CLIMATIC REGIONS AND ZONES OF THE USSR

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP82-00039R000100200005-4
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: R
• Document Page Count: 231
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: March 8, 2012
• Sequence Number: 5
• Publication Date: March 13, 1952
• Content Type: REPORT

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STAT
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F OE WORD
ed by physical observations, and no clues are furnished as to the origin
and subsequent development of climatological processes. This reduces
considerably the reliability of deductions drawn from this data and their
usefulness in the evolution of a detailed climatological analysis,
Information on the eliirate of various Territories of the Soviet
Union must be made more precise, not so rnich by the passive accuna.ilation
of observation data, as by the method of physicowgeographica1 study of
the natural climatic zones, which are climatic units in our vast territor-
The climatological studies of our country are not yet complete.
Although there are statistical data for most USSR areas, in some cases
for long periods of time, the above data are mostly averaged results of
what has passed, and cannot serve as a basis for climatological consider-
ations of the future. In many cases the statistical data are not support-
ial expanse.
The purpose of this book is to segregate from the territory of the
USSR precisely such natural climatic zones (defined by their climate
forming processes), and the resulting general weather cycles together
with the order of values of their meteorological components. The clima.?
tic study of a territory is to proceed along these zones.
The c1intic zone serves as the basic unit. It represents an area,
within the limits of which there is a certain continuity of the meteoro-.
logical circulation coniplex, which determines the perennial course of the
weather, i.e. its climate,
When adjacent zones have analogous characteristics of prevailing
air masses, they are incorporated into climatic units of a higher order
of magnitude, i.er. into climatic regions. Thus, the distinguishing feats
whose circulation pattern corresponds to the zones composing the region.
Lure of a climatic region is the nature of its prevailing air masses,
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The climatic region may consist or only one zone if the circulation cones
ditiona of the prevailing air masses are hcniogeneous.
Areas, within whose limits local factors exert a substantial in-
fluence on the weather, without causing a change in the general circuJ-a-
are considercd as climatic sub zones. Thus, on windward
tion features,
matmtazn slopes ? atmospheric precipitation is often observed on semi-dis-
anta.nued fronts, where there is no precipitation in the adjacent valley.
c
In other cases, when the same mountain slopes are leeward, a thinning
formations will take place over them. A locality, in which
out of cloud
such variations occur, can be defined as a climatic sub zone.
the zones and sub-zones there is a micro'climatic section
Witkn.n
with certain individual factors prevailing that do not influence the gen"
oral evolution of zone or sub~zone weather.
The segregation and description of climatic sub-Zones and micro
climatic sections are not within the scope of this book, since this is
a subject for detailed climatological research in individual zones.
In the construction of a general zoning diagram, the following
materials were ut11ied:
Cla.mat?c atlases 5 of the Nain Geophysical Observatory (GGO)
~.map.,~
and the Synoptic Charts of the Central Forcast Institute (Ts IF).
In describing individual zones, the Climatological Handbooks of
the Main Geophysical Observatory, plus descriptions by Reablics and
Regional o~~detooro~.ogical Adndnistrations, and additional monographs
Regions, cornpiLed jointly by the in Geophysical Observatory and the
and articles by various authors, were utilized.
Examples of the synoptic aspects illustrating the described processes
were selected by V. M. Kurganskaya, Candidate in Geographical Sciences.
I take this opportunity to express sincere appreciation to express
sincere appreciation to V. S. Voxynskaya,
for her thoughtful and warm attitude, which hastened
book.
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CONVENTIONAL DESIGNATIONS FOR SYNOPTIC CHARTS
OCCURTNG THROUGHOUT TIDE TEXT
Clear 0
Overcast
Light Wand
Strong Wand
Gusty Wand
Lower Clouds
r
,6
Rain
Showers
p
Figures at Isobars designate barometric pressures in nd11iiters.
Figures at Stations designate temperatures.
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REST R1CT EO
CLIMt TE FORJ1I PROCESSES OVER THE EXPANSE OF THE USSR
The territory of the Soviet Union occupies an area of some 170
Pacific air masses. This is concerned i'd.th the initial warming up of the mari-
latitude degrees by more than 50 longitudinal degrees. West to east it
extends almost from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, and south
to north, from the sub-.tropical zone to the North Pole. This vast ex.-
parse of land, being surnmer-.heated and winter-.cooled, is the determining
clirrtic factor for the greater part of USSR territory. Excepted from
the above factor is a wide western belt, which is strongly affected through-
out the year by the Atlantic, and a narrower belt in the east, which is
affected in the summer months by Pacific air currents. The influence of
the Arctic Ocean, facing the continent with its wide front, is, to some
extent and in some form, felt throughout the entire territory of the USSR
The effect of the continent itself, and the surrounding oceans, on
USSR climate manifests itself in various ways depending on the season.
In summer, the basic process for practically the entire USSR territory,
excepting the coastal belt in the north and in the east, deals with the
formation of warm continental air from the incoming Arctic, Atlantic and
and an absolute hund.dity of g grams per cubic meter; the continental air,
per cubic meter; the Atlantic air, a temperature of 16 degrees Centigrade
ature of around 13 degrees Centigrade and an absolute hand.dity of 7 grams
the newly arrived Arctic air over r~loscow, in June, has a daytime temper-
tame air and its supplementary hunu.dificai;ion. According to calculations,
a temperature of 23 degrees Centigrade and an absolute humidity of 11 grams
per cubic raster. However, since the air is warmed at a faster rate than
it is humidified, the relative Immidity, as a result of the change, is
actually lowered, For the Arctic air, the relative humidity at noon is
40 percent, Therefore, both the humidity deficiency and the evaporation
45 percent; for the Atlantic air, 50 percent; for the continental air,
rate increase.
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the southern regions of the USSR, where the warming up process
is parti.oularly intense, the continenta1 air of the Temperate zone is trans-
formed into `hopica1 type air approximating characteristics of air over
Tropical deserts.
Upward traansndsrion of heat and moisture in the charging air is due
mainly to ascending currents, which are easily formed in the relatively
cold nn,ritimtie air masses mnovi.ng over the warmed up continent.
The considerable heating up of the earth's surface and contiguous
air over USSR territory during the summer is stimulated by the unusual
astronomical conditions and nature of atulospheric ci.rculation. For instance,
duo to the long day in the north, as in Yaicuts?k, in:;olation in clear weather
may reach 90 percent as compared to Tashkent. At the same time, due to
circulation conditions, cloud fcrnsatun during the summer over the conti-
nental areas of the; USSR particularly the more southern parts, is not ex~
tensive. T1ni, the astronomical factor - excessive summer insolation
assumes a still greater chin ttolog.ical value than usual. (See Figure l be.-
low).
In the central parts of the continent, due to prevailing anti-cycloM
ntc circulation, sky cover is not oxcessive, and winds are not strong. Such
conditions are conducive to the heating of the terrestrial surface and of
the lower atmospheric strata.
Cyclonic activity in the swnrr~r (not counting that in the western
and far-eastern areas ) ig directly connected with the Arctic front ? This
front is now located axone the northern shoreline or recedes in the form of
separate outoxrops into the dep'bha of the Arctic. Arctic front cyclones
pass mainly over the northern areas, while the outcrops of ha,gh pressure -
which divide them together with the cyclone series enclosing the anti.
cyclones advance into the ntLddle areas, (Figure 2)
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v&,..._.om,4H: ~e...r., .".,r
RESTRU)T Ik
i
}WMWN(?~INi~ M11w.?MVr M.~.q Mrr4yrM1MMwMlatipy
~ M.NNYwi~t... y.{..~~ r4 hAx. 1l.ir.~w.?
^. `- w4r.A~ -`+w?Yr w~11~a it/~l~e.h n..v: ..w.,.
t ~ New w~ ~ ~ N~ Mun~,lnh r.N,w,`.r.fw ~,,,~"rMiyi+:4'~Nhiil'dM~R:ui~n. M~;,.y~2rl4r~Mlw~o,M q
~? r +r~rr~.w;w.5a,r.w'l ^ ?tJl w~tt~r4Yt?;J,
F
Cyclone Scrips Enc1osd,n ~,nt~,c ,
~ yo1one over Western Saherla' in
the stunner (14 June 1937)
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F'a: re x s Recurrence of Overcast in the Slties over, USSR TPrrjtoxy in July..
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The Arctic air entering the enclosing anticyclone has very low
moisture content, since evaporation absolute hnxiiidit7 at near-zero tem-
peratures is insignificant. The 1owmoisture content of the Arctic air
and the downward motion in the anticyclones are reasons for the slight
degree of sky cover developing over the central belt of the USSR interior,
Over Central Asia, where continental air is transformed into Tro-
pical air, the smoothing out of temperature differentials between the ix-
coming Iranian Tropical air and the local air, leads to occlusion of the
fronts, and to a general reduction of cyclonic activity (Figure 3). The
cloud formation over these areas during the summer is at a minimum.
Thus, the character of atmospheric circulation, being the cause of
sight cloud formation over the area, promotes a greater insolation and
accelerates the heat effect of the earth's surface upon the atmosphere.
At the same time, the circulation itself depends largely on the warmed
under.-laying surface of the earth, which, ir, turn, has an effect on cyclonic
activity by creating, in some areas, nevi seats of cyclonic disturbance, and
suppressing same in other areas.
In generalizing, the following points must be emphasized;
1. The process of transformation of the incoming maritime air masses
(moving into continental air), embraces, during the summer months, prac-
tically the entire territory of the USSR. And in practically every area,
the warm continental air mass prevails. Thus, continental summers, even
beyond the Polar Circle, are sufficiently warm to permit cultivation of
some early'ripening bread and truck garden crops.
RESTRICTED
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x..=nra?.nro.~,
Figure : .,,.The Transformation of Arctic Air into Continental and Tropical.
Air over Western Siberia, Kazakstan and Central.
Asia (5 August 196),
2, As a result of the heat gained in the transforiration
process,
the inconth g maritime air is additionally hund,dified in terms of absolute
humidity, but at the same time recedes from its saturation point. For ex-
ample, the humidity of Atlantic air during its transformat'
a.on into conti?
nental air, undergoes an average increase of 2
grains per cubic. meter, but
and vegetation, which accompanies the process of air transfor
nratjon, is
the saturation deficiency together with the evaporability increase by g
grains per cubic meter Evaporation of moisture
from, the earth's surface
one of the most important components in the internal humidity turnover over
the continent.
3. The sunrnner transformation of the air masses (wurming up and addiw
tional humidification ) is mainly due to the underlaying surface of the earth
?r Wtnter the transforming of relative/ wa,
Y rm mi.r masses into cold continertM
l air merely begins at the earth 's surface, and continues in the free at-
rnosphere under the effect of radiation of the air. ness itself. Rising air
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currents enrging from the earth t s surface hewed by the sun, carry the
heat and moisture into the upper strata, thereby making the process en--
era). and hastening completion of the transformation, Thus, the c1ims,to-.
logical value of the continent is at its maximum specifically during the
s~,rmner transformation.
The territory of the Soviet Union is an area of continental air
formation during the winter as well. The winter transformation of Atlan-
tic air into continental air consists in the cooling and desiccation of
the air over the snow blanket. The transformation of the Arctic air in-
to continental air, on the other hand, consists in warming up and hwm.difiM
cation,
air northwards is much more pronounced than in the summer. In Central
summer, Therefore,i.n winter, the temperature drop in the continental
Astronomical conditions, which determine possible insolation and
warming up of the earth's surface, as distinct from conditions prevailing
during the summer, depend to a great degree on the geographical latitude
of the area. The possible (in clear weather) insolation decreases rapidly
towards the north. In Yakutsk, the maximum insolation in January, compared
with same for Tashkent, is only l percent instead of 90 percent as in the
Asia it is 5 degrees, in Trans-Baayka). 25 degrees.
The circulation characteristics in the winte7, as well as in the
where overcast and winds prevail during the winter (Figure 4).
summer, throughout nest of the USSR, are favorable to calm and clear wea-.
ther, with the exception of the north'-western half of the European part,
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The cooling of the Atlantic air over the continental snow blanket
.+r.
Nwlvnd,n+,~ft+,;rw~wr.,iNa,w+rr..rr.w xr.r r:r
___4.r. r_4*_.__.ww: +, r.?.rw?.rr.IMMRM'A`MY'^
?1 ?
Ln eirt --~??*eu.`u~uvua..,, .~.,?.w+wrre 4jY*,# 0*i a. rsxn,w'rwnr'rI
Fjure ; Recurrence of Overcast over the Territory of the USSR in Jane-
masses is more pronounced and penetrates further inland. For example, in
a result of which the effect upon the weather exerted by the incomig5i~
In the winter, the effect of the underlaying terrestrial surface
upon air masses is mostly limited to the lower ~tmospheri 7 strata, as
or double the range. This is also due to the higher velocity of the air
degrees Centigrade, and in January from minus 30 to zero degrees Centigrade,
Chkalov the July temperatures, on different days, fluctuate from 15 to 30
masses during the winter
is considerable only near the coast line. Within a short time a cold in-
frequently driven upwards by the colder continetatel air, thereby ).osing
the higher strata. In addition, maritime air over the interior areas is
termixing of the air arid. with the tranQndssion of the cooling effect into
terstratifioation forms from below. This interferes with the vertical in-
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its direct contact with the underlaying terrestrial surface. Subsequent
cooling of maritime air is effected by gradual intermixing with colder
air masses and radiation. Atlantic air is de$:Lecated by condensation of
its moisture on snow surfaces (a process which reverses that of sunder
evaporation), as well as by the considerable precipitation at the cyclonic
fronts.
In its transformation into continental air, Arctic air is warmed
rather slowly. This is due to the fact that, of the alight amount of so-.
lar radiation available to the middle latitudes during the winter, 70 per...
cent is reflected back by the snow blanket. Hamx,di,fication of Arctic air
is due to snow evaporation in all the USSR areas the relative humidity
in the winter is 70-.S0 percent over the snow blanket,
However, the thertrc.i effect oi' the terrestrial surface in the win-,
ter may be weakened by two factors : (l) the very lour thermal conductivity
of snow, which causes it to assume the temperature of the air moving over
it; and (2) warm air arriving over the cold surface of ?Ehe snow frequently
forms radiation-.retarding fogs. Under these conditions the terrestrial
surface practically assumes a thermal neutrali?Cy vrith relation to the warm
and cold air mna ses,
by strengthening of the winds in the wake of cyclones,
The cooling off of the bottom air layer directly over the snow
blanket causes a near-surface inversion of temperature over the entire
USSR continental area. This condition is disturbed only from time to time
This inversion is particularly strong in the moot climabica]iy conta.nentaa.
the exception ` of Trans?Caucasia and the southern part of Central Asia,
mean temperatures in all the mountainous rogiono of the Soviet Union with
Teraperature rise with altitude within the lower lialf~?kilori ter
limtt recurs so frequently during the winter, that it even affects the
part of the USSR -- in Eastern Siberia, where it, is expressed in 20M25
degrees Centigrade for 1 kilometer of altitude,
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 %EZ0T~ictEa
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LU
The ma do .im formation of continental temperate air takes place over
Siberia in the vast and stable ~nM..nvr.7 in~a (1M m,, tZ
Figure 5. The Evolution oi' a Siberian Anticyclone (24 February 1936).
In the northwestern part of the USSR IThiropean territory and in the
Far Fast, the migration of air masses and cyclonic activity are of basic
importance. Bare the part played by the geographical latitude becomes of
secondary importance, while first significance is assumed by the circula~
Cory factors of the climate. One look at the chart of winter isotherms
makes one realize the climatic significance of advection (transfer) over
these areas.
The migration of warns air from over the Atlantic to the European
part L;f: the USS7 compensates temperature differentials duo to geograp h1M
cal latitudes. Thus, the moan temperature for January on the Kola Penin~
Fula is the same as in Central ICazakstan; in Leningrad, the same as in
A$'trakhan'. In vladivostok, however, neither the geographical latitude
(the :ta titude of Soohi), nor the seashore xocatio~n can hinder the effect
of the cold Eaot?Siberi air current (rising to an altitude of 4 kiloim tern )
with tho result that the January temperatures there are, on the average,
colder by 3 degroes Centigrade than the January temperatures in Moscow.
Cyclonic activity as a climatic factor on USSR territory, has great
significance, and is closely linked up with the two previously zr~ntioned
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ESTh1t11EO
processes wM? the migration and transfornn,tion of air masses. Prondrient
examples of the almost eorlplete absence of fronts are found in the Trans-
Baykal area in the winter and the Central Asia deserts in the summer. In
both these areas there is practically no precipitation. But for cyclonic
activity, other areas, too, would have a snow deficiency i.n the winter and
a rain deficiency in the summer. Cyclonic activity, therefore, is prere~
quisite to moisture turnover on the continent, since moisture carried in
from over the ocean is precipitated principally in cyclones.
Moisture precipitation directly from the maritime air masses takes
place over the USSR principally in the winter. During the summor the mois-
ture penetration deep into the continent proceeds first by humidification
of the continental air masses, then by precipitation from those as they
are carried into the interior by general atmospheric circulation. only a
on terrain that has been over heated by the sun, with considerable re~eva-
involve only sniali areas. Furthermore, convective showers usually fall
showers, although at times of high intensity, are of short duration, and
rains. The latter are most important irrigationally, since the convective
form of rapid and short convective showers, or long-lasting continuous
Precipitation from continental air in the summer is either in the
the rear of cyclones.
stable precipitations", is precipitated directly from the maritime air at
comparatively small part of the moisture, in the form of so-called "un.
cjuently occurring against the background of continuous rains, and creating,
perature declines, are to be distinguished from cold front showers, fre-.
Thermal convective precipitations, unaccompanied by noticeable tem..
poration taking place immediately.
continental and Tropical air masses which constitute the warm air of cy
USSR territory, are cyclonic front precipitations. They fall from the
Continuous rains furnishing the basic volume of precipitation on
together with the latter, long periods of overcast.
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dr
T
the summer there are three zones of cyclonic activity over
Faring
USSR territory.
Arctic Front Zone
This zone x 's located principally along the northern shores of the
~'ha.
Euras t? Depending on the inflow intensity of Arctic or Con-
~.an cont~.nen
?x , rras~, ~es, the Arctic front may be c~.spLaced in two directions.
~,anental aa.
1Nheri cl~s ? .placed southward, it reaches as far as the central belt of the
Arctic air fills the entire northern half of the European
USSR, and the
a considerable decline in temperature, particularly
part. This causes s
This noticeable sometimes, in the form of light frost. On the other noticeable at night, handy the Arctic: front may pass into the depths of the Arctic. In this
~'
re the warm continental air penetrates into the Arctic and is accon?
can
panied by a temperature rise up to 20 degreeS Centigrade for the nearest
islands.
In the Arctic front cyclones, Arctic and continental air interact.
Atlantic air also :~ 'u present at tames in the European part of the USSR.
Front precipitation falls r from continental and Atlantic air (Figure 6).
1
H ~?K,7 a t
t -'p ~ ' ,
Evolution of a Cyclonic Series at Arctic Front in the aun~nar
ra. Ur8 6i..
(9 Juno 1933)
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REST fl%i
2 The Zone o1 Arct~.e? `ron~; Occlusions
Occluded front cyclones are not fully independent formations, but
represent a secondary form of the cyclo-genesis of the "polar" front.
This divides the air of the temperate latitudes from the air of the sub-
tropical belt. There are two outcrops of this zone on USSR territory -w
the European and the Far'-Eastern. In occluded front cyclones there is
interactivity of the maritiir air (Atlantic in the European part and Paci
Lie in the Far East) constituting the cold mass, with the continental air
constituting the warm mass. When the v~arm conti.nc~nta1 sir occupies a cone-
siderable area over the European part and overflows into the northern re'-
gions, the above mentioned cyclones pass northward and merge with the
Arctic front cyclones. tiThen the continertta,l air fills only the southern
part, the cyclones move eastward over the middJ.e belt, and the Atlantic
air penetrates into Asiatic territory. Since the continental air eonsti'-
Lutes the warmer mass, warm front precipitation will follow.
The name "polar" has been historically retained for that front which
divides the air masses over the temperate latitudes (polar air) from the
air ma,ssos of the s ubtropical zone (Tropical air). Over USSR territory
in summer the polar front is present in the European part and in the south-
ern part of the Far Eastern 1 aritimv Provinces (Figures 7 arid 8).
JJ'yv r e1", 1
the USSR (28 July l935),
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~~.
 i'.i: Sun uer Cyclone over the Far East (17 July 1938).
In siumnox? the southern part of the Far East ?~ritima area is on the
junction of two fronts: the continental. East Asiatic Polar front, extend--
ing through 1~ ongo1ia and North China, and the Pacific ocean polar front,
beginning in the Sea off' Japan area and extending eastward over tho Pacific
toward the western shores of A nt ri,ca. (Figure 9 ) ? During spring and at
S
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aES tC1 I
The European and the far eastern outcrops of the pour front differ
somewhat in nature, The European outcrop is generated from time to time
as a result of the double'-phase transfornttion of maritime air, first into
continental, and then from continental into Tropical.. Between the air
masses of the first phase of this transfornmtion and those of the second
phase, a new front is generated in conformity dth the direction of the
air currents. In its medium position, the European outcrop extends from
the Cri1nca toward the IViiddle Vo1aa ? Sometimes the Tropical air reaches
the Baltic and the White seas; sometimes it remains within the limits of
the extreme southea.3tern areas without crossing the Volga.
Cyclones at the European outcrop of the polar front are generated
priir ri1y over the Ukraine. Precipitation falls from the Tropical, air,
which is hunddi:Cied over the southern steppe: and the Sea of Azov.
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and the far eastern outcrops of the polar front differ
The European
sornevrliat in nature? The European outcrop as generated from time to time
as a re the double-phase transforma'tion of maritime air, first into result of t
and then from continental into Tropical. Pe green the air
continental,
masses of the first phase of this transformation and those of the second
phase, rP, a new front is generated in conformitY tivith the direction of the
In its medium position, the European outcrop extends from
air curt one,
toward the Middle Volga . Sometimes the Tropical air reaches
the Crimea
the white sea; ; sometimes it reanains within the limits of
the Baltic and
the extreme southeastern areas without crossing the Volga.
3u3rUer C clone over the Far Fast (17 July 1938).
r the southern part of the Isar Fast ?VaritimG area is on the
In 3uflune
the continental East Asiatic Polar front, extend-
junction of two fronts :
nd North China, and the Pacific ocean polar front,
ink; through Mongolia a
the Sea of: Japan area and extending oas:rd over the Pacifio
beginning in
toward the western shores of America. (Figure 9) ? During spring and at
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AESTRI
r f+ p"
Gitu
the beginning of summer, as the subtropical higliwpressure belt is displaced
northward, and the Tropical air current flowing in the direction of the temt-
perate zone is intensified, both of the above mentioned fronts are shifted
from the south into h:lgher altitudes. Toward the middle of the sun~ner, the
Far Eastern zone of tho Polar front reaches the s outhern boundaries of Soviet
territory.
As they move northward, cyclones of the Far Eastern Polar front .ire ra-
pidiy occluded. Secondary cyclones are frequently generated at these occlu-
sions, since the contrast in t emperature between the cold maritime air and the
warm continental air of the temperate zone is sufficiently great (greater than
at the occlusions of the European part). The distribution of air masses of
various types in the Far Eastern cyclones may vary, but precipitation falls
mainly from the Pacific Tropical air which is flowing along the western brim
of the Pacific subtropical anticyclones. This southeast current of maritime
`!Topical air moves onto the continent in the form of occluded cyclones at an
altitude of two kilometers and supplies the moisture for the monsoon rains
W1Nl7S t
Recurrence of winds within a Quadrant of the Horizon (Arrow points to center of
quadrant).
25 to 40 percent of aU'` observation8 k.+ 60 to S0 percent of aU observations
I..+ 40 to 60 percent of all observations# 3over 80 percent of all observations
i
-~-~- 760 I5o8ARs
ST
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 '760 TSQ}3ARS
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I~EST41C'i ~:
the beginning of sumnier, as the subtropical high-pressure belt is displaced
northward, and the Tropical air current flowing in he direction of the tem-
perate zone is intensified, both of the above n~ntioned fronts are shifted
from the south into higher altitudes. Toward the middle ~f the summer, the
Far Eastern zone of the Polar front reaches the s outhern boundaries of Soviet
territory.
As they move northward, cyclones of the Far Eastern Polar front are ray
pidly occluded. Secondary cyclones are frequently generated at these occlu-
s?ons, since the contrast in t emperature between the cold maritime air and the
warui continental air of the temperate zone is sufficiently great (greater than
at the occlusions of the European part). The distribution of air ms,sses of
various types in the Far Eastern cyclones may vary, but precipitation falls
mainly from the Pacific Tropical air which is flowing along the western brim
of the Pacific subtropical anticyclones. This southeast current of maritime
Tropical air moves onto the continent in the form of occluded cyclones at an
altitude of two kilometers and supplies the moisture for the monsoon rains
throughout the entire territory of the N ritime Provinces and the Amur Basin,
up to the water divide ridges.
1 v. r i.F
WI
Recurrence of Winds Within a Quuadrant of the Horizon (Arrow points to center of
quadrant).
I
au-..* 25 to 40 percent of all observations 1 'L6o to 80 percent of aU observations
L+ 40 to 60 percent of all observations 3over 80 percent of all observations
 STB~.
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ES1RiCTEd~
k~':i ure 2: Pi'essure Areas, Prevailing Winds and Frantal Zones over the
USSR in the suiiuner.
In the central part of the continent, over the territories of Ica-'
zakstan and Central Asia, the Polar front dispe'es in summer. This i
due to the lack of sui'ficient tezrlperature contrasts in the expanse of
thoroughly heated air mass over the temperate and subtropicai latitudes,
to the dryness of these air masses, and to the absence of pronounced air
currents inside the discontinued baric deprsions. However, even in
su uiier, cyclones are passim; over Central Asia, but, due to t11e sluggish
n.cas oi' Fronts over the plains, cloud for stations in these cyclones are
insignificant, and precipitation is rare. On.1y in mountainous areas,
because of the turbulence in air currents caused by terrestriai conh'igu.r-
ation, the fronts in passing; cyclones are reactivated, clouds appear, and
moisture is precipitated. The map shows pressure distribution, wind dis'
tr .bution, and the location oi frontal zones during July, The Arctic
front zone during surruner is hardly pronoumeed and, therefore does not
appear on the nip,
During the winter, there are only two zones of cycionic activity
over the USSR:
1~Arc~ic From
The rneaia location of the Arctic front over the uropean part is
about the same in winter as it is in summer, but the amplitude of its
osciliations is grater. In winter the Arctic air soretinx s extends as
far as the 131zck Sea, and on rare occasions even penetrates into Asia
?tior? Over Western and Central Siberia the mean location of the Arctic
front is along the 70th parallel (70 degrees north latitude), but some.
tini descends farther into the southern areas of Central Asia, In East..
ern Siberia it passes over latitude 65 degrees north; in Kamchatka over
latitude 55 degrees north? Such location of separate outcrops of the
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Arctic front is caused by special features of atmospheric circulation.
Two air currents force the Arctic front to the 70th parallel; the
powerful southwest current of Atlantic air over the European party extend
ins along a trough of low pressure, and the southwest current of continen-
tal air over Western Siberia, extending along the northern periphery of
the Siberian anticyclone. The Arctic air migrates to meet the southwest
currents of the temperate zone with their east and northeast winds. Thus,
the Arctic front over these areas is rather turbulent.
Over Eastern Siberia the north current prevails, and in the east-.
ern part of the Siberian anticyclone, the Arctic air, too, extends consid-
erably farther to the south. But since there is no stable countercur-
rent from the temperate latitudes, the frontal processes are rather slug-
gish -.M sky cover is slight, precipitation is low, snow blanket insigni-
ficant, with an exceptionally deep freezing zone penetration of the earth's
surface.
Over Kamchatka, on the approaches to the western brim of the Aleu-
tian depression, migration of air from the north is intensified, and the
Arctic front zone descends even farther to the south. At the Aleutian
outcrop of the Arctic front, cyclonic activity is re-intensified, due to
the southwest countercurrent from the temperate latitudes, with an atten-
dant increase in sky cover and moisture precipitation. The southern part
of Kamchatka has one of the heaviest snow blankets.
In addition to the self-contained cycle-genesis at the Arctic front,
there is observed a re-generation of semi-.extinshed Atlantic and Medi-
terranean cyclones, after they have passed over the European territory of
the USSR. Although those cyclones usually are regenerated while still
over European territory, this activity is particularly important to the
subsequent development of cyclonic; activity over western Siberia.
Precipitation from Arctic front cyclones falls from continental
air as it does in the sumtir. But in the regenerated cyclones of Atlantic
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origin, precipitation falls from the Atlantic air. This circumstance
also affects the amount of precipitation.
2 Occluded Fronts
Cyclonic activity at polar front occlusions develops during winter
over European territory and Central Asia. The occlusions passing over
European territory are a part of the Atlantic Polar front, or of the Med-
iterranean outcrop. In the first case, the occluded front colones move
from the west; in the second case, from the south and southwest, In both
cases the na tritime air constitutes the warm front froir~ which precipita-
tion fa:.ls, while the continental air constitutes the cold front. This
interrelationship is, therefore, the reverse of that observed during the
sutmrr (Figure 10).
/\ f
J4 f ~.~~ vI #,~~
J/4
r:tguro i00; Winter Occlusion CyeLono Over the European Pert, or the u;~-~ ,
(18 February 1938).
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FiiU: The Depth of the Snow Blanket on USSR Territory,
The principal paths of occluded front cyc1oncs over to European
part pass from the southwest to the northeast. In connection with this,
the amount of precipitation and the depth of the snow blanket decrease
in a southeasterly direction, This connection between the depth of the
snow blanket and the frequency of the passing of Polar front occlusions
carrying maritine air, can be traced throughout most of the USSR terri-
tory. An exception is found in the extreme southern areas, where the
smaller amounts of snow are due not only to precipitation deficiencies
j
but also to frequent thaws, (Figure II).
The snow blanket is light in the northern areas of the Asiatic
nn,ir.s,nd, where precipitation falls only at the Arctic front from conti-
nental air,
In Central Asia, occlusion cyclones are linked with the Iranian
outcrop of the polar front. This outcrop passes over the s outherri part
of Iran in winter. it constitutes the southern limit for the extension
of continental air formed in winter over the tenperate and subtropical
latitudes of Asia. The warm sectors of these cy~e1ones are filled prin.
cipaUy with continental air from the southern areas while the cold sects
tors contain continental air of a more northsr~.y origin. The to erature
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differential between the warm and cold nsses in these cyclones is small,
and moisture content of the continental air is also small. '.Chas, these
wirrber occlusion cyclones over Central Asia are not very active, and preci-
pitation fturn them is slight.
Cyclonic activity during winter over USSR territory promotes the
external moisture turnover. During sumrner, on the other hand, frontal
preapitations from continental air constitute a phase in the internal
moi;hture turnover. The chart below depicts the distribution of pressure
areas, winds, and frontal zones for the month of January (Figure 12).
During spring and fall, cyclonic activity over the USSR undergoes
modifications.
In the European part, occlusion activity diminishes in spring and
fall, since during the transition seasons a change of algebraic sign in
the thermal ratio between the maritime and continental air takes place,
with an attendant leveling of temperature differentials between the res-
pective air masses. This trarmition period is short, lasting only one
month in the spring and one month in the fall. April and October are the
transition months for the central areas of the European part. With ref-
erence to synoptic observations, ~Ysarch is the end of the cold period;
i'ay, the beginning of the warm period; September, the end of the warm
period; and November, the beginning of the cold period. Characteristic
of the cold and warm cycles is the algebraic sign of the temperature
differential between the continental and maritime air. In sunnrner the
differential L positive, in the winter it is negative. In larch the
warm sector of the occlu ion cyelnnes is still filled with niaritine air
from w hich there is frontal precipitation, In lay the ~varm sector contains
continental air froraw high there is frontal precipitation, and only in
the rear of the cyclozie there is casual and meager precipitation from
maritime air. The same phenomena, but in inverted order, are observed
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 The leveling off of temperature differentials at the fronts causes these
fronts to becorle sluggish. Precipitation then assumes a lingering characterises
tic, particularly in fall when the air masses are gradually cooled off and there
Recurrence of Winds )thin the Limits of a Quadrant of the Horizon.
From 25 to 40 percent of all observations L From 60 to #O percent of all observations
Fx~2, Pressure Areas, l~revaiiing Winds, and Frontal Zones over the USSR in
Winter,
Over Central. Asia cyclonic activity reaches its maximum in spring. The
highest temperature differentials then prevail between the still cold continen-.
tal. air and the Tropical air arriving from a high-pressure belt. The Iranian
Pn1: r front, Thar hrw r+n a..,
L r. ur6 ,L ; ;)pr1ng uycione over 'ruriar raa.
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From 40 to 60 percent of all observation$. Qver 80 percent of all observations
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The leveling off of tenlperatuz?e differentials at the fronts
causes these
fronts to becorne sluggish. Precipitation then
assumes a lingering characteris?
tic, particularly in fall, when the air masses are gradually cooled off and there
a.c a general tendency toward vapor condensation.
Recurrence of Winds Within the Limas of a Quadrant of the Hox ^
izon.
. *t+ From 25 to 40 percent of al), obsarvatjonstLFrain
60 to 80 percent of all observations
From 40 to 60 percent of all observatian
~.*Ov?r ~C percent of all observations
rxl~ -- Pressure Areas, Prevailing Winds a ~~
g , and Frontal Zones over the USSR in
Winter.
Over Central Asia cyclonic activity reaches its maximum in Spring, The
highest temperature differentials then prevail between the
still cold cantinen~
tal air and the Tropical air arriving from a high-pressure
beat a The Iranian
Polar front then begins to move northv~rd and arrives
over the territory of
Soviet Central Asia (Figure 13).
t a C,, ~,rt f +`a
ure ~.' : bpring UyeLorn over '}:men a.
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The occlusion cyclones which passed in the winter are replaced
by the main front cyclones. An increase in temperature variation accom-
panies this replacement, since continental Siberian or Arctic air with
a temperature close to zero degrees Centigrade follows immediately in
the wake of the Iranian Tropical air, which has a temperature up to plus
30 degrees Centigrade when it enters the warm sector. The Iranian air
after the vtinter rains in Iran still contains ample moisture, with the
result that in the spring there is maxirrim precipitation over the plains
of Central Asia.
In the Far East, there is a gradual discontinuance in the autumn
of sul~mer cyclonic activity and the evolution of the anticyclonic cycle.
Autumn, moreover, is the most probable period for the appearance of ty-
phoons, which are the Tropical Pacific cyclones regenerated at the Polar
front. They are distinguished by winds of exceptional force as well as
by abundant precipitation. The central typhoon area passes to the south-
east of the Soviet shore, but the related precipitation areas sonetirr~s
extend to the southern part of the T~aritime Provinces, with abundant show-
ers and, in late autumn, snowfall.
Such are the general conditions othe migration and transforma-
tion of air masses and cyclonic activity over USSR territory. We will
now turn to the investigation of these processes in individual areas.
TIDE EUROPEAN TERRITORY OF TIDE USSR
The European territory of the USSR is not distinguished by diver-
sity of climate, and the regional and zonal. segregations are rather large
ira size. The manner in which climatic conditions are distributed over
this territory -~~ a vast, nearly unbroken plain ~- depends on basic cli-'
ritological factors,such as radiation balance and atmospheric circulation,
Terrestrial configuration and other supplerentary factors are not ossen-
tial.
outflow of radiation the radiation balanc7 within
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?S'tl1iG'tE~
the winter the principal meteoro~.ogie47 process over this region is
and of cyclonic activity at the Arctic front, and iz; the summer it ie
the region of laro3reSsiva heating and transformation of the Arctic air,
a- Tha~, ral Atlantic-Continental Re ip
Here the Atlantic and continental air masses prevail, and cyclonic
activity develops at the Polar front occlusions Its southern boundary
runs from the central part of the Dnestr Raver to the paddle Volga. In
the limits of the European part, shows little variation, and is predorni~
nantly governed by conditions of atmospheric circulation, In the winter,
when radiation inflow particularly depends on the geographic latitude,
the sicy cover over most of the European part is 80 percent, In summer,
with considerably less sky cover, solar radiation, for astronomical rea-
sons, depends little on the geographic latitude of a location.
by conditions of circulation, including the migration and trans-
formation of air masses and the cyclonic activity at the fronts, the
European part of the USSR can be divided into three climatic regions, as
f oU o~rrs
l Northern At1anticArctic Region
In this region, as compared to others, the influence of the At-
lantic Ocean and the Arctic predominate, The northern boundary of this
region, to the west of the White Sea, lies beyond the continental limits,
since, in the winter, the Arctic front pa, ases over the sea of } aar. entz
(Figure 12), and, to the south of this front, air n sse,s of the temperate
latitudes prevail. To the east of the White Sea, the boundary runs along
the Polar Circle, coinciding with the southern boundary of the tundra.
The southern boundary runs from lake Ladoga to the source of the Pechora
River. In the winter it is the region of migration of the air masses
the migrationf air 'masse; .n the sumrr>Qr it Is the formation of con-'
tinental air.
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 The zones indica'tcd above are natural climatic zones in the: sense
that 1n each one oi' them definite characteristic cycles oi' radiation and
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t;r
This is ?ttic principal region L'or the transformation of air masses
rriigrating toward thr. European part of the $oviet Union during the entire
year. In the winter, continental. air is formed from the Atlantic and
Arctic air masses; in the summer, warm continental air is :formed as a
transitory stage in the formation of Tropical air.
Each one of these three regions is divided meridionally into a west
and east zone. In the western zone, those processes prevail that originate
over the Atlantic and over western Europe; in the eastern zone, those pro-
cesses that originate over the eastern part of the continent prevail.
The climatic boundary between the western and eastern zone; o1 the Atlan-
tic-Arctic region coincides with the meridian followed by the Northern
Dvina River, nearly biscctina this region. In the Atlantic-Continental,
and particularly in the Continental region, this boundary shift, westward,
and runs from the source of the Volga to the estuary of the Dnepr. Such
shifting of the boundary 'Lo the west probably indicates that tree continen-'
tal. features o1' the cl:Lmate in tiie European apart of the Soviet Union be-
come more pronounced to the south; in this sense, the 'tnliildestt~ climatic
conditions are those prevailing in the Atlantic-Arctic region.
In adt.Lion to L ':e western (LianLtc) dnd ea 3'berrl (ConLLltental)
zones of the continental climatic region, it is necessary to define the
sec iterranean zone, occupying t he high-'al.ti ude part of the Crimea and its
southern shore.
The northern littoral of the Caspian Sea, duo to circulation chara.c-
teristics prevailing there, is related to the Central. Asiatic cliriiatic
region.
circulation predominate. These cycles dotarmino the course of tic weather
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~~j1$1G6EC1
and its meteorologica~? components. ~?
' culation processes over the European Lerr
The climate ~;overn~.n~ ca.r
an nature, particularly, with
? of, the U`~SI~. is of a rather fluctuat g a.tory s.
location of zones of cyclonic activity and anticyclone
reference to the The latter areas, where the .bransf arrnzta.on o the air naces begins, may
shaft considerably wa.tha.n the period of a year. Such shif tira~; wall cause
? s situated an a plain unbroken by
the boundary lines of cla.mat~.c zone,
nfa. rurata.ons, to become daf~'used and.
adequately prominent terrestr:~aa? co ~
transformed into wader bands. saes
the migration paths followed by the air masses
The dare ctaon of '
over the iropean part of the USSR r~~ coincides basically with the mean dis-
tribution ~. of pxessu. this points to the stability. of circulation. lbw-
~ln. ~ty, de; ~ender1t on the dastra.bu'tion of land
ever, re;
tY~a.s lame scale s~ts,ba.~ure the existence of what is usually xe ?rred
and water asses, dyes not a,~~~a , ?'
of the
e of a zone. Q slight yearly shifting
to as staba.la.ty of cla.rr4~,t, character-
t Y 'y considerablY affect the weather
zones of cyclonic aetiv~ y ubstantially
n zone or extended belt, 'r thout chanigng s
a.sta.cs of a cert~~'a. tirr~ . Generally
n of pressure For the s ame period of
the mean distribut~a clon~.c activity,
a given region is from the zones of cy
speaking, the further ~
t~cular amporr
~r
. s climate. Cyclonic acta.va,ty is of ,
the more stable is ~. t the more nor~?
n part of the USSR, specitcally over
i;ance over the E'urapea of the latter.
s great variability in the climate
t1~~erly zones; this cause of the USSR
The distribution of air masses over the European part
is recurrence of the basic types of air
'
illustrated by the maps showing Th ? se papa
c
relarities, dependent on the above described circul.atioL can a.
d
i
a 51x-year period (~.931+~-193~) ?
were composed from data over 'bons are
d
.
masses, a.n acc
y .t the basic
.
~ )
F. D..uque (Figures 14 and
ncc with ~. .
arda
c ?n during this _comps,ratively shoat per
o clearly defined evo
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x?,t'IRS"`.rtU'I4 r?,m,...r,.wenwn,w:wrtm
1~t
~ use,
.~~z~,ree,14 The recurrence of basic Fi ure Z. ; The recurrence of
types of air masses over the European basic types of air ~r~sses over
part of the USSR in winter (from A. F.
the European part of the USSR
Dubuque), in sunurier (from A. '. Dubuque).
The Arctie air arrives over the continent more frequently in summer;
ire winter its entrance is hindered by west and southwest currents. Neverw
theless, during the winter the Arctic air penetrates farther south, since
during the sumuer its transformation into continentai air proceeds at a
more rapid pace.
in fats r dgration, the Arctic air is carried more frets
quently over, the eastern zones than over the western zones.
pressure gradient force, and, on the other hand, on the more rapid trans
The Atlantic air, simf=,iarI,y, tikes a deeper penetration over the
continent in winter, This depends, on the one hand, on the value of the
formation of thi3 air in the sulmner. The Atlant,;i.c air extends nuin1y over
the northern half of the European part of the Soviet Union. in the south.,
ern zones, its entrance is observed n&ch less froquently.
Tropical tir, migra bing from the southeast, is observed over European
territory n ain].y in the sunner. The entrance of Tropical air is regularly
observed over the Atlantic-Continental region, predomi.nantly over its a
e st
ern half.
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Continental air is the basic air n~ 7s over the nv jor part of the
European territory, i art9.cu1arly its southern half. The recurrence of
continental air i.s determined on the above maps as a value complementary
to 100 Percer~ t LT00 percent being the sum total of all the air masses?.
The recurrence of continental air over the southern half in .sununer amounts
to 60-70 percent, in winter, 80 percent and more; over the Atlantic-Arctic
region it amounts to 20-30 percent in summer, and 40 percent in wLnter.
1. can temperatures over tl'ae European territory of the USSR are to
be considered as resultants o the type of recurrence of air masses of
vari.ouEJ characteristics over the various zones. (/Figures 16 and 17)
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The shift in the disposition of isotherrrms from winter to summer
The geographical temperature distribution depends on the percent.-
the inflow of warm masses from the west, as from the inflow of cold
show little deflection, and this deflection result; not so much from
mass, or is arriving from the east (not from the south), the isotherms
ern zones, where the continental air either constitutes the local air
air from the more southerly zones; in the northern region, from the cen-
tral region; in the central region from the southern region. In the south-
The dispo
ition_ of isotherms
in the winter is characterized by
their sharp deflection northward from the lines of the
they run from north-northwest to
with the `exception of the southern zones, the deflection angle is above
45 degrees, In the western half, it results mainly from the migration
of Atlantic air; in the eastern half, from the migration of continental
a?^ses from the east.
In the summer, the isotherins are deflected in the opposite direc.
Lion, but to a lesser degree than in the winter. The falling of the
the result of a dual influences the entrance of Atlantic air over the
mean temperature westward, and its ruin, in an easterly direction, is
west and Tropical air over the east,
and vice-versa, takes place more or loss simultaneously over the entire
territory; in the spring in April, and in the fall it September,
!gay the continental air is warmer everywhere than the araritime air; in
sky cover depends mainly on the cyclonic activity. Thus, the location
age ratio (recurrence) of the various types of air masses over the zones
of a liven territory. The distribution of atmospheric precipitation and
October this is reversed..
the zones of cyclonic activity, and the intonsity of the
latter, are
reflected in the distribution of sky cover arid atmospheric preciaitattona.
The distribution of atmospheric procipitation for January and
shown in Figures 18 and
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..'Y.I ^?'A.t?Jt 0.AtE e.bl.t'.**' .p #.i.: l ?fI).q,nn/...).I..?.!wf., 1..N
Figure,s Amount of Precipitation in January.
w_.. ...eb....+wP.... k.,,,,,...,.,h..n... oaf ............. ..,..,,.,,,_,w,. ?'. ~?.M.e14aYbitid l:J
In the winter the distribution of precipitation and overcast is
more homogeneous than in the summer. Over most of the territory, the
recurrence of overcast in January is 70."80 percent', and in a mouth's
time there is 30.40 ndllimaters of atmospheric precipitation. Only over
the southeast zones ad over the extreme north is there less overcast and
less precipitation. This is due to the fact,' that high pressure areas
pass over the abovo zones, and linger over the southeastern zone. Over
the rest of the territory, in various places, cyclones pass in the winter
4ESTfll
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. 4 "kk.v.lt.,...o...e ^Fd''....I h`-.ti ,. ? 1./. r?l.. Ji t....il
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(their direction prevailing from west to east and following rather vary-
].rig paths), Passage of these cyclones results in a rather even distri-
bution of atmospheric precipitation.
In the summer the ;cyclone paths are more definite; they run prew
dominantly from the southwest to the northeast or directly from south to
north. Thus, the southeastern European part remains out of the lnain path
of the cyclones, with a resulting deficiency in atmospheric precipitation.
During the transitional seasons, the most important phenomenon is
the thermal upswing in the spring and its downswing in the fall heat
transfe7. Of the processes, which cause a rase in t ,
emperature in the
first half of the spring, the most important is the migration of warm
air from the south. This comes about in the following manner: a law
pressure area is over the Baltic, while a high pressure area is over the
inland seas of Aral and Casp.iy aspian Sea; along the southeastern
rim of the low, and the western rim of the high, southwesterly and south-
erly currents are generated; along these the air of the Atlantic-Conti-
nental and the Continental regions flows into the Atlantic-.Arctic region,
and into the southern zones flows the still warmer air from the south of
Europe, Iran, and Central Asia. Figure 20 gives an illustration of such
a synoptic disposition.
r,~r 24: }fat Transfer Conditions in Spring (25 April 1939).
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In the ...autumn the characteristics of the atmospheric processes
over the European part are predicated upon the gradual cooling of the
.
continent; this cooling causes an increase in atmospheric; pressure and
the evolution of anti-cyclones. Over the Asiatic party the increase inn
pressure early as 5?pternber, and over the southern
becomes e,ndent as
half of the European part, in October; at the same time an intensifica~
takes place over the At1antic-G0ntinental rE
Lion oi: cyclonic activ1ty
~~q1 ..
-,! 1 n S A M w n w,r,4,rw,4N.rry.
rl 'I n ~?1 .M.1..I4.IWJ4MM4.44'M4N.YIM.
' 1 ~M 4. I'1 r1 N TV1 /'11'1 1? ,,.,.rx , r.rc. au.4.,u+
L _.. _.._ ?0? r ? ,.._ --- *_.. _._..__?_?___
_41 r?,-...,? , ,. .
Tha Vin,.. ~~Arct1C Re pion
pion is formed mainly under the effect of climate of a rQ~
The c the
ran. during the winter and relative'-
migration of air masses , re'ata.vely ?vra
ly cold during the summer, as well as under the effect of cyclonic acti-
vity.
winter are the southwestern air
of predominant importance in the
' o~ At~.antic air extending it'
currents. Thew may consist of a current
self a1ong the southern periphery of the cyclones and p~,ssin1 over the
Sea of aarents, or they may consist of a current o~ continental air from
the Atlant on, ~~.owing in a~.ong the noxthti~estoxn and
`~.c~Con~:~nenta~. region,
northern riln9 of the high pressure areas
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w stern half of the Atiarttic-ArCtic region (the Iola
Over the
Peninsula and Icarelia) Atlantic aa.x predorr>inates and over the eastern
part (the territory of the Arkhangel region and the Korni ASSR), contiw
nentsa air predominates . It is easily seen that this is the result of
pressuxe &.s nip~.e is the synoptic disposition of 2 Nov-
ember example
193 (Figure 22). 1
1tV "~"?,r
Southwestern penetrations of Atlantic Air. Over the 1 es ,ern
the Eastern Half of the At1antic-Axcta.c
I'1alf, and Cont:'~.nento,7. Air Over
nega.on of the European Part of the USSR (2 November 1935) The weather in the current
of Atlantic air is warm (minus 2-3
degrees Qenti~rade), windy, overcast, with 1owwa1titude stratified
clouds and slight precipitation, as e, re;u~.t of general radiation cool-
ink of the air masses. The temperature in the contirrefltl air current
is Centigrade, the sky is predominantly overcast,
ma.nus 10-15 degrees with occasional clearing, and there 3.s usually no precipitation.
~
air is preceded by the formation of
The penetration of Atlantic.
warm franksector, enclosed by cold sectors. At these fronts occurs
the basic amount of precipitation upon which the depth. of the snovr blan-~
.
,_
ket depends. ,
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F .J
 0
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tEST %ori ?0
Particularly striking is the effect of the warm Atlantic air
current over the Kola Peninsula, with its greater part beyond the Polar
Circle. By the weather characteristics in the winter, the entire terra-
Cory of the peninsula could be relegated to the middle latitudes. Two
outstanding characteristics of the climate in maritime middle latitudes
are observed here ample snowfall and tremendous sleet formation. The
generous snowfalls cause snow avalanches in the mountainous regions,
similar to those occurring in the Alps and in the Caucasus.
In addition to the Atlantic and continental air of the Central
region, the Arctic air also penetrates into the Atlantic--Arctic region,
The character of these penetrations depends an the disposition of the
Arctic front. 1/then the Arctic front is over the Sea of t3arents, the
Arctic air mass penetrations into the continent proceed with the active
pressure intensification ridges. These penetrations divide the cyclones,
and are, therefore, of short duration. Cooling effects alternate with
new warming effects as the 5ressure intensificatia7 ridges pass to
the east and are replaced by cyclones. The most powerful penetration,
in the sense of duration, takes place in the wake of cyclonic series,
within the enclosing anticyclones. By the time an enclosing anticyclone
is evolved, there is a considerable shift of the front southward, and
the Arctic air fills the entire Northern region.
Usually, the Arctic air penetrating into the western and eastern
zones of the Atlantic-Arctic region is of different origin and character-
istics. In the west it is maritime Arctic air,' warmed up in its lower
strata over the Greenland Sea and over the ice-free part of the Sea of
arente, coming over the continent with this warm interstratification
(the temperature sometimes close to zero). In the east it consists of
considerably colder so-called continental Arctic air from the ice fields
of the Central Arctic, with a temperature of minus 34 degrees Centigrade
or even lower. The synoptio disposition of 21 December 1939 may serve
as an example (Figure 23).
F'1HrrF,p
35
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?$1 11c1: c
Fi uz, e 23: Penetration of Arctic Air into the AtlanticwArctic Region
(21 December 1939).
In the wake of the cyclone departing eastward, cold continental
Arctic air moves into the northeastern zones, while the relatively warm
maritime Arctic air flows toward the Kola Peninsula.
Typical weather in maritime Arctic air is a turbulently varying
sky cover, violent gusts of wind, and short lived precipitations, called
'charges" by local seacoast inhabitants. In continental Arctic air th.e
weather is relatively calm, with slight sky cover and strong frost.
The formation of local continental air over the Atlantic~'Arctic
region is observed rarely, and has no essential climatic significance,
since the prevailing conditions of circulation are rather favorable to
the inflow of "foreign" air masses.
The mean winter temperature depends on the number and duration
of these penetrations. Penetrations of Atlantic air into the western
half of the Atlantic~Arctic region are most frequent. To the east the
number of penetra Lions decreases, and is accompanied by a decrease in the
mean temperature ? Also of considerable importance are the variations
in the temperatures of the Arctic 'air mrsses The maritin~ Arctic air
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iCTEO
penetrating into the western zones is warmer, on the average, by 2de-
grees Centigrade than the continental Arctic air flowing Into the east...
~;
ern zones. As a result, temperature differentials between the western
and eastern zones of this region during winter average 5 degrees Centi.M
grade,
As for example;
Mean Temperature
lmaudra
(67? )4L1 N; 33? 2' E)
Pustozersk
(67? 35' N; 52? ii" E
Dec. J, an,, Feb, March
?13?
8?
The differentials in the maximum low temperatures are more pro..
flounced. In the Atlantid.Arctic region maximum low temperatures are use-
ually the result of local thorough chilling of the Arctic air in clear
and earn weather, The longer the duration. of this
chilling process, the
lower ` the temperature will fall. On the Kola P
ena,nsu].a, even. in the in..
terior, the maximum low is minus l~O degrees Centigrade (except, perhaps,
individual non?draining troughs), since calm and
clear weather does not
last long there. In the northeast of the Komi
ASSR the maximum low temp-.
perature may descend to minus SO and even minus
,a5 .degrees.. Centigrade
(when a stable anticyolona is formed
) . On the other hand themaximiun
high temperatures, caused by the most intensive penetrations of Atlantic
air, may reach l?2 degrees above zero Centigrade in both the western and
eastern zones.
Winter precipitation in the Atlantic-Arctic region, as already
mentioned, comas principally from the Atlantic air, Its distribution
,..depends on cycl.vnic ,activity, the fre uenc
9 Y and basic direction of the
passing fronts. Within the limits of the western half of the Atlantic?.
$ESTRICTEfl:
37
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tESt Mi Ei
Arctic region, the occlusion fronts, at which there is precipitation,
predominantly move from 'southwest to northeast. As the Atlantic air
advances in this northeasterly direction, the amount of precipitation
decreases. It would seem that the thickness of the snow blanket should
be at its maximum in the southwestern zones. The reverse, however, is
the case. The thickness of the snowblanket decreases noticeably toward
the southwest. In the south of Karelia its average thickness is S0?60
centimeters; on the territory of the Komi ASSR it reaches 80 centimeters,
This is caused by the following; (l) in the eastern half of the region
the snow blanket` gets a head start of a half month due to the earlier
arrival of low temperatures; (2) in the western zones the snow is com''
pressed as a result of warm penetrations, and is also partially melted
during the winter thaws.
By characteristics of circulation and weather, the duration of
the winter in the Atlantic-Arctic region, with the exception, perhaps,
of the most southern zones, is from November through March. Circulation
conditions vary, riot only from autumn to winter and from winter to spring,
but during the winter season itself. During the first half of the winter,
circularion is characterized by the intensification of the Atlantic air
current, during the second half, by the development of high pressure
areas over the European sector of the Arctic and the subsiding of the
western current, As a result of this, February is frequently colder than
January, and sometimes March is colder than February.
Toward the end of the winter, with the development of high presto
sure areas, sky cover diminishes. During the month of March there is
much sunshine? accompanied by frost, in contrast to the overcast, windy,
and mostly damp winter weather. In general, March has the smallest amount
of sky cover.
Spring in the Atlantic."Arctic region is characterized by the in~
tensif .cation of the. Arctic air inflow,` which is also accompanied by an
increase in its temperature. In April the temperature of . the Arctic air
tST*.i ... En
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zones is about minus degrees Centigrade, and in May,
over the northern
about plus 3 degrees Centigrade; this rise results from the heat the
receives while passing over the continent, since the temper-
Arctic air
central Arctic at this time of the year is considerably
afore over the
lower. In the spring the temperature of other air masses increases
.
rapidly this ' s particularly true of continental air, which at the be-
, ~.
ginning of May is already warmer than the Atlantic air.
In the spring, the continental air migrates principally from the
A . ental region. Therefore, the rise in temperature is to
~~lanticr ~ont~.n
be linked w beginning of the heating process which the continental
with the a to over this region. The inflow of Atlantic air in the
is sub Ject
spring is decreased, and is at its minimum in May.
the month of May the mean temperature level gradually passes
During
across the zero point: and at the same time the snow blanket dwindles.
This dwindling of the snow blanket, dependent on the location of zones
the Atlantic -Arctic region, to the north or to the south, goes on
within
a month. In the southern zones the snow disappears
for a period of almost
by the beginning of May, in the northern zones, by the end of May.
June can be considered, to a considerable degree, a spring month,
particularly in the north, where there is still snow in the ravines, and
the lakes are just beginning g to come free of the ice. Warm weather in
June is still not too reliable, and even in the southermost zones pene-
trations of Arctic air cause overnight freezing which is destructive to
many agricultural plants. The day temperature of the Arctic air in June
is plus 10 or plus 12 degrees Centigrade. During calm and clear nights,
the temperature may drop to zero and even below. Microclimatic conditions
fluctuations. For instance, the temperature will
decidedly affect these
drop below zeroi particularly in those locations over which the air is
less active, as over depressions and forest clearings. The eastern zones
%ESTRiti ~
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in particular, because of Arctic air penetrations, are subject to these
nightly freezes.
The summer season in the Atlantic Arctic region extends from the
end of June through July and almost to the end of August. Climatic dif-
ferences between the western and eastern zones are less pronounced dur-
ing the summer. From west to east, the warming of the Arctic air and
its transformation into continental air constitutes the basic process
throughout surnrer. Isotherms, therefore, are disposed latitudinally,
and everywhere temperatures increase to the south. The temperature rase
southward is caused not so much by the warm air inflow from the south,
as by the warming of the Arctic air moving over the continent, since over
this region, northerly winds prevail in the summer, while southerly cur-
rents are rare. Sky cover conditions, too, are relatively favorable to
the warming of the air masses. Through July and August sky cover is
somewhat above 50 percent.
At times, in addition to the continental air from the central re-
gion, there are penetrations of tropical air from the southeastern zones,
with temperatures reaching 30 degrees Centigrade even in the northernmost
zones. Such penetrations are infrequent, yet normal for the Atlantic-
Arctic zone, particularly, in the east. As an example, the synoptic dis-
position of 16 August 193 (Figure 21i) can
U
i
~:1k /:
Fi ure 2: The northernmost penetrations of Tropical air (16 August l9).
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On the whole, summers in the Atlantic~Arctic region are not alto-
;ether warm, and the amount of precipitation, although not excessive, is
ample. This results in considerable relative humidity, particularly in
the northern coastal area, where it can be considered as high. In the
southern zones, relative humidity during the day is about 60 percent;
in the northern zones it reaches 70 percent. The amount of monthly pre-
cipitation averages 70 millimeters. Amount of precipitation increases
toward the south and decreases toward the north. From west to east, the
variations are insignificant.
In the extreme north only the layer of Arctic air contiguous to
the earth is warmed, since the air arriving from the Arctic will some-
times be stratified in stable equilibrium to an altitude of 200'300 meters,
and incapable o1` developing convection. At the same time the damp sur-
face of the earth is a poor absorber of the oblique radiation of the sun
(the mean July temperature of the soil at a depth of 10 centimeters is
below 1S degrees Centigrade). The Arctic air is warmed here, on the avers.
age, to a temperature of 10-12 degrees Centigrade, but the thin layer of
this slightly warmed air is washed away by the arrival of new Arctic air
masses, or even by a simple increase in wind velocity. Thus, even as
law a temperature as 1012 degrees Centigrade is not stable. The inata.
bility of the temperature cycle is further intensified by the relatively
warm penetrations of continental air. The mean temperatures for the sum.
mer rnonths of July and August are 1012 degrees Centigrade. Actually,
however, the mean daily temperatures wring the same months oscillate
from zero to 20 degrees Centigrade, with a slight tendency to remain with.
in the interval of 101 degrees Centigrade. The occr'rrence of night
freezes with temperatures down to minus 1-2 degrees Centigrade is possi-
ble throughout the summer. On the other hand, day temperatures sometimes
rise to 2 degrees Centigrade.
In the Arctic front cyclones, which pass over the northern zones,
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the warm mass consists of continental air, the moisture content of which
is at its maximum in the second half of the sunner, with a resulting max'
imum in the amount of precipitation. The summer rains are of adequate
intensity. Of the total number of rainy days, one half produces not
less than 10 millimeters of daily precipitation. The passing of the
cyclones is accompanied by considerable sky cover and overcast, which in
July and August prevail over two thirds of the time period. In the coastal
zone, in addition to sky cover, there are frequent formations of fogs
carried by the northerly wands into the anterior. Indicative of these
general conditions is the considerable humidity, the daily values of
which are sustained at about 70 percent.
The arrival of autumn as characterized in the AtlantioMArctic
region by the diminution of northern currents and the intensiiicataon
of the air mass migration from the Atlantic"Continental region. These
changes come about when the cooling process of the continent sets in and
high pressure areas form over the southeastern part of the European terra -Cory.
From the middle of September rather severe right freezes are pose-
sible. These early autumn freezes, unlike those in the late spring, are
not always preceded by cold carrying Arctic air penetrations. They can
also take place in continental air on clear calm nights.
The migration of relatively warm continental air takes place with.
southerly and southwesterly winds, and the September disposition of iso~
therms approximates, in type, the winter disposition, i.e. the southwest..
ern zones are the warmest.
The amplification of currents from the south and the southwest
results in thintensification of cyclonic activity at the Arctic front.
There is more recurrence of low overcast, with an increase in the number
of rainy days. However, the amount of precipitation remains the same,
since the temperature drop and the drop in moisture content are simultana
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TES
September precipitation falls mainly from the warmer continen-
tal eous. air, In while in Octobery and thereafter, precipitation occurs from the
Atlantic r, the internal moisture turnover stoAtlantic air. In October, the internal moisture turnover stops, and.
spontaneous precipitation from the maritime air begins anew. Shortly
thereafter, the settling of the snow cover will take place; this process
lasts through October, beginning first in the northeastern/ zones and
ending, by November, in the southwestern zones.
n in the Atlantic-Arctic region, by the characteristics of
Autum
the synaptic processes, is closely related to winter. The basic indica-
winter's arrival is the appearance of continental Arctic air,
Lion of
which differs radically from maritime Arctic air. This appearance is
noticeable as early as September, but becomes clearly accentuated only
in November, which is, therefore, the first month of the winter season.
The At1F~ntic-Continenta~ Region
?_,.,,_,__?_. ~.
Conditions of winter circulation over this region are similar to
the Atlantic4 rctic region. Here also, the nd.gration of Atlan-
those of
tic air prevails in the western zones, while over the eastern zones con
ta.nental air prevails- The Atlantic air arrives as a warm mass at the
occlusion fronts. Continental air extends from the oontnental area in
the western part of the anticyclones (Figure 22). Thus, here, as in the
northern area, both the Atlantic and continental air is carried with the
southwesterly winds in relatively warm currents, making the Atlantic
Continental region an area of warm advection (transfer). The main area
the formation of winter continental air is the southeast of the
for
European part of the USSR.
The winter isotherms in the Atlantic'Continental region, like tho se
in the AtlantiCMArctic region, run from northwest to southeast, perpen"
dicular to the southwestern warm currents- Therefore, with relation to
moan temperatures, the north and central areas differ comparatively little.
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ra~e7~o
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For the area of Kiyev, the mean temperature for the month of
January is only 1-2 degrees Centigrade higher than that for the Karelian
isthmus. For Saratov and Arkhangelsk, the January mean temperatures
are the same. In the coldest zones of the Komi ASSR, the month of Jan-
uary has a mean temperature of minus 18 degrees. Centigrade, while in
Kirov (formerly Vyatka) it is minus 16 degrees Centigrade.
The main distinguishing feature of the Atlantic-Continental region
is the extremely rare appearance over it as Arctic air -- twice as rare
as over the Atlantic-Arctic region.
By conditions of circulation, the AtlanticMContinental region can
be divided into two parts; the western part, where the influence of th;
Atlantic prevails, and the eastern part, where continental features pre-
dominate. However, the transfer of Atlantic air eastward is less pro-
nounced here than in the northern region. The climatic boundary, in
the specified meaning, between the eastern and western parts lies between
Smolensk and Moscow. Zones to the east of Moscow are climatically more
continental than those to the west of Smolensk. This becomes evident
by comparing the mean temperatures, let us say, for the month of January,
which is minus 3 degrees Centigrade and above to the west of Smolensk,
and minus 12 degrees and below to the east of Moscow.
The basic air mass over the greater part of the Atlantic'Continen-
tal region is the continental air. The properties of the latter, and the
circulation conditions in which it is most frequently observed, determine
in the main, the features of the winter season in this region. The tem.
perature of the continental air over the central zones in mid-winter i.s
about ninus 12 degrees Centigrade. It is encountered in the forward.
part of cyclones or in the western half of anticyclones, and is usually
accompanied by considerable sky cover and moderate winds.
Weather characterized by frost, mild wind, and overcast or consid-
erable sky cover, is the most typi,ca1 for the winters of this region.
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its
sl Vff
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It has served more than once as the (reative7 theme (perhaps sub.-cons-
c the paintings of winter landscapes by some of our great
~.ously) for
such as Perov's By the Last Tavern" and "The Funeral of a
masters,
Peasant" , and Pryanishnikav's "Empties" 5robab1Y empty cars, or empty
cart.
The last painting gives an excellent portrayal of the sensation
experienced through sustained exposure to this cold, which, though not
too excea rsy 'vo, makes one shrivel, since it is accompanied by wind and
dryness irk the frosty air. It is this inadequate dryness against the
background of rather low temperatures, in combination with a continuous,
though mild, wand, that constitutes the most essential climatological
the continental air in the winter over the European part of
feature of
the USSR.
Arctic penetrations are observed predond.r-antly in anticyclones,
enclosing a series of cyclones. These penetrations over the eastern
Atlantie Continental region are accompanied by frosts of al..
part of the
as those in the region to the north (minus 40ML
most equal intensity
degrees Centigrade) . They occur' however, less frequently and do not
last as long. In the western zones, the temperature drop does not reach
down to minus 30 degrees Centigrade, since the Arctic air arrives with
~.
the returning g southerly current of the western part of anticyclones, cr
ridges of high pressure. Skirting from the south an anticyclone, or
ridge of high pressure, the Arctic air is somewhat warmed, since, genw
erally speak.ng, conditions on the western periphery of anticyclones are
avorable to radiation cooling. The result is cloudiness, intents
less f
equently, a decrease in the vertical ca-
?ficat the wind' and,, fr
sa.
pacity epthg of the cold mass.
penetrations of Atntic air, as in the case of the Atlantic-Arctic
~.a
region, result in abrupt warming anda an most eases, a low overcast; the
warming at times becoming a thaw. In some cases, the Atlantic air will
.
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ED
Eti1 R1C1
extend to the Urals and even beyond, into Western Siberia, but generally
speaking it seldom penetrates into the eastern zones. Over Moscow, for
example, in January the Atlantic air constitutes 20 percent, and over
Kazan', B percent of all the air masses. This affects the temperature:
in the same month ~anuaril the number of days with a daily mean temper
ature of over minus degrees Centigrade is nine for Moscow, and four
for Kazan'.
Penetrations of Atlantic air into the Atlantic"Continental region
during the winter are practically always connected with cyclonic activity
and accompanied by precipitation. Precipitation from the Atlantic air
continues also in the occluded cyclones, that is, after the Atlantic air
near the terrestrial surface has been displaced by cold continental air.
Thus, the distribution of precipitation over the territory depends on
the general direction of the Atlantic air current in the middle tropo-
sphere. A decrease in precipitation takes place in the direction of the
migration of Atlantic air, the moisture content of which decreases with
the falling oz' precipitation. This can be seen from the following exam-
ple
Ninsk
Moscow
Kazan'
Amount of Precipitation
in millimeters)
December
S.
~,..~.,.....,...~...~.....
January
February
L~Li.
14
l].
39
37
33
29
27
The depth of the snow blanket in the Atlantic~Continental region,
as well as in the Atlantic'-Arctic region, diminishes toward the southwest,
although the amount of precipitation increases in the same direction. In
the AtlanticMContinental region the consolidation and partial melting
of the snow during the thaws occurring in the southwestern zones, affects
the depth of the snow blanket to a greater degree than in the Atlantic-
EST11C1'EU
I
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Arctic region. Also of considerable importance is the Fact that the
snow blanket in the east is established 20 days earlier than that in
the southwest (in Kirov, by the end of October; in Kiyev, by the middle
of November).
With the penetrations of Atlantic air, particularly in their first
phases, sleet is often formed. The most active sleet is formed in the
cold wedge of continental .air facing the oncoming warm maritime air,
when light, supercooled rain is falling through the cold air. The cold
wedge f continental ail is rarely over one half kilometer in a verw
tical erection, and has a temperature of only minus 2-3 degrees Centi?
grade. Such a high temperature for winter continental air is due to
the following: (1) southerly and southwesterly winds blow in the forward
part of cyclones; (2) since the wedge of cold air is thin, it is warmed
by the rain falling through it and by mixing with the ncoming7 warm
maritime air.
There are several synoptic dispositions favorable to the forma
tion of active sleet. In the central and southern regions it will be
formed when the anticyclone is located in the east, and over its western
rim the continental air is moving toward the Atlantic air which is arriv?
ing in a western or southwestern cyclone. (Figure 2~).
Ikli'RA4?'~M-nlprt.~Ai,u~:>rgll4iUr~i.yy4i':1~1tYA>,,raralen~
+wMrW+NL;f+,.xMawwuaw+h+SMn+~nyP1w?y+Lwgh..+i. A., relat~.ve ? . ~ with.
rah C clorL7.c act~.v~~y~
rnat~.on proceeds. However, under cond'Lian~ oC cy
r ta.art relative hun~.d~.ty will increase.
~.ar er sky cover and prec~.p' ~td ~
~
tinental region relative hlu~~jdity decx'eage$ rather
~:n the Atl.anta.cwCan
rapidly toward the east.
For 'or'r~t.an a air
wCor1tiner1tal region, where trans
ox' the Atlan~a.c
' it is very Cha~`~Cter1.S'~~.C that
se s not attain its h~.~he~st 1' ~.I1LLt, ,
ma,G, ~sc~s dor~
relative r ~ May June and onward, since
hu7rLd~.ty is on the increase ~'roars Y ape rise in ten:peratux`e occt~a?s, Wa,th
c i1cally :Ln May he most rapid
~ , , , ~
keep pace During the ,~urnr-aez tht,~ c, .LS, an the
wkaich ev'a~:~o~'at:Lran cannot aund into
one hand, a more pronounced transfer off:' 110jsture 2r0)Tt the gr
'ori ~ :ravers and, on the athez` hand., an
he air in the Cont~.nent,al re~~a.
? da.t of they At~.a,.o air arz a_v ave
increase ,; r` the
in the a~~snl.ute hur~n. ~'
continent.,
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RESTRICTED
d
Mild Winds
(U7. meter/per second)
-
s
Moderate and Strong Wan
(over G meters/per second)
y
Jul
Oct
Octabe,r
~"'. _
Vitebsk
22
10
11
23
Kazan'
1~2
21a
10
17
in the direction of the wind is less noticeable, since
The shaft
it ' . takes s . , place within the limits of one quadrant of the horizon ~?~ the
westerly winds prevailing revailinG g in the stammer shift to s0uthwester1Y in the
autwnal. Also, the continental air gradually becorfC:S colder than the
Atlantic air. The dividing moment is usually accentuated by snow preci-
pa,t?at.ton over the central and southern climatic regions. However, if
the snowfall is late in coming, the continental air is still colder than
the Atlantic air by the end of October. Based on obsorvations over a
period of years, the descent of the mean temperature across the zero
~. ~
Centigrade point takes place in the first ten days of November in the point western zonesr
and two weeks earlier in the eastern zones. By this
established, although in some years its
time the snow cover is usually
formation is considerably retarded.
The d~spasition of isotherms in the At1antic~Continental region
~
in the aul~umn gradually approximates their winter disposition. This
~.
approximation first occurs in the western zones in September, since over
'
t~ territor1ya the transfer of warm air from over Central this part of the
In October and November, when the southwestern trans'
Europe takes place ?
fer of air prevails , the isotherms throughout the AtIantic~Continental
from northwest to southeast. Thus, not only in the
region are disposed
winter, but as early as the fall, the western part of this region is
wanner than the eastern, ; this,along with other indications, points to
the arrival of autumn.
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RL:STIIICffO
During the first half of autumn (until the middle of October)
the radiation balance of the bottom layer of the troposphere and the
underlying ground approximates zero, and the transfer of warm air masses
from the south in the anticyclones takes place in clear weather. In
connection with this, almost every year, by the end of September or the
beginning of October, occurs the "autumnal return of heat", or the so-
called '~grandxfia' s summer" ~ndian summer7, which generates calm, clear,
and warm weather -- sometimes for a few days, sometimes for n entire
week. It is particularly felt during the day, when the atmospheric layer
nearest to the ground is warmed considerably. At night, in many places,
particularly lowlands, there are spots of dense creeping fogy in some
places this fog lingers into the late hours oi' the morning, interfering
with the warming of the ground and the air, and causing an extremely heter-
ogeneous temperature distribution, which becomes equalized only toward
the middle of the day. On such days, the weather is remarkably clear
with practically no sky cover. This is due to the fact that the inver-
sion of temperature taking place during the night remains in effect at
a certain altitude during the day as well, thereby hindering the develop-
ment of convection.
The "return of the heat" phenomenon is due predominantly to the
air transfer from over Southern Europe along the western rim of the
anticyclone which is located over the southern half of the European part
of the USSR (Figure 29).
A' .L. W.. a
wsRH.nMiMSRFM+~1
i Jr~uq++ff~:n~RaM~s mIM.Mf a
1CTEIi s9
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IIESTRICTED
:TiiCiEI)
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The passing of cyclones in the autumn is becoming more frequent
in connection with the intensification of cyclonic activity over the
Atlantic, followed by an increase in the degree of, sky cover.
Minsk
Moscow
Kazan'
Recurrence of Slur Cover (in Percent)
JujL:
October
__
48
6~
46
67
L
70
However, the amount of precipitation as compared to that in summer
decreases considerably, since (1) with lower temperatures the absolute
hund.di.ty of the air masses is diminished, and (2) the fronts over the
continent become less active, due to the leveling of the temperature con.
trasts between the maritime and the continental air. The diminished ac-
tivity of the fronts is also expressed in their low degree of. mobility,
which is the reason for fine and long-lasting precipitations so charac-
teristic of the autumn.
The distribution of precipitation over the territory in the autumn
is more homogeneous than in the sumer.
Minsk
Kazan'
Amount of Precipitation (in Mii1ireters)
Summer (June-August) Autumn (September"November)
216 128
166 117
The contrast between the western and eastern zones during the summer
reaches up to 80 millimeters, while in the autumn it is only 10 millimeters.
Rather characteristic of the autumn season are the fogs. Autumn
fogs over the Atlantic"Continental region are predominantly of a radiation
and advective'-radiation genesis, particularly during the first half of
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iESTRICTED
auturlul. They occur in the central (and even the eastern) parts of anti-
cyclone$ under the effect of the nightly cooling of the bottom air layer,
as well as in the relatively warm air masses as a result of radiation
while moving northward along the western periphery of the anticyclones.
In the latter case the fogs attain considerable altitude and linger on
for several days
The end of the autwnn season gradually merges into winter, and it
is rather difficult to isolate any one process which would particularly
mark this merger. Sometimes frosts of high intensity arrive as early
as November, as in the Moscow region, where the absolute minimum tempera-
ture for November is minus 28 degrees Centigrade. In the course of other
years, the arrival of winter is considerably retarded "nature waited
and waited for the arrival of winter, and snow came only in January, on
the night of the third."
The Continental R~eon
As already mentioned above, the Continental region is distinguished
by the most continental climatic features, as compared with the rest oC
the European territory of the Soviet Union.
In the winter, it is the main area for the formation of East-Euro
mean continental air, in contrast to the central and northern areas, which
in the winter are predominantly areas of advection (transfer). The forma-
tion of continental air takes place in areas of high pressure (which are
either outcrops of the Asiatic anticyclono, or independent anticyclones),
along the eastern periphery of which, at times, is established a direct
current of Arctic air. Along the southern periphery of these high pres-
sure areas the continental air flows off with the easterly and northeast'
erly winds into the southern zones. It then skirts the anticyclones from
the west, and extends in a southwestern current over the Atlantic-'Conttnen-
tal region.
TUCTEO
61
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 riCTEU
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In the process of such circulation, the entire Continental region
is filled with relatively cold air. This underlying factor causes the
following two characteristic features in temperatuxe distribution over
the region. (1) The mean temperature level, as compared to that for the
Atlantic'-'Arctic region, is not as high as would be expected by the differ-
ence in latitudes. The mean temperature for January in Petrozavodsk is
minus 10 degrees Centigrade, for Poltava -w minus 7 degrees Centigrade,
for Kotlas -- minus i).~ degrees Centigrade, for Stalingrad -w minus 10
degrees Centigrade. Thus, the temperature rase southward is only one
quarter degree of temperature per one degree of latitude, and even on
the shore of the Sea of Azov, the mean temperature for January is minus
degrees Centigrade. (2) Deflections of the winter isotherms, from a
latitudinal disposition to the north, are considerably smaller than in
the central and northern areas. The difference in the mean January temM
peratures between the extreme western and the extreme southern zones is
about )4 degrees Centigrade for the south and reaches 3 degrees Centigrade
for the north of the European part of the Union.
The relatively low mean temperatures for the winter in the Conti
nental region are a result, not so much of a general temperature decline,
as of abrupt temperature drops caused by cold it ras7 penetrations,
and along with considerable frost, there are also many thaws. In Rostov-
on-'the-.Don, with a mean January temperature of minus 6 degrees Centigrade,
2, percent of the days of the throe winter months have a mean daily tern"
pei'ature above zero Centigrade, and 20 percent of the colder days have
a mean daily temperature of nunus 10 degrees Certtigxado. Minimum annual
temperature: everywhere, with the exception of the maritime zones, descend
below minus 20 degrees Centigrade. The absolute minimum temperature for
Stalingrad drops to minus 3 degrees Centigrade. The lowest temperatures
occur in the cold air masses arriving from the north, with additional
local chifng taking place on calm and clear nights. Thaws are partied'.
 ? 63 ..
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aEST RICT ED
1ar:Iy frequent in the southwestern zones; for instance, in Nikolayev
during the winter (December"February) IO percent of the days have a
mean daily temperature above zero degrees Centigrade.
The Atlantic cyclones in the winter predominantly' pass further
to the north. Those that get into the southern zones are usually moving
directly' to the east, and precipitations caused by them are evenly dis-
over the territory. In addition to the Atlantic cyC1ones, over
trit,uted
the Continental region, pass the Mediterranean cyclones, penetrating
routes through the northern coast of the Black Sea, from
here by various
rsa to Novorossi sk proceeding further northward or northeastward.
~' ~
Odes
The precipitations cauaed by the Mediterranean cyclones are distributed
zones more or less evenly. In connection with this,
over the southern.
the amount of wirater precipitation varies little within the limits of
the Continental region, coming to 90 millimeters for the three winter
months, and only on the shores of the Caspian Sea does the amount of
winter precipitation drop to 60 mi1umeters.
The snow cover of the Continental region, due to frequent thaws,
? ~rna11 and unstable. A more or less stable snow cover is observed in
~s ~,
the northexr part of the territory. It i$ late in taking hold and early
in dwindling; ? in the areas of Kharkov and Stalingrad it is sustained from
of December to the middle of March, reac1iing a depth of
the beginning
ers by the end of February. Sometimes the snow cover will
~,~ ~~ centimeters
dwindle al,most comp1ete1r in the course of the winter and then reesta"
bush itself.
In the westein zones, under conditions preceding a thaw, there will
be formation of f o g and sleet (Figure 2).
in the Continental region arrives mostly with the inflOW$
Spring
" ~.~
of warm air from Southern Europe. As an example the s~rnoptiC dispo s
t ion 1939 (Figure 26) can be referred to. The Atlantic air
~.on of 17
:STiiICTEO
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is warming in the outcrop of anticyclones over Southern Europe, and
with a'westerly current penetrates first over the Ukraine, and then
further to the east. Under the effect of the warm air, and sometimes
warm rains as well, the slight snow cover disappears rapidly. and from
this moment on the territories of the U1'aine and the Lower Volga are
in themselves a source for the warming of the air, This process rapidly
embraces the entire Continental region, and the snow cover disappears
almost simultaneously in the west and in the east during the first twenty
days of March, merely lingering on for two more weeks in the northern
zones.
In April the continental air over the southern climatic region is
colder than that over Central Europe, but the high pressure prevailing
in the winter is gradual dropping, and the cyclones begin to penetrate
more frequently into the territory of the given region, particularly into
its western zones. There is in connection with this, a slight increase
in the amount of precipitation from March to April. The weather in
April is very unstable, the absolute contrast between the cold and warm
penetrations reaching possibly Ii0 degrees Centigrade (from minus 10 to
plus 10 degrees Centigrade), yet alhaost yearly there occurs a drop of
the mean daily temperature to minus 5 degrees Centigrade and a rase to
plus 20 degrees Centigrade. The same occurs with relation to humidity.
With the cold penetrations accompanied by precipitations, relative hums"
dity is never below 80 percent even at noon. There are w~ such days in
a month. Inversely, there are, on the average, four or six very dry days
when, toward midday, the relative humidity drops to 30 percent and below,
which usually coincides with warm penetrations. In March the temperature
oscillations are no sraahl.er, but occur at a lower level, and relative
humidity does not drop as low as in April.
In the sprang insolation increases with the height of the sun,
lengthening of the day, and the decrease in the degree of sky cover.
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IESTR1CTEO
However, sky cover decreases not as a result of an increase in the num-
ber of clear days, but rather of a decrease in the number of days when
the sky is overcast. For example, the recurrence of clear and overcast
sky over Poltava is (in percent):
February
Clear (0??2 balls) 20
Overcast (840 balls) 7
April
2S
This arises from the fact that in the spring the formatiori of the
shroud of low clouds, caused by the cooling effect that the underlying
ground exerts upon the warm air, is discontinued, and there remain only
cloud formations of fronta]. and cumulus convective origin.
The second half of May in the Continental region, strictly speak.
ing, belongs to the summer season, since it marks the beginning of the
process for the formation of Tropical air. This means that the continen-
tal air is further heated, not only in its lower stratifications, but
also in the middle troposphere. When it meets (in counter-currents)
with the air masses of the Atlantic-.Continental region, a front is formed
which generates cyclonic activity. This warming of the air takes place
predominantly over the eastern zones of the Continental region, lying
to the side of the principal paths of the cyclones. Correspondingly,
the Nay isotherms in thG eastern half, as compared with those in the
western half, are shifted considerably to the north, and it is much
warmer in the area ofi the Lower Volga; than it is in the Ukraine. This
condition, s just described abov7 does not yet prevail in April.
Mean Temperature in Degrees Centigrade
April May
Kamenets-Podol' sk 7.7 1.6
Stalingrad 7?8 17?x"
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RES1K1ClE
It should be borne in mind, however, that the process of transfor-
air into Tropical air only begins in the month of
mation of continental
May, and the tomperature contrasts between the western and eastern zones
are caused mainly by the warning of the continental air in its bottom
layers. The percentage ratio of Tropical air to the other air masses
the month of May, and its frontOMgen,stic value is
is still. small during
accordingly small. Thus, the inereaSed precipitation in I~ay, as compared
with that in April, should be attributed to the frontal precipitation
from conti ?nental air, which, due to evaporation, contains more Moisture
than the Atlantic air.
There is also higher pressure over the Continental region during
result of the activitY of the Azoric anticyclone.
the aurnxrler, mainly as a
Abundant inaolati on against the background of a pre dominantlY steppe
and in the southeast even semi-desert landscape, causes a
landscape,
considerable heating of continental air and its transforrfl tion into
Tropical air. This is the basic process of the sumnier season over the
Continental region. However, this transformation does not embrace the
entire continental air mass, not even its largest part. According to
G the period 193?1939, thG number of days with Tropical
~.lcu7.atlanS for t
air predarninating over the southeastern zones for the months of June,
July, and Aut:,ust, amounts to 30 percent. Part of it (~ percent) should
be a the inflow of Tropical air from Central Asia. The pre?
?~tributed to
senc? of such as ? relatively small amount of Tropical air seems to consti"
tute the decisive factor for the summer meteorological cycle over the
greater part of the Cont tal region (high dtem~aerature, low humidity)
?
~.ncn
The explanation lies redalr~.nance of anticyclonic circula.t~.an (with
in the p
its mild winds, ten},perature inversions, which hinder the fornation of
the influence of which the bottom layer of
convective clouds), under
considerably overheated to a state when by tempera-
continental air is
Lure arid humidity it apProximatea the characteristics of Tropical air.
tftSl RICT ED
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9 ~ICtED
The above depicted differences between the western and eastern
areas of the Continental region in May become even more pronounced in
the summer. The climb in temperature and the drop in relative humidity
toward the east are intensified during the sunm~er, as quoted by values
in the Table that Follows.
Ike mature Rea.at.ve Ilum_tlitr at
1300 I~auzJin Percents
May June July August Nay June July August
Kamenets-
Podol'sk i).6 17.L 11.x. 18.8 L9 >L ~
Akhtuba 17.0 2lx7 21.i.-7 23.0 Lill e )40 38
.w_____...~________ ..... ._.........Sa...._.-.......................--.-.........~
Difference 3.1t.. h.3 ~ ?3 L.1 a 10 iL
os: particular significaz'icc is the relative humidity curve * As
already mentioned above, the relative humidity in all zones decreases
during the spring. From Nay on the relative humidity curve of the
western part is different ?rom that of the eastern part. In the west
the temperature climb from May to June is smaller than in the east, and
evaporation raises the relative humidity. In the east the temperature
climbs faster, and there is less actual evaporation than an the westr
as a result of which relative humidity is constantly dropping. In the
east, also, there is more frequent penetration of dry Asiatic air along
the western periphery of the anticyclones located over Kazakhstan and
the northern part of Central Asia. Toward the end of the summer, the
drier air from the eastern half fills the western zones too, where in
August, relative humidity is again dropping.
The climatological significance of Tropical air is not 1ianited
to its effect on iemperaturs and humidity. Under favorable conditions
o? circulation, such as the convergence of currents, the Tropical air
will form a front with the air from the Atlantic-Continental region.
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 Zbinerinka
Akhtuba
(in millimeters)
June July
as 014
2$ 22
0
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ESTRiCTEO
At this front will develop cyclorac activity, with cloudiness and preci-
pitatiori. Thus, the process of transformation, creating / certain de-
gree of] aridity in the Continental region, carries within itself the
cause which retards its rate of evolution. This is the 5pecifiO fea-
ture by which the European territory of the USSR is distinguished from
the Central Asiatic territory, where the transformation of the air masses
during the suunmer months attains its ultimate degree of evolution, and
is discontinued only under the action of terrestrial factors of general
in-portance.
Frontogeriesis and cyclonogenesis in Tropical air over the Conti-
nental and Atlantic-Continental regions occurs predominantly to the west
and northwest of the center of transformation, .e4 mostly in the west'.
ern zones of the above named regions. The Tropical air occupies the warm
sector in the cyclones moving northward or northeastward over the Ukraine.
These cyclones sometimes carry the Tropical air to the northernmost areas
of the European part of the Soviet Union. The Tropical airy from the south-
eastern areas penetrates into the Ukraine along the southwestern periphery
of the anticyclones. On its way, it is humidified over the lowlands of
Kuban' and the Sea of Azov, as a result of which it furnishes much frontal
precipitation, frequently accompanied by powerfl storms. Figure 21i de~
pacts the deve1oprraent of such a process.
Precipitations from Tropical air are an essential addition to the
precipitations brought on by the Atlantic cycionea, so that in June and
July there is maximum precipitation over the Ukraine, as compared with
the rest of the Euu^opean territory. At the same time the amount of pre-
cipitation in the southeast does not increase:
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tIESIRICI E~I
Very characteristic of the Continental region in the swmner are
droughts and dry winds.
A drought is the result of precipitation deficiencies over a long
period of time. Yet, not every prolonged period off' dry weather can be
considered a drought. Drought :Ls not only a meteorological, but also a
biological concept, and this, mainly, is the reason for its climatological
significance. A drought is "a combination of various phenomena occurring
in the soil and in the air, and causing a disparity between the indispenM
sable water consumption by plants and its actual delivery to the plants
through the soil" (N. V. Bova). Such a condition comes about after some
preparatory period, the duration and intensity of which depends upon a
whole series of circumstances, such as: the value of the 1)recedi.ng au-
tumnal-winter humidification, the condition and vegetative phase of tip
plant, etc. The setting in and duration of a drought may vary from year
to year. There are spring-swnnuer and summer droughts with a duration of
a month or even loner.
Droughts that begin in the sprang are usually long, since in the
southeastern areas of the European territory the second half of the
summer is usually dry. Droughts of long duration are the ones which us~
wally affect the largest areas. This is caused by the fact that the
drought is originally brought about by conditions of circulation over a
certain area and, given enough time, the surface of that area will itM
self become a factor which accelerates the intensity of the drought and
will, therefore, inorease the area of its effectiveness.
The complex of conditions favorable to the setting in of a drought
occurs in the southeast of the European territory of the Soviet Union
quite frequently. The recurrence of drought (in the sense of the defi?
niition above) amounts to !10 percent, as can be seen from the fact that
for the period 18941939 there were 18 years during which droughts occurred.
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 ?7pw
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IIESTRICTEB
One fifth of these droughts began in the month of May, taking in the
entire vegetative period and striking the southeastern part of the
European territory, the area of the Middle Vora, and the southern part
of the Ukraine. The droughts are, to a considerable degree, a result
of the transformation of air masses over the continent, particularly the
transformation of Arctic air. They are intensified to the east and to
the southeast (Kazakhstan, Central Asia). In the European territory
they occur frequently, but not annually (with the exception of the Cas-
pian lowland). In Central Asia and in southern Kazakhstan they consti-
tute the most important feature of the summer season.
The dry wind cycle Is a phenomenon still insufficiently investiw
gated. It is characterized by a peculiar condition of the air, conduM
ci.ve to extreme evaporation. The temperature by midday is IO degrees
Centigrade, with reiative humidity below 30 percent and a wind velocity
above 10 meters per seconds The basic difference between a drought and
dry wind cycle is that in a drought the plants either perish completely,
or are partially struck, beginning with the roots, as a result of a
moisture deficiency in the soil after a prolonged lack of precipitation,
while in a dry wand cycle, the pmts are struck by disrupting the
process of transpiration for 1?2 days, with the upper parts of the punts
eying first.
Dry wind cycles rarely originate in Central Asia. They are more
frequently evolved at the periphery of anticyclones over the European
territory. In these cascs the high tempnraturds and low jeiativ7 hu?
midities are due to the adiabatic process, and the dry wind cycle can
be considered a de30ending current, tied in with the katabatic cat
from. The direction of the winds during the dry wind cycle may vary,
but they are predominantly easterly in the southern quadrant of anticy-
clones. As an example, refer to the synoptic disposition on 21 August
1939 (Figure 30), where the cross-hatched area represents the area affected
by dry wind. ESTR1CTEU
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tUEST ICTEU
1-..?w .. w
jY , /MV,P}1~'tW/IMY?1.1 hIW.;Y4;....'`s4,rr11Y1',:.xt,~ ~.~,.1er?Inn~r,H,.P.;;, YMw uPl,b?V?wM,Y_Fa..'rnN,..Ww.ww',?M?N?r Pw W'rr.'IVY.wn???
1_ 30; Synoptic da.spo s tion during a dry wind cycle (21 August 1939)+
During the first half of autamn anticyclonic circulation still.
hilt in the Atlantic~Continentat region at this time
predominates, ands w
autumnal bad weather sets in, it is stir warm and dry in the south.
Such a situation is depicted in Figure 21. The anticyclonic character
istics of September and October weather can also be seen from the Table
immediately faliowing;
Voro shiiovgrad (formerly hugansk)
September October November
The warming Process affecting the air over the steppes of the Con"
tinental region is discontinued in September, and is gradually changed
into a coo:u.ng process. Yet, the eastern zones are stiU warmer than
the western zones in September. In October the dtapasitian of the iso
t for the winter, and even over the southernmost
therms app -
~~a~?s the
zones the continental air becomes colder than the Atlantic air.
Autumn returns of the heat are sometimes observed rather late in
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Number of days with
Precipitation 7
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ESTI1tCTEU
the season. They are caused by the inflow of warm Anatolian air along
the western periphery of the outcrop of the Asiatic anticyclone, the
formation of which at this time of the year depends to a large extent
on the cooling off of the sand steppes of Central Asia and Kazakhstan.
This is one of the clear examples of meteorological contradictions, and
the specific synoptic dispositions for them are depicted in Figures 31
and 32.
.,n.r , p.owy...p r4*viwi ~. +:', ?(~ s r: d.: ~/I,"~,. ,,,,
A,.A +.Mlr ljxnir~RIfNJAAI~~JrWVM
"e{,;., +
gure
31? The lade autumn return of the heat over one', xianca.c~uoz~ca.-
nental region (23 October 1937)
Warm autumn weather in the south (114 October 1935).
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rNW~IrIMW.d\W WIM~
 s.730.
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REST RICT Eli
The Crimea
By circulation conditions, the Crimea can be relegated almost
completely to the Continental region of the European Dart of the USSR.
During the winter the predominant air is the continental air, flowing
off with the northeasterly winds along the southern periphery oi' the
areas of high pressure ~eveloping7 over the Continental region. During
the summer the northeasterly winds bring the continental air that has
been, to a considerable degree, transformed into Tropical air.
The air flowing in from the continent and arriving over the sea,
is somewhat warmed in the winter and somewhat cooled in the summer.
This warming or cooling process affects the bottom layer only, since
the area of the Black Sea is not sufficiently large for the air lasses
to tarry long enough in their migration to become transformed into
maritime air. Additionally, in the winter, when the surface of the sea
is warmer than the continental air :Mowing over it, the air is subject
to layer instability, favorable to the development of convectional heat
transfer to the overlyi.n; layers. The pressure gradient forces are rather
strong, and the air masses are carried rapidly aecross the sea. In the
summer, the winds are relatively mild, and there is stable stratification
stability in the air, since the sea is colder than the air. Never
/Tayer
theless, the sea affects the terrtperature cycle of the coastal belt to
a considerable degree.
The land elevations of the southern part of the Crimea are of a
magnitude that introduces essential turbulence into the atmospheric cycles
developing over the peninsula. This pertains mainly to the extension
of cold continental or Arctic air, and to the advancing oi' the fronts.
The height of the Crimean mountains is greater than the thickness of the
coldest bottom layer of the continental air, and, in the case of Arctic
penetrations, it is generally above the vertical capacity of the cold
sT IicT Et)
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ESTgCTED
wedge. The cold air, forced to flow around the Crimean ridge, penetrates
over the southern coast in a diminished mass and is already considerably
warmed from passing over the sea. This is illustrated by the distribuM
tion of maximum low temperatures Lhe Russian text calls them "minimum
ternperatures7 on the northern and southern slopes and the highest alti-
tude zone (in degrees Centigrade):
Absolute rr,axi mum low
temperature (1929)
Simferopal~
Minus 20
Minus 32
Ay-Petri Yalta
Minus 19 Minus 8
Minus 26 Minus 1
The lowest temperatures occur to the north of the mountains (Sim
feropol ' ) . In the mountainous zones (AywPetri) it is waxer during tree
cold penetrations than down below in the steppe, and, finally, on the
south shore (Yalta) the mean maximum low is higher by over 10 degrees
Centigrade than on the northern slope. In Yalta a minus 10 degrees Cents
tigrade frost occurs only years apart, and a thermometer reading of be-
low minus 1 degrees Centigrade is virtually unknown for the entire per-
iod of recorded observations. These figures prove that the land eleva-'
Lions of the southern coast of the Crimea constitute an effective shield
against cold air penetration.
No less significant is the part the mountains of the Crimea play
in the activation of the fronts that pass over them, particularly in the
winter Mediterranean cyclones. These leave in their wake a large amount
of precipitation on the southern and southwestern slopes, which are favor-
ably located with relation to the direction of the warm, moisture carry-
ing air current. The swnmer cyclones of western origin furnish precipi--
tation predominantly on the northern slopes, in amounts, however, smaller
than the winter cyclones provide on the southern slopes.
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~ ,i ~W-'ftY~ n
Amount of Precipitation (in millimeters)
Winter ' Swter
December January February June July August
Sirnferapol' 39 39 32 71 77 28
Yalta 70 82 ~b t~9 ~6 27
considerable effect on temperature and humidity of the Crimean
A
coastal belt is exerted by the proximity of the sea. It was pointed out
vcr the Black Sea, at any rate over its northern half, there
above, that o
of continental air with somewhat modified characteristics
is a predominance
in xts bottom layer, which ruorlifications bring it closer to air of the man--
tame: type. This factor, as related to the temperature cycle, will cause a
the yearly amplitude (by raising the winter temperatures and
decrease in th
lowering swiuner temperatures) and will also shorten the frost period. lowering 7 ~ the
The number of frosty days in the central part and the coastal belt is shown
below :
Kurman-Kemel'chi
120
Tarkhankut
6~
Sevastopolt
3
Yalta
1.0
Feo~dosiya
71
In order to get an idea of the part played by the land elevations and
the sea, with particular reference to the slackening of continental influences
temperatures for the shielded 5rom the se7 and ex"
in the winter, the mean
red v the se7 a parts or thy; coastal area are compared with the mean tern"
poa
~ ,.
peratures for the central zones he Table below gives the results of the coin
parlson in terms of moan temperature differentials (in degrees Centigrade,).
December January February
Yalta less Kuxman'Kamel'ch
b 5
Taz Ithankut less Kurman-Kame1'chi 3 3 2
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auTEU
iE$1
The first line shows the combined effect of the land elevations
and the sea, the second line shows the effect of the sea only.
Special features in the conditions of humidity develop mostly in
the suzr>zner. They pertain to the progress of the daily relative humidity
curve, which, in the coastal belt, as compared with the central zones,
is very small. This is due to the effect of the breezes, which modify
the daily humidity curve in such a manner that the relative hutni.dity
during the day is higher over the coastal belt, while during the night
it is higher over the central zones.
During the cold season the coastal area is subject to considerable
fog, which is generated by the humid air from above the surface of the
sea extending over the cold littoral. The characteristics described above
do not as yet warrant the segregation of the coastal belt into a parties
cular climatic zone, since the proximity of the sea does not disturb the
general progress of the weather in the coastal belt as compared to the
interior. It follows that of basic significance in the climatic zoning
of the Crimean peninsula is its terrestrial configuration.
The peninsula can be divided into two climatic zones. The first
one, comprising the southern part of the Crimea, is of the 1eiterranean
climatic type. It can be divided into two sub-zones; the southern lit
Loral and the mountainous area. The second zone comprises the rest of
the Crimean territory, and, with relation to climate, it blends with
the southern part of the Ukraine. The climate of the southern littoral
and the mountainous area is integrated not only under the influence of
the continent proper, but also under that of the mediterranean region,
since by i.ts location the southern part of the peninsula fails within
the sphere of action of the Mediterranean outcrop of the Polar front in
the winter, and the Azoric anticyclone in the summer.
The extension of the Mediterranean climatic cycle to aremote
an area as the Crimean Peninsula is due to the part played by the Black
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k a direct continuation of the r1e~,.terranean.
Seas which is, so to spea~ the printer
tc;dl exerts an effect upon the paths of
The Black Sea undaub y
the development of the high pressure outcrop in the
cyclones and upon
this high pressure outcrop is an abrupt decrease
summer. The effect of the ~ south-
:er over the.. Crimea as compared to the
in sky saver dur3.ng the - ? ~umn'
ern part of the Ukraine.
of the Crimean peninsula is one of the
The southern littoral
is most favorable clim~~~,ica,l.ly to health and
rare s of the USSR which Z ,
frequently rated with the flncst 1~edi~erranean health
well being. It is
and clears
a rating is due mainly to its mild wiZtters
reaort areas. Such is
sunny sunur~rs. The mean temperate of the coldest month (January)
hich is B degrees Centigrade warmer than
plus 14. degrees centigrade, w
Caspian, 12 degrec;s warm+sr than equa.-
amts of the same latitude on 'the ,
p
lata.tu~rlal locations in Central Asia, and 22 degrees warmer than ec~?~
latitud..nal locations in the Far Bast.
of Clear Sky (in percent)
Recurrence
June J. ~Y
Kirovograd (formerly
Blizdvetgrad) 27 3~ ~ 31 6
Khersan b~
ajmSeropol' 63 1.2 7
Yalta. 63 Li 6
F'eodosia
ma c i.mum low temperature was plus 3 degree S
In l9l~ the January
of 189 9~ the temperature was never below
tirade . In the yr1nter
Can g
plus 14 degrees.Centigrade. On the average, there are only six days
i.e. only six days with a daily tempcr?
during the winter without thaws
afore sustained at below zero Cent.gtads. Out of the entire number of
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1ESTRCTED
15 days with precipitation for the month of January, only 5 are with snow,
the rest are with rain. The amount of precipitation in , .
the winter is cones
siderable ?w twice as much as in any other place within the European part
of the USSR. Yet, the number of days with overcast is relatively small. It
is of interest in this respect to compare this area with
Belorussia, where
overcast in the winter is at its maximum;
Minsk
Yalta
December January February December January February
~' u{pry
millimeters) !t L6 14 70
82 56
Number of days
with precipita-tiori 1$ 17 lt~
~ 1L 15 12
Number of days
with Overcast 2L 23 15 12
13 9
In Belorussia the overcast weather is only partially connected with
the falling of precipitation, since the number of days with overcast exceeds
the number of days with pr ecipjta Lion. In Southern Crimea, on the contrary,
even the rainy days are not throughout overcast,
Not to rr-entxon the fact,
that in Southern Crimea, with a greater amount of rccipa.
p tata.ori, the nuanber
of days with precipitation is smaller than in ,Belorussia
.
The arrival of spring in the Crimea is connected with the inflow of
warm air from the south. These are the warm air masses from
the southeast
of Europe (the Balkan Peninsula), or more often
, the air from Asia Minor. A
typical synoptic disposition assuring the transfer of warm air to the Crimean
Peninsula and the north coast of the Beck Sea in general, is the loGa,tion
over the Caspian Sea of an anticyclone along the western periphery of which
the southerly air current originatos. One such
case is depicted in the synop-
tic disposition for 15 April 1938 (Figure
33)
Amount of Pre-
cipitation (in
78
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i1ESTfflCTEJ
TIIICTETJ
May
12 April 1o May
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Figure 33: Transi'er of warm air from Asia Minor (15 April 1938),
For instance:
southern littoral, as compared to the central area, is at first retarded.
able heat. Therefore, the temperature climb in the spring over the
In passing over the sea, the air from Asia Manor loses consider
reduces sky cover, which, in turn, results in increased insolation.
infJ.ow of warm air, the extension of a high pressure area over the Crimea
A similar situation may occur in March also. In addition to the
Yalta 2,5 Li. 6
Mean Temperature Climb (in degrees Centigrade)
F bruar -Ma h Ma l A? priJ Nay
meltchi !.5 6 b
Kurman?KeM
Yet, sprang on the southern littoral is warmer than in the central
zone. Below is a tabulation showing dates for the passing of the mean
temperature across the indicated levels (in degrees Centigrade),
Plus lo
Plt ~
Kurman-Kemal'chi 25 March 20 April 12
Yalta 3 March
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fIEST %%GT EU
As early as April, but to a greater degree in. May, the temperature
climb over the southern littoral of the Crimea takes place in connection
with increased insolation and the general warming of the air over the
peninsula. Insolation during the spring increases very rapidly: on the
average, 1 square centimeter Cf terrestrial surface7 absorbs X000 small
calories in March, 6L1,oo small calories in April, and 9900 small calories
in May. The fluctuations of insolation by individual years, as affected
by the amount of sky cover, are of minor importance.
During the spring there is a shift in the type of cyclones passing
over the peninsula. The number of Mediterranean cyclones decreases, and
the Atlantic cyclones take on principal significance. This reduces no-
ticeably the amount of precipitation on the southern littoral, while in
the central and eastern zones of the Crimea the amount of precipitation
during the spring is somewhat increased.
The summer in the southern coastal area is very warm, yet it can-'
not be designated as hot, since, with a sufficiently high mean tempera-
ture of July and August (21i. degrees Centigrade), the maximum high is
barely above 30 degrees Centigrade, and this not every year. Daily tem-
perature fluctuations are not great, and, on the average, do not exceed
8 degrees Centigrade. Humidity is considerable, but not excessive, and
its daily fluctuations are small, which is due to, not only the small
daily range of temperature, but also to the breezes, the force of which
is amplified by the wands from the mountain slopes. The daytime humid
breeze sustains the relative humidity, which, otherwise, diminishes with
a rise in temperature. Inversely, the dry wind, descending from the
mountains during the night, stops the further increase of relative humi-
dity. Relative humidity fluctuates daily within a range of several
percent, its mean value being 60 percent. Of interest in this respect
is the comparison of the range of relative humidity between the southern
littoral and the central zones of the Crimea.
k13'iiiC3E~
. 80 ~
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tS1 tUU ED
July August
700 Hours 13QO Hours 2100 HHours, 70,r, 0 Hors 1300 Hours 21Q4 Hours
Yalta 60 57 66 S7 53 61
5amferopo1' 7~ 1~a 77 76 LJ. 75
Against the background of the above depicted temperature and relative hu-
midity cycles, takes place the absorption of the abundant insolation, which is
a general characteristic of the summer in the Continental region as a whole, and
the Crimean Peninsula in particular.
The predominance of clear days points to the dryness of the Crimean summer.
In the passing of the season from spring to summer, the amount of precipitation
at first increases, then diminishes again in the month of August. The average
amount of summer precipitation (404a millimeters for June, 5~?60 millimeters
for July, 20'2 millimeters far August) varies considerably from year to year.
~
There are years when summer precipitation is in excess of that for the winter,
accumulating to the extent of ~0 percent of the yearly total, with the abundant
rains failing during June and July, and the month of August almost invariably
The sea breezes in August help sustain the relative humidity almost on the
dry.
same level, as in June and July.
August in the southern littoral, with rare exceptions, is somewhat warmer
than July, and the mean temperature of September is close to that of June.
Yalta
Relative Humidity (in Percent)
Mean Temperature (in degrees Centigrade)
June July Ault September
20 2) 2L l.9
September weather is like summer weather, not only by temperature, but
also by relative humidity.
Relative Humid?tY at 1300 Hours (in Percent)
June July August September
Yalta
60
Si 53 56
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Thus the symmetry of the annual temperature and relative hu nidaty
curves is c1isturbed, and the arrival of the autumn season is to be rele-
gated to October. The shift of the maxi.,mum high temperatures to the se-
cond half of the suiruner is due not only to the proximity of the zone to
the sea, but also to the general conditions of circulation. This is
illustrated by the September and November extension of an outcrop of the
\.zoric anticyclone over the Southern Ukraine and the Crimea, carrying
clear and warm weather in its wake. For an example, refer back to figure
32 (1L' October 193).
The appearance of this outcrop of the Azoric anticyclone is the
reason for the prevalence of calm, clear and warm autumnal weather over
the Crimea and the Black ea coastal area of the Caucasus. For this reaw
son, this period is considered the best season of the year. The circuM
latorY process engendering the formation of this Azoric outcrop is not
yet sufficiently understood. Possibly this process is to a considerable
extent due to the general cooling of the continent, which causes an over-
current in the middle troposphere from the Atlantic side; in the north
at this time there is the beginning of cyclonic activity.
The beginning r of the autumn over the southern littoral is indeed
the finest time of the year. The temperature drops somewhat, yet is
surricienUy high. The mean temperature passes the plus l~ degrees Cen"
tigrade level during the "teens" of October, and the plus 10 degrees
Centigrade level around 10 November. The amount of precipitation after
the month of August increases rather rapidly, yet the number of rainy
days increases but little. The number of rainy days in October is
smaller than in June. The auio>rts of precipitation in the autumn, as
well as during the sunnier, vary through individual years, and the autvmis
are at tines very dry.
In the second half of autumn (in November) there is an increase
in the amounts of sky cover and precipitation; rainy weather occurs
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E'ST aid EU
during one third of the month, and on rare occasions (not every year)
there is some snowfall, Also in November occur the first autumn frosts,
about two or three times during the month, but some years there are none.
The Trost rapid general drop in temperature occurs from October to Novem~
her, when over the Continental region the formation of winter continental
air begins in the areas of high pressure, connocted with the Asiatic
anticyclones. November over the southern littoral of the Crimea is de-
finitely a winter month, since there is more precipitation on the south-
ern mountain slopes, as compared to the northern slopes, which is indica-
tive of the shifting of the cyclone paths in accordrttnce with the winter
circulation cycle.
The mountainous part of the Crimea rases to an altitude of 1000
meters above sea level. The altitude does not essentially affect the
conditions of circulation, except that during the winter cold penetra-
tions, the mountainous zones are found in the warmer upper layers of the
cold mass. Also, under conditions of local radiation cooling, with the
downfloir of the cold air over the slopes, it is warmer on the mountain
tops than it is below. Yet, the formation of temperature inversions in
the mountains occurs rarely, and has almost no effect on the mean tem-
perature differentials. Yet, when compared with the coastal belt tem-
peratures, the vertical temperature gradient becomes considerable, due
to the warring effect of the sea. As can be seen from the the tabula-
tion below;
December Ja ~ Feb,. r uary
Yalta 6,1 3.7 1.0
Ay-Petri. Minus 1.1 Minus 14.2 Ninus 3.2
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r s over a period o2 years the number of
According to ob,~erva~ta.on
. in December .,,. 2, in January w.. 28, in
ys with frost is as follot ~s . h wM 2L, with the ternperatw.^e rising above zero
~'ebruar',~ ?.? 2G s . ~n I~,rc
centigrade during the day in LSO percent of all cases.
The snow cover in the mountains is of considerable depth and is
sustained on the average about two months.
distributed quite unevenly. In the soothes
Winter p~^ec~.p tata.on is -in rid e], particularly near the slope fac-
ern part of the Yalta ~oanta g_
? Ze amou~~t of p~"ecipitation in Decembers January
ing the sea (Ay-Petri) s tl ' 7ra11imeters per month. On the northern mount-
and ~~~'ebrua~^y is about l
reci nation is one third the above volume.
ain slopes the amount of D p
An important climatic feature of the mountainous part of Crimea
ro~ t7 ~~rinds, generating frequent snow storms,
is the occur^a,ence of st~
with the warm and calm weather pxeVe,ila.ng
which is in sharp contrast
.dith the strong warm winds, there is f or-
over 'the. southern littoral.
. the leeward slopeS. The Crimean foelins are cones
n~,~;:>.on of foel~n.~ over
tit During the passim of the Niedx-
nected mainly with cyclona.c ac Y.
then and southeastexl~y winds form f oehns over
terranean cyclones the sou y
C clones arriving from the west form foehns over
the northern slopes Y
the southern coast. The foehns over the southern slopes are not as
~er the northern slopesa and they occur less
fully developed as tho,~e ov
re uent during the winter and spring
fre~,uent:l.y. The f aehna are mast fq
(larch-April). oLr ten-
t swnr~~er in the mountainous area is distinguished by 1
of x^eca,pa.tation, as compared to the atcppe
pcratw^es and a great amount 1~
and the southern la.tt.or The temDeratu~^e drop with the inareawe in
~,l . '~
altitude is particularly pronounced at the stapes, and is due to the
n temperature gradient between Yalta
awerful ascending currents. The mea
p
and Ay-Petri for the entire summer is approd.mat01~ 0.7 of a degree
titude with the mean temporatura fai^ July
Centigrade per 100 meters of al ,
at AyPatri close to l~ degrees Cen'tigrode, about the same as in Arlch-
..
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angel'sk. Thus, within the extent of only one kilometer the summer tem~
perature cycle, as related to altitude, will have the same range as the
temperature cycle over the entire European territory of the Union, from
north to south, from the White Sea to the Black Sea. This is the reason
for the maintenance of numerous sanatoria at various altitudes in the
southern coastal area of the Crimea, with a choice of favorable climatic
features for various convalescent requirements.
Auturua in the mountainous area, as well as throughout the Crimea,
is known for its calm and clear weather. The first autumn frosts occur
with the beginning of October.
THE CAUCASUS
Among the clitrtological factors in the Caucasus, terrestrial
configuration is of almost first importance. It effects tremendous
changes in circulation conditions in the bottom layer of the troposphere,
which is of the utmost significance with relation to temperature and
humidity -p the two basic factors in the division of a territory into
climatic zones. The Caucasus /mountain range lies on the boundary be-
tween the temperate and subtropical belts, and the system of ridges of
the Great Caucasus, by retarding the meridional transfer of the cold and
warm air masses, accentuates this boundary and makes it fully unmistakable:
Northern Caucasus is in the temperate climatic belt; Trans-Caucasia be-
longs to the subtropical belt.
Of greatest climatological significance arc the ridges of the Great
Caucasus, as a hindrance to the migration of the cold air masses from
the north. In most cases, when the Arctic air reaches the Caucasus, the
high mountainous wall extending throughout the entire width of the Cau-
casian isthmus, with only narrow passes along the coasts of the flack
and Caspian Seas, prevents its penetration into the valleys of the rivers
Rion and Kura. And only on rare occasions, which do not recur every year,
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 MYMMN.IMw.N'wwM1.iVWm1Vn.M.Nh.MMPnw.MM!.~i )#f?, .~evN'r4~mJN MY....w H.'rlu+ ~. !at' Wn1ar+.s~W+k~..rAr
Fi ur L : rtoo Hours 2 December i93d?
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the cold air flows around the mountain ridge from the west and from the
east, enclosing the high-mountain area into a sort of warm island. Such
a ~ynopti7 situation occurred during the first days of December 1938,
and it is depicted below in Figures 3).i, 3S, 36, and 37; these show the
consecutive stages of the cold Arctic air penetration and its by..passing
of the Caucasian ridge.
~..WMMM,anh larMH kr9 NiAu..'w4i,i. ~~ll'l+.~FWM'A:.1'.~~:.~.~.~~.rFV~l,:w+/,.A~'V. r~nV.'Mit+4"4.(.rMMryW7MNLMw'nr{a,'XIYJ H'l~m~'PmIWMMIi.M
~kMW V FMf1~1'N~M~?iYNi\IMk~Nm~'f`ION4+MIM9~NwlMN~wM+Ai.M'INI'Mfer~n~NMW mrw.INM~N+fMFaxpm.MbA~eN-.+~hn
Fi urn: 700 Hours 3 December 1938.
M ~~ M
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December 1930.
]a,guxe37,.lmAedance of the cyclones over Western TransMCaucasia (1i
The general synoptic situation over the continent, under the conM
dttions of which the Arctic air penetrated so fair to the: south, was as
the eastern half of the European part of the Union was dominated
follows :
owerfu. anticyclone, enclosing a series of cyclones at the Arctic
by a p
front with one of these cyclones situated over the area of the lower
sh On 2 December in the morning (T~'igure 314) the Arctic air arrived
Irty
over the Sea of Azov. The Northern Caucasus at this time was filled with
continental air from Eastern Europe, and TranswCaucasia, with continental
from Asia Minor. The temperature in Novorossiysk was plus b dogrees
air
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Centigrade, in Sochi ~- plus 6 degrees Centigrade. On 2 December the
Arctic air reached the Caucasian ridge and began to by-pass it, extend-
ing along the coasts of the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, Toward the
morning of 3 December, the Arctic air moving over the Black Sea coast
passed over Sochi (where the temperature, as compared with the preceding
morning, dropped by 13 degrees Centigrade), and the Arctic air moving
over the coast of the Caspian Sea passed over Ierbent. In the area of
Novorossiyslc this penetration was accompanied by a powerful gale. r~'oward
the evening of the Same day, the Arctic air flowing over the flack Sea
arrived over the Turkish coast, and the Arctic air flowing over the
Caspian Sea arrived over the Persian coast. In Datum, with a snow stormrs
raging, the temperature dropped to riurtus 8 degrees Centigrade (a drop
of 1 degrees Centi.grade as compared to the r~iorning). The cold air filled
the entire valley of the Rion and the lower course of the Kura. During
the day of 3 December, a snowstorm was raging over the entire coastal
area, from Baku to Lerrlcoran'. Yet, at the northern slopes of the cons
tral part oi' the Caucasian artountaira ridge, the Arctic air had only reach
ed the altitude of 1000 mcter and the old7 front did not get over
the mountain ridge.
At other time? the cold fonts succeed in getting over the Cauca.-
sign ridge, but only in such places where the altitude cl' the ridge is
below 1000 meters, The cold air, upon reaching the mountainous wall,
begins to warmn sorriewliat, and the temperature on the lope, during cold
penetrations, is frequently higher than the temperature in an adjacent
valley. This is due to the internixing of the cold lower layers with
the warmer upper layer's. With the inflow of new masses of cold air, the
warm air over it is forced upwards. The result is greater precipitation
at the northern slopes of the c.
With relation to the warm fronts, the terrestrial configuration
also plays an important part, by activating them and thereby causing
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,c
:i "1
s:L
ht~
aka?~
increased precipitation, as in the case of the substantial rains over
the southwestern slopes. Abundant precipitation over the southwestern
slopes is clue not only to the activation of the fronts, but also to the
retardation of the cyclones over the coast of the Black Sea in their
raovement eastward. This retardation is caused, in addition to terres-
tr a1 configuration, by the evolution (particularly in the winter) of
an anticyclone over the European territory of the Union, at the same
time that cyclones are passing over Trans 'Caucasia (Figure 37).
Not only the ridges of the Great Caucasus, but also the raOUnt8.ins
of Asia Id.rior exert an influence over the circulation of the lower
~tT1lo6plre11c7 strata and over cyclonic activity. The Tropical air
arriving from Asia I~iinor, in its descent from the mountains, is very
as can. be seen from the synoptic disposition for 28 December 1938
(i'iure 38).
(29 December 1938).
Such dry adiabatic air extends at times over the Illack Sea coast
all the way to Sochi.. The cyclones arriving over Trans-Caucasia from
the soutl'1, are also frequently dry. Yet at the same time, 1f the Trop
ical air is moving not i.mmediatel7 over the earth ' s surface, but at
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it will be
some altitude (at the occlusions of the Asia Minor front),
a source (in the secondary cyclone) of considerable precipitation
1
/ _u t,
'me winter occlusion of the Asia Iinor front (23 December
The climatic significance of the Caucasian Mountains is also ac-
centuated by its vertical zoning, which is due not only to the general
temperature and humidity variations with altitude, but to circulation
in the free atrttosphere. Thus, beginning with an altitude of 2000 meters,
the leading part is played by the western current, with the accentuation
of the effect of the Atlantic arid the 1editerraflean.
The Black Sea and the Caspian Sea lyd,ng, respectively, on each
side of the Caucasus, are not equivalent in their effect, upon the climate
of the Gauca.a ru~ . This is due not so much to their indiv~ dual characterw
~
isticsa as to their respective locations. The flack Sea lies ath~'iart the
westerly air currents flowing toward the Caucasus, while the same westerly
winds dominating the middle troposphere, carry thy; air from over the
Caspian Sea into Central Asia.
These bodies of water are limited in area, and there is insuffiM
eient time for the air masses carried over them to become transformed
into maritime air, Therefore, the air masses circulating over then
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 tI iS1RICTED
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are predominantly continental, undergoing certain changes, with relation
to temperature aril humidity, in their bottom layer only.
In the winter the lowered pressure over the surface o2 the Mack
Sect causes the deflection of the Neciiterranean cyclones to the northeast
from their rein. path through Asia Minor, with the restating increase in
the amount of precipitation over the seacoast and the western slopes of
the Caucasus. In the summer the relatively cold surface of the sea
creates favorable conditions for thy: extension of the Azoric area of
high pressure eastward, and for the establishr-ient of weather character'
ized by a light degree of sky cover. Over the seacoast ~o percent of
the summer season is almost completely clear (a particularly large num
box' of clear days occurs in the beginning of autumn).
The predominant circulation over the entire Caucasus in the slum'
me r is the transfer of air masses From the north. These northerly cur-
rents are connected with the eastern periphery of the Azoric anticyclone
outcrop, and with the western periphery of the Asiatic depression. The
continental air of the southern steppe bolt, in various phases of its
transformation into Tropical air, is transferred to the Northern Caucasu 3.
Over Trans-Caucasia the predominant air is Tropical air, which, after
it is formed right there, lingers on due to the prevailing wand deficiency.
In the winter,, there is a flow toward the Northern Caucasus of
continental air fron,i the east and northeast along the southern periphery
of the areas of high pressure. Over the coast of the S]a ck Sca, from
the southeast, along the eastern br m oi' the Black Sea depression, extends
air of a basically continental type, but with maritime characteristics
a.n its bottom layer. The same kind of air is observed over the Caspian
Sea coast. Over the Armenian highland, in the areas of hash pressure,
there is circulation of continental air of Asia Minor origin, which pene-
trates into the central zones of Trans~Caucasia.
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The Caucasus can be divided into three climatic regions: (1) rii
Northern Caucasus, which constitutes a part of the Southern Continental
climatic region of the European territory of the USSR; (2) The high-al-
titude Great Caucasus, a territory constituting the Caucasian ridge
propel, with average altitudes from 2000 rrieters up; (3) Trans-Caucasia,
which includes the Kura~Rion corridor and the Armenian highland, The
first two regions are in the temperate climatic area, while Trans?Cau-
casia lies in the sub-tropical areao
Northern Caucasus
The climatic region, of whic1?1 the Northern Caucasus is a part,
borders with its foothills on the high-altitude Great Caucasus, and with
its flack Sea and Caspian Sea littorals, on sub 4ropical Trans~Caucaaia.
Along the northern slopes of the Caucasus, the boundary runs at an alti-
tude of 100?2000 meters, an altitude above which the cold air masses
rise only on rare occasions. On the Black Sea littoral, the boundary
lies between Tuapse and Sochi, and on the Caspian Sea littoral, in the
area between Derbent and Kuba.
With relation to circulation features, there are three distinct
climatic zones within the Northern Caucasus:
(1) The northwestern 1editerranean zone, which is a continu-
ation of the Mediterranean zone in Southern Crimea. Its eastern bound-
ary is the river Belays.
(2) The central zone, which by circulation characteristics
is connected with the south of the European territory of the USSR, and
way, therefore, bo called the East~European zone. It occupies the ter
ritory to the east of the river Belaya, the Stavropol' elevation and the
adjacent to it central part of the Northern Caucasus up to an altitude
of 15002000 meters.
(3) The southeastern zones where the influence of Europe is
gradually subsiding, and the effect of the Asiatic iand mass is in its
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a mean temperature of over plus a degrees Centigrade will occur in
yatigorsk.
thaws occur rarely. Thus, it is not every winter when days with
sivc
ascendancy. It may, therefore, be called the Asiatic zone -~ it occupies
the basin of the Terek arid the Dagestan.
The winter in the North Caucasus is characterized by continental
features, and the predominant air mass is continental of East~EurOPean
ori6gin, The percent of Atlantic and Arctic penetrations is even lower
than that over the 5t1 e~pe~Continental region, with a subsequent decrease
in temperature variation. Thus, the mean January temperature in Pyati-
gorsk s degrees Centigrade, and in 70 percent of all cases the
is minus
mean daily tempc,ratu'e is actually' close to this value (fluctuations do
z
? exceed plus 3 de gees Centigrade). 1~mile in the AtlanticNConttinental
~~
not
region, the number of cases in which the man daily temperature wring
is close to the mean monthly value is less than 0 percent.
Januar~
{rl~e con?ta. ' nental feature is accentuated by the stability of 'temperature
in the above indicated sense, and also by the possible sudden temperature
drops in individual cases. Freezing weather in the Northern Caucasus
can go down the same level, as in the area of the Lower Volga, that
to is to minus 30 degrees Cent6igrado, but is of shorter duration. Dxten"
In connection with the orographic lifting of the air in cold ard,
particularly., in warm penetration, there is frequent recurrence of cone
pact fogs enveloping large areas. Under negative ten~1)c,ratures close
,
to zero Centigrade, these fogs, consisting of supercooled drops, often
result in intensive hoarfrosts and sleet. According to reported data,
the area particularly affected is the area of the Caucasian Iaineral
Springs (spas). It is reasonable to suppose, however, that other less
reported areas' on tho northern slopes suffer from edensive f ormat:i
of sleet in the winter months. In the area of the Caucasian Mineral
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itS t
Springs, the sleet f orrriatiorrs are so heavy that almost every year there
is disruption of the electric power lines. The sleet intensity depends
to a great extent on the local wind intensification, which is due to ter-
restrial configuration. It is of interest to note that fog and subsequent
sleet are formed rarely in localities lying above the 700?800 meter level.
For instance, in the same zone of the Caucasian Mineral Springs, the fog;
is sharply discontinued between Essentriki (altitude 600 meters) and
Kislovodsk (altitude 800 meters). And vhile practically all of the zone
is covered with a dense fog (accompanied by a rather strong wind), it is
calm and clear in Kislovodsk.
Orographic turbulences connected with the flowing of air onto he
mountain slopes, are not always accompanied by the formation of fogs.
Said forn-ation depends upon the hurrd.dity and temperature of the air mass.
Soretimes the process is limited to the development of overcast. The
synoptic conclitions,under which there is inflow and lifting of air, evolve
rather frequently, wherefore the winter months on the northern slopes
of the Caucasus up to an altitude of 800-1000 meters are distinguished
by considerable number of overcast days. Below is a tabulation of
data on overcast in the area of the Caucasian Mineral Springs.
Number of Days with Overcast
Decd
January
Zheleznovodsk
16
12
Pyatigorsic
17
12
Esentuki
is
11
Kislovodsk 8 3
of course, overcast in the Northern Caucasus is connected not only
with the above described process, but also with cyclonic activity. The
cyclones) passing over the Black Soap generate considerable sLy cover over
ove~oast is carried by the West-European cyclones, while the Mc ditcrraner n
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ranean cyclones.
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the northwestern zones only. At the source of the Kuban', the Mediterr-
ranean cyclones are accorlpanied by foehns, caused by the downward move'
ment of the air after it has crossed the Caucasian ridge. To the east
of the Caucasian Mineral Springs area, the flack Sea cyclones are not
observed.
Cyclonic activity over the Northern Caucasus during the winter is
riot of great intensity, and the amount of precipitation is not greater
than in the region of the Lower Volga (about 20 iniilimeters a month) .
The nwnber of days with precipitation is also comparatively srlkaii, some'
what rrtore than half the number oi' cIaya with overcast, which is due to
the above described lifting of the air along the mountain slopes. In
:3 degrees Centigrade warmer than that for the central LastMEuropean zone
zone of the Northern Caucasus, is considerably miller. The Kuban' area
has a mean January temperature of about minus 2 degrees Centigrade, i.e.
connection with the small amount of Irecipitation, on the one hand, and
the frequent thaws, on the other handy the snow cover is rather light
and unstable. On the average, it is sustained for about two and a half
rliorrths (from the middJ.e of December to the beginning of Larch), attain-
ing a depth of 10"1.S centiruetcrs by the end of February.
The winter season in the area of the Kuban' and on the Black Sea
littoral (Novorosaiysk, Tuapse), constituting to Nediterranean climatic
ridge, is due to the more frequent penetrations of maritim? air which is
tcrnperature increase during the winter, northwestward aioni the Caucasian
phone over the I{ubanr lowland being filled with cold air. The gradual
with altitude, but rather increases somewhat, as a result of the atmos-
to an altitude of Soo?iOOO meters, the mean temperature does not drop
planned by lower altitudo, since in the Northern Caucasus in winter, up
f tho Northern Caucasus (,Stavropol.', Pyatigorsk). This cannot be exm'
carried from the I3lack Sea with the passing of the southwesterly I~editer-
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It is still wanner than that on the littoral, which may be con-
sidered as a sub-zone of the Kuban' zone. The mean January temperature
in Novorossiysk is plus 2 degrees Centigrade, in Tuapse, plus L degrees
Conti grade. Such a comparatively high temperature is due, first of all,
to the direct pro.hnity of the sea, and, second, to the presence of the
mountain ridge. This ridge acts as a barrier hindering the continuous
inflow of the cold continental air from the northeast, toward the lit-
toral, and allow:Lng it to pass only in those cases when the vertical
depth of the air Hess exceeds the altitude of the ridge. In line with
such accentuation of the respective effects of the sea and the conti-
nent, the temperature fluctuations during the winter are sharper on the
littoral than on the slopes o1 the Northern Caucasus. Cold air penetra-
tions sometimes result in a tempcrat`-^e drop to below rdnus 10 degrees
Centigrade, whale with warm air penetrations the temperature rises to
plus 10 degrees Centigrade. This 20 degree teruperature jump sometimes
takes place within a period of only 2 to 3 days. Another feature of the
thermal cycle over the littoral is that the winter frosts are accompanied
by strong Brands, reaching at times the strength of a gale, which aggra-
vates greatly one r s sensitivity to the cold. These cold northeasterly
gales are known as BORA. This phenomenon is also known in other areas
of the USSR, such as Novaya 7enaya, Ballchash iakG, Baykal. Take7, and
the littoral of the Sea of Okhotsk. The BORA seta in at the moment a
cold front passes over a mountain ridge. Its subsequent evolution is due
to the overflow of cold air spreading behind the front. The bora conti~
flues until such time as there exists above tho ridge a cold air currert
of sufficient force, which, in striking the mountain barrier, begins to
pulsate, imparting to the wind a peculiar gustiness, a characteristic
distinguishing the bora from other winds. Since tho air currents are des-
cernding, the passing of the front is not accompanied by cloud formation
and precipitation. The sky during the bora is clear, with the exception
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 located on the southwestern side of the baY~
off' buald.na' loaded
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teristic dloud bank ertend.ng alon~, g, the maunl;aln ridge. a
o .
ernain5 stationary regardless of the powerful wind,
This cl~axac bank r ,
wlra.ch cloud clearly dem ,e occu1aaed by it is
onstrates the fact that the play
rnexely the place of intensive cloud f orr~at10 n, At all ts.rne s pieces
of, this cloud rtLaea are tal^n . of ~ by id and fade away, with new clouby t w N
of the cloud bank is due to cond
sections appearing. The ?orrflation
?ed air, which is f orris d as a result of the
sata.on of vapor in the rarefied en
J
turbulent backwa5Y1 at the sunuc it of the ridge.
Figures 3~, 3y, and
6 above. The As evolu soon tion as of the the front bona has can be stud~.cd from
moved across the ride, the mild
e
3
(Figure 3).~) shifts to a northeasterly w,.nd of dal
southwesterl;~wand (I'.~f~
sharp ~ drop in tempGrate. On 3 I)ecem
3ortaon: (Fa.~ure 3~) s with a s
roI
P e FigvLre 36), since there is stall ~ ,isent over
bor the bona cont ~
~.nun ~s ( able res
the ride a strong easterly cup r cQ11ditioned upon a consider P
ent
~ ntic clone
dr~. between the continental a y
sure gradient force at the bolrrl ~
~h of depression over th. Black Sea.
and the trough
The bona attains its maX.Lmum force over the zone of Idovoross1yslt.
The wand doscenda.ng from the mountains cauuee tremendous agitation in
~~ the aeraods of the borax the day
the bay below. In the winter, duxa. ~nk, ~
off Nvvoxaasi . cauldron, over whack rise clouds o
vapor. ' ~'slc resembles a bo? ~.l~.n~
se,tions in the frosty air o
The vapor clouds are the conden
stxonr wind. The waves are broken into
air moastua.^ evaporated in the ~ ~ tl>s
~
e d s
spray by the wands and the supercoolop se t'tle in the form of hex
.ink o:C ships in the bay, and on
sleet on the hulls and the the walls
rag~
700 rna'ters 18 adiabaticaUy boated, but the tempera
.
, a
power and
ena~.n., from an aptitude of 600?
breaks pcomet c
poles, etc. The air current desc
.
tore increase of. 6
lines which are heavy with slce~ up
4
on
t~
uemt~.Y causes the sl,ontaneoua roll~.n~ o . ;
re
The boy a
o. a ~?'ns ahem, breaks
iti at sidinggand at times eve n over
railroad cars ~a sets and
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 the littoral with the southwesterly winds, frequently of ale proportion$~
These gales, however, in contrast to the cold and dry northeasterly gales,
have a positive temperature and arc accompanied by precip.tationp?
Thus the inflow of the cold air rnasses and the transfer of the
warm ones are accompanied by strong winds, frequently ascurning gale pro'
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degrees centigrade does not compensate for the general temperature drop
caused by the cold penetration. Beyond the mountain ridge the tempera -
tunes of the cold air run to minus 20 degrees Centigrade and below. The
adiabatically y induced temperature rise of b degrees Centigrade estabii$h-
ec the temperature on the littoral within the range of minus 10 to minus
~
15 degrees Centigrade. This temperature combined with the powerful wind
( mean wind velocity about 20 meters per second) will cause the same senM
cation as the severest frosts of Yakutia. The bora usu fly lasts a few
days, but at times lingers on for over a week. In Novorossiysk, for the
three winter months, there are, on the average, 10 days during which the
bora predominates, with a mean daily temperature below minuS degrees
Centigrade. Toward the south, with higher altitudes of the mountain
ridge, re, the bora occurs less and less frequently, and fades away completely
~
between Tuapse and Sochi.
The combination of calm and frosty weather is practically unknown
on the littoral, since, with calm, a strong effect on the temperature
of the air is exerted by the direct prox ri ty of the sea, with the addi-
tional protection of the coastal belt from the inflow of cold continen
tal air, afforded by the mountain ridge.
In addition to the part played by the continental air masses, the
transfer of maritirrie air carried by the Mediterranean cyclones is also
a As mentioned before, the cyclones of the Eediter-
:~ great significance.
ranaan front reach the shores of the Crimea and of the Northern Caucasus
already in a state of occlusion These cyclones move, in the majority
of cases, from southwest to northeast, and the maritime air arrives over
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portionsp The zone of Novorossiysk in the winter is the windiest zone
of the entire Union. The recurrence of strong winds (over 10 meters
per second) amounts to more than 20 percent, out of which one half may
be designated as gales (above 1~ meters per second). The mean velocity
of the wind for the three winter months is about 7 meters per second,
and over the ridge proper it is considerably higher.
Duran the periods of relative calm in the atmosphere, which per-
iods constitute 30 percent of all days, there is a prevalence of mild
southeasterly winds, which carry the relatively warm air from southern
Trans-'CauCasia at a temperature which at times is several degrees above
zero Centigrade.
Cyclonic activity in the winter brings a considerable amount of
precipitation, and the printer is the most htuni.d season, since the ridge
slope facing the sea is windward of the saturated southwesterly air cur-s
rents The effect of the presence of the mountain ridge with regard to
precipitation becomes clear by comparing the amounts of precii)itat;ion
(in millimeters) for Novorossiysk and for Anapa
cuxr~ulative amount of precipitation for tl?ae three winter montl~is is as
Decd January February
Novorossiysk 82 7Li. 62
Anapa ao !4; 38
Toward the south, tie amount, of precipitation on the littoral in
creases, which is mainly due to the rising altitude s of the ridge. The
follows: 218 mil1imetcrs L'or Novorossiysk, 381. millimeters for Tuapse,
)497 millimeters for Sochi. Snow occurs on relatively rave occasion, and
liquid precipitations predomir,atc.
on the Stavropol' Plateau. This is due to the almost cotatinuous inflow
In Dagestan, regardless of its more cauthern location, the winter
is not any milder than in the area of the Caucasian l~iinerai pries and
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'n1e;; even of Asiatic origin, w~.tl~~ the nortl?1~
a~' cailt:~.nc;r~ta.l aa.z , at ~a.
-~ d: , Or~t.y in the direct, pra~cimity of the Caspian
ca~~,s~;e~^~.y' ar~~ta.cycl.on,>wc winds
~'ie saiacwhat, yet remain i.n negative in its mean
l~c~^a,~re
Sea doe a the tern
~r ~.e the month. oa' Jarnry is 6 degrees' Centigride
value. In :~l~.hac.h I.a
C~ 'the ~ sa~Yte sharp cantraCt bet~reen the 111ack yea
colder than
~i
in mocha.. the ' n Jec~ littoral prevails with rclz:t;iail to ~~r.ecir
littoral and the CaC ~l~~-a
~' .~'ta,tion ?'or the Dccermbcr~I~clarz'y period in
ta,tian; t;he ar~auYit o~ prec,a.r.~
.. tors in I~eLkhach?i~ale, it is 110 zrullitiIPter: .
:LS al7(,Ot ~00 1~a.lla.mG
Sochi
a in the Northern Caucaau3, in the 1ow~ly nE; onca with
lllc: ,,ur~u.+c~^s ' ~.
tl!~;r loot with little N rain. On the i~lou.nt?
ra
steppe chars,ct,era.sta.c~, ~, are
c,a,n slopes, however, with ruin; altitudes, the tempcratL>_r~: drops, and
the amours o1 preciIaita,t1a1 increases. for instance:
Mean TerTII ~ centigrade) and Amawlt of Preca:}~a,.tat:t.on
~e~?at?c (in 3~c~rac Cen~,a.' G~
ratl~xers) (precipitation)
(remise
(in illi.meters)
June ust u3t
u
J~ w
I~ovo~RarrannavSkoye 3 ii. 2). 2.O ~9 3, 30
(Alta.tude 100 i;ete )
L 1',? .~t 126 80
I) and2hika:l 20
6 ~
'
.
;A~,ta.tudc 630 t;eter3) ~.~.
an tl)e plain to the north off; dndzha.l?:an,
1t0v00rr~x1avskoye 110
at a distance ?rofli it somewhat over 200 1ri,J.omct0~'a ? Such a cansld0rab10
d t
o
a, ita.tion over the s~.opea, as cornparc
~ ,,,,~~h ~r~ in the amount of pr~+ti ~
i
act
is due not only to the intensificatbon of the passinve
lain
th
,
e p
the
o" is ? rder tli jrI'1uenco Of the errestriag relief, but also
,r'
r
ve
h
a
rogeneral-~.on of 5era.?di5c0n1tjnUed occlusions, which, over tnc: plain,
es
inou3 zon
lready uce precipitation. thus, the mourita
lready ceased to ~~rod ~
a
a
it
a-
a greater amount off, but also more frequent, precip
recoiva not on~.y ~,
Lion than doer the adjac0nt plain. In the beginniflg a~ the sintuncr, the
number ol' days with precipitation amounts, on tlic average, to l~, while
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in August it is decreased to 10. In the process of the orographic regen-
eration of occlusions, arid, generally, in the intensification of fronts
under the influence of ~errestrial7 relief, of great importance are the
thermally ascending currents convection currents7, evolved during the
day over the slopes. This explains why in the falling of frontal preci-
pitation over the slopes of the Northern Caucasus there is clear evidence
of a daily cycle -M precipitation occurs predominantly during the second
half of the day. Thus, in addition to frontal precipitation, the mountain
Slopes also receive local convective rains.
The summer rains over the mountainous zones are intensive. During
the sunurer there are, on the average, l~ rains in excess of 10 nd.llimeters
per day, while over P9oxcow there are only six such rains. Not infrequently
the amount of precipitation rises to 20 millimeters a day, and on rare
occasions as high as 200 millimeters in one day.
The temperature cycle show: more stability in the summer than in
the winter. At an altitude within the range of from S00 to 700 meters,
the mean daily temperature in 90 percent of cases remains close to 20 de-
grees Centigrade. At night it descends to 15, and only in exceptional
cases to below 10 degrees Centigrade. However, temperatures during the
daylight houz' often rise to 30 degrees Centigrade.
In the area of Krasnodarsk, the summers are hotter and dryer, par-
ticularly in its eastern part, adjacent to the Stavropol' Plateau. This
is partly due to the effect of the foehns evolving in the down-slope air
current, in the presence of easterly and southeasterly winds, which pre
sominate in the sunnir. In this area precipitation increases only in the
mountains.
Stiunmer on the Black Sea littoral is little different from the sum.
rner of the continental steppe-like zones of the Northern. Caucasus, except
that the daily temperature and ielativ!7 humidity fluctuations are, na-
turally, smaller. At the seashore it is warme=r and dryer at night, less
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warm and more humid during the day.
eei~~itations in the northern part of the littoral occur
Sumrner pr ~
' he passin o?' the northeasterly cyclones, the paths
.naritly wltkl t
predarnd
the eographical7 direction of the mountain ridge,
of which cojnca.de 1rrith
this be n for practicably the same amount of precipitation an
~.nthe reason ~
the southwestern and the northeastern slopes. There is some decrease in
the amount, of prec.pa~ . ? aLatton on the coast during t1.ze summer, as compared
~.
her- the cyclones arrive from the southwest),
tiaitl'1 the 4nter lnOlltrla qtr
above, is due to the development over the Black Sea
which, as was s ~~ shown shown of an area of somewhat
increased pressure. however, the dryness of e
predicated not only on the extension of the editerranear1
uiinier here
area of high pressure, but also on the inflow of dry continental air from
the sautlleasLez,zi regions of the European territory of the Union. The
~-
close tie-in with the continent is demons'txated also by a sharp reduction
:in the amount' aitat .on by the end of the surimer. This charactamount' of preczZ
continental cycle gradually da.sappea's toward the
?,tstic feature of the
south, and in the zone of Sochi is hardly noticeable.
,y
Ama precipitation (in Millimeters)
u.nt of
June July August
ain r and the pressure gradient forces are smaller than in ridge ,alt,a.tude~
The inflow of continental air over the littoral is much more even
during the sw?ier than during the winter, since the vertical capacity of
the is always considerably in excess of the mount
6 31
1C0 66
78 914 82
lochi
62
Novorossiysk
Tuapse
the winter. Yeti every year, specifically in the summer, there is the
winter ones, accompany the cold penetrations and are observed upon the
recurrence of the bora. The suiniier northeasterly storms, as well as the
passim of he cold front. The temperature differential in the bottom
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layers, as between maritime air and continental air, is small during the
summer, and the diabatic warming of the air, in its descent from the mount-
ain ridge, may even cause a rise in temperature as compared to the day
before. In this case the bora assumes the characteristic of a foehn, i.eo
the temperature rises to 2, degrees Centigrade; its daily fluctuations
disappear; relative humidity drops to below 30 percent. If the bora occurs
in the middle of the suarniier, it is as if it breaks it in two halves.
During the first adequately humid half, pray 3es and trees, although not
very abundant in this part of the littoral, look fresh and green. After
the bora everything dries out, becoim s yellow, and lingers in this state
until the end of the swmiier, since during the second half, the amount of
precipitation, in general, drops abruptly.
Frain the above it becomes clear that the bora cannot exactly be
considered a beneficial cliim~tic phenomenon. Yet, there is a positive
side even to the bora. It serves as an excellent natural disinfectant
for the northern part of the littoral, and has great value as an air stag-
nation inhibitor. It is largely the bora that pikes the area Novorossiysk-
Tuapse the most beneficial to health, as compared to the rest of the lit-
.
toral which is oppressive and humid. This was recognized by A. I. Vocykov.
However, the actual blowing of the bora is difficua.t to take, particularly
for pe=ople suffering from neurological disorders. Some neurologists as-
cribe this to the rapid minute fluctuations in pressure, caused by the
above indicated pulsations of the wind ora/.
Dagestan is the hottest and dryest part of the Asiatic climatic
zone of the Northern Caucasus. In the foothills, whore the temperature
begins to descend with altitude, the summer temperatures are analogous
to those over the Kuban' plain. At an altitude of HOC meters the inean
July temperature is 23 degrees Centigrade, while down below, even at the
Lion in the mountainous zones is appro d.rnately the same as in the foothill
seashore, it is close to 25 degrees Centigrade. The amount of i~recipita~
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plain in the northwestern part of the Caucasus, while the littoral is
clearly dry, there is only 150 millimeters of precipitation for the
period June~September in Nakhach-ICaie.
The basic cause of aridity and high temperatures is the intensi-
fication of the anticyciogenesis, which is characteristic for the south-
east of the European part of the USSR and for the area north of the Casw
plan Sea. In addition to abundant insola'tion, there takes place in the
anticyclones a transfer of Central Asiatic air, which in its relatively
short path over the Caspian Sea hardy has an opportunity for cooling.
The Hi hAltitude Area of the Greater Caucasus
To the High altitude area of the Greater Caucasus is relegated
the territory, the cliratical conditions of which are resolved to a
considerable degree wader the influence of a free atmosphere. Notwith'
standing the fact that essential climatical differences are observed in
the Iiighwaltitude part of the Caucasus, the area in its entirety can be
considered as one climatic region, since there are some general characw
teristics pertaining to it as a whole. The location of the mean level,
at which this region begins, can be tied in with the altitude, at which,
in the surrounding free atmosphere, the change of direction of the basic
transfer of the air masses occurs. Over the Caucasus, beginning with
an altitude of l OOM2OOO meters, the westerl~r transfer of air masses
predominates, while below the winds are predominantly easterly. Approx"
mater, beginning with the same altitude, the maximum value in the
annual temperature cycle is shifted to the month of August, which is
characteristic for the temperature cycle of the free atmosphere. Thus,
tho bottom limit for the High''altitude cl bnatic region in the Caucasus,
is the already mentioned $OO'2000 meter altitude.
The character of the terrestrial configuration of the Iiigh?alti-
tude region of the Greater Caucasus is such (the absence of lame pla-
teaus), that the undev1 ring surface affects comparatively little the
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temperature of the air flowing over it. In addition, it is necessary
to remember that the degree of sky cover is comparatively low over the
central Caucasus only in the winter, when the cooling agar, flowing down-
ward, i$ replaced by warmer air from the surrounding atmosphere. 31r
cover is considerable in the summer, and there is little insolation of
the terrestrial ;surface and the adjacent atmospheric layer. The temper-
ature change, with relation to altitude, within the limits of the High-
altitude region, is very close to the change taking place in the free
atmosphere, and can be easily computed without direct observations.
The mean temperature of the coldest month (January) at the altitude of
2000 meters, is around minus 8 degrees Centigrade, the mean temperature
of the warmest month (August) is around plus 13 degrees Centigrade.
The daily temperature fluctuations, caused by advection, as in the free
atmosphere, are not smaller than over the plain adjacent from the north,
and are greater than in the protected zones of Trans-Caucasia.
Relative humidity in the High-altitude region is generally higher
than in the free atmosphere, particularly in the summer months, when
there is moisture condensation in the currents rising from below, attain-
ing a mean of 80 percent, The products of condensation, fog and clouds,
which, in these altitudes, hardly differ one from the other, are predom-
inantly local formations, tied in, to a smaller degree, with the process-
es in the free atmosphere. The fluctuations in hwnidity, as well as
those in temperature, depend on the changes in the free atmosphere, and
are more frequently observed by their absolute values, than they are
in the areas located below.
The activity of the fronts over the High.altitude region, as com-
pared with same over the lower zones, is increased, and with it there
is an increase in the amount of precipitation. There is, however, a
limit to this increase, since with the increase in absolute altitude,
the moisture content of the clouds is decreased. This becomes evident
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at such altitude, where the clouds become predominantly snow clouds.
This explains, incidentally, why the zone of maxinum precipitation is
clearly in evidence only in the summer, while in the winter, with snow
precipitation, it is not in evidence -- a phenomenon generally observed
in mountainous locations, particularly in the Caucasus. These relation-
ships allow the indirect determination of the altitude of the zone of
maximum precipitation by the attitudinal changes in the character of
falling precipitations (rain, snow). The increase in summer precipitant
Lion with altitude in any zone is observed for as long as the falling
precipitation remains liquid. Beginning with the altitude where, to"
gether with rain, there is snow, the amount of precipitation, with the
further rise in altitude, is decreased. This is not in contradiction
with the increase in the snow cover with altitude (up to a certain al..
titude,of course), since the increase in snow cover depends not as much
on the amount of precipitation, as on temperature conditions.
As much as it is possible to judge by the meager observational
data, mixed precipitations (rain with snow) begin to occur at an alti~
tude of 3000 meters. This level, then, is the altitude of maximum
summer precipitation, which fact is roughly confirmed by direct obser?
vational data. As to the volume of the snow cover, it depends not on1~r
on the amount of precipitation, but also on the duration of its existence
a
which is rapidly increasing with altitude,
The I ighp.altitude climatic region, like the region of the North
ern Caucasus, can be divided into two zones; the western or Mediterranean
present, and the eastern or Continental zone. Basically, the difference
zone, where the influence of the Mediterranean climatic region is still
(Continental) zone, the occlusions of tho western European cyclones and
dominate over the western (Mediterranean) zone, while ovor the eastern
place over them. The occluded cyclones of the Mediterranean front prep.
between these two zones, lies in the character of cyclonic activity taking
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ESTR1GT0~
the Iranian front cyclones predominate, advancing at times almost exactly
along the meridian, from south to north, over the Caspian Sea. The cir-
culation peculiarities of the western and eastern zones create differ-
ences in the annual cycle of precipitations and their distribution over
the slopes. There is more precipitation in the winter than in the sum
mer in the western zone, even though during the summer there are, in
addition to frontal precipitations, local thermal convection precipita-
tions. The maximum amount of precipitation falls on the windward south-
western s].ope. In the eastern zone, there is, on the average, half as
much precipitation as in the western zone, as a result of which the snow
line in the east lies 500".1000 meters higher than in the west. Preeipi'?
tation falls predominantly in the summer, with greater quantities on the
northern and northeastern slopes. The climatic boundary between the
western and eastern zones passes approxi.n~ately along the upper course
of the Kuban' River.
Trans'.Caucasia
By conditions of circulation, Trans.Caucasia can be divided into
three climatic zones, The first one, or Western Trans?Caucasia, basically
occupying the Valley of the Rion, can be called the ]Black Sea zone. The
second one, or Eastern Trans-Caucasia, occupies the Valley of the Kura
River and the lower course of its tributaries. The influence of the
continent is felt strongly, and the zone is known as the Continental
zone. The third zone, containing the Armenian upland, is called the
Armenian Highland Zone.
dueirng the generation, ovo' the windward slopes of ascending currents,
the Lowland of Kolkhida on three sides, weaken the air currents, by in-
Western Trans-Caucasia (the Black Sea zone) is an area character-'
ized by the stagnation of air masses. The mountain ridges surrounding
while it is ascending along the slopes, thero is easy formation of clouds,
which are retarding the horizontal air transfer. In the saturated air
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and the ascending rcendin7 currents are accelerated because of the saturated air
instability. This occurs with particular frequency in western Trans
~.ty.
Cawcasia, when westerlY wands are blowing, since the Valley of the Rion
1?s open mainly to these winds. Thus, the considerable degree of satura-
t?on of the air over the Valley of the Rion, is conducive to wind retard"
~,
at ion, causing thereby the stagnation of air rasses, with additional sub"'
Sequent saturation.
The local climatic conditions over Western Georgia are so unique,
that they impart to this area characteristics entirc:1y strange to the
?nent, but very similar to those of the humid subtropical climate
conta.
of the islands of Southern Japan. Western Georgia is, perhaps, the only
pace where the effect of local factors upon the climate is so strong.
At one time some thought was given to the existence of soMcalled '~clia"'
t- in the Caucasus. This idea, although true in part, has
tic spheres
little local significance.
In addition to the vertical currents, generated when the westerly
wands blow over Western Georgia, there is always the tendency, as over
any mountainous country, toward the evolution of a local thermal circu"
,ration. This, however, as also observed in other areas of the Caucasus.
The winter in Western Trans-Caucasia is predominantly mild, with
little difference in the mean winter temperatures between south and north.
Mean Temperature in Degrees Centigrade
December January February
Sochi 6
Only on rare occasions wili the temperature deecond to minus 10
3639, although typical, fox the given process, does not recur with every
degrees Centigrade, and the synoptic situation, as presented in Figures
winter. The temperature Fluctuations, generally, are not considerable,
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/03/08 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000100200005-4
tESi RICT ED
the valley (as in Kutais), the foehn assumes an intermittent characters
Trans-Caucasia in the form of warm and dry winds. In the upper part of
upper part of the Rion Valley. The foehns frequently pervade all Western
forms foehns over the western slopes of the latter and over the
ridge,
wind current. This current, after crossing the Neskhian and Tmeretian
since cyclonic activity, which is the main cause for variations in
weather, takes place mostly at the occlusions, where the Tropical air
the terrestrial surface, The temperature fluctuates
is cut off from
within the limits of the temperature differentials inside the continen?
tal air mass res, as between its Black Sea, Asia Minor, and Trans~CaUCa5iaz1
varieties. As to the Arctic front, it is usually situated only over the
northern part of the sea (Figure 39)?
There is also another reason for the winter temperature rise in
'Western Trans"CaUCasia. It is the adiabatic heating of the air in its
1r
decent along the slopes of the Meskhian and Gurian ridges, with easterly
and southeasterly winds. The easterly' winds predominate in the winter
~~'
over the Valley of the Rion, and, on the average, are warmer than the
wester1j and southwesterly winds.
The easterly winds are frequently very strong, and form foehns.
This occurs, when over the Caspian Sea develops an area of high pressure,
the Black Sea ?M a trough of depression, and along the corridor
over
formed by the Greater and Leaser Caucasus is established a southeasterly'
May). Figure l~0 shows a atypical synoptic disposition for Western Trans
December January, February), 3~ percent to tho spring (March, April,
foehns exceeds 100, out of which !0 percent fails to the winter months
effect on the nerves. The number of days during the year With strong
and, like the bora over Novorosslysk, has the same kind of a depressing
Caucasiat with the foehn blowing as on 16 April 1937
The foehns (gusty, dry, warm in the winter, and torrid in the
sLuruner), and the entire synoptic disposition during the foehn (brought
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about by the slow descent of the air), recur so frequently in the winter
over Western Georgia, that the mean values for temperature and humidity
are affected. Poti is warmer by 6 degrees Centigrade than Tbilisi in
the winter, although the difference in altitudes is only 404 meters. And
while it is true that part of the warmth is attributable to the sea, this
effect is hardly sufficient to account for a temperature rise, since the
wands prevailing over the coastal belt are from the continent. Relative
humidity in Sukhumi, poti, and Batumi is lower in the winter than in the
swn,ner, a circumstance that has been noted for quite some time.
Furl: Synoptic Disposition During the Foehn in Western Georgia
(16 April 1937).
monthly precipitation for the same months is 100 millimeters for Sochi,
,s1qr cover cuts off 70 percent of the sunshine, and the mean amount of
Rain in December, January and February takes up ~0 percent of all days,
Intensive cyclonic activity is generated during tho winter, mainly
in the form of occlusion cyclones at the Asia Minor Polar front outcrop.
and 220 mi11i neters Lor Batumi, Rain usua],],y falls with westerly winds,
which at times attain such velocities, that west and southwest walls i
buildings have to be protoctod with light sheet iron.
Throughout most of Western Trano-Caucasia, the winter is the rain-
lest season, by the number of days as well as by the amount of precipita.
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t .
tion. Only in the southernmost areas, such as Batumi, is there an equal
amount of rain in the winter and in the autumn.
distribution of winter precipitation in the Rion Valley shows
The
one unique characteristic, and that is that precipitation decreases with
distance from the sea in the direction of the Main Caucasian ridge, even
though the southwestern slopes are favorab1{ exposed with relation to
the fronts moving from the west. This is a result of the impediment of
the cyclones occurring exactl;r over the coastline, as shown in Figure 37?
The main reason for the pause, and at times the discontinuance of the
cyclones over Western Georgia, is the area of high pressure generated
over the central part of the Caucasus and the Armenian Highland similar
to the winter anticyclones over the Alps. Climatological maps do not
show with adequate clarity the area of high pressure over the Greater
Caucasus, on account of the discrepancy in reducing it to terms in rela-
tion to sea level, but the above area can be easily traced by following
the wind distribution in the free atmosphere and by the conditions of
slur cover. $lcy cover in the winter (particular]v in the first half of
it, when most of the precipitation falls on the coast) over the high-
altitude zones of the Caucasus is insignificant, and the high mountain
resorts of Georgia, in this respect, are similrar to those in the Alps.
Toward the north (5'uihuni"Sochi), the distribution of precipitation with
altitude becomes normal. The winter precipitation over Western Georgia
are of a different origin, and their distribution over the territory is
of a unique character as compared with the origin and distribution o,t
precipitation over the northern part of the Black Sea littoral, front
Novorossiysk to Tuapse.
The basic process during the summer over Western Trams"Caucasia
is the saturation of the air. Mean relative humidity, under conditions
of stagnation of the air masses, attains a value of 80 percent near the
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sea and over the lower part of the Rion Valley, Temperature fluctuations
are also insignificant during the summer, since the air migration com?
predominantly from the north, or with the outcrop system of the Azorean
anticyclone, or with the Asiatic depression, warming up on the way and
acquiring a homogeneous thermal structure, Local conditions have pracw
tica7.ly no effect on temperature, but they do affect humidity. Typical
in this sense is the synoptic disposition of 25 June 1939 (Figure li.l).
~yrloptic liispos Lion Creating the Stagnation of Air Masses
Over Western Trans?Caucasia (2S June 1929).
the day, the temperature frequently goes up to 30 degrees Centigrade
a
As a result of some loss of heat through evaporation, the ?temper?
attire decreasos, and the mean level fox July and August on the coast be?
conies 23 degrees Centigrade, with some fluctuations either war. During
descending to 14-17 degrees Centigrade at night.
Cyclonic activity does not essentially disturb the homogeneous
toted by what was ` previously the Atlantic air, now warmed through over
outcrop of the Polar front, in which the re1ativgr cold ma6S is constis
Black Sea littoral of the Caucasus, are connectod with the East..European
temperature cycle. In most cases, the summer cyclones, passing over the
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STUCTED
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the continent. As an example, see the synoptic disposition of 7 August
1936 (Figure L2).
Fiire ; Cyclonic activity at the East"European Front (7 August 1936).
Although in this part the East-European front is not sufficiently
active, the local air is saturated to such a degree, that there is much
precipitation in the passing cyclones. Furthermore, the sunnier cyclones,
too, frequently linger over Western Goorgia if a sufficiently powerful
anticyclone develops over Central Asia. The amount of precipitation inM
creases during the surriner, and over the southern zones it reaches 20
millimeters in August, and as high as 300 rniUimeters in September.
At times precipitation takes the form of abundant cloudbursts,
attaining a daily amount of over 200 millimeters. The cloudbursts are
accompanied by powerful thunderstorms, which 1.s indicative of the ample
saturation of the air, The cloudbursts are mostltiy of a frontal origin,
the latter being fronts of warm penetrations of Asia. Minor Tropical air,
having considerable saturation stability, which causes cloudbursts and
thunderstorms even at the warm fronts.
During the first Mali" of autumn (in October), when the East-' Eu-
ropean front is discontinued, and cyclonic activity over the Mediterra?
nean, Asia Minor and Iran is not yet adequately developed, there is a r ela-
tivoly dry period over Western TransyCaucasia. Rains are less frequent,
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/03/08 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000100200005-4
ascending over the Valley of the Rion, and descending over the Valley of
the Kura. This circumstance has an essential effect on the relative dry"
mer, inversely, wester, winds are predominant, and the current becomes
sky cover is diminished, yet relative humidity is as high as before,
which is due to a general decrease in ternperature,thus confirming indi-
rectly the thought about the effect of the foehns on the evolution of
the winter minimum in the relative humidity cycle.
Eastern Trans-Caucasia (the Continental zone) occupies most of
the Kura-Rion depression, lying to the east of the watershed ridges
connecting the Greater and the Lesser Caucasus.
Eastern Trans-Caucasia, with relation to the basic atmospheric
processes, has a lot in common with the western part. Yet, even the
similar features are so peculiarly refracted under the effect of local
conditions that the climate of the Valley of the Kura is in direct con-
tradistinction to the climate of the Rion Valley. Since Eastern Trans-
Caucasia forms essentially a single corridor (although divided in two
by the Meskhian and Adzhar ridges) with Western Trans-Caucasia, between
such gigantic, solid masses of mountains as the Greater and Lesser Cau-
casus, it cannot essentially differ by general circulation conditions
from Western Trans-Caucasia.
Over the Valley of the Kura, as well as o ver the Rion Valley, in
the winter, the basic air current is southeasterly. Due to terrestrial
configuration, the current over Eastern Trans?Caucasia is an ascending
one, while over Western Trans-Caucasia it is descending. During the sum -
ness of the winter in the Rion Valley, and the dryness of the summer in
the Valley of the Kura.
The cold northern penetrations in the east and the west of the
the Kura Valley penetrations occur more easily, and are less subject to
Kura-Rion corridor take place by flowing around the ridge, except that
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tho w~zrning effect of the sea, and, .n addition, are cooled by local
radiation. Local cooling also taros place in the Valley of the Rion,
but to a Zeser degree beeaune of a greater degree of saturation in the
w
Although there are marry common features with relation to cyc ionic
Fi ure Lit: Cyclonic activity at the East-European front (7 August l96).
In addition to the diffusing effect of the Z4esl hian ridge, which
becomes pronounced during the passing of the westerly cyclones, the Main
Caucasian ridge exorts no less an effect during the movement of the fronts3
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activity, there are also essential differences. The winter cyclones
in the summer, since the front is usually situated along the meridian
of the East'-'European front very seldom pass over Eastern Trans?Caucasi.a
Tbilisi ' it as on1Y about ~0 millimeters? The paths of the cyclones
~. ,
three winter months in Kutaisi is over 500 millimeters, while in
the
of precipitation decreases abrupter. The amount of precipitation for
' ~ current descending along the declivity of the valley, and the amount
air
the east of the watershed the fronts are occluded in connection with the
usually ro i Westetn Georgia into Eastern Trans-Caucasia, but
usually move ~ ~
1'
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AttS1 t%G1 E
from the northwCSt to the southeast. A siiilar effect is exerted by the
mountains ' ~ns of' the Lesser Caucasus during the passing of the cycl~Dnes over
from the southwest to the northeast, or, generally, from
the Kura Valley
south to north.
The f oel zns, so frequent in Western Georgia, are less important in Eastern Trans-Cauca5ia, and are generated under different synoptic dis-
positions. They recur predoriinantly in the winter over the northeastern
and eastern slopes of the Lesser Caucasus, during the westerly wands
at the periphery of the Armenian anticyclone, while the cyclone passes
over the Caspian Sea. Foehns are also generated over the southwestern
r of the I1ain Caucasian ridge, at various places along to entire
slope
r of the Kura , during the development of an anticyclone over the
Valley
Lower Volga wer Volga and the Caspian Lowland, with he simultaneous passing of
the cyclones (from the northwest to the southeast) over the Kura-Iion
corridor. At times the foehn is not accompanied by a rise in tempera-
ture but only by a drop in relative humidity, which is due to the insuf-
ficiently high potential temperature of the air flowing over the ridge,
which in descent has only enough time to warm up to the temperature
its of to
?he local air. Such a variety of foehn is, so to speak, in between
the typical foehn which is a descending current of a warm mss' and the
,
which is also a descending current, but. of a cold mass.
bor a,
At the southeastern terminal of the Nain Caucasian ridge, there
frequent eneration, during; northerly cold penetrations, of a local
is g
eieration of the wind, due to the one''sided narrowing down of the
acc
ch it is no't a "filling" wind. This is the same cold anti
a
b?ra, lthou
background, and by its very nature, the nord has much in common with the
to force coinpetes_with the Novorossiysk bora. By its conducive synoptic
Apsheron Peninsula, and is known as the Baku nord? which, with relation
channel of the air current. This effect extends itself over the entire
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cyclone over the southeast of the European part of the USSR, and the
trough of depression over the southern part of the Caspian Sea, similar
to the depression trough over the Black Sea during the bona. The Baku
or Apsheron rlords, as well as the Novorossiysk Boras, usually occur in
the winter, but will sometirnea be observed in the summer also.
Several climatic sub-zones may be segregated in Trans-Caucasia.
Of particular importance is the Talysh sub-Lone situated at the extreme
southeast of Trans-Caucasi.a. By its humidity and vegetation it resembles
western Georgia. It occupies a narrow strip between the sea and the
Talysh ridge, also the lower part of the ridge slopes up to the altitude
of oo.6oo meters. By conditions of circulation, the Talysh sub'zone
differs little from the remainder of Eastern Trans?Caucasia, but the effect
of terrestrial coni'iguration upon the climate is even more pronounced here
than in Western Georgia. This is particularly emphasized by contrast
with the arid Mugan Steppe and the subtropical forests of Lenkorania
which lie alongside.
The Talysh mountains do nob protect the coastal belt from cold
air, penetrations, but they do affect conditions of precipitation. Pre
beginning to cool, penetrates into Eastern Trans".Caucasia, forcing the
cipitatian occurs predo]ninantly in the autumn when, after the summer in..
terval, cyclonic activity is renewed over the southeast of the European
part of the USSR, and the Last European continental air, which is just
warm Trans'Caucasian air upward (Figure L3).
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~~tP
1 ~Itl
gg``
I a%tTEfl
7~ ~M'L;1'
1igure L3 ; The synoptic disposition conducive to abundairt precipitation
in the Lenkorania zone (2L October 1939).
and determines for many years the mean cycle of precipitations and their
distribution along the coast.
abundant showers occur. The process described is basic for this zone,
further south, where the mountains come face to face with the fronts,
In following this process, the falling of precipitation from the
Trans'Cauca$ian air is induced mainly by terrestrial configuration. On
the leeward slopes of the Greater Caucasus facing the Kura Valley, and
on the Apsheron Peninsula, there is no precipitation, or very little
precipitation, under this disposition, But in the Lenkorania zone and
Amount of Precipitation (in Millimeters)
Lenkoran' 16 67 168 236 166 1125
July August September October November December
Baku 6 7 15 2L. 29 206
Relative humidity on the Talysh littoral is high the year round,
particularl~r during the autumnal rains.
The winter is somewhat colder in the eastern part of Trans-?Caucasia
than it is in the western part. However, the general thermal reserve in
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the soil is so cons.Lclerahle, that thr: cold continental air from the Eu-
ropean part of the USSR arriving here is rapidly warmed through its 1
wer layers. This ..s helped along by considerable insolation and the ab
sence of a stable snow cover. In connection with this, near-the-surface
temperature inversions occur rarely, and, in general, low places are
warmer than high places. Thus, on the Plateau of Kakhetia, there are
some winters with considerable frosts and with deep snow cover.
The winter is only somewhat ndlder in the Talysh sub-zone than
in the rest o? the territory, seemingly not in keeping with its southern-
roost location, and with what would appear to be its isolation from the
continental part. The Talysh coast is open to cold penetrations, and
the protective efi'ect is exerted only by the sea, with a considerable
thermal reserve available in its deep-water southern part.
The sur~utaer in 'astern Trans-Caucasia is hot and arid. The Valley
of the Kura during the suwuner is to a certain degree an area of stagna-
tion of the air masses, since at this tune of the year the northern meri?
dional transfer of the air masses predominates over the Caucasus, and tI
pressure gradient ressure gradient forces are insignificant. Sky cover is small, and in-
solation abundant. As a result, the mean temperature for July and August
over the plain attains, and in spots exceeds; the level of 2 degrees
Cent. grade and even on the littoral the proxiin1 ty of the sea hardly re-
duces the ten7ers,ture oi' the air. The mean tennpc~rature for July and Au-
gust in haku and in Lcnkoran ' is about 26 degrees Centigrade.
The causes of this aridity were analyzed before. The climate of
Eastern Trani-Caucasia, when the analysis oi' it is based on f orrnal con-
iderations, such as the an d umnmers, may be re1eated to the I editor-
ranE'an type. This, however, is genetically untrue. ley the characteris-
tics of the processes taking place over Eastern Trans-Caucasia in the swn
vier, this area can be relegated to the Central Asiatic region oi" the
transformation of the air masses. The meteoroldgieal cycle oi' its suxr
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tra.buta.on of terperatuTe is very uneven and spotty. Also, when he atw
rrlo;phe are over Iran and Asia I1inor is filled with Tropical air, the latter
~
' n roost case, also extends over the Armenian Highland..
1
The saturation of the ai.r masses circulating over the Armenian
Highland, is somewhat lowered, partly because of their considerable height
over sea level, and partly because of their origin. The winter
aar,ta.nental air in the Arrnefli-af anticyclone has, near the earth's surface,
a relative husr.d to 7 ~J percent, which is due, irr particular, to
~..ty c1.or~c ~? ~ ~ I
the IarCence o!:' the= snow cover` Generally this air is rather dry, since
c,~
it does s not contain air masses of maritime on ;in, and, in addition, it
rnovcs st away from a state of saturation by descending in areas
~.11 fti~rtl~er
In the sum]flcr these air masses are fully contincntal,
of high pressure.
f arrni.ng over Iran and As J;inor. In its layer contiguous to the earth'
I
elativee humidity in the suxrrmer is maintained around
surface , the mean r
o percent, which, combined with a mean temperature for July of 17 degrees
~.
centigrade, is indicative of the dryness of the climate. In the Noscow
s nple, the same terperatua^e is accompanied by a relative
abla.~t, for c,. ~ar
' dit r of 60 percent. The summer deficiency in hund.dity is also indi-
hur1~. ~
cated by 'n 'icant cloud formation, w hi Ch assures abundant insolation.
~.~.~r' ~f
Uycl.ana.c activity over the Armenian Highland is not very intensive.
~'
.. extends further ,c.r , sot tti~ in the winter. In the surru'rer it is sonrwhat abated,
It
in connection with the formation of Tropical air over the vast expanse
progressing northward and the teinpcrature differentials bctweon the
is
uthwcst Asia. And oril.y in the spring, when the Iranian front
of all a
not yet sui'f ijci.cntl great, is there a frequent passage: of cyclones,
~'
opine acc, ,,antuatlan of the frontal tone, and its subscatiu r t ctisplaceraent
s similar conditions occur in the auto in with the devel-
ca Soraetirae ,
s us.
induce the spring rainy season, so common to the entire l,e sser Gain
which
to the south toward Iran.
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continental air from the temperate latitude: and the Tropical air are
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itS 1L I
The annual cyclonic activity cycle over the Armenian Highland,
and the cycle of precipitation tied in with it, can be relegated, to a
great extent, to the Central Asia type.
As already it rationed above, the Yerevan IIolJ.ow and part of the
Valley of the Araks up to Nakhichevan I , can be considered a sub-zone in
which the clinkate characteristics of the Armenian Highland are particu-
larly accentuated because of certain peculiarities in terrestrial con-
fil;uration.
The sharp continental features of the climate here are manifested
by high temperatures and aridity in the s ummer d The mean temperature
for July at the altitude of 900 rr>eters is 2 degrees Centigrade. The
relative severity of the Arin,eni.an winter in tliihollow is rttodified by
the fact tIiat the cold air, flowing off the surrounding rnotwtairrs, is
warmed in its descent. On tho slopes of the hollow, as in the area of
Yerevan, the mean temperature for January is only minus S degrees Centi-
grade. Also of gr& at importance is the fact that the cold air is flow-
ing down along the Valley of the Araks.
The vast hollow is conducive to the diffusing of the fronts that
pass over it, and there is very little precipitation over the Yerevan
sub-'zone,. T'he mean amount of precipitation is somewhat above 200 rri lli-
meters per year, which, against the backdrop of extreme surer heat, makes
it practically a desert cli.ruate. This sub-zone has a spring rainy season,
which is due to the intensification of cyclonic activity over the Armenian
Highland,
CENTRAL ASIA
The territory of he Central Asiatic Republics, and also the scuth-
ern part of the Kazakh SSIt, are situated in the sub-'tropical zone. The
air n sses of the Temperate latitudes predominate over these reg:Lons in
the winter, with the exception of individual penetrations, while in the
suer, er, it is the Tropical air mazes that predominate.
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 S,
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At the same time, the entire territory lies in the belt of the
seasonal migration of the western Asiatic (Iranian) outcrop of the Polar
front,. Cyclonic activity in this frontal area is generated primarily
during the cold part oi' the year, since it is at this time that the `f'r()-
pica]. Iranian air moves in a current directly facing the cold Siberian
air masses migrating from the northeast. During the summer, over the
vast expanse of the interior of Asia, the air, due to intensive heating,
is far from a state of saturation, even at great heights, which diminishes
its ability to rise. And only in mountainous areas, where terrestrial
elevations activate the surfaces of the fronts, does cycloni.c activity
manifest itself with adequate force during the surruner. However, swrrmer
drought, induced by diminished cyclonic activity, penetrates, toward the
end of the surnxirer, even into the Inountainous areas.
The territory of Central Asia can be divided into two climatic
regions : (l) the Lowland and I1eda,un.-A1titude region, and (2) the 1lighM
Altitude region. The first region contains two zones: tl'le Subwtropicai
Iranian located roughly to the south of Paralle]. LO North, and the Turanian
zone, which is a transition from the Sub-Tropical to the Te]npcrate belt,
and is located to thG: north of the first zone. Over the Iranian zone
meri.dional penetrations predoiru.nate, rr.niCesting thcroseives by tho repa.ace~
rrrent of tyre Iranian Tropical air with lQeal Central Asiatic and Siberian
air. Local Central Asiatic air masses are formed over the Turanian zones
with the number of western penetrations of European air increasing toward
the north. Abutting these two zones, iie: the Ifc~diu nwaititudo zone, up
to the height of 2~Oo meters, in which can be segrcgatecl a whole series
of climatic sub-zoncs. The charactoristi,cs o,C the circulation processes
over these sub-zones is the sane as over the Plain, yet the weathor may
change under the influence of terrestrial relief. i1or example, precipi..
Cation may occur when there is no precipitation over the Plain, or, in--
versely, a foehn effect in&y be gonerated, or Lhe ternpcrature baclcground
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T RRLT
iu*s
changes with altitude (during tlie winter there are frequent temperature
inversions, within the limits of this zone), or there is the evolution
oi' mountain-valley winds, which are not felt over the Plain, or there
are essential changes in insolation, dependent on the slope exposures.
The High-altitude climatic region falls into the sphere of inf lu-
erice of the westerly air currents of the middle troposphere. These air
currents, while forrrurig a continuous complex with the air currents below,
may have an entirely different direction with relation to the currents
in the lower layer.
Many of the phenomena, taking place in the middle troposphere,
such as the shifting of air masses arid its ef'f'ect on the weather of the
high-.altitude areas, either reach the Plain in an abated condition, or
do not reach it at all, which is due to the leveling effect of the under-
lying surface . Therte11orc4, the weather iz more changeable at High aiti-
tudes than it is below.
Tlae Lowlands and l~iediuzu-Altitude Re ;ion
The Iranian zone embraces all of Turknlenia, half of the Tadzhik
ssr: and the southeastern half of. Uzbekistan.
The weather over the southern part of Central Asia is very unsL&Ulc
during the winter. To typical ynoptic7 dispositions prevail. WThen
the frontal zone is basically situated over Iran, the cold continents;al.
au' pours :3.f oven thr; entira territory, extending frozn the nor'the, st,
f'ron- tltr, vast anticyclone situated over iberia (sec Figure )4)- In this
case, the mean temperature level descends to several degrees below zero
Cent:Lgrade, reaching at times minus 10 degrees. When the front is di.s-placed northward, and the :Eraxiian air penotrates over the te:rritory of
Central Asia, the temperature rises to 10 dr~grees above zero Centiradc.
}lowever, before hone, cold air flows in again in the wake of the depart
ing cyclone (see Ffigure L~) . Those rear cold gene rations are accornpanird
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in rrta;at cases by strand; w.>.rtd6 with h some rain and snow. The ternzaerat?'e
. ? ' r ~.ns ~0 degrees Cent~.grade (plus 2~
range ~'ox the winter rnoi~thr? ~ a' ~~1 >
nd.nu~7 2 ) , with the r?can level somewhat above zero Gentjg1 ade . But oven
a at~~ , considerably, by ~.nd~.vidua]. years
the r~~er~n ~em~ez~s.~w.^e level a,~~ ~c' ~.~.l
for Aa}~~k11abad f luc~~u~ates with~?n the raeri~fG
The mean J~,nuaxy teaapexature .L
to plus 7) . AT:1. defends an the
(from wlnu
of ' l3 de;~xees Ce ntl~,rade ~,sa.t r Of wha.ch
., ions the number and the inter
~.~^;aur~ncy of the cold Z~cnatz a.L ~
exat~-ors oj' cycl.ona.c act~.v1t1 avc~x Tram
is increased with the aces/ '~ seasons
the year (OctobeI' - March) is the xa1nies
The card ha1,i of
0 rt>~.iJ,i-
amount of preciPita~ion is only 100 >
Evel'~ at tl~at~ the tots..
iite to r ?
r r ,
~.. ..
,;i. ~on 03' cold Oan'G~.rrent~'aJ, air over Central
, ~~G~w ~~o ~~?~hr~~aste~ n ~enetxat~.
Asia (2). Decerrrber 1937)
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ESTRI?TED
f~ ,. ,./c
~, IL. ?
Figure i: Penetration of Arctic air over the territory of Central Asia
in the wake of the cycloric (7 January 193).
Over the "edi1J.a1titude zone of this area, as eowpared to ondi-
tions over the Plain, two particular conditions occur: (1) during cola
air pcnetrations, the air usually does not reach above the XOO-COQ meter
altitude, thus exerting a cooling eff'ect upon the relatively low areas,
with a teruperature inversion taking place as the altitude increases; (2)
During he passing of the cyclones, the amount o2 precipitation on the
southorn and southwestorn slopes is increased, while on the northern slopes
roehna are generated. In particular, a considerable amount or precipi-
tation (up to 500 millimeters) occurs over the southern slopes of the
Gisar ridge during the three winter months (December - February).
Cyclonic activity is accelerated toward the spring, and attains
its highest intensity in march-April. During the k acne months, the Trani,,in
frontal aria, a.ii its gradual northward shirt, pusses over the southern
part of Central Asia. Figure 146 (s moptic disposition of 23 April 193k)
shows two areas of cyclones, one at the Arctic front, and the other at
tho Polar front (the Polar front cyclonic area occupies a somowhat ruorc
northward position, than usual). Sometimes the Arctic front larogresse
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.far to the south, and practically joins up with the Polar front. When
that 0CCUY'S, the cold air penetrates into the southernmost zones, 1oweii
ing the temperature to zero Centigrade, from a Tropical air temperature
of 2~ degrees Centigrade, which prevailed the day before the cold pene-
tration took place. The Arctic air penetration in the spring is accom-
panied at tirries by snowstorms, with the snow covering trees in full
bloom.
Fi ur A: Cyclonic series at the Arctic and Polar fronts (23 April
193L).
days have a nrrean daily terl1perature of over 2 degroes Cent?i.grade. With
~,h;arch and April are the months of maxirnuan precipitation. Spring
is a short season in the Sub-tropical area of Central Asia. In h~0 per-
cent of all days, the iucan daily temperature over the plain in Narch is
maintained at plus , - 10 degrees Centigrade. In Nay, ltO percent of all
In March-April, with a mean temperature oi' plus 10 - l degrees Centigrade,
rela ion to precipitation and hwriidity, the changes are just as rapid.
the amount of precipitation is 1.Q millimeters a month, and relative hu-
monthly temperaturo of 2 degrees Cent?grade, the amount of predpitattQn
midity, even during the day, is above ~0 percent, In May, with a mean
Ls less than 15 Yui.llimeters ?or the month], and the relative humidity
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during the day usually falls down to 30 percent.
There is much rain during the spring in the rnountairious part, with
the amount of precipitation in niany localities for the month of April up
to 150-200 millimeters, and over the Gissar ridge -- over 300 millimeters.
In Nay the amount of precipitation, even in these areas, decreases, but
is still considerable.
Conditions for the growth of vegetation in the mountains during
the spring are very favorable, what with abundant precipitation, a mean
temperature not exceeding 20 degrees Centigrade, a daily humidity of about
a0 percent, and considerable insolation. Even during the rainiest month
of April, the probability of overcast is less than 50 percent, and the
probability of clear weather more than 30 percent. The rains frequently
take the form of rapidly passim; showers, and are accompanied by thunder.-
storms.
The summer everywhere is extremely dry. As early as lay there is
a sharp decrease in the rainfall over the Plain, and from June to Septern.
ber inclusive, there is practically no rain at all. The aridity in th^
the Middle latitudes arriving from the north are subjected, and with
iriena are tied in with the intensive heating, to which the air masses of
extends upward to a height of several hundred meters. All these pheno.-
ing tht level of 50 degrees Centigrade. The air, heavily laden with dust,
temperature is 3035 degrees Centigrade, with the absolute maxinn n attain-
During the iiilonth of July, in more than half of all days, the mean daily
day dropping to 20 percent, and, in some cases, considerably lower.
air attains its highest limits, with mean relative humidity during the
their transformation into Tropical air.
either in the ridges of accelerated pressure, progressing southward be.
dui.ng the sunx r are very favorable. 'the transformation takes place
Conditions for the transformation of air masses over Central Asia
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 Ic,
r
- ): 1 , +E
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tween the cyclones and passing over the lowland of Western Siberia, or
in the .. of the East European anticyclone. The synoptic disposi
tion outcrop
tion with relation to the latter, is presented in Figure L~7.
Figure 1.7; The transformation of 'l'ast European air into Tropical air
over Central Asia (2 July 1930.
As a result of this transformation, there is a drop in relative
htuniditY, a rise in the condensation level up to several kilometers, and
a djina.nuta.on ai Cyclonic activity. There is no precipitatiozl, arid tho
passing aJ' the i'ront is not always marked by increased cloud r orir .tion~
.
teii peratUTe fluctuations caused by cold penetrations, may amount
However,
to 10 degrees Gant:Lgrade even in the middle of the auiruer. Figure L.i3
shows an example of a Siberian air penetration over the territory of
Central Asia; there is no precipitation, the sky is clear on both sides
of the front, but the break in tcrrnpera'bure is considerable.
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swruner (22 July 19310.
figure L3 : Penetration of Siberian air over Central Asia during the
riser. However! even during the drought period, rains of short duration,
with dry air, the volume of which is ever increasing throughout the sum
of the dew is discontinued, and the mountainous areas are gradually filled
humidity of the air. With the arrival of the arid period, the falling
only in the considerable daily ternporature range, but also in the high
brushwood and trees. The cause oi' this abundant dew formation lies not
pensated by abundant dew, settling not only on the grass, but also on
ual decrease in precipitation upon the arrival of summer is partly corn-'
lags behind, and occurs during the second Fialf of the swrnner. The grad-
beginning of the drought in the mountains, as compared to the Plain,
and September, i..C. less than one percent of the annual amount. The
Lion there is, on the average, not rrtore than 10 millimeters for August
is just as sharply accentuated. Even in the zones oi' maximwn precipita-
The period off' sununer drought in the mountains is shorter, yet it
accoutparth c1 by thunderstorms, at times occur in the `mountains.
The arrival of autumn is marked by intensified rainfall, which
is a result of the accentuation of cyclonic fronts and their more
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aSTL4IU; ~u
Central Asia as early as the beginning of October (as illustrated in
Figure . However, in the autumn, f ollowin directly in the wake of
an extremely and suxnur~r, the moisture content of the air masses cannot
be h;r.gl 1, and there i.s less precipitatioX than in the spring, i,he latter
ti?tor 1~cr tod of accelerated cyclonic activity, when the Iranian
bc,n~ ono
about 200 millimeters, the amount of same for the month of November is
10 l r7illa.metens, while in the mountains the [innua17 amount is from
-100 to ~0O millimeters.
Beginning with October, the pressure rises considerably over the
Sub-tropical and Temperate latitudes of Eastern Asia, and there is the
evolution stable antic3'clones, wh .ch are transformed during the evolution of winter
into an almost stationary anticyclone. With the development of areas of
high g ,,h pressure , reduced cloud formation, and reduced wind velocity, the
a gins to cool rapidly, and soon a considerable temperature
differ-ential
is established between Eastern and Western Asia. Cold penetraw
ta.ans , not on.~.y from the north, but also from the east, occur over Soviet
firorit is moving across Subtropical Asia toward the north.
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c cent passage over the southern part of Central Asia. At this particu-
lar time of the year, it is the Polar front that is passim;, in its dis-
placement from the northern areas toward Iran. The accentuation of the
fronts takes kes place as a result of the more rapid cooling of the Siberian
and Central Asiatic air masses, as compared to the Iranian air masses,
increasi.ng thereby the temperature contrast between them. It is also a
result of increased pressure gradient forces, with the development of
the winter Asiatic anticyclone. However, there is less precipitation
in the autumn than in the spring, since the level of condensation in the
Iranian air, although it has been somewhat cooled, is still at a very
high altitude. The amount of precixitation begins to increase in Novem-
ber. Thus in desert Lonea, where the annual amount of precipitation is
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wazt ~c north. The synoptic disposition of 2 F& ruarY 19311,
~, ~
ed in Figure O, can sc rve as an example.
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ST ELI
'.~.n'~uz ,c 149 Cola/ ai.x' pr,netration fX'o11t the cast over Central Asia in the
auturin (31 October 193Li).
`Ite Turanian climatic zone, which is a transition zone to the
with regard to temperature, precipitation, and cirN
Te rnpe~Cl~,c~ ,r 1ata. ' tude s
c,.at~, en~lax ^aces the rclr~index' o2' the territory of Central,
~.or~ conditions, A sia to the north oi' Parallel, l}U, the southern part of Karakh$tafl up
,
to 1at north, the area of the Lower Volga, and the mount
.,ucle l~` ~ degrees
a rritorie$ Of the Kirgiz SSR and out,heaster1 Kazakhstan.
~~,nQUc t~
`^h.4; is a Local area for the ?ornta,tion o?' local Central Asiatic
~ zone a~~
air Ilsses such as Tropical i.n the swruuer, and continental in 1 }ie winter.
,
At th e time an essonttial part is played by he Iran Cep' o European
air masses s in the westerly cycioncu and anticycl.G11eS. The ef'f'ect of this
~
weQtcz , ^1y t rans:f:crs as wa a pointed/ out above, is generally accelerated tn~
31I'ec Ilt-'
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,: E-a.str^n 1uropOan cyc1or1e over Central Asia (2 February
~~ 1.~;1~~~( Tl~e L
193.).
11ie Sub 41'opicai Neda.uritwR.ititude zone. The Iranian
as compared with
The mountainous nous part o1.' tl'~is zone r~iust be considered a special
subone, in which the general circu7.atioan co~'c~it?a.ons are !)ractz.ca~.i.y
hwhich the ~,,c~.
bhe same, yet ?.~~a.onu var^Y n response 1;o tk1~~ Cf':Cc~CFai:' i~er~
.. w c~? ~tl~e~^ condo
, ,. , is a.cs;~ !)rECi~aa.t,ati on here in ~,l,.e ti~ra,~1~;e:r;
x~estr~.aJ. col~,.~uz, 4~~~.on~ There
s pass considerably further south, while the westerly cyci-Ofes
~'rar~1c~rc~,unc
d
are mainly }significaflti or the n:aunta; noun arar oi the Kirgiz SSR an .~ ten~;~rrc,tt~xe; cycle is off' areavari.abity and
~;astcrn l~azal~YYS~;an. The l
anu~x~ ~ terr~E)ei~,~turc in the atGppc s and
e l~c
Gnn iderabi severity. T rlltealr J ~
1ata,tucl4c care apondinL to that of lto stavM
se:rrclescz'ts of Kazakhstan, at a
on"l)ori, is aa,raost the sane as in !~. 'rove (i:ornucx~a.y Vys,tka), a..o. minus ~.I~
~.
degree a Cen~~~ .: ~ radc , which, on the average is ~.~ de~rer:s Cc nti grade colder
than the southern Subtropa :,~,:~ zoxrc, '~liere are days when Ll~o ~'ros'b c~cs-
. c~
1C) de-
cenda7 ~ r 1o- minus 30, iririus 3, and, in excopU.ofal case s, to na.nuk
blown of1 by tho wind. Eastcr).y' winds carryir cold air From ] astern
A ? rtc dry snow, i~arcLLy cpverirL; the around, is easily
groca CoriLigradc.
4
Asia, prevail.
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With to spring , the Iranian front cyclone s pas, more frequently,
Ala.
first over the ~ oi' Central Asia, then extend into the north-
em southern . part
ern areas. In /ray, when the Central Asiatic front becomes abated, and
precilaa.ta.t;ian is diminished i.n the s auth, the passage of westerly cyclones
over the northern part is accelerated, with restiating maximum precipitaw
in the northern part of Central Asia, over the plains,
tian. Ho~rcvc.r, even
the summers are very not to the same degree as in the souvery arid, although
t from its winter distribution, the ,umrcer temperature with-
DJ.,.,ti77G
in the entire territory of Central Asia varies little with relation to
latitude , and pL1p.~uf11I'fl s e2 in the northern part is almost as torrid a in
The differential in the mean July' temperature$
the aub~t;ropic;al parta
is not more than 2 3 ~ de green, but the number of hot day's with a mean
of over 20 degree;3 Centigrade is half as large. The
daily. temperature
hot weather E)era.od (in the above sense) lasts b. months in the southern
5 , .. al part , and 2' months in the northern part
,~l.l~trapa.c
Within the s boundarics of the Turanian zone, the tedium'-a.l.titude
area da.f. f ern much more from the steppe and desert parts than does the
respective area, within the boundaries of the Iranian zone ? Tdith refer-
a to the winter nter temperature cycle, the differentials are the same as
enc,c
in the Ir ~ Central l~sia, i.e. up to an altitude of l. - 2
a,,an zone of . Cent
c 's a tertl1~eratw'e inversion, The area of Lake Issyk-'
l.~lc~~~ieters, there e ~
Kul. ' is of particular interest in this respect, since at the altitude
of 1~O0 meters the winter nter is warmer than at the same latitude below, at
the mouth of A7nual7a,r yaR One o1 the reasons for such warm winters is the
lake itself, radiating into the air a considerable amount of heat. In
occurs in the mountains of the Kirgiz SSR, the evo-
c1dditlon' to it, there
l.ut bons, causing the temperature to rise with a1ti-
~.on of general condi
it is the `result oi' cold penetrations that do not
tv.de. In some caws
a. reach the higher altitudes, but extend irainly below. In others,
-
always
inversely, it 3.s ho result of a warm penetration at higher altitudes
t
ESF81CiED
?u l3)4
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?EsrRacrEo
not reaching the low-lying spots.
The general circulation characteristics are basically the sane
over the plain and over the mountains. Yet, against this general back-
terrestrial conf'i.guration at times causes unique modifications
ground,
in the various cycles, as, for example, the intensification of fronts
a'.fl the European cyclones can c yclone s arriving from the west, with attendant consi.-
derable snowfall over the windward western mountain slopes and over the
f acin r to the west. When passing over the plain, three cyclones
valleys ~
are abated and produce little precipitations
In the spring and, particularly-, in the summer, the i'al7.inf of
precipitation over the mountains of the northern part of the Kirgiz SSR,
and al.on. the entire northern Tyant Chant, is also tied in with the pas-
sage of the westerly cyclones. Thus, instead of the surmer draught,
which is a characteristic cliriatic fe~atw'e of the plains and mountains
of the Cub'.tropical part of Central Asia, the sunnier here is the maximum
precipitation season. The moderately warm and hunt.d suxrirner and the rela-'
~~
tivcly nnild winter of this area, with considerable snow cover in some
pla ces, does not fall in with the general sharply continental climate of
Central Asia, but rather resembles, climatically the Atlantic-Continental
region of the European part of the Union.
High -Al titu- Re'iofl
circulation of the atmosphere over the H?igh-altitude region
of Central Asia was studied very little. In addition to air currents
of general significance , a largo scale thorrnal turbulence, generated
between the mountainous part of the territory and the plains, should be
of great importance. This thermaj7 turbulence should be particularly
intensive in connection with (1) the massive bulk of the mountainous
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elevations, comprising a conglomeration of great mountainous junctions
and vast lofty plateaus (particularly in the southern part), arid (2)
little cloud ?oririaticn and the intensive evolution of radiation processes,
Theriiiai Curb rlence is of particular intensity dw'int; the warm seasons
but even in tlio winter there frequently weather with little cloud fore
ma'ti.on, and mountain-valley air currents (in a large sense) are generated.
Acccieratecl precipitation during tlmre suiilriier, over all the High-alti-
tude part of Central Asia (the reverse is taking place over the I)lairi) '
a characteristic i'cature oI the i)recipitatiori cycle:, and is tied in with
thca evolution of convection currents over the mountains. Yet, convective
pr
c:Lpitar,ion Is only of local significance in the mountainous areas, and
th . feedixi of the fare Tillers of Central Asia is tied in rrb only with
the snow acc.wr,ulations in tiic mountains, resuii;in ?roiii winter cyclonic
activity. The snow accuiriulation is hea.vie rt on the western slopes facia
the we~jterly and outhwetcriy air currents,
As proved by aerological observations, over all altitudes in ex-
cess o;t: 3000 Teeters, whether in the south or in the north of Central
Asia, westerly air currents predoridnate throughout. the year. This cir-
cul.ation feature i iiiics the entire Hi.gh~aItitude region, and, to date,
there are no es enti it :reasons c,nlJ.ing for the _ division of this region
into a southern and northern zone. locrcver, the climate of the high-alt
tulle reg;i.on is very far from being hor}ioCenc;ous, which is due mainly to
ti)e variances in terrestrial confi urat?ion. Thus, the climate of the
lofty plateaus and some high valleys is arid and sharply conti,nenta,],.
The climate of the high mountain ridges is humid, with a more even teaii
i
perature cycles The surface of flat topographical, foritations a under the
conditions of a raref;Led and dry atmosphere, is subject to ;intensa.vc;
heating during the day, and cooling during the night, The flat c
Dell a.ti~x
ations are not conducive to he intensi icatjon of the fronts, an
r, in
136
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addition, there is, at these altitudes, a.nadequate moisture in the air,
~
..-
-~' . .
11~ich results in little prec~.pa.ta~ion, in some places less than 100 mill
t more than in a desert area. The mean an
meters for ..the year, 1.e. no
Waal temperature range is about 30 dees Centigrade, with the diurnal
. 7.~'e
range at times being the same.
Over the FamirMAlaY zone, lying at an altitude of 3000 meters,
the mean Ju7,v texn,pera,ture is around 1 degrees entigra.de, the mean Jan-
uary temperature is minus l~ degrees centigrade. Upon ~heoreticag re-
uary ~
duction to sea ;Level, the respective readings will be 34 degrees and
~ -
zero Centigrade, counting the mean temperature gradient as half a :degree
per 700 meters of altitude. However, as per direct observations in the
:.
free atrao sphere ., , the ~wnmer temperatux'e gradient is higher, and the win-
ter one is lower . than ~ ha7.f a degree per 100 meters.. Thus, the summer
is warmer, and the winter colder than the corresponding altitude ove~^
is sea level would indicate for this conc. This is due to the effect of
vast flat terrestrial surfaces lifted to a considerable height. With
all this, the. effect of the free atmosphere is felt, mariifeatinL itself
by frequent winds of high velocity.
On the mounta ridges protruding into the free atmosphere, the
~.i
The temperature range, arrnual and
temperature cycle is less continental..
with altitude, particul3xY' the annual range.
diurnal, rapidly :diminishes
Over the sloped of the Fergan Ridge, at an altitude of 3000 meters, ..the....
moan annual temperature rang re is leis tn. 20 degrees Centigrade. In
addition, complct?~y' different proclpitetion~inducinconditions are
evolved over the ride. The mauntair~ rid e5 activate the passim front
~
and force precipitation even from the rather dry Central Asiatic and
.. . f
Iranian Tropical air masses. In the winter, when Neda.terranean and At"-
lax-it iC air penetrate s with the wester7,Y cyclone, theta is abundant anew
western _Tyan' -Shafl' . There is no re7.i,M
that feeds the ..vast glaciers of
4r
. 13?
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tIESIRICTED
able data on the maximum amount of precipitation falling
ains of Central Asia, yet
suppose that under the most
amount of precipitation
In the mountains
Central Asia, in
the northern areas, many sub-'zones can be segregated in which local Lac"
tore, against the background of the same general circulation, create essen-
tial variations in the climatic cycle. These variations, basically, mani
zest themselves in different amounts of precipitation, and are determined
by the maeroexposure of the area with relation to the winds prevailing
in the western quadrant of the horizon. Under nlacroexposure is understood
the basic exposure of the slope, with which the factual exposure of the
various sections of the same slope may not coincide. Slopes
generally
facing the southwest, west and northwest, and not respectively closed in
from then; sides by neighboring mountain ridges, receive three or four
times as much precipitation as the slopes facing in the opposite direc-
tion
In the generally and climate of Central Asia, these fluctuations
in the amount of precipitation radically change the appearance of a local-
ity. 0On first sight, it creates the impression of considerable variations
in physical and geographical characteristics of wide significance, and
only
As a striking example of the diversity of the "local climates"
(climatic sub-zones), may be considered the Fergan Hollow, The area of
the motley distribution and the restricted boundaries of these vari
depression is
not extensive enough to allow for the possibility of
the existence of essential circulation diversity over it. Yet, the cli-
valley exit, a unique' climatic phenomenon, induced by topo-
graphical configuration, is encountered.
winds, of extraordinary force are generated a thiost each time
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conditions in some of its sections show a considerable range. Lven
over the mount-'
y? some observations, it is reasonable to
favorable` terrestrial relief, the annual
reaches 2000-3000 millimeters.
egated landscapes betray' their local character.
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cyclones pass along the western slopes of the Pamir~Alay
the southerly c~
Mountain Range. These winds occur predominantly in the wintery but:. are
also known to occur on rare occasions during the summer, and they are
a 1 equal in force to the northeasterly gales over
~o
o
U
~ a
Ii
r'
~ p'
, r~ o
cad r4
r~
139
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Novarossiysk. The tabulation on this page is
a result of observations made at the station
Ursat' yevskaya.
This phenomenon (like the Novorossiysk
bars) is a local intensification of the wind
flowing over the Turkestan Ridge. No
current
special research, with relation to the
evo-lution
of these winds, was done. The basic
concept, however, can be construed as follows:
the southerly', or southeasterly current in
the forward part of the cyclone, in colliding
Turkestan Ridge protruding westward,
with the
encounters an impedance to its lower layer,
and only the fast-moving upper layers of the
current come across and glide dawn the north-
ern slopes of the ridge. The corresponding
location of the ridges at the exit of the
accelerates the easterly component
~ valley
v
of the wind. These winds are usually
farce
t accompanied by rises in ternperature, drops
in relative humidity, and almost a complete
i' disappearance of lower stratum clouds, which
, indicates that the sir is moving downward.
frf
The recurrence of southeastOr].y winds
A at the exit of the Fergan val.J.ey is around
so percent, and their rner~n velocity is 10
: meters per second. The temperature during
these winds frequently rises a few degrees
the mean level, as a result of which
above
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aEsi ICTED
are superimposed features induced by the surrounding mountain ridges and.
the waters of the lake itself.
The distribution of precipitation, falling over the various parts
of the lake basin, shows with particular clarity the paths followed by
atmospheric moisture f ind:irag its way into this basin. The southwestern
half of the lake, closed in from the south and the west by mountain ridges,
receives very little precipitation. The latter increases at a rather
rapid rate toward the northeast, due not so much to the evaporations from
the lake being carried in that direction (precipitation over Issyk?}Sui t
occurs predorldnantly with westerly winds) , as to the fact that the fronts,
movii't in from the went and the southwest, in their descent from the surW
rounding mountains, are abated while passing over the western part of the
lake, and re-activated when passing over its eastern part.
The moat rerriarkable climatic feature of the Lake Tssykr Cut' area
is its very mild winter, contrary' to its continental location. Mean
temperatures for January and February on the eastern shore are minus
degrees Centigrade, and on the western shore they are even higher. In
order to properly evaluate the thermal effect exerted by Lake :Csayk-Kul',
it is best to compare its temperature cycle data with the data for Lake
Naryn, lying at an altitude higher by 2O aneters, but one degree to the
south, and also in a hollow. The mean January temperature for Naryn
minus 16 degrees Centigrade. Counting off one degree of temperature for
the absolute altitude differential, it can be assumed that the masses
of water, constituting the lake, :raise the teiuperature of the air, on
tie average, by 10 degrees Centigrade. Such a significant thermal effect,
exerted by the lake, can be explained by the fact that the hollow is
closed in on all sides by mountain ranges, which, in causing frequent
air stagnation, accelerates the features of the "local climate". The
still higher temperature rise on the western shore is induced by the
foehrn effect created by the air, in its descent from the mountains during
the westerly winds
TED
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ttUT ED
WESTERN SIBERIA
Western Siberia, ciirliaticaily speaking, embraces a vast geograph
a.cal region, over which the effect of the Atlantic Ocean is still suffi~
' entlY pronounced, but, at the sarrie time, the peculiar characteristics
c~.
the vast continent of Asia come into prominent play. This territory
0
contains all of the WestWSiberian Plain, the eastern slopes of the Urals,
and the western slopes of the Altay Mountains. The eI'fecb of the Atlan-
tic over the territory of Western Siberia increases toward the north,
attaining its maximum during the winter. The; effect of the Continent
( all respects) grows toward the south, and in the southern areas it
in al
is equally pronounced 'during the winter and the summer seasons.
The temperature contrast between the ocean and the continent is
particularly sharp in the winter, and, tied in with it, the pressure gra-
client between the Iceland low-pz~ssure area and the Asiatic anticyclone
attains a considerable magnitude. Due to the particular character of
the distribution of air currents, tied in with the areas of high and low
)ressure (Figure 12), the Atlantic air current extends over the continent,
predomnantlY, in to direction from southwest to northeast. Thus, the
degree of its of ect upon the territory of Western Siberia increases
gradually from south to north a
The migration of Atlantic air in the winter toward the continent
of Asia takes place predominantly in the Arctic front cyclones, in which
the Atlantic air is frequently forced away from the terrestrial surface
into the higher strata. Thus, it has little effect on the temperature
at the surface. However the continuous cloud formation accompanying the
penetration, also the falling of precipitation and high-velocity winds,
are factors contributing to a sharp temperature rise over the northwest
of Siberia (see Figure l)
1L2
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urc 51: recurrence of Sky Cover, Wind velocity, aria temperature over
Wester? Siberia in. January.
In the majority of cases these cyclones are abated over Western
Siberia, coring to an end as they approach the area of high pxc~ssure,
which occupies all of Cexitral Asia almost continuously during the winter.
The abundant snow, which in the north (with the exception of the Kara Sea
littoral) accwiiuiates to a depth of one meter toward the end of he win-
ter, is also tied in with these cyclones. The precipitation from the
cyclones, regenerating at the Arctic front, comes from the saturated
Atlantic air, thus representing the external moisture turnover between
the OCCaf and the continent. The Arctic air, in the wake oi.' the cyclones,
exteixcls far to the south ithout encountering any impedance over the
plain, and only the approach of the following cyclone frotrt the west forces
this air again to the north. During the periods of interruption in cyw
clonic activity, the Arctic air generally remains over Western 3iberia,
is slow] y warned through, and transformed into Temperate latiitude air.
Alongside the path of the westerly transfer of Atlantic air, the
continental processes, as was already mentioned above, are of great itr,~
portance. These are, the cooling of the Atlantic air flowing over the
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tair;ed alit:icyclonc s. This s'tabi,e
re 1O ;( flC' S1$ iS also a , rlic'l rli. 'C; "t
.
i ,a~ r11ti~?~. ~ C:Cr, ~.
bs t s and 1 $C?
Lion 01* tr;e col tine tM 1 G'h{U aC tcr i
vo-
ut: o1l :i.s the cooling or ti Corr'tirlcant. The i'?i,'ial sts; ;;cs oi: trari f
l
the $urnn,er, but is, generally speaking, acce1r;ratc'd toward Ure south, ,yrhi.cb
ration oi' the Atlantic air into continCftai Over Western i1 er'ia take
place in the anticyciones. The cooling of the i tlsnt:l C riir nrae occurs
the 105$ oi' heat throu h radiation over the cookcl con'ti~
as a reult oi'
len.t. All the$e rxocessc~ s are accelerated toward tyro sou'l', Et 3 Lho cii ..
r.
tar1CiB from the main path in lath of the cyclones bccorncS gr1retcr over the rrorth-
,
ern part of Eastern Siberia.
of AUantic air ovar the contiancr t i s di.ri ml;i.shod duri no
The i.rflow
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continent, the slow warming oi' Archie air, and its transformation into
conta.nc,nta,l. 1 "Acmpc.~ratc zonc~ air. 'flue latter air is better defined as
11e,~'~t'errr Siberian continental air, since this airs clue to peculiar circu-
ation conditions over ~1estern Siberia, i.a fi.i'icrerrt from the LaStern.
l
European and the Eastern Siberian air.
The rr~a:in volume of continental air present over the Western Sib
cr ~ ~ coias with the transfer o:r air nLa, sae, from he more southern
.! .Err plain
areas with the ; outhwes'l;crly winds along the northwestern rim 01' the
Ccntrca1 Asiatic antr.cyciozre outcrop (;roe Figure 12 :i,.r prec cct:lf text).
air is gradually cooled in its northward rnigratiorr, and i s thus c1?
This ~a
tin xishab1e from the Iasterf rea~te,.-~ clc~~r~Fae cri' ~~rc;ti.c~ ~~:i.r. The latter
~e 'oi' 1"~.r~r~~~t.i.c ;' ~x^, r~r~cl ~
?~ i&.11y tlc basic sources !or:' tlar. i'otit tion oi' Asiatic continental
air, partlcula,ri.Y over East Asia.
The ~3ouLhWCater."1y wi,nd, lane: v +iiii during I.l.e wiartr, are tled
r
In tial~icla are i'requent:l.y cvoiVccl over' !lJCtIn "rJ.~,l~ ~.~,M^~.7 of ~A~.}~. are
m
' ~~.c, a, ~ ~ ?, ~, ~ e::i.'-cor
r ?sia a~vr.cyCiOric or a s
siberia, eithers uoutcrop p o1 ;er r,
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s the reverse of what happens in the winter. The predominant migration
toward the northern part of Western Siberia is that of the Arctic air,
which is rapidly warmed over the continent, and transformed into conti-
nental air. The, Atlantic air penetrates far to the east ~rth the cyclones, ~. ~ ~ ~ ~ In the anta.cy
even ciux'ing the su7ra~rer, arrivinover We tern Siberia
Clones, it is frequently transformed into continental air, while still
over the ELU'opean territory of the USSR.
The basic process in the suiiur r is the formation of continental
which in its characteristicc~ is little different from Eastern Euro-i
air,
pean continental air. It is perhaps somewhat drier, since one of its
rrar.n components is Arctic air warrr~cd over the continent. This, specifi-
cally, is the manifestation of the effect of the continent, arid the more
active the continental air nlaases are over an area, (as conrparect to the
a
Atlantic arid. Arctic air ma$ses), the more continental the climate of
. `Aa1s, the continental climatic features of Western Siberia
area ~ z
the
during the sunurer are accelerated toward the south.
5urrunor cyclonic activity over Western Siberia is generated in
the Arctic front, in the south, predolz~iPantly at the occlu
the north, at
s -
re casess at the zriain Polar front. The predominant
~,on~, , and, only in rare
in the Arctic front, as well as in the Polar, front occlusions,
warm ma s s
a. constituted ?Guted by continental air, wiaich is the main source of precipi-
?
r, c~a~.c rra.sY~ed,
n Tine water vapor quantities in the ront mental air are
tatxas
.
mainly, through evaporation of moisture, and, in this sense, the surarrer
prec'p fl over Western Siberia i~ of the internal moisture turnover
~.~.Latta.o
t~~ac, . And only in the rrrain Polar front cyclones is the precipitation
from the Tropical air advective to a prevailinC decree.
on generL i circulation conditions, Western Siberia can be
Based
e climn'Lic regions, which are a continuation of the e) is
~3,v~.de,d into three ~
niat1G { 1~a.0ns of the European territory of the USSR, as follows the
Z
Lic~ArcLic region, t1ic central or Atlantic-Continental
northern or At;larr
region, and the southern or Continenttil region. With this similarity
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there is, however, an essential difference consisting in the fact that
climatic variations from west to east are considerably more sluggish
over Western Siberia than over the European part of the Union. The win-
ter temperatures are significant in this respect. The di 'ference in the
mean January teIriperatures as between ]elorussia and the Midcfe Volga is
about 7 degrees Centigrade, while an Western Siberia the temperature dif-ferential, corresponding to the same difference in latitudes and distance,
is only 1 degree Centigrade . Over the area of the European part of the
Union, the effect of the ocean coinpcte s with that of the continent, whale
over Western Siberia, particttirly an the more southerly zones, the effect
of the ocean is already attenuated to such a degree that continental fea?
tuxes practically pre ;inate to the same extent, both in the western
and eastern zones.
Thus, there is no reason for dividing Western Siberia into western
and eastern cli.ri;atac zones, a is the case in the European part of the
USSR. The three regions, segregated above, are to be cansaderecl, each
with n itself, as climatically homogeneous, and. as representing one cli.-
ins'itic zone. However, two clirraatic zones are segregated within the Conti-
nentah climatic region, the Continental zone and the Altay zone. In the
extreme north oi:" Western Siberia, just as in the Luuopean territory of
the USSR, a j)art of the Arctic climatic region is segregated in coriI'or-
iuity with the fact that during the entire year there i.s a predominance
Qf ormat ve7 Arctic air. As coaupared to the European parts the bound-
aries of the respective clizi~atFic zones in Western Siberia are displaced
23 degrees to the north (see Figure 73 at the end of the fool, -- pia-
graiiuruatic Chart of the Climatic Regions and Zones oi' the US,3R), which
i,s dui to the general intensa.fication ol" the continenhi features ovc;r
the t errs tory of M ia. This displacement of climatic bounclari?es is par-
ticularly conspicuous due to thc' exis?tcnco of ?thc Ura.L Mouzitain Uange.
The area of the Urais cannot be considered as a self-contained
i1t Tjt/C Tj
116 -
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AI i
n~~lFn
M 1147.
clin~z~~ic region or zone. Thca.x western stapes, cliir~~.t~.cally, belong to
~~ ~' The Ural Range rnex'el~r~' separates the
Europe, the pastern one, to Asia. - ~ the Asiatic onea, but :does note by its effect,
Luropcan climatic zones from .
create the d1tfcrenco a between them. These differences are created by
e1fect a1 the powerful factor of atruospY~eric c~.rcua.at:~on, which, in
its turn, depends on the magnitude, Form (in part, on ~~11e topogr~,)hy),
the , gcneral geographical rlsposition of Europe and Asia. It is noi ; ..~
and Gh ~c
the 1Jxal I~iauntaa.n Range that sets a visible boundary to the extensiojl of
the occar ut rsthcz, the extcnca.vc and caml~lex ther-
mal effect ? ~ eastward, b
.ntez'rela~ ~ ~ between. . ~~ the and l~>~ass7 off' Eurasia and the Atlan-
?ne the ~~ paths, the I'orms, and the volumes invol
tic Ocean, that ~,a.at onsl~,~ predctc~xr~~a.
, , ~~a.,rrt ~ air n~a~sscs over the c?z~t7.riEnt- Were the
vcd in the transic;r of pktr~. M
' the surr outcrop of the ,A~aora.an anti''
? .ans.,.~on a{~
Ur~a1s riot ' there, tl~e ea~tc, c
of Atlantic air massGS toward East-
cyclone, wha.ch controls Lrols the ~e migration
be affected S By the same taken, the winter
c~r~n Europe , would hardly
auth~,re"atCZ'ly a .,erlt over Western Siberia, tied in with the Asiatic
air clu~x
anticyclone, would hardly became warmer
Yet, the Urals, although ~~h not cr~eat~.riany climatic boundaries in
There is an essential
he above sense, do accentuate the existing ones.
and winter precipitation over the western slopes,
acceleration in sun~~r
due to the intensification c c~.anic fronts arriving from the west.
The reverse intensifiinteintensification of y
. with relation to the eastern slope s of the Urals.
.~.tl~ Urals over the entire western Siberian
Ne
plain, to the cast a~ the ~
~,p~.tata.an r~er~~,ins ~aractica].lY the ~anle as over
of precipitation
thplain, eastern the amoti~n slopets of
the Urals (see ~'arures 18 and 19 in p21ecedin~ test).
Generally speak of precipitation over t~~eStexn Siberia
is s~~taller than that over , the the amount European part off' the Union, butt its acceler-
ation s the Urals], and its a~;tenuata,on over
?-over the western slopes
the eastern slopes, imparts to the genera~. f~.uctuation, which is supposed
~
the character o? an abrupt change The sais true with
to be ` gradual,
~r
EST
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iitSiiHCTEfl
relation to winter ternpc ratu.r~cs, in which there is a very noticeable
difference between the above territories (see Figure 16 in p
preceding
text), Winter in Western Siberia is colder because the coca 'r
t:I..ielita,J.
Asiatic air is colder than the continent~ll. European air.
The Ural Range
.
merely disrupts the gradation of this transition. When the European
air, in flowing over the ridge, comes in contract with the
colder Siberian
air, it continues its oas tward flow above the cold air without descend-
ing to the surface of the Plain. This causes the above me.1.. rtt' ~~
I1G d abrupt
change in temperature.
The Ural Range, by virtue of its disposition in a meridional di-
rection, cannot essentially affect the migration of ' air masses in north-
ern and southern air penetratjons. It also presents no essenti~ '
a,J. impe-
dance to the eastern penetrotion$ of Asiatic air, since the latter cux
rent; tied in with the southern periphery of high pressure areas flows
mound the, rnountai.n ridge from the south.
Neverthelr s, the ciixtatic conditions of the Ural 1ountain zones
,
have a xuunber of unique characteristics, not only with relation to the
cycle of jLndi.vidua1 meteorolo rioai core. onents, but also with
relation
to weather, whic1, against the background of the same ~en '
~, ezal circulation
conc?Ltionu, rraay diffc1 as to t; lie western and eastern slopes, ,
and the ridges
and the vail?ys. In addition, there is a variety of m.l ~ .
J' czocl,,, ~matjc eec-
Lions, tied in with topography and vegetatior. The mi
Crocla.rnaka.c var.L-
ations over the Urals nay be considerable by virtue of t ~
he r ,enerai, con-
tinental features of the climate.
Variations in the alnotrnt of precipitation between the ~ e
w~.dtrn and
eastern slopes of the central part of the Urals reach i
~ , in places, 300
millimeters in one year. Thus, the amount of annual precipitation over
K: zel', located on the western slopes, is 630 milj,irnc
tars, tirh:>.le over
Chelyabinsk, on the e u3tern slopes, it is 380 rnilljrn= 'z
? ].!a3 o'
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00200005-4
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iG I C!1
f the Ural a is su1i'i.cient' to indicate `temperature
The a height - ~
The
var:i.ationwhich take plaCC~ ., with th a1t:t?t,udc, in the free atrnosPherr:. In
~u by ~ - ~1xadur~~, ~teanz`,c~ratua~e da`~ala wa.~th altitude,
summer, this is t~,~nii.est~,d ba ~ ~~
+ , ? At `the latitude o1' U:Ca, the mean ?~erra}aex~a~ture
as in "rahc; Southern U~,,ai.,a ~ ~.
drop ( degrees Centigrade 1aer 100 1TICtCTs O altitude Such a COnsi-
. e gradient indicate: the. degree to which the Plain ;i.s
drarabl,e ter~l~~c,~ratuzra ~
heated dur':. 1, an the European as well as on he Asiatic side
S
aa~, bhc ~i~~utlcx
clr~s a with ~tra,tacurnulus cloud :~orntians i
A conwri, . ~ ., nw7>.her of ,~
c~cralai.c
e ,
a JUL
.t 5Orati altitude 4rh?ch i,lnderSCOrea the dyramiC n a
tern}:~c~ra btix r , `~ a. nvc, ,r a. oils are ?relt?uerlt1y , Ccor~tpanied by sudden drop, in rela-
s
With the },rs~"a.n~., r o1? tree winter antiCYClon~S over be Urals, the
,.,a~
diertt in thie mountains ire(ju. ntl.y becomes ne 3a-
vertical tclnpc:r,.rturc~rra
~i, so s with altitude a which is duce. to
ta.ve :i. , e . the temperature -~ ;aturo ~..
,
occurrence of tC11n t')"C~1tUrC inVCr aiaTlS These
in the 1S' atmosphere
r `Yze slo aes ai' the Central and Southern Urais during the
registered over the slopes
sunltaor. This ~.' indicative oj1 intensive d:Lurnai convection.
is
strata. of such an inveraionS, observed at 0700 hours on a Decem-
~A case a.
}7e a`1 riverSiOTIS generated as a resUa.t, of a descent of air
la`~,.CyC~,Qn~.O ~. ~
ber morning, t.s to
ula"red below:
't'emperature; Relative Hwnidity
Name of Localitfr' (Degrees centigrade) (percent)
Ufa (Altitude 97
1'10 neter$) 11.1 -12.0 p.11.3 72 87
The above ...shawl that to rise in temperature with altitude Comes
to 12 degrees Ceiv~. l_grade for 700 meters pf altitude differential, i.e.
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'a si aICTEU
1.7 degrees Centigrade per each 100 meters of altitude differential
This is a result, not only of dynamic heating of the upper air layers,
but also of cooling of the air in the immediate proximity to the terres-
trial surface. The latter is 'particularly pronounced over closed-in
valleys, For instance, in Zlatoust, during the same hour 700 hours
in the morning7, and on the same days s in Table above the following
temperature readings were taken; 2 December, minus 20.7 degrees Centi-
grade; 3 December, minus 22,1 degrees Centigrade; ) December, minus 19.1
degrees Centigrade.
The above indicated features in vertical temperature disbr bution,
also the rise in the amount of precipitation Tyr i. th increased altitude and
the formation of cunulif:'orm clouds, are the =?ost essential variations,
tied in with the vertical climatic tonality over the Urals.
And now, for the characteristics of climatic zones of the Western
Siberian Plain
The southern climatic boundary of Siberia runs over the territo^y
of Kazakhstan somewhat to the south of parallel ,O north. The transition
frown Central -Asia to Western Siberia is marked by intensification of sum-
mer precipitation to such a degree, that in approaching Parallel SO north,
it becomes the maximum annual precipitation. From there on, to the north,
precipitation still continues to increase, taus affecting the annual
amount. This change in the precipitation cycle is gencrnlly tied in
with the more freq~>ent passage of European cyclones over the Atlantic-
Continental region of Siberia, and also with tie lower level of condensa-
tion in continental air, which, in this region, is subject to less heat-
ing than in the south. Penetration oi' European cyclones over the 'Atlariw
tic-Continental. region of Siberia, and the abatonient ref the surtner trans-
formation of the air masses, indicate a relaxzttion in the continentality
of the climate, although the annual temperature range, as compared to
:Lo..
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The tr wnsi.t1o11.l seasons f the year, pertaining to the above
formation ~,'ca1 air, takes place over this zone in the swnner,
:>?nto Tro+~.
: rocess over the Trans-Volga area. The full develop-
he p
The warming of continentsrl Temperate air, and its partial i,ran-
southeaern European part. In the eastern section of these outcrops,
s t
ratin ~ over Southern Siberia, also extend over the
sure outcrops gcne ~
formation, the inflow of formative air masses from the north, and the
the winter, the n tic fci.onGs or high pr
of prec~,pa.,a.t~.on .
fall During
tied iii, but also by the accelerated (as compared to Central Asia) cloud
f f'erefCC in :Latitudes, with which potential insolatiof is
only by the dLf
7zien t of this process (as is the case over Central Asia) is impeded, not
Western Siberia, it is always colder, than in their western
that is over
section over he Trans?Voiga area.
rise s lator, and the autu~ n temperature drop occurs earlier, ovor
~. aCGl
area7s, show sharper contrasts yet. The sprin tonrperature
-ncntioned ,..
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ge over the south of Central Asia is 30 degrees Centi-
tcmpora,t.W ,. rangy,
while over Central Siberia it is IIU degrees Centigrade, this in-
grade, a
crease while being accounted Lar by the accelerated temperature drops in the
um
wa.ntPr, the relaxata.ozl of continentaltty is manifested during the sum-
Cubtrap Central Asia, rises considerably. For example, the annum,
~~.cal
Subtropical
the winter the Atlantic air extends over Siberia
rner months, since in
near parallel GQ north.
nion (the Middf.e' and, part1Y, Lower Tra ns~VOlga ), par-
territory
ticularly of tllo t1
" ,n~r the a warm Irtonths a the winter being somewhat colder o
~,cuJ.ar1~~' c~ua..~.; t~
The northern boundary of this zone in the western half of the territorY
north, and in the eastern half of the territory,
passes . near Parallel ~ 1
southern climatic zone, or the Continental ?Je stern Siberian
The SUL
Zane, is basa.call,, r to the southeastern part of the European
,r sau~~.la
while the layers contiguous to the terrestrial
in the upper layers,
surface contain, practically at all times, cold continental air.
~
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u
Western ,Siberia than over the European part, Since a southerly air cur-
rent predamanates along the pex'iphery of the spring anticyclones over
the European part
' pitation in the southern part of Western Siberia,
~he amount of raze;ca.
as corap northern zones of Central Asia, rises sharply. The
~.re;d o the naz
aiaaurit of annual precipitation in Akmolinsk is in excess oi' same in
I.?azal1 '.limeter,s, with the differential attributable mainly
n~k by 200 trul
to the ttramcr, vrh, i.ch radically change F3 conditions with relation to the
N
grotiath of vc;etation.
In the southeast, the Continental Wet~rn Liberian zone borders
iuauntain aange] :i.ies between two clirra-
upon the Al toy 7,ane, The Altay C
" order of magnitude; Weatern ciboria and Central regions of the first
t1C regions -
< ~in fieat~c for Trans-Ba.ylc,,1., manl,-
c~c ~ A d. ~.t~.
festect na if is the sharp rise in surr>r p~'c;cir~-`~'~
7:a.r.y ; in the scutl7crn ha ,
tation, which in no way can be attributed to local ?actaxs. -5omc; a.nter?-
p the Pacific monsoan. Yet, the p fCetivefes5
-~^et ?t~~~~o as the -c~ .~'c~7 ~c~~ a~
to the Pacific baSif, ,e . to the eastern and
off' this 3nonsaon is 11.Mitccl
I&TEI)
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: southeastern, slopes of the Yab onovyy flid;o and tl'io Greater Khingan.
-Jutrirrier precis i.tati,on over Trans-Baykal is tied in mainly with the ?~iongo-
lian front cyclones in which the warm mass is constituted by the North
China continental '1roI) cal air. The mean daily temperature, in rCror)lcai,
air penetrations duTirrg the surrinc:r over the southern
part of Trans-Baykal,
Is soraetirnes above 2 degrees Centigrade The mean temperature i'or July
over Kyakhta is tip,~arrre as over Kislovodsk (which has the same altitude),
even though there is a considerable difference in geographical latitude.
~f'l~e amount of precipitation for July and August goes ul) to 90 -iOO rralli-
meters, which :is cony derable when compared. with the 3a rrd.llinzeters of
precipitation for winter and spring. However, even during the rainiest
ears, the amount of precipitation is always less `thar'r 200 nr~illire:ters
a rrror?rth, ?wh1(, in the ;Pacific monsoon area it may exceed 300 'miliiM
meters i Some sumrllers in Traps-Baykal are very arid, wl'uiie in the rriorrsodn
area drought never occurs. All this confirms the `above mentioned predom-
inant connection between sunnner' precipitotion over Trans-'Baykal with the
Mongolian cyclones. There are few rainy days In the su~rtner, acrd preci~
pi.tation takes the form of short showers. Suitarer sky cover is relatively
light, and the duration of sunshine,' even during the rainy season, i
60 percent of the potential.
Autumn arrives 'raii.dly, but the w a Cher rerraa Lrrs remarkably dry
and clear. The transition to the equally clear arid dry winter; season
is /racticaally7 unnoticeable. The anticyclordc cycle carries into its
o,wn as early as Septembcz', and the general torttperature level drops rapid-
ly. Mean daily temperatures below minus 10 degrocs Centigrado are rc i-
tered in October, :and by the second half of November, the winter cycle
?with its clear, calm, arid severely fra2ty weather is fully stabilized,
see Ficur
l75 "
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Fir;ure 9:
Typical weather I'or the end of autumn and. the beg inf i.nc; of
winter over Trans'-1)a7ka1 (2), Novether 1939).
TflE FA EAST
The areas of the Soviet Union `within the basin of the :Pacific
Ocean are known as the Far Eastcrn areas` The terrain dctcrniird.ng the
liar 'East as a separate hyc3rologlcai region, plays a decisive part in the
estab1ish~nent of a climatic boundary between to Pacific area and East?
ern Siberia.
The circulation processes evolving over the pacific Ocean affect
the Far East only pa
ially, and show no tendency for deep penetration$
over he continent. Therefore, the mountain barriers easii:y arrest tiiiir
x gres3 westwards and accentuate the boundary of the c1 Ii~at4ic effect oi'
the pacific Ocean, and perhaps even displace it sorucwhat to the cat.
As to the continental influences, which manifest theinselvc 3 mainly dhirinj
the wintera the mountain ridges are no essential barriers, since the;
vertical `depth o the wintor continental ai.r !naseOS exceeds by far the
altitude of the so ridges.
When comparing the vast areaafooted climatically by the Atlantic
Ocean, which c1 iect extends to the Yeith cy R:iver,with the narro'r I' ar Eat L
It?sTR1crED _ 176
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EU
i
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aEsTa%ciEsl
ern belt, aver which the effect oz to Pacific Ocean is predominant, one
x ealize c the great physical and geographical significance of the ester1y
trarisi'er of the tropospheric air naes over the Ternperate latitudes.
The climate of the Far East is composed tinder the alternating
effect of continent and ocean. The continental effect redominateS in
the wintE,r, mardfestint :Lt seif in a mighty northwesterly continental air
current, C1o1~jing ofi' along the eastern periphery of the anticyclones,
consturtay generated during the winter over Central Asia and Siberian
Tr1e vertical depth frequently attained by tJ)?s air current is L kilometers,
The coldest b'ottor-~ layer of Ea tern Siberian air is retarded in the area
co,a{'orm nt to the raritime location o.[ the area and its geographical 1 tti
.of formation, and this air arrives over the Far East with a somewhat hig,
er.^ temperature. Uowever, even this teruperature is verj lair, and inot
tude Thus
for e:xaiiip1e
the mean January temperature' in the 01', a Day,
enclosed`?rom the north and Uie northwest by the 3 khote"A1in' r4ountain
Range, and i; ink at he latitude of Tuapse, is rrlinus 12 degrees Centigrade,
?.Co nano degree below that of Moscowo In Nikolayevsk_naMAmure, where the
recurrence of winter northwesterly continental winds is 80 percent, tle
mean Jatma yy' tet,,perat'l.'e is 13 decrees Centigrade lots rr than that in i
b,, shev .it the, sar7,+ latitude 0
The ei'fect oi' the oaea
Strorkae st during the aumn-. r9. It is
co~f1Doaed o1 tT7,a 1)a3ic l)roco sse (1) t1 a f r UWic r oi' rnaryitirl,e Tr,rlr peratc:
air with easterly and southeasterly' winds in the bottoan layer, in tha
Forward part of the cyclones (the me an depth oi" this layer is 1
kilometers), and () the propagation, from over the Subtropical part of
the ocean (also in the southeasterly current), of warm h,urriid air. This
air, however, s, :lrr most cases, even over the southern part of the area,
severed (at the occlusions) frorn the t r:'estri;al surf4ace, and extonds
over the top of the colder layer. Summer temperature and humi Lty over
i77
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ii ittOl E~
xtjTr'te belt are tied in with the first ,pro9CSS, while preciraita.~
the. mar
of cyclonic activity, at the western outcrop of the Pacific Ocean
r..t~.an5 a ~'
front (see Figure 60)
tion i.3 `tied in with the second one.
Cyclonic` activity &tt the rya extern outcrop of the Pacific
Ocean front during the sui ter (23 June 1916)
the Pacific front cyclones, the 1ongo1ian front
In adlition to
to The amount of preclaitatiOf in
The i,n.fiow of iruu'itim air in the bottom _layer reduces swnrner
ternperatu only over he littoral, but also over the interior.
~.o~~ . not only
G s, carr in{r the _ c3ry and hot North China rdr in ssc s, ai o penetrate
,~cla,fl ,c:.~ ~" ~a
over the southern part of the
tbe3e cyclones iM s,rlall.
The warmest sumiiers are observod`over the Ussuri /liver Valley, and along
the Amur t~ivcr~ corresponding in latitude to the
the middle course of
Sauthezn Ukraine : Summer temperatures here are the same as in the Atha n -
ntinental region of the European part of the USSR.
ta,c Co
Sununez precipitationfrom the maritime Tropical air, which i.s pros.
pagathi her layers, mounts to 70 percent of the annntal rcM
~:n~ in the
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sTN1CiEt1
cipitat:Lora. over the southern zones, and to somewi?iat. i~ ss over the north-
em Tl par t a
Over the ea of Okhotsk, in the surnm r, is t voivod a high pressure
area, a1on t: e eastern br Lrn o1 ' which the air i':Loir s off southward, toward
tiiioa r)i' Japan, then returns to the north, along tho western ieripher+y,
It1h `Baca ac utirc" rs t;c:r.~l,:;r.
coi:i grater
urrNrrt? Th:.s air :L cooled o?'i' over. the rr;:1"at .ve-
:rf the nor"thorn fart of the
oT Japan and the
,t.,,r~ :i.t as a r suit o;i' Yrhich t,s re1 ii:1 ve hurii iib y is con aiclor"zbiy increased,
i?i:Lth ?re;1uent S orn at?ion oj' care i od b i the winds over tiie coast To
R
t:hc rrtoi't;1a,, tiro: tet1j rc ratur"c; di.i'fc: renti?a;L betwoer`l f;he air rid the surface o:
Lhc water :L3 docr'oase c3, and he t'e Is. icsr foci :rorrna tion. In Ju11r, the
number of days with Log over '~liadivostok is 1$, over 4:Lkoia;ycvsic-na-Arnure
only 1, mean r& Live hu ddi t;y in "Vladivostok is f' aorcent, in Niko a.y"~
(~vsk-na-ArauTe it is 7? +.)e rcc nt, Thus, the constarth inflow of camp air,
frorii over the norti~orn par t of the of Japan, i s ro apon aibie for the.
r:XCcr 7S?i.Ve huultdit:' of the ;atmiin er" in Liao 1~" r East.
P
dete1^IT1ine the
and col d winters, and the 'rainy hour id summers, consti
Lute the prsLnc:Lpa1 ci trracL ris?tic oi.' the monsoon ciiiuate oJthe Far East.
The winter, nor?threster"i;y ctiu"rent of contincn.ta1 air is the winter monsoon.
The r ue& ion is nosed, as to which air currant constitutes the summer
monsoon. Is it the lower current of maritime Temperate air that determines
the basic temperature and humidity cycles? Or is it the upper, Subtrop
pical air current, from which precipitation is falling? It
1L fl ly
both, yet separated from each other in conformity :Wit}. j,l~c processes and
phenomena peculiar to each.
Thus, the basic part in the formation of the climate over the
Far Eastern territory of the USSR b&Longs to circulation factors ? F i.cures
61 and 62 show dia ramatical1y the distribution of air currents and thc:
location of frontal zones' over the Far East during the winter and tho
summer (accordir to N. V txomouoov)
erG
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ae soasonaily alternatin cone! rrc nt ri and oceanic ei'S'ect a, which
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MIN~M1NMwMMVrYrMM IIw"M..MIMYN,
1/-s---,.-_MM.4Mglyf, _$_ ,.I.IM1
Fig 61; Distribution of air currents and location of frontal - zones
over the Far East during the printer (N. V. Strertiousov) ,
-'fl44! bN1 nr~?e~sy In+oy I~N^Nrrlvr
Fire 62; Distribution o1 air currents and location of ?ronta1 zones
over the Far East during the s1.unrner (according to N V. Strcmousov
During the winter continon'bai air is propagated f ar to the south,
beyond the boundaries of the Soviet Union, and cyclonic activity at he
Polar front tales place in the Subtropical latitudes ovor the Pacfic
Ocean. The Paci2i c Ocean air of the Tcmporato latitudes is propagated
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:tacTEth
in the rear of the departing cyclones, and is carried by the latter to
the east of the Far Eastern littoral. In connection to .th this, the re-
currertee of continental air over the Isar East is 60-70 percent in the
south and 00 percent; over the lower part of the Amur River,
Figure 62 shows two summer outcrops of the Polar front, a conti-
nenta1 outcrop over Mongolia, and a Pacific Ocean outcrop. In the cy-
clone a ` at the contineirtal outcrop of the Polar front, the ~1arrn sector
is filled with contji.neratal Tropical air, while in the Pacific Ocean cy-
clones, the same is fille cl with maritiTrie Tropical air, A high pressure
area is developed over the Sea of Okhotsk in the summer, and it is main-
ly from this area, that the air Is flowing off into the roar of the pass-
:in. cyclones. The same air inassCS arrive over Primor~ye and over the
Arnur Valley, but they are carried by the southeasterly current, which
is returning from the south considerably warmed.
Based on the above described circulation conditions, the Far
Last can be divided into two climatic regions: (l) the Monsoon region,
csom.jrisin r the `basin o1 the Amur River, the Sea of Okhotsk littoral, and
the southern hail' of Kamchatka, and (2) the Pacific Ocean sub-Arctic re^
gion, cornr)X1is1f the basin of the Anadyr River, and the part of the
Karlichatka Pertnsula to the north of i,he mouth of the Kamchatka River.
Within tho Non soon tenon, three zones, differing from each other by
conditions of swnmer circulation, can be aegrogatec1: (1) the Amur Riven
zone, (2) the Okhotsk zone, and (3) the Kamchatka zone.
TIC o R
The Amur River zone, which is the southernariost zone of the region,.
occupies the basin of the Amur River down to the State boundary (with
the exception of the lower part of the river course), the southern part
of the Tatarsky Strait' littoral to De-Ka stri , Bay, the southern half of
"a.khalin and the southern Ituriles. Southeasterly winds from the ca of
JEflICTF!
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rni11imeters and not :Less than 2C) m,LilirieterS of rain,
. nnwi y, by the end of the summer and during autumn, there are,
on the average, 10 typhoon which are regenerated' at the Polar front
Tropical cyclones. In addition to 'great wind velocities, they are arcomp-
anieci by abundant preci:pita tion. They typhoons usually pay OVCrthey
zone with their northern parts, and over O milliae,eters of rain fa1l
during the day. When the typhoon occurs at the end of the aunr:er, with
~a
the;; z'i.ver full, the in'bcn;e rain brini Of a flood. During late autumn,
the k~ f};>iroons are not so fre+ quent, and when they occur they are accomp-
ani.e d by ample snowfall.
rr}.re printer cycle in t lic ,Aux 7ofc re 7er()blc: that of Trans-paykal,
but tcrnperatur(rs are higher, due to a ruse southern location, irithacce:L -
orated 1l7So1~1t1on and iciarf ' quent p( ne trattons of warm air r ~ co .
The potential insolation for January in the ir:Lmorskiy Kray, ~iith respect
to geographical latitude, is twice that of the ;3outherri part of Trans-
Baykal, which, against the background of equally light sky cover, has
considerably .higher temperature .
The penetration of - relatively warm
air masses over the A~r~ur zone may take place, both from then direction
of the seta, and from China. But these warn, penetrations in the middle
of the; w.Lnter rarely result in a thaw. On the average, during; she 3 win"
ter months in Vladivostok, there is one day with a mean daily terrperaturc
above zero Centi:rz'ade For the same period, there are 12 days with a
moan &aa,ly tcrnpera tu~e from zero to minus degrees Centi radee, whilc
on the ~xtrernc; southern' end of TransMDay}gal (in Kyakht ,), there ;1, noire;,
and only 3 days have a mean daily temperature of from minus to minus
lOdgreos Centigrade, the
other days all being colder.
In tho reinter, the maritime air arr:lvos over the zone with the
rear winds, passing to the south of the cyclones (see Figure Q9., syr opt>ic'
disposit?ofl of 21i. Novern1xr 1939). The
relatively warm air arrives frorc
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CT 4D
over China, where it is initially formed in h-i;h pressure areas over
Parallel 30 north (see Figure 61)
'jl e winter teirrpei'ature rise (as compared to Trans43aykal) is a s o
clue to wind acceleration, which takes place in the belt between the Si-
berian antics clone and the Aleutian rninirctuun /ressure7 area.
Winter precipitation is small, arid there are winters when the snow
does fot cover the entire ground. The snow cover is stabilized only late
in the ,eaon, since even in l'lovernber the temperature hovers around zero,
with the L'ailing snow melting. The dwindling of the now cover takes
place in April, by iile:Ltng and evaporation, since the weather is rather
1
clear, with 1cy cover i ncreasif ; only thLrin they ;second haJ i of April
and in May. As a result, the spring ?lood stage in the rivers of the
Arnur zone is not
ig)diicant, arid
i.s accelerated only at the lower course.
of the Amur, where there is con si derably more snow,
The Okhotsk climatic zone coriwises the littoral of the Sca of
.-......_..?-.,.?...?..~ .r............?..__
Okhotsk including the lower caurce of the Amur, the northern hart of to
Tatarsld.y Strait to De-. fasts. I?ay, and the northern part of akhalin.
The characteristic i'eaturo Qi' the, Okhotsk zone during the um E~
is the evolution over theca of O1:hot
of an area of hili nressure,
from which the air niasscs, coolrad over the -ca, flow off towarch thr
littoral (see F1 ure G2). For most of the littoral, the winds ?rom the
Sea oi' Okhot3k ? are southcri,y arid southeasterly monsoons, occ urin during
the warm period, from May to August. They bo;i,n almost a month after
and end earlior than the southcastor1y winds of tlie' Amur zone, blowing
from the a of Japan. The 3uxnirier temperature; of ?thr ai.r mares,, bcin;i
?ormcd over the Soa of Okhotsk, cliffex+s little froar, the te~npcarature of
the water, therefore there is very Little Log formation. The fogs hero
are ?'orn ed rather in the warm continental 'air in its migration over the
c oa, and arc carried by the y breoze . toward the , shore, whore ?thoy are
M1' 18
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N ~ d+~
tsuc i
rapidly dissipated, while. lingering rather long over the water. Thus,
there : ; considerably less swrr,or fog over the Okhotsk zone, than in to
south oi' the'. Amur zone, In vlacti.vostok, there are G.O days with fogfrom
June to August,. In N: koiayevsk~na.Arntuie only five. 1!1ot only is there
lest: fog, but also the relative humidity over the Okhotsk zone is lower.
The very late arrival of the suiarner warmth is due to the same cause, ire.
the prevailing winds from the cold sea. The mean June temperature in
1'1iko1ayevsk.ri.a.Artlurc is ii decrees Centigrade, in Okhotsk and Okh~ on
E.akhai rt it is 6 degrees Cerrti trade Generally, the s wltuer cannot be
cons:Lder^ed warm. Only over the lower' course oi' the Amur the nno rr August
temperatm e reaches 16 degree Centigrade, and it is considerably lower
in the rust of the zone. In Okhotsk, the mean August temperature is
12 degrees Centi :rade. Ma drum temperatures over the c ntire zone (not
counting the lower course of the Amur) are not above the maximum terp ra-
Lures over the Arctic Ocean littoral,
Surrinner cyclonic acb?ivity is tied in mainly tirith southerly cyclones,
but there is also forniation of secondary cyclones at the occlusions,'
where the warm mass consists oi" continental al. Thus, summer precipi-
tation over the Okhotsk zone coa+,es not only from the Pacific Ocean Trop-
cal air, but also from the continental air arriving iron Eastern Cihoria,
and ?rom the south of the Far Eastern territory. Tropical air penetra-
tions (at the occlusions) become rare toward the north, and precipitation
is dirr,inished, Over the south of tho zone precipitat ,on remains ample,
particularly over the weetern shore of the Sea of Okhotsk (on t;he slopes
of the coastal ridge), where there is as rruch precipitation as in the
south of Primar'ye (in Vladivostok), but in Okhotk precipitation has
already dindnishe'd to about half the amount. The amount of prc;c?ipitation
also decreases toward the east, the annual amount in N kolayev kwna-Aanure
l86 .
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ts11tuCTEJ
and sbiii' less in he nartbcrf part of Sakhalin.
is 10 irta.lla.mctcxS,
~ 'ac-
there ~. also a pax~t,s.cua.a1 :[
xn Uriz~t~Lex crcu~,~,;, ~a.az`~
; ~ ~~ ne ~'r~~nr ~;,}ae ~,mur zone, i.e. cyc~.anic acs
at Gt:l,f the c,rc~ Arrlct:r..a~,_cs ~~l~.,~ ~aa
~~Gi.ax that vity that
'c front. As rrier>,tiar1ed in t}~C preceda?g text, the lo-
cat zone over ,vcr Es;stez^r>. Ya}cuLa.a a.s, to a cansic~er~.la:li.c
'.an a~ the f~^antaJ. r
' al causes, but also by c?nditions of gen-
degxc;~, determined by araxa~ha.c
zone ai' tl'~e: Ica af-()khotSk is the natural place
exal circul.ata.or~e .Che
where the Yakutiafl Arctic air and the pacific t)cean~ aiz~ meet. The Arc-
t arecj.~~itatian, cons.dc;~^a~)~.~' in c~r;:cess
~.c cyclones provide the winter ~
. ^:: he ~;a~athern part athe Far East. ''lT~e snow
awinter ~rarec~.~a.~~a~.~an in :~
caves is also increaseda It is of interest to tote the aistrihut pan ai
the anew cover over the t~ . , Amur Va;lle3r, and the general hyc}z^o1ac`.ra1: cycJ
' a,i~h ~.~,o In the ecnLxs~l part of ~t~h~: ~.irtu~^ az~ca,
o:L' the river , ttied in w
the snow cover spring flood stage is pxG~ct~.cal1.y absent'
.t.5 t}~a.i the,
with aniy? anG high ~,'~lead durin the surrurlexo Over the lower river area,
:
r-.hers ~;ha.c~~ by the End of the 1hTa.ratca~, c~ausa.ra
t1~FA snow cavc~^ is '~0 cenl,a.m?,
spring floods a. ?n addition to high water aan thc~ swnu~ler . Regarda.n? w~:i~tc~r
,
preciPa.Lai~a.an, tied in with the Arctic cyc lone s, ` the western littoral
of the Baca ai Okhotsk, and its ts :,art which has rnaximuTh srnnruer }:xeaa.}aa.~a-
?
,
tian, are in an unf av arat'1e position. r21~c; warm season precipitatiart,
irrduccad by the aut}acrly cyclones, with rc1.ata,Qn to which the eastern
.acrea~7e5 from the ,i~outh of 'the Arnur west-
llaQUntaiT1 slopes are windward,
ward. by the ~~ori~hGxly c~yc~.aneu, c~irnir~ishe~
waxd~ Winter ~rec?~.~~it~..cjx l, inch
toward the west. snow blanket attains its maximum depth.
Thus, the ... s
the /ewer course of the This is partly due to it being sustainc,d
,~mur ~
of November to the bcga.rlr-`a.ng off" May.
on the ground, fraan the beginning
? conditiorLs? differ little from continental can-
~.nte~~ temperature
,~ articularly in he south of the , no
da,ta.ons over Las~exn Siberia, ~.
The paean te?npEratuxe of the winter month s over the lower course off' tit
Amur . southern ai't of Trans-~3ay~~a1 about Lnus
is the dame as over ~hra
2 degraes Centigrade far Janear . The duratiar~ of the period w;ltl~~ nog
: ~')
ESTRI(TF
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tas I tUCT D
. Southeasterly winds o?' the'Okhotk anticyclone i~rcdondnate in tthe
Starner over northern Sakhalin, as well as over, the greater part of. to
Okhotsk zone. But, in adcli.tion, Northern Sakhalin is caught by the rear
part o:L' the Pacific Ocean cyclones moviiz over the Kurile Islands toM
ward Kamchatka, with the re seating acceleration off" the cold and damp
northerly winds Summer precipitation over Sakhalin, as well as over the
lower course of the Amur, is lower than ca lie over the ,3outher'n part of
Priiitortye. The northern tip of the island, in t1d sense., is subject to
particularly unfavorable conditions over flat ,Bores, ` surrounded by
the cold sea, the vortical e~aperature gradient is small, and at tunes
has even negative value, which creates a stable stratification, imped-
ing the risin; air 'currentso
The mountains, stretching along the eastern and western coasts'
of the island, protect the interior ;fora the damp and cold winds from
the sea, as a result of which the surnnrers in the interior of the island
are no colder than those over the lower_ course. of he Amur. .
The Kamchatka climatic zone occupies the southern part of the
peninsula up to the `mouth of the Kamchatka liver,, and up to the Northern
Kurile(;$ During the winter, the effect of the 'continent over this zone
is considerably diminished by the air currents of the western dart of
the Aleutian depression. in the rear of the cyclones, passing to the
east of Karnchatka, northeasterly winds sre stabilized, carry.ng the air
from over the i3er:Ln Sea, which, even' though it ?reezes over in its
western part, is not as cold as the continent. A a an illustration, see
Fi tire 63, depicting the synoptic dispos?it on of 9 December 1938.
11
L .1
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Frye 63 k eJ , 1. o1.r (,):3
tt1
of (./c1D?1e (9 j)('
L ncTI
110!
1.Lni'; i?7ir..c
- i I
( ()C()nta the boundary for t1~e }~~~cpr~atja.nof
To the east of ~ ~
formative Arctic air, during the summer, is the Anadyrkki.y Mountain 11an e.
. ?::..: ?.. ? ... ESTR
44
200
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Tii transr~ r, in the c~"ciorlc's, of Atlantic and Eastern EuroJ?ran
'flI., k:I ir rC~,# lr,t 3 in a l ti"j7 'tC !lf Cr..tsL3r e r L $E over the A t#i an ti.C
c'11c. T1ic 1r4e 1.f Janua
t cite c1e4 .a, i cs :Latituc1.cnorth, ndnus
wintor, with a sharp predorrdriaaice of souther:1. r winds from OVCirrlber to
I'iarch. However, In connection T~iith the rapid formation of occlusions,
and the subsequent extinction of the cyclones as they movo erstward,.
It)recipitation :U3 ligit, amountin ; in tI~e ii'rinter ovor blie r)ax'ont> Se,
and over the west cc st of Novaya ; errd.ya, to 2OM3O millimeters, and over
'bb1:e area crS' the ayara yea to about, 10 millimeters. It should be noted,
h()wever, thut the meat .;xi.a~ o:t' t:,hc wi.rjter preci a .4,ntion (snow) :i.s cne JJy
uuro;Ltablc, ;:iar LLcularly in the Arc l,ic l)c~CauC the dater Snoc"r 15 blown
out of' the rilt viO]feteT1 s l){ the strong ui r'id. Yet, the preci.pitotion
{:lof c .eucy ,s coni:Lrlc~ed .rl(?i.rc ctly , ~. tho sha1J.ocr snow cover, whicb, b
~ ix ar a
't1he month of April, . over i'ovay fi Zevi.y
~ a ~.~, ~.,, the R. Se ~ littoral, rri~ the
i,c?lands, att,3,i.fl a nioar'i C1cpt1 o ` o,liiy 30 centimeters. {T'i'c gauging 01'
con. it ioi
. The abaci
cyclorti.c act:a,vIt' castward Is n ariiiested.
rd sled `cloud ;ror~i t:Lon, The recurrence of January overcast over t1
x: ri e 1 t. 1
'~ ~:ea :i70 , '. ~t'nt 0trCr the ~ira S'ci ?6 ?, r.c~
over i"1C GEC ta4 rr Coast of Elie Island oC Nova a ZOrnJ.ya, it .i llninu 11
k; rQe$ Ccmtai,grade. In 1937, the mean Jaana~aiy i~ ml e~ . uae over Lkhya
r'ay was niinus 3 `de hies Centi radc Ob;:crvat!on~a imride thc,ro' ?or the
period of i)eceniber"February, registered on the vcrau~o, two thaws, anc1
during one January there wre even 6 day with thawi,n wca thor. The war
in , effect of the Atlantic Ocean ialso indicated by the r~?tLn1ruxn tcmW
perature distribution over the zone (Figure 68 )
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la It non-lioriiofacneous cIi tribu't1.on and Arc~t;Lc
hags just a.s c?L a i.c itt~,
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1OVT
xc r
uiir :,u;a ,LEI 1i", !C
r;n c1ia~'~?~. ~? of i ~ io:r ~i.r C' >fA"" 1;a'~~4
iI IO ~JUtqr. iL L ' i?~ bic
+ , . ~ u r
ovt" 11C :a:; rvt: to ,'r;.lb'';i '.;e ;;. p' i.ut f! f t l"l?of;;L'Uion ; 12f,k, :Lnerl from
;'ov(,s;,b?"'~'? a'I:1'1c" of ArLiy 1.c~ rl urnp Inter e;son.
t,)r?Cu1.I. r7, t}rc, c1, of tit; 1rJ;1,~?" atic ti, }l.r" foies 1i'~ -
r~t
qunn11.y C()d+~i( r ti t n' bi~~'= :Ide?l,U,e of sral,o? !l1 count:, t o coicc. U+
alonU1} o ~aJe year L ~. thInon~ Pi1 ~` ~ ~ '~ ~ ~ ~. tar s i, to~5.!: Ln tJ k;r. overt ~, ? a ~~ fi? of ~ ~J~l
~fS i i.1. u1 C o e=i,*Lt+s,t.
'ii 4 ( t`~ i +! ya~ '1'~ yyyy , b ~,u { 1~ 1~rIi S':i': ik" E' 7]L o 1' b
I. ,A tJtA47..: U Lc i or:: u.,rr:Ln+ +,. 1h ~/rr:
(?tl:Lnu ~ 20 1reed Cent4grade ) recu r i.i ; in st,., bt,1.i. cf Cye Le ? Tht' 'o
are
' ctica11y na thaws in Iiarci
able warmth during the days and ky covc r an t,1 t~ fav+Fzt ?e s :L he
p rce t f with J clear days registered dur:Lng thrip on 1i i c ' ~c~ ri(# i.nri .
vidual years.
Warm spells are frequently registered in the mn c1 .1 ~ of the win
JanuarI
due to the acceleration oi' warm air trap' i'or :Lntc) U)c= Arc bic,
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j, L, n~~. ^711+a ii4, r 1 } ~rl~,u' iy~l (^I c
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`Q yyr1r` M1M1 b
tied :in with the acccnbuation of the mid' winter to npera urge and ui~essure
contrasts between the Atlantic Ocean and the land nass of Eurasia.
The warrrt spells. that occurred for the last 20 ,years in the Arctic
we re particularly pronounced in to Atlantic Sector They are a a~esuit
or the accol.orat1,i,on of winter c:~rcu1at:Lon over the Atlantic sector and
tl?!!e iritensi.ve transfer of tla.c ai
Arctic
of the `L'empcnatc iatit1idCS into the
r'he recurrence off' lr i 11 vr.l.oci.t WirlCIS tu^ira; the ~,rinber in the
AtLanticc zone :is considerable ? The mean wind velocity icr 7, and, in
st)oiS
8 and even 9 meters per second. Storrtas (ovor i' yrek,er 7 per 7ocond} a
t1OWcvOI 0CCuri'requr~n
lJ
arLly in one :Lc)caiities, urger ti.c effect of
coastal conditions, whi:ie; in the o7en ; ea 11icy are considerably iess irc-
cjuent. Oi rarticu1ar Irequoncy are the severe northeatc.riy &aor'uiis aver
a;atocbkirr char strait, up to ItO meters per sccond. Over Yuvorskiy char
sct , ever e ~yies do not occiu', yet the mean wind velocity i. ; id. tier
tilair over 1:atOClkil char, The wind is;r{eati;y accoicrated as it blows
over the r:ount i,n rangy,e on iova;yia Zeruiya, a;a a umtrlg the character of an
(t t~fto;3pher'i.c ava'ianche, so t;rpi.c: ri. tor the _bora, rTlie Novaya Zemlya born,
like the bona over l?fnvorassiysk and i~ kc aykal, is a cold, air current
dosccndizr ; from f~ tho mountain, and blowing alone the periphery of a 1ril,r
pr1er ssurc area at the time a cyclone i approaching ,from the other sidc
or tho mountain ran;c. The born is ruoa frcqucnti,r :Ulducod over the
western littoral of Novaya Zemlya, with the e;voiu'bion of anticyclones
over be east, and thr simuitancous approach of a c yelonc from thy;; iJarent
Sea. The bora occurs also over the eastern ahores when th situation
is reversed, that i, when an antlcyclone is dGve1opod over Spitsbert;cn,
with the s?ixrtuitaneous passing of a cyclone over the Kara Sea,. The force
of the bona raking over he Island of Novaya Zemlya' is as treat as tha
force of the Novorossiysk or rake Baykal borax the tomperatures howcve
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(Li.) The boundary of the Subtropical part of the Caucasus passes
along the southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus, at an altitude of
2000 .meters, separating thereby the Armenian. Highland from the Temperate
zone in Trans-.Caucasia. Farther to the east (beginning with the Trans-
Volga area), this boundary runs approximately along Parallel 46 north to
Lake Zaysan and to the state boundary of the Soviet Uni one The location
of this climatical boundary in the Caucasus is considerably more to the
south than it is in Central Asia, since over the Azov-Caspian Lowland
and over the Northern Caucasus, the process of transformation of conti-
nental air into Tropical air is attenuated by the proximity of the seas,
and over Central Asia, on the contrary, it is intensified by the presence
of vast steppes and deserts m
By conditions of atmospheric circulation, the Subtropical part
of the Caucasus is divided into 3 climatic zones: (l) The Black Sea zone
(basin of the Rion River), (2) The Continental zone (basin of the Kura
River), and (3) The Armenian highland. The first zone is characterized
by the predominance of "local'' Black Sea air masses, the second one, by
the inflow of continental air from the north and from Asia Minor, with
the narrow coastal belt, over which there is also felt the effect of the
Caspian Seam The Suramskiy Range is the boundary between these two zones,
Over the Armenian Highland predominate the air masses of Asia Minor and
Iran. By conditions of terrestrial relief, some sub-zones can be segre-
gated within the above zones.
(6) Sub-Tropical Central Asia consists of 2 climatic regions;
(l) the Lowland and Medium-Altitude region, and (2) the High-Mountain
region. The boundary between them runs, at an altitude of 2500 meters,
along the slopes of the Gissarskiy, Turkestanskiy, Alayskiy Mountain
Ranges and along the northern slopes of the Tyan ' Shan' Pa ge,
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/03/08 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000100200005-4
RESTRICTED
ion zone, oc 'cupying the southern part of Central Asia up to Parallel Q
north, and the Turanian zones over wlv.ch local Central Asiatic air is
same time the Eastern European effect is pronounced,
formed, and at the
it borders in the north on the Temperate zoned
The High-Mountain climatic region is one circulation zone, since
at altitudes in excess of 200 meters here the general circulation con
ditions are homogeneous.
the mountains and foothills of Central Asia, several sub-zones
In
can be segregated, as a result of the effect of terrestrial relief and
other local factors. Examples of such sub-zones are the Fergan Valley
with the adjacent foothills, the area of Lake Issyk-Kul', and others.
(7) The territory located within the Temperate latitudes, which
is defined as the zone of transfer and transformation of air masses,
climatic zoning is complicated by the introduction of units of a larger
r.tic zo
order of magnitude, than climatic zones and regions. These are areas
of transfer of air masses, and there are three of these: the Atlantic,
the Arctic and the Pacific. Climatic regions and zones are contained
within each one of the above areas of transfer.
8) The area of transfer of Atlantic air masses borders in the
(
south on the Subtropical zone (in the Caucasus and Central Asia), and
the Arctic. The boundary with the Arctic, to the west
in the north on
of the White Sea, passes through the south of the Parents Sea, since the
Arctic front at this sector is beyond the lirn.ts of the continent during
the winter. To the east of the White Sea, the boundary lies on the con-
tinent at he latitude of the Polar Circle, coinciding with the boundary
' tundra. In Western Siberia it follows the line of the coast, de-
of the
viating g to the north, and reaches the mouth of the Yenisey River. The
eastern boundary follows the Yenisey River along the western slopes of
the Central Siberian Plateau..
 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/03/08 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000100200005-4
IIESTHICT?EO
( 9) Three climatic regions are segregated within the area of
transfer of the Atlantic air masses; the Atlantic-Arc ~ic region, where
Atlantic and Arctic air masses predominate; the Atlantic-Continental
region, where transformation of Atlantic air into continental air takes
place, and the Continental rem, where continental air masses predom-
mate. These three c:Lirnatic regions extend in belts from west to east
along the European part of the USSR and Eastern Siberia. With the inten-
sification of the continental features of the climate, the belt of the
Atlantic-Arctic region narrows down to the east, whale the belt of the
Continental region becomes wider. The boundary between the Atlantic-
Arctic and the Atlantic-Continental region in the European part, runs
from Lake Ladoga to the headwaters of the Pechora Rivera On the eastern
slopes of the Urals, the boundary begins at the latitude of Berezovo,
makes a sharp break as it crosses the mountain range, and then continues
to Turukhansk. The boundary between the Atlantic. Continental and the
Continental region runs from the rciicld.le course of the pnyestr River to
the lei` cidie 'lolga, then to the headwaters of the }3elaya River. This
boundary, too, makes a, break as it crosses the Ura]_ Range, and, picking
up at the latitude of Sverdlovsk, continues to Podkamennaya Tunguzka.
(10) Each of the above mentionedclimatic regions, with relation
to the degree of the effect exerted upon it by th.e Atlantic Ocean, is
dLi-vided into 3 climatic zones < two hones in the European part of the USSR,
and one in Eastern Siberia. Thus, the Atlantic-Arctic region is divided
into the following zones: We stern European, Eastern European, and Western
Siberian. In the European partaf the Us3R7, the boundary between the
western and eastern zones runs from Arkhangelsk through Moscow toward
Kherson, and as the' continental features are intensified southward, it
is continuously displaced westward. The boundary between the European
and Western Siberian, zones runs along the Ural Mountain vane, and, in
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the Continental region, it is considerably deflected to the west, in
connection with the intensification toward the south of the transfer of
Asiatic air masses along the southern rim of high pressure areas,
Over the western zones of the European territory of the USSR, there
is greater development of cyclonic activity, as compared with same over
the eastern zones, and basic significance belongs to Atlantic air masses,
even though their characteristics were somewhat modified over the conti~
nent, Continental air, resulting from the transformation of Atlantic
as well as Arctic air, predominates over he eastern zones, The conti-
nental characteristics of the climate are further intensified in the
Western Siberian zones, by comparison with the Eastern European zones,
(11) In the southern, Continental climatic region, in addition to
the Western European, Eastern European, and Western Siberian zones, there
are several additional zones, The southern part of Crimea, and also the
northwestern part of the Caucasus, constitute a zone that can be called
the Nediterranean zone, since the circulation processes generated over
the Mediterranean, are predominant here, such as the passage of Mediter-
ranean cyclones in the winter, and the extension of the Mediterranean
high pressure area in the summer, Three sub-zones can be segregated here:
the southern littoral of the Crimea, the mountain area of the Crimea,
and the northern part of the Black Sea littoral, toward (but not reaching)
Sochi,
The foothills of the Northern Caucasus and its medium-altitude
area (up to 1500-2000 meters) are also a part of the southern Continental
region, comprising three climatic zones: the western, or Mediterranean
z, the central, or the Eastern Euro can zone, and the eastern, or
Asiatic zone. The western zone, a continuation of the Mediterranean zone
of Southern Crimea, has,, as its eastern boundary, the Belaya River, The
central zone occupies the territory to the east of the Belaya River, the
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Stavropolt Plateau with the abutting northern slopes of the Caucasus,
fly circulation conditions, this zone is tied in with the southern part
of the European territory of the USSR. The eastern zone, from the head-
waters of the Terek to the Caspian Sea, is frequently subject to penetra-
tions of Asiatic air masses,
In the southeastern corner of the Continental region, within the
territory of Western Siberia, lies the Altay climatic zone, which is
distinct from the rest of Western Siberia by greater variability of cir-
culation, tied in With the penetrations of Central Asiatic air masses,
and with relief-induced intensification of westerly and northwesterly
cyclones.
(12) Between the southern Continental region of the European part
of the USSR and Subtropical Trans-Caucasia, lies, at a mean altitude of
over 2000 meters, the High-mountain climatic region of the Greater Cau-
casus, from the headwaters of the Belaya River in the northwest to the
Samur River in the southeast, Conditions of circulation arid character-
istics of the air masses over this zone are determined, principally, by
the westerly transfer prevailing in the middle troposphere Within this
region, two zones can be segregated: the~restern, or Mediterr~zone,
and the eastern, or Continental zone. The boundary between them is the
watershed between to basins of the Kubant and Terek rivers.
(13) The area of transfer and transformation of Arctic air masses
occupies the territory between the Yenisey River in the west, and the
Stanovoy and Kolymskiy Mountain Ranges in the east. In the south, it is
separated from Central Asia by the Sayanskiy Mountains and the Khamar-
Baban and Yablonovoy Mountain Ranges, while in the north it adjoins the
tundra. This area is divided into 2 climatic regions: the northern
Eastern Siberian Sub4rct c region, and the southern Eastern Siberian
Continental xegian. The boundary between these two is the l'dizhnyaya Tun-
guzka `River in the west, the middle course of the Lena River, above Yakutsk,
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 Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/03/08 : CIA-RDP82-00039R000100200005-4
the anticyclonic cycle of the eastern rim of the Siberian anticyclone is
predominant here. (2) The Okhotsk climatic zone, comprising the northern
part of Sakhalin, the lower course of the Amur River, and the littoral
of the Sea of Okhotske By comparison with the Amur River zone, summer
cyclonic activity here is attenuated, with the air masses from over the
Sea of Okhotsk predominant. During the winter, alongside of an anticy-
clonic condition, there is observed the passage of Arctic cyclones, at
times accompanied by considerable snowfall. (3) The Kamchatka cliff
zone, occupying the southern half of Kamchatka, and the Northern Kuriles,
differs from the two preceding zones by the development of winter cyclonic
activity at the Aleutian Arctic front, and by a considerable abatement
of continental effects.
(18) The Pacific Ocean Sub-Arctic region, located within the
effective sphere of circulation of the Northern Pacific, occupies the
northern part of Kamchatka, and the entire territory to the Anadyrskiy
Mountain Range, Circulation conditions over the region are homogeneous,
making it a single climatic zone a The territory protected from the effect
of the sea by th,e Koryatskiy Niountain Range, is a sub-zone. The effect
of the summer Far Eastern Nonsoon does not reach this region, and the
effect of the continent is hardly manifested.
(20) The Soviet sector of the Arctic, irrespective of its size,
can be considered a single climatic region, since over its entire expanse
only Arctic air lasses are formed. Its southern boundary extends almost
everywhere over the continent, with the exception of the Kola Peninsula,
where the southwesterly transfer of air masses of the Temperate latitudes
is so intensive that the Arctic front zone is :located, on the average,
to the north of the continent. Along the rest of the northern littoral
of the USSR, Arctic air masses are propagated not only during the winter,
but also in the summer. The index of the predominance of formative Arctic
air' during the sunu?er, over the continent, is the tundra landscape o The
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