NEW TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

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• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP82-00039R000100100064-0
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: C
• Document Page Count: 17
• Document Creation Date: January 4, 2017
• Sequence Number: 64
• Publication Date: February 7, 1951
• Content Type: REPORT

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N~1 TA~1D5 1N TIE DEVELOPMENT 0~' NTRl1CTURAL aE0L00Y
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1. Th� TheO of Pook Deformation
0 to this time, deformation of rooks has been
The Neoker ~rpoth�eis~ p
aril b use of th� Eecker hypothesis (1893) The basic
investigAted prim Y Y
attar is thnt in hamogeneoue deformation of an isotropio
z principle of the l
din this body will change in the general oas�
body the sphere describe
ker restricted hie study by two conditioner l) that
1 rota an ellipsoid. Bec
e biaxial or planar, i.e., the mid-axis (8) of the elliP-
the deformation b
4 thane remaining constantly equal to the sphere ~ e red us f
void does not g ~
e of the body remains constant Two methods of applying
~ and 2) the volum
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forces pure shear and shear, are considered
the deforming
ortant conclusions which result from Eeckerf a analysis eras
The imp
con u ate systems I .
Deformation is accomplished by slippage along two ~ g
se-section of the ellipsoid and, thus, the surfaces of slip-
of circular cro
me obli ue angle with the diregtions of the mayor and minor
I page make so ~
axes of the ellipsoid
~ and thus
2. There are no normal stresses on the surfaces of sl ppa6e, ~
a
c:volume neither increases nor degreases in deformation
the
acement along surfaces of slippage occurs so that matter mouse
3. Diapl
the Bides of circular cross-section whioh face the minor s
inwards an
nt and outwards, relative to the central part of the
(the compression quads )
r'
acin the mayor axis (tension quadrant)
ellipsoid, on the s~.des f g
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the action of a oouple (ehear)~ slippage dovolape primarily
~ ~ Under
em of c~roular ore�e-eection~ ~�~e3ie ~�m shear struoturee
slang one oyst
form
Critiaiam of th@ Evoker gypotheeie~ When w~ inspeot the setae/ oon-
4
er which rooks are deformed we see that the deformation is
ditione and
home eneoue the rooks themselves are net ordinarily ieotropic~
infrequently E ,
lane detormatianr are rare, and constant volume. under deformation is mare
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exce Lion than the ru1e~ Finslly~ pure shear stress ie extra-
often the p
ordina and never ooaurs in nature (As is knawn~ 'in pure ehear~ the body
is sub sot to a oompressive force in one dir�ation and a teneile~'force
e ual in magnitude in another direction). Aotually~ many deformations
9
ooour where there ie only one possible direotion of
movements ne~nely~ up-
s case normal stress components arias
wards towards the surf ace ~ In thi ~
the rocks ohan es
on the eurfacee of slippage and the volume of g
Therefore accurate calculations ~ :espeoially in connection with the
f eh�ar fissures
' very important problem of how ooal forms oon~ugate systems o
direction of greatest shrinkages oannot be based upon the Becker
in the
othe9i~~ zt is characteristic that even Becher (1920) tr~.ed to solve
i
the roblem of the angle b�tween conjugate shear eurfacee by using Moore~e
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circular diagrams instead of Becker~s hypothesis
~ �ratione on the Devela meet of a Theo of Rock Deformation
2. Cansid
a of a deformation ellipsoid is useful in the development of a
The ids
frock deformation but it should not be usRd ae it was by Becker
theory o ,
nsiderations shave that the purl mathematics]. analysis used
The above co
~ othesis is not legitimates inasmuch as the conditions governing ~
in Becker a hyp ~
rmation in nature do not correspond even approximately to the oon~ I
rook defo
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ditione adopted in the hypotheeia~
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The idea olf a doformation ollipeoid ae a figure oharaoterizing deform-
ation ~+luat be ohanged in the light of reoent data Study of rook doformation
in folded regions hoe indioated that the oharaoterietio deformationaare
try-axial in whioh ehri~cage ooaure olong the B�axie ae well ae the C-axie~
8h1c a ocours not onl in a direction a ondioular to th n e
{ 4` y A rp a to B axe of
the folds, but also in the direotion of strike of the folding
Fissures in folded regions indicate this tyke of deformation The
fissures and shear eurfaoee usually develop not only in the zone of the
B-axis ~ but also in the zone of the C-axis, forming systems of oon~ugate
fissures or surfaces of slippage beoauee of shrinkage along the 8� and
~ C-axes
In many oases, the surface of the ellipsoid in no wise reflects the
I
type oi' deformation which has occurred, and therefore the idea of a deform~-
tion ellipsoid does not have anything approaeh,ing universal applioation in
the analysis of rock deformation Thus, we frequently moat limit ourselves
to the three main axes of deformation B, and C without olarif~ring the
deformation magnitudes in other directions
Criticism of Aecker~s hypothesis forces one to conclude that a single
theory of d�formation is roadequat� and that, as a whole, the theory must
i
be developed by onus admitting the existence of at least two quite dif-
ferent types of deformation; namely, 1) elastic deformation ohanging into
brittle deformation and leading to slippage and faulting without substantial
plastic flow, arsd 2~~ elastic deformation, changing into plastic The idea
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of deformation by means of shearing along systems of planes which form an
oblique angle with the axes of the deformation ellipsoid is applicable
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basically only to the first type of deformation
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the rooks are da~ormod plastioally~ slippage tak�s plane along
atolls/ or nearly parallel} to the direotion of ~xi @longation~
planes p (
-s stem oli age is not always the reoult of ohear (iiei ~ the
Thus ~ one y pp
ou 1e ae was assumed by hooker and Schmidt (1932}~ but oan
notion of a o p ) ~
t of laotio deformation In ~e last oas~, the ellipsoid
also be the resin p
show the final form c~ the deformed body roughly beoause the
does not oven
on final sphere is transformed in the deformation prooess into a body o
g
n tad in the direotion of f1ow~ And even though ~Y
oomplex forms elo ~
anon unavoidably includes elements of elastio deformation
plastio deform
use it does not change into brittle deformations very rarely do we find
beca
in rock even relic traces of s~.ippage along two systems of shear surfaoes
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at an oblique angle to the direction of maximum ehrinkage~
a the im octant conclusion: surfaces of slippage make ~
I Thus follow p
bli ue an le to the direction of maximum shrinkage of the deformed body
o q g
when brittle defornr,ation predominates while for the case of pre-
only
formations the are perpendicular to the direction of
dominant plastic de , Y
rinks e. Therefore the discuseions~ started by backer and
maximum sh ~ ,
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van H es in 1893 on the orientation of cleavage surfaces and which have
~ e ntinued u to this day, are actually pointless because both Heoker and
o p
Van Hayes were right within limited regions Disregarding details, we can
under brittle deformation s~me~;varieties of fracture cleavage
consider that
urfaces of sli page which make an oblique angle with the
develop along s p
main deformation axes (this is cleavage canned primarily by inter-stratum
f lds ~ Flow oleavage and the remaining part of fracture
slippage in o )
va a which is closely connected with flow cleavage develop because of
clew g
he -lane of the main deformation antes in plastic f1ow~
slippage in t AB p
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There ie ono mono important oiroumotanoo governing th� development of
a oontem arsry theory of rook dQ~ormation~ Wo have seen teat the typo of
deformation ohangos radioally depending upon whether brittle ~oformation
' or plastid deformation predominates ~ Homogeneity or heterogeneity o~ the
deformed eubotanoe aloe aSfeote the type of deformation markedly
Huts duet ae there are no rook� always with the properties of elastio,
brittle, or plaetio materiala~ so there are praotioally no teaks which
always deform ~'ither homogeneously or heterogeneously We oan only talk
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of the conditions under which any rock is oapible of deforming eleastiaally
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or plastically or ae a brittle material In the same way, any oomplex~
even of very heterogeneous rooks, will deform as a homogeneous body under
certain conditione~conversely~ under other cond~.tions~ negligible hetero�
geneity will be observed iri the deformation of highly homogeneous rooks.
Therefore, the analysis of states ~ and not of the properties of deformed
rocks, ie of predominant importance in structural geology The properties
themselves to a certain measure are the result of states and are not
invariant.
~'lastic, plastic, brittle, homogeneous and inhomogeneous deformations
are found in all parts of the eaxth~s cruet, both in the horizontal and
vertical directions ~iowever, despite the universality of deformations of
all types, it is sometimes possible to isola~~e zoned where some deformations
predominate over others, and then it is expedient to speak of zonal dis-
tribution of types of rock deformation
. 9pstial zones cannot always be isolated because the physico-mechanical
properties and bedding depth of rocks are not the only factoxs ~ Another no
~ ~ lase important factor is the speed of deformat~.on, which mar change sharply
in thQ differQnt periods of structure formation in a csrt~hin section
.
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Tn aonnoation with tho late�r~ we oonetantly find effeoto w~oro doformationa
of one type are euperpo sod upon deformationo of anothor ty~o~ i, e ~ ~ brittle
on plaetio or plastio on brittle and the zonal eoheme may beoomo oloudy or
may even take on a completely different form from that whioh would be
1
j expeoted if only the depth faotor wore taken into oonsideratiort~
9� Plaetio Deformations of Consolidated end C eti~lio Rooks
That plastid deformation ie widespread among low-oonsolidated Tooke
whioh havQ not undergone diagenesie ie aoknowledged by moat geologiets~ and
their appearanoe is usually oonsidered a sign of folding There ie a more
ed into folds
or lase widespread opinion that strata whioh are ones orumpl
i
� reaot to new mountain-building movements only by the formation of fractures
The poeoibility of plastic deformation of massive orystallio Tooke ie
oompletely disregarded by meny~ '
Actually, in number of regions, there is almost no plastid deformation
among consolidated and crystallio rock ands of oourse~ the idea that plastic
deformation develops only with great difficulty among such rocks is in
general ~ustifiabl�~ Nonethelese~ in other regions there are exceptionally
strong manifestations of plastic deformation among consolidated and crystal-
lia rocks, and therefore we must again emphasize that no rocks have permanent
physioo�mechanical properties; the type of deformation is determined sub-
stantially by their state and the way in which the forces are applaed~
For examp~h~ in the eastern part of the Central Caucasus erogenic
movements in the Miocene and Pliocene were accompanied by the active part-
~ i anon of ancient Paleozoio ranites in the folding of Mesocenozoic rocks
cp 6
This applies not only to structures of the first order ~ i ~ e ~ , foundation
folds having large rad~.i has Argan understood them}; beoause wQ often
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absorvod fcldc off' tho sooand a eVe~~ ~f t~aa t~`~lyd u~~c~~r w~~Mi~e f�Zdlilg ~regan
in ancient granites ~ We know of strongly oompresoed folds meaoured in the
hundreds of meters ~rhere the dip angle of the limbs is 50�?0"~ sometimes
those folds are even overturned Among tho larger plioated structures, we
find fan-shaped folds with eedim~ntary rooks dipping beneath the granite
in whioh folding originated A
~'he ancient granite turfaoe in the Central Caucasus was initially a t
peneplain. basal Jurassic strata of comparatively Blight depth were found
everywhere on it. We can fudge the stratigraphio nature of the oontaete
between the granites and ~'urassic strata whioh were deformed during folding
r
by the permanent presence of these basal strata, Only in the last phases
of warping into folds and considerably later did faults form, come of these
faults being almost combined with the folding, and some clearly intersecting
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it.
r Structural and petrographic study of granites reveals that granites
whioh participated in folding were sub~eated to plastic deformation or
crushing resulting in cataalastia or n~rlonitia structure. Plastic deform-
ation, apparently, predominated, as reflected by pointing of the cleavage .
type parallel to the axial planes of the folds and the rester de ree f
by g g
of orientation of quartz grains in granites, which usually reaches S~~
Cataolastic or mylonitic crushing took place mainly in the extremely marrow
to few meters) zone of contact of the granites with the sedimentary rocks.
The plastic deformations in granites must have occurred at comparatively
great depths several kilometers) and were apparently affected by� the high a
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temperature caused by the introduetion of neo-intrusive maeees~ 1n the
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western parts of the Northern Caucasus Cthe Kuban River basin, etc), whero
the depth of the crystallic foundation could hard~:y have been substantial
in upper Tertiary time and there were very few neo-intrusions, granites did
not participate ~.n folding, and we find mair~,y fault~bloek tectonic forms
f
and foundat~.on folds of great radius.
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o deformation o~ granites
- doretend the genoeie of plaeti
In order tv ~
' olds originating in granites are
it ie importiant to note that ~
in folding,
oldin o#' Meaooenvzoio rooks. There
nunon in the general eyetom o~ ~ g
quite oo strata has
ete~a of Bolding of eedimentary?
are no indioatione that the ey ear the
he ranite rooks are oomparativ�lY n
boen disturbed in plaoee where g rietio
n in granite have all the oharaote
- e, In additions folds originati g
f eurfao
iment~''Y rook whioh are oomparable
o coal features oT ~olde of sad
mc~rphol g rooks are
order ~ When folds of sedimentary
e former in magnitude ( ~
to th
direotion in certain zones, folds
trio and have a regular overturning .
asymm� same direotion~ The eohelon arrange
natin in granites overturn in the
origi g
teristio of structures where folding ,
of Mesocenozoio folds is also charao
ment
ntration of antiolines (and in other
on ina~~ed in granites ~ Again nonce ,
g
ee to the general strike of the range e
cases eynalines~ on lines tranver
where echelon structure predominates
common for folds of the Caucasus fold
structures along the strike of the
r
This led to common undulation o ~
whole tectonic structure. Fin
h local create and trough s of the
wit
lde is repeated by folds originating
ac form nature of Mesocenozoic fo
the br by
in granites
strop ~a oompressed troughs
d oint the more or less ~
From this star p ' structure are of
~,n strike and emphasizing brachyform
transverse to the ma not only in
est. Transverse troughs are found
special practical inter
ites from which folded struo-
Mesooenozaic xocks~ but also in gran
. sedimentary
ave revealed that transverse troughs
es originated Cur observations h -
fur
ated b disjunctive dislocationef are ore
which are usually later complic y chin �
broadens Qur potentialities for sear g ~
bearing in a number of cases. This I
dden ore deposits of the Caucasus
for new hi
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rtant ra~~~~A~ nonse~,uenAe ~?f ~pt~rn~~.n~ng ~~t~tio de#'orm-
~�i~~~ai Apo ~
~ and o �ta~~io rQOke ie the possibility that di�~unotive
anon in o@ns�lidat ~
~ an bo oorrootly analyz�d. The amAlitudo of dieplaoement
feu*t tootonioe a
on faults ie often greatly overestimated when the amount of plastid de-
al g
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formation preoeding tho faulting is not taken into oonsideration~ In
these rinoi lee will help to e:cplain the oxtremely rapid deorease
additions p p
of die laoemont amp~aitudes whioh is often observed along the strike of
A
Faults
4~ Unoonformable Folding
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When the oollapsing rocks in the formation of folded structures are
strata with different physioo-mechanioal propertiee~ the folds in each stra-
tum have different forms The praotioal importance of eorreot interpretation
n mane whioh we propo'e to oaZl unconformable folding)
of disharomonious phe o
~ is very great
i
In the first place, disagreement between folds of two strata is often
mistakenly taken as a sign that there were two folding epochs with uncon-
between the atrata~ For example, unconformit
y in bedding detailo
fortuities
addle Jurassic clay shales and limestones Cclose to the
of Liaesic and M
in the Norther Caucasus was e~�plained without sufficient basin by
surf ace)
f considerable pre-Callovian folding, even though pre-Callovian
the existence o
movements were comparatively slight in this region, being expressed mainly
by fault block displacements
b ~ ~
n the second lace unconformable folding is in many oases accompanied
~ p i
e of on anal interformation disruptions and brecciation
by the developm nt g
zones which may be ore-controlling structures
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4
t
new trends in tho development o~ problems in
The above review of some
its its brevi show' olearly two L~oio tranda fn
etruatural geology, deep tY,
t to ure the experimental and thaoretioal date
its developments 1) en attemp
develo ing this data fndependen'~Y~ ~
of the engineering scienoes (even to A
d of deformation o~ matter end broad synthesis o~ loos/ oboer~
the Biel
o to and the results o~ regional geologioal studiea~
vations in etruotura g o gy
rends re resent nothing espeoi~.ly new. Looking book, we
both of these t p
f solo usually were written by these two methods,
see that the classiee o g gY
inin broad geological studies with experiments on deformation
i. e. , by comb g
we have as an example
of rocks under laboratory conditions ~ Conversely, f
ch have developed tectonio
the failure of some Western European schools whi
from data of Alpian geology without oonsidering the deformation
hypotheses
eerie a roach in the solution of basis problems
mechanism and the engin g pp
' The result was i~umeroua contradictory speculative hypotheses, often
satisfarto from the standpoint of the simplest laws of phyaios and
ry
harmonious combination of experiment and geological
mechanics ~ That is why
ervations is campulsory for Soviet researchers working on structural
obs
geolo~y~
the Vse of Structural Geolo for De osit /oration
7 , New Trends in
e of structural geology in searches for mineral
The important gal
and we will not consider this problem as a whole
deposits is Well ~490Wn,
here is however, one practical problem upon which little has been
here. T ~
ure im ortance can hardly be overestimated. Tats is .
? done, although its fut p
em of searches for "blinds deposits, i.e�, those hidden from direct
the probl
on� M large capitalistic countries, having exhausted their
observati ~y
nsiderable degree, are now using drill prospeoting
mineral resources to a co
~s,
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~ ~
~ '
etruaturea for eearohee for new hidden deposits ~ F'or example, in
beneath
on@ Qld.boaring region of Oanada, more than 15 kilw~etore of exploration
6
wells have been Bribed in the pmt years in order to oheok for possible
ore in the geologioa~. etruotu~ee (aooording to S ~ 9 ~ 9mirnov)
With the vast natural riohee of the Soviet Union, we do not have to
t exhauetin our resouraee, but under the aonditione o~ the planned
think abou g
it ie a �oially important that we obtain a eoientifio method of
eoonompr, xp
searohing for new deposits ~ This soientific method will permit ue to regu-
ate the rowth of the raw-materiel base for the mining industry in regions
1 g
where this mi t be neoessary and whioh are the most promising aoaording
to geologioal data
rches for hidden deposits involve largo capital investments and
Boa
z.
h risk and therefore they oan be organized only on the bas~.e of the ~
hig i ~
I
ro er geologioal studies and primarily, studies of structural geology
r
p P
The main charaeter3stic of the use of struotural geology for searches
i
f'- i
for hidden deposits ie the combination of a thorough study of known deposits
with a study of the geology of a large region The actual problem in moat
~rr.
4i1:. ,
cases will be to determine the position of known local ore-berg structures
on solo ical structures of regional scale and, from this, to establish
~ gg g
he laces in which the same ore-bearing structures might be found, i?e~,
t P
es in which ore bodies and deposits which do not come out to the
structur
surface might be concentrated
Suitable attention must be given to the study of the characteristics
nesis of the eological structure of large regions in order for the ;
and ge g
regional geological surveys to answer the requirements imposed upon them.
f the strati raphy and distxibution of f ~cies of sedimentary rocks
Study o 6
,~r
and the com osition and form of bedding of magmatic racks must not be a
i~,'. ,
~ sal in itself but rather a means to understand the geological structure
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