BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ON PERMAFROST IN THE USSR REPORT NO. 98

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• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP81-01043R003400130002-4
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• Document Page Count: 239
• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: June 17, 2014
• Sequence Number: 2
• Publication Date: April 1, 1959
• Content Type: REPORT

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BUILDING CONSTRUCTION ON PERMAFROST
IN THE USSR
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BUILDING OONSTRUCTION ON PERMAFROST IN THE USSR
REPORT NO. 98
Information Prepared
by
Air Information Division, Structural Engineering Section
Library of 'Congress
For
United States Air Force
April 1959
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Plates
Bibliography
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I. VORKUTAI ITS LOCATION AND STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Wood Construction
Introduction of Masonry
Application of the Permafrost Preservation Method
Status of Construction/ 1957
Search for Construction Methods Ensuring Structural Stability
Page
iv
viii
5
13
CHAPTER II. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VORKDTAREGION
Topography
13
Geological Structure
13
Hydrologic Conditions
15
Climatic Conditions
15
Permafrost Conditions
17
Soil; Its Properties and. Suitability for Construction Work
19
CHAPTER III. STABLE STRUCSVRES AT VURKUTA
26
Structures Erected on Bedrock
26
Structures Erected on Permanent Thawed Soils
27
Structures Erected on Frozen Sand and Sand-gravel Soils with
Low Moisture Content
28
Structures Built by the Permafrost Preservation Method
29
Structures Designed to Allow for Uneven Settlement
33
Unheated Structures �35
CHAPTER IV. DEFORMATION OF VORKUTA BUILDINGS AND ITS CAUSES
45
Construction Without Due Regard for Physical Characteristics
of the Site
46
Wrong Choice of Construction Method
49
Errors in Design
53
Uhsatisfactory Handling of Construction Work
54
Unfavorable Operating Conditions
58
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CHAPTER V. PREVENTION OF BUILDING DEFORMATION AT VORKUTA 72
11/
Detailed Exploration of Physical Characteristics of the Site;
Adaptation of Structural Design to Data thus Obtained; 72
Examination of botanical and topographic relief features;
Test drilling;
Electro-exploration;
Adaptation of structural design to data obtained at the site;
Selection of Suitable Method of Construction 76
Construction irrespective of the state of the foundation
bearing layer
Construction with permafrost preserved in the foundation
bearing layer
Non-freezing water in the permafrost
Suggestions for correct application of the method
Unheated structures
StructUres with ordinary heat emission
Structures with high heat emission
Construction without permafrost preservatibn in the foundation
bearing layer
Pre-construction Preparation of Building Site 82
Usual pre-construction steps taken at any site
Thawing of the site
Packing and Strengthening of the soil after thawing
Freezing of the soil
�
Observance of Appropriate Building Operation Rules 87
CHAPTER VI. DUDINKAI ITS WOO= BUILDINGS
Physical Characteristics of the Region
Dudinka Wooden Buildings
Optimum Cellar Height (by observation)
The Power Station
CHAPTER VII. IGARKA.
ON BUILDINGS
CT OF ITS PBYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Physical Characteristics
Effect of Physical Characteristics on Buildings
89
89
90
93
94
107
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� CHAPTER VIII. BRICK MANUFACTURING PLANT (AT OR NEAR NORDL'SK) 110
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Physical Characteristics of the Region
Extol:Manufacturing Plant
Notes on the Operation of the Plant
Permafrost conditions under the piles
Permafrost conditions under the kilns
Soil moisture content and temperature Observations
Pile heaving experiment
CHAPTER IX. NORILTK, STRUCTMALEVOInTION
Physical Characteristics
Structural Evolution
Wooden buildings
First masonry buildings (1937-1945)
Structural appearance (1958)
Deformed buildings
Temporary instruction on building operations
Permafrost inspection (office)
CHAPTER X. YAKUTSK, ITS STRUCTURAL DtvhLOPMENT
131
151
132
141
Physical Characteristics 141
Structural Development 142
Wood construction 142
Masonry construction 143
The Bishop's Haase 144
Water pump station 146
Central power station 147
CHAPTER XI. LARGE-PORE (SA1MLESS) CONCRETE AS WALL CONSTRUCTION
MATERIAL IN THE ARCTIC (TIKSI) 156
Data on Large-pore (Sandless) Concrete
Production process of Large-Pore Concrete Wall Blocks
Production of Ordinary Concrete Members
XII. FOUNDATION DESIGN; GOLD ORE CONCEI ON PLANT
(TRANBBAIKAL REGION)
Calculation of Foundation Settlement and Tilt Angles
Notes on Construction (Settlement joints and foundations)
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XIII. HOLM REGION, CONS1RuCTION TREED (1957)
CHAPTER XIV. ANADYR', DEFORMATION OF BUILDINGS (1937)
CONCLUSION
163
164
171
174
176
177
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Plate
1 Mai of Permafrost Territory
CHAPTER I. VORKUTA, ITS LOCATION AND STRUMURALDEVELOPMENT
2 Fig. 1. Valley of the Vorkuta River (Typical View)
Fig. 2. View of Vorkuta Town, 1958
2a View of a Street with New Residences (1957) 10
3 Fig. 1. Prismatic Gravel Fill under Wooden Houses resting
on Muds ills 11
Fig. 2. Wood Foundations of a Slag Concrete Building
4 Wood Post Foundations 12
CHAPTER II. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VORKUTA REGION
5 Temperature Curves of the Permafrost Bed 23
6 Building Sites of Mines Nos. 1, 2 and 4. Permafrost and
Geological Section 24
7 Building Site of Mine No. 2 (Vorkuta Research Station Data) 25
LIST OF PLATES
'Title
Pa e
11.
9
CHAPTER III. STABLE STRUCTURES AT VORKUTA
8 Residences Nos. 100, 101, 102, 103 Gorniakovfitreet
9 Fig. 1. Partial View of the Hospital
Fig.. 2. Vent Pipe over Trench Bringing Steam Lines into
the Hospital
10 Fig. 1. Geological Section under Hospital
Fig. 2. Floor CotAtruction Detail (Hospital)
Fig. 3. Thaw Contour Around a Steam Line
38
39
10
11 Fig. 1. RProMkoMbinat", Mine No. 32, Construction of Foundations 41
Fig. 2. "PromkoMbinat", Mine No. 32, Partial View of the
Completed Structure
12 Mechanical Shop, Mine No. 1, Thaw Crater under the Shop
13 Mechanical Shop, Mine No. 1, Axonometric Diagram Shaving
Foundation Settlement
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LIST OF PLATES
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Plate
. Title
Pag
14 Fig: 1. Thaw Crater, the "Shakhtkombinat", Mine No. 1 44
Fig. 2. "Dinamo" Stadium, Section Through the Stadium Stands
CHAPTER IV, DEFORMATION OF VORMYMBUIIDINGS AND ITS CAUSES
15 The "Shahtkoldbinat"Building, Nine No., 2 63
16 Boiler House No. 12, Sanitation Plant 64
17 Fig. 1. Residence No. 102, Gorniakov Street, Section 65
Fig. 2. Contour of Thawing under Structure
18 Residence No. 107, Section 66
19 Fig. 1. Hoisting Machinery Building, Mine No. 2 67
Fig. 2. Building and Hoist Foundations, Mine No. 27
20 Boiler House Mines No. 3 and 4, Section 68
21 Fig. 1. Faulty Steam Line Layout 69
Fig. 2. Building Erected in 1947-1948 Cracked along the
Settlement Joint
� 22 � Inadequate Protection of Foundations 70
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23 Wall Deformed by a Rigidly Joined Fire Escape Heaved by Its
Shallow Foundation 71
CHAPTER V. PREVENTION OF BUILDING DEFORMATION AT VORKUTA
24 Liquid Water in the Permafrost 88
CHAPTER VI. DUDINKA, ITS WOODEN BUILDINGS
25 Fig. 1. Residence, Former Church 98
Fig. 2. Residence "A"
26 Residence "B" 99
27 Fig. 1. Large Dwelling House Erected in 1935 100
Fig. 2. One-Story Building Erected on Sloping Site
28 Fig. 1. Relative Location of the Power Station 101
Fig. 2. Permafrost Contour under Power Station
29 Fig. 1. Transverse Section, Power Station
Fig. 2. Longitudinal Section, Power Station
102
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Plate
LIST OF PLATES
T tie
30 Fig. 1. Plan of FoUndations� Power Station
Fig. 2. Water and Steam Line Duct, Power Station
31 Power Station, Location of Equipment and Pipe Lines
32 Power Station, the Flue, Sections
103
104
105
33 Fig. 1. Power Station, Trench vith Strepothened Side and. Bottom 106
Fig. 2. "Clay Tooth" and Peat Bank Arrangement
CHAPTER VIII. BRICK MANUFACTURING PLANT (AT OR NEAR NORILiSK)
34 Geological Section under the Plant 119
35 Plan of the Plant Shoving Observations Points 120
36 Fig. 1. Partial View of the Plant Shoving the Open Cellar and
Peat Banks Around the Piles 121
Fig. 2. Middle Section of the Plant from the East
37 Fig. 1. Side Elevation of the Plant 122
Fig. 2. Kiln Foundations, Sections
38 Arched Kiln Foundation 123
39 The Kiln. Longitudinal and Transverse Sections 124
40 Fig. 1. Mud-filled "Sacks" Produced by SteantNeedles in
Permanently Frozen Loam � , 125
Fig. 2., Effects of Peat Banks Surrounding Foundation Piles
on Permafrost
41 Fig. 1. Bore Hole K.-1 Soil, Temperature and Moisture Data) 126
Fig. 2. Bore Hole K-2 " n n n n )
42 Fig. 1. Bre Hole K.-3(Soil, Temperature and Moisture Data) 127
Fig. 2. Bore Hole KA " N
/
43 Fig. 1. Bore Hole 105(Soil, Temperature and Moisture Data) 128
Fig. 2. Bore Hole K.-6 ". . n � n 11 )
44 Pile Experimental Set-up
45 Heaving of Individual Piles. Graphic Representation
129
130 130
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Plate
LIST OF PLATES
Title
CHAPTER IX. NORILISK, STRUCTURAL EVOLUTION
46 Fig. 1; Wooden Dwelling House Erected in 1932 137
Fig. 2. Trench Excavated under House
47 Fig. 1. Monchegorsk Street 138
Fig. 2. Stalin Prospect (Street), 1948-1949
48 Fig. 1. Plan of the Central Part of Town 139
Fig. 2. The October Square, 1958
48a Fig. 1. Snowdrifts in a Street 140
Fig. 2. Protection of Building from Snowdrifts
CHAPTER X. YAKUTSK, ITS STRMXIMALIEVELOPMENT
49 Fig. 1. Shops at the Little Market 151
Fig. 2. Typical "Plinth" Construction
50 Fig. 1, The Museum, Formerly the Bishop's House 152
Fig. 2. Section Through the Museum Foundations
51 Power Station, Personnel Service Annex 153
52 Fig. 1. Power Station, Plan of Foundations '154
Fig. 2. Soil Temperature Measurement under Fouraations
53 Power Station, Footings Prior to Their Lowering into the Pits
CHAPTER XI. LARGE-PORE (SANDLESS) CONCRETE AS WALL CONSTRUCTION
NATNHIAL IN THE ARCTIC (ms')
54 Pouring of Large-Pore Concrete Walls 159
55 Erection of Large-Pore Concrete Block Walls 160
56 Plan and Section of the Plant Manufacturing Large-Pore Concrete
Wall Blocks 161.
56a Snowdrift on Lee Side of a Building 162
CHAPTER XII. FOUNDATION DESIGN; GOLD ORE CONCENTRATION PLANT
(TRANSBAIKAL REGION)
57 Fig. 1. Plan and Vertical Section of Concentration Plant 173
Fig. 2. Diagram of Soil Pressure Distribution
Fig. 3. Diagram of Tilt Angle and Develorment of Bending Moment
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sources used extensively 'in preparation of individual chapters of the
report are indicated at the end of those chapters. Monographs consulted
for background information are listed below.
Author
Title
Abelev, YU. M.
Akademiya Nauk
Akademiya NaUk
Osnoyy Proektirovaniya I Stroitellstva
naMakroporistYkh Gruntakh (Fundamentals
of Design and Construction on Macroporous
Soils, 1948)
Trudy Ins tituta Merzlotovedeniya
(Works of the Permafrost Institute,
Vol. 1, 1946; Vol. 4, 1944)
MAteryaly k OsnovemUcheniya o Merzlykh
Zonakh Zemnoy Kbry (Fundamentals of the
Science of the Frozen Zones of the
Earth's Crust. Issue II, 1955),
Bykov, N. I. Vechnaya Merzlota i Stroiteltstvo na ney
(Permafrost and Construction on it, 1940)
Duchabnel G. S. Anglo-Russian Geological Dictionary, 1937
Gerasimov, N. M.
Teoreticheskiye OsnoyyMekhaniki
Gruntov I ikh Practicheskiye
Primeneniya (Theoretical Fundamentals of
Soil Mechanics and Their Practical
Application, 1948)
Liverovskiy, A. V. Stroitel/stvo v Usloviyakh VechnoyMerzlo-
ty (Construction under Permafrost
Conditions, 1941)
Lukashev, K. I.
Ltkyanov, V. S.
Oblast/ VechnoyMerzloty kak Osobaya
Fiziko-GeograffcheskayaiStroiteltnaya
Oblast/ (permafrost Territory as a Special
Physico-Geographic and Building Area,
1938)
Rasdhety Glubiny Promerzaniya Gruntov
(Calculation of the Depth of Soil
Freezing, 1957)
aviii-
LC Call No.
TA710 .A2
TA715.A4
TA715.A413
TA713.B9
QE5.D8
TA710.G47
TA715.L58
TA710.1P
TA715.L8
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Author
Title
LC Call,No.
Sumgin, IL I.
Sumgin, M. I.
Sumgin, M. I.
Tolstikhin, N. I.
Tsytovidh, N.
Oblast' Vechnoy Merzloty (Permafrost
Region, 1940)
Vechnaya Mtrzlota'(Permafrost, 1934)
Obshcheye Merzlotovedeniye (General
Study of Permafrost, 1940)
Podzemnye Vody Mtrzloy Zony Litosfery
(Underground Waters of the Frozen Zone
of the Lithosphere, 1941)
A. Osnovaniya Mekhaniki Merzlykh Gru.ntov
(Basis of Frozen Soil Mechanics, 1937)
Tsytairich, N. A.
Vtsiltyev, B. D.
Glubina Zalozhenlya FUndamentov
Maloetazhnykh Zdanly v Sviazi s
SezonnymPromerzaniem Gruntov (The Depth
for laying Foundations fr 2- to 11.-story
Buildings in Connection with Seasonal
Freezing of Soil)
Vozvedeniye Kapitaltnykh.Zdanly na
silfno Szhdmayemykh Osnovaniyakh
(Erection of Substantial Buildings on
Highly Compressible Bearing Layers, 1950)
GB641.68
GB641.685
GB641.68,
aBlio7.T66
TA7lo.T8
TH52a.T8
T115201.V3
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INTRODUCTION
Permafrost underlies well over 40% of the territory of the Soviet Union
(Plate 1). This vast territory, tremendously rich in natural resources,
formed part of the Russian Empire for centuries, but its population was sparse,
its primitive settlements far apart. Some four million square miles lay almost;
totally unexplored and undeveloped. There were many valid reasons for that,
but from the structural point of view it is sufficient to mention only two:
1. Severe climate making for human hardships;
2. Difficulty of achieving stable construction on permafrost, due
to certain conditions practically unknovn in the temperate zone.
These points are easily illustrated. Yakutsk, for instance, vas founded
on a branch of the Lena River, some 7 miles wide at that point. The inhAbitantE
were "drinking" ice appropriately stored during the winter. The river channc,10
however, in time moved away from the settlement. A well (Shergints Shaft) was
sunk between 1828 and 1837 into the permafrost to a depth of 382 ft. in quest of
water. It was dry; it had not even pierced the permafrost bed. On the other
hand, brick stoves built in the best temperate zone tradition used to disappear
into the ground after a few weeks of firing; most of the buildings became
deformed in the course of a few years.
In time, experience taught the settlers how to build stable but very
simple wooden structures on the permafrost. In places, even a few masonry
buildings were erected, some of them surviving into our days. Nevertheless,
there were numerous phenomena Which affected construetion and required serioue
scientific investigation if the development of the region was to be undertaken
in earnest.
Beginnings of such investigation go back to the end of the XIX century,
when, during the construction of the Eastern Siberian railroad, the builders
had to face the deformation of roadbeds, short span bridges, depots, and cther
structures.
Research had presumably come to a standstill during World War I And the
Revolution, but was resumed about 1926 with the Soviet regime more or less
firmly established.
In 1927, the Soviet engineers (many of them undoubtedly graduates of
Imperial Schools) were given an assignment to design a metallurgical plant
for the Transbaikal region. This led to the investigation of the theoretical
basis of construction on permafrost of heated buildings in general and of
those employing hot technological processes in particular. Beginni .g with
1928, scientific expeditions to investigate the feasibility of foundation
construction on permafrost were organized, and permanent permafrost stations
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established in some areas. In 1930, a five.mqr Commission for the staay of
permafrost phenomena was created in the Academy of Sciences; by 2939, this
Commission evolved into what is known as the Permafrost Study Institate, in.
V. A. Obrachev, of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
Eventually, investigation of permafrost became concentrated in the abcve
Institute, the Research Institute for Foundation Bearing Layers and FounaatIcIls�
and in such construction organizations as Vorkutstroy� Norilkombinat, DallstroV,
etc. The members and/or associates of the above Jrntitations have among other
things:
1. Compiled 0ST-90032-39, the first set of "Norms and Technical
Conditions" for construction of foundations on permafrost, issued in MP,
2. Revised and reissued the above in 1954 as NiTU-118-540 "Norms
and Technical Conditions on Foundation Design for Industrial sra Civil
Buildings on Permafrost";
3. Issued the "Temporary Instruction on Operation of Buildings arft
Structures Erected on Permanently Frozen Soils at Norilfsk";
4. Pdblished a number of books on some aspects of the theory and
practice of construction on permafrost.
A part of the above material (not all of it the latest) forms the baste
of the report that follows. Whatever the imperfections of this report, --ne
difficulty should be noted: the fact that some basic material vas unavails:tIe.
This material includes:
1. The presumably all-important NiTU-118-54;
2. The Norillsk "Temporary Instruction" on the operation of
structures erected On permafrost;
3. Material on construction of airfields on permafrost (somi
information may be found in the "Soviet Polar Airfield",
a brief SES TB, No. 7, July 1957).
The purpose of the report, the above limitations being duly noted, Is
give a glimpse of structural development on permafrost in the Soviet Union0
Up to the time when this report was submitted, the SES was not informed if ai
account prepared by any other agency, covering the same general subject.
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Although the report is concerned -with purely structural matters it has
nevertheless been developed along geographic lines. This arrangements was
adopted because physical characteristics of various regions of the permafrost
expanse differ considerably. And it is primarily the thorough study and
evaluation of these characteristics (not even so much those of a region as
those of a particular building site) and their proper application to design
that make sound construction on permafrost feasible. In other words, what-
ever the type of structure, the basic problem is to ensure its stability- on
the particular kind of permafrost which happens to be characteristic of the
site. Thus, the report starts with Vorkuta region in the European Russia
(63�201E); following across the permafrost expanse eastward it attempts to
give some idea of these characteristics and the state of construction at such
localities as Dudinka, Igarka, Norillsk� Yakutsk� Tiksi, the Trandbaikal and
Kblyma regions and, finally, Anadyr! on the Bering Sea (177� 311E).
This approach suggests in a general way the arrangement of material
within the chapters of the report, namely:
1. First come the physical characteristics of the region or,
whenever possible, of the building site involved: topography, vegetaticL�
geological structure, properties of the soil; and climatic, permafrost,
and hydrologic conditions;
2. This is followed 'by a description of individual structures,
structural details, construction methods, service conditions and effects
of physical characteristics of the sites on the state of structures
erected on them. Analytical notes are introduced in the text wherever
they seem to be warranted. Results or descriptions of a few laboratory
and field investigations, as well as one ease of sample calculations
were not collected into a separate chapter but purposely kept with the
accounts referring to localities where such investigations took place;
this was believed to make clear the circumstances under Which these
stepb were taken, without really detracting from their much wider
significance;
3. Finally, sources of information, and appropriate illustrative
material are introduced at the end of each chapter.
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1 - Region of permafrost beds with temperatures for the
most part below--5�C (23T) at a depth of
10-15 m. (32.8-49.2 ft.)
2 - Region where permafrost bed temperature at a depth
of 32.8-49.2 ft. varies between 23�F to
29.3�F
3 - Region with permafrost bed temperatures at a depth
of 32.8-49.2 ft. is mainly above 29.3�F
4 - Isolated permafrost zones
5 - Regions Where permafrost-beds occur only in the
mounds of peat marshes
6 - Southern limits of the permafrost within the
boundaries of the USSR
7 - Assumed southern limits of the permafrost outside
the boundaries of the USSR
8 - Region where permafrost bed includes ice beds of
considerable thickness
77- 77;"-*
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CHAPTER I
VORKUTA, ITS LOCATION AND STRUCTURAL DEVELOIMENT
Location
The town of Vorkuta and surrounding countryside, south-eastern section of
the Bolfshezemelf skaya Tundra, Komi ASSR. (Plate 2, Fig. 2; Plate 2a)
Coordinates
1. Vorkuta (the town):
Latitude: 67� 30' N; Longitude: 64 001E.
2. region
Latitude: 670 101 N-- 68' 001 N.
Longitude: 630 201 E� 650 001 E.
StrucVorkuta
When the North Pechora Railroad was completed in December 1941/ the town of
Vorkuta became the terminal. It grew rapidly during World War II. Development
of local coal deposits, considered to be among the richest beyond the Polar Circle/
� stimulated its growth.
The "mastering" of construction at Vorkuta began, it is said, in 1935.
Unfamiliar with local conditions, the building pioneers approached construction
problems on the basis of experience they had gained mostly in the Trandbaikal
region (East Siberia), Where climatic, geological, and permafrost conditions
differed greatly from those in. Vorkuta. Some assistance in their first steps was
extended by the personnel of the Vorkata Permafrost Station.
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The following three stages are discernible in the structural development
of Vorkuta:
1. Wood construction;
2. Introduction of masonry;
3. Application of the permafrost preservation method. of construction.
Star 1. Wood Construction. The first buildings were one-stogy wooden
structures of log and frame type with slag wall fill; then came wooden two-stogy
log and square beam structures; (this type was still being built in 1951).
Foundations were in both oases of the simplest, namely:
(a)
Log or square wood beam frame on blocks resting directly on
leveled ground surface;
(b) "Gorodki"; this is a wooden grillage type of foundation resting
directly on level ground surface;
Wood tlehairel of two types:
(c)
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(i) Individual posts resting on a large stone or wooden grillage)
(ii) Braced individual posts resting on 2 horizontal timbers,
halved together to form a cross.
The "chairs" could be anchored or supported:
(i) Directly by the ground,
(ii) On sleepers laid at various depths,
(iii) On a pile of wood slabs, logs, or a grillage placed
longitudinally in trenches;
(d) Sleepers, blocks, or "gorodki" on sand-gravel filling above the
ground surface;
(e) Grillage on sand-gravel filling.
Examples of wood foundations are shown on Plates 3 and 4.
�
Stage 2. Introduction of Masonry. Construction of masonry buildings
vas introduced beginning with 1939. WO and three story brick and slag block
structures began to appear.
Sta e . A..lieation of the Permafrost Preservation Method of
Construction. In the late 1950's and early 19 Ofss an opinion prevailed (it vas
shared even by the Permafrost Institute of the Academy of Sciences) that the
permafrost in the Vorkuta region vas in process of degradation.
This assumption led to the following:
(a) Preservation of permafrost under heated structures was
considered for a number of years to be impossible under Vorkuta conditions;
(b) Soil pressures selected as a basis for calculation ranged
from 0.5 to 2 kg/ a:112 (11000 to 4,100 ib/ft2);
(c) All construction (including mining structures) proceeded until
1946 without the preservation of permafrost in the foundation bearing layers;
this, irrespective of the permafrost and hydrological conditions of the building
sites and the ice content of their soils. (Note: Some time in the course of
operation of non-heated structures it vas discovered that the soil under such
structures remained in a permanently frozen state);
(d) NO appropriate measures were taken to prevent uneven settle-
ment of structures (exception was made in the case of 2 structures; see pp. 33..35
of this report)
The ground was thus prepared for the formation of thaw craters under the
heated structures, uneven settlement, and subsequent mass deformation.
In the meantime, with the development of the region the volume of construc-
tion was growing. Under the pressure of necessity and purely as an experiments
-
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the first structure, a maternity hospital, to be built by the permafrost preserva-
tion method was finally erected in 1946. The experiment was highly successful
(see pp. 29.31 of this report). As a result, beginning with 1948, many sub-
stantial buildings were erected by this method. Among them were residential,
administrative, and. public buildings, a number of hoisting machinery buildings
(said to be first such structures with ventilated cellars ever to be built in
mining practice), a concentration plant and other structures. (Note: Spurred by
the initial success, the Vorkuta builders went to-another extreme. They attempted
to preserve permafrost on the sites where the prerequisite hydrological, perma-
frost,and soil conditions did not exist. Some structures erected under these
circumstances by the permafrost preservation method became deformed).
Status of ConLstall.ru 1957
Substantial multistory (4-5 stories and higher) residential and industrial
buildings were being built in 1957 in Vorkuta. Accordingly, beginning with the
introduction of masonry construction (1939), load on foundation bearing layers
with heterogeneous permafrost and soil characteristics was considerably increased.
To meet this condition, the following types of foundations were used:
(a) Rubble concrete columns with wall beams;
(b) Continuous reinforced concrete slabs with posts and wall beams;
(c) Columns (apparently reinforced concrete) with wall beams on
reinforced concrete footings;
(d) Solid reinforced concrete slabs;
(e) Pile foundations;
(f) Two-tier grillage.
Search for Construction Methods Ensur . Structural Stabili
The structural development of Vorkuta, just outlined, indicates that:
(a) Local builders shoved a tendency to adhepe to some single method
of construction;
(b) The main problem confronting the builders was that of ensuring the
stability of heated structures erected by any method and. thus preventing their
deformation.
The behavior of the buildings in the region had been under observation by
the Vorkuta Permafrost Station since 1936. Some time before 1951, a special
attempt was made to find means of ensuring the stability of structures in diverse
permafrost and hydrological conditions of the region. For this purpose,
165 selected buildings were subjected to a detailed investigation. Data were
obtained for each building on:
-7--
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Fre
The data
on properties
and operation
account.
The
The
-
General condition of the superstructure;
Kind and extent of deformation;
Condition of foundations;
Cellar temperatures;
State of foundation bearing layer (soil temperatures, presence of
ice crystals, etc.);
Building settlement and heaving measurements (for various types
of foundations under various permafrost and hydrological
conditions).
on the settlement and deformation were then correlated with those
of the soil at the corresponding buildings sites; construction
procedures followed in the case of each building were taken into
results of investigation shed considerable light on:
(a) The necessity of thorough pre-construction exploration of
physical characteristics of each building site and the
application of data thus obtained in structural design for
that particular site;
(b) Conditions favoring the stability of structures;
(c)
Conditions contributing to the deformation of structures;
(d) Possible construction methods ensuring structural stability.
available material on the subject appears in the following four Chapters.
Sources
P. D. Bondarev. Deformation of Buildings in the Vorkuta Region, its Causes
and Methods of Prevention. pp. 20-24.
N. I. Saltykov. Building Foundations in the Boltshezemelfskaya Tundra
Region (AkAdemiya Nauk SSSR. Trudy Instituta Merzloto-
vedeniyaim. V. A. ObruCheira� Vol IV, 19441 pp. 172-183
Boltshaya Sovietskaya Entskilopedtpl,Vol. 91 p. 96
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Fig. 1. Valley of the Vorkata River
Typical View
VORKUTA REGION
Fig. 1.� P. D. Bondarev. Deformation of
Buildings in the Vorkata Region,
its Causes and Methods of Prevention,
p.7
Fig. 2. Ogonek, No. 451 Nov. 2, 1958, p. 8
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Viev of a Street with New Residences
TOWN OF VORKUTA, 1957
Arkhitektura SSSR, No. 10, 1957, p. 12
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�
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Source:
�
1
� ��� - � e -or �� � �� r.
in.)
�
Conversion Table
m. in.
0.20 7.87
0.50 11.8
0.50 19.7
0.65 25.6
0.75 29.5
0.85 33.5 .
0.90 35.4
Conversion Table
Eig. I. Prismatic gravel fill under
wooden houses resting on mudsills.
.K
� II
" � *:
4
1 � �
1
I p
1 , t
it -.4t3 YAK.14. 1.A.
-I,- -v- � 4
m. rt.
1.80 5.91
1. o 6.23s.
coo 6,56
.10 6.39
2.40 7-87
8.00 26.3
Merzloto-
p. 190;
Fig. 2. Wood foundations of a slag concrete
building. (Predominant type of foundations
for wooden structures in 1939, 1,)40 and
partly in 1,)41)
a. Cement floor, boiler room b. Splash apron
c. Rich clay d. Gravel e. Wood slabs (d=8.7/2
f. Soil back fill g. Sifted slag
WOOD FOUNDATIONS, VORKUTA
N. I. Saltykov. Building Foundations in the 1D1'shezemel'skaya
Tundra Region (Akademiya-Nauk SSSR. Trudy Instituta
vedenia tn. V. ,.. obrucheval Vol IV, 1944),
Fig. 2 � p. 180
PLATE 3
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Declassified in Part- Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @50-Yr 2014/06/17: CIA-RDP81-01043R003400130002-4
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Fig.
prismntic grave1 fill under -
� wooden houses resting on mudsills.
Conversion Table
m. in.
0.20 7.87
0.7,0 11.8
0.50 19.7
0.65 25.6
0.75 29.5
0.35 33.5
0.90 55.4
+-
4
� 5". t
,
Conversion Table
m.
ft.
4
1.80
5.91
1.90
6.25
2.00
6.56
2.10
6.39
.4
+
...IL.
V
4Www sr
IP
�
2.40
- 7.87
3.00
2.3
2. Wood foundations of a slag concrete
building. (Predominant type of foundations
for wooden structures in 1939, 1940 and
partly it 1941)
a. .Cement floor, boiler room b. Splash apron
c. Rich clay _d. Gravel e. Wood slabs (d:=8.7/2 in.)
f. Soil back fill g. Sifted slag
WOOD FOUNDATIONS, VORKUTA
Source: N. I. Saltykov. Building Foundations in the Is.31,shezemel'skaya
Tundra Region (Akademlya Nauk SSSR. Trudy Instituta Merzloto-
vedenia un. V. Obrucheva, Vol TV, 1944), Fig. 1 � p. 190;
Fig. 2 � p. 180
PLATE 5
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Conversion Table
in.
0.05
1.97
�0.10
3.94
0.14
5.51
0.20
7.87'
0.40
15.8
0.50
19.7
0.0
'25.6
0.65
25.6
0.80
51.5
M.
ft.
1.50
4.92
2.00
6.56
2.50
8.20
.7ood Post Foundations
a. 2c),.- in. 7-,yer L. peat, :%) in. layer C. Clay, 5.9 in. layer
d. Ground level Qb Two layers of tar paper around the post
f. Grillage, sleepers ond posts, treated Njth solution of sodium
fluoride an tarred. Wooki.ties (5.51x7.87 in.) under each chair
h. StraT.-steel 1oop (0.630x1.97 in; 59.1 in. long) i. Wood slabs ,
j. Polt (d=0.75 in; 1=11.3 in.) k. Post capping (wood slabs, d=7.09/2 in.)
1. Taf :laper, one layer m. Vers
.1
Construction of such 'foundations became possible -when the
necessary equipment (particularly pumping equipment) had
Leen brouht.into the region,- First two-story.residential
buildin; on !)os:;s wr..s built in 1940. Zxperience showed
_hat as far as :csistance of structures to settlement and
soil wr.n concerned, he "post" type of foundation
su
Ells=s laid on ',he surface, after replacement of
ociinal loess-si1 soil with gravel; .
L. Mucisills on prismatic gravel fill (Plate 3).
WOC.DFGUI7X,T101:3, VO:1KUTL
. PaiTcint; Foundations in the Lol'shezemel'skaya Tundra
77c ( :lademiya Tuk;13.tl. Trudy Institute Merzlotovedenia
.im V. araceva, Vol IV, 1944), p. 196
11. Tr. 4
,��
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:�.,.:__.-
-
�����
V.
Post FOundatdons
- . � L
�
Conversion. Table
m. in.
0.05 1.97
0.10 3.94
0.14 - 5.51
0.20 � 7.87
o.40 15,8
0.50 19.7
0.6o 2.6
0.65 25.6
o.8Th 31.5
m.
- ft.
1.50 4.52 _
'2.00 6.56
2.50 3.20
layef
C. ._e. Two _l_.Tayers of tar ,)a.:)er 'around he :)ott
f. 11_ laj-,e 1-5 7.ect rs- rid- posts treated with so3uuion-o-f- odium
.cn tarre.. ,. Wood ties (5.51x1.37 in.) under each chair
- n. .ioop (0.630x1.97 in; 59.1 in. long) I Wood- slabs
Pol,t, (f1=0.7:; in; 1=1.l.3 in-. ) k..-Post _capping (wood. slabs", 4=7.09/2 in..)
1. To.: . �r:-L.)e-,.�; one layer. m. -Vents
-
- 07_1 ! :
:Constxuctior.).of such foundations became possible -when .the
necessary e 1 .1 n (particularly num-pint:, equipment) had
eben "(Cron. ;ht into t,-he .re,�]..on. Firs t, Lwo-b Lary -residebtial-
builslir..; on os-:,t- wr..5 built -in. 1)40. eixperience showed.
asTTras --c? 3 :_;',7anee of s true tures to etLlement and.
- � soil �coocc.fned; ,he "-)ozt,". Ly.pe of foundation:
- tra: � su2eri o...�
on .The sarfare, c,fte.f feplacement of.
loess -si-rr�s-Tpil. with gee.v.q;
-
L. 4ut5i-115 onjy.1.-isia.i.tic gravel fi1 (Plate 3).
1.
;i0; D
qoundations. ,,in the o] 'shezeme3.'sltayE. Tundra
( 71-q.(1 , Trudy Ins -1,1 tutA MerzlcitQvedenii -
im V, .'.. IQ:. TV, 044),
11 �
�
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�
7
I.
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CHAPTER II
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VORKUTA REGION
Among the physical characteristics of the region which directly affect
the design, construction methods, and, operation of buildings are:
1. Topography;
2. Geological Structure;
3. Hydrologic Conditions;
4. Climatic Conditions;
5. Permafrost Conditions;
6. soil; Its Properties and buitability for
Construction Work
1. Tozwaphy. Vorkata region is a tundra country with flat-topped hills;
its elevation 1.30-223 m. (394-722 ft.); differences in elevation are most notable
in river valleys (Plate 21 Fig. 1); receding from the valleys, the tundra assumes
level character. Vegetation of the tundra is dwarfish: mosses, berries, mushrooms,
sedge and similar grass, creeping dwarf birch, dwarf birch, and tallest of them all,
the willow-which attains a height of 6 or more feet. From the point of view of
vegetation, there are three main types of tundra in the Vorkuta region, namely:
(a) Carpet (presumably smooth mossy surface);
(b) Tussock-dwarf woody (tussocks of sedgy grasses;
bushes, dwarf trees);
(c) Spotty (bare soil spots surrounded by vegetation).
The region is dotted with marshes and small lakes, and is dissected by
the Vorkuta River and its numerous tributaries. In its upper and middle courses,
the Vorkuta River cuts in places through the bedrock, forms nUmerous sandbanks
and rapids, and has the appearance of a Piedmont river.
2. Geological Structure. Devonian, Coal, Permian, andQuaternary strata -
underlie the region. Foundations of 'buildings are erected on bedrock outcrops
in individual cases only; in the main, they are.laid,in Quaternary stratum
2 to 120 in. (6.6-390 ft.) thick, Which rests on the dislocated Permian stratum.
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11.1,011.
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LadwedkaiSse
The observed composition of the Quaternary stratum is as follows:
Data on Suaternary Stratum
Thickness
C....osition
Occurrence
Deposit
m.. ft.
Recent alluvial
3-5
10-17
Sand, gravel, sandy loam,
loam (rarely)
River and stream
valleys; river
terraces
Recent diluvial;
2-5
6-17
Loess-silt loam, sandy
At the foot of
saturated with
surface water
loam: no gravel,
frequent peat layers
hills
Fluvio-glacial
2-7
6-23
Sand and light sandy
loam with occasional
gravel
Isolated deposits
Upper moraine
up to
up to
Glacial loam and sandy
7
23
loam. Lover layells
10-13 ft. thick contain
boulders and gravel
Glacial lake
(inter-moraine)
2-5
6-17
Clay
Scattered. Its
thickness is over
70 ft. in the
lover course of
Bezymyanka River.
Fluvio-glacial
(inter-moraine)
2-3
6-10
Fine sand with layers
of gravel, loam, sandy
loam
Lover moraine
(rests on Permian
stratum)
40-50
130-160
Glacial loam arid sandy
loam with sand and gravel
layers; of considerable
density
The above series is incomplete in most places. The permanently frozen layers
contain ice in the form of lenses, crystalslor sheets up to 5-7 am. (2-2.8 in.)
in thickness.
it1331111151r0C-47'
12.1.
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3. Kydrologic Conditions. Test drilling and actual mining operations
indicate that ground waters in the Vorkuta region flow above the permafrost, in
the permafrost, and.below the permafrost.
(a)
Above.rpermafrost waters are encountered in construction of buildings.
In the main, they flow at a depth of from 1.5 to 15 m. (4.9-49 ft.)
through sand and gravel of the active layer, and. through the permanently
thawed alluvial layers in river valleys, streams, drainage zones,
and marshes. The thickness of water-bearing layers varies from
0.6 to 6 ra. (2-20 ft.); head of water in drainage zones may be well
over 10 ft. The volume of flow decreases in the winter when
feeding from the surface stops.
(b) In-permafrost waters flow at a considerable depth. They need not be
taken into account in ordinary construction work; but in the sinking
of mine shafts they do cause difficulties. One point is to be noted,
namely: these waters, particularly if they are surface-fed, and
their temperature is well above 32�F, thaw or induce a considerable
rise in the temperature of the permafrost layers that contain them.
(e)
Below-permafrost waters flow very deep in the bedrock; they may
cause difficulties only to the miners.
4. Climatic Conditions. By comparison with such permafrost regions as
Yakutsk, Verkhoyan6k, Kolyma etc., the climatic conditions of the Vorkata region
are comparatively mild. This is due to the effects of the warm air mass reaching
the region from the North Atlantic (possibly the influence of the remote ellfstream).
The following table gives information on the Vorkata climate:
Data on Climatic Conditions Between 19 7 and 19 .
Observations
Remarks
(a) Temperatures and Seasons
Average yearly temperature varies:
1941: -7.8�C (18*F)
1943: -3.3�C (26�F)
Observed summer frosts:
June: -6.2�C (20.8�F)
July: -0.5�C (31.1�F)
August: -5.2�C (22.6�F)
Maximum 50�C (86�F)
Minimum -48.2T(54.8�F below 0)
Average year],y-5.7�C (21.7nr)
Occasional frosts occur in the
summer,
Number of days with temperature
above 32"F: 119-180
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�
�
�
" � ,!,.3't
Da on tic Con
tions
Between
�
and. 1
Observations
Remarks
Frostless season lasts: 50-60 dais.
Continuous cold season:
5 October - 23 May (234 days)
(b) Winds
Summer: N. and, NE. winds prevail.
Winter: S. and SW. winds predominate.
(c) Precipitation
Atmospheric precipitation is irregular,
most notable in summer and fall.
Snow
Snow blanket lasts: October-end May, or
beginning of June. Its thickness ranges
from 0.2 m. to 5 nu (8 in.-16 ft.)
,depending on topography and winds. The
blanket is thickest in February-April.
Rain
The Vorkuta Meteorological Station
observations as corrected (on the
basis of its own observations) by
the Permafrost Geotechnical Office
of the "Vorkutugolt Kbmbinat" provide
the following figures:
Total yearly precipitation:
620 mm. (24.4 in.)
Duration of continuous cold season
varies from 213 to 271 days.
Winter winds reach velocity of
35 m/sec. (78.5 mph.).
Density of snow toward the encl. of
winter reaches a velue of 0.35-
(:).0 g/am3 (22-25 lb/ft3). Thick
accumulations of snow occur on the
northern side of buildings; on other
sides the snow is mostly blown away.
Meteorological Station observations
give yearly precipitation figure as
350 mm. (13.8 in.); since the snow
blown out of the instruments was not
taken into account, the figures as
corrected by the Permafrost
Geotechnical Office are more reliable.
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�
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5. Permafrost Conditions. Permafrost underlies the entire Vorkuta region.
Because of the complex interplay of the topographic, geologic, hydrologic, and.
climatic conditions in the region, the characteristics of the Vorkuta permafrost
bed differ considerably from those of the permafrost beds in other regions.
The same conditions affect the depth at which the Vorkuta permafrost bed occurs,
its thickness, and its temperature.
(a) Distinctive characteristics of the Vorkuta permafrost bed are:
(1) The bed is closer to the surface in ridges than in valleys;
(2) The temperature of the bed at the base of the layer of
seasonal temperature fluctuations is close to 32�F; at times
its readiAgsvary between OT and .-1.5�C (327 and 29.3�F)
over small areas;
(3)
The upper surface of the bed has a very complicated contour;
even under the level sites, only a few square meters in area,
its depth varies between 3 and 5 m. (10-16 ft.); while under
drainage zones and marshy depressions it drops down, almost
vertically, to a depth of 10-15 m. (33-49 ft.);
(4) The bed is cut into (and, at times, cut through) in places by
"taliks"; these are seams of thawed soil caused mainly by
underground waters.
Because of the above factors, the ice content of the bed varies both
horippntally and vertically.
(b) Types of the permafrost bed occurrence. Distinction is made
among three types of the permafrost bed:
Type 1 - The bed adjoins the active (upper) layer of the soil
which freezes seasonally;
Type 2 - The bed is separated from the active seasonally freezing
layer by a permanently thawed layer of soil;
Type 3 - Permafrost layers alternate with permanently-thawed
layers.
The Vorkuta region is blessed with all three types.
Type 1 is encountered under the ridges and south-facing slopes
of the topographical profile;
Type 2 is found in marshy depressions, extensive drainage zones,
and under the streams, Where the upper limit of the permafrost
lies somewhere'between 10-20 in. (33-66 ft.) below the surface;
under such larger rivers as Vorkuta, the " tanks" may cut
through the permafrost bed;
Type 3 occurs more seldom; it is found in the western Dart of the
region near Nine No. 25.
-17-
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-
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(c) Thickness and Te 11-
rature of the Voikuta Permafrost Bed. Even beds
of the same type have varying thickness and temperature; imbeds of different types
these variations are very marked:
(1) Bed Thickness. Depending on the topographic profile, vegetation,
thickness of the snow blanket, and hydrologic conditions, the
thickness of the permafrost bed_ varies from a few meters
(assumed - 9 ft.) to somewhere more than 130 meters (assumed -
430 ft.). It vas established by exploration in 1944 that the
permafrost bed attains its greatest thickness where it adjoins
the active layer over large areas.
(2)
Bed Temperature. In general, bed temperature varies with the
depth depending on the thickness and type of the bed (See
Plate 5). In some areas, the average yearly bed temperature
decreases gradually with increasing depth -- this is charac-
teristic of the state of degradation of the permafrost. In
other areas, the average yearly bed temperature increases
gradually with increasing depth from the layer of constant
yearly temperature -- this condition indicates the progressive
cooling of the permafrost. In still other areas, the perma-
frost temperature varies little or not at all with the depth.
When considered separately, the above temperature variations
would indicate that the Vorkuta, bed is in a state of sirmi-
taneous degradation and intense cooling. This is not the case,
however. The phenomenon is explained by a complex interplay
of temperatures in above-permafrost and below-permafrost vaters�
in "taliks" and in intensely frozen masses under hillocks
stripped of their protective snow cover by winter winds.
The following table shows the relationship between bed thickness, temperature,
and bed type for four different building sites:
Data on Bed Thickness-Temperature-Bed Tyr Relationship
(The bed adjoins the active, seasonally freezing layer).
% of Site area'
where perma-
Established
Observed .-rmafrost ten.-ratures
Site
frost adjoins
bed thickness
At a depth of:
Te..-ratures
active layer
m.
ft.
m.
ft.
C
�F
4
.
-�
_�
1
90.0
131.5
432
50
164
-1.2
28.84
2
33.0
70
230
50
164
-0.2
31.64
3
23.8
84-89
276-292
40
131
-0.2
31.64
4
13.7
45-51
148-168
40
131
-0.15
31.73
_
I
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6. Soil;.Itp,Properties and_Suitability,for Constructi4ljtarkL. Mechanical
composition of soils and their natural moiiture content give an approximate idea
of their load-bearing capacity and probable magnitude of settlement when in state
Of thaw. In determining the method of construction in permafrost regions, these
qualities should be taken into acdount in conjunction with such factors as the
hydrologic and permafrost conditions of a proposed building site, the type r.f
structure contemplated, structural details, and the heat radiation potential of
the structure.
As regards the Vorkuta soils, the following factors are considered:
(a) Fractional composition,
(b) Moisture content,
(c) Soil suitability for construction work,
(d) Soil-permafrost characteristics of some typical sites.
(a) Fractional composition of the Vorkuta Soils. The following ti,,ble
gives percentage content of various fractions in the Vorkuta soils:
Data on �Iical Vorkuta Region Soils
(According to the Vorkuta Permafrost Station)
Percentage Content
Fraction
(inches)
\upper moraine
loam and sandy
loom
riuvio-g.rac1ICI-----1
deposits
Grovel
Lower moraine I
loam
Sand I
Content
Limits
Average
Content
Content .
Limits
'
Average
Content
+)
o 0
�?3) oti
0 E
0 ort
Average
Content
Content
"Limits
_
Average 1
Content
4 )
o 0
CD 43
.f V
0 �ri
, ,
go t
4 $
et g
'44 LI
--
Gravel
>777
0-2
1
0-20
1.
0-10
15
50-75
60
0-30
25
Sand
0.07871700984 0-7
t
3
0-13
5
5-90
40
15-45
23
0-20
15
Loess
0.00984 -
I
0.00197 50-90 60
50-90 60
0-80
20
2-20
8
30-45
35
I
Silt
'03.001I7-- I
o.000197 120-60
26
15-60
21
0-60
20
2-20
lo
8-58
20
22.a. I
A �\ .4 ;.f'S l',.\
. , . - ,, . . 1 :-.1-; �4,4k : V �:\ '-'�
100 0 WO
Fig. 1. Plan of the Central Part of Town
Source:
Fig.
2. The October Square, 1958
NORILiSKI STRUCTURAL EVOLUTION
Fig. 1. Sovietskaya Arkhitektura 1917-1957; p. 252
Fig. 2. Ogononek, No. 42, October 1958, p. 25
PLA IIE 148
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Fig. 1. Snowdrifts in a Street Running at Right Angles
to the Direction of Prevailing Winds.
ow }
Fig. 2. Protection of Baldings from Snowdrifts.
Snow Fence in Left Foreground.
(Photograph token in 1957)
NORIL,SIC0 SIMUCNRAL EVOLUTION
Source: Arkhitektura SSW, O. 1, 1959, p. 15
PIA' E 148a
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CHAPTER X
YAKUTSK, ITS STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT
(UP to 1941)
Coordinates
Latitude: 620 001 N.; Longitude: 1290 40' E.
Physical Characteristics
Climate: Severe, continental, dry;
Maximum summer temperature (August): about 23�C (73.4�F)
Average January temperature: -43.3�C (-J5.9�F)
Rain (3 summer months): 100-110 mm. (3.94-4.23 in.)
Snow: Moderate
Soil and Permafrost:
Yakutsk is situated on the second alluvial terrace of the Lena river
valley. It was founded in 1642. This fact is of importance insofar as the top
soil layer is concerned. That layer is called "cultural" and represents a
300 year accumulation of compost, building trash, andrefuse intermixed with
loessy loam. In the oldest part of town its depth is between 1.5-1.75 N4
(up to 5.8 ft.). Its moisture content is up to 200% or even more; ice lenses
10-20 cm. (3.9-7.9 in.) thick are present. The effects of the "cultural" layer
manifest themselves in two respects:
a. The above-permafrost waters circulating through compost contain
considerable amounts of chlorine and sulfate ions in solution; they do not
freeze until their temperature reaches -3 or-4�C (26.6 or 24.8T); the result,
in combination with other factors, is thick mud (measures to combat it have been
taken through the years);
b. Heaving of light structures such as fences, gates, poi-Claes (in the
newly developed sections of town heaving is hardly observable).
Pernicious effects of the "cultural" layer are somewhat mitigated by
comparatively low summer and fall precipitation.
The "cultural" layer rests on a 1-2 m. (3.3-6.6 ft.) thick layer of loessy
and sandy lams; beneath the latter come beds of homogeneous small-grain sands;
loans become thinner at higher levels, and sands reach ground surface in places.
The thickness of the active layer is roughly 2 U4 (6.6 ft.)
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The thickness of the permafrost bed was apparently never exactly estab-
lished. It is known, however, that in search of drinking water, the digging
of the famous "Shergin Well" or "Shergin Shaft" was carried in 1837 to a depth
of 118.4 m. (382 ft.). Water had not been found nor was the permafrost bed
pierced; its lower limit, as later extrapolated, was taken to be at 185 m.
(607 ft.). It has WV been established (1958) that the thickness of the bed
is 200-250 m. (858-820 ft.).
Temperatures of the permafrost bed close to or wader bodies of water are
near 327. Soil temperatures as observed during 1939 in a former lake (filled
prior to 1811) located within the town limits fluctuated. between-5.3 and-7.4�C
(22.5 and 18.7�F) at a depth of 8 in. (26.3 ft.). These temperatures proved to
be the same as those in other parts of the bed in Yakutsk or its vicinity.
Structural Development
Building stone and raw materials necessary for the manufacture of brick
were almost non-existent in the region; but in the vicinity there was an
abundance of structural timber which could. be easily floated down the Lena.
This determined the structural development of Yakutsk primarily as that of a
wooden town. By 1941, there were over 2,000 one-and two-story wooden and only
about 40 masonry buildings in Yakutsk. Description of some of these buildings
follows.
1. Wood. Construction
� The local tieber, mainly larch wood, proved to possess high structural
qualities, under Yakutsk cLimatic conditions, at any rate. The proof is pro-
egialfilkOvided irr? century fortress tower (on masonry foundations) Which survived
into our days, and numerous larch wood buildings Which stood for a century.
� Certain methods of erecting one-and two-story residential, commercial and
government buildings evolved in Yakutsk toward the beginning of the XIX century.
They remained practically unchanged to our days (1941). The buildings. are of
log cabin construction, presumably with porches (Plate 49, Fig. 1). The chair
type of foundations predominates (with very few exceptions); they are laid at
about 4 ft. in the case of private and at 1.5-2 104 (4.94.6 ft.) in the case
of government buildings. Floors are usually raised above the ground some
70-100 am. (28-40 in.) in the case of residential and 20-30 am. (10-12 in.) in
the ease of unheated buildings. In some instances the space under the floor
(the cellar) is filled with soil almost to the subflooring. More often, however,
the cellar is left unfilled and building is surrounded by a "plinth" of a
construction shown in plate 49, Fig. 2. The airvents in the "plinth" are sealed
tightly in the winter. They are left open through the summer to:
�
a. reduce cellar dampness;
b. prevent fungus growth.
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The "plinth" is also emptied of sawdust in the summer; experience had
shown that rot may spread from rotting sawdust to the building timber. It should
be noted that this is a XX century practice.
The so-called cold cellars are built under warehouses and other non-resi-
dential structures; as a rule, they are flooded with water which freezes in due
time. The warm cellars (for vegetables and other produce) .are built in resi-
dential buildings to this day, usually near the kitchen stoves.
The problem of stove and oven foundations (very troublesome until the early
settlers learned from the local tribesmen how to keep the stoves from sinking
into the ground) does not seem to exist any longer. There is no standard type
of foundation for stoves (1941), but they appear to function successfully on
chair or solid rubble foundations. Cracking of stoves is ascribed for the most
part to overheating and to poor quality of brick.
As far as the deformation of wooden structures is concerned, extensive
study of archive materials has indicated that deformation vas due almost
entirely to causes other than the effects of permafrost. This is explained by
the fact that under the Yakutsk soil and permafrost conditions and the adopted
method of construction, wooden buildings are too light to be affected by settle-
ment, and manifestations of bulging force are not great enough to deform them
by heaving.
2. Masonry Construction
The first one-story masonry structure, the Governor's Office, was erected
in 1707. Showing heavy signs of deformation, it nevertheeless functioned as
Artists' Home in 1941.
Among other old masonry buildings which still served other than their
original purpose in 1941 were:
The Trinity Church, completed after 1715, now the Yakutsk Theater;
The Mother of God Church, brick, erected in 1773, now the
Geological Administration;
The Spassky Monastery, brick, erected in 1786, now the Archives.
Foundation, plinth and wall brickwork of these edifices was strongly
affected by weathering; the thawing of the soil at the base of foundations
vas uneven; yet cracks characteristic of settlement or heaving were totally
absent. Observation of these buildings over a period of four years (1936-1939)
yielded the following:
7.7:F:7771."-"715.4.
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Data on Thawing at the Base of the Archives Building
Depth of foundations
'Soil temperature at a
Depth of
Exposure
depth of 6 m. (19.7
ft.)
thaw
Soil
MAximum
Minimum
m. ft.
North
2 m. (6.6 ft.)
-.2.7T 27.17
--6.1�C 21T
1.6 5.2
South
Well drained sandy
soil
--2.0�C 28.47
�3.6�C 25.5�F
2.45 8.0
_
Thus the thaw at the south end of the base extended to a depth of 0.45 Al.
(1.5 ft.) below the foundation, but there were no settlement or heaving cracks
in the walls of the building. The stability and long life of these structures
are ascribed to:
a. Location on well drained elevated sites composed of homogeneous
sands and containing few ice inclusions;
b. The thickness of their walls (up to 50% of the building's
total area).
In the course of the XiX century only a few masonry buildings were erected
(continuous wall foundations at 6.6 ft.; wall thickness about 3.3 ft.); of
those built toward the very end of the century, 5 remained, but may one in
satisfactory condition.
At the beginning of the XX century, interest in masonry construction
increased. Between 1900 and 1914, a total of 15 masonry buildings were erected,
among them: 4 residential, 5 government, 2 industrial, 4 commercial. Founda-
tions were made stronger and laid deeper; a trend toward the eventual develop-
ment of the permafrost preservation method was beginning to be discernible.
This trend is well illustrated by the construction of:
The Bishop's House now a Museum
Illustrations: Plate 50
Erected: 1911
The Soil:
The site is characterized as dry.
is given as follows:
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loessy loam
loessy sand
small grain sand
heterogenous grain
sand
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Its geological section
0.60 (2.0 ft.)
o.6o m. (2.0 ft.)
0.35 m. (1.1 ft.)
over 3.00 m. (9.8 ft.)
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Soil temperature at a 6 xn. (19.7 ft.) level (four year
observations) fluctuates between --3.6 and-6�C (25.5 and
21.27). The greatest depth of thew at a distance of
3.3 ft. from the south wail is 2.25 m. (7.4 ft.).
Structure: Two-story wall-bearing brick
Heating: Stoves on nibble foundations
Foundations: Rubble, on a solid larch wood grillage of 25 x 25 cm.
(9.8 x 9.8 in.) square timbers; the rubble masonry is
reinforced by larch wood timbers as shown on Plate 50, Fig. 2.
Exterior wall foundations are laid at 2.25 m. (7.4 ft.);
Interior walls, said to be substantial, rest on foundations
laid at 2.85m. ( 9.4 ft.) (Note: According to the sketch
foundations are laid at 2.5 m. or 8.2 ft.).
Floor: Described as "double and warm" (probably with insulating
material and air space)
Cellar: The height of the cellar is 25 am. (9.8 in.); it is venti-
lated through 30 x 15 cm. (11.8 x 5.9 in.) air vents in the
plinth. As is customary throughout Yakutsk, air vents are
opened during the summer and closed in the winter. The
maximum depth of thaw under the structure is estimated to
be 1.7-1.8 m. (5.6-5.9 ft.). Because of the cellar and
despite the fact that the air vents were kept closed in the
winter and opened in the summer, the permafrost under the
building was preserved. 1939-1940 observations showed that
its upper limit had moved upwards except near the stove
foundations.
Deformation:
Small cracks 0.5-1.0 mm. (0.02-0.04 in.) wide near the
windows around the building; cracks in interior walls
near the stoves. The building is said to be in satisfactory
condition but is being inspected at regular intervals.
Note: There is no explanation for the strengthening of foundations with
2 rows of larch wood timbers. It is possible that the designer:
(a)
sought to reduce the heat conductivity of foundations;
(b) anticipating possible uneven thawing at the base of founda-
tions, strengthened the latter to take up shearing and. bending forces.
World War I and the revolution brought building activities to a
sudden stop.
Masonry construction was resumed only in 1925. Between 1925 and
1940 the following 13 new such buildings were erected: 1 residential,
1 school, 11 industrial. By 1941, 6 of them were in good order,
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2 were deformed, information is lacking concerning the remaining 5.
The following buildings were erected in this period:
(a) Water pumping station (for industry);
CO Central Power Station and 2 other buildings by the perma-
frost preservation method.
a. 11qM1)212111$.4ILLIE
Illustrations: None
Purpose: Water supply for an unspecified fairly large industry
Erected: 1937
Location:
Soil and.
permafrost:
Structure:
Construction:
Operating
conditions:
Deformation:
Near the Lena river channel, 30 m. (98 ft.) from the crib
bulkhead strengthening the river bank
Alluvial sands of varying coarseness. Soil temperature
prior to construction: about-2.5�C (27.5�F)
Round tower; inside diameter - 10 111. (32.8 ft.)
Wall: reinforced concrete; 65 cm. (25.6 in.) thick. The part
of the wall in the soil is 11 m. (35.1 ft.) deep; it is
sheathed with 15 cm. (5.9 in.) square beams; the part above
the ground is 6 m. (19.7 ft.) high; it is surrounded by a
2 m. (6.6 ft.) bank of unspecified material (probably soil).
Foundations: Four-tier larch wood grillagel_ 1 m. (3.3 ft.)
thick; solid reinforced concrete slab, presumably 2 in.
(6.6 ft.) thick
Heating "appliances"
(1.6 ft.) and 4.5 in.
tion unspecified).
(not described) are located 0.5 in.
(14.8 ft.) above the floor (construe-
Heat radiated by the steam lines from the boiler room
to the tower and water leaks from the settling tank were
affecting the soil temperatures along almost the entire
depth of the structure as well as at the base of founda-
tions; these temperatures were reaching the "positive"
readings (32�F or somewhat above).
No signs of deformation were noted after a period of
5 years either in the tower or in the outside piping
connected with it.
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b. Central Power Station
(Plates 51-53)
This four-story masonry power station was the first structure to be built
at Yakutsk:by the permafrost preservation method (erected in 1934-1935).
Construction of Foundations
Type and Depth of Foundations. Foundations consist of individual rein-
forced concrete columns resting on pyramidal reinforced concrete footings. The
columns are 0.5 x 0.5 3104 (19.7 X 19.7 in.) in cross section; they are tied with
reinforced concrete wall beans Which support reinforced concrete floor slab
and brick panel 'walls. The footings are laid at a depth of 4.5 3106 (14.8 ft.)
and rest on a one-meter (3.3 ft.) deep two-tier larch wood grillage. Soil
pressure is 3 kedm2 (6,1)0 ibift2).
Plan of foundations is shown in a diagram on Plate 52, Fig. 1. Section
of an individual foundation is given in a diagram on Plate 52, Fig. 2, (the
diagram suggests that the foundations are laid somewhat deeper than indicated
in the text).
This type of foundation was selected because it reduces the danger of
deformation of buildings due to the bulging of the soil when the active (upper)
layer freezes in the fall.
The foundation columns present a small surface for the formation of
a bond with (freezing with) the soil. The strength of the bond may at times
be sufficient to put part of a column in tension; the amount of tension depends
on the roughness of the surface of the columns and the structure of the soil.
The bonding of columns with the soil is apparently prevented by facing the
underground parts of columns with iron (probably galvanized iron sheets) and
surrounding them with marse sand and gravel (to a depth of 2.5 m. - 8.2 ft.
in Yakutsk).
Instructions on Procedure for Building Foundations. Instruction on
procedure to be followed in erecting foundations for the Yakutsk-Power Station
were prepared by "LOIS" (possibly Leningrad Branch of the Institute of Communi-
cations). They contained the following points:
1. Foundations are to be built in the winter so that they may
become anchored in the permafrost in the course of the winter.
2. Footings are to be precast in a temporary enclosure; foundation
excavations are to be prepared 10 days in advance and exposed to natural
freezing.
3. When an excavation around a foundation is to be filled, the
backfill is to be placed in layers allowing for gradual freezing of each
individual layer.
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4. When foundations are poured in place, the soil is to be exposed
to freezing before the pouring takes place; concrete is to be poured on a deck
composed of larch wood beams. In case the footings are precast in a temporary
enclosure, they are to be exposed to cold (exposure length unspecified) before
they are lowered into the excavations and the latter are backfilled.
5. The surface of the columns Which is in contact with the active
layer of the soil is to be iron-sheathed and surrounded with coarse sand.
6. If the foundation construction work is not finished by spring,
the excavations are to .be filled with soil and left undisturbed until the next
winter; When the excavations are dug again, they are to be exposed to freezing
before the work on foundations is resumed.
Foundation Buil1ing Procedure as Carried Out in Practice. For various
reasonsIbut primarily because of the shortage of labor and materials, the above
instructions were followed only in part. The work, it appears, was done in
3 stages:
Stage 1. Precasting of the footings was started in the summer in the
immediate vicinity of the future excavations (Plate 53).
Earthwork for the first two foundations was done at the end of August.
These foundations were to be experimental, built under summer conditions. The
experiment seems to have failed. Special wooden buts were built to protect
excavations from the sun, but the level of the summer thaw reached a depth of
110 am. (43 in.). Beyond that lay the permafrost. Water was seeping into
excavations; its level was 20-30 am. (8-12 in.) high overnight. Whenever work
was interrupted, excavations were covered with double covers and a quantity of
moss. Nevertheless, the seepage continued. Finally, the space around the
footings Which had already been lowered into excavations was filled with soil
to the entire height of the footings; work was suspended, only water was pumped
out periodically. When work was resumed at a later date, the soil at the base
of the footings became frozen, and the seepage of water ceased.
Excavations for 30 foundations in all were started under summer
:conditions (those could be foundations No. 24 through No. 53, Plate 52, Fig. 'i)
Stage 2. The month of December marked the beginning of the second
stage of construction. During that stage the following was accomplished:
(a) Nineteen footings, some weighing up to 6 tons, were precast
in the central temporary construction enclosure. Heated
concrete was used in the process. After 26 days of hardening,
the footings were lowered into excavations; their temperature
at the time was 10�C (50�F) in the lower part, and 20-22�C
(67-71.6�F) at a height of one meter (3.3 ft.)
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(b) Foundation for a 750 km. turbine was poured in place on perma-
frost. The operation required 50 0 (65.4 yd3) of concrete and
was performed under a temporary enclosure. The concrete was
protected from the effects of permafrost: on the bottom by
larch wood grirlage, 3.3 ft. thick; on the sides by a 20 am.
(8 in.) layer of sawdust and the concrete form. Two cast-iron
stoves were used to heat the upper surface of the foundation.
On the third day after its ccmpletion� two instruments were
placed upon it for observing its movements.
Stage 3. This stage lasted through the months of March and April.
The following was done in the course of those 2 months:
(a) Twenty-four 'footings, the heaviest weighing 14 tons, were
poured in place or precast and lowered into their excavations.
(b) All footing columns were poured to the level of the ground.
This completed the construction of foundations.
By this time, temporary enclosures were erected over each foundation.
They were heated continuously, but this seemed to have had no effect upon the
temperature of the soil, as no seepage of water vas observed. On the other
Ihand, the enclosures protected the excavations from the rining heat of the sun,
which did affect the soil temperature.
The temperature of foundations was maintained above 32�F for a month
after th6ir completion; exeavations were then filled.
Foundation Movement Observations. Two instruments installed on the turbine
foundation Plate 52, Fig. 1) indicated that the movements of the foundation
due to the effects of permafrost ceased on the 9th of February, when heating of
Its enclosure was discontinued. With the resumption of heating on the 15th of
March, the movement was observed again.
Foundation and Soil TemmEaIpre Observations. Temperature of concrete
at various levels of the foundations and of the soil in the immediate vicinity
of footings was observed by means of thermocouples (Plate 52, Fig. 2). The
thermocouples were placed in some footings in the north and south parts of
the structure as well as in a footing under the boiler. In addition to the
thermocouples, a number of mercury the were lowered into the ground
(Plate 52, Fig. 1).
Plotting of temperature readings showed the rate of cooling of concrete
in footings, and simultaneously the initial rise of temperature of the perma-
frost near them. After six weeks, the temperature curves converged in two
clusters. This indicated that such over-cooling of permafrost as had taken
place in the course of the construction of foundations went into counter-
acting the effects of heat imparted to the soil during that period; the
supper limit of permafrost was not upset permanently.
-
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� -"'"7-77-.777-"
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The curves of the average monthly temperatures as recorded by the therma-
1, couples showed that:
�
�
(a) At a depth of 1.5 ni6 (4.9 ft.), the temperatures followed the
average monthly temperature readings of the air.
(b) At a depth (unspecified) below 4.9 ft., a rise of temperature
was taking place in September when the temperature of the
outside air was falling to 32�F and lower.
Note: Observations made at the building site led to the conclusions that:
(a) Earthwork preliminary to the construction of foundations
(apparently in the Yakutsk or similar conditions of permafrost)
is best started at the beginning of the fall. The thawed upper
layer of the soil is then easily removed and the site drained
(draining method unspecified). The most economical procedure
would be to precast the footings in summer, lower them into
excavations in winter, and pour the foundation columns in place
before frost subsides. The snr building season may thus be
devoted to work on the superstructure.
(b) Spring rains may cause trouble. Combatting water in the fall
is very difficult, and the state of permafrost will undoubtedly
be upset.
The Yakutsk Central Power Station was completed during the 1934-1935
building season. Permafrost conditions under the structure must have been
made subject of prolonged observations; not until 1940 were other two building
(type and purpose unspecified) erected by the permafrost preservation method.
In the meantime, study and experience with ventilated cellars at Yakutsk
seemed to suggest that:
(a) The depth of foundations could be reduced to 3-3.5 m.
(9.8-11.5 ft.);
(b) Cellars need not be higher than 0.5-0.6m. (1.6-2.0 ft.)
Only one building (type unspecified) was erected by the permafrost
preservation method in 1941. Then came World War II.
Sources
N. I. Saltykov. Structural Foundations at Yakutsk.
(Akademiya Nauk SSSR. Trudy Instituta Merzlotovedenia
iii. V. A. ObruCheva� Vol. I, 1946) pp. 102-135
V. F. Zhukov. Construction of the Yakutsk TsES Foundations on
Permafrost. Stroiteltnaya Promyshlennostl� No. 5,
March 1937, pp. 12-15
� 's � '4.t-A '4.� �
'
' � , *:,
�
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Source:
Ft 1. Shops at the little Market, Erected in 1851
Fig. 2. Typical "Plinth" Construction
Cellar height: 0.8-1.6 ft.
a. Sawdust b. Floor c. Daubing and
fill d. Subflooring e. Soil
f. Trash
YAKUTSK, ITS STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT
N. I. Saltykov. Structural Foundations at Yakutsk (Akademiya
Nauk SSS. Trudy Instituta Merzlotovedenia im. V. A. Obrucheva,
Vol. I, 1946) Fig. 1 � p. 106; Fig. 2 � p. 118
PLATE 49
.4
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Fig. 1. .Shops at the Little Market, Erected in 1831
Fig. 2. Typical "Plinth" Constructidh
Cellar height: 0.8-1.6 ft.
a. Sawdust b. Floor c. Daubing and
fill d. Subflooring e. Soil
f. Trash
z.7
YAEDTSKI ITS STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Source: N. I. Saltykov. Structural Foundations at Yakutsk (Akademiya
Nauk SSSR. Trudy Instituta Merzlotovedenia in. V. A. Obrucheva,
Vol. II 1946) Fig. 1� p. 106; Fig. 2� p. 118
PLATE 49
4
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���
Fig. 1. The Museum, formerly, the Bishop's House, erected in 1911
Fig. 2. Section Through the Museum Foundations
a. Floor b. Cellar . c. Larchwood beams (9.84 x 9.84 in.)
d. Permanently frozen sand
YAKUTSK, ITS STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Source: N. I. Saltykov..,Structural Foundations at Yakutsk (Akademiya
Nauk SSS. Trudy Instituta Merzlotovedenia im. V.A. Obrucheva,
Vol. I, 1946) Fig. 1 � p. 113; Fig. 2 � p. 112
PLATE 50
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1., The Museum, formerly the Bishop's House, erected in 1911
Fig.. 2. Section Through the-Museum Foundations
�
a. Floor b. Cellar c. Larchwood beams (9.84 x 9.84 in.)
d. Permanently frozen sand
YAKUTSK, ITS STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Source: N. I. Saltykov. Structural Foundations at Yakutsk (Akademiya
Nauk SSSR. Trudy Instituta Merzlotovedenia im. V.A. Obrucheva,
Vol. I, 19)46) Fig. 1 � p. 113; Fig. 2� p. 112
PLATE 50
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The floor rests on columns above the ground.
YAKUTSK, ITS STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT (POWER STATION)
Source: Stroitellndya Promysh1ennost10 No. 5, 1937, p. 12
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1. Mennoou.,1.e loc.ation
2. V.ercury the location
. Fo.Indation movement oisc:-vation
Foumintions -,;recas:, near the
excavations
Foundations preean,:, in terr)ornry
enclosure
Foundations pourt.0 in :)lace
(
An
/-,77077,o/li
A,(17.7
C .fre,.746/,4+zi OIWAV.44
,9" ta,z�AS:i�/.,4er,�=4,
���-7:,7%.""T' T-9 - -
r I
;
1.t.
2. Soil Temperature Measuremont
under Foundations by Means of a
Thermocouple
EI
0
�
On
"D fl D _
1.3 0 ci n
n 0 0 i416
,,, ED 0
Fin 7/
E
o o
..00mon
ormavesai, � N�1.9
8.17ehrr,,voinep,fro..,,e,r,x6
gallm..wdete
� fta,s..7/ia4ffpn5
OVNeCi11e4i7751 1/..):70,77C617 N.7 .7c5earH.7.- ../
0 Ochazrehms, ,ent"
rJ Prib,affe,w;76/ Jokft.7;c7mAr
NJ.
ri
n
Fig. 1. _Plan of Foundations
� YAKUTSK, ITS STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMaT (POWER ST/TION)
Source: SLroit..eltnaya Promyshlennost', No. 5, 19:57, pp. :1.2-14
Pi .117.: )2
. -154-
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1. Thermocouple location
2. Mercury thermometer location
3. Foundation movement observation
instrument location
4. Foundations precast near the
excavations
5. Foundations precast in a temporary
enclosure
6. Foundations poured in ,place
,
7.2`,/ � � � "...nil./ 41
'6
Fig. 2. Soil Temperature Measurement
under Foundations by Means of a
Thermocouple
AI rat
0
[i] El II
�
ve
r)
cii 4 5 LI
E1 Li-i 1_
1_1 11:1
4..'j
, 11]
r" -
J ALI
J
i----
Li r_i L, __. _ .2 L.... !
o D o 7:1 0 1 ,
1 2
E i i - ,
0 0 17.) r) 0 u
4 9,7f 4 -"..?,1--fr"..,f."1-.�--,..-,-5
0 b'ew�,7,--e .",:�,�ry �-- �-- c
0 /71- -:-..,,,,,....,:e
0 ���..,..,..P23?e...,-.!., ti -,..,----:!�,- .,.....-.-,,-.4:,0----
Fig. 1. Plan of Foundations
YAKUTSK, ITS STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT (POWER STATION)
Source: Stroitellnaya Promyshlennostl, No. 5, 1937, pp. 12-14
PLATE 52
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Pits are strengthened with timber as the work las done
in thawed ground in fall.
10-�
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�
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CHAPTER XI
LARGE-PORE (SANDLESS) CONCRETE AS WALL CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
IN THE ARCTIC (TIRBI)
Location
Tikeil Yakutskaya ASSR, a settlement of urban type, is a port on the
Northern Sea Route. Its development was started in 1934.
Coordinates
Latitude - 71� 35, N.; Longitude - 128� 56, E.
Climatic Conditions
Long polar nights with low temperatures and snow storms (Plate 56 a).
Building Materials Situation
Brick, small-size concrete blocks and wood served as building materials.
Delivery of brick to this remote place is difficult and expensive; wood as
building material is undesirable under arctic conditions from the point of
view of fire hazard. There is no rock or slag in the region but there are
unlimited local gravel deposits. These are found in mounds varying from 0.2 to
1 m. (840 in.) in thickness in the Neyelavo Bay and in the estuary of the
Snezhnaya River.
Construction of a Concrete Plant and Increased. Buildin
Activit
In 1956, to relieve the building materials situation by taking advantage
of the local gravel deposits, a small concrete plant was built. Even so modest
a heated plant enabled the builders to make due preparations in the course of
the long polar night for the brief summer building season.
With the plant in operation, the "Tiksistroy" collective organized the
production of large-pore concrete wall blocks and started the construction of
two-story, eight-apartment residential structures, the Radio Center wing and
State Bank branch.
Large-pore concrete walls both poured-in-place and composed of blocks are
shown under erection in photographs on Plates 54, 55.
Components and. Eq,uient of the Plant
A diagram of the plant in plan and section is shown on Plate 56. The
main units and equipment Of the plant are:
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.....11grY4�10�11',00i
L. Concrete mixer iastallation (capacity: 2'50 1iter7.. or 0,...; .171:))
2. Boiler and pump rooms (large-pore concrete walla DrAlrrtd,v-taop;
3. Field laboratory
4. Reinforcement shop
5. Heated shop for winter gravel sifting and washing (to be built)
6. Two steam egipmhers
7. Sand, gravel, and. cement bins
8. Steam coil for heat-h gravel pra sand
9. Narrow* gauge tracks with turntables
10. Trucks and a winch
Capacity Prisi Production of the Plant
The capacity of the plant., dependent on th.e, capacity of its steam chsmbe,e,
anaaats to 15.12 m3 (19.8 yd3) per day or 378 m.) (494 yd.)) per month of concrete
items.
The plant produces:
1. Large-pore concrete
2. Large-pore concrete blocks (for walls)
3. Ordinary concrete structural remliers
1. Data on Large-Pore (SpnalA,ss) Concrete
Cemeni3
Composation
biyolume
Cement per 'Water-Cent
Concrete RatioI
Volume Weight tConcrete!
of Concrete Obtained,
Mark
Cement
Gravel
Gravel Coarseness
Unit
kg/m3 lbiyd3
Ratio
gal/sack
kg/n3
.�, Mark i
lb/ft-'! !
It=.
in.
300
1
15
5-60
0.20-2.36
85 143
0.60
6.76
1,815
113
115
300
1
36
10-20
0.39-0.78
85 143
0.55
6.20
1,620
101
15
300
1
12
5-60
0.20-2.36
110 186
0.55
6.20
1,895
118
25
300 '
1
12
10-20
0.39-0.79
110 186
0.50
5.63
1,695
105
25
300
1
10
5.60
0.20-2.36
130 219
0.52
5.85
1,900
118
35
300
1
8
10-20
0.39-0.79
150 253
0.50
5.63
1,950
121
50
0...ar*rs.ew.....*
,
�
2. Production Process of Large-Pore Concrete Wall Blocks
Large-pore concrete of the composition indicated in the table above is not
tamped in the block forms, only leveled. The forms are then roved into steam
chatbers where the temperature is maintained at 50-75�C (122-167�F) and where
they remains for 12 hours; upon removal from the steam chaMbers, the forms are
placed in a cooling chamber where the temperature is kept at 14-16�C
(57.2-60.87). After 48 hours in the cooling chamber, the blocks are removed
from the forms and stored or taken directly to the building site.
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ar.
�
�
Dimensions of the blocks are:
150 x 70 x 60 am. (59.1 x 27.6x 23.6 in.)
75 x 7o x 6o am. (29.5 x 27.6 x 23.6 in.)
3. Production of Ordina Concrete Stru.ctural Members
Construction of a standard two-story, eight-apartment residence requires
600 large-pore concrete blocks (total volume: 375 m3 or 490 yd3). Thus, the
output of the plant supplemented. by that of the yard (Which can function only
during the summer) may provide sufficient large-pore wall material for build-
ing 10-12 such residences per year. This being ImnAcessary, a part of the
productive capacity of the plant is being used for the manufacture of structural
meMbers of ordinary concrete. These members are precast (and it is assumed
reinforced) concrete beams, columns,and floor slabs.
Note
1. Large-pore concrete (poured-in-place or in the form of precast blocks)
may allegedly be used with success as wall material any place in the Arctic
wherever gravel deposits exist.
2. The greater part of walls is apparently built of blocks rather than
poured in place. The Arctic building season is very brief; pouring in place
under winter conditions is particularly difficult and quite costly.
3. Large-pore concrete requires less cement thAm ordinary or slag
concrete. After setting, forms can be easily removed without damage to its
surface. Its rough surface forms a strong bond with stucco (composition
unspecified).
4. Walls of large-pore concrete are strong enough for the thick walls
of a small buildinglidurable, firerresisthnt,and byicamparison with brick and
ordinary concrete walls 20-30% cheaper.
5. Substitution of somewhat thicker large-pore concrete walls for brick
walls requires no modification of standard brick building foundations or
overall dimensions. Thus the use of standard prefabricated structural details
is not precluded. (This seems to imply that furring is omitted).
6. In the climate of Tiksi� the heat conductivity of a large-pore outside
wall 70-75 am. (27.6-29.5 in.) thick corresponds to that of a five stretcher
brick wall [64 am. or 25.2 in.]. (Dimensions of a brick are: 250 x 120 x 65 mm.
or 9.84 x 4.72 x 2.56 in.; GOST-530-54).
7. The question of possible wall deformation due to the effects oZ
permafrost is not mentioned in the account.
Sources
Beton i Zhelezdbeton, No. 9, 1957, pp. 348-351
Bol/shaya Sovietskaya Entsiklopediya, Vol. 42, p. 424
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�
w 7.777.7..77.7457/..
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LARGE-PORE (SANDLESS) CONCRETE AS WALL CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
IN THE ARCTIC (TIKSI)
Source: Beton i.ZhelezObeton, No. 9, 1957, p. 350
. �.
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r\
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-*FA ' � . � * N,�-�� � - � � ��� � �
-
�
LARGE-PORE (SANDLESS) CONCRETE AS WALL CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL IN THE
ARCTIC (TINSI)
Source: Beton i Zhelezobeton, No. 9, 1957, p. 350
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T
4Ji
Plan and. Section of the Plant Manufacturing
Large-Pore Concrete Wall Blocks -
l. Concrete mixer installation 6.
2. Steam chambers
Boiler room
4. � yield laboratory
5. Cement storage 9.
7.
a.
Gravel storage
Sand storage
Steam coil for heating
gravel and sand
Winch
Li.3GE-P0RE GiNDLESS) CONCaETE AS WALL CONSTRUCTION MATERDL
IN THE ARCTIC (TIKSI)
Source: Peton i aelezobeton, No. 9, 1957, p. 349
17/AVII 56
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Plan and Section of the Plant Manufacturing
Large-Pore Concrete Wall Blocks
I. Concrete mixer installation
2. Steam chambers
3. Boiler room
4. Field laboratory
5. Cement storage
6. Gravel storage
7. Sand storage
8. Steam coil for heating
gravel and sand
9. Winch
LARGE-POU (SLNDLESS) CONCRETE AS WALL CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
IN THE ARCTIC (TIKSI)
Source: Beton i Zhelezobeton, No. 9, 1957, p. 349
PLATE 56
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- � -
-
�
�
�
Lft. 1
;
r ...
. 4 r
4.
"A-,,:-.5F.K1-. -42-�;:-T1/4-%"*".......:='
I r"
,
- 011/1111111111W11111P11114.1.
-....,
4....
-
. 4,.;-----
�...... ,
Snowdrift on Lee Side of a Building Erected
at Right Angles to Prevailing Wind
(The building ie presumabV of wood)
LAME-PORE (SANDLESS) CONCRETE AS WALL CONSTRUCTION
MATERIAL IN THE ARCTIC
Source: Arkhitektura SSSR, No. 10 1959, p. 15
Plate 56a
-
_ - , � . - ,
-� "A. - � � ,
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�
�
�
CHAPTER XII
�
FOUNDATION DESIGN; GOLD ORE CONCENTRATION
PLANT (TRANSBAIKALREGION)
Location
Southern part of the Transbaikal region.
Coordinates
The coordinates of the Southern part of the region are roughly:
Latitude: 510 30+ N �54� 00+ N
Longitude: 104� 00+ E �112� 00+ E
Problem
Design of foundations for a gold ore concentration plant built on unevenly
thawing permafrost to cope with unequal settlement of the individual sections
of the plant.
Structure
Four-unit composite structure, presumably frame, dhown on sketch in plan
and section on Plate 57, Fig. 1. The structure is 54 n6 (177 ft.) long and,
by estimate, 315 ft. wide; it has three settlement joints.
Method of Construction
The structure is designed for the gradual thawing of soil under its founda-
tions. This method was selected because the plant:
has large dimensions,
handles heavy working loads, and
employs a wet technological process.
Soil _
The plant stands on a soil, typical of this particular locality, of the
following composition:
a. Sand-pebble with small admixture of clay;
b. Loam and gravel conglomerate eluvium (it could be alluvium); it
consists mainly of sand and silt with pebble and boulder inclusions;
c. Grano-diorite eluviam represented by weathered rock.
Permafrost
Permafrost bed thickness in the region varies from 10 to 30 in. (32-99 ft.).
Its temperature is near 0�C (32T).
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A. Calculation of Foundation Settlement and Tilt Angles,
1. Basis of the Method
It appears that in calculating foundations for gold processing plants,
insufficient consideration was given until recently to uneven settlement of
buildings due to:
a. Probable uneven thawing of soil;
b. Effects of the industry's vet process on soil conditions.
This led to considerable deformation of buildings, Which were even put out of
commission at times.
Calculation of foundations by the method here proposed would presumably
ensure: ". . . stability of foundations in the soil affected by water from
the plant . . ."
In the designer's opinion, the proposed method could be adopted as standard
and applied to calculation of concentration plant foundations throughout the
Trandbaikal region because:
a. Geological conditions differ little;
b. Plant output is aliproximately the same;
c;. Equipment and grouping of plant sections are similar.
The method is based on:
a. Technical and geological investigations;
b. Results of calculations by means of formulas that follow.
2. The Formulas
Formulas and equations for determining the settlement of foundations on
thawing soils may be found in many learned works on the subject. But all
these formulas, it is said, either do not take into account the uneven thawing
of soil and consequently the uneven settlement of foundations, or are so
cumbersome that their use would take excessive time. The formulas here pro-
posed, as presented in their final form:
a. Eliminate the above two drawbacks;
b. Make it easy to determine the magnitude of foundation settlement,
angles of tilting, and the bending moments in columns at their base;
c. Are derived in line with NiTU-118-54 and the basic equations of
SaltYkov (N. I. Saltykov. "Brief Instructions on Design of Foundations Laid
on a Thawing Layer by Calculation of the Magnitude of their Settlement and the
Reaction of the Thawing Layer on the Foundation Footing". Academy of Sciences,
USSR. 1953).
-164 -
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oframeggniannamalimiiimenw
Notation Tale for Pressure and Settlement Formulas
Sy*ol Dimensions Parameter
cm. Settlement of the point corresponding to the center
of gravity of the foundation
cm. Width of foundation footing
cm2 Area of foundation footing
cm2 Area of plastic deformation under foundation
footing
cm. Thickness of thawed layer of base under
compression
m. tons Load on footing
kg/cm2 Pressure on soil under foundation footings
kg/cm2 Pressure on soil during plastic deformations
kg/cm? Vertical earth pressure in middle of base
layer under compression
crali� Moments of inertia of foundation area with
respect to.x andy axes
A Coefficient of thawing of layer
(determined experimentally)
cm?/kg. Coefficient of compressibility of layer under
effect of external load (determined
experimentally)
60z-
Dimensionless coefficient for layer of soil
at a depth zal:hi
Dimensionless coefficient for layer of soil
immediately under foundation footing.
(1,4,z and-cozi.,1 are selected from Table 1,
NiTU-118-54)
�
cm. Coordinates in plane of foundation footing
Tangent of angle formed by thaw crater curve
and. xaxis
Tangent of angle formed. by thaw crater curve
and. y axis
degrees Angle of foundation tilt along axis�x-x--.
degrees Angle of founde.tion tilt along axis -w-y
-165-
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These formulas are:
1. Determining the settlement "S0 of foundation on unevenly thawing soil:
2. Determining the tilt angle of foundations along x and y axes:
Determining pressure on soil taking into account the tilt at any
point of the footing:
The meaning of symbols is given in the table opposite.
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3. Sample Calculations
Bunker Section: Settlement and Tilt Angles of Foundations;
Bending Moments in Columns at the Base
Reference is made to Plate 57, Figs. 1 and 2.
a. The Data
(1) Foundation bearing layer (frozen grano-diorites) is of uniform
composition for the entire depth of thaw J70 = 1,000 am. = 32.8 ft.);
(2) Foundations are laid at 500 am. (16.4 ft.);
(3) Average foundation pressure on soil-- 3 kg/cm2 (6,130 ib/ft2)
(4) Angle between the thaw crater curve under foundations with:
_ x-x. axis = 150 (tano;= A)see Table I, page 169)
_ y-y axis . 5� (tanic=m,"3see table I, page 169)
(Note: Contour of the thaw crater curve is calculated on the basis of plant
operating conditions);
(5) The dimensionless coefficientwziis given as 1.12 in NiTU-118-54 tables
for these particular conditions which are:
h0=10 00 cm.= 32.8 ft.; zi= zx1000 cm. 2,x32.8tt.
6.7
300cm. = 9.&t. �
(6) Madzum bending moment of the column at its base is calculated by
the formula: 3Etia
rn A X s
where: 1 E 165,000 kg/cm2 (2,350,000 ab/in2);
w 70 x (110)3 m 27.6 x (43.3)3 = 188 x (10)3 in4
12 12
for 70 x 110 am. column.
(7) For additional calculation data refer to Column 1, Table I, page 169.
b. Calculations
Soil layer being homogeneous, coefficient cozi = 0
Because of small pressure on soil (6,130 lb/ft2), Fp, is taken 0.
This simplifies the formulas which now assume the following form:
50_ Fho(A4.adv)-PbaNiA3z; (11)
ta.na JC(A+ dv)
'tang= rn(Ata6)
So-ho(A+ adv) x twos ytang
(2f)
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Substituting numerical values we obtain:
+ 0.006 x 2.2) + 9.84 x (2.92 x 10-6) x 882,00o x 1.12 = 0.725ft.

145
3.
0
145 x 32.8
(0.003
tart
tar 48
=
3.1
0.2679
0.0875
(0.003 + 0.006 x 2.2) = 0.0043; a:mit 15!
(0.003 + 0.006 x 2.2) = 0.001410. 5'
&mt. 0.725 - 32.8 (0.003 + 0.006 x 2.2) - 14,8 x 0.0043 - 9.84 x 0.00141 =
9.84 x (2.92 x 10-6) x 1.12
0.725 - 0.628 - 0.076 - 0.016 =
3,600 Ibift2
3.22 x 10-5
�
/4max =
dniox
3.22 x 10-5
m 3,600 + 8,1100 . 6,000 ibift2
2
=2 0 0003L�t8 IOW "
0.725 - 0.628 + 0.076 + 0.016 0
. 0940o ibift2
591
= 802,000 ft-lb.
The settlement and tilt angles of foundations for the other three sections
of the plant are calculated in the same manner with the aid of Table I. Results
of calcUlations are summarized in Table II, page 170.
These results suggest that:
(1) A considerable difference in the amount of settlement between
various sections of a building occurs whenever the building extends over an
area with varying composition of soil;
Settlement and tilt angles of foundations on coarse grain
soils are negligible;
(3) In the case of clayey soils the settlement of foundations is
the greatest, and the tilt angles became excessive.
Foundation tilt up to 0.006 has no adverse effect on the operation of
crane runways in the shops; a tilt of 0.01, however, makes the operation of
cranes impossible, and it becomes necessary to adjust the crane runways.
-168-
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0.008 1,69
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0,0875 0,1)07
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TABLE I
AUXILIARY DATA FOR DETERMINING SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATIONS
(Coefficients are presumably reproduced from NiTC-118-54)
Number of Foundation
1
2
3
4
Parameter
Symbol
Dimension
,
.
Width
b
CM.
300
,
250
200
220
ft.
� 84
8.20
6.56
7.22
Length
i
an.
l.50
270
250
270
ft.
14.8
8.86
8.20
8.86
Foundation
area
cm2
135,000
67,500
50,000
592400
ft2
145
72.6
53.8
64
Load on
foundations
P4
m.tons
- -
400
200
150
180
kips
882
441
331 ,
398
Vertical
soil
v
kg/cm2
2.2
2.06
1.96
2.1
pressure
lb ft2
4 500
14.210
4 olo
4 300
Soil volmme
weight
7
m.t./F,
2.2
2.06
1.96
2.1
lb/ft3
137
123
122
131
Depth of
cm.
1000
1000
1000
1000
thaw
Flo
..
ft.
32.8
32.8 '
32.8
32.8
Tangent of
angle of
thaw,crater
curve '
/UK-A
0.2679
0,0875
0.,2679
0.0875
0.2679
0.0875
0.26/9
0.0875
----
incv4
-LSoil cam-
pressibility
19
cm2/kg.
0.006
0.908
0.012
0.007
coefficient
,ft2/Ib.
2.92x10-6
3.9x10-6
5.96x10-6
3.42x10-6
iSoil thaw
A
0.003
0.008
0.010
0.005
coefficient
.
Coefficient
Wzi
1.12
1.09
1.22
1.10
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-169-
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CHOIlliag Ta6nmita ocan,otc, yrnott nottopora If itartt6atottoix mostettrott
cpyttAameitTott 3.n,autim
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Y - V
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Z. -z� Z: a .7 ,' A �
.., 'Li A'
=I 1- = rt X
Tati.z alp: 2
1
2
3
4
- -45.9 -
- 270
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22,1 0,0043 I 0.00141
t 8,9
2.92
110
ipalioutiquirottwiti
18..
31
0,0065
0,0021 !
9,97
4.3,3
flecqatio-raac,iimisols1411
11,2
- 22�0
42,2
0,0089>
0,0029
2,98
33,8
(7., MIMIC T Nil 1.1101010
>0,006
Kouraostepara W=27"/�
17,4
24,8
0,0052
0,0017
2,09
15,6
I pallIllillIw :111 NOII-
rzostepaia W1, 20,:�
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TABLE II
TABLE OF SETTLEMENTS, TILT ANGLES, AND BENDING MCKENTS OF THE FOUNDATIONS
AMber of Foundation
Paramemr-loimension
Dimensions
in plan:
Footings
am.
300x450
250x270
�
260x250
220x270
ft.
9.84x14.8
8.20x8.84
6.56x2.50
7 22x8 84
Columhs
an.
70x110
70x70
40x70
50x60
in.
27.6x4 .4
27. 6x27.6
15.7x27.6
19.7x23.6
Settlement
of
foundations
am.
in.
22.1
8.7
31.0
12.2
42.2
16.6
24.8
9.8
,
Settlement
am.
8.9 11.2 17.4
difference
between 2
adjoining
.
building
sections.
in. .
3.5 4.41 6.85
Tan.of
foundation
tilt angles
x-x axis
y-y axis
0.0043
0.00141
0.0065
6.0021
0.0089 > 0.006
. 0.0029
0.0052
0.0017
1
Pressure
on soil
kg/cm2
2.92
2.97
2.98
2.99
Ibt.fI2
5 960 : '
6,070
6 090
6 100
Bending
moment
at base of
column
m-t.
ft-lb.
110
802,000
43.3
314,000
33.8
244,000
15.6
113,000
Soil under
Grano-
sand-
Loam
Gravel
footings
diorite
pebble
conglo-
conglo-
eluvium
merate
merate
eluvtmn,
eluvium
Average
soil
18*
22%
27%
20%
moisture
'
.
.
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B. Notes on Construction
(SettleiarTREE67017660adons)
1. Settlement Joints
Experience gained in constructing industrial plant foundations on perma-
frost indicates that, in ease of uneven settlement, buildings can be made
sufficiently stable by:
a. Reinforced concrete columns on individual footings for structures
where a dry technological process is employed;
b. Columns on continuous footings for structures with a wet techno-
logical process.
The concentration plant in question is designed for the gradual thawing of
soil under its foundations and may be said to employ both dry and vet processes;
Its various foundations rest on soils of varying composition and moisture
content. These conditions confront the designer with a problem of:
a. Determining the optimum length of continuous footings. This is
done by means of preliminary calculations of the contour of the thaw crater
curve under the structure.
b. Appropriate location of settlement joints. The allowable maximum
distance between the settlement joints for construction on thawed soils is
determined by the "TeChnical Norms". When viewed in the light of the actual
geological conditions under Which this particular concentration plant operates,
the question of allowable distance involves two factors:
(1) The difference in the settlement between two adjoining
sections of the building;
(2)
The degree of foundation tilt determined by the allowable
degree of tilt for the superstructure.
Consideration of the above factors resulted in the adoption of 3 main
settlement joints (Plate 57, Fig. 1), constructed in the form of paired columns
(not shown in the sketch) on different foundations.
2. Foundations
(a) Bunker Section
(1) Foundations may have individual footings;
(2) Concentration of load in the section requires closer spacing
of foundations; continuous footings are advisable in order to give uniform
settlement of this 'section;
(5) If tilt angle equals 5' (tanct = 0.00144-4 0.006), the footings
of the section may be continuous.
-171-
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41,
"PR
b. Crushing Section.
Foundations of the crushingrsection support. the combined load of the crane
runWays, Walls, and the roof. The, tilt angle, obtained, by calculation, with
respect to x-A axis am 8' (tan en 0.0041) and ensures normal operation of
crane runways. Foundations may be designed in the form of columns on individual
footings, but after settlement the line of footings cannot be expected to be
straight. The columns therefore must have some arrangements allowing for
speedy adjustment of runways.
c. Concentration Section
Wall foundations for this section are envisaged in the form of individual
columns on continuous footings. Transverse footings may also be continuous;
these footings are to be joined at the corners with the longitudinal ones of
the section. Such a design is suggested by:
(1) The speeded up uneven thawing of soil under foundations due to
the vet process employed in the section;
(2) Tilt angle Which cannot be taken up by ap individual foundation
(tan a= 0.0089> 0.006); this angle would be partially counteracted by a
continuous footing. Unless a continuous footing is adopted, the considerable
difference in settlement of columns supporting the monitor 'would:
Disrupt proper ventilation of the section;
b Admit rain and snow to the section.
d. Flotation and Filtration Section
Penetration of water into the soil and the subsequent uneven thawing under
foundations is just as probable here as in the concentration section. But the
soil conditions and the values of foundation tilt angles obtained by calcula-
tioh or this section make it feasible to construct foundations in the forni
of columns on individual footings.
Note
Penetration of water into the soil from the Concentration and. Flotation
Sections appears to be tPtkPn for granted. It would seem that an adequately
designed drainage system and duly insulated floors could remedy the situation.
Source
P. P. Vilenskiy. Design of Building Foundations for Uneven Thawing
Frozen Soils. Stroiteltnaya PramyShlennostt
No. 4, 1958, pp. 14-17.
.,�
-172-
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C'Onversion Table
� �cut. � �
9-a4.
-500 � vrt
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2.
1.11/7.f.
3stig .
4.10
- .�1.. *Plan en& -Vertic4 Section of
. Concentratio* Ple* . , ,________:/ �
--
J... I
Bunker Section . III. COneentratiOn Sectic0., :-. �
II. Clisttini We-aion_ C Flotation end j i �
ltratioll....--
Section ..-.-- ,
2, 5, k----Posile.. tions �
c._..... Settlesrnt Joints
__-__� ..
,
;.;
0. --.-
Dire-grainPresiv.,T0.;H . :Diegrain-a: Tialt-Apsle.
' :ti.'s'iiltutf_on under CO- _
i . �t. . 9.11 _:.. Deye1opent . f
of
5 Benttiorg
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... _a - -146-sient�Toot o Colussi_Z
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'.:, an Ito
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.... . FOODATIP-1 Dt-53.131r, LA *ORS CONCENTRATION PLANT: _
Source.k. .Des . of- BuiaLlin-g_Tozadartipts, 'fck.,
- � (TROS1141 d, REC4_91.0-. , ' ,
Taauing � , Peozen; SOL.-.�.8 ,. -- e
_ ..Stro.t,1,4na
vi. s -
Pfotlyshleipos P�
Figs-. 2 ano. 3
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CHAPTER XIII
KOLYMA REGION, CONSTRUCTION TREND (1957)
Location
Presumably along the course of the Kolyma River.
Coordinates
Very roughtly, the coordinates of the Kama River are:
Lower course: 66'N; 151�E.
Mouth: 69� 30+N; 162�E.
Construction Trend
Among the structures erected in the Kblyma region, there are some 2-3 story
masonry buildings, presumably residential and public. As regards the method,
the construction in the region appears to be carried on by the "Dallstroy"
organization along the following lines:
a. Without considering the permanently frozen state of the soil 34.2%
b. Allowing for a gradual thawing of soil 55.7%
c. Permafrost preservation method 7.4
The above percentages appear to be incomplete, but they clearly indicate
that in this region, the principal method of construction allows for subsequent
thawing of soil under foundations. With reference to the percentages cited, a
metber of the "Foundation Bearing Layers and Underground Construction Institute"
of the Academy of Sciences had stated that:
These figures provide convincing evidence as regards the
progressiveness and correctness of construction trend in the
Kblyma region experience here gained suggests that in �
designing foundations for residential and public buildings, the
method of preservation of the permafrost at the base of founda-
tions should be considered in extreme eases only when applica-
tion of other methods would be irrational".
The method of "subsequent thawing" involves:
a. Pre-construction preparation of the site (in this region, a widely
used method of thawing sites having coarse-grained soils is to
flood them with river water. See Chapter V, page85 of this report);
b. Reinforcement of foundations;
c. Reinforcement of walls between the stories, presumably by means
of reinforced girts.
-174-
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g raMil I I a E 111 NJ IN 1001
The advantages of this method over the permafrost preservation method are
said to be:
a. Living conditions are healthier on the first floor;
b. Residents are spared the need to observe the strict operational
rules that are required in the case of structures erected by the
permafrost preservation method;
c, Construction costs are lower.
Note
The Kolyma River is some 1,600 miles long. The fact that "the subsequent
thawing or soil under foundations" method is preferred to the permafrost preserva-
tion method along its course suggests among other things that, for the most part,
physical Characteristics of the region favor construction by that particular
method. Only long-term stability of buildings thus erected may provO that this
trend is "progressive and correct".
Sources
M. F. Kiselev. Construction on Permafrost.
Stroitelinaya Promyahlennost/, No. 12, 1957, p. 25
-175-
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Anadyr'
District, is
CHAPTER XIV
ANADYR', DEFORMATION OF BUILDINGS (1937)
Location
settlement, ddministrativs center of the Chdkotskiy National
located on the shore of Anadyr' Bay (Bering Sea).
Coordinates
Latitude: 64� 451N; Longitude:
Climate
Average yearly air temperature:
Days with temperature below 32�F:
Summer precipitation:
Winter precipitation:
177� 35' E.
�7.8�C (18�F)
270 or more
123.5 mm. (4.9 in.)
66.5 mm. (2.6 in.)
Wind: Southerly winds presumably predominate in the winter; they
cause considerable shifting of snow.
Soil and Permafrost
Soil composition and permafrost bed temperatures are similar to those of
Dudinka (Ch. VI.).
a412.1aLatEEILL.E1E:!ImELLVTI
Signs of deformation were observed in all landings (construction unspecified).
All heated buildings (in most cases their long dimension runs north and south)
leaned, in general, toward the northeast; unheated. buildings (warehouses) toward
the north.
It was observed that the active layer was deeper near the north walls than
near the south. This was ascribed to too much trampling along the north walls
over a natural layer of peat; but it would seem to be more correct to assume that
the difference in the depth of thaw was caused by uneven distribution of snow
around the buildings.
Other canses of deformation: careless construction and operation.
Sources
V. F. Tdmel. Some Peculiarities of the Behavior of Forndrition Bases under
Residential Structures in Northern Districts of the
Permafrost Region (Akademiia Nadk SSSR. Trudy Instituta
Merzlotovedenia in. V. A. Obradheva, Vol. I, 1946, p. 22)
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CONCLUSION
Feasibility of construction of heated wooden and masonry structures on
permafrost was, under certain circumstancesrdemonstrated by engineers of
Imperial Russia. The Bishop's House (now a rauseuin)serected at Yakutsk in 1911
(Chapter 30.1could even be rightfully regarded as a' harbinger of structures to
be built later by the permafrost preservation method. Their work and investi-
gations in the domain of permafrost, interrupted by World War I and the Revolution
were resumed by Soviet engineere, presumably about the time the First Five-Year
Plan went into effect.
The preceding ahapters,to some degree, traced the evolution of construc-
tion of residential and industrial structures on permafrost. Along with it,
some light was thrown on the problems the Soviet engineers had faced, the
methods they had used, and certain results they had achieved.
Their chief problem, of course, was to master the art of building large
heated structures that would be stable on a medium that could easily become
unstable. (The problem may readily be appreciated by those familiar with
construction on temperate zone loess-like soils which settle upon becoming wet).
The wide variety of soil, hydrological, and permafrost conditions complicated
the problem. Under these circumstances, no single method of construction could
be adopted for the permafrost expanse as a Whole. Experience taught, on the
contrary, that the design of a structure had to be adapted to the physical
characteristics of a particular building site if the structure was to be stable.
This experience spurred field, laboratory, and theoretical investigations and
led to the development of the four methods of construction described in
Chapter V.
As regards the proper application of the above methods there seems to be
no unanimity among the Soviet engineers. One of them, obviously not 4 pro-
ponent of the permafrost preservation method of construction, writes:,
U . .There is an opinion that the permafrost preservation method is
the most rational; but this opinion is totally unfounded. It is observed that
the organizations engaged in design display a tendency to apply this method even
to cases where the thawing of soil under the structure results in deformation
quite allowable for the structure in question. This is explained first of all
by the fact that designing by this method requires no knowledge of the perma-
frost properties at the site; consequently a designer may avoid the trouble of
exploring permafrost and calculating the settlement. of foundations. Moreover,
all the responsibility for the condition of the building is placed on tenants,
whose duty it becomes to maintain the permafrost under foundations . . . But the
type of ceiling with insulating layers, adopted for cellars, does not ensure
healthy living conditions on the first floor in the overwhelding majority of
houses which are being built by the permafrost preservation method. Therefore,
in order to escape the perpetual cold emanating from the floor, the inhabitants
of the first floor usually violate the operational rules and close the airvents
in the plinth during the winter . ."* This statement probably reflects the
*M. F. Eiselev, Construction on Permafrost. Stroitelln4ya Promyshlennostl,
No. 12, 1957, p. 25
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true situation; nevertheless the permafrost preservation method has its proper
place in construction (Chapter III, page291Vorkuta Maternity Hospital;
Chapter VIII, Brick Manufacturing Plant at or near Noriltsk), and. its development
may be regarded as one of the achievements of Soviet engineers.
Some of tUese achievements as seen through the eyes of a veteran member of
the Permafrost Institute are described as follows:
"In the past quarter of a century considerable success was achieved
in the field of the Soviet science of permafrost, namely:
1. Great areas were explored in ti t NE of the USSR . . .; Yakutskaya
ASSR. . .; NW of the Siberian Plain. . .; the Middle Siberian Plateau. . .
and the European North of the USSR. . .;
2. Occurrence and extent of permanently frozen strata in those regions
were investigated, and conditions for construction and operation of build-
ings determined;
3. In a number of districts, methods of construction and operation
ensuring stability of large masonry structures were developed and well
mastered;
4. Composite maps and monographs were prepared for many districts
and the territory of the USSR as a whole;
5. NiTU-118-54 was compiled;
6. Qualitative physical and meChanical properties of frozen strata
were investigated;
7. A. basis for permafrost physics and mechanics was established;
8. New methods of investigation were developed and applied in
practice;
9. The problems of water supply in permafrost regions and. utiliza-
tion of under-permafrost water for this purpose were solved . . ."*
Points 2 and 3 above, Which refer directly to the question of construction,
appear to be in line with the information contained in this report in Chapter V
(on methods of construction and deformation prevention), and in. Chanter IX
illustrated with photographs of multistorY masonry structures at Norillsk.
With respect to point 2 it may be added, however, that any correct determining
of construction and operational conditions could apparently be done only after
the lessons had been learned from investigation of mass building deformation
at Vorkuta (Chapter IV), and presumably elsewhere.
*A. M. Chekotillo. Izvestiya.Akademli Nauk SSSR. Seriya Geograficheskaya,
No. 4, 1957, pp. 138-139.
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The question now arises: ,did the achievements, some apparent from this
report and some just listed, indicate that Soviet engineers had solved the
problem of construction on permafrost? The answer is: not quite -.not quite, as
of 1958, at any rate. The following three considerations are behind this answer.
Consideration 1. As far, for instances as Norillsk multistory masonry struc-
tures are cdhcerned, no information is available on:
a. The micro-climate of the sites on which these buildings are
erected; for all that is known, there may be an outcrop of bedrock there.
(Note: Further development of Iforkuta, for example, is said to be planned in
an area Where foundations can be laid on bedrock);
b. The method of construction (permafrost preservation is assumed)
and structural details.
Without this information it would seem rather risky to speak of the long
term stability of these buildings just on the basis of a few photographs taken
at long range While they were new. Thus, the mere fact of the existence of
these buildings is not taken here as proof positive that the problem had been
solved.
Consideration 2. Having enumerated the above-listed achievements, the
same writer continues in the same article: ". . In spite of these achieve-
ments of the Soviet science of permafrost, a nuMber of substantial shortcomings
came to light at the 7th Inter-Agency Conference held in Moscow on 19-26 March
1956. Over 300 representatives of 84 organizations engaged in research,
teaching, design and construction participated. It was noted in the resolution
adopted by the participants that the absence of necessary ccprdination and
exchange of information among them:
a. Retarded the development of science of permafrost;
b.. Lowered the level of investigations;
c. Led to duplication of effort;
d. Hampered large-scale practical application of scientific achieve-
ments of individual organizations;
e. Made the scientific information difficult to obtain.
This situation being intolerable, it was resolved to request the Division
of Geological and Geographic Sciences of the USSR Academy of Sciences to
establish at the Permafrost Institute an inter-agency permafrost coordinating
commission . . . The first meeting of the Coordinating Commission was held on
1-2 March 1957 . . . Meetings are to be held at least once a year . . . A seven-
man team will carry on the work between plenary sessions . . . The next plenary
session of the Coordinating Commission will be held at the end of 1957 or the
beginning of 1958 to examine and coordinate permafrost investigation plans for
1958"*.
*A. M. Chekotillo. Izvestiya Akademif Nauk SSSR. Seriya Geograficheskaya,
No. 4, 1957, p. 139
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There is no direct reference to construction here. But the very fact of
the creation of the Coordinating Commission as late as 1937 and reasons behind
its creation suggest that, at the time, the problems connected with permafrost
were not exactly on the verge of solution.
Consideration 3. In July 1957, the "NIIOSP" (Research Institute for
Foundation Bearing Layers and Underground StructUres), in the course of its
normal work convoked a confereuce on construction of foundations on permafrost.
The purpose of the conference was to draw conclusions from practical experience
gained in design and construction, sum up the results of foundation construction
research and experimentation, and indicate the path of further investigation.
The conference was attended. by 126 representatives from 52 research, teaching,
and design and construction organizations (apparently all of them also repre-
sented in the Coordinating Omission); 32 papers on theory and practice of
foundation construction on 1,ermafrost were read and discussed. NiTU-118-54
mast have been among the topics considered. One of the participants of the
conference refers to it as follows:
". . JUTU-118-54 govern3construction on permafrost, but there are many
gaps in it. These gaps are characterized, by the absence of:
1. Instructions on allowable limits of foundation deformation;
2. Supplementary instructions on measures against foundation
deformation produced by bulging of the sou;
3. Instructions on calculation of the depth of thaw of permafrost
under structures;
4. Instructions on selection of allowable heat coefficients for
calculations;
5. Indications as to utilization of physical and mechanical
properties of permafrost in construction of foundations;
6. Rules on observation of building deformation and on changes in
hydrologic and thermal conditions of the permafrost;
7. Rules on maintenance and operation of buildings.
These gaps may be closed only a:Oter extensive investigation both theoret-
ical and experimental.
In addition to NiTU-118-54, which is a part of the 'Building Norms and
Rules', new local tethnical instructions have to be prepared because:
a. The existing local instructions have become to a large degree
obsolete;
b. Permafrost regions differing so widely as to their geographic
and climatic conditions cannot be governed by a single all-Union NiTU . ."
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111. . . The participants of the conference adopted a resolution requesting
that the Presidium of the 'ASiA SSSR1 (USSR Academy of Construction and Archi-
tecture);
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a. Direct the Institutes of the Academy of Construction and Archi-
tecture to expand their stAdies connected with construction on permafrost;
b. Provide a 'permafrost construction' laboratory for the Leningrad
Branch of the Academy, and also for the branches planned for Novosibirsk and
Irkutsk;
c. Establish laboratory complexes in Vorkuta, Norillsk, Magadan,
Baley, and Petrovsk-Zabaikal'sk, and organize laboratory complexes and experi-
mental stations at construction sites (Note: either long-term project or
construction organization sites are possibly meant) at Bratsk, Yakutsk, and
Chita;
d. Organize a series of competitions for best designed structural
foundations . .
It is presumed that the above three considerations not only throw some
light on activities directly connected with construction on permafrost but
also provide a good basis for the conclusion that the problem of construction
on permafrost hat; not yet been definitively solved. But just as at the turn
of the century Imperial builders began before them, so Soviet builders now
continue to attadk the problem with scientific methods. If the problem is
soluble, these are the methods that my enable them to solve it eventually.
M. F. Eiselev. Construction on Permafrost. Stroitellnaya Promyshlennostt,
No. 12, 1957, pp. 22-23.
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