LITERATURE SURVEY COSMIC RAY RESEARCH IN THE SOVIET UNION

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• Sequence Number: 3
• Publication Date: March 1, 1960
• Content Type: REPORT

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Air Information Division
Library of Congress
March 1960
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OFFICIAL USE ONLY
LITERATURE SURVEY OF COSMIC RAY RESEARCH IN THE SOVIET UNION
Air Information Division
Library of Congress
March 1960
OFFICIAL USE ONLY
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION 1
PART I. PROBLEMS IN COSMIC RADIATION 3
A. Theory of the Origin of Cosmic Rays
B. Bremsstrahlung of Charged Particles and the
Absorption of Eigh-Ehergy Photons
C. Soft Component of Cosmic Radiation
D. Hard Component of Cosmic Radiation
E. Heavily Ionizing Particles, Nuclear
Disintegrations and Their Products
F. Primary Cosmic Rays and Geomagnetic Effects ? ?
G. COsmic Ray Showers
H. Cosmic Ray Variations and Atmospheric Conditions
PART II.
APPENDIX
11.
19
26
30
39
ABSTRACTS, SUMMARIES, TRANSLATIONS (Sections
as in Part I) . ? ? ? ? ? OOOOOOOOO A6
I. Biographical Information on Leading
Scientists in the Field
APPENDIX II. 'Institutes, Stations, and Observatories
APPENDIX III. Instruments and Equipment .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
87
99
105
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p.
p.
INTRODUCTION
Since the end of World War II, remarkable progress has been
made in cosmic-ray research. The hundreds of studies that have
been written during this period attest both a practical and a
purely scientific interest in this form of radiation. In ad-
dition to the danger it represents in connection with space
flight, cosmic radiation has an appreciable effect on the earth's
atmosphere, possibly even influencing the weather according to
E. P. Ney of the University of Minnesota and the Russian scien-
tists Eygenson and Rakipova. The intimate relationship between
cosmic radiation and certain astrophysical processes is now
being studied by astronomers and cosmic-ray physicists to in-
crease our knowledge of the galaxy and the universe. Radio-
active tracers produced by cosmic-ray collisions are being used
by scientists to investigate exchanges of matter in the atmos-
phere, biosphere and hydrosphere. These are just a few of the
problems which are stimulating cosmic-ray research.
The purpose of this report is to provide a literature sur-
vey of Soviet research in this field. By way of comparison and
illustration, non-Russian sources have frequently been cited.
A complementary report deals with the closely related problem
of Van Allen radiation belts.
In July 1959, the International Conference on Cosmic Rays
was held in Moscow. According to the New York Times of July 14,
1959, Rossi and other Western representatives reported that
Russian scientists are making some substantial contributions.
Rossi referred specifically to the discovery of anomalies in
the earth's magnetic field as a,major development. Detection
equipment shown at the Moscow University was reported to be of
the best and latest types. A review of this conference by
Dobrotin [55] points up the problems which have most interested
Russian scientists in the past few years and which are likely
to constitute a future trend, namely, the origin of cosmic rays,
high-energy nuclear interactions, and the high-altitude compo-
sition and variations of cosmic radiation.
It may be useful here to associate the names of the lead-
ing Russian scientists with their main areas of research.
Ginzburg and Shklovskiy have won wide recognition for their
work on the theory of the origin of cosmic rays and the appli-
cation of radio astronomy to the problem. Important contri-
butions to the theory of*high-energy interactions have been.
made by Landau, Feynberg, Grigorov, Takibayev, and Rapoport.
Original work on extensive air showers and the intensity of
cosmic rays at different altitudes and latitudes has been done
by Zatsepin, Vernov, Rozental', and Khristiarisen. Chudakov is
known for his investigations of Cherenkov radiation of showers.
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4,
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Finally, the work done by Dprman ranks him as a world authority
on variations in cosmic-ray intensity. These scientists may
be expected to continue their research on these important
problems.
Aided by great progress in rocketry, Russian scientists
are in a position to carry out more extensive high-altitude
investigations. In the area of machine physics, plans for a
giant 50 Belr accelerator are being drawn up. If built, this
machine will be twice as powerful as the synchrotron installed
at the Ewopean Center of Nuclear Research, now the largest in
the world. It is also likely that much of the work initiated
during the International Geophysical Year will give further
impetus to Russian activity in the field of cosmic rays.
Part I of this report consists of eight sections correspond-
ing in the main to a conventional breakdown of the subject. A
given paper or study, however, does not always pertain solely
to one section and may be cited in more than one. Bracketed
numbers in the text refer to the bibliography which consists
entirely of Russian materials available in the Library of Con-
gress. Western sources are identified only by a publication
date in parentheses. Part II of the report contains abstracts,
summaries and translations of the more significant material
arranged-to correspond to the sections of Part I. It may be
useful to note that many Russian studies on cosmic radiatiOn
are available in translation. Finally. information on the
leading Russian cosmic-ray physicists and or cosmic-ray facili-
ties and equipment is presented in three appendixes.
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PART I.
PROBLEMS IN COSMIC RADIATION
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A. THEORY OF THE ORIGIN OF COSMIC RAYS
From the beginning of cosmic-ray studies, theories of the
origin of the radiation have been in a state of flux both in
the West and in the U.S.S.R. This is due to a constant revision
of views resulting from an increased knowledge of the galaxy
and the rapid. accumulation of basic data, especially during the
last decade. For this reason a complete, generally accepted
theory does not yet exist. Nevertheless, Russian contributions
to this pvoblem have been substantial. A general description
of theories of,cosmic-ray origin is to be found in a book on
cosmic radiation by Zhdanov [271].
Dobrotin [53, p. 297] states that any acceptable theory of
cosmic-ray origin must expqain,the following: (1) the power-law
energy spectrum N(E) dE.AEVr+1.) dE, where E = energy, N(E)
number of particles, Y =a constant varying between 1 and 1.8,
and A . a constant; (2) the absolute magnitude of energy carried
by cosmic, rays; (3) the composition of primary radiation, that
is, the presence of protons, a-particles, and the nuclei of
heavy particles; (4) the constancy of the intensity of cosmic
radiation; and (5) the isotropy of cosmic radiation in space.
All modern theories on the origin of cosmic-radiation can
be essentially reduced to the dynamics of ionized gas in a mag-
netic field and the creation of electromagnetic fields. It is
assumed that a sufficient number of relativistic particles is
created when the displacement of large masses of ionized gas
takes place at high velocities (of the order of 1,000 km/sec).
According to most theories, initial acceleration of particles
-occurs in the vicinity 'of stars. It has also been suggested
that electromagnetic induction is caused by great changes in
magnetic fields, such as occur during and between sun spots.
This hypothesis is supported by observed changes in cosmic-ray
intensity which can be related to solar activity (Dorman[611
Ch.8]).
It has been stated (Ginzburg [83]) that the main problem
in explaining the origin of cosmic rays is that of the acceler-
ation mechanism linked with actual astrophysical conditions and
real bodies such as the sun and certain stars. Efforts in this
direction began with Swann (1930) who pointed out that a change
in the magnetic fields in sun spots (and probably in stars)
with respect to time might lead to particle acceleration up to
energies of 109 to 1010eV:
In 1939 and again in 1952, Alfv?n and his school of magneto-
hydrodynamicists presented -a model of a "celestial cyclotron"
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based on assumed magnetic moments of double stars. This school
maintains that solar particles as well as cosmic rays are ac-
celerated magnetic and electric fields in space and considers
erroneous the.view of S. Chapman and V. A. Ferraro that during
a flare the sun ejects a powerful stream of electrons and pro-
tons. Riddiford and Butler (1952) studied the acceleration of
particles on the sun and in the atmospheres of stars. Terlet-
skiy [227,228] and Kolpakov and Terletskiy [132] derived a
detailed acceleration mechanism based on the noncoincidence of
the magnetic moment of a star and its axis of rotation.
Many Soviet scientists have published significant studies
on the origin of cosmic rays based on the work of Fermi (1949)..
Among these are Logunov and Terletskiy [157], Shklovskiy [209],
Ginzburg [87,89], Pikel'ner [183,184], and Shayn and Gaze [207].
Logunov and Terletskiy [157] added to Fermi's theory by
evaluating the motion of charged particles through interstellar
clouds" in a state of turbulent motion.
Pikel'ner [183], in his study of the motion of interstellar
"clouds", found that such motion, in relation to the sun, equals
on the average several tens of kilometers per second. In an
article on the interstellar polarization of 'light (Pikel'ner
[184]), he shows that (1) gaseous masses in interstellar space
have a high conductivity, and (2) magnetic lines of force may
be considered "frozen" to matter in 14terstel1ar space.
In studying the shape and motion of several gaseous "clouds"
within the galaxy, Shayn, Gaze, and Pikel'ner [208] found that
the shapes and motions observed can best be explained by assuming
a state of turbulence and the existence of magnetic fields in
the interstellar "clouds".
In a paper published in 1953, V. L. Ginzburg [83] reviews
the work of Swann (1933), Alfv6n (1950,1952), Richtmeyer and
Teller (1949), Kiepenheuer (1953), McMillan (1950), Fermi (1949),
Terletskiy [227], and Terletskiy and Logunov [229]. He arrives
at the conclusion that the theory of the origin of cosmic rays
should be based on radio-astronomical findings, particularly on
radio emission due to the bremsstrahlung of electrons moving
through magnetic fields. He also applies a rigorous mathemati-
cal analysis to the motion of charged particles through inter-
stellar space and the envelopes of stars and draws the following
conclusions:
1. Cosmic electrons with energies of 108 to 109 eV (where
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-12ergs) are disseminated through
galactic space in the same manner as-rarefied intex;---
galactic gas.
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2. Energy density of cosmic particles in galactic space
n-abbut 1 eV/cm3, and the volume and total energy of
the particles are respectively 1068 cm and 1068 eV.
3. There are no valid arguments for the hypothesis that
the sun is the source of cosmic rays nor for the
galactic origin of cosmic rays suggested by Terletskiy
and Logunov [229].
Zwicky (1934) and ter Haar (1950) suggested that cosmic
rays may be produced by supernovae explosions. Shklovskiy [209,
211] and Ginzburg [84] developed ter Haar's hypothesis as
follows: (1) radio-astronomical data indicate that in ex-
plosions of supernovae the expanding envelopes generate a con-
siderable number of relativistic electrons, cosmic protons, and
nuclei; (2) in our galactic system new supernovae flars up, (To
the average, once every 300 years, giving off from 103 to 10
ergs of energy per second which is sufficient to supply the cos-
mic-ray energy reaching the earth; (3) assuming that,in our
galaxy about 100 novae occur each year, releasing icy" to 1040
ergs per second, it is probable that the supply of cosmic rays
from novae is greater than that from supernovae; (4) the birth
of a supernova does not increase the intensity of cosmic radi-
ation on earth because cosmic particles require considerable
time to be accelerated, much longer than the period of birth of
a supernova; (5) all the stars of the same class as the sun com-
bined cannot account for more than a small fraction of the
intensity of cosmic radiation.
Writing in 1956, Ginzburg [88] re-evaluates his earlier
studies on the theory of the origin of cosmic rays taking into
account theoretical and experimental data from Getmantsev and
Ginzburg [82], Pikel'ner [83], Shklovskiy [209, 210], and
Vladimirskiy [252], as well as studies by Baldwin, ter Haar,
Morrison, Olbert, Rossi, and other non-Russian scientists. He
states that the magnetic bremsstrahlung hypothesis, which links
nonthermal cosmic radio emission with waves radiated by relati-
vistic electrons moving in the interstellar magnetic field, not
only yields values in agreement with the probable values of
interstellar fields and the concentration of relativistic elec-
trons, but is, in general, a very fruitful concept in the theory
of radio astronomy and the theory of the origin of cosmic rays.
The hypothesis explains the fact that at the earth not mor g than
1% of primary cosmic rays of energy greater or equal to 10' eV
consists of electrons. This is due to the loss of energy by
electrons in magnetic bremsstrahlung which is negligible for
protons and nuclei.
In one of his most comprehensive papers, Ginzburg [90,91]
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further develops his ideas on the origin of cosmic rays and com-
pares the hypotheses of other scientists. His concluding re-
marks point up the progress and problems in the theory of cosmic-
ray origin and are included in translation in Part II of this
report.
In 1958, the magazine Nuovo Cimento devoted a large supple-
ment to cosmic radiation. In the section on the theory of the
origin of cosmic rays there are twelve articles, three of which
are from the U.S.S.R. In one of these, Ginzburg [92] re-
examines the concepts and experimental data bearing on the
problem as given previously by Ginzburg [84,86,88,91], Ginzburg
and Fradkin [93], Pikeltner [185], Pikeliner and Shklovskiy
[186]?, Shklovskiy [209,212], and a number of Western scientists.
In' this paper he states that:
1. Nonthermal cosmic radio emission is the emission
of relativistic electrons moving in weak magnetic
fields.
2. In determining the spectra of the radiation, it is
assumed that the galactic corona includes irregular
magnetic fields (H/r) of 10-5 oersteds.
3. The average energy density of unidirectional isotropic
cosmic electrons with energies greater than 108 eV is
about 10-2 eV/cm3.
If. The lifetime of protons (T n) and electrons (Te) in
the galaxy, where average gas concentration n varies
from 0.01 to 0.1, is from If x 108 to If x 109 years.
5. Secondary electrons and protons resulting from
nuclear collisions and subsequent decay (ISMih, 11,+
electron) carry away approximately 1/10 of the
total electronic energy of the electrons with
energies greater than 1 - 3 x 108
eV.
6. The following energy is transferred to relativistic
electrons and protons in the galaxy. in a steady state:
a. Ue = power
energy
second
where Ue = power transferred to the elec-
tronic component as a result of cosmic-ray
proton-nuclei collisions;
10 to 1040 ergs,
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b. U --main power transferred to cosmic
cr
rays = 1039 to 1040 ergs approximately.
7. The major part of the power Ucr transferred to
cosmic rays is supplied by primary sources-
including (according to Fermi) the moving
interstellar gas cloud.
8. In accordance with recent radio-astronomical
data and numerical values computed for Ue
and U 0 it is assumed that cosmic rays are
cr
formed as a result of the explosion of super-
novae and probably also novae.
9. Relativistic particle generation takes place
in the envelopes of supernovae and novae in
accordance with Fermi's statistical acceler-
ation mechanism.
10. The hypothesis of the solar origin of the
major part of cosmic rays is not supported by
present cosmic-ray data.
11. Energy considerations, radio-astronomical data,
and other factors preclude the acceptance of
the metagalactic origin of cosmic rays.
12. The galactic theory based on interstellar
acceleration as the source of cosmic rays is
not sufficiently supported by radio-astronomical
observations.
13. The assumption of cosmic-ray acceleration due
only to supernovae and novae explosions is
plausible ancl sufficient to explain all the
known facts.
Shklovskiy [212], in his comprehensive book on radio
emission, devotes only a few pages to the theory of the origin
of cosmic rays. In a later study, Shklovskiy [213] analyzes
the work of Dpmbrovskiy [58], Ginzburg [83,84,85], Pikeliner
and Shklovskiy [186], Landau and Rumer [155], Shklovskiy [209,
210] and some Western scientists. His analysis leads him to
the acceptance of a theory of the origin of cosmic rays similar
to that postulated by Ginzburg [92].
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a
There is now wide agreement that part of the low-energy
cosmic radiation originates on the sun. It is believed that
the ejection process is related to gas turbulence on the sun
and to corresponding changes in the magnetic fields. The small
but periodic variations connected with the sun-spot cycle is
well known and sudden increases in the rate of arrival of cos-
mic rays have been observed at the time of solar flares ac-
companied by unusual ultraviolet and corpuscular radiation
(Dorman [62]).
Mustel, [172,p.69] includes cosmic rays in solar cor-
puscular radiation. In an earlier work (Mustel' [171]), he
concludes that corpuscular emission arises in photospheric
faculae and overlying flocculi and is influenced by magnetic
fields of sun spots. Vsekhsvyatskiy et al. [253], on the
other hand, believe with some Western scientists that the
corpuscular radiation issues from the corona (coronal rays).
A recent paper by Kolpakov [131] complements the Mustel, hy-
pothesis. In another recent study, Severnyy [205] deals with
the problem of corpuscular emission during solar flares.
In 1958, two other leading astrophysicists published
papers pertaining to specific aspects of the theory of the
origin of cosmic radiation. Gordon [96] finds nonstationary
stars to be a source of cosmic rays. The mechanism is one of
nonthermal (synchrotron) radiation of relativistic electrons.
Veksler [233] suggests a new mechanism for the generation of
relativistic electrons based essentially on the law of the
conservation of energy. According to this hypothesis totally
ionized clusters of plasma moving through a heterogeneous mag-
netic field should give rise to the generation of fast elec-
trons. Such electrons have become significant in the investi-
gation of cosmic radio emission as it relates to the origin of
cosmic rays.
Recently, Van Allen in the United States and Vernov et
al, [244] have investigated the distribution 4f ".cosmic" radi-
ation up to 100,000 kilometers above the earth, and have
presented theoretical considerations for its distribution in
space. Vernov and his associates state that:
1. Under the action of cosmic rays the earth
becomes a 'source of neutrons.
2. The neutrons, as uncharged particles, diffuse
freely through the magnetic field of the earth,
reaching great altitudes.
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3. Decaying neutrons generate charged particles
which move along the magnetic force lines of
the earth.
4. Eventually a particle reaches high magnetic
latitudes where the velocity vector of the
particle gradually rotates in respect to
vector H of the magnetic field of the earth
until a 90? position is reached and the
motion of the particle is or may be reversed.
5. Electrons and protons resulting from neutron
decay are considered corpuscular emission of
the earth and are subject to a certain law
of distribution in time and space.
6. At considerable distances from the earth's
surface the intensity of corpuscular emission
diminishes in proportion to 1/R2 and later to
1/R3 , where R is the distanceland the loss
of the particles escaping from the magnetic
trap is due to the nonconservation of magnetic
moment.
For a more detailed presentation of the problem of
radiation around the earth the reader is referred to the Re-
port on Van Allen Radiation Belts.prepared by the Air Infor-
mation Division.
As has been shown, the basic questions in :the problems
of cosmic-ray origins concern the mechanisms of cosmic-ray
injection and acceleration. Even though inconclusive, the
postulates of Ginzburg and Shklovskiy, based on radio-
astronomical data and Fermi's theory of acceleration, are now
widely accepted outside as well as inside the Soviet Union.
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B. BREMSSTRAHLUNG OF CHARGED PARTICLES AND
THE ABSORPTION OF HIGH-ENERGY PROTONS
Most general works on cosmic radiation include a brief
explanation of bremsstrahlung and pair production. A detailed
theoretical treatment of the problem is to be found in
Belen'kiy [33] and Heitler (Quantum Theory of Radiation, 1940,
1954). An example of the importance of bremsstrahlung has been
given by Chudakov [46]. Writing on the investigation of the
photon component by means of the third artificial satellite, he
points out that the study of bremsstrahlung can be used to ob-
tain useful information on the nature and intensity of cor-
puscular flux in the atmosphere.
Dobrotig [53, Ch.3] devotes several pages to these pro-
cesses and lists the following basic phenomena that take place
during the passage of charged particles and high-energy photons
though material media:
1. charged particle is slowed as it dissipates
its energy in atomic excitation and in tearing
off electrons from atoms (ionization and gener-
ation of high-energy electrons).
2. A photon can eject an atomic electron by giving
all its energy to the electron (photoelectric
effect).
3. In the field of an atomic nucleus a high-energy
photon generates an electron-positron pair,
giving up all its energy.
4. Scattering of photons takes place through the
interaction of a photon and an electron as a
result of the transfer of a part of the photon
energy to the electron (Compton effect).
5. Interaction between a nucleus and a charged
particle can produce a high braking effect
accompanied by bremsstrahlung which is the
emission of a photon of energy comparable to
that of the incident particle.
In his treatment of the above phenomena, Dobrotin [53,Ch.3]
takes into account theoretical and experimental contributions
by Bethe (1929), Fermi (194o), Klein and Nishina (1929),
Kharitonov [122], Kharitonov and Barskiy [123], Yeliseyev,
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Kosmachevskiy, and Lyubimov [255], Landau [148], Podgoretskiy
[187], and Meshkovskiy and Shebanov [164].
On bremsstrahlung and photon absorption in particular, the
same author states that:
1. The intensity of bremsstrahlung is proportional
to the square of the acceleration and inversely
proportiohal to the square of the mass of a
particle.
2. qpsmic-ray meson' and proton bremsstrahlung losses
are insignificant.
3. Radiation loss of energy by an electron is greater
in air than in lead. )
4. Under certain conditions quanta of gamma rays
produce electron-positron pairs.
5. The theory of the production of electron-positron
pairs is based on Dirac's relativistic wave
equation.
6. The production of electron-positron pairs cannot
take place unless the energy of quanta is more than
2M0 c', where Mo is the rest mass of a particle,
and c = 3 x 1010 cm/sec.
Benisz, Chylinski, and Wolter (1959) investigated four
high-energy electron-photon cascades and found that the experi-
mental energy spectrum of first generation electron pairs shows
a statistically significant deviation from the Bethe-Heitler
energy spectrum curve and good agreement with the energy
spectrum of Landau and Pomeranchuk [153,154] and Ter-Mikaelyan
[230]. Migdal [168] has also contributed to the study of
bremsstrahlung and pair production at high energies.
Several recent Soviet studies treat of polarization
effects and spin in bremsstrahlung and pair formation. Nadzhafov
[173,174] has investigated the elliptical polarization of a
bremsstrahlung photon in addition to linear polarization. He
also presents an analysis of the reversal of spin in bremsstrah-
lung. Kerimov and Nadzhafov [118].have investigated the case
of bremsstrahlung of an electron with oriented spin, and in a
later paper [119] derive a formula for the effective cross
section for bremsstrahlung which is a generalization of the
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Bethe-Heitler formula, with account taken of the longitudinal
polarization of the electron and photon spin. Bremsstrahlung
of particles with a spin of 2 has been studied by Bedritskiy
[32].
Bremsstrahlung of other particles interacting with nuclei
is, at Oesent receiving some attention. Dyatlov [70] and
Lomanov et al. [159] discuss interattion of pi-mesons and variouB
nuclei, taking into 'account the form of nuclei and the cross
section for bremsstrahlung. Cross sections hare also been
investigated in a recent paper by Patarya [183].
The question of photonuclear reactions, or the interaction
of nuclei and gampla bretsstrahlung, is the subject of papers by
Chuvilo and Shevchenko [49] and Agranovich and Stavinskiy [6].
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C. SOFT COMPONENT OF COSMIC RADIATION
The soft component of cosmic radiation comprises secondary
electrons, positrons, photons, low-energy mesons and protons.
These are produced in the earth's atmosphere and are designated
soft" because they are easily absorbed and, conversely, weakly
penetrating.
Birger et al.[39], Vernov [238], and Carlson, Hooper and
King (1950) showed that photons and electron-positron pairs are
due to neutral pi-meson decay. Hooper and Scharff (1958) speciV
the decay of neutral pi-mesons as. the most important source of
this component. At low altitudes and at sea kevel,.the soft
component may be divided into three parts: (1) decay electrons,
i.e. electrons resulting from the decay of mu-mesons; (2) knock-
on electrons, which are knocked on by collisions with mu-mesons
or other fast charged particles; and (3) the "nonequilibrium"
soft component, i.e. photons and electrons not resulting from
meson decay-. .Once created, these particles multiply in ac-
cordance with the cascade shower theory.
At sea level the soft component equals about 40 percent
of the.hard component. Azimov [23] found that at an altitude
of 900 meters this percentage increases to 414 5 percent, while
at 3,860 meters it is 111i: 5 percent. At a few kilometers above
sea level the number of knock-on electrons grows proportionally
with the intensity of the hard component while .che number of
decay electrons is proportional to the intensity of the hard
component and inversely proportional to air pressure. Experi-
mental evaluation of the number of decay electrons by Azimov,
Vishevskiy, and Ryzhkova [28] gave results which do not deviate:-
significantly from results obtained by using cascade theory
formulas.
During the last few years many more data have been obtained
on the soft component, thanks largely to the three Soviet arti-
ficial earth satellites. At the same time, additional problems
have been revealed. Al'pert [17] reports data obtained by the
first artificial satellite on electron concentration up to 650
kilometers, and tabulates the estimated concentration up to
3,100 kilometers. Use of the third artificial satellite for the
detection and study of particles in the upper atmosphere and
beyond has been reported by several researchers. Krasovskiy
[]..41] presents evidence of high-intensity electron bands pre-
sumably of nonsolar origin. Vernov et al. [250] and Chudakov
[46] report that luminescence counters recorded ten times as
many counts as were expected from primaries. This is
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?
attributed to photons. .The electronic component was also
measured. Data obtained by this satellite have not been com-
pletely analyzed.
Significant studies of the soft component in the strato-
sphere at different latitudes and depths have been made by Ver-
nov.et al. [240], Ageshin, Charakhch,yan and Charakhchlyan
[5]i Rapoport [196], Azimov and Karimov [25], and Tulinov [231].
The cascade shower theory is based on the application of
quantum electrodynamics. Integrodifferential equations to
evaluate changes in the number of high-energy electrons and
photons during their passage through matter are based on the
pioneering work of Bethe and Heitler (1937) and Carlson and
Oppenheimer (1937). This quantum approach was later modified
by Landau and Rumer [155], Belenikiy [33], Belenikly and
Maksimov [36], and Janossy (1952,1954). It may be noted that
Landau and Rumer [155] used Laplace and Mellin transforms in
their work.
Vernov [237], Vavilov [232], Faynberg [77], and many
Western scientists have investigated transition effects, that
is, those effects which radiation displays in passing from one
medium to a denser medium.
Guzhavin and Ivanenko [108] report that the problem of the
one-dimensional development of an electron-photon cascade shower
may be considered completely solvedlbut that the problem of a
three-dimensional development of a cascade shower cannot be con-
sidered solved. Using the method of functional transformation
(Belenikiy [33]) and the method of moments (Ivanenko [113]),
the authors were able to arrive at a fairly complete solution
to the problem of the behavior of showers in light and heavy
substances and to derive formulas for evaluating the angular
and lateral distribution of particles in a ctlscade shower.
Pomet.anchuk [190] and Migdal [167,168] have also studied this
problem. More extensive coverage of the question of showers
will be found insectian. G of this report.
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1
D. HARD COMPONENT OF COSMIC RADIATION
The penetrating, or hard, component contains all the high-
energy.nucleons and Mesons, and is further defined as those
rays which penetrate certain thicknesses of matter, usually
taken as 10, 15, or 18 centimeters of lead. At sea level it
accounts for 75 to 80 percent of registered radiation and is
primarily composed of mu-mesons in the 5 - 6 x 10 eV range.
The mass of mu-mesons is approximately 200 met. It has been
said that apart from its decay process, the mu-meson is in all
important respects a heavy electron (Fowler and Wolfendale,
1950*. mu-mesons can be detected hundredm of meters under-
ground. Nonionizing particles are also present in the hard
component. In the atmosphere, the intensity of this component
increases with altitude as does the ratio of protons to mu-
mesons. Investigations of these mesons in the stratosphere
have been carried out by Ageshin and Charakhchl_yan [4], and
Kocharyan 4t al. [130]. The ratio of positive mu-mesons to
negative mu-mesons NAtt is found to vary from 1.25 at sea
N,-
level to 1.5 at an altitude of 10 kilometers.
It may be recalled that Yukawa (1935) predicted the ex-
istence of a particle with a mass between that of electrons and
protons. After the discovery of the mu-meson by Anderson and
Neddermeyer (1938), research was carried out to identify it
with Yukawa's particle. The theoretical difficulties in this
research were resolved by the discovery of the pi-meson by
Powell et al. (1947). Among others, the following scientists
made theoretical and experimental contributions to the study of
mu-mesons and the mass of charged particles: Conversi (1950),
Wilson (1946), Alikhan'Yan et al. [10], Kocharyan et al.[130],
Alikhanov and Yeliseyev'[8], Nikitin [175], Kharitonov [121],
and Rozental' [201].
In a paper published in 1956, Grigorov [102] presents
formulas for evaluating the number and intensity of nucleons,
mesons, and particles producing stars in photographic emulsions.
The formulas are applied to data for different altitudes and
geomagnetic latitudes. His work is partially based on papers
by Garibyan and Gol'dman [81] and Grigorov [101].
According to data supplied by Dobrotin [53)p.84], mu-
mesons have a mean lifetime of several microsesonds. This
mean lifetime for a meson with an energy of 10' eV is ten times
greater than that of a slow mu-meson. Instead of using the
mean life, the "decay length" L may te used to denote mu-meson
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t, zn
decay, with L = _ c where zV . z2 - altitudes, and N1
N1 -
In-
-
N2
and N2= the number of mesons at altitudes 1 and 2. The
constant of mu-meson decay is independent of the substance
traversed, which indicates that the decay is spontaneous. It is
concluded that the detay scheme is )4-1,' e? v
Baradzey, Vernov and Smorodin [30] investigated the decay
of mu-mesons in connection with the Fermi efrect and atmospheric
density. The effect of air pressure and temperature was studied
by Feynberg [78]. Zhdanov and Naumov [273] fond that the
differential spectrum of paths up to 100 g/cm of air is only
slightly altitude-dependent. The latter investigators and
Zhdanov and Khaydarov [272] have carried out work with delayed
coincidences to study the decay mechanism and the products of
decay. The passage of high-energy mu-mesons through matter is
the subject of a recent paper by Rozental' and Strel'tsov [203].
mu-mesons moving in a compact medium expend their energy
in the process of innization. Stopped positive mu-mesons are
subjected, to Coulomb'repulSion and decay. Negative low-velocity
mu-mesons, after capture in the electric field of nuclei, begin
moving along cei"tain quantum orbits and may be captured by one
of the protons of a nucleus. These negative mu-mesons may also
decay.
Western cosmic-ray physicists helped formulate the theory
that positively charged mu-mesons decaying in a filtering medium
generate positrons, whereas negatively charged mu-mesons, in
filters of light elements, produce electrons. Work in the West
and by Podgoretskiy [88] has led to the conclusion that the
capture of negative mu-mesons at sea level does not create high-
energy charged particles and photons, that the capture of mesons
leads to the disappearance of an equal number of protons
neutrons,and that in the process some energy is released in the
form of a neutrino.
Shapiro [206] has investigated beta decay, a weak interi-
action typical of meson and hyperon decay. He postulates the
following:
1. Parity is not conserved in A-decay of nuclei.
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?
?
2. The angular distribution of decay electrons
is anisotropic.
3. Space should be considered anisotropic,
oriented for large distances and disoriented
for small distances.
Shapiro's paper contains references to Zel'dovich [269],
Landau [151,152], and Ioffe, Rudik, and Okun' [111]. A more
recent discussion of this problem is to be found in Michel (1957)
and Fowler and Wolfendale (1958).
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E. HEAVILY-IONIZING PARTICLES, NUCLEAR DISINTEGRATIONS
AND THEIR PRODUCTS
A particle moving with a velocity much lower than the
velocity of light will ionize more heavily than a relativistic
particle, that is, one moving with a speed close to that of
light.. In a nuclear emulsion the tracks of slow or high-charge
particles will appear gray or black because of their greater
density relative to those of fast particles. It has been
established that the slow heavily-ionizing cosmic-ray particles
consist of protons, a-particles,deuteron,tritons, mesons, and
some heavier nuclei. The path length in which a charged particle
is more heavily ionizing than a relativistic particle is pro-
portional to the mass of the particle. Therefore, heavy charged
particles are heavily-ionizing over a comparatively large path.
This characteristic makes it possible to distinguish them from
other particles.
Skobelitsyn [215], and Razorenov and Knyazev [197], using
a modified Wilson i chamber in conjunction with proportional
counters, were able to differentiate ionization bursts due to
heavy particles from those due to showers. Skobelttsyn showed
that most bursts in an unshielded chamber at sea level are pro-
duced by showers, but that at heights of only a few thousand
meters the relationship is reversed. Using a thin-walled cham-
ber, Rossi and Williams (1947) found, in opposition to Skobel'-
tsynts data, that 98 percent of ionization bursts at 3,000 -
4,000 meters are caused by strongly-ionizing heavy particles.
At the Third All-Union Conference on the Physics of Cosmic
Rays in 1954, Chudakov [44] and Rapoport [195] presented papers
on ionization of cosmic-ray particles in the stratosphere. The
latter paper shows that there is an appreciable flux of strongly-
ionizing particles accounting for over one-third of the total
ionization.
Other Soviet contributions to the theory of heavily-
ionizing particles and the recording of particles by means of
chambers, counters and nuclear emulsions include Kharitonov
[123], Landau [148], Gorbunov [95], Alikhantyan and Marikyan
[16], Takibayev [223], and Grigorov, Yevreynova and Sokolov
[106].
Experiments conducted by Blau and Wambacher (1937) es-
tablished that cosmic-ray particles cause nuclear disinte-
grations. These are due to the various possibilities of inter-
action between nucleons, nuclei, and the nuclear-active pi-
mesons. The star, which is formed by the emerging, strongly-
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ionizing particles, is typical of such interaction. An
excited nucleus radiates protons and neutrons by "evaporation".
It has been found that in light nuclei the ratio of neutrons
to protons is equal while in heavy nuclei the ratio is approxi-
mately 3/2. In studying high-energy interactions, nuclear
emulsions and Wilson chambers in a magnetic field have proved
reasonably effective despite the limitations of each.
Alikhantyan and Marikyan [16] and Marikyan [161] found
that the aaergies of secondary deuterons are in many cases as
high as 10u eV. The reason for the appearance of a large number
of particles with energies considerably exceeding their binding
energy is still not clear. Using a magnetic mass spectrometer
developed by Alikhanlyan and Alikhanov, Asatiani and Khrimyan
[22] have determined the momentum spectrum of negative pi-mesons
from stars and the ratio oPnegative pi-mesons to positive pi-
mesons. Recently, two similar studies at mountain altitude were
made by Alikhanovetal,[8] and Khrimyan [124] to determine the
nature and momentum spectrum of protons, deuterons and K-mesons
generated by charged and neutral particles of high energies.
In a recent study on the multiple production of particles
in jets, Chernavskiy [42] says: "Jet showers in photoemnsions
are due to the interaction of high-energy nucleons
(>10 eV)
with a substance. The following events are possible: (1)
interaction of a nucleon with the internal parts of a heavy
nucleus; (2) direct collision of a nucleon with a heavy nucleus;
(3) direc't collision of a nucleon with one of the surface
nucleons of the nucleus or with a hydrogen nucleus; ()t-) pe-
ripheral interaction of a nucleon with a nucleon when the Inci-
dent nucleon passes within a certain minimum distance of the
edge of the nucleus". The first two cases have been investi-
gated by Ivanovskaya and Chernavskiy [115], Landau [150],
Maksimenko and Rozental' [160], and peripheral collisions have
been studied by Feynberg and Chernavskiy [79], and Rozentall
and Chernavskiy [202].
According to Zatsepin [260], it is ordinarily assumed that
in a collision of nucleons a certain coupled system is formed
which takes up the entire energy of the incident nucleon and
that the break-up of this system leads to the production of
particles. However, when the energy of the colliding nucleons
is high, there is another possible mechanism of multiple pro-
duction of particles as follows: (1) the interacting nucleons
exchange a small portion of their momenta and energy; (2) one
or both nucleons become excited; (3) the excited state of the
nucleons leads to the production of particles. It is quite
possible that stars may also be produced simultaneously by
both types of interaction.
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In 19561 two survey papers were published (Grigorov [102]
and Saakyan [204]) on the passage of the nucleonic component
through the atmosphere, high-energy collisions and the gener-
ation of pi-mesons. The study of high-energy particles and
interactions with the aid of a synchrocyclotron built in 1949
is the subject of a detailed paper by Dzhelepov and Pontecorvo
[71].
The question of star-producing particles, stars and related
processes has been examined in several papers by Takibayev.
He has investigated the transition effect for stars at altitudes
up to 30 kilometers (Takibayev [224,225]. More recently, the
spatial distribution of stars and the possibility of a genetic
connection between near stars were investigated by Loktionov,
Stafeyev, and Takibayev [158]. No experimental evidence of a
genetic relationship was obtained, but the possibility is not
excluded in theory.
Detailed pavestigation of proton-proton and neutron-proton
collisions has shown that nuclear forces are independent of the
electric charge of the interacting nucleons. To explain this,
the theory ass.umes that these forces are the result of the
emission and absorption of particles by nucleons and that in
addition to charged particles, there are neutral particles which
are agents of nuclear interaction. It follows that the mass of
such neutral particles should not deviate greatly from that of
the charged particles, that is, the charged pi-mesons.
Bjorklund,. Grandall, Moyer and York (1950) first demon-
strated the existence of neutral pi-mesons by bombarding a
target with high-energy protons. Steinberger?Panofsky, Steller
(1950) obtained further evidence of neutral pi-mesons by
bombarding a beryllium target with high-energy gamma rays. A
more accurate determination of the mass of neutral pi-mesons
was supplied by Panof sky et al. (1951). Landau [149] showed
that the pi-meson has a spin 0 and a very short lifetime. In
1957, Barkov and Nikoliskiy [31] published a critical review
of pi-meson studies in the U.S.S.R. and in*:the West.
Dobrotin [531Ch.7] ascribes the first systematic investi-
gations of the composition of cosmic rays to Alikhaniyan,
Alikhanov, and their coworkers. The existence of heavy particles
of mass between that of light mesons and protons was demonstrated
by Alikhaniyan and Alikhanov [9], Alikhaniyan and Kharitonov
[13,14], Alikhantyan, Dadayan, and Shostakovich [12], Vernov,
Dobrotin, and Zatsepin [239], and Alikhanov and Yeliseyev [7].
By improving the design of their mass-spectrometer, Alikhani-
yan et al. [15] were able to detect a heavy particle with a mass
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of 2230 150. From photographic plates flown to an altitude
of 3,500 meters, Powell et al. (1949) detected a heavy particle,
the tau-meson, later found to decay into three pi-mesons.
Friedlander (1954) obtained evidence from photographic plates
indicating the existence of a charged particle with a mass
greater than that of a nucleon.
All these investigations relate to the heavy unstable
particles, sometimes called the "strange" particles, which are
divided into two major classes, the K-mesons or heavy mesons,
and the Y-particles or hyperons. They may be positive, negative,
or neutral. A recent, extensive monograph on these particles
has been written by Markov [162]. In the study of their proper-
ties, the work of Gell-Mann and Pais (1953,1955) has been very
significant. Table 1 shows the properties of these and other
elementary particles.
Using a combination of two nuclear-emulsion plates in a
strong magnetic field at 3,500 meters, Franzinetti (1950) ob-
served over 300 stopped particles. According to his estimates,
the maximum number of K-mesons could not be more than 2 percent
of the total number of heavy particles. Similar conclusions
were reached by Brown et al. (19)1.9) and Fowler (1950) from data
obtained at an altitude of 40 kilometers. et-mesons found in an
emulsion stack were investigated by Gramenitskiy et al. [97]
who found evidence to support the hypothesis that if-mesons
and -mesons are different particles.
In other more recent studies of K-mesons, Zeltdovich [268]
investigates neutral K-mesons and cross sections for their inter-
action with electrons. Investigating the properties of K-mesons,
Granovskiy [99] concludes that the mass, parity and spin of
these particles may be determined according to the Heisenberg
? 1
theory.
The track of a V-particle was first observed by Rochester
and Butler (1947) using a Wilson chamber at sea level. These
authors suggested that the observed forked track was formed by
a charged pi-meson and a charged tau-meson resulting from the
decay of a neutral V-particle. Seriff et al. (1950) were able
to show that V-particles constitute approximately 3 percent of
the charged particles generated by high-energy interactions.
Dobrotin [53], assuming two forms of neutral V-particles,
suggests the following decay scheme:
A?---> p + Tr + a?ci.
eo TT+ + + )
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Table 1.
FmaamenULLYtrtielPs
Symbol
Charge
S
Name
, r
Mass
I
Decay Products
Q
MeV
me MeV
0
Photon
0
0
0
Neutrino
30 and energies greater than 3.10? eV/nucleon. A
general view and block diagram of the instrument are shown.
Preliminary analysis of data covering nine days of operation
shaathat the average number of nuclei of Z,P15-20 was 1.22 +
0.08 per minute. Only one case of output voltage corresponding
to the recording of a nucleus of Z>30 was observed. The calcu-
lated ratio of fluxes for these groups was found not to conflict
with the present-day notions of the acceleration and motion of
cosmic rays in interstellar space.
2.
Shuleykin, V. V.
Sciences, USSR).
Doklady Akademii
(Naval Hydrophysical Institute, Academy of
Terrestrial magnetic field and the world ocean.
nauk SSSR, v. 76, no. 1, 1951: 57-60.
In an effort to explain additional elements of the earth's
magnetic field, the author notes the continuous temperature
difference in the stratosphere over oceans and continents.
This gives rise to stratospheric cyclonic air movement which is
most intense parallel to coast lines. Citing the work of D. B.
Skobelftsyn (1950) and S. N. Vernov et al. (1950), the author
suggests that another factor contributing to the geomagnetic
field might be cosmic radiation in the stratosphere. It is
assumed that protons have little significance below 5 kilometers
above sea level, but that their importance rises steadily above
this level to 20 kilometers and higher. The quantity of protons
stopped in the stratosphere can be evaluated. The electric con-
ductivity of the air and the turbulent movement of air masses
equalize the density of the "protonic gas" in the atmosphere.
This "protonic gas" is caught up in both the zonal circulation
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around the earth and in the system arising from the temperature
differential over oceans and continents. It is found that the
predicted quantity of positive charges creating a convective
electric current is too high, and therefore, that the origin of
such currents is more complex in nature. Noting the difference
in the behavior of positive and negative particles, the author
states that the positively charged particles are caught in air
currents and become an admixture in the neutral gas of the strato-
sphere. Carried along in the general circulation of the air they
could create the electric currents of the necessary density with-
out givingriseto an excessively high intensity of the electric
field in the atmosphere. It is concluded that it is still not
possible to judge the importance of these currents in the basic
magnetic field of the earth.
3-
Vernov, S. N., and A. M. Kulikov. Angular distribution of cos-
mic particles in the stratosphere. Doklady Akademii nauk, v. 61,
1948: 1013-1015.
The angular distribution of cosmic rays in the stratosphere
was studied in a series of balloon experiments using a three-
counter telescope whose axis performed periodic rotations varying
its angles with the vertical between 0? and 90?. It follows from
the analysis of the curves plotted for various altitudes that the
number of particles moving in a direction which forms an angle a
with the vertical at an altitude corresponding to a pressure p
is equal to the number of particles moving in a vertical directlai
at an altitude corresponding to a pressure p/Cosa. The importaat
fraction of almost horizontal paths at altitudes exceeding 20 km
is explained by the long range of particles moving at about 750
in the rarefied air. These conditions favor the formation of a
large number of horizontally moving particles. It is thus shown
that the primary particles maintain their original direction in
the atmosphere, and that the angular dispersion of the secondary
radiation is small. By tying in these facts with the known lartip
latitude effect in the stratosphere, and with the absence of the
azimuthal asymmetry effect, the conclusion is reached, that, be-
sides protons, the primary cosmic rays must contain negative anti-
protons. (Nuclear Science Abstracts, v. 2, 1949, 1349)
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G. COSMIC-RAY SHOWERS
1.
Abrosimov, A. T., V. A. Dmitriyev, G. V. Kulikov, Ye. I.
Massal'skiy, K. I. Solov'yev, and G. B. Khristiansen. Zhurnal
eksperimentallnoy i teoreticheskoy fiziki, v. 36, no. 3, 1959:
751-761.
Data presented on the number of high-energy nuclear-active
particles in showers 6containing a total number of particles be-
tween 1.104 and 2.10 and also on the lateral distribution of
the energy flux of the nuclear-active component. It is noted
that the energy of the nuclear-active component in individual
showers with an equal number of particles may differ widely.
On the basis of the shape of the spectrum of the nuclear-active
particles and the shape of the lateral distribution of the energy
flux of the nuclear-active component, some conclusions are drawn
regarding the nature of the elementary act underlying the nuclear-
cascade process. (Authors' abstract)
2.
Antonov, Yu. N., Yu. N. Vavilov, G. T. Zatsepin, A. A. Kutuzov,
Yu. V. Skvortsov, and G. B. Khristiansen (Academy of Sciences,
USSR).. Structure of the periphery of extensive atmospheric
cosmic-ray showers. Zhurnal eksperimental'noy i teoreticheskoy
fiziki, v. 32, no. 2, 1957:227-240.
An investigation of the lateral distribution of various
components of extensive showers at their periphery (200 to 800
m from the axis) has been carried out. The data on the lateral
distribution indicate that the contribution .of the shower pe-
riphery to the total shower particle flux is significant. The
lateral distribution of the electron component at the periphery
can be explained by means of the theory of multiple Coulomb
scattering. Coulomb scattering also plays an important role
in the divergence of the penetrating particles (AA-mesons);
however, the angles of emission in the elementary events of
nuclear cascade processes of fa-mesons which give rise to
4.4 -mesons can apparently also lead to this type of divergence
of .M -mesons. An investigation of the intensity of the primary
cosmicradlau.I. at very nign (1016 to 1017 ev) was
also carried out. (Authors' abstract)
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3.
Belentkiy, S. Z., and B. I. Maksimov. The scattering of cascade
particles in heavy elements. Zhurnal eksperimental'noy i
teoreticheskoy fiziki, v. 22, no. 1, 1952: 102-111.
A recurrence formula is derived for the nth moment of the
distribution-in-depth function of an electron-photon cascade
including scattering. The angular distribution, averaged
over depth, is calculated without assuming small angles
and including ionization losses (which are found to bg unim-
portant for energies 15 MeV). In the case of a 10? eV cas-
cade in Pb the first 2 moments of the cascade curve are changed
by a few % due to scattering. (Physics Abstracts, v. 56, no.
667, 1953, 5553).
4.
Chudakov, A. Ye., and N. M. Nesterova (Institute of Physics
imeni Lebedev). Cherenkov radiation of extensive air showers.
Nuovo cimento. Supplement?, v. 8, series 10, no 2, 1958:606-611.
Short light flashes superimposed on the background of the
night sky glow, correlated with the passage of cosmic rays in the
atmosphere, were first detected in 1952. It was established that
at least some of these flashes were caused by Cherenkov radiation
of extensive air showers. Further experiments were conducted in
the Pamir Mluntains (altitude 3860 m)in the autumn of 1955. The
purpose of this investigation was tJ study the lateral distri-
bution of the light flux relative to the core of the showers and
also to determine the relation between the intensity of the light
flashes and the size of the shower. The experimental arrangement
included an optical receiver that registered the light flashes
and a Geiger counter hodoscope. Two series of measurements were
made. The sensitivity of the light receivers was adjusted so
that about 100 pulses per hour were registered. On an average,
each flash was accompanied by triggering of 20 hodoscope counters,
while the number of cases when no counter was triggered was
This it was established that practically all light flashes of a
given intensity were produced by extensive air showers. (Nuclear
Science Abstracts, v. 13, no. 90 1959, 8025)
5.
Dobrotin, N., O. Dovzhenko, V. Zatsepin, E. Murzina, S. I.
Nikol'skiy, I. Rakobol'skaya, and Ye. Tukish (Institute of
Physics imeni Lebedev). Combined method of investigation of
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extensive air showers. Nuovo cimento. Supplemento, v. 8,
series 10, no. 2, 1958:612-622.
In order to reconstruct the picture of an elementary act
of nuclear interaction at extremely high energies based on data
of extensive air showers, it is necessary to make a detailed
and comprehensive study of all the characteristics of the
showers. Therefore, the investigation should be carried out with
the use of a combined arrangement that will enable the investi-
gators to determine (for an individual shower) not only the
position of its axis and the total number of particles but to
obtain all the characteristics of its different components.
Tentative ,data are given conoerning partial results of measure-
ments carried out during the autumn of 1955 at an altitude of
3860 m (the Pamir Mountains, Central Asia) by workers of the
Academy of Sciences of the USSR. The electronic arrangement
used allowed the measqrement of bursts in one chamber within the
ionization interval (from 6 x 103 to 1 x 108 ion pairs), which
corresponded t the ionization by the passage of 1 to 1.5 x 104
relativistic particles along its diameter and perpendicular to
its axis. The master group of counters produced 60 master
pulses per hour; 4 x 104 showers were recorded. The arrange-
ment permitted the study of showers caused by primary particles
13 ,15
with energies of 3 x 10 . 2 x lv - ev. (Nuclear Science
Abstracts, v. 13, ? 9, 1959, 8026)
6.
Goltdanskiy, V. I., and G. B. Zhdanov. On Cherenkov radiation
of cosmic ray particles in the atmosphere. Zhurnal eksperi-
mental'noy i teoreticheskoy fiziki, v. 26, no. 4, 1954: 405-416.
The contribution of this radiation to the continuous
spectrum of the luminosity at night is calculated and found to
contribute less than 10%, in agreement with previous estimates.
It is shown however, that a single burst of radiation could be
observed by a registering device (e.g., photomultiplier) pro-
vided the radius of the c,:liector is large and the resolution
short/6.1C-8 sec. The observation of Cherenkov radiation from
wide air showers is shown to afford a sensitive means of
detecting these showers where the density of particles is so
low as to make detection by counters difficult. The amplitude
of radiation in this case is given as a function of distance
from the axis of the shower. (Physics Abstracts, v. 58, no. 685,
1955, 377).
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7.
Gurevich, I. I., A. P. Mishakova, B.
Surkova (Academy of Sciences, USSR).
by high energy cosmic ray particles.
i teoreticheskoy fiziki, V. 34, no.
A. Nikol'skiy, and L. V.
Explosion showers produced
Zhurnal eksperimental'noy
2, 1958: 265-279.
Experimental results are presented which pertain to 43
shower events induced by 1010 to 1014 ev nucleons and to 20
showers produced by particles with Z 2. Asymmetry in the
angular distribution of shower particles with respect to the
angle )r/2 in the center-of-mass system has been observed in
showers produced by nucleons possessing an energy? 1011 ev.
This fact is not consistent with the concept of shower production
in nuclei in nucleon-nucleon collisions or with the predictions
of the hydrodynamical theory of multiple Production of particles
proposed by Belen'kiy and Landau. (Authers' abstract)
8.
Khristiansen,G.
distribution of
Nuovo cimento.
605.
B. (Moscow State University). On the lateral
electrons and A-mesons in extensive air showers.
Suppleme-It'), v. 8, series 10, no. 2, 1958:598-
A graphical comparison of exprimental lateral distribution
of electrons in extensive air showers with theoretical distri-
bution shows a good fit. The cinciden3e of the experimental
curve with the theoretical curve with one definite value of S
in such a wide range of distances is not accidental, and it is
natural to assume that this is due to the fact that the energy
spectrum of the electrcs.-proton cascade of age S and the di-
vergence of electrons, is entirely determined by Coulomb
scattering. The latezal distribution of It-mesons was considered.
)4-mesons arise from the decay of If- and K--mesons in the upper
3ayers of the atmosphere. Acrding t experimental data
the generation of :4--mesons takes place in the alti.,uue
range from the pfiin-. generation to the level of observation
without any intera::tions involving energy losses and [these
mesons] lose their energy slowly on ionization of the air.
(Nuclear Science Abstracts, V. 13, no. 9, 1959, 8024)
9.
Khristiansen, G. B., and G. V. Kulikov (Moscow State
On the number-of-particles spectrum of extensive air
Nuovo cimento. Supplement?, v. 8, series 10, no. 2,
University).
showers. showers.
1958:742-745
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Up to the present, mainly measurements of density spectra
of extensive air showers were carried out. The number-of-
particles spectrum of showers was obtained by recalculation
from the obtained density spectrum. This method has serious
disadvantages. In this investigation a direct study was made of
the number-of-particles spectrum of showers. The measurements
were carried out by means of the method of correlated hodoscopes.
Using the hodoscope installation, it was possible to determine
the position of the axis and t4 number of particles in showers
with a total number from 2 x DP' to 2 x 10?. The hodoscope
system made it possible to determine the number of triggered
counters in different groups of counters during the recording of
each shower. Knowing the distribution of the counters that
trigger in the plane of observation, it is possible, under cer-
tain assumptions, to find the number of particles and the coordi-
nates of the axis in the plane of observations. (Nuclear Science
Abstracts, v. 13, no. 9, 1959, 8042)
10.
Milekhin, G. A., and I. L. Rozental' (Institute of Physics imeni
Lebedev). On some interaction characteristics of very high-
energy particles and their interpretation from the viewpoint of
the hydrodynamical theory of multiple particle production.
Nuovo cimento. Supplemento, v. 8, series 10, no. 2, 1958: 770-
774.
Landau, using the idea stated by Fermi, employed relativistic
hydrodynamics in describing very high energy particle collision.
The first attempts to compare the conclusions of hydrodynamical
theory with experimental data on the multiplicity and angular
and energy distributions of secondary particles already showed
that the hydrodynamical theory satisfactorily described many
multiple process characteristics. By comparison of the theory
with experimental data taken from the analysis of showers record-
ed in a photographic emulsion, a number of essential additional
assumptions were made. These assumptions caused a certain ob-
scurity of the conclusions. For example, it was assumed that the
collision of nucleons with heavy nuclei took place in the coordi-
nate system in which notion of substance was symmetrical. Ex-
tensive shower analysis carried out on the assumption that the
nuclear interaction cross section is independent of energy shows
that the formal part of the hydrodynamical theory is incomplete.
(Nuclear Science Abstracts, v. 13, no. 9, 1959, 8046)
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11.
Nikol'skiy, S. I., Yu. N. Vavilov, and V. V. Batov (Institute of
Physics imeni Lebedev). Investigations of nuclear-active com-
ponents of extensive air showers. Doklady Akademii nauk SSSR,
111, 1956: 71-73.
Experiments were made to determine the spatial distri-
bution and the number of nuclear-active particles with energy
:ar 10-9 ev. The measurements were taken at amo m above sea
lvel (Pamir) in the summer and autumn of 1954. The total num-
ber of charged particles in each recorded shower was calculated
(with the relative error of 10%) by measuring the stream
density of shower particles at various distances from the shower
axis. The possibility o4f'formation and the recording of
showers induced by nuclear-passive particles (,k-mesons) were
also determined in the same experiments. All showers recorded
during the period of observation were divided into groups accord-
ing to the total number of particles. The functions of spatial
distribution of nuclear-active particles for each group were
analyzed in the intervals from 1 to 40 m from the axis of the
showers. (Nuclear Science Abstracts, v. 11, no. 7, 1957, 3892).
12.
Rozental', I. L. Cascade processes in extensive atmospheric
showers of cosmic rays. Zhurnal eksperimental'noy i teoretiches-
koy fiziki, v. 23, no. 4, 1952: 440-455.
A pilenomenologica; study of the cascade produced by a high-
energy ndcleon (E0 .^-10'BeV) supposed to consist of nucleons and
11-mesons interacting with air nuclei with geometrical cross-
sections. Charged IT's decay, producing a p7meson component,
neutral 'M 's give two)r 's which initiate an electron-photon
cascade. The "nuclear" cascade (i.e., nucleons +IT) is assumed
to cease with energies. 10 BeV. The general features of the
individual collisions are taken according to Fermi's statistical
theory. The number of secondaries is assumed to oe Ev (E =
energy of primary, it= const.), of which a fraction b are
nucleons. The equations describing the development of the cas-
cade are used to evaluate (as functions of the depth) the mean
square radii of the various components of the cascade pmclnding
electrons), their density distribution and the ratios nucl.
+1.1- +A4)/ (nucl. +1( +AA + e, ) and ( fr + prot.) (neutr. ). Com-
parison with experiments suggestsy = 1/4, b= 3/4. This case is
studied in more detail and graphical results are given. (Physics
Abstracts, v. 56, no. 667, 1953, 5555).
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?
?
13.
Rozentall, I. L. A quasi-unidimensional interpretation of the
hydrodynamical theory of multiple particle production. Zhurnal
eksPerimentalYwi teoreticheskoyfiziki, V. 311 no. 21 1956: 278-
287.
The hydrodynamical theory of multiple formation of particles
developed by Landau is based on the introduction of two stages
of separation of the liquid: a unidimensional motion and a coni-
cal separation whose limits of validity are difficult to esti-
mate. The hydrodynamical theory version in which only the
unidimensional stage is involved is investfgated in the present
paper. It is shown that this variant yields a very satisfactory
approximation for the values of the final temperatures Tk
1.5-244. For T =A4 the unidimensional approximation yields
(especially forkslow secondary particles) a result which is
correct only in order of magnitude. The dependence of the energy
of the fastest particle on Tk .A was also investigated. It is
found that in order for the calculated value of the velocity to
agree with the experiment value the condition Tkr?-.