute-
wide scale (or on the sca7.e of a group of allied institutes), with the help
of e multilevel, hierarchical, multicomputer measuring and computing com- '
plex. A generalized tilock diagram of this complex, oriented for an insti-
tute specializing in general physics or an institute in which physical methods
of investigation predominste, is ahown in Fig. 2.
4
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- The followina principle~ are embodied in the complex:
3ett~ing up a fairly hi~h-capacity measuring and computing center (MCC), on -
a shared-t3me bas3s at the highest level, consisting--when there is a large
volume of comput~tions--of several large computers equipped with the re-
quired set of 3nformation displey devices, special data input/output
units, external memory, devices for effective interaction of investigator -
- with computer and so on
building unified subsystems for ~utomating the lower level,,oriented for
groups ~f investigations (for general physics and a~trono~y these gr.oups
were enumerated above) and capable of functioning either autonomously as
we11 as ,jointly with the MCC, the,t is, w3th data tra~ismitted between levels
_ over communication linea or via a magnetic carrier (punched tape, magnetic
t~,pe and magnetic disk); and lower level subsystems for automating indivi-
dual installations or groups of installations in a laboratory (d3vision)
are built on the basis of small comput~rs (minicomputers or microcomputers) -
optimal distribution of tasks and functions by levels (kinds of investiga-
tions or their stages, programming, storage of programs and data and so on)
use of level-homogeneous computers that are also progra.m-compatible between
levels, unified modules and blocks and development of homogeneous software
on the modular principle
The~e principles optimally correspond to the organizational structure of an -
= institute that handles a multiplicity of diverse problems and permit the
highest operating econorqy and reliability of the complex to be attainedf
the use effectiveness of all its components; also, these principles provide -
for the possibility of the stagewise introduction and development of the ~
complex (expansion, upgrading and modernization).
Complexes of this kind are being constructed at *:resent (not considering
inst3tutes with a nuclear physics specialization) in the Institute of Radio- -
technology and Electronics, the Physics Institute imeni P. r1. Lebedev and ~
the ~;,gineering Fhysics Institute imeni A. F. Ioffe, USSR Acade~ af Sciences;
they are pro,jected, further, in several dozens of acade~ ~enters. -
Choice of the type and makeup of interfacing equipme^.t between experimental
_ setups and laboratories devir_es with the computer is or.a of the primary tasks
in building multicomputer and single-et7Fn~uLer systiems ior auLOmating scienti-
fic investigations. Of all the existing systems for interfacing a process
with a computer, the CAMAC system (CAMAC: Computer-Aided Measurement, Auto-
_ mation and Control) i~ the most popular international standard; it has the -
- highest operating sp~ed and wniversality. This then served as the basis for
its selection as the primary standard in building interfacing equipment in
the centers of the USSR Acadecqy of Sciences.
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Fi~;. 2. Generalized block diagram of multicomputer, hierarchical
measuring and conr~uting complex for automating scientific inves-
tigat3ons ir. an institute specialing in general physics
- Key: 1. Measuring and computing complex
2. Large computing unit (large computers with standard peripherals)
_ 3 . Interace
4. Image output subsystem
5. Automa,ted designer's work station
6. Subsystem for terminals
7. To large experimental setup .
8. Buffer subsystem
[Key concluded an next page]
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[Key to Fig. 2, on preceding page, concluded]
9. Subsystem of input with carrier
; 10. Image input aubaystem -
11. Write unit
_ 12. Experimental setup
. 13. CAMAC crate with microcomputer
14. Minicomputer
- 15� CAMAC crate
_ 16. Minicomputer
17. Laboratory aubsystems with microcomputer
18. Special processor
19. Autonomous subsyatems, including diapat~h subsystems -
- 20. Laboratory subaystems with minicomputer
. Conceptually, the CAMAC system consists of the following. Specialized
funetional modules ar.e built to control individual parts of a facility
- acquire information x"rom measuring instruments and sensors and output
_ information to faci?.ities not incorporated in the computer (oscillograph,
graphics plotter and so on). The modules are built up in relation to the
task and are inserted into a sectionalized frame (crate) interfaced with
a computer. Up to 25 regular or the corresponding number of double, triple
~ and other sizes of modules can be inaerted into a CAMAC crate. All the
- modules are connected into a unified data highway. The dimensions of the
modules, the nwnber and order of the connections, the power supply and
strength of the electrical signals and the commands are standardized; this
permits the modules of different manufacturers and unified programs to be
employ ed.
Experience in developing the CAMAC equipment and the automation systems
- based on the CAMAC in the Institute of Radiotechnology and Electronics,
USSR Acadei?~yr of Sciences, in the Institute of Automation and Electrometry,
Siberian Division, USSR Acade~r of Sciences, e~nd in other institutes.showed
th~,t the b ase set of modules ensuring a wide range of experiments in general
phyaics is not too large--k0-50 types. Incidentally, it differs appreciably
from the aet of modules for investigations in nuclear physics. _
Multicomputer complexes that have the CAMAC equipment as the lower-level "
subaystems lend themselves naturally to organizing the interfacing of these
subsys tems with the MCC under the CAMAC standard, for which on~y thz inter-
facing module is added to the crate. The CAMAC equipment optimal]y should
= be use d alao for unif~ring into the multicomputer complex computers of dif-
ferent types in cases when for some reason computers differing in standards
are u~ ed in the institute2.
2 See: Yu. Ye. Nesterikhin et al, AVTOMETRIYA, No 4, 1.974.
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_ I1 .l~tir~rc.~ vo:Lurti~ nf' work .Ln ranuired in developinR Qnd puttinq to~ether the
c:omplex not'tware ou~~por�t. 5oftwsre is constructed ,just like the complex--
�by 1;he hlerarchicnl modular principle. The atandard software that is part
of the computera is used to the fullest; it is supplemented by system soft-
~ ware for intercomputer interfacing and for working with the CAMAC equipment,
software of the shared-time sys~em, the information retrieva]. system, the
desi~n planning system, as well as the extensive applied software for solviiig
apecific theoretical and experimental problems and operations research tasks.
Advances in systems for automating scientific research is bringing on the
scene new xessarch methods. In particular, a transition is pro,~ected from
_ the simple breakdown of routine and creative functions (stages) between
computers and the investige,tor to the fruitful interaction of investigat;or
and the automated system (interactive mode) as the research proceeds.
The first steps in this direction have already been outlined. By way of
exaanple, we can mention the dielog system of spectral studies in the sub-
- millimeter range, based on a fourier spectrometer3. We know that in spec- ~
tral measurements in the submillimeter range us3ng thermal sources, ~he
- investi~ator deals with low r~,diation energy; this requires a long signal
buildup time. Extending tne range of test frequencies and increasing reso-
lution and the signal-to-noise re.tio in this situation involves a large
- increase in the measurement time--up to dozens and hundreds of minutes.
_ Envisioned in the system is the selection of the appropriate ratio of fre-
quency interval, resnlution and signal-to-noise ratio based on preliminary
meastzr~ement of the signal.~-to-noise ratio when there is a zero interfero-
meter path difference and bQSed on measurement of a scanning interferogram,
_ with the recording of the appropriate scan~ing spectrum. These ~wo stages _
and the selection of the above-mentioned parameters are executed in�the
_ interactive mode. After these procedures are carried out, the working ~
interferogram is recorded; it is then transformed into the spectrum in the
automatic mode. As a result, the e~cperimentel time is shortened by 10-15
times.
We presented an example of the interactive mode in selecting the appropriate
levels at which the experiment wa~ conducted (planned). The interactive mode
can be altered also when the experimental findings are being processed. Ex-
emplifying this is the processing of spectra recorded with a submillimeter
diffraction spectrometer (Fig. 3). After the computer executes the fourier-
transformat~,on of the spectrum and displays its plot, from the fourier com-
= ponents the experimenter identifies and sends to the computer a command to
isolate the interferenc~ component caused by the interference of the radia-
tion between the sample faces, and transmtssion av~raged over the interference
J 3 See: A. N. Vystavkin et al, AVTOMETRIYA, No 2, 1978
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period, by discriminating the White noise of the receiver (more exactly,
its high-frequeney c~mponents~4.
~~pl:i.ca~t3o;lo.f the described method of processing measurement data and the
data of the interactive mode of its realization significantly extends the
poter~iali~~ies of diffraction spectroseopy and ap~eds, by a factor of ten,
the processing of the spectra measured.
The interactive mode is suitable also at other investigatory stages; it op-
timally measures up to the process of scientific investigation.
The dialog of investi~ator e,nd automated system is a method of organizing
~he interactive mode. The appropriate softwaxe and hardware are necessary
for an effective dialog in the system: convenient keyboard, ~raphic and
other inf.~rme,ti'on display devices, accessories for entering marks on the
alphe,numeric files, graphic and video images and so on. Year by year, these
device3 are developing and improving. -
~ Besides the above-listed atages of scientific investigations in introducing
automation, there is one more: program prepaxation and debugging. Wt;...,
organizing the interactive mode, it is very important that the investigator
master programming and dialog techniques (without programmer participation),
since it lets the investigator modify the experimental conditions directly
during the investigation; when speci~ic tasks are programmed, the investi- -
gator can apply procedures based on physical features and so on. That is
why it is necessary to shorten and si~nplif~ the stage associated with pro- ~
gramming. For example, thia task was successfully solved in the series -
2200 Wang minicomputer. The computer uses quite powerful language,
WANG-BASIC and simple program debugging means in the dialog mode, wi~h an
- indication of the location and kind of errors. The dialog is much simpli-
fied in that the 44 main instructions in the programming language and the
- 20 arithmetic operations and the built-in functions are actuated by press-
ing the right key, ~ust as in a pocket or desktop calculator. The other
instructions, as usual, are formed letter hy letter. Learning the minimwn
set of instructions does not take much time. Also, it does not need to be =
memorized, since it is entered on the keyboard. Obviously, this experience
must be taken into account in the future when developing new minicomputers.
Interest lies in systems that will provide for t',ie possibility of monitor-
ing the process of investigation r~nd re~:~mberfng by the investigator of
departures from the adopted program or some general rules, accumulatiion of
res~arch experience and its presentation in convenient form in later studies,
analysis of the effectiveness of the interactive mode and the possibilities~
_ of its improvement and so on. Research in building these systems has only
~ust begun.
, ~ See: T. M. Lifshits et al, ZHE~, ?~ol 72, No 3, 1977.
J 9
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_y -
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~ -
. - __..__f_. .
, ~
~ -
Nc~oaN~a I
CnaMtp
~ ~2)
~ flponycN~NNs
_ . ~ HN1~Pe~p~NLLNONN~11
UCP~~RII~OLL;~
~5) .
~ 4 ~ Htl~~+NyNlHT
nornow~~~
o,o~s o,oo o,~oa o,iso o,~e o,iao o,iee o,~eo
/ ~ \ 9on~o~o. ~~eeo, e+�t
. l I
~Fig. 3. Tranamiasion spectrum, computed spe~tral ~
components and transmisaion coefficient of Bi1-x bx
specimen -
Ke~': 1. Initial spectrwr.
2. Tranamission
- 3. Inter~'erence component ,
- 4. Relative units
5. Abaorption coefP~cient �
- 6. Wave number, cai -
Another source of neW research methods that are computer-alaed is computa-
tional phy3ics--a nea diviaion of mathematical p}~ysias, concerned with dev-
eloping numerical methods as applied to theoretical pt~ysics and the process-
ing of the resulta of pt~ysical experimenta. One primary directian in the
advances in computational physics is ~Lhe computer experiment (or numerical
mode~{ng)5, vrhich is an inveatigation--using a computer--of a mathematical
~ model of a pn~nomenon, proceas or device. It significantly replaces a real
ptaysical experiment in those instances Wnen the experiment is cost~j?, pro-
tracted or relatively inaccessible. The computer experiment, mr.~eov*~�,
i8 easily controlled and affords broad vsriation of conditions gnd the safe
' real.ization of critical regimes.
Finally, the validity oF a model unquestionably is verifie3 in real condi-
_ tions, but this verification after detailed inveatigation of the model by
5 See: A. A. Samarskiy and Yu. P. Popov, PRIRODA, No 4, 1975�
~
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computational methodn becdmes much legs lahorioug and requ3re~ muCh less
time t1;an the fu11 invest3~~tion of the phenomenon or procesg xith a real
ob~ect~ -
rt appearn natural tn merqe computer gnd re~.1 autom~ted experimentel setupg
into u unified complex, by providing fbr reCOLU~oe to the real ob,~ect for
Comparing the consequence~ from the model studied with nwnerica]. methodg,
~nd ~lgo to aecure additi~nal information with the goal of correcting or
modif`ying the mod~l. 7'his approach ~,s already in use in inve~tigations
of processes in plr,.sma, ion scQttering in crystals and ao on.
New approaches and eoncepta relying on numerical methods and applied to
_ the description of physical phenomena are to be antlcip~ted. Juat as fouri~r
- gnalyais, (}reen function~, ~'eynman diagrams and other mathematical methods -
1ed, each in ity time, to new physical concepts and made poasible a f~ller
iuiderstanding of the fundamenta].s of given physical phenamena, the n~a
methods of computational phyaica wiJ.l promote an even profounder penetra-
tion into the principlea of nature. As spplied to physical experiments,
the ncw concept~ muat permit con~tructing a model of a pt~jrsical phenomenon
rxpre~sed in terms of computata~na~ physics and represented by the appro-
priate algorithm, naturally, with the optimal division of iLnetions
~ bPtween the real and tre computer experiment.
I'rinr to automQting sc.ientific investigationa, ~ust as prior to an autono-
mous discipline, there ere technic~7. and organizational problems, fn addi-
tion to purely scienf~ific problems. Constructing automa~ed systems~-and
they are now needed by the dozens and hundreds--calls for a unified, aci-
entifically substantiated epproach. At work deveyoping this approach is
the Council on Automating Scientific Research, along with the complex of
scientific-organizational measures in this field in the USSR Acadea~r ef
Sciences. As noted above, CAMAC was adopted as the standard in the acade~r.
- A program for designing Qnd building systems for automating sctentific in-
vestigations Was developed by the USSR Acade~r of 3ciences in collaboration
- With the Ministry of Instrument Making, Automation Equipment and Control
Syatems.
Sgecial subdivisions im m~r~y acudetrty institutes have been constituted in
:~olvin~* problems of automating scientific research. Specialists on auto-
mr~tin~; 3cientific inve~tigations at xoi:: in these subdiW. sions must possess
the research techniques in their fields, have training in computers, applied
mathematics, mathematical modeling and so on. The Council on Automating
Scientific Research is holding schools and conferences to exchange experi-
ence and upgrade the qualifications of specialists engaged in automating
scientific investigationa. Still, the specialists are feW in number; their
training needs to be orqanized in institutiona of higher learning. Some
institutions of hi~her learning have taken these steps, but this is still
far from enough. In addition, it is advisable to hold courses on the appli-
cation of computere to scientific investigations for studenta Who Wil,l be
future phyaicists, chemiats, biologists and specialists in other sciences.
11
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Carryin~ out thes~ t~~tiong w{,l~ #'oster the Pastegt possible advances in
efforts to eutom~t~ scientific ~.nw~etigQtions in centerg o#' the U98R
AcaderRy of 8~1Qne~e Qnd nther d~pe~rtmente, includin~ in inetitutee specigl- ,
:tainrr, in phyeice. ~
COPYAI~HT: Izda~el'stvo "Nauka", "Vestnik Akademii nauk SSSR", ~97g ~
10123 ~
CSO: 1870
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CYHERNETICS, COMPUTERS AND AUTOMATION TECHNOLOGY
UDC o01.812
ACTIVITI~ AT INSTITUTE OF AUTOMATION AND ELECTROMETRY
Mo~cow VFSTNTK AKADEMtI NAUK 885R in R1189~Qt1 No 1, 1979 PP 3-11 ~
[Article by Yu. Ye. Nesterikhin, corresponding member of the USSR Acadertpr
of Sciencea and director, Inetitute of Automation and Electrometry]
[Text~ The Institute of Automation and Electrometry,
Siberian Division of the US3R Acaden~? of Sciences, was
founded in 1957� The instit~te's seienti.fic activities
center on developing and building model problem-oriented _
syatems bASed on CAMAC [computer-aided measuremen~,
automation and control] standarda for automating acien-
tific investigations, atuc~y of the theoretical principlea -
of inemory and optical procesaing of information and re-
search into the pY~yaica of nonlinear Wavea.
The Presidi wn of the US3R Acade~r of Sciences gave a
hearing to a paper by the director of the Institute
- of Automation and Electrometry, corresponding member
of the U33R Acadeaa? oP Sciences Yu. Ye. Institute,
relating the xork of the institute.
Pc~per by Yu. Ye. Nesterikhin '
The aim of what the Institute of Automation and Electrometiry ia doing in
automating acientiPic investigations is greater ePfectiveness and higher
quality of scientific inquiry by the direct incorporation op computers in
research procedures and the maximimm use of computer potentialities at ell
stages--from gathering experimental information to constructing a mathe-
matical model of the phenomenon under stuc~y. The prime direction of work
at the inetitute in this Pi~ld is carrying through the program of building
model problem-oriented automated systems based on a unified system archi-
tecture end unitized geMeral-purpoae harchrare aad soPtware. In other
words~ solutions are b4ing found to problems of constructing svstems in
Which a model architecture (unified for all areas oP experiinentation) is
merged with a model aggregation c+f units (unified for a given kind of
experiment).
~ 13
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Today ~n ttdequate approach to ~hi~ probl,em involvea broad application of
proEram-controlled highwey type moflu].ar systems correspond3ng to the 3nter-
,national C.AMAC standards. Thea~ syatema are sets of widely varyin~ autono-
mous devicea--CAMAC modules unified in deaign and mode~ of information
exchange; using them, it is ~asy to configure programmAble atructures for
automating sophisticated exper3mental and proceas facilitiea.
Development of CAMAC equipment, conducted by the 3nsti~ute ~ointly iJ3th the -
~ipecial Uesign Off3ce for Scientific Instrument-Making, Siberian Diviaion,
i1S8A Acaden~y oP Sciencea (the nomencZature of general-purp~oae CAMAC moduleg -
now numbers sbout 100 deeignations), served as the foundation for sr>lving
problems 3n automating the most widely varying experiments (from b3 4 ,
~ t v`~
~
~ ~~~f ~ ~
{ ~ ~ ~
~ ~r '
s 1,,,+~ y~~ t~ ~
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1~~ r . 1~'~ ~ � ~:'yP ~~y". ~i �~4. J
a'. ~ : ~ '
a~..le~t .i.
r . .
~ Mobile facility for measuring gravitational -
acceleration
- Bro~d use oF laser measuring devices goes far in ensuring progresa in scien-
tific experimentation and in industri.al technology. ,
Concluding his paper, Yu. Ye. Nesterikhin higY~lighted studies at the~Insti- -
tute of Automation and Electrometry on the physics of non~inear waves.
Very marked pr.ogress in studying nonlinear phenomena was recorded worldwide _
over the past 10-20 years. This progress was due, in large part, to the
~;eneral advance in investigating mar~r-body problems and to developments in
computer engineering that permit numerical experiments to be conducted with
a large number of nonlinear equations.
Studies into problems of the physics of nonlinesr phenomena Were conducted
by s~roup of theoretical physicists at the Tnstitute of Automation and
Electrometry. � -
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, - , . ,
~ , . ~ ,
~ ~
, , ~ ,
~ .�+n':a;f,~..,., t
k
~8~~ x';3 p5 - �N. ~ '
_
. ' �
_ � � ' , , j
� . ~ .
. , ,
LADO-1 laser doppler velocity meter
A study was made into the prablem of the paxametric turbutence of waves
originating when they are excited by an external homogeneous electromagnetic
- field, for example when msgnons are excited in ferromagnetic materials by an _
electromagnetic field.in ~he UHF range, when sound in crystals is excited
by laser radiation and so on.
_ Decay proceases leading to formation of a wave spectrum in terms of frequen-
cies and directions of propagation are fairly strong in plasma, generally
speaking. Plasma turbulence was shown, in contrast to hydrodynamic turbu-.
lence, to be aeverely anisotropic and nonstationary; its spectrum is singular
- and is concentrated at lines and surfaces and even in individual points in
wave vector apace.
Couette flow serving as the example (flow of fluid between coaxiel cylin-
ders, one of which is rotating), a stuc~y is underway dealing with the initi-
ation of hydroc~yne.mic turbulence.
As early as 1944, academician L. D. Landau proposed that the initiation of
turbulence can proceed sta~e by stage: as the velocity of laminar flow in-
creases, stability losses occur and a periodic flow with a certain frequency
~ originates; then stability loss again ensues, additional motion at a differ.-
ent frequency not coimnensurable or;th the first starts up, then--flow at a
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third frequency and so on. To veri#~ this t~ypotheais, in the 3nstitute a
_ facility wae built; with it, the flow rate of a 13quid was measured with the
Saser doppler veloc3ty meter and in experimental real-time data were #'ed into
~ computer operat3ona11.y performing the etatistical procesaing of the data, -
for example, computing the pe,irwise autocorrelation velocity function, ~he ~
power spectrum and ao on.
As the experimenta revealed, L. D. Landau's proposal is valid only to th~ -
- third critical velocity. Beyond that, instead of motion with many periods
there eneues motion of an intermediate type, when apatial periodicity is
preserved to a significant extent; however, the temporal period3city breaks
down and the frequency spectrwn proves to be not discrete, but continuous. -
_ Appe,rently, in this experiment the "strange attractor" effect--intensely
- under stuc~y by mathematicians--was realized. It turns out that regions
with elong~,ted tra,~ectories (attractors) not containing atable points and '
lim3tin~q cycles ce,n exist in the phase space of systems with three or more
degrees of freedom. At present detailed experimental stucly of the strange
_ attractor effect in Couette flow is underwey.
biscussion of paper
- After Yu. Ye. Nesterikhin's paper was delivered, the floor was given to
corresponding member of the USSR Acadetqy oP Sciences Ye. P. Popov--chairman
of the commission of the presidium, USSR Acade~y of Sciences, that has been -
looking into ~.ctivities at the Institute of Automation and Electrometry.
The reorganization of the inatitute some years ago, related Ye. P. Popov,
yielded good results: automation was dovetailed in with modern ph4Ysics,
leading to the achievements that were recounted in the paper. -
- Original general-purpose systems have been developed on the basis of CAMAC -
standards. The institute's achievements has won w~rld recognition in the
area of saftware support associated with the development of these systems.
Particular mention must be made of the graphical displqy equipment built
here, with high resolution and automatic recording devices.
_ Studies on automation of scientific investigations are going on at the insti-
tute at a very high level and can yield an even broader outcome--in the
automation of designing in the most wide-ranging sectors of the national
_ econo~ .
The Institute of Automation and Electrometry has accumulated much positive
experience in organizing inter-industry design offi^e~. These design offices
_ are administratively under the enterprise, but as to scientific metnodology
the institute directs them. Thia kind of link between institute and industry
did much to promote the broed realization of the achievements and the results ~
of investigationa into manufecturing. r
~r,
- Academicians A. M. Prokhorov and N. A. Pilyugin and corresponding member,
US~R Acadea~r of Sciences A. F. Bogomolov spoke at the session of the Pre-- ~
- sidium of the USSR Acadea~y of Sciences.
22
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The president of the USSR Academy of Sciences, academician A. Aleksandrov, _
spoke forcefully of the 3mportance of the inatitute's atudies, especially
_ in desi~ning and building systems in accordance with CAMAC atandards. Thie
~ made~~it poasible, he said, to sharply 3mprove the equinping of our insti- -
tutea engQged in phys3cal, biological and even economic investigations.
_ The systems built by the 3natitute for interfacing experimental facilit3es
and computers, now in production 3n our country by var3ous departments, make
it possible to~build very flexible computer structures in Acaderqy of Sciences
= institutes that have Q variety of cvmpu~e,rs. Here 3s an example: the system
_ for nucleQr etudies that were to be condL~eted in CERN--built in the Len3n-
grad Institute of Nuclear Phyaica imeni B. P. Konstantinov--proved to be
very effective. 8oviet devices 3n accordance with CAMAC standards were ~
3nterfaced rapidly ~,nd without difficza].ty with Swiss, Briti~h and F~ench
facilities, so that two de~ys after arriving at CERN, Soviet specialists
commenced meeaurementa. Another example lies in the system of automation -
for RATAN [radioteleseope of the USSR Academar of Sciences].
Summing up the diacussion, V. A. Kotel'nikov, vice president, USSR Acade~y
of Sciences, and academician, took note of the contribut~on of the Insti-
tute of Automation arid Electrometry to designing and building systems under
CAMAC standards. The work that the institute is doing in automating scien-
ti:fic inveatige,tions is very vital, in particular, for acadea~r institutes ,
and this work must go on. Unquestionably, the institute has found its call-
ing and must not change the direction of its investigations. -
Resolution
In the resolution passed by the Presidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences,
- approval was given to the scientific and scientific-organizational activitie~
of the Inatitute of Automation and Electrometry~, Siberian Division, USSR -
Acadeir4r of Sciences. The primary directlons o;' the institute's scientific
_ activities were confirr.ed: studies on automatir,.g seientific investigations
based on a model high�wey type computer system a,1d CAMAC standards; inves-
tigations into the theoretical principles of inen~ory and optical processing
_ of information; study of pY~}rsical effects for de:ploping new principles of
measurements and measuring devices; and investiggtions into the physics of '
nonlinear we,vea.
The Presidium of the USSR Acaden~y of Sciences also approved the activities -
'of the institute in developtng new, more improved forms of introducing scien- ~
tific innovations into the nat~onal econoa~y. ~
COPYRIGHT; Izdatel~stvo ~'Nauka~~~ "Vestriik Akademii Nauk SSSR~~, 1479
- 10123
Cso: 1870
23
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~OEt OF~ICIAL US~ nNLY ,
_ GCUPHYSICS, A5'CitONOMY AND SPACE
' AIR & COSriOS ~ 1tEPORTS ON ' SALYUT~6' MISSION OP~EtATI0N5
Pnris ATit & COSMOS in ~r~nch 7 Apr 79 pp 44-45
(Article by Serge Bergt "Obgervatione, MginCeri~nce on Bogrd 'Salyue-6
(Text~ Some 40 operationa to repair and replace defectivw materialg and
equipment were conducted by tha "Soyuz-32" crew during the firet month
on bo~rd "Salyut-6"~ according to IZVESTIYA on 25 March.
Sume of the repaire~ whict~ were termed "prevenCive maintenance," were begun
as soon as Vladimir Lyakhov and Valeriy Ryumin arrived at the orbital
etation; the others were made after the "Progresa-5" frQight Craneport ehip
had delivered replacement parte.
Thus, for example~ a back-up camera was brought by "Progress-S" b~cause the
on-board Cel~zviaion eyetem, which had been used extensively by previou8
crews, showed eigne of failure. Similarly~ the shower atall curtain was
changed.
But the moat important operation--and the longest (aeveral daye)--consisted
of neutralizing a fuel tank in the propulaion syatem, in which the membrane
was damaged; the membrane separatea two parta of the t.:nk, one containing
nonsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine and the other--compresaed nitrogen. The
"Salyut" atation has three of these tanka, and consec~uently it wae posaible
to totally empty the defective tank without hindering the functioning of
the station.
The defect in thie membranr had already been noted by mission controllers
and cosmonaute [Kovalenok ar~d Ivanchenkov] 5 montha ago. Only after a
number of simulatione in gro~ind laboratories could the procedure to be -
followed in orbit be eatablished.
The operations began on 16 March. Firat of all, the crew rotated the
"Soyuz-32"~-"Salyut-6"--"Progress-S" complex along its longitudinal axia
in order to create an artificial microgravity; the centrifugal force thus
created made it posaible to separate the combuatible from the nitrogen.
Part of the fuel could then be pumped into one of the empty tanke on
"Progress." But the complete evacuation required cnore than a week; the
24
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~dit n~~tCIAL US~ UNLY
prnGe~g wu~ bn~ed dn the prop~rCy of the ~pac~ v~cuum to "gu~k~' gll trace~
oE hydra~ine th~~ cduld ba found within eh~ tank (which w~~ veneed eo open
~p~cp). WiCh the ~v~r.u~tiion complae~, th~ ~gnk w~~ r~filled wi.eh ~ompr~~~ed
nitrog~n, The operati~n l~ae~d 10 day~; it wae completed b~~ "7 March,
S~rv~ying Over Chin~
Of' all ehe ~xp~rimentg a gr~gt denl of atCentidn wag giv~n to thos~ tgking
pl~ce in Che "Spl~v" ~nd "Kri~Cg11" furn~Ceg, which hgndl~d Sdvi~e experimenes
, fdr 3 dgys before Che ~r~n~h-Sovi~C "~lme" experimentg bQgan (~f. AIIt ~ COSMOS,
No 759). The Soviet pr~s~ ha~ emph~~ized the interesC in dbCaining by fuginn
very pure glaee Co be used in th~ mgnufacturing df optical fibers fnr tele-
~ommunicgtions....
~~rth obgervation~ continue eo oCCUpy ~n impore~ne place~ gnd the Soviet
pr~sg was parCi~ularly pleased to da~crib~ tha work conducr~d ~ver the
U55R-Chineee border region: obeerveCions of the pamira, eh~ L~ke $~ykal
nrea, the region where $AM ie being cc,ngtruGted..~.
Ityumin and Lyakhov know Ch~ee areae very we11. On~ wag borm in Komgomol'gk-
na~Amur~ and the oCher did hie mi'iicary e~rvice in the extreme F~r Eaet. ~
Time ~nd again they flea over ehese regione in g TU-134 apeCially equipped
for flighte of cosmonauts making cbegrvations uttder the auapices of the
"Priroda" (nature) program. Responaible for these flighrs ie Soviet tegt
pilot Nikolgy StEpanovich Zateepa. The courae usually flown wag: Moscow-
Irkutsk~Khabarovsk-Vladivostok-Kamchatka-Dushanbe-Agtrakhnn'-Mogcow.
Ryumin and Lyakhov~ who have already apent 1 month in orbit, installed on
board the station a"Y~lena" gamma Celescope, which was desi~gtted to record
the flow of gaimna radiation and electrona; they have also conducted the
"Fiton" and "Biogravistat" expartments, which dealt with plant growth.
From now on the tWO cosmonauta can communicate wiCh one another uaing the
"Kol'tso" (ring) aalkie-talkie syatem. And finally, Che cosmonauts made
poeaible yet anather apace "firat" on 24 March: thanks eo a televi~ion
receiver delivered by "~rogrese-5" and inatalled on board "Salyut-6," the
Pirst televieion picturea lrom earth were vieaed in orbit. From now on
there will be two-~rAy communications through television.
COPYRICNT: AIR 6 COSMOS, Paris~ 1979
.
CSO: 3100
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_ ~
PHY8IC8
,
UDC 621.38
G~RATION ~1ND UTILIZATION OF P044T~RFtiL NAN03ECOND PULSTs8, A SCI~NTIF'ZC
COMMtINICATION
Moecow VESTNxK AKADBMiI NAt11C 898R in Rue~i~ No Z, 1979 pp 37-46
I~tiale by Doctor o~ Te~tuiiosi 8aiencea G. A. Maayate~
(TexCJ Thie commur~icati~sn ie devoted to the technique of nano~acond pulaes,
whoee outptrt varies from meqawatits to terar~atto or nare aith pulse length
from tanths to hundreda of nar~ossconde. We beg~n inveatiqatiione in thi~
~ield et the ~omsk Poly~e~hnical Lngtitiute in 1957 to inveetiqate th~ develop-
ment af electric di~chargsa in varioue dielectria ioedia: in liquid~�, eolids,
qaeee anc~ in a vaouum.
At the enQ o! tha 1950' o a~nd b~gituninq of the 1960's, interegt ir~ the,~e in-
veetiqetione it~cr'e~red ~~peaially Cue ~o tha need to utilise po~w~rtul nano-
seeond pulse~ in a nttmbsx oP n~w ereas o! phy0ies: to getierate po~wer~ul
laeer amiesioa pulees, !ar input ar~ dieaharqe charqed particles iri
aceeleratore (specitically, in u~ aaaalerator ~rith eountar beams), for in-
. veetigations in nonlinea~c Qptio~, is~ nuolear phyeic8 (to aupply pawer to
epark arid etr~amsr chamtwr~), in hiqh-apsed photoqraphy and eo on. Znveati-
gntior~e of powsrlul nanon~oo~d pyloes, carried out at Zbmak Polytachnical
inetitute, rontribut~d to a~ ~ignifiaant deqrea to rapi8 development ot some
o~ the named li~ld~. P'or exa~qple, mst2tods or indireatly puleed ir~tallation~
developeQ by our qroup w~re used in areation o~ power~ul ruby lasere, apark
and atreamer dsamb~ro, in inve~tiqations on not~linear optias, in inveetiqa-
_ tion of ~anoNCOnct X-ray pulass and eo on. monoqraph,* devota8 to the
tbchnoloqy o! po~nrlul nenos~oor~ pulsea, was published in 1963.
T~ro factors caa be n~m~d Mfii~h arouped the grsat interest in tt~ie field of
technoloqy ar~d its rapid proqre~s. First, thie ~?ae inveeti~gation of hiqh~-
epeed proc~os�e Mhiah occur due to the ef~act of atrong eleotric and maqr?atic
fielde within a very short tims~ 8econd, the enerqy cf po~rerfvl nanosecdnd
pul8ea can be aonverted to eleatacon or ion energy, to electramaqnetic ra~iation
_ �(3. 1~. Vorob'y~v ar~d G. A. Hesyats, "Tskhnika formirovaniya vysokov~ol'tnykh
nanoeekundnykh ia{pul~sov" (The Tschnology of Shapinq High-Voltaqa Nanoaecond
Puleeel, lbeoow, 1963.
26
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enorgy oF dilfer~nti renge from X-r~y tio infrared and ai~o tio 8H~-
r~diation �narqy by u~ing veriou~ phyotasi ~f~acti~.
. R
- ? ~ K
a -
V'~ ~ran.r..~~.,,r ~ Y ~
T~,,,
u ft~22
b K ~..o-- r-ti
Fiqur~ 1. Puls~-8hapinq Circuits: a-- diagram of gquare-wave
pulea faNnation aith aa?plitude t1p/2 ~ b-- diaqram ~
aitih doubls storaga linei t1p preliminary vcltage ~
of gtorage linaa 1= K-- gwitahing elamentt 2-- Mav~
impedence of line
The probl~m Rener~ting po~erful nanosecond puleee i~ nne of the tren~~ nf
invaetiqetinru of thu H~avy-Currer~t ~leatironice institute (is$) of the
sibsriati Dsparta~sr?t o! ths U83R 1~oaciemy of Scieneae, reaently created at
Tomsk. Variotu phy~icai ind enqineerinq probleaas reisted to the uae of
Poaerful natioseoond pul~eo are now bainq solwd in msny scientific inetitu-
tiorio of th� cour~try: at th~ Institut~ o! Atomic Fnerqy imani V.
Kurchatov, in s numbsr o! iaboratoriea o~ the Physica inetituta imani P. N.
Labsaov o~ tha USSR 1laadsmy o! Seiencae~ at the inetitute of Nuclear Phyeics
of the Sibarian Departa~t o! the t1S3R Academy ot Scieneee, at tha Institute
of Automatics ar~d 8leatrometry ot the Siberian Department of the t1S3R
Acad~my of Saiencsa, at tha Applied physioa Lzotitute of the USSR Acndemy
of Sciencee, at the Joiat Inatl.t~:ts !or Nua~ear Reaearch at DuZma, at the
l~ar'kov P~hysicotechnicel Institute of the Ukrainien ~SSR Acadeaay of Sclences,
at tha Ler~inqrad Salentillo Rs~earch Znatituta of Elaatrophyeical Apparetus
imani D. V. Yalrwav, at the Tomsk P~lytaehnical institu2a and so on. Any
laboratory involvsd in plasme? physiee or laeer or nuclear phyaics �saentially
- r~w utilitea !ha teahnology o! po~sr~ul nanoeeoond pul8ag to ona or au~other
deqrea.
The aleapla4t cirauiti for q~neratiag ~awarlul nanosecond pulees ia preaented
in Fiqure 1, a. it i. lora~ally �imilar to ordinary pulsed equipment circuite.
The atoraq~ lina� are lirat charqed to voltaqe U~. K is a snitchinq element,
as which epark gap~ are used. Z! ~he load resistar~ce R is equal to the
characterietic Mave impadance of this line Z, a sqvara-~rave pulee with ampli-
tuda Up/2 and ~rith le~ngth equal to doubla the Mav+e trav~el time in the atoraqe
line can b~ qsaerated. The anerqy ri8a and decay time in the pulse is deter-
mined by the traa~isnt proc~.eas wl~ich occur in the sMitchinq alament.
27
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A~ir~uit with double ~rorege line, which pera~i~~ genera~idn of a volCaqe
two tiirtw~a gre~ter than in tihe pzevi~iu~ cirauiti, i~ preeentied in Figure 1, b.
There ar~ diffarent metihcde of pulae cnnv~er~ion, ~pe~ifireily, gh~rtening
~he pul~e front and pui~e length, ein~e e~quare-wave pulee with ehort
l~ngth nnd with ~hort fronti length i~ commonly ueed. The device which
ehortieng the pulee fronti ie call~d a~hsrpener, while the devi~e which
ehorten~ th~ pulee length i~ called the cu~tiing elementi. The outiting elemen~
and gharpener are nonlineer zegi~tor~ whoee value 18 hiqh for eome ~ime ~n~
th~n deerea~~~ alnaee to ~ern very rapShcy within ~ nanogecond and aometin?~s
in fractionr o~ a nnnoaecond. Varioua type~ of epark g~p~ or ferrite elementis
are mos~ frequsntly used a~e nonlinear reeiator~.
One of the nu~in probleme in generation of pawerful nenosecond pulses i~ the
problem of oommutation. A diecharqe in different media in a vacuum,
qeeeoue tnedium, liquid and ~om0~imee in a golid ~e uged for cocneutetion.
Commutatinq qas-di~oharge arre~t~rs are aidely us~d. The time during which
ehe pulse enerqy rise ocoure lrom ~cero to the maximum value is called the
commuention time. Thie time determineg tihe minimum poesibie pulee front.
F'or gae-dieaharge commutators Nith law current value in the pulae (up to
104 A), ~he comnueetion time ~k ie celculeted from the Rompe-Weizel eperk
model:
~ A
p~k a ~~IP
where p ie qae preseure, E is the electric field inteneity and A is a con-
etant which charecterizea the gapa. With fixed voltaqe in the spark qep,
- the value of Ep ia constantt therefore, the time tk aill decrease aith an
increaee of praeeure. gecauee of thie, the nitroqen, nir or other preagure
in theee epark qaps ehould not be lees than 10 atm with pulse front lenqth
beqinninq at nanosacond.
Processea zelated to the inertia of chau~nel expanafon beqin to play a siq-
nificant role aith e larqe increaoe of current. The channel ie unable to
expand rapidly within a ahort time and to increase ite conductivity. There-
fore, the problem nriaee of hoa to achieve hiqh values of current with ahort
riee timea. T1ro methoda of $olving thie problem were proposed at ISE SO AN
SSSR.
The firet method, called avalanche coamutation, consiets in the fact that
a large number o~ electrone is created eimultaneouely in the spark qap upon
application of an eleetric field. Each of these electrons, located in a
sufficiently hiqh electric field, create8 an electron avalanche within a
short time: ona ~lectroz leads to formeition of millions and even hundreds
of millione of electrane within a very short time and the current in the
qae increases very rapidly. Thue, the epark channel is eliminated and, -
moreover, extremely rapid procesees occur ahich permit a reduction of the
riea time to tar~the of a nanoeaoond. Experimenta showed that current rise
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- ratie~ up tio 1014 A/s can be echieved during e?veisnahe commutation. Moreover,
higher pul~e reourran~~ frequenoies ~up to 104 H~ or nare) are ~ahieved with
avai~nohe commutxtion.
7'he ~econd methoc9 proposed during develnpmenC oi" the evelnnche commutiarion
methad Conel,ets in injeeting eleetrona from an eleCtron source direeti~? inte
_ thQ geg. if the velue of the in~eceed elee~ron ourrent is high, the short
eomvnutetiion tiime and the hiqh re~tie of ~urrent rise are aehieved ev~n wiChou~
ava].eu~che multipl~.cdtiion of ~lectrone under conditiions of en independ~nt
~paae discharga. 1'he device which operates on thie pr~nciple is called ~n
in~~ctiion thyre~mn. Ae is known, the eleotirong of ordinary thyratrona
appear due to cathode hee~ting. ft~re the electrons are in~ected ~hrough tihQ
cathode from the outaide. This permite total control of the device: nnt
only of ewitiehinq it on, but alao ot ewi~ehinq iC off rapidly and stiopping
eleotiron in~sa~ion.
Thi~ device, propoead in 1969, wae vary ueeful for different purpoaea, ~ -
epecifically, in powergul gae luepr equipment. However, there i~ one defi-
~iency in tha injeation thyrntron. As soon ae the electric field in the
gae decr~aee~, the eleatron drift rate d~creases during commutation and the
commut~?tor will have hiqh reaidual resietance. Z'hie eame probiem exists in
spark gape with avalnnohe commuta~ion. To correcC thia deficiency, a gas
must be ueed in whiah hiqt~ slectron drift rate ie mr~intained in low electric
fields. F'or example, methane hae thie property. The dependence of the
elecCron drift rata in methane on E/p (Fiqure 2) is simil~r in n~ture. At
E/p N 1 V�cm-1 non Ng-1, this rate ia maximum (on the oraer of 10~ cm/s),
although it is conoiderably leeg than 106 cm/s in ordinary gasea. This
effect permits e reduction of the raeiduel reeistance of ~he injection
thyratron by oevarel featore.
Low reeidual resietance and hiqh current rise rate may also be achieved in
epark qape aith lsrqe number of apark channels. Many channels can be formed
in solid-etate, liquid and qde epark gape. A commutator with six spark
channel8, developed at TPI, !n aater which conmutate current of 150 kA within
8 na, ia ehown in Fiqure 3. Methode of ignitiaq up to 10 channels in a qas
at voltaqe from 0.5 to 3 mV heve been developed at ISE SO AN SSSR. in thia
caee the time b~twean igr~ition o! individual channels comprised units of
nanoeeconde.
Storaqe lines are ueed to etore erierqy. Zt~ro types of lines are uaually
employeds stxip linee two etxips between ahich a dielectric is placed,
and coaxial linee two coaxial tubee betaeen ahich a liquid dielectric is
usuelly located. Or~e can ehow that the current related to the width of the
etrip or diameter of the tube ie proportional to E~, where E is the elec-
tric field int~naiL~? and ~ is the dielectric permeability of the insulation.
Consequently, E and E ot the f~naulation muat be increased to increase the
current (by usinq, tor example, diatilled aater in which 81) and the
dimeneions o! the etoraqe elements tauet aleo be increased. When the enerqy
ot the atoraqe elemsnte reachee millions or tens of millions of joules, the
etorage dsvic~s acquire enormoue dimeneions and their cost increases sharply.
Moreover, di~fiaultiae related to ganeration of short pulees appear (the
- larqer the dimst~ ione, tte more difficult it ie to qenerAte short waves).
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iti~
~ ~ .
~
: ~
. ~pe
O.t 1 10 '
~~Q,~ICM.iOp
Figure 2. Dependonae of Different G+~e Dri~t Rmte on Ratio of
Llectrio ~ieid inteneity E to Asa Preesure p: 0--
Art � CNat q C02
'
~ ~ r
, ~
,
~
.
. Figure 3. Multichannel Discharqe in Water
Therefora, the problem of findinq new etoraqs d~vices arisea. The importance
of ttii� probl~n is illuatrated by the lollowinq exaa~ple. it ia kno~m that
1 kW�hr (3.6 MJ) of ordiaary eleotxia enerqy coet.e eevsral kopecks. Not less
- than 1 million rubleo muat be spaat to produae tha sema power in a naaoeecond
generetor. Th~relore, a�~arch for msthode !or most e!liciant oonvereion of
- ordinasy sl~ctriaal snergy to pow~r~ul ehort energy has bean conducte8 for a
long time in the mo~t diver~e laboratories.
One o! tho oolutiona to the devsloped eituation is to use inductiv+e enerqy
etoraqs deviae~ er~d aurrant cutof! in them. Theae iaveatiqations are beinq
conducted actively and ~uoceoefully at the inetitute of Atomic En~rgy imeni
i. V. Kurchatov under the suparvisioa o~ AcaBamician Ye. P. Velikhov and at
the Scientilia Res~arch o~ Electrophysical Appar.atue imeni D. V. Yafremcv at
i.eningrad. Th~ probleai o! producinq very hiqh pulaed enerqy in the milli-
and microaeooad baads has ba~n e~lved there. T1ie ISE SO AN SS3R jointly
Mith the Tom~k Polyl:aahnical Inetitute ie eoivinq tha problem of enerqy
�torage in induotanc~ aad conwroioan o! it aot only to miaroeecond, but also
to nano~~aond ~l~atmn b~ams. It ie not yet poasible to completely solve
~hia probl~a, but pulae gaasratora hava already bean deve,loped ahich percnit
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en~rgy ~toreg~ in ~e?pa~itor~ at law voltiage, then pumping i~ to tihe inductance,
after whl.ch the aurrent is ~harply cu~ cff, usualiy due to e~cplosian o~ the
cnnductore. Solu~ion of thie probiem beceme pog~ibie due tio developmenti of
new currenti ahoppers, ae whioh a eeti of a laxge number of copper mioron con-
ducrore !.a used inet~ed of the metial foils used previou~ly. The u~e a~ the~e
conduatore permit~ e multifold inoreeee of the eurrent ~utoff epeed nnd con-
- sequently of pulae amplitude. Theee effec~e are used to develop amall pu18e
gen~rator~ with v~ol~ege of 0.6-1.5 MV. Eleatron ncceleratior9 are being
developed on the beeie of the~e generatiore.
A pul8ed acaelerator with electron enarqy of 1 MeV and curren~ up to 20 kA,
developed a~ YSE 50 AN 53$R aild the Tomsk Polytechnical in~tiitute, is ahown
in Figure 4. Several of theee accelerators are operatiing at inatitutea o�
the USSR Aoademy of Sciencae.
` I___ ` ~I i . ~ -
,
~a, ~ i~
~ ~ ~~=T ' f
+
. ~
! , ~ ~b
' y t , 's ; _ ~
y 'I ~ nw
~ ~ ~ ~
1
`
k~ ~
r
~
_ .
~ .
i . -
.
F., '
: _ , ~ -
i; . . . \ ~ ' '
+9, t
4,.., . . . wr~._. s.+.: ..i. =~r:c:r ~..,l~if at'1}i:~ rs ; .
Figure 4. "Puchok 1M" Electron Accelerator With Inductive -
Intertnediate F~ergy Storage Device and Microconductinq
Current Chopper
T'he diesdvantage o~ current choppers in the form of exploded conductors is
their one-time uee. A~ew conductor must be inserted to qenerate a new _
pulee. Ueually several minutes are required for prepnration and replace-
ment of the chopper. Therelore, theee qenerators are not yet able to
operate in the larqe-frequency pulee mode. In thie reqard the injection
thyratron which aae diecueeed above opens up interestinq possibilities.
, Current cutotf in it may occur due to atoppinq electron injection.
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_ 7'he following experimenti wae conduati~d to cheok tho po~sibility of curre~ti _
cutioff. A v+oi~sge of 330 kV wa~ fed to an in~ee~ion thyretron. The aurren~
of tihe in~eatiad siaatrone comprieed 18 kA. Tha ourren~ in the thyratron
- it~elf wa~ 150 kA. After the eleotron currenC wae ~topped in the in~eato.r,
the aurrant in the thyrntron wee etopped ae well. The outoff time of current
of 150 kA eon~prioed approxit?~tely 200 ns .
However, it ie difficul~ to uee an in~eotion thyratiron ae a current chopper
in tihe pre~ena� of en inc~uctiive g~ornge device due to development of insta-
bilitiy in the thyratron plesma~. 7'he electric field in the spaae gae dis-
charge plasma o~ the thyratron increeaes atrongiy durinq current ~utoff. it
also lead~ to inetability of the epace discharge dnc~ forma~tion of n dischdrge
chennel. To aliminste ~hia inatability, the electric field must be reduced, =
for exemple, by inareaeinq the dietance betiween tihe thyratron cathode and
nnoda with fixed voltage. Hut thie leads to a decrenee of current which
_ pw~ps the induative storaqe devioe. T'herefore, gaseous media must be found
in which the dieaharge ourreat, propor~ional to the electron 8rift ra~e,
will be greater in rmall electrie fields. it was notied above that methane,
the uae of which may be very uaeful, has this property.
-ti.
~
.
;
~ . .
~
,
- : ' ~ :
~ ~c. ~j ~t
F3qure 5. Printe of Electron Benms of Different Type
One of the moet siqnificant trends in the use of po~werful nanosecond pulse
equipment ie ..i~o use in heavy-current nanoaecond electron acceleretors.
The firet inveotigations in thia direction were conducted independently in
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~he U55R and in ~he United Statee. A group of re~eerch aesoaiatee ati ~S~ SO
AN SSSR developed the firet heavy-current nanoeecond electiron accelera~or in
Che USSR in 1967. Thie wna preceded by almosti a decade oE investiigatiions on
powerful nanoaecond pulse technology and etudy of the discharge in a va~uum
- due tio the effeet of high-voltage nanosecond pulaea. The investigat,ions 1ed
to the di~covery of the phenomenon of explogiv~ electron emiasion, con~iating
in the gaoti ~hati the mi.croecopic pointe on the eatihode explode due to the
effecC of the autoelectron emission current. A metal-plasma tranaition is
formed in thie aaee which conCributes to aharp acqpli�ica~ion of electiron
current. The electron currents m~y be extremely high up to hundreds of
thoueende and even millions of an?perea.
_ Explosive electron emission is uaed in heavy-current electron accelerators.
There are three types of theee ncceleretors. First, an accelerator which
permite generation of a foaueed eleo~ron beam. For examp~e, current densi~y
up to 107 A/cm2 heg been nchieved at the Ins~itu~e of Atomic Enerqy imeni -
I. V. Kurchntov and at FZAN (Phyeice znetitute imeni P. N. Lebedev of the
USSR Aca~demy of Sciences].
Second, an accelerator for generating larqe-area beams. A wide electron
beam can be produced and diecharged into the atnwsphere with the exiatence
of many emi.eeion centers on a lerge aurface. For example, beams with cur-
rent up to 20 kA nnd area up to 1 m2 for C02 laser pumping ha~~e been achieved
et ISE SO AN SSSR. -
Third, beams of tubular ahape can be produced in acceleratore by using diodes
with interaectinq electric and magnetic fields. Prints of three different
typea of beame producesi in accelerators of ~SE SO AN SSSR: a-- an annular
beam 6 cm in diameter with current of 10 kA and elec~ron energy of 600 keVt
b-- a flat beatn 10 cm wide with current density of 10 A/cm2, tk = 25 ns=
and c-- a focuaed beam with current density of 5�106 A/cm2, are ahown in
Figure 5.
Development of powerful narioeecond electron beam equipment strongly stimulated
the poaeibility of using them in thermonuclear fusion. Theae investigations
are being conducted at a number of orga~?izations in the USSR and primarily at
the Institute of Atomic Energy under the superviaion of L. I. Rudakov and at
the Institute of Nuclear Phyaica of the Siberian Departn~ent of the USSR
Academy of Sciencee under the superviaion of Correaponding Member of the
USSR Academy of Sciences D. D. Ryutov.
Three high-valtage standa of the ISE SO AN SSSR for production of nanosecond
puleea havinq voltaqe qreater than 3 MV and current up to 500 kA, which wi11
be used to conduct varioue typea of investigations related to the effect of
the8e pulaes, are ehown in Figure 6.
The use of high-voltage nanosecond pulae equipment permits solution of the
prohlem of miniaturizdtion of high-voltaqe devices. It follows from Figure 7 ~
thnt the electric strength of inaulation increases strongly with a decrease
of pulae length, that is, high electric field intensity can be ~chfeved with
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. . ~
w~, ~ ~ ~ ;
A~ I ~ / ~Irw~
I~I~AM~~
~ ' ~ ~ . . ~ir jl.
~ i~ ~1~ , 1
- ; , ; r~ N `.I~''~ !
- ,
. ~
, I' r
r
t
i ~ ti` -
k ~
~~'~i ~ y .
~
r ~ (]~'~e
. l~~ ~ Al'~~ ~ 4.
~ ~4 ; 1:.. _
f;~i.r ':;e~
~~a ~ y ~
e �.f~` r~.~. r.
i, ,qe;
_
,Sy' ~
ef:
t ~a y _
. :q�Qy;'r ;`~a~
.
,
K~.
.
t
,,.5:,
Figure 6. Hiqh-Voltage Stands !or Nanosecond Pulae Teste
short length. Thie permita eolution of tha problem of miniaturiza~tion of
high-voltaqe device~. On thie baeie, a 0eriea of esaentially new X-ra~y
_ apparatus hw b~sn developed uader the supervision of V. A. Teukera~nn and
N. I. iGomyak during the pset !mv yaara at the NPO Burevaetnik. Exploaive
emiesion cathodss ara uaed as ths electron eource in tham. The fundamental
- research of ~xplosive electmn a~aisaion and the autoemiesion proceesee which -
etimulate it, aarried out by out group at Tonwk, by G. N. Fureey at Laninqrad _
Univereity, snd alao by M. i. Y~linson at the Institute of Radio ~ngineerinq
and Eleotronice of the USSR Acad~my o! Sciences ar~d by V. N. Shrednik at
the Leningrad Physicotechaical Institute isaeni A. F. ioffa o! tha USSR
Acaden~y of Sciancao, contributed to the aucceas o~ thie work.
The weight o! thm X-ray a4Pparatus naw produced ia 8-10 timea legs than ordi-
nary ~pparatw. Th~oe X-ray devic~s are used aatively in flaa detaction,
apecilically, to X-ray qae and oil pipelines, to calibrate r~diation detec-
tors, in n~adic~l practice and ao on. Development arid introduction of these _
nanoaacond X-ray ypparatue deaotes a real revolutior~ in X-ray technology.
They ar~ naw b~inq ~old in all CEMA countries aad also in the United Stdtes,
West Germany, Sngland, Japan erid other aa,pitaliet countriea.
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4
3
~ ~d
~ 4
W Z _
' 3
_ :
1
i .
1
0
10'a ~~.0 10,~ 10.~ ~p a
~N~C
Figure 7. Dep~ndeaae of Electria Strength of Different Media on
Pulse Lenqth: 1-- air, p~ 10 atim, d~ m~ni 2--
dielectrio water eurface, d~ 3 amt 3-- vacuum, d~
~ 0.5 mm~ 4-- transformer oil, d! 1.2 mm
The small overali dimeneions and the poeeibility of producinq hiqh outputs
make powerful nanoeecond electronic dcaelerators exceptionally promiaing
for productioa purpoeea. Experimenta aonducted at iSE SO AN SSSR showed
thati euch proceseee ag hardening polyester paints and sterilization of
microorganisms proaeed with identical aucceea upon exposure to both conti-
nuous and nenoeecond pulsa beame with high pulse recurrenca frequency.
The "Sinus-4" acaelerator, which hns average outpu~ of 6 kW, pulee recurrence
frequdnoy of 100 Hz end pulee length of 20 ns, is preeented in Figure 8.
An inatallation for ueing powerlul SHF pulses with recurrence frequency of
100 Hz hae be~n developed ia joint work of FIAN, the Applied Phyeics Inatitute
of the US3R Aaademy of Saiences and I3E SO AN SSSR. It includea a pawerful
nanoeecond pulea generetor, a 8iode for ehaping a tubular electron beam, a
resonator and eolenoid. Inveatiqations to proc'luce powerful SHF emission
puleea using heavy-ourrent electron beams were bequn jointly in the 1970's
by the Applied Phyeics of Inatitute of the USSR Academy of Sciences and by
_ FiAN. Theee iaveetigati.ona laid the basis for the large cycle of research
which h~a naw received international recognition.
Powerful nanosecond eleatron beam equipment made it poasible to obtain new
fundamental reeulta in nuclear phyaics, solid-atate physica, in gas- and
vacuum-diecharqe phyeics a?nd eo on. For example, the firat in~restigations
of the effect of powerlul beams on ion crystalline dielectrics and glass
were performed at the Tomsk Polytechnicai Inetitute and the iSE SO AN SSSR
due to the u8e of heavy-current acceleratora of ISE as early as 1y69. These
inveatiqatioxu permitted the detaction of auch phenomena as brittle failure -
of ion aryatale, oemiconductors and glass= fundamental plasma lumineacence
havinq tes~erature independencet high-energy conductivity during the effec~
35
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FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
r 1~'�'~.
} r Y i C:i~y'
~ ~ ,i,.r... i~ i II
t~.
t ~
~
~ ;
~4~,~Mt x' J _N i
r '!4 _r
c - 7`,
h: 1
'1 ..,/:Y~' i .1~~~4~.
~~i
.~i:. . . ~~i; ' .t
y 1
_ ~ ~ f? iraMw` ~ 2 i �
a
. d ~ ~ , ~ r
, I ? : yS!,L1R!r,~ :1 ? ~ 1~` ` � �
~~~+4 ~ ~
~ ~ 3 � M ~ ' S,~f � / . ~
~ ( 7/~ ~ i ~ y
t i ~{~;~'~~~e I~ t
� ~,]K~ ~ ~~1 ~ ~L.
J'^~.~fi'Y li
i i 4`
b'
. ~A � t ~ ~
~.t,1l,~ ~~'�.F~'~ ~'J:~
~ r ~
~~2~~Y~~~
I~K Y i
-
Figure 8. "Sinus-4" Electron Aocelerntox of YSE SO AN SSSR -
nf ari electron beam arid so on. Ona can state thdt a new trend related to `
study of phenomena caueed by formation of a deqenerated electran-hole plaenu~
whoae deneity ie up to 109 timae hiqher thnn thnt in etationary irradiation -
in ordinary aaaelerators, ocaurred in irradiation physica of dielectrice.
Thus, powerful nanoeecond pulae eqnipn?ent now finds application both in
various phyeical investigatione and in solvinq a number of production pro-
blems ar~d ite capabilitiee are !ar from exhaueted.
A di.acussion wae held after G. A. Meayata's report.
Academician 1~., V. Gnponov-Grekhov pointed out the unique capabilities of
auperhigh-power pulee generatore to create high-frequency emiseion. Talkinq
about the ecientific trends developed ~t the Inetitute of Her.vy-Current -
Electronics ot the USSR Academy of Sciences, A. V. Gaponov-Grekhov emphasized -
that main efforte are concentrated here in development of purely electron
beams and, moraover, developsaent of accelerator8 ie being carried out for
epecific applicatione. 'Phe Applied Phyeica Inetitute of the USSR Academy ~
of Sciences is cooperating ePfectlv+ely with the Institute of Heavy-Current
Electronica, apecifically in the fi~ld of SHF-emiasion application.
L. I. Rudakov en~haeized in hie talk the importance of extensive development
- of the problem of producing superpowerful emiesion pulaes, being carried out
urider the eupervi~ion of G. A. Meeyats nt the inatitute of Heavy-Current
Electronics of the 3iberian Departaient of the USSR Academy of Sciences. _
36
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_
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- M. S. Rabinovich no~ed Che important role which the investiga~ions o� the
gcienti�ia collective headed by G. A. Meeyats played in the work of FTAN
in laser teahnology and deve].opment of pawerful SHF generators. Approxi-
ma~ely 100 digferen~ acaelerdtora developed at di�ferent institu~es are now
operating in the iJSSR. There is alreddy an aaute need for industrial pro- -
duation of accelerators for varioua purposes.
Academician Ye. P. Velikhcv tal}c~$d about the cooperation of the Tna~itu~e of _
Heavy-Current Electronics of the Siberian Departiment of the USSR Academy of
Sciencee and the Leningrad Scientific Reeearch Institiute of Electrophysical
_ Apparatus imeni D. V. Ye�remov in development of a series of accelerators
for different purpaees. One of these acceleratore is already produce~3 by
industry. ~
~ The Preaident of the USSR Aaademy of 5ciences Academician A. P. Aleksandrov
summarized the dieouseion. ~ie turned attention to the fact tha~ almost -
identical accelerators are now being developed at different institutes for -
different nroduction purposes rtnd expressed the opinion of the need to
~ coordinatie efforte in this field. Having noted the great successes of the
recen~ly creatied Inetitute of Heavy-Current Electronics of the 5iberian
Department of ~he USSR Academy of Sciences in work3ng out the problem of
superpowerful nanoaecond pulses, A. P. Aleksandrov wiahed them further -
auccess in development of thie important trend.
COPYRIGHT: IZddtel~8tV0 "Nauka", "Veatnik Akademii nauk SSSR", 1979 _
6521
CSO: 1870 ~
37
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~Oi~ n~~ICIAL US~ l~Nt,Y
1'U13LLCATIONS
0ltCANIZING ~HE OPERATION 0~ A COMPUTING C~NTEIt
,
Mogcow ORGANIZATSIYA ItABOTY VYCHI5LITEL'NOGO TS~NTItA (Organizing th~ Uperg-
tiott of. ~ Computing Center) in Rugeiac~ 1978, eigned Co pre~~ 11 Jul 78,
pp 1-6, 186-191
[Ann~tation, foreword, intr~ducCion, Appendix 5, bibliography, and Cable nf
contenta from baok by I. A, Orlov, Ixdetel'stvo "Energiya," 28~OOd copiea,
192 pagea]
, [Teat] ANNOTATION
The purpoees for forming computing cenCere~ their functioae~ and organiza-
tional atructure are diecueeed in the book. Also diecueaed are queetione
of atandardiziag methode~ procedure~~ and the oper~tiona sequence at the
computing center, which all turn out to be baeic for achieving emooth and
eyatematic computing center operatione. Proceeaes of preparing~ controlling,
and pruceasing information are reviewed, as ie the principle of organizing
computing center operatians.
Much attention ie devoted to the mesna and meaeures iastituted to create coa-
ditiona for moet effective computer utilization. In thie coatext~ questiona
of the temperature range within which co~putere operate, dietributioa and
aupply of clean air in the computer room, control of noise aad vibcation~
and power aupply of the computer are coneidered.
The book is intended for etudente of technical high echools ~vho, through
their vocation~ are tied to the servicing and utilization of computere that
form part of a computing center.
PREFACE
The preaent text for atudente of technical high achools ie ~ntended for the
courae on organiziiig the operation of a computing center, which comea under
the epecialty area of electrontc cotaputers~ instruments, and devicee. Con-
eidering the eize of the book and the general direction of the couree, the
author did not undertake to turn this book into a reference volume with
detailed explanatione of all posaible methode and procedures of organizing
and carrying out operatione of a computing center. Nor did he delve deeply
into the area of uaing the equipment and methoda for assuring its effective
38
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utillz~ei.on, The purpo~e d,~ Che bo~k 3g eo d~.gcu~~ eh~ ~d1uCi,nn o~ all que~- -
tion~ from e g~ner~l (~nd ~uf~icier.Cly complee~) poi,nC n~ v~,ew ~nd~ gbove
~11, Cn cr~aC~ ~,n th~ xegder ~ pzopPx underetand~,ng o~ how al~. bastc work of
a computing cenCez ghou~d be conduceed in pzi,nc~,p].e and wh~t eh~ gen~rgl
form~ gnd xu1~e gxe for it~ organi,zation and execut~.on. Mgny o� these forma -
gre now practic~d gt our 1~ad3ng cdmpueing c~nCerg, c~lthnugh there ~re a1~o
tho~e ingenioue ~nd u~eful meeh~odg found in ehe practic~ of fnreign ~ompue- -
- ing c~nters reeommended in the book for our ~eeeptance.
_ 'The level of developmenC re~ched by computer technology demands a cnrr~gpond-
ing level of organization in ite utilixation. Only in thgt case wi11 i.e be _
po~eible Ca obtain a truly well.-ad~ueCed and efficient opergCion of a com-
puCing cenCer in all ite branches. It is thue even more imporCgnt to train
young ~pecialiete in~o who~e hande the future of our technology will be
plgced.
INTttODUCTION
The urgent taeke of further developing ecience and technology in our counery
and of finding the fastest (and the most efficienC) soluCion of acientific, -
engineering~ and economic probleme arieing es pare of theae taska gave riae
to the formatxon of computing centera, rather than a simple deaire to
iticrease the efficiency of uaing digital computera and to improve the condi-
tione of aervicing them. National and foreign e.xperience in manufacturing
and applying computing technology ehowa that the most promising direction in =
solving auch problems is the integrated u[ilizaCion of a large number of dig-
iCal computera uaed wiChin the framework of a computing cenCer, which in
final form repreaente a unified network of computing centers.
The complexity and multifaceted nature of the problems posed leads to the
necessity for maximian utilization of digital computer capabilitiea and to an �
intimate, creative collaboration of apecialista in a whole line of disci-
plinee. The moet favorable conditiona for auch cooperation and effective
= utilization of digital computere are poeaible withi.n the framework of comput-
ing centera equipped with digital computere of varioue classea, and by con-
centrating large numbers of epecialieta with appropriate qualifications in a
single place.
But the computing center ie not ~ust a collection of computers and experi-
enced apecialiete; it ie a complex mechaniam, where there ahould not be sepa-
rate categories auch ae computera, programmers, modelers, and ao forth, but
instead ahould be a unified, functional team, with a common plan, rule, and
rhythm directed Coward an effecCive implementation of the link between ~us-
tomer and computer.
~ Neverthel.ess~ today~ when computers are equipped with a well-developed =
library oF subroutinea and ~ syatem for automated programming, preparation
of problems for aolution on the computer still remains a laborious and
coetly procesa. One of the reaeons for this is that the necessary forms and
39
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rulee �or regulating the woxk o~ Che begi,c woxk gxoupg gt ehe cop~~uC~ng cen-
t~r and ~or ae~uring ~utual under~Cand~,ng aJUOng rhem (~nd w~,th ehe cu~tom~r~)
in working oue comple~; pro~rame h~ve nei,tht~r be~n ~uf.fict.ently woxk~d out nor -
gre they being en�~rc~:d r3,~~dly ennugh. ZC ig eagy to imagin~ hot~, under
th~s~ cnnditione, ehe chain l~,nking cuetom~r gnd cumpu~er, who~e linkg ere
pr~ci~ely modeler~ prc~gramm~er, and operaeor, ig 1engChenpd. It is Ch~r~for~
neces~ary to eetabligh ~Crtcter control of ehe entire procegg of ~r~pgring
nnd proc~e~ing inform~tion in g computing center, fnr which ehere ehnuld be
= provided ~t Qach of the GenC~re an epprnpriatie dige~t of ruleg ~nd proce-
dures, that ie~ an establiehed form (etandard) for orggnizing ehe work of the
modeler~ programmer~ op~ratnr, and eo forth, dnwn to the mechanical utiliza-
tion of Che computer itself~ Only in that case will g computing cenCer
be~ome an integratied~ well-balanc~d mechani~m.
By ~tgndardizaCion ie m~ant the esCablishment af etrictly d~fined fdrms for -
documentation~ gen~ral rule~ and order for the execuCion and eubmisaion of -
work in all eubdivieione of Che compuCing c~nter. This ia a necessary pre-
requiaita for realizing conCrol over the operation of the computing center,
and consequently a18o for Che opporCunity to increaee its efficiency.
Lncking such etandarde~ Che leadera of Che computing center find it ig impos-
sible to evaluate precisely the time for execution of one or another opera-
tion, and thoee who perform an operation frequently have only a vague idea
about thia matter~ carrying out their ~bligations in accordance wiCh their
own conception of inethode and epherea of operation.
The exietence of appropriate atandardg for the work of peraonnel nnd equip-
ment makea it poasible for the leaderehip to estimate properly the levels of _
expenditures~ datee~ and epecialiet ataffing necessary for the efficient
operation of the computing center, and to introduce changea into the existing
eystem of programa in order to establish appropriate control. Leadership has
to have the opportunity to evaluate the true loading of the equipmenC and -
personnel and, conaequently, determine the nast eff~cient mode of operation
of Che entire computing center in view of available re$ources. -
Of course~ the task of precise btandardization of the entire uperation of
information procesaing in a computing center is complicated and collides with
_ a whole number of probleme, which makes it imposaible to solve it exactly.
The current incomplete change of computer generations, the appearance of
minicomputere that have coneiderable capabilities, the introduction af multi-
programming computera and computere with time diviaion operation, and,
finally. the eucceseful development of devicea that receive information
directly from text or as the apoken word, these all prove and will continue
to prove to have a aignificant influence on the form in which computer ~pera-
tiona are organized at a computing center. In view of the lack of adequate
eaperience in the utilization of all theae modern computers~ a certain amount
of time will be required in order to cryetallize a more efficient structure
for computing centers e~nd for the forms for organizing the work in theae cen-
tere before it will be poesible to speak of truly atandard forms and struc-
tures.
40
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~ox or~tctnr. us~ drn~~c
_ At the ~am~ C~Sne, opereeiongl axpexi~nee gt le~d3,ng catqpue~.ng ceneer~ und~r
' all these conditione ehow~ th~t iC i~ not only po~~ib~,e but neceee~ry to
bng+a nll aork on ~tr3.rt and compl~tely d~~i,n~d rules foz oxgan~~ation and
proc~dure~ which make po~~ibl~ noe ~n1y ehorte~r t~tqe epan~ fdr e~rtai.n op~r-
gtione bue aleo sub~Cent3,a1 ~r,cr~a~e ~,n th~ quali.tiy of executi,on. It i.~ pr~-
cig~ly the ~trice~r standardiza~ion of eh~ current operaeing form~ ~C a com-
_ puting center thgt hae to be eh~ ba~~,e for moze ~.~fi~iene utilization and
th~ plgtform for more ~ucceesful developmene and ae~imil~eion of fueure
development~. xn Chf.~, the erandardization of the operating eide of infor-~
mation proceaeing hg~ to be baeed on a technological foundation which, in its -
turn, demande the impl~mentation of abeolutely precis~ gnd detailed ru1e~.
Only the eimultaneoug exietence of ~tandardized meChod~ for using equipment
~nd provieion of an effective oparation make poaeibl~ the creation of ~ truly
integrated~ well-bal~nced mechaniem, the moaC efficient form of implementing
the link between cuetomer and computer~ boCh in the presenr and in the future.
41
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
,
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43
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F~It 0~~'ICIAL US~ ONLY -
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44
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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~Ott O~~IC~AL US~ bNLY
Kpy tn Appendix 5
1. ~qu3pmant code number
= 2. Type and composition of equipmenC
3. Power required~ in kilowatte
4. Heati generated, 3n kilocalories p~r hour
5. F'1ow of air through equipment~ it? cubic metere per hour
6. Overall d3meneione, in mm ~
7. Areg raquired for servicing, in squar~ metere
8. Procea~or
9. Interconn~ct ewitching cabinet
10. Operating u~emory equipment
" 11. USSR
12. GDR
13. Polieh People'~ Republic
14. Multiplex channel
15. Magnetic tepe etorage
16. Magnetic drum etorege
17. Diemountable magnetic diec atorage
18. Permanent magnetic diec etorege
19. Magnetic card etorage
20. Control device for magnetic tape etorage
21. Control device for magnetic diec and drum etorage
22. Iaput device for reading punched carda ~ith BSSi:
23. Punched tape Yeader
24. Punched card output device ueing BSSK
25. Alphanumezic printer ueing BSSK and based on an ATaPU 128~-5 device
26. Graph-plotting dev3,ce ueing a plottez with BSSK
27. Graph~plotting device of roller type
28. Input-output device for alphan~eric and graph information using a
cathode ray tube with BSSK
29. Remote Cerminal �or inputroutput of al,phanumer~c ~n~o:1nat~on uai.ng
cathode ray tuBe with BSSK
- 30. Printer with BSSK baeed oa Che ItONSUL~200 deyice
31. Data preparation equipment
45
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BIBLYOGRAPHX'
Primary
1~ Brandon~ D. Kh. "Organizing the Operation i.n a Comput~r Center," Mn~-
cow~ 5tgtieeika~ 19~0.
2. Anon. "Software System for Compu~ere o.~ the Unified Seriea," Moscow~
St~tieCika, 1974.
3. Anon. "The DOS OperaCing Syet~m for the Unified Series," Moecow, Sta-
Cietika, 1975. �
_ 4. Fateyev~ A. Ye.; Roy bmn, A. I.; Fateyeva, T. P.; et. al. "Application -
Programe in the 8oftware System for the Unified Seriee Computera," Mos-
cow, Stat~etika~ 1979.
5~ Khryukin~ N. S. "Computing Center Equipment," Mo~cow, StaCietika, 1912.
6. Reznilwv~ G. V.; 06"yektov~ Yu. S.; Grachev, V. I. 'besign and Supply
of Computing Centere Based on a Unified Series of CompuCere~" Moecow,
5tatietika~ 1977.
Supplementary
1. Buyanov, G. Kh.; Tolkacr~eva, L. M. "Planning and Accounting for Opera-
tione of Computing Facilities,~' Moacow~ StaCi,atika, 19~4.
2: bivnogorCsev~ G. P.; Yaehin~ V. M. "Syetem and Equipment of Information
Exchange in the Computiag Centar Networke,~' MoacoW, Svyaz', 1976.
3. Ivanov, V. A. "Determining the Throughput Capability for Qperationa at
Computing Centere," Moecow~ Ekonomika, 1915.
4. Reyngol'd~ S. L.; Kholtobin, V. I. "Organization and Operation of Com-
puting Facilities," Moecow~ Statietika, 1976.
5. Semakov~ V. V. "On the Question of Evaluating the Probability of Errors
in Data Produced by Computing Centere," in the book "Numerical Computa-
tional Technology and Programming," Moscow, Sovetakoye Radio, Iesue 7~
1972.
6. Sanivina~ V. S. "Eetimating the Quality of Functioning of Automated
Control Syeteme," Ekonomiks~ 1973.
7. Orlov, I. A. "Foundations of Camputer Technology and Organization of
Computing Operatione," Moecow, Energiya, 1974.
8. Lapahin, G. M. "Experience in Qrganizing the OperaCion of Computing
Centere," Leningrad, LDNTP, ASUP aeriee, 1975.
9. Volkov, 0. M. "Fire Protection of Computing Centere," Moacow, Stroyiz-
dat~ 1973. ~
10. Anon. "The Deeignere Reference Book. Noiee Protection," edited by Ye.
Xa. Yudin~ Moecow~ Stroyizdat~ 1974.
CONTENTS pgge
Preface 3
Introduction 4
Chapter 1. Formation of Computing Centere ~
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~'age
1.1 Purpoees for ~ormaC~,on s~nd b~~~,c �unct~,ona o� co~puC~ 7
ing c~nC~x~
1.2 Organizaeional etructure o~ con~put~,ng ceneere 15
Chapter 2. Sequence of Opexatione at a Cotqput~,ng Ceneer 20
2.1 '~he Value of atandarde !or directi~,ng computing center ~0
operations
2.2 Methode usad by model deeignera in their work 25
A. Chc?ice of terminology 27
- B. Analyeie of proceduree and docwnente 30
C. Purpoae and number3ng of documente 33
D. Standardixing o! block diagrame 34
L. Liet of baeic operationa ' 40
2.3 Preparation and execueion of programs 42
A. The ayetem of computer eoftware as a meane for 42
preparing and eaecuting programs
B. Ueing the liet of baeic operations 47
C. Standardizing logic analyeie 49
D. Preparation and execution of progran?e S1
- E. Documenting the programming aystem 56
2.4 The work of the operaeor Sg
A. Interior arrangement 59
B. Account~ng for machine time 60 .
C. Work at the terminal 62
D. Control funetione 66
E. Library organization 67
Chapter 3. Mechanical Operatione of Information Proceeaing 71
at the Computing Center
3.1 Receiving the input information 72
3.2 Preparing ini~ial data 76
3.3 Procesaing of information 83
3.4 Preparing output documentation gg
3.5 The effecC of aeveral facCora on information procesa- 90
iug
' 3.6 Generel rules for phaeed coatrol of information 95
- A. Receiving and cont~ol of input documenta � g5
B. Tranefer of information to machine media 97
C. Entering conditional-permanent information g8
D. Proceeeing of data in the computer 100
E. Coatrol and output of information 101
3.7 Several queations concerning the determination of . 101
reliability atatiatice ~or ~nfot~tnation procesaing
3.8 Sequence of e~cecuting computati.onal tvork at a comput~ 111
ing center
_ Chapter 4. Measurea and Meane for Aasuring Efficient Utiliza- 118
tion of Digital Computers
4.1 Technical maintenance of digital computers 118
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~
,
I~'OIt n~~'tCTAL US~ dNLY
Png~
A. RouCine pxevenCive mai,ntenance ~2~,
B. 3ervicing equ~,pment ~22
C. Queetione o~ deyelopi,~?g enftWare aerv~,ce 12g
4.2 B;p~ect o~ ut~.lizat~,on cond~,tinne on the ehxoughput 125
o~ e d~.g3ta1 computer -
4.3 Seorage conditione for carriexs of in�ozmaei,on 130
4.4 Cooling the computer and d~,etributing a~,r in the 139
computer room
A. Cooling the compuCer 139
B. Distribution of air in ehe computer room 143
4.5 Mean~ Por providing clean air in the computer room 145
4.6 Air-conditioriing as an effective meana of maintain- 150
~ng opereting temperatureg o! the computer
A. Meane for air-conditioning the computer room 151
B. 3y~teme for condittoning end cooling air 153
C. Syetem diagram for conditioning and cooling air 159
D. Standby equipment 1.63
4.7 Meane of noiee auppreeAion and vibraCion control in 165
a computing center
A. Meaeuree for lowering noiee gnd vibration in a 165
computing center
B. Controlling operational noise in a computer room 169
4.8 Power eupply~ lighting, and fire prevention in a con?- 170
puting center
Appendix 1. Form No. l: "Report of Errora Diecovered and of 177
Information Controlled on a Daily Baeie in a Computing
Center"
Appendix 2. Liot of Control Oparatione lu Proceaein~ Informa- 1~8
tion
Appendix 3. Typee of Errore Arieing in Preceseing Informatioa 179
at a Computing Center
Appendix 4. Reaeone for the Appearance of Errora in the Proc- 183
eeeing of Information at a Computing Center
Appendix S. Reference Data for Hardware of Computera in the 186
Unif ied Syetem
Bibliography 189
COPYRIGHT: Izdatel'stvo "Energiya," 1978 ~
6948
CSO: 1870 gt,jp
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