INFORMATION ON SOVIET BLOC INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL COOPERATION - 1959

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• Publication Date: February 20, 1959
• Content Type: REPORT

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GE0PHY5 I CRL 'YEflR', INFORMATION
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PB 131632-5u
INFORMATION ON SOVIET BLOC INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL COOPERATION -- 1959
February 20,, 1959
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
Office of Technical Services
Washington 25, D. C.
Published Weekly
Subscription Price $12.00 for the Series
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PLEASE NOTE
This report presents unevaluated information on Soviet Bloc
activities in the International Geophysical Cooperation program
from foreign-language publications as indicated in, parentheses.
It is published as an aid to United States Government research.
"INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL COOPERATION' PROGRAM --
SOVIET-BLOC ACTIVITIES
Table of Contents
Page
I.
Rockets and Artificial Earth Satellites
1
II.
Upper Atmosphere
8
III.
Meteorology
12
IV.
Seismology
13
V.
Geomagnetism
14
VI.
Arctic and Antarctic
15
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I. ROCKETS AND ARTIFICIAL EARTH SATELLITES
Space Biology -- Re-entry Problems
The authors of this article state that mankind began to write a new
page in the cultural development of the human race when the Soviet Union
successfully launched its artificial earth satellites into outer space.
Lively discussion is presently going on about sending men cruising among
the planets and how to bring them back to earth.
The Soviet scientists have been analyzing the Sputnik II space dog's
(Layka) principal physiological reactions. This information was radio-
relayed to earth. Bioelectric phenomena occurring in the brain and muscles,
respiratory movements of the chest, muscle contractions, and gland secre-
tions in the occupant of an earth satellite's cabin can also be transmitted
telemetrically with the aid of special pick-offs which convert mechanical
processes into corresponding electric signals. It will not be surprising
that physiologists in time may be able to watch an oscillograph in the
laboratory and analyze the conditioned reflex of an animal flying through
space in an artificial earth satellite.
We have arrived at the point where it has become necessary to define
a new science, the science of space biology, and to outline its course of
development.
Although space biology is in its infancy, the subject matter embraced
by it is enormous. Some of the most significant problems embraced by space
biology are the investigation of biological action of the varied and un-
usual factors present in outer space1 the search for methods and means of
maintaining the normal vital functions of a living organism both in outer
space and on other planets; and the investigation of the forms of life that
may exist on other planets.
Space biology has been growing rapidly in the past few years. This
is due to the fact that progress in rocket engineering has been very great.
Space medicine is a branch of space biology. The principal function of
space medicine is to find ways to maintain the normal vital functions of
the human organism in outer space.
There are two kinds of investigations carried on by specialists in
space medicine: the first consists of laboratory experime:lts to determine
the effects of acceleration, vibration, low barometric pressure, and pro-
longed stay in a small cabin; the second consists of medical and biological
studies in rockets, balloons, and airplanes.
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Information about the effects of relatively protracted action of
various types of radiation on the human organism and the work of in-
struments at high altitudes was obtained from the Soviet artificial
earth satellites. From a biological point of view, the information
obtained from artificial earth satellites is the best information
available.
Like many other new fields of knowledge, space biology is de-
veloping at a point of juncture of many sciences. Progress in space
biology requires close cooperation between biologists, medical specia?-
ista, physicists, and engineers.
At present, it is possible to obtain all necessary information
about a living occupant of an artificial earth satellite by means of
a radio telemetering device.
Research work that has'been done under laboratory conditions has
rendered invaluable service. Important information was obtained about
the biological action of low barometric pressure on a living organism,
oxygen deficiency, the effects of acceleration, etc. Information
gathered in laboratories made it possible to imagine the nature of
phenomena that'occur in a living organism flying through space and to
develop protective equipment. As a result of research, aviation re-
ceived oxygen supply apparatus, high-altitude survival suits.,, altitude
helmets, anti-G and catapulting devices, hermetic cabins, and other
equipment which reliably protects, air crews from the adverse conditions
encountered in.space.
Further progress in the conquest of space by man, as was 'visualized
by K. E. Tsiolkovskiy, appears to be closely connected with the develop-
ment of rocket technology.
Conditions during flights in rockets differ substantially from
flights in'airplanes anf. balloons. During take-off, the animal in a
rocket is subjected to the action of acceleration, vibration, and noise.
After the engine ceases to function,, a sensation of weightlessness is
felt. This is reached when an object ?s outward speed or centrifigual
force exactly balances and cancels out the' downward' pull of gravity
exerted by.-the earth. During descent, when the rocket re-enters the
dense layers of the atmosphere, friction, is created. and., when the para-
chutes open up., the living occupant'of the-rocket experiences the effects
of braking. The frame of the rocket heats up, and the temperature of
the air inside the cabin goes up.
Results 'of research showed that flight in rockets at altitudes of
100-110.. kilometers can be endured by animals in a very satisfactory
manner. However, while the engine of the rocket was operating,. and
during re-entry of the cabin,. with the animal in it, into the dense
layers of atmosphere, an increase in blood pressure and respiration
frequency was noted.
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Subsequent experiments, in which animals went up to an altitude of
200-212 kilometers, showed that changes took place in a living organism
at that altitude. in evaluating the effects of various flight factors
the Soviet scientists come to the conctusion that braking the fall of the
rocket produces the greatest adverse effect on the animals. After land-
ing, however, the animals seemed to be sufficiently calm: they reacted
to situations around them in a lively manner, responded readily when
called, and ate avidly.
Soviet scientists have been paying particular attention to solving
the re-entry problem. This can be approached in two ways: by detaching
the accupant, together with the cabin he is in, from the rocket; or by
catapulting the occupant of the cabin in a special cart with an altitude
suit protecting him from external conditions. Results of experiments
with animals, sent up to altitudes of 100, 212, and 450 kilometers dem-
onstrated the reliability of the safety devices developed in the USSR.
Exceptionally important was the information obtained from the second
Soviet artificial earth satellite. In contrast to altitude rockets which,
in essence, only probe the upper layers of the atmosphere, the second
Soviet artificial earth satellite offered the possibility of observing
Layka's behavior and physical conditions for a protracted period of time
while the satellite was in its orbit several thousand kilometers from
earth's surface.
The hermetic cabin in the second Soviet earth satellite was equipped
with a special bed for the animal, and devices which, with the aid of
highly active chemical compounds, removed carbon dioxide and water vapors
and supplied oxygen. A feed box was placed before the animal. This feed
box contained the necessary amount of jellylike substance and water. A
device in the form of a rubber garment was used to carry away waste prod-
ucts.
Important data about respiration and circulation was transmitted to
earth by means of a radio telemetering device. Deciphering and analysis
of data received showed that, during the active portion of the flight,
the general character of the changes in the physiological functions of
the animal were approximately the same as those observed earlier in ex-
periments on animals under laboratory conditions. The animal showed no
signs of illness indicating that it endured all the stress factors during
the active portion of flight.
Layka was the first living organism to experience a long period of
weightlessness. It was found that soon after the artificial earth satellite
was in its orbit, Layka's electrocardiogram, pulse, and respiration rate
were almost normal.
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The next necessary step in medical and biological research with re-
gard to animals will be the construction of an artificial earth satellite
which would guarantee conditions for the safe return of experimental ani-
mals back to earth. This will open up new vistas for expanding all methods
of research and pave the way for knowledge as to the effects of such little-
known factors as cosmic radiation and other types of radiation on a living
organism.
Re-entry is one of the most complicated problems in cosmonautics.
Aerodynamic heating arising when a flying object enters the dense layers
of atmosphere at a high rate of speed is one of the most difficult problems.
If the speed of the vehicle is five times greater than sound, its nose cone
becomes heated to 1,000 degrees centigrade. This may increase the temper-
ature in a hermetic cabin to the point which no human being can endure.
Results of special experiments showed that when air humidity is 30 percent,
a temperature of 100 degrees centigrade can be tolerated by humans for 30
minutes, but a temperature of 200 degrees centigrade can be tolerated for
only 3 minutes. Temperatures above 200 degrees centigrade would rapidly
cause burns to the unprotected parts of the body, particularly the eyes.
Another major obstacle of re-entry is the protracted action of ac-
celeration which occurs with a decrease in the velocity of the rocket
after it enters the dense layers of the atmosphere. It is known now that
accelerations can be tolerated more easily when they act in a direction
perpendicular to the long axis of the human body (from chest to back or
vice versa) . However, to maintain a definite level of efficiency, it is
necessary that descent be such that the effects of acceleration be min-
imized. Under any other conditions of descent it would be necessary to use
complicated anti-G devices which help increase human tolerance to accelera-
tion.
Here is one idea of solving the re-entry problem. Man could abandon
the space vehicle in a detachable hermetic cabin which possesses aero-
dynamic properties. At first, reduction in speed could be attained by
reactive motors which would create thrust opposed to the direction in
which the cabin is moving. When the speed is reduced to a certain point,
braking parachutes open up. After that, the main parachute system opens
up, providing a smooth descent of the cabin with its human occupant back
to earth. Of course, all possible ideas of re-entry will have to be tried
on experimental animals first.
The cabin of a space vehicle must meet the physiological and psycho-
logical needs of man. It is necessary to devise hermetic cabins which are
very comfortable and in which suitable conditions exist for normal activity.
Special automatic equipment will have to be installed in the hermetic cabin
which would maintain proper gaseous composition, air pressure, temperature,
and humidity. Automatic air regenerating equipment should be able to regu-
late properly the flow of oxygen and the elimination of carbon dioxide.
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Another group of automatic devices is needed to protect a living
organism in a hermetic cabin from the adverse effects of sharp changes
in air temperature, acceleration, etc. Modern science and technology
should have no difficulty in designing equipment for the maintenance
of hygienic conditions in a hermetic cabin.
The most difficult problem which remains to be solved is whether a
vehicle flying at high speed can maintain its course without any help
from its human occupant. No perfect guidance systems have yet been de-
vised which would keep a vehicle flying at high speed exactly on its
course.
To guide a vehicle flying at great speed requires visual informa-
tion from a great distance away so that the human occupant of the vehicle
could have sufficient time to make a decision., However, sense organs,
particularly the visual organs, do not always ffer the possibility to
evaluate situations sufficiently, rapidly enough, and correctly. Ex-
perience has shown that to evaluate an ordinary situation while flying,
approximately 1.5 seconds are required; during that time, the cosmonaut
would travel more than 10 kilometers. It is evident that no human being
could possibly react in time when approaching some large object such as
a meteor. It is not possible to imagine that a human, traveling through
space at a high speed near some planet, could recognize the huge features
of a planet (no more than a human could distinguish a railroad bed look-
ing out of the window of a fast moving train).
The fact that physiological and psychological reactions of man are
much slower than the speed of the flying vehicle limits the possibility
of man's guiding it to its destination. Special guidance systems are,
therefore, necessary. It is possible to increase considerably the scope
of visibility by means of optical devices and thereby compensate in-
adequacies of the central nervous system.
Man's flight into outer space will differ from any of the flights
of animals under laboratory conditions, because the pilot undoubtedly
will actively participate in guiding the vehicle by means of instruments,
and carry on communication by radio with the earth. All this make it
necessary to continue research to ascertain the physiological peculiari-
ties of man's flight in cosmic space.
There are limits to man's tolerance to stress encountered in outer
space. In the first interplanetary travels, both the physiological and
psychological stress will be especially great.
However, fear will be canceled by patriotism and the realization of
the great scientific significance of Cosmic space flight to the entire
human race.
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Some scientists abroad, particularly US scientists, place great
importance on the protracted period of isolation which a cosmonaut will
have to experience in a small cabin. They predict the possibility of
the development, under such conditions, of a feeling of "detachment."
A well-publicized experiment was conducted not so long ago in which an
airman, D. Farrell, was isolated for 7 days in a hermetic cabin. The
main purpose of this experiment, some specialists insisted, was to find
out whether a human is able to withstand complete isolation for 7 days
in a small steel cabin without going out of his mind.
The US press attached great significance to this experiment. It
claimed that this was the preliminary step before man takes off into
outer space. From the psychological point of view, however, the value
of the experiment was not so great as was imagined, because Farrell
knew that he was never in real danger; physicians watching over him
were only a few steps away. The experiment could have been discon-
tinued at any moment and Farrell could have been released any time he
wanted to.
Psychological investigations conducted during initial parachute
jumps by airmen, after being catapulted from airplanes, offer rich
material for the study of the peculiarities of the behavior of a man
subjected to great emotional stress. This data may be utilized both
in the selection of future cosmonauts and in their training.
The experience of D. Simons, who went up in a single-seated her-
metic cabin of a balloon to an altitude of 32,000 meters and stayed
for 24 hours, is of definite interest. Simons faced considerable
danger during the entire period of time that he remained aloft. He
was conscious of the existence of this danger. He had to watch various
instruments and guide the balloon. After the flight was over, Simons
reported that he felt considerable emotional tension during the time
he was waiting for the balloon to go up, and during the period of
"soaring on the ceiling," when he experienced the full effects of en-
vironmental conditions. He said that he felt as if he had been in
some sort of unusual state which was underlined by such symptoms as
inability to easily discern the sky above, peculiar color of the
horizon, and .,:,:esence of an unusual and hard-to-discern form of the
earth's surface below.
On the basis of all these experiments and psychological investi-
gations, it may be assumed that it is quite possible that the first
cosmonauts will be experienced test pilots who possess.the capacity
to maintain a high level of efficiency in the presence of considerable
emotional tension and are able to make decisions rapidly under unusual
and continually changing flight conditions.
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Man's successful flight into cosmic space still requires intensive
physiological research with animals in artificial earth satellites and
cosmic rockets which can be returned to earth. Rocket technology is
developing so rapidly that it is evident that humans will begin to fly
into cosmic space in the not-too-distant future.
CPYRGHT The authors of this article
quote the forecast of K. E. Tsiolkov-
CPYRGHT
Jere and later conquer all of solar space." I("Biology of Flights
into Cosmic Space," 'by Candidates of Medical Sciences 0. G. Gazenko and
CF'YRG HT V. B. Malkin, Nauka I Zhizn', No 11, Nov 58, pp 17-221
Deflection of a Satellite From an Elliptic Orbit
A study of the problem of determining the deviation of a satellite
from the elliptic orbit on which it would have moved in the absence of
air resistance is presented. As the disturbing force, only drag is taken
into account, and, considering its influence weak, the method of small
disturbances is applied by the authors in solution of the problem. Given
the elements of modulus and eccentricity for an undisturbed orbit, the
constructional parameter of the satellite and the value of density as a
function of altitude, the descent and change in the period of revolution
of the satellite may be determined by applying the functions derived in
this work.
The work was performed at the Leningrad Military-Mechanical Insti-
tute under the Chair of Aerogasdynamics. ("Descent of a Satellite on
an Elliptic Orbit," by A. I. Barabanov and B. A. Rayzberg; Kazan',
Izvestiya Vysshikh Uchebnykh Zavedeniy, Aviatsionnaya Tekhnika, No 4,
1958, pp 3-8)
Possible New Soviet Satellite?
The Bochum Public Observatory in West Germany picked up radio signals
on 20.5 megacycles at 1946 hours (local time) on S1. January. These signals,
which differ from those of Sputnik III, were heard three times in the space
of 104 minutes and always began several minutes after the signals of Sputnik
III were heard. Sometimes they were heard for 18 minutes. The director of
the observatory, Kaminski, thinks it possible that Soviet scientists might
have been able to make Sputnik III furnish new information or that they
have launched a new satellite. According to the DPA news agency, the Bochum
Observatory has always supplied rapid and exact radio observations on most
of the artificial earth satellites. ("Radio Signals Not Broadcast by Sput-
nik III," Brussels, La Libre Belgique, 2 Feb 59, p 1)
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II. UPPER ATMOSPHERE
CPYRG
Distribution of Aurorae in the Circumpolar Region
The following is a full translation of the article "Distribution
of Aurorae in the Circumpolar Region," by Ya. I. Fel'dshteyn, Arctic
Scientific Research Observatory at Dikson. C PYRG HT
An analysis of the distribution of morning magnetic disturbances
at high-latitude observatories and observation points in the Central
Arctic made it possible for A. P. Nikol'skiy (New "Soviet Investigations
and Discoveries in the Central Arctic," Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR,
Seri a Geo raft a, No 5, 1954; "Geophysical Investigations in the Soviet
re c, Trudy Arkticheskogo Nauchno-Issledovatel'skogo Instituta, Issue
1, No 83, 1956; and "The Geographic Distribution' of Magnetic Distur-
bances in the' Circumpolar Region of the Arctic,'"Dokiady Akademii Nauk
SSSR, Vol 109, No 5, 1956) to arrive at the conclusion that a second
zone of heightened intensity of magnetic disturbances and aurorae existed
in the high latitudes. This zone in the Western part of the Soviet
Arctic is located approximately in the geomagnetic latitudes of 78 to
80 degrees.
Independently of A. P. Nikol'.skiy, Alfven (H. Alfven, "Theory of
Magnetic Storms and Aurorae," Tellus, Vol 7, No 1, 1955), examining the
motion of an ionized flow of solar particles in the magnetic field of
the Earth's dipole, drew the conclusion of the possibility of the exis-
tence, at latitudes 0 .i. 80 degrees, of'a second zone of increased
frequency of aurorae, which in intensity should be considerably weaker
than the basic auroral zone which is located in the geomagnetic latitudes
of 4 = 65 to 66 degrees.
In the Dikson Island observatory we analyzed the geographic distri-
ution of aurorae in the western part of the Soviet Arctic according to
terials on a number of aurorae which were located in the longitudinal
nterval of 50 to 110 Degrees E longitude. It was shown that the form
f vector diagrams for the frequency of aurorae, according to different
zimuths of the polar stations Rucblph Island (? . 72.40?), Nagurskaya
ay (~ = 72.3?), Tikhaya Bay (~ = 71.5?), and also the latitudinal
istribution of the frequency of the aurorae in the morning hours leads
o the assumption of the existence of a second zone of a
Web
o about = 7gj a. I. Fel'dshteyn, Geographic Distribution of
urorae in the Western Part of the Soviet Arct?'c Proble Arktiki
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No 4, 1958). + ,
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Direct proof of the existence of an additional zone of aurorae in
the circumpolar zone must be the appearance of radiance at the zenith
in the points located directly under this zone. In the territory of
the Soviet Union, the supposed second zone passes through the Central
Arctic, therefore the observations of the Soviet scientific drift sta-
tions are of inestimable value.
The distribution of the frequency of aurorae in relation to the
geomagnetic latitude for the winter of 1955-1956, according to materials
of several polar stations, among them Drift Station Severnyy Polyus 5
(the little cross on the axis of the abscissa indicates the location
of the station) is presented in the appended figure. Hourly visual
observations, in which, in addition to the azimuth, the zenith distance
of the aurorae are also noted, serve as starting materials.
It is known that the most frequent altitude of the lower limit for
all forms of aurorae is 100 kilometers. Starting from this, according
to the zenith distance of the aurorae and the coordinated of the ob-
servation points, the latitude of the points where the aurorae under
consideration must be visible at zenith were calculated. One degree,
according to the geomagnetic latitude, in which the observer is located
corresponds to the zenith distance 52 degrees, whereas in the visual
angle ti 17 degrees located near the horizon, a geomagnetic latitude
of 7 degrees is included. Therefore, we limit ourselves to a detailed
calculation of the latitudinal distribution of aurorae only in the in-
terval of 5 degrees, according to the latitude centered at the latitude
of the observation point.
For the unit area in which the amount of luminescence was calculated,
a zone at one degree geomagnetic latitude was selected. Any radiance
appearing at the corresponding zenith distance was admitted in the cal-
culations. The total number of cases of the appearance of aurorae was
taken as 100 percent. The frequency of the appearance of aurorae to
the north wnd to the south at zenith distances of more than 72 de?;rees
were designated in percent to the right and to the left of the curves.
Polar station Tadibe-Yaga is considerably south-of the first zone
of aurorae. Therefore,;.the aurorae are located chiefly near the northern
horizon and the amount of radiance increases according to the degree of
change in latitude from 59 to 63 degrees. The number of aurorae near
the southern horizon is negligible.
CPYRGHT
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 Cape Vykhodnyy is near the southern limit of the first auroral
zone. The aurorae appeared more frequently at the zenith and somewhat
more north of the zenith.
In Krasnoflot Island, the aurorae are mainly located-in the southern
half of the firmament near the zenith, which testifies to the nearness
of the observation point to the zone of the aurorae. Aurorae were rarely
observed on the northern horizon.
In the presence of only one auroral zone at a latitude 65-66 de-
grees the latitudinal distribution of the frequency of aurorae at the
observation points, located considerably north of the zone, would have
to disclose the pre-eminent appearance of the aurorae at. the southern
horizon with a constant decrease in the number of aurorae to the north.
The results of the observations at Severnyy Poly-us-5 actually in-
dicate a large number of aurorae on the southern: horizon. The frequency
of the aurorae gradually d-creased to 74 degrees latitude, but sharply
increased thereafter at the expense of a large number of aurorae in the
zenith. The aurorae were practically absent in the northern azimuths.
The distribution of aurorae at Severyr Polyus-5 is direct proof of
the presence of a second zone of aurorae at 74-75 latitude.
The latitudinal distribution of the frequency of aurorae was con-
structed on the basis of hourly observations for aurorae at 54 high-
latitude stations. The probability of the appearance of aurorae, which
was calculated as the relation of the number of hours with an aurorae
to the total number of hours of observations, was u7ed as an index of
activity. A magnetically-quiet day rnd a day of increase magnetic ac-
tivity were examined separately.
The probability of the appearance of aurorae near the first zone
depends essentially on the state of the magnetic field, increased from
44 percent on a magnetically quiet day to 80 percent on a magnetically
stormy day. This difference gradually decreases to.the north of the
zone, and in the latitude of the drift of station Severnyy Polyus-3
( A = 80.3?) there is practically no difference between magnetically-
stormy days (7.4 percent) and magnetically quiet days (6.1 percent).
In the region of the second zone we only arranged observations by
station-Severnyy Polyus-5. The probability of the appearance of aurorae
is 27.4 and 18.4 percent correspondingly, for stormy and quiet days.
The considerably lower probability of the appearance of aurorae. in the
region of the second zone supports Alfven?s theoretical deliberations
on the lower intensity of electromagnetic processes in the second zone
in comparison with the principal auroral zone.
CPYRGHT
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CPYRGHT
I/QT AF 0# 7 9W, 'MY ~ J Y6~77VI
Location of Aurorae in relation to the geomagnetic latitude.
(a) Tadibe Yagi (70.4?N; 74.1?E; = 60.5?N);
(b) Cape Vykhodnyy (73.2?N; 56.7?E; 64.8?N);
(c) Krasnoflot Island (78.6?N;
98.7?E;
= 67.3?N);
(d) Severnyy Polyus -5 (86.5?ii;
100?E;'$ =
75.2?N).
(''The Distribution of Aurorae in the Circumpolar Region," by Ya. I.
Fel dshteyn, Artic Scientific Research Observatory of Dikson; Moscow,
Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya Geofizicheskaya, No 1, Jan 59,
PP 170-171)
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Rocket Investigations of Short-Wave Radiation of the Sun
The explosive development of the technique of rocket investigations
and the data of a great number of new experiments have caused many of
the reviews on short-wave radiation of the Sun to be outdated. Also,
the existing reviews do not reflect the latest achievements obtained
during the International Geophysical Year, 1957-1958. An attempt to
fill the gap in this field is made in an article, by G. S. Ivanov-
Kholodnyy, Institute of Applied Geophysics, Academy of Sciences USSR.
The following subject matter appears in the article:
1. The solar constant and the distribution of energy in the spec-
tral region 2,000-70,000 R.
2. The spectal region 2,000-3,000 JR and the Mg II radiation line.
3. Photographing the region of the spectrum from 1,000-2,000 R.
4. Distribution of energy in the region of the spectrum A = 1,500 ~'.
5. Energy of x-ray radiation of the Sun.
6. Short-wave radiation of chromospheric flares.
7. Lcat contour lines and the distribution of the intensity of L CL
on the solar disc.
8. The discovery of ultraviolet radiation of nonsolar origin.
A list of 12 Soviet and 67 Western references is given. ("Rocket
Investigations of the Short Wave Radiation of the Sun," by G. S. Ivanov-
Kholodnyy, Institute of Applied Geophysics, Academy of Sciences USSR;
Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya Geofizicheskaya, No 1, Jan 59,
pp 108-121)
III. METEOROLOGY
Comparison of Equations on Freezing of Supercooled Aerosols
Different versions of calculations on the freezing of supercooled
aqueous aerosols are examined. The role of the individual parameters
entering the equations of freezing are discussed. It is shown that to
select a method of calculating freezing, it is necessary to conduct
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measurement.- of the freezing rate of highly dispersed aqueous aerosols.
("A Comparison of Different Equations on the Freezing of Supercooled
Aqueous Aerosols," by L. G. Kachurin, Leningrad Hydrrnneteorological
Institute; Moscow, Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya Geofizicheskaya,
No 1, Jan 59, pp 122-130)
IV. SEISMOLOGY
Reflection of Elastic Waves in a Heterogeneous Medium
The problem of determining the influence of surfaces on which
velocity and density gradients undergo a discontinuity, on the pro-
pagation of elastic waves in heterogeneous media is examined. It is
shown that'similar surfaces are reflecting surfaces, whereby coeffi-
cients of reflected and refracted waves are obtained, and it is also
established that the change in the form'(or the type of discontinuity
in the fronts) of reflected and refracted ,*as is distinct with re-
spect'to form from that of the incident wave. ("Reflection of Elastic
Waves in a Heterogeneous Medium," by N. V. Tsepelev, Leningrad Divi-
sion of the Mathematics Institute, Academy of Sciences USSR, Moscow,
Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya Geofizicheskaya, No 1, Jan 59,
PP 11-17)
Reflection and "Refraction of Seismic Waves in a Weak Boundary of Separa-
tion
Waves in a heterogeneous medium, reflected and refracted from the
boundary of separation of two media in which the velocity gradients
and Lame coefficients are discontinuous are examined in ray approxima-
tion. Coefficients of reflection and refraction are introduced. ("The
Reflection and Refraction of Seismic Waves in a Weak Boundary of Separa-
tion," by B. S. Chekin, Institute of the Physics of the Earth, Academy
of Sciences USSR; Moscow, Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya Geofizi-
cheskaya, No 1, Jan 59, pp 18-26)
Dispersion of Rayleigh Waves in a Two-Layer Model of the Earth's Crust
The dispersion of Rayleigh-type waves in a two-layer model of the
Earth's crust with arbitrary relationships of thick granite and basalt
layers is theoretically investiga::ed. A preliminary comparison of the
calculations with published experimental data is made. ("Dispersion of
Rayleigh Waves in a Two-Layer Model of the Earth's Crust," by V,.I.
Keylis-Borok and I. M. Steam, Institute of the Physics of the Earth,
Academy of Sciences USSR; Moscow, Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya
Geofizicheskaya, No 1, Jan 59, pp 27-31)
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Refracted Waves in Water-Bearing Sands
The results of an experimental study of the kinematic and dynamic
characteristics of refracted waves for corresponding layers of water-
bearing sands are presented. It is shown that using the frequency pecu-
liarities of these waves, it is possible to distinguish the layers of
water-bearing sands from other rock having nearly the same velocities.
It is shown that the coefficients of absorption of the waves propagated
in the water-bearing sands change within wide limits, whereas there is
little change in the boundary velocities. ("Refracted Waves Correspond-
ing to Water-Bearing Sands," by I. S. Berzon, Yu. I. Vasil'yev, and
S. P. Starodtibrovskaya, Institt;te of the Physics of the Earth, Academy
of Sciences USSR; Moscow, Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya Geo-
fizicheskaya, No 1, Jan 59) PP 32-47)
Effects of. a Moving Medium in a Stationary Magnetic Field,
The effects arising with the motion of a conducting medium in a
stationary magnetic field are examined. Relationships connecting the
velocity of marine currents with the magnitude of the intensity of
the electrical field induced by the Earth's magnetic field and taking
into account the terminal width of the current and the difference from
zero iof the conductivity of the sea bottom are obtained. ("Slowly
Moving Conducting Medium in a Stationary Magnetic Field," by A. N.
Tikhonov and A. G. Sveshnikov, Moscow State University imeni M. V.
Lomonosov; Moscow, Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya Geofiziche-
skaya, No 1, Jan 1959, pp 49-58)
Measurements on Vertical Component of Earth's Electric Field
The results of observations on the vertical component of the Earth's
electric field according to measurements conducted in the fresh-water
Lake Baykal are presented. ("Measurement of the Vertical Component of
the Earth's Electric Field in Lake Baykal," by P. A. Vinogradov, Irkutsk
Magnetic-Ionosphere Station; Moscow, Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR, Seriya
Geofizicheskaya,, No 1, Jan 59, pp 83-86)
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VI. ARCTIC AND ANTARCTIC
New Book About Antarctica
The Geografgiz (State Publishing House for Geographic Literature)
recently published a book, K Shestomu Materiku (To the Sixth Continent),
by Ye. M. Suzyumov. This book contains travel notes of a participant
in the First Soviet Antarctic Expedition. The author describes the ob-
servations conducted and gives interesting information about the seas
through which the Ob' passed on its way to the Antarctic. He also de-
scribes the first steps of the Soviet Antarctic Expedition on the Ant-
arctic continent and the first flights of Soviet pilots over Antarctica.
The aerial detachment of the First Expedition, headed by I. I. Chere-
vichnyy, consisted of two helicopters and four airplanes: one I1-12,
two Li-2, and one An-2.
The book contains a description of the first Soviet flight into
the interior to the south geomagnetic pole, 1,500 kilometers from the
coast. The author gives details regarding the scientific research
conducted by the Soviet scientists with the help of airplane pilots
and regarding their visits to islands which were not shown on any map.
("To the Sixth Continent"; Moscow, Sovetskaya Aviatsiya,.24 Dec 58)
Flying Difficulties in the Antarctic
Flying in the Antarctic is extremely difficult and dangerous. It
is made more complicated by the fact that no precise maps are available.
which would help to determine the location of the plane. The old maps
are no longer adequate, since the moving glaciers are constantly chang-
ing the relief of the coastline. Also, these maps do not indicate any
individual mountain peaks. The radio altimeters carried on board the
plane are not very useful. These instruments can not always be used
by the pilots because of the peculiarities of.'static electricity in the
Antarctic.
It is very difficult to select a proper flight route over Anti-
arctica. Radionavigational aids on the ground are almost completely
absent, and radio beacons (homing stations) are not always available.
Until;now, the principal aid by which a flight course can be held in
Antarctica has been the magnetic compass. ("Under Trying Conditions
in Antarctica"; Moscow, Sovetskaya Aviatsiya, 19 Dec 158)
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New Di3coveriis in Antarctica
A group of Soviet polar explorers recently returned to Mirnyy from
its long overland expedition to the pole of relative inaccessibility,
where a new station for temporary observations has been established.
The members of this expedition spent about 2 weeks at the new station,
conducting a cycle of observations in the fields of meteorology, actino-
metry, and glaciology. Frequent magnetic observations were also con-
ducted. Kh. Zakiyev, Candidate of Geographical Sciences, took tempera-
ture measurements at different depths in two 60-meter drill holes in the
ice. As a result, it was possible to determine the mean annual tempera-
ture of the air in that area, which was found to be minus 58.5 degrees
Centigrade, close to the mean annual temperature at Sovetskaya. These
same drill holes were used to take ultrasonic, multichannel core sam-
plings, thereby enabling the scientists to determine the physical pro-
perties of the firn cover.
0. Sorokhtin and V. Koptev, seismologists, made seismic soundings
of the glacier to determine the thickness of the ice cover in the sta-
tion area. According to preliminary data, the maximum ice thickness is
2,900 meters. The station Polyus Nedostupnosti (Pole of Inaccessibility
is 3,710 meters above sea level. Thus, the subglacial bed is at an
elevation of 800 meters above sea level.
The observations conducted at this place wind. up the cycle of
scientific research carried out by the Soviet scientists through the
central regions of East Antarctica from Mirnyy to the -pole of relative
inaccessibility. These investigations have provided the first avail-
able data on the thickness and structure of the ice and on meteorologi-
cal and magnetic conditions in this remote area.
During the expedition; into the interior) the Soviet polar sci-
entists made a number of new geographic discoveries, which are of great
scientific interest. According to preliminary results in the process-
,ing of data on the thickness of the ice cover, which was measured
along the entire route, there is a very low subglacial plateau between
the stations Pionerskaya (69-44 S, 95-30 E) and Komsomol'skaya (74-05 S,
97-29 E). Its elevation is not more than 250 meters above sea level.
The average elevation of this plateau is 70 meters, and in some pla~~s
it drops 20-30 meters below sea level. The layer of ice resting on this
plateau is up to 3,400 meters thick.
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A deep subglacial depression was discovered 60 kilometers south
of Pionerskaya, at a distance of 435 kilometers from Mirnyy. This de-
pression is up to 130 kilometers wide and its depth reaches 800-1,000
meters below sea level. The glacier above it is up to 3,770 meters
thick. It was the first time such an enormous thickness of ice was
found in the eastern part of Antarctica. It is known that in West
Antarctica, on Marie Byrd, Land, the greatest glacier thickness ever
recorded, i.e., over 4,270 meterd, was registered by 'US scientists
during the last Antarctic summer.
The measurements taken between Komsomol'skaya and Sovetskaya
(78-24 S, 87-35 E) showed that the subglacial relief of the continent
in this sector is extremely irregular. In this area, the glacier
bed rises to 1,000 meters above sea level. Between the Station Sovet-
skaya and the pole of relative inaccessibility, the subglacial relief
is very complex. In this whole sector the elevation of the glacier
bed is above sea level. At a distance of 300 kilometers from Sovet-
skaya, the sled-tractor train of the expedition was at an elevation
of 4,000 meters above sea level. This was the highest point along
the entire route. Seismic -soundings at this spot revealed the pres-
ence of a subglacial mountain with an elevation of about 3,000 meters
above sea level. Despite the high altitude, the temperature in the
drill hole representing the mean annual temperature of the air, was
1.5 degrees Centigrade higher than at Sovetskaya.
The preliminary data obtained by Soviet scientists on the thickness
of the ice cover in central regions of Antarctica will be revised after
the final processing of the material. ("New Discoveries in Antarctica";
Moscow, VodnYfTransport, 15 Jan 59)
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