ENGINEERING BIOTECHNOLOGY OF HANDLING WASTES RESULTING FROM A CLOSED ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP81-01043R003300030003-5
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 222
• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: February 25, 2014
• Sequence Number: 3
• Publication Date: December 1, 1958
• Content Type: REPORT

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STAT
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STAT
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I
THE
ENGINEERING BIOTECHNOLOGY
OF
HANDLING WASTES
RESULTING FROM A CLOSED ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM
Research Division
New York University
College of Engineering
New York, New York
February, 1958
Aeromedical Division
Air Force Office of Scientific Research
Air Research and Development Command
United States Air Force
Washington, D.C.
December, 1958
STAT
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword
Acknowledgment
Abstract
.Page
iv
General Information
1
Bodily Wastes
6
Feces, Urine and Flatulence
6
Skin Excretions
9
Wastes Handling and Treatment
12
Algae Culture
12
CO2-0 Conversion
14
Closed Space Air
17
Other Wastes
22
Comment
25
Annotated References
25
Author Index
A-1
Master Index
M-1
Detailed Reports
Appendix
Skin Excretions
1
The Culture of Algae
2
Mechanics of Photosynthesis
2-1
Nutritional Requirements
2-6
Mass Culture
2-9
Harvesting of Algae
2-11
Contamination of Cultures
2-12
Sewage Treatment
2-13
Inhibiting Excretions
2-16
Use of Algae for Food
2-18
Confined Space
2-20
Desirable Characteristics of Algae
2-22
Suggestion of Problems Requiring Further Study
2-23
Study of Methods for Obtaining Oxygen From Carbon
Dioxide
3
The Specific Problem
3-1
Suggested Further Investigations
3-14
Handling Air Contaminants Resulting From a Closed
Ecological System
4
General
4-1
Temperature
4-1
Humidity
4-2
Air Motion
4-3
Foreign Matter
4-4
Microorganisms
4-7
Air Conditioning
4-8
Water Supply
4-9
Thermal Energy Exchange with Specific Application to
Waste Handling in a Closed Ecological System
5
Report Distribution List
6
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STAT
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FOREWORD
Less than 20 years ago the establishment of man in an environment
consiatingofa hermetically sealed container in which he might work for as
much as a year and continue a normal living process was a scientists dream.
Parameters of such environment include partial vacuum within the living
spaces, a total conservation of mass balance, and a self-contained system
providing water, food and air without recourse to any form of aid beyond the
walls of the container.
In such an environment the waste products of living assume an unusual
importance. Not only must the wastes be so handled that they do not harm
man, but they must also become a continuing source of supply of those essen-
tials for the maintenance of life, the water, the food, and the air required
by man.
In this report an attempt has been made to present the multitude of
problems involved in providing an environment, safe for man, and to suggest
areas of research that should be helpful to those who are now engaged in the
task of preparing the closed space in which man is expected to work and
survive.
Preservation of the health of the occupants and the development of
methods whereby the closed space will remain safe for extended periods of
time is truly a challenge in sanitary engineering. New engineering concepts
of waste handling are required. Treatment and recovery processes must be
minimized in both weight and volume and yet be completely dependable at all
times.
This report is concerned with that phase in which knowledge of engineer-
ing biotechnology of waste handling is directed toward the problems of closed
space ecology and in which there are many areas requiring further investi-
gation.
We trust that this contribution may speed research on many fronts and
assist in bringing the occupancy of closed space closer to reality.
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ABSTRACT
This report is directed to an examination of the status of existing
information and the areas of research requiring attention in connection with
the handling of wastes resulting from human occupancy of a closed ecological
system.
Probable wastes to be handled are classified. The problems related to
handling and treatment and to cycling and reuse of treated end products in
liquid, solid, and gaseous form are discussed.
Five detailed reports discussing the present status of knowledge of
wastes handling in closed systems are included as appendices. Areas of
research and development are suggested with respect to skin excretions, algae
culture, carbon dioxide conversion to oxygen, the handling of closed space
air, and the handling of bodily and other wastes.
A master file of 174 annotated references and an alphabetical author
index to those references are included.
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The work
Report
THE ENGINEERING BIOTECHNOLOGY
OF
HANDLING WASTES
RESULTING FROM A CLOSED ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM
GENERAL INFORMATION
is directed to an
examination of the status of existing information and the areas of research
requiring attention in connection with the handling of wastes resulting from
human occupancy of a closed ecological system.
The contract instructions were
The contractor will bring together by library study, field
visits and conference information on biology, physics,
chemistry and engineering as it relates to the handling
and treatment of bodily wastes in closed spaces. Emphasis
will be placed on a search for data that suggests the hand-
ling of waste without health hazard to personnel occupying
a closed space and the possible conversion of waste material
to products that may be utilized in supplying oxygen nutri-
ents and other useful products while at the same time elim-
inating or controlling products that may be harmful or
otherwise undesirable.
The above data will be carefully analyzed and recommenda-
tions for specific research on methods of handling waste
in a closed ecological system will be prepared.
The special study of the Air University Command and staff school class
of 1956(148) has well surrArized a number of the physical and physiological
problems that must be faced. The following extracts from that report are
repeated here.
"It is anticipated that this brief investigation and study
into problems with which we have lived and fought for fif-
teen years--and in some instances not yet solved--will lead
to a better understanding of the problems yet to come."
STAT
STAT
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"Providing the crew with the proper mixture of oxygen and
elimisEllag_matp_gaal2 from the sealed cabin pose major
technological problems. Breathing air must closely approx-
imate in composition that found in our atmosphere. One
hundred percent oxygen will not satisfy the need. Over
extended periods of time pure oxygen, under the required
pressure, will produce toxic effects. Therefore, it will
be necessary to add certain diluents such as a few dust
particles, a little moisture and an inert gas in nearly
the same proportions as found on earth. To minimize the
effects and possibility of gas bubbles forming in the
tissues, helium should probably substitute for nitrogen as
the inert gas. The exchange and removal of waste gases
such as carbon dioxide and methane are of extreme import-
ance. Sodium hydroxide absorbs carbon dioxide readily but
it has a saturation point which precludes its use over
periods of long duration. Research continues on the feasi-
bility of utilizing gas exchangers involving suspensions
of chlorella algae under light. By process of photo-
synthesis, the ?green algae9 takes in carbon dioxide and
in return gives off oxygen in a cycle opposite to that
performed by man. The limiting factor in this system
would be the space requirement for an algae 'garden' large
enough to provide oxygen for the entire crew."
"The problem of elimination of human body wastes can be
broken into three separate categories: disposal of gases,
liquids and solids. The suggested handling of these pro-
ducts is essentially different in each instance and some
ingenious ideas for the manner of doing this have been
propounded. Ihp_sag2g, to be considered are carbon dioxide,
the methane family and the mercaptan group. Work is
presently in progress on the development of efficient gas
exchangers, improving on the present reliable soda-lime
apparatus. This approach appears to hold more promise than
photo-synthesis, the property of the chlorophyll to convert
carbon dioxide to oxygen in the presence of light. The
human bod excretes approximately two pounds or one quart
of water, as water vapor daily. This occurs during respira-
tion or by evaporation from the skin. This moisture must
be absorbed or disposed of. The most feasible solution
proposed is to utilize this water in the cabin air condi-
tioning system. The air must be dehumidified then later
humidified during the air exchange cycle. Proposed solu-
tions for the solid waste elimination problem are even more
ingenious and are limited only by the imagination and in-
genuity of the space ship designer. A total of four pounds
of solid waste per man per day is estimated. This total
included food scraps, refuse and other sewage. One solution
is to store the material in containers and return them to
earth with the vehicle, similar to the chemical toilets in
use today. Another means is to throw or expel the material
2.
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from the vehicle into space. This, although the easiest
and the cheapest, would play havoc with any visual observa-
tion in progress and would not be without danger, since
clouds of micrometeors would be formed. A third solution
visualizes the shooting of the material in a container,
into outer space, propelled by a small, short-lived rocket
engine. If the rocket were fired toward the earth and in
the opposite direction of that of the space vehicle, it
would quickly reach 'burnoutl--and fall toward the earth,
being completely incinerated as it entered the atmosphere."
This point of departure may be elaborated.
Men living in a closed space for an extended period of time must con-
tinue to function normally while performing whatever task is at hand. Men
must eat, drink, breathe and live. Metabolism and body function continue
while occupants work, rest, exercise and sleep.
In a tightly closed space there is no other supply of air, no other
supply of water. Food is limited by space, storage and weight limitations.
Bathing facilities are minimal. Cleansing operations applied to body, cloth-
ing, and equipment and premises are severely limited.
Is it possible to treat and recycle air, liquid, and solids so that no
mass is lost from the closed space? Can the CO2-02 balance be maintained
without carrying an independent supply of oxygen? Is it necessary to recycle
at all? Can excess water in closed space air be handled properly to avoid
inclusion of soluble toxic end products evolving from human use of such
space?
Some of these wastes that may result from closed space occupancy would
cause no problem in normal environment, hence not much information appears
in the current literature about them. It is in fact necessary to consider
many questions of seemingly trivial nature now in order to be reasonably
certain that nothing has been overlooked in establishing what may be expected
as the environment of closed space. The experience to date is that questions
under investigation compound as the studies lead toward tentative answers.
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The probable wastes may be classified to include feces, urine, sebaceous
gland excretions, perspiration, respiratory end products, washings containing
soil from clothing, and washings containing food particles as a result of
food preparation and service. In addition there probably is a series of
wastes that will result from working operations. For example, the process
of centrifuging, extracting, drying or otherwise recovering algae that has
been under investigation as a means of maintaining CO2-02 balance will itself
produce debris, either solid, liquid or gaseous, that will require further
handling. The actual working operations that force the closed space circum-
stances may produce waste materials that require controls.
A further complication is introduced by the fact that physiological data
applicable to individuals living in normal environment at normal atmospheric
pressure, eating the usual food, and consnming the usual amount of liquid may
be altered by changes in the closed space mechanism for living.
Water reclamation from air and liquid and solid wastes has complications.
Wastes reused for drinking purposes will require careful treatment. High
salts equilibrium must be avoided as well as the inclusion of traces of sol-
uble toxic materials.
In each approach these factors are always important:
1. The process must treat without failure.
2. The process wastes resulting from treatment must be
adequately handled; and
3. The equipment and materials must not introduce ex-
cessive cubage and weight. The term "excessive"
in this instance has not yet been defined.
A study of the research needs associated with the environment of closed
spaces has been made by Professor Ingram and his colleagues, Dr. William E.
Dobbins, Dr. Gail P. Edwards, Mr. Elmer R. Kaiser, Dean Henry J. Masson, Dr.
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5.
Bernard Newman, Mr. Gerald Palevsky, and Mr. Lawrence Slote. The discussion
that follows represents the consensus of thinking on the part of the entire
staff after review of literature and conferences and field visits to other
locations where research on the closed space ecology and its problems has
been in progress.
In the course of the literature search some articles have been suffi-
ciently informative to justify preparation of briefs on content. From the
information thus obtained an assessment and review of present knowledge has
been developed on such essentials as CO2-02 conversion; treatment of bodily
wastes; recovery of usable water from contained air, urine, and other sources;
removal of pollutants from contained air; and purification or disposal of
various liquid wastes.
The conditions applicable to the need for any or several of these
essentials are related to the duration of extra-terrestrial flight. Such
flight may be (1) of short duration,amountingtohours; (2) of intermediate
duration, amounting to days; and (3) of long term, amounting to weeks and
months. This discussion deals almost entirely with the third problem, but
the orientation of research needs emphasizes that careful study should be
made of factors affecting weight and volume of equipment required to process
and maintain an environment with total conservation of mass balance and re-
cycle of matter, as opposed to the principle of replacement of essentials
such as oxygen and water by withdrawl from storage while polluted matter is
ejected from the closed system environment.
For conditions introduced by flight of short or intermediate duration,
engineering economics may justify provision for partial or even total replace-
ment of environmental constituents. Long term operations seem impractical
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without plans for cyclic use of the contained matter. Commentary and discus-
sion of research needs related to the environmental complex will demonstrate
the possible areas of research which may lead progressively to a healthful
working space under a closed ecology.
BODILY WASTES
Feces Urine and Flatulence
The handling of feces and urine, normally a matter causing little
concern, can become a serious problem in a closed ecology. Gradwohl(69) has
listed the more important products present in feces:
Indole C8H7N Odorous
Skatole C9H9N Odorous
Paracresol C7H80
Para -oxyphenyl-propionic Acid
Hydrogen sulphide H2S Odorous
Methane CH4
Methylmercaptan Odorous
Hydrogen H2
Carbon dioxide CO2
Protheoses
Peptones
Peptides
Ammonia OH3 Odorous
Amino acids
Some raw vegetables, unchanged, such as radishes, cole
slaw, pickles, onion, skin of fruit, nuts, berries
Mucus
Tissue remnants, epithelial cells, muscle fibers,
connective tissue
Crystals, phosphates and many others
Detritus
Fats, neutral, free fatty acids or soaps, approx. 2 gm.
daily
Starch granules
Bacteria, a great variety
Mattice(105) has indicated that feces contains 74-79% water and the dry
solids developed amount to 20-40 gm/24 hrs0 per capita. Information from a
number of sources is such that for estimating purposes it would be safe to
assume a 75% moisture content and 25% dry solids basis.
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The quantity of feces per person is, of course, related to diet, and
from both literature and studies by Ingram(84) it appears that a range of
100 to 150 grams per day per person is to be expected. Gradwohl(69) suggests
an average of 102.8 grams per person per day. It may be estimated that dehy-
drated fecal material would amount to 20-25 grams per person per day. This
quantity is small, but the difficulties in handling are many. At reduced
atmospheric pressure outgassing may be anticipated. Hence, there is the need
for rapid transfer to a closed system of handling so that the gases do not
enter the atmosphere of the occupied closed space. Much of the water in
feces is bound water and its recovery by extraction needs to be considered
only for emergency. The basic problem appears to be one of handling and
storage.
Heat followed by freezing or even freezing alone will suffice to inac-
tivate the material and permit its storage at -20?C or lower. It is believed
that the cubage required for storage of even as much as 0.5 lbs0 per day
would not be above 0.02 cubic feet per day, and might be considerably less.
It is a matter of conjecture at the moment as to the cubage that might be
required for equipment to inactivate and freeze material for storage. Ini-
tial research on this matter should be directed toward determination of
methods suitable for sealing off the material after evacuation and preparing
it for storage. Later when more is known of the diet and the probable char-
acteristics of the metabolic end products further research on possible
utilization of feces in a cyclic system should be undertaken.
Flatulence will, of course, contribute unwanted gases to the closed
space. Flatulence will mingle with the room air and must be considered among
the items to be treated in connection with purification of the closed space
atmosphere.
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Urine also is variable in quantity and composition. Hawk and Bergeim(78)
report the following:
Composition
Constituent
of Average Normal Urine
Daily Excretion
1.1.2.12=MEMA
Water
1200
Solids
60
Urea
30
Hippuric Acid
0.7
Uric Acid
0.7
Creatinine
1.2
Indican (Indoxyl Potassium Sulfate)
0.01
Oxalic Acid
0.02
Allantoin
0.04
Amino Acid Nitrogen
0.2
Purine Basis
0.01
Phenols
0.2
Cl as NaC1
12.0
Na
4.0
2.0
Ca
0.2
Mg
0.15
S as SO2
2.5
Inorganic Sulfates as SO3
2.0
Neutral Sulfur SO3
0.3
Conjugated Sulfates as SO3
0.2
Urine is a possible source of usable water and may be a source of nutri?
ents to be used in connection with algae culture. However, it contains
substances that may be toxic and therefore its possible treatment to recover
usable water requires careful and extensive exploration.
Exploratory studies on distilled urine were carried out by Dr. Newnan of
the project staff. The urine was distilled at atmospheric pressure and had a
urinous odor. It was passed through activated charcoal and then no odor or
taste was apparent. In a toxicity series of 10, testing toxicity of distiled
Zeolite treated samples to HeLa cells no growth was observed.
Assays of raw untreated urine gave the following analyses:
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Run 1
Run 2
9.
Run 3
Total Solids mgm/1
25,400
34,100
2,000
pH
6.6
6.4
6.5
Ash mgm/1
16,200
24,400
NaC1 mgm/1
6,800
6,760
6,920
.
Nitrogen mgm/1
Total N
5,950
6,700
Urea N
2,980
3,010
After distillation of one run total solids in the distillate were 160
mgm/1 and total N was 114 mgm/1. Another run containing 125 mgm/1 total N
after distillation was passed through a Zeolite column and the total N re-
maining was 14 mgm/1.
Fractional distillation on two runs gave the following results for total
N in the distillate.
Fraction
Total
Run 1
N mgm/1
Run 2
12 1/2%
219
184
12 1/2%
196
174
12 1/2%
155
120
12 1/2%
116
121
12 1/2%
120
160
12 1/2%
124
174
12 1/2%
326
280
We find that distillation of a sample delivers unsuitable water at the
beginning and end of the action. Approximately one-half of the sample deliv-
ered is of such quality that it might be subjected to further treatment in
ion exchange beds and with activated carbon and possibly additional filtra-
tion. However, the present thinking is that freezing techniques may offer a
better quality of recovered water. It seems essential that research on the
recovery of usable water from urine be explored fully?
Skin Excretions
Excretions from sebaceous glands and sweat glands contribute impurities
to the contained air in the form of water, salts, and detritus. These are
discussed in Appendix 1. Howell9(81) reporting on quantity of water loss, in-
dicates that 25 to 40 grams per hour are lost through insensible perspiration
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with 1/3 to 1/2 of that being given off from lungs. Approximately 600 ml, of
water is released from skin per 24 hours. However, the quantity may reach
2500 ml, per hour with strenuous muscular work. CO2 release is estimated at
7 to 8 grams per 24 hours and increasing with sweating.
The skin surface usually has an acid reaction and may exert a bacteri-
cidal effect. Dirt and fat may interfere with this reaction. The water
vapor loss from epithelial evaporation (insensible perspiration) does not
carry over solutes. However, the sweat glands do release many electrolytes,
organic acids and compounds, and inorganic salts in minute quantities. Seba-
ceous gland secretions are mixed with sweat, and the composition is not
exactly known. The fatty, oily material does contain in small quantities
cholesterol, some simpler fatty acids, fatty acid esters, albumins, and
inorganic salts. The sebum may spread over the skin in a protective layer
or may pack in the gland-cutaneous surface as a cheese-like mass. Organic
constituents of what is thought to be a mixture of sebaceous and sweat gland
excretion are believed to include small quantities of urea, uric acid,
creatinine? lactic acid, ethereal sulphates of phenol and skatol? amino acids,
sugar in traces, and albumin.
A review of the chemical composition of sweat by Robinson and Robinson(136)
offers a range of values reported by various research studies. The components
are here summarized:
1. Sodium Chloride
NaC1 and water are the principal substances whose loss
by sweating may affect the homeostasis of the individual to
a serious degree. Concentration of NaC1 is variable. Indi-
vidual values as low as 5 mEq/l to as high as 100 or 148
mEq/l have been reported. Average values ranging from 18-97
mEq/l have been reported in at least 86 separate studies.
Normal output from skin (no sweating) is ca. 0.2 mEq/hr. of
CI-. Sodium runs somewhat higher because of other sources
of Na.
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2. Potassium
Lower than Na averages about 4.5 mEq/1 with range from 1
to 15 mEq/1. Potassium concentration varies inversely with
the Na concentration and the Na/K ratio varies directly with
the Na concentration. Na/K = 15 in unacclimatized men, drop-
ping to 5 after a five-day adaptation period.
3. Calcium
Ranges from 1 to 8 mgm per 100 ml.
4. lIgnesium
0.04 to 0.4 mgm/100 ml.
5. Copper
4.4 to 7.5 mcg/100 ml.
6. Manganese
3.2 to 7.4 mcg/100 ml.
7. Sulphates
4 to 17 mgm/100 ml.
8. Iron
0.1 to 0.2 mgm/100 ml.
9. 12, F2' Br2 have been reported.
10. Lactic Acid
11.
Values reported range from 4 to 40 mE4/1.
Most observers found between 4 and 6.8.
12. Glucose
Extremely law. Reported from 0.1 mgm/100 ml. to 9 mgm/
100 ml.
13. Nitrogen
Much more dilute than corresponding values in urine.
Average values range from 23 mgm/100 ml. (tot. N) to 140
mgm/100 ml.
11.
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14. Urea N
Averages ranged from 12 to 39 mgm/100 ml. in several
studies.
15. NH3N
Most investigators report in range of 5 to 9 mgm per cent.
16. Creatinine
Ranges from 0.1 to 1.3 and averages 0.4 mgm/100
17. Uric Acid
Reports range from 0 to 1.5 mgm/100 ml.
18. Amino N
Extremely low, but 18 different amino acids have been
identified.
19. Phenol and Histamine reported.
More should be known about the sebum, both quantitatively and as to
deterioration. Study of determination of sweat gland excretions is also indi-
cated. The wastes resulting from personal ablutions containing skin excre-
tions should be investigated to determine means of safe disposal or recovery
for reuse.
WASTES HANDLING AND TREATMENT
The wastes of a closed ecology occur as liquids, solids, and gases.
Gaseous components are associated with both liquid and solid phase waste and
are a principal consideration in the closed space air. Solids in quantity
result from feces, but are also to be considered as a small but important
constituent of urine. Personal and other cleansing operations and room air.
Algae Culture
Attention has been given the idea that liquid wastes might contribute a
source of nutrient in algae culture. If SD, the dual problems of waste
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13.
treatment and CO2-02 balance might have common solution. The green algae,
Chlorella and Scenedesmus, have been used in studies of photosynthesis.
Chlorella has a high rate of photosynthesis and low (by comparison) rate of
respiration. Hence use of algae has offered seeming advantages in the estab-
lishment of CO2-02 balance. An extensive review of the literature and an
analysis thereof is contained in Appendix 2. There are certain desirable
characteristics which an alga suitable for use in a confined space should
have. The species of algae developed should:
1. Grow efficiently at a high temperature, say 40-509C.
2. Give a high growth rate with higher rates of evolution of oxygen.
3. Derive part of its CO2 needs from bicarbonate ion (danger of high
pH resulting would need phosphate buffer - perhaps).
4. Grow in mass culture without change over long periods by recircu-
lation of media.
5. Be very hardy - resist contaminating agents and inhibiting sub-
stances.
6. Have a pleasant flavor.
7. Be free from toxic substances.
8. Produce no substances which would inhibit its own growth.
9. Have good food value - as complete as possible - easily digestible.
10. Be able to utilize the nitrogen from urine.
It does not appear at the moment that algae can be utilized as a means
of waste treatment, since the waste would have to be treated extensively
before admission to the culture. There are many problems requiring further
study before algae culture can be accepted as a means of obtaining CO2-02
balance under closed space conditions.
In addition to the development of more suitable strains of organism,
consideration whould be given to possible mutation effects, the establishment
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of suitable and easily supplied sources of nutrient, possibly from chemicals,
urine and wastes, toxicity of the developed algae if used over extended time
periods as part of hnmnn diet, the control of growth of biological contaminat-
ing agents, and the development of processing and harvesting equipment that
will meet both cubage and weight requirements.
CO -02 Conversion
Since there are some possible limitations of growth of algae for main-
taining CO2-02 balance, it has been necessary to examine other possible
methods of attaining CO2 conversion. Appendix 3 contains a detailed discus-
sion of the potential of chemical conversion.
The treatment which has been occurring in nature is the Process of
photosynthesis. In simplified form the reaction may be written:
Light + CO2 + H20 --) 01120 + 02 + Q
Another possible form of the reaction might be:
CO2 + H20 ?4 (c6H1o06)n 4- 02
If this reaction can be made to take place in a non-living system (artificial
photosynthesis), one might anticipate that oxygen would be made available and
that a carbohydrate would be formed that might be made available for food or
fuel or auxiliary energy. CO2 would be removed as part of the reaction.
Matters of materials balance and energy balance are involved here. A cata-
lyst of some type is required. In nature the catalyst is chlorophyll.
When carbon dioxide is heated to higher temperatures it breaks down in
one of two reactions, or possibly both:
2CO2 2 CO + 02 Q (a)
200 --> 2 C + 02 -.Q1 (b)
The temperatures required for the reactions are high.
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Reaction (b) in all probability does not take place at least under
conditions ordinarily attainable, and even for reaction (a) the temperatures
required are very high (30000C - app. 5400?F). At these temperatures the
amount of molecular dissociation is only 18%. Higher temperatures serve
only to dissociate the molecular oxygen into atomic oxygen. If the oxygen
is to be recovered from the equilibrium mixture it would have to be cooled
very quickly to prevent the reverse reaction taking place. It would be
unusual if the recovery was more than 10%. The production of such high tem-
peratures is a difficult one attainable probably only by means of an electric
arc or sparks or solar furnace. The carbon monoxide produced is very poison-
ous but could be converted to a harmless and perhaps ecologically useful
product. In the foregoing reaction the form of energy to bring about the
dissociation is thermal. It might be fruitful to combine this with other
forms of energy.
The following are actual or potential reactions of CO2 with other sub-
stances.
(a) CO2 + H20 -4 H2CO3
This is the normal reaction with water at room temperatures, but the
product is unstable and is easily decomposed by a modest rise in temperature.
This reaction should not be confused with that of photosynthesis.
(b) CO2 + NaOH -4 NaHCO3
2 NaHCO3 ---) CO2 + Na2CO3 + H20
These reactions may be used to remove the CO2 from the enclosure but the use
of Ca(OH)2 is superior.
? CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 + H20
The CaCO3 is insoluble.
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16.
(c) The reactions between carbon dioxide and hydrogen are interesting.
They are:
CO2 + 4H2 --4 CH4 + 2H20 (a)
CO2 +2112 --* C + 2H20 (b)
(graphite)
related reactions are:
CO2 + 112 CO + H20 (c)
CO + 3H2 ?> CH4 + 1120 (d)
0 + 002 -4 200 (e)
The foregoing reactions can be carried out under the environmental condi-
tions existing in the closed system. 112 may be obtained by the electrolysis
of water.
In addition to the above reactions there is a vast spectrum of reactions
by means of which many useful compounds may be produced. For example, the
methane can be converted 02114 and 02112 which in turn can be converted to 06116
and other cyclic compounds. Or the following catalytic reaction may be used
to produce methyl alcohol:
CO + 2H2 CH3OH
Depending upon the choice of catalyst ethyl alcohol, acids and esters
may be produced.(132, 133)
(d) Excreta, etc. can be decomposed to form NH3 or the ammonia may be
formed from other sources. In any case there is a significant reaction
between CO2 and NH3'
CO2 + 2N113 NH4CO2N112
NH4002NB2 NH200 NH2 + H20
(e) If concern is for the production of 02 there are the reactions of
water with alkali peroxides, i.e.:
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2 Na202 + 2H20 -4 4
1 lb. Na202 produces 2.3 Cu.
NaOH + 02
ft. of 02
1 lb. Li202 produces 3.9 Cu. ft. of 02
or by the electrolysis of water:
2H20 2H2 + 02
Explorations and more intensive research into CO2 -02
ductive
in the following channels of effort:
conversion may
1. Induce greater efficiency in natural photosynthesis by
acceleration of growth, using substances such as gib-
berellic acid.
2. Investigate means for creating a synthetic cell using
organic dyes and enzymes as chloroplasts.
3. Study of the effect of various forms of energy on the
decomposition of carbon dioxide.
4. Study the effect of the bombardment by electrons on carbon
dioxide in various physical states.
Closed Space Air
17.
be pro?
The closed space air must be maintained in such condition that men can
live and work in it. Consideration of the hazards and possible means of
control is presented in Appendix 4. The control of temperature, humidity,
air motion, foreign matter, microorganisms, and the balancing of the CO2-02
ratio are all major factors to be considered in making the environment accep-
table for habitation. The ventilation of the confining space is not merely
the supplying of fresh air, or the replacement of spent 02, but encompasses
the exhausting of heat, dust, toxic gases, fumes and noxious odors which may
be present in the sealed space, while returning a usable, uncontaminated air.
An examination of each of the above mentioned, singly and in relationship
with each other, is necessary for an understanding of the problems of venti-
lation and air conditioning.
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18.
There are three general methods of reducing the moisture content of the
air: by compression, by adsorption, and by cooling. Cooling below the dew
point and condensing or freezing out the moisture is the most common method
of dehumidifying. For this purpose the concepts employed in present day
commercial equipment may be utilized to produce the desired effects within
the closed ecological system. Modifications with respect to size and weight
may have to be investigated.
Another possibility is the utilization of the temperature gradient
across the hull of the cabin. EXploratory investigations of the temperatures
(see Appendix 5) suggest that at some location the cabin structure will have
temperatures low enough to allow the use of freeze?out techniques. The
engineering design of such a system requires more thorough investigation to
determine its feasibility.
That dehumidification is necessary for comfort control is elementary,
but more important is the fact that condensed water vapor from the enclosed
atmosphere is one of the probable sources of water supply within the closed
ecological system.
The water vapor that is condensed out of the contained atmosphere prob?
ably may be a purer and less contaminated source of water than any bodily
waste.
Normally the air surrounding a living and breathing body is carried up
by its own warmth and consequent lightness, thus allowing fresh air to take
its place. But in a gravitationless system neither fresh nor foul air has
weight, and there can be no convection currents. Without air circulation,
heat discharged from the body would hang against the body causing intense
perspiration, which in a saturated atmosphere would not evaporate. Body
cooling effect would therefore be minimal. Non?circulation effects would
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190
also hold for the expired air. In a non-circulating atmosphere a motionless
body would soon become enveloped in expired air, rich in 002 and water vapor.
Air motion imparted mechanically by a fan or other stirring mechanism
to maintain the entire enclosed atmosphere in a state of turbulence or agi-
tation is necessary.
In any confined area in which activities transpire there are always to
be found impurities or foreign matter in the air. These materials are
usually particles of organic matter which come from nose, mouth, and skin,
and particles derived from the attrition of surfaces. These particles tend
to produce odors. The organic particles produce normal body odors which are
usually perceived in unventilated or even poorly ventilated areas. Within
the contained atmosphere these body odors are to be anticipated and others
which are not normally considered must be added.
Although odors as such are not injurious to health, they may affect
health indirectly. As odors become extremely noxious, shallow breathing may
induce 02 deficiency and its sequelae. Odors may also be indicators of the
presence of toxic substances.
At this time too little is known about the breakdown products and sub-
sequent gasification of body oils, gland secretions, flatulence, and bodily
waste products to be certain of their non-toxic effects when accumulated in
an atmosphere after cycles of reuse.
The air purification system is envisioned as a train of absorbents and
adsorbents which will remove the contaminants from the air by physical proces-
ses, chemical reaction or electrostatic attraction. Solid state rather than
liquid phase materials should be employed in order to prevent as much as
possible additional pollutant carry-over in the air stream and subsequent
condensation in the water supply.
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H. L. Barneby,(20) in a paper discussing the activity of activated char-
coal required for air purification, offers a table which gives SOMB rough
idea of the quantity of charcoal required per year for odor concentrations of
difficult intensity. As a guess, an odor index of 2, 3, or 4 might be antici-
pated in the closed space. This corresponds to 0.1, 1.0, and 10 pounds of
odor per million cubic feet. One pound per year of charcoal is required to
treat 100, 10 or 1 cubic feet of space at the respective levels of concen-
tration. Accordingly, for a space of 1,000 cubic feet the amount of charcoal
required may be between 10 and 1,000 pounds. It should be noted here that
this amount is only enough to provide for odor removal and is predicated on
the assumption that some fresh air is available due to building leakage. It
is also important that activated charcoal is not provided for CO2 adsorption.
Barneby points out that activated charcoal is relatively inefficient in re-
moving CO2 and should not be depended on for that action.
Experiments(174) conducted in 1942 have shown that recycling of air in
a closed room through air filters does little to change the overall room
microorganism concentration, even though a large number of organisms are
caught on the filter. Newer types of air filters of the millipore type, or
the impregnated resin deep filters are capable of removing over 99% of the
organisms from air drawn through the filter,(5 82) but the residual concen-
tration of microorganisms in the enclosed atmosphere may still be high.
Germicides, glycol sprays and other similar airborne materials may have
a beneficial effect in reducing bacterial numbers, but their effect on humans
under confined conditions with continuous inhalation and ingestion would re-
quire thorough study before they could be considered safe for use.
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21.
In summary it appears that temperature control, air motion development,
removal of particulate matter, elimination of odors and control of micro-
organism populations seem feasible with modifications of present day commer-
cial equipment. A train of materials can be established such that turbulent
air from the confined cabin would be drawn through an activated carbon filter,
a millipore2 or deep bed filter, and chemical train for specific materials
such as CH42 H2S, and any others that may become apparent as more analyses of
breakdown products are conducted.
By the time the air has passed through the train most of the gross im-
purities have been removed. This leads to the assumption that the room air
may provide the purest source of water available in the confined ecological
system. This supply of water developed from the water vapor would undoubt-
edly contain small amounts of entrained or dissolved gases. What the effect
of these small amounts might be on the human system is not known, nor did
any of the library references examined indicate study in this field.
It is conceivable that the human body, which is a well-organized purifi-
cation unit, can receive these materials through inhalation, skin, or oral
intake, and detoxify them, if necessary, passing them out as waste products.
If this be the case, many problems of train contaminant removal are simplified
by having the human body act as its own purification plant.
Further research is much needed in conjunction with the problem of air
conditioning for a closed ecological system to ascertain the chronic toxic
limits for hurnAns of the several material exposures by ingestion, by inhala-
tion, and by skin absorption. This is opposed to the problem of acute tox-
icity about which much has been written. Spector(149) offers information on
lethal dosages of many compounds, gases, vapors, and fumes.
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22.
Other Wastes
The following tabulation sets forth the types of waste and their probable
sourcess
Type of Waste Sources
Liquids)
Solids )
Gases )
(Bodily wastes including urine, feces.
(Room air including products of
Human ( respiration and perspiration.
closed (Personal cleansing.
space (Clothes washing,
occupancy (Food preparation.
(Utensil cleansing.
(Cabin cleansing.
(Process operations.
It will be observed that there are a number of sources of waste other
than those related to body metabolism. In the area of personal cleansing,
clothes washing, food preparation, utensil cleansing, cabin cleansing and
process operations there is almost total lack of knowledge of the probable
character and quantity of such wastes.
Waste liquids from all sources will contain organic solids in suspension,
in solution or both. Waste solids will contain water within the mass, or be
suspended in water or air. Wastes gases will be mixed with room air or will
be trapped and become part of an air purification train.
Waste solids in a more complex system may be developed directly, i.e.,
from feces and food preparation wastes; or indirectly, i.e., from residues
from the recovery of water from urine, room air, and various cleansing oper-
ations. In either case the composition of the wastes is not now known.
The composition and quantity of feces are related to the diet. The
composition and quantity of food preparation wastes are related to the food
supply and its characteristics. Direct wastes from dehydrated foods prepara-
tion will probably be minimal. The amount and character of waste that may
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23,
come from the use of algae or some other food product of the closed system
is pure conjecture until more is discovered about the condition of the food
product and the useable amounts recoverable within the cycle.
Indirect wastes will be end products of a treatment process. Other than
the immediate knowledge that such wastes will be both organic and mineral in
composition and will be of variable moisture content depending on the process,
little can be predicted without definitive knowledge of a particular process.
Literature on sewage treatment processes is voluminous. The journal of
the Federation of Sewage and Industrial Wastes Associations, Sewage and
Industrial Wastes, is perhaps the most complete single source of information
on sewage treatment.
Methods normally used include screening to remove larger solids, sedi-
mentation to remove settleable suspended material, and a form of biological
treatment to remove dissolved organic materials. The use of algae as a means
of sewage purification is not feasible (see Appendix 2, part VI).
The remaining biological processes used in present treatment practice
are the activated sludge process and the trickling filter process. Both of
these require the maintenance pf a culture of a complex of microorganisms
including bacteria and protozoa. The problems of maintenance appear to be
even more involved than those related to the mass culture of algae. In this
area of treatment an entirely new concept must be evolved to meet the parane
ters of weight and cubage permissible for a closed space ecology. It is
conceivable that all liquid and semi-liquid wastes, with the exception of
urine, and room air water condensate would have to be combined for further
treatment. Recycling of water seems inevitable and to satisfy the daily re-
quirement between 90 and 95% of available water (not including that in feces)
should be recovered in a degree of purity compatible with the end use.
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Obviously, water for drinking purposes would need to be entirely potablep
psychologically acceptable, and physiologically useable.
There are complexities that require step by step screening and involve
consideration of a number of hypothetical combinations of recovery for use.
Concurrently the possible usefulness of anticipated end products of treat-
ment must be considered. For example, fibrous materials might be used as
filter aids, and mineral matter, such as nitrates or phosphates, may have a
nutrient value for another process such as algae growth. Vitamins may be
recoverable as a diet supplement. (Domestic sewage sludge is a potential
source of Vitamin B.-12.) Even inert matter may have some value and its
usefulness should be given attention.
Research effort is required along the following lines in relation to
the handling of other wastes:
1. Establishment of the elements of food supply suitable for
maintaining man in a closed space ecology, including in-
formation on use of concentrated, dehydrated, precookedp
cooked in place, and synthesized food products.
2. Exploration of food preservation procedures that will mini-
mize spoilage and wadte which, in order, would merely add
to the non-productive shipping weight support and increase
the need for equipment weight to reprocess or treat spoiled
products. Preservation techniques include deep freezingp
irradiation and suitable protective packaging.
3. Extimation of food losses that may be anticipated within the
handling cycles and subcycles as they may affect the quan-
tity and composition of wastes to be recycled. These
include direct spoilage, loss due to physical damage and
contamination, preparation loss, uneaten food, and clean-
sing losses.
4. Projection of treatment processes applicable to the treat-
ment of water-carried wastes and the solids resulting
therefrom into treatment processes that may have feasi-
bility and practicability aboard space vehicles when
useability of end products is the objective.
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25.
COMMENT
From the foregoing discussion it is obvious that there are many environ-
mental factors that require research. Not until closed space air is main-
tained at safe and healthful levels, polluted liquids and objectionable
solids are treated or safe practice in handling and disposal is devised,
will it be possible to maintain human life for weeks or months in a closed
space. The processes that are employed must not fail, since the environment
will be totally dependent on the continuous and proper functioning of recla-
mation and conversion operations.
It is to be anticipated that research directed along paths suggested
here and in more detail in appendices will permit early development of
methods, processes, and equipment required.
ANNOTATED REFERENCES
The following references have been prepared to assist those who wish to
search more deeply into various aspects of the closed ecological system with
special consideration of the handling, recovery, collection, conversion,
storage and reuse of waste products of closed space occupancy.
Since the ASTIA established a codification system having a classifica-
tion that is in wide use among military agencies and contractors dealing with
military agencies, the references set up here are in general conformance with
ASTIA classification. That is, the category, Medical Sciences, is ASTIA No.
16. The section, Anatomy and Physiology, under Medical Sciences is No. 1.
That category and subdivision is expressed as 16-1. Within each category
and subdivision thereof the references have been listed alphabetically and a
number assigned to each. That is, the first reference under 16-1 has a Mas-
ter File No. 16-1-1; the second reference is 16-1-2.
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26.
An author cross reference system has been established so that if one is
searching for an author's works among these references it is possible to
search the Author Index alphabetically and find both the Author Index No0
and the Master File No.
For example, S. Robinson has conducted studies on composition of sweat.
In the Author Index under Robinson the Master File No. is 16-1-11. The
Author Index No. is 136. Both identifying numbers appear in these refer?
ences and in the author listings. Multiple writings of one author may be
found easily in the Author Index, and the references, being shown by Master
File No., can be found quickly in these pages.
The ASTIA categories and subdivisions under which references have been
prepared are listed below. ASTIA categories not shown herein have no anno?
tated references in this listing.
1. AIRCRAFT & FLIGHT EQUIPMENT
2. Aircraft Design
4. Flight Operating problems
5. Flight Safety
2. ASTRONOMY, GEOPHYSICS & GEOGRAPHY
7. Meteorology
4. CHEMISTRY
1. Chemical Engineering
2. Inorganic Chemistry
3. Organic Chemistry
4. Physical Chemistry
13. INSTALLATIONS & CONSTRUCTION
1. Air Conditioning & Refrigeration Equipment
3. Sanitation Engineering
16. MEDICAL SCIENCES
1. Anatomy & Physiology.
2. Bacteriology
3. Biochemistry
4. Biology
6. Hygiene & Sanitation
9. Nutrition
U. Pharmacology& Toxicology
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25. PHYSICS
8. Thermodynamics
29. QUARTERMASTER EQUIPMENT & SUPPLIES
2. Food & Containers
27.
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AUTHOR INDEX
Author Master
-Index File
No. No.
1 $ "Air Cleaner," Iron Age, 175, 14, 152 (Apr. 7, 13-1-1
195) ?
2 3 "Algae Hazard Found Facing Space Travel," Aviation 16,4.1
Week., 67, 10, 65 (Sept-. 9, 1957).
3 , "Control Toxic or Combustible Gases, Dusts or 13-1-2
Vapors," Rock Products, 57, 10, 73 (Oct., 1954).
4 , "Development of Chlorella Culture Process," Final 16-4-2
Report, Stamford Research Institute Project No. 191, Stanford
Research Institute, Stanford, Calif. (Mar., 1950).
5 , "Filtration of Very Fine Dusts," Engineering, 179, 13-1-3
4659, 607 (May 13, 1955).
"Freeze Drying of Foodstuffs," Modern Refrigera- 4-4-1
tion, XLVf, 540, 55 (Mar. 18, 1943).
1 "Laundering Foul Air for Reuse," Factory Mktage- 13-1-4
ment and Maintenance, 114, 2, 128 (Feb., 1956).
1 "More from the Bottom of the Barrel," Oil and Gas 4-1-1
Journal, 52, 46, 123 (Mar. 22, 1954).
2 "New Air Cleaner," SAE Journal, 63, 7, 54 0111y, 13-1-5
6
8
9
i55).
I0 ,"New Atomic Powered Submarines Equipped with Heavy 13-1-6
Duiy Cooling Systems," Industrial Refrigeration, 222, 2, 21
(Feb.., 1951).
11 , "New Device Enters Dust War," Electrical Journal, 13-1-7
CLIV, 20, 1636 (Maya), 1955).
12 1 "Odors and the Sense of Smell," Airkem, Inc., 16-1-1
-1N1
7717177k. Y. (1950).
13 , Pilot-Plant Studies in the Production of Chlor- 16-4-3
eilas "Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant," (edited
by J.S. Burley) p. 235, Publication 600, Carnegie Institution
of Washington, Washington, D.C. (1953).
14 $ Report, 126th National A.C.S. Meeting, Division of 4-3.1
Gas and Fuel Chemistry, Chemical and Engineering News, 32, 40,
3755 (Oct. 4, 1954).
15 Abbott, W.E., "Oxygen Production in Water by Photosynthesis," 16-4-4
Sewage Works Journal, 20, 3, 538 (kW, 1948).
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A-2
Author- Master
Index File
No. No.
16 Allen, &Boa "General Features of Algal Growth in Sewage Oxid- 16-4-5
ation Pondsa" Publication No. 13, State Water Pollution Control
Board, Sacramento; Calif. (1955).
17 Allen, M.B.? "Photosynthetic Nitrogen Fixationtg-Blue-Green 16-4-6
Algae," Preprint, Conference on Solar Energy s The Scientific
Basis, Univ-. of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz-. (Oct. 31-Nov. 10 1955).
18 Altshulera B. and Palmes, E.D., "Mechanical Exchange of Air 16-4-7
and Airborne Particles Between Tidal and Reserve Air," Unpub-
lished research, New York Univ. Dept. of Industrial Medicine,
New York Univ. Bellevue Medical Center, New York, N.Y. (May,
1957).
19 Bacarella, A.L.2 Devera D.F. and Grunwald, E.a "Absorption of 13-1-8
Organic Vapors by Anhydrous Magnesium Perchlorate," Anal.
Chem., ay, 11, 1833 (Nov., 1955).
20 Barnebey, H.L.a "Quantity of Activated Charcoal Required for 13-1-9
Air Purification," Unpublished paper, Barnebey-Cheney Co.,
Columbusa Ohio (Maya 1957).
21 Bassham, "Effect of Environmental Condition on. Photosyn- 16-4-8
thesif in Marine Algae," Final Progress Report, May la 1953
to Apr. l5a 1955, Univ. of California, Contract Nonr-222(19)?
(Jan. 28, 1955).
22 Bassham, "Use of Controlled Photosynthesis for Maintenance 16-4-9
of Gaseous Environment," Report, U.C.R.L. 2707, Univ. of Cali-
fornia Radiation Lab. Contract No. W-7405-eng-)48, Berkeley,
Calif. (Sept., 1954).
-23 Basshana J.A. and Calvin., M.a Photosynthesis, "Currents in Bio- 4-4-2
chemical Research" (edited by D.E. Green), p. 29, Interscience
Publishers, Inc.., New York, NY. (1956).
2)4 Bassham, J.k.a Shibataa K.a Steenberga K.., Bourdon, Jo, and Cal- 16-4-10
vino Mo, "The Photosynthetic Cycle and Respiration. Light-
Dark Transients," Report, U.C.R.L. 3331, Univ. of California
Radiation Lab. Contract No, W-7405-eng-48a Berkeley, Calif.
(Mar., 1956).
25 Berliner, J.J. and Staff, "Freeze Drying," Report No. 7066,
J.J. Berliner, New York; N.Y. (undated).
26 Bowman, N.J., "The Food and Atmosphere Control Problem on 4-1-3
Space Vessels, Part I. Chemical Purification of Air," Journal
of the Britishlxlet......SE91.9.1.0 12, 3, 118 (May, 1953).
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Co .y Ap roved for Release
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Index File
No.
? 27 Bowman, N.J., "The Food and Atmosphere Control Problem in Space 16 -4 -11
Vessels, Part II. The Use of Algae for Food End Atmosphere
Control," Journal of the British Inter laneta Societ 12,
49 159 (J 3
28 Bradish, C.J., "Freeze Drying," Chemical Products, 10, 9-10,
60 (July-Lug-09 1947).
29 Bradish, C.J., Brain, C.M. and McFarlane, A.S., "Vacuum Sub- 4-1-4
limation of Ice in Bulk," Nature, 159, 4027, 28 (Jan; 4, 1947).
30 Brooks, C.E.P. and Evans, G.J., "Part II. Annotated Biblio- 2-7-1
graphy on the Climate of Enclosed Spaces (Cryptoclimates),"
Meteorological Abstracts, 7, 2, 211 (Feb., 1956).
31 Brooks, F.A.? "More Food from Solar Energy," Preprint, World 16-9-1
Symposium on Applied Solar Energy, Phoenix, Ariz. (Nov. 1-5;
1955).
? 32 Brunel, J., Prescott, Gold. and Tiffany, L.H. (Editors), "The 16-4-12
Culturing of Algae," A Symposium, The Charles F. Kettering
Foundation, Yellow Springs, Ohio (1950).
33 Buettner, Kra, Chapter VI, Bioclimatology of Manned Rocket Flight, 16-4-13
"Space Medicine," (edited by J.P. Marba.rger), Univ. of Illinois
Press, Urbana, Ill. (1951).
34 Buettner, .K., Thermal Aspects of Travel in the Aeropause - -Prob- 25-8-1
leas of Thermal Radiation, "Physics and Medicine of the Upper
Atmosphere," (edited by C.S. White and 0.0. Benson, Jr.), p.
889 Univ.-. of New Press, Albuquerque, NOM. (1952).
35 Bulmer, M.G. and Fortmll, G.D., "Sodium and Potassium in 16-1-2
Thermal Sweat,* Report? Flying Personnel Research Comm.,
ASTIA No. AD-59072, Institute of Aviation Medicine, RAF (Eng-
land), (Nov" 1954)0
36 Burk, D., Cornfield, J. and Schwartz, M., "The Efficient Trans- 4-4-4
formation of Light into Chemical Energy in Photosynthesis,"
Scientific Monthly, LXXIII? 4, 213 (Oct., 1951).
37 Burley, J.& (Edited by), "Algal Culture from Laboratory to 16-4-14
Pilot Plant," Publication 600, Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington, Washington, D.C. (1953).
38 Burley, J.S., Current Status of the Large-Scale Culture of Algae, 16-4-15
"Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant," p. 3, Publica-
tion 600, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C.
(1953).
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2014/02/25: CIA-RDP81-01043R003300030003-5
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Index File
No, No.
39 Buswell, A.N[*p "A Study of the Chemical Mechanism of Anaerobic 16-2-1
Me Production," Jul. of Bacteriology, 29, 1, 81 (Jan.,
40 Butterfield, C.T.$ "The Purification of Sewage by Bacteria in 16-2-2
Pure Culture," Jul. of Bacteriology-, 33, 12 83 (Jam, 1937).
41 Caldwell, D;Wo? "Sewage Oxidation Ponds?Performance, Operation, 16-4-16
and Design," Sewage Works Journals 18, 3, 433 (May, 1946).
42 Callow, D.S. and Pirt, S.J.? "Automatic Control of pH Values in 16-2-3
Cultures of Microorganisms," Jnl. of General Microbiology, 14,
3, 661 (July, 1956).
43 Calvin, IL and Soo, P.B.? "Primary Quantum Conversion Process 4-1-5
in Photosynthesis Electron Spin Resonance," Science, 125,
3246, 499 (Mar. 15, 1957).
44 Cheasley, T.C., Forrester, J.D. and Sarapuu? E., "Underground 4-1-6
Electrocarbonization of Coal and Related Hydrocarbons," Min-
ing Engineering, 6, 9, 908 (Sept., 1954).
45 Commoner, B. and co-workers, "Free Radicals Power Life," Science 4-4-5
News Letter, 71, 16, 243 (Apr. 20, 1957).
46 Curran, H.M.2 "Fresh Water Extracted from Salt Waters Is The 4-1-7
Freezing Method The Best," Refrigerating Engineering, .?.2? 9,
45 (sept., 1955).
47 Daniels, F., "Atomic and Solar Energy," American Scientist, 22, 4-1-8
4, 521 (Oct., 1950).
48 Davis, E.A. and Dedrick, J., Culture Medium, "Algal Culture from 1644-17
Laboratory to Pilot Plant," p. 119, Publication 600, Carnegie
Institution of Washington, Washington-$ D.C. (1953).
49 Davis, E.A.? Dedrick, Jo, French, C.S., Milner, HX., Myers, J., 16-4-18
Smith, J.H.C. and Spoehr, H.A.? Laboratory Experiments on
Chlorella Culture at the Carnegie Institutionof Washington,
Department of Plant Biology, "Algal Culture from Laboratory
to Pilot Plant," p. 105, Publication 600, Carnegie Institution
of Washington, Washington, D.C. (1953).
50 Davis, LA0, Nyers, J. and Dedrick, J., Quantitative Studies in 16-4-19
Controlled Experimental Culture Units s Carbon Dioxide Concen-
tration, "Algal Culture fromLaboratory to Pilot Plant," p. 117,
Publication 600, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington,
D.C. (1953).
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Author
Index -
No.
51 Duysens, L.N.M., "Energy Transfer Within the Chloroplast," Pre-
print, Conference on Solar Energy: The Scientific Basis,
Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. (Oct. 31-Nov. 1$ 1955).
52 Echols, L.M.? "Evaluationd Methods of Generating Oxygen from 4-1-9
Solid Chemicals for Aircraft Breathing Systems," ASTIA No.
AD-10360, Technical Memorandum Report WORD 53-10 (Feb. 11,
1953).
52a Fahling, H.R. and Leser? T., "Determination of the True Composi- 4-1-10
tion of the Products of the Theoretical Combustion with Oxy-
gen and Oxygen/Nitrogen Mixtures at Temperatures Up to 2500?C.
at Atmospheric Pressures," p. 634, Third Symposium on Com-
bustion and Flame and Explosion Phenomenon, Standing Commit-
tee on Combustion Symposia, The Williams and Wilkins Co.,
Baltimore, Md. (1949).
53 Fenno, R.M., "Man's Milieu in Space," Jnl. Aviation Medicine, 16-1-3
25, 6, 612 (June, 1954).
54 Fink, H., "On the Protein Quality and the Liver Necrosis Pre- 16-4-20
ventive Factor of Unicellular Algae," Preprint, Conference on
Solar Energy s The Scientific Basis, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson,
Ariz. (Oct. 31-Nov0 10 1955).
55 Fisher, A.C., "Aviation Medicine on the Threshold of Space, 16-0-1
National Geographic, CVIII, 2, 241 (Aug., 1955).
56 Fisher, A:W., Jr., "Engineering for Algae Culture," Advance 16-4-21
Copy, World Symposium on Applied Solar Energy, Phoenix, Ariz.
(Nov. 1-5, 1955).
57 Fisher, A.W., Jr. and Burlew, J.S.? Nutritional Value of Micro- 16-9-2
scopic Algae, "Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant,"
p. 303, Publication 600, Carnegie Institution of Washington,
Washington, D.C. (1953).
58 Flosdorf, LW., "Freeze Drying as Applied to Penicillin, Blood 4-1-11
Plasma and Orange Juice," Chemical Engineering Progress, 43$
7$ 343 (July, 1947).
59 Fox, N. and Szilard, Los, "A Device for Growing Bacterial Popu- 16-2-4
lations Under Steady State Conditions," Jnl. Gen, Physiol.,
22, 2, 261 (Nov. 20, 1955).
60 Fox, S.W. and Ise, Cop "Chemical Changes in Protein of Sterilized 29-2-1
- Meat," Research Project Report No. 7, Contract No. DA44-109-qm-
1762, ASTIA No. AD-89549$ Quartermaster Food and Container Inst.
for Armed Forces, Chicago Hq., QM Research & Development Comm.,
Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, Iowa State College of Agri-
culture and Mechanic Arts, Ames, Iowa (Apr., 1954 - Sept., 1955).
61 Gaffron,.H., "The Development of Organic Photochemistry Concord.- 4-3-2
tent with the Production of Organic and Living Matter on Earth,"
Preprint, Conference on Solar Enprgys The Scientific Basis,
Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. (Oct. 31-Nov. 1, 1955).
A-5
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File
No.
4-4-6
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Index File
No. No.
62 Gast, P.R., Chapter 9, Insolation of the Upper Atmosphere and 25-0-1
of a Satellite, "Scientific Uses of Earth Satellites," p. 73,
Univ. of Michigan Press, Ann Arbori Mich. (1956).
63 Gee, A.H., "Organoleptic -Appraisal of Three-Componept Mixtures," 16-6-1
Symposium on Odor, A.S.T.M. Special Technical Report No. 164,
p. 33, American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia,
Pa. (1954).
64 Gee, A.H. and Pinkes, "Control of Odors in Evacuation Air- 16-6-2
craft," Aero Medical Lab. Conixact No. AF 33(038)-18819, Al'
Technical Report No. 6565, Part 2, ASTIA No. ATI-159415J
"Foster D. Snell, Inc., New York, N.Y. (Sept., 1951).
65 Geoghegan, M.J., Experiments with Chlorella at Jealott's Hill, 1644-22
"Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant," p. 182, Pub-
lication 600, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington,
D.C. (1953).
66 Gerster$ J.A.? "Advances in Distillation Separation," Ind. and 4-1-12
Eng. Chem., 47, 2, 253 (Feb., 1955).
67 Gotaas$ and Oswald, "Algal-Bacterial Symbiosis in 16-4-23
Sewage Oxidation Ponds," Third Progress Report, Series 44, No.
4, Univ. of California, Institute of Engineering Research,
Berkeley, Calif. (Dec. 31, 1952).
68 Gotaas, H.B. and Oswald, W.J., "Utilizationcf Solar Energy for 16-4-24
Waste Reclamation," Preprint, Conference on Solar Energy: The
Scientific Basis, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. (Oct. 31-
Nov. 1, 1955).
69 GradwahI? R.B.H., Chapter VIII, Feces, "Clinical Laboratory 16-0-2
Methods and Diagnosis," Vol. 2, p. 1261, C.V. Mosby Co., St.
Louis, Mo. (1956).
70 Greaves, R.I.N.? "Centrifugal Vacuum Freezing," Nature, 153, 4-1-13
3886, 485 (Apr. 22, 1944).
71 Greaves, R.I.N.? "The Preservation of Proteins by Drying," Spec- 4-3-3
ial Report No. 258, Medical Research Council, H.M. Stationery
Office, London, England (1946).
72 Grollman, A. (Editor), Paragraph: Sensible and Insensible Pers- 16-1-4
piration? "Clinical Physiology," p. 192, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, N.Y. (1957).,
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2014/02/25: CIA-RDP81-01043R003300030003-5
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Anthor
Index
To.
A..7
Master
File
No.
73 Gummert? F., Maffert, M.E. and Stratmanni H., Nonsterile Large- 16-4-25
Scale Culture of Chlorella in Greenhouse ani Open Air, "Algal
Culture from Laboratory-to Pilot Plant," p. 166, Publication
600, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C.
(1953).
74 Haber, H., "Space Satellites, Tools of Earth Research," National 1-0-1
Geographic-, CU, it, 486 (Apr, 1956).
75 Haldane, J.B.S., "Biological Problems of Space Flight," Journal 16-4-26
of the British Interplanetary Society, 10, 42 154 (July, 1951).
76 Hall, I.C., "Review of Development and Application of Physical 16-2-5
and Chemical Principles in the Cultivation of Obligately An-
aerobic-Bacteria," Jnl. of Bacteriology, 17, it, 225 (Apr., 1929).
77 Basinger, S., "Water-Mist Separation in Cabin Air-Conditioning 13-1-10
Systems," WAX Technical Report 53-324, ASTIA No. AD-61815
(Nov., 1953).
78 Hawk,-P.B., Oser, B.L. and Summersen, LH., Chapter, The Urine, 16-3-1
"Practical Physiological Chemistry," 13th Ed., p. 788, Lea and
Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa. (1956).
-79 Herbert, D.?-Elsworth, R. and Telling, R.C., "The Continuous Cul- 16-2-6
ture of Bacteria; A Theoretical and Experimental Stuoly," Jnl.
of General 'Microbiology, 14, 3, 601 (July, 1956).
80 Hopkins, G.J. and Neel, J.K., "Raw Sewage Lagoons," Water and 16-4-27
Sewage Works, 103, 12, 566 (Dec., 1956).
81 Howell, W.H., Section: Functions of the Skin, "A Textbook of 16-1-5
Physiology,ft 14th Ed., p. 869, W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia,
Pa. (1940).
82 Humphrey, A.E. and Gaden,E.L., Jr., "Air Sterilization by Fl- 13-1-11
brousliedia," Ind. and Eng. Chen., 47, 5, 924 (144Y, 1955).
83 Hundley, J.M., Ing? R.B. aid Krauss, RAT., "Algae as a Source 16-4-28
of Lysine and Thine in Supplementing Wheat and Bread Diets,"
Science, 124, 3221, 536 (Sept. 21, 1956); also, Nutrition
TATag, 77 87 (Mar., 1957).
84 Ingram, W.T.? "An Investigation of the Treatment of Cabin 13-3-1
Cruiser Wastes," Sewage and Ind. Wastes 28, 1, 93 (Jan.,
1956).
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Author
Index
k-8
Master
File
No.
85 Johnson', B.C., Hamilton, T.S. and Mitchell, H.H.1 "The Effect of 16-1-6
Choline Intake and Environmental Temperature on Excretion of
Moline from Human Body," J. Biol. Chem, 159, 1, 5 (June, 1945).
86 Johnson, B.C., Hamilton, T.S. and Mitchell, H.H., The Excretion 16-1-7
of Folic Acid Through the Skin and in Urine of Normal Individ-
uals-," J. Biol. Chem, 159, 2, 425 (July, 1945).
87 Johnson, B.C., Hamilton, T.S. and Mitchell, H.H.$ "The Excretion 16-1-8
of Nicotinic Acid, Nicotinamide, Nicotinuric Acid, and N1-
Methylnicotinamide by Normal Individuals," J. Biol. Chem., 159,
1, 231 (June, 1945).
88 Johnson, B.C., Hamilton, T.S. and Mitchell, H.H., "The Excretion 16-1-9
of Pyridoxine, Ifteudopyridoxine, and 4-Pyridoxic Acid in the
Urine and Sweat of Normal Individuals," J. Biol. Chem., 158, 3,
619 (May, 1945).
89 Jorgensen, J. and Convitl4Cultivation of Complexes of Algae with 16-4-29
Other Fresh-Water Microorganisms in the Tropics, "Algal Culture
from Laboratory to Pilot Plant," p. 190, Publication 600, Car-
negie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C. (1953).
90 Kathan? R.H. and Webster, A.P.2 "Design of a Packed Column for 16-11-1
Removal of Carbon Dioxide from Submarines," Quarterly Report
of Miscellaneous Tests and Minor Investigations, Part I, ASTIA
No. AD-38132, Naval Medical Field Research Lab., Camp Lejeune,
N.C. (Aug., 1953).
91 Kendricks, E.J., et al, "Medical Problems of Space Flight," 16-0-3
Special Report from Instructors Journal, Air Training Command,
USAF School of Aviation Medicine, Randolph Field, Tex. (Aug.,
1955).
92 Kirk, R.E. and Othmer, D.F. (Editors), Section-on Drying, Drying 4-1-14
Agents and Drying Oils, "Encyclopaedia of Chemical Technology,n
Vol. 5, p. 232, Interscience Publishers, Inc., New Ica.k, N. Y.
(1950).
93 Kok, B., Eaperiments on Photosynthesis by Chlorella in Flashing 16-4-30
Light, "Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant," p. 63,
Publication 600, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washing-
ton, D.C. (1953).
94 Kok, Bo, "The Yield of Sunlight Conversion by Chlorella," Pre- 16-4-31
print, Conference on Solar Energy: The Scientific Basis,
Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. (Oct. 31-Nov. 1, 1955).
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Author
Index
No.
A-9
Master
File
No.
95 Krauss, R.W., "Nutritional Requirements and Yields of Algae in 16-4-32
Mass Culture," Preprint, Conference on Solar Energy: The
Scientific Basis, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. (Oct. 31-
Nov. 1, 1955).
96 Langlykke, A.7.0 Peterson, W.H. and McCoy, Es, "Products from 16-2-7
the Fermentation of Glucose and Arabinoses by Butyric Acid
Anaerobes5" Jul. of Bacteilologyi 29, 4, 333 (Apr., /935)?
97 Leben, C. and Barton, L.V.? "Effects of Gibberellic Acid on 16-4-33
-Growth of Kentucky Bluegrass," Science, 125, 3246, 494 (Mar.
15, 1957).
-98 Lee, M.F., Henry, J.P. and Ballinger, E.B., "Basic Requirements 16-1-10
for Survival of Mice in a Sealed Atmosphere," Jul. Aviation
Medicine, 25, 4, 399 (Apr., 1954)0
99 Levine, P.P., "The Effect of Atmosphere of Hydrogen, 002, and 16-2-8
Oxygen, Respectively, and of Mixtures of these Gases on the
Growth of Bacillus Subtilis?" Jnl. of Bacteriology, 31, 2,
151 (Feb., 1936).
100 Iiimatainen, R.C. and Mecham, If.J., "Removal of Halogens, Car- 4-1-15
bon Dioxide, and Aerosols from Air in a Spray Tower," ASTIA
No. AD-69324, ANL-5429 Eng. (Feb. 28, 1955).
101 Lodge, J.P.? "Analysis of Micron Sized Particles," Anal. Chem., 13-1-12
26, 11, 1829 (Nov., 1954).
102 Madison, R.D. (Editor), Part III, Fan Application, Section 2- 13-1-13
Ventilation, "Fan Engineering," 5th Ed., p. 408, Buffalo Forge
Co., Buffalo: N.Y. (1948).
103 Mair, B.J0? Montjar, M.J. and Rossini, F.D., "Fractionation of 4-3-4
Hydrocarbons by Adsorption with Added Components," Anal. Chem.,
28, 10 56 (Jan., 1956).
104 Hair, B.J., Pignocco, A.J. aid Rossini, F.D., "A 50 Stage Ap- 4-1-16
paratus for Distillation at Very Low Pressures," Anal. Chem.,
27, 2, 190 (Feb., 1955).
105 Mattice, M.R.? Appendix--Resume of Normal Data, "Chemical Pro- 16-3-2
cedures for Clinical Laboratories," p. 403, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, Pa. (1936).
106 May, J.M.? "Solving the Ink Mist Problem," Heating, Piping and 13-1-14
Air Conditioning, 27, 7, 120 (July, 1955).
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Index File
No. No.
107 Mayer, A.M., Eisenberg, A. and Evanari, Mo, "Studies on the 16-4-34
Deep MassCulture of Alae in Israel," Preprint, Conference
on Solar Energy The Scientific Basis, Univ. of Arizona,
Tucson, Ariz. (Oct. 31-Nov. 1, 1955).
108 McFarland, R.A0, "Human Factors in Air Transport Design," 1st 1-5-1
Ed.,-MoGrawa-Tra11 Book Cai,,-NeirTork, N.Y. (1946).
109 &Neils, NW., "AircraftToiletServicing Unit," Aero Medical 13-3-2
Lab., WC Technical Report 54-296, Contract No. AF 33(600)-
23308, ASTIA,No-. AD-44600 (June, 1954).
110 McNeil, WW., "Urine EVraporator?" Aero Medical Lab., WAX Tech- 13-3-3
nical-Report 54-94, "WEELltio. AD-29012 (Feb., 1954).
111 McNeil, W.J. and Suelter, C.H.? "Aircraft Sewage Disposal," Aero 13-3-4
Medical Lab., WADC Technical Report 54-504, ASTIA No. AD-75798
(Apr., 1955)0
112 Mead, MX., Jr. and King, COG., "Proteolysis and the Selective 16-2-9
Destruction of Amino Acids by Clostridium Sporogenes and Clos-
tridium Histolyticum," Jnl. of Bacteriology, 17, 3, 151 (Mar.,
1929).
113 Meffert, LE., "Algal Culture in Sewage," Preprint, Conference on 16-4-35
Solar Energy: The Scientific Basis., Univ. of Arizona, Tucson,
Ariz. (Oct. 31-Nov. 1, 1955).
114 Milner, H.W.?The Chemical Composition of Algae, "Algal Culture 16-4-36
from Laboratory to Pilot Plant," P. 285, Publication 600, Car-
negie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C. (1953).
115 1yers9 J., "Algae as an Energy Converter," Preprint, World Symp. 16-4-37
on Applied Solar Energy, Phoenix:, Ariz. (Nov-. 1-5, 1955).
116 Myers, Jo, "Algal Growths Processes and Products," Preprint, 16-4-38
Conference on Solar Energy s The Scientific Basis, Univ. of
Arizona, Itcson? Ariz. (Oct. 31-;Nov. 1, 1955).
117 Myers, Jo, Growth Characteristics-of Algae in Relation to the 16-4-39
Problems of-Mass-Culture, "Algal Culture from Laboratory to
Pilot Plant," p. 37, Publication 600, Carnegie Institution of
Washington, 'Washington, D.C. (1953).
118 IteTSp Jo, et al, "Study of a Photosynthetic Gas Exchanger as a 16-4-40
Method of Providing for the Respiratory Requirements of the
Human in a Sealed Cabin," Report to the Air Rpsearch and Develop-
ment Command, Laboratory of Algal Physiology, Contract No. AF 18
(600)-618, Univ. of Texas, Austin, Tex. (Oct. 13, 1955).
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2014/02/25: CIA-RDP81-01043R003300030003-5
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Author
Index
No,
119
A-11
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File
No.
l?T.R., "Design of the Life Compartment Necessary for 1-2-1
Space Travel," Journal of the British Interplanetary Society,
13, 5, 277 (SeiV777195-4).
120 Nord, 1?, "Principles of Freeze Drying," Food Manufacture, xxvii, 4-4-7
11, 452 (Nov., 1952).
121 Oswald, W.J. and Gotaas, H.B., "Photosynthesis in Sewage Treat- 16-4-41
ment," Proceedino, American Society of Civil Engineers, Sep-
arate 613.67717(Hay? 1955)? also, Trans. ASCE, Paper 2849, 122,
73 (1957).
122 Oswald, W.J., Gotaas, H.B.? Goluske, C.G. and Kellen, WR., 16-4-42
"Algae in Waste Treatment," Sewage and Ind. Wastes, 2R, 4,
437 -(Apr., 1957).
123 Oswald, W.J., Gotaas, H.B., Ludwig:, H.F. and Lynch, V., "Algae 16-4-43
Symbiosis in Oxidation Ponds. III. Photosynthetic Oxygena-
tion-i," Sewage and Ind. Wastes, 25, 6, 692 (June, 1953).
124 Pearse, Los, et al, "Oxidation Ponds," (A.P.H.A. Report), Sewage 16-4-44
Works Journal, 20, 6, 1025 (Nov, 1948).
125 Perret, C.J.? "An Apparatus for the Continuous Culture of Beet- 16-4-45
eria at Constant Population Density," Jnl. of General Micro-
biology, 16?. 1, 250 (Feb., 1957).
126 Petersen, C.S. and Carroll, RX., "Biological Effect of Hydroxy- 16-4-46
lysines," ?2122.22, 123, 3196, 546 (Mar. 30, 1956).
127 Pratt, Ro, "Studies on Chlorella Vulgaris. IX. Influence on 16-4-47
Growth of Chlorella of Continuous Removal of Chlorellin from
the Culture Solution," American Journal of Botany, 31, 418
(1944).
128 Quinn, E.L. and Jones, C.L., "Carbon Dioxide," A.C.S. Monograph 4-2-1
No. 72, Reinhold Publishing Co., New Yorks N.Y. (1936).
129 Rabinowitch, E.I.? "Photosynthesis and Related Processes," Vol. 4-4-8
I, Interscience Publishers, Inc-0, New York, N.Y. (l945).
130 Rabinowitch? LI., "Photosynthesis and Related Processes," Vol. 4-4-9
Pt. 1, Interscience Publishers-, New York-, N.Y. (1951).
131 Rabinowitch, LI0, "Photosynthesis and Related Processes," Vol. 4-4-10
II, Pt. 2, Interscience Publishers-, Incl? New-York-, (1956)0
132 Randall, M. and Gerard, FM., "Synthesis of Methane from Carbon 4-2-2
Dioxide and Hydrogen," Ind. & Eng. Chem., 20, 12, 1335 (Dec.,
1928).
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Author
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No.
133 Randall, M. and Shiffler, W.H., "Depositioncf Carbon in Reaction 4-2-3
Between Carbon Dioxide and Hydrogen," Ind. & Eng. Chem., 211
100 941 (Oct., 1929).
134 Renn? C.E., "Algae Research on Oxidation Ponds," American Journal 16-4-48
of Public Health, 44, 5, 631 (May, 1954)0
135 Roberts, R.S.? "Bacteriological Problems Involved in the Use of 16-2-10
B. Coll as a Food," Jul. of Patholo and Bacteriolo LXIX,
1-20 359 (Jan.-Apr., 9
136 Robinson, S. and Robinson, A,H., "Chemical Composition of Sweat," 16-1-11
Physiological Rev., 21.4, 20 202 (Apr., 1954).
137 'loss, HOEOp "Orbital Bases," Journal of the British Interplanet- 16-6-3
2.17-Societza 8, 1, 1 (Jan., 1/49).
138 Ross, M.D. and Lewis, MOL.? "To 76,000 Feet by Strato-Lab Balloon," 1-0-2
National Geographic, CXI? 2, 269 (Feb., 1957)0
139 Ruchhoft? C.C., Kallas? J.G. and Edwards, 4P.0 "Studies of Bact- 16-2-11
erial Population During Sludge Digestion," Jnl. of Bacteriology,
19, 4, 259 (Apr.0 1930).
140 Sandorff? P.E. and Prigge? JOS., Jr., "Thermal Control in a Space 1-4-1
Vehicle," Journal of Astronautics, III 1$ 4 (Spring, 1956).
141 Schroeder, A.L. and Schwarz, HX., "Low Temperature Vacuum Dehy- 4-1-17
dration," Enineerin 45, 6, 370 (June,
1949).
142 Seely, B.K.? "Detection of Certain Ions in 10-10 to 10-15 Gram 13-1-15
Particles," Anal. Chem., 27, 10 93 (Jan., 1955).
143 Skinner, C.E. and Gardner,C.G., "Utilization of Nitrogenous Or- 16-2-12
ganic Compounds and Sodium Salts of Orgaaic Acids by Certain
Soil Algae in Darkness and in the Light," Jnl. of Bacteriology,
19, 3, 161 (Mar., 1930).
144 Slote? L. and Murray, W.D.? "A Method of Predicting Skin, Com- 1-2-2
partment, and Equipment Temperatures for Aircraft," Final
Report, New York Univ. Contract No. AF 33(616)-122, ASTIA No.
AD-19722, WADC Technical Report 53-119 (July:, 1953).
145 Smallhorst? D.F., Walton, B.N., Jr. and Myers, Jo, "The Use of 16-4-49
Oxidation Ponds in Sewage Treatment," Preprint, American Pub-
lic Health Association, New York, N.Y. (1953).
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Author
Index
No.
A-13
Master
File
No.
146 Smith, J.H.C., Cultivation of Chlorella in a Vertical Sediment- 16-4-50
ation Tube, "Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant,"
p. 143, Publication 600, Carnegie Institution of Washington,
Washington, D.C. (1953).
147 Specht, H., Toxicology of Travel in the Aeropause, "Physics and 16-11-2
Medicine of the Upper Atmosphere," (edited by C.S. White and
0.0. Benson, Jr.), p. 171, Univ. of New Mexico Press, Albuquer-
que, N.M. (1952).
148 Special Study Group, Class 1956, Command and Staff School, Max- 16-4-51
well Air Force Base, "The Human Element in Future Air Power,"
Special Study Number 9a, Air Command and Staff College, Com-
mand and Staff School, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama (Apr.
20, 1956).
149 Spector, W.S. (Editor), "Handbook of Toxicology," Vol. I, W.B. 16-11-3
Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa. (1956).
150 Spoehr, H.A0, Smith, J.H.C., Strain, H.H., Milner, H.W. and 16-4-52
Hardin, G.J.2 "Fatty Acid Antibacterials from Plants," Pub-
lication 586, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington,
D.C. (1949)0
151 Stevens, A.W., "Man's Farthest Aloft," National Geographic, 1-0-3
MIX, 1, 59 (Jan., 1936).
152 Stoney, R.H. and Fauth, E.H., "Treatment of Sewage Sludge by 13-3-5
the McDonald Process," Public.Works, 88, 3, 111 (Mar., 1957).
153 Strughold, Ho, "The Medical Problems of Space Flight," Interna- 16-0-4
tional Record of Medicine and General Practice Clinics, 168, -
9, 570 (Sept., 1955).
154 Strughold, He, "The U.S. Air Force Experimental Sealed Cabin," 16-1-12
Jnl. Aviation Medicine, 27, 2, 50 (Feb., 1956).
155 Stutzman? L.F.? Tri-Monthly Report, Project NE 266-001 (N6 -ori - 4-1-18
158), ASTIA No. AD-6741, Chem. Eng. Dept., Northwestern Tech-
nological Inst., Evauston, I11. (July 1-Sept. 30; 1952).
156 Stutzman, L.F., "OperationBideouts." Report, Project NR 266-001 4-1-19
(N6-ori -158 -03), ASTIA No. AD-19360, Chem. Rog. Dept., North-
western:Technological Inst., Evanston, 111. (Sept. 30, 1953).
157 Tamiya? H., "Growing Chlorella for Food and Feed," Preprint, 16-4-53
World Symposium on Applied Solar Energy, Phoenix, Ariz. (Nov.
1-5, 1955).
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No.
158 Tamiya, He, Sasa, T., Nihei, T. and Ishibashi, S., "Effect of 16-4-54
Tay-Length, Day-and-Night-Temperatures, and Intensity of Day-
light Upon the Growth of Chlorella," Preprint, Conference on
Solar Energy: The Scientific Basis, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson,
Ariz. (Oct. 31-Nov. 1, 1955).
159 Tamiya, H., Shibata, Key Sasa, To, Iwamura, T. and Morimura, Y., 16-445
Effect of Diurnally Intermittent Illumination on the Growth
and Some Cellular Characteristics of Chlorella, "Algal Culture
from Laboratory to Pilot Plant," p. 76, Publication 600, Car-
negie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C. (1953).
160 Thimaan, K.V., "Solar Energy Utilization by Higher Plants," 16-4-56
Preprint, World Symposium on Applied Solar Energy, Phoenix,
Ariz. (Nov: 1-5, 1955).
161 Thomas, J.B." "The Chloroplast as a Photoreceptive Mechanism in 4-4-11
Photosynthesis," Preprint, Conference on Solar Energy: The
Scientific Basis, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. (Oct. 31 -
Nov. 1, 1955).
162 Thompson, T.G.1 "Fresh Water from the Sea," Technion Yearbook, 13-3-6
14, 96, American Technion Society, New York, N.Y. (1957).
163 Thompson, T.G. and Nelson, K.H., "Desalting Sea Water by Freez- 4-1-20
ing," Refrigerating Engineering, 62, 7, 44 (July, 1954).
164 Turk, A., "Catalytic Reactivation of Activated Carbon in Air
Purification Systems," Ind. and Rug. Chem., 47, 5, 966 (May,
1955).
-165 Turk, A., "Odor Control Methods: A Critical Review," Symposium 16-6-4
on Odor, A.S.T.M. Special Technical Report No. 164, p. 69,
American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia, Pa.
(1954).
166 Van Heuvelen, W. and Svore, J.H.$ "Sewage Lagoons in North Da- 13-3-7
kota," Sewage and Ind: Wastes, 26, 6, 771 (June, 1954).
167 Wassink, E.C., Kok, B. and van Oorszhot? JeL.P., The Efficiency 16-4-57
of Light-Energy Corrrersioa in ChloreIla Cultures as Compared
with Higher Plants-, "Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot
Plant," p. 55, Publication 600, Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington, Washington, D.C. (1953).
168 Wainairl, J. and Gerdeman, A., "The Bacterial Count of Ice Cream 16-2-13
Held at Freezing Temperature," Jnl. of Bacteriology, 17, 1, 38
(Jan., 1929).
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No. No.
169 Wenzel, W.J., "Sewage Lagoons--Low Cost Treatment and Disposal 13-3-8
Method," Engineering News Record, 151, 8, 48 (Aug. 20, 1953).
170 White, C.S. and Benson, 0.0., Jr. (Editors), "Physics and Medi- 16-0-5
eine of the Upper Atmosphere," Univ. of New Mexico Press, Al-
buquerque, N.M.(1952).
171 Winslow, C.E.A.? et al, "'Ventilation," Report of the New York 13-1-16
State Commission on Ventilation, Milbank Memorial Fund, E.P.
-Dutton & Co., New. York, N.Y. (1923).
172 vonlislitschs H. and Harder, R., Production of Organic Material 1644-58
by-Green Algae and Diatoms, "Algal Culture from laboratory to
Pilot Plant," p. 154, Publication 600, Carnegie Institution
Of Washington-9 Washington-s, D.C. (1953).
173 Yaglou, C.P., Riley, E.C. and Coggins, D.I., "Ventilation Re- 16-6-5
quirements," Paper 1031, Trans. A.S.H.U.E., 42, 133 (1936)1,
also, Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, 81, 65 (Jan.,
1936).
174 Yagloul C.P. and Wilson, Us, Disinfection of Air by Air Condi- 13-1-17
tioning Processes, "Aerobiology," Publication No. 17 (edited
by F.R. Moulton), p. 129, American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, Washington, D.C. (1942).
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MASTER INDEX
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No.
1-0, AIRCRAFT & FLIGHT EQUIPMENT
74 Haber, H., ',Space Satellites, Tools of Earth Researchln National 1-0-1
Geographic, CIX, 4, 486 (Apr., 1956).
Discusses -historical background-leading-to space flight. Pre-
s the type of scientific research which will be conducted
in connection with the International Geophysical Year.
138 Ross, M.D. and Lewis, M.L., "To 76,000 Feet by Strato -Lab Ba].- 1-0-2
loon," National Geographic, CXI? 2, 269 (Feb., 1957).
Review of problems. Suggests data from General Mills,
Minneapolis, Minn.
151 StevensIAM., "Man's Farthest Aloft," National Geographic, max, 1-0-3
1, 59 (Jan., 1936).
Rising to 13.71 miles, the National Geographic Society-U.S.
Army Air Corps Stratosphere Expedition gathers scientific
data at record altitude.
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No.
1-2, AIRCRAFT DESIGN
119 Nicoll, N.Ro, "Design of the Life Compartment Necessary for 1-2-1
Space Travel," Journal of the British Interplanetary Society,
13, 5, 277 (Sept., 1954).
The author describes a parabolic housing with a saucer-shaped
base as the life compartment. The atmospheric control is
through adsorption of CO2 by Lithium Oxide, liquid oxygen be-
ing used as make-up. Special attention is called to the fact
that the ship will rotate to develop a gravitational field.
Calculation of weights of life compartment in which three
men will live for up to 15 days.
Structure
1,220#
Air locks
150
Coelostate apparatus
52
Chaise longue and rails
84
Catwalk and supports
196
Refrigeration plant
56
Food, 02 8c apparatus
168
Water
112
Total 27555F
144 Slote, L. and Murray, W.D., "A Method of Predicting Skin, Com- 1-2-2
partment, and Equipment Temperatures for Aircraft," Final
Report, New Univ. Contract No. AF 33(616)-122, ASTIA
No. AD-19722, WADC Technical Report 53-119 (July, 1953).
This report presents a method for the calculation of the equil-
ibrium skin temperature of aerodynamic shapes in steady flight.
Graphical methods are presented for the calculation-of equipment
temperature and compartment air -temperature. The numerical and
graphical solutions arepresented for aircraft flying at speeds
to Mach number 5 and for altitudes from 0 to 100,000 feet in the
proposed USAF Hot and Cold Atmospheres.
In this report an attempt is made toward simplification of the
empirical formulae by graphic presentation of calculations upon
typical aerodynamic shapes. Analysis is based upon considera-
tion of a flat plate and the case of an isothermal surface and
constant free stream velocity. Methods for applying the graphs
to other surfaces are presented.
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1-4, FLIGHT OPERATING PROBLEMS
140 Sandorff, P.E. and Prigge, J.S.? Jr., "Thermal Control in a 1-4-1
Space Vehicle," Journal of Astronautics, III, 1, 4 (Spring,
1956).
A mathematical analysis of the probable temperature of the
surface of a space vehicle under various flight conditions.
The formula which-the-authors develop iss
T mean m 796?R where T mean s= Aver. Tsui). in ?R
and R is radius in inches.
One rpm would cause stabilization of hull temperature at 705?
R + 100 R. Some means of maintaining law temperatures in-
side the ship must be designed. Discusses insulation, use of
double hull construction heat pump, radiation shields and use
of heat stops in the hull itself.
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No.
14, FLIGHT SAFETY
108 McFarland, R.A., "Human Factors in Air Transport Design," 1st 14-1
Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Coes, New York, N.Y. (1946).
Text book of 670 pages with 13 chapters and 3 appendices.
Book outlines interaction of human and physical variables
in flight which are important in the operation of aircraft.
Book covers safety and efficiency of operation as well as
comfort and well being of passengers during all stages of
flight.
11-4
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No.
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No.
2-7, METEOROLOGY
30 Brooks, C.E.P. and Evans, G.J., "Part II. Annotated Biblio- 2-7-1
grapAy on the Climate of Enclosed Spaces (Cryptoclimates),"
Meteorological Abstracts, 7, 2, 211 (Feb., 1956).
Good reference for finding additional reference material.
282 abstracts given. Covers 1868 to date.
Includes some information on: (1) Devices for modifying
indoor climate; (2) Controlled laboratories for simulating
weather or climatic conditions; (3) Measurement methods
for meteorological elements affecting indoor climate.
Note references: 7B-401 7B-45, 7B-49, 7B-551 7B-581 7B-66,
7B-67, 7B-71, 7B-72, 7B-74, 7B-89, 7B-154, 7B-1651 7B-1921
7B-195, 7B-215, 7B-222, 7B-2321 7B-238.
Underlined references appear to justify immediate follow
up.
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No.
4-1, CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
8 9 "More from the Bottom of the Barrel," Oil and 4-1-1
Gas Journal, 52, 46, 123 (Mar. 22, 1954).
A discussion (with flaw diagrams) of seven different process-
es newly developed or revised to help reduce the bottom of
barrel stocks of crude oil.
The processes discussed are all primarily useful in convert-
ing portions of the residue into suitable feeds for catalytic
cracking units.
25 Berliner, J.J. and Staff, "Freeze Drying," Report No. 7066,
J.J. Berliner, New York, N.Y. (undated).
Freeze drying was used early in France during the 19002s
through 1930 as a process for preserving labile biological
products. The process in the beginning consisted of freez-
ing the material and placing it in a desiccator over 13905
and applying a vacuum until dried.
In the U.S. patents were issued in 1934 and 1938 for freeze
drying in thin layers with refrigerator coils under high
vacuum. External radiant heat was supplied.
A paper by Greaves and Adair is cited, but the reference is
not given. This paper describes the thermodynamic relation-
ships involved in heat transfer to control drying rates with-
out melting the frozen material.
A discussion is presented giving the mechanism- of freeze dry-
ing according to the principles based on the phase diagram
of the watery- so-lutiorr being- concentra.Led. Actually, the
process-involved should be one consisting of sublimation
without any- liquid phase being- presexrt at any -time after
freezing has- taken- place, so that instead of distilling water,
the solid ice can be vaporized at a much lower temperature
which is well below the eutectic.
In order to reduce the partial pressure over the solid being
sublimed high vacuums are necessary. Energy to satisfy vapor-
ization requirements are supplied by outside heat, and vapors
are removed continuously by means of a pump.
Diagrams are presented showing the simple sublimation proced-
ure, the equilibrium diagram for the water-solute systeml and
a phase diagram for pure water.
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25 (cont'
N-?
Master
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No.
4 -1, CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
d)
Calculations are-given showing the effect of air leakage
into the system on the efficiency of vapor condensation
when the condepser temperature is at about 440?C and the
still temperature at -20?C.
The authors point out that in the low micron pressure
ranges gaseous flow does not follow ordinary fluid flaw
principles. Instead, Knudsongs molecular flow formula is
obeyed. This iss 0 - 4 ,A7E?d/r2r r3 (P - P)
3" , n
-
Q I. flow in liters/sec. measured at the average pressure
R = gas constant
T = absolute temperature (scale not stated; probably Cent.)
M = molecular weight of the gas
r = radius of the tube through which the gas flows in
centimeters
L = length of the tube in centimeters
P1 and Fi'2 are the upstream and downstream pressures in mi-
cron in m not stated by the authors).
After a discussion of the freeze-drying mechanism in very
general terms, an estimated cost of drying foods on a pro-
duction scale is given as about $0.03/1b. of muter removed.
The conditions under which a given volume of material at a
specified temperature will freeze-dry or sublime at a maxi-
mum rate are summarized as follawss
l. The vapor pressure of the ice sublimed on the condenser
is negligible in comparison with that- of the frozen
material.
2. The surfaces of condenser and frozen material have a
uniform and minimum aeparation.
3. The partial pressure of the permanent gas (usually air)
in the interspace is a minimum.
4. Mechanical obstruction to vapor transfer by radiation
shields and sterile caps is aminimum.
5. The frozen material is of uniform and minimum thickness.
26 Bowman, N.J., The Food and Atmosphere Control Problem on Space 4-1-3
Vessels, Part I. Chemical Purification of Air," Journal of
the British Interplanetary Society, 12, 39 118 (May, 1953).
The removal of water from the air may be readily carried out
by refrigeration. The removal of CO2 by combined refrigera-
tion and compression is not attractive because of large quan-
tities of air that must be processed to keep CO2 concentration
below 0.2%. For short trips use of Lithium Oxide is recom-
mended for absorption, while for longer trips (over 8 days)
use of CaO and regeneration in a muffle furnace is recommended.
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4-1, CHEMICAL ENGINEERING No.
26 (contld) 4-1-3
Various values for water exhaled, 002 produced and 02 util-
ized. An estimate:
1 pint of water/man/day exhaled
1 kg of 002/man/day for moderate activity
02 coLzumptilon-varies from 300 to 750 ml/min.
The fact is pointed out that it would be necessary to carry
liquid 02 to replace that consumed by the body.
29 Bradish, C.J., Brain, C.M. and McFarlane, A.S., "Vacuum Sub- 4-1-4
limation of Ice in Bulk," Nature, 159, 4027, 28 (Jan. 4,
1947).
A discussion of the theory and equipment used for freeze
drying of biological materials for the maximum rate of
vaporization per unit exposed area of frozen product at a
specified temperature.
43 Calvin, M. and Sogo, P.B., "Primary Quantum Conversion Pro- 4-1-5
cess in Photosynthesis; Electron Spin Resonance," Science,
125, 3246, 499 (Mar. 15, 1957).
A possible explanation of an age old mystery--haw plants
build sunlight into the food compounds that maintain life
on earth--was proposed in Washington.
44 Cheasley,T.C., Forrester, J.D. and Sarapuu, E., "Underground 4-1-6
Electrocarbonization of Coal and Related Hydrocarbons,"
Mining Engineering, 6, 9, 908 (Sept., 1954).
The process described is the gasification of coal or oil by
passing an electric current through the beds beneath the
ground. It is essential1y a coke oven below ground being
heated by electrical energy:
Explains problems and costs of operation as well as results
from pilot unit at Hume, Mo:
46 Ciirran, H.M., "Fresh Water Extracted from Salt Water: Is the 4-1-7
Freezing Method the Best?," Refrigerating Engineering, 63,
9, 45 (Sept., 1955).
The freezing method of extracting fresh water from salt water
and the distillation method are similar in that both involve
the formation ofa pure water phase by the application of suit-
able heat transfer processes. The methods differ in that the
ice phase remains in contact with residual brine, whereas in
distillation the vapor phase requires a suitable process sub-
sequent to freezing in order to separate the ice and brine.
Difficulties in handling the solid phase are disadvantageous
it present.
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4-1, CHEMICAL ENGINEERING No.
46 (cont' d)
No process has been discovered as yet by which all the ice
found can be made available as a source of water. Whether
the separation of ice and brine is accomplished by gravita-
tional draining, centrifuge draining, washing or a combina-
tion, some ice must be lost by melting to reduce the con-
centration of brine adhering to crystal faces.
Processes for rapid freezing-of thin layers of ice and sub-
sequent centrifuging of ice are explained. Techniques and
apparatus described and results tabulated.
47 Daniels, Fe, "Atomic and Solar Energy2" American Scientist, 38, 4-1-8
4, 521 (Oct., 1950).
The author states, "Is there any chance of beating nature at
her own game and developing artificial photosynthesis with
organic dyes and enzyme substances? Might not these cause
the combination of carbon dioxide and water using reactions
somewhat different from those occurring in the growth of
green plants?" He then states that there doesnst seem to
be any theoretical reason for such a development to be un-
successful in the distant future. He believes2"It would be
interesting to see what might be done with two million dollars
in three years for the greater utilization of solar energy
for peaceful purposes under conditions of decentralization
and independent initiative, aided by rapid publication of re-
sults."
52 Echols2 L.M.2 "Evaluation of Methods of Generating Oxygen from 4-1-9
Solid Chemicals for Aircraft Breathing Systems," ASTIA No.
AD-103602 Technical Memorandum Report WCRD 53-10 (Feb. 112
1953).
The purpose of this report is to evaluate the work already
done in the field of chemical oxygen2 and to estimate the work
which lies ahead. Comparisons made herein deal with the gas-
eous., liquid and chemical means of supply of oxygen to aircraft
breathing systems. The points for consideration ares
1. Weight
2. Volume
3, Performance
4. Hazards
5. Handling and Storage
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No.
4-1, CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
M-10
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File
No.
52a R.Hings H.R. and Lesers T.$ "Determination of the True Composi- 4-1-10
tion of the Products of the Theoretical Combustion with Oxy-
gen and Oxygen/Nitrogen Mixtures at Temperatures Up to 2500?C.
at Atmospheric Pressures," p. 634, Third Symposium on Com-
bustion and Flame and Explosion Phenomenon, Standing Committee
on Combustion Symposia, The Williams and Wilkins Co., Balti-
more, Md. (1949).
No chemical reaction can be fully -understood without complete
knowledge of the reaction products. In coMbustion with air
it is possible to calculate the approximate gas composition
since flame temperatures normally do not reach beyond 2000?C0
and dissociation is relatively small. The authors show haw
it is possible to calculate the amount of atomic hydrogen and
oxygen formed in the simplest cases where the gas contains
only CO2 and H20.
58 Flosdorfs E W
.$ "Freeze Drying as Applied to Penicillin, Blood 4-1-11
Plasma and Orange Juice," Chemical Engineering Progress, 43,
7, 343 (July, 1947).
Discussion of reasons for freeze drying and equipment used.
The advantages and disadvantages of batch operation vs. con-
tinuous operation are discussed.
66 Gerster, J.A.s "Advances in Distillation Separation," Ind. and 4-1-12
Eng. Chemo, 47, 2, 253 (Feb" 1955).
The article discusses distillation and its advances to permit
greater accuracy in design of fractionating columns.
Some new techniques in azeotropic and extractive distillation
are summarized.
70 Greavess R,I.N.s "Centrifugal Vacuum Freezing," Nature, 153, 4-1-13
3886, 485 (Apr. 22s 19)4).
Describes the application of centrifugation to the drying of
biological materials from the frozen state. Centrifuging the
material as the temperature is lowered prevents frothing.
Axis of spinning permits variation in shape of final frozen
material.
92 Kirk, R.E. and Othmer, D.E. (Editors), Section on Drying, Dry- 4-1-14
ing Agents and Drying Oils, "Encyclopaedia of Chemical Tech-
nology," Vol. 52 p. 2322 Interscience Publishers, Incos New
Yorks N.Y. (1950).
Sections of encyclopedia cited above list methods, equipment
and theory of action of dryings drying agents and drying oils.
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No.
4-1, CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
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No.
100 Liimatainen? R.C. and Mecham, 14.J., "Removal of Halogens, Car- 4-1-15
bon Dioxide, and Aerosols from Air in a Spray Tower," ASTIA
No. AD-69324? ANL-5429 Eng. (Feb. 289 1955).
Tests were made of the removal from air of Bromine, Fluoride
and Iodine vapors, lf atmospheric Carbon Dioxide, and of twO
aerosols (of 0.5 and 0.10 micron mean diameter) from a multi-
ple nozzle caustic spray tower with gas_ flow rates up. to 6000
cm, ft./min. The halogerrabsorption efficiencies ranged from
60 to ano per cent, with an average KGa of 13 ib.-mol./(hr.)
(cu. ft0)(atm.). The corresponding average gas rfte was 1442
ib./(hr.)(sq0 ft.) and the average liquid rate waS 122 lb./(hr.)
(cu. ft.). The average concentration of Potassium Hydroxide
used was 6 weight per cent. Carbon Dioxide runs over a range
of gas rates, liquid rates, Carbon Dioxide concentrations, and
Potassium Hydroxide concentrations showed values of KGa as high
as 3.74 ib.-mol.Ahr.)(cuo ft.)(atm.), which is comparable to
those obtained in packed towers. The Ka was independent of
the gas rate, but increased with liquid rate, Carbon Dioxide
concentration, and Potassium Hydroxide concentration. Aerosol
absorption efficiencies were between 35 and 57 per cent in the
tests made. Analysis of the spray contacting mechaaism was
developed for the purpose of aiding in the design of highly
efficient spray scrubbers.
104 Nair, B.J.? Pignocco? A.J. and Rossini, F.D., "A 50 Stage Ap- 4-1-16
paratus for Distillation at Very Low Pressures," Anal. Chem.,
27, 2, 190 (Feb., 1955).
Paper describes design and assembly of a 50 stage apparatus
for distillation at very low pressures.
Operation and tests are described in conjunction with petrol-
eum paraffins.
Materials for report from doctoral thesis and American Petrol-
eum Institute Research Project No. 6, Carnegie Institute.
141 Schroeder, A.L. and Schwarz, H.W., "Low Temperature Vacuum De- 4-1-17
hydration," Chemical Engineering Progress, 45, 60 370 (June,
1949).
A general review of high vacuum dehydration is presented.
Equipment and operation costs are discussed.
The problems of drying rate, final moisture content, concen-
tration and mechanism of release of water are mentioned as
requiring further study.
Two general types of high vacuum dehydration are considered;
namely, sublimation drying and liquid fiIm drying.
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No. 4-1, CHEMICAL ENGINEERING No.
155 Stutzman, L.F., Tri-Monthly Report, Project NR 266-001 (N6- 4-1-18
ori-158), ASTIA No. AD-6741? Chem. Eng. Dept., Northwestern
Technological Inst., Evanston, Ill. (July 1-Sept. 30, 1952).
One of the most promising regenerative chemical methods for
removal of CO2 from air is by reaction with Silver Oxide to
form Silver Carbonate, which can later be regenerated to the
original Silver Oxide. This method, along with many others,
was listed in the complete survey of CO2-removal methods pre-
sented in a recent report of Project NR 266-001, dated March
31, 1952. The same general reaction will occur with many
metal oxides, but Silver Oxide seems to offer the best poss-
ibility of easy reversibility, thus making possible a regen-
erative process for CO2 removal.
156 Stutzman, L.P., "Operation Hideout," Report, Project NR 266- 4-1-19
001 (N6-ori-158-03), ASTIA No. AD-19360, Chem. Eng. Dept?,
Northwestern Technological Inst09 Evanston, Ill. (Sept. 30,
1953).
Report gives data of a trial installation utilizing a Sodium
Hydroxide scrubber to remove 002 from a closed environment.
The scrubber removed CO2 at an average rate of 9.77ehr0 at
an average caustic utilization of 90.3%.
Operating characteristics for the caustic unitg
Air rate 600 cfm at 800F. and 750 mm Hg.
Caustic (28.5%) feed rate. 5906#/hr.
Water feed rate - -theoretical - -127.1ehr.
CO2 removed from air 7.5#/hr.
Caustic utilization 80%.
Foul air is blown through a packed column over which the caus-
tic is permitted to drain downward. The spent caustic could
be pumped directly to the sea.
The equipment, with no attempt for compactness, covered an
area approximately 90 x 29. The caustic feed was outside the
ship.
CO2 levels were checked and scrubber .it incr out electroni-
cally through a Gow Mac analyzer, a Brown potentiometer, and
a Liston Becker Carbon Dioxide analyzer.
Men were sealed in on January 27 and released on March 10,
1953, for a total of 42 dys. CO2 levels were maintained be-
tween 1% and 105%. Smoke and odors were also removed to a re-
markable degree*
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4-1, CHEMICAL ENGINEERING No.
156(contld) 4-1-19
Medical aspects of the test pertaining to physiological,
psychological and sociological, as well as medical examina-
tions, are not reported. These were by Medical Research
Laboratory at New London Submarine Base.
163 Thompson, T.G. and Nelson, K.H., "Desalting Sea Water by Freez- 4-1-20
ing," Refrigerating Engineering, 62, 7, 44 (July, 1954).
Report of experimental procedure for freeze-out of desalted
water from seawater. Various arrangements are noted and
description of techniques employed.
The authors state that hot brines are very corrosive and
that severe encrustation occurs during distillation so that
only about 30% recovery is achieved.
Additional references citedg
Hampel, G.A., nFresh Water from the Sea," Chem. Itg. News,
26, 1982 (1948).
Teles, M., "Fresh Water from Sea Water by Solar Distilla
ation," Ind. Eng. Chem., 45, 1108 (1953).
Howe, D., "Fresh Water from Salt Water," Trans. Am. Geophys.
Union, 33, 417 (1952).
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No.
4-2, INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
128 Quinn, E.L. and Jones, C.L., "Carbon Dioxide," A.C.S. Mono-
graph No. 72, Reinhold Publishing Co., New York, N.Y. (1936).
Extensive data on the properties of CO2 in gaseous, liquid
and solid forms.
Critical Temp. -31.0?C.
Critical Pressure -72.8 atmospheres
Triple Point -56.6? C. and 5.1 atmospheres
Specific Volumes (liters/Kilogram)
Solid
Temp. ?C.
Saturated Vapor
Saturated Liquid
31
2.156
2.156
30
2.990
1.6768
20
5.258
1.2976
10
7.519
1.1655
0
10.383
1.0813
-10
14.194
1.019
-20
19.466
0.971
-30
27.001
0.931
-40
38.164
0.897
-50
55.4o7
0.867
-56.6
72.220
0.849
0.661
-60
0.840
0.657
-80
0.639
-100
0.627
-183
0.599
Extensive data given on the adsorption of CO2 gas
Gel and Charcoal; also on the solubility in water
other liquids and solutions.
by Silica
and various
Chemical Properties of CO2
Hydrolysis of starch (in saturated solution of CO2 at high
pressures) to dextrose.
100% conversion of the starch accomplished in:
1.5 hours at 216? C. and 100 atmospheres
and 5 hours at 180? C. and 100 atmospheres
References Dewey& Krase; Ind. Eng. Chem., 23, 1436-7 (1931).
Reduction of CO2 by Hydrogen
Most usual reactions 002-+ H2 CO + H20
Other products may be formed under certain conditions, espec-
ially under influence of-catalytic agents.
Complete reduction to C may possibly take place according to
reactions CO2 + 2H2 C + 2H20
References Randall, et al; Ind. Eng.Chem., 21, 941 (1929).
M-14
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4-2, INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Note: This last looks intriguing:
CO2 + 2H2i.7=1.. C + 2H20
2H20 + electrolyticu 2H2 + 02
decomp.
Overall reaction is:
CO2-40 + 02
CO2 Reduction by Metals
ZR?n4-8-7-12 002 752 + 2 CO
also 2 CO2 + 2 K = K20204 (Potassium Oxalate)
CO2 with NH3 Produces Urea
CO2 + 2NH3-4(NH3)2 CO2-401_112)2 CO + H20
urea
Reduction with Carbon
002 +03200
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132 Randall, M. and Gerard, FM., "Synthesis of Methane from Car- 4-2-2
bon Dioxide and Hydrogen," Ind. & Eng. Chem., 20, 12, 1335
(Dec., 1928).
The equilibrium in the formation of methane and water vapor
from CO2 and H2 and the reverse reaction have been determined.
The free energy of methane calculated from these experiments
is in agreement with the value found from the direct synthesis
from graphites and hydrogen in the same temperature range.
The cause of the deposition of carbon in the catalysts has
been discussed.
133 Randall, M. and Shiffler? LH., "Deposition of Carbon in Reac- 4-2-3
tion Between Carbon Dioxide and Hydrogen," Ind. & Eng. Chem.,
21$ 10, 941 (Oct., 1929).
The authors show that the reactions
002(g) + 2H2(g) = C (graph.) + 2H20(g)
is the sum of Reactions 12 and 13 in the previous reference
(Author Index No. 132, Mester File No. 4-2-2) by M. Randall
and FM. Gerard, and can largely explain the experimental
results.
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No. 4-3, ORGANIC CHEMISTRY No.
14 2 Report, 126th National A.C.S. Meeting, Division 4-3-1
of Gas and Fuel Chemistry, Chemical and Engineering News,
321 40, 3955 (Oct. 4, 1954).
R.S. Montgomery of Dow Chemical reported on methods of de-
veloping and then separating various aromatic acids from
coal.
Three methods were used:
1. Solvent fractionation - use of a different solvent to
extract portions:
2. pH Separation - separation-according to change in pH.
3. Vacuum Sublimation - here new- material formed that was
not present-in-original coal acid mixture. New
products are caused by thermal decomposition of
some components -in original mixture:
61 Gaffron, Ho, "The Development of Organic Photochemistry Con-
comitant with the Production of Organic and Living Matter
on Earth," Preprint, Conference on Solar Energy: The Sci-
entific Basis, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. (Oct. 31-Nov.
12 1955).
Investigations of photosynthesis in the past were guided
mainly by the assumption that within the green plant carbon
dioxide, or a derivative of it, is more or less directly
converted into sugar when in contact with light-activated
.chlorophyll. The solution of the problem was looked for in
the specific photochemistry of carbon compounds. The author
states that today, as a result of numerous investigations,
we know that the main riddle in photosynthesis consists in
the highly efficient interaction between an excited pigment-
enzyme complex and the molecules of water. The reduction
of Carbon Dioxide is one of several possible consequences
of this photochemical process. It just happens to be greatly
ftvored under the conditions found in green plants as they
exist today.
71 Greaves, "The Preservation of Proteins by Drying,"
Special Report No. 258, Medical Research Council, H.M. Sta-
tionery Office, London, England (1946).
A discussion of techniques of freeze drying with particular
reference to proteinaceous material.
4-3-3
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No. 4-3, ORGANIC CHEMISTRY No.
103 Mair, B.J.? Montjar, M.J. and Rossini, F.D., "Fractionation 4-3-4
of Hydrocarbons by Adsorption with Added Components,"
Anal. Chem., 28, 1, 56 (Jan., 1956).
A method is described for separating hydrocarbon by adsorp-
tion and then fractionation.
Method is considered effective for separating branched para-
ffins from cycloparaffin.
164 Turk, Ao, "Catalytic Reactivation of Activated Carbon in Air
Purification Systems," Ind. and Eng. Chem., 47, 5, 966 (MaY2
1955).
Activated carbon is used for the Absorption of organic vapors.
This process suffers from the necessity of frequent reactiva-
tions of the carbon. This is usually accomplished by the use
of superheated steam being passed over the carbon.
To reduce the cost and increase efficiency the carbon is im-
pregnated witha catalyst of moderate activity which does not
impair the absorption properties of the carbon.
Then when the carbon is saturated, reactivation is effected
by passing a warm air stream over the combined carbon-catalyst.
The adsorbate is completely oxidized in the catalyst-carbon
surfaces.
The activated carbon must have a high kindling point. Suc-
cessive reaction reactivations do not alter the adsorption
capacity of the carbon.
Chromic Oxide is one of the catalytic agents mentioned.
The problem of disposal of the oxidized desorbed gases re-
mains.
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No. 4-4, PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY No.
6 , "Freeze Drying of Foodstuffs," Modern Rafrig- 4-4-1
eration, XLVI, 540, 55 (Mar. 18, 1943).
Excerpts from the address of A.S. McFarlane outlining
history of development of dehydration of foodstuffs and
a description of procedure and theory with discussion of
pan type freezing unit.
23 Bassham, J.A. aid Calvin, Mo, Photosynthesis, "Currents in
Biochemical Research," (edited by D.E. Green), p. 29,
Interscience Publishers, Inc., New.York, N.Y. (1956).
The authors attempt to present some current opinions re-
garding selected aspects of photosynthesis, together with
some speculations in areas that may expected to prove
fruitful in the near-future. These areas ares Function
of Chloroplast; The Carbon-Reducing Enzymes; The Light
Reaction; and Intermediate Transfer Systems.
28 Bradish, C.J.2 "Freeze Drying," Chemical Products, 10, 9-10, 4-4-3
60 (July-Aug., 1947).
A discussion of theory of freeze drying as well as a
description of apparatus for vacuum sublimation of ice.
The freeze drying cycle and mechanism of freeze drying
with particular discussion of the tray drier is reported.
36 Burk, Do, Cornfield, J. and Schwartz, M., "The Efficient
Transformation of Light into Chemical Energy in Photosyn-
thesis," Scientific Monthly, LXXIII? 4, 213 (Oct., 1951).
Presents an application of the Einstein Law of Photochem-
ical Equivalence to living organisms.
45 Commoner, B. and co-workers, "Free Radicals Power Life,"
Science News Letter, 71, 16, 243 (Apr. 20, 1957).
Free radicals, which contain unpaired electrons, have
been found associated with life processes by a team of
Washington University scieaists.
51 Duysens, Lal.M.? "Energy-Transfer-Within-the Chloroplast,"
Preprint, Conference on Solar Energy s The Scientific
Basis, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. (Oct. 31-Nov. 1,
1955).
Plants have solved the problem of using air, water and
light as sole raw materials to produce sugar or other
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51(contld)
4-4, PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
carbohydrates, an achievement, the author states, you would
not believe if you had not heard about it in school.
He also states that anybody who intends to find out a way
for using light energy in order to drive chemical reactions
may find it worthwhile to acquaint himself with what is
known about the mechanism of sugar production by plants.
The author then goes on to discuss a few aspects of photo-
synthesis that held interest for him.
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120 Nord, M., "Principles of Freeze Drying," Food Manufacture,
XXVII, 11, 452 (Nov., 1952).
Elaboration of principles and mechanisms of freeze drying.
Discussion of operational principles and costs.
129 Rabinowitch? E.I., "Photosynthesis and Related Processes,"
Vol. /9 Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, N.Y. (1945).
Volume I deals with the chemistry of photosynthesis, chemo-
synthesis and related processes in vitro and in vivo..
130 Rabinowitch? E.I., "Photosynthesis and Related Processes,"
Vol. II, Pt. 1, Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York,
N.Y. (1951)
Volume II, Part 1, deals with the spectroscopy and fluores-
cence of photosynthetic pigments; kinetics of photosynthesis.
131 Rabinowitch, E.1.? "Photosynthesis and Related Processes," Vol. 4-4-10
II, Pt. 23 Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, N.Y. (1956).
Volume 11, Part 2, deals with the kinetics of photosynthesis;
addenda to Volume I and Volume II, Part 1.
161 Thomas, JoB., "The Chloroplast as a-Photoreceptive Mechanism 4-4-11
in Photosynthesis," Preprint, Conference on Solar Energys
The Scientific Basis, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. (Oct.
31-Nov. 1, 1955).
The author states that though the-photosynthetically active
organelles may differ-in different species, the photorecep-
tive part of these structures always-consists of lamellae.
Lamellae are also encountered in other photoreceptors, such
as the outer segments of the retinal rod. However, a lay-
ered structure is not restricted to such organelles. It is
encountered in various centers of intense chemical activity,
such as nerves. Actually, this can also be said of chloro-
plasts.
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1
13-1, AIR CONDITIONING & REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT
, "Air Cleaner," Iron Age, 175, 14, 152 (Apr. 7,
1955).
Article- describes new type of air scrubber devised by Na-
tional Dust -Collector Corp. and National Engineering Co.
to filter out all foundry shakeout room dust as well as
bentonite and polishing -agents.
The dust laden air passes through a water bath, a water
fog and through horizontal bed of glass spheres which are
kept hot.
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13-1-1
The sludge drops to bottom of pool and water is reused.
3 "Control Toxic or Combustible Gases, Dusts or 13-1-2
Vapors," Rock Products, 57, 10, 73 (Oct., 1954).
The article explains the necessity and use of portable
safety equipment for boiler, kiln and other equipment in
and around a cement plant as needed for intermittent use
by repair and maintenance crews.
5 , "Filtration of Very Fine Dusts," Engineering, 13-1-3
179, 4659, 607 (Nay 13, 1955).
Taken from an article by G. H. Vokes.
Discusses "absolute" air filtration, or removal of all con-
taminants.
Describes the asbestos-wool depth filter, the resin impreg-
nated filter and the Vokes 155 paper. This paper is a type
of millipore made of asbestos fibers in Esparto grass based
papers
Paper unit is capable of 99.95% removal of Di-octyl Phthal-
ate dust cloud initially, and removal improves as the filter
clogs.
The filter is made of the paper accordion pleated in a box
24"x24"x11i0 and permits 1000 cu0 ft. per min0 of air to be
drawn through the unit with less than 1.5" water pressure
initially. The entire filter unit with its wood frame can
be incinerated to eliminate the fouled filters when used with
contaminated aerosols.
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No.
7
9
14-21
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File
13-1, AIR CONDITIONING & REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT No.
? "Laundering Foul Air for Reuse," Factory Manage-
13-1-4
ment and Maintenance, 114, 2, 128 (Feb., 1956).
Plant described is a metal finishing plant having sanders,
polishers, buffers and plating operations. Factory is win-
dowless-and fullrair controlled.
Found more economical to reuse the internal air rather than
exhausting. Reuse saves heat in winter, refrigeration in
summer, prevents damage to outside from fumes and mist.
1955)0
"New Air Cleaner," SAE Journal, 63, 7, 54 (July,
Based on paper by E. Blackburne and C.R. Denton.
New type of felt element filter for use on tanks and other
combat vehicles to replace oil bath filter for motor is
described.
Felt unit is self cleaning because of vibrations from motor.
13-1-5
IO 3 "New Atomic Powered Submarines Equipped with 13-1-6
Heavy Duty Cooling Systems," Industrial Refrigeration, 132,
2, 21 (Feb., 1957).
Report of design of air conditioning system for atomic pow-
ered submarines,
Cooling system used for humidity control, Activated coconut
shell charcoal used for absorbing odors from kitchen, lava-
tory, as well as machinery;
Stale air freshened without admixture of outside air, but
process not elaborated.
11 "New Device Enters Dust War," Electrical Journal, 13-1-7
clav, 20, 1636 (May 20, 1955).
Article discusses home and industrial unit newly designed and
introduced by Air Control Installations, Ltd. This unit is
a compact electrostatic precipitator working on 25 W.
19 Bacarella? A.L., Dever, D.F. and Grunwald, E., "Absorption of 13-1-8
Organic Vapors by Anhydrous Magnesium Perohlorate," Anal,
Chem., 27, 11, 1833 (Nov., 1955).
Anhydrous Magnesium Perchlorate has been used as an absorbent
for various organic vapors. Gas flow rates of approximately
two liters per hour at one atmosphere were passed through a
Nesbitt absorber containing ca. 50 grams of Magnesium Per-
chlorate,
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No.
19(contid)
13-1, AIR CONDITIONING & REFRIGERATION EQPIPMENT
From data of authors-it is reasonable to suppose that Mag-
nesium Perchlorate could be a general reagent for absorb-
ing vapors of alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, amines, nitriles
and nitro compounds--or more generally--polar rather than
non-polar compounds;
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Caution must be taken as Magnesium Perchlorate is known to
give explosive mixtures with organic materials, although
the authors report no explosion in four years of work.
20 Barnebey, H.L.? "Quantity of Activated Charcoal Required for 13-1-9
Air Purification," unpublished paper, Barnebey-Cheney Coo,
Columbus, O. (May, 1957).
Discusses the quantity of activated charcoal required for
air purification and offers a table which gives some rough
idea of the quantity of charcoal required per year for odor
combinations of different intensity. As a guess an odor
index of 2, 3, or 4 might be anticipated in the closed
space. This corresponds to 0.1, 1.0, and 10 pounds of
odor per million cubic feet. One pound per year of char-
coal is required to treat 100, 10 or 1 cu. ft0 of space at
the respective levels of concentration. Accordingly, for
a space of 1000 cu0 ft0 the amount of charcoal required
maybe between 10 and 1000 pounds. It should be noted
here that this amount is only enough to provide for odor
removal and is predicated on the assumption that some
fresh air is available due to building leakage. It is
also important that activated charcoal is not provided
for CO2 adsorption. Barnebey points out that activated
charcoal is relatively inefficient in removing 002 and
should not be depended on for that action-0
Many useful tables of odor level, activated charcoal cap-
acity and odor index included in this paper?
77 Hasinger, So, "Water-Mist Separation in Cabin Air-Condition- 13-1-10
ing Systems," ADC Technical Report 53-324, ASTI& Noo AD-
61815 (Nov., 1953).
Tests were conducted by personnel of the Equipment Labora-
tory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, between May,
1951 and June, 1952 to determine the most practical method
of removing water mist from aircraft cabins. Three separa-
tion systems were testeds (1) cyclone separation, (2) fil-
ter separation, and (3) electrical precipitation. Cyclones
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77(contld)
13-1, AIR CONDITIONING & REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT
proved to be impractical because of their size and pressure
drop. Filters were found to require very little space but
tended to be very sensitive to droplet size; in- addition,
they clogged rapidly- with ice under freezing conditions.
Experiments with electrical precipitation shaved that this
system eliminated many of the drawbacks of the other two
systems; however, it was inferior to the filter in regard
to size and complexity.
82 Humphrey, A.E. and Gaden, E.L.? Jr., "Air Sterilization by Fi- 13-1-11
brous Media," Ind. andEng. Chem., 47, 5, 924 (May, 1955).
A filter to be used for the removal of bacteria and spores
must satisfy two standards: high efficiency of removal of
the organism and a low pressure drop.
The filters, when said to sterilize the air, do so only in
a practical sense; that is, the filters develop a commer-
cially acceptable standard of sterility. The air filter is
designed for the probability of penetration by a minimum
number of organisms during the operating period. Since this
number is so small, the unit is considered commercially
sterile.
M-23
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13-1-10
Millipore filters prepared from sterilized dry cellulose
ester gel membranes, 120 to 160 micron thick, are reported
to retain 100% of all bacterial cells on thin surface when
filtering air. Pores in the filter are less than *micron
in diameter and then are from 10' to 108 pores per square
centimeter. However, the delicate mechanical structure of
the millipore filters limits their use in industry. They
are an essential assay tool and are used in research.
Work was undertaken using glass wool pads with various
binders. It was found that the penetration of bacteria
through the fibrous filter was logarithmic, with maximum
being on the surface. Bulk density and fiber distribution
in the filter beds are more important to the collection
action than is the kind of fibrous media used.
When the air stream containing the bacteria is wet the re-
sults are inconsistent pointing to some relationship be-
tween humidity and some aspects of filtration which at
present are unknown.
Filters used for this experiment were commercial glass
mats 0.02" thick and impregnated with resin binders. Mats
were then layered to increase thickness. Filter density
was observed at 2.29 lbs./cu.ft. Under best conditions
pressure drop to remove 90% of spores used was 1.05" of
water at start.
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No.
101
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13-1, AIR CONDITIONING & REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT No.
Lodge, J.P., "Analysis of Micron Sized Particles," Anal. Chem., 13-1-12
26, 110 1829 (Nov., 1954).
Article is a summary of work done by Cloud Physics Project
at Univ. of Chicago as part of work on ARDC Contract AF
19(604)-618 and Contract AF 33(038)-25913, Geophysics Re-
search Directorate of LF. Cambridge Research Center.
The article describes a method of identifying particulate
matter of ca. 0.2 micron.
Membrane filters retain particles of ca. 0.2 micron quant-
itatively. The use of a gel on the filter causes the part-
icles to react colorimetrically and thereby-be identified.
102 Madison, R.D. (Editor), Part III, Fan Application, Section 2- 13-1-13
Ventilation, "Fan Engineering," 5th Ed., p. 408, Buffalo
Forge Co., Buffalo, N.Y. (1948).
Handbook covering physics of air and fans. Section on
ventilation gives information about air requirements, odors,
ventilation requirements, temperature, humidity and air mo-
tion.
Tables and charts included.
106 May, J.W., "Solving the Ink Mist Problem," Heatingt Piping and 13-1-14
Air Conditioning, 27, 7, 120 (July, 1955).
A continuous two-ply paper filter carried on an endless
steel wire mesh is used as the filter media to trap the
ink mist in a newspaper press room.
As the filter plugs, the increase in heat loss activates
a motor to move new material into position.
This causes a drop inyressure which also activates the mo-
tor to move new filter media into position.
142 Seely, B.K., "Detection of Certain Ions in 10-1? to 10-15 13-1-15
Gram Particles," Anal. Chem., 27, 1, 93 (Jam" 1955).
The procedure for microscopic observation of the chemical
reaction between dust particles and the surface of a filter
agent coated with a gelatin medium sensitized with specific
salts is described.
The paper describes methods and means of identifying and
counting various particles in impact collection of atmos-
pheric particles.
.?????????111,..
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13-1, AIR CONDITIONING & REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT
142(contld)
The procedures for iodides, coppers cobalt and nickel,
Ferric and Ferrous Iron, Sodium, Potassium and Carbon-
ates are provided.
171 Winslow, C.E.A., et al, ',Ventilation," Report of the New York 13-1-16
State Commission on Ventilation, Milbank Memorial Fund,
E.P. Dutton & Co., New York., La. (1923).
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Winslow and other members of a Commission undertook com-
prehensive studies of ventilation for the New York State
Commission on Ventilationand published a report in 1923.
This report contains- many interesting details concerning
the physiological significance of the various factors in
ventilation with special reference to the effects of air
conditions on health, comfort and efficiency. Among the
several comments it was noted that a disagreeable odor
existed in the experimental room supplied only with re-
circulated air. Odors were associated with higher humid-
ity created by air washing operations.
This report is most comprehensive and should be studied
carefully in connection with research on air conditions
in closed space. Many tables and references to physio-
logical effect should be historically helpful.
174 laglous C.P. and Wilsons U09 Disinfection of Air by Air Cond- 13-1-17
itioning Processes, "Aerobiology," Publication No. 17 (edit-
ed by F.R. Moulton), P. 129, American Association for the
Advancement of Sciences Washington, D.C. (1942).
In this paper the authors describe the results of their ex-
periments on reducing bacterial populations by air condi-
tioning.
Bacterial population in the air depends on the air distri-
bution systems the source of air supply, the number and
activity of the occupants and general methods of housekeep-
ing. When the fresh air supply is directed downward and
the air velocity-across the floor is greater than 50 fpm,
the number of organisms in the air increases out of propor-
tion to just increased air velocity. This is because
settled matter is resuspended:.
When a roam is congested there are proportionally more
bacteria present in the air aniordinary amounts of ventila-
tion do little to reduce the amounts.
Air filtration reduces the bacterial content substantially
of fresh air, but recycling seems to have little effect on
the general room concentration.
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13-1, AIR CONDITIONING & REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT No.
l71( cont' d) 13-1-17
Commercial air washers are effective in reducing micro-
organism population, but again do not reduce room con-
centrations during recirculation: Gradual pollution of
recirculated spray water not only- reduces washing effi-
ciency, but may eventually add organisms to the air.
Use of germicides helped in reducing fungus growths and
slime, but had no effect on bacterial population. Many
coon- antiseptics are unsuitable as germicides because
of toxicity, odor or corrosiveness to equipment under
conditions of prolonged recirculation.
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No.
84
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13-3, SANITATION ENGINEERING No.
Ingram, LT., "An Investigation of the Treatment of Cabin 13-3-1
Cruiser Wastes," Sewage and Ind. Wastes, 28, 1, 93 (Jan.,
1956).
Investigation of quantity of wastes produced by individuals
in connection with coliform density studies indicated an
average specimen discharge including feces, urine ar?d paper,
amounted to 154.1 gm with extreme range from 22 gm to 463
gm.
Average organisms recovered by plate count on nutrient agar
was 62.4 x 1012 organism/gm-feces.
Average coliform density was 30.5 x: 1C7 organisms/gm feces.
109 McNeil, W.J., "Aircraft-Toilet Servicing Unit," Aero Medical 13-3-2
Lab., WADC Technical Report 54-296, Contract No. AF 33(600)-
23308, ASTIA-No. AD-44600 (June-, 1954).
This report describes an aircraft toilet servicing unit that
has been developed to provide ground crews with equipment
suitable for servicing aircraft toilets. The-unit consists
of a tank for flush water, a waste collection tank, a hose
and nozzle assembly, and a motor driven air pump.
(Developed by Wickland Manufacturing Company, Pasadena,
Calif. under Contract No, AF 33(600)-23.308).
110 McNeil, W.J.? "Urine Evaporator," Aero Medical Lab., WADC Tech- 13-3-3
nical Report 54-94, ASTIA No. AD-29012 (Feb., 1954).
Laboratory and flight tests indicated that the use of deion-
ization resins effectively removed the corrosive properties
of urine. However, their use is considered to be impractical
because large quantities were required for practical applica-
tion. Tests further indicated that evaporation of urine does
not remove its corrosiveness. Therefore, no benefits can be
foreseen from the use of the urine evaporator, and there are
no plans for the continuation of this project.
111 McNeil, W.J. and Suelter, C.H., "Aircraft Sewage Disposal," 13-3-4
Aero Medical Lab., WADC Technical Report 54-504, ASTIA No.
AD-75798 (Apr., 1955).
This report outlines a research and development program that
will have the objective of acquiring data to guide an engin-
eering program for the construction of an aircraft sewage
system which will eliminate, as far as possible, the major
problems of aircraft sanitation.
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No. 13-3, SANITATION ENGINEERING
152 Stolley, R.H. and Fauth, E.H., "Treatment of Sewage Sludge by 13-3-5
the McDonald Process,? PUblic Wbrks, 88, 3, 111 (Mar., 1957).
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The treatment of sewage sludge to obtain usable by-products
for sale, as well as rendering the residue sterile and de-
creasing costs of sludge digestion installation. Basically
it is a solvent extraction process wherein extraction, de-
hydration and treatment of raw sludge are accomplished si-
multaneously.
The solvent used was C2C14 (Tetrachloroethylene).
The process calls for heating the settled sludge to 1500 F.
and then mixing with solvent. The mixture is then centri-
fuged to remove most of the water. The sludge and solvent
is then heated to 2150 F. Since the solvent has a boiling
point of 250.2? F. there is little carryover. The extract-
able material is dissolved in the solvent. The meal, or
non-extractable material is removed from the solvent and
compacted and dried. The final meal is dry, fibrous and
resembles the discharge from a vacuum cleaner.
The solveat is drawn off and filtered and the dissolved
solids are inereased- from 2 to 95%. The concentrated ma-
terial is then passed over a column of Raschig rings with
a counter flow of live steam. The solvent is evaporated
and a "black fat" is collected at the bottom.
Because of the importance of the by-products to the econo-
mies of the process the materials were carefully analyzed.
The following are the more significant of the results in
the fertilizer analysis:
Nitrogen
2.7%
Nickel
o.o14%
Potash
0.1
Lead
0.075
Phosphorus
2.4
Silicon
6.6
Humus
48.0
Tin
0.01
Crude Fiber
20.6
Strontium
0.02
Al
0.56
Zinc
0.90
Ca
2.7
Cadmium
0.49
Cu
.09
Titanium
0.07
Fe
2.6
Barium
0.05
Mg
0.45
Cobalt
0.01
Manganese
0.02
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Na.
13-3, SANITATION ENGINEERING
152(contid)
The results of bacterial tests indicate the material can be
called sterile. Vitamin B-12 is present in the meal @ 0.3
microgram per gram. The analysis of the "black fat" is on
a fuel oil analysis with 15935 Btu/pound.
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An interesting corollary of the study was that centrifuging
cannot be accomplished without the premixing of solvent and
for this reason cannot be operated for sludge dewatering
only.
162 Thompson, T.G.? "Fresh Water from the Sea," Technion Yearbook, 13-3-6
14, 96, American Technion Society, New York, N.Y. (1957).
The distillation process for the recovery of salt free water
from the sea is the process most thought of. However, the
distillation process is costly in energy required, mainten-
ance of equipment and usually about 2/3 of water has to be
discarded in batch type operation.
Relatively little attention has been given to the possibility
of securing fresh water from sea water by freezing processes--
yet natural ice formed in the sea has been used asa source
of freshwater by Arctic area inhabitants since ancient times*
To ascertain not orrly-the extent of 'Immoral of salts from the
ice, but also amount of fresh water-found, experiments were
conducted. The following conclusions may be draw n3 (a) About
80% of total salts concentrated in approximately 20% volume;
(b) 50% of water contaired less than- 20% original salinity;
(c) remaining 50% of water contained from 125 to 235 ppm
chlorides; (d) reduction of freezing point due to presence
of salts permits self washing ofice; (e) potable water can
be increased by reprocessing partially desalted water; (f)
for equal volumes of freshwater about 1/6 energy required
by freezing as compared to distillation.
These are all based on late experiments. Commercial size
units should be investigated and particularly possible util-
ization of residual brines.
166 Van Heuvelen, W. and Svore, J.H., "Sewage Lagoons in North Da- 13-3-7
kota,ll Sewage and Ind. Wastes, 26, 6, 771 (June, 1954).
Experience in North Dakota indicates that lagoons should
have a detention period of 120 to 200 days depending upon
rate of percolation and evaporation. Usually there is no
overflow. Generally a 10 acre lagoon should be provided
for each 1000 population.
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166(contsd)
13-3, SANITATION ENGINEERING
ConstructLorr of the lagoon is described.
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13-3-7
No sludge-removal is raw sewage is
fed to pond. No advantage- has- beenobserved-in using
settling as pretreatment and lagoons receiving raw sew-
age operate as well or better than those receiving prim-
ary treatment. BOD removal averages 95% in the summer
and 65% in the winter.
169 Wenzel, W.J.? "Sewage Lagoons - -Low Cost Treatment and Disposal 13-3-8
Methodpn Engineering News Record, 151, 8, 48 (Aug. 20, 1953).
Author recommends a lagoon area of ten acres per 1000 pop-
ulation, one-half mile or more out of town--preferably to
leeward from the prevailing winds.
Water depth should be 3-5 feet. Sewage should enter at
the center of the lagoon, a foot or more above the bottom.
Screening and grinding are not necessary and no Objection-
able floating material has been observed in North Dakota
lagoons.
Detention -period of about 300 dqrs with evaporation and
seepage will approximately balance inflow and no effluent
will be discharged, although level does rise in winter.
Ice covers the ponds in winter ? biological activity stops
and sewage is held in storage until activity resumes in the
spring.
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55
16-0, MEDICAL SCIENCES
Fisher, . "Aviation Medicine on the Threshold of
Spacei" National Geographic, CVIII, 2, 241 (Aug-.., 1955).
M-31
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16-0-1
Service doctors, facing medical problems unknown on earth,
make possible mares exploration ofthe hostile heavens.
69 Gradwohl, RO.H.? Chapter VIII, Feces, "Clinical Laboratory 16-0-2
Methods and Diagnosis," Vol. 2, p. 12612 C.V. Mosby Co.,
St. Louis, Mo.. (1956).
This chapter describes the compositions of stools, physical
chemical, etc.
The feces consist of the indigestible and undigested rem-
nants of food, plus certain constituents such as material
secreted by the intestinal wall, plus certain bacteria
which may or may not belong to the group of normal intest-
inal flora. The food remnants, together with intestinal
parasites and their eggs, are intimately mixed with bact-
eria and excretions from the intestinal mucosa. Strass-
burger claimed feces ordinarily are one-third bacteria.
Usual amount of stool is 100 to 200 grams a day, dependent
on diet, varying from 30 to 282 gins., average 102.8 gins.
On a mixed diet weighing 150 gm., individuals ought to
pass 30-37 gm. fecal material. Vegetable and starchy diet
increases amount while proteins decrease amount.
Stools never show more than a bare trace of Chlorides.
Color of stools is due to presence of Hydrobilirubin from
bile. Odor due to Indol and Skatol, from action of bact-
eria upon protein.
The most important products formed are
Indole (C6H4NHCHsCH) ) Odorous
Skatol (C9,H92N)
Paracresol (CH3C6H40H)
Para-oxyphenyl-propionic Acid
Para-oxyphenylacetic Acid
Volatile Fatty Acid
H2S (odor)
CH4
Methylmercaptan (odor)
112
CO2
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69( cont' d)
16-0, MEDICAL SCIENCES
Proteoses
Peptones
Peptides
Ammonia
Amino-Acids-
Some raw vegetables pass unchanged (radishes, cole slaw,
pickles, onion, skins offruits, nuts-, berries)
Mucus
Tissue remnants, epithelial cells, muscle fibers, con-
nective tissues
Crystals, phosphates (many named)
Detritus
Fats, neutral, free fatty acids or soaps
Starch granules
Bacteria, great variety normally found. Normal discharge
via stools 126 billion bacteria/day
Ancretions, limey (not in normal stools)
Fresh stools are neutral, or nearly- so. They consist norm-
ally of 65-85 per cent watery parts and 15-35 per cent dry
solids.
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91 Kendricks, E.J.? et al, "Medical Problems of Space Flight," 16-0-3
Special Report from Instructors Journal, Air Training Com-
mand, USAF School of Aviation Medicine, Randolph Field, Tex.
(Aug., 1955)0
Series of articles dealing with physiology of man in trying
to fly in space.
In the lead article, "Men Are Now in- Space," E.J. Ken-
dricks states that men must take their own peculiar environ-
ment with them. The real task of aviation medicine is to show
men-how-to live in space-.
In his-article, "Living-Room-in Space," H. Strughold states
that flight above-the range of 80,-000 feet necessitates a
sealed cabin pressurized from within and providing all the
physiological necessities of a habitable climate on the
ground without resort to outside environment. The sealed
cabin must perform at least six vital functions--maintain
pressure, furnish oxygen, remove 002, control moisture, keep
down temperatures and control odors. There are other prob-
lems in a sealed cabin of a more or less routine character--
disposal of body wastes, provision of food and drinking
water.
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91(contld)
16-02 MEDICAL SCIENCES
A pilot uses 0.9 cu,. ft. of 02 per hour. A standard 02 cy-
linder contains 240 Cu. ft. of compressed 02, enough for
one manos consumption for 11 days.
CO2 is exhaled at a rate of about 0.7 cu. ft./hr. Photo-
synthesis from oa mere 5 pounds of green -algal suspended
in a nutrient solution yields -as much 02 as a man consumes.
The weight and bulk of the necessary equipment for algae
growth seems prohibitive for small craft.
Humans produce about 100 gram calories per hour, or enough
to raise an ounce of water 60F.
At the top of the atraosphere9 solar constant is 1.94 gram
calories per minute per square ueuLimeter. Radiation on
one side of the ship from the sun and loss to space on the
other leaves the problem of retaining aphysiological tem-
perature within the cabin.
Above 25 miles, the phip is exposed to full cosmic ray
bombardment.
The problem of meteor collision is discussed.
In addition, the article describes the effects of intense
light and darkness and means of navigation.
In "Characteristics of the Earth os Atmosphere" the various
concentric gaseous layers about the earth, winds and clouds,
electrical phenomena and how each affects man in flight
are discussed.
In "From High-Altitude Flight to Space Flight" H. Haber
points out the problems of combining rocketry with aero-
dynamics-0 The problems of heat, skin friction, aerodyna-
mic support, pressure changes, cosmic radiation, and
sensation of weightlessness are briefly introduced.
In the article, "The PecuIhr State of Weightlessness,"
S.J. Gerathewohl explains what loss of gravity- means and
haw it will be attained. Experiments which have been con-
ducted are described and the problems encountered are dis-
cussed.
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153 Strughold? H., "The Medical Problems of Space Flight,? Inter- 16-0-4
national Record of Medicine and General Practice Clinics,
168, 9, 570 (Sept., 19-5577
Paper discusses physiologic environmental questions of alti-
tude regions and implications of speed and reduced gravita-
tional influences?
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No.
170
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16-0, MEDICAL SCIENCES No.
White, C.S. and Benson, 0.0., Jr. (editors), "Physics and 16-0-5
Medicine of the Upper Atmosphere," Univ. of New Mexico
Press, Albuquerque, N.M. (1952).
Report of a symposium sponsored by the USAF School of
Aviation Medicine and the Lovelace Foundation for Medi-
cal Education and Research.
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No. 16-1, ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY No.
12 $ "Odors and the Sense of Smell," Airkem, Inc., 16-1-1
New York, La. (1950).
An extensive bibliography of references dating from 320 B.C.
to 1947. Covers the following subjects:
A. Anatomy of the Olfactory System
B. Physiology of the Olfactory Sense
C. Pathology and Perversion of Odor Perception
D. Body Odors
E. Aromatic Chemicals, Essential Oils and the Chemistry
of Odors
F. Classification of Odors
G. Odor Detection, Tests and Measurements
H. Odors of Food and Water
I. Industrial and Miscellaneous Odors
J. Perfumes and Floral Odors
K. Odor Control
L. Theories of Odor Stimulation and General Treatment
35 Bulmer? M.G. and Forwell, G.D., "Sodium- and Potassium in
Thermal Sweat," Report, Flying Personnel Research Comm.,
ASTIA No, AD-590722 Institute of Aviation Medicine, RAF
(England), (Nov., 1954).
The hypothesis is put forward that sweat is produced from
a precursor fluid with the same sodium concentration as
interstitial fluid and that the sweat glands, during its
passage through them, retain an amount of sodium which is
constant and independent of the sweat rate, provided the
latter is sufficiently high.
Deductions from this hypothesis are shown to hold good
when the sweat sodium is greater than about 50 mEq./1.;
below this concentration sweat behaves as if sodium reten-
tion were less thanTmaximal.
Sweat potassium concentration is independent of sweat
rate.
16-1-2
Sweat potassium falls during acclimatization to a concen-
tration just under 2 mEq./1. greater than serum potassium.
53 Fenno, R.140, "Man's Milieu in Space," Jnl. Aviation Medicine, 16-1-3
, 6, 612 (June, 1954).
The author presents a summary of the physiologic require-
ments of man in a sealed cabin. The physiological require-
ments of oxygen supply, CO2 removal, temperature, pressure,
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16-1, ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY- No.
53(contld) 16-1-3
noxious gases, noise, and radiation are discussed in de-
tail. The author states that a possible solution to a
self-sustaining "balanced acquarium" in space lies in a
chemical, mechanical or photosynthetic gas exchanger or
combination of these for the maintenance of our gaseous
environment.
72 Grollman, A. (Editor), Paragraph: Sensible and Insensible 16-1-4
Perspiration, "Clinical Physiology," p. 192, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York, N.Y. (1957).
About 25% of heat produced by body is dissipated as in-
sensible water. Equivalentio loss of about 800 ml daily
divided equally between skin and lungs. Pulmonary loss
is influenced by humidity of inspired air and magnitude
of ventilatory exchange. Water lost by vaporization does
not carry solutes with it.
Sensible perspiration contains electrolytes and other sol-
utes at hypotonic concentrations. Na concentration ranges
from 10 to 80 mEq./1. Chloride present in slightly lower
concentrations. K ranges from 1 to 15 mEq./1. Sweating
results in loss of water in excess of salt. Both water and
salt required to replenish deficit resulting from sweating.
Concentration of NaCl falls when negative sodium balance
exists.
81 Howell, W.H.? Sectiong Functions of the Skin, "A. Textbook of 16-1-5
Physiology,n 14th Ed., P. 869, W.B. Saunders Co., Phila-
delphia, Pa. (1940).
Stratum corneum has an acid reaction (pH 5.5) and experi-
mental work indicates some bacteria are destroyed when
placed on skin. Dirt or fat upon skin interferes with
property of self-disinfection. Excretions of skin formed
in sweat glands and in the sebaceous glands. Estimated
about 2 million sweat glands over the cutaneous surface.
Amount of secretion varies; influenced by temperature and
moisture content of atmosphere as well as by and
psychical state of individual. Average production 500 to
600 gins, per 24 hrs0 at rest; may reach 2500 gms, per hr.
with strenuous muscular work.
Water loss from skin by secretion from sweat glands and by
evaporation from epithelial surface (insensible perspira-
tion). Latter amounts to 25 to 40 gms. per hr. at rest
with 1/3 to 1/2 given off from lungs. Estimated about 600
ml. water is given off from skin per 24 hrs.
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81( omit' d)
16-1, ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Estimated oral intake of water 1200 to 1300 ml. per day
to supplement metabolic water Obtained by diet and oxida-
tion.
Sweat is mixed with sebaceous gland excretion.
Reaction acid due to lactic and volatile acids.
NaC1 concentration 0.5 to 0.6%.
Organic constituents present in small amounts with profuse
sweating include urea, uric acids creatinine, lactic acid,
ethereal sulphates of phenol and skatol, amino acids, sugar
in traces, and albumin.
Sebaceous secretion from single or compound alveolar glands
found over cutaneous surface usually in association with
hairs. Alveoli are filled with epithelial cells, some filled
with fatty material. Detritus of cells forms secretion, se-
bum, an oily semi-liquid. Exact composition unknown. Con-
tains cholesterol, some simpler fatty acids, fatty acid es-
ters of higher primary alcohols, such as octodecyl and cetyl
alcohol, albumins, and inorganic salts. Forms layer on skin
to prevent undue absorption of water and evaporation.
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Skin also excretes slight amount of 002. Estimated at 7 to
8 gms-. per 24 bra., increasing withmarked sweating:
85 Johnson, B.C., Hamilton, T.S. and Mitchell, H.H., 1The Effect 16-1-6
of Choline Intake andEbvironmental Temperature on Excretion
of Choline from Human Bodyln J. Biol. Chem:" 159, 1, 5 (June,
1945).
No difference in choline loss through sweat in a hots moist
atmosphere in comparison with the loss in normal air.
86 Johnson, B.C., Hamilton, T.S. and Mitchell, H.H., "The Excre- 16-1-7
tion of Folic Acid Through the Skin and in Urine of Normal
Individuals,? J. Biol. Chem., 159, 2, ).25 (July, 1945).
1. The human excretes Folic acid in the sweat.
2. More is excreted under conditions of profuse sweating.
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87
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16-10 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY No.
Johnson, B.C., Hamilton, T.S. and Mitche110 H.H.0 "The Excre- 16-1-8
tion of Nicotinic Acid0 Nicotinamide, Nicotinuric Acid, and
N1-Methylnicotinamide by Normal Individuals,? J. Biol. Chem.,
159, 1, 231 (June, 1945).
The amounts of Nicotinic acid and its metabolites present
in sweat are too small to have any significant influence on
the Nicotinic acid requirements of persons subjected to pro-
fuse sweating throughout the day.
88 Johnson, B.C., Hamilton, T.S. and Mitchell, H.H.0 "The Excre- 16-1-9
tion of Pyridoxine, gPseudopyridoxineo and 4-Pyridoxic Acid
in the Urine and Sweat of Normal Individuals," J. Biol. Chem.,
158, 3, 619 (NaY, 1945).
1. Study was made of the excretion of Pyridoxine, Pseudo-
Wridoxine? and 4-Pyridoxic acid in the urine and
sweat of four men subjected to a hot, moist environ-
ment.
2. Over 85% of the total Pyridoxine and metabolites excreted
in the urine was in the form of 4-Pyridoxic acids 4 to
5% was Pyridoxine, and 7 to 8% was Pseudopyridoxine.
3. The percentage composition of these 3 compounds in sweat
was similar to that in urine.
4. The total amount of Pyridoxine and its metabolites pre-
sent in sweat appears to be too small to have any signi-
ficant influence on the Pyridoxine requirements of per-
sons sweating profuse2y throughout the day,
98 Lee, M.F.0 Henry, J.P. and Ballinger, E.B., "Basic Requirements 16-1-10
for Survival of Mice in a Sealed Atmosphere," Jnl. Aviation
Medicine, 259 4, 399 (Apr., 1954).
02 consumption of a mouse was determined in the resting place
and during various states of activity for time periods from
one hour to four weeks.
Basic requirements of food, water, 02 and soda-lime for a
thirty day period in a sealed container were established to
be 200 gm. food, 150 cc. H20? 72,000 cc. 023 and 1300 gm. of
soda-lime.
136 Robinson, S. and Robinson, A.H.0 "Chemical Composition of 16-1-11
Sweat," Physiological Rev., 34, 2, 202 (Apr., 1954).
Rate of Sweating
Maximal tote sweat losses by men working in the desert
reported as 10 to 12 liters.
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No.
136( cont'
16-1, ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
d)
Coal miners (acc)imatized) - 1.1 Kg/hr. during a 5.5 hr.
period.
Soldiers carrying on moderate activity-2 to 8 3../24 hrs.
Methods of Sampling
1. Ana es on sweat collected directly from skin.
2. Analyses of sweat residues washed from the skin
following periods of measuring rate of evapora-
tion of sweat from the skin.
3. Estimation of sweat components by difference in
material balance studies.
I. Sweat for analysis collected by:
a) Scraping from the skin into a beaker or test tithe.
b) Absorbing on filter paper or absorbent cotton
covering a skin area.
c) Allowing it to accumulate in an impermeable glove,
sock, or bag enveloping a skin region.
d) Collection in capillary micro-pipettes from sweat
droplets as they form at the sweat pores.
Components
1. -oditnn Chloride: NaC1 and water are the principal sub-
stances whose loss by sweating may affect the homeo-
stasis of the individual to a serious degree. Con-
centration of Nan is variable. Individual values
as law as 5 mEq./1. to as high as 100 or 148 mEq./1.
have been reported. Average values rangtng from 18-97
mEq./1. have been reported in- at least 86 separate
studies. Normal output from skin (no sweating) is
ca. 0.2 mEq./hr. of Cl. Sodium runs somewhat higner
because of other sources of Na.
2. Potassium: Lower than Na. Averages about 4.5 mEq./1.
with range from 1 to 15 mEq./1. Potassium concentra-
tion varies inversely with the Na concentration and
the Na/K ratio varies directly with the Na concentra-
tion. Na/K 15 in unacclimatized men, dropping to 5
after a 5-day adaptation period.
3. Calcium: Ranges from 1 to 8 mgm. per 100 ml.
4. Magnesium: 0.04 to 0.4 mg./100
5. Copper: 4.4 to 7.5 mcg./100 ml.
6. Manganese: 3.2 to 7.4 mcg./100 ml.
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136(conttd)
16-1, ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
7. Sulphates: 4 to 17 mgmW10) pa.
8. Iran: 0.1 to 0.2 mgm./100 ml.
9. 12, F2, Br2 have been reported.
? 10. Lactic acid: Values reported range from 4 to 40
rnEq./10
il. pH: Mast observers found between 4 and 6.8.
12. Glucose: Extremely low. Reported from 0.1 mgm./100
ml. to 9 mgm./100 ml.
13. Nitrogen: Much more dilute than corresponding val-
ues in urine. Average values range from 23 mgm./
100 ml. (tot. N) to 140 mgm./100 ml.
14. Urea N: Averages ranged from 12 to 39 mgm./100
in several studies.
15. NHIN: Most investigators report in range of 5 to
9 mgm. percent.
16. Creatinine: Ranges from 0.1 to 1.3 and averages
0.4 mgra./100
17. Uric acid: Reports range from 0 to 1.5 mgm./100 ml.
18. Amino N: Extremely low, but 18 different amino acids
have been identified.
19. Phenol and Histamine reported-.
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154 Strughold, H., "The U.S. Air Force Experimental Sealed Cabin," 16-1-12
Jnl, Aviation Medicine, 27, 2, 50 (Feb., 1956).
The experimentation program for this experimental sealed
cabin is a combined research project of the space medicine
and of physiology-biophysics. The project involves two
main problems which warrant investigation: (1) To what
extent, and in what direction, are the various climatic
factors changed by the presence of occupants in the cabin.
(2) How can these changes be counteracted by physical,
technical, or biological means.
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No.
154( cont d)
16-1, ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
This- experimental chamber also can serve as a training de-
vice to indoctrinate the ot;cupalit, with the problems encoun-
tered in a closed ecological system and to familiarize him
with the pronedures- necessary- to handle any emergency situa-
tions such as the failure of the automatic control systems
and an eventual puncture of the cabin itself.
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No.
16-2, BACTERIOLOGY
14-42
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No.
39 Buswell, A0M0, "A Study of the Chemical Mechanism of Anaerobic 16-2-1
Methane Production," Jnl. of Bacteriologz, 29, 1, 81 (Jan.,
1935)0
Study was made of the anaerobic fermentation of 91 pure com-
pounds (carbohydrates, alcohols, acids, aldehydes, ketones--
both aliphatic and aromatic). 002? CH4 and H2 appear to be
primary products with the H2 combining with CO2 to give more
methane.
40 Butterfield, C.T., "The Purification of Sewage by Bacteria in 16-2-2
Flare Culture," Jul. of Bacteriology-, 33, 10 83 (Jan., 1937).
Reports-on-oxidation of sewage-by-massed growths of pure cul-
ture-of bacteria. PredwthraLit, bacteria from goad activated
sludge were isolated in pure culture. Results show that pure
cultures can oxidize in five hours from 38 to 62% of the 5-
day- B.O.D. (140 to 345 PPm) of the sub6Lrate feeds.
42 Callow, D.S. and Pirt, S.J.? "Automatic Control of pH Values in 16-2-3
Cultures of Microorganisms," Jul. of General Microbiology, 14,
3, 661 (July, 1956).
Equipment for the automatic control of pH value in cultures
of microorganisms is described. The apparatus discussed
was designed for a 2 liter scale continuous culture appara-
tus. The equipment will continuously control pH value with
an accuracy of 4- 0.05 pH units for periods of many hours.
The pH value may be changed merely by turning a knob on the
controller. It is sufficient to check the meter standardiza-
tion every day or two. The main components are readily avail-
able commercial products. A sketch and description is given?
59 Fox, N. and Szilard0 Lop "A Device for Growing Bacterial Popu- 16-2-4
lations Under Steady State Conditions," Jnl. Gen. Physio10,
39, 2, 261 (Nov-0 20D 1955).
A device called the -"breeder" is described in which the tur-
bidity-of an exponentially-growing-population of bacteria
is maintained at 11 preset-value-by controlling-the rate of
inflow of fresh nutrient solution while the total culture
volume remains constant. The rate of influx of the nutrient
solution is controlled by a photo-cell which responds to the
turbidity of the culture and the culture volume is held con-
stant by meaas of an overflow siphon from the growth tube.
A technique is described for overcoming the difficulties pre-
sented by growth on the walls of the growth tube.
A diagram is presented.
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16-2, BACTERIOLOGY
14-10
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No.
76 Hall, I.C., "Review of Development and Application of Physical l6-2-
and Chemical Principles in the Cultivation of Obligately An-
aerobic Bacteria," Jul. of Bacteriology, 17, 4, 225 (Apr./
1929).
A description of methods of cultivation of obligate anaer-
obes in use up to 1929. A summary is as follows:
1. Reduction of Ogen Tension
10 Biological Methods
Aerobe - anaerobe symbiosis
Symbiont in medium-
Symbiont in air chamber
Use of animal and plant tissue
B. Physical Methods
Boiling
Evacuation
Use of Inert Gases
C. Chemical Reduction
Agent in air chamber
Catalytic ignition of hydrogen and residual
Reduction by Phosphorous and by iron compounds
Reduction by alkaline pyragallel
79 Herbert, Dop Elsworth, R. and Telling, R.C.2 "The Continuous 16-2-6
Culture of Bacterial; A Theoretical and Experimental Study,"
Jnl. of General Microbiology, 14, 3, 601 (July, 1956).
A theoretical treatment of continuous culture is given
which allows quantitative prediction of the steady-state
concentrations of bacteria and substrate in the culture,
and how these may be expected to vary with change of med-
ium, concentration and flow-rate. The layout and operation
of a pilot plant for the continuous culture of bacteria are
described. This plant has been operated continuously for
as long as four months without breakdown or contamination
of the culture. No alterations in the properties of the
organisms- have occurred during such periods of continuous
culture. Results are given 17 a series of experiments on
the continuous culture of Azrahacta cloaca in a chemically
defined medium:designed-tor, allow quantitative comparison
with results predicted:by-thearr. Continuous culture
methods are compared with batch methods and it is conclud-
ed that continuous process may be expected to show a five
to tenfold increase in product as compared with batch
methods.
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No. 16-2, BACTERIOLOGY
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No.
96 Langlykke, A.F.? Peterson, W.H. and McCoy, &a, "Products from 16-2-7
the Fermentation of Glucose and Arabinoses by Butyric Acid
Anaerobes," Jnl. of Bacteriology, 29) 4) 333 (Apr., 1935).
1. Fifty-two Butyric acid-forming cultures were studied with
relationship to fermentation of glucose and arabinose
and production of neutral products.
2. Low yields of neutral products were associated with high
yields of acid.
3. The formation of Ethanol in fermentation proceeds more
readily than does Acetone or Butanol.
4. Isopropyl alcohol maybe produced.
5. Acetone may be produced.
99 Levine, P.P., "The Effect of Atmosphere of Hydrogen, 002? and 16-2-8
Oxygen, Respectively, and of Mixtures of These Gases on The
Growth of Bacillus Subtilis," Jnl. of Bacteriology, 31, 2,
151 (Feb., 1936).
1. In an atmosphere of 100% H2? spores of B. snbtilis do not
germinate and vegetative cells do not multiply.
2. In an atmosphere of 100% CO2, spores of B. subtilis do not
germinate.
3. In an atmosphere of 002? addition of 4% air permits germ-
ination of spores with subsequent growth to permit vis-
ible growth.
4. An atmosphere of 100% 02 is not inhibitory to growth.
112 Mead, LW., Jr. and King, C.G., "Proteolysis and the Selective 16-2-9
Destruction of Amino Acids by Clostridium Sporogenes and
Clostridium Histolyticum," Jnl. of Bacteriology, 17, 3, 151
(Mar., 1929).
1. Proteolytic action of 010 histolyticum is greater than
that of Cl. sporagenes.
2. In anaerobic cultures rich in proteins resulting pH is
held at 7.5 to 8.2.
3. Degree of destruction of tyrosine and histidine depends
on the particular protein utilized.
4. With Cl. histolyticum tyrosine crystals are formed in
the medium whenever this amino acid is liberated
during protein hydrolysis.
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16-2, BACTERIOLOGY
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135 Roberts, RoS., "Bacteriological Problems Involved in the Use 16-2-10
of B. Coli as a Food," Jnl. of Pathology and Bacteriology.,
LXIX? 1-2, 359 (Jan.-Apr., 1555).
Cultures of E. coli in a chemical medium, freed of culture
fluid and heat-killed are innocuous in food and serve as an
excellent source of animal protein.
Factors of importance in large-scale cultivation are:
1. Impure substrates, such as agricultural grades of
ammonia; phosphate and molasses can be used if
chelating agents are present.
2. Response to aeration is a strain characteristic.
3. Aeration does not mean oxygenation.
139 Ruchhaft, C.C., Kallass, J.G. and Edwards, G.P.? "Studies of 16-2-11
Bacterial Population During Sludge Digestion," Jnl. of
Bacteriology, 19, 4, 269 (Apr., 1930).
1. Six types of sludges
(a) Activated sludge alone; (b) fresh solids alone;
and (c) four different mixtures of (a) and (b)
were allowed to digest at 1900 and at 25?C.
2. The following changes were follaweds (a) reduction
of organic acids; (b) pH changes; and (c) changes
in bacterial population.
3. The greatest reduction in organic solids was found
with 20% activated sludge. Digestion was more
rapid at 25000 than at 15?C.
4. Calculations were made of the rate of organic solids
reduced per day per billion bacteria.
143 Skinner, C.E. and Gardner, C.G.? "Utilization of Nitrogenous 16-2-12
Organic Compounds and Sodium Salts of Organic Acids by Cer-
tain Soil Algae in Darkness and in the Light," Jnl. of
Bacteriology, 19, 3, 161 (Mar., 1930).
1. Pure cultures of Pleurococcus, Cystococcus, Chlorella?
Scenedesmus-, and an: unidentified strain of green
algae were grown in liquid and semi-solid media in
diffused sunlight or in total darkness.
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143(contld)
3.6-2, BACTERIOLOGY
2. Organic compounds, such as glucose, gelatin, peptone,
egg albumin, casein, citric, lactic, malic, oxalic,
succinic, and tartaric acids were added to the
media at pH ss 6.
3. The organic compounds4 except oxalates, increased growth
of some of the algae.
4. Glucose and some of the nitrogenous compounds served as
sole energy sources for some species of algae.
168 Weinzirl, J. and Gerdeman, A., "The Bacterial Count of Ice
Cream Held at Freezing Temperature," Jnl. of Bacteriology,
17, 1, 38 (Jan., 1929).
Storage of ice-cream at minus 10?C. does not prevent bact-
erial multiplication.
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No.
16-3, BIOCHEMISTRY
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78 Hawk, P.B., Oser, B.L. and Summersen, W.H., Chapter, The Urine, 16-3-1
"Practical Physiological Chemistry," 13th Ed., p. 788, Lea
and Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa. (1956).
Urine
Composition of Average Normal Urine
Daily Excretion
Amount (gins.)
Constituent
Water
Solids
Urea
Hippuric acid
Uric acid
Creatinine
Indican (Indoxyl potassium sulfate)
Oxalic acid
Allantoin
Amino acid nitrogen
Purine basis
Phenols
Cl as NaC1
Na
Ca
Mg
S as SO2
Inorganic sulfates as SO3
Neutral sulfur SO3
Conjugated sulfates as SO3
60
30
0.7
0.7
1,2
0.01
0.02
o.o4
0.2
0.01
0.2
12.0
4.0
2.0
0.2
0.15
2.5
2.0
0.3
0.2
105 Mattice, M.R., Appendix--Resume of Normal Data, "Chemical Pro- 16-3-2
cedures for Clinical Laboratories," p. 403, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, Pa. (1936).
Analysis of Normal Sweat
Total Solids 0.04 - 0.86%
Total N 0.3 gm./day
11111-N 4.7 - 6.0 mg./100 ml.
Total volume 100 - 500 ml./day
NPN 32 - 67 mgm./100 ml.
Urea N 20 mgm./100 ml.
Amino N 6 - 8 mgm./100 ml.
Chlorides 14 - 6 mgm../ml.
PH 6.1 - 6.6
Sugar 12 - 20 mgm./100 ml.
Physical Characteristics of Urine and Feces
Urine Feces
ers
%Water 9157=75 7
pH 5.5 - 8.o 7.0 - 7.5
Total Solids 20 - 40 gn./24 hr.
Freezing Point -1.0 to -205?C.
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No.
16-4, BIOLOGY
14-118
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No.
2 "Algae Hazard Found Facing Space Travel," 16-4-1
Aviation Week; 67, 10, 65 (Sept: 9, 1957).
Ordinary flowers and vegetables can be poisonous, accord-
ing to Air Force scientists, and space travelers could be
menaced by their awn food and air supply: It has recently
been determined that the normal photobylitlesis process can
be disrupted so that the damaged plants produce carbon
monoxide instead of oxygen. Dead plants also contain car-
bon monoxide.
This discovery has created the need for more study of one
of the techniques for keeping crews alive for weeks or
months in aspace ship. This is to gray algae in the ship
to replace the carbon dioxide given off by the flyers by
oxygen.
4 , "Development of Ohlorella Culture Process," Fin- 16-4-2
a Report, Stanford Research Institute Project No. 191, Stan-
ford Research Institute, Stanford, Calif. (Mar., 1950).
Final report on S.R.I. Project No. 191 prepared for Research
Corporation (Mar., 1950).
13 , Pilot-Plant Studies in the Production of Chlor-
16-4-3
ella, "Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant," (edited
by J.S. Burlew) p. 235, Publication 600, Carnegie Institution
of Washington,liashington, D.C. (1953).
Chapter based on report by A.D. Little, Inc., Cambridge, Mass.,
"Pilot Plant Studies and Economic Evaluation of Mass Culture
of Algae."
The pilot-plant project begun at Arthur D. Little, Inc. in
1951 had four purposes s (1) to achieve the continuous produc-
tion of high-protein Chlorella on a larger scale than had been
attempted before; (2) to obtain further information that would
aid in the appraisal of economic possibilities; (3) to study
the conditions of growth suitable for continuous mass culture
on a large scale; and (4) to distribute experimental quantities
of Chlorella for studies of possible end uses of the product.
Throughout the pilot-plant program the species Chlorella pyren-
oidosa (Ehersonls strain) was used. Since all previous data
had been obtained under essentially pure culture conditions,
closed systems that could be readily cleaned or replaced were
adopted. Only natural illumination was used for the pilot
units.
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No.
l3(contld)
16-4, BIOLOGY
The paper discusses the following in details
1. Laborato7 and Intermediate-Scale Operations - This sec-
tion discusses the use of agar slants, flasks and
vertical columns.
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2. Large-Scale Operations - This section of the paper dis-
cusses the three large-scale culture units which were
developed and studied during the project. The opera-
tion of the first unit satisfied the first objective
of the program, namely, continuous relatively large-
scale production of high-protein Chlorella. It also
provided material for end-use studies by industrial
and research organizations. The second unit constructed
never functioned satisfactorily and was therefore aban-
doned. The operation of the third unit was satisfactory,
and no settling occurred. However, the objective of in-
vestigating the effect of turbulence on growth was not
achieved*
3. Supplementary Studies - The discussion in this section is
concerned with the studies made on vertical columns,
studies in flasks and a flow study.
4. Handling- the Product - This section discusses freezing,
spray drying, lyophilization, solvent drying with ex-
traction and hygeusnopicity.
5. Measurement Techniques - This section of the report is de-
voted to a discussion of determination of pH, determina-
tion of algal concentration, determination of Carbon Di-
oxide concentration, determination of concentration of
major nutrients, determination of microelement concentra-
tion, visual observation and illumination and weather
data.
6. Discussionce Results - The results of plastic growth tith-
ing, auxiliary equipment, nutrient medium, Carbon Dioxide,
recycle of medium, contamination, temperature, illumina-
tion, concentration of algae, hydrodynamic problems, in-
termittent light by turbulent flow, growth inhibition and
variation in cell density, and yield per unit area are
discussed in this section of the report.
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No.
16-4, BIOLOGY
15 Abbott, LE., "Oxygen Production in Water by Photosynthesis,"
Sewage Works Journal, 209 3, 538 (May, 1948).
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Biochemical production of oxygen measured by incubating com-
parable samples of sewage or effluent for 48 hours at the
same temperature in the dark and exposed to the light from
a north window. In one case, the D.O. increased from 7.7
to 44.7 ppm in the light and decreased to 0.0 in the dark.
The photosynthetic organisms were not identified.
16 Allen, MOB., "General Features of Algal Growth in Sewage Oxid- 16-4-5
ation Ponds," Publication No. 139 State Water Pollution Con-
trol Board, Sacramento9 Calif. (1955).
Studies of four sewage oxidation ponds indicate Chlorella
and Scenedesmus are the photosynthetic organisms most import-
ant in the functioning of ponds--Chlarerla being the principal
algae in ponds where sewage undergoes oxidation.
Growth of Chlorella on sterilized sewage in light did not re-
sult in any decrease in oxidizable organic matter. It was
concluded that oxidation of organic matter in sewage is car-
ried out by bacteria and other non-photobyathetic organisms
and that growth of the usual pond algae in sewage occurs only
at the expense of CO2 produced by microbial oxidation or ab-
sorbed from the air.
Ghlorella grew more luxuriantly in sewage with bacteria than
in sewage alone, probably-because of the increased CO2 content.
Growth of algae in sewage is limited by two major nutrients--
carbon and nitrogen. For optimum algal growth sewage must be
supplemented with other sources of nutrient.
The maximum yield of algae from domestic sewage in the labora-
tory is 1-2 gm0 dry weight per liter. In the field the maximum
yield was about 0.5 gm0 dry weight per liter.
17 Allen, M.B., "Photosynthetic Nitrogen Fixation by Blue-Green 16-4-6
Algae," Preprint, Conference on Solar Energy: The Scientific
Basis, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. (Oct. 31-Nov. 19 1955).
A study was made of the nitrogen fixing properties of Anabaena
aylindrica, a blue-green algae. This is rapidly growing and
under proper conditions of nutrition and illumination it was
possible to obtain a daily increment of 2.0 gms0 of dry weight
of cells per liter of culture medium or 26 gms0 per sq0 meter
of illuminated surface. This rate maybe taken as typical of
this type of algae under favorable conditions.
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17(conted)
16-4, BIOLOGY
The nutritional requirements of blue-green algae differ from
those of the green algae as follows:
Blue-Green Green
Calcium Macro quantities Micro quantities
Calcium cannot be replaced
by Strontium
Molybdenum 10 if go/liter 0.1 Lig./10
Eb cannot be replaced by Vanadium
Cobalt Required for pigmentation not required
Sodium 5-10 ppm required regardless of
amounts of K present not required
Nitrogen Nitrogen fixation by Anabaena differs from that
of heterotrophic microorganisms such as azoto-
bacter in that it is not prevented by the
presence of combined Nitrogen in the medium.
Nitrogen was not fixed in the presence of am-
monia or urea. Under favorable conditions,
growth of Anabaena proceeds at the same rate
and to same density whether molecular or com-
bined Nitrogen is used as Nitrogen source.
Under conditions of adequate nutrition, growth of Anabaena
increases with increasing light intensity up to at least
16,000 lux. Growth was as rapid with 13 hrs. of illumination
each day-as with 24.
The blue-green algae-are more tolerant of modcrately high
temperature than the green algae. Ebcamination of 40 pure cul-
tures of various blue-green algae showed that all grew well
at 35?C. and most at 400C.
No marine nitrogen-fixing blue-green algae have been isolated
but Anabaena is fairly tolerant of salt, growing normally in
1.5% NaCl. A comparisonof yields of blue-green algae with
those obtained with green algae and higher plants such as to-
matoes and potatoes shows that the amount of cell material
produced by per month is of the same order of
magnitude for all three types of plant; e.g., computed in dry
weight, tons per acre per month:
Tomatoes
3
Potatoes
5
Scenedesmus
7.8
Anabaena
3.4
The Nitrogen fixed by blue-green algae is available to rice
* plants.
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14-52
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No.
18 Altshuler, B. and Palmes, EZ., "Mechanical Exchange of Air 16-4-7
and Airborne Particles Between Tidal and Reserve Air," Un-
published research, New York Univ. Dept. of Industrial Med-
icine, New York Univ. Bellevue Medical Center, New York,
N.Y. (May, 1957).
A novel use of aerosols allows the mechanical flow component
of pulmonary ventilation to be experimentally distinguished
from the effect of the superimposed gaseous diffusion.
In the study of the effect of particle size on aerosol deposi-
tion in the human respiratory tract a method was developed for
the simultaneous and continuous measurements of respiratory
flow, aerosol concentration and CO2 concentration during indi-
vidual expirations. A particle of 1/2 micron diameter, which
has least probability of being deposited during respiration,
has considerable stability inthe supporting respiratory gas
and maybe left suspended in the respiratory tract for sever-
al breaths. The records obtained during wash-in and wash-out
breaths when the subject is shifted between breathing evidence
of the degree of the mechanical exchange of air and aerosol
betweem tidal and reserve air-. Experimental data, their anal-
ytical treatment, and the implications for the understanding
of the mechanism of pulmonary ventilation and the associated
handling of aerosols are being-collected and analyzed.
The mechduical exnhange-of tidal air is shown to p;ay a minor
role in pulmonary -ventilation. However, it plays- a significant
role in the deposition of aerosols. In fact, a gross differ-
ence in aerosol deposition between subjects can be explained
by measured differences in the extent of mechanical mixing;
these subjects appeared to be similar in all other respects.
21 Bassham, J.A., "Effect of Environmental Condition on Photosyn- 16-4-8
thesis in Marine Algae," Final Progress Report, May 1, 1953
to Apt. 15, 1955, Univ. of California, Contract Nonr-222(19)$
(Jan. 28, 1955).
Objective: To study the effects of environment on various
marine algae in order to select a species and set of growth
conditions under which a high rate of photosynthesis can be
maintained while using nutrient solution sea water with a min-
imum of enrichment.
Results: Numerous species of marine and fresh water algae
were tested for rate of growth and photosynthetic activity.
In the presence of ideal psychological conditions (0021 light,
nutrient, etc.) small unicellular fresh water green algae
(e.g., Chlorella pyrenoidosa and Scenedesmus obliquus) photo-
synthesized at the greatest rate per unit volume of algal sus-
pension. Larger and more complete forms photosynthesized at
a much slower rate.
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14-53
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No.
21(contld) 16-4-8
No marine species were found which had as high photosynthetic
activity as fresh water Chlorella. A marine Chlorella photo-
synthesized as rapidly as the fresh water forms in terms of
chlorophyll content. The chlorophyll deficiency in the marine
forms:Try-be due to air undetermined nutrient deficiency.
22 Bassham, J.A., "Use of Controlled Photosynthesis for Mainten- 16-4-9
ance of Gaseous Environment," Report, U.C.R.L. 2707, Univ.
of California Radiation Lab. Contract No. W-7405-eng-48,
Berkeley, Calif. (Sept., 1954).
Purpose : To determine whether livable oxygen and 002 pres-
sures in a closed space in which men must live can be main-
tained by the use of photosynthesis of green algae.
Results: Computations based on the known respiratory rate
Znigrand the photosynthetic rates of Chlorella indicates
1. A man weighing 154 lbs. (70 kg.) doing light work would
require about 600 liters of 02 over 24 hours or an
average of 25 liter/hr. Chlorella can easily form
25 liters per hr/kg. of wet weight of algae so that
the respiration of one man could be balanced by the
photosynthesis of 1 Kg0 wet weight of algae. A 1%
suspension of algae in nutrient solution is practical
for maintaining growth so that 100 liters of algal
suspension is required for each man.
2. The light requirement for Chlorella (1% suspension) in
layer 0.4 am0 thick would be about 600 f.c. from each
side if the light were all of 680007NT.Tength.
3. Volume required per man for pumping, aerating, harvest-
ing and control mechanisms would be-about 50 cu. ft.
4. The power required for an algae gas-exchange system is:
for a man, 120 k cal/hr. 1== 0.2 hp.
but efficiency of conversion of electrical energy
to visible light energy is about 20% in standard
fluorescent light and efficiency of conversion of
red light to chemical energy by Ohlorella on a large
scale probably not more than 25%.
Therefore, for 1 man we obtain 0.2/(02 x .25) im 4 hp.
requiring about 100 grams of atomic fuel per year per
man if efficiency of conversion of fuel to electrical
energy of 0.02% were obtained.
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No. 16-4$ BIOLOGY
M(ciard)
5. The ratio of CO2 to 02 in the gas exchange of a res-
piring man is about 0.80 The photosynthetic gas
ratio CO2/b can be maintained at 0.8 by controlling
the ratio of nitrate to NH3 in the nutrient.
6. The nitrogen requirements of the algaes
A kilogram of algae producing 25 liters of 02 per
hour at a gas exchange ratio of 0.82 would take
up 20.5 liters of CO2 or 0.915 moles of carbon.
Cells produced are about 50% carbon and 10% nitro-
gen so that 0.16 moles of nitrogen per hour is
needed. This can be supplied by addition of 1306
gm. NaNO3, 4.8 gm. of urea, or 2.4 gm. NH4 per hr.
Lesser amounts of P and other elements would be
needed.
If the algae harvest is used for food, then human
excrement would have to be processed by bacterial
action to provide nutrient for algae. This would
require some further 02 uptake and CO2 evolution
and would require increase in volume and energy
requirements of algal cultures.
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Use of urine alone as such may be questionable.
24 Bassham, J.A.? Shibata, Kos, Steenberg, Ke, Bourdon, Jo, and 16-4-10
Calvin, M., "The Photosynthetic Cycle and Respirations Light-
Dark Transients," Report, U.C.R.L0 3331, Univ. of California
Radiation Lab. Contract No. V-7405-eng-48? Berkeley, Calif.
(Mar., 1956).
Studies of the transient changes in radiocarbon found in
various photosynthetic and respiratory intermediates in
Scenedeemus, which result when changing from a condition
of steady-state photosynthesis in the light to dark and
then back to light again, indicate the following metabolic
mechanisms:
(a) The carboxylation step in the carbon-reduction cycle
of photosynthesis results in the formation of two
molecules of 3-PGA from one RuDP molecule, one CO2$
and one H20.
(b) This carboxylation reaction proceeds for about thirty
seconds in the dark after the light is turned off
and its rate is proportional to the falling concen-
trationcf RuDP$ and stops when the latter concentra-
tion falls to zero.
------------------
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27(contld)
3.
16-4, BIOLOGY
On voyages longer than 5 months algae could be used for
food and atmospheric control. The weight require-
ments vary from 1.8 kg./man/day to 0, depending on
length of trip.
4. In the future more rapid algae growth techniques should
permit algae eventually to be useful in trips as
short as a few weeks.
M46
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No.
16-4-11
32 Brunel, J.? Prescott, GOW. and Tiffany, L.H. (Editors), "The 16-4-12
Culturing of Algae," A Symposium, The Charles F. Kettering
Foundation, Yellow Springs, Ohio (1950).
A section (pp. 19-26) by E.G. Pringsheim deals with the soil-
water culture technique for growing algae.
33 Buettner, K., Chapter VI, Bioclimatology of Manned Rocket Flight,16-4-13
"Space Medicine," (edited by J.P. Marbarger), Univ. of Illi-
nois Press, Urbana, Ill. (1951).
Shows the detailed computations for determining the equili-
brium skin temperature of an orbiting space vehicle.
37 Burlew, J.S. (Edited by), "Algal Culture from Laboratory to 16-4-14
Pilot Plant," Publication 600, Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington, Washington, D.C. (1953).
A discussion of algal culture by various authors in which
discussions are given on conditions for growth of algae,
growth of algae in mass cultures pilot plant experiments,
and possible uses of microscopic algae. An extensive biblio-
graphy is given on the mass culture of Chlorella and immed-
iately related subjects. 22 papers on various subjects are
included.
Chlorella and Scenedesmus? green algae, are common inhabitants
of fresh water and soils.
Chlorella - Four main strains
C. pyrenoidosa (Emerson strain) used mainly.
C. vulgaris (Emerson strain)
C. vulgaris (Trelease or Columbia Strain)
C. vulgaris (Vann or Cornell strain)
Chlorella is a standard organism for study of the mechanism
of photosynthesis. It is hardy and rapidly growing. Its
chloroplast takes up a main portion of the cell and its high
rate of photosynthesis exceeds the rate of respiration 10-
100 times. It excretes relatively little organic matter.
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37(c3ald)
3.6-4, BIOLOGY
Dried cells contain over 50% protein which contains the ten
amino acids now considered essential. It has a low molecular
weight which means it can be digested readily.
Utilization of Light
Algae and higher plants are about equal in utilization of
light. They can use as much as 20% of the incident energy
in the visible part of the spectrum. In full sunlight the
utilization is reduced to 2-3%. This "light saturation"
can be partially eliminated by intermittent light and other
means.
The upper limit of intensity of sunlight which is utilized
with full efficiency by C. pyrenoidosa is estimated at 400
f.c. In summer sunlight during the middle of the day is at
least 8,000 f.c. The increased light increases output of
algae slowly. Conditions must be arranged so that algae
can utilize sunlight as efficiently as they can weak light.
Maximum Average Daily Yield has been computed at 70 grams
per square meter, but this is more than 5 times better than
has been obtained to date. Methods of evaluating growth
are: (a) number of cells; (b) volume occupied after centri-
fugation called "wet volume," or "packed cell volume;"
(c) weight of cells after centrifugation or after drying
to constant weight; (d) optical density.
A.D. Little concluded that although their maximum yield was
only 4 grams per square meter per day, 20 grams can be
realized under advantageous climatic conditions.
Effect of Old Culture Medium
Some difference of opinion but growth-inhibiting substance
"chlorellin" reported by Pratt for Chlorella vulgaris.
Other workers do not confirm this.
Algal Species
Most experiments have been carried on with Chlorella because
species of this genus grow rapidly and tolerate vide variety
of cultural conditions--"an algal weed." Some other algae
may be better.
Effective Tem erature
For b. pyrenoidosa the optimum is probably 25?C. at light
saturation, but a higher temperature is better if the cells
are cooled to 15-20?C. during the night.
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J7(aitld)
16-4, BIOLOGY
Effect of Carbon Dioxide
/15761-DatV?the growth rate is independent of
between 0.1 and 5.0% expressed in terms of
gas phase and equilibrium with suspension.
indicate a range of 0.56 to 4.43%. Above
appear.
Design of Plant
The elements of design areg
CO2 concentration
composition of
More recent data
5% toxic effects
1. Container with transparent upper surface.
2. A means of circulation of cultureredium so that algae
do not settle.
3. Means of controlling temperature.
4. Means of introducing CO2 and other nutrients continuously.
5. Means of harvesting algae almost continuously.
6. Means of processing harvest so that it is preserved till
used.
Container
The best so far for pilot plant operation is a long tube of
transparent polyethylene plastic only 0.004 inches thick.
When partly filled it flattens to an elliptical cross-section
with a width ofrearly 4 feet and a height of 8-12 inches de-
pending on the proportions of liquid and gas. It facilitates
introduction of CO2 as a gas phase in contact with the entire
layer of liquid.
_Open Culture
n open culture it is difficult to keep CO2 concentration
high enough for maximum growth. For sewage oxidation lagoons
may be an exception because enough nitrogen and CO2 may be
provided.
Contamination
The contaminants apt to cause trouble are rotifers and other
large organisms which eat algae. Amoeba and vorticella ap-
parently did not grow rapidly in healthy culturess but under
certain conditions these might be harmful. Bacteria may not
have a critical effect in large scale operation. Means should
be provided for keeping contaminants under control.
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Open air culture experiments in Germany became heavily infected
by protozoa such as zooflagellatess ciliates and amoebae. Be-
cause of their rapid growth flagellates caused most trouble and
within two to four days after infection the cultures became
useless. Scenedesmus has greater resistance to protozoa than
Chlorella.
In Israeli experiments 2-4-D was suggested to keep cultures
free from secondary algal infections. Chlorella is fairly tol-
erant to 2-4-D.
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57(c11a0d)
16-4, BIOLOGY
Harvesting and Drying
VEMFErii of California report indicated that algae maybe
separated from culture medium by simple alum flocculation
followed by settling. Since the suspension of algae is less
than 1%9 the use of a super-centrifuge is good except for
cost. Perhaps settling followed by centrifuge would be more
efficient. Algal cells when removed from the centrifuge are
thick paste containing 75% water. It spoils in less than one
hour in a warm roam. The algal cells may be preserved by
"freeze drying9" by spray drying, or defatting. Freeze dry-
ing is probably the best but my be too expensive under pond
conditions.
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Intermittent E with Light
Algae can use light in viE57Earrriashes. The initial
light-sensitive reaction of photosynthesis stops when the
light goes off and resumes when it goes on. Cell division
may continue during the dark period at the same or even in-
creased rate. Turbulent flow may allow the entire surface
of culture to be occupied by cells all utilizing light at
the greatest efficiency. It may increase the yield three-
fold. The efficiency of energy conversion by green plants
in general is estimated at 1-2% of the solar radiation which
reaches the earthos surface and is useable in photosynthesis.
Short term experiments with Chlorella have indicated the cal-
culated efficiency of 25%. Only light of wave length shorter
than 7,00OR is active in photosynthesis. Experiments with
intermittent light showed that the intermittent dark periods
cause no retardation in the overall logarithmic growth at
earlier stages of culture, but at later culture stages when
the amount of available light decreased considerably because
of population density, the overall rate of growth was decided-
ly decreased by the dark period. Cells grown under weak light
are smaller than those grown under strong light, but the chloro-
phyll and nitrogen content (percent by weight) are lower in
larger cells than in the smaller ones.
Stable foam formed as a result of agitationcr aeration of cul-
tures at concentrations of algae of about 0.3 to 0.4 grams
per liter. This is important from an operational viewpoint.
Two anti-foamers seemed non-toxic, Dow-Corning Anti-Foam A9
and Span 85 of Atlas Powder Co. The details of use have not
been worked out.
Improved Strains of Algae
Strains of ChloreirrEEW thrive at considerably higher temper-
atures and with higher growth rates than C. pyrenoidosa have
been isolated. It seems that at high cell density the same
yield would be produced at 39?C0 as at 25?0. reducing thereby
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No. 16-4, BIOLOGY
37( dattd)
the requirements for cooling?
Israeli experimenters expect to study a large diploid Chlor-
ella obtained by camphor treatment of algae by Pearsall.
Inorganic Nutrition of Algae
Any normal water supply sterilized but free from any toxic
ions would be satisfactory. The major nutrients required
of algae are similar to those of the higher plants. Che-
lating agents are used to keep trace elements in solution.
Muchmore information is required on chelating agents. For
example:
1. Chelating agents are highly selective. In a medium
replete with metallic ions, which will be complexed
by a given chelater and what will be the equilibrium?
2. Schwartzenbach has determined equilibrium constants in
uni-metallic solutions with EDA. What is equilibria
in mixed solutions?
3. Perhaps an efficient system for the supply of micro-
nutrients can be worked out biologically using serial
concentrations of chelating agents without determining
either the equilibria or the mechanism of ion exchange.
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As a source of nitrogen for Chlorella, urea is better than
003, because it gives better yields, causes only minor Changes
in pH and furnishes a greater supply of nitrogen without seri-
ously decreasing the growth.
Growth of Algae for Food
Composition of dry C. vulgaris (six-day experiments) is as
follows:
Component
Moisture
Nitrogen
8
Crude protein
50
True protein
45.5
Ether extract
3
Ash
704
Phosphorous
1.1
Potassium
1.5
Magnesium
0.5
Iron
0.04
Sulphur
1.1
These analyses were made on freeze dry samples.
Composition of Chlorella (HM. Milner) varied widely depending
upon environmental conditions. For example, ash varied from
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77(cEttd)
1.36 to 20.2%. On the basis of ash-free dry
following ranges were obtained:
Master
File
No.
16-4-14
weight the
Carbon
49.51
- 70.71%
Hydrogen
6.78
- 10.53
Nitrogen
1.17
- 14.11
Oxygen
17.87
- 34.40
"R" Value
37.92
- 63.33
Calculated campositions
Protein (N x 6.25)
7.3
- 88.0
Carbohydrate
507
- 38.0
Lipide
4.5
- 86.0
"R" value is the level of reduction of total content of
organic matter in plant material and is computed as follows:
R (%,C x 2.664 4- %H x 7.936 - %0) x 100
398.9
"WI runs from 0 for CO2 to 100 for methane.
Preliminary experiments suggest that freeze dry Chlorella
cells contain more than 1200 ppm of beta carotene. Vita-
mins A, B and C are present., but 0 is lost on drying or
storing.
Thawed, undried Chlorella alone had a vegetable-like flavor
and aroma and was rated by "Flavor Panel" at A.D. Little as
"food-like and food satisfying" but with some of the "notes"
unpleasantly strong. There was a noticeable tightening at
the back of the throat ("gag factor") and a lingering, mild-
ly unpleasant aftertaste. When used to 15% in a chicken
base soup, the stronger, less pleasant "notes" were much
reduced and "gag factor" not noticeable. The conclusion
was that Chlorella and soups made from it were suggestive
of vegetables and generally palatable and acceptable. The
appearance may not be so generally acceptable. The de-
fatted product, "Viabin," had a different flavor. The
flavor of dried Chlorella alone is too strong to enjoy
eating large quantities of it and in this way it may be
compared with herbs. These conclusions on the flavor and
acceptability are tentative.
In Venezuela "Plankton soup" which is largely algae was
served to patients in a leper colony. They found that
dried Chlorella has a vegetable-like flavor resembling
raw lima beans or raw pumpkin. The patients gained weight
on the diet of algae.
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No. 16-4, BIOLOGY No.:
TI(FEEld) Tbz7n-
German experiments on mass culture of algae were made to pro-
duce fat. Preliminary experiments indicated that the diatom
Nitzschia palea and Chlorella pyrenoidosa were most promising.
The lipide content of cultured organisms ranged from 40 to 70%.
The fats were triglycerized of stearic? oleic and linoleic
acids. Fat formation is initiated when there is low concen-
tration of available nitrogen in the nutrient solution. Fogg
and Collyer reported that the chrysophyta, especially Chlor-
elle, produce more lipides than the blue green algae.
Hydrodynamic Problems (Ippen)
Head loss is important at velocities much above 1 ft. per sec-
ond. A more serious limitation may be the surface instability
above the critical Froude number. Operation above the criti-
cal Froude number results in surging which might decrease tithe
life. For 3 inch depth the maximum velocity will be less than
1.5 ft./sec. and even at 5" depth, which is believed to be the
greatestpractical for tubes, velocities must be less than 1.8
ft./sec.
38 Burlew, J.S., Current Status of the Large-Scale Culture of Algae-316 45
"Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant," (Edited by
J.S. Burlew), p. 3, Publication 600, Carnegie Institution of
Washington, Washington, D.C. (1953).
An introduction and summary of the current status of large-
scale culture of algae are given. The author examines the
entire monograph of which this article is the first chapter
and provides some background information.
Pertinent highlights follows
The composition of Chlorella pyrenoidosa can be controlled.
Dried algal cells may contain over 50% protein. In algal cul-
ture every sunny day gives the same result, as algae are always
at the height of the growing season. Algae and higher plants
have the capacity to utilize the energy of visible light. The
maximum efficiency of light utilization in photosynthesis may
be from 30 to 80% according to different workers.
A maximum average daily yield from experiments described in
which the highest efficiency of energy utilization was observed
amounted to 70 gm./in2. For every pound of dry algae harvested
a minimum of two pounds CO2 and 1/12 pound of combined nitrogen
are required.
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A concentration of 0.2 gm./1. dry weight of C. pyrenoidosa
contains about 20 billion cells per quart of moderately thin
suspension.
The same yield per unit area can be obtained with almost any
infinite number of combinations of volume, depth, and concen-
tration provided that none of the light is wasted by absorp-
tion, and that there is sufficient depth and concentration
for optical extinction.
Requirements of a plant for growing algae on a large scale
include:
1. A container with a transparent upper surface.
2. A means of circulating the culture medium within the
container so that the algae do not settle.
3. A means of controlling the temperature.
4. A means of introducing Carbon Dioxide and other nu-
trients continuously.
S. A means of harvesting the algae almost continuously.
6. A means of processing the harvest so that it is pre-
served until used.
One proposed plant was estimated to cost $1.30/ft2. Sus-
pension in large scale culture will contain less than 1% of
algal cells by weight. Harvesting by means of super-centri-
fuge is feasible but costly.
Algal cells can be frozen or dried. Freeze drying is less
likely to change vitamin content. Spray drying is easily
applicable on large scale. DefaLing yields an additional
liquid fatty fraction containing protein.
Saturation effect of light intensity places limitations on
efficiency with which solar energy can be utilized by algae.
Algae can utilize light in very short flashes. Dark time/
light time ratio at least equal to 10 should be employed for
fully efficient utilization of 'incident light.
Turbulent flaw to increase exposure on thin surface layer
is possibly a means of avoiding waste of light.
Algae may be used as food. Dried Chlorella has a vegetable-
like flavor. Does not have components of pharmaceutical
value. Proteins are difficult to extract. Fat fraction con-
tains large percentage of unsaturated acids.
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41 Caldwell, DM., "Sewage Oxidation Ponds?Performance, Opera- 16-4-16
tion and Design?u Sewage Works Journal, 18, 3, 433 (May,
1946).
A comprehensive report of the early work with sewage oxida-
tion ponds in California, Nevada and Arizona. Microscopic
examinations at the U.S. Naval Station, Shoemaker, Calif.
showed that Euglena, a chlorophyll-bearing protozoan, was
found to be predominant, usually in nearly pure culture.
48 Davis, E.A. and Dedrick, Jo, Culture Medium, "Algal Culture 16-4-17
from Laboratory to Pilot Plant," (Edited by J.S. Burley),
Po 119, Publication 600, Carnegie Institution of Washington,
Washington, D.C. (1953).
The authors state that from the standpoint of the commercial
production of algae, the question concerning the recycling
of medium is important. Accordingly, the growth of Chlor-
ella was compared in fresh and physiologically old media.
The experiment was carried out in plastic (Tygon) and glass
tubing culture units, in conjunction with an experiment to
find the daily yield of Chlorella.
49 Davis, E.A., Dedrick, J., French, C.S., Milner, H.W., Myers, J., 16-4-18
Smith, J.H.C. and Spoehr, H.A., Laboratory Experiments on
Chlorella Culture at the Carnegie Institution of Washington,
Department of Plant Biology, "Algal Culture from Laboratory
to Pilot Plant," (Edited by J.S. Burley), p. 105, Publication
600, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C.
(1953).
In this paper the authors are concerned with the discussion
of the following items:
1. Outdoor Mass-Culture Units, namely large bottles, rocking
tray, and plastic and glass tubing.
2. Quantitative Studies in Controlled Experimental Culture
Units - This section is devoted to a discussion of Car-
bon Dioxide concentration, culture medium, night temper-
ature and aeration, day and night temperatures with full
sunlight and with partial shading, high-temperature
strain of Chlorella, turbulence and diurnal fluctuations
in cell division and enlargement.
3. Harvesting by Settling - In this section the authors dis-
cuss cultivation of Chlorella in a vertical sedimentation
tubes measurements of sedimentation rates of Chlorella,
and the increase in cell density in the settling chamber
of the glass tub ng culture apparatus.
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16-4, BIOLOGY
4. Conclusionsg Conditions for Growth of Ch1or-
LlaI!ere the state their opinion of the
?07rITIUM conditions for Chlorella grawth2 based on re-
sults of tests that were conducted.
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50 Davis, E.A.2 Myers, J. and Dedrick2 J., Quantitative Studies in 16-4-19
Controlled Experimental Culture Unitss Carbon Dioxide Con-
centrations, "Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant,"
(Edited by J.S. Burlew)? p. 1172 Publication 6002 Carnegie
Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C. (1953).
The authors state that the lowest concentration of Carbon
Dioxide that supports maximum growth of Chlorella has been
a matter of considerable doubt and that experiments, there-
fore, were performed to determine the effect of the partial
pressure of Carbon Dioxide on the growth rate of Chlorella.
54 Fink, Ho, "On the Protein Quality and the Liver Necrosis Pre- 16-4-20
ventive Factor of Unicellular Algae," Preprint, Conference on
Solar Energys The Scientific Basis, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson,
Ariz. (Oct. 31-Nov. 1, 1955).
Scenedesmus obliquus dried to a powder by infrared radiation
was fed to white rats over a 120 day period. The dried algae
was supplemented with brewer's yeast, rich in protein (8%)
and 15% rye and wheat protein. During the 120 day period
the algae fed animals gained weight at least as well as those
fed a milk protein diet. The rats seemed to enjoy the algal
diets no rats died during the experiments and the hair cover-
ing looked dense and bright.
In a second experiment the rate were fed a diet consisting of
protein--92% from algae and 8% from brewer's yeast. As a con-
trol an equal number of rats were fed a diet with protein 92%
milk solids, 8% brewer's yeast. All ten of the animals fed
the algal diet survived the experiment, made normal increases
In weight, were lively and healthy, and had shiny dense coats.
On the milk diet, one animal died after 20 days and only two
survived the 120 days. Deaths were from necrosis of liver.
After 240 days, the experiment was ended because no more al-
gae powder was available. All the algae fed rats survived.
It was concluded that for digestible protein of Scenedesmms
no supplement by amino acids of cereals is necessary.
TWO recent articles, one Russian, one English, contradict
these results (Elster? H.J., Naturir. Rundschau, 82 318, 1955).
J.E. Rhyther examined the toxic effect of Chlorella vulgaris
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No. 16-4, BIOLOGY No.
54 (contld) 16-4-20
and Scenedesmus quadricauda on plankton and found that ex-
creta of these algae impaired filter activity and food intakP
of daphne. Aging algae retard growth, impair the population
and cause death of daphne after 10-13 days.
Venberg discussed the effect of the toxins of phytoplankton
on fish, birds, cats and dogs. Paralysis of hind legs and
liver diseases were observed. In man, serious muscle aches
and passing paralysis may follow. Microcystis, Aphanizo -
menon, Oscielatoria, Gonyaulax and Prymnesium are well known
toxin producers. For example, Prymnesium has killed fish.
It is necessary to explain this contradiction. Since there
are said to be 40,000 species of unicellular algae, some may
be poisonous and others not. Another explanation is that the
toxins are inactivated when the toxins are dried. Since the
algae were dried carefully by infrared radiation, the toxins
would have to be very unstable. This destruction of toxins
by heat is not uncommon. For example, the pods of scarlet
runner pea are said to be poisonous when eaten raw, but they
are commonly eaten as a vegetable when cooked.
For human consumption, species with pleasing taste must be
found. Some indications that diminution or at least quality
fluctuations of the cultured algae for nutrition occur even
without infection by inferior or even noxious species. Some
waste-water grown Scenedesmus proved to be of inferior qual-
ity.
56 Fisher, AX., Jr., "Engineering for Algae Culture," Advance 16-4-21
Copy, World Symposium on Applied Solar Energy, Phoenix, Ariz.
(Nov. 1-5, 1955).
Author presents eight questions pertinent to the design, con-
struction and operation of a commercial plant for the production
of algae and attempts to answer them.
1. Do algae provide a potentially useful product?
Yes,.
2. Is production of algae on a large scale technically feas-
ible now/
Experiments in confined atmospheres and open cultures
indicate large scale production is possible. In one
unit of A.D. Little, Inc., a single culture was grown
continuously for over three months. The symbiotic
growth of algae and bacteria in sewage oxidation ponds
confirmsthis.
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16-4, BIOLOGY
3. What apparent advantages does the mass culture of algae
offer over other sources of supplemental foods?
The rapid growth rate, the use of inorganic carbon,
and the high protein, fat and vitamin make algae
desirable if costs are reasonable.
4. On the basis of existing knowledge, what investment
would be required to produce a given amount of dry
algae?
Based on our present knowledge of a Closed or con-
fined atmosphere system, and on a large scale plant
producing 12,500 lbs. dry algae per day, the capital
cost would be about $260 per lb. per day. Of this
cost, about one-half would be needed for cooling
and circulation. This high cost indicates the need
for research to produce algae more economically.
5. On the basis of existing knowledge, what would be the
cost of producing the project?
Based on pilot plant studies and on large scale pro-
duction, the operating cost is estimated at 25 cents
per pound. To this must be added overhead. A break-
down of costs is presented.
6. What are the critical factors in algal culture with res-
pect to investment and operating cost?
A. Investment Costs
Since the cost of circulation and cooling makes
up about 50% of the initial cost, research to
reduce or eliminate these items by the use of
algal strains tolerating higher temperatures
or other means could be very productive. The
design of the distribution system for the algae
and the process for preparing the mixture of
002 and air require study. The rate of circu-
lation of the culture which has a considerable
effect on investment is still open to question
because of the uncertainty of the effect of
turbulence on growth rate. Faster growing
strains of algae and more efficient growth
conditions are urgently needed.
B. Operating Costs
Labor, supervision and plant overhead account
for nearly 30% of operating cost. Utilities
and power comprise about 10%. Assumption was
made that the average life of polyethylene tith-
ing for culture growth is one year. Improve-
ments in polyethylene and introduction of new
plastics suggest that longer life is possible.
Future tests on the length of useful life of
tubes will be required.
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16-4, BIOLOGY
Suimuar
1E6it important research required for more efficient algae
production includess
1. Increasing growth rate per unit area.
2. Simplifying or eliminating cooling of the culture.
3. Improving harvesting methods and equipment.
4. Reducing labor requirements.
5. Improving design and efficiency of operations and
equipment.
(Abstracteros notes All of these factors are extremely im-
portant in confined space areas.)
7. How and by how much might research, development and en-
gineering studies of these factors reduce cost?
Of the five factors mentioned above, the first two
involve growth rate and cooling.
Growth Rate
By the use of thermophyllic types of algae and the use of in-
termittent light, perhaps by the use of turbulent flow, the
yield of algae may possibly be increased to 50 tons per acre
per year instead of the 35 tons used in the initial computa-
tions.
Cooling of the Culture
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The strains of Chlorella used in nearly all the experimental
work thus far show a sharp maximum growth rate at about 25?C0
with significantly lower rates at 30?C. and almost no growth
at a few degrees higher. In a closed system., cooling is essen-
tial and the renoval of heat by cooling water is the most
straightforward method. The water would be cooled and recir-
culated.
A new strain of Chlorella isolated by Sorokin and Myers
(Science, 1779 3309 1953) shows optimum growth rate at 39?0.
Use of this organism would reduce or eliminate cooling needs.
Initial attempts by Tamiya to use thermophyllic strains in
pilot plant work were not successful because the temperature
had to be maintained near the optimum for good yields.
A method suggested for cooling in arid areas consisted of the
storage of heat by the melting of hydrated salts during the
day with loss of heat by convection and radiation at night.
Optimistically, operating cost could be reduced to about 12
cents per pound.
8. Under present and possible future costs, can algae be
considered as a competitive source of food?
In future, yes.
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14-69
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No.
65 Geoghegan, 14.J.0 Experiments with Chlorella at Jealottos Hill, 16-4-22
"Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant," (Edited by
J.S. Burley), p. 1829 Publication 600, Carnegie Institution
of Washington, Washington0 D.C. (1953).
The author states that in 1949 experiments were started at
Jealottos Hill to investigate the possibilities of cultur-
ing unicellular algae as a source of food. The growth and
composition of these organisms are influenced by many fac-
tors, most of which are interrelated. Determination of the
optimum cultural conditions would involve considerable time
and effort, so they followed a somewhat arbitrary approach,
the aims being to devise a technique which would give reason-
ably high yields of a product with a tolerably constant com-
position, and to determine the composition of the product
and its value as a food. He then discussesg
1. Methods Used for Culturing Chlorella Vulgaris - In this
section the giTEEFEEFFEgggrETIFETEER?iissels used,
medium, inoculum, temperature, Carbon Dioxide supply,
light, effect of dark periods, energy yield, depth of
culture and agitation.
2. Yield of Dry Matter
3. Composition of Dry Matter
4. Nutritional Value
5, General Observations - The author states that it appears,
from preliminary estimates, that Chlorella would be too
costly to produce solely for use as a food, and that
economical production is likely to depend upon the poss-
ibility of using one or more of its constituents as a
basic material in chemical manufacture0 any residue be-
ing disposed of to best advantage.
67 Gotaas? H.B. and Oswald0 W.J.9 "Algal-Bacterial Symbiosis in 16-4-23
Sewage Oxidation Ponds," Third Progress Report, Series 44,
No. 49 Univ. of California, Institute of Engineering Research0
Berkeley, Calif. (Dec. 310 1952).
This report discusses the work carried out by the Algal-
Bacterial Symbiosis Project during the period January 19 1952
to December 319 1952. The work was partially supported by
Research Grants 2601 (C), 2601 (CX) and 2601 (CS) from the
National Institutes of Health of the U.S.P.H.S. and by the
Division of Civil Engineering and Irrigation and the Sanitary
Engineering Research Laboratories of the University of Cali-
fornia.
During the period covered in this report, the author states
that systematic studies were completed on the growth character-
istics of C. pyrenoidosa cultured in sewage and on the effect of
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16-49 BIOLOGY
light intensity on E. gracilis. Other work included explora-
tory studies of the effect of illumination periodicity, il-
lumination frequency, and of sewage strength on photosynthetic
oxygenation.
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68 Gotaas? H.B. and Oswald, W.J., "Utilization of Solar Energy for 16-4-24
Waste Reclamation," Preprints Conference on Solar Energys
The Scientific Basis, Univ. of Arizonas Tucson, Ariz. (Oct.
31?Nov. 1, 1955).
The authors have attempted to set up basic rational formula-
tions for the design of a process for growing algae in li-
quid wastes.
Average yields of 30-35 dry weight tons per acre per year
have been obtained for algae growth in pilot plants at Rich-
mond, Calif.
During July and Augusts rate yields of 65-70 tons per acre
have been observed. The yield of algae varies from 0.75 to
1.5 tons per million gallons of municipal waste processed
through the pond.
73 Gummert, F., Meffert, M.E. and Stratmann9 H., Nonsterile Large- 16-4-25
Scale Culture of Chlorella in Greenhouse and Open Air, "Algal
Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant," (Edited by J.S. Bur -
lew), p. 1669 Publication 6009 Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington, Washington, D.C. (1953).
The work reported on in this paper was undertaken to evaluate
the possibility of biological utilization of the huge quanti-
ties of Carbon Dioxide from waste gases available in the in-
dustrial district of the Ruhr. The work on diatoms (Harder
and von Witsch) was the first in Germany to show the feasi-
bility of the large-scale culture of algae. Studies of the
literature and further investigations indicated that Chlorella
was a more suitable genus for this purpose. The authors state
that for a year and a half they have experimented to find out
whether large-scale nonsterile cultures of algae can be grown
under the local light and temperature conditions. The optimum
conditions for such cultures, as well as economic utilization
of the algal product, were also studied.
The authors describe the followings
1. Experimental Plants and Culture Conditions - In this section,
they report on experimental plants, nutrient medium, temp-
erature, aeration, strain of Chlorella and light conditions.
2. Harvesting of the Open-Air Cultures
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3.
16-4, BIOLOGY
Contamination - This section of the paper discusses
foreign algae and protozoa.
Yields from Greenhouse and Open-Air Cultures - Here
the authors discuss yield of organic matter, utiliza-
tion of energy, and yields of lipides, chlorophyll
and protein.
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75 Haldane, J.B.S., "Biological Problems of Space Flight," Journal 16-4-26
of the British Interplanetary Society, 10, 4, 154 (July, 1951).
A report of an informal talk by Prof. J.B.S. Haldane to the
British Interplanetary Society on April 7, 1951.
Prof. Haldane stated a man at rest uses 1/2 Cu. ft. of 02
per hour and one OF/hr. at daylight work. CO2 volume is
80 to 90% of volume of 02 used up, depending on what he
has been eating. Thus 50 CF of 02 could last two days or
longer aboard a space ship. Reckoning the 02 by weight,
1/2 to 1 Kg of 02/day needed, or one ton would last three
men for more than one year. The 02 can be stored in liquid
form, the storage vessel consisting of three flasks, one
inside the other.
A convenient way of absorbing CO2 is in soda lime. Food
supplies would weigh more than 02. They would be carried
dry and wetted before eating. The best plan to maintain
a supply of water would be to remove it from the air by re-
frigeration and from the crew's excretion by distillation.
Both food and 02 supplies could be continually renewed by
making use of photosynthetic activity of plants. He recom-
mended keeping algae in tanks, through which CO2 would be
bubbled in intense sunlight. It would be necessary to
breed some species of edible algae which could live on sun-
light and human excrement. This would make a balanced sys-
tem, but would only operate satisfactorily near the sun, not
for long voyages to Neptune or beyond.
To keep the ship from leaking, pressure should be kept to a
minimum. At anything less than a quarter atmosphere breath-
ing even pure 02 will not maintain life. At high pressures
pure 02 is total at three atmospheres, while N2 becomes
poisonous at 8 and ordinary air at 10.
80 Hopkins, G.J. and Neel, J.K., "Raw Sewage Lagoons," Water and 16-4-27
Sewage Works, 103, 12, 566 (Dec., 1956).
As of January 1, 1956, there were 100 oxidation ponds in
Missouri Basin States for townsranging from 150 to more than
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No. 16-4, BIOLOGY
WO(Eattd)
10,000 in population. Most of these are treating raw sewage
without any preliminary settling. Most lagoon facilities
consist of single chambers. In the Dakotas and Montana the
recommended capacity is one acre, four feet deep, for 100
persons, or acre feet to stabilize a daily load of 16-20
pounds. EbTeriments at Kearney, Neb0 indicated that higher
loadings could be used--at times to more than 1000 people
per acre. Based on these experiments, Missouri now permits
a loading of 400 people per acre for interim treatment.
Degree of purification depends largely upon the temperature.
At Kearney, Neb. the BOD reduction varied from 32-90 per-
cent with the lower figure representative of winter condi-
tions. During favorable seasons, 90 percent removal was Ob-
tained with a loading of more than 1000 persons per acre.
Coliform removal averaged 95 percent over the entire opera-
ting period. Costs averaged for 15 communities in South
Dakota $3.23 per capita for land, and $13.06 for construc-
tion, a total of $16.28 per capita.
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83 Hundley, J.M., Ing, R.B. and Krauss, R.W., "Algae as a Source 16-4-28
of Lysine and Threonine in Supplementing Wheat and Bread
Diets," Science, 124, 3221, 536 (Sept. 21, 1956); also,
Nutrition Reviews715, 87 (Mar., 1957).
The authors results indicate that Chlorella is a better
source of threonine than purified soya protein and is equal
to several animal-protein foods of high biological value
when used as food supplements isonitrogenous to Chlorella.
Their data indicate that algae protein may have consider-
able potential application as a source of amino acids that
are generally low in cereals.
89 Jorgensen, J. and Convit? J., Cultivation of Complexes of Al- 16-4-29
gae with Other Fresh-Water Microorganisms in the Tropics,
"Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant?n (Edited by
J.S. Burlew), p. 190, Publication 600, Carnegie Institution
of Washington, Washington, D.C. (1953).
The authors state that the industrial interest in the large-
scale cultivation of microalgae, which has been manifest in
the United States and elsewhere since the publication of the
work of Spoehr and his coworkers with the versatile Chlor-
ella pyrenoidosa, may justify the publication of work carried
on for many years in Venezuela on the cultivation of highly
hetergeneous complexes of fresh-water microorganisms. The
report reflects more the insistent struggle to develop a
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basically sound idea than the presentation of precise bio-
chemical data. They discuss in details
1. The Maracaibo Lake Project, specifically, the need for
carotene, collection from the lake and the Venezuelan
Government concession.
2. The Cultures at Cabo Blanco - In this section the authors
discuss the method of culture, microorganisms present,
harvesting, the administration of plankton "soup" to
leprous patients and current research being conducted at
Cabo Blanco.
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93 Kok, B., Experiments on Photosynthesis by Chlorella in Flashing 16-4-30
Light, "Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant," (Edited
by J.S. Burlew), p. 63, Publication 6002 Carnegie Institution
of Washington, Washington, D.C. (1953).
Intermittence of illumination of an algal culture may provide
a means of utilizing a larger fraction of the sunlight shining
on a given area. A qaantitative study of the effect of inter-
mittence on photosynthesis, the author states., was expected to
yield basic data that could be used in designing a system for
growing algae under suitable conditions of intermittent illum-
ination, such as might be realized in a turbulently flowing
culture. He then goes on to describe experiments paying parti-
cular attention to:
1. Experimental Technique - Here he discusses the general
method, light source, intermittence and algal suspension.
2. Results - In this section he discusses typical observations,
comparative rates and efficiencies, and precision.
3. Intermittence Patterns - In this section the author dis-
cusses ratio of dark time to flash time, absolute values
of flash time and dark time, cells grown outdoors, effect
of temperature and effect of intensity.
4, Discussion - This section is devoted to a discussion of
loss due to respiration, intermittence through turbulence
and a conclusion in which he states that from these ex-
periments comes the conclusion that it should be possible
to grow high yields of algae in full sunlight, provided
that the turbulence and density of the culture can be ad-
justed to produce the proper pattern of intermittence in
illumination of the individual algal cells.
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94 Kok, B., "The Yield of Sunlight Conversion by Chlorella," Pre- 16-4-31
print, Conference on Solar Ehergy: The Scientific Basis,
Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. (Oct. 31-Nov. 1, 1955).
Algae grown under exactly known conditions of illumination,
i.e., under sodium light, were able to convert more than 20%
of the absorbed radiation energy (590 190 into organic ma-
terial. The pigments of green cells only absorb light of
wave length shorter than 700 173//and therefore of only about
half of the total solar radiation. The sodium light repre-
sents about the mean of the visible solar spectrum, and it
was concluded that the best possible yield of sunlight con-
version by green cells is about 20% of absadmble radiation,
or 10% of total solar radiation. Under optimal conditions,
higher plants are also capable of about equal yield. The op-
timal value of 10% is not typical but at this maximum rate
domesticated plants would yield harvests 50-100 tons dry
weight per acre (30-80 gm./M2/day). Under natural conditions
the caloric value of total yields of dry weight (including
roots and stalks) does not exceed 0.5-1% of the incident
solar energy.
The maximal growth rate of algae is probably limited by other
systems than their photosynthetic apparatus. He concluded
that a trial and error approach towards increased yields of
algal cultures might quicker yield results than the quantita-
tive exploration of all factors involved.
95 Krauss, R IT
"Nutritional Requirements and Yields of Algae in 16-4-32
Mass Culture," Preprint, Conference on Solar Energy: The
Scientific Basis, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. (Oct. 31 -
Nov. 1, 1955).
Nutritional Requirements for growth of most algae, except for
lack of demonstration of boron requirement, very low Ca re-
quirement and the probable cobalt requirement, are qualitative-
ly similar to those for higher plants. The presence of an
element in a medium does not mean the element is available to
algae. Precipitation might make them unavailable and chelat-
ing agents have been successfully employed to prevent trace
metal precipitation. Minor nutrients are Fe, Mn, Ca, Cu, Zn,
Mo and Co. A list of metal-requiring enzymes emphasizes the
importance of the trace metals in metabolism.
It is now well established that 0.03% 002-in-air--that normally
is found in the atmosphere--is adequate to sustain maximum
photosynthetic efficiency if sufficient volume of mixture is
brought in contact with the cell surface. The 1-5% CO2-in-air
mixtures commonly employed are necessary if all cells are to be
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16-42 BIOLOGY
supplied with a sufficient amount. Bicarbonate ions are not
a suitable source of carbon.
The fundamental problem in mass culture of algae is the main-
tenance of a reservoir of energy and nutrients for a long
enough time to permit an economically large harvest.
Two techniques useds
1. Myers maintained constant
growing population with
mensurate with the rate
culture volume could be
sel and cells harvested.
The slow continual flow of fresh medium into the culture
and the outflow of medium and cells serves to hold the
light intensity at a constant (mutual cell shading) and
prevents reduction in nutrient level on accumulation of
inhibitor. This method has been successful0
growth rate by diluting the
fresh medium at a rate corn-
of growth. Increments of
removed from the culture ves-
2. Krauss recycling system replenishes absorbed nutrients by
returning elements to the culture at the sane rate at
which they are removed by the algae. Harvest of algae
is accomplished by the culture through a contin-
WIS centrifuge. Supernatant medium is automatically
returned to the culture to avoid appreciable loss of
water. The culture vessels consisting of shallow (15
am.) 300 liter vats are illuminated by of
fluorescent and incandescent lamps balanced to give
high irradiance and spectral distribution similar to
that of- sunlight. Temperature kept constant in air
conditioned chamber. (Diagrams shown.) The operation
of the recycling apparatus is based on the assumption
that the rates of nutrient absorption are known. The
amount of nutrient replaced can be calculated from the
dry weight of the cells harvested and from the follow-
ing tables
Elemental Composition of Green Algae
Element
Percent Dry Weight
Carbon
51.4 - /2.6
Hydrogen
7.0 - 10.0
Oxygen
28.5 - 11.6
Nitrogen
7.7 - 6.2
Phosphorous
2.0 - 1.0
Sulfur
0.39- 0.28
Magnesium
0.80- 0.36
Potassium
1.62- 0.85
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1644, BIOLOGY
Element Percent Mei ht
Calcium 0OS 0.00
Iron 0.55- 0.040
Zinc 0.005- 0.0006
Copper 0.004- 0.001
Manganese 0.01- 0.002
Cobalt 0.0003-0.00003
To determine whether an algae can be grown in a recycling
device for a prolonged period by using a replacement formula
based on analysis of normal cells, 300 liter cultures of
Scenedesmus and Chlorella were initiated using a modified
Knopls solution consisting of 1 gm. KNO3, 0.25 gm. KH2P
and 0.25 gm. MgSO4.7H20 per liter. Micronutrients as DTA
chelated metals were added initially to give the following
concentrations Fe and Mn, 10 ppm; Ca and Cos 3 ppm; Cu and
Zn, 1 ppm. Replacement stock solutions were prepared as
follows:
Replacement Formula for Mass Culture of Green Algae
1.1beor Nutrients
Salts Grams per Liter
HNO3 334------
KH2PO4 53
MgS0407H20 27
MgO 2
Micronutrients
As the inner complex salts of EDTA..
Metal Grans per Liter
.000
Mn
0.100
Ca
0.500
Cu
0.040
Zn
0.025
Co
0.003
(1 ml0 of each stock replaces that amount of
each included element absorbed by 1 gram
dry weight of algae.)
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The results showed that the initial and replacement solutions
are capable of sustaining continuous production. The maximum
sustained yield was within 85% of that predicted theoretically.
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Using 5% CO2-in-air, the yield is greater in a covered (plate
glass) culture because a 002-in-air mixture covers the entire
surface of the culture. Using more air flow or 10% CO2-in-air
in open culture improved the yield because of the increased
light intensity and more available CO2. In small scale exper-
iments, 10% 002-in-air has been considered toxic.
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Differences in yield under fluorescent, incandescent, and com-
bined light sources indicated that the incandescent battery
was adding little to the total yield, although consuming 42%
of the combined wattage. The exclusion of much of the red
end of the spectrum, including infrared, from solar radiation
prior to its reaching the culture can be expected to have little
detrimental effect on yield, especially when intensities are
above the average 1000 f.c. used at culture surface.
The 12 hour light-12 hour dark cycle was somewhat more effi-
cient than the continuous 24 hour light period.
A comparison of Scenedesmus with Chlorella showed that Chlor-
elle gave a sustained yield of 38.2 gms, dry weight per cul-
ture per day, which was 15% greater than that for Scenedesmus.
This is about 9 tons dry weight per acre per 100 days in con-
tinuous light 1/10 maximum sunlight intensity.
Experiments indicated that the chelating agent or some break-
down product is absorbed in considerable quantity and is prob-
ably metabolized by the cell. Whether the iron which enters
the cell is actually carried across the membrane by the EDTk
cannot be settled without further study. Martell and Schwartz-
enbach have observed that the iron complex of EDT& is photo-
labile. Not only is the complex:broken by light but the acid
itself is destroyed.
References (as presented in paper)
1. Davis, B.A., Dedrick, J., French, C.S., Milner, H.W.,
Myers, Jo, Smith, J.H.C.? and Spoehr? H.A.3 1953.
Laboratory experiments on Chlorella culture at the
Carnegie Institution of Washington, Department of
Plant Biology. In: J.S. Burlew, editor, Algal
Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant. Carnegie
Institution of Washington, pp. 105-153.
2. Holmes, R.S. and J.C. Brown, 1955. Chelates as cor-
rectives for chlorosis, Soil Sci. 80: 167-179.
3. Hutner, S.H., L. Provasoli, A. Schatz and C.P. Haskins,
1951: Some approaches to the study of the role of
metals in the metabolism of microorganisms, Proc.
Am. Philosophical Soc., 94: 152-170.
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1644, BIOLOGY
4, Ketchum, B.H.$ 1954s Mineral Nutrition of Phytoplankton$
Annual Review of Plant Physio].., 5: 55-74.
5. Krauss, &Nos, 1953: Inorganic Nutrition of Algae. In:
Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant, J.S.
Burlew? editor, 85-102.
6. Krauss, R.W. and W.H. Thomas, 1954s The growth and in-
organic nutrition of Scenedesmus obliquus in mass
culture. Plant Ph,ysiol. 29: 205-214.
70 Krauss, RAT., 1955: Nutrient supply for large scale
algal cultures, Sci. Monthly 80: 21-28.
8. Martell, A.E. (Personal communication).
9. McElroy, W.D.? and A. Nason, 1954: Mechanism of action
of micronutrient elements in enzyme systems, Ann.
Rev. Plant Physiol. 5: 1-30,
10. Myers, J., and Clark, L.B.2 1944: Culture conditions
and the development of the photosynthetic mechanism.
II. An apparatus for the continuous culture of Chlor-
ella? Jour. Gen. Physiol. 28: 103-112.
11. Myers, Jo, J.N. Phillips, Jr. and Jo-Ruth Graham: 1951:
On the mass culture of algae, Plant Physiol. 26: 539-
548.
12. Nielsen, E.S., 1955: Carbon dioxide as a carbon source
and narcotic in photosynthesis and growth of Chlorella
pyrenoidosa, Physio].. Plantarum 8s 317-335.
13. Osterlind, So, 1950: Inorganic carbon sources of green
algae. I. Growth experiments with Scenedesmus quadri-
cauda and Chlorella pyrenoidosa? Physiol. Plantarum
3: 353-360.
14. Spoehr$ H.A.? and H.W. Milner, 1949s The chemical cam-
position of Chlorellas effect of environmental condi-
tions, Plant Physiol.? 1: 120-149.
15. Tamiya, Ho, T. Iwamura$ K. Shibata, E. Hase and T..Nihei?
1953: Correlation between photosynthesis and light-
independent metabolism in the growth of Chlorella,
Biochemica Et Biophysica Acta 12s 23-40.
16. Weinstein, L.H., LR. Robbins, and H.F. Perkins, 1954g
Chelating agents and plant nutrition, Science 120: 41-
430
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97 Leben, C. and Barton, L.V., "Effects of Gibberellic Acid on 16-4-33
Growth of Kentucky Bluegrass," Science, 125, 3246, 494 (Mar.
15, 1957).
Article describes experiments using gibberellic acid on crab
grass. Kentucky bluegrass was sprayed once after fertiliza-
tion (10-10-10) at rates of 0, 215 and 645 #/acre. Rates of
acid application from 0 to 112 grams per acre applied in 100
gallons of water. Indication that under conditions of heat
both fresh and dry weight increased. Notable stimulus under
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No, 16-4, BIOLOGY No.
97(contld) 16-4-33
unfavorable conditions of growth. Cut grass moistened with
10 to 10.0/4g/liter acid showed marked growth stimulation,
Reference suggested acid induced growth under conditions of
law light intensity and low temperature.
107 Mayer, A.M., Eisenberg, A. and Evanari, 140.9 "Studies on the 16-4-34
Deep Mass Culture of Algae in Israel," Preprint, Conference
on Solar Energys The Scientific Basis, Univ. of Arizona,
Tucson, Ariz. (Oct. 31-Nov. 1, 1955).
The basic unit in which all experiments have been carried
out has been a concrete tank 2 in. x 1 m. x 1 in. deep. The
front of the tank is transparent with a perspex or glass
window and is so oriented that the transparent side faces
south. A stirrer of the paddle trpe rotating about a hori-
zontal axis was used most of the time. The light intensity
on the horizontal surface reached 25,000 f.c. about noon,
In the winter the southern wall receives an appreciable
amount of the total light but in summer its contribution is
almost negligible. The tank contained 2100 liters. 002
was added in measured amounts once a day by bubbling it
through a very fine diffuser, The amount passed through
was 300 liters during one hour daily.
Three species of Chlorella have been useds Chlorella vul-
garis (Hopkins strain), C. pyrenoidosa Tx71105 (from J. My-
ers) and C. ovalis Butcher Plymouth 86. The culture was
harvested byaSharples super-centrifuge. Yields of 20 gm.
per sq. meter of total illuminated area were readily obtained.
No problem of infection arose. Protozoa have never been a
problem and foreign algae were generally not noted. Chlamy-
domonas cannot compete with Chlorella.
The effectiveness of the southern transparent wall seems
doubtful especially since it invariably became mated by al-
gae. The yields obtained were not optimal and higher yields
are expected with a new, more efficient stirrer.
C. vulgaris was most encouraging species.
C. ovalis is a saline species and grows in 4% NaCl, but its
growth rate under saline conditions is much reduced.
Table 2 followss
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Salts Used in Nutrient Solution
Quantity
Macroelements
per liter
in gm.
(NH4)2SO4
EgSu4
KH2P
EDTAPItEthylene diamine tetracetic acid)
KOH
3
1.2
2.5
.25
.31
Quantity per liter
Microelements in mg.
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FeSO4. 7 H20 48
Mn012. 4 H20 27
CaC12 11
ZnSO4. 7 H20 2.2
CuSO4. 5 H20 2.6
0o(NO3)2. 6 H20 6
113 Meffert, LE., "Algal Culture in Sewage," Preprint, Conference 16-4-35
on Solar Energy: The Scientific Basis, Univ. of Arizona, Tuc-
son, Ariz. (Oct. 31-Nov. 1, 1955).
Outdoor experiments were carried on to determine:
1. Is it possible to cultivate algae in sewage? Under what
conditions?
2. What is the yield and composition of the algae?
3. Is it possible to reduce the amount of nutrient and vita-
mins for the growth of the algae? What purification of
sewage is obtained?
The alga, Scenedesmus obliquus, was used because it is not des-
troyed by the protozoa in the sewage. Now sterilized selected
sewage from the Ruhrverband was used in the experiments. The
total nitrogen content of the sewage (20-30 mg./1.) was so law
that the algae were only allowed to double in quantity before
harvesting and adding more sewage.
The Carbon Dioxide liberated by the bacteria was changed to
carbonate and bicarbonate and was therefore not usable by the
algae. Digester gas was added to supply CO2. Under these cir-
cumstances the yield of algae under favorable light conditions
was 7-10 grams per sq0 meter per day.
in
The crude protein/the algae grown in sewage was only 50-63% of
that obtained with adequate nitrogen. In 2-4 hours contact
with the algae, the permanganate oxygen consumed of the sewage
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113( cont'
was reduced about 70%.
16-4, BIOLOGY
Eleven references are cited.
Bibliography
1. Aach, H.J.g Wachstum und Zusammensetzung von Chlorella
pyrenoidosa bei untersdhiedlichen Lichtstarken und
Nitratmengen. Arch. Mikrobiol. 179 213 - 246 (1952).
2. Caldwell, D.H.g Sewage oxidation ponds - performance,
operation and design. Sewage Works Journal 18, 433 ?
458 (1946).
3. Deuticke, H.J., H. Kathen and R. Harder g Analyse von
Algenlipoiden Naturwissenschaften 369 60 - 61 (1948).
4. Fischer, A..W. and J.S. Burlews Nutritional value of
microscopic algae. In J.S. Burleys Algal culture
from laboratory to pilot.plant. Carnegie Inst. Wash-
ington, Pub. N. 6009 303 ? 310 (1953).
5. Klotter9 H.A.s Ein Vorschlag zu einer erweiterten Ab-
wassereinigung. Stadtehygien 99 254 - 257 (1952).
6. Myers9 J.8 Studies of sewage lagoons. Publ. Wks. N.Y.
799 25 - 27 (1948).
7. Oswald, W.J.9 H.B. Gotaas9 H.F. Ludwig and V. Ilynchs
Algae symbiosis in oxidation ponds. Growth character-
istics of Chlorella pyrenoidosa cultured in sewage.
Sewage and Industrial Wastes 25, 26 - 37 (1953).
8. Spoehr9 H.A. and HMO Milnerg The chemical composition
of Ch1ore11a5 effect of environmental conditions.
Plant Physiol. 249 120 - 149 (l949).
9. Wassink9 E.C.9 B. Kok and J.L.P. van Oorschotg The
efficiency of Light-energy conversion in Chlorella
cultures as compared with higher plants. Ins J.S.
Burleys Algal culture from laboratory to pilot
plant. Carnegie inst. Washington, Publ. No. 600,
55 ? 62 (1953).
loo witscb, Ho vong Beobachtungen zur Physiologic des
Wachstums von Chlorella in Massenkulturen. Biol.
Zentralhl. 67, 95 ? 100 (1948)0
Witsch9 H. vons Physiologischer Zustand und Wachstums-
intensitat bei Chlorella in Massenkulturen. Arch.
Mikrobiol. 149 128 - 141 (1948).
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No. 1644, BIOLOGY No.
114 Milner, H.W., The Chemical Composition of Algae, "Algal Culture 16-4-36
from Laboratory to Pilot Plant," (Edited by J.S. Burlew),
p. 285, Publication 6009 Carnegie Institution of Washington,
Washington, D.C. (1953)0
The primary concern of this paper is the composition of the
green unicellular fresh-water algae. Very little informa-
tion on composition is available for fresh-water algae,
other than the unicellular green ones and a few diatoms.
Information is available on the components of marine algae,
such as alginic acid, laminarin, agar, mannitol and iodine,
to mention but a few. Emphasis in this paper is placed on
work giving quantitative information about the amount or
composition of algal constituents and not to the mere pres-
ence of various constituents in algae.
The author reviews the followings
1. Composition of Plant Materials - Included in this dis-
cussion are elementary composition, degree of reduction,
protein, carbohydrate and lipide content, and effect of
environment.
2. Li ides in Algae - This section discusses, in detail,
'pides in Chlorella and, briefly, lipides in other al-
gae.
3. Proteins and Amino Acids in Algae
4. Carbohydrates in Algae
5. Minor Components of Algae - Included in this section of
the paper are discussions on minerals9 sterols, pigments
and vitamins found in algae.
6. Distribution of Algal Components - This section contains
an alphabetical list of substances, to which key numbers
have been assigned, and a list of algae in which the sub-
stances are found. The key numbers are used for cross
reference.
115 WerS, Jo, "Algae as an Energy Converter," Preprint, World Sym- 16-4=37
posium on Applied Solar Energy, Phoenix, Ariz. (Nov. 1-59 1955).
The machinery of the algal cell maybe described by two types
of processes: (1) photosynthesis, and (2) secondary synthesis
which depends upon it. The rate or multiplying character of
algal growth may be expressed as first order reaction rate or
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16-4, BIOLOGY
compound interest rate constant (e.g., k in equation N =
NoeKI where N is cell number and t is time).
Requirements of algal cell machinery.
CO2 - 1.8 lbs. per lb. Chlorella
Temperature - less than 38?C. (100PF.)
Chlorella and most algae used killed by prolonged
exposure above 30?C. (85?F.) but a high tempera-
ture one, Chlorella T x 71105, grows at tempera-
tures up to 39?C. (102?F.).
Light--most important--within the visual range 4000-7000R
degrees satisfactory--corresponds to about 40% of solar
radiation at earths surface. Response to light intensity
is linear but only to a rather low limit and levels off to
a flat plateau of light-saturation. The light-saturation
point for Chlorella occurs at about 500 f.c. (white light)
as compared with maximum solar illuminance of 10,000 f.c.
The illuminance in the culture will fall off roughly accord-
ing to Beeris law, which means (1) that the depth of the cul-
ture and the cell concentration are reciprocal functions,
and (2) that there is a further reduction in actual effi-
ciency of use of sunlight.
Efforts have been made or are being made to increase the
yield per unit area in three waysg
(a) Use of turbulence of culture to produce advantageous
intermittent light effects for individual cells.
(b) The use of light diffusers to spread the high surface
illuminance over a greater area in the horizontal
dimension ofa deep culture.
(c) The search for algae with equal efficiencies but high-
er levels of light saturation.
Chlorella should be regarded as an algal weed chosen because
it is hardy and easily grown and because of the greater ini-
tial background information. We must explore for species
with growth Characteristics and products of particular use-
fulness.
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116 MYers, Jo, "Algal Growth: Processes and Products," Preprint, 16-4-38
Conference on Solar Energy: The Scientific Basis, Univ. of
Arizona, Tucson, Ariz. (Oct. 31-Nov. ls 1955).
When all nutrient requirements are adjusted to optimum levels,
yield becomes limited by the rate of input light energy and
the efficiency with which it is used. Kok with Chlorella in
illumination with the yellow sodium lines obtained efficiencies
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116(contfd) 16-4-38
of overall algal cell synthesis in the range of 18-24%
under favorable nutrient conditions over three day periods.
The authorls experiments using the yellow and green mercury
lines have given efficiencies of about 15% for Chlorella
pyrenoidosa. He adopted 20% as a reasonable maximum value
of efficiency for use of white light. In large cultures,
under sunlight illumination, the efficiencies range 2-3%,
or about the same as for crop plants under most favorable
conditions. The major discrepancy between maximum effi-
ciencies and actual results under sunlight lies in the
very high light intensity of sunlight and the difficulty
of light saturation.
Three ways of increasing overall efficiency or yield per
unit area have been suggested.
1. Selection of algae with higher values of light satura-
tion even when grown in dense cultures at low speci-
fic growth rate.
2. Utilization of intermittent light by turbulence of
culture. Probably the turbulence would need to be
so great that the gain would be offset by increased
power consumption.
3. Manipulation of the incident light intensity so that
it approaches the value of light saturation by spread-
ing incident sunlight over an area of culture greater
than the ground surface area. For example, by includ-
ing surfaces toward the mean position of the sun so
that a thin layer of culture flowing over them would
be exposed to Oblique illumination of lower intensity.
The author uses diffusing cones with their bases at
the illuminated surface.
The second part of paper is concerned with the nature and
possible variability and control of the algal product.
Chlorella and Scenedesmus excrete so little organic matter
that 90-100% of the carbon assimilated may be recovered in
the cells produced, so that the algal product is nearly
identical with Ghlorella cell composition. This does not
necessarily apply to all algae as chlamydomonas excreted
organic matter including glycocolic and oxalic acids. Al-
gae may use one of two different methods of disposition
of accumulating products. It may convert them to intra-
cellular carbohydrate and fat, or it may excrete excess
photosynthate as an organic acid or carbohydrate or some
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other transformation product of these. Conditions controlling
such excretions are not yet known.
References (as presented in paper)
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1. Burlew, J.S. (ed.), Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot
Plant. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication
No. 600. 1953.
2. Burlew, J.S., pp. 3-23 in Ref. 1.
3. Davis, LA., pp. 135-138 in Ref. 1.
4. Evanari, M., Mayer, A.M., and Gottesman E., pp. 197-203
in Ref. 1.
5. Fogg, G.E., Proc. Roy. Soc. B., 139, 372-397 (1952).
6. Fogg, G.E., The Metabolism of Algae. Methuen and Co. Ltd.,
London, 1953,
7. Foster, J., Bact. Rev., 5, 157-180 (1952).
8. Granick, S., J. Biol. Chem., 183, 713 (1950).
9. Kok, B., Acta Bot. Neerlandica, 1, 445-467 (1952).
10. Kok, B., pp. 63-75 in Ref. 1.
U. Krogh, A., Lange, Eo3 and Smith, Td.,3 Biochem. J*3 24, 1666-.
1671 (1930).
12. Myers, J., J. Gen. Physiol., 29, 429-440 (1946).
13. Myers, J., Ann, Rev. Microbiol., 5, 157-180 (1951).
14.Myg,1149J):, and Johnston, J.A.s Plant Physiol., 24, 111 -119
15. Phillips, J.M.s and Myerss J., Plant Physiol.s 29, 152-161
(
16. Spoehr, H.A., and Milner, H.W., Plant Physiol., 24, 120-.
149 (1949).
17. Taniyal H., Iwamuras T.s Shibatas Kes, Hese, E.s and Nihei,
T., Biochem. et Biophys. Acta, 12, 23-40 (1953).
18. Wassink, E.G., Kok, B., and van Oorschot, J.L.P., pp. 55-
62 in Ref. 1,
117 Myers, J., Growth Characteristics of Algae in Relation to the 16-4-39
Problems of Mass Culture, "Algal Culture from Laboratory to
Pilot Plant," (Edited by J.S. Burlew)? p. 37, Publication
600, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C.
(1953).
Biological information of significance for the mass culture
of algae can best be treated by considering, first, the char-
acteristics of growth under controlled and measurable condi-
tions; then the extrapolation of these characteristics to the
case of high-density cultures; and finally, the limitations
which it is expected will be introduced by the use of sunlight
illumination. In this paper the author discusses, using Chlor-
ella pyrenoidosa (Emerson strain)s the following2
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10
16-49 BIOLOGY
Growth of Chlorella under Measurable and Controlled Condi-
tions including growth constant k and measurement of k.
0.1??????.?11?11?2
2. Factors that Affect the Growth Rate, namely, k as a func-
tion of light intensity, k as a function of temperature,
k as a function of Carbon Dioxide concentration, k as a
function of components of the medium, effects of autoin-
hibitors on k, k as a characteristic of the organism,
characteristics of growth of other algae aid temperature
tolerance.
3. Growth in High-Density Cultures - Here the author dis-
cusses a typical growth curve, exponential growth, lin-
ear growth, limiting density and optimum density.
4. Growth at High Densities Under Sunlight Illumination, in-
cluding efficiency of utilization of energy, flashing
light, use of improved strains of algae and diurnal in-
termittence of illumination.
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Finally, the author adds an Appendix in which he discusses cal-
culations on light absorption by Chlorella.
118 Myers, J., et al, "Study of a Photosynthetic Gas Exchanger as a 16-4-40
Method of Providing for the Respiratory Requirements of the
Human inaSealed Cabin," Report to the Air Research and Devel-
opment Command, Laboratory of Algal Physiology, Contract No.
AF 18(600)-618, Univ. of Texas, Austin, Tex. (Oct. 139 1955).
Report covers work done May 1, 1953 to October 31, 1955.
Preliminary Considerations
Discussion based on alga, Chlorella pyrenoidosa, and on an il-
luminated tank of algal suspension aerated with the air of the
sealed cabin. Fluorescent lighting will be used and a cooled
condenser will be required. Following estimates made for long-
time, steady-state growth conditionsg
1. Quantity of Algae required to balance the gas exchange of
one man is 2.3 kilograms fresh weight of Chlorella.
CO2/02 exchange quotient of the alga may be balanced
against that of the human.
2. Volume at wave length 6800 X. A suspension containing 10
---Efi.Es per liter will absorb 97% of the incident light
at a thickness of 0.4 am. If layer is illuminated from
both sides, a thickness of an. is reasonable. There-
fore, illuminated surface of 240 sq0 ft. required for
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118(conttd)
16-4, BIOLOGY
230 liters of suspension per mean, or 80 Cu. ft. total
volume per man.
3. Power requirements based on light to chemical photosynthe-
tic conversion efficiency of about 1.9% would be 10 H.P.
electrical energy per person. Heat dissipation pTiagi-
may be serious.
4. Nature and magnitude of expended and produced materials.
The exchanges per man hour will produce 23 grams dry
weight of algae containing 50% protein and will require
1.8 gm. of fixed nitrogen and 1.2 gm. of mineral salt.
Water must be recycled. All human urine might be cycled
through exchanges to furnish much nitrogen. Part of
the algae can be used as food.
Experimental Evaluation
1. Best lamp available now or in foreseeable future (5 years)
is fluorescent lamp.
2. Human urine may be recycled to provide a portion of the
nitrogen requirement for algal growth but the results
of continued urine accumulation are uncertain.
3. The 002/02 quotient is about 0.75 and lower than for man.
The use of urea would give a higher result.
Conclusions
1. A model gas exchanger utilizing an algal suspension can
be made to work reliably for periods of at least three
weeks (the longest attempted) under steady-state condi-
tions.
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2. Thermodynamic efficiencies of 15-16% have been observed
for oxygen production equivalent to 9.1 liters per hour
per kilogram fresh weight of algae have been observed.
This approaches estimated value of 11.0 liters/hr.,
which was basis for prediction that 2.3 kg. of Chlorella
would support gas exchange of one man.
121 Oswald, W.J. and Gotaas, H.B., "Photosynthesis in Sewage Treat- 16-4-41
ment," Proceedings, American Society of Civil Engineers, Sep-
arate 686, 81 (May, 1955); also, Trans. ASCE, Paper 2849, 122,
73 (1957). ?
The stabilization of organic matter in sewage wastes requires
oxygen which in secondary treatment plants is normally obtained
from the atmosphere. The primary source of atmospheric oxygen
is photosynthesis for which the sun supplies the energy and
water supplies the oxygen. Sewage contains the necessary nu-
trients for photosynthetic organisms to produce oxygen while
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121 (omit'
16-4, BIOLOGY
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at the same time, fixing these valuable nutrients as well as
solar energy in reclaimable material. Laboratory and pilot
plant investigations of sewage treatment in open ponds by
photosynthetically produced oxygen have been carried on dur-
ing the past four years. These studies have provided some
basic principles which can be utilized for the engineering
design of the process as well as for the prediction of the
operational performance of new or existing oxidation ponds.
The present paper formulates design criteria based on these
principles.
122 Oswald, NW., Gotaas? H.B., Golueke, COG. and Kellen, W.R.? 16-4-42
"Algae in Waste Treatment," Sewage and Ind. Wastesp 29, 4,
437 (Apr., 1957).
The authors present a theoretical analysis of the phenomena
occurring in stabilization ponds for sewage treatment and
their relationship to loading and oxygenation.
123 Oswald, W.J.,'Gotaas, B.B., Ludwig, H.F. and Lynch, VG, "Algae 16-4-43
Symbiosis in Oxidation Ponds. III. Photosynthetic Oxygena-
tion," Sewage and Ind. Wastes, 25, 6, 692 (June, 1953).
Test organism in laboratory studies was Euglena gracilis.
The source of light was fluorescent lamps. The maximum pop-
ulation of Euglena gracilis in sewage was found at 400 f.c.
and it remained nearly constant to about 1200 f.c. From
1200 to 2400 f.c. the population decreased slightly. With
a relatively strong synthetic sewage, the maximum Euglena
developed at 2400 f.c. Temperature was maintained between
24 and 26?C. Bacterial population reached maximum at 100
f.c.
A large part of the carbon utilized by the algae is not in-
corporated into the cells, but much of it appears in the ef-
fluent supernatant, perhaps as a highly oxidized excretory
product of the Euglena.
124 Pearse, Ls, et al, "Oxidation Ponds," (A.P.H.A. Report), Sew- 16-4-44
age Works Journal, 20, 6, 1025 (Nov., 19)48).
Designs Oxidation ponds not suitable where the soil is loose
and sandy. The sewage should be clarified and minimum deten-
tion time for settled domestic sewage should be 25 days with
a minimum surface area of one acre per 400 contributory popu-
lation. Three feet is regarded as minimum depth.
In Texas, the current BOD loading varies from 2040 lbs. BOD
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16-4, BIOLOGY
d)
per acre foot per day with BOD reductions of about 50%.
Operation: Odors, mosquitoes and weeds on banks are men-
tioned as difficulties. The effluents were permanently
stable, with BOD values as good or better than those of
trickling filter effluents. The reduction of coliform or-
ganisms was as good as with chlorination. Final overflow
from ponds designed for 15 days detention showed 5-50 coli-
forms per ml. as compared with 100,000 per ml. in the orig-
inal sewage.
125 Perret, C.J., An Apparatus for the Continuous Culture of 16-4-45
Bacteria at Constant Population Density," Jul. of General
Microbiology, 16, 1, 250 (Feb., 1957).
A self regulating continuous culture apparatus is described,
designed for studying growth and enzyme production in
bacteria which require complex:media. It might also be
suitable for the cultivation of suspended tissue cells.
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126 Petersen, C.S. and Carroll, RM., "Biological Effect of Ry- 16-441,6
droxylysine," Science, 123, 3196, 546 (Mar. 30, 1956).
Rydroxylysine (2,6-diamino-5-hydroxhexanoic acid) occurs
in collagen of terrestrial and marine aminos and gelatin
derived from these, but little is known of its biological
significance.
Fig. 1 (pp. 546) shows effect of additions of 2, 20, 1000
pg of racemic hydroxylysine per ml. of double strength med-
ium on responses of streptococcus faecalis to increments of
lysine. Amount of 1-lysine reduced more than 20 jag for half
maximum growth by addition of 7)ug of racemic hydroxy cam-
pound per tube (0.4 pg natural isomer).
Assays of lysine in hydrovzates of foods aid tissues may
be affected if test organisms leuconoster mesenteroides P-60
and streptococcus faecalis are usual in basal media that con-
tain no hydroxylysine.
13 references listed.
127 Pratt, R., "Studies on Chlorella Vulgaris. IX. Influence on 16-4-47
Growth of Chlorella of Continuous Removal of Chlorellin from
the Culture Solution," Arteric._EtanJou0.ofBo, 31, 418
(1944).
Describes experiments which have been interpreted as indicat-
ing that algae produced a growth-inhibiting substance called
"chlorellin."
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134 Renn? C.E., "Algae Research on Oxidation Ponds," American
Journal of Public Health, 449 5, 631 (May, 195477------
In general, a discussion of other& work. Some opinions
are: "From the engineers point of view, carrying out
biological self-purification of polluted waters in oxida-
tion ponds, has the single great advantage of being con-
trollable." "It is generally undesirable to discharge the
dense algae suspension developed in short-term oxidation
ponds directly to streams. Although sewage has been con-
verted to relatively inoffensive algal organic matter,
the total BOD loading may be as great or greater than the
plant influent."
The difficulties in harvesting algae were emphasized.
Settling without the addition of coagulants is ineffective
because of the motility of a large part of the population.
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145 Smallhorst, B.F., Walton, B.N.? Jr. and Myers, J., "The Use of 16-4-49
Oxidation Ponds in Sewage Treatment," Preprint, American
Public Health Association, New York, N.Y. (1953).
Factors affecting algal growth are: (1) nutrients available.;
(2) lights and (3) temperature. Nitrogen content of algae
is high (up to 1% dry weight). Algae utilize nitrogen
either as ammonia or nitrate. Photosynthesis in an algal
cell reaches a maximum rate at a light intensity of 50-500
f.c. (Full sunlight is about 10,000 f.c.). Since illumin-
ated algae excrete no other gas than oxygen, they may produce
oxygen concentrations up to 39.2 ppm at 25?0. This high con-
centration of oxygen makes possible the rapid oxidation of
sewage organic matter. Incandescent light at night seemed
to speed up formation of oxygen but fluorescent lighting was
not very effective.
The growth of Chlorella is seriously inhibited at tempera-
tures above 30?C.
Carbon Dioxide is taken up by algae mainly as free CO2 or
H2CO3 not as bicarbonate or carbonate. In surface layers,
the pH rises because of removal of CO2 by photosynthesis3
at night the pH decreases as a result of CO2 production by
bacteria and algae.
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146
16-4, BIOLOGY
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Smith, J.H.C., Cultivation of Chlorella in a Vertical Sediment- 16-4-50
ation Tube, "Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant,"
(Edited by J.S. Burlew), P. 143, Publication 600, Carnegie
Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C. (1953).
The author states the industrial cultivation of unicellular
algae requires a feasible and economical procedure for har-
vesting. The practicality- of one possible method, gravita-
tional sedimentation, has been tested both by long-term ex-
periments on growing Chlorella under natural conditions and
by quantitative determinations of rates of settling.
148 Special Study Group, Class 1956, Command and Staff School, Max- 16-4-51
well Air Force Base, "The Human Element in Future Air Power,"
Special Study Number 9a, Air Command and Staff College, Com-
mand and Staff School, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama (Apr.
20, 1956).
A study of factors which pertain to air crews has been made.
Part I--will deal with air power from the present until 1965
and will cover physical and physiological limitations imposed
on air crew personnel flying in aircraft programmed through
that period. Part II - -treats air power beyond 1965 and the
limitations air crew personnel will face with the advent of
manned space flight. Part III - -deals with those psychological
problems with which air crews described above are faced through
both time periods.
Part II is of particular interest. It discusses the several
environmental problems including oxygen, elimination of waste
gases, radiation, elimination of bodily wastes.
Proposed solutions for the solid waste elimination problem
are even more ingenious and are limited only by the imagina-
tion and ingenuity of the space ship designer. A total of
four pounds of solid waste per man per day is estimated.
This total included food scraps, refuse and other sewage.
One solution is to store the material in containers and re-
turn them to earth with the vehicle, similar to the chemical
toilets in use today. Another means is to throw or expel
the material from the vehicle into space. This, although
the easiest and the cheapest, would play havoc with any vis-
ual Observation in progress and would not be without danger,
since clouds of micrometeors would be formed. A third solu-
tion visualizes the shooting of the material in a container,
into outer space, propelled by a small, short-lived rocket
engine. If the rocket were fired toward the earth and in the
opposite direction of that of the space vehicle, it would
quickly reach "burn-out" and fall toward the earth, being
completely incinerated as it entered the atmosphere.
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150 Spoehr? H.A., Smith, J.H.C., Strain, H.H.? Milner, H.W. and 16-4-52
Hardin, G.J.? "Fatty Acid Antibacterials from Plants,"
Publication 586, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Wash-
ington, D.C. (1949).
Inhibition of bacterial growth, probably photo-oxidized
fatty acids, are produced by C. pyrenoidosa (EMerson
Strain) as demonstrated\ by Spoehr.
157 Tamiya, H., "Growing Chlorella for Food aid Feed," Preprint, 16-4-53
World Symposium on Applied Solar Energy, Phoenix, Ariz.
(Nov. 1-5, 1955).
In this paper the author reports on the results of experi-
ments conducted in Japan in the past four years, with the
view to finding out a feasible method of mass culturing uni-
cellular algae. A new culture method (An Open Circulation
System With a Device of Intermittent Sweeping) is proposed,
which the author states proved to meet tolerably the require-
ments of: (a) the maintenance of adequate temperature of
the culture solution, or the use of algal strains of differ-
ent temperature-tolerance according to the climate or seasons,
(b) the construction of a culture unit which is as refractory
as possible against various meteorological happenings, (c) the
prevention of contamination of culture by air-borne microor-
ganisms which are harmful to algae, and (d) the low cost of
construction and operation of the plant. A tentative esti-
mate is made of the production cost of algae to be produced
by extension of this method to a large scale. He also reports
some experience dealing with the use of Chlorella as human
food.
158 Tamiya, Hoso Sasa? To, Eihei? T. and Ishibashi9 So, "Effect of 16-4-54
Day-Length, Day-and4ight-Temperatures, and Intensity of
Daylight Upon the Growth of Chlorella," Preprint, Conference
on Solar Energy: The Scientific Basis, Univ. of Arizona,
Tucson, Ariz. (Oct. 31-Nov. 10 1955).
(1) Effect of variation of day-length, day-and-night-tempera-
tures and of intensity of daylight upon the growth rate
of Chlorella was investigated using combinations of
conditions which were varied as followss
Day-lengths 6 hours (18 hours dark), 12 hours (12
hours dark), 18 hours (6 hours dark),
and 24 hours (no darkness).
Day-and-night-temperaturess 250, 15? and 7?C.
Intensity of daylights 50, 10, 2, and 004 kilolux.
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16-4, BIOLOGY
(2) In general the rate of growth was affected by changes
of day-temperature by far more profoundly than by
changes of night-temperature. In the temperature
range studied, the higher the day-temperature, the
greater was the growth rate. Higher night-tempera-
tures had no recognizably favorable effect except
when the day-temperature was as law as 70.
In general, the growth rate was directly proportional
to the day-length ("day-limited growth") at shorter
day-lengths. Such a proportionality extended to
longer day-lengths, the lower the daylight intensity;
and the intensity of daylight, under which a day-
limited growth occurred markedly, was higher, the
higher the day-temperature. At longer day-lengths,
and especially under stronger daylight, the growth
rate tended to become iridependent of day-length (the
phenomenon of "day-saturation"), or to become rather
smaller with the increase of day-length (the pheno-
menon of flday-oversaturation"). The latter pheno-
menon was accompanied by a bleaching of algal cells.
Both the day-saturation and oversaturation occurred
ceteris paribus more markedly at lower day-tempera-
tures. The day -oversaturation occurred most pro-
foundly when both the day and night temperatures
were 701 but ceased to occur when day temperature
was 70, and night temperature was 250.
Although the growth rate increased, in general, with
the increase of day-length, the favorable effect of
long-day condition decreased with the decrease of
day-temperature. At 70, and especially when the day-
light intensity was high, there was almost no differ-
ence in the growth rates under short-day and long-
day conditions. It was also observed that the tem-
perature dependence of growth rate decreased and
eventually tended to disappear with the decrease of
daylight intensity and with the shortening of day -
length, and that the daylight intensity, under
which the growth rate became light-saturated, was
lower at lower day-temperatures. All these facts
indicate that the short-day condition and weaker
daylight become relatively less disadvantageous
with the decrease of day-temperature.
( 3 )
(4)
(5)
The phenomena of day-limited and day-saturated growths
as they were conditioned by temperature, intensity
of daylight and day-length were explained on the
basis of observations made earlier by Tamiya, et al,
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16-4, BIOLOGY
who, by determining the relative rates of light-depend-
ent and light-independent phases in the growth process
of algae, have found that the light-independent phase
has a considerably greater temperature-coefficient than
the light-dependent phase.
(6) The phenomenon of "day-oversaturation," which occurred
at lower temperatures and under stronger daylight, was
explained as being due to the injurious effect of strong
light upon the so-called "light cells" which have been
shown by Ta4yal et al, to become abundant in cultures
when the temperature was law and light was strong.
4 references are cited:
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1. H. Tamiya, E. Hase, K. Shibata, A. Mitsuya, T. Iwa-
mura, T. Nihei and T. Sass.: Kinetics of growth of
Chlorella, with special reference to its depend-
ence on quantity of available light and on tempera-
ture. Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant,
Edited by J.S. Burlew? Carnegie Institution of Wash-
ington Publication 600, 1953, p. 204.
2. D.I. Arnon: Am. J. Bot., 25 (1938), 322; Science, 92
(1940), 264.
3. H. Tamiya, T. Iwamura, K. Shibata? E. Hase and T.
Nihei: Biochem. et Biophys. Acta, 12 (1953), 23.
4. F.W. Went: Am. J. Botany, 31 (1944), 140.
159 Tamiya, H., Shibata, K., Sasa, To, Iwamura, T. and Morimura, 16-4-55
Y., Effect of Diurnally Intermittent Illumination on the
Growth and Some Cellular Characteristics of Chlorella,
"Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot Plant," (Edited
by J.S. Burley), p. 76, Publication 600, Carnegie Institu-
tion of Washington, Washington, D.C. (1953).
Though the light source to be utilized in large-scale mass
culture of unicellular algae is expected to be natural sun-
light, the effect of diurnal alternation of light and dark
periods upon the growth and various cellular characteristics
of algae has not yet been studied systematically. The au-
thors state that with a viewt filling in this gap in know-
ledge, they performed experiments, using Chlorella ellipsoidea
as material, and then go on to describe:
1. Experimental Procedure in which they discuss culture
conditions and measurements.
2. Growth Curves - Here the authors discuss packed cell vol. &
number and cell size.
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159(contld)
3. Discussion - The authors conclude their paper with a
discussion covering formative metabolism, dark and
light cells and effect of intermittent illumination.
160 Thimann, "Solar Energy Utilization by Higher Plants," 16-4-56
Preprint, World Symposium on Applied Solar Energy, Phoenix,
Ariz. (Nov. 1-5, 1955).
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The author states that in spite of the fact that all of
our agriculture and animal husbandry, as well as most of
our nutrition, is concerned directly with the flowering
plants, their utilization of the sun2s energy has been
relatively little studied. Students of photosynthesis
in recent years have been mainly concerned with four lines
of advance: (1) the nature of the light reaction; (2) the
biochemical steps following the fixation of 002 and leading
to formation of sugar; (3) the free-energy efficiency of
the process; and (4) the photosynthetic activities of
bacteria. The second and third have been mainly studied
with Chlorella, the fourth necessarily with bacteria, and
the first partly with Chlorella and partly with isolated
chloroplasts; only in the second have leaves and leaf frag-
ments of higher plants been occasionally used. This neg-
lect arises partly from the feeling that photosynthesis in
leaves is too "complicated" to shed light on the process
per se, but partly from the widespread feeling that the
efficiency of photosynthesis in leaves is lower than in
the algae.
167 Wassink, E.G., Kok, B. and van Oorschot, J.L.P., The Effi- 16-4-57
ciency of Light-Energy Conversion in Chlorella Cultures as
Compared with Higher Plants, "Algal Culture from Laboratory
to Pilot Plant," (Edited by J.S. Burlew), p. 55, Publication
600, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C.
(1953).
It has been estimated that the efficiency of energy con-
version by green plants is about 2% of the solar radiation
which reaches the earth's surface and is usable in photo-
synthesis (excluding the infrared). This means that during
their growth they convert about 2% of the usable solar
energy into chemical energy (orgaaic matter). Calculations
based on optimal yields of agricultural crops in the Nether-
lands obtained figures of from 1% to about 2% of the usable
radiation incident on the cultivated surface. The estimates
were based on the total dry weight of the crop, assuming its
average composition to be CH20.
For comparison, the efficiency that one would expect to ob-
tain can be calculated from the rate of photosynthesis.
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167(contld)
16-4, BIOLOGY
Extensive experimental evidence was collected, e.g., in
short-time experiments with Chlorella. Assuming a quantum
yield of 0.10-0.12 per mol. of oxygen evolved, and quanta
of 50Kcalimol. WV, the calculated efficiency is about 25%.
The author reviews:
1. Efficiency of Chlorella Growth in Small Cultures includ-
ing preliminary observations, balance experiments
and additional observations.
2. Efficiency of Chlorella Growth in Mass Cultures includ-
ing outdoor and indoor mass cultures.
3. Efficiency of Higher Plants
He then summarizes that the efficiency of light-energy con-
version in both small-and large-scale cultures of Chlorella
is 12 to 20%, provided the intensity of the illumination is
not too high. The same holds for cultures of higher plants
Outdoor stirred mass cultures of Chlorella in full summer
light show efficiency values of 2 to 3%, as do good field
crops of higher plants. Excessive illumination seems an im-
portant factor in producing low efficiency under natural
conditions.
M-96
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No.
172 von Witsch, H. and Harder, R., Production of Organic Material 16-4-58
by Green Algae and Diatoms, "Algal Culture from Laboratory
to Pilot Plant," (Edited by J.S. Burlew), p. 154, Publication
600, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C.
(1953).
Laboratory experiments on the mass culture of autotrophic
microorganisms were inaugurated in Gottingen during the Sec-
ond World liar, particularly with a view to the production
of fat. From preliminary experiments with various organisms
it was concluded that the diatom,Nitzschia palea, and the
green alga, Chlorella pyrenoidosa, were most promising for
practical purposes of culture. These organisms were cultured
in nutrient solutions in glass tubes, 3 =DX 25-30 am. and
6 am. X 150 an., with an air stream enriched with about 0.5%
CO2 at about 15 liters per hour, and illuminated with water-
cooled 300-watt lamps, yielding up to 10,000 lux. (I lux.=
0.0929 f.c.).
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No.
63
M-97
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File
16-6, HYGIENE & SANITATION No.
Gee, A.H., "Organoleptic Appraisal of Three-Component Mix- 16-6-1
tures," Symposium on Odor, A.S.T.M. Special Technical
Report No. 164, p. 33, American Society for Testing
Materials, Philadelphia, Pa. (1954).
Three kinds of odorants were introduced in various pro-
portions into a specially devised dynamic flow system
suitable for organoleptic appraisal of the resulting
odor mixture. The methods and equipment were developed
under a United States Air Force contract in connection
with the control of undesirable odors in hospital air-
craft, without masking alarm or signal odors indicative
of mechanical trouble or of an incipient fire on the
airplane.
The components of cabin air are: (1) odors of infected
wounds and of body discharges; (2) odor control agents;
(3) vapors and smokes from gasoline, hot lubricating oil
and hydraulic fluid, burning electrical insulation, and
scorching paint. These were appraised in experimental
mixtures by the use of profile scoring. ?lotting the re-
sults showed the effects of the control agents.
The malodors were partly masked by aldehyde. Ozone can-
celled the malodors but must be used with care. Smokes
and other alarm odors were unaffected by the control
agents.
The author concludes that the methods presented are con-
venient for the investigation of three-component odor
mixtures, when it is necessary to vary the components
independently in seeking a solution for a complex odor
control problem. The results are reproducible and lend
themselves to graphic representations in which the
effects of the separate components can be readily seen.
Additional information on tests available in AFTR No.
6565, Part 1, May, 1951; Part 2, Sept., 1951; Part 3,
May, 1952; and Part 4, Sept., 1952.
64 Gee, A.H. and Pinkes, A.H., "Control of Odors in Evacuation 16-6-2
Aircraft," Aero Medical Lab. Contract No. AF 33(038)-18819,
AF Technical Report No. 6565, Part 2, ASTIA No. ATI-159415,
Foster D. Snell, Inc., New York, N.Y. (Sept., 1951).
This is the second part of the work on an odor control pro-
ject which has as its ultimate aim the control of elimina-
tion of malodors on evacuation aircraft by some suitable
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64(contld)
16-6, HYGIENE & SANITATION
agent, preferably for use in aerosol form, without masking
such alarm odor signals as the fumes of gasoline, hydraulic
fluid, hot oil, scorching paint or burning insulation.
The present report gives the characteristics and behavior
of the alarm odors, which are neither suppressed by malodor
nor masked by many of the control agents at levels at which
the control agents appear to be useful.
M-98
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No.
16-6-2
137 Ross, H.E., "Orbital Bases," Journal of the British Inter- 16-6-3
planetary Society, 8, 1, 1 (Jan., 1949).
A portion of the article on the orbital bases is concerned
with air, food and water. The author is assuming 24 men in
the orbital station at some distance of say 500 miles above
the earth's surface.
The food consumption will be 3#/person/day or 2.97 tons of
food in three months. This food supply will be brought to
the station by a supply ship.
Air and water the author feels can easily and conveniently
be studied for it will be assumed that the air and water
are being obtained from hydrogen-peroxide.
The oxygen and water requirements for 24 men for 24 hours are
02, 26,952 liters = 38.5 kilograms = 34.7#.
H20, variable but at least 180 pints = 102.15 kilograms =
225#.
Additional water needed for cooking, washing and bathing.
Therefore, total water required/day/24 men = 1,302#.
Assuming 14.% wastage and loss of 02 need to provide 40 kilo-
grams, or 88.2#. Assuming 90% H202 we will have 210# of
H202 required per day, and this will yield 121# pure water.
Article recommends keeping the atmospheric pressure as law
as possible to prevent leakage, about 160 mm Hg. The atmos-
phere of the station is in doubt--that is, use of pure oxygen,
special proportions of oxygen and nitrogen, oxygen and inert
gas, or standard air.
The problem of eliminating 15.9 liters (33.4 grams) per min-
ute; 22,900 liters or 48.0 kilograms, or 106# of CO2 per 24
hours remains. CO2 elimination can, of course, be achieved
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137( cont'
16-6, HYGIENE & SANITATION
in various ways--by chemical absorption or adsorption, by
centrifuging, fractional liquification, etc., etc. Simpli-
city is the major attraction for the space station. The
fouled air is piped through pipes exposed to the outer at-
mosphere on the side away from the sun and the CO2 will be
frozen out.
Thermal cracking of CO2 is worthy of consideration because
thermal energy is available. As for regeneration of the
atmosphere of the station by green vegetation, this method
is open to severe practical criticism, especially so if
operation over long periods of time is required.
Additional water savings can be accomplished by recapturing
the water vapor discharged from lungs and skin by condensa-
tion similar to the CO2 process. Some 62 kilograms or 137#
of H20/24 hours can be saved.
165 Turk, A., "Odor Control Methods: A Critical Review," Sympos-
ium on Odor, A.S.T.M. Special Technical Report No. 164, p.
69, American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia,
Pa. (1954).
Methods commercially available for control of odors may be
divided into four classifications: combustion, adsorption,
absorption, end vapor mixing. The article discusses each
of these.
M-99
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File
No,
16-6-3
Deodorization by combustion methods occurs because final
products are odorless or have higher threshold values. Par-
tial oxidation may increase odor. Use of platinum alloy-
activated alumina catalyst permits oxidation at 500 to 800P
F. lower than uncatalyzed incineration. Other catalysts in-
clude copper, chromite, various metallic oxides., and Fischer -
Tropsch catalysts.
Adsorption control is practically limited to use of activated
carbon.
Absorption methods maybe suitable for odorous vapors. Pro-
cess is usually a washing process.
Vapor mixing may also be considered as odor counteraction by
the mixture of two vapors which reduce or neutralize an un-
acceptable odor, or increase its acceptability by masking it.
Also reactions may occur. Dangers of the method are enumer-
ated.
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No. 16-62 HYGIENE & SANITATION No.
173 Yaglou2 C.P., Riley, E.C. aid Coggins, D.I.2 Wentilation 16-6-5
Requirements," Paper 1031, Transg., A.S.H&V.E., 42, 133
(1936); also, Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, 8,
1, 65 (Jan., 1936).
A report of research to study general problem of ventila-
tion odors under normal conditions with the possibility
of establishing ventilation requirements for various
groups of individuals under both winter and summer condi-
tions.
The tests employed and data taken are discussed. Tabular
data as well as empirical formula are derived.
Some parameters for ventilation requirements, air space,
outdoor air supply, air conditioning, equipment function-
ing with respect to body odors are developed.
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No.
16-9, NUTRITION
M-101
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File
No.
31 Brooks, F.A., "More Food from Solar Energy," Preprint, World 16-9-1
Symposium on Applied Solar Energy, Phoenix, Ariz. (Nov. 1 -
5, 1955).
The author states that the ultimate objective of the applica-
tion of solar energy for biological uses is the direct pro -
ductiovlof food from inorganic raw materials. But sugar,
for which factory production seems nearest, happens to be
the one food now in actual surplus even on a world-wide ba-
sis. More essential foods are the very complex proteins,
and synthetic production of these seems rather distant. A
supplemental source of food is more urgently needed than
most of us realize because already agricultural production
is inadequate, if the entire present population of the
world were to be properly nourished.
57 Fisher, A.W., Jr., and Burlew, J.S., Nutritional Value of 16-9-2
Microscopic Algae, "Algal Culture from Laboratory to Pilot
Plant," (Edited by J.S. Burlew), p. 303, Publication 600,
Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C. (1953).
Present knowledge of the nutritional value of algae is lim-
ited, largely because of the lack of experimental material.
The small amount of quantitative information available ap-
plies only to animal nutrition. It is supplemented by assays
of Chlorella for different nutritional factors and by some
qualitative observations concerning the use of algae in hu-
man nutrition. The authors discuss the following items in
detail.
1. Nutritional Factors in Chlorella - The discussion here
is concerned with the protein, amino acids and vitamins
found in Chlorella.
2. Animal-Feeding Tests - This section of the paper discusses
rat-feeding tests and chick-feeding tests. The authors
state the results of the preliminary tests they have re-
ported in this paper were reasonably encouraging and im-
proved methods of preparation along with further varia-
tions in the composition of the rations may well show
more favorable results. No evidence of toxicity or
other adverse reaction, or of refusal to take rations
containing Chlorella, was found. They believe further
work on the culture of algae should have as one of its
objectives the clarification of the nutritional properties
of material grown and processed in various ways.
3. Algae as Human Food - This section discusses the limited
knowledge of human consumption of algae and its accepta-
bility as human food.
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Author
Index
No. 16-11, PHARMACOLOGY & TOXICOLOGY
11-102
Master
File
No.
90 Kathan, R.H. and Webster, A.P., "Design of a Packed Column for 16-11-1
Removal of Carbon Dioxide from Submarines," Quarterly Report
of Miscellaneous Tests and Minor Investigations, Part I,
ASTI& No. AD-38132, Naval Medical Field Research Lab., Camp
Lejeune, N.C. (Aug., 1953).
Prior to the advent of snorkelling, about the only time ex-
cessive concentrations of Carbon Dioxide became a problem
in submarines was when the boat was in distress, either on
the bottom from an accident, or when being held down by
enemy action. With snorkelling, however, accumulation of
Carbon Dioxide during normal operations may occur and def-
initely presents a hazard. Many studies have been made and
are being made on the physiological effects of prolonged ex-
posure to low concentrations of Carbon Dioxide. In addition
to the effects of prolonged exposure to Carbon Dioxide on
personnel, a concentration of 4% CO2 becomes a very great
hazard in the event of flooding down for an escape. If the
submarine were on the bottom in 200 feet of water, flooding
down would give a pressure of seven atmospheres and the con-
centration of CO2 would rise to an effective 28% (on a par-
tial pressure basis). Further, after flooding down, the
partial pressure of all other noxious gases, chlorine, car-
bon monoxide and stibine becomes correspondingly increased.
Other gases, not necessarily toxic, but merely obnoxious,
such as head odors, body odors, cooking odors, oil odors,
affect the habitability of the vessel and the removal of
the odors or the minimizing of them has been a continual
problem.
147 Specht, H., Toxicology of Travel in the Aeropause, "Physics 16-11-2
and Medicine of the Upper Atmosphere," (edited by C.S. White
and 0.0. Benson, Jr.), p. 171, Univ. of New Mexico Press,
Albuquerque, N.M. (1952).
Four general media of excretion: exhaled air, urine, pers-
piration, feces. In the breath 002 and H20 are the major
constituents. Other volatile components diffused from the
blood are small amounts of N2, acetoacetic acid, volatile
ollisfrom certain foods, also gases formed in the blood such
as H2 and CH. According to Haldane & Smith there is no
special odorless toxin in exhaled air.
In urine, the greater part of the excretion products are
non-volatile, but small amounts of ammonia, etheral sul-
phates and the substances also cited above to be in exhaled
air may be found.
In the glandular excretioncf the skin there are again
small amounts of these volatile substances, but the bulk
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1-47(c7nt d)
16-11, PHARMACOLOGY & TOXICOLOGY
of the excretion other than water is non-volatile.
In the feces a variety of substances formed through the
action of bacteria, some of which are toxic. The vola-
tile substances, largely contained in the flatus, are
002, N2, 02, H2, CHIL and the minor constituents previously
mentioned. In the feces proper the toxin substances in-
dole, skatole, H2S? phenol and various amines range to
high potency. Water distilled from feces may leave resi-
dues of toxicants.
The rate of 02 use varies with activity and individuals
but average values for non-strenuous activity are about
614 liters per day, which weighs 1200 grams. Output of
CO2 is about 515 liters, which weighs 1008 grams per day.
The output of metabolic constituents of the breath other
than 02, CO2 and H20 is low, variable and unknown. Water
is lost to the atmosphere in direct proportion to the
undersaturation of the inhaled air. Values probably range
from 175 cc per day for dry air to 350 cc per day.
The further excretions of the skin are NaCl, urea, with
minor quantities of potassium and lactic acid. No esti-
mate of the quantity of odorous substances is available.
The urine amounts to about 1500 caper day. The volatile
constituents are minor if no decomposition takes place to
free the ammonia which constitutes about 0.9 gram per day.
Of the 2.5 grams of sulfate excreted daily, only 5% is ex-
creted as etheral sulfates.
The volatile contents of the feces contribute a different
group of gases. The flatus may vary somewhat in composi-
tion but average daily values are 230 cc of 002, 210 cc of
N2, 80 cc of 02 and 480 cc of H2 + 0H4. Diets should be
planned to reduce these to a minimum. These gases are
slightly soluble in the blood and thus are also lost via
the exhaled air at a very low rate. In a confined atmos-
phere they would accumulate to an equilibrium value which
might prove to be asphyxial. The other volatile materials
in flatus have low vapor pressures and are noticeable
mainly because they are aromatic.
Indole may be present in feces to the extent of 60 mg per
100 grams, giving a total daily quantity of about 90 mg.
Water recovered from excreta by distillation would have
only a minor contamination with these materials.
M-103
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No.
16-11-2
Present and proposed methods for removal of noxious materials:
CO2 may be removed by alkaline scrubbers. These will also
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No.
cont' d)
16-11, PHARMACOLOGY & TOXICOLOGY
absorb some of the volatile substances previously referred
to. These methods generally used in submarine air condi-
tioning and were successful in stratosphere balloon flights.
Disadvantage is bulkiness of equipment and the progressive
decrease in efficiency. The use of sodium or potassium
peroxides, which free oxygen while absorbing CO2 and water
might be tried.
Condensation of volatile substancess at the temperatures
prevailing in the shadow of a space craft, all but the
lighter gases will be frozen out and a suitable means
might be devised to recover those which are useful and to
concentrate and remove the noxious ones. H2 would be the
most difficult constituent, although quantitatively it may
be of negligible magnitude. Oxidation of H2 and other vol-
atile organic materials might be considered, but this would
be at the expense of 02.
M-104
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No.
16-11-2
In one sense the most attractive proposals for dealing with
CO2 and water are those using green plants. Active photo-
synthesis provides an 02/CO2 ratio of 1.0 or better.
The leafy plants are nature's best engineered adaptation to
a gaseous atmosphere. They have managed to distribute all
photosynthetic cells in nearly monocellular layers so that
maximum surface is presented. Ley has made some suggestions
in this direction and it is interesting to pursue these spec-
ulations a little further. He estimates that a square meter
of pumpkin leaf will supply the oxygen required at rest by
one man. By extension, he calculates that a minimum of one
cubic meter of such plant tissue will supply the needs of
two men at moderate activity. This extrapolation seems
somewhat exaggerated, since doubling the number of persons
and a five-fold increase in metabolism would involve only
one order of magnitude extension. Data from Brown and Es -
combe indicate that 0.07 cc of CO2 per sq. cm. per hour can
be handled by catalpa leaves. This is calculated to permit
an estimate of about 30 sq. meters (323 sq. ft.) per man per
day. On the other hand, Emerson and Arnold ' indicate
that algae will produce about 4 moles of oxygen per second/
cu. mm x 1010 . This results in an estimated 1 sq. meter
(1 mm of algae thick) per man per day at moderate activity.
Similar estimates in our own laboratory by Dr. F.S. Brackett
indicate the same order of magnitude.
Ley seems to consider the engineering of this matter quite
readily feasible--yet on his calculations, assuming that a
leaf if about one millimeter thick in terms of cells, it
would require 1000 sq. meters (10,76).j. sq. ft.) of surface
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147(contid)
16-11, PHARMACOLOGY & TOXICOLOGY
which is constantly illuminated to take care of these
plants. According to the catalpa leaf data about 30 sq.
meters per man per day would be required. In either case,
the practical problem of exposure and orientation with
proper circulation calls for construction and design rad-
ically different from that which has been publicized.
The use of algae, indicated both by Leygs comments and ac-
cording to Burson and Arnoldts data to be of high effi-
ciency, is fraught with other difficulties. In order to
suspend the algae in water so that proper exposure and nu-
trition result is costly in weight and space and poses
problems in circulation that require kinetic energy in a
weightless situation.
At the moment it seems that a liq.iid oxygen source and
chemical treatment of Carbon Dioxide, aided by thermal
condensation, must be the means of choice until research
evolves more direct methods of converting solar energy
to our needs.
M-105
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No.
16-11-2
149 Spector, W.S. (Editor), "Handbook of Toxicology," Vol. I, 16-11-3
W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa. (1956).
The volume includes two tables:
I. Lethal Doses of Solid and Liquid Compounds g Laboratory
Animals
II. Lethal Concentrations of Gases, Vapors, aid Fumes in
Respired Airs Laboratory Animals
Prepared under Contract No. AF 33(616)-2873, Aeromedical
Laboratory, WRDC.
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a
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No.
25-0, PHYSICS
M-106
Master
File
No.
62 Gast, P.R., Chapter 9, Insolation of the Upper Atmosphere and 25-0-1
of a Satellite, "Scientific Uses of Earth Satellites," p.
73, Univ. of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Mich. (1956).
The temperature of a satellite will be the resultant of the
sum of radiations from three sources: directly from the sun,
solar radiation returned from the atmosphere and the earth
(both 6000?K radiation), and low-temperature (250?K) radia-
tion from the earth. Assuming various characteristics for
the model of the satellite (absorptiviiy of the surface,
shape, mass, specific heat) and orbit trajectories (distance
of perigee and apogee, duration of insolation, and duration
in shadow of the earth), the ranges of maxiratun aid minimum
temperatures may be calculated. For one possible elliptical
trajectory the mean temperatures for an 0.8-meter, 100-kg
spherical satellite are not far from 0?C; as the satellite
in its orbit passes from sunlight into the shadow of the
earth, the temporary maximum temperatures in the sunlight
range from 13? to 3?C and the temporary minimum temperatures
in the shadow from -3? to 5?C. The highest maximum tempera-
ture is with the sun in line with the projected major axis
and the illuminated satellite at a perigee of 300 miles, and
the lowest minimum temperature with the sun in the same posi-
tion and the satellite at an apogee of 1000 miles. Measure-
ments of insolation freed from difficulties of atmospheric
attenuation and measurements of the albedo of the earth will
be possible from a satellite vehicle. But to achieve the re-
quired accuracy, rather precise knowledge of the orientation
of detectors is essential. Hazards which are unique to the
environment may be encountered in attempting measurements
from a satellite--the effects of the vacuum ultraviolet ir-
radiation and of accumulation o f micrometeorites on surfaces
of detectors or on the surfaces of windows, and on the sur-
faces of the skin of the satellite.
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No.
34
M-107
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File
25-8, THERMODYNAMICS No.
Buettner, K., Thermal Aspects of Travel in the Aeropause-- 25-8-1
Problems of Thermal Radiation, "Physics and Medicine of the
Upper Atmosphere," (edited by C.S. White and 0.0. Benson,
Jr.), p. 88, Univ. of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, N.M.
(1952).
Shows haw to compute the equilibrium skin temperature of an
orbiting space vehicle.
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Index
No.
60
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M-108
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File
29-2, FOOD & CONTAINERS No.
Fox, S.W. and Ise, C., "Chemical Changes in Protein of Ster- 29-2-1
ilized Meat,? Research Project Report No. 7, Contract No.
DA44-109-qm-17621 ASTIA No. AD-89549, Quartermaster Food
and Container Inst. for Armed Forces, Chicago Hq., QM Re-
search& Development Comm., Iowa Agricultural Experiment
Station, Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic
Arts, Ames, Iowa (Apr., 1954 - Sept., 1955).
The potential use of ionizing radiation as a means of ster-
ilization of various foodstuffs and pharmaceuticals has
stimulated a great deal of interest in this field of in-
vestigation. The advantages of this particular type of
sterilization are very attractive for a number of reasons.
One of the most attractive features of this type of ster-
ilization for heat-sensitive materials is small temperature
increase during the process. This lends itself to a number
of applications. Another feature of this method is the
rapidity of the process, for the material is exposed for
only a few seconds.
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Appendix 1
Report on
SKIN EXCRETIONS
Prepared by
William T. Ingram
It has been estimated that about two million sweat glands are found
over, the cutaneous surface. The whole epithelial surface serves as a means
of heat release from the body through evaporation. The sebaceous glandsy
single and compormly are found over the cutaneous surfacse, usually in
association with hair. Sweat and sebaceous glands and epithelial surface
account for the excretions of the skin.
The skin surface usually has an acid reaction and may exert a bacte-
ricidal effect. Dirt and fat may interfere with this reaction. The water
vapor loss from epithelial evaporation (insensible perspiration) does not
carry over solutes. Howevery the sweat glands do release many electrolytes,
organic acids and compounds, and inorganic salts in minute quantities.
Sebaceous gland secretions are mixed with sweat, and the composition is not
exactly known. The fatty, oily material does contain in small quantities,
cholesterol, some simpler fatty acids, fatty acid esters, alblImins, and
inorganic salts. The sebum may spread over the skin in a protective layer
or may pack in the gland-cutaneous surface as a cheese-like mass. Organic
constituents of what is thought to be a mixture of sebaceous and sweat gland
excretion is "believedto include small quantities of urea, uric acid,
creatininey lactic acid, ethereal sulphates of phenol and skatol, amino
acids, sugar in traces, and albrimin.
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1-2.
CO2 is also believed to be released in minute quantities with marked
sweating.
A review of the chemical composition of sweat by Robinson and
Robinson(139 offers a range of .values reported by various research studies.
The components are here summarized:
1. Sodium Chloride
NaC1 and water are the principal substances whose loss
by sweating may affect the homeostasis of the individual
to a serious-degree. Concentration of NaC1 is variable.
Individual values as law as 5 mEq/1 to as high as 100
or 148 mEq/1 have been reported. ?Average values raAg-
ing from 18-97 mEq/1 have been reported in at least 86
separate studies.' Normal output from skin (no sweating)
is ca. 0.2 mFq/hr. of C1-. Sodium runs somewhat higher
because of other sources of Ma.
2. Potassium
Lower than Na. Averages about 4.5 mEq/1 with range
from 1 to 15 1. Potassium concentration varies
inversely with the Na concentration and the Na/K ratio
varies directly with the Na concentration. Na/K = 15
in unacclimatized men, dropping to 5 after a 5-day
adaptation period.
3? Calcium
Ranges from 1 to' 8 mgm per 100 ml.
4. Magnesium
0.04 to 0.4 mg/100 ml.
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5. Ppmer
4.4 to 7.5 mcg/100 ml.
60 M411E1022
302 to 7.4 mcg/100 mi.
7. ?1.112haitta
4 to 17 mgm/100 ml.
80 Iron
0.1 to 0.2.mgm/100 mlo
9. I2p F2p 312.
Have been reported.
10. Lactic Acid
Values reported range from 4 to 40 mEq/10
11. ai
Most observers found between 4 and 6.$.
120 Glucose
Extremely law. Reported from 0.1 mgm/100 ml. to
9 mgm/100 mi.
13. Nitrom
Much more dilute than corresponding values in urine.
Average values range from 23 mgm/100 ml. (toto N) to
140 mgm/100 mlo
14. Urea N
Averages ranged from 12 to 39 mgm/100 ml0 in several
studies.
150 NH3N
Most investigators report in range of 5 to 9 mga
percent.
1? 3.
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1-4.
16. Creatinine
Ranges from 0.1 to 1.3 and averages 0.4 mgm/100 ml.
17. Uric Acid
Reports range from 0 to 1.5 mgm/100 ml.
18. Amino N
Extremely low, but 18 different amino acids have been
identified.
19. Phenol and Histamine
Reported.
Johnson, Hamilton, and Mitchell report that the total amount of
pyridoxine and its metabolites(88) 4nd the total amount of nicotinic acid
and its metabolites(V) present in sweat appear to be too small to have any
significant influence on the requirements of persons sweating profusely.
The same authors also rdport that the choline loss(85) through sweat is not
affected by hot, moist atmosphere in comparison with the loss in normal air,
and that folic acid excreti6n(86). is increased under conditions of profuse
sweating.
Howell(81) reporting on quantity of water loss indicates that 25 to
40 gms, per hour are lost through insensible perspiration with 1/3 to 1/2
of that being given off from lungs.- Approximately 600 ml. of water is
released from skin per 24 hours. However, the quantity may reach 2500 ml.
per hour with strenuous muscular work. Supplemental water requirement to
be satisfied by oral intake is estimated at 1200 to 1300 ml, per day.
CO2 release is estimated at 7 - 8 gins, per 24 hours, increasing with
marked sweating.
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Comments
It appears from: the foregoing that:
1. There are minute quantities of organic .materials, water
and water vapor released to atmosphere from. skin excre-
tion.
2. The quantitative values have been- pas:tially but not
completely established. While, the quantities May* seem
inconsequential in a ,normal atmosphere subject to air
replenishment, the acCumulative effect of, these mater-
ials, some toxic and, some Ddor:producingmi deteriora-
tion; in conditions of a closed ecology remains. to be
determined. It is, obvious that the air cleansing
syStem of the closed'space will have to remove such
materials as detritus from'epithelial sources, fatty
acids, fattr acid esters, albumins, ammonia, and other
forms Of,Aitrogen, urea, 'uric acid, inorganic salts,
and metals such ?Ad sodium and potassium.
3.* Occupants' ,of a closed space will find it netesbaty to
give -special attention -to personal hygiene. Skirl. excre-
tions will have to be removed carefully with minimal
amounts of waer. ) Since the washings will be concen-
, trates;wastes, they too will have to receive special
,handling.", The quantity-of water wastes developed from
skin washings has not yet been determined. While dry
washing with specialvreparations may be considered,
these washing compounds may contribute to contamination
of the enclosed air mass; and there is no knowledge at
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present as to the significance of this contamination.
Further, dry washings cannot be considered as a complete
substitute for some form of washing that will raise and
carry off the accumfLcItion of sebum and concentrated
salts remaining after evaporation. The potential break-
down of bacterial protection introduced by excessive
accumulation of sebum and salts on the cutaneous surface
is one requiring careful examination. The potentiality
of chemical irritation of the cutaneous tissue due to
excessive concentrations of excreted substances is also
the subject of conjecture.
4. Future investigations are indicated along the following
lines:
a. Study of sebum quantitativel4y.
b. Study of sebum deterioration and exploration
of the mechanisms of treatment that will hold
odor levels below those tending to produce
physical discomfort to an occupant of a
closed space, wherein all air supply is self
contained and cyclic in reuse.
c. Further study of sweat gland excretion as in
b0 above.
d. Study of levels of concentration of various
components of skin excretion that may be
tolerated by the skin without physical dis-
comfort or without serious surface irrita-
tion effects.
Study,,tof skin washings quantitatively to
determine probable treatments required to
permit safe disposal or possible water re-
covery for reuse. Permanent frozen storage
is one alternative if the water is not
required for reuse.
6,,
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Appendix 2
Report on
THE CULTURE OF ALGAE
Prepared by
Gail P. Edwards
The types of algae commonly used in the studies of. photosynthesis are
??
the green algae, Chlorella and Scenedesmus. These.are.cOmmon inhabitants
of fresh water and soils. Chlorella, most frequently used, is hardy and
grows rapidly. Its chloroplast takes up a main portion of the cell and its
high rate of photosynthesis exceeds the rate of respiration 10 - 100 times.
The four main strains of Chlorella used for study are:
C. byrenoidosa (Emerson strain)
C. vulgaris (Emerson strain)
C. vulgaris (Trelease or Columbia strain)
C. vulgaris (Warm or Cornell strain)
Mechanics of Photosynthesis
In nature, light energy is used for the formation of carbohydrates
from inorganic carbon dioxide. This process is called photosynthesis and
an over-simplified general reaction may be written:
light + CO2 + H20 -4 CH20 + 02
Many theories have been proposed to explain the reactions. In photosyn-
thesis, the light receiving unit is the chloroplast. According to Th1mAnn(160)i
although the shape varies, the structure of the chloroplast is about the
same in all the plants examined so far. It consists of fine green particles
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2-2.
or grana which appear in the electron microscope as flat discs embedded in
a colorless stroma. Usually starch or other polymers are present?
A number of chlorophylls are known. For example, Thomas(161) states
that chlorophyll a in higher plants is accompanied by chlorophyll b. The
chlorophylls are accompanied by carotenoids and in red and blue-green algae
by phycobilins. The photosynthetic pigments belong to the class of mole-
cules with the strongest absorption bands in the visible ranges. Since nat-
ural and synthetic pigments have absorption peaks at various wave lengths,
it is necessary to have a mixture of pigments to cover the visible range
economically. Only one of the pigments in the chloroplast, chlorophyll a,
is able to carry on the photochemical reaction of photosynthesis. All light
energy absorbed by other pigments must be transferred to chlorophyll a and
this can be done with nearly 100% efficiency by fluorescence. FDDM chloro-
phyll a, the light energy enters the chain of chemical reactions which fixes
and converts carbon dioxide to the final photosynthetic products?
Little is known about the oxygen producing reaction but in the reduc-
tion, Duysens(51) believes pyridine nucleotide is important. The pyridine
nucleotides are the most universal and important oxidation-reduction
catalysts in living things. Aided by adenosine triphosphate, pyridine
nucleotide is able to reduce carbon dioxide.
According to Gaffron, (61) in the reaction with chlorophyll, two
hydroxyl groups are combined to form a peroxide and the peroxide decomposes
to release molecular oxygen.
These and other theories are discussed by Bassham and Calvin.(23)
Light
Only light of wave lengths shorter than 7000 A0 is active in photosyn-
thesis. With artificial light, both incandescent anf fluorescent lamps have
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2 3.
been used. There has been some difference of opinion as to their relative
effectiveness. Smallhorst, Wal ton and MyerS(145) stated that incandescent
light at night seemed to speed up formation of oxygen but fluorescent light-
ing was not very effective. On the other hand, Krauss(95) who studied dif-
ferences in yield under fluorescent, incandescent and combined light sources,
found that the incandescent battery was adding little to the total yield of
algae although consuming forty-two percent of the combined voltage. Krauss
also believes that the exclusion of much of the red end of the spectrum,
including infra red, from solar radiation prior to its reaching the culture
can be expected to have little detrimental effect on yield, especially when
intensities are above the average 1000 f.c0 used at culture surface. Light
within the visual range 4000 - 7000 A0 degrees is satisfactory.
As to the intensity of light required, Burlew(38) reported that algae
can use light intensity for photosynthesis as low as 10 f.c. Cells of green
algae can utilize in photosynthesis only a limited amount of light energy at
a time. Myers(117) found that the minimum intensity of light requirad for
maximum rate of growth of Chlorella is in the neighborhood of 400 f.c0 under
unilateral illumination. Increasing the intensity of light beyond 400 f.c0
increased the yield of algae but at a diminishing rate. In summer, simlight
during the middle of the day is at least 8000 f.c. When growing under light
of very low intensity, algae have utilized as much of 20 percent of the
incident energy in the visible part of the spectrum. When they are growing
in the full sunlight, the conversion is reduced to 2 to 3 percent. A twenty-
fold increase in incident energy results in only a fourfold increase in the
amount used by the algae. Algae and higher plants appear to be about equal
in their capacity to utilize the energy of visible light.
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2-4.
The cells of green algae can utilize in photosynthesis only a limited
amount of light energy at a time. This phenomenon called "light saturation"
has been explained as due to an injurious effect upon the light cells. It
imposes a serious limitation on the efficiency with which solar energy can
be utilized by algae. In a culture which is deep and dense enough to absorb
nearly all of the light, mutual shading of the cells gives a gradation of
light below the surface that partially offsets the limitation. Experi-
ments(4) have shown that in a Chlorella cultures the light intensity de-
creases with depth and concentration according to the Beer-Lambert law of
light absorption.
When Chlorella is grown outdoors without regulation of environmental
conditions, not only diurnally intermittent variations of light intensity
occur but there are also variations of day-and night-lengths accompanied
by diurnal changes in temperature, Light saturation can be partially over-
come by intermittent light because algae can use light in very short flashes.
Kok(93) reported numerical values of the order of a few milliseconds for
the critical flash time as a function of the incident intensity. For Chlor-
ella pyrenoidosa, the dark time must be at least ten times as long as the
flash time for fully efficient utilization of the incident light in photo-
synthesis. Burk, Cornfield and Schwartz(36) have reported a longer critical
dark time.
In a study of the effect of the variation of day-length, day and night
temperatures and of intensity of day light upon Chlorella, Tamiya et al(158)
found that the rate of grol.Nh was affected by changes of day-temperature to
a much greater degree than by' changes in night temperature. Up to 25?C, the
higher the day temperature, the greater was the growth rate. Higher night
temperatures had no favorable effect except when the day-temperature was as
low as 7?G.
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In general, the growth rate was directly proportional to the day -length
at shorter day lengths. This proportionality extended to longer day lengths,
the lower the daylight intensity. At longer day lengths, and especially
under stronger daylight, the growth rate tended to become independent of day
length. The phenomenon of "day-oversaturation" which occurred at lower tem-
peratures and under stronger daylight was explained as being due to the
injurious effect of strong light on the so called "light cells" which have
been shown to become abundant in cultures when the temperature was low and
the light was strongd
This critical dark time is of utmost importance in large scale culture
for if an algal cell is exposed to light of high intensity for a short time
it can absorb all that light in the first stage of photosynthesis and then
utilize it in succeeding stages in the dark. Several methods of obtaining
maximum efficiency have been proposed. Davis(49) in small scale experiments
obtained an increase in yield of 70 percent with turbulence in a high-
density culture illuminated with high-intensity artificial light. Several
other methods of diluting sunlight in such a way that no algal .cell receives
illumination above the saturation intensity have been proposed?
Under carefully controlled conditions, Kok, (167) using sodium light
was able to obtain 23.5% conversion of absorbed radiation energy into or-
ganic matter. Of about 30 determinations of efficiency, the majority were
between 12 and 21 percent? Myers(115) obtained effiaiencies of 15% but
doubts that he had optimum conditioneo No strain of algae has been found
which is capable of utilizing bright light with full efficiency. In facts
exposure to bright light exerts inhibitory effects upon photosynthesis
which according to Kok(94) result in inactivation or pigment maecules or
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2-6.
complexes leading to ineffective light absorption and therefore, a decrease
in yield in weak light0
ers(115) states that the requirements of algae cell machinery ares
CO2 - 1.8 lbs0 per pound of Chlorella
Temperature less than 3800 (100?F)
Chlorella and most other algae are killed by prolonged exposure above 3000
but a high temperature one, Chlorella T x 71105, grows at temperatures up
to 390C.
Fisher(56) stated that initial attempts to use the new thermnphyllic
strain of Chlorella in pilot plant work were not successful because the
temperature had to be maintained near the optimum for good yields.
This constant temperature may not be difficult to control.
According to Fishers,(56) the strains of Chlorella used in nearly all
of the experimental work to date, shows a sharp maximum growth rate at about
250c with significantly lower rates at 3000 and almost no growth at a few
degrees higher. In a closed system, cooling is essential.
II
Nutritional Requirements
Krauss(95) states that the nutritional requirements for the growth of
most algae except for the need for cobalt, the low calcium requirement and
the absence of need for boron, are qualitatively similar to those for higher
plants. The presence of an element in a medium, however, does not mean that
the element is available to the algae because precipitation may make them
unavailable. Chelating agents have been successfully used to prevent the
precipitation of such trace elements as iron, manganese, calcium, copper,
zinc, molybdenum and cobalt.
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2-70
It is well established that the concentration of carbon dioxide nor-
mally found in the atmosphere (0.03%) is adequate to maintain maximum ,photo-
synthetic efficiency if sufficient volume of liquid is brought in contact
with the cell surface. If all cells are to be supplied with a sufficient
amount, then according to Krauss, the l-5% mixtures of CO2 in air are nec-
essary. In 3QO liter cultures, 10% 002 in air mixtures improved the yield
of algae although in small scale experiments a 10% mixture is considered
toxic.
Davis, Myers and Dedrick(50) found under their experimental conditionsy
the growth rate was not significantly influenced by differences in concen-
tration of 002 between 0.56 to 4.43% as long as the culture medium was kept
in equilibrium with the lower concentration of CO2.
The fundamental problem in mass culture is the maintenance of a
reservoir of energy and nutrients for a long enough time to permit an econom-
ically large harvest. Two procedures have been used. Krauss(95) proposes
a recycling system and replenishes consumed nutrients by returning elements
to the culture at the same rate at which they are removed by the algae. The
algae is harvested by pumping a portion of the culture through a continuous
centrifuge and returning the liquid to the culture. Myers maintained a con-
stant growth rate by diluting the growing population with fresh medium at a
rate commensurate with the rate of growth. Portions of the culture are
removed for harvesting the algal cells. The slow continual flow of fresh
medium into the culture and the outflow of mtdium and cells tends to hold
the light intensity at a constant (mutual cell shading) and prevents reduc-
tion in nutrient level or accumplption of inhibiting substances. Both
methods have been successful.
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Krauss(95) found the elemental composition of green algae to be as
follows:
Element Percent Dry Weight
Carbon
51.4
- 72.6
Hydrogen
7.0
- 10.0
O xygen
28.8
-11.6
Nitrogen7.7
- 6.2
Phosphorus
.
039
- 1.0
Sulfur
.
- 0.28
Magnesium
0.80
- 0.36
Potassium
1.62
- 0.85
Calcium
0.08
- 0.005
Iron
0.55 '
- 0040
7
Zinc
0.005
- 0.0006
Copper
0.004
- 0.001
Manganese
0.01
- 0.002
Cobalt
0.0003
- 0.00003
In starting his recycling experiment, Krauss used a modified Knopls
solution consisting of:
KNO3 1.0 gr/liter
KH24 0.25 gr/liter
MgSO4 7H20 0.25 gr/liter
Micro-nutrients as EDTA chelated metals were added initially to give the
following concentrations: Fe and Mn, 10 ppm; Ce and Co, 3 ppm; Cu and Zn,
1 ppm. After the start of the experiment, replacement stock solutions of
each of the six chelated EDTA metals and of the compounds HNO3, FH2PO4D
MgSO4 7H20 and MgO were added in such a way that 1 m1 of each replaced the
amount of the element absorbed by 1 gram dry weight of alogae. Krauss found
that much of the chelating agent or some decomposition product is absorbed
and probably metabolized by the cell.
Many other nutrient formulns8, 159) have been used.
(4
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III
Mass Culture
Algae have been grown in so called mass culture systems usually on
pilot plant scale by many investigators. According to Tamiya,(157) the two
common methods proposed for full scale mass culture are the closed .cirtula?
tion method and the open shallow trench or tank method.
In the closed circulation method, the culture is cycled through a clear
plastic tube or through a shallow concrete trench with a plastic ceiling.
The plastic tube offers the greatest surface exposed to the light and would
be expected to be a more efficient system than a trench with only one sur?
face exposed to the light. The closed system has the advantages that it is
not affected by dust or contamination by the atmosphere. Tamiya has also
pointed out numerous disadvantages. The vinyl plastic coatings became
brittle within a few months and many small holes developed. Furthermore,
the algal cells precipitated And adhered to the plastic walls. These were
very difficult to remove and not only made harvesting difficult, but they
became a cause of contamination and interfered with the passage of light
into the culture. The closed system which requires more cooling equipment
than the open tank method requires about five times as much power for opera?
tion.. The initial cost of the closed system is estimated to be less than
half that of the open system.
In the open system, the culture is constantly aerated with air enriched
with carbon dioxide. The equipment is durable and requires very little
maintenance. Tamiya found that in Tokyo, dust and dirt had to be removed
every two weeks and contamination had to be prevented by the use of chemicals.
He also proposed a modification of the open trench system using shallow
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4-10.
circular tanks in which the culture was recirculated through a rotary
distributor system. One unit was operated for mix weeks very successfully
with yields of 7 - 11 grains of dry algae per square meter per day'.
According to a report from A. D. Little, Inc.,(13) a stable foam is
formed as a result of agitation or aeration, in cultures at concentrations
of algae above 0.3 to 0.4 g/1. The layer of foam could reduce the light
reaching the culture and is therefore of some importance from the standpoint
of operation. Two non-toxic antifoam agents, Dow-Corning Antifoam A, a
silicone, and Atlas Powder Co. Soan 85 were used successfully. Geohegan(65)
found Silicone D C 200 satisfactory for breaking the foam.
Brooks(31) suggested that pumps might be eliminated if the circulation
could be obtained by the application of heat to induce thermo-syphon cir-
culation as has been done with solar water heaters.
A self-regulating continuous culture apparatus has been proposed by
Perret.(125) The growth vessel is a tilted cardioid-shaped flask spinning
about its long axis. Agitation is obtained without foam formation and col-
onies of microorganisms do not form on the walls of the vessel.
Mayer, Eisenberg and Evanari(107) studied deep mass cultures in an open
concrete tank one meter deep. The side of the tank facing south contained
a glass window but it quickly became coated with algae and loot its effec-
tiveness. The culture of 2100 liters was circulated with paddle type
stirrers rotating about a horizontal axis. Carbon dioxide was bubbled in
through a fine diffuser for an hour each day. They used three species of
Chlorella: C. vulgaris (Hopkins strain), C. Pyrenoidosa (T x:71105) and C.
ovalis (Butcher Plymouth 86). Yields of 20 grams per square meter of total
illuminated area were readily obtained. Chlorella vulgaris seemed to be the
best species.
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Experiments by A. D. Little, Inc. of Cambridge, 1vassachusetts(13)
indicated that although several problems remain to be solved, thin plastic
tubes for culture growth are feasible. They had considerable leakage from
seals and punctures in the polyethylene tubes but were able to mend them
with a special electrical scotch tape. Leakage became so serious in one
unit after about six weeks operation that the day to day data became mean-
ingless. They also reported the settling and sticking of settling algae on
the sides and top of the tube were serious when contaminants were present.
IV
Harvesting of Algae
The suspension of algae in a large scale culture unit will be quite
dilute, containing not more than one percent of algal cells dry weight. In
a photosynthetic gas exchange system, the algal cells must be harvested and
disposed of. They retain moisture tenaciously and until thoroughly dry, are
unstable. The algal paste from a centrifuge contains about 75 percent water
and spoils rapidly--in less than an hour in a hot room.
Several methods of harvesting and dewatering algae have been suggested
by Burlew.(38) Probably the most practical method is by the use of centri-
fuges. The use of a preliminary moderate speed centrifuge to reduce the
volume to be handled by the supercentrifuge might be economical. Gravity
sedimentation has been estimated to require an area about one-tenth that of
the growth area. The algal paste containing about 25 percent solids which
is the product of the supercentrifuge must be dried immediately to prevent
spoilage. Drying has been accomplished by freezing, spraying, defatting
and with infra red radiation. Burlew believes the material dried by freez-
ing is least likely to have lost some of its vitamin content. Fink(54)
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2-32.
suggested that careful drying may destroy toxic by-products produced by the
algae.
In a confined space, the harvested algae would have to be used, either
as food or for some other purpose or stored. In the case of storage, the
algae should be thoroughly dried to preserve it so that it would occupy the
smallest possible volume.
V
Contamination of Cultures
Reports on the contamination of algal cultures in open tanks have not
been in agreement. Smith, (146) von Witsch and Harder,(172) Ceohegans,(65)
and Mayer et al,(107) had no difficultiy with contamination, although no
special precautions were taken to keep foreign organisms out.
On the other hand, Gummert, Meffert and Stratman(73) experienced dif-
ficulties from contamination by blue green algae and protozoa. The blue
green algae seemed to be eliminated by using no calcium compounds in the
nutrient media. In one summer, the cultures became heavily infected by
zooflagellates? ciliates and amoeba. Because of their rapid growth, the
zooflagellates caused most trouble and algal cultures became useless 2 to 4
days after infection. They believe that Chlorella cultures are more readily
attacked by protozoa, the more unfavorable the conditions become for growth
of the alga. Attempts to exterminate the protozoa were practically without
success but it was observed that the alga Scenedesmus had a greater resist-
ance to protozoa than did Chlorella. These observations were proved correct
in subsequent experiments. Von Witsch and Harder(172) reported destruction
of algal cultures by colorless flagellates only when the cultures were ex-
posed to direct sunlight.
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Tamiya(157) was troubled with contamination by protozoa, rotif,ers and
fungi. The most harmful were ChilOdonella and Diurella which in the worst
case, ate up the entire algal population within one or two days. After test-
ing many chemicals, he found two which prevented contamination, did not
affect the growth of algae and were reasonable in price. These were 29
4 -Dinitro - 6 - cyclohexyl phenylacetate (effective concentration: 1 - 3
grams per ton of culture solutiein) rand Pentachlorophenyl acetate (effective
concentration: 2 grams per ton of culture solution).
Davis and Dedrick(48) studied urea as a source of nitrogen because they
believe it does not support the growth of culture contaminants.
VI
SewAge-Treatment
Oxidation ponds have been used for many years in the western and south-
western parts of the United States. In 1948 Pearse(124) reported that a
minimum detention period for settled domestic sewage should be 25 days vith
a minimum surface area of one acre per 400 contributory population. This is
approximately 100 sq0 ft0 per capita. B.O.D. values in the effluent were as
good or better than those from trickling filters. As knowledge of the sub-
ject has increased, the loading has become greater. Gotaas and Oswald(67)
conclude that for most conditions (California) detention periods should not
be less than one day for summer conditions nor more than 6 days for winter
conditions. No statement was made As to the degree of purification except
that depending upon the method of algae removal, up to 96% removal of B.O.D.
could be obtained. Algae and suspended matter were removed by centrifuging.
In 1957, Oswald(122) et al reported that in Richmond, California, shallow
stabilization ponds which were oxygenated through photosynthesis have given
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B.O.D. removals above 85 peroept op t sustained basis with $.0.D. losdS of
225 lbs, per acre (1 aOre for 1300 persons) per day in summer and 100 1b.
per aore per day in winter.
The mechanics of purification in sewage oxidation ponds is similar to
that in stream purification and other methods of aerobic biological treat-
ment. The organic matter is attacked and oxidized in the presence of dis-
solved oxygen by bacteria. During this oxidation, carbon dioxide is pro-
duced. The carbon dioxide, a required food for algae, is utilized in the
presence of light, and oxygen is produced. This in turn is available to
the aerobic bacteria active in the oxidation of the sewage.
According to A11on,(16) the growth of Chlorella on sterilized sewage
in light did not result in any decrease in oxidizable organic matter. He
concluded that oxidation of organic tatter in sewage is carried out by
bacteria and other non-photosynthetic organiSms and that the growth of the
usual pond algae in sewage oceura on At the expense of CO2 produced by
the organisms or absorbed from the air. Although Chlorelle grew more
luxuriantly in sewage with bacteria than in sewage alone, this could be ex-
plained by the increased CO2 content. Growth of algae in sewage is limited
by the major nutrients, carbon and nitrogen. Fot optimal algal growth,
Allen believes sewage must be supplemented with other sources of nutrient.
-Tvn4s of Algae Used
Scenedesmus has been found in several sewage oxidation ponds. Krauss,)
however, found that Chlorelle produced 15 percent more culture per day by
weight than Scenedesmus.
Chlamydomonas has been studied by Gotaas and Oswald (1) but experiments
in Israel(107) indicate the Chlamydomonas cannot Compete with Chlorella.
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The nitrogen fixing properties of the blue green algae, Anabena
cylindrica has been studied by Allen.(17) This organism grows rapidly and
produced a daily increment of 2.0 grams of dry weight of cells per liter of
culture medium or 26 gr0 per sq0 meter of illuminated surface. The blue
green algae are more tolerant of moderately high temperature than the green
algae. Examination of 40 pure cultures of various blue green algae showed
that all grew well at 3500 and most at 4000.
Gotaas and 0swald(67) reported that blue green algae are usually rela-
tively scarce in sewage oxidation ponds and found only in samples collected
at the borders of ponds.
The chlorophyl --bearing protozoan Euglena has been found in nearly pure
culture in sewage ponds at the U. S. Naval Station, Shoemaker, California.
Oswald, Gotaas, Ludwig and Lynoh(123) studied Euglena gracilis in laboratory
scale experiments with swage. The maximum population in sewage was found
at about 400 foot candles and it remained nearly constant to about 1200 f.c.
From 1200 to 2400 foe., the population decreased slightly. With a relatively
strong synthetic sewage, maximum Euglena developed at 2400 f.c. Illumina-
tion was furnished by fluorescent lamps. Temperature was maintained between
24 - 260C. A large part of the carbon utilized by Euglena is not incorpor-
ated into the cells but much of it appears in the effluent supernatant
liquor, perhaps as a highly oxidized execratory product of the Euglena.
Oswald(122)
et al found that in sewage oxidation or stabilization ponds,
inhibition of bacteriological oxidation occurred in ponds having dense algal
blooms. They report that when algae are growing vigorously and removing
carbon dioxide from the bicarbonate alkalinity of the sewage, a pH up to
about 11.0 may be obtained. This high pH seems to be the major reason for
the law B.O.D. removals in ponds having dense algal growths.
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The question whether the carbon dioxide from the bidarbonate ion can be
utilized by algae still seems to be cont.roverstgl. 'Meffert,(113) reported
that Scenedesmus can utilize practically no carbon dioxide from bicarbonate
carbonate .mixtures. Myers(117) found that Chlorlla absorbs little if any
carbon dioxide from bicarbonate or carbonatd. Krauss said that bicar-
bonate can supply certain types of algO witha utilizable source of carbon
and quoted Osterlind as having demonstriveed.ihat although Chlorella is un-
able to utilize bicarbonate, Scenedesmus does so readily. Oswald and
?
Gotaas(123,
121)
reported the utilization of bicarbonate by algae.
VII
Inhibiting Excretions ?
Since recycling of the mediums essential'in large scale continuous
culture it is important that there should be no inAliitini substances
formed and allowed to accumulate during the growth''of the algae. The avail-
able information about the inhibiting effect ot,old cuitlires is not in
Pratt(127) working with Chl'oella vulgaris? demonstrated that
,
growth of a culture was inhibited by...a very lowkdoncentration of material
agreement0
produced by the cells and excreted into the medium.' The inhibiting sub
stance was called "Chlorellin." Its. chemical identity was not known.
Spoehr, Smith, Strain, Milner and Hard415(5) showed that inhibitors
of bacterial growth, probably photo-madized fatty acids, are produced by
.?
Chlorella prrenoidosa (Emerson strain). ? Mye7s(117) . reported that the
, 1 . .
phenomenon of growth inhibition by Ch1orp1linrlike material has.not been
:
demonstrated in Q pyrenoidosa Or any other alga ,exceptthat used by Pratt.
Fink studied the gffect of feeding Scenedesmus 2121.00., dried to
(54)
a powder by infra red radiation, to rats and found that the algae-fed
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animal gained weight at least as well as those fed a milk protein diet. In
a 120 day feeding experiment, all ten rats fed protein, 92% from algae and
.8% from brewer's yeast, not only survived but were lively, healthy and had
shiny dense coats. Of the ten rats fed protein consisting of 92% milk solids
and 8% brewer's yeast, only two survived the test. 'Deaths were from necro-
gis of the liver. Fink then quoted two recent articles, one English and one
Russian, published in 1954 and summarized by Elster. The first by'J. E.
Rhyther reported on the toxic effect of Chlorella vulgaris and Scenedesmus
ouadricauda on plankton.. He found that the .excreta of these algae impaired
'the filter activity and food intake of'daphne. Aging algae produce more
toxins than young growths and will retard the growth and cause death of.
daphne after 10 - 13 days. In the other article, Vinberg discussed the
effect of toxins of phytoplankton on animals (fish, birds, cats and dogs).
Paralysis of hind legs and liver diseases were observed. In man, serious
muscle aches and temporary paralysis may occur. The toxins are especially
effective as long as the-producing cells are living. After death of the
cells, the toxic effect ceases quickly. He stated that the algae,
.Microcentis, Anhanizomenon, Oscillatoria and GOnvaulax are well known toxin
producers.
Fink in explaining this contradiction, stated that in as much as there
are said to be 40,000 species of'unicellular algae, some may be poisonous
ahd others not. He believed it possible that toxins may have been destroyed
when the algae were dried with infra red radiation.
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VIII
ge?g-t_41-Palt-L02---'Food
The main objective of large scale cbltivation of algae has been its
production for food. Some of the large marine algae have been collected
and dried for food in Japan, along the coast of Europe and in New England
for many years. Milner(114) has shown that there is a general similarity
in the chemical composition of. all algae, and it seems reasonable to assume
that the microscope algal forms would also be suitable for food. There has
not been much direct evidence to prove the validity of this assumption.
Protein seems to be the most abundant constituent of the unicellular
green alga and it varies widely in fresh water algae. Milner reported that
a sample of Chlorella mramigatia. has a calculated protein content of about
50% based on an ash free dry weight. All of the essential amino acids were
found to be present. A variety of vitamins have been found in Chlorella
and it has been estimated by Fisher and Burlew(57) that about a quarter
pound of dry Chlorella would provide more than the minimum requirement of
all except vitamin Cy which is present in freshly harvested algae but largely
lost in drying. Fisher and Burley concluded from various animal-feeding
tests made by several investigators that the results were reasonably encour-
aging. In no case was there any evidence of toxicity or other adverse
reaction or refusal to take the rations containing Chlorella. Fink,(54)
found in animal feeding tests, that dried Scenedesmus was equal to the best
Animl protein.
Hundley and Ing($3) investigated the supplementary value of dried alga
when added to a flour and bread diet for rats. In the first experiment,
weanling rats were fed a basal diet containing 92% white wheat flour and
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adequate quantities of minerals and vitamins. Rats receiving the basio diet
grew poorly. The addition of either. 4% dried alga or 0z75% lysine to the
basal diet increased the growth rate approximately threefold. The addition
of threonine and lysine to the basal diet gave growth approximately equal to
that obtained from lysine and alga. It appeared that the dried alga supplied
the threonine required by the rats receiving the flour diet.
Tamiya(157) reported that dried algal powder has an appearance and
taste similar to that of powdered green tea and powdered sea weed, "Aonori"
which are relished as beverage and food ingredients, respectively, by the
Japanese. The algae can be easily mixed with tea or Aonori or entirely sub-
stituted for them in such foods as noodles or rice crackers. Large quan-
tities of Chlorella could be. used with "Miso" which is prepared from fer-
mented soy beans. Miso soup, an indispensable part of breakfast in Japan,
was made even tastier than usual by the addition of algal powder.
Fisher and Burlew(57) believe that the flavor of dried Chlorella alone
is too strong for one to enjoy eating large quantities of it. It might be
compared to many of the herbs which are pleasing as a garnish. Freshly
harvested Chlorella (not frozen) and. soups 'mada from it were suggestive of
vegetables and generally palatable and acceptable.
In Venezuela, Jorgensen and Convit(89) prepared plankton "soups" as
accessory food for leprous patients. The harvested "soup" was boiled for
about 20 minutes and a little salt was added to improve the flavor. The
taste varied with the species complex and the patients drank it willingly.
The effect of the 'plankton soup, on the patients could not be definitely
established but in the majority of cases, there was a wirked improvement in
energy, in waight and general health. Certainly no ill effects resulted
from it..
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IX
Confined Space
Two studies have been made.to determine whether a photosynthetic gas
exchange will provide for the respiratory requirements of humans in a sealed
cabin. The first report was prepared by Basshau;(22) of the University of
California. His computations based on the known respiratory rate of man
and the photosynthetic rates of Chlorella indicated that a man weighing
154 lbs. (70 kg.) doing light work would require about 600,iiters of oxygen
in a 24 hour period or an average of 25 liters per hour. Chlorella can
easily form 25 liters of oxygen per hour per kilogram of wet weight of algae.
The respiration of one man would be balaed by the photosynthesis of one
kilogram, wet weight, of algae. A one: percent suspension of algae contain-
ing one kilogram of algae in nutrientsolution would have a volume of 100
liters (3.5 cuofto). For the growth of a one percent suspension of Chlorella
in a layer 0.4 cm thick, about 600 Po. of light would be required from each
side if the light were all of 6800 Ao wave length.: The ratio of carbon
dioxide to oxygen in the gas exchange of a respiring man is about 0.8. The
photosynthetic gas ratio 002/02 can be maintained at 0.8 by controlling the
ratio of nitrate to ammonia in the nutrient. A kilogram of Chlorella pro-
ducing 25 liters of oxygen per holg at a gas exchange ratio of 0.82 would
require 20.5 liters of CO2 and-0016 moles of nitrogen (e.g. 13.6 grams
Na No3) per hour, in addition to smaller amounts of phosphorus and other
elements. Use of urine alone as a source of nitrogen would be questionable.
It was estimated that the power required for the system would be 4 hop, per
man. This power could be supplied by about 10 grams of atomic fuel per year.
The. total volume required per man for pumping, aerating, harvesting and con-
trol mechanisms was ,estimated to be 50 cu.ft".
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If the algae were harvested for food, than human excrement would have
to be processed by bacterial action to provide nutrient for the algae. This
would require more oxygen and carbon dioxide evolution and would mean, there-
fore, an increase in volume and energy requirements for the system.
The second report which was prepared by the University of 'Texas(118)
was more conservative. Based on a suspension of the alga, Chlorella
pyrenoidosa, in an illuminated tank aerated by recycling cabin air, it was
estimated that 2.3 kg fresh weight of ChloreflawoUld be required to balance
the gas exchange of one man. A layer of a one percent suspension of algae
0.4 cm thick will absorb 97% of the incident light of wave length 6800 AO.
With illumination from both sides, a thickness of one centimeter seems
reasonable. An illuminated surface of 240 sq. ft. would be required for
the 230 liters of suspension per man. The power requirements based on light
to chemical photosynthetic conversion efficiency of about 1.9% would be
about 10 h.p. electrical energy per person. It was suggested that the heat
dissipation problem may be serious.
According to the Texas report, the exchanges per man hour will produce
23 grams dry weight (1.2 lbs. per day) of algae containing 50% protein. This
will require 1.8 grams of fixed nitrogen and 1.2 grams of nutrient salts per
hour with recycling of the water. They believe that all of the human urine
might be cycled through exchanges to furnish much of the nitrogen. The
effects of continued urine accumulation are uncertain. The gas ratio of
carbon dioxide to oxygen under the conditions mentioned is about 0.75 but
could be increased by the use of urea. The total volume required for the
gas exchange system was estimated at 80 ou.ft. per man. Investigation indi-
cated that the best lamp for this purpose available now or in the next five
years is the fluorescent lamp.
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2-22.
The main difference in the two reports is in the estimation of the
efficiency of the algae in the gas exchange. The California report assumes
that 25 liters per hour of oxygen can be supplied by one kg of wet weight of
algae whereas the Texas report assumes a yield of only 11 liters. This
difference in the amount of algae required affects the amount of light,
power, total volume and weight required.
X
Desirable Characteristics of Al ae
Some of the desirable characteristics which an alga suitable for use
in a confined space should have are:
The development of a species of algae which would
1. Grow efficiently at a high temperature, say 40 - 5000.
2. Give a high growth rate with higher rates of evolution of
oxygen.
3. Derive part of its 002 needs from bicarbonate ion (danger
of high pH resulting would need phosphate buffer - perhaps).
4. Grow in mass culture without change over long periods by
recirculation of media.
5. Be very hardy - resist contaminating agents and inhibit-
ing substances.
6. Have a pleasant flavor.
7. Free from toxic substances.
8. Produce no substances which would inhibit its own growth.
9. Have good food value - as complete as possible - easily
digestible.
10. Be able to utilize the nitrogen from urine.
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XI
Suggestion of Problems Requiring Further Studv
Some of the problems requiring further study are:
1. Development of more suitable strains of algae in terms
of temperature, taste, rate of growth and production of
oxygen.
2. Long term experiments, lasting a year or more, of contin-
uous cultere (pilot plant scale) to test mutation of
organisms, the cumulation of toxic by-products and deter-
ioration of fluctuations in quality of cultured algae for
nutrition.
3. Determination of the utilization of the bicarbonate ion
as a source of carbon dioxide, the effect on the pH, the
culture medium and the need for an additional buffer.
4. The use of urine as a source of nitrogen: the effect on
the use of algae as food and its effect on culture con-
taminants.
5. The use of sewage as a food material for aerobic baoteria
which in turn would supply carbon dioxide for the algae
growing with them.
6. Separate aeration of sewage and algal cultures with
recirculation of air from algal to sewage culture to
algal culture, etc.
7. The toxic effects of Chlorella and Scenedesmus on man
and animal.
8. Determination of the actual thermodynamic efficiency of
Chlorella to reconcile the Texas and California assump-
tions as to the rate of oxygen formation per unit of
algae.
9. Efficient dewatering and drying equipment since the algae
must be dried for use as food or stored.
10. The use of chemical antifoamers.
11. The use of chemical agents to inhibit the growth of
biological contaminating agents.
12. The effect of these chemical agents on the long term
cultivation of algae.
2-23.
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13. The long term effect of cosmic rays or other radioactive
emissions on algal cultures.
14. Definition of the use of algal cultures, i.e., for gas
exchange only or for waste treatment also.
15. The range of vitamin content among 'different species of
algae.
16. The development of suitable equipment for the growth of
algae in a confined space.
17. The development of more durable plastics for a closed
circulation culture system.
18. The prevention of growths on the inside of transparent
or translucent material or more efficient means for
cleaning such material.
19. The development of equipment for the culturing of algae
to approach the theoretical efficiency.
20. Simplification of the cooling of the culture or elimi?
nation of the need for' cooling.
2-24.
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Appendix 3
Report on
STUDY OF METHODS FOR OBTAINING
OXYGEN FROM CARBON DIOXIDE
Prepared by
Henry J. Masson
The Specific Problem Oxygen from Carbon Dioxide
The writer was assigned the problem of devising means of treating the
carbon dioxide in any manner so as to recover the oxygen and convert the
carbon to a useful form or compound. The carbon dioxide is produced by the
respiratory actions of the crew and any other reactions which may be taking
place.
As we are dealing with 4 closed system, the accumulation of carbon
dioxide must be prevented, but maintained at the level of a normal atmos-
phere. Accordingly, it may be captured and rendered innocuous by conversion
to a neutral compound or ideally decomposed and the oxygen made available
for use in a cyclical process.
A number of treatments appear to be of interest. The reaction which
is ideal, and immediately suggested, is that which has been occurring in
nature since the beginning of time and on an enormous magnitude. That is
the reaction
CO2 + H20 -4 C1420' + 02 + Q
or 6nCO2 + 6nH20 (C6H1206)ii + 6n02 + Q
to be carried out in a living cell (natural photosynthesis) or in a non-
living system (artificial photosynthesis). If the foregoing reaction can
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be made to take place under the conditions of the project, then a dual
result may be anticipated. Oxygen will be made available for human or other
consumption and an energy possessing substance (a carbohydrate) which may be
used as a food or food supplement, a fuel, or where auxiliary energy is re-
quired, for some life sustaining process. If the reaction can be made to
function as a continuous process,
which is the ideal, then there will be a
constant removal of carbon dioxide to the normal level and at the same time
a steady supply of oxygen and carbohydrate made available? One of the
desirable features of the foregoing reaction is its flexibility. That is,
the rate at which the reaction takes place will depend upon the concentra-
tion of carbon dioxide at any time. It may be possible to adjust controls
so that the concentration of carbon dioxide may be fixed and the reaction
will thereafter maintain this level.
The foregoing is an ideal solution and is based upon a well known, but
not too well understood process which, as indicated, has been going on in
nature for millions of years and is responsible, in large part, for main-
taining throughout the atmosphere - at least a mile or so above sea level -
the conditions desired within the closed system, i.e., a fixed concentra-
tion of oxygen. This suggested solution envisages the translation or
adaptation of the processes of nature using natural or artificial photo-
synthetic processes to a miniaturized installation always under control by
man. This approach will be discussed in detail later. The foregoing, in a
sense, is a materials balance or equilibria. There is, however, in addition,
the associated energy balance. The reaction is endothermic and photoenergy
must be provided. This phase will be discussed later under environmental
factors. Neither balance is 100% efficient? Therefore, there will be a
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progressive degradation of the system resulting in a continuous accumulation
of non -processable or uncyclicable material* Analogically the same holds
true for the energy changes involved - a progressive loss which must be made
up from other sources.
Other Studies
In addition to the foregoing, the following studies or approaches are
pertinent and therefore under survey:
1. the decomposition of carbon dioxide to provide oxygen;
2. the reaction of carbon with other substances to liberate oxygen;
3. the removal of carbon dioxide but without liberation of the
oxygen or conversion to useful substances;
4. the independent generation of oxygen from other substances,
as for example, water.
The foregoing classifications are to be interpreted as a framework for
examining paths of literature and later experimental investigations. Fort-
unately, and significantly, literature surveys frequently and serendipity
disclose ideas or facts of use in the solution of the immediate problem and
other areas of the project.
Environmental Factors
This section is inserted at this point because a general background
has been established and a detailed discussion is to follow. The various
solutions as may be suggested by the literature study and such critical
explanatory experiments which appear worthy of further study are somewhat
handicapped or rendered inconclusive by a lack of more exact and working
knowledge of environmental conditions. These are: (a) size and distribu-
tion of free working space for the installation of equipment; (b) astro-
physical factors - that is, what solar or nuclear radiations will the system
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be subjected to and what effects may be anticipated on suggested processes;
(c) what forms of energy will be available - their Quantity and intensity -
for use in various recovery and cyclical processes; (d) what will be the
gravitational, temperature, pressure and other conditions in the enclosure?
Accordingly, the treatment to follow makes certain assumptions - in
part qualitative - but treated quantitatively when justified. That is,
energy for example, of the kind, quantity and intensity will be available
for any suggested process.
11/124ingl_L2-aakA
These will be treated according to the classification outlined in the
introduction.
1. As indicated, one of the most important reactions in
nature, basic in character, and suggestive of a fruitful
overall approach to the problem is the reaction 002 + H20
and carried out in vivo in nature by means of which oxygen
and cellulose lignocellulose and other carbohydrates are
produced. These are probably initial products to be fol-
lowed by secondary reactions whereby fats, protein and other
complexes are produced. Expressed impirically the basic
reaction is
catalyst
6nCO2 + 6nH20 (C6H1206)n + 6n02 +
The reaction requires a catalyst. In the processes carried out in
plants this is chlorophyll? In contemplated artificial photosynthetic pro-
cesses a synthetic compound having equivalent photoresponses would be sub-
stituted. The reaction is endothermic absorbing radiant energy from the sun,
therefore, there must be available light of the p'per wave length to be
absorbed by the system and stored as a chemical complex.
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3-5.
The foregoing reaction, because of its importance, has been the sub-
ject of investigation by some of the best chemical and botanical minds for
over 150 years. Accordingly, the literature of the foregoing and related
reactions is extensive and is concerned with all features, including the
environmental conditions, mechanics of and vehicles used (algae up through
large plants). The most extensive and interpretative review of the lit-
erature is, "Photosynthesis and Related Processes," by E. I. Rabino-
witch.(129, 130, 131) These volumes have been read completely in a search
for suggestive approaches. In this regard the author is discouraging,
stating that "complete photosynthesis - i.e., the reduction of carbon
dioxide to a carbohydrate and oxygen, has never been achieved outside a
living cell" (p. 61). The reference here is to artificial photosynthesis.
Insofar as natural photosynthesis is concerned, based upon the foregoing
and other references, the tentative conclusion may be advanced, but without
reflection, that existing studies would lead to processes which, if carried
out on a useful scale would be cumbersome, bulky, slow, inefficient and
difficult to control, especially if installed in a space ship. Since we
are dealing with a living organism there is the possibility of mutation
taking place if the shielding from external radiation is inadequate. Signif-
icant, however, is the low efficiency which, under ideal conditions is about
25%, but under normal conditions only about 2 - 3%. One has the feeling
that certain of the investigative approaches used, although yielding what
may be basic data, has not visualized the ultimate objective, i.e., an
industrial process under the control of man. Since there is still a sub-
stantial amount of basic data to be developed, in fairness it may be explained
that experimental designs and objectives are circumscribed and do not
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anticipate reduction to practice. The problem is a daring one and therefore,
the approach should be spectacular. New approaches must not be inhibited
by previous concepts. Daniels, a distinguished scientist and investi-
gator in the field of photosynthesis, states, "Is there any chance of beating
nature at her own game and developing artificial photosynthesis with organic
dyes and enzyme substances? Might not these cause the combination of carbon
dioxide and water using reactions somewhat different from those occurring
in the growth of green plants? There seems to be no theoretical reason why
such a development cannot be successful in the distant future." Elsewhere
he states, "Atomic energy for military purposes was developed with the aid
of two billion dollars in three war years under conditions of centralized
authority and secrecy. It would be interesting to see what might be done
with two million dollars in three years for the greater utilization of solar
energy for peaceful purposes under conditions of decentralization and
independent initiative, aided by rapid publication of results."
The above statements sound a note of optimism. As certain experi-
mental approaches will be designed later, there will be briefly outlined,
at this point, the basic facts involved.
Carbon dioxide, as a gas and water vapor are transparent and therefore,
do not absorb solar radiation. However, the green chlorophyll present in
most living plants absorbs completely most of the visible sunlight covering
from 4000 angstroms in the blue region to 6500 angstroms in the red region.
The chlorophyll then tisnsfers the absorbed solar energy to the water which
decomposes releasing the hydrogen. This in turn reacts with the carbon
dioxide, thereby producing reduction products. The hydrogen reacts with
the reduction products and produces complex intermediate compounds of the
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3-7,
carbohydrate class having the empirical formula (CH20)n where n is a large
integral number. Based upon his investigations Farrington concludes that
ten photons are required to produce one molecule of carbohydrate. In red
light each photon contributes 40,000 calories per mole and ten photons will
contribute 400,000 calories. In other words, 400,000 calories are required
to produce a carbohydrate molecule containing one gram atom. Also, since
ten photons are required to convert one molecule of CO2 and one molecule of
H2 0 into a molecule of carbohydrate and a molecule of 02, the reaction must
take place in a series of steps, each requiring the absorption of one photon.
It should be noted that a large amount of energy is required to produce a
carbohydrate molecule containing one gram atom of carbon and that under most
favorable conditions, the efficiency is very low. Therefore, the energy
requirements for this reaction are very high.
Very recently Calvin and Sogo(43) have advanced a further explanation
of how plants utilized sunlight to build carbohydrates and oxygen. They
reason by analogy from the photobattery, which is designed to alp-ture sun-
light and convert it into an electrical current. They advance the idea that
portions of plant cells called chloroplasts act as uphotobatteries" captur-
ing sunlight and converting it into a kind of electrical current merging
with the chemical reactions taking place in photosynthesis. Using radio-
active carbon, the complex chemical steps by which plants convert CO2 and
H20 and solar radiation into carbohydrates and oxygen were traced. Studies
by other scientist have disclosed that 'chloroplasts which contain the
light-capturing green plant pigment have a well ordered, quasicrystalline
structure containing alternate layers of proteins, chlorophyll and fats."
This arrangement is what suggested the photobattery concept?
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3-8.
Dr. Calvin has advanced the theory that a certain quantity of the sunts
energy might strike an electron in the chlorophyll, bouncing an electron out
and leaving a "hole". The electron would then be conducted through the
chloroplast, the same sort of mechanism as in the photobattery, until it
became attached to a carbon atom of the carbon dioxide participating in the
photochemical process. In the meantime, the hole left in the chlorophyll
molecule is occupied by an electron stolen from an adjacent water molecule.
This in due course splits the water into its hydrogen and oxygen components,
the oxygen escaping into the atmosphere, and the hydrogen being used as a
building material in the photosynthetic process. The theory was supported
by a crucial experiment in which a radio-frequency wave was sent through a
chloroplast while light was shining on it and also in the dark. It was
observed that part of the wave is absorbed in the light, indicating the
presence of free electrons bounced out of the chlorophyll.
A group of scientist445) working at Washington University have added
further confirmation of the foregoing hypothesis. A molecular bridge
between the rapid chemical steps that power plant and animal life has been
discovered in the unusual molecules known as free radicals. These investi-
gators used a new instrument known as the electron spin resonance spectrom-
eter, which employs radio energy in the presence of a strong electromagnet
to reveal the presence of unpaired electrons. Now free radicals are known
to contain unpaired electrons and are therefore capable of exerting a
magnetic effect in the spectrometer. In the case of normal molecules, all
electrons are paired in a way that concels their magnetism so that they are
not detected by the spectrometer. In one of the significant experiments
the investigators ground up spinach leaves in a sugar solution to obtain
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from the broken cells the green particles called chloroplasts that contain
most of the active agents of photosynthesis. This preparation contained
free radicals. An intense light was arranged to illuminate the glass cell
containing the chloroplasts in the spectrometer. When the light is turned
on the spectrometer indicates a sudden increase in free radical content.
Studies also indicate that the chloroplasts contain two types of substances
with unpaired electrons. One of these is a complex of the green substance
of plants, chlorophyll, with protein. When this complex is illuminated,
the absorbed light causes the release of unpaired electrons. When the light
is turned off these disappear.
If the light is continued, the unpaired electrons generated in the
chlorophyll are passed on to a second free radical, which in turn 0,1ves up
the electron to enzymes that carry out the photosynthetic reactions. The
investigators thereby demonstrated for the first time the occurrence of a
free radical chain reaction in photosynthesis.
They also examined the living cells of chlorella in the electron spin
resonance spectrometer. In this case also, the instrument showed the pres-
ence of a free radical apparently identical with the radical found in
spinach chloroplasts.
As in the previous case, when the light is turned on the amount of
this free radical in living chlorella cells increases suddenly and de-
creases when the light is turned off.
The foregoing advance in our knowledge of the mechanism of photosyn-
thesis suggests further lines of investigation which appear fruitful. This
takes the form of an artificial chloroplast composed of synthetic dye and
protein. This will be explained under "further investigations."
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There are scattered references in the literature to gibberllic acid as
a substance, mere traces of which accelerate the growth of plants. This
might be added to accelerate photosynthetic processes. It is produced by
Charles Pfizer, Brooklyn, New York.
Another area of exploration of photosynthesis is the application of
the laws of mobile equilibria ? specifically pressure and temperature.
A study of the basic reaction
6nCO2 + 6nH20 (C6H1206)n + 6n02 + Q
2 vols. 1 vol9
indicates that since there is a decrease in volume an increase in pressure
will shift the equilibrium to the right and since the reaction is endother?
mic, an increase in temperature will have the same effect. The foregoing
is a bit on the theoretical side and may not apply to the foregoing because
of the chain reaction nature and that the energy absorbed is in the form of
actinic rather than thermal. However, a series of critical experiments are
suggested.
The study of the foregoing reaction as a means for producing 02 and a
useful carbohydrate would be helpful not only to the project but also have
vast social and economic impacts of a very favorable nature and therefore,
the expenditure of funds for this project has application far beyond present
thinking. The following additional references are pertinent.' 116)
2. The Decomposition of Carbon Dioxide to Provide Oxygen
When heated to increasingly higher temperatures carbon dioxide under?
goes the following reaction
2 CO2 2 CO + 02 Q
(a)
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3-11.
The latest reference on the reaction is by Fehling and Leser.(52a)
Based upon a study of the constants for the reaction they state, "The dis-
sociation of CO2 begins at about 150000 but even at 200000 no more than 10%
is decomposed into CO and 02. At 220000 the decomposition of molecular into
atomic oxygen becomes significant. With a further increase in temperature
dissociation increases rapidly. At 300000 molecular oxygen reaches a maxi-
mum value, about 18%, and at still higher temperatures the gas would consist
almost entirely of CO and atomic oxygen." There is another possible reaction
2 CO 2 C + 02 - Ql (b)
On the basis of the foregoing, certain conclusions emerge. (1) reac-
tion (b) in all probability does not take place at least under conditions
ordinarily attainable and (2) that even for this reaction (a) the tempera-
tures required are very high (300000 - app. 5400F). At these temperatures
the amount of molecular dissociation is only 18%. Higher temperatures serve
only to dissociate the molecular oxygen into atomic oxygen. If the oxygen
is to be recovered from the equilibrium mixture it would have to be cooled
very quickly to prevent the reverse reaction taking place. It would be un-
usual if the recovery was more than 10%. The production of such high tem-
peratures is a difficult one attainable probably only by means of an electric
arc or sparks or solar furnace.
The carbon monoxide produced is very poisonous but could be converted
to a harmless and perhaps ecologically useful product.
In the foregoing reaction the form of energy to bring about the dis-
sociation is thermal. It might be fruitful to combine this with other forms
of energy. There is also the treatment of liquid CO2 by bombardment with
electrons. No reference to this has been found in the literature.
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12
0
3. The Reaction of Carbon Dioxide with Other Substances
As indicated, the compound carbon dioxide is chemically very stable,
difficult to decompose, and not especially reactive at ordinary temperatures
except as will be shown later. Consequently, when an opportunity to react
with another substance is presented it is the oxygen which will react with
the substance rather than with the carbon. Again this is a generalized
statement. The objective in this area of reactions is to find, ideally, a
substance which will react with the carbon and liberate the oxygen.
The high stability of carbon dioxide is evidenced by the large amounts
of energy involved in its formation or reduction. The following is a list
of its actual or potential reactions with comments concerning their rele-
vancy to the basic problem.
(a) CO2 + 1120 H2CO3
This is the normal reaction with water at room temperatures
but the product is unstable and is easily decomposed by a
modest rise in temperature. This reaction should not be
confused with that of photosynthesis.
(b) CO2 + NaOH NaHCO3
(c)
2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + 1120
These reactions may be used to remove the 002 from the
enclosure but the use of Ca (OH)2 is superior.
CO2 + Ca (011)2 -4 Ca CO3 + H20
The Ca CO3 is insoluble.
The reactions between carbon dioxide and hydrogen are
interesting. They ares
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1.?
002 + 4H2 --) CH4 + 2H20
CO2 + 2H2 --) C + 2H20
(graphite)
(a)
(b)
3-13
related reactions are
CO2 +H2-3co + H20 (0)
co + 3112 -4 cH4 + H20 (d)
C + CO2 200 (e)
The foregoing reactions can be carried out under the environmental
conditions existing in the closed system. The 112 may be obtained by the
electrolysis of water.
In addition to the above reactions there is a vast spectrum of reac-
tions by means of which many useful compounds may be produced. For example,
the methane can be converted to C2H4 and 02112 which in turn can be converted
to C6H6 and other cyclic compounds. Or the following catalytic reaction may
be used to produce methyl alcohol
CO + 2H2 CH3OH
Depending upon the choice of catalyst ethyl alcohol, acids and esters may be
produced.(132, 133)
(d) Excreta etc. can be decomposed to form NH3 or the ammonia
may be formed from other sources. In any case there is a
significant reaction between CO2 and NH3.
CO2 + 2NH3 --> NH4 002 NH2
NH4 CO2 NH2 -? NIF2 CO NH2 + 1120
The product is urea which may be used for further
synthesis.
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3-14.
(e) If concern is for the production of 02 there are the
reactions of water with alkali peroxides, i.e.
2Na202 + 2H20 4NaOH + 02
1 lb. Na202 produces 2.3 cuoft. of 02
1 lb. Li202 produces 3.9 cuoft. of 02
or by the electrolysis of water,
2H20 --> 2H2 + 02
Suggested Further Investigations
In the course of the literature survey certain observations have been
made and hypotheses formulated. These have functioned as "thought starters",
? an environment for creative thinking and by deduction, an incitation to
further exploration and experimentation. The following may be considered as
a basis for future projects and the reduction to laboratory experimentation
of the surveys described in the previous pages.
1. The adaptation of photosynthesis to the environmental condi?
tions of the closed system. This falls into two catagories:
(a) Natural photosynthesis using living
cells.
(b) Artificial photosynthesis with organic
dyes and enzymes.
(a)(a) The most suggestive approach to the design of
these experiments is based upon the report by
Krauss.(95) The use of gibberellic acid(97)
to accelerate the foregoing reactions is
suggested.
(b)(b) In this approach the effort is to create a
synthetic cell ? a photobattery ? using
organic dyes and enzymes as chloroplasts.
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I;
2. In the foregoing reactions, to study the effect of pressure,
temperature, variations in concentration of CO2 and H20
vapor and light cycles.
3. Study of the effect of various forms of energy on the de-
composition of carbon dioxide.
4. The study of the effect of the bombardment by electrons
on carbon dioxide in various physical states.
3-15.
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Appendix 4
Report on
HANDLING AIR CONTAMINANTS
RESULTING FROM A CLOSED ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM
Prepared by
Gerald Palevsky
General
In a closed ecological system, in which humans are present and are
required to carry on sedentary work in a confined space for an extended
period of time, the atmosphere must be suitable for life and conducive to
work. Within the closed ecological system there is no external source of
fresh or diluting air. It is therefore imperative that the spent air, by
recycling and treatment, be returned to the room atmosphere in such a condi-
tion as not to impair the functioning of the humans present?
The control of temperature, humidity, air motion, foreign matter,
microorganisms, and the balancing of the CO2 - 02 ratio are all major factors
to be considered in making the environment acceptable for habitation. The
ventilation of the confining space is not merely the supplying of fresh air,
or the replacement of spent 02, but encompasses the exhausting of heat, dust,
toxic gases, fumes and noxious odors which may be present in the sealed space,
while returning a usable, uncontaminated air? An examination of each of the
above-mentioned, singly and in relationship with each other, is necessary for
an understanding of the problems of ventilation and air conditioning?
Temperature
The temperature on the skin of the vehicle is dependent upon type and
location of orbit, type of material employed for the hull, thickness of skin,
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shape of hull, engineering devices for developing temperature gradient both
through the skin and around the hull, and length of time in sun and shadow,
as well as distance from heat source. The temperature on the hull in turn
will influence the temperature within the compartment. It seems probable
that average gross temperatures can be established, and that satisfactory
cabin temperatures then be provided through appropriate research on this
problem. Fluctuations are anticipated. Other sources of heat within the
confined area will be the occupants themselves, operating mechanical equip?
ment, hydroponic or biological growth systems, and heat from propulsion. It
appears that comfort temperature control will have to be established through
a heating?cooling unit controlled within the confined space. A modified
unit similar in operation and design to a commercial air conditioning system
installed in homes today might be adequate for the purpoe. Means of alter?
ing the energy gradient through the hull of the confining cabin by reducing
or changing insulation will also bear investigation.
Humidity
Water vapor will be present in the enclosed atmosphere from normal
respiration and from insensible perspiration. Since the enclosed cabin is
assumed to be maintained at comfort zone conditions and the normal work is
sedentary, sensible perspiration will be at a minimum. The water production
per 24 hours per person under average conditions of temperature and humidity
has been reported as 500 ml via skin (perspiration), and 350 ml in expired
air.(105, 147)
Additional moisture in the atmosphere may come from hydroponic or
biological growth systems which may be employed as a source of a supplemental
food supply and as a method for balancing CO2 ? 020(91) There will be less
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V a,
1 ?
4-30
? moisture given off to the enclosed atmosphere if the systems are contained
and kept separated from the main living atmosphere. The necessity of clean-
liness and food preparation, no matter how minimal, will produce further
water vapor in the contained atmosphere.
There are three general methods of reducing the moisture content of the
air: by compression, by adsorption, and by cooling. Cooling below the dew
point and condensing or freezing out the moisture is the most common method
of dehumidifying. For this purpose the concepts employed in present day
commercial equipment may be utilized to produce the desired effects within
the closed ecological system. Modifications with respect to size and weight
may have to be investigated.
Another possibility is the utilization of the temperature gradient
across the hull of the cabin.(91) Exploratory investigations of the tem-
perature suggest that at some location the cabin structure will have tem-
peratures low enough to allow the use of freeze-out techniques. The engineer-
ing design of such a system requires more thorough investigation to determine
its feasibility.
That dehumidification is necessary for comfort control is elementary,
but more important is the fact that condensed water vapor from the enclosed
atmosphere is one of the probable sources of water supply within the closed
ecological system.
The water vapor that is condensed out of the contained atmosphere prob-
ably may be a purer and less contaminated source of water than any bodily
waste. The question of utilizing the water vapor for drinking water will be
discussed later.
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4.4
Air Motion
Within this enclosed area where men are to exist for an extended period
of time, certain parameters have been assumed; namely, that there is no
gravitational force, and only one-half atmospheric pressure exists.
Normally the air surrounding a living and breathing body is carried up
by its own warmth and consequent lightness, thus allowing fresh air to take
its place. But in a gravitationless system neither fresh nor foul air have
weight, and there can be no convection currents. Without air curculation?
heat discharged from the body would hang against the body causing intense
perspiration, which in a saturated atmosphere would not evaporate. Body
cooling effect would therefore be minimal. Non-circulation effects would
also hold for the expired air. In a non-circulating atmosphere a motionless
human body would soon become enveloped in expired air, rich in CO2 and water
vapor.
Air motion imparted mechanically by a fan or other stirring mechanism
to maintain the entire enclosed atmosphere in a state of turbulence or agita-
tion is necessary.
Foreign Matter
In any confined area in which human activities transpire there are
always to be found impurities or foreign matter in the air. These materials
are usually particles of organic matter which come from nose, mouth, and
skin, and particles derived from the attrition of surfaces. These particles
tend to produce odors. The organic particles produce normal body odors
which are usually preceived in unventilated or even poorly ventilated areas.
Within the contained atmosphere these body odors are to be anticipated and
others which are not normally considered must be added. Some odors which
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will become very marked in closed confined quarters are flatul.-mce and out-
gassing from defecation and urination, odors of food preparation, sebaceous
gland secretions and their subsequent breakdown, odors from equipment oper-
ation, odors from exposed hydroponic or biological growth systems, and odors
from spillage of materials.
It has been stated that odors of themselves are not injurious to health,
but indirectly they may affect health. As odors become extremely noxious,
shallow breathing may induce an 02 deficiency and its sequelae.
The above-mentioned sequence has been observed on study of body odors
where some dilution has been present.(173) In a confined area with constant
reuse of the same air otherwise minor quantities of noxious material may
accumulate and become a source of toxic exposure.
At this time too little is known about the breakdown products and subse-
quent gasification of body oils, gland secretions, flatulence, halitosis,
and bodily waste products to be certain of their non-toxic effects when
accumulated in an atmosphere after cycles of reuse.
Winslow and other members of a commission undertook comprehensive
studies of ventilation for the New York State Commission on Ventilation in
1923, and published a report.(171) This report contains many interesting
details concerning the physiological significance of the various factors in
ventilation with special reference to the effects of air conditions on health,
comfort and efficiency. Among the several comments it was noted that a dis-
agreeable odor existed in the experimental room supplied only with recircu-
lated air. Odors were associated with higher humidity created by air washing
operations.
Again it must be remembered that the water vapor in the air is being
considered as a source of drinking water supply. Particulate matter or dust
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4-60
from the attrition of surfaces, as well as gaseJus products, may be entrained
or in solution in the water, and the effect of ingesting even minute quanti-
ties on the human system is a matter of surmise at present.
The air purification system is envisioned as a train of absorbents and
adsorbents which will remove the contaminants from the air by physical proc-
esses, chemical reaction or electrostatic attraction. Solid state rather
than liquid phase materials should be employed in order to prevent as much
as possible additional pollutant carry-over in the air stream and subsequent
condensation in the water supply.
Most odors due to organic origin are removed by a sorbent material, the
most common of which is activated charcoal. The retentivity by activated
carbon (% by weight)(102) of various odors anticipated is over 50%. The
absorption is practically instantaneous and continuous until the saturation
point is reached. Experience reportedOn) with respect to new atomic-
powered submarines shows that stale air is constantly freshened; and the
odors from machinery and cooking as well as fumes are dissipated. Among the
special provisions are odor absorbers of activated coconut shell charcoal,
which act as absorber-filters. All of the ship's air is passed through these
filters, and the charcoal removes all the undesirable odors. Special addi-
tional filters were built for the vent pipes from the kitchen and the
lavatories.
A weight relationship, depending upon the type of absorbent and reten-
tion capabilities of the filter, are still to be investigated, as these
filters cannot be easily reactivated? (164) and probably will have to be
stored. Additional filters will have to be provided to replace those which
become saturated. Quantity and sizing require further study.
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4-7.
H. L. Barneby in a paper discussing the activ1."7 of activated charcoal
required for air purification(20) offers a table which gives some rough idea
of the quantity of charcoal required per year for odor concentrations of
difficult intensity. As a guess, an odor index of 2, 3, or 4 might be antic?
ipated in the closed space. This corresponds to 0.1, 1.0, and 10 pounds of
odor per million cubic feet. One pound per year of charcoal is required to
treat 100, 10 or 1 cubic feet of space at the respective levels of concen?
tration. Accordingly, for a space of 1,000 cubic feet the amount of charcoal
required may be between 10 and 1,000 pounds. It should be noted here that
this amount is only enough to provide for odor removal and is predicated on
the assumption that some fresh air is available due to building leakage. It
is also important that activated charcoal is not provided for CO2 adsorption.
Barneby points out that activated charcoal is relatively inefficient in
removing CO2 and should not be depended on for that action.
Microorganisms
The bacterial population in the air depends-on many factors, principally
the air distribution system and the number and activity of the occupants as
well as the methods of housekeeping. A sneeze or a cough, blowing one's nose,
expelling sputum--all these actions will cause distribution of microorganisms
in the atmosphere. A turbulent air ventilation system, as was previously
described, will keep the organisms in suspension. Experiments conducted in
1942(174) have shown that recycling of air in a closed room through air
flu-
ters does little to change the overall room concentration, even though a
large number of organisms are caught on the filter. Newer types of air
flu-
ters of the millipore type, or the impregnated resin deep filters are capable
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4-80
of removing over 99% of the organisms from air drawn through the filter,(5, 82)
but the residual concentration of microorganisms in the enclosed atmosphere
may still be higho
The use of germicides, glycol sprays and other similar airborne mater?
ials may have a beneficial effect in reducing bacterial numbers, but their
effect on humans under confined conditions with continuous inhalation and
ingestion would require thorough study before they could be considered sire
for use.
Air Conditioning
Air conditioning is herein assumed to mean the conditioning of the con?
fined atmosphere with respect to temperature, humidity, air motion, the
removal of foreign matter, and the return of the stale air in a freshened
condition for reuse. The maintenance of the 002 ? 02 ratio with its
attending problems is covered elsewhere in the report.
Temperature control, air motion development, removal of particulate
matter, elimination of odors and control of microorganism populations seem
feasible with modifications of present day commercial equipment. A train of
materials can be established such that turbulent air from the confined cabin
would be drawn through an activated carbon filter, a millipore, or deep bed
filter, and chemical train for specific materials such as CH, H2S, and any
others that may become apparent as more analyses of breakdown products are
conducted.
Last, but by no means least, is the dehumidification system with its
condensing or freezing out of moisture. By the time the air has passed
through the train most of the gross impurities have been removed. This leads
to the assumption that this is the purest source of water available in the
confined ecological system.
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4-9.
This supply of water developed from the water vapor would undoubtedly
contain small amounts of entrained or dissolved gases. What the effect of
these small amounts might be on the human system is not known, nor did any
of the library references examined indicate study in this field?
It is conceivable that the human body, which is a well?organized puri?
fication unit, can receive these materials through inhalation, skin, or oral
intake, and detoxify them, if necessary, passing them out as waste products.
If this be the case, many problems of train contaminant removal are simpli?
fied by having the human body act as its own purification plant.
There is much needed further research in conjunction with the problem
of air conditioning for a closed ecological system to ascertain the toxic
limits for humans of the several material exposures by ingestion, by inhal?
ation and by skin absorption.
Water Supply
In a closed ecological system the water supply must come from the wastes
of the body. The sources of water are respiration, perspiration, urine, and
feces. The water due to respiration and perspiration has been considered in
the dehumidification process.
The feasibility of using feces as a source of water has been investigated.
Feces consist of the indigestible and undigested portion of food mixed with
bacteria and water. The amount of feces produced by a human under normal diet
varies widely. Averages have been reported by many investigators?(692 105, 108)
and there is some agreement that 0.51/ per day is a maximum value with 0.25#
per day being about average. The water content is from 60 to 85% with an
average of about 70%. This means that the feces contain about 70 to 100 cc
of water per day per person.
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.111111,,,
4-10.
Because feces is composed of organic matter having the same basic
elements as coal or petroleum, a search of the literature was undertaken to
find a thermal cracking process or procedure which might have application.
There were no pyrolytic procedures available in either the coal or petroleum
technologies which might indicate a means of extracting useful products and
separating the water from feces. The search was conducted in Chemical
Abstracts, Biological Abstracts, the Industrial Arts Index, the Engineering
Index, and all engineering journals published during the past twenty years.
No supporting information was found.
Stolley and Fauth(152) have reported on a solvent extraction process
wherein extraction, dehydration, and treatment of raw sewage sludge are
accomplished simultaneously. The process requires the use of a solvent to
extract the oils and fats from the sewage and then application of heat to
the solvent-sludge mixture to drive off the water. The water present in
feces is primarily trapped and bound water. Sewage sludge dewatering cannot
be accomplished by centrifuging without premixing with a solvent. This,
together with other findings of the authors on the usefulness of sludge for
food, fertilizer, fuel, and other by-products leads to a conclusion that
feces might just as easily be stored at below 00C and not be considered as a
source of usable material.
If, as has been mentioned previously, the human body can act as its own
purification system and eliminate as part of its solid wastes small quanti-
ties of ingested or inhaled pollutants, these contaminants would be eliminated
from the cycle. If the feces are to be stored and not considered as a source
of any usable material, possible contaminants of the atmosphere entrained or
trapped in the feces would be removed and the air conditioning train would
be less complex.
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4-11.
Another probable source of water remaining to be considered is urine.
The urine produced by a person in 24 hours is approximately 1,500(105,108)
Urine ia approximately 95% water and the remainder salts.
The possibility of using urine as a source of water is apparent. The
means by which a safe and potable water can be extracted from the urine has
two approaches: distillation or freezing. The freezing method of extract-
ing fresh water from the urine and the distillation method are similar in
that both require a change of state by the application of suitable heat
transfer processes. The methods differ in that the formed ice remains in
contact with residue and condenses separately.
It should be pointed out that any distillation process under conditions
of one-half atmosphere has the possible disadvantage of outgassing. Unless
closed system methods are used, these additional gases added to the closed
atmosphere will require additional air purification material and possible
additions to the length or complexity of the decontamination train.
In the distillation of sea water the precipitating salts permit use of
up to 50% of the brine. A single run experiment on urine indicated a dis-
tillation of 60% to 70% before odor and color carryover became intense.
The literature has reported several attempts to secure fresh water from
the sea by freezing. The use of ice formed in the sea as a source of fresh
water has been known to the inhabitants of the Arctic regions since prehis-
toric times.
In work reported by Thompson(162, 163) and Curran(46) it is stated that
about 80% of the total salts in the original water were concentrated in 20%
of the original volume; that 50% of the liquid contained 20% of the solids
originally in the sea water; that the yield of pure water can be enhanced by
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reprocessing the partially desalted water; and that self washing of the ice
results in practically salt free water.
In the freezing of sea water it has been found that fresh water pre-
cipitates in the form of ice crystals which mechanically retain some salt.
The density of the material immediately adjacent to the ice crystals in-
creases and sinks being replaced by less dense, less saline material. Under
laboratory controlled conditions the brines were all collected at the bottom
of the vessel. The ice formed from the freezing of sea water is of a porous
nature due to the entrapment of some salt. When the ice is removed from the
freezing vessel and is permitted to melt, the first ice to melt would be
that immediately adjacent the interstitial salts and brine retained in the
ice. The resulting liquid, gravitating through the ice, would have high
salinity, while the remaining ice would have only a small fraction of salts.
The process of permitting the ice to melt and wash out the entrapped brine
is referred to as auto-washing, or self washing. Water formed by the later
melting of the residual ice would be fresh water.
A freezing process under controlled conditions (within a closed ecolog-
ical system) might be employed to separate the water in urine from the salts.
A safe, usable drinking water might be recovered from the urine through
fractional freezing and auto-washing. Since this process must be conducted
at reduced temperatures, it might be associated in methodology and equipment
with the dehumidification process to remove moisture from the air, or with
some part of temperature control. As temperatures drop, solubility of gases
increases. This phenomenon might be advantageous in preventing outgassing
from urine during its conversion to a usable drinking water.
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4_l3
A corollary study which requires further investigation is the feasi-
bility of using the thickened urine brine as a sorbent for contaminants in
the air.
The urine brine residual would have to be stored at or below 00C, and
volumetric consideration must be given to quantities involved.
Evaporation directly from the solid state to remove better than 85% of
the water content of the wastes has some feasibility. Work has been done
on biological materials, serums p food stuffs and other easily decomposing
substances to dry them without impairing their usefulness. In each case the
residue was the material of interest. In the case of the closed ecological
system, the water would be of prime importance and the residue secondary.
The advantages of a sublimation process - or freeze drying as it is
called - are manifold. The wastes would b. rapidly frozen thus entraping
and entraining the malodorous compounds; all wastes might be treated together
at one time; the entire process might be made a portion of the temperature
control equipment of the closed space; and the water obtained might be less
polluted than water obtained by other processes?
Basically the process requires that the material in question, that is
the liquid wastes of a closed ecological system, be rapidly frozen in thin
layers to a temperature below the eutectic point.
In any sublimation process the solid substance is vaporized under a
vacuum so that no intermediate liquid phase develops. The vapor developed
is removed rapidly from above the solid substance and condensed elsewhere.
This recondensed material, in the case of the wastes of the closed ecological
system would be the water, and presumably would be free of the non-subliming
dissolved impurities of the original solid substance.
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v
444.
Descriptions of the various types of apparatus which have been employed
in laboratory and pilot plant investigations are given in the list of
references.(69 25, 289 299 58, 709 719 929 1209 141)
It has been indicated in the research work on food stuffs that about
85% of the water can be removed directly by this process. Since temperature
during the entire process is held below 000, all impurities would remain in
the solid state.
More work is definitely required before a conclusive statement can be
made about the merits of this process for the recovery of a potable water
but the reference material was encouraging*
The water derived from the urine may contain some trace amounts of
impurities. What effect these small amounts might have on the human system
after cycles of reuse is not known. Further study is imperative to ascertain
toxic limits for humans of trace material exposures by ingestion. In a
closed ecological system constant accumulation of minor quantities of pol?
lutants may result in equilibria above safe levels of toxic exposure.
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Appendix 5
Report on
THERMAL ENERGY EXCHANGE WITH SPECIFIC APPLICATION
TO WASTE HANDLING IN A CLOSED ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM
Prepared by
Lawrence Slote
One of the basic methods proposed in treating human waste is the
application of thermal energy to the cracking of the waste with by-product
recovery. In order to accomplish this feat, both high temperatures for the
cracking and low temperatures for the condensation of the by-products must
be available. Another possible technique is the purification of urine by
freezing, which becomes possible only if the temperature is low enough.
The specifics of the abovementioned techniques will be discussed in a sep-
arate paper.
As a first approach to this problem of insolation, the biosatellite
will be assumed to have an elliptical orbit about the earth with its perigee
of 300 miles and its apogee of 1000 miles. For purposes of this paper, the
geometry of the biosatellite will be spherical. It should be noted that the
geometry of the satellite is important in the determination of the thermal
energy exchange. The sphere is the easiest three dimensional body to inves-
tigate and therefore all results will be specific to the sphere.
The temperature of the biosatellite is the resultant of the sum of
radiations from the following sourcess
10 directly from the sun
2. solar radiation returned from the atmosphere and
the earth
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5-2.
3. low temperature radiation from the earth
The following theoretical discussions are based essentially on articles
listed in the Author Index as Nos. 33, 62, 140, 1//, and 170.
The ranges of maximum and minimum temperatures may be calculated
assuming the various characteristics of the biosatellite. These character?
istics are:
10 absorptivity of the surface
2. geometry of the satellite
3. mass
4. specific heat
5. orbit trajectories ? distance of perigee and apogee
6. duration of insolation
7. duration in shadow of earth
8, internal heat generated
A configuration of the mean surface temperature for the case of perfect
heat conduction, or a spinning vehicle is readily made from a consideration
of the total energy received and emitted0
where
q = qout
s e a E
qs
energy received directly from the sun
qr solar irradiation returned from the atmosphere
and the earth
low temperature radiation from the earth
cle
cla aerodynamic heating or cooling
gE internal heat produced by equipment and men
gout energy emitted by the surface of satellite
(1)
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41.
5-3.
Assuming negligible aerodynamic heating or cooling and neglecting
internal heat generation since we have no idea as to size and contents of
the biosatellite, equation (1) can be written as follows:
qs gr ge = gout
(2)
The value of the terms on the left hand side of Eq. (2) are as follows:
2.00 gm cal cm72min-1
gs
0.36 gm cal cm-2min-1
qr
qe = 0.32 gm cal cm-2min-1
In the case of the spherical biosatellite, at heights less than several
thousands of miles from the earth:
?gr
qe
= 0.36 x 2
= 0.32 x 2
1 - [-(h - r)2 -RI
(h - r)
11?1.
1 -
[(11 - r)2 - RJ
(h - r)
where h height of satellite above earth, miles
radius of the earth 3960 miles
2 (3)
irt
2 (4)
-Trx
Rr radius of the effective reflecting hemisphere,
equal to 3960 miles plus 5 miles
R radius of the emitting sphere, equal to 3960
miles plus 20 miles
radius of biosatellite, cm
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S
.c
law:
5-40
The biosatellite emits radiant energy in accordance with the Stefan
q = efTT
out
where T surface temperature of biosatellite, ?K
Cr Stefan constant 81.35 x 10-12 gm cal cm72min-1
C surface emissivity coefficient at temperature T
Eq. (2) can be written as follows:
6- T4 = 1 Ap/At (o