SOVIET BLOC INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR INFORMATION

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• Collection: General CIA Records
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• Document Page Count: 30
• Document Creation Date: November 9, 2016
• Document Release Date: January 27, 1999
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: October 31, 1958
• Content Type: REPORT

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PB 131632-38
SOVIET BLOC INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR INFORMATION
October 31,, 1958
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COPRCE
Office of Technical Services
Washington 259 D. C.
Published Weekly from February 1!49 19589 to January 29 1959
Subscription Price $10.00 for the Series
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PLEASE NOTE
This report presents unevaluated information of Soviet
Bloc International Geophysical Year activities selected from
foreign-language publications as indicated in parentheses.
It is published as an aid to United States Government re-
search.
SOVIET BLOC INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR INFORMATION
Table of Contents
Page
1.
Rockets and Artificial Earth Satellites
1
II.
III.
Upper Atmosphere
Oceanography
14
IV.
Arctic and Antarctic
16
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I. ROCKETS AND ARTIFICIAL EARTH SATELLITES
CPYRGHT
Moscow Planetarium Scientist Discusses Planned Soviet Moon Rockets
In an interview granted the Moscow correspondent of the Copenhagen
Communist daily Land og Folk and printed in that paper's 14 October issue,
Dr Vitally. Bronshten of the Moscow Planetarium made the following state-
ments concerning Soviet plans for Moon rockets.
Soviet science has at its disposal rockets of sufficient power to
reach the Moon. Soviet specialists are working energetically on a Moon
rocket which they expect to fire in the near future. It will be of
about the same size as Sputnik II, i.e., about one half ton.
Two variations of the rocket have been prepared, one of them intended
to land on the Moon, the other to orbit the Moon and return to the Earth.
The calculations for the rocket's trajectory were made by Professor Yegorov.
According to Dr Bronshten, as quoted in Land og Folk, the Soviet
rockets will be equipped with instruments for determining the Moon's mass
and conductivity of heat and electricity; with apparatus for investigat-
ing the Moon's surface and discovering possible landing places for man-
carrying space vehicles; with instruments for determining whether the 1:
Moon hqs a magnetic field similar to those of the Earth and Sun; and with
television apparatus for --iewing the far side of 'the Moon. (Excerpt from
"Conversation With Soviet Expert on America's Moon Rocket," by Erley
Olsen; Copenhagen, Land og Folk, 14 Oct 58)
Soviet Rocket Research in the IGY
The study of the upper layers of the atmosphere is a principal
part of the program of the International Geophysical Year. Investiga-
tions are conducted with the aid of various apparatus, from simple ther-
mometers to complex electronic telemetering and radar devices. For
raising instruments to great altitudes, the usual pilot balloons, auto-
matic aerostats, airplanes, helicopters, rockets, and artificial Earth
satellites are used.
Extensive inforn tion was obtained with the Soviet satellites, which
is of Great interest to science.
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The atmosphere at altitudes of 30 kilometers and over is studied
with the ald of rockets. Rockets as well. as satellites make it possible
to investigate the ultraviolet and X-rays of the Sun and the stars,
radio -;aver corning from cosmic space, electric currents in the ionosphere,
the Earth's magnetic field, micrometeorites, etc.
The brevity of rocket flights prevents their use for synoptic experi-
merits and protracted observations. However, the data obtained with the
aid of rockets makes it possible to establish the relation between phenom-
ena and conditions at high and low altitudes.
A meteorological rucket designed for investigations of the upper
layers of the atmosphere must be stable and oriented in a fixed direction.
This is achieved with tail surfaces and launching from a launching tower.
An important condition for the gper n of the rocket's instnm nts is the
cleanliness of the air around the rocket. The contamination of the air
by exhaust gases, smoke and other gaseous discharges can distort the
results of observations. The instrument compartment is hermetically
sealed while the motor is operating to avoid this. The results of measure-
ments are transmitted to Earth by radio; tapes with recordings of air
samples and experimental animals are lowered by parachute.
The most diverse instruments are installed in the rockets. For
measuring air pressure, sensitive ionization manometers -- alphatrons,
and also aneroid barometers are used. According to data obtained
measurements of air pressure at the top and on the lateral side of the
nose cone, the velocity of the rocket and the pressure of the surround=
ing air is calculated. According to the Mach number and the velocity
of the rocket, determined from the Earth, the temperature is then calcu-
lated, since its direct measurement is impossible (the heating of the
rocket casing will affect the thermometer reading).
The air temperature and wind speed in the upper layers can be
found from the speed of the sound of explosions from charges ejected by
the rocket at specific altitudes. The rocket is equipped with powder
charges and a radar beacon for this purpose. The sound is perceived
by ground stations located 2-3 kilometers from each other.
The density of the air is determined by measuring the resistance
of the medium according to the acceleration of the falling sphere.
The composition of the atmosphere is studied by means of air samples or
by a mass-spectrometer equipped with telemetry transmitters. Such a
method makes it possible to make many analyses during one rocket flight.
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Photographing of the solar spectrum is done with spectroscopes or
photon counters. The frequency of collisions with micrometeorites is
determined by sensitive microphones mounted or, the rocket's casing. The
electron density is studied by the measurement of radiowaves reflected
from corresponding layers of the ionosphere.
The conduct of the investigations requires a large number of rockets.
Rockets using solid fuels are most suitable. They can be successfully
launched in the most remote regions, are inexpensive, and simple to service,
transport, and store. To these advantages of solid fuel rockets may be
added, also, the possibility of launching them from aerostats or airplanes.
In this case, it is not necessary to construct complex launching devices.
The rocket can be raised by the aerostat to an altitude of 20-25 kilometers
and because it does not have to overcome the great dynamic resistances of
the lower layers of the atmosphere, it reaches altitudes of 80-100 kilo-
meters. Launched from the Earth, this same rocket would only attain an
altitude of 25-30 kilometers.
Aerostats with a polyethylene bag are used for launching. The rocket
is suspended below the balloon by a 30-meter-long cable. At an altitude
of 25 kilometers, the launching mechanism is switched on either by a baro-
metric device or by radio command.
Rockets are also launched from airplanes -- mainly single-seaters.
The plane, at an altitude of about 10 kilometers, goes into a vertical
climb and by means of a device for starting the rocket motors, launches
the rocket. Beginning from 10 kilometers, each succeeding kilometer of
launching altitude increases the flight altitude of a rocket with a pay-
load of 18 kilograms by 7 kilometers. It is maintained that by such a
method an altitude of 160 kilometers can be achieved. For investigating
the atmosphere over 100 kilometers, single-stage liquid-fuel rockets or
multistage solid fuel rockets are used at present.
Soviet scientists, with the aid of rockets, refined data on the density
of the ionosphere and revealed its diurnal variations. It was discovered
that ions at great altitudes are made of individual atoms. Full dissocia-
tion, i.e., the separation of molecules into individual atoms was observed
there. It was established that the large majority of meteors move av ound
the Sun in the same direction as does the Earth, and overtake our planet.
These results, in the opinion of scientists, will be of very great value
in estimating the effect of meteoric particles on the movements of future
interplanetary ships.
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One of the most important branches of investigation is in the dis-
closure of the nature of cosmic radiation. These experiments were begun
In the USSR in 19li7. The study of cosmic rays makes it possible to com-
pile charts of their distribution over the Earth and thereby to investi-
gate the Earth's magnetic field. Scientists established that at a latitude
of about 60 degrees in the northern hemisphere, the increased intensity of
primary cosmic rays is sometimes observed. It lasts for many years. This
indicates the presence of stationary flows of electrons at high altitudes.
Instruments borne by rockets give many interesting readings, in par-
ticular, on the change in the number of photons with time corresponding
to flares on the Sun and concerning its corpuscular flows. The particles
registered are electrons with an energy of about 10,000 electron-volts.
Such electrons cannot enter into the composition of the Sun's primary cor-
puscular radiation, because their velocity is much too large in comparison
with hydrogen particles observed in the auroras.
Investigations of the stratosphere and the ionosphere makes it possible
to reveal the periodicity of annual temperature changes. It was established
that beginning from 20-25 kilometers and up to altitudes of 50-60 kilometers,
a tendency toward an increase in temperature was noted which was especially
sharp in the summer time. For example at an altitude of 50 kilometers, the
mean winter temperature consists of -50 degrees Centigrade, and in summer,
+25 degrees Centigrade.
Two photographs accompany the article. One captioned, "The Launching
of Meteorological Rockets at a Soviet Polar Station," shows a rocket being
launched from an enclosed launching tower. The other captioned, "Polar
Workers Examine the Nose Cone of a Rocket Which Was Lowered by Parachute,"
shows two heavily clothed men (one with a rifle slung on his back) bending
over a rocket nose cone which appears to have just been landed by parachute.
("Rockets Study the Ionosphere," by Engr-Lt Col N. Loginov, Candidate of
Technical Sciences; Moscow, Sovetskaya Aviatsiya, 24 Sep 58)
First Ozonometric Observations During IGY, at Alma-Ata Reported
The following is a complete translation of an article entitled "First
Results of Ozonometric Observations During the IGY," by Sh. A. Bezverkhniy
and P. M. Broytman, which appeared in a Soviet scientific periodical.
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In July of 1957, the ozonometric station of the Alma-Ata Hydrological
Observatory began observations according to the I01prog-ram. Measurements
were made with the aid of the new automatic ozonograph OFET-3, the design
of which was developed by the Physics Institute of Leningrad State Uni-
versity (LGU) together with the Kazakh Scientific Research Hydrometeor-
ological Institute. A detailed description of the instrument and its char-
acteristics appeared in Fotoelektricheskiy Trekhkanal'nyy Ozonograf OFET?-3,
(Photoelectric Three-Channel Ozonograpn OFSr-3,) by Sh. A. Bezverkhniy,
A. L. Osherovich, and S. F. Rodionov, IzO,. LOU, Leningrad, 1957, and in an
article in Vestnik LGU. Seriya Fiziki i 1 himii , 1958, (in printing) by the
same authors.
A comparison of the readings of the OFET-3 No 9 and the Dobson spec-
trophotometer, to which all network ozonographs of the USSR are "tied-.in,"
is shown in Figure 1, where along the y axis the "masses" of ozone are laid
out in the direction of the Sun (A ) and along the x-axis the magnitude
of the reduced thickness of the ozone (x) is given. The results of the
comparison, obtained in the Main Geophysical Observatory, are reduced to
the empirical formula
xzSo - S
1.12
(1)
for calculating the general content of atmospheric ozone. Here S =
log , .3i where S, and 1-x1are the intensities of solar radiation meas-
ured 1~y the instrument in spectral parts with maximums having wave lengths
~, I and X. respectively; So is the value of S beyond the limits of the
Eart'h's atmosphere. The value of the coefficient 1.12 takes into account
the constant terms of the formula of the calculation and the "reduction"
of results to the readings of the Dobson instrument.
The results of measurements in Alma-Ata during the first 9 months of
the IGY are presented in Figure 2. Approximately 1+2,000 points were ob-
tained during this time on the tape of the EPP-09 (output unit of the
OFET-3) electron potentiometer which automatically recorded the intensity
of radiation on three independent channels every 10 seconds. According to
these, 352 hourly values of the reduced thickness of ozone were calculated.
Each point in Figure 2 is the mean value of a large number (not less than
100) of observation points.
(Figure 2 caption: Variation of the thickness of ozone during the
first 6 months of the IGY. Alma-Ata: 43015' N) 76056' E; 850 meters
above sea level).
CPYRGHT
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At present, extensive material of observations hnn been obtained,
After detailed processing of the material, the possibility will be pre-
sented of considering, in particular, problems of the structure with time
of the ozone content, not only on an annual scale but also by the 'hour
and day. However, the results already obtained show a well-expressed annual
variation of the thickness of ozone, although there also is a sir,nificant
scattering of x values arising because of the accuracy in measurements.
Detailed information on the fields of temperature, pressure, and wind up
to altitudes of 30 kilometers was obtained simultaneously with ozonometric
data of repeated radiosonde measurements of the atmosphere. Results of
easurements of ozone thicknesses are sufficient for the calculation of
the vertical distribution of ozone by V. A. Ambartsumyan's method. Other
important data for the solution of problems on ozone (solar activity, the
structure, temperature and pressure of the upper atmosphere, the intensity
of the Sun's ultraviolet'. radiation) are determined during the IGY with
he aid of rockets, artificial Earth satellites and other observations.
Such a valuable complex of data creates favorable possibilities for the
analysis of the physical connection of the dynamics of ozone with the
overall circulation of the atmosphere for concrete thermobaric conditions
and for extensive theoretical investigations of the mechanics of the
ormation of ozone and changes in its thickness.
Measurements conducted during the IGY at our station make it possible
to obtain with high accuracy the intensity of the Sun's ultraviolet radia-
ion in absolute units in three parts of he spectrum, including also the
biologically active spectral region. The mean monthly values of ultra-
violet radiation obtained on clear days or with a small amount of clouds
'n the northern part of the sky (principally after midday) are presented
n the table.
CPYRGHT
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CPYRGHT
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 CPYRGHT
Annrov d For RPIPagp 1999/n9/nR - r1A_RfPR2_nn1 41 Rnnn2nn39nnn1 _n
The intensity of radiation in the 295-330 millimicron region undergoes
significant fluctuations in relation to the transparency of the atmosphere
riot only in the yearly variation but also diurnally. Intensity values of
ultraviolet radiation for low altitudes of the Sun especially d{,ffer, while
lower values are observed principally after midday. This is obviously con-
nccted with the well-expressed mountain-valley circulation which, in the
Alma-Ata region, smoothly decreases the transparency of the atmosphere dur-
ing the day.
Final processing of the results of the measurements of the Sun's ultra-
violet radiation shows that for the correct determination of x values, it
is necessary to improve the accuracy of the formulas used in the calcula-
tions. For example, the content of ozone calculated according to formula
(1) needs at least two corrections.
In the first place, the difference in the amount of Rayleigh :scat-
tering arising from a comparison of the coefficient of scattering at the
moment of measurement and of the calculated moment in (1) should be taken
into account. This correction can be introduced using the i7alue of
atmospheric pressure at the level of the instrument. It is a value of
the order of l0-3centimeters of the reduced layer of ozone.
The second correction is connected with the introduction, from the
beginning of the IGY, of new values for the coefficient of absorption of
ozone c, , obtained by E. Vigroux [Ann. Phys., 8, 709,, 1953] instead of',the
well-established tables of Nu and Chung [Nu Tse-se and Chung Hsin-piao,
Chin. J. Phys., 1, 38, 19331. Vigroux succeeded in obtaining a detailed
structure for the curvea~=-4(A')in the region where the Shafer band is su-
perimposed on the Hartley band. Owing to this, and also in connection with
the use of comparatively wide spectral bands (-100 - 200 A) in the ozono-
graph, the selection of a singular coefficient K for the transition from
the old values of d to the new becomes difficult. During the recalculation
of ozonometric data for the coefficient of PC according to Vigroux we used
K= 1.33, which is not a strict method if we take into account-the dependence
of the value C( on the temperature. The difficulty is the correct calcula-
tion of this dependence and the selection of the temperature itself. We
note also that the coefficients of at , obtained in the laboratory are not
always identical with the values of absorption in the atmosphere. The..tem-
perature layer of the ozone differing, generally speaking, from the tem-
perature of the stratosphere depends, besides other reasons, on the concen-
tration of gas. It was shown (Atmosfern ozon Atmospheric Ozone), by I. A.,
Prokof'yev, Izd. AN SSSR) M.-L., 195 that in the middle latitudes .the
temperature of ozone fluctuated in the limits -25 to -50?. At the same'-.
time, the yearly variation of stratospheric temperatures in the region of
maximum ozone concentration (20-30 kilometers) and at altitudes (12-18 kilo-
meters), which it seems are responsible for nonperiodic variations of the
thickness of 03 [I. A. Khvostikov6 UFN, No 2, p 51, June 1956], is such
that in summer it varies from -65 at an altitude of 13-15 kilometers to
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 CPYRGHT . - - - --- ?--._- ... - ----- -- - - ------------ - -
-40? at an altitude of 30 kilomet.,.s, an, in winter ii the 15-30 kilometer
layer, temperatures are approximately identical (at-out -55?) tR. ter.
Murgatroyd, Quar. J. Roy. Met. Soc., 1957, 83, 358,'.t171. The incorrect
choice of the value o[ , all other conditions being equal, leads to an
error ofni to-3 in the temperature interval -40 to -60? and 10-2centimeters
of ozone thickness in the limits -4. 18 to -60? Centigrade (The Nu and Chung
tables were compiled for t = 18?C. They are usually used in calculation
for x. Reduced estimates of e.-row are given for values .ofd during tem-
perature extremes accepted by Vigroux in caamparison with ca_.:ulations using
c(? with t =18().). Recent measurements in the Federal Republic of Germany
indicate [H. K. Faetzold and Z. Schorner. Meteorol. Rnndschau, 8, No 5-6,
1955, p 921 that the mean temperature of the ozone layer is closest of all
to the temperature of the air at an, altitude of 30 kilometers. It was
established that the error in the calculation of ,c during the final pro-
cessing of IGY materials could be considerably reduced if values of ,
corresponding to the negative temperature -440, used by Vigroux, were em-
ployed.
The second correction relates to any ozonometric formula. The final
processing of observations is necessary in the substitution of formula (1),
which satisfactorily presents the variation of the thickness of ozone with
time, but not its absolute value, in the correot expression. in calculat-
ing. x according to given measurements of 0"r'ET-3, a formula should be
selected which would retain the calculation of Rayle:;.gh scattering. it is
expedient therefore to use the expression
Al So-S-(VI _- 2)m
1-d2',R.
(2,
in the case of using only the first two charnel s of CiFET-3 or for not too
great zenith distances of the Sun---
x = A2 So -S 1. K(L O -L)
[c(1(k-1)-c(21 (3)
in the operation of the instrument in three psr~;s of the spectrum. Al and
A2, are the experimentally determined coefficients of the "tied-in" results
of O17ET-3 measurements to the readings of the pa'cceseicned ozonometric in-
strument,
L= log I X2/I.3. Lo=log I22/I ;t3 wit1:/l.=0.
According to Vi roux ['inn. Ffiys. , 8, 709, 195311 fo:N the second spectral
part of OFET -3 09. 0.
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 CPYRGHT
One of the
necessary to cal
Molecular
strument with a
dvantages of formula (3) is that in using it, it is not
ulate changes of Rayleigh scattering between measurements.
attering of light is considered constant for a given in..
atue of
I t (n?. 1-1)2A1-1E - (n , 2 -1) 2 ., 2 _1E
(n,~ 2-1)2d2 - ( ./ , 3 - 1 ) ( 1 3 -
where n is the index of refraction of air for wave lengths of it 1, r,. 2,
and 3, correspo ding to 1, 2 and 3 maximums of the effective spectral
bands of the ins ument. For the Alma-Ata ozonograph, K-;--l-783-
The correct processing of materials of the ozonometric network, the
efficient use of he complex of observations characterizing this or any
processes with a thickness of up to 100 kilometers and beyond the limits
of the atmospher , makes the all-around study of the ozone problem possi'ile
for the first ti . One of the principal tasks of the IGY consists in the
use of the great tore of various observations to study the role of ozone
in the physics o the atmosphere and to proceed from a comparison of cor-
relation data to he construction of a strict and comprehensive theory of
the ("First Results of Ozonometric Observations During'the
IGY," by Sh. A. Bezverkhniy and P. M. Broybman; Vestnik Akademii Nauk
Kazakhoy SSR, No 8, Aug 58, pp 27-31).
Fesenkov Discusses the Nature of Zodiacal Light
The Committee for the Conduct of the IGY under the Academy of Sciences
USSR selected a lotion near Aswan, Egypt, as the most desirable place for
the study of Zodiacal light. Here extraneous influences are much weaker
or even fully equalized with the perpendicular position of Zodiacal light
in relation to the horizon at a certain time of the year. The expedition
was organized by the Astrophysics Institute of the Academy ,-df :Sciences
Kazakh SSR. Having prepared original scientific equipment, the expedition
left for Egypt on 21 September 1957. One of the expedition's parties con-
ducted observations of Zodiacal light at night, the other studied the opti-
cal properties of the terrestrial atmosphere by day. An idea ,.df 'these
properties is necessary in the processing of zodiacal observations.
The observations were conducted with little interruption almost up to
the end of November 1957. An enormous quantity of material, of a diverse
nature was collected. Detailed observations on conditions in Egypt were
conducted :?or the first time, not only on Zodiacal light; but also, in
general on atmospheric optics. The expedition succeeded in establishing
close ties with Egyptian astronomical circles. Two Egyptian scientific
workers took part in the work. In addi?'Jion, the Helwan observatory near
Cairo undertook to continue the expedition's investigations after its de-
parture using the olectrophotometer left behind.
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While the observations conducted in Egypt have not been fully pro-
cec+aed, certain conclusions relative to the nature of Zodiacal light are
made.
Zodiacal light, in all its details, is caused by the scattering itif
sunlight by fine cosmic dust occurring as a result of the continuous dis-
integration of asteroids and meteorites concentrated mainly between the
orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The finest dust particles, with a diameter
of less than one micron, resulting from similar disintegration, are at
once swept out from the limits of the solar system as a result of light
pressure exceeding the force of solar attraction l ins.' the' ,rgiven ? cash:
Larger particles are gradually braked by radiation pressure and settle
on the Sun. It was thus theoretically established that the density of
matter of Zodiacal light in steady-state conditions changes inversely to
the distance from the Sun, and the deviation of the orbit of individual
particles from the plane of the ecliptic is determined by the inclination
of the orbit of asteroids.
The phenomenon of Zodiacal light directly indicates the presence of
planetary, and in particular, asteroidal matter around the Sun. It is
known that similar dust envelopes exist around various 1bri;ght::'.stars.
Zrheae are the so-called diffuse nebulae which possibly have a similar
origin.
To make appropriate calculations relative to the distribution of
brightness in different points of Zodiacal light it is necessary to know
beforehand, how light is scattered by its individual particles. Inasmuch
as these particles, with which the studies are concerned, are just meteors
constantly penetrating the Earth's atmosphere and gradually settling to the
ground the same law of scattering of light which 1 is :' chareci erietid ? for
aerosols in sufficiently high atmospheric layers was taken in the nature
of a first approximation for these meteoric particles. This law of scat-
tering was well derived from observations of the daylight sky.,, in the Sun's
almucantar during the pre-evening hours when the atmosphere its 'already
changing into a twilight state and the effective layer, responsible for
the distribution of brightness in the day aky,;has already separated from
the Earth's surface and is raised sufficiently high.
Under conditions of the Libyan desert, where, for years there has
been no rainfall, it is possible to completely disregard the possible
presence of liquid aerosols and to consider that dry aerosols, separated
frcm the overall effect of atmospheric scattering of light, represent
hypothetical meteoric particles in interplanetary apace sufficiently well.
Having obtained, in this manner, an expression for functionsof the scat-
tering of light it was possible to derive general formulas characterizing
the outward appearance of Zodiacal light and its system of isophots re-
sulting from the known distribution of the angles of inclination of
asteroids in relation to the ecliptic. Similar, unwieldy calculations
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were conducted by members of the expedition with the aid of the Laboratory
of Machine h.(rathemacico, Academy of Sciences Kazakh SSR. Thus it was found
that the obtained isophato correspond fairly well to the forms of Zodiacal
light as were observed by the expedition under conditions in Egypt, normally
toward the horizon when this phenomenon reached its greatest brightness.
It was now possible to carry out a controlled test, comparing the ob-
served brightness of Zodiacal light with the known density of meteoric
matter in interplanetary space. Actually through direct observations the
number of meteors which strike the Earth daily, and their distribution
according to size or according to mass down to the smallest still possible
in the solar system are know-.1. Hence, it is possible to deduce that the
density of meteoric matter in the solar system, in the space from the Earth
to the Sun, must be approximately 5. 10'24 gr/cm3. If it is assumed that
me~eoric particles completely scatter sunlight, then a value of 10-24 gr/-
cm is obtained as the lower limit of the density of the matter of Zodiacal
light.
Calculations were conducted for three diff.rent functions of the
scattering of light -- spherical, typical atmos,> :.. ric and aerosol : scat-
tering. In all of these cases the form of Zodiacal light remained similar,
and only with an increase of the asymmetry of the function of scattering
a change in its brightness with the angular distance from the Sun was in-
creased in a certain degree.
The polarization of light can also be explained on the basis of the
dust theory of the nature of Zodiacal light calculations agreed with that
of other authors by 20-25 percent. Up to now, there was insufficient
basis to consider that dust matter could produce any substantial polari-
zation and an explanation of it would have to include .,the pArticular
presence of free electrons, which at an angle of 90 degrees produces full
polarization of light. Necessary data in this connection was obtained as
a result of observations on the degree of polarization of the day sky in
the Sun's almucantar at the most divergent angular distances from it which
were conducted by Ye. V. Pyadkovskaya-Fesenkova and her associates in the
Libyan desert.
The color of Zodiacal light which differs very little from sunlight,
can also be explained by the kypothesis concerning the dust composition
of its particles with a diameter of more than one micron. The smallest
particles selectively scattering the Sun's rays must be swept from the
limits of the solar system by the action of light pressure and even par-
ticles of an order of several microns are very quickly slowed by radia-
tion and corpuscular braking and fall onto the Sun. Therefore, the ob-
served scattering of light must have an almost neutral character, as this
was also observed. Thus, it is possible to consider that all the observed
pecularities of Zodiacal light, its outward form, its location in relation
to the ecliptic, the observed absolute brightness, the degree of polari-
zation, and its color, can be deduced purely -theoretically with good
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agreement with 'the' actual ii,, the hypothesis of its origin from an
asteroidal ring by means of the continuous disintegration of asteroids
and meteors..
The other viewpoint on the nature of zodiacal light, which is supported
by many, ascribes a considerable role to free electrons. It can be accepted
that gas in interplanetary space must be almost wholly ionized and consist
of a mixture of ions and electrons. The latter are distinguished by a very
great scattering capability, regardless of the wave length, and strongly
polarize light as according to Rayleigh's law.
The main basis for assuming that large mixtures of free electrons are
present in zodiacal light is that without free electrons it would be impos-
sible to explain polarization in zodiacal light. "..K
The other basis is the presence of (radio] whistlers, as though in-
dicating a considerable condensation of fr-e electrons along the lines of
force of the Earth's magnetic field, far ..istant from the sphere of the
Earth and actually passing in interplanetary space.
Instead of this, the ionized corpuscles ejected by the Sun, as well
as the free electrons connected with them, must be oriented in relation
to the plane of the solar equator and not to the plane of the ecliptic,
as is the case with zodiacal light. Consequently the distribution in
space of scattering electrons must be altogether ldifferetit r , froAf ;- that
found for particles.,; of zodiacal light. Besides, corpusctlar radiation
of the Sun is not uniform as is seen in the aurorae. Consequently, it
would be possible to expect fluctuations in the brightness of zodiacal
light, especially in'the periods of sharp eruptions on the Sun and during
intensive aurorae. However there are no proved indications with regard
to fluctuations of the brightness of zodiacal light and its connection
with the aurorae. Thus, although there undoubtedly are ionnixed gases
and, consequently free electrons in interplanetary space, their role in
the phenomenon of zodiacal light is obviously completely insignificant.
In conclusion, it is definitely stated that the interplanetary medium
through which the interaction between the Sun and the Earth occurs, con-
sists mainly of dust particles and only in an insignificant measure of gas
components. (.The Nature of Zodiacal Light," by V. G. Fesenkov; Vestnik
Akademii Nauk Kazakhskoy SSR, No 8, Aug 58, pp 3-9)
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III. OCEANOGRAPHY
First Soviet Hydrostat Under Construction
The design of the first Soviet watertight apparatus made of light
steel -- a hydrostat for underwater-sea observations at depths of up to
600 meters -- has been developed by a collective of engineers of the
Leningrad Design Institute of the State Institute for Design and Planning
of the Fishing Fleet, under the supervision of P. I. Seryuk, chief' de - ?
signer. Working drawings have already been completed and the manufacture
of parts has already begun in the shops of the Baltic Shipbuilding Plant
imeni Ordzhonikidze.
The new original apparatus weighs about 2 1/2 tons. Its illuminators
are made of especially strong glass, and it is equipped with a powerful
deepwater searchlight capable of withstanding great water pressure, and a
flashlamp for photographing. With such a hydrostat it will be possible to
study the features and color of the -ground, the camoflauge colors of sub-
marine animals and many other animals. The utilization of this apparatus
will also be'of aid to the fishing industry organizations in studying the
behavior and movements of schools of fish, in observing trawl structures
in underwater conditions, etc.
It is proposed to lower the hydrostat from a research ship at sea by
means of steel cables. Constant telephone communication will be maintained
with the ship during operations. In case of need, the craft can surface
itself. ("Hydrostat for Underwater Sea Observations;" Moscow, Promychlenno-
Ekonomicheskaya Gazeta, 19 Sep 58)
Equation Obtained for Motion of Wave "Front" Across Ocean
In an article entitled "The Exact Solution of the Field Equation for
Wind Waves on the Ocean and Its Physical Meaning," Academician' V. V.'
Shuleykin observed that recent development of the theory of quasilinear
equations makes it now possible to give an exact solution to the equation
for ocean waves
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In -rte above equation1? is the height o?!' the wavcs,'`t~i.s the time, and
I to, the distance from the vi.zdward shore or, the windward boundary of a
;,t;r~rm zone on the ocean, all dimensionless quantities.
It is shown that the exact ssolutiona obtained earlier to two problems
are an exact srlution of the wave equation. These problems are (a) the
distribution of the heights o-P steady wave4 at various distances from the
windward shore and (b) the i;xc.-ease in wave height after a time of
wind action at great distances from the windward shore? These two solutions
are given as
(a) = 2 tans-].' 1/2 - 2 ~2/2
(b) 1/) 1 - e
The author shows that in the -plane there must exist a line
of separation J ('Y' ), or oae side of which case (a) holds and on the
other side, case (b). The different al equation for this line is given
2/3
0:a -the basis of physical considerations, it is noted that this line
of separation begins to move over ;;"he surface of the ocean from the wind -
ward shore. The physical changes iiz this "front" are used to construct
the curve It was round to coincide with the curve obtained by
um_rical' Integration.
A graph of the surface 17 (3 , ^C) is constructed, i-rppresentirjg
geome';rically the exact integoai cf the wave equation. The physical sig-.
nificanceae this surface is discussed. The graph indicates that the region
of steady wave formation will be at a greater distance from the bank, the
longer is the duration of wind action.
d;2 Y '1 2/3
dT' 3
The actual velocity of tn.? f'..?or..t is determined after assigning
measurable quantities fm' -";he d;tncs-n:ionit so quantities. It is found that
dx/dt o.625 c,
where c = f, V, V is the wind veloc:'My, and fco ?t a the quotient of the phase
velocity of the largest waves possible for a given wind velocity divided by
the wind velocity. The autio,' notes that no particular significance should
be attached to the faq?tgr? 0.625 , F nd e~.pi-I n . why 1 ytc' . dif Per . ,' frbm
I l s e equ l};;oi theisgroup vet ' i?i;}?i not the wavei'tand- that theont3'
"shore effect," the action of the wind;ra;,'d shore on the wave development,
advances toward the ocean with"tb's same group velocity. ("The Exact Solu-
tion of the Field Equation for Wind Waves on the Ocean and Its Plysical
Meaning," by Academician V. It. Shuleykiu, Moscow State University imeni
M. V. Lomonosov; Moscow, Doklad3 Akademii Nauk SSSR, Vol 121, No 6, 21 Aug
58, pp 1005-1008)
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Artic Workers Supplied by Kooperatsiya
The Soviet ship Kooperatsiya arrived in Vladivostok after a through
passage of the Northern Sea Route. The ship delivered supplies to the
Arctic workers on Dikson Island and at Tiksi. ("From Every Corner of the
Country"; Moscow, Pravda, 12 Oct 58)
Physicogeographical Characteristics of the Antarctic Region Explored by
Soviet Expedition in 1955-1957 Conclusion
The area of operations of the Soviet Expedition, as well as all of
Antarctica, is characterized by the sharp contrast between survival con-
ditions for organisms on the continent and in the coastal waters. Almost
all the antarctic continent represents an ice-covered desert, where pernlas-
frost prevails, where there is no water in. liquid form, and life is prac-
tically impossible. On the other hand, the waters surrounding the conti-
nent have rather favorable conditions for the development of organisms.
The temperature of the sea water is almost constant and does not go below
minus 2 degrees centigrade in winter, and in the summer it rises to
0 degrees centigrade, or slightly higher, in the surface layers, which
makes it possible for an enormous quantity of marine organisms to exist.
In addition, the extensive connection of the coastal waters with the world
ocean promotes migration of a number of organisms from lower latitudes.
Between these two entirely different regions is a, coas'l;al belt, char-
acterized by transitional conditions. In this zone life on the mainland
is possible. However, it is to a certain degree closely connected with
the sea and does not penetrate into the interior of the continent.
To gain a better understanding of the survival conditions for or-
ganisms, a comparison with arctic regions is given below.
The coast of East Antarctica is located near the polar circle, and
its climate is more severe than that of the highest latitudes on the arctic
land. The most frigid regions of the Arctic, near the Arctic Circle (south
coast of Greenland, Baffin Land, and the Chukot Peninsula), have a tempera-
ture of about 5 degrees centigrade during the warmest month. In several
regions of the Northern Hemisphere near the Arctic Circle (Igarka, Zhigansk,
Medvezh'ye Ozero) the temperature reaches 15 degrees centigrade. However,
in the area of operations of the Antarctic Expedition the temperature of
the warmest month is below 0 degrees centigrade, and only in the "oases,"
ti;hieh cover c;mc~l.1 areas, is the temperature c,.bove the 'reeezint,? point. Even
Lit: rw:;t frigid c et;ions of the arctic lung (Petry Land, Franz Josef Lana,
and S'eve.rnaya Zemlya), -which are between 80 : and 83 deareos northern lati-
Wte, i. ., 10-15 cie,recs nearer to the pole than the antarctic regions
exp ~.or.>a by evict B, -
j ti Lion, have a temperature above 0 degrees cen-
C:i~ji.,:is auriri~; Lhe ,;arincst month.
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Therefore, judging by the summer temperatures, which in the end
determine the abundance of, vegetation in polar regions, the coast of
East Antarctica has a more frigid climate than the highest latitudes on
land areas of the Northern Hemisphere. If we add to this the short
duration of the vegetation period., and the strong winds and extreme
dryness of the air (the relative humidity is up to 10-15 percent), as
well as the almost complete lack of snow cover in winter, it will be
evident that any plants growing on the rocks projecting from the ice
must have exceptional adaptability and endurance.
The remoteness of Antarctica from other continents is also unfavor-
able to the development of organic life. If any parts of the land sur-
face become free of ice, they may receive germs of life only from thou-
sands of kilometers away, from countries with a much warmer climate,
where neither plants nor animals would be adaptable to the severe cli-
mate of Antarctica.
The only "bridge" which would enable organisms to travel overland
would be the chain of islands from South America: to Graham Land, but
this region is situated several thousand kilometers from the area of op-
eration of the Soviet Expedition and is separated from it by -cast ex-
panses of ice.
There is less difference with regard to conditions of life in the
sea (i.e., between the Arctic and Antarctic). However, as a rule, dur-
ing the summer the sea in the corresponding latitudes of the Arctic is
free of ice and the temperature of surface water reaches 5 or even 10
degrees centigrade, whereas in the Antarctic some ice near the coast
remains all through the summer, even though in small quantities, and
the water temperature is close to 0 degrees centigrade.
The vegetation is exceptionally poor. At first. glance, the brown
surface of the "oases" aiad nunataks is completely devoid of any vegeta-
tion. On looking closer, one distinguishes black and gray patches of
lichens on the rocks, and occasional green turf patches of moss in some
of the damper places. No flowering plants of any kind were discovered
in the area of operation of the expedition.
In the corresponding latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere there..are
dense forests, such as around Igarka and Zhigansk, and large shrubs grow
in the more frigid regions, such as Greenland. Even at the extreme points
of northern land areas, for example on Zemlya Frantsa Iosifa (Franz Josef
Land] and Severnaya Zemlya, there are about 40-50 different :kinds of
flowering plants, while mosses and lichens are fairly well developed.
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In the area of the Soviet Antarctic Expedition, only about 20 kinds
of lichens and about 10 kinds of mosses were discovered. In addition,
there are ronaquatic and fresh-water algae. The basic types of lichens
are epilithic, growing in the form of patches on rocks. There are sev-
eral types of crustlike lichens, 2-3 types of thallophytic lichens, such
as Gyrophora, and some bunch lichens, such as Neuropogon (especially,
Neuropogon antarcticum), which form little "bushes" up to 5 centimeters
high, of black or yellowish color.
in some places, epilithic black and gray lichens cover the rocks
with an almost continuous crust. However, these are only small areas.
Continuous carpets of thallophytic and bunch lichens cover similar areas;
for example, the Greerson "oasis" small black bunches of Neuropogon grow
in large patches on flat summits and terraces, covering areas with a di-
ameter of 10-12 meters. The total area covered with plant life is not
more than 1-2 percent, since vast portions of this region are almost com-
pletely without life.
Mosses, principally of the Trichostomaceae family, and of the Bryum
and Grimmia varieties, are found in small patches only in damper places.
On Haswell Island, patches of moss (Sarconeurum glaciale and Grimmia ant-
arctica) reach 2-3 meters in diameter. They play an insignificant part
in the general vegetation cover. The nonaquatic algae, the most common
of which are the Stratonostoc commune and especially the green Prasiola
crispa, are also of little significance; they grow in places where bird
droppings have accumulated.
The algae i d fresh-water ponds are of slightly more importance.
The bottom of certain ponds is covered with an almost continuous, thick
film of scum, which represents a colony of various plants, mainly algae
of the Stratonostoc, Oscilatoriaceae, and Seitunema varieties, and bac-
teria. Sometimes mosses of the Mniaceae family also form part of the
structure of these films. When the plant films die, they form a thick
layer of black silt on the bottom of the ponds.
Survival conditions became more rigorous as one approaches the in-
terior of the continent, and already at 80-100 kilometers from the coast
only isolated small patches of lichens and nonaquatic algae are found on
the nunataks, in crevasses between rocks. At a distance of 200 kilometers
from the coast, on Mount Brown, no traces of vegetation whatsoever were
found.
However, not only the decrease of heat has an adverse effect on veg-
etation. In the "oases," in the warmest areas located in valleys pro-
tected from the glacier winds, the vegetation is poorer than on individ-
ual small nunataks at the base of the Shackleton Ice Shelf, which are
surrounded by ice. The air temperature of such areas of the "oases" rises
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above 10 degrees centigrade on warm, sunny days, and the temperature on
the rock surfaces reaches 35 degrees centigrade. The ground in these
places thaws out as deep as 50-60 centimeters, and Qometimes even 100
centimeters. It would seem that the vegetation here should reach a max-
imum stage of development; however, it is just in these valleys that one
can walk for tens of kilometers without seeing a single plant. Such an
area, for example, it the "Valley of Death" in the Vestfold "oasis."
The absence of vegetation in this place is caused by the extreme dryness
of the air and soil. Humidity is so low that even the hardiest lichens
cannot survive.
This scant vegetation on the land areas, naturally, cannot provide
the necessary food for herbivorous land animals. The almost complete
absence of such animals, of course, is also explained by the low summer
temperatures. Only the most minute, almost microscopic rotifera and
small crustaceans (Isopoda) were found among mosses, but even they were
very rare.
In the fresh-water and salt-water ponds, there are very small num-
bers of cyclopses Acanthocuclops mirny, worms Nematoda, and crustaceans
Cladocera, especially Daphnia Daphniopsis studeri, as well as other types
of crilstaceana Cyclopoida and Harpacticoida, and rotifera Philodina.
The vegetation of the sea is much more abundant. It was less studied
by the Soviet expedition members. It may be noted only that the coastal
waters are rich in phytoplankton. On the bottom of--the sea? are large
brown, green,.and red algae (Phyllogigas grandiolius, Enteromorpha gun-
niana, Rhodumenia antarctica, and others). The most developed algae are
near the coast of Vestfold "oasis" and the Rauer Islands.
The relatively rich marine vegetation favors the development of ma-
rine animal life. Zooplankton develops in connection with the growth
of phytoplankton; and the former provides food for larger marine animals.
At. the bottom of the coastal sections of the sea and in the 'bays,
one frequently finds echinoderms, including starfishes, brittle stars
Ophionotus victoriae, echini Sterechinus antarcticus, and various mol-
lusks. Various plankton crabs, mainly Euphausia superba, are the basic
food of fish as well as of other larger marine animals, including whales
and seals, and fish-eating birds.
The fish in the coastal waters have their own peculiar features.
They differ from the fish of the Arctic not only with respect to their
system, but also in their way of life. Almost all of them are benthonic
and do not form large shoals, although they are encountered frequently.
The most common are of the Tremotomus genus. These are small fish (those
caught were not larger than 25 centimeters), living, as a rule, eb depths
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of not rnor-c than 50 meters. The most frequently found type was Tremotomus
bernacchii, and somewhat rarer was the Tremotomus hansoni. In addition to
the Tremotomuo genus, there were fish of the Gymnodraco genus, which are
slightly larger. All these fish are edible; however, in view of the fact
that they do not form large shoals and are small in size, they would not
be signt.ficant for the fishing industry.
Whales, especially the small rorqual (Balaenoptera acutorostrata)
and the killer whale (Orcinus orca), approach the coast only at the end
of the summer, when the ice belt becomes scattered. These animals are
encountered singly or in small groups and have no industrial significance
in the littoral regions of the sea.
In the area explored by the expedition, seals were encountered all
the year round. The Weddell seal (leptonychotes Weddefli) is the most
common. These seals, as a rule, stay in small groups near the coast,
corning out in the winter through holes which they make in the ice. This
is a large animal, up to 290-300 centimeters long, with brightly spotted
dark fur. They feed mainly on fish, but also eat crustaceans, cephalopods,
holothurians, and other small animals.
During the antarctic spring, in the last 10 days of October, the first
Weddell seal pups appear; the breeding period ends in the first 10 days
of November. At first the gray, downy pups J.ie on the ice, and after molt-
ing, they go into the water.
The crab-eating seal (Lobodon carcinophagus) is somewhat lighter and
smaller that.. the Weddell seal. Its fur is almost a solid gray color, some-
times with a yellowish tint, the back being darker than the belly. It
feeds mainly on plankton crustaceans. This seal remains in the open water
and among the drift ice. Therefore, it is hardly found in the winter near
the coast, where the shore ice belt is wide (in the area of Mirnyy), but
is encountered only in the summer, after the shore ice breaks up. Near
the "oases" of Greerson and Vestfold, these seals are found in small num-
bers near the coast even in the winter, since in some places the belt of
shore ice is almost absent.
A larger type of seal, the sea leopard ($ydrurga leptonyx), is rarely
encountered even in the summer, and in the winter the sea le:.;pard, au well
as the crab-eating seal, travels to the drift ice and was found only once
at the edge of the shore ice.
Two more types of seals are found near the shores of Antarctica, al-
though very rarely: the elephant seal (Mirounga leonina) and the Ross
seal (Ommatophoca rossi). The Ross seal is the smallest type found in
these regions (170-180 centimeters long) and has a lighter color; it was
observed in mid-November on the ice near the Mirnyy settlement.
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No doubt, the most noticeable animals along the coast are the birds,
which form numerous colonies in the shore cliffs. There are eight types
of nesting birds, including five types of storm-petrels, i.e., the silver-
gray petrel (Fulmarus glacialoides), snoWpetrel (Pagodroma nivea), ant-
arctic petrel (Thalassoica antarctica), cape pigeon (Daption capensis),
and Wilson's petrel (Oceanites oceanicus); one type of Jaeger (Stercorarius
scua); and two types of penguins, the Adelie penguin (Pigoscelis adeliae)
and the king-penguin (Aptenodites forsteri). Single specimens of the
giant storm-petrel (Macronectes giganteus), the Dominican gull (Larus domi-
nicanus), and the antarctic penguin (Pygoscelis antarcticus) were also en-
countered.
The storm-petrels fly to the coast at the end of September, begin lay-
ing eggs at the end of November and the beginning of December, hatch their
young in mid-January, and leave the shores of Antarctica by mid-March.
The most widespread types of birds, which live everywhere except on
the nunataks far removed from the coast, are the snowy petrel and Wilson's
petrel; they do not form closely knit colonies, but build their nests in
the cracks of cliffs in small groups or singly. The most widespread of
the typically colonial storm petrels is the silver-gray petrel, which forms
tight colonies. of several hundred birds, living on the cliffs. These col-
onies were found in (Greerson "oasis," on the Haswell Islands, and on the
Rauer Islands.
The antarctic storm-petrel was found only on Haswell Islands, in a
small colony of several hundred birds.
The large antarctic Jaeger is as widespread as the snowy petrel, but
its nest are found mostly in areas of penguin colonies, where the Jaeger
finds its food. The :iaegers arrive in mid-October, begin to lay their
eggs in the last 10 days of November, and hatch their young early in Jan-
uary, The young fledglings begin to fly at the end of February and the
beginning of March, and the birds fly away at the end of March. The Jaeger
feeds mainly on carrion near the colonies of penguins and petrels, but
it also attacks healthy birds; especially in regions where there is little
other food, the Jaeger destroys many snowy petrels. It also feeds in the
sea, but less willingly.
The penguins are the most interesting and characteristic birds of
Antarctica. Adelie penguins form 1,000-bird colonies on the cliffs of
Greerson and Vestfold "oases," as well as on the Haswell Islands. For
their nesting grounds they goose flat surfaces with fine pebbles, of
which they build their nests. They appear here about 20 October, and
begin to lay eggs about 10 November. Usually they lay two eggs each,
less frequently just one egg, and very'rarely three eggs. The young
birds begin to hatch by mid-December. The molting period ends in late
February and early March, and the birds leave the shores of Antarctica
and go out 'into the sea. They feed mostly on crustaceans.
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The most amazing bird, not only in Antarctica but probably in the
whole world, is the king-penguin. These birds, which reach a length of
115 centimeter3 and a weight of 45 kilograms, spend the winter at the
shores of Antarctica, and go out to sea for the summer.
They are not as widespread as the Adelie penguins. In the area of
.~eration of the expedition, only three colonies of king-penguins were
recorded: near Mirnyy, at the northwest point of the West Ice Shelf, and
on the coast of Ingrid Christensen Land. The colony near Mirnyy, where
there are up to 20,000 birds, is the largest. The colony near the West
ice Shelf is somewhat smaller. The third colony has only about 3,000-
5,000 birds.
The penguins begin to arrive in the area of Mirnyy early in April,
and beginning in mid-April, when the shore ice is firm, they form a colony
between the icebergs on the sea ice. The birds stand mostly in groups,
close to each other. 'Early in May they begin laying eggs, and this con-
ti.nues for more than a month. They lay one egg each, with an average
weight of 440 grams (between 335 and 544 grams). The fledglings begin to
hatch in mid=July, and only then do the parent birds begin to go back and
forth, carrying food. Until that time, they hardly move at n1l. and live
on the fat accumulated during the summer period.
Thus, the young birds are hatched during the coldest period of mid-
winter. They have hardly any downy cover and do not leave their parents'
pouch for a long time. Only in about a month, the fledglings grow a thick
cuat of down and run around freely on the ice, despite continuing 'frosts
and purgas.
At the beginning of December, the molting of young birds begins, and
later that of adult birds. After mid-December, the colony begins to dis-
integrate, and the birds finally let~e at the end of January. However,
individual king-penguins may be observed all summer on the ice in the vi-
cinity of Mirnyy. These penguins feed on crustaceans and fish and can
hold more than 5 kilograms of food in their stomach.
From the above, it appears that all land animals and birds, i.e.,
those reproducing their offspring on land, are actually connected with
the sea and depend wholly on the sea as their source of food. They all
stay near the shoreline and do not penetrate into the interior. Only the
snowy petrel and Wilson's petrel penetrate a little deeper, but even they
do not nest further than 20 or 30 kilometers inland. Very rarely they fly
as far as 100 kilometers into the interior.
Thus, it may be pointed out again that the sea is the source of life
on the land, either directly or indirectly. Approximately 100 kilometers
away from the sea all traces of life disappear completely.
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The different natural conditions prevailing in the interior coastal
regions of Antarctica, which is located entirely within the zone of ant-
arctic asserts, make it possible to differentiate between two subzones,
i.e., the interior glacial desert and the coastal antarctic desert. The
former is characterized by a solid, homogeneous, thick ice sheet (with
the exception of possibly a few nunataks), a stable anticyclonic condi-
tion of the atmosphere, continuous frost, and complete absence of life,
while the latter represents a complexity of various landscapes, and, al-
though the ice sheet here too prevails, it is much thinner, is not uni-
form in nature, and is interrupted by rock outcrops in a number of places.
The vicinity of the sea, the lower absolute elevation, and as a
rule, the more northern location of this subzone result in a less stable
atmospheric condition than in the interior subzone, and considerably higher
temperatures, which rise above 0 degrees centigrade in the summer. The
existence of ice-free areas of land makes it possible for some vegetation
to develop, even though it is extremely scanty (only microscopic algae
can develop on the glaciers, and only in small quantities).
The fauna of this subzone consists mainly of birds which obtain their
food from the sea and nest on the cliffs of the coast. It is true. that
the king-penguins and seals (the latter, especially elephant seals, Wed-
dell seals, and Ross seals, may also be included in the fauna of the sub-
zone) do not require any ice-free rocks, and a number of minute animals
living in fresh-water ponds are not dependent on -the sea, but then most
important group of animals is connected both with the sea and with the
rocks.
Which of the landscape forms of the coastal zone is more characteris-
tic from a zonal standpoint; the glaciers, which cover almost the whole
area of the subzone, or the infrequent outcrops of ice-free rocks? Ap-
parently, each of these landscape forms is equally zonal in character:
the former, because under present conditions the snow line in the greater
part of the subzone is below sea level, and therefore the ice accumulates
locally, and does not only flow down from the interior regions of the con-
tinent; the latter, because -- also under present climatic conditions --
the elevations of the relief at the edges of the ice sheet in a number
of places rise above its surface, which causes a change in the radiation
balance and a rise in the summer temperatures above these areas, a change
in the wind regime, and the formation of permanently ice-free areas. How
far is the. name "oasis" justified for these areas? It would be simpler to
give up the term "oasis" and to designate these areas by the generally ac-
cepted terms, such as islands, peninsulas, hills, and mountains (for ex-
ample, Vestfold Hills, Bunger Hills, Windmill Islands, and Greerson Hills).
However, in view of the fact that the ice-free areas are comparatively rare
in relation to the whole glacial cover and differ sharply from the lifeless
expanses of ice by a whole complex of natural elements, including the ex-
istence of organic life, this article has retained the term "oasis", espe-
cially since it has become well known in literature and is used to emphasize
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the basic peculiarities of these areas. Even if these antarctic "oases"
do not correspond to the term "basis" in the direct sense of the word,
meaning a spot with growing trees surrounding a water source, in the
midst of a burning desert, the antarctic "owes" do correspond to the
figurative meaning of the word, as being something exceptional, i.e.,
something better in the midst of worse surroundings. Thus, in Soviet
terminology, the term has come to mean ice-free areas of land in the
midst of a region of glacial accumulation, which are characterized by
a complex of elements of geographic environment (climate, hydrographic
system, flora and fauna, etc.).
The islands situated near the coast, of the type of the Haswell
Islands, have some distinguishing features. In the summer they are
surrounded by open water. The vicinity of the open sea causes increased
humidity and, apparently, a higher air temperature. In the winter, the
strong winds blowing off the ice sheet have lost some of their force
when they reach these islands. Moreover, the vicinity of the sea as the
source of food attracts a large number of birds. As a result, the Has-
well Islands, which are granite cliffs 91 meters high, covering hn area
of a little less than one square kilometer, have a greater accumulation
of animal and plant life than any other area explored by the expedition.
The islands become free of ice early in the season. The increased hu-
midity promotes the development of-lichen and moss vegetation, which
covers about 5 percent of the whole area. There are numerous colonies
of Actelie penguins, silver-gray, snowy and antarctic storm petrels,
"cape" pigeons, and Wilson's petrels, amidst the rocks; nests of Jaegers
are also frequent.
Weddell seals are seen near the shores of Haswell Islands all the
year round, and crab-eating seals and sea leopards come up to the islands
in the summer. Even in the winter the area of the Haswell Islands is
enlivened by a large colony of king-penguins and Weddell seals coming
out on the ice.
The nunataks located at the base of the Shackleton Ice Shelf rep-
resent isolated peaks, or small groups of peaks, surrounded by glaciers.
As a result of increased humidity fol3rwing the thawing of ice and snow,
the conditions for development of plant life here are somewhat better
than in most of the area of the "oases," and therefore the total. area
covered by moss and lichen is about 5-10 percent.
The nunataks located at a distance from the coast (Mount Strathcona,
Mount Amundsen, and Mount Sandow) are almost without life, with the ex-
ception of a few small patches of lichens and algae, growing in the cre.
vasses. In these spots, the temperature of the air never rises above 0
degrees centigrade and only the surfaces of rocks 1eatecl by the sun have
enough warmth for the existence of life.
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The most frigid spot, undoubtedly, is Mount Brown, a rocky summit,
which is located about 200 kilometers from the coast and is over 2,100
meters high. Ito surface does not receive enough warmth to enable any
kind of plants to survive. The temperature is always below zero centi-
grade, and even the surface of rocks facing the sun show only traces of
the melting of snow.
The antarctic deserts are much more frigid than the arctic ones.
There is no region in the Arctic corresponding to the interior glacial
subzone of Antarctica. Comparable conditions exist on the glacial cover
of Greenland, but they are not as definitely expressed as in Antarctica..
It would be more correct to compare the glacial subzone of Antarctica
with the Arctic Basin, which is covered with ice all the year round.
However, the presence of the sea in the northern polar region makes the
formation of an ice sheet impossible, which would probably form if there
were dry land underneath. As a result, the natural conditions of the
glacial subzones of the northern and southern polar zones are noticeably
different.
There is also no region in the Arctic corresponding exactly to the
second subzone, the typical antarctic deserts, developed on the coast
of the antarctic continent. The regions in the highest latitudes of
arctic land have more favorable conditions than the lowest latitudes of
East Antarctica. However, a number of features characteristic for the
coastal regions of Antarctica may also be observed in the regions of the
Far North. In addition to the low summer temperatures, it is especially
the lack of humidity which is very pronounced in the antarctic "oases,"
and which is also characteristic, although to a lesser degree, for a num-
ber of arctic regions, particularly the islands of Severnaya Zemlya. The
scarcity of vegetation, caused by low summer temperatures and lack of-hu-
midity., and the enormous importance of the sea in the development of ani-
mal life are characteristic for both regions. ("Physicogeographical Char-
acteristics of the Area of Operation of the Soviet Antarctic Expedition
1955-1957," by Ye. S. Korotkevich; Leningrad, Izvestiya Vsesoyuznogo Geo-
graficheskogo Obshchestva, Vol 90, No 3, May-Jun 58, pp 220-242)
Oceanographic Research in Antarctic Ocean
The Soviet Antarctic Marine Expedition on the Ob' and Lena have con-
ducted complex oceanographic research in an extensive area of the Antarc-
tic Ocean.
Geomorphological studies of the ocean floor made it possible to es-
tablish its extremely complex nature and manifold structure. Soviet
research in this field has refuted the former theory that the ocean floor
had a fairly level or slightly undulate relief. About 75 percent of the
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explored portion of the ocean bottom between South Africa and Antarctica
ij characterized by a volcanic relief, with individual volcanic cones up
to 3,000 meters high alternating with uplands and groups of fused vol-
canoes. Huge areas are covered by lava fields with terraced, block-shaped
and hilly surfaces. The formations of the bottom relief enable one to
assume that the submarine volcanic eruptions were comparatively recent,
and in some cases even of a contemporary nature.
These data enable scientists to speak with greater certainty of the
existence of the ancient continent of Gondwana, which at one time con-
nected East Antarctica with Africa and West Australia.
The coastal shelf of Antarctica was thoroughly explored, beginning
to the east of Davis Sea. The most interesting feature of it was a long
trench, which apparently encircles all of East Antarctica. The trench is
up to 1,1i0G meters deep. The Soviet expedition was able to explore this
trench along its whole length from the Mirnyy observatory to Adelie Land.
It may be assumed that it was formed by a coastal breakup, which occurred
as a result of vertical movements of the antarctic continent. Apparently,
the vertical movements along the trench, which represents a kind of seam,
continue even at present. If we take into consideration that during the
Quaternary period Antarctica probably went through several glaciation
epochs, these vertical movements may be related to the shifts in the ice
load on the antarctic continent. When the icecap accumulated, " the con-
tinent sank deeper under its weight; and when it melted, the continent
rose. ("Secrets of the Glacial Continent," by Academician D. Shcherbakov,
Moscow, Komsomol'skaya Pravda, 10 Jul 58)
Antarctic Flights Resume
The spring in the Antarctic is becoming more noticeable: there are
fewer snowstorms, and the nights are getting shorter.
Landing strips are being prepared at the interior stations for the
arrival of planes from Mirnyy. In the past few days [second week of Oc-
tober], an I1-12 plane made a flight of many hours, flying a 1,300-ktlcmeter
distance to the west of Mirnyy. Along the coast, the plane flew over
the Australian station Davis, where it dropped a note with greetings. Com-
mander Perov made a landing at the other Australian station, Mawson,
making a friendly visit to that station in response to the previous visit
of the Australians of Mirnyy.
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On 1 October., two I1-12 planes piloted by Perov and Ryzhkov again
made long flights. Perov conducted ice reconnaissance, flying as far
as the edge of the ice. Ryzhkov's crew flew more than 3,000 kilometers
over the antarctic icecap, passing over Pionerskaya, Komsomol'skaya,
Sovetskaya, and Vostok.
On 9 October, the first spring sled-tractor train arrived at Pion-
erskaya. The 24 Soviet explorers traveled the route from Mirnyy to
Pionerskaya, a distance of 375 kilometers, in 13 days. At Pionerskaya
the train was divided into two columns. The members of the first col-
umn will travel further to the south to continue scientific explorations.
The second column will return to Mirnyy. ("Spring in Antarctica," by
Ye. Tolstikov, Moscow, Pravda, 12 Oct 58)
Belorussian Scientists in Antarc?'?fic
Workers of the Hydrometeorological Service of Belorussia are taking
an active part in scientific research in connection with the IGY. Shim-
anovich, a Minsk aerologist, spent a long time in Antarctica, where he
headed a research group. At present, Mayevskiy, technician-aerologist,
who is employed by the Minsk Observatory, is stationed at Sovetskaya. He
conducts aerological radiosonde tests and has proved to be a capable spe-
cialist.
Pilipovich, senior technician of the Brest Aerological Station, has
left for the Antarctic to do research work. ("Scientific Workers of Belo-
russia in Antarctica," Minsk, Sovetskaya Belorussiya, 27 Sep 58, p 2)
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