JPRS ID: 8391 TRANSLATIONS ON USSR RESOURCES PIPELINE TRANSPORT OF PETROLEUM

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' iA APRIL i979 CFOUO 8r?9~ ~i OF 2
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JPRS L/8391
10 Apri1 1979
~
~ TRIINSLATIONS ON USSR RESOURCES
(FOU(1 8/79)
PIPELINE TRANSPORT OF PETROLEUM
- U. S. JOINT PUBLICATIONS RESEARCH SERVICE 4
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~
spRS z/ s 39 ~
].o Apri 19 79
TRANSLATIONS ON USSR RESOURCES
(k'OUO 8/79 )
PIPELINE TRANSPORT 0~ PETROLEUM
Moscow TRUBO-PROVODNYY TRANSPORT NEFTI I GAZA ("Pipel.~.ne Transport
of Petroleum ~nd Gas") in R~zssinn 1.978 aigned to presg 19 May 78 ~
pp 146-192, 322-374
[Chapters 5 and 8 of book edited by V.A. Yufin, Zzdate].'stvc~
"Nedra," 7,700 copies, 408 pageg~ ~ .
~ CONTENTS PAGE
Technical Design o~ Main Petroleum Pipelines 1
Fumping of Highly Viscous and Highly Congealing.Petroleum 59 `
- a - [III - USSR - 37 FJUO]
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TECHNI~AL DESIGN 1)F MAT~1 PETROLEUM PIPELINES
Moscow TRUBO-PROVI)DNYY TRAN9PORT NEPTI I GAZA in Rusaian 1978 pp 146-192
[Chapter 5 by V. l). B~elousov, E. M. Bleykher, A. G. Nemudrov, V. A. Yufin
and Ye. I. Yakovl~av from the book TRUBO-PROVODNYY TRANSPORT NEFTI I GAZA
_ edited by V. A. 1?~ufin, Izdatel'stvo "Nedra," 7,700 copies, 408 pagea]
[Text] The techno:logical designing of a petroleum pipelin~ involves solu-
tion of the fullo+wing fundamental problems:
determination of the economically moat advantageous parameters (pipeline di-
~ ameter, presaure at the petroleum pumping statione, pipeline wall thicknesa
and the number of petroleum pumping atationa);
determination of the positioning of stationa along tt+e pipeline route;
computation of trie pipeline opera~ing regimes.
Uaing several dii~meter values iC is possible to carry out hydraulic and
mechanical computati~ns determining (for each variant) the number of pet-
roleum pumping stationa and the pipeline wall thickness. The beat variant
is found from the reduced expenditures, that is, ecoaomic computations.
T'.ie positioning of the petroleum pwaping stations is determined graphically
on a compresaed profile of the route.
The computation of the operating regimes involves a determination of the
- pr~asures at the atations, the backups before thean and the throughput cap-
acity of the pipelinas under pumping conditions differing from the computed
condition~. In addition, the problem of regulating pipeline operation ia
solved.
~5.1. Initial Data for Technological Design of Pipeline
The following data are necessary when designing a pipeline: throughput cap-
acity; dependence of petrole~nn viscosity and denaity on temperature; ground
temperature at the depth at which the pipeline is lsid; mechanical properties
of pipe material; technical-economic indices and a aketch of the compreased
route profile.
The throughput capacity of a pipeline is given in milliana of tons pe~ year
~n the design apecifications; for computationa it ia conv~~rted into m/hour
- and m3/sec (in thp compt~ted denaity values). It is assumed that a pipeline
operateR 350 days (or 8,400 hours) annually.
1
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Throughput capacity is. Che principal factor deCermining the pipeline dia- .
meter and the pressure at stations.
- The Cachnological design norms give the pipeline diameter values and prea-
sures at petroleum pumping etations ae a function of throughput capacity
- (Table 5.1).
Table 5.1
Pipeline Diameters and OuCput Preasur~d at Stations as a Function of the
' Throughput Capacity -
~ He~reapoAY~onpoeoAa ~ He~senpowAy 2
~~~neuxe, IIponycxn~e IIpoa aKe~n
p~~llTP~ NN ~ OQOOO6tt00Tb~ AuWesp, YM ~~~~H/~~
1( R~0/ON ~It. r/rop N{'O/ON~ O~Y~T%COA, .
2f9 90-f00 0,7-0,9 529 bt-85 8-8
273 75-85 ~,8-l,8 � 690 b2-82 !0-l2 -
825 8i-75 i,8-2,3 720 , 50-80 l4-f8
377 55-85 2,5-3,2 820 48-b8 22-28
428 55=G5 S,S-4,8 920 48-58 82-38
529 55-85 8,5-8,5 l020 48-58 42-50 -
, l220 ' 4~--54 70-78
KEY:
_ 1. Petroleum product pipelines
2. Petroleum pipelinea
3. Diameter, mm
4. Pressure, kg/cm2
5. Throughput capacity, millions of tons annually
Table 5.2
Capital Expenditures on Linear Part of Main Pipelines
}~OQIT~JI~qMO MTp~TY~ K~01T~i1?IIY~ MYP~TY~
. TYO. Dyd~NM TYO. aro~N,~ .
_ jZN~MET
Tpy6onpo~o- rp~0onpoD- '
A~~ Mw !I~ OCHOtityq n~ napaa- soaa, ra Ai OCSOfHr1D ea aap~- .
Ml17CTptilb 71b7sHrp iiiT~C7D~A6 IIEAiM~
1 3 ~`ar'~ 4pn� ~ 3 ~ar~a~aas
4
2'!9 22~8 l8,0 830 7l~0 56~0
. 273 24~9 20~! 720 77~5 8~~i
825 28~8 Z2,8 8~10 9!~! 74~9
877 93,8 27,5 f020 f96~! !l9~8
428 97,A 3f,5 � l220 l80~8 l65~8
seo aa,e ~s,!
KEY: ~
1. Pipeline diameter, mm
2. Capital expenditures, thousands of rubles/km
- 3. on main pipeline
_ 4. on parallel pipeline
2
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Table S.3
CapiCal Expendituree on One P;~nping Station (in ThAUeands of Rubles)
_ ~ "~r. _ ~ y ~ ~ _ ~ ~
iTpo~ro�~aR Ho~u~ anout~~x~ ~ Co~r�q~nn?R Qaoa~~ ~
onaoo0seore~
_ raa, z/ro~ rouoeeu~ cpoMe~Tto~~n roito~e~~
IIpow~cTro~ut
� 5
6 H~~s~npo~yxronpo~ox~t ~
. ' f~9-~l~8 � ! b04 8~64 ! 080 ~ . b6i5
f~8-Z~8 ! 848� 9Q0 ! i80 55b
2~S-9~Z ! &7 if27 ! ~20 880
9~b--~~8 2 5~(f fZ74 f 800 78li
.8,b-8~b ' 8 890 l889 a 720 l006
y He~,renpo~oR~t
_ 8-3 5 4!8 l928 ~ 8 820 lf80
f0--f2 8 790 Z0f8 4 700 f2f0
22-?a P 202 � Z2b64 8 S55 l~~35
4~-b0 !5 898 9028 !0 925 l81b
70-78 . ~ 18 i99 9,960 8~5 Z195. "
- KEY:
1. Throughput capacity, milliona of tona anm~ally
2. New aite
3. Matched site
4. Main (head)
5. Intermediate
6. Petroleum product pipelinea
7. Petroleum pipelines
' Table 5.4
Costa of Pumping Under Technological Deeign Nor~s
CeOe- ce6e-
~rp~6ocp
io
a om~MOese tp~doop
~a ~*oa~ocTn �
nepana~xe. Q~p~Ka~et~
= A~~ MN xon/ (t. xw :a; wK ~Q~ Kw~
2
0~ ~ p;~
325 0,2i 8Z0 0,089
37? 0,i7 i0^A 0~065
4Z8 0~15 f220 O~Q82
590 Q~l3
KEY:
" 1. Fipeline diameter, mm
2. Cuat of pumping, kopecks/(ton�km) '
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,
, _ , _ ~ '
~eeeeeop~~ Ty~~yte ~~eeoo , ~ly~mQS~r a~ooeo0o Kecnepnuu Xaaueux ~
,
~
A~ B C D ~ E F G ~
~ , ~
. . ,
i
' l ~
v00 ! ;
JDO � ' ~
20G ;
~
100
~
, 0 ,
i ~
i
IIY.
YmV f Nlll w ~ ~ y ~ A N ~ ~ ti ~ ~ ~ ^ ~ O ~ A ~ O h N ^1 V Q ~1 ~O ~O ~ .
l,w~Q Mo~ e~~o~d~�ee~i.oe., ahe~.M~,! MMONti ~
H M C ~i h: N N N'' ~ ~ : N : h ~ ~iN ~~iE N ~ : ~ ,
~ ~
Z ,�"MM~M~t~ f0~060/ f0~060d010~060/ t0~0l01 70~/60I t.""060I 1I1~060/0 t0~060 Oi0i1 !1 }
0 /0/ t00 100 ~00 d00 i/0 )00 100 !/I -
~
. ~ -
_ Fig. 5.1. Route profile. Note: The names of tha statiane are given arbitrar-
ily. ~
- KEY:
' A. Novodvorki
B. Tuguyev
C. Aleyevo . -
D. Muftakhi ~
~ E. Frolovo ;
F. Kasperichi , ;
G. I~izil'sk
H. Ground elevations (bZack), m
- I. Distance, km
- The petroleum density and viscosity are determined by laboratory analyses.
' The density f~ is usually determ3ned at 20�C. At other tempesaturea ,
P~~pu~-~(e-20~, ~
(
where P t and f~20 are densities at the temperaturee t and 20�C, kg/m3; '
~ is the temperature correction, kg/(m3��C), -
~ ~ l~825-0~00f8f5p~.
T.he resulta of laboratory viecosity determinationa are given in the form
c,~ a viscosity-temperature curve.
In the absence of this curve the kinematic viacosity ~/a~t the neceesary tem-
perature can be found using the empirical formula (3n centistoke)
4
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~t16 t~-I-~~B) sa-b 1g T,
where a and b are consCante which can ;~e derermined uaing thie eame for- ~
mula if one knows the viecoeiCy values for L�wo difierent temperatures; T
is the abeoluCe temparature, �K.
The ground temperature at the depCh at which rhe pipeline ia laid ie de-
termined using field data. It muat be known for determ~.ning the computed
values of density and viscosity of the Fumped petroleum.
' The mechanical propertiea of the pipe material are given in the correspond-
- ing handbooka. Depending on the grade of eteel~ the tensile etrength and
yield atrear+ falJ. in the range from 50 and 35 kg/mta2 (for 14KhGS) to 60
- and 40 kg/mm2 (for 16G23AF). . ,
The technical-economic indices are necessary for determining the reduced
expenditurea.
The capital expenditurea can be computed by uaing coneolidated indices tak-
en from the technological design norms (Tablea 5.2 and 5.3).
The capital expenditures on the linear par.*. consist both of the coat of
the pipes and of the coat of all the work on pipeline ~onatruction (weld-
ing, insulation, digging of trenchea, etc.). The capital expenditurea at
the station include the cost of the equipment, pipeline communication sys-
tem, buildings, and for the head stations, also the cost of the tsnk farm.
About 80y of the total capital expenditures are apent on the linear part.
A~proximutely 45-50~G of the capita~ expendiEures on the linear part consti-
tute the cost cf the pipes.
The operating expenditures consist of the following principal items:
deductions for amortization (8.5~ of the capital expenditures on the ata-
tion and 3.5X of the capital expenditures on the Zinear part) and on cur-
rent repair (1.3 and 0.3X resp~ctively);
expenditures on electric power 0.7-1.5 kopeck/(KWH);
,
expenditurea on lubrication, water, heating, electric power and "housekeep-
ing" needs;
wages; -
maintenence, preservation, control; -
_ other expenditures.
The first three items in the expenditures are fundamental. Thirty-forty per-
- cent of all the expenditures are for amortization and current repair. The -
expend~tures on electric power constitute 40-60X.
5
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The total operaCing expenditures, determining tha coet of pumping opera-
tione, ie the mo~t importaut index which characterizes tha economy af
- pipeline operation.
In finding the eco~omically moet advantageous variant Che aperating ex-
penditurea Op can be determined ueing the formula
Op ~ SGL,
where S ie the cast of pumping~ rublea/(ton�km~ ~ee Table 5.4; G ia
the throughput capacity of the pipeline, tons/year; L is t~ne extent of
the pipeline, km.
The route profile (Fi~. 5.1) is used for determining the computed valuea
of khe 'length of the pipeline and the difference in geodetic elevations
~ and also for finding the places .for aiting pump~.ng ataCions.
The profile ie a diagram on which the characteristic points on the route
. are plotted and connected with one another. The dietances from the initial
_ point and the geodetic elevations of theae pointa are their coordinaCes.
- The distance between any two points thua is determined not by the lengCh
of the line connecting th~m but by 3ts pro~ection onto the x-axis. In
other words, the diatancea on the profile are plotted along the horizontal.
This is very important to bear in mind. ~
The route profile is plotted in compressed form: the scale along the ver~-
- tical is greater than along the horizontal. Therefore, all the rises and
depresaiona along the route stand out aharply and the diagram is graphic.
-
. ,
_
I
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_ ~5.2. Principal Formulas for Hydraulic Computationa of Pipelino
Steady motion of a liquid in a pipeline ia described by ehe equation
_ _
p-~'~' ~ 2'~-d i-{-8 dsm~r (5.1)
where p is preasure; ~o is liquid density; ~l is the hydraulic resistance
coefficient; x is length; D is pipeline diameter; w is the mean velocity _
of motion of the liquid; g ie the acceleration of gravity; z is the level-
ing elevation.
The dp/~o value repreaenta the work of movemet~t of the 1lquid in the aeg- -
ment dx, related to a unit maes [the measurement unit (H/m2)(m3/kg) ~ Hm/ '
kg].
a T his work is expended on Che overcoming of �rictianal forcea [~1(dx/D)(w2/
- 2)], on a change in the kinetic energy of the liquid [d(w2~2)] and on ra3s- -
ing the liquid to the height dz. .
Taking into account that P= const (droplet liquid) and that in thia case
with a constant diameter of the pipeline d(w2/2)~= 0, after integration we
obtain: . -
Pi-Ps L , w~
P D Z +g
(5.2)
where L is the distance between points 1 and 2, that is, the length of the
pipeline; a z~ z2 - z1 ia the difference in the geodetic elevaCions of the
end and beginning of the pipeline.
C~le divide expression (5.2) by g:
. Pt -P: L � ~{-~s. '
Pl D 2s (5.3)
In equation (5.3) each term represents the Work, no longer related to a
_ unit masa, but to a unit weight of the liquid, that is, he~ght. The pl/f~ g
- value (nr for brevity pl/r , where r~/~ g is the specific gravity of the -
liquid) is the height H1 to which the liquid rises in the piezometer under -
the influence of the excesa pressure pl at the initial point in the Fipe-
, line. The value p2/~o g is the height HZ to which the liquid rises in the
piezometer under the influence of the excess pressure P2 at the final
point. The value p/P g(or p/r ) is called the head, or, to be caore pre-
cise, the piezometric head. Its dimensionality is (H/m2)(m3/H) ~ m.
Equation (5.3) can be written differently:
g~~+o;~-- � (5.4)
where H~ H1 - H2 is the difference in heads at the initial and final
points on the pipeline; _
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h~"~, ~ t (5.5)
The H value is alao called the general or total head lose. In a general ~
~ case it also ic~cludes the head losees on local resistances and in velocity '
_ change.
Coefficient of Hydraulic Resiatance
Formula (5.5) is called the Darcy-Weisrich formula. The hydraulic reaietance
coefficient enter3.ng into it is a function of the Reynolds number Re and the
relative roughness E : ~ ~ ~
Ne~ ~D � ~y i p~
where is the kinematic viacoeity of the pumped petroleum; Q is the vol- -
ume flow; e ie the abaolute equivalent roughness of the pipeline walls.
In the case of laminar flow, and also in the case of turbulent flow in a
zone of relatively emall Re there is a emooth flow of liquid around the '
roughness pro~ections; roughnese exerta no influence on the head loes and ;
the hydraulic reaietance coefficient is dependcnt only on Re. With an in-
crease in Re the coefficient a decreases. ~
The re gion of turbulent flow, in which a=~(Re), ia called the amooth
friction region. ~
As a result of an increase in Re eddies begin to be detached from the rough-
ness pro~ections. Eddy formation occurs the aooner the greater the rough- ;
ness. Now the resietance to liquid flow ia dependent not only on Re, but
also on roughneas.
The region in which a(Re, E) is called the mixed friction region.
Here with,an increase in Re its influence on 'lie gradually decreased and
the influence of E increases (there is an increase in the intensity of
eddy formation on roughness pro~ections).
In Che case of large Re the ~l coefficient ceasea to be dependent on it.
The region in which ~l ~'1(E ) is called the region of completely rough i~
friction or the region of a quadratic frictior. ~~w, since here ~ is a ~
constant value and the head losa ie directly propoeCional to the aquare � I
" of velocity. ;
. ;
In the case of laminar flow (R,e < 2000) the hydraulic resistance coefficient
is found using the Stokea formula:
Ro '
The laminar regime occura during the pumping of very viscous petroleums. `
For cornputing ~ in a tzrbnlent regime (Re > 3000) in the emooth friction
- region we uae the empirical Blasius formula -
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~4 0~3f64 ~ .
Ne
Usually this formula is uaed in designing pipel~lnes for petroleuma of inedium
viscoaity.
For the quadratic region the hydraullc reaietance coefficient ia determin-
ed using the Nikuradze formula ~ ' -
~a21g a -~-l~74.
A. D. A1'tshul' recommenda uae of the Shifrinson formula
~l~O,i! CD~�~sb~--_....,. _
where k is the eqLi.valent roughnese, characterizing the total influence of
the stat~ of the intarnal surface of the pipeline wall on hydraul.ic resis-
tance.
In the Nikuradze formula and in all the formulas cited below the ~ value -
also must be determined uaing the equivalent roughness 2k/D. Sometimes
- it is only assumed approximately that in the case of a quadratic friction law
light peL�roleum products can be pumped. The quadratic friction law can be
used in computations for main gas lines. _
Universal formulas are used for determining the hydraulic resistance coef-
EicienC in the mixed friction zone. Their structure is such that in the
case of small Re they are transformed into the formulas ~1(Re), and
in Che case of large Re are transfo~tned into the formulas a( E). For
the first time a formula of such a type wss proposed by Colebrook and White:
_.l-- e- --�2~5!
V~ _-21g C 7~4 + Ae Y1l /
If the second term in the parentheaes is neglected, we obtain the Nikuradze -
formula for the quadratic friction law. However, if the first term is
neglected, we derive the Prandtl formula for the smaoth friction region:
! =21g Re V~-}-0,8. -
V~ �
The results of comFutations of ~l using the Colebraok and White formula co-
incide well with e~perimental data obtained ~or industrial pipelines. But =
this formula has a significant shartcoming: in computing a it is necessary
to have recourse to the successive approximations method.
This shortcoming is absent in similar formulas (giving virtually the same
results) propoaed by: '
N. Z. Frenkel ~ _ _ . ~ -
1~~ _'21g C 7 4+ l sRe }o�, . ~
I. A. Isayev .
l~h --1,81BL\3, ~ )i.ii+ R_8
~
9
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The A. b. A1'tehul' formula ie chgrgcterized by particular eimpltciCy
~�-o~ff (~-~-~,o,u
Wiel? tte k/D 500 with the 3hifrineon formula.
The Ite k/D ~ 10 vglue cgn be considered the 1imiC beCween the regione of
gmooCh and mixed frictiono ~nd Re k/D n 500 ie the 11mie between regione of _
mixed and completely rough friction.
Some k values are given ~.n Tt~ble 5.5.
Tgb1e 5.5
A. U. A1'tahul' Equivalettt Roughnesa Values
1 Metepa~a n satt TprA 2 CooTOaN~e ~rpr0 ~ A~ ww
3 Secmoag~a cranb~e 5 Howo a~cnte ~ 0
0--s~~a
flocaa secxo~ettmt arr oxcnay~- O~1b-0,3
, 6
4 C9ApII6tA CT8flb8Y0 ~ Hou~o ~ ~cn~ ~ ~b _
C aeara~sntieo8 xoppoaa~i aa 0~f0-O,ZO ,
g cae o~~xu ~
9 Ywopeaeo ~pmaoa~+a ~
Cnptito oip~caa~rta ~ ~'~~'S ~
10 ~ ~ `~3""'-
Caatiao aepaasae~sse n~ a
11 6wum~xu o~A~am~ . -~�Sb-'
KEY :
1. Material and type of pipea
2. Condition of pipea
3. Seamlese steel
4. Wel~',ed steel
S. New and clean
6. After several years of uae
7. New and clean
8. With insignificant corroaion after cleaning
9. Moderately Yusted
10. Old rusted
11. Severely rueted or with great depoeite
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Gener~lited Y,. S. Leybenzon Formula
The 3tokee, Blaeius gnd Nikurad:e formulae (and also Che Shifrineon for-
mula) have the following general form:
p~' (5.6)
where A and m are conetant values (m ie the indea of the liquid motion re-
gima). Subetituting (5.6) into the Darcy Weiebach equation (5.5) and taking
into account thaC Re ~ 4Q/~ D~v, we obtain the generalized Leyben~oa formula:
. . -
M-a, D,~�
where
p 8A . _
~ ~~~~_~a
The Leybenzon formula ie uaed extensively in those cases when the dependence
of h,~ on Q muet be expreesed in explicit form.
The values of the parametere m, A and ~ are given in Table 5.6.
On the graph lg f(lg Re) the dependence (5.6) for the flow regimes indi-
cated in Table 5.4 ie repreeented in the form of atraight lines~ the tangent
of whoae slope to the lg Re axia ie equal to m. In the region of mixed fric-
tion, Where ~ ie dependent not only on Re, but also on the relative rough-
ness k/D, the line lg 71 ~ f(lg Re) is a eaaoth curve. The index m of the
f1oW regime in thie region is a variable value.
Table 5.6
Valuea of O~efficients Bntering into Leybenson Formula
Ba~reaotien 1 A 0. Q'/~ '
3 Jl~wntapawii pe~tmt ' ! 6f 4,l5 "
. nl
4 TYPGyae~rrad8 pe~a~W ~ avne Sn~:rtyea 0,25 0.9161 ~'~�.0~0?~7
KEY: 5 06a~rrb tcs~Ap~rnqeom ~exott~ Tpet~w 0 k n~ m0.0826A
1. Naae
2. aec2/m
3. Laminar regime
4. Turbulent regime in Blasius zone
S. Region of quadratic friction laa
The latter circumatance virtually ezcludea the poeaibility of uae of the
Leybenson formula in the mixed friction region. This is a~a~or inadequacy
because the region of mixed friction occupiea a broad raage of Reynolds
numbera in which the pumping of low-viecogity petroleuma and light petrol-
eum producta ia uaually accompliahed.
11
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Iic?wuv~+r~ ~~t elin prlcu c~r dnmu loes in el~e oc:curxcy of computatione thie
tihorCcoming c~n be eliminated.
On the graph (Pig. 5.2) lg f(lg Ite) we noCe by Che figure 1 Che point
on th~ "Blasius straight line" where Rel ~ 10 (k/D)-1~ and by Che figure
2 the point on the "5hi�rinson straight line~" where Re2 ~ 500 (k/D)"1
(1imiCs of Che region of mixed friction). SubeCituting Ite1 into the Blas-
ius formula, and IteZ inCo the Shifrineun formula, we find lg ~ 1 and lg TZ
the ordinates of the pointe 1 and 2.
Now we will pase a atraight line through the points 1 and 2. Its equatiun
is reduced Co the form
Ig ~ a+0,i271g ~ -0,027 --0~1231g Ra. .
Asguming
'~O,t~~ 1t o -o~~tt ~A,
we obtain ~
~ ~ (5.7)
" eoa~ �
Lt is obvious that for the r~gion Rel < Re < R2 the raplacement of the curve
lg a~ f(lg Re) by the atraight line 1-2 is equivalent to a replacement
of the Alt'shul' formula by formula (5.7). This makes it poPeible to apply
the Leybenzon formula also to the region of mixed friction.
- For this regian in accordance with (5.7) m~ 0.123 and the ~ coefficient
muat be computed for each epecific caee, since A for tl~e miaed friction
region ie dependent on k/D.
05.3. Hydraulic Slope. Loesea of Head in Pipelinea With Loopinga and Inserts
From the initial and final points of the profile of a line drafted aith
identical horizontal and vertical ecalea we plot the heads H1 ~ Pl~r
and H2 ~ p2/~' (Fig. 5.3). The enda of ehe determined ee~ents H1 and H2
are connected by a straight line.
a
'Ihe tangent of the alope of thie atraight line is knarm ae the hydraulic
slope i(assuming that the diameter of the pipeline along ite entire
length is identical, there ~re no local resistancee and diecharge along
the length does not change). -
It can be eeen from Fig. S.3 that
� X -g~--As .
~ �
But in accordance with (5.4) H1 - H2 - d?z ~ h ti. Accordingly. the phys-
ical eense of the hydraulic slope the head loss on friction~ aseiga-
uble to a unit length of pipeline is
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N . r
tqA ~i+a,tuyc ~ ~ t
$ ~ .
! Murw!VN~
~/~'IPvNton C ' , HI� Nj
1 ~
dt
~g e tj
~
i? ~
~ ' -
F'ig. 5.2. Replacement of curve 1g ~l~ Fig. 5.3. Di~gram explaining deCer-
f(lg Re) by etraight line. mination of hydraulic elope. ~
A) Blasius; B) A1'tehul~; C)
Shifrineon _ ! -r~ - ~
J ~ D
or according to Leyb~nzon _
Q~'"'~"'
1'p D.-,,, ,
It is convenient to use the following compact formula:
~~1Q'.~'~
where f is the hydraulic elope when Q ~ 1,
.
- ~-a o-.
The straight line connecting the ende of the a~gmente H1 and HZ is called
_ the hydraulic elope line. It eho~s the distribution of heads (and accord-
ingly preesurea) along the length of the pipeline. -
If a parallel pipeline ("looping") or a pipeline with a different diameter -
("insert") ie laid in eome section of the route, the hydraulic alope in
this aection will differ from the hqdraulic slope of the main line.
~ tic� Will find the relationshipe bet~+een the hydraulic elopes of the looping,
ineert and main line. We Will aeeume that the regimee of petroleum m~vement
in them are identical.
Ueing the notatione in Fig. 5.4 we have:
hydraulic alope of the main line -
a D~ ~ .
t~ydraulic elope of the looping sector a Q~ ~ Q~-~,1~ ~
t~~ p D~-+e �
a
taking into accouat that Q1 ~ Q2 ~ Q~ we obtain
~�~i�'~ � (S.8)
(tt ~ "looping"; B ~ inaert)
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~
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where ~
d `tl o-m ~-in ~
~ ! Dn 1 a=~n '
~ D / '
I f Dloop ~ n ~ then ~
d ~ 2'- .
In thie case in a laminar regime cJ~ 1/2~ in the caee of a turbulent regime
in ehe P~qaiu~ zone 41~ 0.297, for the quadratic region ~�1 ~ 0.25. ~
~
5lmilarl ?ur the inaert -
.
where -
p - C D. . .
The head losaes in friction for a pipellne wiCh a looping will coneiet of
the head loseee in the eingle and double (with looping) sectora:
ht~f (L-s)-~~~~
where x ie the length of tne looping.
Taking (Ss8) into account, it can also be written that
~~t IL-:(1-d)1.
The total head loes for a pipeli~e with a looping is
g-i IL-:(~-d~l+e,. . (5.9)
For a pipeline with an insert the expreesion for head losa has a similar
form.
If the head loas must be expressed in dependence on Q, we will use the for- _
mula
g~~ QD--`-L-}-s: (5.10)
or
N~1Q~-'"L,f.es~ - (5.11) .
415.4. Characterietics of Pipeline, Pwmp and Pumping Station ~
The dependence of the head lose on flow is expreseed by the pipeline char- 4
acteristic curve. Eq~sation (5.10) or (5.11) is aa analytical expreseion of
this dependence. A graphic representation of the pipeline characteristic
curve is ehoWa ii~ Fig. 5.5. 1fie initial point of the characteristic curve
is the end of the s~gment d z, plotted upward fram thE H axis, if z2 ~ zl,
or doWa~+ard, c~hen z2 < zl. If the pipeline operatea With the counterpreesure
- p2 at the final point. then to Q z we add p2/ r�
14
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'The values , L and D determine Che eteepneeo of the characCerieC3c curve.
The greaCer the v3ecoaity of the pumped fluid, the extent of the pipeline~
and the leseer itie d3ameter, Che eteeper ie the characterietic curve.
t. . . - N ;
E~ iloop '
~
, . � , ,
, ~'i~ ~ o6~acnn
a a A 4 �y my~+6eveMUAMoto A
/ ,
- ~ ~ . OO~Qtme .
- = A MfNlM~t~~l?1pQA1 ~fMd/~A W~ AQM(/ML4pN0I0 '
' y A B a mevrMU~ $
~ ~ a
Fig. 5.4. Elydraulic elope in differ- Fig. 5.5. Characteriatic curve of
ent pipeline eectore. A) looping, B) pipeline. A) region of turbulent
main line flow, B) region of laminar flow
In the case of emall flows in the zone of laminar flow the dependence of H
- on Q ie linear and in the region of turbulent flow the dependence ie
parabolic.
Nowever, in the equation for the pipeline characteriatic curve there ia no
reflection of transition from the linear part to the parabnlic pnrt. As~um-
ing. for ~xample, that m~ 0.25, we obtain a parabolic curve for any Q val-
ues, including with values corresponding to laminar flow. In Flg. 5.5 thie
, is ahown by a daehed line.
In practical computatione there is no need to draw the characteristic curve
from the initial point correaponding to Q~ 0. It fa entirely sufficient to
conatruct the characteristic curve of the pipeline on the baeis of three or
_ even two pointa situated in the narrow renge of flowe anticipated in the
operation of the computed pipeline.
The head charactarietic curve for the pump ie a repreeentation of the depend-
ence of the developed head ii on flow quantity Q.
For piaton pumpa the Q-H characteristic curve hae the same ehaps ae the de-
pendence of torque oa rpm for an engine. In particular for a apecial case
for a pump with driva from a synchronous electric motor the characteristic
curve is a etraight line parallel to the H aade.
Por centrift~gal pumps used on main pipelines the characteriatic curvea have -
the ahape of gently eloping curves. The eector of the characterietic curve
correaponding to the higheet efficiency values is the Workiag region. For
it the dependence of H on Q ie approximated very auccesefully by the expree-
sion
- 15
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~
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- - .
ll~a-bQ~. . (5.12)
F'requently there is a need for ~oint eolution of the equatione for the char-
a~tarietic curves of a pump (pumping station) and a pipeline. In Cheee ca~es
in place of (5.12) it ia deeirable to aeeume
ll~a.-bQ~`"'. . - , ~5.13)
In formulg~ (5.12) ~nd (5.13) a and b are conetant valuea determined by the
. processing of the coordinates of pointe taken in the working region of the
_ characCeristic curve. According to the senae of (5.12) or (5.13) a is the
~ head with Q~ 0 and the b coefficient ia evidence of the eteepnees of the
characCerietic curve. In formula (5.13) the m value ie the same a~ in the
Leybenzon formula for head loes in the pipeline. The characterietic curvee of ;
the pumps are obtained experimentally when working with water. ; ~
When working with very viacous peCroleum~the Q-H characterietic curve ie ~
reduced and becomes ateeper. The method ~or the acaling the characterietic ~
curve "from water'to petrole~" can be found in apecial manuale. The den-
sity of the pumped fluid exerts nn in�luence on the �H characterisCic '
curve; the head developed by the pump remaina constant aith a change in the
density of the pumped fluid. ~
~ An increaee or decrease in the diameter p of the Wheel pump. and also th~
frequency of rotetion n, changee the characterietic curve. It ie known that
. ~ . . ~ - - ~ - ~ (5.14) .
. ~
D D ~ I p '
Here the ~steriek denotes the new, changed conditione. With a change in the
frequency of ro~ation the equationa are eimilar. With cu~ting dot~m of the '
wheels (D*~ D) or with a decreaae in the frequencq of rotation (n'~~ n) the ~
�H characteriatic curve decreases. ;
The characterietic curve for the pump after cutting doan of the whael to the
diameter D* can be obtained on the basis of the foroer charac~erietic ueing
formulae (5.14). It is impoeaible to restructure the characterietic
curve using only.one at~ theee formulas. i
, i
If it ie necessary that the ~~p*characterietic curve paeeea through the ;
point with the coordinatea Q, H. eituated under the characteristic curve
i
correspondi~ng to the wheel diameter D. the ~+heel diameter after autting down
can be found using the for~la
D~~D .s ' (5.15) ,
s
This formula is derived from (5.12) and (5.14). The parameters a and b enter-
ing into it must be com~uted using formula (5.12), proceeding on the baeis
of the given Q-fl characterietic curve data irith the diameter D.
16
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'I'he characCerietic curve of the group of interconnected pumpe ('cotal Ghar-
acCerietic curve) ie obtainQd by addin;g tog~ther the characterietic curves
of the pumps entering into Chie group.
_ In the caee of pumpa connected in seriea we add the heads for identical
flows~ and in the case of cannection in parallel the flowe wiCh :~dentical
heade (Fig. 5.6, g~b).
a M ~ ~ N - .
. ~ , � ,
,
, Q a .
Fig. 5.6. Pl,~tting of total characteriatic curve for two (identical) pumpa: -
a) connecCed in seriea; b) connected in parallel.
The equation for the total characteristic curve is the same ae (5.12) or
(5.13).
With the in-aeries connection of pum~e _
"~j ~l
b Q ~ 6~.
With in-parallel connection of k identical pumps with the charactariatic
curve H Q a- b1Q2'ID the total characteristic curve will be ae followa:
Q t-m
/!ma-bl C
k , �
- Assuming here that bl/k2'm ~ b~ we arrive at the earlier expresaion (5.13).
The totial characteristic of the pumpa, operating at the pumping station, is
called the characterietic curve of the pumping atation.
A5.5. Head Balance Equation. Integrated Characteristic Curve
If the flow of liquid in the pipeline muat overcome not only the reeiatance
caused by friction, but also riaing by the height,a z, and also perform
mechanical work bringing into motion, for example, a turbine, then equation
- (5.2) must be supplemented by the term N/M (where N is the power; M is the
maea flow).
1?
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_ ~
However, if along Che path of the flow there is a pump, rather than a'tur-
bine~ Clie term N/M muet be a~signad a minus eign. �
Thug, ~~i~en we coneider a ayatem aonsieting of a pipeline and a pumpir~g era-
C;?oi1 ~ ' ' 3
~i.. o j, ~.~.s ;
. ~
Converting ta heade and tiaking into account Chat
M~QP~Q r � ~
and - '
~ N s QyBcT~
~ [CT ~ s~aCion] where Het i~ the head developed by the pumping station, we
obtain ~
Y +~a,~~,-I-e:+-YZ-, (S.ib) ,
I~or a nu~ir, pipeline, alonq whoee route thera are n petroleum pumping eCa-
_ tions, in equation (5.16~ in place of Het it ia neceaeary to write nHet� '
The head pl/y ia created by a epacial (eupporting) pumping station. ~
I~ fzom pl/y we aubtract the head loea in the ayatem of pipelinea in the ,
_ a~ction direction of the main pumping atation (hed) [ed ~ suction direction], ~
we obtain the head in the euction pipe of ehe first m~in pump, called the ~
"backup" (L~H1).
The parameter h.~ includea the head loss in fricCion in the main line (iL) ~
and in the communicating linea (nh8~) of all n pumping stationa. In turn,
the head lose in the communicating linea (of one) etation ie '
' het . h8d + h_a~
-p
where the subecript "ed" ia for the "suction direction" and the aubacript "pd"
is for the "pumping direction."
The head at the final point of the petroleum lie~e p2/y ~rill be designaCed ~
hgp (fp ~ final point). Thie ~,s the head loea in Che connecting lines aC the
final point, including the height of the level in the receiving tank. �
I
i
For the main pipeline with n identical pumpina atations equation (5.16) can
now be represented in the following form: , i
OBI-~-nR~..1L-}.Os-F~e.Tt1~. n� (5.17) .
[CT � 6Cj K.'ir. � fp s final point] .
HencQforth for brevity we will write:
eR,+~nB~,~~+~. ~ (s.18)
18
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~'OEt Oi~FICtAi. U5L ON:~Y ~
- F.quations (5.16), (5.17) and (5.18) are called the head balan~e equaCions.
The left-hand eide of theae equatione gives the head dav~loped by the pump-
ing statione and the right-hand eide gives the head loas.
� E-
The aense of the head balance equa~ions ie similar to the eenee of Newxon~s
third 1aw.
- Expresaing the head developed by one atation in the form Het � a- bQ2-m
_ and the hydraulic elope in the form i~ fQ2'm, we obtain Che head balance
equation .
eNl-Fn (o-bQt-,n~,~~Qy-mL~� v (5.19)
This equation has one unknown. Here Q is a apecific value.
Aea wning Q H1 to be a conatant value~ from (5.19) we obtain
~ ~+na-Ae .
Q " "n~~-� . (5.20)
After determining Q, using formu~.a (5.13) it is posaible to compute the head
developed by the atationa~ and uaing formula (5.11) the head losa in the
pipeline. Both these valuea are equal to one another (head balance).
Theae same flow and head values can be fou~d graphically (Ftg. 5.7), in the
same diagram plotting the characterisCica of the pipeline and the pumping
statione (integrated characterietic curve).
The point of intersection of the H(Q) curves on the integrated c:~aracteris-
tic curve is called the working curve. The coordinatea of this point are the
flow in the pumping etation - pipeline aystem and the head developed by the
pumping atations (head losa in the pipeline).
. In Fig. 5.7 the Q axia can be ahifted upward by the value Q Hl (dashed hor-
izontal line). In this case the backup before the head station d H1 must be -
taken into account by the pipeline characteristic curve:
~~--~Q~-~L+e:-ex,.
Integrated characteristic curves can aleo be plotted for individual pumping
stationa with corresponding aegmenta of the pipeline (rune). For identical
etations the coordinatea of the working points of these characteriatics
will be one and the eame if the backups before the stations are r~lated ta
the characterietic curves of the runs. In other words, any of the pumping
stations situated on the route develops one and the same hegd, regardless
di the length and difference in the elevations at the end and beginning of
the run connected to it.
In contrast to thie, the heada developed by stations with piston pumps are
, dependent on the lengths and the differences in heights of the end and be-
Kinning of the corresponding runs (dr~ve from synchronoua electric motors,
pumping with connected tanks). 19
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, The head balanca and the equaYity of delivery by Che pumps.to flow in the
- pipeline (material pumping balance) give baeie for the following importanC ,
conclusion: Che pipeline and the pumping aCationa conetituCe a unifiad hy~
draulic syetem. ~
Th~.s principle ia the point of departure in eolving any probleme in the pump-
ing of petroleian (petroleum products) along the main pipelines. The change
in the operat3ng regime of any one pumping etation (auch as shutdown of
part of tha pumpa) impaire the regime of the ramaining atations and eimul- '
taneously leada Co a ch~:~ge in the operating regime of the pipeline, and '
vice versa. a change in pipeline resiatance exerta an influence on the
operaCing regime of the pumping atations.
The operation of Che pipeline and pumping etations alwaye must be regarded
~a a ~oint operation.
Hydraulic compuCatione of any (not only the main) pipeline cannot be consid-
ered finiahed if only the head lose is computed for a stipu].ated flow and ~
selected pumps. As a result of the compuCations, it should be poasible to �
deCermine the actual flow which is establiahed in the syatem pump (pump- -
ing sCations) - pipeline, that ie, the flow corresponding to the working
point on the integrated characteristic curve. , ~
1~5.6. Pass Point an~ Computed Length of Petroleum Pipeline
A rise on the route along which the petroleum flowe to the terminal pbint ;
- of the pipe~.ine by gravity ia called a pas3 point. '
There can be aeveral auch points (Fig. 5.8). The distance from the initial ;
point on ~the petroleum pipeline to the closest of then (3Z) is called the ,
computation length of the petroleum pipeline. ,
~ nHc~ ~4) . , + - I
~ N(Q) ~ ~
, ~ ? ' ~
~ t I
. N~m H8t I -
~
nH~ ~ ~
g t HcT , ' ' ~
N~� (LU I
_ N M
.d ---1 ~~~mP 1
Q a ~
Fig. 5.7. Integrated characteristic Fig. 5.8. Finding pase point and -
curve of pipeline and pumping stations. computation length of petroleum
pipeline.
20
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- FOR OFr"ICIAL USE Q1~LY
_ ~
~ -
C ,
, ''ii~
A
~
- llt t
~ N
t J ~t ~ ,
~ l
FYg. 5.9. Line of hydraulic alope beyond pasa point.
In hydraulic computationa Che length of the petroleum pipeline is assumed to
be equal to the computation length; the difference in elevations L1z is as-
sumed to be equal to the excesa of the pasa point over the initial poinC on
the route. . -
- In order to find the pass point, from the final point on the route K we
will draw the hydraulic slope line 1 to ita intersecCion with the profile.
Then we will draw the parallel line 2 in auch a way that it touches the
profile, not intersecting it in any place. The point of contact of the
line ot the hydraulic slope 2 with the profile of the route ie the pasa
poinC determining the computation length of the petroleum pipeline.
If the hydraulic slope line drawn from the final point on the route nowhere
intersects with the profile and is not in contact with it (the dashed line
in Fig. 5.8), the pass point is absent and the computation length ie equal
to the total length of the pipeline. We will examine the movement of the
petroleum beyond the pass point.
We define two aegments in the route interval, from the pasa point to the
terminal point: 71A with the length ~1 and AK with the length ~,2 (Fig.
5.9). In the latter of these the gravitational movement of the petroleum
ia enaured by the difference in elevations o�~the points A and K: i~.2 ~
4~zA_K. In the segment 7~ A, as can be aeen from Fig. 5.9, A z~ _A~ i~ 1 -
by ttte value 7r C. But this contradicts the balance condition of the loat
(i Q 1) and active (L1z ~_A) heada. Accordingly, in the segment ~ A the
hydraulic slope must be greater than i. This is posaible only in the case
of an increase in the velocity of movement of the petroleum in the segment
~A. From the continuity equation
Q=~F
it can be s~en that with an increase in velocity the croas section F of the
flow should decrease. Accordingly, beyond the pasa point (to the point A)
the petroleum moves with partial filling of the pipeline cross section. The
21
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presaure in this segment is lower than at any other point in tha pipeline:.
it is equal to the presaure o~ saturated vapor of the pumped petroleum. In -
Chia case zn - i~)Qy ie the power nonproductivel.y loet beyond the
pass point.
_ ~15.7. Computation Valuea of Diacharge and Viacosity of Pumped Petrolaum
. ; ~
The viscoaiey of tihe pumped peCroleum does not remain conatant during the
course of the year. It changea in accordance with the seaeonal variations
of ground temperature at the depth at which the pipeline is laid. With a , _
change 3n the viac~aity of th~ pumped petroleum, as already mentioned above,
there ia a change in the characteristic curves for the pipeline and rhe pumpa ;
(centri,fugal): with an increase in viacosity it increases, whereas with a de- ~
crease it decreases. Accordingly, the throughput capacity of the petroleum ~
pipeline, determined by the point of intersection of the characteristic �
curves for the pipeline and pumping stations (working point)., in the courae
of the year changes from a minimum value .(March-April) to a maximum value
(August-September), as shown in Fig. 5.10.
The movement of the working point in the field Q-H is determined primarily i
by a change in the ateepnesa of the pipeline characteristic curve. In most ~
cases the "deformation" of the characteriatic curve for the centrifugal ~
pumps is insignificant and it can be neglected. ;
From the point of view of the saving of energy expended on the pumping of
petroleum, it is advantageous that the mentioned movements of the working
point not exceed the limita on the zone of high efficiencies of the pumping '
plant characteristfc curves. ~
This requirement is satiafied by the proper choice of the pum~s for pumping
petroleum. ;
i
_ In accordance with the norms for technological planning, the computed hour-
ly throughput capacity is assumed equal to , . ~
,
P~�,~ ;
_ .
[ f OA = an(nual)] ; -
i
The computed viscosity muat also correapond to the computed temperature. ~
The computed temperature ~is that which the oil flow asaumes in the pipeline ~
in the cold aeason of the year. It is determined by the ground temperature ~
at the depth of the pipeline and the self-heating of the petroleum flow in {
the pipeline as a result of friction.
I
4~5.8. Determination of Number of Petrole~un Pumping Stations
Neglecting the vaZue LL H1 in the head balance equation, we obtain
22 '
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~IRCT�fL-}-'Af. ~5.21~ .
Using ttiis equation we fin~d the number of stationa. The tiead developed by
one station (H8t) is logically taken correspondi,ng Co Che computed flow
(using the Q-H characCerietic curve).
'I'he number o� stafiions n0 ie usually a mixed frac~ion. It is rounded off to
a whole number n. ' �
- ~N
N , ' ' 'b
1 ~ 0
\ ~A
/ _ Q
~ / \ ~
~
~ a
Q M y~ y
a�a
~
Fig. 5.10. Change in characteristic Fig. 5.11. Graph of change in out-
~ curves of pipeline and pumping station put of pumping stations wiCh change
with change in viscosity. Note. The in their number. (Q 6= Qg = Q
solid curves are for a summer regime greater)(Qp1 = Qless(er))
and the dashed curves are for a win-
ter regime.
The throughput capacity of a petroleum pipeline with a rounded-off number
of stations will be called the planned throughput.
If n~ is rounded off in the greater direction, the planned output Q$ (6 a
greater) will be greater than the compu~ted level Qp, and vice versa, with
- the rounding off of np in the lesser direction the planned f low Q e38 is
- less than the camputed value. This can be seen from formula (5.20~ and from ~
� the graph in Fig. 5.11.
The output Qless �r 4more in the pumping stations - pipeline system is es-
tablished automatically.
However, the planned output can be left equal to the eomputed output. For
this it is necessary that the working point on the integrated curve for the
pipeline and pumping stations be situated on the segment ab (see Fig. 5.11).
With the rounding off of np in the lesser direction the characteristic
curve for the pipeline must pass through the point a, that is, the head
loss in the pipeline must be decreased by the value Oa =(n0 - n)Hst. This
23
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r
~OEt O~~YCIAi, U~~ dNLY
. cun b~ ~ccnmpli~hc~d by l~y~ng e Yooping (nr gn ingert wiCh ~ large dig-
m~Ce~').
A lonping wiCh the length x decreaees the hydreullc reei~Cance by the vglue
ix - il~opx ~ ix(1 Accordingly, the lengeh of the looping enauring -
maintennnce of ehe compuCed ChroughpuC Capacity wiCh rounding off of Che
number nf gtat~.one in a l~seer direction can be found from Ch~ equ~Cion
~^o`-^) ~cr~ls~~�..~)~ - .
[C~ ~ ~tg]
It i~ aleo po~eible tn t~ae equgCinn (5.21) and the equation
nN~T~,~(L-m(~."m~~~
'The result will be the same~ thaC is, we obtain
no-n "
s�.lf~~ ~ ~~~m . �
With the rounding nff of np in the greater direction the head d~veloped by
the stationa with the computed diacharge Q~ will be greeter than necessary
(ehat is, greater than the head loae in the pipeline) by the value N' (eee
Fig. 5.11, segment Ob).
The head balance equatiun with the rounding off of n~ in th~ gre~ter direc-
t ion will be as followa : _ .
n!!e~-Il'"~L.} Ai.
It is obvioue ChaC
X'~(n-no)Ncr~ .
where H' is the value by which the head developed by the atatione muat be
� decreased.
The head can be reduced by meane of a decrease in the number of pumping
plants or cuCtinP down of the pump wheels.
After a decrease in the number of pumping plants the charact~ristic curve
~f. tt~e pumping stations ia reduced, as a reeult of which the gap betWeen
tlie 1~ead developed by the pumping statione and the head loeeee in the pipe-
.line is reduced. .
n final balancing ~f the heada can be obtained by cutting dcnrn the pump
wheels. The diameter of the cut-doam Wheel can be determined ueing formu.la
(5.15).
l15.9. Qptimum Parameters of Petroleum Pipeline
Sequence of Technical Computations
24
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~Ott d~~ICIAL US~ dNt,Y
'Che p~rem~e~r~ of g peCrol~uro pipelin~, ch~rgcCerizing iC from boCh the
~cdnnmic ~nd Cechni.cal poine~ of vieW, ~re the pipeline diameter D, pree-
sure p developed by Che pumping ~tatione, number of peCroleum pumping ~C~-
eion~ ~rtd the pipeline aall thickn~s~ e~ (the ehroughput cepacity q of the
petrol~um pipeline i~ etipulgted).
All fdur parmneter~ ere int~rrelgredt g chr~nge in on~ of them legd~ Co g
change in all the nCher~. ~he greater the diameter of the pipeline or the
gr~ater the preseure, ~he feaer ~e Che number of nec~gaary petrolpum pump-
- ing etgtinns ~nd vi~e verea. The thickne~~ di the pipplinp wa11, with the
eel~cted grgde of ~teel, i~ d~t~rmined by the p and b pgrgmeter~.
'rhus, for pumping ~~tipulated quanCity of p~trol~um iC ie pog~ibl~ to pro-
poee a number df varignts of the plen, differing v?ith regpe~t to the pera-
meterg b, p, n~nd S. The problem involv~~ finding Che eeonomically mogt
advantageoug vgri~nt.
't'he capitgl expenditure~ K on con~tructidtt of the mr~.in pipeline can be brok-
en doan into two partg: the co~t of the petrolettm pumping gtatiohe lt9t gnd
the coet of Che pipeline (pipeg, aelding, ingulaCion, digging of trenchee,
etc.) Kpipe. With an increage in b or p the capitgl expenditures o~ g pipe-
line increa~e, whereae on the peCroleum pumping ~tarion~ they decr~aee.
Since Kgt and Kpipe change in dependence on b or p in oppoeite direcCions,
the funCtidns K= K(b) and K a K(p) have a minimu~a. The operating expenges
- Up change ~imilarly. Accordingly, there ie a minimum ~lgo for the red~ced
expenditureg R~d ~ KE + Op.
The valu~g of the pipeline parametere U~ p~ n and P for which the reduced
e~tpenditures gre minimum are optimum. ,
'The finding nt the pipeline parametpr.e from the ~ini~u~ of the r~duced ex-
penditureg doee not tgke into accounc euch factore as the ehort eupply of
different materials or equipment, sim~licity, convcm ience and ~afety of
servicing, require~oenCg of a special nature, etc.
It is obvious that With theae indices different varianta of the plan for
nne and the eatae pip~line cannot differ eignificantly fra~m one another.
For solving the problem of the optimum pipeline parametere it ie neceasary:
1) to write an equation for the reduced expenditures;
2) to expreae the capital expenditurea K and the operationnl expenditures
Op entering inco the reduced expendicures ited in dependence on the pare-
rr~etera D. p, n and that is, obtain the equation
Red ~ K(U, P~ n? S)E + OP~D, P� nr S)
where E ie the atandard coefficient of effectiveness of capital inveetments;
3) [u find the minicaum of the function Red. Here it must be taken into ac-
count that the parameters of che petr~leum pipeline are related to one
25
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t ,
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~incitiu!r. 9'1~~ ~orrelatinn candieinns ctr~t
~~re~~urp bel~ncp ~equ~t~on
~
~ a Y+z- Y .
and the ~CxengCh equati~n - -
8~~~~
wh~re i~ the crnaputed ~tr~~~ of inetgl itt Che pipe~.
The minimum nf th~ lted funceinn i~ found uging the Legrange rule. For thie
ue ariCe Ch~ new fuactian - - -
s
[Tf= ttedj ~~ll*~C=~-p ~~~-~--~Y)+
wher~ a 18 en indeterml.neCe Lagrange factor.
'fhen ae ubt~in th~ pgrCial darivaCivee of ~ r~lae~ve to D, p~nd n~nd ~qu~te
ehem to xprn.
The ~oint snlution nf the equaCions
-
with the corr~lation equationr mkes it poeeible to derive forvulaa for de-
termining the optimum paraoaters of the pipeline.
In order to exprege Red ae a function of the petrolaua pipaline para~etars.
capital expenditurae and opQrutional Qxpandituree are rapresonted !n the
form of a sum in which each tero ie r~elated to the differ+ant parasatate.
~or this purpose the capital expe~dituree on puvpiag statione are repreeeat-
ed in the fot~m of two te~: in the for~ of expendituree praportional to
pawer and expendituree not depeadant on power (pawar i8 proportional to pQ).
The capicel exQendituree on the lin~ar part of the pip~line are expresoad
.7~ expenditura~ proportional to the diueter of tha pipeliae and ptoportion-
:~l to the meee of the pipee (tha osas of the pipes ie linearly depand~nt on
t~~2) .
The o~erational expeaatturee raletiag to p~piag etations coneist of axpend-
icures proportional to ~ower and not dapendent on power, and aLo alloca- �
tiong fnr amortisetion and currant rapair. 7fia allocations for sowrtisation
~nd curreat repair can be ragatded aa the oper~tio~al a~enditure� for tha
linear part of the pipeline.
The expenditures not dependent on the pipaline patinetars can ba naglecced.
= if any of the parametere arp scipula[ed,chat is. are icaovn ia advaace, che
problem is solved :a the sase way with the eingle differeace that it is not
neceaeary to take the firet derivativ~e tor this paraseter.
26
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~OR U~~ICIAL U3~ dNLY
In prep~ring a li~C of ~acpenditure~ or in c].grifying the t~chnicgl-e~nnnm-
ic indice~ nace~~ary fnr d~aeermin~ng the capitgl expenditureg ~nd opergting
co~t~ there aill inevitably b~ error~ which cgn exert an influence dn the _
num~riCgl valu~~ of the edught-fdr par~m~tere. In gddition, the coneidered _
method for d~termining Che nptimum perameCere doe~ not C~ke intn ec:rnunt
many circwn~tances dependene nn pignning nnd conrtruction condition~. St ie
ther~fc~r~ not gurpri~ing if th~ optimum par~meC~r~, ~nmputed by thie meth-
od, in ~ome ceeee ai11 bp far frdm reglity. Accordingly~ the optimum pr~~-
eure can b~ ldaer *.han th~t which i~ d~velop~d by the pump~ produeed by fac-
eoriee and th~ optimwn thicknpee of the pipeline aall aill be lepe thgn th~
litniting admieeible thickeee~.
Ilut thi~ doee not m~an Chgt the ~nalyticel method for determining the op-
timum pgremeCere df g pipeline ig ueeleee. it mak~e it po~giblp tn rr~c~
both the interrelationship betaeen the parametere e~nd the influence exerted
on th~m by pumping conditiong. An inve~tigation vf the equatione determining
the dpeimum p~r~metere of e pipeline ~ade it po~~ible to drgw e number of
importgnt conclu~ion~. 'Che moec important of them are:
1) aith an incregse in ehe pipeline throughput Cnpgcity the optimum pre~-
gure developed by the pumping ~tgtion~ decreases, the number of ~tetions
increagee ~nd the optimum diameter of the pipeline increageg;
2) with increase in the c~mputed gtregs of Che pipe mgterial there is ~n
increage in the optimum pregsure gnd e decreg~e itt the opCimum number of
pu~ing gtationa;
3) With an increas~ in the viscosity of tt~e pumped petrole~an there is a
decregee in the pr~~~ure ahich the pumping gtgtione mueC develnp and Che
number of gtations and the diameter of the pipeline increeae;
4) With an increase in preseure there is a decrease in the diameter of the
pipeline and the number of pumping acationg and aleo an increase in the
thicknees of the pipeline wall;
5) with an increase in che pipeline diameter the Yelative thickneea of
the Wall, preseure and number of stationg decrease.
Usually the optimum parametera of the pipaline are determined by a compar-
ison of variants.
The aequence of technological computationa can be ae followa:
1) approximate determination of pipeline diameter from the table given
in /5.1;
2) gelectioo of the three clo~egt diametera from the 5tate 5tendard;
3) ~election of the pumpa for the pumping (delivery) of petroleum. Then,
in accordence with the pregsure recommended in thie eeme tab~e, the num- _
ber of working plente (ueually three or two) ig detenained and the pumping
station characteriatic curve is constructed, This characteris[ic curve is used
used in finding the head Net developed by the atation for the computed floa
and then the computed preasure is detenaineds
P~Nat + ~ N)
' g~~
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4) determining ehe w~ll thicknee~ and the interior diameter of the pip~-
line from th~ gecert~ined p~nd b value~ for ~11 three vgrianta;
- 5) d~termingtion ~f th~ Reynoids number, th~ hydraulic regi~t~nc~ co~f-
ficienC, hydrgulic elnpe, paee poinC (compuCed length L~ gnd the correg-
pdnding differance in the geodetic read~nge ~ s~ and finally, the totel
head loaa
H ~ iL + Q
6) d~termingtion of the numb~r of peCroleum pumping ~CaCiong; _
7) cdmputeCion of c~pital expenditurea ~ud opareting coete using coneolidat- ~
ed t~chnicgl-~~ondn?ic indice~;
8) cnmparieon of vgriante with respect t~ reduced expendituree and selec-
tion of th~ econnmically mo~C advanCageous of them;
~J) determination, for the eelected varignC, of tha planned delivery (if
it i~ not aseumed equal to the camputed v~lue) end the corre~ponding head
dev~loped by th~ pumping ~tatione; '
ln) eiting nf the et~tione an the rou,ee profile.
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t~'Ott d~~IC?AL U~h UNLY
n5.10. pneitidning of pe~roleum P~pin~ St~Cions
The ~iting merhod wes proposed by V. (i. 9hukhov for pipelin~e with pieton
petroieum pumping et~Cinne. The eiting ie eccompliehed graphic~lly on the
rnut~ profil~.
_ Thp head H~t developed by the et~tion i~ pldtt~d glong the v~rticel from
the initial point on th~ route wher~ th~ head ~tation mu~t be eituaCed
et th~ ecgle of profile elev~ti.on~. After thig, ehe hydr~ulic ~1np~ line
ie drawn from the ~nd of rhe determined eegment. 'i'he point df ite intergec-
rion with tha route profile ie the eite for pneitioning nf the eecond eta-
tion. The head d~veloped by the gCation ie ggain plotted from thie point,
the hydraulic slope line ie again drai+n~ eCc. The hydraulic slope line
running from th~ la~t etation muet run to the paee point (or final point)
on the route.
The giting of the petroleum pumping etatinne, accompliehed by the described
m~ehnd~ muet not a~ways be regarded ee ,~trictly obliggtory. The eiting df
se~tiong can vary in certgin limite.
- Aseume thgt the thena~etical nwnber of etatione np, determined by computa-
tione, is rounded off in the gYeater direction. Then the eite, fnr exnmpl~~
of the eecond gtation (Fig.~S.12) can be shifted to the right, that iH,
fnrw~rd, by the dietance at which the head Hgt attaina the admiaeible val-
ue Ngd~ With movement of the etaCion to the left there is a decrease in
the head developed by the preceding staeion. 5ince the total head develop-
~d by all the etatione should tiemsin conatant~ at least one of the remain-
ing statione muet a~erate with an increased head.
The poeition of the etation at which it and all the subsequent statione are
forced to develop the limiting admiasible head Hga determinea the limit to
which it can be m~ved to the lefC. As already mentioned, the limit to the
right is determined by the admissible head H at the preceding atation.
In Fig. 5.12 these limite are denoted by thegpointa a and b. The sector of
the route between theae pointe is called the zone of poesible aiting of a
petroleum pumping station.
When the nt~nber of etationa ia rounded off in the leaser direction, and ac-
cordingly, computations c~ll for the laying of a looping, from the end of
- the vertical segment Het two hydraulic slope lines are draWn (Pig. 5.13): -
for tl~e main line i and the looping iloop� ~e length of the segment i p
_ corresponde to the length of the looping x obtained by computations. We�O
dra~. a second line i from the end of the aegment il~ . The points of in-
tersection of the hydraulic alope linea wi~h the prof~le (a and b) deter-
mine the zone of the posaible eiting of the next station. A atation can be
put in any place between theae potnts.
Aesump that the point c ia a convenient aite for the second atation. From
this point ae draW the hydraulic alope line of the looping to the intersec-
tion with the hydraulic elope line for the main line. The pro~ection of the
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~O[t O~~ICtAL U~E dNLY
re~ulting ~~gment cd dnto the horizontal will be equal to th~ length of
the looping xl ueed dn Che segmenC (r~n) batween Che fir~C gnd the ~ecnnd
aCgCiotte. Then from the p~int c we plnt the head Hgt and then ~gain draw
the linee il~~p gnd i; the length nf ehe eegmenti iloop here corre~ponds eo
th~ not further used length of Che lnnping x- xl. The line~ i emanaCing
from Ch~ ~nde of the ~egmeriC i~d~p int~reece W1th Che rrofil~ at the new
poine~ a and b(not ehdwn in Pig. 5.13). A n~~r point c c~n be gelecCed be-
tw~~n th~e~ poinCe tt~~ eite for Che third station. Subaequent construc-
e ions ~re rogde in the game way. _ _-.r.--
~ - _ =i
s
. i ` i I
H~
I ~ ~ ~ ~
~',1 ~ ~ NI
N ~ ~ d ~
Hgd NcT , � ~ t
Ngt O , ~ \ ' ~ ~p i ~
- . r? ~
, ;
~ig. 5.12. D~termingCion of limite Fig. 5.13. Poeitioning of petroleum
of zone of poesible positioning of pwnping stations with rounding off
petroleum pumping etation~ with of their number in the lesser direc-
rounding off of their number in tion.
the greater direction.
There can be cases when in the zone of poeaible poeitioning there ia no
site conv~nient for the siting of a petroleum pumping station. The eiting
of a station outaide the zone of poeaible posit~nning (pointa e or f in
~ig. 5.14) leada to the necessity for laying an additional looping x* and
at the same time to tl~e underloading (work with incompleCe head) of at
least one of the atations. -
Loopings on the lines betWeen atatiuns can be laid Mrhere it is advantageoua
to do so. The effect from a looping (decrease in hydraulic reaiatance of
the pipeline) run at the beginning, at the mlddle or at the end of the seg-
ment is onz and the same. Ho~rever, in order to decrease the etreesea aris-
ing in the pipeline from the petroleum presaure it is desirable that the
loopings be laid at the end of the segments. But in some cases the decrease
~n the load on the pipeline can be achieved by the laying o_� a looping in
the middle of the segment (Fig. 5.15). In the neighborhood of point A it
is deairable to lay a looping and not construct a station there eince in
this case the preasure in the lowered segment of the route will be consider-
ably lese.
The following conclusion can be draWn: with siting of the petroleum pumping
stations, regardleas of the type of p~ps (piston or centrifugal) it is
necessary to "press" the hydraulic slope line to the profile. This reducea
the stresses in the pipeline.
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~dtt O~~ICIAL U5~ nNLY
I\~\
~
~
~
A.
�
Q r
r
~ig. 5.14. 31tin$ of ~Cation outside Fig. 5.15. 1,ayiag of looping in
~ane nf poseible positioning. middl~ of eegment.
When using the principie deecribed above, by which ie found the eite for
poeitioning of the petrolaum pumping atationa~ the type of pump ie not
taken into account. Ho~tever, the oiting of etations vith centrifugal
pumpe h~e peculiaritiea caueed by the following:
1) mainl3t~e cenCrifugal pumpg can normally oPergte only with a backup,
Chat ie, only when the eucCion pipe ie under preseure. The backup before
the atation muat not be less than the minimum admiseible value Q h, aince
otherwia~e the operation of the pumping etation will be accompgnied by cav-
itation;
2) the backup consiete of the head Het developed by the pumping etation.
1'heir aum (head on the force side of the etation) must not exceed the ad-
misaible value Ngd determined by the atrength of the pump and the pipeline.
For stations aith centrifugal ptmape the limits of Che zone of poeaible
positioning are not determined by the points of interaection of the hqdraulic
slope linea with the profile but by the admiesible backup valuea. The right
limit is determined by the minimimm backup ~ Had~ whereas the left limit is
the maximum backup eHed � ggd (gYg. 5.16).
The zone of poasible poaitioning of the centrifugal station also exiats in
a case when there ie no looping (see Fig. 5.16, right part).
Now we will examine a caee when any atation muat be aited outeide the sone `
of poasible poeitioning (coincidence aith a populat~d place. more favorable
geological-eoil characteristice of the terrain~ closeness to eources of el-
ectric power, water, etc.a.
Asaume that this atation has the number c+ 1. The extent of the pipeline
segment from the head atation to the coneidered station ie denoted ~,c+l�
The length of the ee ent from the atation c+ 1 to the end of the pipeliae
Will be equal to L-~~,~,1~
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~Ott 0~~'ICIAL U5C nNLY
t K
g
}j~ ~ N~m ~1
~
iloo
~ eMdd"~ . eN 1;ad
~d ~ 'e~ a
Fig. 5.16. Limite of ~on~e of pog~ibla pogitioning of statione equipped
with centrifugal pumps.
We will place the etation c+ 1 beyond the right boundary of Che zone nf
poesible eiting. Then the backup before thie etation ~ Nc+l will be lees '
thnn ~ H$a . In order to ansure cavitation-free operation of the atation
c+ 1 it ie neceesary to raise Che backup ~ HC+1 to ~ Hga. Thie can be done _
Uy laying the lonping in the segment between the etatione c and c+ 1 or at
~ny other deeirable site in the eegment ~ c+1� Ite length x* can be found
from the following head balance equation for the aegment ~ 1=
A/11-~-eN~~l1(1~.~'~s(~-m)-s~ (!-m~)l+e:,.~+e~,~.
(C'T ~ at(ation); ~Q ~ ad(missibl~)] where x ie the length uf thP :ooping
obtained from hydraulic canputations with rounding off of the ntimber of
atationa np in the leseer direction; c ie the number of aCatione eituated
in the segment t ~+1� -
The need for laying the looping x* doea not follow from hydraulic computa-
tions of the pipeliri~e. Therefore, after laying the looping x* the head bal-
ance Which ie co~non for the entire pipeline Will be impaired. In order to
reatore this balance in the eegment L- l~.~.1 it ie necessary to reduce the
head developed by ~he stations.
The H' value by which the head developed by Che stationa in the eegment
L~~c+l muat be decreased is determined from the following head balance
.
equation. ON~-F~~n-e) Jln-8~a p (L-t..~)-F-A=a~ -
[CT = at(ation); Z1? ~ ad(miasible)J
A decrense in the head by H' can be achieved by a decrease in the number
of pumping plants (if H' is $reater than or equal to the head developed
- by one pump) and by cutting down the pump wheels. The diameter of the cut-
down wheel can be determined ueing formula (5.15). The head H* entering
into this formu~~a ie found from the obvioue equality
~~C ~ P~?P~ kHr~t~g~..kN~~
where k ia the number of pumps Whose wheels it is propoaed be cut dowa;
l(p~p is the head developed by a pump whoae wheel has not been cut down.
32
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- FOR O~~ICIAL US~ ONLY
h'rc~m tl~~ l~ydrau] ic point of view it makes no dif ference whether the de-
creeee in head occure at oc~e (gnd epecificially which) or at saveral ~Ca-
tione. It ie deeirable to do this, that is~ uee pumpe uith cut-duwn whaels
or decreaee the number of pumpa at thoee etatione where the propuleion head
is high.
Now we will eiCe Ch~ etaCion c+ 1 wiChouC going ae far ae the left boun-
dary of the zon~ of poseible poeitioning. We will ~~sume thaC the problem
nf poaitioning of all c+ 1 sCations in the segment ~ ~.~1 ie already solv-
ed and the operating regimes of the pumping plante up to etation c have
been determined.
In order for the propuleion head at the aCation c+ 1 not exceed the admis-
xible value Nga it ig evidently neceseary to decreaee the head developed
either by the station c+ 1 or by the etetion c(decrease in the number of
pumpa, cuCting down of wheels). In the latter case there ia a decrease in
the backup before the etation c+ 1 and accordingly there is a decrease in
the head nn the propulaion aide of thie ataCion.
A decrease in the head H' ie determined from the head balance equation for
the aegtuent between etatione c and c+ 1:
[c a proP) _Ne-Il'�.11-4-A~-}-eIlA~
where Hprop is the head on the pro~uleion side of th~ atation (is determin-
ed by preceding computations); ~
Hgd ie the maximum admiseible backing.
The senae of this equation ia ae followa: in order that the backup before
the station c+ 1 not exceed Q
Hjd at station c it is neceasnry to reduce
the head by the value H'.
If the decrease in head ie accomplished at the station c+ 1, the head bal-
ance equation for determining H' is logicall~writYgn in the following
forID: K~..tt-4-As-F~f1~-(NeT-N~)~
[ c~ prop; R~ ad; CT ~ at]
where Ngd -(Het - H') is the backup before the station c+ 1; H8t ia the
head developed by the station without a decrease in the number of working
pumpa and without cutting down the wheels.
It is easy to aee that this equation ie idenCical to the preceding one.
tJith a decrease in head at the atation c+ 1 the segment between stations
c and c+ 1 will obviously be under a greater preaeure. Therefore, from
the point of view of a etressed state of the pipeline the decrease in head
at station c is more desirable than at etation c+ 1.
If provision is made for the laying of an "inaert" of a leaser diameter
in the segment between stations c and c+ 1, its length xin can be deter-
mined from the equation
33
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~
FOR O~T~'ICIAL US~ ONLY
Nprop ' i~ Xin~~ L1 z+H ~d - Het.
A decreaee in head or an increase in hydraulic resietance in Che eegment
~ c+l� g~ in the already coneidered case of going beyond the ri.ght boun-
dary of the zone of poseible poaitioning~ impaire Che head balance common
for Che entire pipeline. For compensating thia impairment it will be necea-
gary to decrease the hydraullc raeiatance of the segment L-~,~+1. For de-
termining the length of ehe looping x* eneuring euch a decrease in hydraul-
ic re~iatance we can uae Che following l~ead balance equation for the seg-
menC L - c+l x~~ .cu__s~ -1- .~;)1-~-sja~
f1A-}~ (n-c-~) l~cr,~t ((G~-io.~~~ ~ (
where x is the length of Che looping obtained in hydraulic computationa
due to rounding off of the number of stations in the leaser direcCion and
falling in the segment L- ~ c+l�
115.11. Change in Backupa Hefore Stations With Change in Viacosity of Pumped
Petroleum
'I'he backup before Che pumping staCion c+ 1 ie determined from the head bal-
ance equation for the aegment (between the first and the c+ lst ata-
tione) : ~ m . ~-F ~se.i-h~Ne.i.
ANi-}-e(a-6Q " )~~Q e i
Taking into account that from the head balance equation for the entire pipe-
line
,_,�_-e~tr;+~~a--e~
Q nb+~
we ob tain ~ � ~
, e b !e~ ~
~K~,1~ONl-}-ea-Ase,l-'(AKl-}-na-0:) n L � .
b -I-~ n
In this equation only ~ ~ -
1 " ~ D,-~, �
is dependent on viscoeity.
Thus, a change in the backup ~ H~.~.1 with a change in viacoaity is determin-
ed by the value 6 y~~~e~
b + / (L/n~ '
where ~.c+1/c ie the mean diatance between the petroleum pumping stationa
in the segment ~c+1, and L/n is the mean diatance between the pumping ata-
tions for the entire pipeline.
if ~c+1/c > L/n, with an increaee in petroleum viacosity the fraction
6-I- I (1~.~ io)
6 ; /(L/~~)
increases and therefore the backup ~ H~+1 decreasea.
34
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�
A~I
~J ~ ~ ,
_ A~ ~~.(~s
" r~
At l~~ .
~
~i ~
A~ ~ ~
~ NA
Q ~ b ~ ~
dN ~ 1 ~ .
1 1
l
~ ~
1'ig. 5.17. Change in backupa before statia~~a with a change in viecoaity of
pumped petroleum.
For the case Qc+l~c < L/n, on the other hand, with an increase in petroleum
viscoaity the backup before station c+ 1 increasea.
Finally, if ~ c+1/c ~ L/n, a change in petroleum viecoaity exerta no influ-
ence on the magnitude of the backup, eince with any f value in this case
1+/
e
--~-e 1.
' s-F1
The change in backupa before atationa w~.th a change in viacoaity ie illus-
trated in Fig. 5.17.
The vertical dashed lines on the route profile cut off identical diatances
L/n (in the figure L/3): Y~ is the computed length of the petroleum pipeline.
The solid and dashed h~draulic alope lines i and i* correspond to the vis-
c*s*ties* * and Y*; 'V > 1/. The aegmenta*aA1 ~ AgA2 ~ A2Ag and aAi ~
AlA2 ~ AZA~3 r.epre8ent the heade H~t and H8t developed by the pumping ata-
tions with petroleum viecoaitiea y and ~he segment la is the backup
before the firat atation ~ H1.
~Je will use the pnint 1 as the origin of coor~inatea. Then the hydraulic
slope linea emanating from the pointa A and A will be deacribed by the
equations
H~AN~-1-tBe~ ~ il and ~�=AR~~ eXe*-t�l~
where ~ is the dietance from the initial point on the route 1; H and H*
are the ordinates correaponding to
35
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~OR O~FICIAL US~ ONLY
At the poinCe of intereaction of the meneioned linee K~ H*, Chat ie
ell~*-il d eKcr-1�l.
[CT ~ et] Taking into accounC that
A11~=Ne~~ .
and ~ etl~}~Nc~_As ~ '
L
iC is eae~ to confirm thaC the hydraulic elope 1.inea with the viacosiCies
'V and Y interaect at the distance8 ,
L .
1~e n �
whare c is a whole number~ that is, c ~ 1, 2, 3, etc.
If the third atation is aituated at the point b, over which the lin~s i
and i* intersect, that is, at a distance which ia a multiple of L/n, -
with any increase or decrease in petroleum viscoeity the backup would re-
main unchanged (condition ~ c+l~~ ' L/n).
However, this atation was si~uated beyond the point of interaection of
the hydraulic slopea i and i and for it
~t~ ~ n
~ �
Therefore~ the backup before the third station with an increase in viacos-
ity is reduced (see Fig. 5.17). The second petroleum pumping atation is
situated to the left of the point of interaection of the linea i and i*.
For it . . .
te+t ~ L ~
n
' Therefore, the backup before it with the viscosity 'V* is greater than with
the viscosity y.
A change in the backups with a change in petroleum viecoaity muet be taken
into account when siCing petroleum pumping stations: the limits of the
zones of their possible poaitioning are dependent on vi8cosity. If the
nature of the profile is such that c+1 > c(L/n), the right limit of
the zone of poasible positioning of the atation c+ 1 will be determined
by the point of interaection of the hydraulic slope line i* with a maximum
viscosity of the petroleum * with the line drawn equidistantly to the
profile at the height which is equal to the minimum admisaible backup ~ Had�
In Fig. 5.17 the third atation has been placed incorrectly: the right lim-
it of ita zone of possible poaitioning must be at the point c, where the
distance from the profile to the hydraulic alope line is equal to d,Hgd�
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'i'he second atation in Fig. 5.17 can be situated at a diatance ~2 ~ L/3.
Therefore~ ehe right limit of the zone of its poasible positioning is
determined by the hydraulic alope 11ne i with the minimum viscosity 'Y .
The left limit of the zone of poeaible positioning of the atation c+ 1,
where the backup has the greatest value, must be determined from thia
same hydraulic elope 1'ine (i or i*), which passea above.
115.12. Planning of a Petroleum Pipeline with a Stipulated Positioning of
Pumping Stations. Planning of "Short" Pipelines
It is advantageoua to place petroleum pumping atationa at places situated `
close to villages, railroads and highways, to sources of electricity sup-
ply and water aupply. Favorable topogeological characteristics of the
areas around petroleum pumping stationa are of great imporCance. In addi-
tion, the areas ehould be situated in such a way that the propulaion pres-
sure at the atationa will be identical as poasible.
Idith Che placement of staCions by the Shukhov plan there is always a guar-
anteed satisfaction of only the last of these requirements. The aelecCion
of sites around petroleum p~nping stations free of restrictions, dictated
by the Shukhov method (zones of possible positioning) sometimea most reas-
onably makes possible satisfaction of the mentioned requirements.
Assume that all the compuCations up to the choice of the optimum variant
liave been made, the number of stations has been rounded off in the greater
direction and the sites of the petroleum pumping stations have been select-
ed.
Then it ie necessary to ensure that the heads on the propulsion and auction
sides of the stations will not exceed the limits of the admissible values.
The sequence of the computations can be as follows.
tJe will begin with the first segment (head station and the segment ad~a-
cent to it).
1. Using the Q-H characteristic curves we find the heads developed by the
backup ~ H and main Hgt stations. Adding them, we obtain the head on the
propulsion side of the station (propulsion head Fi~ p)�
ro �
a8 `T" Bt f a g~.
[CT = station; H = prop(ulsion)J
2. Using the head balance equation for the se~nent we find ~the backup a H
before the second station. Taking into account the losses in the station -
connecting lines this equation will be as follows: !
Hprop ' u+es+~~T+er~. .
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i
~Ott nF~ICIAL US~ ONLY
wh~re and L1 z ere the 1engCh ~ind dif: f.erence in elevgtion~ di the end
~nd beginning of the 13n~ gegm~nt betw~en ~Cetiong (found ~Yrna the rdute
rr~[i]e); h~~ ia Che head loe~ in th~ ~t~ti~n ~~nne~ting line~.
~omputntions for ~ub~equent segm~nt~ ara ~imilars we aill det~rtnine the
propulsion he~d Hprop and then the b~ckup Q H befnre the n~xt gtgtion.
If at any eCaCion Che hegd Hprdp i~ higher than the ~dmigeible 1eve1, in
order to reduce it to Hga it i~ poes~ble ta use the mea~uree mentidned
- above: a decre~ge in the number of working pumpe, cutting da~m the pump
wheele (interch~ngegble rotorg), and algo throttling.
The firgt m~thod ig the most economical. With the ~econd roethod there ig
some reduction in pump efficiency (g cutting doan of the aheel~ by not
more ehan 10~ is admissible). ~hrottling, that is, an grtificial increage
in hydraulic resietance, ic~volveg an e~cpenditur~ df energy gnd therefore
~ it must be used only when it ie the only poegible meane for reducing
he~d.
It must be remembered that a decrease in propuleion head in~viCably cause~
a decrease in the backup before Che next station. If the backup ig above
the admisaible level, in order Co increage it to 4 N$d in rhe congidered
qegmenC it is neceasary to lay a looping (large-diameter inaert). Ite nec-
ess~ry length x* is determined from the ~quation
8~- ~ (t d11-4- A~ } Ae~ -1~ AN,~. -
(~R=ad; CT~et]
Computations of the heada Hprap and ~ H at stations can also be made in a
different way, beginning aith the last segment.
1. We will determine the head Hpro Which tnuch exiat on the propuleion eide
of the lasr station (required head~ uging the formula
Hprop = i~+ d z+ hcl�
where h~ is the head loss in the connecting lines at the final pipeline
station ~including the level height in the receiving tank).
tf there is a pass point, it muat be considered the final point. In this
case the required head at the last station is
8~! tI At.
~~1 " ProP~
2. Using the Q-H characteristic curve We find the head HS~ and then ae
find ahat backup ahould exist before the last atation:
A N R� - Itc.. -
[H s prop; CT = stj
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~Ott O~~ICIAL U5~ ONi.Y
We wi11 deCetmine Che rpquired he~d ~t the nexe-to-Che-l~gt statiott
u~ing the formul~
gr+~ f l~ At �H Aer'4~ A/~.
(~1 ~ proP; CT ~ et]
Then we find th~ backup b~fore thi~ etation, etc.
~f ir ~pp~~rg for any eegm~nt th~t Nprnp~ H~d or ~1H ~_(cb-F11e,t) (Q�-~"--Q.~~s-~~~, (5.30)
It can be seen from formula (5.30) thaC the closer the ehuC-down station
is eituaeed to the head atation, the greaCer wi11 be the decrease in the
beckup berore etaCion c+ 1.
Sitnilarly, from Che equatione
~lll�~-(e--2)(a-bQ� ~n-m)~C~te�1Q� (s-m).~.A:~-~-I~~Be i
and .
~/lt-~-(o-2) (s-bQt-"`~= *Ile-~Q~~~"~-~tai-I-AXc-1
it follows that before station c- 1 the backup increases to
str~.~~ad~ ~-e~t~-~~U~-2)b+/1~-~)(Q'=~?_~.cs-m>~, _
It is obvious that the backup before station c- 2 also increasea~ but to
a lesaer degree, before station c- 3-- to a etill leaser degree, etc.
Lt can also be demonstrated that in the right part of the petroleum line
the backups wi11 increase from station to station, but will remain leae
_ than they were prior to the ahutdown of station c.
The change in backups before the atations with a shutdown of one of them
is shown in Fig. 5.24.
On Che basis of formula (5.30) it is possible to write the pumping condi-
tion for a self-regulating regime: .
(a-GQ. (z-m1~-(~~'f-~~e.t)~Q1 m_'Q� (!-m)~ ~ e~
where E is the backup reserve,
ta err~.,-eH,,.
Usually the head reserves will be small: at the station following the shut-
down station, with a decrease in L1H below the admiseible level the appear-
ance of cavitation can be observed. The backup before the station c+ 1 can
be raised to the admissible value Q Had by regulation of operation of ata-
tions situated in the right part of the petroleum pipeline. The head H'
' which must be extinguished by regulation is found from the head balance
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~dtt U~'~iCiAL USL (INLY
equ~eion fnr the righe p~rt of ehe pi,peline
. - _
( Xl ~ ntl~ A?IA ~ (n--c) (o--~GQs (t-ml~�/ ~~"I~~t) Q' (t-rn)-I-AiR~-.'H'~
whgre the flow Q* ie determined from Che head balance equation for rhe
laft part of the ~ipeline
~ll~ (c--lj (a ~ ~Q� (~-m)~ ~1 te.~Q' !t-~> + s~..~+ ertA.
Thie flow will be leee than the flow determined by formula (5.29).
Since Che backupe before the etatione in ~he left part of the pipeline in-
crease, the propulsion preseure at etation c- 1 can be greaCer than the
ndmisaible level Hgd . A decrease ic? the heade to Hgd ie attained by reg-
- ulation at Che etatione in the left parC of the pipaline. In thie case
Che flow Q* wi11 bF deCermined by the equation
NA~,~~Q� i~-~>+e~~-er.,~, (s.31)
where ~ ie the distance between stations c- 1 and c+ 1; d z is the dif-
ference in the leveled elevations of the end and beginning of the segment.
The value H' by which the head developed by the atations in the left part
of the pipellne must be reduced can be found from the equation
A/li-~�(c-f) (a-6Q� (t-m)~~l~e-1Q' (t-m)~.Asc-~-~-"NA-1-X'_
or
~111-;-(c-f) (a-GQ~ ~s-"'~~i/~c.iQ~ ~~'"'~+o=e.l ~�ea�+x~~__--
If H� exceeds the head developed by one pump, then, rounding off H'/
I;p~p to a whole number~~~n the leaeer direction), we find the number of
pumps k sub~ect to ahutdown. The head H' - kHpu~ must be extinguished by
throttling.
- The operating regime of the pipeline when any station breake down can be
computed graphically, using the profile of the route and the characteris-
tic curve for t'~e pumping station. We will demonatrate this in the fol-
lowing example. B
It
B~ t 1
01~ ~
i~
\ ~
HBtNc~ i. ~ ` ~ e
~
~ N�
. dH~ ~ 0 dN ~
\ i t J 4 a
Fig. 5.25. Diagram explaining computations of the operating regime of a _
petroleum pipeline with ahutdown of station.
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~Ott O~~zCIAL US~ nNLY
On n petroleum pipeline with a horizontal profile of Ch~ iuuee there are
four gtations, et each of which Chere are three working pwnps. The linee
of the hydraulic slope in the case of a normal operaCing regime are repr~-
eented by solid lines (Fig. 5.25).
As~ume ehat the third station hae mnlfunctioned.
From Che point on the profile where the aecond etation ie situated we p1oC
Che head Hgd and from tihe point where the fourth station ie situgted
the head ,Q He . By connace~ng the ends of Cheee eegm~nte (a,b)~we obtain
the line of t~e hydraulic ~1ope i* correaponding to ehe equation (5.31)
- and deCerr,nining the flow Q with which the pipeline ehould operate after
ahuCting down of the third etation.
Now on the basie of the characteristic curve for the pumping aration we
find the head Het for the flow Q* and we ploC it from the initial poinC on
the profile after Q N~ (segment A1B1)� From the poinC B1 we draw the line
of the hydraulic slope i* (eegment B1A2). By plotting the head Het from the
poinC A2 (segment AZB2) we eee that at atation 2 it is nec~asary to shut
_ down one pump and the excess head ac is eliminated by throttling. But it
is better to shut down one pump at the firat station and at the aecond Co
extinguish the head ac; in this case the run between the firat and second
sCationa will experience leaser presaure (aee the line of hydraulic alope
' i* below the line B1 A2).
Then, drawing the line i* for the last run, we find that at the fourth ata-
tion it is necessary to shut down one pump (the segment bd is equal to the
liead developed by the two pumpa wiCh the flow Q*) and by throCtling elimin-
ate the head ed.
In a graphic method it is convenient to use analytical computation of the
regime for monitoring.
115.16. Regulation of Operating Regime of Pwnping Stations
Changes in pumping conditions in the courae of operation (change in flow,
temporary malfunctioning of any atation) can lead to an impairment of the
normal operating regime of the pipeline: to cavitation at some etatioua
and to pressures exceeding the limiting preseure at others. This means
that the throughput capacities of individual segments of the pipeline
will be disaimilar. The matching of the operation of the pumping stationa
(or, which is the same thing, the evening-out of the throughput capacitiea
of pipeline segments) is achieved by regulation. As a result of regulation,
the backups before the stations ahould not be lesa than the admisaible
levels Q Had and the heads must not exceed the limiting value H~u.
With regulation there ia a change in the head at the pumping station and
at the same time, the flow. The regulation can be etep-by-step (shutting -
down of the pumping plants) and smooth, accompliahed by a change in the
5~+
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frequ~nny nf Yotation nf th~ engine nr pump, by tranAfer of part of the
peernleum fioa frnm ehe pYe~eure cnilecCor inCo the euctiot~ collector ~nd
by Chrnttliag of the flow.
H ~
~ ~
N~
n,
N~Ny n
At
?
a a, a
I~ig. 5.26. Diagrnm explaining computation of pumping eCa- .
tion regulation.
Itegulation by the shutting down of one or more planta ie the most econ-
nmical method. It is u~ed in thoee caeee when it ie neceesary to decreaee
the head by a value cloae to the head developed by et legeC one pump. In
order to e~tablieh precieely the neceesary heads end flowe~ eeep-by-atep -
regulation musC be eupplemented by emooth regulation.
' Regulatinn by a change in the frequency of eagine rotation hae not come
into wide uee since for Che time being the exiating schemee are etill com-
plex~ unwieldy and expensive (reference ie to electric motors). C
The regulation of tha change in the frequency of pump rotation ia accom-
pliahed using special magnetic or hydraulic clutches.
Now we will examine regulation by meane of clutches~ tranefer and throttling.
comparing these methoda with reapect to efficiency.
Aseume that as a result of regulation Che flow and head are equal to Q* and
H* (Fig. 5.26), which a~e the coordinatea of the point A, lying on the char-
acteristic curve of the pipeline (the latter is not ahrnm in Fig. 5.26).
Then with regulation by throttling the pumping station will develop the
head Het ; the h~ad H' muet be extinguiehed by thro t~ing. The uaeful por~er
is equal to Q'RH r, and the expended po~rer to Q~t Y. Hence
' ~throt ~ H*/ *
He t
or
n throt ~ 1 - H'/Het. (5.32)
With regulation by transfer (bypaseing) the delivery by tl~e pumping atation
ie equal to Q0; the petroleum f1oW With the volume Qp - Q must circulate
through the bypaas line.
Accordingly, in the case of transfer (bypaseing)
~ by ' Q*~QO�
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~Oit d~~YCIAL US~ ONLY
We wil~ exp~~eg 1~by Chrough the vgluag K' gnd Hgti.
if the equeCinn for Che character3etic curve for Che pumping etgtion ie
written in Che fortn H� a- bQ2~ then ~
Q,-~~
A~-Bct QOw a~..,.~_
(CT ~ aC(At1ot1)~ Y � Atld ~~r
,
Also taking into account that H'~ ~ HAti - H'~ wp obtgin ~
a--Kcr
n bY ~ s-(NcT-N'~
or
..r
~7by - , � (5.33)
o-(g~T-d )
In the case of regulation uaing a cluCch the torque on the engine ehaft is
transroitted to the pump ehaft without a change, that is
* *
Nmot~nmot ~ N /n .
where Idm~t and n~t ~re the power and frequency of rotatio~ of the motor
shaft; N and n are the power and fraquency of rotation of the pump ehaft.
Accordingly, the efficiency with thia regulation method ie equal to n*/n~t.
It is obvioue that the efficiency for the entire pun~ping station ie equal to
thia eame value if identical pumping plants are installed in the station.
The value n*/nmot ie the total efficiency (~clutch total~: it includea the ~
efficiency of regulation and the efficiency with a shutdown regulating de-
vice of the clutch ~clutch max ~the m~:ximum efficiency when the driven
shaft rotates with the greateet frequency of rotation nl).
~ug~ ~ clutch comp ~~clutch max ~ clutch. where
*
~ clutch max ' nl~nmot~ ~clutch ' n ~nl�
- The maximum efficiency for magnetic clutches ia 0.93-0.95, and for hydraulic
clutches 0.91-0.98. The efficiency of regulation yjclutch is determined
by the frequency of rotation, that is, by the limits of regulation.
For centrifugal pumps
~ Q~ and ~ _ B �
From theBe expresaions we have
*
~clutch = Q ~41
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~Ok Ot~'E' IC I AL USl: dNLY _
nnd
H~
b ~
~
~ (5.34)
Equaeion (5.34) ie a parabolic equaCion for eimilar pump opereting regimes
(in ~ig. 5.26 the da8hed line). The flow Q1, correaponding to the fre-
quency of rotation nl, ie found by the joinC solution nf equaCion (5.32)
~nd the equation for the pumping eteCion characeeri~tic curve, which ie
repre~ented in thie earoe form
H~a--bQ~.
As n result ~ we will hgve . . _ _ _ .
~
Qi = H� �
b Q
Then, making Che replacemenC ~
Q�~.~ ~ e~`~ and 1~�..11~._H~~ -
[CT - et(gtion)~ we obtain -
q~~' ~i~r� (5.35)
[M = cluCchj
It followg from formulas (5.33), (5.34) and (5.35) that ~clutch ~~Chrot
and 1?clutch by� However, thia doee not mean that regulation by clutch-
ea is alwaye more advantageous.
In comparing regulation by means of clutches and remaining methods it is
necessary to use not the coefficient ~ clutch+ but the total efficiency
n lutch comp which takes into account the energy lossea in regulation
and~ the constant loesea. The latter exist not only during the ti~e of reg-
ulation~ but also during the oper.ation of the pipeline, when there ia no
regulation. The lesser the frequency and duration of the period of regula-
tion, the lesa advantageoue ie the regulation by means of clutches.
Now we will compare methods of regulation by Chrottling and tranafer (by-
passing).
From the formulas
Q'g'
+1nv a Q.d and � ~
a
[ n! by; CT ! s tation ~ et; P! throt (tling) J
it followa thst if QOH*> Q*N*t, then Yj~y ~~throt~ gccordinAly, if the
power used by the pump (pump~ng station increases with an increase in the
flow, regulation by throttling is more advantageoue than regulation by by-
- passing, and vice versa.
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7'he pumpa ue~d on roain pipelines have eloping Q-H characCerieeic curves;
for thetn the dependence N ~ N(Q) ie an increaeing function. Therefore,
on main pipelineq regulation by throttling ie more adventageoua than reg-
ul~tinn by bypaesing.
CbpYlt[~HT: Izdutel'~tvo "Nedrn", 197g
5303
CSO: 8344/0811
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I~1UIt n~~ICIAL Uq~ nNLY
?
PUI~ING OF HIGNLY VISCOUS AND HZGHLY CONGEALIN(~ PETROLEUM
Moecow TRtJBO-PROVODNYY TRANSPORT NBFTI I GAZA in Ruseian 1978 pp 322-374
IChapter 8 by V. D. Beloueov, E. M. Bleykher, A. G. Nemudrov, V. A. Yufin
and Ye. I. Yakovlev (alen participating in the writing of thia chapter were
Cendidetes of Technical Sciencea V. A. Kulikov and V. M. Agapkin and Engineere
V. M. Mikhaylov and S. N. Chelinteev) from ehe book TAUHO-P18DVODNYY TRANSPORT
NLFTI I GAZA edited by V. A. Yufin~ Izdatel~etvo "Nedra." 7.~00 copies; 408
pages)
[Text] At the presenC time in our country and gbroad there ia a coneider-
able production of both highly viecous petroleums and petroleume contain-
ing a great quantity of paraffin and accordingly congealing at relaCively
high temperaturea. Tt?e pumping of these patrol~uma by the usual method is
irrational because at the ambient temperaturea the hydraulic resiatance of
the pipelinea ie great. A decreaee in the hydreulic resietance of the pipe-
lines ia enaured by different methoda for increasing the flowebility of
petroleume: the mixing of viacoue and congealing petrolewns and petroleum
products with thoaQ having a low viscoeity and their ~oint pumping~ mixing
and pumping with water, thermal procesaing of congealing paraffinic petrol-
eums and petroleum producta and their aubaequent pumping, pumping of pre-
t~eated petroleums end petroleum producCe, uee of additivea and depressants -
in the petroleum~ etc. In each case the choice of the pumping meChod must
be backed up by technical and economic computationa.
~8.1. Rheological Propertiea of Viecous and Congealing Petroleums
Rheology is a acience concerned with study of the flowability of liquid,
gaseous and plaetic aubstances, as trell as proceasea aesociated with reaid-
ual deformationa of eolid bodiee. The propertiea of the liquid on which the
nature of their flow ia dependent are called rheological properties.
In pipeline tranaport the rheological characteriatics of petroleums are ~
evaluated uaing the following parametera: viacoaity (Newtonian)~ plastic
viscoeity, effective viacoaity, initial (static) ahearing atresa~ limiting
dynamic ahearing atrese and congealing point.
The nature of liquid flow ia determined by the the form of the dependence
of the frictional forces on the surface of contact of the liquid layers or
shearing stress t on the velocity gradient along the radius or ahearing
velocity dw/dr. The graphic expreasion of this dependence is called the
liquid flow curve. �
For light petroleum products, petroleums with a low paraffin content and
paraffinic petroleums at a high temperature a dependence obtained by New-
ton is correct; he formulated it in the following way: "the reaiatance
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_ which ari~ee due Co inadequgte ellpping of 1lquid parCiclee~ a11 other con-
ditione being equal, is proportional to the velocity wieh which the liquid
perticlee move relaCive to one another," or
t~~ ~ dio �
�
where ~1ie the dynemin viecoeiCy coefficient~
The liquide for which the cited dependence of 'G on dw/dr ~s correct for
a conatanC value are lanown as Newtonian liquids or fluide, and the vie-
cosity of Buch liquide ie called NewConian.
The beh~?vior of n~ny liquide, eepecially paraffinic petroleume and petrol-
eum producte at temperatures close Co their congealing point~ does not con-
form tn the Newton law. 5uch liquide are called non-Newtonian.
There are several claeaes of non-Newtonian liquide differing with respect
to the shape of the flow curve (Fig. 8.1).
The flow curvee deacribe the behavior of liquide: plaetic or Bingham (1),
paeudoplastic (2), Newtonian (3) and dilatant (4).
Figure 8.1 ehowe that the flow curvea of paeudoplastic, Newtonian and dilat-
ant liquide paes Chrough the origin of coordinates and accordingly their
flow begina with the minimum pressure differentials. The flow of Bingham
liquida begina only after the creation of a definite stress~G~. In the case
of stresses lesa than 'G p, auch ],ic}uide behave as solid bodiea, whereas
with greater atreseee as fluida. The rheological equation for a Bingham
fluid is derived from a combination of two equationa the Newton equation
(8.1) and the rheological equation for a plastic body ('G �'G p) and can
be written in the following form: -
[1Tl1= pl(astiC) ] t=t~-~na d=, ,
It containa two coefficients: yield stress 'G~ and viscosity ?'jpl, which
is called plaetic viscoaity.
For pseudoplastic and dilatant liquids in a wide range of change in ahear
velocity in the technical computatione it is posaible to use a power de-
pendence of stresa on ahear velocity
t'_k dre n-1 dm ~
I dr l dr
where ~dw/dr~ is the dimensionleas shear velocity modulus; n and k are
conatant coefficients for the particular liquid. The n coefficient is known
ae the flow index aad k is a characteristic of conaiatency. For a Newtonian
liquid n ~ 1 and k~~; for paeudoplastic liquids n~ 1 and for dilatant
liquids n> 1.
The flow of paraffinic petroleums and petroleum products at temperatures
close to their congealing point or below can be described by curves 1 or
2(see Fig. 8.1). In other words, they can be related to plastic or
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,
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p~eudoplastic 1lquide~ and in the case of sufficiently high CemperaCures
to Newtonian liquide.
This peculiarity ia gseociatad with the high conCent of paraffin in euch
petroleums. At a high temperature the main quantity of paraffin present
in the petroleum 3e in a diseolved stata. Under these conditiona the pet-
roleum ie a Newtonian liquid.
With a temperature decreas~ the paraffin begins to cryseallize out of the
petroleum. The proceas of cryetallization of paraffin as the firat stage
includes a change in etructure of the liquid phase of the petroleum with
~ decrease in temperature. The essence of Chese changea ie an ordering in
the arrangement of molecules of the disaolved subetance due to a decrease
in the energy of Cheir thermal motion. Aa the eoluCion is cooled the cap-
acity of the molecules of the aolvent to hold paraffin molecules in a
dieperaed and isolmted etate ia reduced, that ie, Che disaolving power of
the solvenC is reduced. With a further temperature decrease the paraffin
concentraCion in the hydrocarbon medium attains a level at which the aolu-
tion becomea saturated.
However, in this case the cryatallisation of paraffin doea not begin and
th~ere muet be some supersaturation of the solution, which creates the pos-
sibility of appearance of quite large paraffin cryatals with a eize greater
than the critical size of cryatalliaation centera.
With approach of the cooling temperature to the congealing point tcon the
number and size of the crystals increase to auch an extent thaC they form
a spatial lattice atructure through the entire volume of the petroleum
and immobilize the liquid phase of the petroleum. The petroleum acquires
the properties of paeudoplastic and then plastic fluids. _
,Some highly parafinnic petrolewms (such as those from the Mangyshlakskiye
deposits) also have the properties of thiaotropic liquids.
r
B
t
J
q C 4
to p d~l
Fig. 8.1. Dependence of ahearing atresa on ahearing velocity dw/dr for
different lfquids.~
- Thixotropy is a property of bodies as a result of which the ratio of the
shearing stresa to the deformation rate (ehear) temporarily decreases due
to the preceding deformations. In oth~r words, thixotropy is the capacity
of a liquid, as time passes, to restore the earlier destroyed structure.
6~
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~nlt O~FICIAL US~ nNLY
Vigcosity (Newtnnian)
The movement of a flow of a real fluid is always accompanied by gn en~rgy
loss. Thi~ occurs even during the movement of g fluid ~hrough pipelinee
with completely smooth walls. The teason for euch loeee~ is not so much
friction against th~ pipeline wa11 ae the inCernal friction o� the fluid
(viscosity).
It hge been eaCablighed tihat for Che movement of a plgte lying on a layer
of fluid it is necessary to impart to ie a tangenCial force which ie di-
rectly proportional to the area of the plate S, the velocity of ite move-
ment w, and is inveraely proportional to the thicknees of the fluid layer
x. Thia dependence ie given more precieely by the Newton equation, in which.
as mentioned above, � ie a proporCionality factor~ known ae the dynamic
viecoeity coefficient.
Uuring the pumping of visc~ua fluids the influence of vigcoeity on the hy-
draulic loases is extremely eignificant, and therefore in each real case
it is neceasary to determine viacosity with the greateat posaible accuracy.
If in the laboratory there ie no posaibility of determining the petroleum
viacosity-temperature curve. the viacosity at the temperature of intereat
can be computed using empirical formulas. The following formulas have come
into wideapread use: American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM)
Ig lg (v -~-0.8) ~ u-~ b 1 a T;
Vo el-Fulcher-Tamman formula �
~
v�~~c, eXp C ~
d,
Reynolds formula ~ ~ ,
v a v~ exp (-u (t-to)1~
where'? is the coefficient of kinematic viscosity ~t the temperature t(in
�C) or T(in K); vp is the coefficient of kinematic viacosity at the tem-
perature t0; a, b, bi, yuo , 6, u are determined using the formulas cited
above if viacosity ia known at three or two temperatures; in the ASTM for-
mula the dimenaionality is in centistoke.
Plastic Viscosity -
Plastic (Bingham) viscosity characterizea the plastic properties of a fluid.
Uaually plastic viacosity is determined from the curve of flow of a fluid
using zhe Bingham equation s-T
0
� dm �
[ 7T7t � P1 ~SStiC) ] dr
Graphically plastic viscosity can be e~cpresaed by the ratio of the segments
BC to AC (see Fig. 8.1).
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Effeceive Viecosity
~ffective viecoeixy ie the ratio of ehearing etress to ahear velocity
s effJ � T
'~r
For Newton fluide thia ie g conetant value, equal to Che eo-called Newton
viecogity, wherea~ for non-Neaton fluida it variea with a change in ehear
velocity.
Graphically the effective viecoaity value cen be represented as the ratio
of BD to ED (aee Fig. 8.1).
IniCial Shearing 3tre~s
A number of rheological parameteYe of paraffinic petroleums vary with time.
Outwardly this is manifeeted in that under a mechanical influence (shaking,
mixing) the syeCem acquires mobility and flowability, but during prolonged
rest under low-temperature conditiona it eolidifies and a paraffinic etruc-
ture is formed whoee etrength increaeea with time.
It is neceaeary to create a definite initial preaeure for the ahear of par-
affinic petroleuma. Thie presaure correaponds to the initial ahearing streas
'Gin, whoae value is dependent on the strengCh of the paraffinic structure
forming under the given conditiona during the time of preeence at reat.
Figure 8.2 ehowa the characteriatic curve of the dependence of the change
in 'Gin on the time of the preaence of petroleum at rest.
It muat be remembered that the operatioa of a main pipeline involvea inev-
itable stoppages. It is necessary to take into accouat the capacity of ~n
to increase with time, since during the time of a standstill the ~n value
can attain a value at which the preseure developed by the pumping atation
may prove to be inadequate for moving the petroleum in the open line and
then the petroleum pipeline will be "frozen."
Due to the multiplicity of different factora exerting an influence on the
ittitial shearing atress of paraffinic petroleums, there are virtually no
formulas for computing 'Gin. Therefore, in each specific case the 'Gin
value is determined e~cperimentally.
Limiting Dynamic Shearing Strese
One of the rheological parameters characterizing the plastic properties of
paraffinic petroleums ia the limiting dynamic ahearing atresa 'G~.
For determining 'G p it is necessary to plot the petroleum rheological curve;
the extenaion of the linear segment of the rheological curv~ to the -G axis
cuts off on it a aegment whose value characterizes the limiting dyaamic -
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ahearing etress of the particular petroleum (see Fig. 8.1).
~N L3n
Time
epen,v
Fig. 2. Dependence of initial ahearing atresa on time of presence of petrol-
eum at rest. ~
It should be noted that the temperature prehietory of the petroletim? exerta
a great influence on the rheological parametere of both Newton and non-New-
ton petrolewns, Chat is~ it is important to known to what temperature influ- -
ence the petroleum was aubjected prior to the determination of any partic-
ular rheological parameter. _
pt3.2. Methode for Pumping Highly Viacoua and High Congea23ng Point Petroleums '
Pumping Paraffinic Petroleums with Hydrocarbon DiluenCs ;
The introduction of a hydrocarbon diluent into paraffinic petrol~um in aome '
casea makea it posaible to achieve a considerable improvement in ite rheo- _
logical properties.
Experience in the ~oint pumping of petroleum, petroleum liquefied gases and
gas condensate has been gained in a number of foreign countries.
The pumping of mixturea of varioua petroleums with liquefied gases, gas ben-
zine and distillatea is accomplished in the United States through a.pipeline
with a diameter of 300 mm and a length of 1,080 km which cpnnects a~ield
in Oklahoma with Eaet Chicago, Indiana.
A highly viscous petroletan with an asphaltic base is pumped through a petrol-
eum pipeline between Lloydminister and Ha:disty in Canada ( y Sp = 2.9 etoke). ;
With a temperature decrease its viscoaity increasea aharply. Lloydminister
petroleum is pumped one-quarter diluted by condensate; in winter *.he mix- :
ture is heated. Deapite the fact that a apecial pipeline of the same length
ae tha ~ia line was constructed for feeding the condensate to the depoeit,
this transport method was ecoaomically more advantageous than other pumping
- meth~da.
However, as a rule, the feeding of a light hydrocarbon diluent (benzene,
kerosene, dieael fuel) to a petrole~ producing area and the neceasity for
constructing additional open-line structures at the petroleum pipeline ter-
minal involves great expenditures and makes it very expensive to e.mploy this
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method for improving the rheological propertiea of paraffinic petroleums.
Accordingly, the pumping of paraffinic petroleum with light diluenta ia
frequenCly more expeneive than other tranaport methoda.
Aa the diluenCa it is best to uae patroleums with a low viscosity. If the
_ field producea paraffinic and low-viscosity petroleuma, it is feaeible to
mix them in structures at the head of the petroleum pipellne and tranaport
them together.
The mixing of highly paraffinic and low-viacoeity petroleuma makes it pos-
sible not only to lower the coat of pumping, but also to make more effect-
_ ive use of the produced petroleuma. By mixing different petroleums in dif-
ferent ratios it ie posaible to obtain petroleum mixturea of a predeter-
mined composition; thie makea it posaible to atabilize operation of the
petroleum pipeline and Che installations at petroleum refineriea. In addi-
tion, the mixing of petroleuma aometimea makea possible a considerable im-
provement in their quality. For example, the mixing of highly paraffini.c,
but low-eulfur petroleums with low-paraffin but high-aulfur petroleums
makes it posaible to obtain a petroleum mixture with a moderate paraffin
and aulfur content. An example of this is Che highly paraffinic petrol-
- eum which ie pumped in a heated atate from the Mangyahlak peninsula to
the Kuybyahev area, where some of it is refined and some of it is mixed
with low-viscosity sulfur petroleum from the Volga region and fed into the .
"Druzhba" petroleum pipeline ayatem.
The mechanism of the effect of a hydrocarbon diluent can be explained in
the following way. First, with the addition of a diluent to a paraffinic
- petroleum there is a decrease in the paraffin concentration in the mix-
. ture, and also a decrease in the saturation temperature of the aolution
and the appearance of paraffin crystals. Accordingly, the congealing point
of the system is reduced. Second, when using as diluents low-viacosity pet-
roleums containing asphalt-tar aubstances, the latter, being depressants, -
impede the formation of a paraffinic strucCure lattice in the petroleum
and thereby reduce the congealing point and the effect3ve viscosity of the
mixture. It muet be remembered that the solubility of the paraffins to a
high degree ia dependent on the properties of the diluent. As a rule, Che
lesser the density and viscoaity of the diluent, the more effective is its
action. In addition, the lower the temperature of the mixture, the greater
is the improvement in the rheological properties of the paraffinic petrol-
eum with addition of a diluent.
The rheological pxoperties of the petroleum mixture are also influenced by -
the method of miaing of the petroleums. In order to obtain a homogeneous
mixture the mixing of the petroleums must occur at a temperature 3-5� high-
er than the congealing point of the viscoua component. Under unfavorable
mixing conditione the effectiveness of the diluent is reduced to a consid-
erable degree and there can even be a separation of the petroleums.
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Pumping of Highly Congealing ParafFinic Petroleume With Additives for
Stimulating ~low
In tt~e pumping of petroleums nnd their refined producta Chrough pipellnes
nt the present time use is made of petroleum-soluble chemical additives
huving different purposes. For Che p~::~poae of reducing head loesea in fric-
tion during a turbulent flow regime of 1ow-viscoaity peCroleuma they are
~ supplemented by some quantity of polymer having long and atrong moleculea.
- Such polymer additivea retard the development of eddies in the flow when
there are great discharges. As a result, the throughput capacity of the
_ pipeline is increased. In a laminar regime these polymer additivea do not
lessen the loeaea in friction.
The use of additivee capable Qf improving Che pumpability of highly congeal-
ing paraffinic petroleums in the field of low temperaturea is of great in-
tereat.
In the Soviet Union and abroad reaearch is being carried on in selecting
additivea which~ interacting with petroleum paraffins, could improve its
rheological characteristics (atatic and limiting dynamic shearing atresa,
plastic, that is, Bingham viacosity). The uae of auch additives for stimul-
ating flow is a further development of the principle of uae of additives
which long ago were employed for reducing the congealing pointa of oils.
InvestigaCions indicate the pour-poine depreasanta for oils do not exert an
influence on the low-temperature properties of paraffinic pQtroleums; this
ia attributable to Che extremely complex phyaicochemical compoai~ion of the -
latter. .
At the present time there are already effective flow stimulatore whose addi-
tion to highly congeal3ng paraffinic petroleums imparta to their flow a
Newtonian character at relatively low temperatures.
As the basis for stimulators controlling the process of crystallization of
paraffins in the petroleum flow it is poasible to employ such high-molecular
compounds as polymethacrylates, polyisobutylene, ethylene polymera, poly-
_ propylenes, etc.
Ash-free ethylene-propylene polymer additives are now being produced abroad.
Examples are additivea designated Paramins-20, -25, -70 for medium distil-
late fuels, and also additivea of the ECA type for heavy fuels and petrol-
eums.
With reapect to external form, these additives conatitute a paraffin-like
mass acquiring mobility only at 50-60�C.
The effectiveness of use of these additives is dependent on the physicochem- _
ical properties of the paraffinic petroleums or their mixtures with low-vis-
cosity petroleums, and especially on their content of paraffins and natural
surface-active substances tars and asphaltenes.
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l~'UIt (11~ i' 1 C I AL U;~ I; (1NI,Y
The necessary concentration of ~low seimulator in the petroleum is depend-
enC on tha purpose and Che apecific conditione o~ its uae. For example.
- for succe~s~u1 pumping of petzoleum along a main pipeline it ie sufficient
to introduce an additive in a quantity 0.1-0.27. In the case o~ transport
of a mixture of high-congealing petroleum wieh low-viscoeity petroleume
tt~is concentration can be reduced.
In the storage of petroleum contai.ning paraffin a concentration of additive
up to 0.03X to a coneiderable degree leesene paraffin depoeition on equip-
ment and can eliminate expensive manual cleaning of the tanka in petroleum
tanks (tank farms), tankexa, etc. At the preaent time there is no uniform
opinion concerning the mechaniem of the effect of both depreasor additivea
to oils and flow etimulatora.
It has been eaCabliehed thaC flow etimulators do not decrease the quantity
of paraffin precipitated from the petroleum and do not changc~ the Cempera-
ture of onset of ite mass cryatallization.
v ~ .
_ , t
g ~
~ ~r
5
:
~ ~ _
e 'Y ~dW- -
4 iL
l
A ~ -
o a~ az aa o,4 o,s o,6
$ NON((~MI?1pQf/UN LYl~ftnyAamOpQ, %
Fig. 8.3. Graph of dependence of Fig. 8.4. Graph of dependence 2~
rheological parameters on concentra- '~~dw/dr) with constant rate of de-
tion of. additive at constant tempera- formation E Q const: 1) for initial
ture. petroleum containing paraffin at
congealing temperature; 2) for pet-
~Y% roleum proceased with flow stimul-
A. Rheological parameters ator at this same temperature. _
B. Stimulator concentration
- The first fractions of the additive are the moat effective (Fig. 8.3). In
this reapect the action of flow stimulators is similar to the action of
depressanta for oils.
The poasible mechanism of the action o� additives for high-paraffin oils
can be judged from the change in the deformation-atrength properties
of the structure of paraffin in dependence on the conditions of its forma-
tion (in the presence of additives or without them). A study of the kinetics
of development of shearing atreases with a constant rate of deformation in -
67
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dieperae syntema makes poesible a dee~ j.nve~ei~;~Cion of Che mechanism of
appegr~nce gnd nature af the ~tructure. Any phy~icachemical processing
o~ the ey~tem qcCing on rhe conditions of appearnnce of pnreicles gnd c~1~o
the numbez' p� contacta between them ~a manifested in a change in the couree
of the de�ormation procese.
~igure 8.4 ahows a di,agram characterizing the developmenr of flow in a high-
congealing petroleum firet heaCed to 50�C, thaC ie. to the ittitial tiemper-
nture in Che case oP "hnt" pumping. The procese nf destruceion of the par-
affin atrucCure includea noC only the deatrucCion of t~a crystal lattice
proper, but also the setting free of the liquid medium immobiliZed wiehin `
the structural lattice, a change in orientaCion of anisodiametric par-
Cicles and other mechanisma for reducing reaistanr.e to deformation. The
descending branch of curve 1 reflecta compleCion of Che complex process
of change in rhe structure and trgnaition to a aready-state flow regime.
c)n the basia of the nature of destruction of the structure of paraffin,
I~iah-congealing petroleums can be claeaified as elasticoplastic bodiea.
'i'hia is attributable to Che fact that with cooling of the petroleum the par-
nffin crystals which separate out, ~oining with one another, form a atruc-
ture lattice a gel. An increase in the mechanical strength and a de-
crease in plasticiCy of petroleums containing paraffin with a decrease
in temperature is associated with the quantity of the solid phase cryatal-
lizing out and the presence of polydiaperae crystals of paraf.f~ns expend-
ed on the strengthening of the phase contacts.
Asphalt-tar substancea are of great importonce in forming the paraffin
gel; they can envelope the precipitating paraffin cryata~.s, not allowing
them to create a more solid crystalline lattice. In the preseYice of flow _
stimulators in a quantity of about 0.27. there is a radic~i change in ~he
picture of development of the flow in petroleum contafnir.~ paraffin. Here
a plastic flow arisea with stresses considerably less than in the initial
- petroleum.
A decrease in strength and an increase in plasticity, as capabilities of
bodies for flow, that i8, leading to extremely great residual deformation~ `
without apparent rupture under the influence of atresses exceeding the
yield stress, must be attributed to the formation of complexea of the _
stimulator-paraffin molecule, creating a apatial obstacle to the formation
of crystalline gel contacta and decreasing their ordering.
Considering the mechanism which is involved in the action of additives,
they must be introduced into the petroleum at temperatures at which its
paraffins are disaolved and it constitutes a true solution. The methods
for introducing flow stimulators can be different. The principal condition
is ensuring a high degree of mixing of the stimulator and the petroleum.
Thia can be achieved by introducing the additive into the flow of heated
petroleum in the pipeline through a nozzle. In order to ensure normal
pumping of petroleum containing paraffin in the case of an isothermic
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regime in a pipeli,ne o~ con~iderable lengCh it ig eufficient to inCroduce
Che additive only once, for example~ gt the head eCxucCUreg of a pipeline.
The experience in the uee oE additives improving the flow of peCroleumg
with p~raffin under induetrial condiCions during rhe pumping nf African
petroleum~ through the European pipelines Rotterdem - Ithine (D = 400-900
~nn, L a 236 km)~ Ile de France (b ~ 500 mm, L~ 150 km), ~innart-Grange-
mouth (Great Brit~in), and also use of the gdditive ECA-4242 during the
~tarting-up of Che pipeline Mangyehlak-Kuybyahev ahowe that ueing them
it ie poseible to Eacilitate the etartup of a pipeline and the pumping of
petroleum in an ieothermic regime aC temperatures lower than it~ solidif-
ication point~ and albo reduce or completely exclude Che depoeition of
parafEin in pipelinea~ tanke, etc.
Thus, this meChod for improving the rheological properties of petrol~ums
with paraffin makea it poaeible to increase the throughput capacity of a
pipeline and solve a number of epecific problems in Che CxanaporCaCion
of auch peCroleuma without additional capital inveatments on broadening
the main equipment or on strengthening thermal inaulation.
Additivea of the type of flow stimulatora can considerably simplify tt~e
operation of "hot" pipelines, eapecially in nonstationary operating re-
� gimes. Such regimea muat include their starting-up after conatruc[ion
when the ground around the pipeline is not heated, reaching the planned
throughput capacity under conditions of an increase in petroleum pL~oduc-
tion in the fielda, repeated etartups after stoppagea of pumping, etc.
Pumping of Thermally Procesaed Petrolewns
With the h~ating o~ petroleum to a definite temperature with subsequent
cooling the rheological parameters of the petroleum Experience consider-
able changes. In some casea the values 'Lp, ~Gin and � e increase; in
other cases they decrease. The thermal processing of petroleum for chang-
ing its rheological paraaneters is called the thermal proceasing of petrol-
e~0� ~ N'e � �"ef (fective) l
Thermal proceasing ie one of the methoda for improving the rheological
properti~s of the petroleum for the purpose of increasing the effective-
ness of pipeline transport of petroleums containing paraffin and peCroleum
products. Thermal procesaing tnakea it posaible to obtain petroleum with a
weak paraffin atructure not capable of holding the entire volume of petrol-
eum in its lattice elements.
The thermal procesaing process conaists of the heating of petroleum to
some temperature with subsequent cooling to its pumping temperature. With
the heating of petroleum containing paraffin there is a total or partial
disaolving of the paraffins present in the petroleum. With the cooling of
the petrole~ the paraffin ia precipitated from solution in the form of
crystals, the number and form of which are dependent on the temperature
of the preliminary heating and on the cooling conditions.
~
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In aur country ehe pzoblems involved in the C}termal procesging of patrol-
eums with paraf�in and petroleum producte wer~ already investigated in
the 1930~s. ~'or example~ we know o~ the atudias of 2elinskiy and Sakhanov~
in which the auChoxa obtained poaitive reeulCN with the thermnl proceesing
of mazuts. 7'he thern~al procese3,ng o~ petroleum in the Romaehkinekoye depos-
it made it poesible to reduce the viecoeity of peCrolewn by a factor of
more than 2 and decxease the solidification point of petroleum to 20�C.
Inveatigationa made iC poesible to detect a number of regulariCies aseo-
cinted wiCh the thermal proceaeing of petroleuma containing paraffin:
1) the thermal procesaing of highly congealin~ paraffinic petroleums with
a heating temperature 40-SO�C (somewhat below the melting point of paraf-
- ~ina) greatly wor~ens the rheological properties of Ct~e petroleum;
'l) for paraffinic petroleums there ia a definite heating t~emperature at
which the Chermal processing effect is maximwn. This temperaCure is always
higher than the melting point of paraffins prasent in the petroleum;
- 3) the greaCer ie the ratio of the content of paraffins to Che content of
asphalt-tar aubstances, the leaser is the thermal proceseing effecC;
4) the conditions of petroleum cooling exert c~ greaC influence on the
propertiea of Cherroally procesaed petroleums.
Accordingly, by changing the conditiuns for cooling of the petroleum and
the temperature of the preliminary heating, it is posaible to exert a aig-
nificant influence on the strengCh of the paraffin lattice in Che petrol-
eum, that is, it is poasible to select such a thermal processing regime in
which its effect will be maximum.
The dependence of the rheological parameCers of thermally proceased high- ~
parafrin petroleums on the rate of their cooling after heating is attrib-
utable to the conditiona for cryatallization of the paraffin present in
the petroleum.
' The proceas of crystallization (aize, number and ahape of the paraffin crys-
tals in the petroleu~n) is influenced by the ratio of two rates: rate of ap-
pearance of centers of crystallization of paraffin and rate of increase
of already precipitated crystals. If the rate of appearance of centers of
crystallization is greater than the ra[e of crystal growth, a ayatem is
obtained with a great number of small cryatals; otherwise, in the system
there is formation of large unconsolidated cryatals and the strength of
such a structure ia conaiderably leea than that of a fine-crystal structure.
t~or example, with a rate of cooling of thern?ally processed Mangyshlak pet-
roleum equal to 10�C/hour, a favorable ratio of the rate of appearance
of the centers of crystallization end the rate of increase of the forming
paraffin crystals is created. Moat of the paraffin goee to the formation
of a small number of large crystals forming unconsolidated cluaters.
It was noted earlier that the temperature of preliminary heating of the pet-
roleum exerts a great influence on the crystallization of paraffin during
the thermal ~.rocessing of petroleums. '
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I+igure 8.5 ehowa Che dependence of petroleum viscoaity dn the temperature
of thermal procesaing. Figure 8.5 showe that wiCh an increaee in the tem-
perature of petroleum heeting ite viacoeity at firet increasee, and then
decrea~ee, becoming m9.nimum with a definiCe Cemperature of thermal procese-
ing. With a further increase in heating C~mperature the viecoaity of the
petroleum again increaaee., " ~
~t
~
2,4
~
A ~ ,,6 ,
~ a
2
d46 ~
y
II ~ !0 1G
C~opocme ucrosiOpMU~
Fig. 8.5. Dependence of petroleum ,iscoeity on thermel procesaing para-
meters: 1, 2, 3 and 4-- heating temperature of 60, 80, 100 and 90�C re-
apectively.
KEY:
A. Viecosity, cm
B. Cooling rate, �C/hour
These peculiarities of the influence of the temperature of thermal procesa-
ing on rheological parameters can be explained in the following way. At the
surface of the paraffin cryetala there is adeorption of asphalt-tar sub-
stances present in the petroleum. With the heating of the petroleum to a
low temperature aome of the paraffin crystals are disaolved and the as-
phalt-tar eubstancea released are adsorbed at the surface of the undis-
solved paraffin crystals. Subsequent cooling leads to the formation from
the precipitating paraffin of a solid fine-crystal structure increaeing
the effective viscosity and solidification point of the petroleum. With an
increase in the heating temperature there is an increase in the quantity
of paraffin diasolved in the liquid phase of the petroleum, and in addi-
tion, the remaining cxyatals of paraffin with a high melting point adsorb
an increasingly leaser quantity of asphalt-tar aubatances. During the
cooling of the petroleum~ due to the adequat~e quantity of the unadaorbed
asphalt-tar eubstances, being surface-active subetancea, which favor den-
dritic cryetallization, there is formation of a amall number of large crys-
tals of paraffin.
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WiCh heating to ~uch n temperaCure when all the paraffin is diesolved~ Che
mo~t favdrnble condieione are areated for Che dendritic crystallixaCion
of paraffin with �ormation of the least solid structure.
With a atill greater temperature of the Chermal proceseing of Che petroleum~
the asphalt-tar eubatancee preaent in it, which exert a favorable influence
on the formaCion of a coarae-grained eCructure, are irreversibly destroyed,
thereby reducing the thermal processing effect.
The rheological parametera of Che petroleum teol (solidification or con-
~enling point), Tiin, N-e and '~p, improving as n reault of tt~ermal proceas-
_ ing, with time asaume,their initial values. The time required for restora-
_ Cion of the rheological parameters of Che petroleum must be taken inCo ac-
count in the operation of pipelinea pumping thermally procesaed peCroleum.
Thus, if Che thermal proceseing o� high-paraffin petroleum givea good re-
sults and thermally procesaed petroleum has a long time of reatoration of
rheological propertiea, auch a petroleum after thermal procesaing can be
pumped as an ordinary low-viacosity fluid.
1[ydraulic Traneport of High-Paraffin and High-Viacosity Petroleuma an9
Petroleum Producta
A subatantial improvement in the pumpability of viscous or high-congealing
petroleums can be achieved by adding water to the petroleum flow.
With the ~aint pumping of water and petroleum the flow can be imparted dif-
ferent structures, such as coaxial, emulsion, separate, etc.
A coaxial structure is obtained when the water forn?s around the petroleum, ~
along the inner surface of the pipe, in a concentric ring. In order for
the petrolewn not to float in the water and not stick to the upper aurface
of the pipe, a groove ia made in the pipe which imparta a rotational motion
to the flow. The water, being the heavier fJuid, is propelled toward the
pipe wall. ~
In an experimental pipeline with a diameter of 200 ~n and a length of 40
km the throughput capacity was increased by a factor of 12.
In the case of hydraulic transport the flow increases with lesser expendi-
tures of energy in comparison with the pumping of high-viscosity petroleum
alone. The separation of the water and petroleum is accomplished at the
final point in the pipeline by one of the well-known methods (standing,
thermal method, etc.).
tiydraulic transport of highly viscous petroleums through pipelines with
an internal groove has not come into wide use for the following reasons:
1) with the stoppage of pumping there will be a stratification of the water
and petroleum. The lakter sticks to the upper generatrix of the pipe and
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paaks the epiral, ae a result of which there ie a marked decrease 3n the
effectivenege of hydraulic'tiranepprt;
2) thie method can only be used when pumping petroleum through a pipeline
w3thnut intermediate pumping etatione~ eince with the entry of water and
petroleum into rhe pump a etable emulsion ie formed which beyond the pump-
ing etation no longer separates and impedes the formation nf the water ring
along the pipe walls; ~
3) the complexity in producing the epiraling on the inner eurface of the
pipe.
WiCh the formation of the pentroleum in water (p/w) emuleion there is a
coneiderable decrease in syetem viscosity. Such a eystem conaieta of pet-
roleum particles aurrounded by a film of waCer and there ia virtually no
contact between the petrolecnn and the pipe surface. As a result. a water
ring is formed along the entire internal surface of the pipe and the pet-
roleum slidea along it.
With the transport of water-petroleum emulsione through pipelinea with
some pumping ratea, temperatures and water concentrationa in petroleum -
there is formation of an emulaion of water in petroleum (w/p). The viscos-
ity of such emulsions can be greater than the viecoaity of pure petroleum.
In order to improve the conditiona for formation and increase in the stab-
ility of emulaiona of the type p/w different aurface-acrive subatancea
(SAS) are added to the water-petroleum mixture.
A surface-active subatance, diasolved in water, hydrolyzes the pipeline
wa11s, considerably decreases the forces of attachment of the petroleum _
to the walls and creates conditions for the formation of a disperse sys-
tem of the p/w type. All this leads to a marked decrease in hydraulic re-
sistance during pumping.
The technology of ~oint pumping of petroleum with a waCer solution of SAS is
directed to the creation of a stable eystem of the p/w type in the pipeline
and the prevention of a phase invereion, that is, a tranaition nf the sys-
tem from direct to reverae (w/p).
The stability af a system of the p/w system is influenced to a coneider-
able degree by the form and concentration of the SAS, temperature, inten-
, sity of mixing and relationship of phases.
The SAS used in preparing water-petroleum emulsions muat correspond to the
follawing principal requirementa: emulsify well (that is, create an enve-
lope on the surface of the petroleum globules, mechanically sufficiently
strong and capable of being easily restored when it breake), must be non-
toxic and not cause corrosion of the pipeline and tanks.
One of the SAS best correaponding to the ~bove-mentioned requirements is
NP-1 aulfanol.
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An increase in the concentration of water in the mi.xture improves the sCab-
ility o~ Che emuleion but reduces the economic indicea for ehis particular
type of hydraulic transport. It haa been establiahed by experimental in-
veatigation thnt the minimum water content should be about 30X of the to-
ea1 volume of the mixCure to be tranaported.
Pumping of Heated Petrolewna and PeCroleum Productis ~
The pumping of highly viscoua and high-congealing petroleuma and petro.leum
producta with heaCing ia the most commonly employed meChod for the pipeline
traneport of these products. The pipelines through which heated petroleums
ure pumped are called "hot'~ pipelines.
The petroleum can be heaCed at aCations or along the entire pipeline route.
In the first, moat commonly uaed variant of "hot" pipelines there are three
types of stations installed on the pipeline: pumping-heating stationa (PHS),
at which the product ia both heated and pumped, heating atations (HS) at
which only heating takes place~ and pumping stations (PS) at which only
the pumping of the product occura. The heating of the product occura both _
in tanks (at the head station), equipped with spiral or aectional steam
heaters, and in heatera (at all atations), which can be ateam operated or
fired (furnaces).
In the second variant a heating satellite pipeline is laid alongside the ~
pipeline through which the heat carrier (hot water or steam) ia pumped. ,
This same variant is possible uaing electric power.
A reduction in thermal loases in "hot" pipelines can be achieved by cover-
- ing the pipea with heat insulation.
-
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118.3. Initial DaCa for Thermal Computation of "Hot" Petroleum Pipelinea
When carrying out therroal computations of a petrolewn pipeline it is necea-
eary to huve the following initial daCa: physical and ~hermophyaical prop-
erties of the petroleum. thermal inaulaCion, tha ground (density, rheolog-
ical characteriatics, epecific heat capacity~ tharmal conductivity, thermal
diffusivity~ moisture conCent), climatic daCa (mean monthly temperatures
of the air and ground at the depth at which the pipeline is laid in a nat-
ural thermal etate, level of solar radiat'ion, depth of anow cover).
Data on temperature of the air and ground, snow cover depth and Che level
of solar radiation are taken from the climatic handbooks fos Che region
through which the pipeline is to be laid.
The physical and thermophyaical characteristics of the petroleum, thermal _
ineulation, ground and othera are determined experimentally or can be com-
puted uaing the correaponding empirical formulas.
Specific heat capacity of petroleum [in kJ/kg��C)] is determined uaing the
Crego formula -
c�= ~PiM1 (i,687-}-3,30 � !0-~ t)?
~
where P 45 is the relative denaity of petroleum relative to water at t=
15�C.
The specific heat capacity of petroleums and petrole~ producta falls in
the range from 1.6 to 2.5 kJ/(kg��C) and for approximate computations it
can be aesumed equal to 2.1 kJ/(kg��C). The specific heat capacity of hy-
drocarbon steels ~and paraffin deposita is equal to 0.5 and 2.9 kJ/(kg��C).
The thermal conductivity coefficient for petroleums ~1, depending on the
temperature in the range of change in pumping parameters, varies in the
range from 0.1 to 0.16 W/(m��C). _
For refined computationa uae is made of the Crego-Smith formula
O,i37
(f -0,54.l0-s t~.
The mean values of the thextinal conductivity coefficients for steel and par-
affin are 46-50 and 2.5 W/(m��C) reapectively.
The thermal diffusivity coefficient is related to the thermal conductivity
coefficient by the expression -
1 _
Q
c~p '
The total coefficient of heat transfer k from ~etroleum to the surrounding _
medium is dependent on the regime of movement of the fluid and its thermo-
physical properties, thermal resistance to heat transfer into the surround-
ing medium through the anticorrosion heat insulation, pipe wall, paraffin
deposits and others:
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N
kDo a Dl i~ 'l-3~ ln a9~N �
(8.1)
where ~1 is tha internal heat transfer coe�ficienC (from Che petroleum to
the internal eurface of Che deposite or pipe); ~l~ is the Chermal conductiv- _
ity coefficient of the ~-th cylindrical layer (deposite, pipe metal, ineul-
ation, etc.); D~ and 1?N are the internal and external diameCere of. Che pipe-
line reapectively; D ia the external diameCer of the ~-th cylindr~.cal lay-
er; oG2 is the coeff~cient of heat transfer from the outer surface of the
pipeline into the surrounding medium.
For pipelines with a greaC diameter (DI,1 ~ 500 mm) the k value can be deter-
mined approximately using the formula
i ! N 8~ i (8.1a)
_ k ~ al a~'
!-t
where S3 is the thiclaness of the ~-th cylindrical layer.
The coefficient of heat transfer from the outer surface of an underground
pipeline into the eurrounding medium characterizea the thermal reaiatance
_ of the ground and heat tranafer from iCa surface into the atmoaphere
27~rpBis
[ I' p� ground ] a~- DN ao8f~) ~
where . '
Bii = ao~/1lrP; c = ~ho - (O~SDN~~~
ao~in ~21?o/DN-}-Y~2ho/DN~=-i~i
~l is the coefficient of thermal conductivity c~f the ground;~g is the
co~~ficient of heat tranafer from the ground surface into the atmosphere;
hp is the depth of laying of the pipeline to its a~cis.
Under conditions of a high intenaity of heat transfer from the ground sur-
face (high Bi2 values), and also with a considerable depth of pipeline
placement, when (h~/DN)> 2, the oC2 coefficient can be computed using the
F. Forchheimer formula . _
2~rp
~S=DN~
The coefficient of heat transfer from the petroleum to the pipe wall is '
the ratio of the heat flux in the particular pipe section to the differ-
ence between the mean temperature of the petroleum and the temperature
of the internal pipe wall.
For determining the coefficient of heat transfer from the moving petroleum
(petroleum product) use is made of the M. A. Mikheyev criterial equations:
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in the caee of a laminar regime (Reftcdwtl As+aMerp Tpy6onposoAa, x
CKOpocrb aerpa,
M/c 1
0,3 I o.a o,s I o,a ( o,e I ~.o I i.s�
_ ~
~ 5 98,41 14,6! 13,50 12,52 11,13 l0,21 8,BS
10 24,i6 22,i5 20,43 19,02 l6,93 l5,48 l2,00
'!5 31,Ei! 28,24 2ti,04 24,18 21,51 19,72 l6,70
20 37,46 33~45 I 30,91 28,76 25,G3 23,43 l9,89
KEY :
1. Wind velocity, zn/aec ~
2. External diameter of pipeline, m
In the case of a total calm (vB.-~ 0) [Here, as elsewhere, B= air) and for
pipelines protected against exposure to the wind, the coefficient of heat
transfer by convection ia determined using the free convection formula
Nua. r=m (GcaPre)R� (8.38)
For the conditions of main pipelines the complex GrgPrB ~ 105.
In this case the constant coefficients m and k are equal to m= 0.53 and k
= 0.25.
Expanding the parameters NuB con~ Grg and PrB, the coefficient oC
ia represented in the f~rm � B~con = a~tN ' tg)~'25, $,con
ae. K ~a ~~N-tn~~'2~+ _
where
a = 0,53 ~rPnX~n~n -
C 2vdlfN , '
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Table 8.3
Values of a CoefficienC
DN~ m g~ W~~~2,0~~1.25
0.05 2.25
_ 0.1 2.09
o.a Z.oi ~
Table 8.4
Phyeical Prop~rtiea of Water on Saturation Curve
.C Pp~ ep~ f~~~ na, N~ t0', ~ ya' t0~, ~ pr
~'/N~ N~(Ht/NI'~~C BT~~?~�~C) 3 M~~q 4 NO/N, ~ Mlfp 6 I ~ 7
0 999,87 4,218 0,559 l3,3 l7R8 i,788 f3,50
' 10 9y9,73 4,191 O,b79 f3,8 f305 i,308 A,45
20 998,23 4,i88 O,SU8 l4,3 10(14 l,008 7,02
IC~Y :
1. kg/m3
2. kJ/kg =
3. W/(m~�C)
_ 4. m2/hour
5. Ns/m2
6. m2/se~
7. Prg _
, The coefficient a for approximate computationa in a broad range of temper-
ature change (-40 ~ t~ 40) can be conaidered constant and be taken from the
data in Table 8.3.
- The coefficient of heat transfer by radiation is determined uaing formula
(8.2), in which it is ass~uned that t8urf gr ' tp. The value o~g rgd in the
caae of forced convection is 3-4 times less Chan ~ g~con gnd in this case
it can be assumed approximately that a g~~g~con� However, in the case of
free convection, which is poasible during winter in the northern regions,
the valuea � g~con 8nd �CB,rad gre comparable and in the determination
of a g it is necessary to take into account the influence of radiation. It _
is admissitle to aseume that c~ B?r8d falls in the range 2-5 W/(m2��C).
The coefficient of heat tranafer of underwater pipelines is the ratio of
- the heat losses of Che pipeline averaged along the perimeter and the dif-
- ference in the temperature of the pipe wall and the temperature of the
surrounding water. Its value is found using formulas (8.3) and (8.3a), in
which the corresponding thermophysical characteristics are taken for water
uaing data from Table 8.4.
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Tab1e 8.5
Some Determined Values of Thermal Conductivity Coefficiente of Ground in
Thawed and Frozen StaCea
Itoap~xquenr ronaonponoAnonrr
Bae~HHOCYb, rpynTn, 8t/(H��C)
~ rPYw oy:oro u _ 3
- 1 eonyeorfMZ ~ Taxom 5 wep~noro
6 IIe~
x~x~~ (!-2 ~a): ~
f8 ~+2~~,856 f,9~/~~~3458
~
8 P~t � i0 l;278 l,4030
~ !8 ~,972 2,8798
g necox ue~ncr~ a c~~ ~0,25--i aor):
~ naornr~k f0 2,498 2,5050'
~ !8 3,54)0 8,8048
8 p~~ . !0 l,74 l,9952
~ i8 8,384 8,5092
. 10 nacox ayxo~ pnanmmo~ xpyauoc~re i 0,2808-0,4758 0,2668-0,3828
11 ~Y~?~n? cyrmmxtt, nuneaante rpye~nt, Ta- i5-20 l,392-f,624 ~~74-2,32
- IIM 8l'If7tA
i2 r,~ga Zo-s o,~2s_~,as2 ~,se2=~,~4
~oAe
Y~ eQ 0~8728
1 Cser soyrtirm8emn[~ - - 0,2688
16 Caer ynaorue~ � - - 0,8728
1 7 To capcccoedase~8 a gac~e~ noRo~ 0,8004
18 To ucenpoccoea~~i's 270-235 0,359f,-0,5338 0,37f2-0,88i2
KEY: -
1. Ground
2. Moiature content, ~ of mase of dry matter
3. Ground thermal conductivity coefficient, W/(m��C)
, 4. Thswed
5. Frozen
6. Coarae sand (1-2 mm)
7. Dehse
8. Unconaolidated
9. Fine and medium sand (0.25-1 mm)
10. Dry sand of different granularity
11. Sandy loam~ clayey loam, pulverized soil, thawed ground
12. Clay
13. Water
14. � Ice
15. Uncompacted snow
16. Compacted snow
17. Presaed peat, water saturated
18. Unpreased peat
Tt is rather difficult to ascertain the thermophysical characteristics of
the ground because their values vary both in the depth of the ground mass
and along the length of the pipeline trajectory. In addition, the
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~o
e0 q
0
N rl
~ ~
.O n1
H ~y
q
H
~
~ ~
~ N M M ~a Y
~ ? ~ vo v w _
bbbbbb
w ~ ~ " ~
� "
hM Hr1~r~+~~ ~
~ P� ~ o 0 0 -I--I'-1--I--1--I- '
~
~ ~ � "
00000
_
~ ~ ~ ~
~
~ ti ~
w ~ ~
,w o71 0 00^ H
A S~ ~ ~ ~ ^ ^ ~
o ~O
W ~ U `O ~
~ ~ ~ f~ Q~ v ~
~ O ~ ~O ~C1
~ I~ Q t1
N r-I c~1 ti-1
v ` ~ 3 p0p~ ~ vi ~ ~t~
~ ~.1 ~1 1f1 H 1 lt)
W ~ ~ ~ z
~ ~ C~ v+ ~ ~ ~y r-I 7 D~ Cw
c3 ~ a R 'u H ~ ~ ~ ~ o
M Q w `n o~ o
~ ~ o'~ ~
~ 7t q p O A ~d ,C Gl t~l
7!
U ~ ~ 00 ( p+ 4~1 ~ 1~.~ 01 N ~ ,
~ ~ ~~r~ �
~ ~ " ~ ?�1+ ~ ~ ~ b ~u
~ ~ ~C~~~ o a~i a o~ a~ �1
~
" ~ ~'~~a~+~ oaa�' o~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ oaN~w a~ ~`o~w~�~~
~ ~o ~ x
~ ~ ~~q ~~`~~~,.~~,~oo~
~ ts tl ~ rl ~-1 M C~ O W W C3 .C
a~ ~ o ow cow ~oo au
w ~ ~ ~ ~ �y� ~ ,,ed,{ ~ a a uo ~0g0 ~A en en M M r-1
- o ~~St~71~~qpG~9W r~i ~ ~ ~ id ~ id o~a ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ,
~ ' .d,r,~o~. aoo~o~1NM ~ o o~-+ o cn a a a a o
~ ~r~,�~~.-r ~ a~ w c~ c~ a a a a a z
~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~ e-INC+1~7 V1~OnC~ C~ Or-IN M~7
r-1 rl r-I r-1 rl
~
~
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- thermnphyeical characterietice of the ground vary in the courae of the
year ae a result of the aeasonal migration of moieture in the grounu~ caus-
ed by epring high waters~ raine and temperature variation. In addition, the
_ properties of the upper soil layera can et~~en vary during tha course of 24
hour~ ae a result of condeneation of moisture in the ground pores during
the nightCime houra ~nd its evaporation with an increase in Cemperature
during the dayeime. In addition to these factors, Che tihermophysical prop-
erties of the ground are influenced considerably by L�he thermal effecC of
the pipeline itself. Thie is associated with the migration of moiature in
the region of the thermal influence o� the pipe, arising due to the temper-
ature gradient between the wall of the pipeline and the near-lying ground
layers. Tha thermophysical characteristics of the ground the thermal
conductivity coefficient gr)~ the coefficient of thermal diffuaivity
(agr) and the apecific heat capaciCy (cgr) are determined ae a reaulC of
special investigations. The meaeurements are made directly under field
conditione or in the laboratory. In the latCer case Che ground samplea are
Caken in special tight boxes retaining their natural moisture content and
are transported to the laboratory. The number of points for measuring the
thermophyaical characteristica of the ground along the pipeline route and
the frequency with which Che meaeurements are made are determined by the
requirements on the accuracy in finding ~1gr, agr and c r and are dependent r
on the degree of inhomogeneity of ground pr.operties wit~ depth and strike
of the ground masa.
The ~r, agr and cgr values, determined under laboratory conditiona, must
be corrected taking into account poaeible impairmenta in atructure and
changes in the temperature and moisture content of the samples arising in
the procesa of their sampling, storage, transport and measurements. For
this purpose use is made of empirical dependences of the thermophysical
characteristics of the ground on the mentioned factors. The data from
field measurementa correspond to the natural conditions of ground bedding
and therefore their correction is not neceasary.
On the basis of the results obtained in the course of field investigations
- a summary is prepared of the thermophysical characteristics of the ground
along the entire route of the pipeline, which serves as a basis for comput-
ing their mean values for the entire route or individual ma3or segments.
Considerable expenditures of time and money are required for special field
investigationa for determining the thermophysical properties of the ground;
therefo.re they are determined in the planning of a limited number of petrol-
eum pipc~lines. In those ~ases when the plan makes no provision for deter-
mining the thermophysical properties of the ground, and also for approx-
imate computations in the stage of technical-economic planning, their val-
ues, depending on ground types, are taken from the data in Table 8.5 or
are computed using the formulas derived by I. Ye. Khodanovich and B. N.
Krivoshein:
thawed sand ]p~,rp=-0,3i6-}-0,055u~-}-i,02prp-0,055tro-0,000636m~;
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frosen eand ~~~~p~,_b~432-}-0?092w-0,0289prp-}-0~0~8t~p-0,002p7w~;
frozen clayey loam lo~..-~~g42.}.O,Of9ur-0,0398p~p-}-0,0057e~p;
clay lD~rp~ -9~852-}-0,?Au-0,92p~p-}-O~OOt~p--0,0iiwprp-0,0007wtrp-
-0~02~p~p 0,0015prD~~P- 0~000~ t~p~ ~
(('p ~ gr(ound)] where ~1$r ie the coefficient of thermal conductivity of
the ground, W/ (m� �C); /o gr ie ground dendity, tona/m3; w~.s ground mois-
ture content; tgr is ground temperaCure, �C.
In order to take into account the thermal influence of a pipelinp on the
chAnge in the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the ground, instead
nf iCs value, determined for Che conditiona of natural bedding of the
ground, in the thermal computationa uae ia made of the compuCed value, cal-
culated uaing Che formula
. e,~ r. ( 8.4 ) ,
Aro. v~' t-!eo ~~r? ~