(SANITIZED)ABSTRACTS OF UNCLASSIFIED SOVIET PAPERS ON THE APPLICATION OF RADIOACTIVE AND STABLE ISOTOPES IN THE NATIONAL ECONOMY AND SCIENCE(SANITIZED)

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP81-01043R002800180003-5
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 242
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: January 31, 2014
• Sequence Number: 3
• Publication Date: October 11, 1957
• Content Type: REPORT

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UNCLASSIFIED
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UNITED STATES ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION
ALL-UNION CONFERENCE ON THE APPLICATION OF RADIOACTIVE AND
STABLE ISOTOPES IN THE NATIONAL ECONOMY AND SCIENCE
(ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS AND PLENARY SESSION PAPERS)
Translated by:
CONSULTANTS BUREAU. INC.
Technical Information Service Extension, Oak Ridge, Tenn.
:
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rili?????
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A translation of:
f ?
Vsesoyuznoi Nauchno-Tekhnicheskoi Konferentsy Po Primeneniyu Radioaktivnikh I
Stabilnikh Izotopov I Izlucheny V Narodnom Khozyaistve I Nauke, Moskva Izdatelstvo
Akademy Nauk SSSR, 1957, 474 pp.
Printed in the U.S.A. Price $2.20. Available from the Office of
Technical Services. Department of Commerce, Washington 25, D. C.
AEC Technical Infonnation Service Extension
Oak Ridge, Tenneuee
p.
I
ALL-UNION CONFERENCE ON THE APPLICATION OF RADIOACTIVE AND
STABLE ISOTOPES IN THE NATIONAL ECONOMY AND SCIENCE
(Abstracts of Papers and Plenary Session Papers)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Abstracts of Papers Given in the Session on Isotope Production and High-Intensity y -Systems
II. Abstracts of Papers Given in the Session on Technical Sciences and Industrial Uses of Isotopes
III. Abstracts of Papers Given in the Session on Biology, Medicine, and Agriculture
IV. Abstracts of Papers. First All-Union Conference on Radiation Chemistry
V. Achievements of National Science and Industry in Using Radioactive Methods for Prospecting and Developing
Useful Minerals. V. N. Dakhnov
VI. Use of Nuclear Radiation for Automation and Technological Process Control in the USSR.
and L. V. Melttser
The Origins and Symptoms of the Actions on Living Organisms of Small Radiation Doses.
The Use of Radioactive Isotopes in Clinical Medicine. A. V. Kozlova
Isotopes and Radiations in Agronomy. V. M. Klechkovsky
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N. N. Shumilovsky
A. V. Lebedinsky_
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ACADEMY OF SCIENCES USSR
CENTRAL COMMITTEE ON UTILIZATION OF ATOMIC ENERGY
COUNCIL OF MINISTRIES, USSR
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ALL -UNION CONFERENCE ON TH APPLICATION OF
RADIOACTIVE AND STABLE ISOTOPES IN THE
NATIONAL ECONOMY AND SCIENCE
ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS GIVEN IN THE SESSION ON ISOTOPE PRODUCTION
AND HIGH-INTENSITY y -SYSTEMS
Moscow 1967
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Editor
Yu..S..Frolov
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ISOTOPE PRODUCTION
CERTAIN PROBLEMS IN TUE PRODUCTION OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES
IN A NUCLEAR REACTOR
E. E. Kulish
This paper is concerned with the first of the following two stages in the preparation of products which con-
tain radioactivc isotopes:
a) the production of semi-finished isotopes by neutron irradiation, that is, certain standard samples of raw
material which are irradiated in the reactor;
b) the packaging of the semi-finished isotopes obtained by neutron irradiation and the synthesis of different
chemical compounds containing these radioactive tracer isotopes.
To obtain semi-finished isotopes by neutron irradiation a set of chemical operations is carried out which
is safe for reactor operation and which guarantees the highest purity of the materials which are irradiated in
terms of smallest amounts and variety of radioactive impurities.
To obtain samples with the highest specific activity use is made of raw material which is rich in the ap-
propriate stable isotope.
All raw material intended for irradiation is packaged in separate units and kept in standard aluminum
containers. The dimensions of the containers and cases and the characteristics of the materials used in their
fabrication are given.
All raw material is irradiated in an industrial nuclear reactor for three periods depending on the half-life,
the effective cross sections, and the specific activity required in practice.
After irradiation the containers with the semi-finished isotopes are placed in transport containers with wall
thickness which depends on the activity of the container and the hardness of the y-radiation.
Before further processing of the irradiated raw materials, lumps containing y-radiators are subject to mea-
surements which are made to determine the specific and total activity of the semi-finished isotope.
The activity of other semi-finished isotopes is checked by measurements of the total neutron flux using
a comparison with a standard cobalt sample.
For some of the semi-finished isotopes which are obtained in large amounts it is found expedient to irradi-
ate the raw material in special large-volume containers, carrying out the primary chemical processing and the
isotope separation immediately after irradiation. These methods are used to obtain Cm, Cam, Clm, and S.
A short description is given in the paper of special apparatus which has been constructed for this purpose.
In this apparatus, under conditions which are safe for personnel, are carried out the separation of the original
raw material and the extraction of Cm and Clm in the form of gases which are absorbed in absorption containers.
The residual solutions are chemically purified from undesired impurities and Cam and Sig are obtained. The
characteristics of the fiinal products are presented.
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Central Committee on the Use of Atomic Energy,
Council of Ministries, USSR
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PRODUCTION OF SEVERAL RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES AT A 10 -MEV
DEUTERON CYCLOTRON AND A THEORETICAL ESTIMATE FOR
THE REACTION CROSS SECTIONS AS A FUNCTION
OF DEUTERON ENERGY
I. P. Selinov, P, P. Dmitriev, I. I. Zhivotovsky, N. N. Krasnov,
E. N. Khaprov, Z. Z. Latypov, and M. Z. Maksimov
Production of radioactive isotopes at a 1-meter 10-Mev deuteron cyclotron.
1. Production of radioactive isotopes by deuterons.
The isotopes Mn* and Mnf- have been obtained by irradiating chromium and the isotope Zna has been
obtained by irradiating copper in the internal deuteron beam. A target, the head of which is a copper cylinder
28 trim in diameter was used. The internal surface of the head was water-cooled while the external surface was
plated with chromium or copper from which the zinc had been removed by a special purification process.
It was possible to carry on extended irradiation of the target without noticeable effects on the surface using
e mean ion current of 250 !lamp. To extract the manganese isotopes without the use of a cerrier mangauese-ion
adsorption in !ion hydroxide with subsequent extractien of the iron by diethyl ether was used. The Zne6 was se-
parated by extraction of the zinc with a solution of dithizoneinchloroform with subsequent rinsing in hydrochloric
acid.
The isotopes Nan and Lain were obtained by deflecting the ion beam. To obtain the sodium isotope a
slab of magnesium 0.5 mm thick was set up as a target for the deflected beam. The Inner side of the irradiated
slab was water-cooled. The dimensions of the irradiated surface were 2.5 x15 = 37.5 cml. The target was bom-
barded by a current of 100 ?amp. The Na was separated without a carrier by triple precipitation of the mag-
nesium in carbon-free NH4OH.
The isotope La13 was obtained by irradiating barium oxide using the (d, n) and (d, 2n) reactions. The tar-
get was bombarded by a beam current of 80 ?amp. To separate the Laln from the barium oxide a method was
used In which lanthanum is absorbed in iron hydroxide with the subsequent extraction of FeCl3 by diethyl ether.
The isotopes Zna* and Lain were produced for investigation by y-spectrosr.opy, which is carried out in the Institute,
and the isotopes Nan, Mr, aud Mnb4 were prepared at the request of other institutions.
2. Production of re:Yale-the isotopes by fast neutrons.
Fast neutrons, with entagies above 18 Mev, can be obtained by using a target of boron oe lithium. A mea-
surement of tae neutron yield', ',sins as a detector the radioactive isotope Cu whis is is formed in the Cl(n, 2n)
reaction indicates that the neutron ,)leld from a lithium target is 3.5-4 times greater than that of a boron target.
Thus, a target of metallic lithium was. used to obtain the radioactive isotopes.
The fast neutrons were used in work carried out under a program for finding new isotopes which are produced
in (n, p) and (n, a) reactions. The activity of the radioactive isotopes so produced has been found sufficient both
for the discovery of new isotopes (Gan and others) as well as for the identifit ?lion of isotopes with unverified mass
numbers (Gan, Gap).
3. Calculation of the product yield of the reactions as a function of aeuteron energy.
In the use of these or other nuclear reactions for obtaining isotopes, in a number of cases it is necessary to
lisee at least a rough idea of the dependence of yield on the energy of the incident particles. There is very little
,expt olerental data concerning the isotope yield dependence as a function of energy. Hence, it is of interest to
carry out the calculation of these functibns by theoretical analysis.
On the basis ef the statistical theory, M. Z.Maksimovhas carried out an estimate of the yield of certain
isotopes fa tlx. triiidiat,on of thick targets by dueterons with energies up to 20 Mev.
es.
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The results of the calculations are shown in the form of curves for the following reactions: mguill(d, a;
d, an)
Nan; Crita(d, n; d, 2n) Mn; Fe1447(d, a; d, an) Mn; Cun(d, 2n) Znu;Balar,m(d. _ ; d, 2n; d,3n)La,
aea n
Central Committee, on the Use of Atomic Energy,
Council of Ministries, USSR
CHEMICAL-SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF HIGH-PURITY MATERIALS USED IN
REACTOR CONSTRUCTION AND IN THE MANUFACTURE OF RADIOISOTOPES ?
A. G. Karabash and Sh. I. Peizulaev
This work presents the general characteristies of the chemical-spectral analysis method of the following
high-purity metals (and their compounds): Na, K, Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, Ga, Si, Ge, Sn Pb. M. Au, Fe, Ni, Ti,
Zr, Cr, Mo, V.
In each of these metals the chemical-spectral method provides for a common quantitative determination,
In one spectrogram, of a large number (15-25) of impurity elements, usually the following; Be, Mg, Ca, Ba, Al,
Ti, V. Cr, Mo, Mn, Fe, Ca, Ni, Cu. Ag, Au Zn, Cd, In, Ge, Sn, Pb, Sb, Bi, Ga, Tl, Te, Pt.
4
Tile impurities 13, Si, As, Li, Na, K are determined separately.
The methods which have been developed are based on the general idea of the separation of base elements
by means of selective reactions with the simultaneous concentration of a large number of impurity-elements and
the subsequent spectrographic determination of all impurities in the concentrate.
The concentration of the impurities is accomplished by conversion of the base element Into another phase ?
solid (by cooling), liquid (by extraction, flotation), or gaseous (by evaporation) ? with subsequent separation from
the impurity concentrate. These selective reactions and the conditions for which quantitative concentration of
the impurities can be carried out without loss are chosen in the hope of finding a single suitable operation. The
impurity concentrate is pr-nned in powder form by fixation of the individual impurities with a small amount of
the appropriate base. In this operation the factor by which the impurity is enriched in the concentrate ranges
from 20-100.
Standards are also prepared in the form of powders by introduaht.g into the spectrally pure base all the ele-
ments being determined; the same standards are used for the concentrates and unenriched samples.
The conditions for spectral analysis of different metals are almost identical. In all cases a spectroscope of
medium dispersion is used (ISP-22, ISP-28, Q = 24). The spectra are excited by a de arc between carbon elec-
trodes at a current cf 12 amp. The spectra of the unenrichetl samples and the concentrate are photogrephed to-
gether. In analysis of metals with simple spectra the exposure is made for total combustion. In analysis of metals
with complicated spectra, fractional distillation of the carrier is used or the impurity concentrate may be fixed
after complete separation of the base element from the other (*universal") base (Be0, SrSO4). Calibration curves
are drawn using the coordinates (log I, log C).
Because of the chemical concentration effect a considerable improvement of the relative sensitivity of the
spectral determinations obtains (from 20 to 100 times); this applies to all impurities. T e sensitivity in a deter-
mination of the majority of the above-mentioned elements is 10-4 - 104.
? The following took part in the development of these methods under the direction of A. G. Karabash and ga
L Peizulaev : R. L. Slyusareva, Z. N. Samsonova, L. S. Krauz, N. P. Sotnikova, N. L Smirnova-Averina, G. G.
Morozova, L. S. Romanovich, L L Smirenkina, V. M. Lipatova, S. K. Sazanova, V. P. Usacheva, L. I. Pugacheva,
F. A. Kostareva, P. D. Gorchabev, E. F. Voronova, N. T. Kostereva, F. L. Babina, A. L Elovarskaya, N. N. Kuz-
netsova, and V. S. Moleva.
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The chemical-spectral methods are characterized by relative errors of approximately 20% in the deter-
minations of traces of the elements. The methods were tested using artiffcial mixtures of unknowns and also by
carrying parallel determinations using chemical and spectral analysis. To get a quantitative picture of the ef-
fect of concentration on the impurities, the distribution of traces of the elements between phases under the con-
ditions of the analysis was investigated. Radioactive indicators and activation-analysis methods were also used
for this purpose.
These chemical-spectral methods, in conjunction with spectral, chemical, and activation-analysis methods,
can be used in control of high-purity materials used in reactor construction and also for analytical control of raw
materials and semi-finished products in the manufacture of artificial radiolsOtopes.
Central Committee on the Use of Atomic Energy,
Council of Ministries, USSR
QUANTITATIVE SPECTRAL ANALYSIS OF IMPURITIES IN
RADIOACTIVE PREPARATIONS
V. V. Lvov and G. I. Kibisov
The use of spectral analysis in control of the purity of radioactive materials has the following advantages:
only small amounts of the material are required to perform an analysis (2-50 g);
the time required for analyzing several samples can be held down to 3-4 hours and the manipulation of
active materials does not take more than 1-1.5 hours.
This paper points out the great simplicity of the methods, the fact that tests for all the desired materials
in a sample can be carried out simultaneously and the fact that the same method can be used for preparations of
different composition. There is some reduction in accuracy as compared with the analysis of nonradioactive ma-
terials. In general, however, the errors are of the order of 5-8(lo which is satisfactory for the present purposes.
The spectrum is excited by an ac ay- in?4 examined with standard equipment (ISP-22 spectrograph). Before
analysis solid materials are converted into solutions and if this is not possible, are used as powders.
To protect personnel from the radioactive aerosols produced in the excitation of the spectra, a simple cham-
ber was constructed and maintained at less-than-atmospheric pressure. The other operations are carried out in
a lead-lined box.
As an example, we present the determination of P and Fe in CdS powder and the determination of Co. Mn,
and Sb in FeC13 solutions. The cadmium sulfide is analyzed in the form of a powder which is deposited on the
carbon electrodes as a dispersion in glycerin. The FeC13 solution is deposited on a plane electrode prepared be-
forehand from a solution of polystyrene. The presence of the above-mentioned elements can be detected if they
are present in concentrations of a thousandth of a percent. This does not seem to be the limiting sensitivity.
State Institute for Applied Chemistry
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CONSTRUCTION OF a- 8-, AND y-SOURCES USING OXIDE FILMS
ON ALUMINUM AND ALUMINUM ALLOYS
M. S. Petrova
1. In a number of fields of medicine, science, and technology there is frequent need for hard sources of
a-, 8-, and y-radiation with different configurations, size, and activity.
Up to the present time the construction of such sources with phosphorus, carbon, strontium, sulfur, thallium,
and also certain y-radiators, for example, cobalt, zinc, iron, etc., has not been feasible in practice.
2. The purpose of the present work is to explore the possibility of constructing sources of 8- and y-radiation
using artificial radioisotopes. through the use of a universal method which exploits the properties of oxide films
on aluminum and its alloys "charged" by different chemical reagents.
3. The properties of oxide films artificially produced on aluminum and aluminum alloys are affected to
a great extent by the techniques employed in their formation. The films may be elastic or brittle, thick or thin,
very porous or slightly porous.
The films can be produced by thermal, chemical, or electrochemical means. The best results are obtained
by anodizing. By changing the composition of the solutions, the temperature, the duration of treatment, the vol-
tage, and current density (in electrochemical oxidation), and by choosing the different "charging" techniques
and reagents properly (dyes, oils, inhibiting agents, lacquers and other chemical reagents); films with different
characteristics can be produced.
By controlling the technique of film formation it is possible to produce on a practical scale films for de-
corative purposes, anticorrosion use, electrical insulation, etc.
The properties of oxide films obtained by electrochemical methods which are then charged chemically
have been used to make 8- and y-sources with artificial radioisotopes.
4. Oxide films with a high filling factor were obtained using a sulfuric-acid anodizing scheme and hydro-
chloric-acid processing.
In the first case an ordinary sulfuric acid bath is used (20% solution of sulfuric acid, dc voltage approxi-
mately 18 volts, initial anode current density 1.5 amp/dm2, electrode temperature approximately 18', lead-
plate cathode).
In the second case the oxidation is carried out in a hydrochloric acid electrolyte (2% solution) using ac
voltages up to 120 volts.
5. The method has been checked using three oxidation techniques and eight isotope solutions Co., Zn,
TI204, P, C14, SZ, with various degrees of charging.
6. These experiments reveal that after rinsing and fixation of the films, one has hard 8- and y-sources
which are characterized by high mechanical surface stability and which do not contaminate objects with which
they come in direct contact.
The activity of the sources can be varied over wide limits by changing the conditions of formation and
charging of the films; for example, by changing the exposure in the electrolyte and in charging it is postible to
thange the activity of the phosphorus samples by more than a factor of a thousand.
7. Through the use of the method which is described here it is possible to fabricate hard a-, 8-, and
sources in in the shape of slabs, tubes, cylinders, spheres, and any other desired configuration which can be fabricated
from aluminum and aluminum alloys. By covering desired sections of the sources these can be kept from becom-
ing radioactive.
Sources of this type can be used in medicine, (applicator), apparatus design, dosimetry, printing, and textile
manufacture (for removal of static charges) and in many other fields of the national economy.
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Academy for Medical Sciences, USSR
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ENRICHMENT OF STABLE ISOTOPES BY THE ELECTROMAGNETIC METHOD
V. S. Zolotarev
This report presents data from which it is possible to make estimates of the rates at which isotopes of vari-
ous elements can be separated by the electromagnetic method. For the sum of all the isotopes of a given ele-
ment this quantity ranges from hundreds of milligrams to several grams per day (for continuous operation) with
one ion source. The rates for individual isotopes depend on the relative abundances in the natural element.
Information is given on the weight of enriched isotopes obtained for research purposes: these fluctuate from
several tens of milligrams to several grams depending on the relative abundances.
The report also contains a table of the enriched isotopes which have been separated on a technological scale
in the U.S.A., U.S.S.R., and England.
In conclusion the elements already separated in the Soviet Union and those on which work will be carried
out in 1957 are listed.
Institute for Atomic Energy
Academy of Sciences, USSR
WORKING MATERIALS FOR ISOTOPE SEPARATION BY THE
ELECTROMAGNETIC METHOD
B. A. Alekseev
In the foreign literature which is concerned with the working materials used in electromagnetic separation
of isotopes there is no information as to the criteria used in the choice of working materials or the pertinent re-
quirements. The latter can be formulated starting from an analysis of the working material in the basic stages
of its conversion during the separation process: evaporation; ionization and dissociation; removal of nonionized
material in the vacuum chamber of the separation apparatus.
The use of materials in the form of elements or simple compounds is indicated. It is desirable that the
working material be one of high purity, L e., a high number of impurities is unfavorable for the vaporation pro-
cess since these tend to disturb the uniformity of the process and to complicate the separation. However, fre-
quently compromise solutions must be found, particularly when there is no ion source of the appropriate type or
when it is difficult to acquire a given material.
In three available ion sources which cover working-material evaporation ranges of 20-900', 900-2000', and
2000-3000? it is possible to use all the elements except tungsten and possibly tantalum. In this case the natural
limitation is the problem of obtaining the desired material in the form of the element.
Sometimes it is desirable to depart from the use of chemically pure wc.rking materials, particulary when
these are difficult to obtain. For example, in separating isotopes of the rare-earth elements it is convenient to
use concentrates, that is, in the electromagnetic separation process there is a rather sharp mass resolution and the
chemist is provided with arelativelysimpleanswer to the problem of separating binary mixtures of isobars or puri-
fication of isotopes from traces of contamination by neighboring elements. This simplifies considerably the se-
paration of isotopes of the low-abundance elements. The method was checked in the separation of gadolinium
Isotopes; a 63% concentrate was used.
Institute for Atomic Energy
Academy of Sciences, USSR
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HIGH-TEMPERATURE ION SOURCE FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC SEPARATION
OF ISOTOPES OF ELEMENTS OF THE PLATINUM GROUP
V. M. Guscv
1. The basic need for the development of a high-temperature ion source with operating temperatures rang-
ing to 2700" for separation of isotopes of elements of the platinum group (Pd, Pt. Ry, and Ir) is connected with
the thermal instability of all known compounds of these elements and the fact that it is impossible to use existing
low-temperature sources.
2. A design for the construction of a high-temperature ion source is described in which the crucible and
discharge chamber are heated by electron bombardment. Data are given for the electron gun which provides A
hollow cylindrical beam (100-200 ma) with energies ranging from 20-25kev whichis used to heat the discharge
chamber to a high temperature. The thermal shielding of the source is also described.
3. Operation of the source for separation of palladium isotopes. Data are given on the dependence of the
Ion current emitted from the source and the current focused on the collector as functions of the pressure in the
Ionization space, the discharge voltage,and the accelerating voltage. Also the level of oscillations of the ion-
beam current is described.
4. A description is given of a collector which is used for the simultaneous collection of six palladium iso-
5. Results are given on the separation of Pd isotopes in a small electromagnetic separator. Approximately
300 mg of enriched isotopes of palladium are obtained with an hourly consumption of metallic Pd of 0.5-0.6 g.
In the samples which were obtained the concentration of the 'respective isotopes was increased as follows:
topes.
Pe" from 0.8 to 21.310;
FPI from 9.3 to 44.40:
Pd1?1 from 22.6 to 53.75):
Peg from 27.2 to 70.310:
Pd1" from 26.8 to 74.0:
PP/ from 13.5 to 44.25%
6. The high-temperature source is useful for separation of small amounts of isotopes of other solid elements
in those cases in which it is convenient to work with the pure elements and not compounds.
Central Committee on the Use of Atomic Energy,
Council of Ministries, USSR
MASS-SPECTROMETER WITH AN INHOMOGENEOUS FIELD FOR
ISOTOPE ANALYSIS OF LIGHT ELEMENTS
N. E. Alekseevsky, A. V. Dubrovin, G, I. Kosourov, G. P. Prudkovsky,
S. I. Shchelynin, T. K. Shuvalova, S. I. Filimonov, and V. I. Chekin
By using an inhomogeneous magnetic field it is possible to increase the resolving power of a mass,spectro-
meter without increasing the size of the magnet.
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An axially symmetric magnetic field which decreases in the radial direction is used. With this configuration
1
the dispersion and resolving power are increased by a factor of 1---- , where
-n
dlI r
n = ? - for r-r0,
dr 11
and re is the radius of the equilibrium orbit.
The ion beam of the paraxial trajectory at the equilibrium radius is focused in the radial and axial direc-
tions after deflection in the magnetic field through angles
In the case of sectored magnetic field with an ion-beam deflection angle 20 = 180?, focusing is realized if the source
and collector are placed at identical distances f from the boundary of the magnetic field.,
ctg 4T-714,
f = ro
A number of instruments based on this principle have been constructed. The inhomogeneous field is pro-
vided by an electromagnet with conical pole pieces.
In a glass instrument with radius ro = 40 mm for n = 0.89, and f = 208 mm, with slit widths in the source
ani collector of 0.2 and 0.4 mm, respectively, the resolving power for half-width at half maximum is 400; with
this resolving power it is possible, for example, to resolve completely the mass doublet (4He+ - Di').
A large all-metal instrument with the follOwing parameters ro = 350 mm, n = 0.87, anti f= 1400 mm has
a dispersion of 27 mm for 1% change in mass. Using 0.2 mm, slits in the source and collector a resolving power
of approximately 7500 is achieved (half-widths). In the mass spectrograms which are obtained it is easy to re-
solve the lines of the doublet at m = 20 (Aril.- Ne) and the multiplet at m = 28 (COW- C2114). The instru-
ment is characterized by a high "illumination," an ion current at the collector of 10-9 amp for a operating pres-
sure in the ion source of 1.10-5 mm Hg. In a prototype instrument with a radius ro = 152 mm, a resolving power
of approximately 11,000 was achieved using slits of 0.05 tom in the source and in the collector. The instruments
described here have been widely used in isotope analyses of helium and hydrogen. In analyzing helium which
contains Hes it is important to resolve the multiplet at mass 3 since the hydrogen peak due to the residual gases
in the instrument may distort the results of the measurement.
The application of instruments with high resolving power for analysis of hydrogen-deuterium mixtures makes
It possible to obtain the D content in one measurement and does not require analyses at different pressures as is
the case if the multiplet at mass 3 cannot be resolved.
In analyzing mixtures with high deuterium content the use of high-resolution instruments makes it possible
to resolve the lines for flif and D.
In addition to the use of an inhomogeneous field as a means of increasing resolving power, in a number of
cases it is convenient to use such a field to maintain the sensitivity of a mass-spectrometer when the slit widths
in the source and collector are increased. A glass instrument of this type with ro = 50 mm and slits 0.8 and 2 mm
las a resolving power of approximately 60. The maximum ion current for p = 10-5 mm Hg in the source reaches
10-9 which makes it possible to measure concentrations of the order of 10-1.
Institute for Physical Problems
Academy of Sciences, USSR
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F
CERTAIN PROBLEMS IN THE THEORY OF ISOTOPE SEPARATION
A. M. Rozen
The rx diagram for a cascade of distillation or exchange columns with chemical phase conversion is con-
sidered. Two methods of determining material flow are compared: the usual method (by minimum fractional
distillation number) and a special method (by the limiting capacity of the column).
Formulas are presented with relate the enrichment and the number of transfer units (or theoretical barriers)
of the columns which operate at any concentration of the distilled component. The dependence of enrichment
on output is linear only at low concentrations. The operation of the first column of a cascade is considered and
the optimum input conditions are treated.
For a variable optimum input the dependence of enrichment on output is not linear; for a fixed height of
the input it becomes linear but the enrichment which can be achieved is reduced. In the case of the cascade of
a concentration columns which operate in the region of low concentrations of the distilled component the total
enrichment depends linearly on output. If the first column is a fractionating column and the next operates in the
region of high concentrations the dependence of enrichment on output becomes nonlinear. Several types of cas -
cade are considered. It is shown that the limiting capacity of a cascade is equal to the capacity of the first
column divided by the cascade constant. The latter is found from the constants for the individual columns by
the same rule as for electrical resistances.
A theory is developed for concentration via a two-temperature exchange process with replacement of chem-
ical phase conversion by distillation at another temperature. This method is similar to separation by absorption-
desorption. The equation for the operating line cannot be obtained from material balance; a complete solution
of the equations of enrichment and balance is required. A feature of the process is the relatively pronounced
enrichment which obtains for a definite relation between the flow of liquid and gas (equal to the arithmetic mean
of the distribution factors for both temperatures). This feature is connected with the location of the operating
lines in the "yoke" betvieen the two equilibrium curves (the bend in the operating line reduces the concentration
pressure head) and limits the application of this method to systems with high values of the separation factor. A
theory for a cascade of two-temperature columns is developed.
Consideration is given to nonstationary processes in the individual columns of the cascade. Under certain
conditions the concentration distributions over the height of the column are similar for the transient and equili-
brium cases as are the kinetic curves at different points; this situation is due to the exponential kinetic law. For
a single column fed by a liquid with a fixed concentration of the distilled component the exponent (relaxation
time To) has a simple physical significance: it is the time which would be required for accumulation in the
column of an equilibrium supply of the distilled component, if the accumulation rate were constant and equal
to the initial value. In the actual accumulation rate the exponent decreases with time. Hence the accumulation
time T Is larger than the relaxation time and depends logarithmically on the extent to which equilibrium is approached
(for 99% T = 5T0). Iris shown that in the case of a column which operates in a cycle with two reservoirs (feed
and output) under certain conditions there is a "zero point" in which the concentration does not change with time.
In this case the lower part of the column acts like a column with a fixed feed. The kinetics of a number of more
complicated cases are also considered - columns with fractionating stages, etc.
A method is developed for deriving the kinetic equations from similitude considerations.
Central Committee on the Use of Atomic Ergy,
Council of Ministries, USSR
ISOTOPE SEPARATION BY GASEOUS DIFFUSION
I. G. Gverdtsiteli and V. K. Tskhakaya
The idea of using diffusion in gas flow for accomplishing separation was proposed by Hertz, who separated
a neon-helium mixture by this process in 1922.
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The further development of the method made possible the successful separation of a number of isotopes.
A1thou0 it is characterized by a high separation factor this type of device has a small capacity and with
It only small indicator amounts of enriched isotopes can be obtained.
This report contains a description of a separation clement (diaphragm pump) the development and study of
which was carried out under the direction of Hertz in 1946-1952. The version described here combines a high
separation factor with a high specific capacity.
Experimental results given in the report were obtained in 1966 with a cascade of '10 separation pumps. The
pumps are all glass with the exception of the diaphragms. The diaphragms are steel tubes 15 mm in diameter
with wall thickness of 0.3 mm and contain 500 apertures 0.4 mm in diameter. The operating vapor is mercury.
In one pump, used to separate isotopic mixtures, the following separation factors were obtained:
PNenPA"
?27 = 1.2; = 1.15; PC-1-3 -4-13 - 1.09; PKr" 1.03.
PNe Pito PC2H4 PKr"
The operating pressure is 10 mm Hg. A general procedure has been developed to estimate the separation factor
AD
as a function of relative difference in diffusion factors of the isotopes in the region 0.005 ? 0.05.
In a cascade of 70 pumps the following concentrations were obtained; C131-14 = 7710. Kr" = 92%, and
= 4510.
The specific capacity of the separation pumps exceeds considerably that of the old type.
Central Committee on the Use of Atomic Energy?
Council of Ministries, USSR
DIFFUSION COLUMN FOR ISOTOPE SEPARATION
G. F. Barvikh and R. Ya. Kucherov
A diffusion separation column which has been successfully used to separate isotopes of the light elements
is described.
The column uses as the primary mechanism diffusion in a vapor Jet (the so-called second Hertz method).
To achieve significant enrichment in one separation stage, it is necessary, following Clusius and Dickel, to have
an extended convection flow in the upward direction on one side of the diaphragm and in the downward direction
on the other. These flows are produced as a consequence of the application of an auxiliary gas in the lower part
of the column.
The column is fabricated from stainless steel. The length of the diaphragm is 1 m, the diameter 40 mm.
Oxygen, nitrobenzene, and other gases have been used as the auxiliary gas.
The operating pressure ranges from 30-200 mm Hg.
Experimental studies of the column have been carried out using isotope mixtures of neon, argon, and car-
bon. The following isotope separation factors were obtained:
PNen 9. PA" PC13114 2.6.
PNets PAPc2H,
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A theoretical analysis of the diffusion column is given. It is shown that it can be reduced to the analysis
for a square cascade. In a cascade of 10 columns Nen was concentrated. For a yield of 400 nml/day the con-
centration of the Nen was approximately 994%,,
Central Committee on the Use of Atomic Energy,
Council of Ministries, USSR
RECTIFICATION COLUMN FOR OBTAINING BF, ENRICHED IN B"
Yu. Myulenfordt, G. Eivert, and T. A. Gagua
The relative difference in the equilibrium pressures for saturated vapors of BF, and BLIF3 at a temperature
of -103r and a pressure 630 mm Hg is 0.0082. This makes it possible to realize a high efficiency rectification
process.
The rectification apparatus is approximately 16 m in height. The height of the rectification column is
12 in and rhe internal diameter 12 mm. The tube is fed by a nozzle formed by a ring of constantan wire with
an inside diameter of 1.2 mm. The diameter of the wire is 0.25 mm. Ttz surface of the nozzle is approximately
50 cm2/ml. The fraction of unoccupied volume is 0.7.
Since BI0F3 is less volatile than 1311F3 the extraction of the enriched product takes place at the base of the
column. The rejection tank is at the upper part of the column.
The column is cooled by a special system. The refrigerant is ethylene which in turn is cooled with liquid
oxygen through a controlled heat exchanger system.
The following optimum parameters have been established on the basis of two years of operation; number
of theoretical barriers - 600; maximum concentration of OF, in a closed system is 96%; for a yield of 4 nl/day
the concentration of B"F3 is approximately 80%; extraction factor 1.2; consumption of liquid oxygen is 8 liters
per liter of enriched material.
Central Committee on the Use of Atomic Energy,
Council of Ministries, USSR
INVESTIGATION OF THE SEPARATION OF ISOTOPES OF THE LIGHT ELEMENTS
N. M. Zhavoronkov, 0. V. Uvarov, and S. I. Babkov
Work on the separation of stable isotopes and an investigation of their properties was initiated in the USSR
by A. L Brodsky and his colleagues in 1936-1937 but the work was not emphasized until a later period. The re-
port contains the basic results obtained at the Institute on studies of the separation of oxygen, nitrogen, boron,
carbon, and silicon.
The isotope separation factors for the following systems have been measured over a wide temperature range:
1-11016-4018, B1C13,-BnC13, C2H4-C13H4, C.2"1-14-CnC"H4, and C2"111-C2C13H5 . Conclusions have been reached
as to the feasibility of using these systems for obtaining low-abundance isotopes. Furthermore, certain results
have been obtained concerning the dependence of the isotope separation factor in carbon on the structure of the
molecule.
15
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1fM
In processes which require a large number of separation states the accumulation rate of one of the compo-
nents is of great interest. Using separation of nitrogen and oxygen the kinetics of these processes have been studied
and equations have been derived which apply over a wide enrichment range, are in good agreement with experi-
ment and are useful in practical applications.
The methods which have been developed for separating isotopes of oxygen, nitrogen, and boron make it
possible to obtain concentrations of these isotopes. Using a laboratory apparatus water with a content of H20" up
to 24.5 mol % has been obtained (in ordinary river water 14201" is approximately 0.2 mole%). By enlarging the
system it was possible to obtain approximately 10 kg of 141-141402 per year enriched in the ammonium nitrogen to
30-20 mole To (the content of Nil in natural nitrogen is 0.38 mole%). It has been found feasible to use rectifica-
tionaf boron chloride to obtain B. In one column 12 m high it is possible to obtain a product containing 80%
BI"C13.
However it has been shown experimentally that rectification of SiC14 cannot be used to separate silicon iso-
topes. It is also not feasible to obtain C" by rectification of ethane and ethylene because of the small separation
factor.
At the present time it may be assumed that the basic solution has been found for the problem of separating
isotopes of the light elements which are most important for practical and scientific purposes. However much still
remains to be done in the development of more effective methods of obtaining highly enriched concentrates of
the low-abundance isotopes and in studying their physical and chemical properties.
L. Ya. ICarpov Physicochemical ScientificResearchInstitute
Ministry of Chemical Industries, USSR
SEPARATION OF CARBON ISOTOPES
N. N. Tunitsky, G. G. Devyatykh, M. V. Tikhomirov,
A. D. Zorin, and N. I. Nikolaev
The bicarbonate method of separating carbon isotopes has been studied with different nozzles, pressures,
and temperatures. The results of the experiments can be explained starting from the assumption that in all cases
the nozzles have no catalytic effect. The time to reach the equilibrium state in a system of this kind is extreme-
ly long.
The isotope separation factors have been measured for equilibrium of liquid and gaseous methane and car-
bon dioxide. The following values of the isotopes separation factors were measured:
PC2144 - 1.0098; PC20
- 1.0103;
PC13114 PC130
PCOm
- 1.0043
PC011
(for normal boiling temperatures).
An attempt was also made to investigate theoretically the value of the separation factor. The results of
the calculations are in satisfactory agreement with the experimental data obtained by other authors and ourselves.
Experiments have been carried out on the separation of carbon isotopes in low-temperature nozzle columns
of lengths 3.75 and 10 m. In the 3.75 m column, in a period of two days an enrichment of the C" isotope by a
factor of 3.65 was achieved and the 01' isotope by a facto.: of 2.46 which corresponds to a height for a theoretical
barrier of 2.7 cm. In using the nozzle the specific flow was 3.5 ml/cm2?mm.
To obtain small amounts of CO with high enrichment in C13 and 01' a thermal diffusion method was used.
In this scheme in a 1 m-thermal diffusion column an enrichment of CI" by a factor of 1.7 was achieved. It is
16
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Interesting to note that the theoretical value of the ratio or the logarithms of the enrichment factors in carbon
and oxygen is 2 while in the present experiments this quantity fluctuates between the values 1.2-1.3.
A comparison of the different methods of separating carbon isotopes indicates that the most efficient scheme
is the low-temperature rectification of carbon monoxide or methane.
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Scientific Research Institute
Ministry of Chemical Industries, USSR
LOW-TEMPERATURE METHODS FOR SEPARATING HELIUM ISOTOPES
V. P. Peshkov and V. M. Kuznetsov
Because of the development in recent years of work with the very rare isotope of helium, Hes a need has
arisen for developing effective methods for separating mixtures of Hes?Het Of most interest are the low-tem-
perature methods which provide rather fast and reliable extraction of Hes from the mixture.
A consideration of the liquid-vapor diagram of solutions of He3?fle4 shows that this system is not ideal.
Furthermore, at temperatures below 0.8* K a separation of the liquid into two phpres takes place.
Along with rectification, to obtain enrichment of weak solutions of Hes and He it is feasible to use ther-
mal osmosis (extraction of He4 by superfluid flow through a filter). A theoretical expression has been obtained
for the limiting enrichment in thermal osmosis and it is found to be in satisfactory agreement with the experi-
mental data.
A system has been constructed with which natural helium can be enriched in the isotope He' and in which
it is possible to prepare up to 3 nms/hour. The enrichment factor reaches 2- 104.
By integrating the differential equations for mass exchange one obtains a basic relation for calculating
the characteristic of the tubular rectification column and certain numerical formulas for nozzle columns. The
theoretical results allow one to estimate the efficiency of the column for different modes of operation.
By combining thermal osmosis with rectification of a 3.6?/o mixture 4n1 of He' with a purity of 99.995%
has been obtained. In this case the product extraction rate was 10 nl/hour. The untreated yield was less ,han
0.25-0.3 n1 He'. The time required for equilibrium in the rectification column is of the order of 10 seccnc,.
Institute for Physical Problerzo
Academy of Sciences, USSR
RELATIVE ABUNDANCES OF THE ISOTOPES OF GERMANIUM
AND PALLADIUM
K. G. Ordzhonikidze and G. N. Zubareva
The accuracy of the measurements of Simpson and Bleakney of the relative content of the isotopes of
palladium is of an order of magnItudelower than that which can be achieved with present day mass-spectrometers.
Nevertheless, at the present time the data of these authors remain in the isotope tables. In a short report pub-
lished in 1953 new values for the relative abundances of the isotopes of palladium were given and these were not
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in agreement with the values given in the tables. The method and accuracy of the measurements were not dis-
cussed in the report.
To evaporate metallic palladium an evaporator was built with a heating capacity of 15-20 w ; this source
furnishes Intense stable palladium-ion beams. The stability of the ion current was improved by the addition to
the palladium of tungsten powders; these powders have a favorable effect on the evaporation process.
It was found that the interaction of vapors of palladium and mercury improves the palladium-ion yield;
this is characteristic of palladium and requires further study.
The relative abundances of palladium isotopes were determined from singly, doubly, and triply charged
palladium ions. The accuracy of the measurements of the isotope contents of palladium with the singly charged
ions is 0.1-0.4%. In the doubly and triply charged ions it is somewhat less. The palladium iosope abundances
which were obtained are in poor agreement with the values given in the tables but are in good agreement with
the 1953 results.
Using the method which has been developed it is possible to make isotope analyses of small amounts of
palladium (30-40 p g).
The isotopic composition of germanium has already been determined by different authors and ourselves
,from gaseous halide compounds, the production of which may be accompanied by separation of the isotopes. Hence.
in order to avoid difficulties connected with control of the isotopic composition or obtaining 100% reaction yields
in the production of gaseous halide compounds of germanium, it is desirable to measure the isotopic composition
of metallic germanium without any chemical treatment.
The use of a quartz evaporator in the ion source of a mass-spectrometer creates a number of difficulties;
these were avoided by the use of an evaporator of tungsten or tantalum. The addition of tungsten powder to the
germanium appeared to be more effective than in the palladium case.
The accuracy of the measurements of the relative content of the germanium Isotopes in metallic germanium
(0.8-1.1%) is one half-order of magnitude poorer than in the gaseous germanium tetrafluroide (0.1-0;5/o). Hence,
in making precision measurements it is mandatory to use GeF4; in isotope analysis of small quantities and measure-
ments of ordinary samples the use of metallic germanium is recommended.
An isotope analysis was made of samples of germanium enriched by an electromagnetic separation process.
The measurements have been carried out both for gaseous germanium tetrafluoride and metallic germanium.
Central Committee on the Use of Atomic Energy,
Council of Ministries, USSR
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HIGH-INTENSITY y -SYSTEMS
PROBLEMS AND TRENDS IN THE DESIGN OF
HIGH-INTENSITY y -SYSTEMS
V. I. Sinitsyn
1. The field of application of high-intensity y-systems.
2. Basic requirements for high-intensity y-irradiators: dose and dosage rate, geometry for uniform dosage
field, capacity, mode of operation, control, monitoring, and shielding.
3. Possible forms of sources for y-radiation which can be used in high-intensity y-systems: isotopes pre-
pared in nuclear reactors, uranium fission products, combination of radiators.
4. Short survey of the status of the theory of high-intensity y-irra?diators and directions for new work.
5. Basic problems in the construction and technical design of high-intensity y-systems: shielding methods,
techniques for charging and removing sources, dosimetry control, etc. Basic system design trends.
6. Trends in the solution of technico-economic problems, training of personnel and literature publication.
- Central Committee on the Use of Atomic Energy
Council of Ministries, USSR
PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES IN THE UTILIZATION OF RADIOACTIVE
MATERIALS AS HIGH-INTENSITY y -SOURCES IN RADIOBIOLOGY
AND MEDICINE
A. B. Bibertal, V. G. Khurshchev, and U. Ya. Margulis
1. Experiment on the application of radioactive materials as sources of y-radiation in biology and medicine.
2. Requirements which arise in characteristic irradiators and problems in the construction and technical
design of apparatus as related to radiation problems.
3. High-intensity y-systems used in biology and medicine may be divided into four basic groups in accord-
ance with the purposes for which they are intended. The basic principles, characteristics, and construction fea-
tures of these types.
4. The characteristic properties of different systems and the basic expressions for calculating dosage fields
of various radiators; experimental results.
5. Fundamental steps required for obtaining a wider acceptance of isotope sources in medicine and biology.
19
Academy of Medical Sciences, USSR
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APPARATUS FOR RADIATION-CHEMICAL STUDIES
A. Kh. Breger. V. A. Belynsky, V. L. Karpov, S. P. Prohudin,
and V. II. Osipov
'
41.14.
1. The general requirements pertaining to apparatus for radiochemical investigations; dosage rates, volume
of irradiated material, possibility of carrying out studies in complicated physical-chemical apparatus, instruments
for remote control and observation of the experimental conditions and processes which occur in the objects being
studied during irradiation. Requirements for the preparation of the radioisotopes from which the high-intensity
sources arc fabricated.
2. K-300 and K-1400 systems of the Karpov Physicochemical Institute as stages in the development of
apparatus which meets the requirements for radiochemical studies.
3. A short description of the K-20,000 system. The apparatus has a cobalt radiator with an activity of
20,000 g-equiv. Ra,and provides a dosage rate of approximately 1,000 r/sec over a volume of 0.5 liter and ap-
proximately 100 r/sec over a volume of 100 liters. Kinematic design. Form, size,and activity of the y-radiation
source. The method of assembly for the high-intensity source from standard preparations of radioactive cobalt.
Safety devices and accident control. Remote control panel and observation of the physicochemical conditions in
the experiment and processes which take place in the test objects during irradiation.
4. Extension of the possibilities of radiochemical studies; stronger doses, increased volume for the samples
being irradiated, more complicated conditions in carrying out the experiments with the K-20,000 system.
L Ya. Kairpov Physicochemical Institute
Ministry for Chemical Industries; USSR
LABORATORY COBALT-IRRADIATOR STATION
A. V. Babushkin, I. V. Voznesenskaya, N. G. Zhirov,
V. I. Zatulovsky, and Yu. L. Khmelnitsky
1. Possibilities for initiating and accelerating important reactions in petroleum refining and technology
by the application of y-radiation.
2. Design for a station for studying the effect of y-radiation on petroleum products. The station will have
two y-systems with an activity up to 800 g-equiv. Ra,and one system with an activity of 10,000-16,000 g-equiv.
Ra. In the first two systems the radiation sources are kept in lead containers in concrete blocks. The sample
being investigated is lowered in the block after which the radiators are removed from the containers and irradia-
tion takes place. It is expected that dosage rates of 80-90 r/sec will be achieved.
In the apparatus with 10,000-16,000 g-equiv. Ra.the radiator is kept behind a water shield and in irradiation
Is placed in a concrete enclosure. In the center of the cylindrical irradiator this system is expected to provide
a dosage rate of approximately 500 r/sec. The irradiator is charged behind a water shield in a separate enclosure.
3. Structural form of the components of the apparatus. Shielding provisions.
All Union Scientific Research Institute for Petroleum
and Gas Refining and Production of Synthetic Liquid Fuel
Ministry of Petroleum Production, USSR
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SOURCE OF IONIZING RADIATION FOR WORK IN RADIATION CHEMISTRY
V. I. Zatulovsky
1. An x-ray machine as a source of ionizing radiation for work in radiation chemistry. Requirements on
the apparatus and results of work on the construction of x-ray tubes and power supplies.
2. Apparatus with radioactive cobalt for work in radiation chemistry. Characteristics and results obtained
in the use of the GOP-1 and GOP-400 machines. Comparison of x-ray and cobalt systems.
3. Projected systems with Com activities of 2,500 and 10.000 g-equiv. Ra. Basic computational data and
characteristics of the radiators. Construction of the machine and radiation shielding.
4. Standardization of laboratory design for sources of ionizing radiation for work in radiation chemistry.
Institute for Physical Chemistry
Academy of Sciences. USSR
DESIGN OF AN EXPERIMENTAL SEMI-INDUSTRIAL RADIATION SYSTEM
TO PREVENT GRAIN INFESTATION
E. S. Pertsovsky, A. V. Bibergal, and U. Ya. Margulis
1. One of the most novel of the peaceful uses of atomic energy is the protection of grain against insects.
Laboratory studies show that grain can be freed of warehouse insect pests if it treated with a radiation dose
of 10,000 r.
2. To explore the technological-economic questions involved in the industrial radiation of grain a semi-
industrial device has been built with which 450 kg of grain per hour can be irradiated.
3. The system makes use of a radiator in the form of a cylinder along a generator of which is placed a
rod with radioactive cobalt. The calculated activity of the radiator is 32,000 g-equiv. Ra; however the con-
struction makes it possible to increase this figure to 100,000 g-equiv. Ra.
4. Continuous operation is achieved by using a conveyor which consists of a series of carts which are auto-
matically loaded and unloaded.
5. An original mixed system of radiation shielding is used. When the radiator is charged and removed
water shielding is used; otherwise, "dry" shielding is used.
6. It appears likely that use can be made in such industrial machines of the waste from nuclear reactors,
in radiators of appropriate design (cellular).
21
All Union Scientific Research Institute for Grain
and Grain Products
Ministry of Agricultural Products, USSR
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axe?ilicera ??????1,
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2014/01/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002800180003-5
APPARATUS FOR RADIATION-CHEMICAL STUDIES
t. Kh. Breger. V. A. Belynsky. V. L. Karpov, S. D. Prokudin,
and V. B. Osipov
1. The general requirements pertaining to apparatus for radiochemical investigations: dosage rates, volume
of irradiated material, possibility of carrying out studies in complicated physical-chemical apparatus, instruments
for remote control and observation of the experimental conditions and processes which occur in the objects being
studied during irradiation. Requirements for the preparation of the radioisotopes from which the high-intensity
sources arc fabricated.
2. K-300 and K-1400 systems of the Karpov Physicochemical Institute as stages in the development of
apparatus which meets the requirements for radiochemical studies.
3. A short description of the K-20,000 system. The apparatus has a cobalt radiator with an activity of
20,000 g-equiv. Ra,and provides a dosage rate of approximately 1,000 thee over a volume of 0.5 liter and ap-
proximately 100 thee over a volume of 100 liters. Kinematic design. Form, size,and activity of the y-radiation
source. The method of assembly for the high-intensity source from standard preparations of radioactive cobalt.
Safety devices and accident control. Remote control panel and observation of the physicochemical conditions in
the experiment and processes which take place in the test objects during irradiation.
4. Extension of the possibilities of radiochemical studies: stronger doses, increased volume for the samples
being irradiated, more complicated conditions in carrying out the experiments with the K-20,000 system.
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute
Ministry for Chemical Industries; USSR
LABORATORY COBALT-IRRADIATOR STATION
A. V. Babushkin, I. V. Voznesenskaya, N. G. Zhirov,
V. I. Zatulovsky, and Yu. L. Khmelnitsky
1. Possibilities for initiating and accelerating important reactions in petroleum refining and technology
by the application of y-radiation.
2. Design for a station for studying the effect of y-radiation on petroleum products. The station will have
two y-systems with an activity up to 800 g-equiv. Ra,and one system with an activity of 10,000-16,000 g-equiv.
Ra. In the first two systems the radiation sources are kept in lead containers in concrete blocks. The sample
being investigated is lowered in the block after which the radiators are removed from the containers and irradia-
tion takes place. It is expected that dosage rates of 80-90 thee will be achieved.
In the apparatus with 10,000-16,000 g-equiv. Ra.the radiator is kept behind a water shield and in irradiation
is placed in a concrete enclosure. In the center of the cylindrical irradiator this system is expected to provide
a dosage rate of approximately 500 thee. The irradiator is charged behind a water shield in a separate enclosure.
3. Structural form of the components of the apparatus. Shielding provisions.
All Union Scientific Research Institute for Petroleum
and Gas Refining and Production of Synthetic Liquid Fuel
Ministry of Petroleum Production, USSR
20
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1
SOURCE OF IONIZING RADIATION FOR WORK IN RADIATION CHEMISTRY
V. I. Zatulovsky
1. An x-ray machine as a source of ionizing radiation for work in radiation chemistry. Requirements on
the apparatus and results of work on the construction of x-ray tubes and power supplies.
2. Apparatus with radioactive cobalt for work in radiation chemistry. Characteristics and results lbtained
In the use of the GOP-1 and GOP-400 machines. Comparison of x-ray and cobalt systems.
3. ProJected sys,ems with Coll? activities of 2,500 and 10,000 g-equiv. Ra. Basic computational data and
characteristics of the radiators. Construction of the machine and radiation shielding.
4. Standardization of laboratory design for sources of ionizing radiation for work in radiation chemistry.
Institute for Physical Chemistry
Academy of Sciences, USSR
DESIGN OF AN EXZERIMENTAL SEMI-INDUSTRIAL RADIATION SYSTEM
TO PREVENT GRAIN INFESTATION
E. S. Pertsovsky, A. V. Bibergal, and U. Ya. Marplis
1. One of the most novel of the peaceful uses of atomic energy is the protection of grain against insects.
Laboratory studies show that grain can be freed of warehouse insect pests if it treated with a radiation dose
of 10,000 r.
2. To explore the technological-economic questions involved in the industrial radiation of grain a semi-
industrial device has been built with which 450 kg of grain per hour can be irradiated.
3. The system makes use of a radiator in the form of a cylinder along a generator of which is placed a
rod with radioactive cobalt. The calculated activity of the radiator is 32,000 g-equiv. Ra; however the con-
struction makes it possible to increase this figure to 100,000 g-equiv. Ra.
4. Continuous operation is achieved by using a conveyor which consists of a series of carts which are auto-
matically loaded and unloaded.
5. An original mixed system of radiation shielding is used. When the radiator is charged and removed
water shielding is used; otherwise, "dry" shielding is used.
6. It appears likely that use can be made in such industrial machines of the waste from nuclear reactors,
in radiators of atpropriate design (cellular).
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21
All Union Scientific Research Institute for Grain
and Grain Products
Ministry of Agricultural Products, USSR
p.
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y -IRRADIATOR FOR PRESERVATION OF FOOD PRODUCTS
N. D. Chernyaev
1. Possible forms of radiation treatment of food products and types of radiation suitable for this purpose.
Different radiation sources of value for use in food technology.
2. Technical conditions in an experimental radiator. Requirements for food processing; maximum dosage
rate of the order of 2.25 ferbee; operating volume for the dosage field of 2.5 liters; permissible inhomogeneity
of the dosage field in the working volume not more than 20%; feeding of specimens under irradiation by mechanical
means in the direct flux.
3. Description of a projected cieelp,n for a y-machine for experimental irradiation of food products with
different types of water shielding. The irradtri 1,r is in the form of a "squirrel cage" submerged in water in a
special tank. The active material in the irradiator Is metallic Coe which is used in the form of rods. The se-
parate elements are placed in an aluminum tube 1 m in length. The total activity of the radiator is of the order
of 200 kg-equiv. RA. In charging and renewing the irradiator a supplementary tank is used; this tank is connected
to the operating tank in which all operations are carried out under water.
The produets being irradiattd are fed on a circular conveyor which runs below ground level in a tunnel
which passes through the irradiator.
4. A description of high-activity y-irradiators built in the USA for the irradiation of food products.
All Union Scientific Research Institute for the Preservation
and Vegetable Drying Industry
Ministry for Food Supply, USSR
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CONTENTS
?age
Isotope Production
Certain Problems in the Production of Radioactive Isotopes in a Nuclear Reactor. E. E. Kulish 3
Production of Several Radioactive Isotopes at a 10-Mev Deuteron Cyclotron and a Theoretical
Estimate for the Reaction Cross Sections as a Function of Deuteron Energy. L P. Selinov,
P. P. Dmitziev, L L Zhivotovsky, N. N. Krasnov, E. N. Khaprov, Z. Z. Latypov, and
M. Z. Maksimov
Chemical-Spectral Analysis of High-Purity Materials Used in Reactor Construction and in the
4
Manufacture of RadioisOtopes. A. G. Karabash and Vt. I. Peizulaev 5
Quantitative Spectral Analysis of Impurities in Radioactive Preparations. V. V. Lvov and G. I.
Kibisov
Construction of a-, 8 -, and y-Sources Using Oxide Films on Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys.
M. S. Petrova
6
7
Enrichment of Stable Isotopes by the Electromagnetic Method. V. S. Zolotarev 8
Working Materials for Isotope Separation by the Electromagnetic Method. B. A. Alekseev 8
High-Temperature Ion Source for Electromagnetic Separation of Isotopes of Elements of the
Platinum Group. V. M. Gusev 9
Mass-Spectrometer with an Inhomogeneous Field for Isotope Analysis of Light Elements.
N. E. Alekseevsky, A. V. DubrOvin, G. L Kosourov, G. P. Prudkovsky, S. L Shchelynin,
T. K. Shuvalova, S. L Filimonov, and V. L Chekin 9
Certain Problems in the Theory of Isotope Separation. A. M. Rozcn
11
11
12
Isotope Separation by Gaseous Diffusion. L G. Gverdtsiteli and V. K. Tskhakaya
Diffusion Column for Isotope Separation. G. F. Barvikh and R. Ya. Kucherov
Rectification Column for Obtaining BF3 Enriched in B. Yu. Myulenfordt, G. Eivert, and
T. A. Gagua
13
Investigation of the Separation of Isotopes of the Light Elements. N. M. Zhavoroukov, 0. V.
Uvarov, and S. L Babkov
13
Separation of Carbon Isotopes. N. N. Tunitsky, G. G. Devyatykh, M. V. Tikhomirov, A. D.
? ?
Zorin, and N. I. Nikolaev
14
Low-Temperature Methods for Separating Helium Isotopes. V. P. Peshkov and V. M. Kuznetsov..
15
Relative Abundances of the Isotopes of Germanium and Palladium. K. G. Ordzhonikidze and
G. N. Zubareva
15
22
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(continued)
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2014/01/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002800180003-5
? =I-- r?-?+1:-=,:-",-,.,,4-?sta-e-,:.? ?
,2::???22,TaAl
CONTENTS (continued)
High?Intensity y-Systems
Page
Problems and Trends in the Design of High-Intensity y-Systems. V. I. Sinitsyn
17
4
Principles and Techniques in the Utilization of Radioactive Materials as High-Intensity
y -Sources in Radiobiology and Medicine. A. B. Bibertal, V. G. Khurshchev, and
U. Ya. Margulis
17
Apparatus for Radiation-Chemical Studies. A. Kit Breger, V. A. Belynsky, V. L. Karpov,
18
S. D. Prokudin, and V. B. Osipov
Laboratory Cobalt-Irradiator Station. A. V. Babushldn, I. V. Voznesenskaya, N. G. Zhirov,
18
V. L Zatulovsky, and Yu. L. Khmelnitsky
Source of Ionizing Radiation for Work in Radiation Chemistry. V. L Zatulovsky
19
Design of an Experimental Semi-Industrial Radiation System to Prevent Grain Infestation.
E. S. Pertsovsky, A. V. Bibergal, and U. Ya. Marplis
19
y -Irradiator for Preservation of Food Products. N. D. Chernyaev
20
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ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,USSR
CENTRAL COMMITTEE ON UTILIZATION OF ATOMIC ENERGY
COUNCIL OF MINISTRIES, USSR
ALL-UNION CONFERENCE ON TH,E APPLICATION OF
RADIOACTIVE AND STABLE ISOTOPES IN THE
NATIONAL ECONOMY AND SCIENCE
ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS GIVEN IN THE SESSION ON
TECHNICAL SCIENCES AND INDUSTRIAL USES OF ISOTOPES
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Moscow 1957
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I. METALLURGY AND METAL-WORKING
? THE THERMODYNAMIC ACTIVITY OF SULFUR IN LIQUID IRON
?
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V. K. Zhuravlev and A. A. Zhukhovitsky
The present paper deals with the use of the sulfur isotope S% in studies of the thermodynamic activity of
sulfur in the systems Fe- S- C, Fc- S- Si and Fe- S- P as functions of temperature and the concentrations
of carbon, silicon and phosphorus. Methods which have been described earlier were used in carrying out the
experiments.
The sulfur concentration varied over the range 0.04-0.4% in all the systems. In each system 10 melts with
different carbon, silicon and phosphorus contents were studied.
The carbon concentration in the Fe- S- C syhem varied over the range 0.49-5.051o. The activity coeffi-
cient of carbon then varied over the range 1.16-9.13 at 1550', 1.13-7.6 at 1600' and 1.13-6.02 at 1650'
In the Fe- S- Si system the silicon content varied over the range 0.85-10.45%, while the sulfur activity
coefficient varied over the range 1.20-11.2 at 1560', 1.18-9.10 at 1620' and 1.15-1.70 at 1670'
In the Fe- S- P system the P varied over the range 2.15-15.05%, and the sulfur activity ,coefficient varied
over the range 1.24-5.80 at 1550', 1.23-5.05 at 1600', 1.20-4.15 at 1675'.
From the experimental data obtained AFI, A'S and AT for sulfur were calculated.
In the system Fe- S- C, AR for sulfur varied over the range from 2000 to 2900 cal-atom, and At varied
over the rage from 0.9-11.5 cal/g-atom
In the system Fe- S- Si, I for sulfur varied over the range 2000 to 2400 cal/g-atom, and A-S. for sulfur
over the range 1.16 to 8.4 cal/g-atom?C.
In the system Fe- S- P, tc171 for Sulfur varied over the range 1900-18,500 cal/g- atom, and AS for sulfur
over the range 0.6-6.6 cal/g-atom "C.. The causeof the increase in JrA for sulfur may be that the carbon,silicon
and phosphorus alter the interaction energy between the sulfur and the iron, and also that increases in the con-
tents of carbon, silicon and phosphorus may cause the sulfur to pass from interstitial to substitutional solution.
The large increase in AS for the sulfur cannot be explained by increase in the positional entropy, but is evidently
due to increase in the entropy of vibration.
In the paper a theoretical treatment is given of the solutions of metalloids in liquid iron: for this purpose
both our own experiments and the experimental studies of other workers have been used. The theory is based on
the hypothesis that the dissolved substance forms both interstitial and substitutional solutions with the iron. The
theory is in satisfactory agreement with the experimental data.
Theories which assume that the dissolved substance forms only interstitial solutions with the iron lead to
agreement with experiment up to comparatively low concentration limits of the dissolved substances.
27
Stalin Steel Institute.
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t I
'??????????????????
? "I
"
THE EFFECT OF SLAG STIRRING ON THE RATE OF DESULFURIZATION
OF PIG IRON
V. V. Sosnin, 0. V. Travin and E. N. Yarkho
In order to elucidate the rate-limiting step in the process of sulfur transfer from the pig iron to the blast-
furnace type slag, the effect of mechanical mixing on the rate of desulfurization was studied.
The mixing was carried out by rotating graphite propellers in the slag at different rates at 1375" and 1500'C.
It was found that the kinetics of the process were described by an equation of first order with regard to the
sulfur concentration in the metal both with and without stirring. This enables one to judge the effect of stirring
from the desulfurization rate constant. It was found that the role of the stirring increased as the temperature
fell. This is one indication that the process is of diffusion type.
By using radiosulfur autoradiographs were produced which showed the accumulation of the sulfur in the
slag at its contact with the metal. Microphotometry of the radiographs showed that the thickness of the dif-
fusion layer was approximately 0.01. mm.
Central Ferrous Metallurgy
Research Institute
STUDY OF THE THERMODYNAMICS OF THE DEPHOSPHORIZATION OF
PIG IRON
I. Yu. Kozhevnikov and L. A. Shvartsman
Due to the experimental difficulties,accurate values for the thermodynamic functions in the dephosphor-
ization of iron by slags of various compositions have so far not been obtained.
By using a method in which the iron is subsequently saturated with radioactive phosphorus from the slag,
it was possible to .estimate the effects on the heat of reaction due to the cations and anions in the slag separately
from measurements of the temperature variation of the phosphorus distribution index.
The exact value of the heat of reaction in the dephosphorization of iron by a ferrous slag was found to be
50,000 cal/g-atom. The heat of formation of Fei1004)2 from its oxides was calculated to be about 76,000
cal/g. mole.
It was found that the introduction of the ions Can, Sr and Ba*
into the ferrous slag facilitated the de-
phosphorization due both to increases in the heat of reaction and in the entropy, which increases linearly as
the concentration and radius of the metal ution increase. The effect of the entropy factor, as compared with
the energy one, was greater for Sr and Ba than for Ca It was shown that the dephosphorization capacity
of the oxides of alkaline-earth metals increased with the radius of the cation. The dephosphorization capacities
of FeO and MgO were comparable.
The acidic oxides (Si02 and P206) reduce the entropy of dephosphorization sharply if introduced into the
ferrous-calcium slag. The heat of reaction increases sharply at the same time. In order to explain this, the
hypothesis that the complex anions polymerize is put forward.
28
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When both Si02 and PA are present in the ferrous-lime slags at the same time, the heat of reaction is
65,000-70,000 cal/g-atom, and is practically independent of the acidic oxide concentrations. But the entropy
of dephosphorization then depends materially on the Si02 and P206 concentrations.
It was found that the dephosphorization reaction under open-hearth conditions reached a condition approx-
imating to equilibrium.
Central Ferrous Metallurgy Research
Institute.
MEASUREMENT OF THE TRANSPORT NUMBERS FOR IONS IN MIXTURES OF
FUSED OXIDES
V. I. Malkin, S. F. Khokhlov and L. A. Shvartsman
Measurement of the transport numbers for ions in mixtures of fused oxides gives us information about the
relative mobilities of the ions which is important for a deeper understanding of the structures in liquid silicates,
phosphates and similar systems which are close in composition to metallurgical slags.
In the Metal Physics and Metal-working Institute of the Central Ferrous Metallurgy Research Institute, a
method has been developed for determining the transport numbers of the cations in fused oxides, based on the
measuremewt of small concentration changes. The accurate determination of such changes was realized by
K 42 as rahioactive indicators.
using Cad, Naai,
The transport numbers of calcium ions in calcium phosphate and sodium ions ix sodigi. silicate were de-
termined. It was found that in such melts, the transport numbers of the cations Ca and Na were close to
unity. It was found that when both cal+cium and sodium ions were present in the silicate melt at the same time
(Na2O. Ca0?4SiO) the mobility of Na was about twice as great as that of Ca .
The measurements of the transfer numbers of sodium and calcium ions in a solution of Na2- K20 ? 4Si02
showed that the mobilities of those cations are similar .At the same time, the transfer number of the potassium
Ion in the K20 ? CaO ? 4Si02 melt greatly exceeds the transfer number of the calcium ion and is also greater
than the transfer number of the sodium ion in the Na20 ? Ca0 ? 4Si02 melt. This indicates the existence of a
mutual effect between the interactions of the cations and their mobility.
In the CaO? A1206? Si02 the transport number of the calcium cation falls as the A1202: CaO ratio increases.
This suggests that in the melts of this system, the aluminum may exist in cationic form, and thus may also take
part in transport of the current through the slag.
Central Ferrous Metallurgy Research Institute.
STUDY OF MASS TRANSFER IN LIQUID SLAGS
F. S. vorontsov and 0. A. Esin
This report deals with a method of applying radioactive isotopes in studies on mass transfer in melts in
the system CaO? A1203? Si02 and FeO? Fe203? Si02, these making up many blast-furnace and open-hearth
29
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11M-4?
slags. Particular attention is paid,here to the simultaneous use of two isotopes to study mass transfer, which is
very important, due to the difficulty in reproducing the conditions of high-temperature experiments.
The results presented show that the mass transfer of sulfur in a graphite crucible occurs to a considerable
extent by surface diffusion, since in this case, the crucible material wets the melt but poorly. The prior intro-
duction of a stable sulfur isotope into the slag (about 1(9 increases the wettability of the graphite and reduces
the rate of sulfur diffusion by a factor of 3-4.
A further rise in the wettability, produced by using an alumina crucible, suppresses surface diffusion and
reduces Ds in the blast-furnace slag.
Study of the simultaneous mass transfer of calcium and iron in a blast-furnace slag, melted in a corundum
crucible, showed that the iron diffuses somewhat more rapidly than the calcium. As the temperature increased
this difference became less.
The mass transfer in a fayalite melt was studied by using special thermostats filled with fused copper. The
rate of simultaneous transfer of sulfur and iron appeared to be some two orders of magnitude greater than in a
blast-furnace slag in these experiments, which corresponds to the difference in viscosities of these liquids. The
fraction due to convective transfer in the ferrous slag was greatei than in the blast-furnace slag, which equalized
the apparent coefficients of diffusion for sulfur and iron.
Kirov Polytechnical Institute of the Urals.
4
STUDY OF THE BLAST-FURNACE PROCESS BY
ISOTOPE METHODS
I. P. Bardin, P. L. Gruzin and S. V. Zemsky
Study of the blast-furnace process by isotope methods was carried out at a number of works concerned with
ferrous metallurgy during 1952-6. The present report describes the results of some studies on the movement of
charge materials and the wearing away of refractory linings in blast-furnace ovens.
The experiments were carried out with radioactive isotopes in a number of works, and showed that it was
desirable to study and control the blast-furnace process by the new method. Application of the new method
enabled us to obtain fresh data on the working of blast-furnace ovens. In particular, it was found that the
different components of the charge moved at different rates. It was also shown that the main factors which
control the burning away of the well are the mode of construction and the cooling system, and also the rate at
which the oven is worked. Those wells were of greater durability in which the cooling was more effective,
other things being equal.
30
Central Ferrous Metallurgy Research
Institute,
Kuznets Metallurgical Combine
Magnitogorsk Metallurgical Combine
Dzerzhinsky Metallurgical Works, Novotul,
Ordzhonikidze "Azov Steel" Works.
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STUDY OF THE TYPE OF MOVEMENT OF CHARGE MATERIALS
IN BLAST-FURNACE OVENS
G. G. Lukashev, Ya. S. Gorbanev, L. D. Prikhodko, D. V. Gulyga
A. M. Skrebtsov and A. A. Cherepivsky
Study of the movement of charge materials in blast-furnace ovens is of importance in design of the furnace
profile and in the operation of the whole blast-furnace process.
The schemes for this movement, based on the behavior of models, do not take into account effects due to
a number of technological factors in the real blast-furnace process.
The difficulty of studying the movement of material in the oven is due to the blast-furnace process occurring
under conditions which are inaccessible to investigation.
The use of radioactive isotopes makes it possible to follow the movements of the separate components of
the charge material over the cross section and throughout the whole height of the blast-furnace oven from the
charge hole to the hearth.
The measurements carried out in the present experiments were on the average rate of movement of lime-
stone over a cross section of the furnace, and on the change in this rate with height in the furnace, and they
showed that the velocity with which the limestone moved differed over the furnace cross section. The rate with
which the limestone moved, was largest at the axis of the furnace. The rate of movement of the charge mater-
ials was found to be least at the periphery of the furnace.
The rate of movement of the limestone changed considerably with height in the furnace. The maximum
rate was found in the upper part of the furnace.
Ordzhonikidze "Azov Steel" Works.
SOME QUESTIONS OF METHODOLOGY IN DETERMINING THE BURN-UP OF THE
WELL IN A BLAST-FURNACE OVEN
A. M. Skrebtsov, A. A. Cherepivsky and G. D Muguev
In principle, there are two possible ways of using radioactive isotopes to study well burn-up:
1) including radioactive isotopes in the various layers of the refractory lining of the well upon major re-
pair;
2) periodic determination of the volume of the 'pocket" in the furnace by isotope dilution methods, by in-
serting an isotopic tracer in the pig iron.
The work was carried out in the second way. The phosphorus isotope used was introduced into the hearth in
three ways:
1) in eight iron ampules, via the furnace hopper;
2) in a limestone ampule at level 31,455;
3) in an iron ampule via a port.
31
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V??4?? ."?A ???1*?*?? ? ? 3, ? ?
The first method gives the most uniform isotope distribution over the volume of metal present in the hearth.
A formula is derived for determining the volume of the "space" in the hearth. Relations between the aver-
age computed amount of pig iron in the hearth space and the silicon content in the metal were found.
It was found that in order to label the iron in the hearth uniformly, it was desirable to introduce the radio-
active isotope in several ampules via the feed apparatus on the oven. It was shown that the mixing of the pig
iron in the well of the blast-furnace oven became greater as the temperature rose, which may be estimated in-
directly via the .silicon content of the pig iron.
Ordzhonikidze 'Azov Steel"
Works.
STUDY OF THE KINETICS OF SCRAP FUSION IN THE SCRAP?ORE PROCESS
A. I. Osipov, L. A. Shvartsman, V. I. Alekseev? V. F. Surov, M. L. Sazonov,
M. T. Bulsky, S. A. Telesov, A. M. Skrebtsov,.A. M. Ofengenden,
F. F. Sviridenko and L. G. Goldshtein
The fusion of the solid metal charge in open-hearth ovens takes up a .considerable part of the whole time
required for fusion. The development of technological methods capable of reducing the time required for fusion
must be based on. correct theories of the charge fusion mechanism.
Radioactive cobalt has been used at the 'Azov Steel"and Stalinsk metallurgical works (Donbass) to determine
the rate of fusion of the scrap in the scrap-ore process; this being introduced into the ladle car while it is being
filled with pig iron from the mixer.
The weight of the fused scrap at each instant was determined as the difference between the weight of the
fused metal in the hearth, calculated from the specific activity of the Metal via a test specimen, and the weight
of the fused pig iron present in the furnace at that moment. Account was taken of the amount of impurities in
the crude iron which had been oxidized. Thus, the kinetics of fusion of the scrap were studied in the scrap-ore
process in 350- and 130-ton open-hearth ovens. It was found that the rate of this process, dx/dt, is described
satisfactorily by the following simple kinetic equation:
dx
7t1= K, OM x) ?
The rate constant for the fusion of the scrap, Kp, is an objective criterion for the rate of fusion. This makes
it possible to establish a quantitative relation between the various technological factors and the rate of fusion.
In addition, when the value of Kg is known for a given melt, it is easy to compute the amount of scrap which
has melted at a given instant and the true rate of oxidation of impurities during the fusion. It was shown that the
rate of fusion of scrap increases almost linearly on increasing the heat loadings. Under the conditions found at the
'Azov Steel'
works, the rate of fusion depended materially on the period taken to pour the pig iron in. Shorten-
ing of this operation can lead to an increased rate of fusion and a reduction in duration of the melting.
The rate of fusion of the scrap depends appreciably on the amount of carbon in the vat. Increase in the rate
of oxidation of the carbon also leads to an increased rate-of fusion.
_
Ordzhonikidze 'Azov Steel' Works.
Central Ferrous Metallurgy Research Institute.
32
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STUDY OF THE RATE OF FUSION OF SCRAP IN THE OPEN-HEART.H FURNACE
IN TIIE SCRAP?ORE PROCESS
A. N. Morozov, A. I. Stroganov, 0. Ya. Vainshtein and V. F. Isacv
The period in the open-hearth furnace which has been the least studied is that of fusion, which is due in
the main, to the complexity of study during this period. Radioactive isotopes can be of considerable help in
this connection.
The present study was concerned with the fusion of the charge in a 370-ton open-hearth furnace operating
in the scrap-ore process with 65% pig iron and heated by the gas from metallurgical coke. The radioactive
Co" was introduced with the crude iron before it was poured into the furnace, while the P32 was placed in the
lower layer of the iron ore. From the fall in the radioactivity of a test specimen during the fusion process, the
rate of fusion of scrap was determined, and from the appearance of P32 in the slar, the instant when the ore
ceased to react with the pig iron was judged. Three melts were carried out.
The study showed that the main mass Of scrap (about 70%) melts in the first hour after pouring in the pig
iron. The mechanism of scrap fusion consists in its prior carbonization, by the pig iron. The fall in the carbon
content at the beginning of fusion is in the main, due to dilution of the pig by the scrap. The rate of carbon
burn-out from the serap reaches a maximum during the time that the later portions of scrap are reacting with
the pig iron. The phosphorus content in the metal is also a minimum at this time.
Thus, the main processes which occur during the time of fusion are; fusion of scrap, dephOsphorization
and carbon burn-up? these being closely related.
Chelyabinsk Polytechnical Institute.
Chelyabinsk Metallurgical works.
STUDY OF THE KINETICS OF THE PROCESS OF SLAG FORMATION IN MELTS
IN OPEN-HEARTH FURNACES
L. A. Shvartsman, A. I. Osipov, V. I. Alekseev, V. F. Surov, M. L. Sazonov
M. T. Bulsky, S. A. Telesov, A. M. Skrebtsov, A. M. Ofengenden,
F. F. Sviridenko and L. G. Goldshtein
The study of the conditions under which slag forms during the intial period of fusion is an important prac-
tical task.
Data on the course of the process of slag formation can be obtained by determining the rate of solution of
calcium oxide (limestone) placed at the bottom of the open-hearth furnace. But the determination of this rate
by chemical analysis of test specimens for their calcium oxide contents produces ambiguous results, as
oxidation of impurities in the pig iron and fusion of the scrap occur at the same time as solution of limestone.
In addition, the methods of chemical analysis do not make it possible to determine in which zone the process
of slag formation begins.
The use of radioactive indicators enables us to label various sections of the materials which give rise to
the slag and, taken in conjunction with methods of chemical analysis, make it possible to study the features of
the slag formation process. Such a study is capable of elucidating the conditions under which the slag formation
process can be accelerated, and thus, alsc the rate of production of molten steel.
In the present work, radioactive calcium was used to determine the weight of the slag in the furnace, and
thus, to estimate the rate of solution of calcium oxide from the limestone in the slag.
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It was found that the kinetics of solution of calcium oxide are described satisfactorily by the same equation
as in the solution of scrap, namely :
dx
=(100 ? X)'ll.
eft
The constancy of Ks in each melt enables one to use this quantity to estimate the rate of the slag formation
process. It was found that the relation between the Ks and the rate constants for the fusion of scrap, determined
on the same melts, was regular. The presence of such a relation is a reflection of the physicochemical con-
ditions which determine the courses of both proce.ses asbeing the same- I. e., fusion of scrap and solution of
lime.
The magnitude of the slag formation constant (Ks) increases on increasing the heat loading and reducing
the period taken to pour in the pig iron.
The increase in the slag-formation constant leads to an increase in the average rate of dephosphnrization
during the fusion process.
Central Ferrous Metallurgy Research Institute.
Ordzhonikidze "Azov Steel* Works.
Stalin Metallurgical works, Stalinsk.
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EFFECT OF RESIDUAL SLAG FROM THE PREVIOUS MELT ON THE
DEPHOSPHORIZATION IN TIPPING SIEMENS-MARTIN'FURNACES
A. M. Skrebtsov, F. F. Sviridenko, M. L. Sazonov, M. T. Bulsky,
A. I. Osipov and A. G. Alimov
The functioning of high-load furnaces was studied at "Azov Steel' works under conditions where high-
phosphorus ions are being reworked. The work was carried out with radioactive phosphorus, P32 The isotope
was introduced into the furnace at 0.5-1 hour before tapping off the metal, an even distribution of the isotope
over the whole volume of the slag remaining in the furnace being attained. The weight of the residual slag
was determined from a measurement of the activity, account being taken of the distribution of the radioactive
phosphorus between the metal and the slag. From the increase in the count rate, due to the radiation from the
phosphorus in the slag specimens, which were taken at the subsequent melt after pouring in the crude iren, the
course taken by the mixing of the residual slag, and its reaction with the iron, was determined. The removal
of the phosphorus from the iron was determined by chemical analysis of the slag and of the iron.
The following facts were established:
a) As the amount of residual slag in the furnace increases, and also as the amount of fluidized residual slag
during the initial period increases, the rate of dephosphorization rises noticeably;
b) the effect of the residual slag on the oxidation of the phosphorus when high-carbon steel is reworked is
more marked than in the case of low-carbon steel.
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The practical deduction that can be made from this work is that in order to increase the rate of oxidation
of the phosphorus during the melting, and in order to economize in the slag-forming materials, it is necessary
to alternate low- and high-carbon steels.
Central Ferrous Metallurgy Research Institute.
Ordzhonikidze "Azov Steel" Works.
STUDY OF THE EFFECT DUE TO ORDER OF CHARGE FEEDS ON
THE RATE OF OXIDATION OF PHOSPHORUS
F. F. Sviridenko, A. M. Skrebtsov, M. L. Sazonov, M. T. Bulsky
and A. I. Osipov
The process of oxidation of phosphorus during and open-hearth fusion is an extremely important factor
which determines the time required in the melt and the quality of the molten steel, under the conditions
found in the "Azov Steel" Works. The study of the behavior of phosphorus in the furnace and the working out of
a technique for removing it from the metal is of considerable interest. The interaction of layers of charge fines
(ores and limestone) with the crude iron which is poured in was studied, as well as its connection with the de-
phosphorization of the metal. Radioactive isotopes used in the experiments were of phosphorus, calcium, Ca's
and cobalt.
A method was developed of assaying the radiations from the radioactive isotopes of phosphorus and calcium
separately when they were present at the same time in slag specimens.
The following facts were established:
a) The oxidation of phosphorus occurs more rapidly when a large part of the ore is placed above the lime-
stone;
b) The ore reacts with the crude iron earlier than does the limestone placed above it;
c) The uppermost layer of the charge reacts with the crude iron as soon as it is poured in.
The following recommendation is derived from the work: in order to speed up the removal of phosphorus
from the metal, a part of the ore in the charge should be placed above the limestone.
35
Central Ferrous Metallurgy Research Institute.
Ordzhonikidze "Azov Steel" Works.
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r ?
THE PROCESS OF FUSION OF IRON ORE WITH LIMESTONE, AND THE ORDER IN
WHICH THEY ARE CHARGED IN OPEN-HEARTH FURNACES OF HIGH CAPACITY
V. F. Agapov, A. P. Varshavsky and A. I. Lyakonov
The melting period is the longest part of the open-hearth process. The aim of the present work was to
study the succeision and the rates of fusion in the various zones of the charge materials with the aid of radio-
active isotopes, and also to establish the order of charging the iron ore and limestone which was most advan-
tageous under the conditions found in the Magnitogorsk Metallurgical combine, in order to increase the through-
put of the high-capacity open-hearth furnaces.
The preparations, which contained the radioactive isotopes of sulfur, phosphorus and iron, were mixed with
pieces of iron ore and limestone which were loaded into the open-hearth furnace in the various layers of the
charge materials. The moment when radioactive material appeared in specimens of slag and metal taken dur-
ing the melting showed when the labeled pieces of charge were consumed, and the corresponding layers of the
furnace lining went over to the fused state.
The experimental data gave rise to the following conclusions.
The melting of the nonmetallic charge in the open-hearth melt begins in practice at the instant when the
crude iron is poured in, and passes gradually from the upper layers to the lower ones. The deeper the charge
layers, the later their fusion was completed. The top layers of the charge materials melt first, these being di-
rectly under the scrap, and then the ore layers(placed at ,the bottom). Fusion of the lower layer, in fact, indicates
the end of the fusion of the nonmetallic charge.
The gradual course of the fusion of the charge materials, passing from top to bottom after the crude iron
has been poured in, shots's that the crude iron does not reach the lowest lying layer of the charge,at once,in an
active state, but begins to work through the ore and limestone,layer by layer.
The mean rate of melt-down in the nonmetallic charge of 380-ton open-hearth furnaces at the Magnito-
gorsk Metallurgical combine is about 220 mm/hour at the bottom of the well.
The duration of the melting of the lining materials is found to be shortest when the lining has the minimum
amount of iron ore at the bottom, with a deeper layer of limestone divided with a layer of iron ore, and
with a uniform layer of the remaining ore as the top layer.
Such an order of loading of the lining materials was adopted in the works after the present work had been
performed.
Magnitogorsk Metallurgical combine.
MEASUREMENT OF THE SULFUR CONTENT IN METAL, SLAG AND PRODUCTS OF
?
COMBUSTION DURING THE OPERATION OF 380-TON OPEN-HEARTH FURNACES
P. N. Perchatkin
The study of the reaction between the sulfur in the fuel and the charge material was carried out on experi-
mental melts, radioactive sulfur being inserted in the liquid crude iron (the amount of isotope used was about
3p c /ton) and in the fuel (the amount of isotope used was 2670 pc/melt). In order to determine the radioactive
content of the metal, slag and combustion products, the sulfur was worked up into the form of barium sulfate.
36
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Analysis of the experimental melts showed that on firing the furnace with sulfurous fuel, the sulfur was
absorbed by the charge materials, by the metal and by the slag from the gas phase in the furnace. On using
petroleum residues at rates up to 1400 Kg/hr (up to 40% of the total fuel requirement in heat content) the pro-
ducts of the melt contained 9-14% more sulfur than was present in the charge materials, While on firing the
furnace with a gas mixture only the sulfur content in the melt products, due to its oxidation and removal in
the gas phase, was 8-10% less than in the charge materials.
The greatest absorption of sulfur from the gas phase by metal and slag occurred while the scrap was being
heated and melted. While the charge was being heated, the sulfur was absorbed by the thin layer of iron oxides
which covers the scrap. During the period of fusion, the agents which transfer the sulfur from the gas phase to
the metal are beads of iron in the slag. The radioactivity of barium sulfate prepared from the iron beads when
the isotope was inserted in the fuel exceeds that of the barium sulfate prepared from the metal and slag, and
is close to that of the combustion products. The iron beads are also active in transferring sulfur from the metal
to the slag. When the sulfur content of the combustion products is higher, the iron beads can saturate the metal
with sulfur.
The change in the radioactivity of the slag during the first half of the fusion period corresponded with the
changes in the sulfur content of the slag when the radioactive sulfur was introduced with the fuel.
In addition to the absorption of sulfur from the gas phase by the metal and slag, when the furnace was fired
with sulfur-bearing fuel, part of the sulfur in meta and slag was also oxidized during the various periods, and
was removed as sulfur dioxide from the oven. The gas phase from a Siemans- Martin furnace carries off sul-
fur at once, after pouring of the crude iron, since the sulfur in the crude iron is oxidized by the oxygen in the
gas, and to a great extent by the primary slag, which contains much iron, as well as on blowing the open-hearth
furnace vigorously after adding the iron ore at the end of melting. During this period of the operation, the
radioactivity of the combustion products was observed to be raised when the radioactive sulfur was introduced
into the open-hearth converter.
When the radioactive sulfur was introduced along with the fuel, it was found that it was deposited in the
stack, and that it circulated in the oven system for a long while, before being lost.
Nosov Institute of Ferrous Metallurgy, Magnitogorsk.
DEVELOPMENT OF A METHOD OF DETERMINING THE WEIGHT OF STEEL IN
A STEEL-POURING LADLE
A. I. Ofengenden and L. G. Goldshtein
Radioactive isotopeswere used in order to determine the weight of steel in a steel-pouring conveyor.
The weight of the metal in the crucible was determined from the formula
Co ,
G=K Is
where G is theweight of the radioactive isotope inserted in the meta]; Isis the activity of a standard specimen;
'Co is the input activity of the radioactive meta/ isotope; K is a constant of proportionality.
The experimental melts were carried out in steel-pouring crucibles of capacity 130-140 tons.
37
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
'i-MY'PrAt
4'=,-r---",---Wit-e-t-----742,reziitiaiAtr-? 24:
The isotopes P92, Cc:P.9*nd Ir192 were used, these being introduced at the time when the melt was tapped off.
The experiments showed that radioactive phosphorus, like any other element which becomes oxidized and
enters the slag, cannot be used to determine the amount of metal in the crucible. Radioactive iridium and
cobalt can be used to determine the amount of metal in the crucible. The mean error with which the amount
of metal in the crucible was determined was 2%. The maximum error did not exceed 3.3%.
Stalin Metallurgical works, Stalinsk.
STUDY OF THE CONTAMINATION OF STEEL BY OXIDE INCLUSIONS
DUE TO SECONDARY OXIDATION DURING TAPPING AND POURING OUT
E. I. Malinovsky and A. N. Morozov
The studies were carried out under production conditions on ball-bearing steel. The steel was melted
down in 40-ton ovens and decanted as billets of weight 2.65 tons,by the syphon method.
We first studied the effects due to the refractory materials in the crucible and the syphon tube, and due
to the slag in the contamination of the steel by oxide inclusions. The refractories were labeled with radio-
active calcium.
It was found that the refractory materials were without effect on the contamination of the steel by non-
metallic inclusions.
Secondly, the effect of secondary oxidation on the formation of oxide inclusions in the steel was studied.
Zr s and Taut were used as the radioactive indicators, these being introduced into the completely deoxygenated
metal not long before tapping off.
Specimens of metal taken from the furnace, the ladle and the drawn iron were dissolved by electrolysis
and used for radiometric analysis.
It was found that the zirconium, which became oxidized during the tapping off operation ,was removed
fairly completely from the metal, although the oxidation products from zirconium appear in the liquid steel
as very fine solid particles, like particles of alumina. On the other hand, zirconium which became oxidized
during the pouring-off and crystallization of the steel, remained in it to a considerable extent, thus contam-
inating it with inclusions.
The behavior of tantalum, which has a much weaker deoxidant action, differs essentially from that of
zirconium. A considerable amount of the tantalum is removed from the metal during the tap-off time. The
tantalum is also oxidized during pouring, and almost all the tantalum which becomes oxidized is removed
from the metal, which is evidently explained by the formation of oxidation products which are readily fusible.
38
Chelyabinsk Metallurgical works.
Chelyabinsk Polyteclurical Institute.
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STUDY OF THE NATURE OF SLAG INCLUSIONS IN BILLETS AND
REROLLED SHEET MILD STEEL
D. S. Gerchirov, A. I. Ofengenden and L. G. Goldshtein
The radioactive isotope Ca 46 was used to study the nature of nonmetallic inclusions in air-blown steel.
The experiments presented show that slag, formed on the surface of the metal in the mold and retained, plays
an important part in the formation of nonmetallic inclusions in air-blown steel.
These slag contaminants, which are sometimes present down to large depths in the casting, can be reduced
by increasing the carbon content of the metal, thus causing it to bubble less intensely in the mold.
The slag may be formed by destruction of the syphon walls by the metal on tapping-off, but the main
source of slag formation is the products of self-deoxidation in the mold.
The formation of nonmetallic inclusions can be reduced by removing the slag mechanically with a paddle
from the bubbling metal, and by the use of fluxes to liquify the slag.
It is also to be recommended that the metal be tapped off at a moderate temperature.
Stalin Metallurgical works, Stalitisk.
RATE AND SEQUENCE IN THE CRYSTALLIZATION OP INGOTS
OF BUBBLE-FREE STEEL
M. I. Kolosov, A. N. Morozov, A. I. Stroganov, V. F. Isaev
N. V. Keis and 0. Ya. Vainshtein
Study of the mechanism and rate of solidification of billets is of great theoretical and practical interest.
In the present work, the sequence of crystallization in various billets was studied by different methods: by
tilting the molds, by the temperature changes in the steel and by radioactive tracer methods. Fe69 was used
as the radioactive tracer. Billets of weight 2.86, 5.5 and 6.2 tons, made of steel types Shlth15SG, 10, 45 and
30KhGT were studied. The billets were run in, via a siphon. From these studies, it was found that after the
acicular crystals on the side faces had ceased to grow, a two-phase region at a depth of 30-50 mm was formed
on the side faces, while a two-phase region at depths down to 850 mm was formed in the central part.
The thickness of the solidified layer in a harizontal section was proportional to the square root of the time
of crystallization during the initial phase of crystallization. The coefficient of proportionality was 21-29 mm/
mm /z for carbon steel, and fell on reducing the carbon content of the steel.
39
Chelyabinsk Metallurgical works.
Chelyabinsk Polytechnical Institute.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2014/01/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002800180003-5
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
STUDY OF IMPURITY DISTRIBUTION IN THE CRYSTALLIZATION OF STEEL
V. M. Tageev and Yu. D. Smisnov
This paper gives the results of experiments connected with the study of the action of rare-earth metal
I
alloys (those of cerium, lanthanum and zirconium) on the distribution of impurities in the crystallization of
steel.
Since the corresponding action on liquid steel ensures the removal of sulfur from solution as a disperse
sulfide phase-at an early stage in the crystallization, there will be a marked reduction in its tendency to accum-
ulate by diffusion at Frain boundaries, and thus, for impurities to accumulate in the form of zones of nonuni-
formity ("whiskers" etc.).
The addition of 0.05-0.2% of an alloy of the rare-earth metals to the deoxidized steel causes an increase
in the plasticity (8,0 and impact viscosity (Qk) of the steel in the cast heat-treated state, the rise being larger,
the greater the amount added. This improves these properties of the metal in thick sections of the billets (cast-
ings) which is of particular importance. The addition of 0.05-0.150 of an alloy of the rare-earth metals reduces
the zonal nonuniformity of billets and castings. The same addition of 015-0.20010 practically prevents the
accumulation of impurities (carbon, sulfur, phosphorus, tungsten, etc.), particularly in the form of "whiskers."
Part of the sulfide inclusions are then trapped in the axes of the dendrites (the sulfides become distributed in
..the interaxial spaces of the dendrites in steel which has no additions). Ce141 becomes distributed in a manner4
analogous to sulfur, and is eliminated in the crystallization process as sulfide inclusions. Part of the sulfides
of the rare-earth elements formed, which are of low solubility,are eliminated and float on the liquid metal.
It was found that the floating sulfide phase was enriched in phosphorus and carbon. This effect is of adsorption
type.
On introducing SiZr into deoxidiaied medium-carbon steel, the intra-axial nonuniforrnities ("Whiskers")
in the billet (casting) become markedly more prominent. Zr s5 then becomes distributed in the axes of the den-
drites in the form of inclusions while the sulfides are distributed normally (in the intra-axial spaces). Zr" is
not observed to accumulate in the places where the sulfides do. Consequently, zirconium forms oxygen-like
inclusions.
The results of this work demonstrate a concrete way of developing an industrial method of reducing the
nonuniformities and improving the mechanical properties of cast steel.
SOME QUESTIONS OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE WHERE RADIOACTIVE
ISOTOPES ARE USED IN FERROUS METALLURGY
N. I. Volkova
The industrial use of radioactive tracers in ferrous metallurgy undertakings involves their introduction into
metal or slag as well as the possibility that considerable numbers of workers may come into contact with them.
The Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Diseases Institute of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences has under-
taken a study of the hazards when the isotopes Co", Ca 45 and P32 are used in open-hearth furnaces. It was found
that the preparatory operations are the most hazardous (preparation of active mixtures, unpacking of isotopes).
These operations require special protective measures. A radical measure which renders these operations safe, in-
volves use of special central laboratories at the undertakings. The planning and equipment of such laboratories
must ensure that all operations in which there is a hazard of atmospheric contamination with radioactive dust
and gas are conducted in closed systems, that the spread of radioactive contamination is prevented, and that
shielding against external radiation is provided. In order that the transport of the radioactive isotopes from the
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laboratory to the plant shall be without hazard, it is necessary to comply with special requirements as regards
the construction of ampules and containers, and as regards the conduct of this operation. Directly after the
radioactive isotopes have been inserted in the metal or slag in the open-hearth plant, there is a possibility of
external radiation from the metal or slag and of airborne contamination from radioactive dust. The degree of
hazard is determined by the type of radiation emitted by the isotope used, and by the specific activity of the
metal or slag. The studies carried out showed that when the specific activity of the metal was about 0.2-0.3
mc/ton in the isotopes Ca" and P32, the level of radioactive contamination of the plant and air in the open-
hearth furnaces and in the area when the slag was broken up ,was considerably below the permissible limit. If
the level of activity used were to be increased, this safety would be impaired. The use of long-lived radio-
active isotopes may lead to the accumulation of radioactive contamination in the plant. There is also a hazard
In later uses of the slag and metal which contain the added radioactive substances. According to the figures
calculated, the metal Co" content of 0.1-0.2 mc/ton may be the cause of the y-ray intensity amounting to 0.2
p c /Kg (under the worst conditions) from this metal. The mechanical working of the metal and the crushing
of the slag, both containing radioactive material, may be accompanied by atmospheric contamination with
radioactive dust. In order to reduce the hazard from the radioactive metal, it is necessary to store it before
use for 6-10 half-lives, to label it and to restrict is later uses.
Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Diseases Institute
Of the Academy of Medical Sciences, USSR.
APPLICATION OF MICRO-AUTORADIOGRAPHY TO THE STUDY
OF THE FLOTATION PROCESS
I. N. Plaksin, S. P. Zaitseva, G. A. Myasnikova, L. P. Starchik,
V. I. Tyurinikova and R. Sh. Shafeev
An autoradiographic method was used in the flotation studies in order to determine the type of reagent
distribution over the surfaces, this being first used on sections.
Several methods for micro-autoradiographic study of particles of flotation size were developed and applied
at the USSR Academy of Sciences Mining Institute.
1. The method of"plateletewas as follows.. The mineral powder was treated with a labeled reagent, after
which it was washed untirthe 8-ray intensity was steady. An image of the radioactive isotope distribution was
obtained on a 8-sensitive photographic plate. The developed silver grains were photographed by transmitted
light, the mineral particles being taken by reflected light. The photographs so obtained could be used to
judge the type of reagent distribution over the surface structure.
2. In order to study the distribution of flotation reagents between the minerals in a slime, we used the
method of counting the groups of reduced silver grains produced in a liquefied nuclear emulsion which had had
the mineral particles, previously treated with the labeled reagent, stirred into it. This method was used for
studying the distribution of butyl xanthogenate on the surfaces of galena particles from various fractions of the
foam and nonfoam product.
3. By using a method involving transfer of thin emulsion layers directly onto the mineral particles, the
resolving power was increased. This method was used to study how lime acted in the flotation of pyrites and
galena: it showed that the precipitation found with lime was not only due to attachment of the anion (hydroxyl)
butealso to attachment of the calcium cation, which explains the high efficiency of lime as a precipitant, as
compared with caustic soda.
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2014/01/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002800180003-5
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V.A?A,N
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4. Still greater sensitivity and resolving Dower were obtained by "wet autoradiography;" in this method
a very.thin layer (about lp thick) of a highly sensitive emulsion was transferred to the mineral surface. This
method was used to study the effects of oxygen on the notation of sulfide minerals. The flotation experiments
were carried out in an argon atmosphere with a known oxygen tension in the slime. The micro-autoradiographs
obtained with mineral particles taken from the foam and nonfoam products showed that the adsorption of the
selective agent on the mineral was determined by the amount of oxygen in the slime. The results obtained
were in good agreement with activity assays.
The autoradiograms are given in the report: these show the results from the experiments using each
method of micro-autoradiography as a visible record of the results.
USSR Academy of Sciences Mining Institute
STUDY OF THE INTERACTION OF FLOTATION REAGENTS WITH THE
SURFACES OF SOME MINERALS
S. I. Polkin
This paper gives a short account of results obtained from the study of the interaction of iron, calcium and
tin salts, as well as sodium oleate and tridecylate, with the surfaces of the following nonsulfide mineral
cassiterite, quartz, zircon, pyrochlore , ilmeno ?rutile, beryl, hematite, feldspar, etc. Hematite has a much
greater adsorptive and chemical activity than cassiterite and a number of other minerals; the amounts of iron,
tin, and sodium oleate attaching themselves to hematite are some 10-15 times greater than for cassiterite.
Conditions which favor the formation of iron oleates in the slime lead to a cessation of cassiterite and hema-
tite notation.
Tin ions in small amounts interact selectively with cassiterite surfaces and activate them, while excess
of tin ions facilitates the formation of tin oleates, preventing the cassiterite becoming hydrophobic, and thus
preventing its notation.
Attachment of calcium to the cassiterite and quartz and the trace formation of calcium oleate (analogous
to the oleates of copper, lead, iron, etc.) in the slime, reduces the recovery of cassiterite sharply.
The attachment of iron to pyrochlore, ilmeno-rutile and zircon, as in the case of hematite and cassiterite,
is a maximum in weakly acid and neutral media. Powders of beryl, actinolite, muscovite, albite and quartz,
previously activated by iron, undergo more satisfactory flotation win the maximum amount of iron is attached
to them, but the selectivity among these is then much reduced. Only the bound part of the ion activates the
flotation of the minerals. The unbound part reacts vigorously with the sodium oleate in the body of the slime,
forming iron mono- di- and tri-oleates, which are not bound to the mineral surfaces and do not exert a selec-
tive action.
When iron has previously been bound to the mineral surfaces (with the aim of increasing the selectivity of
notation) the agents studied split up into two series: for pyrochlore and zircon? soda, water glass, caustic soda,
sodium phosphate, sodium fluoride: for ilmeno-rutile? soda, water glass, caustic soda, sodium fluoride, sodium
phosphate.
By radiographic methods, it was possible to determine in the main, the isolated uneven binding of iron, tin,
calcium and tridecylic acid to the mineral surfaces. The results obtained were used to make a number of
theoretical generalizations as to the meehanism whereby the reagents studied interact with the surfaces of non-
sulfide minerals in slime flotation conditions, and to -make some recommendations as to ways of counteracting
the action of iron and calcium on the flotation of ores.
Kalinin Institute of Nonferrous Metals and Gold, Moscow.
42
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ADSORPTION OF DIETHYLDITH1OPHOSPHATE AND BUTYL
XANTHOGENATE ON THE SURFACES OF SULFIDES IN AN ACID MEDIUM
S. I. Mitrofanov and V. G. Kushnikova
The majority of studies on the adsorption of selective agents on heavy metal sulfides have been made In
alkaline solutions.
The region of pH E8, Ea = EB, Ea< Ea.
Graphs of log D vs. 1/T were drawn up. In all cases, a linear relationship was obtained. Consequently,
?E I RT
DM Doe
and since it has been found that
Then
E=CaEa +C8E8'
D DCaDCa.
a
These formulas were checked for the self-diffusion of zinc in a single crystal, since we have found no litera-
ture data on diffusion mixtures of two phases:
1 2 1
Em 7 Ell + =7- /9600 caVg-atom+
2
+ 7. 25900 cal/g-atom = 23 800 cal/g-atom.
50
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The experimental value of E for self-diffusion in a zinc polycrystal, which can be considered as a mixture
of two phases, (perpendicular and parallel to the C axis), is also 23800 cal/g-atom. By analogy;
;
D0 D? II Do 3 im 0.38 cm2/see.
1
The experimental value is Do = 0.42 cm2/sec. Thus, under defined conditions, in spite of the difference
in the diffusion parameters in the separate phases, the effective diffusion coefficient in a two-phase mixture is
covered by the normal formula:
?E I RT
D= Doe ?
Tablcs 1 and 2 give values for the diffusion parameters in the alloys studied.
TABLE 1
Alloy 11
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
1 8
1 0
10
11
E., Kcal/g-atom
1 68 1
78
71
74,5
76.5
66.4
59.8165.5161.5
57.1165.5
TABLE 2?.
No. of alloy
2
3
4
5
Do, cm2/day 3.16.104
5.0.104 9.6.106
1.42.100 1.78.104
No. of alloy
Do, cm2/day
r,
7
SI
11.09?1051 8.9.104 4,57.1041 1.76.1041 1.7.1011 7.98.104
51
Institute of Metal Physics,
Academy of Sciences, Ukrainian SSR
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2014/01/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002800180003-5
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2014/01/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002800180003-5
DIFFUSION IN HETEROGENOUS SYSTEMS
A. D. Sotskov, A. G. Rabinkin and A. A. Zhukhovitsky
This paper deals with the special features of diffusion in heterogenous systems. The work was carried out by
thin film methods in the Ag-Cu.system. Silver was used as the diffusing element, this containing the radioactive
isotope Agin! If the main specimen does not contain Ag110, the coefficient obtained is a complex quantity, which
describes both the diffusion and the self-diffusion. When the radioactive isotope is introduced in the base spec-
imen at the same degree of enrichment as in the attached layer, only the diffusion coefficient is measured.
It was found that in the two-phase a + 0 region, the diffusion coefficient was zero, the self-diffusion coeI-
ficients over the whole of this region being the same. Diffusion and self-diffusion in the B region occur very
rapidly, and the concentrations then become equalized in a few minutes. This is due to the formation of liquid.
micro-regions, which accelerate the diffusion considerably.
When the diffusion in the 0 region was studied, a very thin layer of silver (0.010, was attached in one case,
while in another case, the layer was about 1-2 ?. In the first case, the diffusion practically developed instan-
taneously in a homogenous area, while in the second case, the experiment involved both the heterogeneous
subsequent homogeneous stages. It is of importance that the transition from the first stage to the second does not
occur continuously, but step-wise. Kinks were observed on the kinetic curves in the thin-film method. The
later parts of these stepped lines coincided with the kinetic curves for the first case, while their slopes at short
ttmes after the start were clearly different. At temperatures above the eutectic point, the slope after short in-
tervals was greater, and below this point, they were less, than at after long intervals. At temperatures above the
eutectic point, this first stage in the process gives rise to a liquid layer which accelerates the diffusion, while
below this line the diffusion in the first heterogeneous gage was complicated by phase changes, which retard dif-
fusion. The rate of this stage, may,generally speaking, be defined by the rate of diffusion and by the kinetics of
the phase formation process.
A treatment of the data indicates that the kinetic factor affects the initial phase of the experiment.
?
A consideration of the mechanism whereby the phase boundaries move, leads one to conclude that diffusion
in a heterogenous system takes a specific course, the effect being of Kirkendall type. It was shown that molyb-
denum wires, placed near the 'phase boundaries,were displaced when the boundaries moved.
It was also shown that neglect of the phase tranformations gives an anomalously high effective activation
energy.
Stalin Steel Institute.
DIFFUSION IN RESTRICTED SOLID SOLUTIONS BASED ON NICKEL
A. Ya. Shinyaev
The diffusion of iron in the restricted solid solutions formed in the nickel-titanium and nickel-chromium.
tungsten-alumium-titanium systems was studied as a function of the titanium content.
This choice for the diffusing element is due to the absence of a convenient radioactive isotope of nickel or
titanium. Thus iron was taken for the diffusing element as it is the element most closely allied to nickel, on which
the alloys are based.
52
-PliOttset:
?
?
?
?
The value of the diffusion coefficient was determined by a method we developed, which uses electrolytic
polishing for removing layers, and by measuring the intensity of the radiation from the solutions obtained by
electrolytic polishing of each layer.
The alloys studied fell in the unsaturated, saturated and two-phase regions of these systems. This enabled
us to explain the effect of saturation of the solid solution in nickel on its diffusion characteristics. The diffusion
coefficients were measured over a wide temperature range; thus, it was possible to determine the diffusion
parameters with high accuracy.
The study of the diffusion of iron in the alloys in these systems showed that the curves relating the alloy
composition to the diffusion coefficients had features typical of restricted solid solutions. At low temperatures,
the curves relating the alloy composition to the diffusion coefficients had sharp minima in the regions where the
solid solutions were saturated. As the temperature was raised, the minima were displaced towards the saturated
solid solution side.
This fact enables us to deduce that saturation of a solid solution with alloying additives materially affects
the changes in the alloy diffusion characteristics, causing occurrence of a minimum coefficient of diffusion and
a maximum activation energy on the curves relating the alloy composition to the diffusion coefficients.
Baillov Metallurgy Institute, Academy of Sciences,
USSR.
STUDY OF THE DIFFUSION OF Co6? IN NICKEL/MOLYBDENUM ALLOYS
S. D. Gertsriken , I. Ya. Dekhtyar and V. S. Mikhalenkov
Heat-resisting alloys based on nickel in which the main added element is molybdenum are used very widely.
Typical alloys of this type are such as "Khastella," which contain up to 3O Mo.
Diffusion in binary nickel/molybdenum alloys was studied: the compositions of these are given in the
Table: Cog was used as the tracer by the absorption method. Although the diffusion parameters are not charac-
teristics which determine the heat resistance completely; nevertheless, the mobility of the atoms determines the
maintenance of a given structure in the alloy, and the activation energy for diffusion reflects the ? strength of the
interatomic bonds. The diffusion coefficients for cobalt in the alloys studied were determined over the tempera-
ture range 1050-1250C; over this range, all the alloys are uniform solid solutions.
The diffusion coefficients, D, which were obtained, fall satisfactorily on a straight-line graph relating log D
and 1/T, and from this, the activation energy for diffusion, E, may be computed, as well as the pre-exponential
factor Do.
The values of E and Do found are given in the table..
mo, at. %
q
Ds, cm2/sec.
Ey Kcal/mole
?
3.14
0.784
0.078
66.0
7.91
0.933
0.21
69.0
10.29
1.0
6.35
79.6
.4 12.99
0.086
66.5
16.79
0.046
65.0
20.56
0.0044
58.5
?
53
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Co .y Ap roved for Release
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!,..g3.4VW6
The curve relating activation energy for diffusion to concentration, which has a sharp maximum at the
alloy with 10.29 at. (70, is in good agreement with theoretical ideas as to the atomic interactions in alloys based
on transition-group elements, in which the interaction of the S and d-electrons, by completing the incomplete
d-orbitals, increases the strengthrof the interatomic bonds. The degree of filling in the incomplete d-orbitals
may be specified by a "completion coefficient':
do- ds
q=
do
where do is the number of unpaired d- electrons per atom in the gaseous state, as computed from spectroscopic
data;
ds is the number of unpaired d-electrons per atom in the solid state.
The values of scomputed for the alloys used, which are given in the table, show that the activation energy
for diffusion increases in the same way as q, as far as the alloy with 10.29 at.10, for which q= 1. Further increase
in the molybdenum content of the alloy raises the electron concentration, and thus, the kinetic energy of the
electron system, while the potential energy is unchanged; this must lead to a dropinthe energy of the atomic
interactions, and thus, to a drop in the activation energy for diffusion, which is related to it.
The diffusion data can be used to derive the temperature coefficient of the elastic modulus. The pre-ex-
ponential factor Do is given by the formula D = ya2e R, where 8 =-
efficient of the elastic modulus, found from the straight line graph relating log Do and E/R.
The mean temperature crfficient of the elastic modulus estimated from the diffusion data obtained on the
alloys used was 7$ ? 10 4'C over the temperature ranged studied.
is the temperature co-
Institute of Metal Physics, Academy of Sciences,
Ukrainian SSR.
EFFECT OF MANIFOLD COMPRESSION ON THE SELF- DIFFUSION IN
POLYCRYSTALLINE ZINC
S. D. Gertsriken and M. P. Pryanishnikov
The self-diffusion parameters of polycrystalline zinc were determined by tracer metnods in this work at
hydrostatic pressure of 1-3 atm. and 80 atm., over the temperature range 270-380?. The work was carried out
on All-Union State Standard 989-41 zinc, in the forms of cubes and strips.
The experimental data are given in the table below.
The following expressions were obtained for the temperature dependence:
at pressures of 1-3 atm.
at a pressure of 80 atm.
3_6R400
D=3.111 ? 105 exp T cm-/day,
22RO00)
D =9.73 ? T
exp cm2/day.
54
?
?
?
?
?
e, ?0
3 atm
i!' cm2/day
strip cube
270
290
300
307
312
336
250
375
380
0.97
1.75
2.20
3.73
11.2
50.4
47.7
0.66
2.71
42.4
n?Pin:,84)cmlaltdmay
strip cube
^
1.47
3,22
5.05
6.10
9.27
17.8
.22.9
71.9
34.8
0,93
2,69
4.63
4.95
8.33
12.2
16.8'
32.8
24.1
Consequently, close compression of the specimens reduces the activation energy of self-diffusion consider-
ably, and raises the atomic mobility appreciably.
For example, the activation energy drops from 26.4 kcal/g-atom at 1-3 atm. to 22 kcal/g-atom at a press-
ure of 80 atm. The self-diffusion coefficient increases by a factor of 1.5-2.5.
Institute of Metal Physics, Academy of
Sciences, Ukrainian SSR.
STUDY OF THE DIFFUSION IN ZIRCONIUM AND SOME OF ITS
ALLOYS BASED ON RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE METHODS
E. V. Borisov, Yu. G. Godin, P. L. Gruzin, A. I. Evstyu khin and V. S. Emelyanov
This paper deals with the study of self-diffusion in zirconium, zirconium/tantalum and zirconium/niobium
alloys containing 2.5% Ta and 10% Nb, in a ternary zirconium alloy containing 1.33% Nb and 0.67% Ta, and
the diffusion of tantalum in zirconium.
The study of self-diffusion and the diffusion of tantalum in zirconium was carried out on specimens of
zirconium prepared by the iodine method. The alloys used for the diffusion work were made in an arc furnace,
type MIFI-SM-3.
The diffusion coefficients. were determined by measuring the total activity of the specimens. The isotope
Zr s5 was used in the experiments on self-diffusion in the form of a metallic powder, while in the experiments
on the diffusion of tantalum in zirconium, radioactive tantalum metal, containing Tam was used.
The self-diffusion and diffusion coefficients were determined in the a and 8 regions for pure zirconium. In
the alloys the self-diffusion coefficients were determined in the 8 region in the two-phase a + y region.
The temperature variations of the self-diffusion coefficients for zirconium were defined by the equations:
D13-zr = 10-4 exp (-27 000/ RT) cm2 / sec
Da-zr = 10-
7 exp (- 22000/ RT) cm2/sec
In the case of the diffusion of tantalum in zirconium the temperature variation of the diffusion coefficient
took the form:
55
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1
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5 .10'5 oxp (? 27 000/ 117) cnNsec
D
= 10 oxp (? 70 000/ RT) cmzIsec. ci-zr
The results on the diffusion parameters in the 13 region alloys show that alloying zirconium with tantalum
and niobium raises the activation energy and retards the diffusion somewhat.
The diffusion coefficients for alloys falling in the two-phase region were determined approximately, since
their values were found to be at the limits of sensitivity of the method used.
Comparison of the self-diffusion coefficients for zirconium, cobalt, nickel, iron and chromium, which all
have about the same melting point.shows that zirconium differs from the other metals in having a high diffusion
mobility, and low activation-energy values:" These results enable one to elucidate some of the special features
shown by the behavior of zirconium alloys at high temperatures. In particular, one may suppose that the com-
paratively low limiting temperature of heat resistance in zirconium alloys is due to the high rate of the diffusion
processes.
It may be supposed thatke main cause of the high diffusion mobility in.zirconium alloys is an intragranular
structural factor. Its importance in-this case is due to the 8 --- a phase transformation.
A
Moscow Physico-Engineering Institute.
STUDY OF THE DIFFUSION; SOLUBILITY AND SEGREGATION OF
SOME IMPURITIES IN GERMANIUM BY RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE METHOD
A. A. Bugai, V. N. Vasilevskaya, V. E. Kosenko and E. G. Miselyuk
The following investigations were carried out in this work:
a) the diffusion and solubility of silver and iron in germanium over the temperature range 700-930' ;
b) the segregation and solubility of Silver, iron, tin, and
antimony in germanium on crystallization.
Methods. The studies of the diffusion and solubility of silver, as well as those on the segregation and solu-
bility in germanium on crystallization,were carried out by tracer methods, using the radioactive isotopes Ag113,
Fe", sn114, sbl 24.
The experiments on the solubility and diffusion coefficient were made on specimens of pure germanium
monocrystal, with specific resistances greater than 35 ohm -cm. Diffusive annealing of the specimens with iron
was carried out in vacuo, while the diffusive annealing of the specimens with silver was carried out in an argon
atmosphere.
The segregation of impurities upon crystallization was studied by measuring the ratio
Cs
CL
K =
where Cs is the impurity concentration in the crystal;
CL is the impurity concentration in the liquid.
This ratio defines the effective segregation coefficient under the given conditions of crystallization.
The impurity concentrations in the germanium were determined from the activity of the specimen, while
the solubility at the temperature of crystallization was computed from the value Cs, at which the value of K
began to increase sharply.
56
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Rel
?
3.
.4
The activity measurements were made using a y-ray scintillation counter.
Results and Discussion. The limiting solubilities Co for silver and iron in germanium have maximum
values: for silver at 875? Co = 1 ?j0/5 cm-3, while for iron at 850 Co =1..5 ? 1016 cm 3. At 750? the solubility
for silver falls to Co =1 ? 1 014 Cm 3 , and for iron to Co = 6 ? 10" cm-3. The diffusion coefficients in germanium
were expressed by the formulas:
for silver
for iron
D =4.4 ? to-2e -23000/RT
D = 0.13e
-249?0 /RT,
where R is the gas constant and T is the absolute temperature.
The anomalously high diffusion coefficients for silver and iron in germanium.as well as the comparatively
low activation energy for diffusion, enable one to assume that the mechanism of diffusion for these elements is
interstitial.
From the values of Cs and CL the segregation coefficients were determined, the values obtained being:
for iron Ko =1.0 ? 106, tin Ko =1.5 ? 10 -2, antimony IC0= 2.5 ? 10-3 and silver Ko =1.5 ? 106. The work
showed that the effective segregation coefficients for these impurities begin to increase sharply at certain values
of C5, these 6eing, tor iron Cs = 3.0 ' 1016 cm-3, tin Cs = 2.0 ? 10" cm-3, antimony, Cs =6.0 ? 1013 cm-3,
and silver C S =1 5 ? 10 cm-3.
From metallographic data and from autoradiograms it was possible to explain the sharp rise in Ko at the
commencement of the elimination of the impurities at the grain boundaries in the mosaic and within the grains
which were in excess of the limiting solubilities.
On the basis of these dat it is asserted that the values of Cs given above correspond to the solubility limits
for these impurities in germanium t the crystallization temperature.
Institute of Physics, Academy of Sciences,
Ukrainian SSR.
STUDY OF THE DIFFUSION OF SOME METAL IN SELENIUM
A. A. Kuliev
Here the diffusion of iron and zinc in selenium, which is widely used in selenium rectifies and rectifier
photocells, was studied.
tion.
The work was performed with radioactive tracers by Kryukov and Zhukovitsky's method, using 8-ray absorp-
Selenium foils of thickness 110p were used, these being made from selenium of 99.996% purity, which had
been homogenized and crystallized at 130?C and 200?C for several hours. Radioactive iron and zinc were de-
posited on one side of the foils by electrolysis.
The specimens were given diffusive annealing, and then the ratio of the radiation intensities on the two
sides of the foil were measured as a function of the annealing time.
The annealing was carried out in vacuo at a temperature constantat 04.5?C. The experiments were performed
at 40, 70 and 100?. The experimental data showed a relation between the diffusion coefficient and the atomic
radii of the elements diffusing. The activation energies were computed from the experimental data. The dif-
57
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fusion coefficients of gemanium, mercury and sulfur in selenium were also deterTined.
Physics and Mathematics Institute.
Academy of Sciences, Azerbaidzhan SSR.
EFFECT OF ALLOYING ON THE STATE OF
THE CARBON ATOMS IN ALLOYS
Yu. F. Babikova and P. L. Gruzin
1. The properties of metallic alloys depend on the nature of the interactions between the metal atoms in
the alloy. Much attention has therefore been devoted to elucidating the states of atoms in solid solutions.
Valuable information on the question has been obtained from the intensities of x-ray diffraction patterns. More
direct information about the states of atoms in alloys can be obtained from atomic transfer in electric fields.
The data so obtained on transfer, are also of some practical interest.
2. The method used for studying carbon transfer in solid solutions was as follows: a) prepa,ration of speci-
mens saturated with radioactive carbon C14 , by sintering; b) annealing of the specimens in an oven while
simultaneously passing electric currents through them; c) activity measurements on the specimens; d) drawing
up longitudinal radioactive distribution curves and computation of the transport number (n). The method devel-
oped makes it possible to study carbon transport in alloys quantitatively. ?
3. The report presents the main results for the transport of carbon in ferrite and nickel at temperatures in
the 500-900'C range. Data were also obtained on the effect of adding small amounts of various elements to
the ferrite and nickel. The temperature dependence of the transport numbers was determined for the following
alloys: Fe; Fe-Ni (109; Fe-Ni (209; Fe-Cr (2.51); Fe-Cr (6%); Fe-Mn (lob); Fe-Mn (209; Fe-Si (209; Fe-
-Si (370); Ni; Ni-Cr (1%); Ni7Cr (4%).
Data of greater importance are those relating to the degree of ionization of the atoms in the lattice,
i. e., the values of the ionic charges z, rather than the transport numbers. The relation between z and n may
be expressed as follows:
Z =
8.95 ' 10 nT
Dp
where D is the diffusion coefficient; p is the specific resistance and c is the concentration difference in the
specimen.
The charges on the carbon ions in the above alloys were computed from the formula. At the tempera-
tures used, the charges on the carbon ions were roughly the same in all alloys.
4. It was found that in a-iron and nickel was transferred toward the cathode when an electric field was
applied. The carbon cationic charges were about 4 units in ferrite and 2 in nickel. The addition of silicon
and nickel reduced the degree of ionization in the carbon by about 2 units. Addition of chromium to the ferrite
did not cause a noticeable change in the charges on the carbon ions in the ferrite, while on alloying nickel with
chromium, the charge on the carbon cations increased by 3-4 units. The carbon atoms dissolved in a ferrite
alloyed with manganese had charges of 3-4 units.
58
.?
?
?
?
?
?
5. It was found that all the carbon atoms dissolved in these alloys were ionized.
Central Ferrous Metallurgical Research Institute.
STUDY OF THE DIFFUSION OF IRON IN REFRACTORIES
USING THE ISOTOPE Fe"
E. A. Prokofyeva and V. V. Goncharov
As metallurgical processes are intensified, the wearing out of basic refractories increases continually. This
primarily refers to magnesite-chromite refractories used for lining the cupolas of steel-melting ovens. Refrac-
tories containing chromite have a definite tendency to take up iron oxides, and this is the most important factor
contributing to their destruction in use. Hence, a study of the type and mode of diffusion of iron oxides in basic
refractories, and above all, in cupola ones, is of great practical importance.
The diffusion coefficients, D, were determined by the usual method of taking layers, using the isotope Fe";
D was determined at 1500, 1600 and 1700' for magnesite, magnesite-chromite and chromite refractories;
the following results were obtained: a) the value of D is directly related to the porosity, in general; b) the basid
refractories can be arranged as follows, in order of increasing D;.
Refractory
Tempria- 1Porosity
u. %
D.11',nue,
crn2/sec
Magnesite 1600
20.5
22.0
Magneslte/hromiir4 1600
22.7
34,0
Chromite .600
18.2
42.0
?
I.
59
c) the value of D increases more rapidly over the range
1500-1600' than it does over the range 1600-1700'.
The type of diffusion shown by iron oxides in Dinas.
bricks, differs shaiply from those in the refractories above,
and is the least stable to penetration by iron oxides, as
compared with them.
The value of D and the diffusion length may be used
for comparative quantitative calculation of the tendency
of refractories to absorb iron oxides.
Refractories Institute.
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2014/01/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002800180003-5
STUDY OF THE DIFFUSION PROCESS OF IRON AND
CHROMIUM IN THE OXIDES a?AliO3, a?Cr203, N1Cr204 and NIA I,04
D. V. Ignatov, I. N. Belokurova and M. N. Be1yanin
?
The study of oxidation processes in alloys based on the systems Fe? Cr? Al and Ni? Cr? Al, which are
widely used in practice with small amounts of other elements added is of great interest, particularly as regards
the diffusion parameters of iron and chromium in the oxides which form on these alloys at high temperatures:
i. e., cr-A1203, a-Cr20s, NiCr204 and NiA1204.
The specimens used were prepared by sintering the compressed oxides at 1200-1600?.
Layer sampling was used to determine the diffusion process. The layers of active iron or chromium, of
thickness from 0.1p to lp , were transferred to the specimens by evaporation in vacuo. The diffusive annealing
was carried out in quartz tubes or ampules in vacuo of about 10-10-2mm Hg at 900-1200' for chromium and 1000-
1200 for iron. These temperature ranges were chosen so that the diffusion and oxidation parameters could be
compared.
The results showed that in this temperature range, the diffusion coefficients for chromium and iron in these
oxide systems varied exponentially with temperature.
The values of the activation energies and pre-exponential factors computed by the method of least squares,
are given in the table.
?
?
System
0, kcal/mol
D, cm2/sec
Diffusion of Cr:
? ?
cc-Cr203
22000
4.29.10-5
NiCr204
44800
2.03.10-5
NiA1204
50000
1.17.10-5
A
Diffusion of Fe:
a-Cr203
44000
4.95.10-5
NiCr204
61000
1.35.10-5
a-A1203
82000
1.13
The values of the activation energies obtained were in agreement with the rates of oxidation in the alloys
based on Ni? Cr? Al, and with the rates of evaporation and the heats of formation of the oxides a-Cr203,
cc-A1203, NiCr204, NiA1204.
60
Baikov Institute of Metallurgy
Academy of Sciences, USSR.
?
?
MEASUREMENT OF THE VAPOR PRESSURE OF SOLID SUBSTANCES
AND THEIR BINARY ALLOYS
A. N. Nesmeyanov
Radioactive isotopes were used to measure the vapor pressures by isotope exchange methods, and also in
some of the various static methods?those due to Knudsen and Langmuir.
The vapor pressure of solid arsenic,, bismuth, silver, zinc, cadmium, antimony, calcium, strontium, gold
and copper were measured, as well as those of the binary alloys Zn? Cd, NaC1? KCI, KC1? RbC1, Sb? Ag,
Sb? Cu, Ag? Cu.
The radioactive isotopes used were As", Znu, Cdlls, Sbl*, Ca", Stu, Mile, Agin, Cue, K", Nae and Rb".
The measurements showed that the vapor pressure of the components in the eutectic melts (Zn? Cd, NaC1?
KO were equal to those of the pure components.
Melts which form chemical compounds can be divided into two types The first type comprises those com-
pounds which decompose at the surface on evaporation, the alloy behaving as a solid solution. The second type
does not give compounds which decompose on evaporation, and measurement of the vapor pressures of the com-
ponents separately gives the same results.
The data on the vapor pressure of the components in solid solutions show negative deviations from Raoult's
law for alloys of gold with silver and copper, and complex shapes for the curves relating the vapor pressures of
the components to the composition of the solid solutions formed between potassium and rubidium chlorides.
Lomonosov State University, Moscow
USE OF ISOTOPES FOR STUDYING THE MOBILITY OF ATOMS AND
INTERATOMIC INTERACTIONS IN METALS
E. Z. Vintaikin, P. L. Gruzin and S. N. Fedorov
Much attention has been given to atomic interactions in metals and alloys in recent years. The quantities
which define the strengths of the interatomic bonds are the heat of sublimation and the vapor pressure. Radio-
active isotopes are used to determine these parameters for metals. However, no convenient radioactive isotopes
are available for some metals. In such cases, stable isotopes and mass spectrometry are used.
The report describes a method for determining the vapor pressures of metals based on line-intensity meas-
urements in the mass spectrometer. This method has a number of advantages. In particular, it is possible to
study the structure of particles in the gas phase and, simultaneously, to measure the vapor pressures of several
components of the alloy. The.report describes the results obtained by the new method for the heats of sublima-
tion of cadmium, zinc and silver.
61
Central Ferrous Metallurgy Research Institute
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2014/01/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002800180003-5
it
P
DETERMINATION OF THE THERMODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE COMPONENTS IN ALLOYS
A. P. Lyubirnov and A. A. Granovskaya
Determination of the thermodynamic characteristics of the components in alloys in the solid and liquid
states is of great importance for solving problems in theoretical metallurgy. The method most widely used
for deriving these quantities is the evaporation method, the vapor phase being analysed subsequently, and the
partial vapor pressures being determined. It is very convenient to use a mass spectrometer for che analysis, the
composition of the vapor phase being thereby, determined directly: very small amounts of the substances are
also sufficient for this purpose. The latter circumstance is extremely important in studying solid alloys at high
temperatures, since the surface of the specimens may become appreciably depleted of readily evaporating
component.
The method was checked on the binary systems Fe? Ni and Fe? Co at temperatures in the range 1150-1430%
The concentrations of the components in the vapor phase were determined, using the isotopes Fe", Nisi, Ni" and
Con. During the experiment the ion currents were measured, the ratios of these corresponding to the ratios of
the concentrations of the components in the vapor phase at each temperature and concentration.
To determine the partial vapor pressures, the following expression, derived from the Gibbs-Duhem equation,
was used:
dAr9 ?
Pa ? J fila
(1)
where P0 is the total pressure due to both components;
Pais the vapor pressure of the pure component a at the temperature of the experiment;
Na and Nb are the molar fractions of the components in the solid phase;
Na And Nb are the molar fractions of the components in the vapor phase.
The numerical values of the integrals appearing in formula (1) were found from the graphs of the relation-
ships
and
Na
Nb
= t Oro
The results obtained showed that the Fe? Ni and Fe? Co systems were close to ideal in this temperature
range, and only at the lowest temperaLures used were there small deviations from ideality.
Stalin Steel Institute, Moscow.
62
?
?
?
4
STUDY OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF CARBON IN IRON ALLOYS BY
RADIOGRAPHIC METHODS
A. S Zavyalov and B. I. Bruk
The problem of the redistribution of carbon in iron alloys upon heat-treatment has not received a satisfac-
tory experimental solution so far.
The present work deals with the study of the redistribution of carbon in iron alloys, in which the alloying
elements are, separately, nickel, chromium, silicon, manganese and molybdenum, and which contain 0.03-
0.05&70C the work being carried out by autoradiography, using the carbon isotope Cu.
The studies of the radioactive alloys by autoradiography in the annealed state made it possible to show
that all these alloys,after being annealed, showed a nonuniform distribution of carbon, the grain boundaries
being enriched.
It was found that by quenching from temperatures of 950 and 1200?, all the autoradiographs gave a uniform
blackening, which shows that the distribution of carbon is uniformly relative to thp grain boundaries in austenite
When the alloys of iron with chromium and manganese had stood at 590?C for 10 hours, the carbon distri-
bution in them appeared as uniform as before, while in the alloys with nickel, silicon and molybdenum there
was a marked redistribution of the carbon towards the intergrain boundaries. This confirms the hypothesis that
chromium and manganese freezein the structure, being elements which form carbides, preventing the redistri-
bution of the carbon on annealing; and that the elements which do not form carbides(Si and Ni) intensify the
processes which eliminate carbon.
As regards the Fe? Mo alloys; the rapid diffusion of carbon to the grain boundaries on tempering this alloy,
is explained by the fact that at a molybdenum content of 12.5%, the alloy becomes two-phase, the former being
disposed around the grain boundaries, as occurred in the previous work.
The uniform distribution of carbon with regard to the grain boundaries which was found in the Fe? Cr and
Fe? Mn alloys as a result of tempering, confirms that the alloying elements themselves(Cr and Mn) do not con-
centrate near the austenite grains, or else the carbon would diffuse to the grain boundaries when these alloys are
tempered.
Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry.
NATURE OF THE INTERGRANULAR FRACTURE OF CAST AND
REHEATED STEELS
M. A. Studnits and I. L. Mirkin
The majority of investigators attribute the origin of the structures which lead to intergrain fracture in steel
to the enrichment of the austenite grain boundaries with various elements. The mechanism of enrichment has
been dealt with in different ways in the various papers.
Using autdradiography, the distributions of C, S, Si, W, Mo, Ni, P and Cr in steel were studied, these showing
intergrain fracture. It was found that S, Mo, P, Cr and C accumulate at austenite grain boundaries; W, Si and
Ni do not.
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This work showed that the formation of structures in steel which lead to intergrain fracture occur owing to
maintenance of steel above some critical temperature for a long time, this temperature being termed the gran-
ulation temperature (Tgr). Study of the redistribution shown by the elements when the granulation structures
form, demonstrated that above Tfly the mobilities of elements which accumulate at grain boundaries rose by
a factor of more than 104.
The mobilities of elements .s.hich do not accumulate at grain boundaries changed slowly with temperature.
It was deduced that intergrain fracture is due to the appearance at austenite grain boundaries of liquid sub-layers.
These sub-layers result from the fusion of the eutectic present in the steel. The conditions leading to intcrgrain
fracture in steel may be completely eliminated by removing the low- melting eutectic from the steel by treat-,
ing it with elements which form high-melting compounds with sulfur, such as cerium.
Branch of the All-Union Research Institute,
Ministry of Transport Machine Construction.
CALCULATION OF THE AMOUNTS OF 8?RADIATION REQUIRED FOR
RADIOGRAPHIC AND RADIOMETRIC STUDIES
L. M. Efimov
There are,at present, almost no data with whicn to compute the minimum concentration of active additive
required in the specimen under study, which will ensure an autoradiograph of the requisite density within a
given time period. So far, not even the simpler connection between the specific activity of the tracer in any
medium and the flow of 8-particles and secondary electrons ejected from unit surface has yet been derived.
The present paper constitutes an attempt to perform a theoretical calculation of the electron flux from the
specimen, and on this basis to decide how much 8-emitting tracer is required for activity measurements and
radiography.
Central Ferrous Metallurgy Research Institute.
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RADIOGRAPHIC STUDY OF THE NONUNIFORMITY OF INTRA?
CRYSTALLITE SULFUR AND PHOSPHORUS IN WELDED JOINTS
B. A. Movchan and L. A. Poznyalc
The radioactive isotopes of sulfur and phosphorus have been widely used in studying intracrystallite non-
uniformities in welded joints. Butt-welded joints constitute a special part of the metal sheet which is usually
not given any subsequent heat treatment. The intracrystallite nonuniformities formed in the primary crystal-
lization period affect the physicomechanical properties of the welded joint in an important fashion. Some
work has been carried out at the Institute of Electric Welding,which was concerned with the macroscopic and
microscopic chemical noniniformities in welded joints, the radioactive isotopes of sulfur (S) and phosphorus
(P32) being used. The following results were obtained from this. work.
64
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S.
1. In welded joints produced under average welding conditions, the intracrystallite nonuniformities, as
judged from the sulfur and phosphorus, were 10010 less than in billets of the same chemical composition which
were cooled slowly.
2. Increasing the rate at which the metal in the welded joint was cooled reduced the intracrystallite non-
uniformities of sulfur and phosphorus. Preheating of the welded metal increased the intracrystallite nonunifor-
mity in the welded joint.
3. The boundary zones in the crystallites, which were enriched in sulfur, were of considerable width in
welded joints made from low-carbon steels, constituting a supersaturated solid solution. Sulfides were absent
from these zones.
4. In welded joints made from stainless steel type 1Khl8N9, raising the nickel contents somewhat increased
the intracrystallite nonuniformities due to sulfur.
5. Increasing the carbon content in the welded joint metal raised the intracrystallite liquation of sulfur
considerably: when the carbon content in the welded joint metal was greater than 0.2/0, sulfides appeared,
these being demonstrated by the usual methods.
6. Increasing the manganese contents of welded joints in medium carbon steel caused a drop in the intra-
crystallite liquation of sulfur.
Paton Institute of Electric Welding,
Academy of Sciences, Ukrainian SSR.
4
STUDY OF THE REDISTRIBUTION OF CHROMIUM IN THE ARC
WELDING OF STAINLESS STEEL BY RADIOACTIVE INDICATOR METHODS
B. I. Bruk
When chrome-nickel stainless steels are welded, it is essential to ensure that their tendencies to hot frac-
ture are avoided, as well asto maintain the desired anti-corrosion and mechanical properties of welded joints.
This implies that a definite minimum amount of chromium must be retained in the metal joint for a given
nickel content.
In order to replace the lack of chromium in the joint metal, which is due to its being burnt up in the wel-
ding, detinite quantities of chromium have to be included in the electrode coating. The experimental determin-
ation of the amounts required is of considerable difficulty, since the sources from which the chromium in the
joint is derived are:the base metal, the rod and its coating; the degrees to which the chromium from these
sources enters the joint are not the same.
In order to determine the utilization factors for the chromium in the base metal, the rod and its coatings
s eparately, radioactive isotope methods were used, the tracer isotope being Cr51. The isotope was included sep-
arately in the base metal, the road and its coating, which made it possible to determine the utilization factors
for the chromium from all three sourcesiseparately, although large amounts of chromium were present at the
same time in all of them.
e The work was carried out with stainless steel type 1Kh 18N9T and with TsL-11Kh electrodes.
The activities of metal and slag were assayed using a cylindrical aluminum-wall counter. From the activ-
ity measurements of the part due to each ingredient in the weld, chromium was determined.
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Using this method, it was determined that the burn-up of chromium appearing in the joint metal from the
base and feed metals was some 1350 of the initial content. This lack of chromium in the joint can be replaced
by introducing 8-950 of metallic chromium into the electrode coating.
Special experiments showed that in order to provide the required minimum chromium content in the joint
at various nickel concentrations (from 8-1150 ) the chromium concentration in the coating had to range from 6
to 21.50. This shows that it is desirable to label TsL-11Kh electrodes differently according to the content of
chromium metal in the coating.
Ministry of the Shipbuilding Industry of USSR.
QUANTITATIVE CALCULATION OF DENDRITIC LIQUATION IN
STEEL AUTORADIOGRAPHY WITHOUT USING STANDARDS
M. F. Longinov
Autoradiography gives a direct picture of the distribution of elements in alloys; it is fairly simple and is
widely used at the present time for studying processes which affect the uniformity of alloys.
One shortcoming in the method is the need to prepare standards in which the element used must be evenly
distributed throughout the whole mass. This restricts the use of autoradiography, since some elements are prac-
tically impossible to distribute uniformly in steel.
The method proposed does not require preparation of standards and so may be applied in studying the uni-
formity of any alloy.
In order to determine the exposure needed to give normal blackening of the emulsion (linear range on sen-
sitivity curve), autoradiograms are taken with the same specimen at different exposures. The regions of greatest
and least density were then photometered. Two independent blackening curves were then, drawn up from the
photometric results.
When the normal exposure had been determined, the autoradiograms, with their normal exposures corres-
ponding to the parts of greatest and least density, were photometered, after which curves for the distribution of
blackening were drawn up.
Since the blackening curves are also curves of element concentration, the area bounded by the density curve
is numerically equal to the amount of activity in the area photometered. The ratio between the numerical
value for this area, and the lengh of the section gives the mean concentration of the element on some (still un-
known) scale.
In order to determine the concentration values relating to the various parts of the autoradiogram, the con-
centration scale had to be calibrated; since the concentration scale is linear, any other method (e. g., chemi-
cal) of determining the mean concentration of the element is adequate.
This method was used to determine the dendritic liquation of sulfur and tungsten in rolled steel, and also after
annealing to homogeneity.
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Zlatoust Metallurgical Works.
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EFFECT OF MODIFYING ADDITIVES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF
SULFUR IN HIGH?CHROMIUM HEAT?RESISTING STEEL
N. S. Kreshchanovsky and S. V. Kraskovsky
The output, longevity and operational characteristics of current prime movers depend in many ways on
the properties of the heat-resisting steels and alloys used. The quality of these latter is determined by the pres-
ence and distribution of harmful impurities (S. Po As, etc.) as well as by their compositions, the impurities
being inevitably present to some extent in the alloys. It is only possible to decide on ways of restricting their
effects by micro-alloying(modificiatimiafter having studied the actions of the modifiers on the distribution of
undesirable impurities in detail.
The report presents results on the effect of certain elements on the sulfur distribution in KhPV7ivi high
chromium heat-resisting steel. Ss was used. Lithium, calcium, cerium and other elements were used as mod-
ifiers. The macro- and microdistributiois of sulfur were studied.
The effect of the additives on the macrostructure of the steel was corsidered,as well as the sulfur redistri-
bution due to the modifiers. The objective value of sulfur-distribution data obtained by Bauthann's sulfur off-
print method, was also made apparent.
This work enables one to evaluate the use of modifiers in casting high-chromium heat-resisting steel.
Central Technological and Machine Construction
Research Institute.
' STUDY OF THE PROCESS OF MIXING AND DIFFUSION IN WELDED
SEAMS OF TWO?LAYER JOINTS USING RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES
E. M. Kuzmak and N. P. Karmazinov
This paper deals with transfer effects in the welding furnace and heat-treatment cycle, in relation to the
weldability of two-layer rolled iron.
The radioactive isotopes Ss and C" were used to study mixing and diffusion in welded joints made from
MST3 08x12 two-layer rolled iron.
The degree of uniform mixing of the different steels during automatic welding was determined by using
radioactive sulfur, as well as the macro- and micro-uniformity of the joint made from the different steels
(i. e., of the joint metal in the clad layer).
The cause of the relative fall in the corrosion resistance of the 08 x12 layer in the region affected by the
heat was elucidated by introducing radioactive carbon.
From the sulfur distribution radiographs for welded joints of the different steels made by automatic welding,
the predominant role of mixing in producing a uniform chemical composition over the welded area became
apparent: a criterion for automatic weldhig was thus set up which related the initial chemical composition of
the chromium-nickel electrode and the final chemical composition of the joint metal.
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The work showed that the relative fall in the corrosion resistance of the heated zone in the 08 x 12 layer
was due to redistribution of the carbon. The back-diffusion of carbon from the carbonaceous zone via the
welding line to the previously carbon-free zone was demonstrated.
The C14 and 524 radiographs also gave data on the metallurgical behavior of sulfur and carbon in welds
made from different classes of steel.
Gubkin Oil Institute.
EFFECT OF FAST?NEUTRON IRRADIATION ON THE RECOMBINATION
OF ELECTRONS AND HOLES IN GERMANIUM CRYSTALS
V. S. Vavilov, A. V. Spitsyn, L. S. Smirnov and M. V. Chukichev
Fast-neutron irradiation causes structural defects in crystals. The equilibrium carrier concentration, mobil-
ity and rate of electron?hole recombination in semiconductors are altered by destruction of the periodic crys-
tal structure. The rate of recombination( lifetime) of nonequilibrium carriers is the property most sensitive
to irradiation in pure crystalline semiconductors (germanium, silicon).
N-type germanium sintile crystals of specific resistance 30 ohm-cm were irradiated with neutrons, the
neutron flux being 10 n/sec 1/cm2 at the specimen location.
It was found that fast-neutron irradiation causes a drop in the nonequilibrium carrier lifetime in german-
ium (increase in the rate of volume recombination), while the specific resistance changed by about 1% when
the lifetime had dropped by a factor of several times.
The recombination cross section, on, was estimated for the lattice defects produced by the neutrons. The
fast-neutron scattering cross section for germanium nuclei was used to compute the number of defects produced
per neutron, as well as the formula for the number of atoms secondarily displaced. The value of on was (1.1 +
+ 0.5) ' 1015 cm2, this being considerably greater than the recombination cross section, oe, for the lattice de-
fect produced by fast-electron bombardment of germanium: oe vs 7 ? 10-17 cm2. The cause of the large dif-
ference between on and oe may be that neutron bombardment, unlike electron bombardment, causes defect%
which are efficient recombination centers,to accumulate.
Lebedev Institute of Physics, Academy of Sciences, USSR.
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STUDY OF THE SUPERLATTICE IN Ni3Fe
BY NEUTRON DIFFRACTION
B. G. Lyashchenko, D. F. Litvin, I. M. Puzci
and Yu. G. Abov
With the development of nuclear reactors, a real possibility of using neutron radiography in scientific
research has appeared. The present paper, which is the first USSR study of this type, is concerned with the anal-
ysis of structural states in the solid solutions based on nickel and iron.
The atomic ordering effects found in the alloy of stoichiometric compostion Ni3Fe by direct x-ray study,
and latterly by neutron diffraction, may give a qualitative explanation of the anomalous physical and technolo-
gical properties observed in the permalloys on heat-treatment and alloying. The question of the stimuli which
cause the atomic ordering within the lattice sites is still not solved, in our opinion, like some other important
general questions. The main difficulty is the slight difference of the scattering powers of Fe and Ni for x-rays.
The present work was concerned with elucidating the superstructure of Ni3Fe and determination of the con-
centration range over which it exists by new experimental methods. Neutron structure analysis was applied to
large single crystals taken from melts of Fe? Ni alloys, as well as from ternary alloys in this series which show
permalloy properties. The method used provided greater intensity and sensitivity (the latter by an order of mag-
nitude) as compared with a Debye-Scherrer neutron structure analysis method for work with the Ni3Fe superlattice.
The results obtained show that the concentration range over which the superlattice forms in the Fe? Ni
composition diagram is markedly asymmetric about the stoichiometric Ni3Fe composition, being wider on the
iron-rich side. No superlattice was found in Ni3Fe. It was found that the addition of elements of different types
?chromium and copper? to the alloy, exerted essentially different effects on the superlattice formation process
in Ni3Fe. The data analyzed show that the ordering energy in Fe? Ni alloys is to a considerable extent ferro-
magnetic in type.
Fresh data were also obtained on the temperature dependence of the superlattice reflections, on the sizes
of the more highly ordered regions and also some other data relating to this series of alloys.
Central Ferrous Metallurgy Research Institute.
EFFECT OF NEUTRON IRRADIATION ON THE
MARTENSITE TRANSFORMATION
0. P. Maksimova and A. I. Zakharov
This paper describes an attempt to use neutron irradiation as a method of altering the state of the parent
phase in advance,by causing a definite change in its stability and in the subsequent phase transition kinetics.
The effect of previous neutron irradiation on the kinetics of the martensite transformation in number of steels
and iron-base alloys was studied.
It was found that irradiation produces an important effect on the capacity of austenite to go over to mar-
tensite on subsequent cooling. This stability change appears as a change in the martensite point and in the
final effect of the transition, the nature of the change being different in the various materials, and having much
in common with changes due to previous plastic deformation.
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For example, irradiation of nickel and manganese steels increases the rate of the martensite transformation,
raising the martensite point and increasing the effect of cooling. In iron-nickel-manganese alloys, irradiation
stabilizes the austenite, reducing the martensite point, and decreasing the effect of the transformation. Thus,
the particular effects produced with the various materials by irradiation coincides, in the main, with the beha-
vior observed, as due to deformation (the austenite stability changing in the same direction).
It was shown that prolonged storage and low-temperature(100) annealing of the irradiated specimen leads
to raised austenite stability. This effect of storage and low-temperature annealing appears as a gradual loss of
the activating effect of irradiation on steels (just as occurs with relatively small deformations), while in iron-
nickel-manganese
alloys, the austenite stability is even more markedly raised.
An explanation is given for these results: according to this, the activation effect found in steels is caused
by injection vacancies (elastic lattice deformations arising around these defects), these being known to be of
low stability. The stabilizing effect of irradiation is due to the formation of more complex defects of high
stability- crystallite breakdown and de-orientation occuring on irradiation.
Thus, it was shown that the use of neutron irradiation as an effective means of altering the states of mater-
ials is of interest not only as a means of altering structural states, thus producing definite changes in the prop-
erties of metals and alloys, but also as a means of studying phase transitions.
Central Ferrous Metallurgy Research Institute.
ENERGY REQUIRED FOR IONIZATION BY ELECTRONS
IN GERMANIUM CRYSTALS
V. S. Vavilov, L. S. Smirnov and V. M. Patskevich
The energy E required to form an excess carrier pair (electron +hole) in germanium bombarded by
electrons of energy 5-15 'key was determined.
N-type germanium crystals with p-n junctions of fused-in indium were bombarded in vacuo. E was de-
termined from the ratio of the hole flux across the p-n junctior: (due to the excess pairs generated .in the crys-
tal by the electron primaries) to the flow of the electron primaries.
Surface and bulk recombination were allowed for by the simultaneous illumination with light of fixed in-
tensity. E was found to be 3.7+ 0.4 ev. The mean ionization energy for 5-15 key electrons exceeded the
photo or thermal ionization energy by a factor of about 5. E did not depend on the primary electron energy
over a range 5-15 key.
Lebedev Institute of Physics,Academy of Sciences, USSR.
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USE OF TRITIUM TO DETERMINE HYDROGEN IN METALS
A. I. Chizhikov and V. K. Boyarthinov
The radioactive hydrogen isotope tritium was used to determine hydrogen in metals. Experiment shows
that it is.in principle, possible to determine hydrogen in metals by exchange.
Further work on this topic is required, particularly as regards effects occurring in isotope exchange in gasA
phase-metal systems.
STUDY OF THE PROCESS OF SINTERING IN ALUMINOUS SCHISTS
T. A. Potapova
This paper extends the study of sintering processes in aluminous charges. The diffusion of Ca 4G in nephe-
line and bauxite concentrates,and the reaction kinetics of silica with limestone were studied.
The diffusion processes were studied in two ways: layer sampling, as modified by Gruzin, and by absorption.
In the first case, CaCO3 labeled with Call; was attached to the surface of a briquette,previously prepared by
compressing the 'mineral powder before baking, while in the second case, metallic Cam was decomposited on
thee briquette surface in vacuo.
The diffusion parameters of Cam in bauxite were determined by the layer method for the range 1000-1250'C,
and in nepheline concentrates, for 900-1150'C. The absorption method was used to determine the diffusion
parameters of Calls in nepheline concentrates at 900-1200*C. Since the results obtained in the two ways were in
close agreement, both methods would appear usable in any given problem.
The effect of alkaline and fluoride additives on the diffusion of C46 in nepheline concentrates was studied.
It was found that all the additives showed a considerable effect at high temperatures, the alkaline being the
most active.
The silica-limestone reaction kinetics were studied at 1000-1250'C for times of 1-6 hours. The charge
composition was computed for dicalcium silicate. The temperature dependence curve showed a break due to
the formation of less basic calcium silicates at low temperatures.
71
All-Union Aluminum-Magnesium Research Institute.
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USE OF OF PHOSPHORUS ISOTOPES IN THE MANUFACTURE AND STUDY
OF SELENIUM RECTIFIERS
N. V. Yurycv
Sem and Sw were used to determine the layer thicknesses of cadmium selenide (sulfide) formed in the
zone of contact between the selenium (sulfur) and cadmium in selenium rectifiers.
The layer thicknesses of cadmium selenide found, formed after the various operations, showed that when
the temperature at which the selenium units were treated, was raised ,the layer thicknesses of cadmium selenide
increased. The process became more rapid as the temperature rose, reaching a maximum near the melting
point.
On raising the intensity of heat-treatment at a given temperature, the layer thickness was found to rise
to a limiting value, after which growth ceased.
The studies of cadmium sulfide formation conditions, and the effect of adding bromine to the selenium,
showed that radioisotope methods are an effective means of improving production process comi,11, and provide
a fresh means of studying selenium rectifier processes.
Ministry of the Electronics Industry, USSR.
STUDY OF Ag?S, Sn?S AND Pb?S MELTS OF VARIABLE CONCENTRATIONS
L. S. Palatnik and G. N. Kovalev
This paper presents results on Ag? S, Sn? S and Pb? S alloys of variable composition made by simultan-
eous condensation of vapors of the chemically pure components on a glass collector in vacuo at (2? 5) ? 10-5min
Hg. The spherical evaporator distribution formula was used to find the local alloy composition( with metals)
and for a circular hole ( with sulfur, which was evaporated from a crucible). Comparison of the actual sulfur
distribution on the collector surface with the computed figures, was carried out, using S. S3s was also used to
check the constancy of composition in the specimen on annealing.
It appeared to be a general feature of these systems that the vapor-solid transition passes via a metastable
(supercooled) liquid phase, as is shown by the vitreous areas in the layers over a definite concentration range
in metal-sulfur melts. In Ag? S and 3n? S melts, which have regions of liquid-phase stratification on the
stable diagrams, effects are observed which can be explained by extension of the stratification region on super-
cooling. The stable diagrams for these two systems are completed by lines of metastability which delimit the
region of stratification into two liquid (vitreous) phases. The curves of metastability were drawn up from x-ray
data.
Gorky University, Kharkov.
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II. MACHINE BUILDING, CONTROL OF TECHNOLOGICAL
PROCESSES. CONSTRUCTION OF APPARATUS, METHODS AND
APPARATUS FOR THE RADIOMETRY AND DOSIMETRY OF NUCLEAR
RADIATIONS
USE OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES IN MACHINE CONSTRUCTION
V. I. Dikushin
This report deals with the general question of using radioactive isotopes for research on wear of machine
parts and of cutting tools.
Data on methods are given, obtained from study of cutting-tool wear, and prospects of further investigation
are reviewed.
Metal-Cutting Machine Experimental Research
Institute
THE STRUCTURE AND ABRASION RESISTANCE OF CEMENTED STEEL
L. S. Palatkin, I. M. Lyubarsky, A. P. Lyubechenko and V. G. Nesterenko
Some aspects of the formation of wear-resisting structures in the cemented layer of alloy steel were studied
using radioactive isotopes, x?ray analysis and other methods: an explanation for the experimental data is
proposed.
The various modes of tempering the cemented layer as normally produced were studied. A heat-treatment
cycle leading to raised 'y-phase content and hence increased wear-resistance was established. A characteristic
feature of this is reduced treatment time (as compared with the serial mode).
The wear of layers treated by this method was reduced, and metal transfer to the cut surface was
practically absent, as well as austenite decomposition in the active friction zone.
The carbide phase formation mechanism was studied. It was found that carbide(Fe, Cr, W)3C was
formed during cementation, while (Fe, Cr, W) Cg was formed over the recrystallization range during
cooling. A high rate of cooling after cementation retarded diffusion processes which transfer alloying elements
between phases of the cemented layer, producing a marked deviation from their equilibrium concentrations in
the carbides and solid solutions of iron.
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Autoradiography was used to study the course of the intermediate changes in the cemented layer. The
carbon redistribution in the austenite was found to occur over the whole grain body over regions of linear
dimensions not greater than about iO4 cm.
Harmonic analysis of the interference maxima shapes showed that the short method of treating the y-
phase caused practically no crystallite break-up, the lattice deformation being comparatively small.
Various views as to the nature of the phenomena occurring in this case are discussed. The heightened wear
resistance of the cemented layer is facilitated by the high saturation dr the iron solid solution with alloying
elements and by the formation of a heterogenous system of "regularly" coupled crystal lattices (austenite-
martensite-carbide).
Kharkov Transport Machine Construction Works.
STUDY OF THE ABRASION OF HIGH?STRENGTH CAST IRON
V. I. Stetsenko and E. A. Markovsky
The use of a new material?high-strength cast iron with spherulitic graphite?in the USSR autotractor
Industry requires that its wear-resistance be studied.
Wear and frictional processes in high-strength cast irons of varied structure were studied as functions of the
frictional pair regimes at the Machine Operation Institute of the Academy of Sciences,Ukranian SSR.
?
The work was carried out with specially built equipment: the wear of the pair was measured while
working in oil by radioactive isotope methods, and the changes in the frictional torque were recorded at the
same time on an oscillograph.
During development, the errors in measuring the radiation intensity from the radioactive products of wear
using various assay units were determined.
k was shown that radioactive isotope methods could be used to estimate wear in unlubricated friction.
Data were obtained from which the best frictional pair for particular cases of specific pressure and sliding
speed could be determined.
Institute of Machine Operation and Agricultural
Mechanics, Academy of Science, Ukranian SSR
STUDY OF THE SULFIDED LAYER IN WEARING PROCESSES
V. E. Vainshtein and Yu. Vinogradov
The behavior of sulfided specimens (SCh-18-36 cast iron, steel type 45), S35-labelled, was studied under
wear in an MI friction apparatus.
Study of the sulfided layer in wearing processes was carried out with different modes of lubricant (kerosene)
feed, as well as without lubricant.
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Data were obtained on the depth distribution of sulfur, on the sulfide layer regeneration during abrasion,
and on sulfur transfer between the rubbing surfaces.
The sharpest fall in sulfur content with depth was found in the surface layers, these being the main ;areas
of sulfide.
It was found that with various frictional modes at the sulfide surfaces, the sulfur remained in the frictional
surfaces, and the depth of the worn layer then exceeded the original depth of sulfidation. The sulfide layer
regenerated may be supposed to be due to the high temperature and deformation development at the contact
areas by the friction, and to be a diffusion-type effect.
Institute of Machine Operation Academy of Sciences,
USSR
STUDY OF THE TRANSFER OF METAL DURING FRICTION AND WEAR
G. M. Zamoruev and Ya. N. Levin
Work in the metal-working and heat-treatment dept. of the Magnitogorsk Institute of Ferrous metallurgy
has shown that wear of steel may take different forms, depending on the frictional conditions and on the
composition and structure of the steel. Radioactive tracers were used to study metal transfer in different wear
types and to compare it with the rate of surface destruction.
The method used was as follows: P2z was introduced into the liquid steel, this being poured as billets of
weight about 2 kg and specimens were taken from these Fess (with carrier iron) was introduced by electrolysis
into the wearing surfaces of the specimens taken. Inactive specimens were made from rolled steel of the same
composition.
These specimens, and others, were given varied heat-treatments to reproduce various forms of wear.
The abrasion was carried out in MI-1 and MI-3 friction machines at the Magnitogorsk Institute of Ferrous
Metallurgy. One of the parts in a frictional couple was radioactive. The metal transfer from the active to the
inactive part could thus be counted and radiographed after each mode of wear.
The wear of steel in the forms reproduced was shown to be accompanied by metal transfer, but the degree
of transfer differed in the various forms of wear.
The depths to which the radioactive phosphorus and iron penetrated into the surface layer, and their surface
distribution after various types of wear were determined.
The relation of radioactive phosphorus and iron transfer to a number of external factors (forces at contact
areas, friction path, lubrication) were studied, and possible routes of metal transfer considered.
G. L. Nosov Institute of Ferrous Metallurgy, Magnitogorsk
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STUDY OF WEAR DURING ROLLING FRICTION
V. P. Pavlov, G. V. Vinogradov, Yu. S. Zaslavsky and F. B. Lebedesra
The methods available for studying wear during rolling friction differ greatly in the time required.
Radioactive tracer methods were used to provide a short-cut.
Wear studies were carried out on a special four-ball friction machine, the working part of this being a
model no-separation radial-thrust balHmarin& Fe. was produced in one ball by neutron irradiation. Oil
samples were taken periodically from the working chamber with a syringe and assayed in 7-ray counters.
The method wat used to determine ball-wear dynamics during rolling friction at 30-40 hours, when the
results were of satisfactory reproducibility.
All-Union Research Institute for Oil and Gas
Reworking and Artificial Liquid
Fuel Production, and Heavy Tank Formations
Military Academy
A SCINTILLATION COUNTER FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF RADIOACTIVITY
IN LIQUIDS
0. E. Kalinovsky
The circuit is given of scintillation equipment, developed at the Central Diesel Research Institute for
measuring 7-rays from wear products present in lubricating oil.
The main technical data are given, together with a comparison of measuring heads using scintillation
and Geiger-Muller counters.
Central Diesel Research Institute
RELATION OF THE PISTON RING AND CYLINDER LINING WEAR TO THE
SPEED AND MAXIMUM PRESSURE IN THE CYCLE
M. D. Nikitin
Relation ofthe piston ring and cylinder lining wear to the speed and maximum pressure in the cycle
was studied with radioactive tracers on a 5/11 Ch8
The working Pans were activated with traces of Co". and wear was determined from oil samples,
using a scintillation counter.
76
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It was shown that there was an optimum rpm (1500 rpm in this case) at which wear was least. The cause
of increased wear at lower rpm was a worsening in lubrication conditions.
The test results show that raising the maximum cycle pressure (Pz) causes increased wear in the cylinder
piston assembly, particularly in the piston rings.
Central Diesel Research Institute
STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF DUSTING ON THE WEAR OF PARTS OF A
TRACTION MOTOR
A. I. Nisnevich
The wear resistance of tractor couplings is determined at present from field experiments which depend
on the climatic conditions and which last, as a rule, for 1-2 agricultural seasons.
In order to reduce the test times for new materials and links, an accelerated test-bed method is required,
based, in particular, on experiments with artificial dusts and the use of radioactive isotopes to measure extremely
small degrees of wear.
Laboratory tests of wear in various antifriction metals (cast iron, bronze, aluminum alloys) paired with
heat-treated steel were carried out to solve this problem. The tests were performed with varying amounts of
natural dust in the (lubricating oil, as well as with dusts taken from a turbo-gas generator operating on various
fuels.
The rate of wear was shown to rise rapidly with the mechanical impurity content, being a function of the
fractional composition and physical properties of the dust.
Rise in the organic content of the dust caused a fall in the maximum wear.
The bench tests were done with a D-54 motor, this being the one most widely used in agriculture,
artificial dusts and radioactive isotopes being used to measure wear, and a relation between the amount and
fractional composition of the dust and the rate of compression-ring wear was established.
In particular, the greatest compression-ring wear occurred when the intake air contained particles of mean
diameter 10-20 ? (silica content about 8010).
This method was used to study two forms of tractor engine air filter. When the engine was operated with
a new three-stage air filter, developed at the Tractor Research Institute, the rate of compression-ring wear was
reduced by about a factor 3.
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Tractor Research Institute
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STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF OIL QUALITY ON THE WEAR OF CAST IRON
V. S. Zavelsky and K. S. Ramalya
Oil quality affects the wear of rubbing surfaces, and the wear also depends on the metal pair, the temp-
erature, pressure, frictional velocity etc. The external medium also affects the wear-inhibiting action of the
lubricant to a considerable degree. An actively corrosive gas medium may sometimes raise and sometimes
reduce the wear, depending on the quality of lubricant used.
Wear of the cylinder/piston assembly in an engine occurs under high temperature and low pressure
conditions with a corrosive - gas medium.
A laboratory apparatus RM-NAMI, was produced which was convenient for studying the effect of oil
quality on wear of cast iron and other metals and alloys under conditions simulating those of the sliding
surfaces in an engine. A special feature of this equipment is that high temperatures can be produced at the
rubbing surface while the oil body temperature is comparatively low, and that experiments can be carried out
with a corrosive - gas medium. Radioactive Isotope methods were used to measure wear, the sensitivity being
of 0.005 ? order.
Comparative tests of specimen oils in RM-NAM1 and in a real engine showed that the relative estimates of
oil anti-wear efficiency were the same in the two units.
The effect of oil contamination and the gas medium on the wear were studied.
The primary action of organic impurities which accumulate in the oil as a suspension was shown
to reduce the wear, while the accumulation of oil-soluble compounds increased the wear.
Sulfur dioxide, which is one of the fuel combustion products in an engine, was shown to affect not only
the acid corrosion at low temperatures (by combination with water) but also the gaseous corrosion at high
temperatures., The SO2 also reacts with the lubricant to give protlucts which protect the cast iron surface at
the same time.
When high-sulfur fuels are used,the resultant of the two opposing processes (gas corrosion and protective
action) produced by the SO2 may be increased wear.
Automobile and Autornotor Research Instittne
REDUCTION OF LOW-TEMPERATURE WEAR IN A CYLINDER/PISTON GROUP
OF MOTORS BY USE OF OIL SUPPLEMENTS
Yu. S. Zaslavsky, G.I. Shor and I. A. Morozova
The low-temperature corrosive wear of the cylinder/piston assembly due to the cooling water, which is
a very notable feature of vehicle fleet operation, can be effectively reduced by adding special materials to
the engine oil. The mechanism by which these materials act has been inadequately studied however.
Radioactive rubbing parts were used in a friction machine to study the mechanism by which these
additives act, this providing automatic wear recording.
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Vapors from acid solutions (sulfuric, acetic, formic) introduced into the machine sump condensed partially
on the rubbing surfaces, which thus stimulated the operating conditions in an engine cylinder at low working
temperatures. A large number of engine oil additives was studied, and the following conclusions were arrived
at.
1. The basic cause of wear of rubbing surfaces operated in an atmosphere containing acid vapors is
electrochemical corrosion.
2. Protection of the rubbingsurfaces from corrosive wear is produced by oil additives with the following
properties:
a) acid-neutralizing capacity, due to a metal of chemical activity greater than those in the rubbing
surfaces present in them.
b) capacity to react chemically with the metal rubbing surfaces and thus to form a product productive
layer while simultaneously reducing the coefficient of friction and hence the erosive
wear.
3. The most promising additives which act by neutralization are soaps of metals which give water-
soluble salts with the attacking acids, and thus exert no abrasive action on the rubbing surfaces.
All-Union Research Institute for Oil and Gas
Reworking and Artificial Liquid Fuel Production
STUDY OF THE MECHANISM BY WHICH ANTI?CORROSION ADDITIVES IN
OILS ACT
Yu. S. Zaslavsky, S. E. Krein and R. N. Shneerova
G. I. Shor
To protect internal-combustion engine bearing bushes from corrosion, anti-corrosion additives are included
in the engine oil: these act by forming protective sulfur of phosphorus layers on the metal surfaces.
Radiochemical methods have been used to follow up the relations between tendency to give protective
layers, the layer stability relative to the 'destructive action of oxidation products from the oil, and the rate of
corrosion.
Various sulfur or phosphorus-labelled organic compounds were studied.
The simultaneous study of the kinetics of protective layer formation for lead sheet surfaces and of lead
corrosion showed that all the sulfur and phosphorus compounds used gave protective layers on the lead surface,
retarding corrosion by oil oxidation products.
The effect of various high molecular weight organic acids on the kinetics of protective layer formation
by anti-corrosion additives and on the kinetics of lead corrosion was studied. To increase the efficiency of anti-
corrosion additives it was shown to be desirable to choose compounds which, when introduced into the fortified
oil, would exert a polishing action on the metal but would not cause destruction of the oil.
In this connection it was shown that when acid products accumulated in the oil beyond some definite
limit (different for each acid) the oil additives were destroyed and their anti-corrosion action lost.
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The anti-corrosion action of added tributyltrithioposphite, both sulfur-and phosphorus-labelled, was
studied. When uibutyltrithiophosphite was used it was shown that both the sulfur and phosphorus were initially
active in preventing corrosion, but later only the sulfur was active.
All-Union Research Institute for Oil and Gas
Reworking and Artificial Liquid Fuel Production
STUDY OF THE MECHANISM BY WHICH OIL ADDITIVES REACT WITH METALS
M. M. Kusakovi C. V. Vinogradov, E. A. Razumovskaya,P. I. Sanin
and A. V. Ulyanova
The choice of lubricating oil anti-wear idditives requires that the reactions of active oil components
with metals be studied as well as their operating temperature limits, and that the role of the oil itself be
elucidated. Interesting results bearing on the solution of this problem were obtained with S16- and P32-labelled
thiophosphoro-, and phosphoro-organic compounds reacting with metals, the compounds being dissolved in a
napthene-paraffin oil fraction type MS-20.
Study of the reaction kinetics for oil containing an Sztlabelled additive and steel at various temperatures
showed that the metal began to react with sulfur compounds of the sulfide and disulfide types only at about
120-140 C. Disulfide type compounds appeared more active with respect to the metal than did the sulfides.
Results obtained with added elementary sulfur and thio-organic compounds showed that the greatest reactivity
with regard to the metal was found in compounds in which the sulfur was most labile.
Reactions of the metal with phosphoro-organiccompounds(e.g. tributylphosphite) as additives showed that
they began to react even at room temperature, and react much more rapidly at 150-160' C with rapidly rising
decomposition. Similar results were obtained with tributyltrithiophosphite, phosphorus-labelled, showing
that the phosphorus is easily bound to the metal surface, while the part of the molecule containing the sulfur
is evidently split off.
The data on the interaction of oil additives with metals agree with results from anti-wear tests with
thiophosphoro-organic compounds and with mixtures of thio-and phosphoro-organic compounds, from which
one may assume that under moderate frictional conditions (seizing and sharp temperature rises absent) the
phosphorus has the main influence in hydrocarbon solutions of thiophosphoro-organic compounds and mixtures
of thio-and phosphoro-organic compounds.
Oil Institute, Academy of Sciences, USSR
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STUDY OF DRIVE WEAR IN COAL MACHINES
E. Ya. Studnits
Until now there has been no adequately sound method of selecting lubricating oils for gear wheels, so
the oil to lubricate the reduction gear in coal-cutting machines has had to be wear-tested.
A radioisotope method of measuring gear-wheel wear has been developed. Pinions were activated with
added Zn. The pinions worked in a reduction gear with an oil circulation system containing a 7-counter.
The tests lasted 10-20 hours.
The use of radioactive tracers for studying relative pinion wear when working in various oils under diff-
erent conditions was found most efficient, and gave reliable data within short periods.
All-Union Coal Research Institute
STUDY OF METAL-CUTTING PROCESSES
N. F. Kazakov
Cutting-tool wear resistance determinations using radioactive isotopes gave a simple relation between the
transfer of cutter material to the work -piece, the shavings and the coolant and the cutting time, as well as
the specific wear of the tool, the speed, depth of cut and the feed; from which some quick tests were devised
to determine the tool cutting properties, the machinability of the material, coolant efficiency,etc.
The method was shown to be applicable and accurate even when the wear time was 2-3 hours, so the time
required for a test was reduced by a factor of 25 or more, as compared with micrometric methods.
It was shown to be more efficient to activate the parts when studying friction and wear along the contact
of the tool with the chip and the work piece, since the deposit accumulates on the tool. In addition, many
nonradioactive tools could be used in this melhod, and the relation of the cutting process to the various factors
could be studied.
Both the qualitittive and the quantitative aspects of wear could be evaluated from the data obtained, and
thus the type and nature of cutting-tool wear could be discovered, beginning with conditions under which adhesive
and diffusive interactions occur, with metal transfer from tool to work-piece and vice versa. Hence it became
possible to select operating conditions in which wear resistance was greatest and thus the working time in cutting
was higher.
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Institute of Machine Operation, Academy of
Sciences, USSR
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2014/01/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002800180003-5
The anti-corrosion action of added tributyltrithioEitosphite, both sulfur-and phosphorus-labelled, was
studied. When tributyltrithiophosphite was used it was shown that both the sulfur and phosphorus were initially
active in preventing corrosion, but later only the sulfur was active.
All-Union Research Institute for Oil and Gas
Reworking and Artificial Liquid Fuel Production
STUDY OF THE MECHANISM BY WHICH OIL ADDITIVES REACT WITH METALS
M. M. Kusakov, C. V. Vinogradov, E. A. Razurnovskaya,P. I. Sanin
and A. V. Ulyanova
The choice of lubricating oil anti-wear additives requires that the reactions of active oil components
with metals be studied as well as their operating temperature limits, and that the role of the oil itself be
elucidated. Interesting results bearing on the solution of this problem were obtained with Su- and PI-labelled
thiophosphoro-, and phosphoro-organic compounds reacting with metals, the compounds being dissolved in a
napthene-paraffin oil fraction type MS-20.
Study of the reaction kinetics for oil containing an SIklabelled additive and steel at various temperatures
showed that the metal began to react with sulfur compounds of the sulfide and disulfide types only at about
120-140' C. Disulfide type compounds appeared more active with respect to the metal than did the sulfides.
Results obtained with added elementary sulfur and thio-organic compounds showed that the greatest reactivity
with regard to the metal was found in compounds in which the sulfur was most labile.
Reactions of the metal with phosphoro-organiccompoundXe.g. tributylphosphite) as additives showed that
they began to react even at room temperature, and react much more rapidly at 150-160' C with rapidly rising
decomposition. Similar results were obtained with tributyltrithiophosphite, phosphorus-labelled, showing
that the phosphorus is easily bound to the metal surface, while the part of the molecule containing the sulfur
is evidently split off.
The data on the interaction of oil additives with metals agree with results from anti-wear tests with
thiophosphoro-organic compounds and with mixtures of thio-and phosphoro-organic compounds, from which
one may assume that under moderate frictional conditions (seizing and sharp temperature rises absent) the
phosphorus has the main influence in hydrocarbon solutions of thiophosphoro-organic compounds and mixtures
of thio-and phosphoro-organic compounds.
Oil Institute, Academy of Sciences, USSR
T?
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STUDY OF DRIVE WEAR IN COAL MACHINES
E. Ya. Studnits
Until now there has been no adequately sound method of selecting lubricating oils for gear wheels, so
the oil to lubricate the reduction gear in coal-cutting machines has had to be wear-tested.
A radioisotope method of measuring gear-wheel wear has been developed. Pinions were activated with
added Zn. The pinions worked in a reduction gear with an oil circulation system containing a 7-counter.
The tests lasted 10-20 hours.
The use of radioactive tracers for studying relative pinion wear when working in various oils under diff-
erent conditions was found most efficient, and gave reliable data within short periods.
All-Union Coal Research Institute .
STUDY OF METAL-CUTTING PROCESSES
N. F. Kazakov
Cutting-tool wear resistance determinations using radioactive isotopes gave a simple relation between the
transfer of cutter material to the work -piece, the shavings and the coolant and the cutting time, as well as
the specific wear of the tool, the speed, depth of cut and the feed; from which some quick tests were devised
to determine the tool cutting properties, the machinability of the material, coolant efficiency,etc.
The method was shown to be applicable and accurate even when the wear time was 2-3 hours, so the time
required for a test was reduced by a factor of25or more, as compared with micrometric methods.
It was shown to be more efficient to activate the parts when studying friction and wear along the contact
of the tool with the chip and the work piece, since the deposit accumulates on the tool. In addition, many
nonradioactive tools could be used in this method, and the relation of the cutting process to the various factors
could be studied.
Both the qualitative and the quantitative aspects of wear could be evaluated from the data obtained, and
thus the type and nature of cutting-tool wear could be discovered, beginning with conditions under which adhesive
and diffusive interactions occur, with metal transfer from tool to work-piece and vice versa. Hence it became
possible to select operating conditions in which wear resistance was greatest and thus the working time in cutting
was higher.
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Institute of Machine Operation, Academy of
Sciences, USSR
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STUDY OF WEAR IN HARD-ALLOY SCREW-CUTTING TOOLS
B. D. Lazebnik
New theories of weight loss and wear in cutting tools were derived by using radioactive isotopes to study
wear in cutting tools: a new method of accelerated determination of the resistance as a function of cutting
speed was also proposed.
Radioisotope methods are differential, unlike weighing, which is integral. The proposed loss equation is
in good agreement with the available data. This equation can. be used to study the stability and to set up
stability criteria in the weight loss process.
The formula G =crx is proposed as an appropriate relation between wear weight and time.
There is found to be a limiting attainable wear weight Lm, the tool being taken out of use on reaching
this.
The experiments demonstrate the effect of cutting speed on the rate of wear.
A method of accelerated determination of the speed-resistance relation is proposed from the relationships
found. Experimental tests showed that the method was usable in practice.
Institute of Machine Operation,
Academy of Sciences, USSR
A METHOD OF ESTIMATING THE DEGREE OF METAL DEGREASING
R. B. Chernyakova
This paper expounds a method of checking the degree of removal of soaps and soap-grease emulsions
from metal surfaces, using radioactive isotopes.
Cs irr was used as a tracer, introduced as a 3N hydrochloric acid solution of test contaminant. The amount
of tracer adhering to the surface used, and the amount remaining after degreasing the contamination, being
proportional to the tracer activity, were determined from the number of disintegrations per unit time recorded
by the counter setup.
The detector was a standard detector type B, with a y-counter assembly. Autoradiography was used to
detect tracer concentration on the surface of the object. X and XX x-ray plates were used, their resolvingpoWers
being sufficient for this purpose.
This method enables one to estimate the cleanness of the degreased surface visually and objectively with
a high degree of accuracy; the amount of residual tracer can be found both relatively and in absolute units of
weight.
The method sensitivity (at a given tracer specific activity) was such as to detect 10-5-10-5g of
contaminant.
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Use of the method to check the quality of degreasing of parts in mass-production lines showed that
It should be applied in working out the technology of degreasing processes.
EFFECT OF RADIOACTIVE RADIATIONS ON THE SURFACE PROPERTIES OF
METALS
G. N. Meshcheryakov
The so-called bob hardness is specified by the loss on collision with a metal: the surface properties
of metals after irradiation were studied using Kusnetsov's bob tester.
The work was carried out with polycrystalline zinc at a temperature above the recrystallization temp-
erature, and also with Armco iron, aluminum, platinum, beryllium and gold.Co" was used for irradiation,
radiation doses of 0.02 r/min/cm2 being used.
The bob hardness was found to increase by factors of 1,5-2.
The hardening effect saturated at 1 minute of irradiation, some drop in hardness then following on further
irradiation, followed later by no great change.
The magnitude of the hardening effect was shown not to be connected with the lattice packing density, as
is the case with intense neutron irradiation, and the bob hardness rose even in metals (Be), which do not
usually react to irradiation, or which regain their initial properties (Zn, Al) even at room temperature.
A series of experiments to elucidate the physical basis of the hardening effect was carried out by irradiating
in various media (0, A ), by irradiation of deformed specimens, or specimens previously treated with surface-
active materials,etc.
The hardening may be concluded from this to be of adsorption type and, unlike Rebinder's wedging effect,
leads to healing of submicroscopic surface cracks. The healing is due to adsorption potentials arising at the
mouths of the cracks and, as a consequence, there are electrostatic bonding forces which prevent removal on
collision.
Experiments are described dealing with different types of mechanical tests of metals which have undergone
adsorptive interactions when irradiated, e.g. from friction by cutting thin layers etc: these experiments show
that irradiation withCo" can be used effectively for practical purposes.
83
Odessa Polytechnical Institute
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STUDY OF THE CA8T FORMATION PROCESSES IN SAND MOLES
B. B, Gttlyaey, Yu. F. Borovsky, L. M. Postnov and 0. N. Magnitsky
This report deals with the use of radioactive tracers to study the formation of castings when sand molds
are used.
The effect of the pouring system construction on the incorporation of nonmetallic particles which fall
Into the mold with the metal was studied: the most rational construction was selected.
The liquid metal-sand mold reaction was studied. It was found that the mold surface was washed off by
the liquid metal and that this caused contamination of the castings. The effect of the main technological
factors on the rate of this process was studied.
It was found that when the pour-off temperature was sufficiently high a solid film first formed on the
casting surfaces, but then melted, and the liquid metal was in direct contact with the mold surface for some
time, after which the main solidification occurred. The effects due to pour-in temperature, site of run-in and
the rate of mold filling on the duration of the liquid-metal/mold surface contact were evaluated.
It was shown that the castings could be fed only within the pour-off limits, this lying between She. liquidus
and solidus. The effects of melt crystallization conditions on the pour-off limits were determined.
?
These results were used to develop measures`aimed at improving the quality of castings, and the basic
ways of using radioactive tracers in research on casting processes were indicated.
STUDY OF THE MECHANISMS OF THE BASIC PROCESSES IN HOT
TINNING
A. I. Vitkin
Radioactive isotopes of tin and iron were used to study the movements of these metals in a flux technic
unit, to elucidate the basic mechanisms in the hot tinning of steel.
The basic processes in the flux unit were elucidated.
Central Ferrous Metallurgy Research Institute
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USE OF NUCLEAR RADIATIONS FOR MEASUREMENT OF THERMAL
PARAMETERS
G. G. Iordan and K. S. Furman
The technical processes used in current industrial production continuously become more complicated and
refined: the rates of operations are raised, the temperature and pressure rise, most frequently reactive and toxic
84
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media are involved,etc. This all demands that the control and measuring gear should record and adjust the
basic parameters of the processes continuously without being introduced within the units, or without the
sensitive elements being in contact or communicating with the controlled media.
One way of complying with this requirement is to use the various forms of nuclear radiation. This tendency
In control and measurement technic has developed strongly both in the USSR and abroad in recent years.
Various control systems using the radiations from radioactive isotopes have been produced.
These systems contain four elements: radiation source, detector, electronic transformer head and
secondary units. The system composed of the first two elements is termed the pick-up head, and provides an
electrical signal functionally related to the controlled parameter.
Artificial radioactive isotopes are used as sources ofa,13 ?and y radiations and, via secondary processes,
as x?ray and neutron sources.
Equipment using nuclear radiations to control the parameters of thermal power sources may be classified
as follows:
1) those
2) those
a) those
4) those
5) those
using changes in relative position of source and detector;
using the laws of interaction between x- and 7-rays and matter;
using the laws of interaction between - r ay s and matter;
using ionization and atomic excitation effects;
using the laws of interaction between neutrons and matter.
Questions relating to the design of such units are considered: ways in which the use of radioisotopes In
the field of thermal power source construction could be developed ,are indicated; constructional schemds for
new units for measuring parameters such as the concentration in a liquid, the flux of a gas, moisture and
hydrogen contents, composition and temperature. are considered.
Recommendations are made for the most rapid solution of problems connected with the wide use of these
units.
Thermal Power Source Construction Research
Institute
MEASUREMENT OF RADIOACTIVE RADIATIONS WITH A SCINTILLATION COUNTER
A METHOD OF REDUCING THE INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS
B. I. Vcrkhovsky, V. A. Sotnikov and V. V. Yakushin
Equipment. composed of scintillation counter plus electronic circuitsare described.
In one case a special modulator unit produced an intermittent radiation flux through the scintillation
phosphor, calibration being from an auxiliary source. The circuit separated and amplified the signal in proportion
to the difference of these radiation fluxes. An indicator unit was attached to the output of the signal-difference
measuring unit, or else a reversible drive, to the spindle of which was attached a variable-thickness wedge, which
equalized the radiation fluxes falling on the phosphor. The errors in measurement with the apparatus, which
are due to instability in the gain of the FEU (photomultiplier), are reduced by a factor m, where m is the ratio
of flux measured to the difference between the absolute values of the measured and standard fluxes. By using
the wedge arrangement changes in the FEU gain only altered the sensitivity of the unit.
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In another modification of the equipment, twophosphors werp used; on one fell the radiation flux being
measured, while the other received the calibration flux. The light fluxes from these phosphors fell on the
multiplier photocathode in turn. The relative statistical error of the measurement of radiation flux is defined
by the expression
2
8
where n is the number of y -quanta recorded per unit time;
r is the time-constant of the synchronous detector.
Lebedev Institute of Physics. Academy of Sciences,
USSR
ANALYTICAL METHODS OF USING IRRADIATION
V. A. Korotkova
This report gives a short description of an activation analysis method,and of compositional analysis
by radiation emitted in the absorption of nuclear particles, e.g. (n, y), (n, a) and (n, p). The general types of
analytical Problems which can be solved by these methods are considered. Comparative data on the sensitivities
of activation and spectral analysis are given (from literature data). Some possible regions where activation
analysis is of definite use are pointed out. Activation analysis is best used in those cases where high accuracy,
not available by other methods, is required in determining very small amounts of elements which have very
high effective activation cross sections.
Lebedev Institute of Physics, Academy of Sciences,
USSR
USE OF SCINTILLATION COUNTERS WITH ELECTRONIC MODULATION IN
INDUSTRIAL y - RADIATION INDICATORS
E. Ya. Ovcbarenko
The problem of measuring the levels of various media within definite indicated positions is frequently
encountered in the recording and automatic control of industrial processes.
The y -rays from radioactive isotopes can be used to good advantage in level indicators by passing
them through the space to be examined.
All units of this type described in the literature use gas-discharge counters as y -ray detectors. The y-
ray efficiency of these is low(-0.157), and so the source activity becomes impracticably great when the source-
detector distance is great or when there is much absorption in the walls of the container.
We developed a scintillation counter/transistor amplifier unit. The high y-ray efficiency of scintillation
counters reduces the required source activity by powers of ten and, by combining these with semiconductor
components, convenient operation is provided.
The gain was raised by applying low-frequency electronic modulation to the multiplier.
Atvne,--t-t -
86
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-11
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Various methods of electronic modulation were tested. The most convenient and direct was to supply
the multiplier with pulsed voltages.
Examples of the use made of this unit in level indicators in subterranean bunkers (ore chutes) and in
metallurgical electric shaft furnaces are given.
"Light-Metal Automation" Design Bureau
USE OF RADIOACTIVE RADIATIONS FOR THE CONTACTLESS MEASUREMENT
OF THE DISCHARGE AND VELOCITY OF A GAS
N. N. Shumilovsky and L. V. Melttser
The methods of measuring gas discharge or speed with radioactive isotopes can be divided into two groups.
Amplitude, or relative, methods. When the discharge (speed) alters, the signal amplitude applied to the
measuring unit changes. The following methods belong to this group.
a) Ion loss method.
Two electrodes are placed in the flow, joined in series to a power source and the measuring head. A
layer of radioactive material is deposited on one electrode, the radiation from this ionizing the space between
the electrodes. The greater the flow speed, the fewer ions reach the electrodes and tilt lower the current in the
circuit.
b) Ion recombination method
An electrode coated with a layer of radioactive material is placed higher up the flow, while the other is
below it. The current in the circuit of the second electrode is measured. The lower the flow rate, the more
ions recombine during the interelectrode transfer time and the weaker the current.
There is a typical dependence of readingsm external factors and the state of the gas medium in all ampl-
Atude methods. Use of balanced circuits with the electrodes improves matters somewhat, but complete independ-
ence is not attainable. The electrodes must also be electrically in contact with the flow.
Time, or absolute, methods. The time taken to transfer some volume of gas through a fixed distance is
measured. The readings then do not depend on external factors. The following methods belong to this group.
a) Atomic tracer methods, in which a small volume of radioactive gas is injected via a probe at some
point in the flow. The transfer time for the labelled region is measured over a fixed distance. The method is
not very applicable to automation, requires a continuous flow of radioactive material and contaminates the gas
flow.
b) Molecular tracer methods. A given area of the pipe is irradiated by a chopped plane beam of
radioactive radiation. Ion clusters are produced within the tube and the transfer time for the labelled region
is measured over a fixed distance. The source and receiver are completely isolated from the flow. There are
no measuring probes within the flow. The measurement can be repeated tens of times a second, which facilitates
continuous remote control of the discharge of gas speed by means of very simple regulators.
87
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The measuring heads for the molecular tracer method are described, and results from experimental and
theoretical studies of the methods are given.
The results show that this method has definite advantages over others.
Institute of Automation and Remote Control
USSR Acad. ScL
AN APPARATUS FOR AUTOMATIC GAS-FLOW MEASUREMENT USING
0-RAYS
G. G. Iordan, IC. S. Furman and T. G. Neiman.
In most cases discharge meters based on pressure drop are used to record discharged gases, the drop being
produced by constrictions (diaphragms, nozzles etc.) inserted in the pipe. The constrictions cause a pressure
drop in the flow, which makes it difficult or sometimes impossible to use these discharge meters at low gas
speeds. When abrasive or corrosive gases are to be metered it is undesirable that the constrictions should be in
contact with the measured medium (the rapid wear of diaphragm edges produces undesirable errors). In addition,
the nonlinear relation between efflux and pressure drop makes the measurements inconvenient and produces
difficulties in totalizing effluxes.
Thus, it is urgently necessary to seek new and more refined methods of gas efflux metering.
One refined way of solving this problem is to use the radiations from radioactive isotopes.
An experimental model of a radioactive gas flux meter for general industrial use was produced in 19561
this gives continuous remote readings, recordings and control of the flows of various gases without pressure loss
in the flow.
The basic concept used was proposed by Shumilovsky and Meltser. The method is based on measuring
ion packet transfer times, the ions being produced by radioactive emissions.
When the ionsource? receiver distance is constant, the transit time is inversely proportional to the mean
gas speed, and thus to the volume flux in a pipe of constant cross 'section.
A self-balancing circuit for gas flux metering, having a linear scale and high accuracy of measurement,
was developed.
An experimental model of such a unit is at present on test under factory conditions.
Research Institute for Thermal Engine Construction
88
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USE OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES FOR AN AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF
LIQUID FLOWS
N. N. Shumilovsky, Yu. V. Gushchin and M. I. Tolokonnikov
Existing methods of measuring liquid flows have a number of basic faults: the measuring probes are in
direct contact with the medium, the resistance inserted is large; Pitot flow meters cannot give distant
readings or recordings, etc. All these shortcomings become particularly important in automatic control of
highly corrosive or hazardous liquids, or liquids under high pressure.
Methods which do not require that the measuring probes are in direct contact with the medium are of
great interest. Those automatic control methods using radioactive isotopes occupy an important place among
them.
Mechanical modulation of the emission from the radiosotope was used in developing an automatic liquid
flow meter: a completely isolated, coated vane rotated in the liquid. The calculations on the choice of
radioactive isotope activity, and the experimental studies, showed that it was quite possible to pick up the pulses
on the receiving unit and to measure the pulse frequency (liquid flux) and number of pulses (amount of liquid)
at different pipe-wall thicknesses.
The liquid flux meter was made up of two main units: the pick-up and the measuring head proper. The
pick-up was made in two different forms. A Geiger-Muller counter was used as detector in the first form; a
scintillation counter was used in the second. The emission from Coe) distributed on the vane was modulated
at the rotation frequency. This, picked up by the receiver, was transformed to an electrical signal (voltage pulses
of definite frequency), this being fed to the measuring head, which recorded both the instantaneous liquid flux
(via meter reading or automatic recorder) as well as the total liquid passed (on a scaler).
The test of an experimental unit under production conditions confirmed that it was quite possible to use
this method to measure the flux and total flow of liquid in a pipe.
Institute of Automation and Remote Control
Academy of Sciences, USSR
MEASUREMENTS OF THE CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS BY MEANS
OF 8 - RA YS
G. G. Iordan and T. G. Neiman
The new methods of determining concentrations, which are based on the laws of 8-ray absorption and
scattering in matter, enable one to perform continuous adjustment of technical processes. Concentrations were
determined using the 0 -rays from radioactive materials and an experimental type of unit for general industrial
use in continuous remote measurement:, recording and control of the composition of a binary liquid mixture was
produced, this involving the introduction of no measuring probes into the vessels.
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89
5
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2014/01/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002800180003-5
The measuring heads for the molecular tracer method are described, and results from experimental and
theoretical studies of the methods are given.
The results show that this method has definite advantages over others.
Institute of Automation and Remote Control
USSR Acad. Sci.
AN APPARATUS FOR AUTOMATIC GAS-FLOW MEASUREMENT USING
0-RAYS
G. G. Iordan, K'. S. Furman and T. G. Neiman.
In most cases discharge meters based on pressure drop are used to record discharged gases, the drop being
produced by constrictions (diaphragms, nozzles etc.) inserted in the pipe. The constrictions cause a pressure
drop in the flow, which makes it difficult or sometimes impossible to use these discharge meters at low gas
speeds. When abrasive or corrosive gases are to be metered it is undesirable that the constrictiaris should be in
contact with the measured medium (the rapid wear of diaphragm edges produces undesirable errors). In addition,
the nonlinear relation between efflux and pressure drop makes the measurements inconvenient and produces
difficulties in totalizing effluxes.
Thus, it is urgently necessary to seek new and more refined methods of gas efflux metering.
One refined way of zglving this problem is to use the radiations from radioactive isotopes.
An experimental model of a radioactive gas fhix meter for general industrial use was produced in 19561
this gives continuous remote readings, recordings and control of the flows of various gases without pressure loss
in the flow.
The basic concept used was proposed by Shumilovsky and Meltser. The method is based on measuring
ion packet transfer times, the ions being produced by radioactive emissions.
When the ion source? receiver distance is constant, the transit time is inversely proportional to the mean
gas speed, and thus to the volume flux in a pipe of constant cross 'section.
A self-balancing circuit for gas flux metering, having a linear scale and high accuracy of measurement,
was developed.
An experimental model of such a unit is at present on test under factory conditions.
88
Research Institute for Thermal Engine Construction
4
fr?
???? ?
USE OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES FOR AN AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF
LIQUID FLOWS
N. N. Shumilovsky, Yu. V. Gushchin and M. I. Tolokonnikov
Existing methods of measuring liquid flows have a number of basic faults: the measuring probes are in
direct contact with the medium, the resistance inserted is large; Pitot flow meters cannot give distant
readings or recordings, etc. All these shortcomings become particularly important in automatic control of
highly corrosive or hazardous liquids, or liquids under high pressure.
Methods which do not require that the measuring probes are in direct contact with the medium are of
great interest. Those automatic control methods using radioactive isotopes occupy an important place among
them.
Mechanical modulation of the emission from the radiosotope was used in developing an automatic liquid
flow meter: a completely isolated, coated vane rotated in the liquid. The calculations on the choice of
radioactive.isotope activity, and the experimental studies, showed that it was quite possible to pick up the pulses
on the receiving unit and to measure the pulse frequency (liquid flux) and number of pulses (amount of liquid)
at different pipe-wall thicknesses.
The liquid flux meter was made up of two main units: the pick-up and the measuring head proper. The
pick-up was made in two different forms. A Geiger-Muller counter was used as detector in the first form; a
scintillation counter was used in the second. The emission from Com/ distributed on the vane was modulated
at the rotation frequency. This, picked up by he receiver, was transformed to an electrical signali(voltage pulses
of definite frequency), this being fed to the measuring head, which recorded both the instantaneous liquid flux
(via meter reading or automatic recorder) as well as the total liquid passed (on a scaler).
The test of an experimental unit under production conditions confirmed that it was quite possible to use
this method to measure the flux and total flow of liquid in a pipe.
Institute of Automation and Remote Control
Academy of Sciences, USSR
MEASUREMENTS OF THE CONCENTRATIONS OF SOLUTIONS BY MEANS
OF 8 -RAYS
G. G. Iordan and T. G. Neiman
The new methods of determining concentrations, which are based on the laws of 8-ray absorption and
scattering in matter, enable one to perform continuous adjustment of technical processes. Concentrations were
determined using the -rays from radioactive materials and an experimental type of unit for general industrial
use in continuous remote measurement;, recording and control of the composition of a binary liquid mixture was
produced, this involving the introduction of no measuring probes into the vessels.
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89
The 0-ray back-scatter coefficient is related to the atomic number of the material in the scatterer by the
approximate law Zn, where a> '/2R1,
where Ni = the number of a-particles, arising in a unit of time per one unit volume of medium i: Ea= energy
of a-particle; Rj= range of a-particle in medium i; . ds ? differential element of border surface; a = radius of
sphere. In equation( 2) medium > is in sphere, medium > outside it.
Since the effective curve of a cylinder is less than that of a sphere of the same radius,the value of the
density of the energy flow through the cylindrical surface must be an intermediate value between the values
(1) and (2).
Taking as the density of the energy flow through the cylindrical surface the mean values of (1) and (2),
we obtained the following equation for the mean magnitude of the dose in the cylindrical boundary volume
a ( 1 RN
? iv-1) 4(2a ? RI)
Pcc, = E .[N 1 --(N R2 .7R7
cn>a>Ri
R2
PCCI = E.[Ni +(N. N1)(1? 1,4 jaz + 0,65 ?a2
Rt>a>o
where a = radius of cylinder, medium ?cKl? within cylinder, medium ?2? outside it.
The values of the mean magnitude of the dose calculated according to (3) and (4) are in good agreement
with the experimental findings.
Central Roentgen-Radiological Scientific Research
Institute
244
4.
4
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CHANGE IN HEPATIC CARBOHYDRATE FUNCTIONS IN POLONIUM DAMAGE
V. P. Fedotov
It is known that subjection of the organism to ionizing radiation greatly reduces the glycogen content of
the liver. At present there are two differing opinions on the mechanism of this disturbance. Some authors hold
that with radiation disease the sugar-fixation and glycogen-formation functions of the liver are disturbed; others
are inclined to regard glycogen impoverishment of the liver as a result of distrubances in feeding and in the ac-
tivity of the gastrointestinal tract.
In dogs subjected to angiostomy we succeeded in showing that with acute and subacute course of radiation
disease, induced by polonium, there is distinct disturbance in the sugar fixing function of the liver. This dis-
turbance was observed both with orally administered glucose and with intravenous injection of glucose.
The experiments with intravenous injection of insulin showed that in conditions of acute and subacute
radiation disease the liver continuesto react to insulin,but the character of the hypoglycemic curve changes.
Primary hyperglycemia occurring with intravenous injection of insulin increases both in magnitude and time.
The times of maximum hypoglycemia and return of blood sugar to the original level shift to later stages.
The degree of hypoglycemia was practically unchanged.
Experiments with intravenous injection of adrenalin established thaewith disease of the organism by
polonium the liver responds to injection of adrenalin by a more intense output of sugar into the blood. The re-
turn of blood sugar content to the original level occurred somewhat later than normal.
The results of our investigations enable one to conclude that with disease of the organism by lethal doses
of ionizing radiation the sugar fixing function of the liver is lowered. This finds expression in impaired capac-
ity of the liver to take up sugar from the incoming blood and to fix sugar firmly.
USSR Academy of Medical Sciences
INFLUENCE OF 8-RADIATION (P32) ON GLYCOGEN FUNCTION OF THE LIVER
G. Kh Bunyatyan and G. T. Alunts
The influence of 8-radiation of P32 on the glycogen function of the liver was studied. The experiments
were conducted on 18 rabbits distributed in equal numbers in the control and experimental groups. Determina-
tion of glycogen was made according to the method of Gudkremmer and Somodzh. It was found that normally
glycogen is unequally distributed in a hepatic lobe. Most of it was found in the terminal parts of the lobe
(4.38 g clo) and less in the central part (3:69 g
Radioactive phosphorus in the form of NaHP3204 solution was injected subcutaneously at the rate of 20-30
p c per 1 kg body weight. The animals were killed 24 hours after introduction of the isotope. The investigations
showed that,after introduction of the P32 solution in the dose indicated, the amount of glycogen in the liver fell
5-10 times (in particular cases 15-20 times) as compared with the control rabbits, reaching 0.1 To. These changes
were observed in all parts of the hepatic lobes. It should be noted that under the influence of P32, the difference
in the glycogen content in the various parts of the liver disappears. The same amount of stable phosphorus
introduced subcutaneously did not have any effect on the glycogenic function of the liver.
245
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With subcutaneous administration of insulin on the basis of 3 units per 1 kg rabbit body weight and
Na2HP3204 solution,the glycogen content of the liver fell much less (3-7 dines) than under the influence of
radioactive phosphorus alone.
Institute of Physiology of the Armansk
USSR Academy of Sciences
DESTRUCTION OF THYROID GLAND BY INTERNAL IONIZING RADIATION
(RADIOACTIVE IODINE) AND CERTAIN MEANS OF DEFENSE
Ya. M. Kabak and M. M. Nikitina
This communication continues investigations reported earlier.
NaII311without a carrier,was introduced at various doses in single administration under the skin of one -
darold rats. In each litter there were six rats. Altogether over 60 litters, i.e., about 360 animals, not counting
the mothers, were used.
The minimum dose inducing, in the conditions of these experiments, practically complete destruction
of the thyroid gland, was roughly,equalto 100 c/I131whichcorrespondsto the findings of Goldberg and Chaikov.
Physiological sequelae of such destruction were observed: retardation of growth and bone formation pro-
cess, disturbance in development of hairy integument, changes in general appearance, behavior and state of
animals, disturbance in heat regulation, etc.
All these disturbances are considered as results of destruction of the thyroid gland since even after
becoming clearly apparent, it was possible to remove them by substitution therapy with thyroidin (5 mg/100
g animal weight daily).
At the conclusion of the experiments,the completeness of destruction of the thyroid gland was controlled
by histological examination of the relevant regions of the trachea by the method of serial sections.
Additional proof of the athyroid state of the animals was obtained by examination of the cytological
structure of the frontal lobe of the pituitary; in the rats subjected to radiothyroidectomy it changed in a
characteristic fashion, and in animals receiving thyroid its normal state was restored.
Of particular interest are the results of the experiments with "defense" of the thyroid gland against de-
struction by radioactive iodine entering the organism.
As in the previous investigation on birds, a favorable effect Of stable Iodine salts (iodide) was observed,
but a particularly good effect was achieved with use of 2? mercaptoimidazole.
In all rats which received adequate dose of this preparation (for example, 4 doses of 0.1 mg for two days)
commencing 1-3 hours after entry of IL31 into the organism, the thyroid gland was well preserved and no defects
or any changes in its function were later observed.
Only on histological examination of the thyroid gland was it possible to detect certain consequences of its
partial destruction.
M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University
246
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INFLUENCE OF COMPLEXONES ON MINERAL EXCHANGE IN THE ORGANISM
D. I. Semenov
Laboratory investigations (1949-1956) on the influence of a series of complexones On the behavior of
radioactive elements (metals) in the organism showed their high efficacy. Ethylene diaminotetraacetate (EDTA),
hexametaphosphate (HMP),-poly-and metaphosphates, nitrilo triacetate (NTA), cyclohexane (CH) and uramyl
diacetate (UDA) exert a significant influence on the deposition of a number of metals in the organs and tissues
and also on the speed of their excretion from the organism.
EDTA to a considerable degree accelerates the excretion of a number of emitters (metals) from the organs
and tissues at late stages of poisoning.
The mechanism of excretion of emitters (metals) from the organism by the complexones consists in
formation of highly stable complex compounds highly soluble in the conditions of the organism, easily and
speedily filtering through the kidneys.
The mechanism of the toxic action of the complexones of the EDTA type consists in binding of biologi-
cally important cations.
The efficacy of the complexone in the excretion of the various emitters (metals) depends on the constant
of displacement of calcium; the stability of the complex in the biological medium, the physicochemical state
of the metal in the blood and tissues,and also on the speed of the process of complex formation.
The efficacy of the complex compounds in the excretion of the emitters (metals) depends on the constant
of the displacement of the metal of the introduced complex by the emitter (metal).
The toxicity of the complex compounds depends on their hardiness in the conditions of the organism.
Laboratory of Biophysics, Ural Branch of the
Academy of Sciences (Sverdlovsk)
COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF AGENTS SPEEDING UP EXCRETION OF
RADIOACTIVE STRONTIUM
E. I. Safronov
Comparative evaluation of agents accelerating excretion of radiostrontium from the organism was made
by radiochemical and biological methods. In the preliminary series of radiochemical experiments with static
and dynamic ion exchange chromatography, the capacity of organic and inorganic chemical compounds to re-
move radiostrontium from cationic resins was compared. Of the 20 tested compounds the most effective in the
radiochemical experiments were lithium citrate, potassium iodide, iodhypersol and trilone B.
The results of the radiochemical experiments were used in biological experimentstand confirmed and
verified in particular cases by radio autographic examination. Chronic series of biological experiments were
performed on 630 mice. In these experiments, excretion of radiostrontium from the organism was appreciably
accelerated by repeated subcutaneous injections of 0.2 ml daily of 50/0 lithium citrate solution for the first
five days of poisoning.
Physiological saline accelerated excretion of radiostrontium from the mouse organism to a much smaller
degree ;however, it did have a definite medicinal effect, reducing mortality in the mice and the intensity of
the clinical picture ofpoisoning by radiostrontium. Potassium iodide did not possess any medicinal advantages
over physiological saline.
247
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Analysis of the multistage investigations conducted and the published findings enable us to conclude
that physiological saline and potassium iodide along with salts of citric acid and other substances may be re-
commended in the treatment of radiostrontium poisoning.
Kirov Order of Lenin Military-Medical Academy
INFLUENCE OF UNITHIOL ON DISTRIBUTION, ACCUMULATION AND
EXCRETION OF RADIOACTIVE ARSENIC IN RABBITS
N. I. Lugansky a n d Yu. I. Loboda
Dithiol, containing in its molecule active sulfhydryl groups is now being successfully employed as a
means of antidote therapy in poisoning by arsenic compounds and certain heavy metals ("thiol poisons").
Of the compounds of this type especially noteworthy is a new national preparation unithiol (2, 3-sodium
dimercaptopropansulfonate) put forward by the Ukrainan Chemical Hygiene Scientific-Research Institute
(V.E. Petrunkin, V. P. Dvernitsky,A.I. Cherkes and co-workers).
The work performed in our laboratory in the last few years (N. I. Lugansky, D. S. Lukontsev) has shown
that unithiol is a highly active antidote in poisoning of animals by variousorganic and inorganic arsenic com-
pounds (novarsenol, osarsol, calcium arsenite, Paris green, arsenic anhydride, etc.)
In the mechanism of the therapeutic action of unithiol in adenic intoxication, its capacity to increase
excretion of arsenic from the organism is of definite importance.
To make a more thorough study of the therapeutic properties of unithiol and its role in the detoxication
processes in the organism .we set out to investigate the influence of the preparation on the distribution and ac-
cumulation of arsenic in the organs and tissues, and also to trace the speed of excretion of the poison from the
animal organism poisoned by arsenic anhydride.
In performing these experiments,the method of radioactive tracers was applied. The isotope of arsenic
in the form of arsenic anhydride (AS27603) was employed. The experiments were carried out on 75 rabbits.
The findings of our experimental investigations suggest the following conclusions:
1. Unithiol.greatly reduces the content of radioactive arsenic in the organs and tissues of rabbits within the
course of only a few hours after introduction of the isotope.
2. With treatment by unithiol,elimination of the radioactive arsenic in the urine considerably increases,
particularly in the first few days.
3. The material obtained for study of distribution, accumulation and excretion of radioactive arsenic in
animals treated with unithiol confirmed our former data demonstrating that in the mechanism of the medicinal
antidote properties of unithiol an important part is played by its capacity to intensify elimination of arsenic
from the organism.
Ukrainian Scientific Research Chemical-Hygiene
Institute
248
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4
It
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tes1
tt.:7
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IV. BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY
LABELED ATOMS AND STUDY OF PHYTOSYNTHESIS AS A PHYSIOLOGICAL
PROCESS
A. A. Nichiporovich
The labeled atom method is being widely employed in the study of the course of photosynthetic trans-
formations of carbon,ang especially of the primary and direct products of photosynethesis.
In this direction important material has been obtained which has shown the cyclical character of the
process and has demonstrated a number of initial and intermediate products.
However, these were purely biochemical investigations.
Up to now,many questions in this field have remained unclear and controversial (the question of the
nature of the primary acceptor or acceptors and the question of the primary product or products, etc.). In this
respect much work needs to be done.
Several problems of the chemistry of photosynthesis have unfortunately not been treated to any extent.
Among these is, for example, the important question of the way in which oxygen is evolved in the photosyn-
thetic process. An aspect of the question of no less importance,and in some respec.ts of more importance,is
the application of the labeled atom method to the study of photosynthesis as a physiological process,above all
from the point of view of the possibility of increasing the productivity of photosynthesis.
In this connectionmuch important work has been started or partially completed. Thus,work has begun
which has given results on the study of the relations between photosynthesis and respiration.
Work has started on the study of the significance of the atomic-cytological structure in photosynthesis.
The labeled-atom method is of great assistance in the study of the question of the mechanism of energy
accumulation and transfer in the photosynthetic process, in particular as a result of formation of macroergic
phosphate bonds.
Our conceptions on the diversity of products of synthesis and also on the methods and causes of their
formation have now been considerably extended.
Work has started on the connections between the special nature of the work of the plant photosynthetic
apparatus and a series of physiological processes (nutrition, growth, light conditions, photoperiodic reactions,
etc.).
Much of this work is now in an embryonic state. However, because of the significance of this question
and of the results which may be achieved,this work needs to be extended in every direction.
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249
K. A. Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology of the
USSR Academy of Sciences.
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t
I I
POLYGLYCERIC ACID IN THE PRIMARY PRODUCT OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
E. A. Biochenko and N. I. Zakharova
In studying the products of reduction of C1402 in photosynthesistradioanivity was detected first of all in
an oxyacid with a molecular weight of about 1,500. Determinations of the constituent elements and functional
groups of this oxyacid showed that the entire carbon was to be found in carboxylic and alcoholic groupings. On
decomposition,glycerol derivatives were obtained. In view of the fact that several authors have described
phosphoglyceric acid as the primary product,it was interesting for comparison purpose to determine glycerol
and phosphorus not hydrolyzed by 1 N MCI in the primary product molecule, to which we gave the designation
R1, Glycerol was determined by the periodate method showing that it constituted about 61, by weight of the
product. The remaining carbon in the molecule was to be found in the carboxylic groups. Total phosphorus,
differentiated inorganic and organic phosphorus, Was determined by the method of Fiske-Subbarow All the
phosphorus in 121 was in organic combination. Then it was determined whether the phosphorus was resistant
to three-hour hydrolysis with 1 N HC1. Comparison of the amounts of nonhydrolyzable phosphorus and glycerol
showed that,had this product consisted of phosphoglyceric acid the amount of phosphorus should have been many
times greater. Upon heating with naphthoresorcinol in concentrated sulfuric acid a blue color was obtained
charaCteristic of glyceric acids. Thus,the primary product of photosynthesis was a polyglyceric acid.
Paper chromatography confirmed the homogeneousnature of the substance,both in two-dimensional and
wedge chrbmatograms. Upon boiling with ethyl alcohol for one houndecomposition took place yielding glycerol
derivatives with different 12f values,and the residual molecule contained iron.
The path of the carbon in photosynthesis starts out in combination between carbon dioxide and the iron
containing fraction of the R1 molecule. Already reduction occurs,since in the primary product no more than
507 of the C" is found in the carboxylic groups. The alcohol groups, formed on deoxidation,forming part of
the glycerol fraction of the molecule, are then split off from I21. This differs from Calvin's hypothesis, apart.
from the nature of the carbon dioxide acceptor, in that he considered the primary product not a result of local
reduction but a subsequent stage of phosphotriosis. However, the data on the distribution of C14 in individual
atoms of the molecule ,both of the glyceric acids and the hexoscs, contradicts the hypothesis that the monoses orig-
inate in the trioses. Discovery of radioactivity in dioxyacetone may be explained by the formation of this sub-
stance upon decomposition of12,1. The subsequent transformation of carbon into free sugars occurs through the
product On, two thirds of which is composed of uronic type acids and one third of ketose. The transfer of the
ketose formed here to the various organic acceptors may, according to the latest work on the transference ef-
fect of invertase, lead to formation of many substances including free sugars.
V. I. Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical
Chemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences
STUDY OF THE PROCESS OF RENEWAL OF CHLOROPHYL COMPONENTS
WITH THE AID OF LABELED CARBON
A. A. Shlyk and T. N. Gednev
From the observations reported in the literature, one can deduce almost anything from the correlations
logically possible between the biosynthesis of chlorophyl -a and chlorophyl-b.. Since we have shown that
complete synthesis of the molecules of the pigment occurs even with its renewal, study of this process has also
led to new conclusions on this question. For example,we established in three plants a difference in the
250
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a
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specific activities of carbon in chlorophyl-.a and -b, indicating a different speed of incorporation of carbon
and assimilable CO2. It is probable that such a difference is due to the nonuniform attenuation of the new
molecules in the tissue by the amount of pigments. This difference was maintained for a fairly long period of
time ,suggesting that in the plant rapid mutual transformation of the two chlorophyl components does not occur.
The significance of chlorophyl -b in photosynthesis cannot be associated with such a mutual transition as has
occasionally been claimed. Splitting of the chlorophyl molecules and determination of the radioactivity of its
parts showed that components a and b are capable also only of slow phytol change, Chlorophyl-b, possessing
a smaller specific activity, cannot be a precursor of chlorophyl-a. The basically uniform distribution of radio-
activity throughout the molecules of chlorophyl-a and-b precludes the possibility of independent biosynthesis of
the two components of chlorophyl, and shows that they are formed from common precursors. The single chain
of biosynthesis either continues up to formation of chlorophyl-a and, from it, chlorophyl-b, or branches out at one
of the final stages leading to a parallel emergence of both chlorophyl components. The choice of the most
likely of these two possibilities was made on the basis of an experiment in which restoration of the chlorophyl
occurred simultaneously with continued storage of the pigment,and the relative specific activity of chlorophyl-a
and -b was calculated according to the activity of the simultaneously isolated succinic acid, the chief source
of carbon of the phorbin . The value obtained for chlorophyl-b throughout the experiMent was less than the
increase in the amount of pigment. This shows that on the path from succinic acid to chlorophyl -b a consider-
able decrease in the specific activity of carbon occurs,much greater than occurs on the path to chlorophyl-a.
Such an attenuation is difficult to explain on the bases of the hypothesis of parallel emergence of both pigments.
If chlorophyl-a arises successively from chlorophyl-a, this attenuation is not only explicable but essential.
The transition through chlorophyl-a is,in such a case the main stage at which attenuation of the carbon of
chlorophyl-b takes place. Final solution of this complicated question requires further investigations. ?
Institute of Biology of the USSR Academy of Sciences
INVESTIGATION OF INTERMEDIARY PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
BY MEANS OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES
N. G. Doman
With the isotopic method and use of poisoning of enzymatic systems,new data have been obtained con-
firming the presence of a stage of unstable foliar binding of CO2 prior to the stage of formation of phosphoglyceric
acid, the first stable product in photosynthesis.
The phosphoglyceric acid formed may be converted simultaneously in several directions,but it is essen-
tially reduced to trioses by incorporation in the carbohydrate photosynthetic cycle, in the course of which a cer-
tain amount of phosphoglyceric acid quickly reappears,no longer labeled by the carboxylic carbon,but by the
carbon in the a and 8 positions.
Study of the course of formation of the early intermediate products of photosynthesis in various plant
species in changing conditions demonstrates that although there is uniformity in the basic stages of the path
of the carbon in photosynthesis, even at the very commencement the nature of metabolism is specific to the
plant and dependent on conditions.
Data were obtained showing a certain connection between CO2 assimilation in light ana darkness in the
synthesis process of plant substances.
The detected intensification of reduction of sulfates in the leaves in the light may be due to direct parti-
cipation of organic sulfur compounds in the photosynthetic process.
251
A. N. Bakh Institute of Biochemistry of the USSR
Academy of Sciences
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USE OF RADIOACTIVE CARBON (C14) IN THE STUDY OF
THE INFLUENCE OF TRACE ELEMENTS ON PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND
TRANSLOCATION OF ASSMILATES
M. Ya. Shkolnik and A. N. Greshishcheva
The question of the influ.Ince of trace elements on photosynthesis and translocation of assmilates is of great
interest. Data on this question are few in number and often contradictory. The most definite data are those in
relation to the significance of manganese and iron in the process of photosynthesis,and on the positive influence
of boron in carbohydrate translocation.
The object of our work was to study the influence of boron, manganese, copper, zinc and molybdenum on
the intensity of photosynthesis and on the translocation of the assimilates at various times of the day.
The experiments were performed in cotton plots.
In all the experiments, photosynthesis and translocation of assimilates was studied by means of the radio-
active isotope of carbon (C").
As a result of the investigations carried out.the following conclusions may be drawn:
In experiments conducted on the cotton plant, copper and manganese had an appreciable positive influence
on the intensity of photosynthesis and displayed the capacity of reducing or completely' removing depression of
photosynthesis during daylight hours.
Zinc and molybdenum, in the majority cfcases,had a positive influence on photosynthesis, chiefly in daylight
hours ,which indicates that they are also capable of reducing depression of photosynthesis. The use of boron gave
contradictory results. ,
The question of the influence of Zinc, molybdenum and boron on photosynthesis requires further checking.
Boron and manganese accelerated the translocation of the labeled assimilates from the leaves in almost
all cases. Zinc and molybdenum, in most cases,had a positive influence on this process. Contradictory results
were obtained for copper.
Accelerated translocation of the Ca-labeled assimilates was detected under the influence of boron in ex-
periments with sugar beet (introduction of boron in the presence of high doses of lime which hampers transloca-
tion of assimilates). These data explain one of the reasons for the particular significance of boron in presence
of high doses of lime. In these experiments it was established that the optimal dose of lime, unlike a high dose,
improves the assimilate translocation.
Our findings are in agreement with the findings in the literature on the positive influence of manganese on
photosynthesis and of boron on the translocation of assimilates, and shed light on the influence of copper in pho-
tosynthesis.
They show futhermore, the great significance of manganese in translocation of assimilates.
252
V. L. Komarov Botanical
Institute of the USSR
Academy of Sciences
4
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TRANSLOCATION OF PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
IN SOYA PLANTS AND QUESTIONS CONNECTED
WITH HARVEST YIELD
I. F. Belikov
Study of the movement and distribution of products of photosynthesis in the soya plant in the vegetative
period was necessary to produce a scientific basis for the use of standard seed screening and methods of sowing
in soils of different fertility. In the investigations radioactive carbon (C") was employed.
Before bean formation, the assimilates from the old leaves of the plant are usually directed towards the
growth points of the runners, to the young expanding leaves, stern and root. They were found in the largest
quantity in the tissues and organs in which active processes of growth and metabolism were occurring at that
period. Radioactive carbon was not found in the leaves and other parts of the plants in which growth was com-
plete when the nutrient was administered.
When the beans appeared, the flow of plastic substances to the growth points and the young growing leaves
ceases. The products of photosynthesis are used locally, i. e., from each leaf they enter the axial bean.
The assimilates move from the leaf to the stem, moving upwards and downwards simultaneously,usually
five to six times more passing downwards than upwards.
In normal conditions of growth and development the bean's requirement of plastic substances is higher than
can be produced by the assimilation apparatus of the plant.
When a bean falls off.the substance accumulated in the leaf is taken over by beans at neighboring nodes.
With the appearance of beans on the plant, a smaller amount of the products of photosynthesis enters the.
root system. It must be assumed that the vital activity of the root system is maintained on account of stored
substances.
Establishment of the characteristic of distribution of the-products of photosynthesis in the plant organism
in the period of vegetation, and the soya plant's need of secondary light, established by us earlier, unabled us
to explain the cause of the low soya yield in continuous sowings, and to lay down rational standards of seed
screening and methods of sowing in soils of different fertility.
Far Eastern Branch of the
USSR Academy of Sciences
USE OF N15 IN STUDY OF THE ROLE OF NITROGEN
NUTRITION IN THE HARVEST YIELD
V. V. Tserling
The object of the investigation was to make clear the times of administration and doses of nitrogen in nitro-
gen metabolism,and the role of nitrogen in the formation of the reproductive organs.
In order to distinguish the effect of nitrogen introduced-before sowing from the nitrogen introduced after,
the technique of marked atoms was used.
253
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It was found that nitrogen metabolism in plants depends on the original dose of nitrogen and the times and
phases of development of the plant.
The influence of the different levels of nitrogen intake before sowing on nitrogen metabolism in the first
period of development of the plant,and as a result of this,on.the subsequent stages of formation of the reproduc-
tive organs was shown.
Isotopic analysis made it possible to distinguish more clearly the entry and transformation of the nutrient
nitrogen than did quantitative determination of the percentage nitrogen content in the fractions.
It was established by the isotopic method that:
1) synthesis and restoration of amino acids precedes synthesis of albumin;
2) in the first hours and days after intake of nutrient this process proceeds with particulai vigor;
3) the greater the hunger of the plant before nutrient administration, the more rapid the new formation of
amino acids at the expense of the nutrient nitrogen.;
4) renewal of albumin nitrogen at the expense of labeled amino acids is more vigorous in young (20 day)
plants.
Use.of N15H4N1403 as a labeled fertilizer made it possible to confirm experimentally the thesis of Acad.
D. N. Pryanishinkov. that ammonia is taken up more quickly than are nitrates.
Changed nitrogen nutrition in plants most strongly affected the development process of the reproductive
organs and grain harvest formation.
Spacing of the dose of nitrogen in all cases produced an increase in the harvest,differing according to the
variants of the experiments. One and the same dose, but introduced ata more advantageous time,by activating
nitrogen metabolism in the young plant, accelerated the formation of panicles, increased the ripening of the
inflorescence and the grain harvest.
A characteristic of plants with the largest panicles and grain yield was the similarity of the indices of
amino acids and albumin synthesis in the phase before and during differentiation of the panicles.
By varying dosage and times of administration of nitrogen fertilizer, and thus intensifying nitrogen metab-
olism in the plants at a definite phase of their development, one can produce any size and kernel type of pan-
icles of millet, and consequently, change the grain harvest.
254
V. V. Dokuchaev Soil Institute,
Academy of Sciences of the USSR
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NEW METHOD OF DIFFERENTIAL STUDY OF LOCALIZATION
OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES IN PLANTS BY MEANS OF
AUTORADIOGRAPHY WITH USE OF FILTER PAPER LEAF "IMPRINTS"
Zh. A. Medvedev
Normal autoradiography of plant objects,although plainly showing the localization of radioactive substances,
does not,however, clearly reveal to what extent the radioactive substances are concentrated in the various com-
pounds (albumins, nucleic acids, lipoids, inorganic substances), since the film is a summation of all the radio-
active fractions in the plant tissues. This peculiarity of autoradiography of large objects restricts its use in bio-
chemical and physiological investigations connected with analysis of substance transformation by the study
of synthesis of various complex compounds.
The author devised a method of differentiated leaf autoradiography of particular labeled compounds(albu-
mins, nucleic acids, lipoids),and also of separate fractions of cells (vacuole and plasma,solutions cellular struc-
tures). The basis of this method is the securing by means of high periodic pressure (150-200 atmos) of "im-
pressions" of leaves on filter paper. In obtaining the "impressions",the foliar intracellular contents are pressed
in the filter paper with retention of the typical leaf impression, which makes it possible to eliminate from such
an imprint, by washing, one or another solullefraction using solutions which fix the albumin and nucleic acid
fractions on the filter paper (for example, washing of "imprints" by a solution of trichloroacetic acid), With snb-
lequent autoradiography of the "imprints". Conditions have been worked out in which only the vacuole or plas-
ma liquor of the leaf is sucked into the filter paper(by gradual increase in pressure on the leaves denatured by
freezing) and also conditions enabling one to obtain an "imprint" of the plastids and organoids of leaves after
preliminary removal of the liquid fractions (using leaf "imprints" on paper impregnated with trichloroacetic acid).
With use of preliminary trichloroanetic acidimpregnation of the paper all the albumins removed from the leaves
under pressure are fixed in the surface layer of the paper, which heightens the distinctness of the "imprint" add
reduces the radiation self-absorption effect. Preliminary impregnation of the paper by barium or iron salts en-
ables one to fix the labeled inorganic compounds of sulfur and phosphorus in the 'imprints." Use of varieties
of fine and coarse filter papers enables one to obtain layer "imprints, "the content of the leaves being distributed
in 5-10 layers of paper, each layer differing from the other in the morphobiological sense,since the organoids
of different dimensions (nucleus, plastids ,granules, intergranular medium) are retained to a different degree
by the individual layers of paper. The method devised is suitable for mass analysis and does not require com-
plicated equipment. In order to obtain the "imprints",various types of chromatographic paper were tested.
The report presents the results of a study with use of the method of autoradiographic " imprints" on locali-
zation of albumin and nucleic acid synthesis in the leaves of various strata of kidney beans with root and non-
root uptake of es-labeled sulfates, methionine and with radioactive phosphorus.
255
Moscow K. A. Timiryazev
Academy of Agriculture
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INTENSITY OF ABSORPTION OF PHOSPHORUS AND ITS
TRANSFORMATION INTO VARIOUS ORGANIC FORMS IN
NONROOT PLANT NUTRITION
V. F. Shcheglova and L. D. Rachkov
In investigations on the question of introduction of phosphorus into plants other than through the root, we set our-
selves these tasks: establishing the comparative degree of enrichment 01 various cotton plant organs by phosphorus-
containing compounds with administration of phosphorus via the root and elsewhere; determining the character
of the transformation of the phosphorus enteringiand the specific composition of organic phosphorus compounds
in various organs; and establishing the periods of most active intake in relation to the times of nonroot nu-
trition.
The advantages of non-root intake of phosphorus are speed of entry, distribution to all organs of the plant,
and participation in synthesis of organic phosphorus compounds.
All these processes are slowed down when phosphorus is fed via the root, a certain equilibrium being achieved
only in two to three deka&
Subsequently, root feeding ensures a large flow of mineral phosphorus and more active synthesis of organic
phosphorus compounds in the plant.
In view of the fact that soil phosphorus enters the plant more slowly than in nonroor nutrition ,additional
administration of phosphates through the leaf makes it possible to quickly meet the phosphorus requirements of
the plant in the necessary period. Combination of basic root and supplementary noncom phosphorus nutrition,
by most completely satisfying the phosphorus requirements at the opportune moment, can ensure increased plant
productivity.
Inorganic phosphorus introduced through the leaf is used by the plant for synthesis of organic and inorganic
phosphorus compounds.
The data of radiometric analysis show that the fractional composition of phosphorus-containing compounds
is specific for the individual organs of the cotton plant.
A considerable predominance of inorganic phosphorus fraction in the roots, phosphoric ethers of sugars in
the fibers formed, and constant growth of nucleoproteins in the ripening seeds was observed.
phosphorus applied to the leaf enters the plant with greatest intensity at earlier phases of development; at
commencement of ripening of the cotton plant entry is insignificant. This explains the very weak effect of non-
root phosphorus nutrients in late autumn.
256
...smatowevraarupacp........
Botanical Institute,
Tadjik USSR Academy of
Sciences
r
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USE OF N15 IN THE STUDY OF THE ROLE OF COPPER
IN PLANT ASSIMILATION OF NITROGEN FROM NITRATES
AND AMMONIA
L. K. Ostrovskaya, B. A. Geller
and G. M. Yakovenko
Copper deficiency in plants is usually manifest in normal or intensified nitrogen nutrition; with insufficiency
of nitrogen, copper deficiency has almost no effect on growth and development. According to several findings
in the literazure, an analogous interrelation is observed between nitrogen and iron. This gives grounds for assuming
that heavy metals participate in plant biochemical transformations of nitrogen.
Comparative biochemical investigations of the composition of plants cultivated lit conditions of normal
and deficient copper nutrition show that when copper is deficient, as a rule, the content of total, albumin and
nonalbumin, nitrogen increases. This phenomenon may be a natural outcome of the slowing down of growth
of the plants, and does not give sufficient material on which to judge the character of the interrelation of copper
and nitrogen metabolism.
Use of the stable isotope of nitrogen has produced data which may be used to approach the solution of the
question of the role of copper in nitrogen transformation and albumin synthesis in plants.
Feeding oats with ammonium sulfate containing a stable isotope of nitrogen, and subsequent mass spectro-
metric analysis of the isolated nitrogen compounds show that in plants not receiving a sufficient amount of copper
a somewhat higher percentage of nitrogen atoms are to be found in soluble fractions(NH3, amides and amino
acids). The N15 content of albumins and related compounds is, on the other hand, considerably lowered in cop-
per deficiency.
Analogous but quantitatively weaker correlations were found for sugar beet.
Comparative analysis of sugar beet plants fed by labeled nitrogen in the ammonium and nitrate radicals
shows that copper deficiency has no effect on albumin synthesis in nitrate feeding. This fact testifies to the
presence of different paths of nitrogen assimilation from ammonia and nitrates. With nutrition by the nitrogen
of ammonia, copper deficiency affects albumin synthesis to a larger degree in daylight hours than at night, and
reduces the excess percentage of albumin N15 atoms not only in the leaves, but also in the roots.
Comparative study of the distribution of N15 in various compounds isolated from sugar beet leaves after
feeding with nitrogen-labeled ammonium and nitrate radicals indicates that the intake and consequent transfor-
mation of the nitrogen in the nitrate radical is much more intensive than that in the ammonium radical espec-
ially in nitrogen assimilation in the light. In the roots of the sugar beet, no essential differences in assimilation
of the nitrogen from the nitrate and ammonium radicals were observed.
257
Ukraine Plant Physiology
Scientific-Research Institute
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USE OF RADIOCARBON IN INVESTIGATION OF
BIOSYNTHESIS OF TERPENES
G. V. Sukhov
In order to determine the speed of biosynthesis of monoterpenes and resin acids,use of the kinetic isotope
method of metabolism investigation was employed.
Introduction of radiocarbon (C14) in the experimental plants was conducted in the process of photosynthesis,
for which purpose the crowns of 30 year, 10 meter high pines were confined in polyamide- coatedsectional photo-
synthetic chambers, of 60 cubic meter capacity.
The total activity of assimilated C1402 in each experiment was 10 pc. The chambers were fitted with ven-
tilators for the purpose of forming air currents, thermometers, psychrometers,and counters for constant measure-
ment of the concentration of C'02.
It was shown that in conditions of light saturation and intensive agitation of air the speed of assimilation
of C1402
?strictly proportional to its available concentration. This technique allows one to study in detail
photosynthesis and respiration of ligneous plants in natural vegetation conditions and, with a small refinement
of the chamber, rate of transpiration can also be measured.
Following introduction of C14 in the experimental trees emples were taken, in the course of 1-2 months,
of coniferous needles, bast and wood cellulose from whidh monoterpenes, resin acids and monosaccharides were
isolated. Curves of the radioactivity of the isolated substances were plotted against time. Analysis of the curves
showed that the mean duration of life of the monoterpene and resin acid molecules isolated from the coniferous
needle of the current yea; and the bast and wood cellulose of the branches of the same plant was uniform,being
about four days.
One quarter of the effective amount of pine soft resin is renewed in one day. It was shown that the speed
of renewal of soft resin exceeds the speed of its secretion on tapping 100 times. In one day, half the pine mono-
saccharides are restored (mean molecular life span two days). The rate of metabolism of substances formed in
the biosynthesis of terpenes from carbohydrates is much greater than the speed of metabolism of both terpenes
and monosaccharides. The data obtained give theoretical support to the new technology of intensive tapping
and demonstrate the superiority of the kinetic isotopic method of investigation of biosynthesis and metabolism
over use of labeled atoms with single measurement of the radioactivity of the investigated substances, a method
variant widely employed.
With a single determination of isotopic composition (radioactivity) of the substances during the investigation
of their biosynthesis, dissimilar conclusions on the composition of their precursors result because of the multi-
plicity and reversibility of the paths of biosynthesis and metabolism. The kinetic isotopic method makes it
possible to avoid this lack of certainty,and to establish the basic main pathways of biosynthesis, and to measure
the speed of transformation of the substances participating in metabolism.
Central Scientific Research
Institute of Wood-Pulp Chemical
Industry
258
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PARTICIPATION OF PENTOSES AND a-METHYL-
d-GLUCOSIDE IN LIGNIN FORMATION
Z. N. Kreitsberg and V. N. Sergeeva
Study of the biosynthesis of lignin by means of labeled atoms is a method which holds out much promise
for the future. Wide use is now being made of this in research practice.
In this work, use was made of carbon dioxide with a marked carbon atom and a-methyl?d-glucoside syn-
thesized by the authors,as well as pentoses isolated from wood cellulose after intake of carbon dioxide with a
labeled carbon atom.
Following foliar feeding of the plants with radioactive carbon dioxide, and also introduction into the plant
of the supposed precursors of lignin, pentoses and a- methyl- d- glucosidemarked with radioactive carbon we traced the ac-
tive carbon introduced in the various parts of the plant and also in the lignin of the trunk wood cellulose.
The purpose of the present work was to attempt to define the role of pentoses and a-methyl? d-glucoside
in lignin formation.
The experiments showed that with introduction of radioactive pentoses in the plant (young poplar) all parts
of the plant became radioactive, as was the lignin isolated from the upper stem.
With injection of radioactive solution of a-methyl? d-glucoside in the plant, radioactivity was not found
in the isolated lignin The wood cellulose contained an insignificant amount of C14.
Upon absorption of radioactive carbon dioxide by the plant through its leaves we established the presence
of C14 in the separate fragments of the lignin molecule, namely in the aromatic and metaxylene groups in the
short side chain. ? ?
?
On the basis of the experiments conducted it was established that:
1) pentoses participate in the process of formation of lignin ;
2) the metaxylene group of a-methyl? d-glucoside is not involved in lignin formation;
3) the lignin molecules are formed in one stage,with a definite number of metaxylene groups.
Scientific Research Institute on
Problems of Forest Economy of the
Latvian SSR Academy of Sciences
ISOTOPIC EFFECTS IN BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
P. A. Vlasyuk and D. M. Grodzinsky
Study of the characteristics of chemical elements isolated from living matter is of particular interest since
it is possible that it is precisely in the living protoplasm that conditions are created in which a considerable
degree of isotopic differentiation may occur. In addition, the possibility that certain isotopes of elements are
of special physiological importance in plant feeding is not to be excluded. Study of this question is of great
importance, on the one hand, from the standpoint of geochemistry since the greater part of the elements of the
earth's crust is included in living matter and, on the other, for elucidation of the magnitude of isotopic effects
in biological processes which is necessary for a proper assessment of results of investigations conducted with the
method of labeled atoms.
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Acad. V. I. Vernadsky was the first to advance a hypothesis on the possibility of significant differentiation
of isotopes in biological processes. At present there is a great deal of information on investigation of isotopic
effects dealing with carbon, potassium, hydrogen, calcium, sulfur and nitrogen. Investigations were carried out
with elements, both with normal and abnormal isotopic composition. Depending on the experimental conditions,
such data show the presence of considerable isotopic effects in a number of cases,although there is much evidence
to support relative constancy of isotopic composition of the elements in plants and in nutritive mineral media.
The investigations performed to date are far from sufficient to provide precise knowledge on the isotopic
effects occurring in the metabolism of living organisms. Nevertheless, on the basis of existing information on
the characteristics of the isotopic composition of elements isolated from living matter, it may be assumed that,
in relation to normal isotopic composition, considerable isotopic effects are not witnessed,while with abnormal
isotopic rnixtures,there may be a significant fractionation of the isotopes in the process of entry and distribution
of the element in the plant tissues. Apparently, plants in the process of evolution have adjusted themselves to
the normal isotopic composition of the chemical elements. In this connection,in relation to abnormal isotopic
compositions in the biological processes, isotopic effects are seen, which give rise to certain changes in the
Isotopic composition of the elements in plant tissues. Since, with use of the method of marked atoms, abnormal
mixtures of isotopes are employed,the possibility of isotopic effects may give rise to certain difficulties in
assessment of experimental results.
Where determination of activity is made under stringently uniform conditions of measurement, comparison
of the relative activities of various samples may be used to characterize the isotopic effects. Therefore, study
of the isotopic effects can conveniently be carried out by using radioactive isotopes. The authors investigated
the features of utilization by the plant organism of nutrient elements with abnormal isotopic composition. The
abnormal isotopic mixture was produced by addition of artificial radioactive isotopes to the natural composition
of the element.
In investigations with calcium, to which was added the isotope Calitand with carbon enriched with C14,
appreciable isotopic effects were noted in plant assimilation of these elements. In the process of photosynthesis
in a closed system, the specific radioactivity of carbon dioxide fell. The capacity of lowering the specific
activity of carbon dioxide was particularly high in mature leaves of sugar beet, much less in the seedlings, and
not evidenced at all in very young seedlings of the white lupine and corn. In cultivation of summer vetch in a
medium containing radioactive isotope Ca 46 , the specific activity of calcium in the plants was 27-3950 lower
than in the nutritive medium.
Study of the biological selective properties of plants in relation to the isotopes of one element warrants the
most careful attention since it reveals new aspects of the processes of metabolism in the organisms and the
special state of chemical elements in living matter.
The question of the isotopic effects in biological processes cannot be considered as conclusively settled.
Further systematic investigations are still necessary.
260
Ukrainian Scientific Research
Institute of Plant Physiology
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USE OF P32 IN THE STUDY OF NITROPHOSP.HATE
NUTRITION IN PLANTS IN THE INITIAL PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT
L. A. Zuev and P. F. Golubeva
The radioactive isotope of phosphorus(P32) was used as a tracer in study of nitrophosphate plant nutrition,
chiefly in cultured grasses in the initial period of development. Observation was made on the absorption of
labeled phosphorus from the nutritive solution by the seedlings in relation to conditions of feeding. In some
seedlings, total phosphorus content was determined by the usual chemical method,as was the content of labeled
phosphorus. The shoots and roots were analyzed separately, which made it possible to trace the distribution of
the phosphorus in the seedling. Isolation and fractionation of phosphorus compounds allowed us to follow phos-
phorus metabolism in the shoots and roots.
Absorption of phosphorus in the etiolated seedlings of the majority of tested plant; in the presence of nitro-
gen of the nutrient medium, started quite early (after several days of germination) to lag behind absorption in
the seedlings germinated with non-nitrogenous solutions. In the conditions of normal natural light, a reversal
of the picture was observed.
Determination of total and labeled phosphorus in the fractions isolated from the shoots of fourteerrday-old
).,inter rye showed that phosphorus is exchanged in the compouvls of all the fractions. A part of the absorbed
phosphorus was found in all fractions proportional to the total content of phosphorus absorbed. However, there
was a fall in the degree of phosphorus exchange in the nucleoprotein fraction and the acid-soluble organic com-
pounds in nitrogen-starved seedlings.
To bring out more clearly the dependence of phosphorus absorption and of phosphorus compound metabolism
on the degree of nitrogen provision to the seedlings,short duration (7 days) germination of the seedlings in solu-
tions of incomplete nutritive mixtures was carried out,enabling one to obtain seedlings with nitrogen and phds-
phorus impoverishment. The seedlings,on switching to solutions containing labeled phosphorus,were sharply
characterized by their phosphorus absorption. Nitrogen impoverishment sharply reduced absorption of phosphorus.
The seedlings, rich in nitrogen, but previously deprived of phosphorus, absorbed the phosphorus with great inten-
sity. A direct relationship between intensity of absorption of phosphorus and synthesis of organic phosphorus
compounds was observed.
M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University
ABSORPTION OF P32 IN WINTER AND SUMMER
VARIETIES IN RELATION TO THE STAGES OF
ONTOGENESIS AND PLANT HARDINESS TO THE COLD
V. N. Razumov and N. D. Feofanova
The purpose of the investigation was to attempt, by means of labeled phosphorus,to assess types of agricul-
tural plants by their resistance to cold,and also to find an indirect method of assessing winter varieties of grain
grasses by the length of the stage of vernalization.
The energy of 1332 absorption was determined in ten-day seedlings of a number of farm crops and of their
varieties,using the nutrient solution at two different temperatures(+ 180 and +5?),
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Absorption of labeled phosphorus from the solution differed at high (18?) and low( 50) temperatures in various
varieties of winter wheat. The greater the resistance to frost of the variety, the higher the level of absorption of
phosphorus by the seedlings at a low temperature. In the winter varieties not resistant to frost, a sharp fall in
absorption of phosphorus was observed under the influence of reduced temperature. In this respect winter wheat
varieties, not resistant to frost, approximated the summer varieties in which the greatest fall in phosphorus
absorption at low temperatures was observed. The difference in absorption of phosphorus in the winter varieties
Is connected to a larger degree with the resistance of the plant to frost than with the duration of the vernalization
stage. Analogous results were obtained in experiments with varietim of vetch, peas and barley. An attempt to
apply this method in determining the frost resistance of varieties of clover and alfalfa did not give positive re-
sults.
The difference observed in phosphorus absorption by the seedlings of winter varieties and a number of crops
may be used as an indirect method for detecting frost-resistant varieties.
Certain summer crops (corn, lentils, chick-peas, peas) from hilly regions, i. e., varieties more resistant to
cold, also are capable of fairly energetic absorption of phosphorus (P32) from the solution at a low temperature.
The varieties from the same geographical regions but growing in valleys do not possess such a capacity.
The results of our experiments with the change in degree of absorption of P32 in conditions of lowered tem-
perature indicate the existence of a general law. Phosphorus absorption is reduced to a lesser degree with reduc-
tion in temperature in varieties which originate and are distributed in lower temperature regions (winter varie-
ties, varieties from hilly regions).
Determinations were made of the energy of absorption of labeled phosphorus in ten-day-old seedlings in
wheat of varying winter capacity,cultivated from seeds vernalized to a different extent.
The results of the experiments showed that, in seedlings vernalized to a different extent and cultivated at
18?C, at the conclusion of the vernalization stage absorption of P32 fell sharply. This period is characterized by
a heavy reduction in respiration energy.
Determination of the ratio of the values of absorption of P32 at low( 6?C) and high (18?C) temperature--
18?
shows that in the non-vernalized seedlings, the value of this ratio is high.
As vernalization activity is increased, the value falls, and at the end of the stage of vernalization reaches its
lowest value. If the time of vernalization is prolonged (beyond the duration of the vernalization stage) the value
of absorption remains constant.
The facts observed demonstrate significant changes in the course of the physiological processes at the mo-
ment of termination of the vernalization stage.
It
All-Union Institute of Plant Raising
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1:eNe
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USE OF RADIOACTIVE CARBON IN STUDY OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
IN Juglans SPECIES IN CONNECTION WITH THEIR CULTIVATION
IN A NEW HABITAT
I. N. Konovalov, E. N. M ikhaleva, F. L. Shchepotyev
and A. I. Pobegailo
The work was carried out in 1955 in the Kupyansk agroforest nursery in the Kharkov region; the following
walnut trees were investigated: J. manshurica Makh., J. regia L., J. nigra L. and J. cinerea L. The experimental
plants were characterized by natural habitat and biological peculiarities. The manshurica walnut is prevalent
in the mixed forests of the Far East, J. regia L. in the hilly regions of Central Asia, J. cinerea L. and I. nigra L.
are found in our region only under cultivation. The more winter-hardy manshurica arid cinerea walnuts grow
freely in the central belt of European Soviet Russia. J, regia L. in the absence of acclimitization methods grows
freely only in the south of our country. The nigra walnut occupies an intermediary position between these two
types of plants.
The intensity of photosynthesis was calculated by means of a compound of radioactive carbon(C1402)
according to the method devised by 0. V. Zalensky,O. A. Semikhatova and V. L. Voznesensky.
In all the Juglans species studied in our work the daily change in photosynthesis was of a uniform character.
In the first half of summer it was characteized by two maximum values which in the second half of the summer
tended to give a single peak curve.
The biological characteristics of the individual species were manifest in differences in intensity of photo-
synthesis and in the fact that the maximum values occurred at different hours of the day.
The period of the most intensive growth of the plants was accompanied, as a rule, by an increse in the en-
ergy of photosynthesis. The regia walnut, the most thermophilic tree of the Juglans species studied by us, was
distinguished by a more protracted period of growth, and consequently showed increased assimilation capacity in
the second half of summer. The manshurica tree, well adapted to the local habitat,completes its growth pro-
cesses more quickly than do the other species,and consequently intensity of photosynthesis declines at an earlier
stage. The cinerea tree shows similar behavior to the manshurfca, and the nigra tree to the regia.
The tempo of plant growth and the indices of daily and seasonal change in photosynthesis may be of funda-
mental importance in evaluating the adaptability of the plants to the habitat.
V. L. Komarov Botanical Institute,
USSR Academy of Sciences
PROCESSES OF EXCHANGE BETWEEN STOCK AND SCION
K. S. Garnaga and F. L. Lesik
Labeled phosphorus was employed for rapid quantitative estimation of intergrowth of grafts. The work was
conducted on intervarietal sunflower grafts, grafts of sunflower on lupine?and on apple tree grafts.
The experiments showed that the dynamic aspects of translocation of phosphorus through the site of grafting
reflects the character of the intergrowth of the stock and scion union. Ulth intake of phosphorus nutrients,the
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intensity of phosphorus exchange between the stock and scion increases in proportion to the intergrowth of the
components.
Botanical Institute, Academy of
Sciences, Ukrainian. ssg
METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF COMPATIBILITY OF SCION
AND STOCK PLANTS WITH AID OF LABELED ATOMS
V. A. Tyrina
In fruit trees proper choice of stock is of great importance. A necessary requirement is compatibility of
the grafted components. Testing of the stocks as a whole, and determination of compatibility as an essential
part of the whole test require many years of work. Reduction in testing tithe would make it possible to solve
more rapidly many questions connected with fruit growing.
In the search for a more rapid means of determining compatibility, the method of labeled atoms was used.
It was assumed that the more compatible the grafted components, the more rapidly and to a greater extent
would the labeled phosphorus introduced through the root system of the stock plant be detected in the crown of
the grafted tree.
The test was performed with two varieties of apple tree, each of them grafted on two stock plants. It was
known from previous investigations that of these varieties, "A mursk Harvest " develops best on "Ranet purple"
stock, and the second, "Eastern Kitaika",on Siberian apple tree stock.
Determination of the amount of labeled phosphorus in the leaves of the trees after intake of nutrient showed
that in "Amursk Harvest," grafted onto "Ranet purple," the radioactive phosphorus penetrated from the root system
into the aerial parts more quickly and in a larger amount than when the plant was grafted onto the Siberian apple
tree. In the aerial parts of "Eastern Kitaika" the labeled phosphorus was detected more quickly and to a greater
extent when the plant was grafted onto the Siberian apple tree.
Despite the fact that the experiment was on a small scale, there was a' distinct pattern of entry of labeled
phosphorus from the stock to the scion. This gives grounds for assuming that ,with suitable elaboration and pre-
treatment, the use of labeled atoms can help to speed up determination of the compatibility of grafted compo-
nents.
Far Eastern Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences
PLANT METABOLISM
A. E. Fomin and N. K. Astakhova
In experiments on phosphorus and sulfu? metabolism in plants, the method of non-root feeding was chiefly
applied. The plants received the radioactive phosphorus or sulfur via the leaves or stem. The amount of radio-
active substances in the various experiments was from 5 to 50pc per 1 ml. Analysis was made of the green leaves
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developing anthers, seeds, pollen, root and rhizospheric soil.
In spring wheat and corn there is a relationship between the phosphorus metabolism in the shoots with fol-
iar feeding and with the presence of reproductive organs? maturing pollen, and seeds in process of formation.
Before formation of the spadices, the main shoot of the corn transmits parts of tile phosphorus from its leaves
to the side shoot. Transmission of the substances in this period occurs also in a reverse direction, but more
weakly.
During the latex-wax ripening of the corn translocation of phosphorus is subordinate to formation of repro-
ductive organs. In this phase the phosphorus from the leaves moves to the anthers and seeds only within the con-
fines of the side shoot or the main shoot. If the pollen has already ripened in the side shoot and it does not
have its spadix ,then the phosphorus from its leaves is transported to the spadices of the main shoot.
The roots of the main shoot and side shoot participate in the feeding of the whole plant. But the most active
removal of nutritive substances from them occurs chiefly in those parts of the plant in which they are formed.
Corn side-shoot removal in the natural conditions of the Southeast, for varieties cultivated at present, does
not represent a rational method.
The reproductive organs forming on any branch of the plant in the buckwheat, apple tree and oak,and the
newly developing organs and tissues receive the plastic substances (phosphorus in our investigations) chiefly from
those leaves which are to be found on the branch. Each branch of the plant can be fed through the leaves or
stem independent of the others. This can be of great importance in cultivating and rearing new varieties of
fruit trees along the desired lines.
The presence of exchange of substances (phosphorus and sulfur in our investigations) between plants with
joint habitat is apparently.widespread in nature.
Blue-green algae actively assimilate the products of plant metabolism. The nutritive substances taken from
the soil are not fixed in the plant at every period of its life. In the processes of renewal of tile organic com-
pounds in the plant some of the substances return through the root to the soil. In the soil these substances enter
into new chemical and biochemical (with participation of the microorganisms) transformations. After this they
can again be utilized by the plants.
Thus, for certain nutrient elements there takes place a turnoverbetween plants and soil. The proportions
of such a turnover and its rate of recurrence depend apparently on the activity of the biochemical processes
in the plant, the physiological role of the element,and the conditions of cultivation and growth of the plant.
Southeast Agricultural
Scientific-Research Institute
EFFECT OF RADIATION ON OXIDATION?REDUCTION PROCESSES
IN THE PLANT ORGANISM
M. G. Abutalybov and N. B. Vezirova
We made an experimental study of the influence of radioactive isotopes of phosphorus and iron on the growth,
development and metabolism of plants (100 p c per one plant). Cotton, corn, tomato and the eggplant were
studied.
In the report,data are given characterizing the influence of radioactive phosphorus and iron isotopes on the
oxidation-reduction processes in various parts of the investigated plants. In the leaves and fruits, a study was
made of catalasc activity? peroxidase, polyphenoloxidase? and the total iodine-reducing capacity of these
organs was studied.
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As a result of the investigations conducted, it was found that the radioactive phosphorus and iron isotopes
enchance the acceleration of growth and development and increase plant yield.
The radioactive isotopes of phosphorus and iron exert a highly positive influence on the increase in catalase
activity in the leaves and fruits of tomatoes, eggplants and cotton.
Under the influence of radioactive isotopes of phosphorus and iron,a considerable increase in over-all reduc-
ing activity in the leaves of the tomato and of the eggplant was observed, as well as increase in the activity of poly-
phenoloxidase in the leaves and fruits of tomatoes and eggplants,and increase in the activity of peroxidase.
The increase in catalase activity and reduction capacity of the leaves is apparently related to the increase
in activity of dehydrase enzymes with low doses of radioactive isotopes.
A zerbaidzhan Agricultural Scientific-Research Institute,
FUNCTIONAL SPECIFICITY OF PHLOEM AND PHELLODERM IN PLANTS
V. 0. Kazaryan
The attention of investigators has for a long time been attracted by the presence of chlorophyll in phello-
derm cells adjacent to thosphloem in shoots and branches of plants. The essential role of this tissue,despite
0
extensive work,is still not altogether clear.
Application of radioactive carbon dioxide and glycine established that the phelloderm cells carry on photo-
synthesis, a function of green tissues, with great intensity in normal conditions.
Here it is not atmospheric carbon dioxide which serves as the basic source of carbon dioxide for photosyn-
thesis in the chlorophyll-bearingphellodermibut the intratissue gas evolved in the intensive respiration of phloem
cells. The oxygen thereby evolved is rigorously absorbed by the cells of the cyto-like phloem tubes,ensuring
their energetic respirationtas a result of which their normal function of translocation of nutritive plastic substan-
ces is performed.
The results of experiments with stems of climbing plants provide evidence on the nature of activization of
assimilate translocation in the phloem. In these experiments it was established that the speed of translocation
of radioactive glycine administered through the lower end sharply differs in the peduncles in conditions of light
and dark. In conditions of light the speed of translocation of this substance was four times greater than in the
dark.
In the normal functioning of the phloem,-in addition to intratissue oxygen, atmospheric pxygen also plays a
part, entering through the stem lenticels. This ensures translocation of the assimilates along the stem in night
hours, when the photosynthetic activity of the phelloderm has ceased, and also through the root system where
green plastids are -completely absent.
The chlorophyll-bearingcells of the stem moreover,by assimilating the intratissue acid for synthesis,com-
pletely compensate for the loss in plastic substances used by the phloem cells as respiratory material. This is
another function, not without importance, of the chlorophyll of plant stem tissues.
Formation of chlorophyl in the cells of meristematic tissue of the stems of grain grasses at the commence-
ment of ear formation is also bound up with photoreduction of carbon dioxide, as a result of which oxygen, neces-
sary for energetic growth and cell division is evolved. Both nonvernalized and short-day plants do not form
chlorophyll in the embryonic cells.
Also related to this is the normal union of the components of grafts in those cases where corresponding con-
ditions of chlorophyll formation are present in the plant stems. In darkness union of the components of herbaceous
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grafts is always made difficult or is even precluded as was shown by N. V. Tsitsin.
Botanical Institute,Armenian SSR Academy of
Sciences.
ENTRY AND DISTRIBUTION OF P32 AND C14 IN PLANTS IN
CONNECTION WITH THEIR ELECTRICAL POLARITY
V. A. Opritov
Plant electrophysiology has disclosed a number of important characteristics of the metabolic bioelectrical
potentials(BEP). Yet the question as to what role these potentials play in the vital activity processes in plants
and,in particular, in entry and transport of substances has been practically untouched on experimentally.
In the investigations conducted, we started from the hypothesis that one of the sources of energy of the
work executed by the plant in the accumulation and transport of substances is the electromotive forces of the
cells and tissues.
The experiments involved the study of entry and distribution of radioisotopes, P32 and C14, in tomato and
wheat in relation to valious influences, with single measurement of the plant electrical polarity. The work was
conducted in three successive stages.
As a result of the first stage of the investigations, it was established that there exists wide agreement in the
effect of heteroauxins on electromotive force and on the entry and distribution of P32 and C14 in tomato plants.
This suggested a possible close link between the electrical polarity of cells and tissues and the processes of
absorption and transport of substances.
The experiments in the second stage of the investigations showed that an indirect change in bioelectrical
potential difference in tomato seedlings resulting from treatment of a small section of their apex or base with
5 x 10 CdC12 solution leadingto a significant change in the entry of P32 in the plant. Higher entry of P32 corre-
sponds to a more negative potential difference. This last factor may to a certain degree te connected with
the electrical properties of the form of phosphorus transported within the plant.
Finally, in the third stage of the investigations it was found that a direct influence on the potential differ-
ence by means of addition to the stalks of the tomatoes and wheat of fine cotton wool wicks moistened in liquid
conductors (0.01 M NaC1 solution in tap water), by causing escape of surface metabolic bioelectrical potentials
in the seedlings, at the same time considerably reduces entrance of P32. This strongly suggests that the electo-
motive forces must play a definite part in entry and transport of substances in plants.
It is assumed that there may be several ways in which plant potential differences participate in entry and
transport of substances (ion, adsorption, electrophoresis, electro osmosis, electrical transfer of ions, etc.). Study
of all the possible ways of such participation with accurate assessment of energy transformations in the organism
is one of the most important tasks in biological physics.
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USE OF ISOTOPES IN STUDY OF FLOWERING AND NECTAR
SECRETION IN THE LIME TREE
D. V. Girink
The lime, the chief nectariferous tree of the Far East , does not blossom and produce nectar annually.
In investigation of the question of the periodic blossoming and nectar secretion of limes,we set ourselves the
task of elucidating the participation of reserve substances and of fresh assimilates in nectar formation.
As a result of the method of ringing lime tree branches,the hypothesis has been advanced that the basic
source of material for nectar production in the lime tree is the fresh assimilates produced by the leaves in the
process of photosynthesis in the period of blossoming. In order to shed light on this question and also on the
question of the entry of the assimilates in fruits situated in the axils of damaged leaves we used C1402.
To this end the leaves were kept in an atmosphere of C1402. On the next and following four days, radio-
activity was determined in the nectar collected from the blossom of the inflorescence located in the axil of the
fed leaf and from the inflorescences located in the axils of the leaves lying above and below.
In addition, after blossoming of the limes, CO2 was again given to the other leaves and on the next and
following two days fruits from the inflorescences in the axils of the fed leaf were taken,and also from those
situated in the axils of the excised leaves. The radioactivity of the fruits was determined. The results of these
determinations show that in the process of formation of nectar the lime flowers utilize the fresh products of
photosynthesis manufactured by,the leaves in the period of blossoming; the assimilates from the leaf in the main
enter the flowers and fruits of the axial inflorescence; the inflorescence situated in the axil of a damaged leaf
develops on account of assimilates entering from other leaves; entry of radioactive carbon, assimilated in 30
minute feeding of the leaf with marked carbon dioxide into the nectar of the flowers and lime fruits,lasts for
several days.
Far Eastern Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences
RESTORATION OF THE AMINO ACID COMPOSITION OF BRAIN ALBUMINS
G. E. Vladimirov, G. A. Nechaeva, N. V. Sadikova,
V. A. Skvortsevich and A. P. Urinson
1. Using methionine, labeled' with radioactive sulfur, and also gylcine, glutaminic acid and tyrosine,
labeled by radioactive carbon, one can characterize the rate of incorporation of labeled amino acids in the brain
albumins and thereby characterize the rate of synthesis of albumins in such a specialized functional organ as
the brain.
2. Penetration of the labeled glycine in the large cerebral hemispheres proceeds at a slower rate than in
midbrain cerebellum and spinal cord.
3. The process of substitution of glycine and the amino acids formed from it occurs more actively in the
albumins of the cerebellum and large cerebral hemispheres,and is less intensive in the albumins of the mid-
brain and spine.
4. Restoration of amino acid composition occurs in all the basic albumin fractions of the brain, but its speed
in the various fractions is not uniform; the most intense restoration occurs in the water-soluble albumins and it
is slowest of all in the albumins of the residue not extracted by alkaline solution.
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5. Using tyrosine marked by radioactive carbon,it proved possible to evaluate the mean duration of re-
tention of the integral albumin molecules in brain tissue.
6. Functional state affected the intensity of amino acid metabolism of the brain; with excitation, an insig-
nificant increase was found, with narcotic sleep,a distinct fall. Hypothermia had an exceptionally marked ef-
fect on amino acid metabolism; fall in the intensity of this metabolism was expressed much more sharply than
fall in metabolism of phosphorus compounds.
I. P. Pavlov Institute of Physiology.
USSR Academy of Sciences
EVOLUTION OF THE PROCESS OF OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION IN
THE BRAIN AND FORMATION OF BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER IN A
NUMBER OF VERTEBRATES
N. A. Verzhbinskaya
In the present work the speed of turnover of ?-? P bonds in the brain of the representatives of all classes of
vertebrate animals was studied.
The "turnover time" was calculated, i. e., time of a single decomposition and resynthesis of an amount of
-P contained in ATP normally present in the brain. ?
It was found to be 75-90 min in the brain of a fish, 48 min in the brain of a frog, 16 min in turtles, 12 min
in a pigeon, and 8 min in rats. The "speed of turnover" of PATP was 2.3 ?moles of P in one hour per 1 g fish
brain, 4.0 ?moles in frog, 14, ?moles in turtles, and 37-56 ?moles. in warm blooded animals.
The water vertebrates were sharply divided from land ones in rate of brain respiration in vitro( previous
data) and in speed of turnover of -P bonds of ATP in vivo. In a number of vertebrates there is an increase in the P :0
coefficient calculated on the basis of the data of "speed of turnover" of TP in the brain in vivo and the cor-
rected data of the earlier work on brain respiration in vertebrates in vitro. Its minute value in the water verte-
brates testifies to the absence of coupling of brain respiration with phosphorylation. In land vertebrates, in the
metabolism of the intact brain respiration is coupled with phosphorylation to a smaller degree than in the ex-
periments in vitro.
The low absolute value of OUR -NI:* of the brain and its exceptionally slow increase in time product the idea
of exceptionally slow penetration of NF from the plasma into the brain. This conception requires re-examina-
tion.
In evolution of vertebrates, the "visible" (according to the data of OUR-NFA. of the brain) speed of penetration
of P32 from the blood into the brain decreases. In fish it is relatively high and sharply exceeds the speed of inclu-
sion of P32 in the labile phosphates of the brain. In land classes the speed of penetration of P32 in the brain is
lowered and corresponds to the speed of incorporation of P32 in the labile phosphates of the brain.
Hence, one can conclude that the blood-brain barrier is absent in fish and developed in land forms.
Another conception is gained in reviewing the speed of increase in time of UR* in the brain.
UR-NF" of the brain increases only at the outset of the experiment, 30 rrli,n in cold blood and 10-15 mins in
warm blooded animals. During this period, the UR-NF" of the brain reaches the threshold value and does not ex-
ceed it during the remainder of the experiment.
There are grounds for considering this UR-NF threshold as an equilibrium with the blood plasma.
* Abbreviations marked with an asterisk have been transliterated, as it was not found possible to determine
their significance from this brief abstract. *F. is in all cases undoubtedly phosphorus or phosphorus compounds.
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Asimmarl--
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The facts described encourage acceptance of the sorption theory of cellular permeability as explaining the
mechanism of the funcLions of a blood-brain barrier. From the point of view the sorption theory of cellular
permeability the speed of penetration of P32 from the blood to the brain is just as high as in the other tissues
and is determined by the speed of the process of phosphorylation in the brain.
The point of view elaborated does not imply recognition of the existence of a special structure in the brain
performing the function of a barrier. The function of the blood-brain barrier in relation to phosphorus is local-
ized in the neurones and oTher cellular elements of the brain which consume phosphates in metabolism.
I. P. Pavlov Institute of Physiology of
the USSR Academy of Sciences
PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF STUDY BY ISOTOPIC TECHNIQUE OF CERTAIN
FUNCTIONS OF THE ORGANISM WITH SURGICAL DAMAGE OF THE VARIOUS
PARTS OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
E. A. Asratyan, I. K. Zhmakin and G. G. Musalov
By means of radioactive isotopes of bromine and calcium new data were obtained on the role of the cere-
bral cortex in unconditioned reflex regulation os various functions of the organism,and. the consequences of
surgical damage to the spine on the state and activity of the various sections of the central nervous system and
the effector organs connected with them.
In the first series of experiments in decorticated dogs (unlike normal ones), retardation of absorption of
amino acids from the gastrointestinal tract in the first hours after the introduction of the labeled compound was
observed.
The process of disappearance of the labeled compound from the blood of the decorticated animals also de-
veloped more slowly than in the controls.
In the second series of experiments it was established that trauma of the spine in dogs leads to extensive
functional disturbances in the central nervous system not only below, but also above the site of transverse sec-
tion,and also in the organs and tissues innervated by the corresponding sections of the spine. This was expressed
in change in the intensity of incorporation of radioactive isotopes of bromine and calcium.
I. M. Sechenov Second Moscow State
Medical University
PATHS OF TRANSMISSION OF CORTICAL INFLUENCES ON THYROID GLAND
M. G. Amiragova
1. In investigations on dogs the influence of the functional state of the cerebral cortex on the phases of
synthesis and secretion of thyroid gland hormone, and also the paths of transmission of these influences were
studied. The functional state of the central nervous system was changed by means of conditioned defense re-
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flexes. The activity of the thyroid gland was evaluated by the absorption of radioiodine and secretion into the
blood of thc products of the vital activity of the gland.
2. It was established that under the influence of positive conditioned defense reflexes absorption of radio-
iodine by the thyroid gland falls and secretion of the products of its vital acitivity is stimulated. Differential
inhibition contributes to accumulation of radioiodine in the thyroid gland.
3. To clarify the question as to whether the pituitary is in fact always the sole regulator of the secretory
activity of the thyroid gland, investigations were performed with hypophysectomy in dogs. These investigations
showed that the cerebral cortex may influence the thyroid gland without the pituitary being involved.
4. Experiments conducted on dogs on the one hand after removal of the suprarenal, and on the other after
transverse section of the n. splanchnici major, showed that even in these conditions the cortical impulses reach
the thyroid gland.
5. In the light of these investigations it was necessary to re examine the conception held by some authors
on transmission of nerve impulses from the central nervous system to the thyroid gland along direct nerve routes.
For this purpose,experiments were conducted on dogs without a pituitary and without one suprarenal gland, with
transverse section of the n. splanchnici major in the other. In such animals transmission of cortical influences
to the thyroid gland vanished completely.
6. In realization of cortical influeifces on the thyroid gland, the presence of either the pituitary or the
suprarenals was necessary. Consequently, cortical influences on the activity of the thyroid gland are transmit-
ted by the neuro humoral route.
Institute of Normal and Pathologicai Physiology
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE SPEED OF INCORPORATION OF P32 IN
PHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
E. B. Skvirskaya and T. P. Silich
The object of the work was to study metabolism of phosphorus-containing albumins and phospholipids (PL),
their link with other substances in the different functional parts of the nervous system and in certain nerve cell
structures.
At first, the rate of metabolism of a number of phosphorus-containing compounds of the tissues of the grey
and white matter of the brain, cerebellum and peripheral nerve (sciatic) of cats was determined.
In investigation of the metabolism of phosphorus compounds with the use of radioactive phosphorus(P32),
we succeeded in demonstrating thegreater speed of incorporation of P32 in "true" RNA and PL of the cerebral
cortex in comparison with white matter and the cerebellum. Incorporation of P32 in RNA of the sciatic nerve
was somewhat higher than in the various parts of the central nervous system.
Thus, the investigations revealed biochemical features for the various parts of the nervous system closely
associated with differences in structure and function. They allow one to conclude that the cerebral cortex? a
formation phylogenetically later and functionally more complex? is characterized by a higher content and in-
creased level of metabolism of a number of phosphorus compounds, which indicates their important biological
role.
Subsequently, a study was made of the nucleoproteins and their metabolism in various structural parts of
the nervous system.
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With the aid of a phosphorus isotope we succeeded in showing,in addition to differences in content, non-
uniform metabolism of the same phosphorus components of the different fractions.
The features of metabolism of phosphorus compounds of the various fractions were similar for the different
parts of the brain; however, there were quantitative differences.
Proceeding from the conceptions of the relationship of structure to function and chemistry,one could assume
that the differences established for the fractions( with this means of treatment) depend on the structural part of
the nerve cell with which the various nucleoproteins are associated; in particular, that the high activity in RNA
metabolism found in the residue is determined by the great speed of incorporation of P32 in nuclear RNA. As
as result of the investigation of pure nuclei obtained from the large cerebral hemispheres of cats this hypothesis
was confirmed.
Thus, comparative investigations carried out with radioactive phosphorus made it possible to show differences
in metabolism of the same phosphorus compounds depending on the morphological structures with which they are
connected. This,in turn,may indicate their diverse functional significance in the nervous system.
Institute of Biochemistry Ukrain. SSR
Academy of Sciences.
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RATE OF INCORPORATION OF P" IN BRAIN PHOSPHORUS
COMPOUNDS AND SPEED OF THEIR RENEWAL IN PARABIOTIC STATE
I. A. Medyanik
The purpose of the investigation was to ascertain the rate of incorporation of P32 in the brain phosphorus
compounds and to establish the speed of their renewal during the development of a parabiotic condition. For
this object experiments were conducted on frogs which received P32 intraperiteonally at the rate of 0.5 p c/kg
body weight in the form of Na2-1020H solution. At varying time intervals (2, 21/2, 3, 31/2 hours) following admin-
istration of P22 a direct 1.5 ma electric current with definite direction (ascending or descending) was passed
through the central nervous system of the animals. Current was passed throughout the four hours of the exper-
iment. Specific Suspensions of the btain were ground with 10 ml 4rfoYichloroacetic acid solution. After centri-
fugation, the amount of phosphorus in the lipid-albumin complexes was determined in the sediment. The cen-
trifugate was divided into the inorganic phosphorus and acid solublefractions. The phosphorus content in all
three fractions was determined by the method of Fisice and subbaroy. The activity of P32 in imp/min per ml
of each fraction was measured by means of a cylindrical counter of the B-2 type.
The results of the observations showed that in frogs with weak reflex activity the specific activity of the
phosphorus of the inorganic phosphate, the acid-soluble and lipid-albumin fractions was low. In animals with
raised reflex activity a high specific activity of the phosphorus of all three fractions was noted. The speed
of renewal of phosphorus in the brain phosphorus compounds was higher in animals with increased reflex activity.
The relative specific activity of the phosphorus of the acid soluble fraction was 5.2 in these animals, and 4.0 of
the lipid-albumin fraction,while the corresponding values in animals with weak reflex activity was 1.5 and 0.3.
Thus, the exchangeability of the brain phosphorus compounds was low when the reflex activity of the nervous
system was weakened,and rose sharply with intensification of the work of the brain.
The results of the second series of experiments showed that two-hour anode polarization of the brain at
first (in the first hour) reduces and then (in the second hour) increases the speed of incorporation of P32 in the
brain phosphorus compounds.
Under the prolonged action on the brain of the cathode of the direct current we observed a sharp increase
in the specific activity of the phosphorus of the acid-soluble and lipid-albumin fractions in the first hour of the
experimenband a gradual fall to the original values during the second hour.
Consequently, the emergence of a parabiotic state in the nerve cells induced by the prolonged action of a
direct and alternating current was accompanied by a difference in the rate of P22 incorporation in the brain phos-
phorus compounds.
The relative specific activity of the phosphorus of the acid-soluble and lipid-albumin fractions changed in
accordance with the phase changes in the excitability of the cortical cells (increase, fall) under the influence of
a descending direct current on the brain. It rose in the first one and a half hours during which the current was
applied and gradually fell to the original values.
With a prolonged effect on the brain of the cathode of the direct current, the relative specific activity of
the phosphorus of the acid soluble and lipid-albumin fractions in the first half hour during which the current was
applied increased sharply, but,during the second hour of the experiment, dropped to or below the original level.
The observed regularity in the changes of the speed of renewal of phosphorus in the brain phosphorus com-
pounds appeared more rapidly under the action on the brain of the cathode than of the anode of the direct cur-
rent. Consequently, the observed increase in excitability of the nerve cells in the first phase of parabiosis is
characterized by intense phosphorus compound metabolism in the brain,while its fall in the second phase is
associated with decreased metabolism of these compounds in brain tissue.
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Lvov State University
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METABOLISM OF PHOSPHORIC ESTERS OF CHOLINE
AND ETHANOLAMINE IN THE BRAIN
P. A. Kometiani, L. K. Tkeshelashvili and T. A. Ovsyanko
The investigation was initiated as a result of discovery of the fact that in the process of synthesis of acetyl-
choline in brain preparationsiphosphorylcholine is formed by means of direct phosphorylation of choline.
In order to solve the question of the direct utilization of phosphorylcholine and phosphorylethanolamine in
the synthesis of phospholipids, phosphorylcholine and phosphorylethanolamine with labeled phosphorus atoms
were synthesized. In experiments on dogs and rabbits 5 hours after suboccipital,and 18 hours after subcutaneous
administration of the labeled compounds, the animals were killed, the brain extracted, and the phosphorus com-
pounds in it analyzed. The control animals, instead of labeled phosphorylcholine and phosphorylethanolamine,
received labeled inorganic phosphate.
It was found that the sum activity of the phospholipids after administration of the labeled phosphorylcholine
and phosphorylethanolamine was approximately uniform with the value obtained after administration of labeled
inorganic phosphate in analogous conditions. The activity of phospholipidcholine in experiments with adminis-
tration of phosphorylcholine and also the activity of phosphatidylethanolamine in experiments with administration
of labeled phosphorylethanolamine was always higher than the value obtained in the experiments with labeled
inorganic phosphates. Hence, one may conclude that phosphorylcholine and phosphorylethanolamine may be
utilized in synthesis of the corresponding phospholipids.
The possibility of direct utilization of phosphorylcholine and phosphorylethanolamine in the synthesis of
phospholipids was checked in experiments with brain homogenates. These experiments gave negative results
probably because the optimal conditions of synthesis were not selected.
Bearing in mind the fact that acetylcholine greatly enhances incorporation of labeled inorganic phosphate
in the phospholipids, experiments were conducted to elucidate the influence of phosphorylcholine on this pro-
cess. The findings obtained showed that, on the contrary, phosphorylcholine inhibits incorporation of inorganic
phosphate.
Institute of Physiology
Academy of Sciences,Georgian SSR
STUDY OF THE INFLUENCE OF ADRENALIN ON THE
FIXATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE ANIMAL ORGANISM
B. N. Stepanenko and I. Z. Sergienko
In several earlier papers it was shown by means of deuterium and then CIA that in hungry animals certain
small doses of adrenalin stimulate synthesis of glycogen from molecules with shorter carbon chains than glucose.
This synthesis was accompanied by incorporation of CIA02 to a considerable degree.
In unraveling the mechanism of this process the following problems were involved: 1) whether there is a
link between the increase in CO2 incorporation in gylcogen under the influence of adrenalin and its generally
known glycemic effect (introduction of glucose and NaHC"Os in the starving animals was used to obtain a prep-
aration of glycogen and glucose marked with CIA at the 3 and 4 positions); 2) the position of the labeled carbon
in the glucose molecule when glycogen synthesis is stimulated by adrenalin.
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Rats, starved for 24 hours, were injected intraperitoneally with NaHC1403(about 20;IC per 100 g body weight).
In addition, in one experimental series,simultaneous with the sodium bicarbonate, glucose varying in amount
from 200 to 750 mg /100 g body weight was administered to the rats. In the second experimental series, adren-
alin and glucose were given together with NaHC"Os(in the same amounts). The glycogen was isolated from
the rat liver at the end of three hours. The radiobiochemical yield was estimated on the basis of glycogen
output and its specific activity.
On administration of increasing doses of glucose ,and also of adrenalin and glucose (i. e., in both variants
of the experiment), with a steady increase in glycogen yield, the radiobiochemical output reached the maximum,
and then considerably fell.
The maximum radiobiochemical output in the experiments with administration of adrenalin and glucose
considerably exceeded the maximal output obtained in experiments with any quantity of glucose (without adren-
alin). This indicates that stimulation of carbon dioxide fixation by adrenalin cannot be merely attributed to the
glycemic effect.
Determination of the position of the radioactive atoms in glucose, obtained with the action of adrenalin,
performed fundamentally according to Topper and Hastings, and also Koshland and Westheimer, showed that the
labeled atom is principally found in the third and fourth positions.
The data obtained enabled us to improve on the technique of biosynthesis of 3,4-C" glycogen and crystal-
line 3,4-C" glucose by means of the animal organismimaking it possible to obtain a higher radiobiochemical
output than with the most widely applied method of Arnshtein and Bentley.
Laboratory of Physiological Chemistry
USSR Academy of Sciences
RATE OF METABOLISM OF GLUTAMINE AMIDO
NITROGEN IN MUSCLES AND LIVER
D. L. Ferdman and A. I. Silakova
The investigations carried out established that within 1 hour 40 min after intravenous injection of large
doses of ammonium salts (30-45 mg ammoniacal nitrogen with a content of 9.7 atomic percentage N" per 100
g body weight) in the skeletal muscles, the ammonia content rises by 180/0 and that of glutamine by 39.21/0. Simul-
taneously applied mass-spectrometric measurements ? of the distribution of the stable isotope of nitrogen in
various nitrogen groups of muscles showed that its concentration is particularly high in the glutamine amido
nitrogen group. NI5 enrichment of the nitrogen of this grouping is,on average.of the order of 11.5 times, corres-
ponding to 41. 3rg0of the degree of its renewal. Ammoniacal nitrogen at the same time is enriched only 6.2
times, i. e., the degree of its enrichment is only 20.60/0.
The data obtained allow one to draw a conclusion on the rate of renewahand consequently on active partic-
ipation of the glutamine amido nitrogen in tissue nitrogen metabolism.
?Mass spectometric measurements were conducted by us in the L. V. Pisarzhevsly Institute of Physiological
Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR.
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This conclusion was confirmed by data obtained in experiments of short duration(10 min after introduction
of the ammonium salt) when the glutamine content was still unchanged, although the degree of its renewal
had already reached, on average,19.8%.
It was seen that with passage of time concentration of N15 is reduced in the skeletal muscles in the ammon-
ium nitrogen and increased in the glutamine and albumin amido nitrogen. These values,10 min after admin-
istration of the ammonium saltswere respectively - 3.53, 2.20 and 0.388 atomic percentage of N15 and after
1 hour 40 min respectively- 2.31, 4.20 and 0.466 atomic percentage of Nis.
The results obtained demonstrate the participation of the albumin and glutamine amido nitrogen in the
processes of ammonia metabolism. Since an appreciable increase in the excess of atomic percentage of N15 in
the muscle albumin amido nitrogen occurs only at later time intervals following administration of ammonium
salts, it may be taken as an indication of the later , as compared with glutamine amido nitrogen, incorporation
of this group in renewal of the ammonium radical.in the muscles.
Similar findings were established with introduction of much smaller (3-4 times) amounts of ammonium
salts in the organism. Even in these conditions (low ammonium level in the tissues) N15 concentration in the
glutamine amido nitrogen was higher (1.30 atomic percentage) than in the ammonium nitrogen (1.12 atomic
percentage).
It was found that the ammonium radical is particularly concentrated in the liver. Thus, 1 hour 40 min
after intramuscular injection of an ammonium salt, 3.9 atomic percentage of Nys was found in the ammonium
content of the liver. The content of Nis was twice as high in the glutamine amido group (2.58 atomic percen-
tage), and more than 4 times as high in the albumin anlido nitrogen group (0.52 atomic percentage) than in
the muscles.
It was further established that the regularity of pattern characterizing participation of the glutamine amido
nitrogen in tissue nitrogenous substance metabolism on starvation is akin to that in the tissues of control (non-
starved) pigeons, but quantitatively much higher.
The results of the investigations show that the glutamine amido nitrogen is an active participant in tissue
nitrogen metabolism.
Institute of Biochemistry
Academy of Sciences of the Ukrain. SSR
PARTICIPATION OF COENZYME-A DERIVATIVES IN
PHOSPHORUS METABOLISM IN THE ANIMA.L LIVER
A. V. Kotelnikova
When rats are given radiophosphorus, a substance is recoverable from the Ba insoluble salt fraction of the
liver by means of paper chromatography, possessing considerable radioactivity and absorbing ultraviolet light
but not identical to the components of the adenyl system- ATP, ADP or AMP.
The investigation of the eluates of the spots of this substance in ultraviolet light showed that the absorption
curve has a maximum at 260 m,1, and is characteristic of adenine or uridine compounds. The reaction with
bromine water, specific for uridine derivatives, proved to be negative; therefore, the compound should rather be
included among the adeninonucleotids.
Hydrolysis of the Ba- insoluble salt fraction from the liver of rats and also the eluates from the spots of
the unknown compound, and of the purine and pyrimidine bases confirmed the presence of adenine and the
absence of uracil.
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The investigated compound gave a positive S-S -group result in the nitroprusside test in the presence of
KCN, but did not contain free-SH groups. On the basis of this reaction and also the ultraviolet absorption curve
the compound was tentatively classified as a derivative of coenzyme-A.
This hypothesis received direct confirmation in experiments with enzymatic acetylation of aminoazobenzol:
both the Ba insoluble salts fraction from rat liver, and the cluatc of the spots of the S-S compound display dis-
tinct coenzyme-A activity. On the basis of this, the S-S compound is either a S-S coenzyme-A or some other
derivative of coenzyme-A.
Determination of the specific activity in the spots of ATP, ADP, AMP and the S-S compound from the
purified Ba- insoluble salts fraction of rat liver, obtained at short time intervals after administration of radio-
phosphorus( 15 -30min.),showed that the S-S compound possessed high specific activity, only slightly below that
of ATP and ADP.
The high specific activity of the S-S compound points to its active role in the phosphorus residue transfer
in thexliver; the role of phosphate carrier has not previously been assigned to coenzyme-A.
Iencould have been assumed that the radioactive derivative of coenzyme-A found in the liver may be phos-
phorylcoenzyme-A, however, on the basis of the preliminary data, the substance is not phosphorylcoenzyme-A..
Laboratory of Physiological Chemistry
USSR Academy of Sciences
ROLE OF BROMINE IN THE ANIMAL ORGANISM
I. N. Verkhovskaya
In the animal organism bromine is found in the ionic form,with the exception of the thyroid gland, where
a small part is bound with the albumins.
The distribution of freshly administered bromide in the various organs and tissues of the investigated animals
(rats, guinea pigs, rabbits and dogs) was specific; usually the majority of the bromine was found in the thyroid
gland, in the medullary layer of the kidneys, in the blood,and in the stomach mucosa. Average quantitites were
found in nerves, pituitary, liver, spleen, cortical layer of the kidneys,and in the suprarenals. The smallest
amount of bromine was in the various sections of the brain and in the muscles.
Bromine in the animal organism originates in oral intake. There is no bromine depot. The hypothesis on a
connection between the type of nervous system and varying blood bromine content is groundless.
Sex or age did not influence human blood bromine content.
Distribution and rate of metabolism of bromine in the various sections of the brain( within limits of experi-
mental error- 10%) did not change in various functional states of the central nervous system caused by strong
physical fatigue, insomnia of varying duration, sleep and strong excitation (induced by Medinal and phenamine)
and also by a convulsive state and coma, induced by passage of an electric current through the animal
brain.
Bromine metabolism in the thyroid gland is specific.
With thyrotoxicosis in humans as with hyperthyrosis in guinea pigs, the bromine content in the thyroid
gland is somewhat above normal.
Under the influence of methyl thiouracil, the total amount of bromine entering the thyroid gland increases.
This is connected with hyperplasia of the thyroid gland induced by methyl thiouracil. This is accompanied by
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slowing down of bromine incorporation in the albumin fraction of the thyroid gland.
Introduction of bromides in the animal organism influences iodine metabolism and produces changes in the
morphological and functional state of the thyroid gland.
Institute of Biophysics
USSR Academy of Sciences
CERTAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF ENERGY EXCHANGE
IN LEUCOCYTES
I. S. Luganova, I. F. Seits and V. I. Teodorovich
Literature on the biochemistry of leucocytes is very contradictory. In particular, sufficient light has not so
far been shed on the question as to which of the energy-producing processes? respiration or glycolysis? under-
lies the functional activity of the white blood cells. Some authors consider that it is respiration, others glycol-
ysis. Even less clear is the question of the origin and biological purpose of aerobic glycolysis which is peculiar
to certain groups of leucocytes.
Yet, study of these features of metabolism in leucocytes may be of important significance for understanding
the biology of these cells and their role in various pathological states, above all, in diseases of the blood system.
Normal leucocytes and leucocytes from blood of persons suffering from chronic myeloid leucosis, having_
much in common, revealed certain features of metabolism also peculiar to cancerous cells. These features are:
1) the presence of a high aerobic glycolysis(-. 60% of the anaerobic one), i. e., incomplete Pasteur effect; 2)
inhibition of cell respiration 300/0) on addition of glucose, i. e., "reversible" Pasteur reaction; 3) complete
resynthesis of ATP in anaerobic conditions, at a rate not inferior to the rate in presence of air.
The presence of these features of energy exchange,common not only to cancerous cells, but to leucocytes,
allows one to conclude that they are not specific for malignancy and that there is no casual relationship with
malignant processes.
Quantitative determination of 02 absorption, formaticp of lactic acid in aerobic and anaerobic conditions,
and comparison of these data with the amount and speed of the metabolic transformation of ATP enabled calcu-
lations to be made indicating the leading role of glycolysis in supply of energy to leucocytes. This point of
view is strengthened by experiments with "uncoupling" poisons( dinitrophenol, methylene blue, etc.) which
disturb respiratory phosphorylation in aerobic cells, but do not affect resynthesis of ATP in the leucocytes. On
the other hand, the glycolytic poison monobromoacetate, while not suppressing respiration, produced a sharp
fall in the amount of relative specific activity of ATP labile phosphorus.
The data obtained point to the absence of a link between the depression of leucocyte respiration and energy
balance. This conclusion was confirmed by calculations for all the investigated groups of white blood cells, but
was especially demonstrated for blood leucocytes of patients with acute leucosis. In this case, aerobic glycolysis
was 90-95% of the anaerobic level. With a transition from anaerobic conditions to aerobic ones, glycolysis, en-
suring complete resynthesis of ATP in anaerobic conditions, was reduced as a whole by 5-10%, but very intensive
respiration appeared, which sharply increased the total energy output and may have ensured phosphorus esterification,
greatly exceeding the maximum possibilities of the glycolytic mechanism. Nevertheless, both the amount and
the relative specific activity of ATP phosphorus remained practically unchanged. Apparently,respiration in the
leucocytes is essentially associated with some other function not connected with energy.
The lymphocytes were subjected to a similar investigation.
In these cells aerobic glycolysis and "reversible" Pasteur reaction was not found. However, in this case the
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complete resynthesis of ATP was ensured in anaerobic conditions just as in aerobic medium.
The Leningrad Red Banner of
Labor Scientific Research
Institute of Blood Transfusion
SPEED OF INCORPORATION OF RA DIOMETHIONINE (S35)
IN ALBUMINS OF GASTRIC GLAND IN RELATION TO
THEIR FUNCTIONAL STATE AND TOPOGRAPHY
E. E. Martinson, L. Ya. Tyakhepyld
and A.Ya. Lind
1. In experiments on cats with excitation of gastric secretion by food intake,acceleration of albumin
"renewal" and synthesis in the glands of all sections of the stomach was seen.
2. ,The results of the experiments showed that the speed of 'renewal" of albumin in the mucous membrane
of the various sections of the stomach(pylorus, greater and lesser curve) was different. Incorporation of meth-
ionine proceeds with greater speed in the glands of the lesset curve,both with functional rest and with digestive
excitation.
3. In absolute value the speed of "renewal' of the albumins of the glandular cells in the pyloric zone was
the least; but here, in the period of excitation of secretion, it increased, which obviously reflects intensification
in the pylorus of synthesis of albumin-type hormonal products.
4. Increase in the speed of incorporation of methionine in the albumins of the gastric glands was caused by
an intensified supply of methionine in the glandular cells as a result of hyperemia in the period of secretion.
This is borne out by the results of experiments with histamine which induces strong hyperemia. Gastric secre-
tion, induced by histamine, in contrast to excitation by food, was accompanied not by an intensification, but
by a distinct fall in the speed of incorporation of methionine in the albumins of the glands in all gastric sec-
tions.
5. The results obtained show that the method of investigation of the speed of "renewal" of albumins by
means of radiomethionine can reveal very subtle biochemical changes in nutrition of the secretory processes,
and also the nature of the influence on them of various factors. The method may be employed with advantage
in investigation of the problem of depletion and restoration of physiological functions.
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Tartusk State University
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STUDY OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL REGENERATION OF
EPITHELIAL TISSUES BY THE METHOD OF AUTORADIOGRAPHY
L. N. Zhinkin
1. The epithelium of the tongue and small intestine in rats and rabbits was investigated. The animals
were injected subcutaneously with P32-and S35-labeled methionine.
The investigation was conducted by the method of autoradiography on liquid emulsion of the type
(Scientific Research Institute for Motion Pictures and Photography).
2. There was variation in the rate of incorporation of S35 in the various layers of the epithelium of the
tongue in animals sacrificed two hours after administration of radiomethionine. Most of it was incorporated in
the cells of the spinous layer, less by the basal, even less by the squamous layer, and the dead keratinized cells
did not incorporate any at all.
3. In animals sacrificed 12, 24 and 4d hours after administration of radiomethionine, cell transfer with
incorporated S35 from the squamous to the keratinized layer was observed. The whole of the keratin layer be-
came permeated with the radioactive sulfin in 2-3 days. Consequently, renewal of the keratin layer in the
epithelium of the tongue occulted in this time span.
4. Most of the P32 was incorPorated in the basal layer of cells and its amount gradually declined in propor-
tion to the degree of cell differentiation. This character of distribution of P32 was maintained independent of
the length of the period following introduction of P32 in the animal.
5. In the intestinal epithelium both P32 and S35 were uniformly distributed in all cells. Incorporation is
related to the accumulation of enzymes in the cells and to the fact that they remain alive until they are cast into
the intestinal lumen in the form of mucus.
Institute of Experimental Medicine
STUDY OF THE ALBUMINS OF A NEW BLOOD SUBSTITUTE -
PARENTERIN - IN THE ANIMAL ORGANISM
N. G. Belenky, N. N. Krylova and I. L. Chertkov
1. In order to label the albumins of Parenterin, 1131 and methionine labeled by S35 were employed. Incor-
poration of radiomethionine in the blood albumins from which Parenterin was prepared was carried out in vitro
and in vivo. In the first case, methionine was added to sterile cattle blood serum and incubated at room tempera-
ture, after which the serum was dialyzed and Parenterin prepared.
Marking of the serum albumins was effected by introduction of methionine in the animal donors (rabbits
and bull). The animals were killed by bleeding and Parenterin was prepared from the labeled plasma obtained.
2. Labeling of Parenterin albumins by radioiodine proved to be of little use since 1131, not firmly bound to
the denatured albumins, quickly split off from them in the blood stream and appeared in the urine. In experi-
ments on dogs and rabbits,within only 6 hours of introduction of Parenterin in the blood only 10-20% of the
activity introduced remained; in 24 hours in both species of animals the blood did not contain radioiodine. In
a 24-hour urine specimen more than half tile entire activity introduced was found and no albumin was detected
in the urine.
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3. The better method of obtaining labeled Parenterin proved to be the method of incorporation of radio-
methionine in the albumins of animal donors. In these conditions Parenterin was obtained with an albumin con-
tent, the radioactivity of which corresponded to 650-900 imp/min per 10 mg.
Study of this Parenterin was made in experiments on rabbits and dogs with intravenous administration at a
dose of 25-50 mg/kg body weight.
4. The circulation of Parenterin albumins in the organism of the experimental animals was of adequate
duration. Six hours after introduction in the blood of rabbits ,about 40% of the original activity was evidenced,
in dogs about 25%. In 24 hours in the blood stream of both species of animals ,about 10-1510 of the introduced
albumins remained.
In acute hemorrhage (experiments on rabbits) administration of Parenterin as a substitute for blood loss
caused a steady rise in blood pressure and circulation of Parenterin albumin in the animal organism was wit-
nessed in hemorrhagic shock (in experiments with labeled Parenterin) in the same way as in normal animals.
5. Twenty-four hours after administration of Parenterin, the animals were killed and the radioactivity of
the albumins in various organs and tissues was studied (liver, kidneys, spleen, lungs, brain, muscle, suprarenals,
small and large intestine, etc.). The greatest specific radioactivity was found in albumins of the organs actively
engaged in the metabolic process (liver, spleen, suprarenal, kidneys).
These results show that the Parenterin albumins are well assimilated animals with parenteral administra-
tion, forming part of the albumins in the organs and tissues.
6. Incorporation of radiomethionine in albumins of native serum in vitro did not give positive results. In
sterile conditions, the incorporation of radiomethionine was very weak. High radioactivity of serum albumins
was found when the serum was extracted in septic conditions. However, sterile Parenterin obtained from such
serum proved to be toxic, due to the presence of mixed microfloral toxins. Intravenous injection of this Paren-
terin produced in rabbits severe symptoms of poisoning by bacterial toxins. In conditions of toxic shock, the
fate of the Parenterin albumins differed from that in notmal animals. In the blood albumins,6 hours after intro-
duction radioactivity was not found. The4lbumins quickly disappeared from the bloodstream and were concen-
trated in the organs. The highest specific activity was found in lung albumins (about 20 times higher) and the
cardiac albumins (3-5 times more) than in the intact animals. In the brain and muscle albumins, radioactivity
was not discovered.
All-Union Scientific Research Institute of the
Meat Industry
ANALYSIS OF THE MECHANISM OF ANTIBODY FORMATION
A E. Gurvich
1. Antibody formation o.ccurs a short while before the antibodies appear in the blood stream. In the latent
period, apparently there is no formation either of antibodies in appreciable amount nor of any albumin or poly-
peptide precursor of the antibodies. This is indicated by the low content of C14 in the antibodies on administra-
tion of 0-labeled glycine in the latent period,and by the presence of a correlation between the rate of increase
in antibody content in the blood stream and the rate of incorporation of 0 in the antibodies.
2. Study of the intensity of inclusion of 0-labeled glycine in antibodies in vitro in sections of various
organs and its incorporation in the antibodies of nonspecific y -globulins in vitro, after removal of the gastro-
intestinal tract and functional exclusion of the liver, confirmed the theory on the absence of direct participation
of the liver and gastrointestinal tract in antibody formation.
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3. Simultaneous study of the change in antibody content by means of the immunochemical method and
study of the distribution of labeled antibodies enables one to plot a curve of change in the rate of the new daily
formation of antibodies. On repeated immunization, intensive reformation of antibodies continues for about
two days. Then a sharp inhibition of this process occurs, and in several days the rate of new formation of anti-
bodies drops to 3-550 of the maximal. This process is of a specific character since, in the period of greatly
weakened development of one antibody, there may be intensive new formation of another.
4. With repeated immunization by two antigens, in several cases a simultaneous and exceptionally inten-
sive increase in the content of the two antibodies and intensive incorporation of C14 in both antibodies was ob-
served. Incorporation of C14 in each of the antibodies depends on the rate of new formation of each antibody,
but not on its immunological properties.
Intensive new formation of one or simultaneously of two antibodies does not inhibit incorporation of Cu
glycine in the nonspecific y -globulins.
Institute of Biological and Medical
Chemistry of the USSR Academy of
Medical Sdiences
NEW DATA ON ALBUMIN METABOLISM OBTAINED BY THE
ISOTOPIC TRACER METHOD
A. S. Konikova
By means of the method of isotopic tracers a study was made of the influence of chilling, as a factor in
reducing vital activity, on the process of albumin formation in an isolated tissue and whole organism.
In the work, use was made of the amino acid methionine labeled by sulfur (S36). The degree of its incor-
poration in the albumin of the blood vessels of a dog was judged by the intensity of the albumin formation pro-
cess. Albumin formation was observed in transplanted parts of the vessels previously subjected to freezing at a
temperature of ?.196?, and drying in vacuo. As can be seen from the experimental material, this process of
albumin formationoccurred at all investigated periods following grafting (from two to seven months). It was
further established that in those cases where the grafted sections of the blood vessels were permeable, in absence
of side effects and thrombi, the intensity of albumin synthesis in the transplants practically coincided with the
intensity of albumin synthesis in an analogous vessel of the recipient.
The findings show that albumin formation is a stable process resistant to low temperatures and drying.
Alongside the experiments described, a study was made of the influence of cooling on the process of albu-
min formation by investigation of this phenomenon in animals in a state of hypothermia:
IT was seen that in hypothermia, induced by a combination of administration of chemical compounds and
chilling of the animal organism by' ice to 24?C, a considerable reduction in the intensity of albumin synthesis
occurred inalmost all the investigated organs in the skeletal muscles, various parts of the central nervous system,
lungs, serum, sex glands, suprarenals, kidneys and spleen. There was practically no fall in albumin synthesis
in the liver,and a very insignificant decrease of this process in the cardiac muscle.
Proof that the changes in intensity of albumin synthesis in hypothermia are specific,and not caused merely
by the changed state of the central nervous system under the influence of the soporofic substances,is provided by
investigations on rabbits** which showed that in the state of drug-induced sleep, intensification of albumin
*The investigations were carried out by Candidate V. I. Nikulin.
? ?Investigations carried out by A. V. Pogosova.
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synthesis from amino acids occurs in the majority of the organs.
The data obtained on incorporation of labeled amino acid in albumins in hypothermia gives grounds for
considering that the intensity of the process of albumin formation in the various organs and tissues depends not
only on the state of the vital activity of the organism as a whole, but on the state of the individual organs.
Thus,by the method of isotopic tracers,we succeeded in indicating the variable quantitative nature of the
process of albumin formation on chilling,and also the close link between the change in this process and the vital
activity of the biological subjects.
A. V. VishnevskyInstitute of Surgery,
USSR Academy of Medical Sciences
USE OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES IN STUDY AND
MECHANISM OF EPILEPTIFORM FITS
K. I. Pogodaev
1. Epilepsy is a serious disease both from the practical and theoretical point of view. The most fundamen-
tal factor in the picture of this disease is the convulsive fit. It has,however, not been studied adequately. Par-
ticularly contentious is the question of the substratum of the basic phase of the convulsive-fit? clonic convul-
sions? and the participation of the cerebral cortex in this process. On the question of the substratum of clonic
convulsions, there are, as is known, two opinions, one which supports cortical, and the other, subcortical locali-
zation of the clonic phase of the epileptiform convulsive fit.
2. To solve the question as to which sections of the brain are responsible for the clonic phase Of excitation,
the author used methods of investigation now available in modern functional brain biochemistry, in order to
characterize the basic nerve processes? excitation and inhibition. Particularly productive in this field is the
method of radioactive tracers.
3. With use of the method of radioactive isotopes, S35(radiomethionine) and P32(phosphate ion), an inves-
tigation was made of distribution of these substances and the intensity of albumin and phosphorus metabolism in
the cortex, subcortex, cerebellum and the trunk section of the brain of rabbits and rats killed during the clonic
phase of the epileptiform electroconvulsive fit. For comparison purposes, analogous investigations in normal
animals and in animals killed during the postconvulsion comatous state are reported on. It can be concluded
from the data obtained,that during the clonic phase of the fit,in all the investigated sections of the brain incor-
poration of methionine and the phosphate ion is accelerated,and phosphorus metabolism and resynthesis of brain
tissue albumins is intensified. During the postconvulsion comatous state, which is characterized by protective
inhibition, the speed of these proaesses falls, quickly reaching normal,or even falling below it.
4. The increased resynthesis of brain tissue albumins during clonic convulsions is combined with increased
albumin decomposition (proteolysis) and accumulation of ammonia, which suggests a predominance of the ex-
citatory process in all the investigated sections of the brain (cortex, subcortex, trunk and cerebellum), and con-
sequently their participation in the physiological mechanism of formation of the clonic phase of epileptiform
electroconvulsive fits.
Thus, the material from these investigations points to participation of the brain as a whole, and not of a given
isolated section, for example the cortex or the trunk section of the brain,in the clonic phase, as postulated by
many investigators.
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Institute of Higher Nervous Activity of the USSR
Academy of Sciences
Q acci
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DYNAMIC ASPECTS OF DISTRIBUTION OF RADIOACTIVE
PHOSPHORUS IN BLOOD, BILE, EXCREMENTS,AND
ENDOCRINE GLANDS IN NORMAL RABBIT WITH USE
OF CAFFEINE AND BROMINE
A. I. Karaev and A. A. Khudazarov
In the present work.a study was made of the dynamic aspects of distribution of radioactive phosphorus in-
troduced into the rabbitorganism in the blood, bile, excrement; and various endocrine glands. In these experi-
ments the investigations?were performed in three series? in normal animals and in animals following adminis-
tration of caffeine or bromine.
The radioactive phosphorus (Na2HP3204) was injected subcutaneously in normal rabbits at the rate of 45 ? c
per 1 kg animal weight in the first series, and in the second and third series either 20 minutes after subcutaneous
injection of 1 ml 10% caffeine sodium benzoate or after intake 'of 1 ml sodium bromide solution per 1 g body
weight.
As the intensity of the effect of caffeine and bromine changes with passage of tike, phosphorus metabolism
was studied at various times after administration of radioactive phosphorus, I. e., within three and 24 hours.
The following conclusions may be drawn from the data obtained:
1. Radioactive phosphorus introduced in the organism is eliminated basically by the kidneys (urine) and
also by the liver( bile) and intestines (feces).
2. The magnitude of radioactivity in the urine, feces and bile depends on concentration of radioactive
phosphorus in the blood.
3. The largest amount of radioactive phosphorus was excreted from the organism in the first three hours,
after which elimination of radioactive phosphorus slowed down.
4. Prior administration of caffeine and bromine changed both absorption of the subcutaneously introduced
radioactive phosphorus and the process of its elimination through the excretory organs.
5. In normal rabbits the different glands of the endocrine system varied in capacity to absorb the radio-
active phosphorus administered.
6. The content of radioactive phosphorus in the various endocrine glands changed with time lapse after ad-
ministration.
7. Prior administration of caffeine and bromine changed the dynamic aspects of distribution of radioactive
phosphorus in the endocrine glands.
8. Absorption and the dynamicsef distribution and elimination of radioactive phosphorus introduced into the
organism depend on the functional state of the central nervous system.
284
Physiology Section of the Academy
of Sciences,Azerbaidzhan SSR
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RENEWAL OF PHOSPHORUS IN TISSUES WITH
EXPERIMENTAL TUBERCULOSIS AND TREATMENT WITH
STREPTOMYCIN AND PHTHIVAZIDE
Kh. K. Norman
The object of the investigation was to find whether in experimental tuberculosis there is a change in phos-
phorus renewal in various tissues,and the effect exerted by streptomycin and Phthivazide therapy.
The specific activity of phosphorus in the tissues,on subcutaneous injection of Na2HP32041served asan indication
of phosphorus renewal in the tissues. We investigated the blood, lungs, liver, kidneys, spleen, lymphatic nodes,
diaphysis of the femuy and also the white and grey matter of the large cerebral hemispheres. The experiments
were performed on 154 adult guinea pigs.
In order to detect changes in the tuberculous animals,the specific activity of phosphorus in the tissues was
determined 1, 3 and 7 days after introduction of radioactivity. Changes were found in specific activity of the
phosphorus in the tuberculous animals in all the investigated tissues. They were most marked seven days after
introduction of P32. The greatest changes were seen in the bone tissue, where the specific activity of phosphorus
1, 3 and 7 days after introduction of P32 was considerably less than in the healthy animals. In the large cere-
bral hemispheres, the specific activity of phosphorus seven days after introduction of P32 was much higher than
In healthy animals.
With effective streptomycin and Phthivazide therapy of the guinea pigs suffering from tuberculosis, norma-
lization of specific adtivity in all the investigated tissues, with the exception of bone tissue, was observed. The
greatest effect being seen with use of streptomycin.
Institute of Experimental and Clinical
Medicine of the Estonian SSR Academy
of Sciences
CERTAIN ASPECTS OF DOSIMETRY IN
BIOLOGICAL EXPERIMENTS
E. A. Liberman
The report outlines views on the system of dosimetric conceptions from the standpoint of experimental bio-
logy. Existing methods of dosimetry are considered from the point of view of the requirements of biological ex-
periments ( measureable values and their relation to the characteristics of interaction between radiation and
matter). From this point of view sources of radiations and methods of irradiation are considered.
285
Institute of Biophysics,
USSR Academy of Sciences
Icifi1- Sanitized Cony AoIDrov
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V. APPLICATION OF ISOTOPES AND RADIATIONS IN
ANIMAL REARING AND FISHERY INDUSTRY
USE OF y -RADIATION IN LENGTHENING STORAGE TIME OF POTATOES
L. V. Metlitsky, B. A. Rubin and V. G. Khruschov
On the basis of a number of investigations it has been discovered that y-irradiation of potatoes exerts
a powerful retardation effect on sprouting of tubers, making it possible to preserve the potato for one year and
more. However, until recently it had not been possible to devise a really efficacious method of irradiation of
large quantities of potatoes, due in a large measure to the fact that the physicochemical processes in irradiated
tubers had received little study.
The present investigations showed that retardation of sprouting of tubers induced by y-rays results from
the joint influence of a number of factors: change in state of cellular colloids, alkalization of cellular sap in
the meristematic tissues, suppression of nucleic acid synthesis and of the activity of oxidative enzymes (pd-
madly in the structures of the protoplasmic elements), slowing down of gas exchange of respiratory tissues.
These metabolic changes lead to a certain lowering of resistance to microorganisms in the tubers. In
order to avoid this it is necessary to irradiate the potatoes with stringently regulated minimal doses.
Dosage depends largely on the method of irradiation employed. The magnitude of the dose may be
decreased by increasing the intensity of radiation. One-time radiation has a more powerful retardatory action
on sprouting of tubers than does the same amount of radiation in divided doses.
In selecting the dose the potato variety and physiological state of the tubers should be taken into account.
While for the Lorkh variety a dose of 10,000 r is necessary, for many other varieties it may be reduced to
8,000 r. In irradiating the potato the dose in the fall should be higher than on irradiation at the end of winter.
In experiments with the Lorkh variety irradiated with Co e? in the fall at a dose of 10,000 r and radiation
intensity of 600 r/min this variety kept well on storage in cellars for one year. Total loss and wastage was
10%.
As a result of these investigations a method was worked out for irradiation of potatoes which we re-
commend for trial on an industrial scale; the method is based on a combination of a stationary source of
radiation with a moving supply of the potatoes for irradiation. The entire irradiation process is carried out in
a single, continuous operation.
The irradiation method recommended ensures a high degree of efficiency of radiation, storage of irradiated
potatoes without the presence of a radiation source in storehouses of current construction, and reliable protection
for the personnel against radioactivity.
A. N. Balch Institute of Biochemistry,
USSR Academy of Sciences;
Moscow State University;
Institute of Biophysics, USSR
Academy of Medical Sciences
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APPLICATION OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES IN FOOD PRESERVATION
N. D. Chernaev
Modem means of preserving food products are based on heat sterilization. Food may, as a result of
such treatment, be denatured to a considerable extent. In order to avoid such undesirable features in the
preservation of food stuffs, workers in the food industry are seeking for new ways of sterilizing products, with-
out the inherent defects of heat methods.
Such a new method, in principle, is the method of sterilizing products based on use of ionizing radiations.
With this method microorganisms can be suppressed without any appreciable increase in the temperature of the
products, i.e., cold sterilization occurs. Roentgen, cathode and y-rays are most suitable for this purpose.
Various types of electron accelerators served as the source of the first two types of rays. The third type
of ray was produced by radioactive isotopes.
Radioactive elements artificially produced or obtained frilm reactor wastes are of the greatest practical
importance.
Those radioactive elements which are ih good supply at an economical price are of special value in
industry. This category includes the radioactive wastes of nuclear reactors? fission products of
These fission products,such as y-emitters,may be used in various ways depending upon their state and
the stage of decay at which they are obtained. Thus, for example, they may be contained in the fuel element
at the periphery of cooled-down homogeneous reactors, in burned-up fuel rods and in the wastes, by chemical
separation of uranium and plutonium from the treated fuel.
The constructions of various projected or existing types of y-emitters in the USSR and abroad for use
in the preservation of foodstuffs are described in the report; types of radiation treatment of foodstuffs are
enumerated, applicable in a number of technological processes; the influence of radiation doses on the quality
of foodstuffs and enzyme inactivation are discussed; the question of the risks to the consumer of irradiated
products is considered.
The report ends with brief information on the further development of research in this field.
All-Union Scientific Research Institute of the
Conserve and Vegetable Processing Industry
ORGANOLEPTIC AND PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHANGES IN FOODSTUFFS
PRESERVED BY y -RAYS
B. N. Zelenin and G. L. Pavlova
The purpose of the investigation was to study the changes in foodstuffs preserved by y-radiation in re-
lation to dose,and also to clarify the length of storage time of the tested samples.
The products subjected to y-radiation sterilization were prepared by the usual means and stored in
hermetically sealed standard glass or in tin containers.
Radiation was conducted within the cavity of a cobalt cylindrical y-radiator. The working dose was of
the order of 630 rep/min. The control samples were sterilized in an autoclave. Organoleptic evaluation and
analysis of the samples was made both following irradiation and throughout storage. Some of the samples were
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subjected following irradiation to incubation and microbiological control; the bulk of samples, however, were
kept under observation? storage times were determined at room temperature.
The following was established.
1. The character and degree of change in the physicochemical and organoleptic properties of the food-
stuffs with y-irradiation depend on dosage, the properties of the products themselves, and on pre-radiation
treatment.
2. Doses of an order of 2,000,000 rep in most cases ensure sterility of preserved foods. These doses,
however, lead to undesirable changes in the organoleptic properties of the food products. Doses of 1,000,000
to 1,500,000 rep do not ensure sterility; storage time is reduced to 3-4 months. Changes in the physico-
chemical and organoleptic properties are insignificant. Doses of 300,000 to 500,000 rep limit storage time
to 1-3 weeks, but have almost no effect on the natura: properties of the food.
3. Foodstuffs such as beef, fish, green peas, apple juice and carrot puree lend themselves best to cold
sterilization methods.
4. Less promising are prepared cauliflower, potatoes and carrots soaked in brine. More fundamental
changes occur in the organoleptic qualities of these products.
5. In plant oils, doses of 2,000,000 rep produce very slight physicochemical changes. However, organo-
leptic changes are already apparent at doses of 1,000,000 rep. In using irradiated oil for roasting these changes
disappear Doses of 11,000,000 rep produce changes in the physicochemical constants of the oils; the acid
number shows a slight increase, the iodine number and color index decrease, specific gravity and viscosity in- 4..
crease. The character of these changes makes it reasonable to postulate development of polymerization. The
observed deodorization and clarification open up new prospetts for the use of ionizing radiation in processing
of fats and oils.
All-Union Scientific Research Institute of the
Conserve and Vegetable Processing Industry
IONIZING RADIATIONS AS A MEANS OF CONTROLLING INSECT
PESTS IN GRAIN STOCKS
A. A. Peredelsky, P. D. Rumantsev, L. Z. Rodionova,
A. V. Bibergal and E. S. Pertsovsky
1. Present day science and techniques lead to methods of combating grain insect pests in granaries
through the medium of ionizing radiations.
2. The literature on dig action of ionizing radiations on insects ? experiments with grain weevils ? with
suitable calculations show that technically, economically and biologically it is advisable, in destruction of
pest populations, to use only comparatively small doses (10,000 r) of Roentgen or y -rays, which produce
general infertility or fatal damage in the embryonic or post embryonic development of the progeny of the
irradiated parents.
3. Furthermore, on irradiation at the given dose extinction of weevils in all stages of development is
accelerated.
4. On irradiation the average food consumption of the dying weevil population perceptibly falls, which
favors use of the method of ionizing radiations in combating grain stock pests.
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5. To assist dosage calculation, blue prints of a powerful y-radiation installation suitable for pilot-plant
testing of irradiation of consumer grain supplies are being drawn up.
6. Radioactive isotopes of cobalt and cesium and mixtures of nuclear reactor wastes are proposed as
sources of radiations.
gr
Institute of Biophysics of the USSR
Academy of Sciences, and the
All-Union Scientific Grain Research Institute
KILLING AND PRESERVATION OF THE MULBERRY SILKWORM COCOONS
BY y -RADIATION
T. V. Tsetskhladse, V. A. Barnov, V. E. Chikovani,
T. N. Cheidze and L. M. Thelidze
1. The technique of preliminary treatment of cocoons is of fundamental importance for the quality of
silk thread. The methods now applied of killing of the chrysalis and drying of the cocoons are labor-consuming
and to m certain extent deform the membrane of the cocoons, produce a denatured sericin, impair unraveling
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capacity, reduce the dynamometric properties of the cocoon thread and the yield of raw silk.
2. Investigation of killing the mulberry silkworm chrysalis by y-radiation showed it to be a promising
process.
3. The average lethal dose for the spring fattened chrysalis was 200,000 rep, for the summer one
150,000 rep,and for the autumn one 100,000 rep. In a chrysalis receiving 30-40% of the lethal dose within
the first days of radiation and later doses of 1,000 rep the stage of metamorphosis was protracted for 10-12 days.
4. The value of the lethal dose depends on the age of the chrysalis; for a one day old chrysallit, 10 to
12,000 rep; for five day old ones, 50,000 rep; and from the eighth day, 100-200,000 rep.
5. Tagging of the irradiated parts showed that the dynamometric properties of the silk thread are im-
proved as compared with box-dried cocoons. The raw silk yield was considerably increased. The irradiated
cocoons were well preserved under usual storage conditions.
Institute of Physics of the Academy of Sciences of the
Georgian SSR, and Central Textile Laboratory,
Textile Industry Ministry, Georgian SSR.
CHANGE IN CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND ORGANOLEPTIC PROPERTIES
OF y -IRRADIATED WINE
G. I. Beridze and M. V. Kurdgelashvilli
1. Changes in the physical and organoleptic compositions of y -irradiated wine were studied. Cos) was
used as the source of radiation. The experiments were performed on samples of European and Kakheti types
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of table wines and various desert wines with high and low content of alcohol, acid, tannin and extractive
matter. The experimental wines were exposed to varying radiation doses.
2. y -Irradiation of wine led to chemical changes and to alteration in taste of the treated product. The
higher the dose of y -rays the more powerful the radiation influence on the chemical and organoleptic pro-
perties of the wine.
3. The influence of large y-radiation doses (10,000-50,000 r) on wine produced disturbance in the
chemical composition and blend, and also changes in taste.
4. Application of various doses of y -rays in different types of wines caused color change, formation of
Madeira tint and appearance of a mousy taste, intensified with increase in dosage.
5. Intensification of the mousy taste and odor of the y -irradiated wine was due to the increased value
of the oxidation-reduction potential with increase in dosage of ionizing y -rays.
6. After 2-3 months irradiation, the characteristic properties of the wine were restored; the wine be-
came lighter, blended, and valuable taste properties developed.
On y -irradiation of the wine in bottles, by reducing the air space, one can minimize these changes and
achieve an improvement in quality of production.
Institute of Horticulture and Viniculture of the
Ministry of Agriculture, Georgian SSR
METHODS OF USE OF IONIZING RADIATION IN THE PRODUCTION
OF BACTERIAL PREPARATIONS
V. L. Troitsi, M. A. Tumanyan, Z. G. Pershina, V. M. Vadimov, D. R. Kaulen,
I. M Goncharenko, A. P. Duplischeva, T. S. Sedova and V. G. Khruschov
The production of bacterial preparations is a most important branch of the medical industry. The manu-
factured preparations, in particular prophylactic vaccines, are used on a mass scale. Sterilization is an essential
process in the production of any bacterial preparation.
Experimental data were obtained supporting the use of the atomic technique in the production of bacterial
preparations.
1. The doses of y-radiation which have a bactericidal effect on the intestinal typhoid group and on
spore-bearing soil bacteria were determined.
2. The special morphological features of bacterial growth and multiplication after irradiation with sub
bactericidal doses of x-rays and also,the morphological changes in the bacteria killed by x- and y-rays were
identified. The investigations were conducted with the method of microphotography and electron microscopy.
3. The possibility of y -radiation sterilization of nutritive media was demonstrated. Radiation by y -rays
(1,500,000 r) did not impair the nutritive properties of Gottinger agar for growth of bacteria of the intestinal
typhoid group.
4. It is possible to obtain typhoid and dysentery vaccines, killed by y -irradiation. These "radiovaccines,"
as was shown in experiments on mice, retain their immunogenic properties; the toxicity of these vaccines for
mice did not rise. Antigens prepared from bacteria killed as a result of radiation possess well marked immuno-
genic properties.
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5. y -Irradiated diptheria and tetanus toxoids (1,500,000 r) maintain their immunological properties.
6. When horse native anti-diptheria immune seramas irradiated with y -rays (1,500,000 r) the antitoxin
titer fell by 25-30%, the diapherm ? 3 by 2010. The viscosity of the irradiated sera increased. Electro-
phoregrams showed considerable disturbance in the serum globulin fractions.
Thus, the following possibilities of use of the atomic technique in the production of bacterial prepara-
tions were demonstrated.
1. Preparation of killed corpuscular and chemical vaccines (antigen complexes) by means of y-radiation.
2. COld sterilization of the finished product ? vaccines and toxoids.
3. Cold sterilization of nutritive media.
4. Cold sterilization in detoxication of bacterial production wastes.
Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology,
USSR Academy of Medical Sciences
ACTION OF IONIZING RADIATION ON THE PROCESSES OF FERTILIZATION
AND FISSION IN FISH
A. A. Neifakh
1. The object of the first part of the work was to clarify the pattern of interaction between two irradiated
sex cells. In other words the investigation was concerned with the specific complication arising on transfer of
radiation from the haploid sex cell to the diploid zygote. The ripe sex products of the groundling were
irradiated at various x-ray doses (from 100 r to 100,000 ). Artificial fertilization was employed
to produce zygotes consisting of irradiated gametes with various dose combinations. The criterion of the
radiation effect was the survival rate of the embryos.
2. With irradiation of only one gamete (male or female), the embryonic survival rate was reduced as
dosage increased, reaching a minimum at 2000-3000 r. Later the survival rate again increased owing to the
"deactivation of the irradiated gamete by means of haploid development on the part of the second, non-
irradiated sex cell ( Hertwig effect).
3. With irradiation of both gametes it was found that if the radiation dose to which both gametes are
exposed is relatively small (up to 2000 r) the percentage mortality of the progeny is the same as with applica-
tion of the dose to one of the gametes, i.e., in this case no interaction between the two sex cells is found.
With larger radiation doses the most destructive effect is obtained when both gametes are irradiated by roughly
the same doses. This effect is heightened with an increase in dosage.
4. In order to explain the data obtained a hypothesis was advanced on the various types of damage of
the gametes and on the relative independence in the zygote of the irradiation gametes. On the basis of the
quantitative findings on the irradiation of one gamete the suggested hypothesis enabled us to make a specific
theoretical calculation and to plot theoretical curves irradiation both gametes with any combination of
doses. The theoretical curves were in sufficiently close agreement with the experimental Mies to substantiate
the hypothesis advanced.
5. Change in the radiosensitivity in the process of fertilization and early fission was investigated by
means of irradiation of a fertilized spawn at various time intervals after seeding. The experiments showed
that the survival rate of the embryo was particularly low when radiation was applied at the end of the first hour
after seeding (at a temperature of 13.0 for the groundling and 16'C for a type of sturgeon) and
approximately at the first second following fissions.
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6. Comparison of the times of particular radiosensitivitywith times of egg and also with cytological data
showed that the most sensitive phase was that of a phase in the nuclear cycle (apparently preparatory to mitosis).
Of essential importance is the fact that this phase, corresponding to the first division breakdown, was separated
from the division itself by more than one hour and apparently proceeds in the pronucleus before fusion.
7. It may be concluded from the findings obtained in the present work that in the initial period of de-
velopment the mechanism of action of ionizing radiation is compatible with the concepts held on the genetic
nature of the action of radiation on the nucleus. The change in radiosensitivity is of a nonspecific quantitative
nature and is determined by change in the structure of the nucleus.
A. N. Severtsov Institute of Animal Morphology,
USSR Academy of Sciences
RESULTS AND PERSPECTIVES WITH USE OF C14 IN STUDY OF THE
CARBON CYCLE IN IMPOUNDS
Ya. I. Sorokin
1. The processes associated with the carbon cycle are at the basis of the biological productivity of
Impounds. Many links in the carbon cycle in impounds remain unstudied owing to the difficulty of investi-
gating them by normal chemical methods. These methods are insufficiently sensitive to detect transformations
in the multifarious forms of living and dead organic matter. Nor do they allow one to trace the path of the-
organic matter in the carbon cycle.
2. Solution of the basic problems associated with the carbon cycle in hydrobiology is possible only with
use of radioactive carbon. Thanks to the special properties of this isotope (soft radiation, length of half-life
period) it is very suitable for such investigations.
3. In the Microbiology Laboratory of the USSR AS Institute of Biology of Reservoirs, as a result of three
years work, ways of using CI4 to solve a number of important problems of carbon exchange in impounds have
been worked out.
4. A method was elaborated for determining, with the aid of CIA, daily productivity of photosynthesis
of the phytoplankton under 1 m2 surface not requiring the placing of a phial at each point. Application of such
a method considerably simplified the work and in 1955 made it possible to determine the annual photosynthetic
production of the Ribinski reservoir, all the sections of which show extensive and varied output. The yield
equalled 408,000 t of dry organic matter in one whole impound, or 125 g glucose per m2 area.
5. Determination (with use of C14) of tL chemosynthetic production of organic matter showed that this
process in the impounds is closely linked with anaerobic decay of organic matter in muddy deposits, which in
certain conditions reaches considerable proportions. Since with chemosynthesis there is accumulation of the
bacterial mass serving as food source for the water nonvertebrates, this process is a basic trophic factor. It was
established that autotrophic bacteria are eaten and assimilated by water nonvertebrates.
6. By means of Cm a method of study of algae? bacteria feeding of water nonvertebrates was devised,
enabling a qualitative estimation of the assimilation of the food matter. Thus,with this method data were
obtained on the feeding of daphnia and tendipedidae larvae by labeled bacteria and algae.
Institute of Biology of Reservoirs of the USSR
Academy of Sciences
292
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4.
USE OF ISOTOPES IN STUDY OF THE ROLE OF MICROORGANISMS IN
FORMATION OF SHORSU SULFUR DEPOSITS
M. V. Ivanov
1. In study of the role of microorganisms in the turnover of matter in nature, quantitative and qualitative
analyses of the microflora of silt, soil or water are normally made. However, such registration of the presence
of this or that group of microorganisms reveals nothing about the intensity of the process caused by these micro-
organisms in natural conditions.
2. The report gives the results of the first experiments to determine, by means of labeled sulfur, the
intensity of sulfur turnover in the Shorsu deposits.
3. On addition of labeled sulfate (Na2S11504) to samples of underground water, labeled hydrogen sulfide
appeared only in presence of active desulfurizing bacteria. The daily intensity of formation of hydrogen sul-
fide reached 0.078 mg/liter HO. It can therefore be said that hydrogen sulfide in the underground waters of
the Shorsu deposits is of biogenous origin and that the high mineralization of underground waters is not an
obstacle to development of desulfurizing bacteria.
In order to clarify the role of the microorganisms in the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide leading to sulfur
formation, labeled sulfide (Na2SI15) was used.
4. The experiments showed that in the presence of microflora (Thiobacteriales bacteria) oxidation
of hydrogen sulfide proceeds with appreciably greater intensity than in experiments with formalin-killed micro-
flora. It was revealed that as a result of oxidation of hydrogen sulfide molecular sulfur i$ accumulated, the
daily production of which reached 60-70 mg/liter.
5. From the data obtained on distribution of desulfurizing and acid bacteria in the Shorsu sulfur deposits
and the results of the experiments with isotopes it can be said that the microorganisms take an active part in
the formation of the sulfur deposits of the epigenetic type.
6. The experiments conducted with labeled sulfur indicate the great possibilities for use of isotopes for
investigating geological activity of microorganisms in natural conditions.
Institute of Microbiology, USSR
Academy of Sciences
STUDY OF THE BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTIVITY OF TANKS BY
MEANS OF RADIOISOTOPES
V. I. Zhadin, A. G. Rodina and A. S. Troshin
Using Ps2 and CaAs in experimental conditions, a study was made of adsorption of phosphorus by various
tank bottoms and consumption of phosphorus and calcium by bacteria, phytoplankton, and by the higher water
vegetation (elodea), algae overgrowth and zooplankton.
A periodic investigation was made of the radioactivity of samples from the bottom, bacteria from the
bottom and water samples from the bottom by elutriation and from the water layer by filtration through a
No. 2 membrane filter ? phytoplankton (after removal of the zooplankton by pipette), zooplankton recovered
(by pipette), plant tissue of elodea and algae overgrowths. The water samples were used before filtration and
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after filtration through the No. 2 membrane filter. The radioactivity of the samples was expressed by the
number of impulses per minute per unit weight or volume.
In the absence of plankton and vegetation the largest amount was adsorbed by the peaty bottom
(85,000 imp), much less by a rocky bottom (20,300 imp), clay (13,400 imp) and sand (11,000 imp per 1 g
dry weight). Adsorption of phosphorus by clay and sandy bottoms was principally effected by their bacterial
flora content.
On introduction into the aquarium of a combined mineral fertilizer (N, P, K, Ca) the phosphorus was
partially adsorbed by the bottom, but the bulk of it was assimilated by the bacteria and phytoplankton, algae
overgrowths and elodea. Following them phosphorus was assimilated in a vast amount of zooplankton. The
bacterioplankton showed radioactivity almost equal to that of the phytoplankton (up to 6000 imp per 1 ml of
water on the sixth day of the experiment). The algae overgrowths gave at the same time up to 135,000,000 imp
and the zooplankton up to 108,000,000 imp per 1 g moist weight. When elodea were present they showed
64,000,000 imp per 1 g moist weight.
Radioactive calcium (CaC12) when introduced with the combined fertilizer was accumulated in con-
siderable amount by the elodea and zooplankton and a small amount was used by the bacteria or phytoplankton
or was adsorbed by the bottom. The radioactivity of the elodea on the third day of the experiment reached
426,000 imp per 1 g moist weight and in the algea overgrowths it varied from 100 - 150,000 imp per 1 g
moist weight, in the bacteria and phytoplankton 20-60 imp per 1 ml water, in. zooplankton '77,000 to 303,000 imp
per 1 g moist weight, and in the bottom 100-800 imp per 1 g dried weight.
The result of the experiments and observations on fish-rearing pools justify the use of fertilizers, which
give a significant increase in pond fish production. It is advisable to introduce only solutions of mineral fer-
tilizers in the water. The first portions of the fertilizers were introduced in the ponds in early spring (before
the development of the higher water vegetation). The higher vegetation growing in the ponds should serve
as the organic component of the complex (organomineral) fertilizer. Mineral and organic fertilizers were ?
introduced in the ponds periodically throughout the summer according to the degree of their utilization in
biological output.
Zoological Institute, USSR Academy of Sciences
TECHNIQUE FOR TAGGING FISH BY RADIOACTIVE CALCIUM
N. P. Rudakov
A number of scientific organizations have in the last few years been engaged in the task of working out
methods for tagging fish by radioactive isotopes. However, although a certain amount of factual material has
been assembled in this field, the problems of isotope dosages and the efficacy of tagging of fish of various
ages have not been sufficiently elucidated.
The object of the investigation was; a) study of the laws governing accumulation- of radioactive calcium
in the fish organism,and b) study of radioactive calcium uptake by fish of various ages.
The study was carried out on young carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) weighing 0.064 g at 16 days old, 0.496 g
at 30 days, and 5.0 g at 64 days. The experiments were performed in aquarium conditions.. The source of
radioactivity was a preparation of calcium chloride (Ca45 C12). The following activities were employeck 3.0 p c,
1.0 pc, 300.0 pc and 30.0 pc per liter. For the purpose of tagging, the fish were placed for one hour in
solutions at these concentrations and then investigated for radioactive calcium content in their organism.
Some of the fish placed in solutions with a specific activity of 1.0 p c per liter were used to determine
the optimal concentration of radioactive calcium required for the experimental period.
294
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Determination of the radioactive calcium content in the fish was made in ash suspensions. Total cal-
cium was estimated Trilonometrically with use of murexide as indicator.
The Ca45 content was determined in the young carp at specific time intervals after tagging (1 min,
1 hour, 3 hours, 12 hours and 24 hours).
The radioactive calcium was rapidly absorbed by the young carp of different size and age. A substantial
part of it was absorbed by the organs of the fish, while some of it was washed out in the first 24 hours after
tagging.
Absorption of total calcium by the young carp per 1 g ash (with a high calcium content in the medium)
does not depend on the concentration of the initial solutions. As the fish grow the absorption of calcium per
unit weight decreases 1.5-2.0 times.
The most rapid decrease in the content of radioactive calcium in the fish in solutions of the greatest
specific activity was observed in the first 24 hours. Solutions with a specific activity of 1.0 p c per liter may
be regarded as the most suitable for the tagging of the young carp.
The radioactivity of the fish after the first 2-3 months of breeding was highest with tagging of the largest
young, considerably surpassing the activity of the young of smaller dimensions.
All-Union Scientific Research
Institute of Lake and Stream Fish Breeding
APPLICATION OF P32 AND Ca45 IN STUDY OF SOME ASPECTS OF
PHOSPHORUS AND CALCIUM METABOLISM IN
YOUNG CARP AND STURGEON
M. P. Bogoyavlenskaya and I. A. Shekhanova
1. Application of P32 and Ca45 with use of a specially constructed chamber made it possible to establish
the paths of penetration of phosphorus and calcium ions from the water to the body of fish. The bulk in-
filtrates through the surface of the gills and mucuous membrane of the mouth; the least through the integuments
of the body surface of the young carp and sturgeon,
2. The phosphorus and calcium ions penetrating from the water are distributed in the very first hour
In all organs and tissues of the fish body. The largest amounts of phosphorus and calcium were determined
at the site of penetration (in the gills, mucuous membrane of the mouth, intestine and in the skin). The
maximum amounts of calcium, unlike phosphorus, were found in the integumentary bones (operculum in the
lepidoptera). In the axial skeleton a smaller concentration of calcium was found.
3. The results of analysis showed that phosphorus ions penetrating from the water are essentially accumu-
lated in the body of fish in the form of organic phosphorus compounds.
4. With passage of time a redistribution of phosphorus and calcium ions in the fish was observed.
5. In 1-2 days the radioactive calcium was essentially localized in the bone elements. Although
phosphorus was redistributed in the fish organism, its total activity in the soft tissues and bone elements did
not change.
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6. With use of radioactive isotope labeling it was necessary to take into account that this was not a
mechanical process, but an intrinsic part of the metabolic activity of the investigated fisb. It was specially
important in this respect to pay particular attention to the fish requirement of the substance used as tracer and
not to unduly exceed the normal content of the substance in the water.
Or
All-Union Scientific Research Institute of
Sea Fish Economy and Oceanography
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296
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STUDY OF CALCIUM METABOLISM IN HENS
BY MEANS OF RADIOACTIVE CALCIUM
V. K. Bauman
The essential object of the investigations was to study the mechanism of calcification of the hen egg--
shell. With use of differing amounts of calcium in the rationiand on the basis of different yields in the laying
hens, phosphorus, calcium,and also the radioactive calcium balance were studied.
The method of the experiment was essentially based on the fact that there is selective absorption of rad-
iocalcium by bone tissue.
On parenteral administration of Ca45 in hens the skeletal calcium was tagged, while the calcium taken
by mouth did not contain radioactive isotopes. This made it possible to trace, in shell formation, participa-
tion of calcium derived from the two chief sources ?skeleton and digestive tract.
Support for the hypothesis that the skeleton is the sole source of calcium in shell formation was found in
the fact that in all eggs laid 24 hours after administration of Cad, significant activity (about 40% of the dose)
independent of the amount of calcium in the ration, was observed in the shells. The uniform activity observed
In the eggshells may be explained by the fact that in their formation calcium is derived from the skeleton in
approximately equivalent amounts.
The entire calcium in the food ,before being deposited in the shell, enters the skeletal c,alcium depot,
from whence its utilization is strictly regulated by the relevant neurcrendocrinal mechanism.
In study of skeletal calcium metabolism.convincing proof of its exceptionally high activity in laying
birds was obtained. The speed of disappearance of radioactive calcium from the skeleton is in close relation-
ship to productivity. In hens laying more than 25 eggs in 2 months only traces of Ca45 were found in the skel-
eton, while in the skeletons of hens which did not lay a single egg in this period, more than half the dose of
radioactive calcium introduced persisted.
The most active metabolism was shown in the porous bone substance filling the bone cavity in hens. The
speed of metabolism in this substance was 4-5 times greater than in compact tissue.
The degree to which the various bones of the skeleton participate in shell formation Is connected in
large measure with their capacity to accumulate active porous matter in the cavities. During egg laying,the
breast and pelvic bones and ribs show particularly marked change.
The existence in bone tissue of various forms of calcium, with different metabolic speeds, may be pos-
tulated on the experimental findings.
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Institute of Biology
Academy of Sciences, Latvian SSR
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COMPARATIVE STUDY OF COBALT BALANCE IN
THE ORGANISM BY MEANS OF Co" AND Co"
V. V. Kovalsksky, A. D.Goldlobov, A. A. Chernova
Experiments concerned with cobalt balance in sheep showed that assimilation of Co59 (cobalt chloride
contained in fodder) reaches on average 82%. In another series of experiments in sheep,assimilation of Co59
reached 70%, in rabbits about 77%, in pigs 75%. In experiments performed on cattle with use of Co" this high
assimilation of cobalt was not observed, being only 10-20%. In experiments on rats even lower assimilation of
Co" in the 5-7% range was obtained.
Such discrepancies in Co" and Co60 balance, reported by various authors with use of different animals,
cannot be considered merely fortuitous. Accordingly, it was necessary to perform a comparative study of Co59
and Co" balance in animals. For this purpose experiments were carried out with a single administration of
Co" and Co60 in the rabbit organism, a method which ensures that the balances are completely comparable,and
excludes possible interference of experimental factors, which may arise even in different animals of the same
species. Estimation of both Co" and Co" excreted from the organism was performed on the same samples of
feces and urine. Co" was determined chemically by the colorimetric method with nitroso-R-salt. Co"
was determined according to number of impulses; the impulses were converted into specific radioactivity on
the standard solution.
Investigations of cobalt (Co") balance in rabbits showed that there was 87-90% assimilation of the 600y
cobalt (approximately) administered in green fodder in a seven-day period. Each of the rabbits was given 35 pc
of the radioactive isotope Co". At the same time,a load of mineral cobalt carrier (Co59) ?1500 y was given.
The total seven-day ration for each rabbit contained 2100 y of Co59 in the food and as mineral salt supple-
ment. Its assimilation, expressed in percentages of the cobalt introduced in the organism, varied from 68 to-
77%, i.e. was somewhat less than assimilation of the food cobalt by rabbits not receiving Co60. Assimilation
in these same rabbits of Co" was significantly less. In the seven days of the balance testing period 1.5 to
14.72 p c Co60 still remained in the organism, amounting to 5-42% of the amount of cobalt introduced.
The rate of excretion of Co" and Co" during the days of the balance test period furnish interesting in-
formation. Maximum excretion of Co60 occurred in three days, that of Co" in four days. These differences
are not open to doubt and were repeated in all the experimental animals.
The differences in Co59 and Co60 balances were due to the characteristics of metabolism of the small
trace amounts of labeled cobalt and the physiological amounts of Co59, and also to the unavoidable differences
in the methods of investigating them.
On the basis of previous investigations one might have expected that the trace amounts of radiocobalt
would be deposited and retained in the orionismro a lesserdegree than was the physiological amount of Co".
In determination of the radioactive isotope it was necessary to considerthat part of the introduced substance in
the excretions of the organism; in determination of the normal chemical element it was necessary to take account
not only of part of the introduced substance, but of a significant amount of the same element which was de-
rived from the tissue depots, and not amenable to determination.
All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Animal
Breeding; V. I. Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry
and Analytical Chemistry of the USSR Academy of
Sciences
298
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USE OF SULFUR IN SYNTHESIS OF HAIR KERATIN
A. L. Palucheva
The special features of utilization of sulfur in synthesis of hair keratin in ruminants (fine-and coarse-
wool sheep and the saiga antelope), in rodents (rabbits) and in carnivores (dogs) were studied. Tests were
made with inorganic sulfur compounds (Na2S3504, Na2S35) and organic compounds (methionine, cystine and thi-
ocarbamide introduced by mouth in single or double doses 0.5-2.0 mc). Altogether 62 animals were used.
Use of inorganic sulfur for hair growth in various animals was distinguished by features which deviate
from the accepted classification system based on types of feeding and digestion. A clear relationship between
type of hair coat, hair sulfur content and rate of deposit of sulfur in hair was not found. Fine-wool sheep with
well developed wool covering and coarse-wool sheep yielding 2-4 times less wool,and also carnivores (dogs)
were capable of using inorganic sulfur in the synthesis of cystine for hair keratin. Inorganic sulfur compounds
are not used in hair growth in saiga antelope,which are related to sheep, and covered by short hair with a low
sulfur content, nor by rabbits which accumulate a large amount of sulfur in the hair.
In various animals in the period of moulting sulfur utilization capacity varied. In saigas and rabbits,the
processes of keratin synthesis with use only of organic sulfur are intensive in the young newly forming hairs
and carry on in old hair still subject to change. In coarse-wool sheep,both organic and inorganic sulfur are
used in growing hair (wool). However before moulting large clumps of hair still firmly attached to the skin
are completely excluded from the sulfur metabolism. Nor was the labeled sulfur found in all hairs in the moult-
ing period in dogs.
In bacteria-free newborn lambs and saigas hair keratin synthesis from inorganic sulfur compounds does
not occur; this is at variance with the conception that in newborn organisms synthetic ability is in general
higher than in adult animals.and indicates the deficiencies in the relevant albumin and sulfur metabolism en-
zymes,and also the importance of intestinal microflora in this process.
Deposition of sulfur as hair growth proceeds occurs unequally, being dependant on its concentration in
the organism. Autoradiographic investigations of hair on an x-ray film and with use of nuclear emulsion show
that deposit of sulfur in hair decreases steeply in line with the rapid and sharp fall in the blood sulfur concen-
tration after a single administration of S35. There is a perceptible repeat trace of sulfur in growing hair fol-
lowing repeated administration of sulfur at several time intervals which makes it possible to utilize radioac-
tive sulfur in determination of the rate of hair growth.
Hypo- and hyperthyrosis, while influencing the rate of hair growth, does not fundamentally interfere
with inorganic sulfur utilization in hair keratin synthesis.
299
All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Animal
Breeding
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USE OF LABELED IODINE IN DETERMINING FUNCTIONAL STATE
OF THYROID GLANDS IN SHEEP
E. A. Nesterova
Enzootic disturbances in metabolism in farm animals due to iodine deficiency, encountered in Siberia,
the Far East, Byelorussia and in other places, have not been studied to any extent. Iodine deficiency in the
fodder reduces reproductive capacity and animal productivity, and retards development of the young. In re-
gions with endemic goiter,table salt enriched with iodine is added to the animal rations. In places where io-
dine deficiency is weakly expressed and the animals are not goitrous,practical measures to improve iodine pro-
vision for the animals are not taken.
For the purpose of diagnosing iodine deficiency in sheep in cases where it is not accompanied by devel-
opment of goiter, the method of labeled atoms, ? widely applied in various countries for diagnosis of hypo- and
hyperthyrosis in humans ? was employed. The functional activity of the thyroid gland was judged by the rate
of absorption of trace amounts of labeled iodine. In the diagnosis of enzootic hypofunction of the thyroid gland
discovery of the laws governing the normal changes of its functional state is of basic importance. This work
was aimed at establishing these laws.
Inspection of the functional activity of the thyroid gland in sheep was performed under the conditions of
the physiological stables of the All-Union Institute of Animal Breeding, and in individual collective farms of
the Mari SSR where goiter was found among the population. At the same time a study was made of iodine
content of fodder and drinking water.
The seasonal features of labeled iodine accumulation in the thyroid gland of sheep, connected with varied
physiological state of the animals (pregnancy, lactation, etc.) were established. With use of labeled iodine in
lactating animals it is necessary to make a simultaneous study of radioiodine accumulation in the thyroid
glands of the suckling lambs. The correlation of labeled iodine in the thyroid glands of the mothers and suck-
ling lambs changed as lactation proceeded. At the beginning of lactation the mothers show increased iodine
demand. The reduced secretion into the blood of the thyroid gland hormone in sheep in the summer may be
accompanied by intense absorption of labeled iodine, which makes it impossible to draw conclusions on the
functional state of the gland on the basis of only short experiments (about two days). The duration of investi-
gation of sheep thyroid gland must not be less than five-six days in order to achieve maximum absorption.
All-Union Scientific-Research Institute of Animal Breeding.
INFLUENCE OF RADIOACTIVE PHOSPHORUS ON
WEIGHT AND ENERGY PROCESSES IN RUMINANTS
E. M. Berkovitch
1. The influence of ionizing radiations on metabolic and energy processes have not been studied at all
adequately,and the data presented by various authors who have studied this question are of a conflicting na-
ture. This may be due to the peculiarities in metabolism of animals of different species.
2. As metabolism in ruminants differs markedly from that in monogastric animals, study of the reactions
of ruminants to ionizing radiations, are of great theoretical and practical interest.
300
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3. After administering radioactive phosphorus at a dose of 16-180pc per 1 kg live weight in goats and
sheep, a gain in weight in 6-15 days was observed,amounting to as much as 2-3 Xt. Later the weight fell to
the initial level and ,occasionally,by the 25-30th day following administration of radioactive phosphorus, the
weight of the animals was less than the initial weight.
4. Increase in weight occurs essentially as a result of raised exchange of extracellular fluid, the amount
of which increases at a quicker rate than does the weight of the animal. The fat content in the organism is
thereby often reduced. There is no direct relationship between the dose of the radioactive phosphorus intro-
duced and the rate of increase in extracellular fluid exchange.
5. On administration of radioactive phosphorus in the organism of young growing animals no raised ex-
change of extracellular fluid was observed, though the weight of the animals increased due to tissue growth.
Thus, growth energy is not completely suppressed by radioactivity. However, comparison of the rate of growth
of irradiated animals with the controls shows that radioactive phosphorus partially inhibits growth energy.
6. Changes tn the energy processes on administration of radioactive phosphorus are of a &phasic char-
acter: in the first 15 days inhibition of the energy processes was observed, seen to be particularly marked when
calculated per 1112 body surface and per liter of extracellular fluid, which shows impairment of the func-
tional condition of the organism. After 15 days the energy processes start to rise,and at the end of the month
often exceed the initial level.
17. Suppression of the energy processes is connected with inhibition of oxygen consumption in the func-
tioning protoplasmic mass.
8. After administration of radioactive phosphorus in goats and sheep a decline in the amount of hemo-
globin and erythrocytes is seentwith simultaneous increase in color index.
Lvov Zoo-Veterinary Institute.
STUDY OF PENETRABILITY OF ANIMAL SKIN BY
SULFUR PREPARATIONS WITH USE OF 535
A. N. Yunin
1. The efficacy of the campaign against ectoparasites and pest insects in farm animals and the action of
various acaricidal and insecticidal preparations on micro- and macroorganisms depends on the capacity of the
preparations to penetrate the skin and enter the organism.
The objects of the work were: to study the speed of penetration of the sulfur preparations through the
skin of sheep and rabbits in relation to the mode of administratiour to make clear the conditions influencing
skin penetzability,and also to establish the times and paths of sulfur excretion from the organism.
2. Relatively swift penetration through the rabbits and sheep skin of labeled bisethylxanthogen (e5) in
the form of an aqueous potassium soap emulsion was found. The speed of penetration of the preparation was
estimated at 10-15 mins. The maximum concentration of es in the blood was observed starting several hours
after treatment, up to three days. In the next 10-15 days the radioactivity of the blood did not exceed 5050
above the original level.
3. Alcoholic solutions of bisethylxanthogen penetrated the animal skin in a much shorter time. 5-10
mins after applying the preparation to the skin an appreciable amount of radioactive sulfur was observed in
the blood. The maximum concentration was observed in the first three hours, then it fell to a definite level,
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which level persisted during the 48-hour period of observation.
4. Colloidal sulfur in an oily base penetrates rabbit skin in 10-15 min and sheep skin in 10-20 min. Ra-
dioactive sulfur was still found in appreciable quantities in the blood in 15-20 days; later only traces of it were
detected.
5. Colloidal sulfur dusts applied to the skin penetrated it slowly in small doses. An appreciable amount
of radioactive sulfur in the blood in rabbits appeared within 30-50 mins, in sheep in 40-60 mins.
6. An aqueous solution of sodium sulfidepand also an aqueous suspension of colloidal sulfur did not pen-
etrate undamaged skin.
7. The speed of penetration of sulfur through the skin depends on the temperature of the surroundings
and the physicochemical properties of the solvent itself (water, alcohol, oil, etc.).
Rapidly evaporating solvents (alcohol) at an enviromental temperature of 10 to 20C and relative humidi-
ty of 75% persist on the animal skin for up to two hours, and aqueous solvents for up to one day.
Oily bases (plant and mineral oils) at a temperature of 10 to 20*C and relative humidity of 75% stay on
the skin and hair up to 3-6 days.
With a rise in temperature of the surroundings of more than 20 the speed of penetration of the sub-
stance through the skin is temporarily increased, and is reduced when the tbmperature falls to between 3 and
0.C.
Excretion of the radioactive sulfur in sheep occurs mainly in the urine, feces, and suint in the first and
third days after application to the skin. In the urine,the sulfur isotope appeared within the first two hours, and
in the feces it was found in 5 hours. The two-day maximum of radioactive sulfur was excreted by the urine-
94%, the feces -6%, and suint-10% on conversion to 1 g dry substance.
The duration of sulfur excretion in the urine was 40-42 days, in the feces 30-36 days,and in sweat
20-35 days. Similar results regarding times of excretion were obtained in rabbits.
A high sulfur content was observed in sheep skin. This was connected with the expiratory functions of
the skin and also with the fact that in part elementary sulfur is involved in the process of synthesis of the wool
proteins (keratin).
9. Application of externally applied tracer doses of radioactive sulfur in the study of skin penetrability
did not produce visible clinical deviations in the healthy animals, nor noticeable deviations from normal in
the blood picture.
All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Veterinary
Health and Ectoparasitology
PARTICIPATION OF FODDER CHLOROPHYL IN SYNTHESIS OF HEMOGLOBIN
F. V. Zakharova
1. On the basis of experimental data it was established that chlorophyl participates in the regeneration
of hemoglobin and enhances the function of the blood-forming organs. The action of chlorophyl on blood for-
mation is due to the chemical affinity of chlorophyl and hemoglobin, both being pyrrole derivatives.
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2. Experimental application of Citlabelled crystalline chlorophyl helped to explain the mechanism of
chlorophyl influence on blood formation.
3. Investigations carried out on rabbits and young bulls showed that on oral administration of labelled
chlorophyl radioactivity was found in the blood. The speed of absorption depends on the form of the prepara-
tion administered. Absorption of the radioactive substance in the blood runs a different course depending on
species, age and individual character of the animals.
4. The degree of utilization of chlorophyl in biosynthesis of hemoglobin was estimated by the incorpora-
tion in the hemoglobin of radioactive substance introduced in the organism in the form of C14-labelled crystal-
line chlorophyl. The radioactive substance entering the blood was quickly utilized by the organism; in the
blood it was found in the hemoglobin of the red cells. The radioactive substance was still present in the hem-
in after nine days.
5. The selective capacity of the blood-forming organs for chlorophyl derivatives was established by the
content of large amounts of radioactive substance in the bone marrow and liver. In the functional activity of
the blood-forming organs the radioactive substance is utilized for formation of the hemoglobin,in the first
place from the liver,then from the bone marrow-more rapidly from the bone marrow of the tube bonesiand
more slowly from the breastbone.
6. The presence of radioactivity in the heme, liver, and bone marrow of rabbits and bulls shows that
chlorophyl actually takes part in animal blood formation, being the plastic material for hemoglobin synthesis,
yielding the semifinished products?porphyrins.
Because of this property' of chloryphyl it may be considered as one of the factors in feeding, contributing
to enhancement of the value of winter fodder rations, thus preventing the development of extrinsic anemia in
animals in the winter-spring period.
All-Union Scientific Research Institute of
Animal Breeding
INFLUENCE OF VITAMIN INTAKE ON PHOSPHORUS
METABOLISM IN ANIMALS
N. I. Ovsyanov
Assimilation and speed of metabolism of mineral substances in the animal organism depends on many
factors, one of them being vitamin nutrition. In regulation of mineral substances, in particular phosphorus,
by the animal organism, it is necessary that the organism be supplied with vitamins.
Experiments designed to demonstrate the influence of vitamin C, A and D supply on phosphorus metabo-
lism were conducted on young guinea pigs and white rats. The animals were kept for several weeks on diets
varying in vitamin C (guinea pigs), A and D (white rats) content and after administration of radioactive phos-
phorus in the form of Na2HPO4, a determination was made of distribution and specific activity of phosphorus
in the internal organs, in the femural muscles, in the epiphysis and diaphysis of the femur, in the blood, in the
stomach contents, and also in the feces and urine.
With vitamin C deficient rations in guinea pigs it was noted that there was acceleration of phosphorus
uptake in the blood, more rapid excretion in the feces and a perceptible fall in the rate of phosphorus metab-
olism in the liver, kidneys, and to a lesser extent,in the spleen. The more rapid rate of excretion of this dc-
'bent in the feces was apparently associated with reduced phosphorus incorporation capacity of the liver,
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kidneys and spleen.
In the first 3 hours after administration of radioactive phosphorus,the intensity of incorporation in the
organs, and particularly in the bones of rats not receiving vitamin D, was higher than in rats kept on a full-
value diet, despite the higher blood P32 content in the latter. The maximum incorporation of P32 in the tissues
of the lungs, spleen, the muscles,and particularly in the bones was observed much earlier in rats not receiving
vitamin D. However,on the next and following days phosphorus was less intensely incorporated in the organs
and tissues and was more swiftly excreted in rats not receiving vitamin D than by the normally fed animals.
Absence of vitamin A in the ration of white rats produced a fall in phosphorus incorporation in the tissues
of the heart, liver, spleen, kidneys, and muscles in the first 3 hours after administration.
Siberian Veterinary Scientific Research Institute
DISTRIBUTION OF PARATYPHOID VACCINES IN ORGANISM
I. N. Arkhangelsky and 0. A. Berdink
Antigen distribution in the organs and tissues and rapidity of excretion from the organism are of great
importance in the problem of pottvaccination immunity.
The method of labeled atoms opens up new possibilities in the study of this process, for their use can pro-
vide a direct answer to the question of the duration of the labeled antigen in the organism and the pattern of
Its distribution.
Although the problems of the pathogenesis of brucellosis and distribution in the organism of typhoid fe-
ver antigen have to some extent been investigated by means of labeled atoms, no use has been made of iso-
topes in study of alum-precipitated paratyphoid vaccines.
In the experiments six vaccine variants were prepared from bacteria containing labeled phosphorus?for-
mol vaccine, alum-precipitated formol vaccine, broth vaccine, alum precipitated brotn vaccine, semiliquid
vaccine and alum-precipitated semiliquid vaccine.
The bacteria for these vaccines were incubated on 3% solid agar containing radioactive phosphorus/ then
the bacteria were washed off with normal saline and freed from the nutritive medium residues in a centrifuge.
The same number of bacteria containing radioactive phosphorus were added to the prepared medium (bouillon,
semifluid agar, etc.).
Guinea pigs were immunized with each of the variants and were sacrificed 3,5,15 and 21 days after
vaccination,and preparations were made from their organs for determination of labeled phosphorus.
The experiments showed that in 3-5 days regional lymphatic nodes contained a maximum amount of
radioactive phosphorus, and consequently of antigen. The organs rich in reticuloendothelial elements --the
liver, spleen, bone marrow ?usually retained antigen in larger quantities than the lungs, heart and kidneys.
In the majority of cases the brain in the first 3-5 days after vaccination showed no, or minimal, antigen con-
tent.
Within 15-21 days the quantity of antigen in the organs of the reticuloendothelial system was at the
maximum. The central nervous system at this time, though containing radioactive phosphorus, had a lower
content than other tissues. Hence it can be assumed that it is the contact between antigen and reticuloendo-
thelial tissue which is of paramount importance in the immunization process.
Alum-precipitated antigen was absorbed more slowly than an analogous non-alum preparation, contributing
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to a prolonged antigen level in the organism. This was particularly evident in vaccines prepared in normal
saline (formol vaccines), and to a lesser degree in the broth vaccines and those containing semifluid agar.
Uzbekistan Agricultural Institute
DIFFUSION IN GUINEA PIG ORGANISM OF ORALLY ADMINISTERED
P32-LABELED BCG MYCOBACTERIA
N. S. Stolygvo
1. It is useful to employ ultrasonic energy in the preparation for biological experiment of P324abeled
Mycobacterium tuberculosis to ensure more thorough removal of the radioactive phosphorus, loosely bound to
the bacterial cells, and also in the homogenization of the mycobacterial suspensions. In the present investiga-
tion use was made of P32-labeled Mycobacterium tuberculosis in BCG, washed free from the loosely bound P32,
and homogenized by 4-minute processing of the suspension by ultrasonics (380 kilohertz at an intensity of 10
watt/cm2) with subsequent centrifugation and replacement of suspending fluid.
2. The object of the investigation was to trace the paths of penetration and diffusion in the organism of
the labeled Mycobacterium tuberculosis contained in the BCG strain vaccine introduced by mouth (in line with
the method of antituberculosis vaccination proposed by de Assis). The experiments were performed on 40
chloroformed guinea pigs which were investigated 2 and 24 hours after administration of the BCG mycobacter-
ia (50 mg bacterial mass in 0.5 ml normal saline).
3. 2 hours after administration of the BCG mycobacteria,radioactivity was noted in the stomach con-
tents, duodenum and small intestine and, in half of the animals, In the colon contents. In 24 hours consider-
able radioactivity was detected in the colon contents of all animals.
Investigation of the washed digestive tract tissues showed that,2 hours after administration of the myco-
bacteria,considerable radioactivity was fixed only in the lymphoid system of the intestines (in the Peierovsky's
nodules),and was absent from the stomach walls and all sections of the intestines.
4. Some of the BCG mycobacteria administered by mouth quickly penetrated the cervical lymphatic
nodes from the pharyngeal lymphoid tissue. In addition,within two hours of administration of the mycobacteria
radioactivity was found in the lymph nodes of the mesenterium and in the majority of cases in the tracheo-
bronchial nodes. Radioactivity in the lymphatic nodes increased in 24 hours.
5. In healthy guinea pigs receiving a sufficient amount of ascorbic acid, appreciable radioactivity was
seen in the blood within only 2 hours and it completely disappeared in 24 hours,but was found in the lympha-
tic nodes, in bone marrow and in the internal organs. In guinea pigs with vitamin C deficiency, in all cases,
radioactivity was detected in circulating blood only 24 hours after introduction of the mycobacteria.
6. Radioactivity was established soon after administration of the mycobacteria in lung tissue, being al-
most always considerably higher in the upper lobes than in the lower ones.
7. In healthy guinea pigs.24 hours after oral administration of labeled BCG mycobacteria, in all cases,
appreciable radioactivity was found in the urine, but in vitamin C deficient animals it was not present in the
urine or present only in insignificant amounts. The rate of urine excretion of P32 compounds which readily
diffuse through the kidneys may in the given experiment be an index of the intensity of the rate of destruction
of mycobacteria in the organism, with attendant liberation of P32 from the bacterial cells.
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Institute of Microbiology, Latvian SSR Academy of Sciences
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NATURE OF CARBOHYDRATE CONVERSION IN THE CAVITY FLUID
OF MULBERRY SILKWORM (BOMBYX MORI) IN THE METAMORPHOSIS PERIOD
E. I. Vyskrebentseva
In order to clarify the nature of conversion of carbohydrates in the cavity fluid of the mulberry silkworm
in the period of metamorphosis,uniformly labeled C14 sucrose, radioactive carbon dioxide (C1402) and also var-
ious glycolysis inhibitors (NaF and CH2ICOOH) were employed.
It was shown that oxidation of sugar in the cavity fluid produces phosphoric esters and organic acids.
The fluoride salt and monoiodoacetic acid inhibit organic acid synthesis by considerably reducing for-
mation of pyruvic acid from the introduced sugar, which gives grounds for supposing that pyruvic acid is a pro-
duct of glycolysis in the cavity liquid.
Analysis of the phosphorus compounds of the acid-soluble fraction showed the absence of phosphoric es-
ters of sugars which are intermediate products of glycolysis and the pentose cycle, and the presence of phos-
phorylized higher alcohols of unknown structure. Inhibition of synthesis of one of the phosphorylized alcohols,
not only by CH2ICOOH,but also by NaF, indicates that formation of it Occurs not in oxidation of the phospho-
glycerol aldehyde, but at later stages of glycolysis by means of transfer of hydrogen from the pyruvate, or the
acids formed from it, to the corresponding phosphoric esters.
The presence of radioactivity in malic, fumaric and succinic acids when labeled sugar is administered
in the cavity fluid shows that conversion of pyruvic acid is essentially linked with its role in dicarboxylic acid
synthesis by means of carboxylation. Synthesis of tricarboxylic acids, and in particular citkic acid.is insignif-
icant. The latter is formed chiefly, not from carbohydrates, but as a result of carboxylation of organic acids,
probably decomposition products of fats. This fact strongly suggests that in the cavity fluid anaerobic oxida-
tion of carbohydrates is the predominant process.
Sucrose introduced in the cavity fluid may be subjected not only to oxidative transformations, but may
be used in the synthesis of a complex unidentified high molecular weight phosphorus compound. On suppres-
sion of glycolysis this method of transformation predominates.
Study of carbohydrate transformation during metamorphosis showed that hystolysis substantially reduces
the capacity of the cavity fluid to synthesize phosphoric esters and organic acids from the introduced sugar,
while, in the course of hystogenesis and differentiation, this capacity is restored,
K. A. Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology
USSR Academy of Sciences
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VI. AGROCHEMISTRY AND SOIL SCIENCE
STUDY OF METHODS OF SUPERPHOSPHATE PLACEMENT
WITH VARIOUS AGRICULTURAL CROPS
I. V. Gulyakin and P. M. Smirnov
In studying methods of superphosphate placement, the radioisotopic method was applied, which allows
for a more accurate assessment of the magnitude and rate of plant assimilation of fertilizer and soil phospho-
rus.
Small scale growth experiments were conducted with corn, potatoes, oats and winter wheat to demon-
strate the influence of various methods of introduction of superphosphate and kindred fertilizers and also of
soil liming on plant phosphorus assimilation.
The investigations showed that the method of introduction of superphosphate,and also joint compost-sup-.
erphosphate application( nitrogen fertilizers,and soil liming,exert a considerable influence on plant phosphorus
assimilation from fertilizer and soil. ;
Comparison of deep and shallow placement of the superphosphate shows that in the first case plants assim-
ilate much more phosphorus from the fertilizer and also make more efficient use of the soil phosphorus.
With shallow introduction of superphosphate, fairly intensive entry of fertilizer phosphorus in the plant
is witnessed only.in the course of the first two weeks after germination, and later sharply falls, while when the
superphosphate is located deep in the soil, entry of phosphorus increases in line with plant growth.
The highest plant phosphorus assimilation from superphosphate during the entire growth period was
achieved by a combination of deep placement of fertilizer in rows in the sowing of oats,or in the holes in
planting of potatoes and sowing of corn. With deep placement of superphosphate as basic fertilizer in conjunc-
tion with local introduction,greater utilization by the plant of soil phosphorus is observed. With surface intro-
duction of superphosphate in spring nutrition of winter wheat, phosphorus utilization by plants was not high and
to a large degree depended on the time of introduction of the supplementary fertilizer. On early introduction
of superphosphate in the supplementary fertilizer (in frozen soil) plant utilization of the fertilizer phosphorus
was two to three times greater than on late supplementary nutrition(before harrowing of the winter crops).
Introduction of compost together with superphosphate improved plant utilization both of fertilizer phos-
phorus and soil phosphorus. In the experiments with corn, on introduction of a comparatively small amount of
compost (3 centner/hectare) together with superphosphate (3 centner/hectare) the compost exerted a positive
effect on plant utilization of fertilizer phosphorus. Increase in compost amount to 50 centner/hectare had no
greater influence on plant assimilation of superphosphate phosphorus than did the smaller dose of compost
(3 centner/hectare). The compost introduced together with the superphosphate in the plant in large amount
may in the first period somewhat reduce entry of phosphorus from the superphosphate.
Addition to the superphosphate and compost mixture of 5 centner/hectare lime reduced plant utilization
of fertilizer phosphorus. However,the negative effect of the lime, when introduced along with superphosphate,
on entry of fertilizer phosphorus,was dependant on the quality of the soil.
In strongly acid peaty podzolic soil corn,utilization of phosphorus from superphosphate when introduced
together with compost and with liming of the soil was much higher in terms of hydrolytic acidity than on intro-
duction of superphosphate and compost mixed with 5 centner/hectare lime.
In land under potatoes introduction of superphosphate together with nitrogen fertilizers in the first period
somewhat reduced the phosphorus entry in the plant from the superphosphate. However,later these fertilizers
exerted a positive influence on plant assimilation of phosphorus from the superphosphate.
K. A. Timiryazev Moscow Agricultural Academy
307
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THE INFLUENCE OF HUMUS AND PEAT MOSS
ON THE INTAKE OF PHOSPHORUS AND CALCIUM INTO PLANTS
A. V. Peterburgsky
In a number of field and vegetation experiments using P32 and Ca45 a study was made of the intake of
phosphorus and calcium into the aboveground portion of oat, clover, corn, potato, beet and cabbage plants.
Fertilizers containing labeled superphosphate or labeled lime were introduced into the soil in combination with
humus, peat moss or compost (in small doses).
In two vegetation experiments with oats conducted on acidic, slightly argillaceous soil (pH 4.5), it was
noted that mixing NPK (of which the P is labeled superphosphate) with humus ("hothouse earth") is accompanied
by a decrease in the intake of P32 in the course of approximately one month, in comparison with the introduc-
tion of the mineral fertilizers without humus.
The addition of a small dose of lime (in an amount equivalent to 0.1 of the hydrolytic acidity of the
soil) to the mixture of NPK and humus increases somewhat the intake of P32 into the oat plant. Lime with NPK
(without humus) does not substantially influence P32intake of the plants.
Mixing NPK with nonacidic lowland peat moss (pH 6.2) resulted in a lowering of not only the relative but
also the absolute P32 content in the yield of oats.
Evidently the phosphoric acid anion is bound by both peat moss and humus. On the same soil the restrain-
ing influence of humus on phosphorus intake was shown also in an experiment with clover. The yield of oats
and clover increased negligibly with the addition of humus.
When NPK was mixed with humus and labeled lime, in the first period there was also observed a notable
reduction in the intake of Ca45 into oats.
The same humus was used in a vegetation experiment with the edible beet plant on acidic, heavily ar-
gillaceous soil (pH 4.5). It was ascertained that there was somewhat less P32 in the leaves in the first period
than without the addition of humus. This was not noted when NPK was mixed with a small dose of lime. Nei-
ther humus nor lime substantially influenced the yield. In a field experiment with corn on acidic (pH 4.5),
sandy soil, the above mentioned lowland peat moss,in a dose of 5 tons per hectare, implanted in holes together
with superphosphate,increased somewhat the yield of the green mass, but curtailed the intake of P.
In a second field experiment with the same plant on acidic, argillaceous soil (pH 4.5), humus deposited
In holes in the amount of one ton per hectare strongly increased the yield, particularly of the corn ears. The
addition of labeled lime to the humus (in the amount of 0.01 to 0.05 of the hydrolytic acidity of the soil) in-
creased its positive effect. The intake of Ca into the aboveground portion in some cases was slightly de-
creased in the first period under the influence of the humus, but the absolute content of Ca45 in the yield in-
creased.
An analogous condition was noted also in a fiela experiment with cabbage on nonacidic, heavily argilla-
ceous soil. When humus and labeled superphosphate were deposited in holes, both the yield and the intake of
P32 into the plants increased.
Two experiments were conducted with the potato on sandy, nonacidic soils. In the first of them humus
from a peat moss-phosphorite compost, when deposited in holes together with superphosphate, checked the in-
take of P32 into the leaves and slightly increased the yield. In the second experiment a substantial influence
of such a compost was not noted, either on the yield or on the absorption of P32.
Thus,.in acidic soils organic admixtures not infrequently decrease the absorption by plants of phosphorus
and calcium from fertilizers in the beginning of vegetation. In soils with a reactivity close to neutral this is
not noted; at times the intake of P32 and Ca into plants is even increased.
The K. A. Timiryazev Moscow Agricultural Academy
308
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THE INFLUENCE OF CERTAIN CONDITIONS ON THE
AVAILABILITY OF PHOSPHORUS TO PLANTS
P. A. Dmitrenko and V. S. Shturmova
In research employing the method of labeled atoms, a study was made of the influence on the availabili-
ty of phosphorus to plants of the nature of the distribution of phosphorus fertilizers in the soil with respect to
plant roots,and of concomitant fertilizing, particularly with lime.
In experiments dealing with the first question, the task was one of making clear with which size granules
of superphosphate do there exist the most favorable conditions for the intake of phosphorus into plants.
In field experiments of short duration conducted on a limited scale, a study was made of the intake of
marked phosphorus into oat and millet plants in relation to dose and size of granules of superphosphate, which
was introduced into the rows; in similar experiments with winter wheat supersphosphate was applied by scatter-
ing.
By means of observations of the intake of radioactive phosphorus into plants, it was established that the
most favorable conditions for feeding plants with phosphorus in the initial period of their growth and develop-
ment are created by using superphosphate with granules of minimal size-1 to 2 mm and smaller.
With an increase in the size of the granules up to 5 to '7 mm in diameter, the accessibility of phosphorus
is reduced to a greater extent than the ;dose of superphosphate was decreased; this is explained by an increase
in the "positional" inaccessibility of phosphorus to part of the plants, which in the final analysis results in var-
iegation in the development and yield of the plants on a fertilized field.
On the basis of experiments conducted, the conclusion suggests itself that it would be expedient to intro-
duce certain changes in the existing specifications for granulated superphosphate. In particular, it would be
possible to include in the composition of granulated superphosphate a large portion of granules 1 to 2 mm insize
and smaller.
In vegetation experiments of short duration with the sugar beet, flax, lupine and pea, the use of lime in
combination with superphosphate on gray forest soil (in the amount of 5 centners per hectare) lowered the in-
take of phosphorus during the first period of development of the plants. Among other crops (hemp, rye, oats,
barley, winter wheat, potatoes, sunflower seeds, corn, clover, alfalfa), the use of a like dose of lime did not
decrease the intake of phosphorus into the plants.
Mixing superphosphate with large doses of lime (4 tons per hectare) led to a notable decrease in intake
of phosphorus into the plants of such crops as peas, alfalfa, clover, lupine, flax, corn, sunflower seed and po-
tatoes, but did not substantially influence phosphorus intake among hemp, rye, oat and barley plants.
In a vegetation experiment using the method of isolated feeding, it was established that the decreased
availability of phosphorus to a plant ,when used in combination with lime,is explained by the decreased activi-
ty of the phosphorus under the influence of the calcium of the lime.
309
The Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Farming
of the Academy of Agricultural Sciences of the USSR
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2014/01/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002800180003-5
???????????=itiGramm.
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THE USE OF P32 IN A STUDY OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE
COMPOSITION OF ORGANO MINERAL MIXTURES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION
IN THE SOIL ON THE PHOSPHORUS FEEDING OF SPRING WHEAT
V. M. Motky, V. A. Rabinovich, 0. V. Kurovskaya and K. N. Arkhireeva
Along with the widespread use of organomineral fertilizer mixtures, a matter of some importance is the
clarification of the role of mixing phosphorus fertilizers with humus and lime in the phosphorus feeding of
plants.
In experiments conducted in 1955 and 56, it was established that mixing superphosphate with humus cre-
ates more favorable conditions for the assimilation of phosphorus by plants, apparently together with a reduc-
tion of phosphate retrogradation in the soil.
Introduction of lime into a mixture of superphosphate or calcium phosphate with humus results in a reduc-
tion in the assimilation of phosphorus by plants; in the case of superphosphate this is evidently explained by
the conversion of phosphorus compounds into forms not readily accessible to plants, and in the case of calcium
phosphate?by the reduction of its solubility, which is linked with alkalization of the medium.
The positive influence on the phosphorus feeding of plants of mixing superphosphate with humus and the
negative effect of lime introduced into the fertilizer mixture are manifested in the early periods of growth and
remain until the harvest, leading thereby to corresponding changes in the yield.
On the basis of these data, the introduction of lime into a fertilizer mixture of superphosphate or phos-
phorus meal with humus must be considered inexpedient for well or moderately cultivated soilsiand also for
poorly cultivated soils containing a small amount of active aluminum.
The plants which are located directly in the row that is fertilized enjoy the most favorable conditions
for phosphorus feeding. Plants separated from the fertilization foci by an intermediate row of plants assimilate
phosphorus from the fertilizer in extremely small amounts, and the yield of grain from these rows is close to
that of the controls. Therefore, that method of applying fertilizers is expedient which guarantees uniform dis-
tribution of the fertilizers with respect to each plant (application by row or uniform scattering).
The Northwestern Scientific Research Institute of
Agriculture
A DEMONSTRATION OF THE REUTILIZABILITY OF CALCIUM IN PLANTS
USING THE METHOD OF LABELED ATOMS
N. P. Krasinsky? , G. V. Barinov, V. E. Kiselev and 0. K. Sevrova
Among plant physiologists and agricultural chemists it is a widespread notion that the calcium in plants
is not reutilized. This notion, however, is based on data the correctness of which has still not been proved?and
requires careful verification with the method of labeled atoms.
Until the present time there has been very little research employing Ca 4s which indicates that calcium
is capable of being reutilized.
We conducted research with Ca45C12 on the question of the reutilizability of calcium in plant organisms.
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310
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The factual material assembled, together with a consideration of the data referred to abovo,appearing
in the literature, perrriit one to draw the following conclusions.
1. At the present time it can be considered proved by means of the method of labeled atoms that, at
least among a number of plants, reutilization of calcium exists.
2. There is a necessity for expanded research employing radioactive isotopes in order to establish the
conditions favoring reutilization of calcium among different plants of unequal age and development.
3. A study of the reutilization of calcium has great physiological significance with respect to general
principles and also represents a matter of considerable interest to agricultural chemists and agronomists.
The Western Siberian Branch of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
THE USE OF P32 IN A STUDY OF THE INTAKE OF THE
PHOSPHORUS OF FERTILIZERS INTO PLANTS
N. I. Kukharenko
The use of labeled phosphorus in field, vegetation and laboratory experiments made it possible to explain
a number of factors influencing the intake into plants of phosphorus from fertilizers.
The influence of the content of slightly soluble phosphorus compounds in the soil on the entry into
plants of phosphorus from superphosphate was detected in vegetation experiments with millet grown on four
soils; the more of the slightly soluble compounds of phosphorus in the soil, the less did the phosphorus from su-
perphosphate enter the plants, and vice versa.
Thus when the phosphorus content of the soil equaled 17 to 21 mg of P205 per 100 g of soil (in a 0.5 N
hydrochloric acid extract), only 4 to V* of the general phosphorus content of a plant entered into the plant
from superphosphate. When the phosphorus content of the soil was 8 to 9 mg of P205 per 100 g of soil, 55 to
605 entered the plant.
In a laboratory experiment a study was made of the influence on the intake of phosphorus into rye sprouts
of the time of interaction of monocalcium phosphate labeled with radioactive phosphorus with rich black earth
containing a slight amount of humus. With an increase in the time of interaction, the intake of phosphorus in-
to plants from monocalcium phosphate decreased. Thus,when monocalcium phosphate was applied 15 days
before sowing, 145 of the phosphorus contained in the monocalcium phosphate entered into the plants; when
it was applied 15 days later (on the day of sowing), 200/o entered.
Under the conditions of the given experiment, the use of labeled phosphorus made it possible to discern
negligible changes in the transformation of phosphorus fertilizers in the soil from certain forms into others de-
pending upon the duration of interaction with the soil, changes which exert an influence on the intake of phos-
phorus from fertilizers into plants, but which cannot be detected by phosphorus determination with F. V. Chit-
ikov's method.
In a field experiment with millet on subsoiled, black meadow earth, a study was made of the influence
of the different distribution of superphosphate (labeled with P32) relative to the seeds in a row. In this connec-
tion it was established that the greatest intake of the phosphorus of superphosphate during the early period of
growth (on the 2nd and 10th day after the appearance of sprouts) is detected when the fertilizer is deposited to-
gether with the seeds. During a later period of plant growth (31 days after the appearance of sprouts), the
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greatest consumption of phosphorus by the plants occurred when superphosphate was introduced into the rows
at a depth 10 cm greater than that of the seeds.
The Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Farming
THE USE OF RADIOACTIVE INDICATORS IN A STUDY OF FEEDING
CONDITIONS AND THE EFFECT OF NUCLEAR RADIATION ON PLANTS
P. A. Vlasyuk
The method of labeled atoms is used in order to obtain a deeper understanding of the vital processes of
plant and animal organisms with the aim of increasing their productivity.
In our research,labeled atoms and small doses of radioactive ionizing,radiation were used to study the
improvement of feeding conditions and to increase the productivity of agricultural crops.
The influence on plants of levels of ionizing radiation close to natural radioactivity is brought about by
treating the seeds or fertilizers prior to sowing, by introducing radioactive isotopes into the soil or into peat
moss and humus mixtures in pots, and by using them to spray the leaves and flowers of plants.
By means of the method of labeled atoms, it was shown that metabolic exchange with the external en-
vironment begins in plants immediately after the first appearance of enzymatic processes during the swelling
of seeds. Thus,the necessity of introducing phosphorus fertilizers into the rows and drills at the time of sowing
seeds and planting seedlings was substantiated; the equal effectiveness of organamineral mixtures and gran-
ules was demonstrated, a fact which provides a basis for the wide use of organomineral mixtures in the agri-
cultural industry.
With respect to the assimilation of phosphorus from different fertilizers, for the first month superphos-
phate should be used, then pyrophosphate, and during the last month orthophosphate; a most important propo-
sition of Soviet scientists was verified; sugars are formed principally in the leaves, while in the roots of the
sugar beet they are deposited as reserves, and therefore the phosphate feeding of plants is highly significant
in increasing saccharinity; it was shown that phosphorus is accumulated at points of growth, while calcium is
accumulated in older organs, a fact which makes it possible to evolve a rational technique of applying fertili-
zers.
Manganese promotes the best utilization of sulfur, phosphorus and calcium by plants and a more econo-
mic expenditure of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in producing crops and improving the quality
of agricultural products; manganese and copper are effective in promoting the transformation of nitrogen into
protein, especially on peat soils. Labeled carbon from soil carbonates enters a plant as a result of the alkalin-
ity of the environment. It was shown for the first time that a more intensive phosphorus alimentation of plants
occurs, not in the course of the vital processes of soil bacteria, but after they have died off; for this reason
sorptive forms of nutritive substances are better utilized by a plant than soluble forms. Sulfur and phosphorus
metabolism and the formation of different amino acids is notably increased under the influence of manganese.
In this regard, the sulfur of inorganic and organic compounds is found to a greater extent in reserve proteins
rather than in structural proteins; in connection with this fact, the use of sulfate forms of potassium fertilizers
is a reliable means of increasing the productivity of plants.
In the roots of the sugar beet, C14 was linked primarily with lysine and oxalic acid. In the leaves it was
312
p.
combined primarily in tartaric acid and, considerably more slowly, in fumaric acid.
The action of small doses of ionizing radiation, which we consider a factor linking plant organisms phy-
logenetically, in the majority of cases resulted in an increased yield and the improved quality of various agri-
cultural crops; in this connection the reaction of plant organisms to the radiation of the radioactive isotopes
Zn, Co?, Ca45, S35, P32, and CIA, both when seeds were treated with their solutions and when they were inclu-
ded in nonroot alimentation, was characterized by a significant increase in productivity and the formation of
biological buffer systems from glutathione and ascorbic acid which mitigated the harmful effect of excess ra-
dioactive isotopes.
A matter warranting attention is the reaction of plants to the joint application of weak solutions of her-
bicides and radioactive substances, in which there is observed not the supression of the reactive capacity of
weeds, but rather its increase; this increases their susceptibility to damage by smaller doses of herbicides.
It is necessary to conduct further research on the influence of ionizing radiation using isotopes with
short half-lives with the aim of clarifying the mechanism of their biological action; in this study an exact cal-
culation must be made of the conditions of the external environment, which determint the positive or nega-
tive effect of nuclear radiation on plants.
The Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of
Plant Physiology
THE TRANSFER OF SUBSTANCES IN PEAT BOG SOIL AND THE
INTAKE OF THE P205 OF SUPERPHOSPHATE INTO BARLEY PLANTS
T. N. Kulakovskaya
Research on questions connected with the transfer of phosphoric acid, which depends on the depth of
ground water and the presence of vegetation and rainfall, was conducted on peat bog soil in various stages of
cultivation from 1954 to 1956. Experiments were set up in lysimeters containing 0.64 m3 of peat bog soil.
Well-cultivated soil was found which had been in agricultural use for more than 25 years; virgin peat
bog soil which had not been in agricultural use, but which was drained in 1914, served as poorly cultivated
soil. There were no sharp differences in gross content of P205 between the indicated varieties of soil (0.34%
P205 in the cultivated soil and 0.310/0 in the virgin soil). The amount of assimilated phosphorus was 30 to 400/0
greater on the cultivated soil than on the virgin soil.
As a result of the research conducted it was made clear that the transfer of phosphoric acid in peat bog
soils proceeds more vigorously than in mineral soils.
On the 30th day after the introduction of fertilizers, phosphorus was detected in the soil at a depth of
50 cm.
The phosphoric acid of superphosphate is absorbed to a lesser extent in virgin soil, a fact which explains
its greater activity. The intensification of transfer of phosphoric acid contributes to the absence of vegetation.
The elimination of rainfall resulted in a reduction of phosphoric acid transfer in the soil.
The intake of the phosphoric acid of superphosphate into barley plants was two to three times greater on
the poorly cultivated soil than on that tilled for a long time.
The laminar distribution of superphosphate in soil caused a better intake of P2O5 into plants toward the
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second half of the period of growth, a fact which, however, did not always result in increased yield on the soil
under cultivation for a long time. The distribution of fertilizers in layers in the virgin peat bog soil resulted
in their better utilization; this was evident in the increased yield.
The White Russian Scientific Research Institute
of Amelioration and Water Economy
THE INFLUENCE OF METHODS OF PROCESSING SOIL AND
FERTILIZERS ON THE INTENSITY OF PHOSPHORUS INTAKE INTO
ULYANOVKA WINTER WHEAT PLANTS
P. G. Buinova
The aim of the work was to study the nature of phosphorus intake into Ulyanovka winter wheat plants
with respect to different methods of processing soil and introducing organic and mineral fertilizers.
Phosphorus was introduced into the plants through the roots from the soil and through the leaves by spray-
ing. The intensity of intake of P32 was judged by the number of impulses recorded in a preparation of the
plant.
The work was conducted according to the following plan;
1. Plowing with a three-frame plow at a depth of 65 to 70 cm, thus displacing the lower soil levels.
2. Treating the soil by T. S. Maltsev's method.
3. Ordinary plowing of the soil at a depth of 20 cm.
The soil treated by all three methods included fertilized and unfertilized portions.
The following data were obtained as a result of the research:
1. Phosphorus enters the winter wheat plant significantly more slowly in autumn than in summer.
2. The most rapid intake and transfer of phosphorus was observed among plants grown on the deeply
plowed soil fertilized with organic and mineral fertilizers.
3. Relatively slow phosphorus intake was noted among the plants when ordinary plowing was employed,
especially in the absence of fertilizers.
4. Over a more protracted period of time, 25 to 28 days, the most phosphorus is accumulated by plants
not receiving fertilizers, against a background of ordinary and, especially, deep plowing.
A similar regularity was also observed with respect to the intensity of other physiolgical processes occur-
ring in the plants (intensity of transpiration and photosynthesis).
Uniformity of phosphorus intake and other processes among plants was evidently observed because the
plants grown on deeply plowed fields which received fertilizers had all that was necessary for their growth and
development and possessed a higher vital impulse, a more intensive metabolism, than the plants grown on soil
plowed in the ordinary fashion and which did not receive fertilizers, in which case not only was moisture in-
sufficient, but evidently also mineral nutriment.
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The plants grown on shallowly plowed and unfertilized soil accumulated phosphorus slowly. A higher
gross yield was obtained with deep plowing of the soil and the use of fertilizers.
Thus,different technical methods of agriculture exert considerable influence on the physiological pro-
cesses which make up the essence of plant metabolism. Therefore,the determination of the intensity of physi-
ological processes in plants, especially the intensity of the intake, transfer and transformation of substances, is
an important and reliable method of evaluating systems of technical agriculture procedures for increasing the
yields of agricultural crops.
The M. Gorky Kazan Agricultural Institute
THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS ON THE ASSIMILATION
AND DISTRIBUTION OF NUTRITIVE ELEMENTS IN PLANTS
D. V. Strausberg
As a result of experiments conducted on water and soil crops lasting from 2 hours to 50 days, it was estab-
lished that the temperature of the soil (and to a much lesser extent the temperature of the air) exerts a signifi-
cant influence on the assimilation of nutritive elements by plants when fed through the roots.
It was established that the temperature of the air exerts an influence on the assimilation of phosphorus
and its transfer within plants when they are not fed through the roots. It was shown that temperature did not
influence assimilation of CO2 (determined with C14) by plants, but lowering the temperature of the surrounding
air had a negative effect on the outflow of assimilated substances, while lowering the temperature of the root-
containing area promoted more vigorous excretion of C14 into the nutritive solution via the root system.
Lowering the temperature from 19-21 down to 3-7' impeded most strongly the assimilation of nitrogen
by the plants, to a somewhat lesser extent that of phosphorus, then that of calcium and sulfur; potassium was
assimilated best of all at the lowered temperature. When the temperature was lowered from 21-19' down to
12-11', nitrogen was assimilated by the plants better than phosphorus.
When the temperature of the root containing area was lowered (down to 3 -7') the plants suffered primar-
ily from nitrogen deficiency. When the temperature of the root-containing layer was 10-12', sufficiently low
to be characteristic of the summer season of certainsections of the extreme North. and in particular the Kola
Peninsula, the plants suffered primarily, to all appearances, from a lack of phosphorus.
Lowering the temperature of the soil had a different effect on the growth of different plants, their assimi-
lation of nutritive elements and on the distribution of the elements between the root system and aboveground
organs. Increased concentration of NPK in the cold nutritive solution increased the assimilation of phosphorus
by plants. No notable changes in the weight of the dry mass were observed in connection with this procedure.
The use of nonroot sources of nutrition at lowered temperatures exerted a positive influence on plant growth
and phosphorus accumulation.
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The Kola Branch of the Academy of Sciences
of the USSR
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migipillres???
*9E1
THE INFLUENCE OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES OF PETROLEUM ORIGIN
ON THE INTAKE OF P32 AND Sr" INTO PLANTS
D. M. Guseinov and R. E. Eyubov
In the task of increasing the productivity of agricultural crops, research on new types of organic fertili-
zers and the development of reasonable means of employing them is a matter of great practical and theoreti-
cal interest.
A great many experiments, laboratory, vegetation and field, have shown that small amounts of organic
substances of petroleum origin in combination with mineral fertilizers do increase the productivity of agricul-
tural crops. An increase in the growth and development of different,agricultural crops was demonstrated under
the influence of the introduction of small amounts of growth-inducing substances (up to 300 g per hectare),
which were produced from organic substances of petroleum origin.
The positive effect of the substances indicated was principally evident in a strengthening of physiologi-
cal and biochemical processes, the stimulation of plant growth and development, changes in microbiological
processes in the soil and an increase in assimilated forms of nitrogen and phosphorous from the soil.
The method of labeled atoms was employed to study the influence of organic substance 4 of petroleum
origin on the intake of mineral substances into plants.
Laboratory, vegetation and field experiments showed than an organic substance of petroleum origin in-
creases the intake of P52 and Sr9? into a plant.
The Institute of Soil Science and Agricultural
Chemistry of the Academy of Sciences of the
Azerbaidzhan SSR
THE INTAKE OF PHOSPHORUS, SULFUR AND CARBON INTO PLANTS
FROM ORGANIC AND MINERAL FORMS OF THEIR COMPOUNDS
A. V. Manorik
Studies of the peculiarities of the utilization by plants of phosphorus, sulfur and carbon from organic and
mineral forms of their compounds were conducted by calculating the accumulation of the radioisotopes of these
elements in different plant organs. Along with the organic substances used in the experiment, tyrosine, meth-
ionine, cystine and vitamin B1, all containing radioactive sulfur or carbon, vegetable bulk containing radioac-
tive phosphorus was used as fertilizer.
When s35 was applied to the leaves of buckwheat as sodium sulfate, methionine and vitamin B1, an appre-
ciable accumulation of it was noted in the roots. At the same time the intake of S35 from methionine into the
roots of the plants three hours after the beginning of the experiment was forty odd times greater than its intake
from vitamin B1. When radioactive carbon was applied to the leaves as Na2CO3 and as tyrosine, the radioactiv-
ity of the roots was greater among the plants receiving carbon in the mineral form.
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When buckwheat plants which had been cultivated in sand were transplanted into Knop's nutritive mix-
ture containing radioactive sulfur in the form of vitamin B1 or methionine as well as carbon in the form of ty-
rosine or sodium carbonate, after only 10 minutes there was observed a significant accumulation of these ele-
ments in the flowers and leaves of the plants. In the course of an hour the radioactivity of the flowers, which
in the beginning had been much higher than that of the leaves, gradually decreased, while the radioactivity
of the leaves increased. If in the case of application to the leaves radioactive carbon entered the roots more
intensively from the mineral form (sodium carbonate), then in the case of introduction via the roots it entered
more intensively from organic substances (tyrosine).
The intake of radioactive sulfur into plant leaves from different forms of its compounds depends upon
the conditions of illumination (its duration and the nature of the light). At the same time it was noted that
the composition of amino acids was more diverse in leaves to which sulfur was applied directly than in those
leaves to which sulfur was transferred in the process of metabolism. This is apparently linked with the effect
of radiation on the plant leaves. When the leaves were shaded the transfer of sulfur from the site of applica-
tion into other leaves was at a minimum; at the same time its transfer into the roots was at a maximum in
this instance.
The utilization of radioactive phosphorus to study the intake into plants of phosphorus from plant frag-
ments was accomplished by obtaining the green mass of winter wheat and subsequently employing it as a fer-
tilizer in a vegetation experiment. The P32 which was included in the composition of the vegetable mass used
as fertilizer was detected in buckwheat plants during the very first days of growth, although its intake from
superphosphate was more intensive. Infusion of the vegetable mass with liquid manure not only did not contri-
bute to an increase in intake of P32, but reduced it in comparison with intake from the noninfused vegetable
mass. This influence of the infusion of plant fragments on the intensity of the intake of the phosphorus con-
tained in them into buckwheat plants was noted also with respect to intake of S35 from the plant fragments.
The Ukiainian Scientific Research Institute of
Plant Physiology
INCREASING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PHOSPHORUS FERTILIZERS
USED WITH COTTON PLANTS IN IRRIGATION AGRICULTURE
I. M. Lipkind and Z. G. Kozodaeva
Research on sierozem -meadow and meadow soils of the Hissar Valley and on sierozem long under
irrigation in the Vakhsh valley was conducted with the aim of showing the effectiveness of phosphorus fertili-
zers applied at different stages in the development of the cotton plant. Three ways of using phosphorus ferti-
lizers at the time of sowing were tested: 1) application along with the seeds, 2) introduction of fertilizers into
the row below the seeds at varying depths and 3) placing fertilizers at the side of the sown row at varying
depths. P32 is taken into the cotton plant most intensively when fertilizers are deposited along with the seeds.
This method provides the best prospects, but needs to be perfected. When fertilizers are buried in the soil,
the most rapid and most intensive intake of P32 into the plants takes place when they are introduced below the
seeds at a depth of approximately 5 cm; introduction of phosphorus at the side of the row considerably delays
the time of its intake into the plants. The rate of intake into plants of the phosphorus of fertilizers increases
in proportion to their growth and development and depends upon the method of introducing the fertilizers.
When fertilizing is accomplished during the budding period, keeping the site of introduction of fertilizers close
to the row promotes acceleration of the intake of phosphorus into the plant; instead of 23 to 30 days,
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phosphorus enters the plant within 12 to 20 days after its introduction. This can be promoted by narrowing the
space between the rows.
During the period of maximal utilization of phosphorus by the cotton plant, the period of fruit formation,
proper fertilization guarantees the rapid (on the 2nd to 5th day) intake of phosphorus, as a result of maximal
development of the root system of the plant,which guarantees contact with the foci of fertilization in the soil.
Later introduction of phosphorus fertilizers can be effective if watering of the cotton plant is carried out.
The research showed that,with normal watering,the phosphorus of the fertilizers may be partially trans-
ferred from the site of its introduction at 10 to 25 cm below the plants, and on the side, 4 to 5 cm from the
focus of its distribution.
The data presented above verify the existence of favorable conditions for the effectiveness of late feed-
ing of the cotton plant with phosphorus fertilizers 'resulting from the new agricultural techniques used in its
cultivation. In connection with increasing the rate of intake of the phosphorus of fertilizers into plants, promo-
ting its transfer in the soil and augmenting its utilization in proportion to the growth and development of the
cotton plant, a new method of employing it is proposed which includes increasing the doses of phosphorus fer-
tilizers in feedings taking place from budding to the beginning of ripening of the cotton.
When there is a sufficient reserve of active phosphorus present in the soil(more than 30 mg/kg according
to Machigin), with this method there is less need to introduce fertilizers during plowing, but the use of small
doses of phosphorus during sowing becomes effective.
A test of these proposals, worked out on the basis of application of the isotopic method, was conducted
in field experiments from 1954 to 1956. The experiments fully vindicated themselves.
The principle of employing phorphorusilertilizers has already found application on collective and state
farms. The proposal relative to strengthening the doses of phosphorus in feedings taking place in the later
stages has entered into the agricultural specifications for cultivating cotton in Tadzhikstan since 1955.
The Institute of Soil Science, Amelioration and Irriga-
tion of the Academy of Sciences of the Tadzhik SSR
AN EVALUATION OF METHODS AND TIMES OF APPLYING
NUTRITIVE PHOSPHORUS PREPARATIONS TO COTTON PLANTS
L. A. Filippov and N. S. Zhurbina
From 1954 to 1956 a study was made of the intake of phosphorus into cotton plants with different meth-
ods and times of applying nutritive phosphorus preparations. Granulated superphosphate and phosphoric acid
solution prepared with labeled phosphorus were used in the research. The experiments were conducted chiefly
under field conditions. The soils employed were chestnut brown, slightly humus and weakly saline.
The results of experiments studying the utilization of granulated superphosphate introduced into the rows
show that, with an increase in the quota of superphosphate per hectare, the number of plants taking part in the
assimilation of phosphorus fertilizers is increased.
This relationship was preserved from the sprouting stage to the beginning of budding. Utilization of
granulated superphosphate by the cotton plant was increased significantly when it was introduced into the drill
together with the seeds. In an experiment conducted in 1956, P32 was detected among 92.5% of the plants
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when superphosphate was introduced into the drill along with the seeds (25 kg per hectare). It was established
In laboratory experiments that when the granules are removed from the seeds by 2 cm and more, some plants
do not utilize the superphosphate introduced into the rows with the seeds. Phosphoric acid, which is absorbed
in great quantities by the germinating seeds and during sprouting, in a reutilization process guarantees for a
protracted time an available phosphorus supply to the young plants. Granules implanted at a depth of 10 to
12 cm and those located at the side of the row begin to be utilized by the plants a month after sprouting. Gran-
ulated superphosphate implanted in the middle of the area between rows at a depth of 12 to 15 cm begins to
be utilized by individual plants at the beginning of budding and, more intensively, at the end of budding and
the beginning of blossoming. The intensity of its utilization increases significantly when the granules are
brought closer to the row, up to 10 to 12 cm.
Utilization of granulated superphosphate introduced during budding into the middle of the area between
rows at a depth of 10 to 12 cm depends upon the subsequent watering of the soil. Under arid conditions it is
not utilized, while after plentiful rainfall or under irrigation conditions it may be utilized, to a lesser extent,
however, in certain cases than when it was introduced following sprouting and kept within 10 to 12 cm of the
row. During the years of the research there was observed an intensive assimilation of phosphoric acid solution,
applied to the leaves in nonroot feedings. Thus,the most reasonable methods and times of applying nutritive
phosphorus preparations to the cotton plant under the conditions of soil and climate prevailing in the southern
USSR, those which will guarantee a continual supplementary supply of phosphorus to the plants, are the follow-
ing: a) introduction of granulated superphosphate into the rows together with the seeds in the amount of about
50 kg per hectare or into the drills at sowing in the amount of about 25 kg per hectare, b) introduction of gran-
ulated superphosphate after sprouting at a depth of 12 to 15 cm and at a distance of 10 to 12 cm from the row,
c) nonroot feeding during mass formation of the bolls.
The results of this research are quite in agreement with the data of field experiments conducted under
these same conditions.
The Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute or
Irrigation Farming
THE METHOD OF LABELED ATOMS USED IN A STUDY OF MECHANIZED
TECHNIQUES OF APPLYING PHOSPHORUS TO THE COTTON PLANT
F. I. Reshetnikov
With the use of the radioactive isotope of phosphorus, a study was made of the possible methods of mech-
anized application of phosphorus to the cotton plant.
The work was conducted under field conditions. In the experiments different times and methods of
mechanized introduction of phosphorus were imitated.
As a result it was established that, from the point of view of the dates of applying phosphorus, the earli-
est time would be the use of superphosphate prior to sowing when the soil is plowed. This portion of fertilizer
phosphorus, however, begins to be utilized by the cotton plant in the very latest period of its development. The
introduction of phosphorus simultaneously with the sowing of seeds can be considered as an extra-early feeding
of the cotton plant intended to satisfy the physiological requirements of the young plants from the 10th to the
20th day of growth after the appearance of shoots. The results of radiometric research, however, show that the
number of plants which consume fertilizer phosphorus during this period of growth is very negligible. It was
established that phosphorus introduced at the same time the seeds are sown begins to be assimilated by the
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principal portion of the plants using it significantly later than 10 to 20 days after sprouting.
Fertilizer phosphorus is consumed by a negligible portion of the plants independently of whether it was
introduced by a combination seeder during sowing or applied during cultivation.
The early dates for introducing phosphorus are determined ultimately by the proximity of the phospho-
rus "foci" with respect to the future growing plant. The author considers that the ultimate approximation of
the "foci" of fertilizer phosphorus can be attained only by direct contact of the cotton seeds with the super-
phosphate, while this in turn is accomplished either by dusting the seeds or by introducing superphosphate into
the rows beneath the seeds, and not by introduction prior to sowing or early feedings. Only in this way can one
realize effective extra-early feeding of the future cotton plants with phosphorus.
It was shown by the method of labeled atoms that the existing method of introducing phosphorus fertili-
zer simultaneously with the sowing of seeds and in early feedings (especially its introduction during sowing) is
far from perfect; it is,therefore,necessary to find simpler, cheaper, unencumbered methods of sowing cottcn
plants and more effective ways to increase the yield of cotton.
The Central Asian Scientific Research Institute of
Mechanization and Electrification of Irrigation Farming
THE INTAKE OF LABELED PHOSPHORUS INTO COTTON PLANTS
ACCORDING TO STAGES OF GROWTH WHEN FOCAL INTRODUCTION OF
' GRANULATED SUPERPHOSPHATE IS EMPLOYED
E. I. Stolypin
The present work is an account of research accomplished in 1956 using superphosphate labeled with P32,
the purpose of which was to determine how, in the presence of focal distribution of fertilizer, phosphorus is
utilized when the depth at which the fertilizer is laid is changed, as well as the distance from the focus to the
hole in which the cotton plant is located, and also to clarify the extent and intensity of the intake of phospho-
rus from the fertilizer into the cotton plant during different stages of growth.
Experimems were conducted under field conditions on typical sierozem of the type found in alfalfa
beds. By sowing at different dates, from April 25 through July 6, plants of different ages were obtained in six
rows; at the time radioactive superphosphate was introduced, 1.e.ton July 16, the plants were in different stages
of development, from the seed leaf stage to mass blossoming, the stage of fruit formation. Granulated radio-
active superphosphate was introduced in foci opposite each cotton plant at the side of the area between the
rows and at distances of 5, 10, 18 and 25 cm from the plant; it was deposited at a depth of 7 to 8 cm in the
first two instances and at a depth of 13 to 15 cm in the second two. Plant specimens were taken for analysis
on five days over the period extending from July 21 through August 11.
On the basis of experimental data we arrived at the following conclusions:
1. When the cotton plant possesses seed leaves and three or four true leaves, it does not utilize phespho-
rus from foci located at a distance of 10, 18 and 25 cm from the row. During this stage of growth it is nec-
essary to guarantee a supply of phosphorus to the plant by introducing it into the rows during sowing. Early fer-
tilization during the three-or four-leaf stage, even when fertilizers are introduced right next to the plant, can-
not guarantee a good supply of phosphorus to the young plants, because in this case it will not begin to enter
the plant immediately, but only after 20 to 25 days, a period coinciding with the onset of budding.
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2. From the budding stage up until fruiting, the cotton plant assimilates well the phosphorus from foci
located 18 to 25 cm from the row at a depth of 13 to 15 cm, 10 to 15 days after the introduction of superphos-
phate. A closer spacing of fertilizers during this period of growth cannot be considered expedient, because in
this case it would not be possible to implant them deeply. Shallowly buried fertilizers (at a depth of 7 to 8
cm), even when brought as close as 5 cm to the row, are utilized to a significantly lesser extent than those lo-
cated further from the row, but which are buried more deeply and are located in the zone into which extend the
definitive roots.
The V. V. ICuibyshev Uzbekistan Agricultural Institute
AN APPLICATION OF P32 IN EXPERIMENTS WITH THE
FERTILIZATION OF POTATOES AND VEGETABLE CROPS
A. I. Onishchenko and A. P. Vaganov
By means of the method of labeled atoms, an attempt was made to establish the most effective means
of fertilizing the potato plant and a number of vegetable crops. Superphosphate and potassium hydrogen phos-
phate labeled by phosphorus were used in the experiments. Radioactive phosphorus was introduced in the
amount of 12.5 and 25 pc per plant at different depths (5, 10 and 15 cm) and distances from the row (5, 10,
15 and 35 cm). In experiments with the potato in 1954 and 1955, fertilizers were introduced in spring and
summer plantings via ordinary and nonroot feeding. The research was conducted entirely under field condi-
tions and on industrial crops.
In experiments with the potato conducted in 1954, a dry year,the initial intake of phosphorus was record-
ed on the 10th day after the beginning of the experiment. The most intensive phosphorus intake was noted
where there was maximal proximity of fertilizers to plants. Fertilizers shallowly buried at a depth of 5 to 10
cm in the middle of the "interrow" in our experiment were scarcely effective, because the dryness of the up-
per soil layer impeded utilization of them by the plants.
Among the summer plantings of 1954, intake of P32 was recorded on the seventh day, while in the 1955
experiment it was recorded on the fifth. Shallowly buried fertilizer considerably removed from the plant, as
was also the case with the spring planting, proved scarcely effective, while bringing the fertilizer closer to
the plant proved highly effective with respect to the rate and quantity of phosphorus intake.
When nonroot feeding of the potato plant was employed, the rate of phosphorus intake into the plant was
much higher than in the case of ordinary fertilization, and in only a day's time phosphorus was detected in the
tubers. Upon analysis of tubers it was established that the greatest amount of P32 is accumulated in the apex
of the tuber.
Intake of phosphorus into the carrot plant was noted on the fifth day after the beginning of the experi-
ment,and in the cabbage plant on the second. When the fertilizer was shallowly buried, assimilation of phos-
phorus by the cabbage plant was accomplished more rapidly and in greater quantities than when it was more
deeply buried; this can be explained by the particular development of the root system of the cabbage plant.
Supplying phosphorus fertilizers to the onion plant during the late stages of its development is not effective,
since phosphorus intake is not observed in this period.
The results of the research conducted lead to the conclusion that, for the purpose of fertilizing the pota-
to plant and vegetable crops, among the existing cultivators or "plant-feeders" the KON-2.8 P and the KRN-
2.8 cultivators can be recommended.
The Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of Vegetable and
Potato Culture; The V. V. Dokuchaev Kharkov Agricultural
Institute
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AN APPLICATION OF RADIOACTIVE PHOSPHORUS IN RESEARCH
ON NONROOT FEEDING OF TOMATOES
V. A. Golikov
When the seedlings are taken from the hotbed and planted in the field, the root system of the tomato
plant suffers a significant amount of damage. In the initial period after transplanting, the absorbing surface
of the roots of the seedling is of negligible size, and this decreases the assimilation of phosphorus from the
soil. In addition, the time of transplanting the seedlings to the field coincides among tomato plants with a
critical period with respect to nitrogen and phosphorus feeding. Thereforeiguaranteeing nutritive substances
to the plants at this moment is extremely necessary.
Vegetation experiments with tomato seedlings showed that there is a definite difference in the time of
intake of labeled phosphorus into plants when root and nonroot feedings are employed. While in the case of
nonroot alimentation the principal mass of fertilizer phosphorus entered the plants during the first two days af-
ter feeding, when root feeding was employed P32 intake was more uniform and extended in time. During the
2 to 21/2 weeks after transplanting the seedlings to their permanent site, the tomatoes in the field utilized in
extremely negligible amounts the fertilizers introduced into the hole when they were planted; this was because
of the slow rate of growth of the root system. During the same period nonroot feeding under these conditions
successfully guaranteed nutritive elements to the plants.
It was established in field experiments that in nonroot feeding fertilizer phosphorus is intensively con-
veyed to other organs, among which are the roots and fruit. When early feeding of the plants with phosphorus
wias employed, about 70% of the total amount of labeled phosphorus was detected in the fruits of the first clus-
ter. In the second cluster 23% was detected, and in the third, 10%. When, late phosphorus feeding of the
plants was employed, in the fruits of the first cluster there was about 33%, in the second cluster, 53%, and In
the third, 140, of the amount of phosphorus which entered the fruits. In this connection it was natural to ex-
pect the acceleration of the ripening of the fruits of the first cluster in the case of early nonroot feeding, and
hence even more abundant fruiting at the beginning of maturity.
Thus,the use of. radioactive phosphorus in research on nonroot feeding of tomato plants enabled us to
specify the proper time for nonroot alimentation and to establish the rate of intake of phosphorus into the
plants, the path by which it is conveyed ,and its accumulation in the fruit.
The Scientific Research Institute of Vegetable Culture
PROSPECTS FOR THE USE OF RADIOISOTOPES IN POMOLOGY
V. A. Kolesnikov
It has been established that assimilation of organic compounds takes place in both roots and leaves.
Fruit and berry plants have three basic types of root systems?of seed, stem and root origin?differing in
their structure, distribution in the soil and biological properties, a fact which must be considered by the re-
searcher.
The root systems of fruits crops are composed of roots in horizontal and strictly vertical directions. The
first group of roots, depending upon soil zones, species and variety, on the whole are located at a depth of
about 30 to 100 cm- and occupy in diameter,from the second year after planting to the end of the life of the
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plant,an area 1.5 to 2 times as large as that of the top of the tree. The second group of roots, the same fac-
tors considered, penetrate to a depth of about 10 cm.
In order to study the nutrition of fruit crops using labeled fertilizers, it is necessary to know beforehand
the exact distribution of the principal portion of the roots.
The fundamental receivers of water and mineral substances are the absorptive root hairs; they are ex-
tremely mobile, since they are continually being formed, but within several days they become conducting.
The conducting root hairs quickly die and are replaced by new ones. Research will provide more significant
results if the dynamics of the growth of the roots and their mass throughout the experiment are known.
A definite rhythm has been established in the growth of the aboveground systems of fruit plants. It was
shown that the growth of suckers among apple trees lasts for approximately 21/: months in the Moscow dis-
trict. When the suckers were irrigated they attained a growth of about 45 cm during this time; when mulch-
ing was performed growth reached 25 cm, and with ordinary care, only 15 cm. The longer the sucker, the
greater the total surface area of the leaves. In setting up an experiment it is important to consider the time
of active growth and the length of the suckers, as well as the surface area of the leaves, Fruit growers and
physiologists have established the phenomenon of localization in fruit trees, that is an interconnection of indi-
vidual roots with branches and of leaves with nearby flowers and fruits,etc. It has been experimentally estab-
lished that, when labeled superphosphate was introduced into bores 30 to 40 cm deep into which water was
subsequently added, radiophosphorus was detected in an apple tree (16 years old) on the 4th to the 6th day;
when it was introduced into bores without water, and also in the case of application by spade or rake, radio-
phosphorus was not detected in the tree until the 14th day.
Use of the method of labeled atoms will provide more significant results if more consideration is given
to the localization of nutritive elements within the plant, the rhythm in the growth of roots and branches,
types of root systems and their distribution in the soil, the age of fruit formations (fruit twigs, rings etc.), the
length of suckers,and the surface area of the leaves.
The success of the research and the reliability of the conclusions depends in large measure upon the
joint effort of physiologists, biochemists and fruit growers.
The K. A. Timiryazev Moscow Agricultural Academy
THE USE OF P32 IN A STUDY OF METHODS OF FERTILIZING FRUIT TREES
E. D. Zelenskaya
The radioactive isotope of phosphorus, employed in a study of the dates and methods of introducing phos-
phorus fertilizers, showed that when superphosphate was introduced under the fruit trees in the spring the ferti-
lizer phosphorus was absorbed by the arboreal plants very slowly and feebly. This was caused by the low reac-
tivity of the phosphoric acid and the lack of contact of the fertilizers with the roots of the adult fruit tree!
During a dry spring radioactive phosphorus was detected in the tree only 35-40 days following introduction
of the fertilizer. Among young trees phosphorus was detected in an appreciable amount after 5 to 6 days.
The absorption of phosphorus from the fertilizer by the apple tree continues throughout the entire vegeta-
tion period if the fertilizer is introduced into moist soil (with watering). Even in the beginning of October,
when the leaves on the trees have started to turn yellow, after 3 days following the introduction of superphos-
phate under young apple tees with watering them, P32 wasdetected in their leaves.
Most effective 1? the introduction of fertilizer in foci at a depth of 30 to 35 cm. When this method of
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introduction is used, phosphorus is detected in the apple tree at the earliest time and in the greatest quantity.
During the first half of the summer, a period of active growth, the phosphorus absorbed from the fertilizers is
accumulated in the tops of the suckers and in the young leaves. In autumn there is a greater amount of radio-
active phosphorus in the lower branches and leaves, during which time there exists a direct proportionality be-
tween the phosphorus content of the branches and that of the leaves located on them.
By isolated feeding of the individual roots of fruit trees, both in a garden crop of apple seedlings and in
an orchard of fruit-bearing trees, it was shown that unilateral focal introduction of fertilizers in an area repre-
senting one fourth of the circumference of the trunk guarantees accumulation of phosphorus throughout the top
of the fruit tree.
Among young apple trees, when part of the root system received isolated feeding, after two weeks follow-
ing introduction of fertilizers, the content of the phosphorus isotope on the fertilized side was 50 to 100 times
greater than the amount of it in the leaves and branches on the unfertilized side. But after only two months
after fertilization,the content of P32 was almost the same in the entire top of the tree. This also verifies the
possibility of effective utilization of fertilizer by fruit trees when focal introduction is employed.
The Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of
Horticulture
THE NATURE OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF PHOSPHORUS
ENTERING THE APPLE TREE AMONG ITS VARIOUS ORGANS
? N. D. Spivakovsky
A knowledge of the regularities in the distribution of nutritive substances, phosphorus in particular,
among the various organs of the fruit tree is necessary in order to work out a correct system of feeding and
pruning fruit plants.
Experiments have shown that there exists among apple trees an autonomic link between individual roots
and branches. The distribution of P32 entering a branch among the different organs and sections of the branch
is extremely irregular. The seeds of the fruit contain the greatest amount of radioactive phosphorus, then the
fruit-bearing rings and their leaves. The rings not bearing fruit, their leaves and the flesh of the fruits were
characterized by a smaller phosphorus content.
The distribution of radioactivity among homologous organs on a skeletal branch is subject to the rule of
age variability discovered by Professor N. P. Krenke. Within the limits of a single sequence of branches, there
is observed an ascending activity gradient from the older organs to the younger ones.
A high phosphorus content is possessed by young organs which are formed from dormant buds on the older
portions of a branch. In passing from a branch of a lower succession to a branch of a higher succession, the
activity gradient of homologous organs of the same age is descending. This depends, however, on the relative
strength of the branches of these successions. The activity gradient is ascending in the case of a branch of
somewhat greater strength from a high succession in comparison with a branch from a lower succession. The
successions of these branches apparently switch places. This evidently explains the presence of the maximum
phosphorus accumulation by homologous organs of the same age in the second or third succession of branches
among fruit-bearing trees.
In setting up experiments it is necessary to consider the peculiarities of the intake into fruit plants of
nutritional elements as strictly dependent on the method of introducing fertilizers; this holds true also in
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working out techniques of taking plant samples in order to establish the nature of the distribution of nutritive
elements among the different organs and rue portions of the composite top of the fruit tree.
The I. V. Muchurin Scientific Research Institute
of Pomology
THE LINK BETWEEN BRANCH ROOTS AND BRANCHES OF DIFFERENT TYPES
OF TREtS AND SHRUBS
Yu. A. Belavin
The aim of research, conducted in 1956, was to shed light onthe manner in which phosphorus passes from
one of the branches of the root system into branches at the tops' of trees and shrubs raised from seed, propagated
by grafting,and obtained by planting green slips, i.e., plants having root systems of different origin. The method
of marked atoms was employed to solve this problem, and the radioactive isotope of phosphorus, P32, was used
as the indicator.
The experiments were conducted from May to June of 1956. The plants used in the experiments were the
apple tree, mountain ash, and lilac, both the Hungarian and the ordinary variety; grafted plants were used as
well as those with their own roots. One of the secondary branches of the root systems of the plants was disengaged
from the soil, and through it was introduced the isotope P32; then determination was made of the radioactivity
In the leaves of branches at the top of the plant.
In the apple, mountain ash, and lilac plants cultivated from seeds and possessing their own roots, all of
which had been injected through one secondary root, phosphorus was detected only in certain top branches,
located on the same side of the tree or shrub as the root absorbing the fertilizer phosphorus. This indicates the
presence of a link between the given root and only certain branches.
Radioactivity was detected in all the branches at the tops of the grafted trees and shrubs; this indicates
a link between the secondary root of the stock which absorbed radioactive phosphorus and all the branches of
the graft.
Radioactivity was detected in all of the branches at the tops of the plants raised from green slips which
absorbed phosphorus through an adventitious root and of an apple tree raised from seed but absorbing phosphorus
through an adventitious root. This indicates a link between adventitious roots of plants and shrubs with all the
branches of the crown. An analogous link was established between secondary roots of the stock with all the
branches of the graft among grafted plants.
The results of the experiments conducted, should they be verified by more ample material, point to the
possibility of employing different agricultural techniques in the cultivation of trees and shrubs propogated by
different methods.
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The Moscow Institute of Forest Technology
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THE USE OF LABELED PHOSPHORUS IN A STUDY OF NONROOT FEEDING
OF FRUIT PLANTS
P. K. Ursulenko
In a study of nonroot feeding employing the method of labeled atoms, the task proposed was one of
shedding light on the nature and conditions of the intake of nutritive elements when fruit plants are treated with
fertilizer substances.
It was established as a result of the research that when radiophosphorus is applied to leaves it is absorbed
through both upper and lower surfaces. The extent of the intake of radiophosphorus through the lower surface of
a leaf is significantly greater (by ten or more times) than through the upper surface.
An increase of up to 3014 in the productivity of the apple tree was attained in the experiments employing
nonroot feeding of fruit plants. This increase in yield resulted from the fact that the photosynthetic energy of
the leaves of the apple tree is appreciably augmented under the influence of nonroot feeding.
Field and laboratory experiments were conducted with the aim of combining nonroot fertilizers with
chemical toxicants. A study was made of the extent of absorption of labeled phosphate when applied to the
leaves of an apple tree in the form of superphosphate combined with an emulfion of DDT. The experiments
showed that the chemical toxicant does not exert a negative influence on the extent of absOrption of radio-
phosphorus by a leaf.
Valuable data were obtained by combining nitrogen and potassium fertilizerswithBordeauxmixture. In
addition, consistent results were obtained in increasing the productivity of the apple tree with the use of urea
and potassium sulfate or potassium nitrate as a nonroot fertilizer. Spraying with superphosphate in combination
with Bordeaux mixture, a method recommended in the industry, was scarcely vindicated. The easily soluble salt
of superphosphate, calcium phosphate, is converted into the difficultly soluble diphosphate salt or the insoluble
salt, calciuni triphosphate, under the influence of the calcium hydroxide of Bordeaux mixture.
The question always arises of the reasonableness of carrying out non root feedings through the leaves
against a background of abundant soil alimentation. Experiments were conducted using labeled phosphate with the,
aim of shedding light on this problem. Ina field experiment of several years duration, in which were studied
fertilizer doses of 60,120, 180, and 240 kg/hectare of the fundamental nutritive elements, nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium, labeled phosphorus was applied to the leaves of the branches of fruit trees. The data obtained
did not show changes in the absorption of radiophosphorus from augmenting the fertilizer dosages, as might have
been expected.
Consequently, against a background of abundant soil alimentation,. the efficiency of the leaves still
remained on an insufficiently high level; their potential energy was not fully realized. This was apparent from
the fact that photosynthesis increased appreciably under the influence of non root alimentation. Thus, it is
seen that a high level of soil nutrition, although guaranteeing increased efficiency of the leaves, is far from
always effecting their maximal photosynthetic activity.
The L V. Michurin Scientific Research Institute of
Horticulture
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4
NONROOT ALIMENTATION AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE INTAKE OP NUTRI-
TIVE SUBSTANCES FROM THE SOIL INTO THE TEA PLANT
R. Kit. Aidinyan
Experiments were conducted under natural conditions on tea plantations of industrial importance at the
"Dagomys" state tea farm of the Kras nodar region. The soils of the area were yellow earth, developed on shale
and fertilized with superphosphate and ammonium sulfate in accordance with one agricultural standard.
Nonroot feeding of one branch of the central formation of the tea plant with nutritive solutions containg
the radioactive isotopes P32, S35, and Ca45 showed that phosphorus, sulfur, and calcium are capable of being
transferred from one branch of the tea plant into other branches. Transfer of these elements takes place both
downward, in the direction of the transpiration flow, and upward, into younger organs. The indicated elements
concentrate most of all in the top shoot of the tea plant. On the whole,the transfer of ithese elements in an
ascending direction significantly exceeds transfer in a descending direction.
It was discovered that, when non root feeding is conducted, phosphorus and sulfur enter into individual
strands of the roots of the tea plant, and excretion of the same elements takes place through them into the
soil. Excretion of phosphorus and sulfur into the soil by the roots is of a local nature.
Nonroot feeding only partially fulfills the plant's requirements for the nutritive substances necessary to
it. Under natural conditions the intake of nutritive substances through the leaves is in a certain measure linked
with their intake through the roots, stimulating or retarding the latter.
Nonroot fertilizing of the tea plant with potassium and boron, each one separately, increases the intake
into the plant of nutritive elements found in an absorbed state in soil colloids and in artificially prepared ion-
exchange resins. The plant absorbs most the phosphorus and sulfur combined with ion-exchange resins. Intake
into the plant of phosphorus stably combined with soil colloids is increased as a result?of nonroot introduction
ofpotassium and boron. Spraying the leaves of the tea plant with boron fertilizer increases somewhat the intake
of calcium =sorbed both by the colloids and by the cation-exchange resin.
Nonroot feeding should be particularly effective on those plantations where the tea plant is grown under
soil conditions unfavorable for the activity of the roots, i.e., on soils having compressed alluvial layers, with
carbonates present a a slight depth (about 70 to 80 cm), with a neutral reactivity, and on soils affected by
processes of strongly pronounced gley formation.
The V. V. Dokuchaev Soil Institute of the Academy
of Sciences of the USSR
THE ADVANCE OF MINERAL SOLUTIONS FROM THE XYLEM INTO THE
PHLOEM
N. N. Kiselev
The aim of the research was an experimental demonstration of the transfer of solutions in a horizontal
direction from the xylem into the phloem via the medullary rays. The work was conducted with pruned branches
of coniferous species. The branches were kept in solutions of Na2HP3:04 different lengths of time, from 5 to 96
hours. The radioactive phosphorus content of the xylem and phloem was determined. The experiments showed
that a solution rising through the xylem is transferred into the phloem. Phosphorus is detected even with brief
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exposure. In the case of prolonged exposure up to 50 hours the phosphorus content of the phloem becomes greater
than that of the xylem. Consequently, accumulation of phosphorus occurs in the phloem,
A study was made by us of the paths through which the phosphorus transfer takes place from the xylem to
the phloem. Two directions are possible?the tangential, i.e., through the surrounding region, and the radial.
Opposition to the movement of a solution is much less in the first instance than in the second, because of the
arrangement of the bordered pits in the tracheids. Passage through the tracheids in a radial direction is
practically impossible.
When the xylem was notched, in the aim of impeding the movement of phosphorus in a tangential direction.
It was observed that phosphorus transfer takes place in a radial direction. In addition, phosphorus transfer was
possible only through the medullary rays.
The Moscow Institute of Forest Technology
THE PHOSPHORUS FEEDING OF ARBOREAL SPECIES
D. D. Lavrinenko
On comparatively rich soils the greatest intensity of phosphorus absorption from the soil is possessed by
the ash, linden, hornbeam, holly maple, oak, and birch. If the intensity of phosphorus absorption by the ash
tree is taken as 100%, then, correspondingly, phosphorus absorption by the linden will be, on the average, 90 to
80%, that of the hornbeam-90 to 60%, of the holly maple-70 to 50%, of the oak-50 to 30%, and of the birch-
30 to 20%.
The intensity of phosphorus absorption among arboreal species changes substantially at different periods
of the growing season. These changes proceed differently among different arboreal species.' In the second
half of the growing season the ash, oak, linden, and hornbeam lower intensity of phosphorus absorption to a
greater extent than the other species.
The presence in checkered cultivations of sections with richer and less rich soils made it possible to
trace the change in intensity of the vital activitylof the species being studied. It was established that the
oak, linden, and hornbeam do not respond to a worsening of the soil.
Intensity of phosphorus absorption is a reliable indicator of the interaction of arboreal species in forest
plantations. The ash competes successfully with the majority of the arboreal species which we studied. This
was indicated by a more intensive absorption of phosphorus by the ash in mixed cultivations than in a pure crop.
The study of the vital activities of arboreal species using the method of labeled atoms substantially
reinforces the possibilities of studying their ecological characteristics.
The Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of
Forestry and Forest Amelioration
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PHOSPHORUS INTAKE OF YOUNG ARBOREAL PLANTS UNDER CONDITIONS
OF DIFFERING NITROGEN-POTASSIUM FEEDING
S. I. Slukhai
It was shown by research that the intensity of the absorption of phosphorus by :the seedlings of arboreal
species depends to a large extent on the type of plant and the special features of its feeding. Certain arboreal
species, for example the holly maple, silver maple, hornbeam, amur velvet, elm, and privet absorb phosphorus
more energetically than the walnut, hazel nut, eucommia, smoke tree, linden, forest pear, and coniferous
species. A high level of nitrogen and potassium feeding of the shoots of arboreal species exerts a negative
influence on phosphorus intake. In the second half of the summer a high level of nitrogen-potassium feeding
promotes intensive intake of phosphorus into the plant tissues, particularly the leaf system.
Against a background of abundant nitrogen feeding, intensive intake of phosphorus into a seedling begins
from July and continues until late autumn. Under conditions of moderate nitrogen feeding, intake of phosphorus
into a plant falls off toward autumn. This is explained by the differing viability of the leaf systems, which
bind the phosphorus taken in. In the first half of the summer, when the roots of the seedlings are weakly
develrwed, local introduction of fertilizers, especially into the rows together with the seeds, is extremely
significant in improving the alimentation of young plants. In the second half of the summer.processes of
introducing fertilizers do not exert such a substantial influence on the utilization of nutritive substances.
Phosphorus is not uniformly distributed in arboreal plants. In the top part of the stem phosphorus content is one
and a half times greater than in the lower part, where the gradual formation of the xylem is taking place.
The Ukrainian Scientific Research Institute of
Forestry and Forest Amelioration
THE ROLE OF THE MICROORGANISMS IN THE RHIZOSPHERE IN THE
ALIMENTATION OF ARBOREAL PLANTS
A. I. Akhromeiko and V. A. Shestakova
Research conducted in 1955 and 1956 in studying the role of rhizospheric microorganisms in the
alimentation of arboreal plants showed that bacteria play a leading role in the exchange of nutritive substances
between arboreal plants and the soil.
The fundamental aspects of the research conducted come down to the following:
1. A direct connection exists between the development of microorganisms in the rhizosphere and the
excretions of the roots.
2. The excretion of even small amounts of phosphorus by ash seedlings exerts a significant positive
influence on the development of bacteria in the rhizosphere.
3. The close interdependence between the higher plants and the bacteria in the rhizosphere finds
expression in the presence of a daily cycle both in the quantity of root excretions and in the quantity of micro-
organisms.
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4. The development of microorganisms in the rhizosphere is also directly dependent upon the supply of
moisture to the soil.
5. The total quantity of microorganisms in the rhizosphere of the oak and holly maple growing on ordinary
black earth attained maximal magnitude in May, minimal magnitude in July, and increased again in October;
this corresponded with the change in soil moisture content.
The drying-off of microorganisms and physiologically active roots in July promotes the very large
Increase in the amount of humus and the total amount of nitrogen and phosphorus in the root zone of the soil
In comparison with the amounts of these substances in May and October.
6. The bacterization of pine seeds by nitrogen-fixing bacteria had a positive effect on the growth of
pine seedlings and promoted an increase in absorption of phosphorus (P32) from labeled superphosphate by
the seedlings.
The All-Union Scientific Research Institute of
Forestry
THE ASSIMILATION OF PHOSPHORUS BY THE SEEDLINGS OF ARBOREAL SPECIES
A. D. Tarabrin
A study was made of the absorption of phosphorus by the seedlings of arboreal species dependent upon
various depths at which superphosphate was introduced in the rows during sowing. Phosphorus assimilation was
determined by the radioactive phosphorus content of the leaves or needles.
Year-old oak, holly maple, and Siberia,n acacia seedlings assimilate phosphorus better when superphosphate
is introduced at a depth of 6 to cm than when it is more deeply buried (at 15 to 16 cm).
An experiment was set up to clarify the influence of superphosphate introduced into the rows (at a depth
of 6 to 7 cm) on the assimilation by seedlings of the phosphorus of basic fertilizer introduced at a depth of
15 to 16 cm.
It was established that the introduction of superphosphate into the rows exerts a positive influence on the
assimilation by maple seeds of phosphorus from the basic fertilizer.
It was shown in an experiment with oak seedlings that the row superphosphate has almost no influence on
the assimilation of phosphorus from the basic fertilizer. This is linked with the peculiarities of the construction
of the root system of the oak seedlings.
By introducing superphosphate into "interrowe 20 cm wide at various depths below two-year old Siberian
acacia, pine, common fir, and Siberian larch seedlings. it was established that the Siberian acacia assimilates
phosphorus best when superphosphate is introduced at a depth of 6 to 7 cm. Common fir seedlings do not
assimilate phosphorus at all, while pine and larch seedlings assimilate it very weakly. In all of the experiments
the greatest quantity of phosphorus was assimilated by the seedlings at the end of June and the beginning of
July.
Experiments were conducted to study the role of the mycorrhiza in the phosphorus alimentation of oak
seedlings. Seedlings with and without mycorrhiza were raised by the sandy cultivation method on Pryanishnikov's
mixture in glass vessels. Radioactive phosphorus in the form of Na2HP3204 was introduced directly into the
vessels, while the measurement of the activity of the leaves was made directly on the living plant.
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During three months time all the oak seedlings with mycorrhiza were characterized by more intensive
phosphorus absorption than those without mycorrhiza. They were also characterized by better growth.
The Moscow Institute of Forest Technology
A STUDY OF THE RATE OF THE FLOW OF WATER IN ARBOREAL PLANTS
M. V. Zhuravleva
For the solution of a number of practical problems connected with forestry, the determination of the rate
of water flow among various arboreal species is highly significant. With the help of radioactive isotopes we
worked out a new method of determining the rate of water flow. Radioactive P32, /231, Su and heavy water
(D20) were utilized.
As a result of the research it was established that the rate of transfer of the different radioactive substances
and of heavy water in plant tissues is practically the same. Therefore, it can be considered that the transfer of
solutions of radioactive substances through a plant occurs witE the flow of water; this provides a basis for
judging the rate of water flow according to the rate of transfer of radioactive substances.
The use of the method of labeled atoms made it possible to establish the rate of water flow among one-
year-old arboreal plants, as well as those several years old, under different environmental conditions. It was
shown that the rate of flow depends upon the supply of water to a plant and the extent of development of its
leaf mass. When a sufficient water supply exists, the rate of the ascending flow is determined by the intensity
of transpiration. It is low (1 to 2 m/min) during the winter quiescent stage and during the summer in cold,
rainy weather. Under arid conditions in the absence of available soil moisture, when the water content of the
xylem of the trunk is lowered to 36-3'110, the rate of the ascending flow increases significantly and exceeds 18
to 24 m/min. In addition, there is observed a dependence of the rate of flow on the moisture content of the
xylem.
The rate of water transfer increases sharply from the time of foliation of the shoots. The ascending water
flow passes through the sapwood portion of the xylem of the trunks bf plants.
331
The All-Union Scientific Research Institute of
Forestry
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THE APPLICATION OF CERTAIN FORMS OF HEAVY WATER IN SOIL AND
I ?
PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Yu. A. P.olyakov and N. S. Germogenova
For the last few years, in a laboratory of physical chemistry of the Soil Insitute of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR, a series of experiments has been conducted during the course of which use was made of
various forms of heavy water. In the report presented, data are adduced which concern a method for the
quantitative determination of 1)20 and H2011 in soils and plants and the utilization of these compounds and
indicators in soil and physiological research.
The quantitative determination of D20 and H20" in soils and plants was effected by densimetric and
interferometric methods with an accuracy, respectively, of 0.001-0.005 and 0.4-0.2 mole To.
The flotation and interferometric methods for the isotopic analysis of water proved to be especially easy
when it was necessary to examine systems with small concentration of D20 and H201. However, these methods
require not less than 2-3 g of the water specimen for analysis; this is quite difficult to accomplish, for example,
in work with sprouts. Therefore, we attempted to work out micromethods with the use of which it would be
possible to limit oneself to a few milligrams of water.
There is assembled at the present time an instrument operating on the principle of the ordinary macro-
flotation apparatus. A few drops of water are sufficient for deuterium (or heavy oxygen) determinations using
this instrument. The accuracy of a deuterium determination with the microflotation process does not exceed
1-2 mole To ; this is due to the specific difficulties encountered in purifying and separating the liquid phase
from soils and plants.
In order to improve the purification and simplify the technique of separating the liquid phase from soils
and plants, an instrument has been assembled which makes it possible to separate the liquid phase without
changing its isotopic composition and with a very negligible content of contaminants.
Utilizing 1)20 and H20" as indicators, we set out to find the quantitative relationship between the intensity
of water intake into plants and the concentration of salts in the surrounding solution.
The data gleaned from a three-year study of this question show that between the intensity of water intake
into plants and the concentration of NaC1 there exists a definite relationship, which, in an initial approximation,
may be expressed by an equation of a parabolic curve. It is characteristic that the intake of water into plants
does not cease even when the concentration of the surrounding solution attains significant magnitude (1.5 moles/
liter and higher).
Heavy water was also used to study the mechanism of the intake of water into plants from soils, the
moisture level of which varied from maximal hygroscopic moisture to full capacity inclusively. It turned out
that the process of water intake into plants is characterized by a very smooth curve with one definite maximum,
corresponding to a moisture level equivalent to the triple maximal hygroscopy (the most vigorous plant develop-
ment was observed in this particular phase of the experiment).
Of particular interest was the determination of the availability to plants of that form of soil moisture
which lies in a range of numerical significance to maximal hygroscopy (and below this value). In order to
shed light on this question, a definite amount of soil was reduced to the absolutely dry state; then the soil was
placed in an enclosed area and saturated with steam of D20. By regulating the vapor tension of the heavy water
it was possible to obtain soils, the moisture of which varied from values close to zero to maximal hygroscopy,
inclusively. Analysis of the data derived showed that heavy water is adsorbed by plants even when the initial
level of moisture lies below maximal hygroscopicity.
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The V. V. Dokuchaev Soil Institute of the Academy
of Sciences of the USSR
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EXAMINATION BY THE ISOTOPIC METHOD OF THE PROCESSES OF
TRANSFORMATION, AGING AND CRYSTALLIZATION OF THE COMPOUNDS
OF ABSORBED PHOSPHATE IONS IN SOIL, CLAY, AND PEAT MOSS
S. N. Ivanov
Surface-adsorbed phosphate ions, during the period of their interaction with soil, clay, and peat moss,
are transformed into chemical compounds which gradually age and crystallize.
Isotopic exchange reactions were employed in order to study the processes of transformation, aging and
crystallization of the compounds of absorbed phosphate ions in soil, clay, and peat moss.
The initial premise in the study of the given questions is the idea of a change in relative energy or
stability of the bohding of the absorbed phosphate ions in relation to the time of their interaction with the
sorbent and the degree ofisotopic exchange. In comparing under dynamic conditions the relative combining
energy (judged by the kinetics of isotopic exchange) of only the absorbed phosphate ions with the combining
energy of the phosphate ions which reacted with sorbent, one can conduct protracted (3 to 4 months) observations
of the process of transformation of the surface-adsorbed phosphate ions into chemical compounds and their
aging. The extent of isotopic exchange under the static equilibrium conditions of the experiment made it
possible to establish, in turn, the process of crystallization of phosphate compounds of the type A1PO4, FePO4,
and Ca3(PO4)2 of different composition and basicity, formed as a result of the transformation of surface-adsorbed
phosphate ions and their absorption according to chemical type.
The process of transformation of surface-adsorbed phosphate ions into chemical compounds in soils
depends upon their origin. According to rate and extent of the process of transformation of the compounds of
absorbed phosphate ions in soils and kaolin, these can be arranged in the following order: red earth> sod-
podsol soil > kaolin> black earth.
Expressed quantitatively, the process of transformation of surface-adsorbed phosphate ions into chemical
compounds after 80 to 90 days in red earth and sod-podsol soil leads to a reduction to one half of their quantity;
this process takes place to a small extent in kaolin and is completely negligible in black earth.
The above indicated transformation in lowland turf depends chiefly on its content of absorbed calcium
(and magnesium), sesquioxides of iron and aluminum and their mutual relationship.
The quantitative regularities of the process of transformation were established as dependent upon the
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ranoCa0? of the contents of the turf.
R203
The process of aging for 80 to 90 days of the formed chemical compounds, phosphates of different basicity
and composition, in the presence of the absorption of phosphate ions and as a result of the transformation of
surface-adsorbed phosphate ions, both in soils and kaolin,as well as in lowland turfs, did not cause their
crystallization.
333
The White Russian Scientific Research Institute of
Agriculture
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??????,1?111,
A STUDY OF THE SORPTION CAPACITY OF ACIDIC SOILS
S. G. Rydky and K. B. Orlova
The sorption capacity of acidic soils was determined by us following neutralization of the soils with
calcium carbonate in the presence of 0.1-0.05 N solution of calcium chloride. Neutralization of soil acidity
proceeds rapidly under these conditions. Shaking for a half an hce.1 is sufficient. The subsequent determination
of absorption capacity is carried out in a manner analogous to that performed when soils are saturated with
metallic cations. For this purpose a solution of calcium chloride containing the radioactive isotope Ca45 is
added to the soil suspension. After the soli is shaken with the radioisotope for a half an hour, the radioactivity
of the equilibrium solution is determined. The absorption capacity of the soil is calculated by the diminution
of Ca46 in the solution.
The absorption capacity determined in this way is taken from the sum total of exchange cations and the
easily neutralized (exchange) acidity. The difference between the absorption capacity and the sum total of
exchange bases represents the exchange acidity, the determination of which can be utilized as a soil
characteristic for liming purposes.
In determining the capacity, we did not take into account the presence of magnesium in the absorbed
state. Experiments conducted by us showed that a magnesium content of up to 20% of the sum total of exchange
bases does not noticeably influence the accuracy of the determination of absorption capacity.
The M. V. Lononosov Moscow State University
AN EXPERIMENTAL APPLICATION OF THE RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES OF
COBALT AND IODINE IN SOIL AMELIORATION RESEARCH
V. A. Eme0,11yanov
In 1956 use was made of Co" in order to determine the volumetric weight of soils and the dynamics of
soil moisture by radioscopy,and of 1131 in order to study the actual rate of flow of ground waters, the coefficient
of filtration,and the intensity of the capillary rise of soil moisture by the method of labeled atoms. The
essence of the method of radioscopy by y -rays consisted in the fact that the absorption of y-rays by a substance
confirms to an exponential relationship expressed in the formula I=I0 e I x, where x (the thickness of the
I?le 4
layer of the substance) equals log g
0.434.
The radioscopy of the soil was accomplished vertically and horizontally.
The results of the determination of the reserves of soil moisture by the method of radioscopy with
y-rays and of the volumetric weight with horizontal radioscopy agreed well with the data of thermostatic
dessication of soil specimens.
The radioisotope 1131, utilized as KI'', according to the data of laboratory and field experiments, is
absorbed to an insignificant extent by argillaceous soils and peat.
In the study of the actual rates of flow of ground waters, radioactive iodine was introduced into the ground
waters through a bore or a slit,in an amount of about 10 mc. In order to determine the rate of flow according
to its direction, an alignment of bores was laid, and the radioactivity in samples of their water was determined.
334
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According to the readings of the radiometer, the distance traveled by the labeled ground water was established.
The rate of the ground water flow in peat and sandy soil, determined by the method of labeled atoms, was from
3 to 9 cm/day.
The coefficient of filtration was determined by introducing a solution of radioactive iodine into a central
bore at the rate of 2 mc per 10 liters of bore water and pumping out the water from the peripheral bores with
a sludge pump. The pumping was continued until radioactivity appeared in the water that was pumped out.
The coefficient of filtration of peat soils in our experiments varied from 0.11 to 0.80 m/day. The intensity
of water transfer in the zone of the capillary border was observed by the transfer of the labeled radioiodine of the
water through the wall of the bore,and amounted to 50-60 cm from the surface of the ground water after 10 -
11 days.
The results of the research conducted permit recommendation of the introduction of the method of
radioactive isotopes and radiation into the practice of amelioration research.
The All-Union Scientific Research Institute of
Hydrotechnology and Amelioration
MEASUREMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE EVAPORATION AND THE WATER RESERVE
IN SNOW WITH THE HELP OF y -RAYS
A. I. Danilin
The existing method of measuring soil moisture by the weighing and dessication of soil samples removed
with a boring bit is complex and requires the expenditure of a great deal of effort. It does not permit the
continuous recording of changes in soil moisture. Methods of measurement based on the utilization of various
physical and chemical soil characteristics have not been put to wide use because of a number of flaws inherent
in these methods.
Since 1953,extensive laboratory and field experiments have been conducted on the measurement of soil
moisture using y -rays emitted by Co60
.
The determination of soil moisture utilizing y -rays is based on measuring the extent to which the y-rays
are attenuated by the fixed soil layer. If the moisture content of the soil layer irradiated by these rays does
not change, then their attenuation will be fixed. Increasing the moisture content of the soil increased the extent
of attenuation of the y-rays.
The technique worked out of measuring soil moisture is two fold?measurement of the extent of attenuation
of the vertical and horizontal y -ray beams.
During passage through the soil of the vertical y -ray beam, moisture can be determined in soil layers of
0-20, 0-30, 0-40, and 0-50 cm. Measurement of the extent of attenuation of the horizontal y -ray beam
passing through stable soil layers 40-50 cm thick provides data on soil moisture at any level down to a depth
of 150-200 cm and more.
Measurement by y -rays has the advantage that moisture is determined not in a single spot, but in a
layer, and directly in millimeters of depth of the moisture reserve. The method makes it possible, should the
need arise, to trace continuously the change in soil moisture content. The results of 703 field measurements
of soil moisture, carried out on the "Gigant" state farm below Moscow and in the Valdai region, using y -rays
and the thermostat-gravimetric method show that the y -ray method is not inferior in accuracy to the
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thermostat-gravimetric method and significantly alleviates the difficulties of those making the moisture
observations.
In order to measure the water reserve in the fallen snow by means of y -rays, a field snow gauge was
designed, composed of a snow gauge rod, at the lower end of which was placed a vial of Co? in a steel cap,
while at the upper end there was a y -quanta meter combined with a portable conversion instrument.
Preliminary testing of the snow gauge shows that the accuracy of its measurement of the water equivalent
of snow is not lower than that obtained by measurement with a gravimetric snow gauge.
With the use of the y -rays of Cs137,it is possible to measure evaporation from the surface of the soil with
an accuracy of 0.5-1.0 mm without weighing soil samples. Laboratory experiments which included about
100 determinations verify these considerations. The measurement of soil moisture, water reserves in the snow,
and evaporation from the surface of the soil was accomplished with the help of meters of the STS-8 and STS-6 type,
portable conversion apparatuses, and a gauge of the speed of computation.
The Scientific Research Institute of Hydrometeor-
ological Instrumentation
A STUDY OF THE BIOLOGICAL FIXATION OF ATOMOSPHERIC NITROGEN IN THE
TUBERCLES OF LEGUMINOUS PLANTS UTILIZING THE ISOTOPE N15
F. V. Turchin, Z. N. Berseneva, E. G. Plyshevskaya, and V. V. Zertsalov
In the research conducted, a study was made of the biological fixation of nitrogen in the tubercles of
of alfalfa, pea, and clover plants when exposed to an atmosphere rich in the isotope N15. In a number of
experiments nitrogen fixation was also studied in isolated alfalfa tubercles. In the course of the research, a
method was worked out for the preparative separation of the bacteria from the tubercles: this made possible
a detailed study of the distribution of labeled nitrogen both in individual fractions and organs of the above
plant; as well as in the tubercle bacteria.
As a result of the research carried out, the following fundamental principles were established.:
1. When leguminous plants are exposed to an atomosphere of N15, the fixed labeled nitrogen is at first
detected in large quantities only in the cell fluid of the tubercle tissue, whence it then gradually flows out into
the other plant organs.
When the plants are exposed to the N15 atomosphere, for 6-24 hours labeled nitrogen is totally absent in
the tubercle bacteria or can be detected in extremely negligible amounts, usually not exceeding the limits of
possible experimental error.
Whence it follows that fixation of atmospheric nitrogen is accomplished not in the tubercle bacteria, but
in the tubercle tissue, which represents degenerate tissue of the above plants. The role of the tubercle bacteria,
to all appearances, consists in the fact that they induce formation of this specific tubercle tissue.
2. When the plants are exposed for a longer period of time to the N15 atmosphere (48-90 hours), labeled
nitrogen is also detected in the composition of the nitrogen fractions of the bacteria, but its concentration in this
case is always significantly lower than in the cell fluid of the tubercles or in the composition of the nitrogen
fractions of all the other organs of the plants. This indicates that the fixed labeled nitrogen gets into the
bacteria from the tissues of the above plants, which thus constitute the source of nitrogen nutrition for the
bacteria.
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3. Maximal concentration of the isotope N15 with any periods of exposure of the leguminous plants
to the labeled nitrogen atomosphere was detected in the amide group of the asparagine contained in the cell
fluid of the tubercles.
Since asparagine is formed by the reaction of ammonia with aspartic acid, it follows that one of the
primary products, if not the first product, of the biological fixation of nitrogen in the tubercles of legumes is
ammonia.
4. The fixation of nitrogen in tubercles isolated from plants takes place with significantly less intensity
than in nonisolated tubercles, and only during the first hours after separation of tubercles from the above plant.
5. The nitrogen undergoing fixation in a tubercle continually flows out into the aboveground organs of
the plants. Simultaneously with the efflux from the tubercles of the newly fixed nitrogen, there occurs also a
steady influx into the tubercles of nitrogen compounds from the aboveground organs of the plants, where,on
the whole, the necessary acceptors for combining the primary products of the biological fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen in the tubercles are formed.
The Scientific Institute of Fertilizers, Insecticides,
and Fungicides
THE INFLUENCE OF ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY ON THE ASSIMILATION
BY PLANTS OF THE gLEMENTS OF MINERAL NUTRITION
?
Z. I. Zhurbitsky
The use of labeled atoms in order to calculated the nutritive substances assimilated by plants over short
intervals of time made it possible to establish the influence of the electric field of the atmosphere on the
intake into plants of cations and anions from a nutritive solution.
In order to clarify the influence of the charge of an electric field on the assimilation of individual ions
by plants, experiments were conducted in an artificial medium when a known charge was imparted to a
metallic grid located directly above the plants, and the nutritive solution was grounded.
In the experiment with oat plants, when a negative charge of 2000 v was imparted to the grid, 7870 of the
P32 and 550/0 of the Ca45 entered the aboveground plant mass, as compared with the amounts of these substances
entering the control plants, not subjected to the action of the charge. Thus, a negative charge on the grid in-
hibited the intake of the similarly charged phosphorus ions and strongly accelerated the intake of the oppositely
charged calcium ions.
A positive charge showed the opposite effect. When a positive charge of 500 v was imparted to the grid,
13370 of the P32, and 7370 of the Ca45 entered the aboveground mass of the oat plant, as compared with that
entering the controls. Analogous results were obtained in a number of experiments with other crops.
Experiments were conducted in the open air in such a way that the control plants were isolated from
atmospheric charges by a grounded grid, while the nutritive solution of the experimental plants was grounded.
Experiments conducted simultaneously with solutions containing P32 and Ca45 showed that under the influence of
the electric field of the atmosphere 22070 of the phosphorus and 5370 of the calcium entered the aboveground
organs of the oat plant, as compared with that entering the control plants. Thus, the electric field of the
atmosphere, having a positive charge, stimulated intake of the negatively charged ions and inhibited intake of
the positively charged ions.
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It;
The calculation of the influence of atmospheric electricity on plants makes it possible to explain a
number of problems related to the mineral nutrition of plants, which hitherto have not been satisfactorily
explained.
1. The entry into plants of equivalent amounts of anions and cations is not compulsory, inasmuch as there
is a source of energy which secures the predominant entry of ions of one charge or the other.
2. The atmosphere, as a rule, has a positive charge with respect to the earth, and it increases with
altitude; therefore, the influence of this charge is stronger on plants which have some form of antenna and
attain greater height grasses, for example) as compared with plants whose leaf apparatus is located close to the
ground (for example, plants with edible roots).
To a known extent one can explain by this circumstance the different proportions of anions and cations
in the composition of plants with different configurations.
3. The rapid rate of transfer of nutritive elements throughout plants, which was established in experiments
with labeled atoms, becomes fully explainable, inasmuch as the phenomenon of the migration of ions under the
influence of the electric potential gradient transpires with great rapidity; this should be inherent in plants,
since they are permanently under the influence of an electric field.
The phenomenon of the separation by the root system of the various ions and compounds in the soil can
also be?explained by the influence of the charge of the electric field of the atmosphere, inasmuch as different
charges can exist simultaneously in the atmosphere and since, as the most recent experiments have shown, the
magnitude of the charge and even the sign of the electric field of the atmosphere are subject to significant
fluctuation within short intervals of time (within an hour),
The V. V. Dokuchaev Soil Institute of the
Academy of Sciences of the USSR
THE. USE OF P32 TO STUDY THE PHOSPHATE NUTRITION OF PLANTS AND THE
ROLE OF MICROORGANISMS IN THIS PROCESS
V. V. Kotelev and A. N. Piskarev
The question of the phosphate nutrition of plants, particularly on the carbonate soils of Moldavia, which
contain a great deal of free carbonates, is an extremely essential one. In order to shed light on the role of
superphosphate and microorganisms in the phosphate nutrition of plants, vegetation and field experiments were
set up on both the carbonate and noncarbonate black soils of Moldavia using labeled superphosphate, humus and
bacterized seeds.
The following data were obtained in the vegetation experiment:
1. The utilization of fertilizer phosphorus depended upon the properties of the soil. The intake of
phosphates from the soilinto the plants increased on noncarbonate soil, while on carbonate soil that of fertilizer
phosphates increased.
2. Increased intake of phosphorus from the soil on noncarbonate black earth corresponded to an increase
in the amount of bacteria in it, which decomposed the difficultly accessible organic and inorganic phosphorus
compounds.
338
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3. The addition of humus to superphosphate on noncarbonate black earth increases the content of acid-
soluble phosphatide and protein phosphorus in a plant and promotes the activity of the microorganisms in the
soil.
The following facts were established in the field experiment:
1. Intake of labeled phosphorus began from the time of germination of the seeds. The addition of humus
to the superphosphate retarded for a certain time the phosphate intake of the plants.
2. Bacterization of a mixture of superphosphate and humus by nitrogen-fixing bacteria promoted an
increase in the mobilization of fertilizer phosphorus and also increased the quantity of nitrogen-fixing bacteria
in the soil.
3. Introduction of phosphorus fertilizers during sowing significantly increased the utilization of soil
phosphates by corn.
4. Bacterization of humus with nitrogen-fixing 'bacteria improved the utilization of the phosphorus taken
into a plant and increased the protein and phosphorus content of the grain.
The Soil Institute of the Moldavian Branch
of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
TRANSFER OF PHOSPHORUS FROM PLANTS INTO THE SOIL
D. M. Kheifets
For the last few years in the laboratory of agricultural chemistry of the Soil Institute of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR, experiments have been conducted with the aim of studying and characterizing soil
located at various distances from the roots of plants with respect to its supply of the elements of plant nutrition.
For this purpose observations were made under field conditions of the distribution of phosphorus among the
aboveground portions of several plants, their root systems, and the soil, using the method of labeled atoms.
When the leaves of spring wheat, corn, and sugar beet plants were subjected to nonroot treatment with
labeled phosphorus, phosphorus was detected throughout the entire growing season in the roots of the plants and
in the root area of the soil. This fact indicates the presence in plants of a process of phosphorus transfer, not
only from the soil through the Mots to the leaves, but also from the leaves through the roots to the soil. In
addition, many times more phosphorus was detected in the soil of the root area than in soil outside of the root
area. The portion of labeled phosphorus eliminated by the plant which remained in the soil of the root area
comprised among corn plants at different stages of growth from 10 to 2010, and among the sugar beet almost
30/0 of the labeled phosphorus which was found at any given stage of vegetation in the plant and the soil
beneath it.
The transfer of phosphorus in two opposite directions in a soil-plant system leads to accumulation of
assimilated phosphates in the soil.
339
The V. V. Dokuchaev Soil Institute of the
Academy of Sciences of the USSR
?Mcbeiren
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THE QUESTION OF THE ROLE OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ROOTS IN THE
NUTRITION OF THE CORN PLANT
I. V. Mosolov and A. V. Partova
With the aim of shedding light on the significance of the primary and secondary roots in supplying plants
with nutritive substances, we conducted experiments with corn.
By using radioactive phosphorus, the accumulation of phosphorus by the different roots was traced.
An experiment was conducted by means of the isolated feeding of primary and secondary roots raised on
Knop's mixture in water cultures. Radioactive phosphorus was introduced into the nutritive mixture, into the
outer vessel, in a dose of 21.4lic per vessel. A determination of the phosphorus content was performed on the
corn leaves (on a weighed portion of ash).
The results of the 1112 determination showed that the exclusion of the primary or secondary root system
from the nutritive medium leads to a sharp decrease in the phosphorus intake lf a plant. This can be judged
both by the intensity of radioactive phosphorus intake of a plant and by the total percentage content of P206 in
the corn leaves and stalks. As a result of retarded salt intake, the growth of the corn was checked.
In the period of intensive' growth of the corn, the primary and secondary roots possessed almost equal
capacities for absorbing phosphorus from the nutritive solution. Secondary roots (and also aerial roots) without
fine roothairs sharply decreased in ability to absorb phosphorus.
The intensity of phosphorus absorption by primary and secondary corn roots during the blossoming stage
was quite different, although the plants were in identical stages of development.
The secondary roots absorbed phosphorus in greater quantities than the primary roots. As is well known, the
primary root system of the corn plant to a significant extent loses its ability to absorb nutritive substances from
the external environment toward the blossoming stage. On the other hand, the secondary roots, in the presence
of favorable external conditions, attain their maximum development about this time.
Therefore, the alL-nentation of the corn plant during the blossoming period takes place, for the most part,
via the secondary root system. It was noted that phosphorus intake through the secondary roots proved to be
four times greater than through the primary roots.
Removal of the roots of the corn plant during the period of its intensive growth led to a cessation of growth
of the vegetative mass, but did not tell on its development. The corn plant without a root system put out a
plume on a par with the control plants.
The checking of the growth of the corn plant was apparently caused by the absence of those organic
substances which are synthesized directly in the roots.
Consequently, the role of the root system consists not only in supplying mineral salts and water, but also
In the synthesis of organic compounds necessary for normal plant growth.
The All-Union Scientific Research Institute of
Fertilizers and Agronomy
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TABLE C? CONTENTS
I. General Meeting of the Sections
Radiobiology
Medical Radiology
Biochemistry and Physiology
Applications of Isotopes and Radiations in Animal Rearing
and Fishery Industry
Agrochemistry and Soil Science
IV.
V.
VI.
Page
3
13
46
95
132
341
153
^
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ACADEMY OF SCIENCES USSR
DIVISION OF CHEMICAL SCIENCES
MINISTRY OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY USSR
ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS
FIRST ALL -UNION CONFERENCE ON
RADIATION CHEMISTRY
March 25-April 2, 1957
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, USSR PRESS
Moscow, 1957
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Chairman of the Organizing Committee of the First All-Union Conference on Radiation Chemistry
Assoc. Member Acad. Sci. USSR S. S. MEDVEDEV
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ELECTRONIC PARAMAGNETIC RESONANCE OF RADICALS OBTAINED
FROM H20 AND H202
S. D. K aitmazov, A. M. Prokhorov, and A. B. Tsentsiper
The phenomenon of electronic paramagnetic resonance was applied to the study of radicals obtained from
H20 and H.
Comparison was made between results obtained for radicals prepared by various methods, namely:
a) by a glow discharge;
b) by ultraviolet irradiation;
C) by y-irradiation.
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P. N. Lebedev Physical Institute of the
Academy of Sciences of the USSR
INITIAL STAGES OF RADIATION-INDUCED REACTIONS IN GASES
N. N. Tunitsky and S. E. Kupriyanov
1. The presence of metastable ions having a half-life of about 10-1 second has been established in the
mass spectra of various large molecules, but the existing mass-spectroscopic methods do not permit the in-
vestigation of the kinetics of dissociation processes occurring during a period appreciably shorter than 10-1
second. A theoretical examination of the dissociation processes of complex molecules, which was carried out
for the first time by Eyring and co-workers, shows, however, that most of the dissociation processes of activated
molecular ions occur within a period of not less than 10-7 second.
2. In the case of large molecules, the dissociation period is probably greater than the time between two
collisions in the gas (except when the pressure is very low). The primary process of the radiation-induced
reaction must then be considered to be a reaction occurring at a collision between an activated molecular ion
or molecule and a normal molecule.
In the case of molecules consisting of a small number of atoms, dissociation is rapid. The primary process
may then be reaction between a fragmentary ion (radical) and a molecule.
3. The investigation of the mass spectra of molecules enables us to reach definite conclusions about the
dissociation processes of activated particles. Comparison of the mass spectra of ordinary octane and of octane-
d2, together with other facts, gives every reason to consider that fragmentary ions may be formed to some ex-
tent with a rearrangement of chemical bonds.
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It was shown that it is highly probable that halogen is split off in the ionization of halogen derivatives
of hydrocarbons,
4. As would be expected, the energy of the ionizing electrons has a considerable effect on the character
of the mass spectra. It was shown that, when 100 ev electrons were used, the mass spectrum revealed a
greater amount of fragmentary ions than in the case of electrons of low (30 ev) and of high (1000 ev) energies.
5. On the basis of the energy relations of the mass spectra and of experiments with "fractional" peaks it
was concluded that the activation energy of the ions rises up to a certain limit as the energy of the electrons
increases.
6. The mass-spectrometric method enables us to follow the initial stages of radiation-induced reactions.
In the ionization of methane at low pressure with low-energy electrons we have detected ions of heavier
hydrocarbons of the C?C type.
L. Ya. Karpov PhysicochemiCal Institute of the
Ministry of the Chemical Industry of the USSR
KINETICS AND MECHANISM OF THE OXIDATION OF NITROGEN
UNDER ELECTRON IMPACT
M. T. Dmitriev and S. YA. Pshezhetsky
1. The oxidation of nitrogen under the action of ionizing radiations is one of the possible effective
methods of utilizing atomic energy for bringing about chemical processes. This fact, as well as the effect of this
reaction on the working of nuclear reactors, demands thorough study.
Moreover, the simplicity of the original molecules makes it possible to study the relation between the
primary processes in the interaction of radiation with the molecules and the mechanism and kinetics of the
subsequent chemical reactions ? a fundamental problem in the theory of radiation chemistry.
2. We have previously elucidated some of the reaction laws for the oxidation of nitrogen at low pressures
under the action of slow electrons. It was shown that the reaction is of second order and that the rate constant
is proportional to the ionization function of nitrogen. The present paper gives the results of an investigation
of kinetic and other laws of this reaction proceeding under the action of 200 key electrons; it gives also re-
sults of some measurements in an electric discharge, which were carried out with the object of further studying
the reaction mechanism for electron impact.
3. The kinetics of reaction under the action of fast electrons at atmospheric pressure was investigated.
The mole fraction of oxygen in the gas mixture had the values 0.2, 0.5, and 0.8.
Under these conditions the reaction rate was again in accord with a second-order equation. The rate con-
stant for the reaction was proportional to the electron current and also to the relative thickness of the gas
layer. The activation energy for the reaction (measured at low pressures) was about 7 kcal/mole.
4. The energy efficiency of the reaction depends on the composition of the gas mixture. At a mole
fraction of oxygen of 0.5 it is about 2 molecules per 100 ev; in air it is about 1.3 molecules per 100 ev. These
values are close to the yield of oxides of nitrogen previously found in our laboratory for the irradiation of
liquid nitrogen-oxygen mixtures with fast electrons (1.5 molecules per 100 ev), but are less than the yield that
we found for reaction in the gas phase at low pressures under the action of slow electrons (5-6 molecules per
100 ev).
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5. It was previously shown that oxidation of nitrogen arises as a result of the ionization of molecular
nitrogen by electron Impact. For the further elucidation of the part played by various ions in this process, some
measurements were made in an electric discharge, in which the reaction rate again follows a second-order
equation.
Measurements were made in which positive or negative ions were withdrawn from the sphere of reaction
onto a probe. It was shown that the removal of positive ions retards reaction, whereas the removal of nega-
tive particles accelerates reaction. The quantitative relationships observed confirm the leading part taken by
the process of nitrogen ionization in the oxidation reaction.
6. The results obtained on the effect of negative particles on the reaction indicate that in reaction at
atmospheric pressure a very unfavorable part is played by recombination processes occurring between oppositely
charged ions. An expression is given for the dependence of the reaction-rate constant on the coefficient of re-
combination of ions.
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR.
CHEMICAL ACTION OF C06? y -RADIATION ON SOLID CRYSTALLINE SALTS
OF IONIC STRUCTURE (KNO3, KC103, KC104)
A. S. Baberkin
This work was carried out with the object of determining the chemical effect of y -radiation on solid
crystalline salts of ionic structure (KNO3, KC103, KC104) at low dosages (up to 10 million roentgens per gram
of salt) and of determining also the effect of the temperature at which the irradiated salts are heated on the
yields of radiolysis products.
The effect of various ionizing radiations in doses about one hundred times as great as those used in the
present work has been studied for these salts by some foreign authors.
In the present work we have shown that solid potassium nitrate is decomposed under irradiation, with forma-
tion of nitrite and gaseous oxygen. At room temperature the yield of nitrite attains a value of about 0.8
molecule per 100 ev. Under these conditions most of the gas remains trapped in some form or other within
the crystals.
In samples heated at 127' the yield of nitrite obtained when the irradiated salt is dissolved in water is reduced to
0.6 molecule per 100 ev. The yield of oxygen is increased very slightly. The most favorable effect on the removal
of gas trapped within the crystals is observed when the irradiated salt isheated at 150' (above 129', the crystal-transi
tion point for potassium nitrate). In samples heated at this temperature the yield of nitrite obtained when a sample of
the salt is dissolved in water falls further to 0.4 molecule per 100 ev, but the yield of gas rises to 0,2 molecule per
100 ev. The occurrence of the reverse transition of nitrite into nitrate during the heating of the irradiated salt in-
dicates the existence of intermediate transformation products of potassium nitrate, NO2 or NO3 radicals, and 0 atoms.
The transformation products of solid potassium chlorate are chloride, oxygen, and chlorite. It was shown
that heating the irradiated salt at 200' has little effect on the process of escape of gas from the crystals. In
samples heated at 200',the yield of chlorite falls to 0.8 molecule per 100 ev (in unheated samples the yield
is 1.2 molecules per 100 ev). The reduction in the yield of chlorite is associated with its conversion into
chloride and oxygen. In the course of irradiation the salt becomes colored, probably owing to the formation
of free radicals and color centers. It is considered that radiation-induced transformation of potassium
chlorate, which has a radical mechanism, includes two possible ways of decomposition of the intermediate
C103 radicals; to chlorite and to chloride.
347
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Under the action of y-radiation, solid potassium perchlorate is reduced to chlorate. Complete removal
of gas formed in the crystals during irradiation is achieved by heating the irradiated salt in a vacuum at a
temperature above the crystal-transition point (299? for KC10).
The original chlorate yield of 1.1 molecules per 100 ev is lowered to 0.7 in samples heated above the
transition point. The part of the chlorate that has disappeared is to be found in the form of chloride and oxygen.
In the course of irradiation the salt becomes colored. It is considered that the primary products formed by the
Irradiation have radical character and are decomposed to an increasing extent as the temperature at which the
salt is heated is raised.
L. Ya Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the Ministry
of Chemical Industry of the USSR
EFFECT OF KC1 AND KBr CONCENTRATION ON THE YIELD OF MOLECULAR
RADIOLYSIS PRODUCTS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
SI. A. Brusentseva and P. I. Dolin
With the object of determining the mechanism of the formation of molecular products in the radiolysis
of water, an investigation was made into the dependence of the yields of H2 and H202 on the solute concen-
tration in KBr and KCI solutions saturated with helium and nitrogen. In KBr solutions the accumulation of
molecular bromine was also investigated. The solutions were irradiated with x -rays and Co" 7-rays.
It was found that the H2 yield does not remain constant when the concentration of the solution is in-
creased. At first it increases, then remains constant over a certain range of concentrations, and,with further
Increase in concentration, it again rises with simultaneous rise in the yield of free bromine. However, the
yield of molecular hydrogen attributable to the reaction 1-120,-*-4.1/2 H2 + 1/2 H202, falls.
Formation of H202 proceeds with constant yield over the whole range of concentrations.
Increase in GH in dilute solutions indicates that Br ionshave a protective effect with respect to H2,
being able to react with, radicals distil buted in the mass of the solution. When most of these radicals are
consumed in reaction with Br-ions, the H2 yield ceases to depend on concentration. The lowering of the
H2 yiell in concentrated KBr solutions can be explained only on the assumption that Br-ions react with free
OH radicals and free Br with H atoms present in places of high ionization density (in dilute solutions these
are consumed by conversion into molecular products). These results, therefore, confirm the radical mechanism
of the formation of the molecular products of the radiolysis of water. The constant yield of 11202 over the
whole range of KBr concentrations may be associated with the catalytic decomposition of 11202 in KBr solutions.
Molecular bromine is detected only from concentrations of 0.1 M upwards. This result confirms the view
that in dilute solution the formation of atomic bromine by the reaction Br- + OH?+ Br + OH - is compensated by
the reaction Br + H -'Hr + 11+, as a result of which molecular bromine does not accumulate in the solution.
In more concentrated solutions, GBr2 increases with increase in the electron fraction of Br-ions. When
the yield is related to the energy absorbed by Br-ions, Ggr2 remains constant from concentrations of about 2 M
upwards. This form of relationship indicates that, in concentrated KBr solutions, molecular bromine is formed
as a result of the direct action of radiation on Br-ions.
Unlike KBr solutions, KC1 solutions show separation of H2 at concentrations of about 0.1 M upwards.
This result, and also other features of radiation-induced transformations in chloride solutions, indicates that
some difficulty is met in the interaction between an OH radical and a cilon.
Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
348
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RADIATION-INDUCED REACTIONS IN NITRATE SOLUTIONS
N. A. Bakh, V. I. Medvedovsky, A. A. Revina, and V. D. Bityukov
I. It is known that, under the action of ionizing radiations, nitrite, hydrogen peroxide, and oxygen are
formed in aqueous nitrate solutions; products of the reduction of NO3- to beyond the NO stage have not been
detected. In order to elucidate the mechanism of the processes occurring in the system it is necessary to know
the initial yields of the products and the effect of the concentration of the solution and the dosage on the
relative amounts of products. Useful information is provided by observations on the changes of potential of
electrodes present in the solution during the irradiation. The results now under consideration refer to the action
of x?rays and to solutions saturated with nitrogen.
2. Determinations carried out on irradiated NaNO3 solutions of increasing concentration showed that the
yield of molecular hydrogen does not remain constant, but falls from GH2 = 0.5 molecule per 100 ev at 0.1 M
to GH2 = 0.05 molecule per 100 ev at 5.5 M. This indicates that molecular hydrogen is formed from atomic
hydrogen and not by an independent mechanism.
3. For the determination of the initial yields of H202 and 02, for which the data in the literature are
unreliable, we developed a special apparatus Which permitted simultaneous polarographic measurement of
H202 and 02 concentrations during irradiation for concentrations of 10-9 mole / cc upwards and dosages ranging
from 3.1011 ev/cc upwards. In 1 M NaNO3 at pH 6.5 at a dosage of 10 ev/cc.sec, initial yields of GH202 =
2.6 molecules per 100 ev, G02 = 0.2 molecule per 100 ev, and GN02 = 3 ions per 100 ev were obtained.
With further irradiation Go2 increases, evidently owing to the decomposition of H202. With increase in dosage
intensity, the yields of H202 and NO2- fall. Both the radiational and nonradiational reactions in which 11202
and NO2- are concerned affect the yields of these species.
4. The potentials of electrodes immersed in nitrate solutions reflect changes in the oxidation-reduction
state of the solutions during irradiation. On the potential determined by the relative amounts of HNO3 and
HNO2 is superimposed an effect present during irradiation, which in the case of a Pt electrode is associated with
short-lived reducing radioloysis components of the irradiated solution and, in the case of an Au electrode, with
short-lived oxidizing radiolysis components. When irradiation is stopped, these effects disappear and the
potentials of both of these electrodes in1MHNO3 correspond to the equilibrium potential of the HNOg-HNO3
system.
The effect observed at a Pt electrode becomes more marked as the NO3- concentration is reduced and the
dosage intensity is increa?ed.in 1h4 NO3- it disappears when the dosage is decreased from 2.1011 to 1019 ev/ cc ? sec.
5. The closeness of the initial yields of NO2 and 11202, the simultaneous increase in these yields with
diminution of the H2 yield and disappearance of the hydrogen effect at a platinum electrode when the ratio
[NO3-)/ (H) increases ([H] being determined by the dosage intensity), and the very low initial yield of 02 all
indicate that the main reactions in1MNaNO3 are reduction of the NO3- ion by atomic hydrogen and formation
of hydrogen peroxide - which later decomposes with evolution of 02 - from OH radicals.
According to the electron fractions of NO3-, 5.5%, of the energy of fast electrons absorbed by 1 M NaNO3
solution are consumed in the direct interaction of the radiation with NO3- and may result in the formation of
NO2- with separation of an equivalent amount of 02, independently of the formation and decomposition of
H202. According to this mechanism, the yield of nitrite cannot exceed double the initial yield of 02 in the
irradiated system.
349
Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
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SOME DATA ON THE ACTION OF IONIZING RADIATIONS ON CONCENTRATED
AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF INORGANIC SALTS
A. M. Kabakehl, V. M. Erokhin, and V. A. Gramolin
With the object of determining the main peculiarities of behavior in concentrated, as compared with
dilute, aqueous solutions of inorganic salts treated with ionizing radiations, several series of experiments were
carried out with nitrate and chloride solutions of concentration varying from 0.01 M to almost saturated. The
solutions were irradiated with Cow y-rays, 1332B-rays, Pu239 a-rays, and products of the nuclear reaction
Bzo (n, Le.
Irradiation of solutions of lithium, sodium, potassium,ammonium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium,
lead, aluminum, and thorium nitrates showed that the yield of the main product of the radiation-induced
reaction? the nitrite ion?is, within the limits of experimental error (+ 10/0), independent of the nature of
the cation, being dependent mainly on the nitrate concentration. However, in highly concentrated nitrate,
and also chloride, solutions in which the cations are highly hydrated (e. g. Lil), the yield of nitrite ion or of
free chlorine is appreciably reduced and becomes approximately the same as in the solid salt. This is probably
associated with the fact that, as O. Ya. Samoilov and A. F. Kapustinsky suppose, very concentrated solutions
of such salts have structures analogous to those of the corresponding crystalline hydrates.
In our experiments, with increase in the concentration of the salt, the yield of nitrite ion increased
appreciably. For y-rays it was 2.5 ions per 100 ev in 0.1 M solution and 4.5 ions per 100 ev in 2 M solution.
Such high yields cannot be explained solely by the action of the radiolysis products of water, H and OH. On
the basis of the results of our experiments with nitrate and chloride solutions irradiated at various ionization
densities, it may be supposed that nitrite ions in concentrated nitrate solutions and free chlorine in concentrated
chloride solutions are formed both by the action of the radiolysis products of water and by other processes. The
yields of products of radiation-induced reactions in these processes are independent of the kind of radiation
and depend mainly on the concentration of the salt.
If we suppose that the yields of the radiolysis products of water do not change substantially with increase
in the concentration of the salt, then it is most probable that the increase in the yields of the main products
of the radiation-induced reactions (nitrite ions in nitrate solutions and free chlorine in chloride solutions) is
associated with the "direct" action of radiation on the solute.
The mechanism of direct action on the nitrate ion can be represented as follows:
NO3-evv-9 NO3 + e
NO2 NO2 + 0
and further:
r
2NO2 + H20 2H+ + NO3- + NO
2-
0 + 0 ?4O
It IS most probable that the electron ejected will be captured by a water molecule; H2O + e H20"--10
H + 0H
The H atoms formed will react with nitrate ions and increase the observed yield of NO2-.
Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
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FORMATION AND TRANSFORMATION OF IRON COMPOUNDS IN THE RADIOLYSIS
OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
A. I. Chernova, V. D. Orekhov, and M. A. Proskurnin
The study of the behavior of ferrous iron under radiolysis conditions is of considerable interest, for it
is known that ferrous ions play a sensitizing role in oxidation reactions of aqueous solutions of organic sub-
stances. According to some authors (Dewhurst, Vermeil, and others), in sensitization processes of this sort
iron is to be assigned the passive part of an acceptor of hydrogen peroxide (or organic peroxides) formed in the
course of the oxidation of the organic substance.
The authors of the present paper consider that it would be more correct to assign a primary role to ferrous
ions and assume that, under the irradiation, unstable oxygen compounds arc formed which take part in the
transfer of the oxidizing component in oxidative radiolysis. It was in fact found that, in the irradiation of
highly acid solutions of Mohr's salt, only part (about 16 equivalents per 100 ev) of the iron is oxidized to the
ferric state; most of it (about 48 equivalents) is converted into another form, which is not determinable
analytically either as ferric or as ferrous iron. In agreement with earlier4suggestions (Cahill, Bray, Mansho,
and others), it was suggested that in such processes a peroxide complex of iron is formed in which the iron
has a higher valency, for example four. It was suggested that, in the formation of the iron-peroxide compound,
an active part is taken by a' ferrous iron oxygen complex which forms when solutions of Mohr's salt stand in
the air, e.g. in accordance with the Georges-Philippe scheme:
Fez+ + 02 Fez+ ?02.
The formation of such a compound is confirmed by considerable increase in ultraviolet absorption at
250-mi in Mohr's solution that has stood in the air. The ferrous iron oxygen complex is converted by
irradiation in acid solution 1 N into a peroxide complex:
Fez+ '02 + H Fe3?00H.
This complex is unstable and slowly decomposes in two ways:
Fe 3+ +? 00H
Fe34.00H
Fe2+ +? 02 + H+
Decomposition of the iron peroxide compound in these ways results in the oxidation either of the ferrous
ions themselves or of other substances present in the solution.
The direct transformation of quadrivalent iron into the trivalent condition may be effected by carrying
out the radiolytic oxidation of ferrous iron in 4 N H2SO4 at an elevated temperature (about 80?). The same
effect is achieved by the introduction of oxygen carriers, such as Ce31-ions, into the irradiated solution. By the
introduction of Ce3 , I-, and Br-ions into irradiated solutions of Mohr's salt in 4 N H2SO4, we succeeded
in detecting a postradiational effect consisting in the oxidation of additional amounts of ferrous ions in the
decomposition of the iron peroxide compound formed during irradiation. In certain individual cases it was
found possible to raise the yield of completely oxidized iron ions (generally 60 equivalents per 100 ev) to
90 equivalents per 100 ev.
It was shown that the complex formed was able to oxidize organic compounds (e.g. formic acid), and it
was suggested that the carrier of the oxidative component under the conditions of many processes in which
iron takes part? both in radiation chemistry and in homogeneous catalysis? is a peroxide complex of iron
of this sort. We may be sure that the study of peroxide compounds of iron will be found useful in all cases when
iron is encountered as an oxygen carrier in radiation chemistry, homogeneous catalysis, and biological systems.
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L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR
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ACTION OF ACCELERATED ELECTRONS ON KMn04 SOLUTIONS
B. A. Gvozdev and V. N. Shubin
There is very little information in the literature on the action of ionizing radiation on KMn04 solutions.
This paper describes an investigation of the reduction of potassium permanganate solutions under the action of
a beam of accelerated electrons..
1. Reaction yields were determined for the reduction of KMn04 in the concentration range from 10-2
to 3'10-1 M for various values of the initial pH of the solution.
2. The effect of the acidity of the solution on the rate of the reduction reaction was determined in the
pH range 0.4-12. There is a maximum yield at pH 2.05.
3. It was shown that the yield is independent of the mean dosage intensity in the range 1012-1020 ev/ sec.
4. A possible mechanism was proposed for the reduction of potassium permanganate in aqueous solution
under the action of radiation.
Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
ACTION OF y- RADIATION ON COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS OF COBALT, NICKEL,
SILVER, AND GOLD SULFIDES
E. M. Nanobashvili and L. P. Beruchashvili
1. Under the action of Co62 y-radiation sols of cobalt, nickel, silver and gold sulfides undergo far-
reaching changes until complete solution or coagulation occurs.
2. The loss of stability of sols of cobalt, nickel, silver, and gold sulfides under the action of radiation
is due to secondary reactions between the sol-stabilizing HS- and S2- ions and OH radicals or hydrogen peroxide
molecules formed in the intermicellar liquid of the irradiated sols.
3. The gels formed from CoS and AgIS under the action of radiation differ greatly in structure from the
gels formed by the action of electrolytes.
4. The passage of colloidal golutions of metal sulfides into true solution under the action of radiation
may find practical application in the technology of enriching sulfide ores containing rare elements in a
diffusely scattered form.
P. G. Melikishvili Institute of Chemistry of the
Academy of Sciences of the Georgian SSR, Tbilisi
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SIMULTANEOUS POLAROGRAPHIC DETERMINATION OF H202 AND 02 IN NITRATE
SOLUTION DURING THEIR IRRADIATION
V. I. Medvedovsky
1. The previously used procedure, whereby hydrogen peroxide and oxygen are determined after the
irradiation, gives incorrect values for their initial yields because they react with other radiolysis products
or undergo catalytic decomposition.
2. A procedure is developed for the simultaneous polarographic determination of hydrogen peroxide and
oxygen during the irradiation. The method is based on the use of two dropping mercury electrodes in one cell
containing a common anode. With the aid of two independent electric circuits and a photoregistering system,
the two simultaneous radiation-induced processes are recorded on one diagram.
3. From the resulting curves initial yields of hydrogen peroxide and molecular oxygen are found for
various dosage intensities. It is shown that at low dosage the yield of molecular oxygen is of the order of one-
tenth of the yield of hydrogen peroxide.
Increase in dosage intensity results in reduction in the yield of hydrogen peroxide with simultaneous
increase in the yield of molecular oxygen.
On the basis of the results, inferences are made concerning the most probable mechanism of the formation
of hydrogen peroxide and molecular oxygen in 1M NaNO2.
Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
KINETICS OF THE DECOMPOSITION OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE UNDER THE ACTION
OF 7-RADIATION
V. Ya. Chernykh, S. Ya. Pshezhetsky, and G. S. Tyurikov
1. The kinetics of the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide in aqueous solutions under the action of
ionizing radiations have been investigated by various workers. However, the resulting data on the dependence
of reaction rate on H202 concentration and irradiation intensity, and on reaction yields as related to absorbed
radiation energy are in many ways contradictory, which is probably largely attributable to the fact that the
measurements were carried out in limited concentration ranges in dilute solutions.
2. We investigated the kinetics of the decomposition of H202 in aqueous solutions over a wide concen-
tration range ? from 2 to 92 mole To of H202 ?reaction being promoted by y-radiation. We studied also some
of the kinetic laws of the thermal and photochemical reactions in the same concentration range.
The intensity of the y-radiation was varied from 0.26.1012 to 1.844012 es,/ litensec; the temperature was
varied from ?30? to 50?.
3. It was shown that the rate of the radiational reaction, expressed as a function of the H202 concen-
tration, passes through a maximum, which occurs at about 35-40 mole% of H202. The reaction rate is
proportional to the square root of the radiation intensity at all concentrations investigated.
The dependence of the reaction rate on temperature was investigated at 50, 30, 10, 1, -4, -11, and -21.
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t
For all solutions there is a linear relationship between the logarithm of the reaction rate and the reciprocal
of the temperature.
The straight line has a break at about 10?. In the temperature range from ?21? to 10? the mean activation
energy is 6.5+ 1.0 kcal/mole; above 10* the mean activation energy is 2.8 + 1.0 kcal/mole. This is caused
by superposition on the rate of the diffusion reaction.
4. Reaction yields, expressed with respect to absorbed y-radiation energy, depend on concentration
and temperature and lie between the limits of 21 (at -4?) and 230 (at 50?) molecules of decomposed peroxide
per 100 ev. Such yields are characteristic of a chain process.
5. Thermal reaction rates were measured in the same concentration range at 10, 30, and 50?. The
relation of reaction rate to H202 concentration has the same character as for the action of y-radiation.
In absolute value the rate of thermal decomposition at 30-50? is approximately one-tenth of the rate of
radiational decomposition.
The mean activation energy of the thermal reaction is 12.6 + 1,5 kcal/mole,
6. The concentrational dependence of the rate of reaction in presence of ultraviolet radiation was
investigated over the same range of H202 concentrations. The character of the relationship is the same as in
the previous cases. The straight line, log W against 1/T, has a break in the region of 10?.
In the range 1-10' the activation energy is 7.3 kcal/mole, and in the range 10-50? it is 4.0.+ 1.0 kcal/
mole. This effect is again due to the superposition of diffusion.
7. The identical characters of the relationships of reaction rate to coneentration,inoespective of the way
in which reaction is initiated (by radiation, photochemically or thermally) and the closeness of the values of
the activation energy in radiational and photochemical decomposition indicate that the basic mechanism of
the reaction does not depend on the character of the initiation. This is due to the fact that decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide is a chain process.
8, The relation between rate of decomposition of H202 and concentration is analogous to the relation
between the specific conductivity of peroxide solutions and concentration. This symbatic relationship indicates
that ions play an important part in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
9. The kinetic laws established for radiational decomposition can be explained with the aid of the
concept of the dissociation of the H02 radical into H+ and 02-ions, which has been used previously in work
on the photodecomposition of H202. The rate equation for the reaction derived on this basis provides a
satisfactory description a the experimental data on radiational, photochemical, and thermal decomposition.
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR
RADIATION-INDUCED OXIDATION OF SOLUTIONS OF QUADRIVALENT URANIUM
V. G. Firsov and B. V. Ershler
1. An investigation was made into the oxidation of aqueous solutions of quadrivilent uranium under the
action of y-radiation from a cobalt source. The investigation covered a wide range of concentrations both
of quadrivalent and also of hexavalent uranium, and other conditions were also varied over a wide range.
2. It was shown that the following reactions occur in the radiation-induced oxidation of quadrivalent
uranium;
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a) reaction of U (IV) with the OH radical;
b) reaction of U (IV) with H202;
c) reaction of U (VI) with the H atom;
d) reaction of combination of radicals with one another.
3. The most favorable conditions for these various reactions were discussed.
4. The kinetics of the various reactions were compared, and the directions in which these investigations
can be further developed and extended to other, analogous systems were indicated.
Heat Technology Laboratory of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
MECHANISM OF THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A STATIONARY POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
IN THE SYSTEM Pt / AQUEOUS SOLUTION / Au UNDER THE ACTION OF
y-RADIATION
Ts. I. Zalkind, V. I. Veselovsky, and G. Z. Gochaliev
1. The study of the action of nuclear radiations on electrochemical systems undoubtedly presents scien-
tific and practical interest. It enables us not only to make a deeper investigation of electrochemical and
radiation-induced processes, but also to approach the solution of problems concerning the transformation of
the energy of nuclear radiations into electrical energy.
2. As a result of an investigation into the action of y-radiation on the system Pt / aqueous solution of
acid or alkali not containing oxygen / Au, it was shown that in the irradiation of this system a stationary
potential difference of about 0.9 v is established between the platinum and gold electrodes. The potential
of the platinum electrode takes up a value close to that of the reversible hydrogen electrode and the potcotial
of the gold electrode is more positive by about 0.95 v.
3. The time-dependence of the potentials of the platinum and gold electrodes and of the depolarization
currents at constant potential in the course of irradiation,and after irra.diation,was investigated. It was shown
that the electrocheMically active components of the solution are mainly the short-lived radiolysis products ?
hydrogen atoms and hydroxyl radicals responsible for processes proceeding respectively at the platinum and at
the gold electrode. Results obtained when the solutions were saturated with oxygen in order to bind H atoms
and with addition of oxalic acid, which reacts with OH radicals, confirm this conclusion.
4. The results enable us to conclude that the stationary potential difference established between the Pt
and Au electrodes is associated with a difference in the electrochemical properties of these electrodes.
On the basis of an analysis of polarization curves determined with still and rotating electrodes during irradiation
it was established that, under given irradiation conditions (dosage 2?10L5 ev/ cc), the limiting stage of processes
occurring at the platinum electrode is the diffusion of hydrogen to the electrode, whereas at the gold electrode
the limiting stage is the electrochemical discharge of hydroxyl radicals.
5. The electrochemical system Pt / aqueous solution / Au under y-radiation can be regarded as a very
simple radiational galvanic element operating on the basis of the electrochemical reaction of the formation
of water from the radiolysis products formed by the action of y-radiation on aqueous solutions.
355
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR
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RADIATIONAL-ELECTROCHEMICAL PROCESSES IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF
URANIUM SALTS
N. B. Miller, Ts. I. Zalkind, and V. I. Veselovsky
It may be expected that, when radioactive radiations act on aqueous solutions of uranium salts, changes
will occur in the electrochemical parameters of the system as a result of the shift in oxidation-reduction
equilibria due to reaction between primary radiolysis products (H atoms, hydroxyl radicals) and the solute.
Electrochemically active oxidizing and reducing components will appear in the solution and will act on the
electrodes, where they will bring about electrochemical processes corresponding to the changed parameters
of the system.
Investigation of radiational-electrochemical processes in solutions of uranyl salts is of considerable
interest, since their realization can occur under suitable conditions (neutron field) as a result of the liberation
of energy by fission of the uranium.
1. An investigation was made into the action of radioactive radiations (of radon and of Con) on uranyl
sulfate and perchlorate solutions and into the action of y-radiation (Cog) on solutions of UM and urv in
hydrochloric acid. It was shown that, when radioactive radiations act on salts of hexavalent uranium, uranyl
ions are reduced to quinquevalent uranium ions, and as these accumulate, reactions in which these ions
undergo disproportionation and oxidation by radiolysis products become important. After prolonged action of Rn
radiation, the main radiolysis products are hydrogen peroxide or? in solutions of low acidity (0.1 N)? a
uranium peroxide compound which appears as a precipitate. As a result of the facile oxidation-reduction
transformations in the UVI/ UV system, increase in uranyl ion concentration in the solution leads to reduction
in the amount of hydrogen peroxide or uranium peroxide compounds formed and to reduction in the yield in
the oxidation of quadrivalent uranium. When radiation acts on um/ ulv and U'/ U'1, there is a shift of
equilibrium in the system with formation Of the more highly oxidized form.
2. An analogous investigation of the effect of optical irradiation showed that the products of the photo-
chemical reaction are quinque- and quadrivalent uranium salts formed by the reduction of uranyl ions,
and also oxidation products, which may be hydrogen peroxide and uranium peroxide compounds. The concen-
tration of these products depends on the relative rates of the coupled oxidation-reduction reactions occurring
in the solution. In their turn, the reaction rates depend on the acidity of the solution, the nature of the anion,
and the presence in the solution of oxygen or of organic additives. Optical irradiation of uranium (UM) chloride
solutions accelerates oxidation to the quadrivalent state.
3. It was shown that y-irradiation (Co") of uranyl perchlorate and sulfate solutions results in the
establishment of a stationary potential, in the neighborhood of the hydrogen zero, on a Pt electrode as a
result of the formation of quinquevalent uranium in nonequilibrium concentrations. The value of the
stationary potential depends on the acidity of the solution and the nature of the anion.
Under certain conditions a stationary potential is established at a gold electrode on account of the
consumption of oxidizing radiolysis components of aqueous uranyl salt solutions; this potential has the value
of 1.1 against a hydrogen electrode in the same solution.
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR
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RADIATIONAL-GALVANIC ELEMENT BASED ON THE OXIDATION-REDUCTION
REACTION Fe2+-4 Fes+
P. I. Dolin and V. I. Duzhenkov
The possibility of using the oxidizing and reducing products of the radiolysis of water in radiational-
electrochemical reactions was first pointed out by V. L Veselovsky.
In the system we have examined, the oxidizing radiolysis products of water, OH and H202, were applied
in the oxidation of Fe2+ to Fes+, and the reducing products H and H2 were liberated in the form of molecular
hydrogen.
The electrochemical system consisted of two half-elements; an electrode in the oxidation-reduction
3?
system Fe/ Fe2+ in 3 N H2SO4 and an electrode in 3 N H2SQL working as a hydrogen electrode. The electrodes
were of platinum. The half-elements were separated by a diaphragm.
The consumption of Fes+ in the electrode reaction Fe s+ + e = Fe2+ at the positive electrode and of
H2 in the reaction H2 = 2H 1- 2e at the negative electrode was balanced in presence of y-radiation mainly
by the following radiational reactions;
Fe2+ + OH = FJ1- + 0H-
H + H = H2
For the stationary working of the element it is essential to have a diaphragm that passes II+ ions, but
stops iron ions.
The curves for the time-dependence of the current and potential of the element show an increase in
EMF at the beginning of the irradiation until a stationary value is attained.
The coefficient of utilization of radiation energy in this system, which, as compared with others,
gives a fairly high yield (8 molecules per 100 ev), is about 650.
In order tof increase this coefficient it is necessary to find a way of raising the yield in the reaction of
oxidation of Fe2 to Fell. in a solution saturated with hydrogen. In the meantime, the element described can
be regarded only as an attempt to prove the possibility in principle of applying radiation-induced reactions
in aqueous solutions to the transformation of radiation energy into electrical energy.
Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
CORROSION BEHAVIOR OF METALS IN y-IRRADIATED H2SO4 SOLUTIONS
Ya. M. Kolotyrkin, N. Ya. Bune, and G. S. Tyurikov
1. In accordance with its polarization region, a metal can be in one of three possible states; active,
passive, and ultrapassive. However, irrespective of its state, the rate of dissolution of?the metal in a solution
of given composition is a simple function of the potential.
2. The change in the rate of corrosion of a metal under y-irradiation is associated with the change in
potential to be observed. Kndwing the relation of the rate of dissolution to the potential, we may estimate?
without making any direct measurements? the rate of corrosion of the metal in the irradiated solution from
the value of its stationary potential.
357
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taalfEZ-.
3. The potential of a metal in an irradiated solution is determined by the kinetics of the oxidation-
reduction reactions of the radiolysis components of water (11 and OH) or the products of their recombination
(H2, 02, and 11202) at a metallic surface (cf. the usual irreversible oxidation-reduction systems).
In accordance with the laws of electrochemical kinetics, the stationary potential of a noble metal in
an irradiated solution not containing extraneous oxidizing or reducing agents should depend not only on the
character of the reactions indicated and on the composition of the solution, but also on the nature of the metal.
For an electronegative metal the value of the stationary potential in such solutions depends also on the rate
of its dissolution.
4. The character of the effect of y-radiations on the corrosion behavior of a metal is greatly dependent
on its ability to undergo passivation. For metals that can be readily rendered passive,the oxidizing radiolysis
component is very effective, its action being equivalent to that of an anodic current. If the rate of reduction of
the oxidizing component exceeds the current density necessary for the passivation of the electrode, then the
metal may be changed from the active to the passive state under the action of the radiation, a change that
should be accompanied by reduction in the rate of corrosion. Similar effects are observed for certain iron
alloys.
If the rate of reduction of the oxidizing component does not exceed the passivation current, as is
found in the case of nickel, irradiation causes an increase in the rate of dissolution and is not accompanied
by an appreciable change of potential.
5. When ions of variable valence are present in the solution, the effectiveness of the oxidizing
component of radiolysis may be increased and the transition of the metal from the active to the passive
condition may be accelerated.
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR
EFFECT OF ACCELERATED ELECTRONS ON THE CORROSION OF IRON, STAINLESS
STEEL, AND ALUMINUM IN SODIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTIONS
M. N. Fokin, T. V. Matveeva, N. D. Tomashov, A. V. Byalobzhesky4
V. D. Valkov
1. An examination was made of various aspects of the effect of accelerated electrons on corrosion
and electrochemical behavior in the system metal / natural oxide film / electrolyte. It was established
that an important factor in these processes is the action ? previously not taken into account ?of electrons
on the electrode, the originally fast electrons being slowed down to thermal speeds by passage through the
system metal/solution, when they are able to polarize the irradiated electrode anodically or cathodically.
The results are given of corrosion and electrochemical investigations on Armco iron, 1Kh18N9T
and aluminum in a flowing 0.5 M NaC1 solution irradiated with accelerated electrons at a dosage intensity
in the electrolyte layer adjacent to the metal of 6.6.109 ev/cc?sec. The samples became anodically polarized
as a result of the electronic irradiation.
2. It was shown that the anodically polarizing action of electron beams on the corrosion of 1Kh18N9T
steel in a NaC 1 solutions predominates over other radiation effects, but is not the only one.
3. Distinct differences were noted in the corrosion behavior of irradiated samples of aluminum accord-
ing to whether they ax as an anode, as a cathode, or are unpolarized. It was found that on unpolarized aluminum
there was formed a protective oxide film that is to be associated with the action of powerful oxidants ? the
radiolysis products of water.
358
4. It was shown that there is an appreciable increase in the rate of corrosion of samples of iron
irradiated in sodium chloride solutions of various concentrations, which is to be explained mainly as the
result of the facilitation of the cathode process together with the depolarizing action of short-lived radiolysis
products of water.
5. It was shown that with increase in the irradiation intensity beyond a certain definite value, the rate of
corrosion ofiKhl8N9Tsteel in 0.5 M NaCl increases more rapidly than the electronic current density. This is
to be explained by the interaction of two processes:
a) formation of supplementary local anodes on the sample in association with change in the electrode
surface during its absorption of the energy of the electronic irradiation, and
b) healing of disrupted patches of the surface by the frontal mechanism (growth of a protective film).
6. It was shown that the corrosion effects observed in these experiments did not result from the thermal
effect of the radiation.
7. Investigations were made into several ways of protecting 1Kh18N9T steels irradiated with fast electrons
in 0.5 M NaCl from corrosion,and it was shown that it is possible to use the methods of
a) cathodic protection and the protector-block method, and
b) introduction into the electrolyte of reducing agents that are oxidized at more highly negative
potentials than the potential for the anodic destruction of the passive state of the steel.
Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
CHANGE IN THE ELECTROCHEMICAL ACTIVITY OF METALS UNDER THE ACTION
OF RADIATION
I. L. Rozenfeld and E. K. Oshe
1. In the irradiation of galvanic elements (Zr-Al, Zr-Fe, Fe-AI) in a moving electrolyte (3 4/0 NaC1)
by a beam of fast (0.8 Mev) electrons at an intensity of 15 ? a per sq. cm, a sharp rise in the current of the
element is observed. When irradiation is discontinued, the current falls sharply to its initial value. Experi-
ments in which only the anode or cathode was irradiated showed that an incream in current is observed only
when the cathode is irradiated, the effect not being observed when only the anode is irradiated. Under
irradiation, the anodes underwent considerably more destruction than they did under the same conditions
but in absence of radiation.
2. The observed effect cannot be explained by the factors previously considered to be the math causes
of the acceleration of electrode reactions by radiation (rise in temperature due to absorption of radiation
energy, formation of radiolysis products, anodic polarization due to charged particles).
3. The change in the electrochemical activity of metals under irradiation is to be associated with the
accompanying changes in the physical properties of oxide films on metals, which are regarded as semi-
conductors. if we take account of the fact that the current of the elements is determined by the rate of the
cathode reaction of reduction of oxygen, and assume that the latter is limited by the high resistance of the
semiconducting film on the cathode, then radiation capable of causing "radiational conductivity" in this
film should accelerate the cathode reaction and lead to a sharp increase in the current of the element. On
the basis of this proposed mechanism, irradiation of the anode cannot lead to increase in the current of the
element, which is confirmed by experiment.
359
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4. The relation of the current of the element to the radiation intensity was studied theoretically and
experimentally. From the theoretical examination, which was based on concepts of the photoconductivity of
semiconductors, the following relationship was derived:
= +Ayr
in which JI? is the current of the element in absence of radiation;
I is the radiation intensity; and
A is the constant for the given galvanic element.
The calculations made agreed satisfactorily with the experimental results.
Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
RADIATIONAL SENSITIZATION BY MEANS OF OXIDE SEMICONDUCTORS IN RE-
ACTIONS OF FORMATION AND DECOMPOSITION OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE IN
AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS UNDER THE ACTION OF y-RADIATION
D. M. Shub, G. S. Tyurikov, and V. I. Veselovsky
The ability of oxide semiconductors to sensitize chemical reactions in presence of radiation may be of
great importance for the development of effective means of utilizing the energy of nuclear radiation for
chemical purposes.
In this connection we carried out an investigation of the heterogeneous reaction of forming hydrogen
peroxide in aqueous suspensions of a semiconductor (ZnO, A1203) under the action of Co e4 y-radiation in
presence of oxygen. We studied also the effect of suspensions of oxide semiconductors on the decomposition
of hydrogen peroxide in aqueous solutions of various concentrations in the temperature range 8-45?. In presence
of the suspensfon, increase in the rate of accumulation of hydrogen peroxide was observed in the one case, and
decrease in the rate of decomposition was observed in the other. Simultaneously we investigated the laws
governing the action on these systems of optical radiation that is absorbed by the oxide semiconductor. We
again observed similar reactions of formation and decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, these being brought
about by the transfer of the electronic-excitation energy of the semiconductor to components of the reaction
medium.
The experimental results permit us to conclude that, as in photosensitized reactions in which energy of
optical frequencies absorbed by the semiconductor lead to photoelectrochemical reactions, in the reactions
studied radiational heterogeneous sensitization occurs and brings about analogous reactions. In the field of
ionizing radiations, oxide semiconductors are most effective in transforming absorbed quanta of high energy
into the energy of electronic excitation, i.e. several electron volts, sufficient for transfer of an electron into
the conductivity zone. As a result, the radiation-induced reactions under consideration are brought about
very effectively in the reaction zone, i.e. the semiconductor-solution interface.
For this treatment great importance must be attached to comparison of the sensitizing activity of semi-
conductors with their fluorescence properties, particularly with the quenching of fluorescence by individual
components of the reaction medium (02 and H202). The existence of a definite relationship between these
properties,or of a parallelism in their variation may be regarded as evidence of the correctness of the views
that we have expressed to the effect that these radiation-induced reactions that are promoted by oxide
360
?
?
?
?
?
?
4
semiconductors are dependent on transfer of electronic-excitation energy of the semiconductors to components
of the reactive medium.
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR
OXIDATION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF BENZENE UNDER THE ACTION OF
HIGH-POWER 7-RADIATION
E. V. Barelko, L. I. Kartasheva, P. D. Novikov, and M. A. Proskurnin
It was shown that ferrous ions have a sensitizing action for the oxidation of benzene and other aromatic
compounds. At an irradiation intensity of 20-50 roentgens per second, sensitization in this way made it possible
to triple the yield of phenol, as compared with the yield in the usual process. Apart from the increase in the
yield of phenol, the introduction of an iron salt completely prevents the formation of stable emulsions, which
in Weiss's opinion,are formed by biphenyl. The prevention of biphenyl formation constitutes a substantial
practical improvement in the process. However, this effect remains incomprehensible from the point of view
of previous concepts of the mechanism of the reaction.
Experiments with larger apparatus enabled us to obtain sufficient material for investigation, and analysis
showed that the product described by several authors as biphenyl is a more complex hydroxy derivative of this
compound. This is in accord with primary formation of C6H6OH and C6H6H and subsequent reaction between
these or polymerization with benzene molecules. Weiss's scheme does not provide an explanation of the absence
of biphenyl among the reaction products, the primary intermediary being regarded as the phenyl radical (C6H6).
It was somewhat unexpected to find that a comparatively small increase in the dosage intensity (by a
factor of 5-7 to about 200 roentgens per second) brings about a substantial change in the course of the process.
It was shown that, although there is an over-all increase in the yield of oxidation products, at higher
irradiation intensities The yield of phenol falls and oxidation proceeds further. We investigated methods of
interfering in the course of the process with the object of increasing yields and directing the process in the
required direction, and these may be useful for the development of a technical scheme for the utilization of
nuclear radiations.
In order to determine the nature of the sensitizing action of ferrous ions in the radiolytic oxidation of
benzene in water, we carried out experiments on the photochemical oxidation of benzene under analogous
conditions. These showed that benzene is oxidized in presence of water with formation of phenol and demon-
strated the sensitization of photochemical reactions by ferrous ions.
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361
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2014/01/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002800180003-5
4. The relation of the current of the element to the radiation intensity was studied theoretically and
experimentally. From the theoretical examination, which was based on concepts of the photoconductivity of
semiconductors, the following relationship was derived:
Jk = AlfT
in which g is the current of the element in absence of radiation;
I is the radiation intensity; and
A is the constant for the given galvanic element.
The calculations made agreed satisfactorily with the experimental results.
Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
RADIATIONAL SENSITIZATION BY MEANS OF OXIDE SEMICONDUCTORS IN RE-
ACTIONS OF FORMATION AND DECOMPOSITION OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE IN
AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS UNDER THE ACTION OF y-RADIATION
D. M. Shub, G. S. Tyurikov, and V. I. Veselovsky
The ability of oxide semiconductors to sensitize chemical reactions in presence of radiation may be of
great importance for the development of effective means of utilizing the energy of nuclear radiation for
chemical purposes.
In this connection we carried out an investigation of the heterogeneous reaction of forming hydrogen
peroxide in aqueous suspensions of a semiconductor (ZnO, A1203) under the action of Co" y-radiation in
presence of oxygen. We studied also the effect of suspensions of oxide semiconductors on the decomposition
of hydrogen peroxide in aqueous colutions of various concentrations in the temperature range 8-45?. In presence
of the suspension, increase in the rate of accumulation of hydrogen peroxide was observed in the one case, and
decrease in the rate of decomposition was observed in the other. Simultaneously we investigated the laws
governing the action on these systems of optical radiation that is absorbed by the oxide semiconductor. We
again observed similar reactions of formation and decomposition of hydrogen peroxide, these being brought
about by the transfer of the electronic-excitation energy of the semiconductor to components of the reaction
medium.
The experimental results permit us to conclude that, as in photosensitized reactions in which energy of
optical frequencies absorbed by the semiconductor lead to photoelectrochemical reactions, in the reactions
studied radiational heterogeneous sensitization occurs and brings about analogous reactions. In the field of
ionizing radiations, oxide semiconductors are most effective in transforming absorbed quanta of high energy
into the energy of electronic excitation, i.e. several electron volts, sufficient for transfer of an electron into
the conductivity zone. As a result, the radiation-induced reactions under consideration are brought about
very effectively in the reaction zone, i.e. the semiconductor-solution interface.
For this treatment great importance must be attached to comparison of the sensitizing activity of semi-
conductors with their fluorescence properties, particularly with the quenching of fluorescence by individual
components of the reaction medium (02 and H202). The existence of a definite relationship between these
properties,or of a parallelism in their variation may be regarded as evidence of the correctness of the views
that we have expressed to the effect that these radiation-induced reactions that are promoted by oxide
360
-
a
?
?
?
4.
semiconductors are dependent on transfer of electronic-excitation energy of the semiconductors to components
of the reactive medium.
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR
OXIDATION OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF BENZENE UNDER THE ACTION OF
HIGH-POWER y-RADIATION
E. V. Barelko, L. I. Kartasheva, P. D. Novikov, and M. A. Proskurnin
It was shown that ferrous ions have a sensitizing action for the oxidatiorrof benzene and other aromatic
compounds. At an irradiation intensity of 20-50 roentgens per second, sensitization in this way made it possible
to triple the yield of phenol, as compared with the yield in the usual process. Apart from the increase in the
yield of phenol, the introduction of an iron salt completely prevents the formation of stable emulsions, which,
in Weiss's opinion,are formed by biphenyl. The prevention of biphenyl formation constitutes a substantial
practical improvement in the process. However, this effect remains incomprehensible from the point of view
of previous concepts of the mechanism of the reaction.
Experiments with larger apparatus enabled us to obtain sufficient material for investigation, and analysis
showed that the product described by several authors as biphenyl is a more complex hydroxy derivative of this
compound. This is in accord with primary formation of C6H6OH and C6H6H and subsequent reaction between
these or polymerization with benzene molecules. Weiss's scheme does not provide an explanation of the absence
of biphenyl among the reaction products, the primary intermediary being regarded as the phenyl radical (C6I-16).
It was somewhat unexpected to find that a comparatively small increase in the dosage intensity (by a
factor of 5-7 to about 200 roentgens per second) brings about a substantial change in the course of the process.
It was shown that, although there is an over-all increase in the yield of oxidation products, at higher
irradiation intensities .the yield of phenol falls and oxidation proceeds further. We investigated methods of
interfering in the course of the process with the object of increasing yields and directing the process in the
required direction, and these may be useful for the development of a technical scheme for the utilization of
nuclear radiations.
In order to determine the nature of the sensitizing action of ferrous ions in the radiolytic oxidation of
benzene in water, we carried out experiments on the photochemical oxidation of benzene under analogous
conditions. These showed that benzene is oxidized in presence of water with formation of phenol and demon-
strated the sensitization of photochemical reactions by ferrous ions.
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361
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR
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ACTION OF X-RAYS ON DILUTE AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS OF SOME ORGANIC
SUBSTANCES
V. I. Duzhenkov and P. I. Dolin
In order to determine the reactivities of certain organic substances toward H, OH, and H02 radicals, an
Investigation was made into the effect of additions of various organic compounds on the yield of the molecular
radiolysis products of water in solutions varying in acidity.
The introduction of organic additives results in an increase in GH2 and GiiO2. an effect that is more
notable in acid solutions ( 0.1 M H2SO4) than in alkaline solutions. The increase in GH2 and GH202 on
addition of certain organic substances is due to the more effective interaction of the radical radiolysis products
(OH and H) with the organic additive than with the molecular radiolysis products. This results in the suppression
of reverse reactions and so to increase in the yields of H2 and H202.
Different organic additions produce different effects owing to the differing reactivities of these subFinnces
towatd OH, and H, and H02 radicals.
It was found that there is a lowering effect on the limiting pressure of H2 in solutions saturated with 02
when certain organic substances are added, the effect being dependent on the nature and concentration of the
organic addition. It is characteristic that the greatest lowering of limiting pressure occurs in solutions of
substances that increase GH2 and GH e
-2
It was shown that the lowering of limiting pressure and the increase in the initial yield of H2, due to the
addition of organic substances to aqueous solutions,are in accord with the ability of the organic substances
themselves to undergo oxidative radiolysis in the pure state.
On the basis of our results, the organic substances investigated can be placed in the following order with
respect to increase in the effectiveness of their interaction with the radiolysis products of water: benzene,
acetic acid, heptane, acetone, ethanol, hexanoic acid, and hexyl alcohol.
Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
LINKED OXIDATION-REDUCTION PROCESSES IN THE RADIOLYSIS OF AQUEOUS
SOLUTIONS
V. D. Orekov, M. A. Proskurnin, V. A. Sharpaty, and A. A. Zansokhova
The System Leuco Compound of Dye? Sodium Nitrate
The conversion of leuco compounds of dyes into the colored (quinonoid) forms on radiolysis in aqueous
solutions proceeds in two stages (the intermediate oxidation product is a semiquinone, which, on accumulating
in the solution may be reduced back by H atoms formed by the radiolysis of water).
The initial yield in the process of oxidizing the leuco compound of a dye in aqueous solution is much
lower than the yield of the radiolysis products of water, OH radicals and H atoms. For example, in the
oxidation of Indigosol A, the leuco compound of a dye, dissolved in water, at pH 3,the yield is about 0.5
molecule per 100 ev. Introduction into the solution of an acceptor substance for the radiolysis products of
water, which have reducing properties, results in a sharp rise in the yield in the oxidation reaction of the
362
t,
4
?
?
?
?
leuco compound. Dissolved 02 (air) can serve as one such acceptor, and in its presence the initial yield of
the process is 1.4 molecules per 100 ev. The nitrate ion is still more highly effective. At appreciable nitrate
concentrations(10-2M to1M) the yield in the oxidation of the leuco compound increases to 5 molecules per
100 ev (in absence of air). This behavior is probably associated with the participation of activated water
molecules (up to 12 molecules per 100 ev) in secondary processes.
The same linked processes carried out in presence of air are complicated by oxidation processes in which
molecular 02 takes part, the carrier for this being probably products of the reduction of nitrite formed in the
radiolysis. Analogous processes are observed in leuco compounds of other dyes of the same type (Bromoindigosol,
Indigosol red brown, etc.).
The System Sodium Nitrate?Glycerol
An investigation was carried out into the conditions for the sensitization of the radiolytic transformation
of sodium nitrate at various concentrations in alkaline solution ( in which the rate of oxidation of nitrite formed
during irradiation is reduced to a minimum). The yield in the transformation of nitrate depends greatly on the
nature of the dissolved gas (for example, molecular oxygen has an inhibiting effect on'the reduction of nitrate).
An investigation was made into the temperature-dependence of the radiolytic transformation of sodium nitrate
in the temperature range 20-90? in presence and in absence of glycerol, which sensitizes the reduction of the
nitrate ion (the sensitizing effect of glycerol is notable at concentrations of greater than 5.10" M). In the
irradiation of a solution of NaNO3(1M)and KOHOM), rise in temperature from 20 to 40* causes an increase in
yield of nitrite ion from 3 tp 6.5 equivalents per 100 ev, and at 80-90? the sodium nitrite yield is 8 equivalents
per 100 ev. Under these conditions of irradiaticn the introduction of glycerol in the temperature range 25-35'
results in a considerable fall in the nitrite yield (to 1 equivalent per 100 ev), and at temperatures above 35?,
to a rapid rise (to 10.5 equivalents per 100 ev). In the irradiation of solutions saturated with nitrogen the yield
of NO2" is independent of the temperature of the solution.
Our results are of interest as an example of the sensitization of nonchain radiation-induced process in
aqueous solutions, and they illustrate the hypothesis previously advanced by the authors concerning the possibility
of bringing all radiolyzed water molecules into reaction under certain conditions.
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the Ministry
of Chemical Industry of the USSR
INVESTIGATION OF THE FADING OF AN AQUEOUS SOLUTION OF METHYLENE BLUE
UNDER THE ACTION OF X-RAYS
Ya. L. Shekhtman and T. G. Ratner
1. With the object of studying the kinetics of the fading of Methylene blue in aqueous solution under
the action of ionizing radiations, we investigated the relation of the fading of an aqueous solution of Methylene
blue to the acidity of the solution within the concentration range of 40-1000 micromoles per liter.
2. It was shown that fading depends on the pH of the solution and has a minimum at pH 4. In weakly acid
solutions (pH 5.5) in presence of oxygen, fading proceeds irreversibly in accordance with an exponential law and
Is dependent on the initial concentration of the solution.
Between the 3710 dose, i.e. the dose necessary for the destruction of 63go of the original dye molecules,
and the initial dye concentration Co there is a linear relationship:
Co/Do = K
363
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2014/01/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002800180003-5
In accordance with these results and the analytically derived reaction equation it may be supposed that
fading products of the dye react with active radicals formed in the water, these fading products having the
same "affinity" for radicals as the original dye molecules have. The yield obtained in the reaction does not
depend on concentration.
3. In acid solutions (pH 1.0) there is no linear relation between Co and Do; the ratio Co/ Do and the
yield in the reaction increase with increase in concentration.
4. We used an aqueous solution of Methylene blue as an indicator in the investigation of the "affinity"
to active radicals shown by certain organic compounds; urea, thiourea, cysteine, cystine, and glucose. The
?protection? coefficients calculated from the results are in accord with Dale's results, which are obtained with
carboxypeptidase as indicator. This method can be used in the food industry in radiational sterilization of
food products.
Institute of Biological Physics of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
SYNTHESIS AND TRANSFORMATIONS OF LEUCO COMPOUNDS OF DYES UNDER THE
ACTION OF Co" y- RADIATION
I. V. Vereshchinsky, L. T. Karpushkin, and #V. N. Shcheglov
1. The decolorization of dye solutions under the action of ionizing radiations has been investigated by
several authors. In the present work an investigation was made into the conditions for the formation of the
colored forms of dyes from the corresponding leuco compounds under the action of Co? y-radiation.
2. Leuco compounds of various triarylmethane dyes were synthesized (Malachite green, Brilliant green,
Crystal violet, Methyl violet, Basic blue K). When methanol solutions of the leuco compounds are irradiated
with 7-rays, the corresponding dyes are formed. Reaction requires the presence of molecular oxygen in the
system.
3. When y-radiation acts on a mixture of ethanolic solutions of 1- naphthol and p-phenylenediamine
in presence of molecular oxygen, the synthesis occurs of the dye Indophenol blue. In absence of molecular
oxygen the leuco form is formed, and this is converted into the dye during subsequent contact with molecular
oxygen.
4. The possible mechanism of the radiation-induced reactions occurring is discussed.
Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
364
4;
a
a
.4
?
?
EFFECT OF IRRADIATION OF PROTEIN SOLUTIONS WITH X-RAYS IN AIR AND IN
A VACUUM
T. E. Pavlovskaya and A. G. Pasynsky
In our previous investigations (Colloid J. 14, 239, 1952; 17, 305, 1955), by the methods of infrared and
ultraviolet spectrophotometry (particularly ultraviolet), it was shown that the changes in absorption due to the
action of the ionizing radiations, which are attributed in the literature (Barron and others) entirely to chemical
changes undergone by the protein during irradiation, are in large measure due to Rayleigh scattering by aggre-
gated protein particles; only a residual effect in the change in true absorption (after subtraction of the Rayleigh
correction, which attains 20-4010 of the total effect)should be attributed to chemical changes brought about
by irradiation in the chromophoric groups of the protein.
In the present investigation we have developed a method of eliminating the effect of scattering in the
measurement of absorption spectra by comparison with "standard" suspensions (quartz in glycerol, palmitic
acid in water, etc.). A comparison is made of the changes in the true absorption of protein solutions when
irradiated with x-rays in the air and in a vacum (doses of up to 500,000 roentgens). The changes in the true
absorption of protein solutions, when irradiated in a vacuum, are determined by the action of H and OH radicals
and hydrogen peroxide. Introduction into these solutions of sodium octanoate or cysteine, which react with
the oxidizing component of irradiated water, enables uf to eliminate the effect of OH radicals and hydrogen
peroxide on the chromophoric groupe of the protein. When this is done, the change in the true absorption of
the protein during irradiation is reduced by 55-501.. In this way we may determine approximately by difference
the relative content of H radicals for irradiation in a vacuum.
A. N. Balch Institute of Biochemistry of the Academy
of Sciences of the USSR
ACTION OF Co60 y-RADIA TION ON PROTEINS AND AMINO ACIDS
M. A. Khenokh and E. M. Lapinskaya
This paper gives results on the action of y-radiation on proteins and amino acids. Cog? (about 2 curies)
was used as source of radiation. The findings are as follows.
1. In 0.50/0 solutions of albumin, casein, and gelatin, y-radiation (dose 7.5-1016 ev/ cc) causes an in-
crease in ultraviolet absorption in the region 230-300 mu. No new maxima appear.
2. Irradiation of a 5.kgelatin gel (dose about 11.5.1016 ev/ cc) results in its conversion into a form that
is insoluble in water at 50-60?. y-Radiation reduces the ability of gelatin to swell and causes a gel to become
capable to only limited swelling even at elevated temperature, which is probably to be explained by the
formation of cross links during irradiation.
3. In amino acid solutions, oxidative processes occurring under the action of y-radiation cause deamination
with liberation of ammonia and rupture of C?C bonds in carbon chains with formation.of formaldehyde (dose
about 11-1016 ev/ cc).
4. It was established with the aid of paper chromatography that, when irradiated, amino acids are
decomposed with formation of amino acids having a shorter chain. Analogous results were obtained by the
action of Fentont reagent on amino acids.
365
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5. Under the action of y-radiation at a dosage of 0.6.10?? 1.0.1020 ev/cc, solutions of the aliphatic amino
acids, glycine, alanine, leucine, and histidine show an increase in optical density. In cystine solutions irradiated at
a dosage of 9.5.1019? 21.3.1019 ev/cc, the absorption in the ultraviolet region is reduced.
6. In solutions of the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine, the action of y-radiation at a dose
of 1.8.1019? 4.8.1019 ev/ cc results in increased absorption in the ultraviolet region, but no new absorption maxima
are formed. In tryptophan solutions irradiation results in a reduction in absorption (2.84019-- 8.04019 ev/ cc).
Oxidative reactions due to the action of y-radiation (1.84019-5.44019 ev/cc) cause hydroxylation of the
six-membered ring of phenylalanine with formation of phenols.
7. Irradiation of aqueous solutions of benzene results in increase in optical density in the region 230-260 mp.
New sharp absorption bands at 260 and 2'76 my are found in the absorption spectrum of irradiated benzene solution,
thus indicating the formation of phenol. It was shown also that a new absorption region (305-370 my with maximum
at 348 my) makes its appearance. The action of y-radiation on aqueous solutions of benzene results in the rupture
of C-C bonds in the benzene ring with formation of formaldehyde.
8. The y-irradiation of aqueous solutions of toluene at a dosage of 1.46-1019-2.56.1019 ev/cc causes the
formation of a new absorption region (340-370 mp with a maximum at 355 my). The absorption in the region
230-280 my is preserved.
The results of spectrum analysis on irradiated phenol solutions show that y-radiation (dose 4.92.1019-
8.99.1019 ev/ cc) has no appreciable effect on the absorption spectrum of these solutions. Comparison of the
effect of y-radiation on the spectra of aqueous solutions of benzene, toluene, and phenol showed that the phenol
spectrum is the most stable to the action of ionizing radiation.
9. Experiments on the effect of free radicals (Fenton's reagent) on benzene solutions showed that changes
occur in the benzene spectrum (in the region 230-280 my) which are analogous to those produced by y-rays.
P. F. Lesgart State Natural Science Institute, Leningrad
EFFECT OF IONIZING RADIATIONS ON ANIMAL FATS
B. N. Tarusov
1. A study was made of the kinetics of changes in physicochemical properties (viscosity, spectral character
istics, peroxide numbers, etc.) and in toxic properties of fats isolated from the livers of mammals and fish and
then irradiated with x- and y-rays.
2. In fats irradiated in presence of oxygen, active products are formed and postradiational reactions occur
which proceed by a branched-chain mechanism with formation of toxic products.
3. Sterols are natural inhibitors for this reaction. The development of the oxidative chain reaction is
ensured by a parallel reaction which destroys the inhibitor and also proceeds by a chain mechanism.
4. In presence of water there is a considerable acceleration of reaction and a high yield of highly toxic
unsaturated acids is obtained. The accumulation of unsaturated acids in the postradiational reaction shows no
parallelism with the formation and accumulation of peroxide compounds.
5. A study was made of the dependence of reaction rate on dose, terrperature, oxygen content, and
amount of water.
6. On the basis of a comparison of these results with results obtained on living organisms, it is suggested
that analogous reactions, accompanied by the formation of highly toxic unsaturated fatty acids, occur in the
fatty phases of organisms.
M. V. Lomonosov State University, Moscow
366
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EFFECT OF THE 7-RADIATION OF RADIOACTIVE COBALT ON THE ABSORPTION
SPECTRA OF CARBOHYDRATES
M. A. Khenokh
This paper gives data on the effect of -radiation on carbohydrate solutions. The source of radiation
was Co64 (about 2 curies).
The findings are as follows.
1. The ultraviolet absorption of starch solutions increases as the dosage increases from 1.7?10" to
8.8.1019 ev/cc. At the same time, an absorption maximum is formed at 264.5-265 nil and a minimum at
240 my.
2. In inulin solutions at dosages of 0.724019-104019 ev/cc, the absorption maximum lies at 271 my
and the minimum at 240 m.y. Increase of dosage causes a displacement of Xmax and Xmin in the direction
of the shorter waves and the establishment of a stable maximum at 265 my with a minimum at 230-232 mp.
According to data in the literature, this corresponds to the absorption spectrum of dihydroxyacetone.
3. In glucose solutions at dosages of 2.4.1019? 24.1019 ev/ cc, products are formed with an absorption
maximum at 258-260 m y and a minimum at 232 my. In fructose solutions at dosages of 1.74019-4.34019
ev/cc, the maximum and minimum are at 264-265 my and 232-230 my, respectively.
4. In solutions of carbohydrates named in paragraphs 1, 2, and 3, and also in solutions of other sugars,
oxidative processes occurring under the action of y-rays cause rupture of C?C bonds in the carbohydrate
chains with formation of formaldehyde.
5. In maltose solutions at dosages of 1.84019--5.4.1019 Xmax lies at 262 my and Xmin at
252 my. In lactose solutions the corresponding wavelengths are 264-265 my and 240 my.
6. Irradiation of sucrose and raffinose solutions (0.85.1019? 3.80-1019 ev/ cc) causes the appearance
of a maximum at 265-264 my and of a minimum at 231 my.
7. Qualitative and quantitative chromatographic analysis on paper showed that in y-irradiated sucrose
and raffinose solutions hydrolysis occurs with rupture of the 1,2-bond in sucrose and the 1,6-bond in raffinose.
In the radiolysis of sucrose solutions the fructose yield was 1.48 molecules per 100 ev, and in the radiolysis of
raffinose solutions it was 0.36 molecule per 100 ev.
8. Irradiation of mannitol solutions resulted in the appearance of an absorption maximum at 265 my
and a minimum at 230 my.
In the irradiated solutions fructose is formed in a yield of 0.5 molecule per 100 ev.
Under the action of y-radiation, carbohydrates not only undergo decomposition, but also undergo
simultaneous transformations in which the original number of carbon atoms in the molecule is preserved.
9. The results of this work may be of practical interest in connection with attempts to make use of
ionizing radiation for the destruction of macromolecular carbohydrates and also for sterilization, for example
in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
367
P. F. Lesgart State Natural Science Institute,
Leningrad
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5. Under the action of y-radiation at a dosage of 0.6.1019? 1.0.102? el/ice, solutions of the aliphatic amino
acids, glycine, alanine, leucine, and histidine show an increase in optical density. In cystine solutions irradiated at
a dosage of 9.5.1019? 21.3.10" ev/cc, the absorption in the ultraviolet region is reduced.
6. In solutions of the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine, the action of y-radiation at a dose
of 1.8.1019? 4.8.1019 ev/ cc results in increased absorption in the ultraviolet region, but no new absorption maxima
are formed. In tryptophan solutions irradiation results in a reduction in absorption (2.8'1019? 8.0.1019 ev/ cc).
Oxidative reactions due to the action of y-radiation (1.8.1019-5.44019 ev/ cc) cause hydroxylation of the
six-membered ring of phenylalanine with formation of phenols.
7. Irradiation of aqueous solutions of benzene results in increase in optical density in the region 230-260 mg.
New sharp absorption bands at 260 and 276 mg are found in the absorption spectrum of irradiated benzene solution,
thus indicating the formation of phenol. It was shown also that a new absorption region (305-370 mg with maximum
at 348 mg) makes its appearance. The action of y-radiation on aqueous solutions of benzene results in the rupture
of C-C bonds in the benzene ring with formation of formaldehyde.
8. The y-irradiation of aqueous solutions of toluene at a dosage of 1.46.1019-2.56.1019 ev/cc causes the
formation of a new absorption region (340-370 mg with a maximum at 355 mg). The absorption in the region
230-280 mg is preserved.
The results of spectrum analysis on irradiated phenol solutions show that y-radiation (dose 4.92.1019-
8.99.1019 ev/ cc) has no appreciable effect on the absorption spectrum of these solutions. Comparison of the
effect of y-radiation on the spectra of aqueous solutions of benzene, toluene, and phenol showed that the phenol
spectrum is the most stable to the action of ionizing radiation.
9. Experiments on the effect of free radicals (Fenton's reagent) on benzene solutions showed that changes
occur in the benzene spectrum (in the region 230-280 mg) which are analogous to those produced by 7-rays.
P. F. Lesgart State Natural Science Institute, Leningrad
EFFECT OF IONIZING RADIATIONS ON ANIMAL FATS
B. N. Tarusov
1. A study was made of the kinetics of changes in physicochemical properties (viscosity, spectral character
istics, peroxide numbers, etc.) and in toxic properties of fats isolated from the livers of mammals and fish and
then irradiated with x- and y-rays.
2. In fats irradiated in presence of oxygen, active products are formed and postradiational reactions occur
which proceed by a branched-chain mechanism with formation of toxic products.
3. Sterols are natural inhibitors for this reaction. The development of the oxidative chain reaction is
ensured by a parallel reaction which destroys the inhibitor and also proceeds by a chain mechanism.
4. In presence of water there is a considerable acceleration of reaction and a high yield of highly toxic
unsaturated acids is obtained. The accumulation of unsaturated acids in the postradiational reaction shows no
parallelism with the formation and accumulation of peroxide compounds.
5. A study was made of the dependence of reaction rate on dose, terrperature, oxygen content, and
amount of water.
6. On the basis of a comparison of these results with results obtained on living organisms, it is suggested
that analogous reactions, accompanied by the formation of highly toxic unsaturated fatty acids, occur in the
fatty phases of organisms.
M. V. Lomonosov State University, Moscow
366
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EFFECT OF THE 7-RADIATION OF RADIOACTIVE COBALT ON THE ABSORPTION
SPECTRA OF CARBOHYDRATES
M. A. Khenokh
This paper gives data on the effect of y -radiation on carbohydrate solutions. The source of radiation
was Cos? (about 2 curies).
The findings are as follows.
1. The ultraviolet absorption of starch solutions increases as the dosage increases from 1.7'1019 to
8.8'1019 ev/cc. At the same time, an absorption maximum is formed at 264.5-265 rro and a minimum at
240 mg.
2. In inulin solutions at dosages of 0.72.1019-10.1019 ev/cc, the absorption maximum lies at 271 mg
and the minimum at 240 m.g. Increase of dosage causes a displacement of Amax and Amin in the direction
of the shorter waves and the establishment of a stable maximum at 265 mg with a minimum at 230-232 mg.
According to data in the literature, this corresponds to the absorption spectrum of dihydroxyacetone.
3. In glucose solutions at dosages of 2.4.1019? 244019 ev/ cc, products are formed with an absorption
maximum at 258-260 m g and a minimum at 232 mg. In fructose solutions at dosages of 1.7.1019-4.3.1019
ev/ cc, the maximum and minimum are at 264-265 mg and 232-230 mg, respectively.
4. In solutions of carbohydrates named in paragraphs 1, 2, and 3, and also in solutions of other sugars,
oxidative processes occurring under the action of 7-rays cause rupture of C?C bonds in the carbohydrate
chains with formation of formaldehyde.
5. In maltose solutions at dosages of 1.84019-5.4.1019 ev/cc, Amax lies at 262 mg and Amin at
252 mil. In lactose solutions the corresponding wavelengths are 264-265 mil and 240 mg.
6. Irradiation of sucrose and raffinose solutions (0.85.1019? 3.80.1019 ev/ cc) causes the appearance
of a maximum at 265-264 mg and of a minimum at 231 mg.
7. Qualitative and quantitative chromatographic analysis on paper showed that in y-irradiated sucrose
and raffinose solutions hydrolysis occurs with rupture of the 1,2-bond in sucrose and the 1, 6-bond in raffinose.
In the radiolysis of sucrose solutions the fructose yield was 1.48 molecules per 100 ev, and in the radiolysis of
raffinose solutions it was 0.36 molecule per 100 ev.
8. Irradiation of mannitol solutions resulted in the appearance of an absorption maximum at 265 mg
and a minimum at 230 mg.
In the irradiated solutions fructose is formed in a yield of 0.5 molecule per 100 ev.
Under the action of y-radiation, carbohydrates not only undergo decomposition, but also undergo
simultaneous transformations in which the original number of carbon atoms in the molecule is preserved.
9. The results of this work may be of practical interest in connection with attempts to make use of
ionizing radiation for the destruction of macromolecular carbohydrates and also for sterilization, for example
in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
367
P. F. Lesgart State Natural Science Institute.
Leningrad
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EFFECT OF y-RADIATION ON THE ABSORPTION SPECTRA OF NUCLEIC ACIDS AND
OF PYRIMIDINE AND PURINE BASES
T. N. Rysina
6.
1. The problem of the action of ionizing radiation on nucleic acids and allied compounds attracts much
attention from investigators in connection with the considerable sensitivity of these compounds toward
radiation and their direct participation in fundamental biological processes.
2. A study was made of the ultraviolet absorption spectra of solutions (of various concentrations) of
purine and pyrimidine bases of biological importance, and also of adenosinetriphosphoric, deoxyribonucleic,
and ribonucleic acids, after y-irradiation.in doses of 1,000 to 20,000 roentgens.
3. The ultraviolet absorption spectra of most of the solutions investigated were altered by y-irradiation.
The optical density at the absorption maximum was reduced in proportion to the dose.
4. The results indicated that pyrimidines are more sensitive to radiation than the purines.
The changes effected in the absorption spectra of nucleic acids are less than those for the pyrimidine
bases, but greater than those for the purines.
Differences in the4ensitivity to radiation of individual pyrimidines and iturines were noted.
The paper discusses the causes of the different radiational sensitivities of the compounds investigated.
5. This work enables us to conclude that the effect of ionizing radiations on nitrogenous bases is an
indirect one.
Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE IONIZATION OF IRON-CONTAINING COMPOUNDS DURING
THE IRRADIATION OF AN ORGANISM WITH X-RAYS
S. E. Manoilov
The topics discussed in the paper are concerned with the possibility of the direct ionization by x-rays
of metal-containing substances, particularly the iron compounds that form components of enzymes which
bring about biological oxidation in living organisms. On the basis of results obtained experimentally both
in -vivo and in vitro, it is concluded that, during treatment with ionizing radiations, there is a specific attack
on iron-containing compounds of great importance for the life processes of the organism.
Central Radiological Research Institute, Leningrad
368
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ISOMERIZATION OF XYLENES UNDER THE ACTION OF y-RADIATION
A. I. Gelbshtein, M. I. Temkin, G. G. Shcheglova, T. V. Ilyukhina,
and M. A. Proskurnin
Under the action of ionizing radiation, hydrocarbon. molecules lose electrons with the creation of
electronic configurations which, according to Whitmore and Dewar, make it possible for molecular arrange-
ments to occur. In particular, loss of an electron by a xylene molecule should lead to the formation of a
carbonim ion capable of undergoing isomerization.
On the basis of these considerations we c aried out experiments in which pure o-, m-, and p-xylenes
were subjected to the action of y-radiation a room temperature. The irradiated samples were analyzed with
the aid of ultraviolet absorption spectra.
Under the action of y- radiation, each of the three xylenes is isomerized into thd other two. The lowest
yield of isomers is given by o-xylene (2 molecules per 100 ev), and the highest by p-xylene (6 molecules per
100 ev). The number of acts of reaction occurring for each act of ionization is two in the case of the isomer-
ization of p-xylene. This can be explained by the transfer of an electron from one molecule to another or by
the participation of activated molecules in the reaction. Addition of 0.2 mole le of the electron acceptor
CBr4 has no effect on the yield of products.
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR
TRANSFORMATIONS OF GASEOUS SATURATED HYDROCARBONS AND ETHYLENE
UNDER THE ACTION OF FAST ELECTRONS
?
B. M. Mikhailov, M. V. Tarasova, V. G. Kiselev, and V. S. Bogdanov
L Saturated Hydrocarbons
1. A study was made of the effect of 90-key electrons on gaseous aliphatic hydrocarbons (methane,
ethane, propane, and butane). The effects of the pressure of the irradiated gas and the duration of irradiation
on the radiolysis of the hydrocarbons were determined.
2. The main reaction in the radiation-induced transformations of these hydrocarbons is dehydro-
condensation. Methane undergoes 500/0 conversion into liquid saturated hydrocarbons, and ethane, propane,
and butane are similarly transformed to the extent of 70-90010. A characteristic of the radiolysis of these
hydrocarbons is the insignificant extent to which the lower gaseous unsaturated hydrocarbons are formed.
3. The stabilities of methane and propane toward radiolysis are approximately the same; as we pass
to propane and butane the stability increases.
4. The amount of hydrocarbon transformed increases with increase in dosage intensity, pressure of
irradiated gas, and duration of irradiation.
U. Ethylene
1. An investigation was made into the transformations of ethylene under the action of a beam of fast
electrons.
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The effects on the course of reaction of duration of irradiation, pressure, and dilution of the original
ethylene with nitrogen were determined.
2. It was found that the radiolysis of ethylene gives mainly butane, acetylene, and liquid products.
3. Apart from butane and acetylene, the gaseous reaction products contain very small amounts of
hydrogen, methane, ethane, and butenes, and also traces of propane and propene.
4. The liquid products boiling below 130' consist of hexanes, hexenes, octanes, and octenes. The higher
fractions contain appreciable amounts of aromatic and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
5. The reaction has a G-value of 16 molecules per 100 ev.
6. It was found that, under the same irradiation conditions, rarefaction of the ethylene, while not
appreciably affecting the composition of the product, somewhat increases the extent to which the ethylene is
decomposed.
7. Dilution with nitrogen considerably increases the extent to which the ethylene is decomposed, and
it simultaneously lowers the G-value.
8. A reaction mechanism, which explains the formation of molecules having even numbers of carbon
atoms, is proposed.
Institute of Organic Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
SOME PROBLEMS IN THE RADIATION CHEMISTRY OF MIXTURES OF ORGANIC
SUBSTANCES
Kh. S. Bagdasaryan,T. S. Nikitina, and V. A. Krongauz
1, In the radiolysis of mixtures of organic substances the yield of radicals often differs from the value
corresponding to the "rule of mixtures." In other words, in the general case the formation of radicals from
each component of the mixture cannot be regarded as independent processes.
2. Departures from the rule of mixtures for the yield of radicals were detected with the aid of
diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) in the radiolysis of mixtures of benzene and vinyl acetate.
3. In the radiation-induced polymerization of methyl methacrylate in ethyl acetate solution, the rate
of initiation is constant and is independent of the concentration of methyl methacrylate in the mixture. These
results can be explained by the formation of primary radicals during radiolysis from both components of the
mixture in accordance with the rule of mixtures.
4. In the radiation-induced polymerization of methyl methacrylate or styrene in mixtures with carbon
tetrachloride, the rate of polymerization passes through a maximum at low contents of carbon tetrachloride,
which indicates a positive departure of the yield from the rule of mixtures.
5. The rate of the chain reaction proceeding under the action of y-rays or light and leading to the
formation of the addition product of carbon tetrachloride and butyl vinyl ether passes through a maximum
when the carbon tetrachloride content of the mixture is 65%.
6. The G-value for the decomposition of benzoyl peroxide in benzene solution is very great. In 0.01 M
solution G = 1760 (calculated on the enegy absorbed by the benzoyl peroxide). This result is in accord with
data obtained with the aid of DPPII on the yield of radicals in this system. When additions of phenanthrene,
anthracene, and benzoic anhydride are made, the rate of decomposition of the peroxide dirninishes. The
370
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results indicate transfer of energy from activated benzene molecules to benzoyl peroxide molecules with the
result that the latter decompose.
7. Taken together, the results obtained by the radiolysis of solutions of benzoyl peroxide in ethyl
acetate and cyclohexane indicate the absence of an effect of energy transfer from solvent molecules to benzoyl
peroxide molecules. The high yield found for the decomposition of the peroxide in these solvents is due to a
chain reaction.
8. The G-value for the decomposition of a 0.1 M solution of tert-butyl peroxide in benzene is 17
(calculated s5
latrsetdem.on the energy absorbed by the peroxide). It iwas concluded that there is no energy-transfer effect
in this
9. At 30' the rate of the radiation-induced polymerization of styrene is increased three-fold in presence
of 0.01 mole per liter of benzoyl peroxide. Addition of 2,2'-azobis[2-methylpropionitrile] to the styrene has
no effect on the rate of polymerization.
10. The results enable us to make the general conclusion that the efficiency of the transfer of activation
energy in mixtures is great only when both components are aromatic compounds.
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR
ACTION OF y-RADIATION ON MIXTURES OF BENZENE AND CARBON TETRACHLORIDE
'WITH FLUORINE-CONTAINING SUBSTANCES
A. V. Zimin, S. V. Churmanteev, and A. D. Verina
1. There are no data in the literature on the action of y-radiation on mixtures of benzene and CCI4
with fluorine-containing substances. There are papers by A. V. Zimin, S. V. Chunnanteev, and A. D. Verina
(Collection of Papers on Radiation Chemistry, Acad. Sci. USSR Press, 1955, p. 249) and by A. V. Zimin and
A. D. Verina (Collection of Papers on Radiation Chemistry, 1957) in which the effect of y-radiation on a "
mixture of benzene and CC1 4 is studied.
2. in these investigations it was established that treatment of a mixture of benzene and CC14 with
y-radiation leads to the formation of HC1, products of the chlorination of benzene (of the benzotrichloride
type) and other nonvolatile products. The yield of volatile chlorination products of benzene did not exceed
about 1 molecule per 100 ev.
3. In the present investigation we studied the effect of y-radiation on mixtures of CC14 with KF, ZnF2,
and SbF3 and on mixtures of benzene with C2F3C1 3 and C3F6.
4. In the irradiation of mixtures of CC! 4 with KF, ZnF2, and SbF3, we observed a loss of fluorine from
these fluorides.
5. The least loss of fluorine was observed in KF (about 3%) and the most in SbF3 (about 60%). For
ZnF2 the loss was about 35%.
6. After irradiation of a heterogeneous mixture of CC1 4 with ZnF2 or SbF3, the latter were found to
contain chloride ions, the yield of which was about 3.5 Cl" ions per 100 ev; correspondingly, in doubly
recondensed CC14 we detected bound chlorine in a yield of about 3 atoms per 100 ev.
7. In the mass-spectrometric analysis of doubly recondensed Cd 1 4 we detected an appreciable amount
of mass 102, which corresponds to the CFC1t ion, which was probably formed by the electron bombardment
of a CFC1 3 molecule. According to the results of N. N. Tunitsky, S. E. Kupriyanov, and M. V. Tikhomirov
371
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(Collection of Papers on Radiation Chemistry, Acad. Sci. USSR Press, 1955, p.223), the occurrence of such
ionization accompanied by the dissociation of CFC13 molecules is possible.
8. After treatment of mixtures of benzene with C2F3C13 and with C3F6 with y-radiation, nonvolatile
residues were found.
9. In the case of the irradiation of a mixture of benzene and C2F3C13, the chlorine and fluorine contents
of the nonvolatile residue were not equivalent. From the total halogen content of the nonvolatile residue it
may be inferred that, in reacting with a C2F3C13 molecule, the benzene molecule gives a halogenated product
of benzene of the type C6H6C3F2CL3.
10. In the case of the irradiation of a mixture of benzene and C3F6 at a molar ratio of 1 : 1, the main
radiolysis products are biphenyl and hydrogenated products from C3Fe, whereas at a molar ratio of 1 100
there is no appreciable amount of biphenyl and there is a nonvolatile viscous residue of fluorine content about
34.6 oh which corresponds closely to molecules of the type (C6H6)2C3F6.
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR
PROSPECT OF PREPARING HEXACHLORAN BY THE ACTION OF RADIATION
P. V. Zimakov, E. V. Volkova, and L. A. Krasnousov
1. Hexachloran is a very important toxic preparation. The industrial method of preparing this compound
(photochemical chlorination of benzene) gives a product having a low content (8-12%) of the main toxic
constituent, the 7-isomer. The process is associated with fire and explosion hazards.
2. The data in the literature on the chlorination of aromatic hydrocarbons under the action of ionizing
radiations indicates the powerful initiating action of Co60 y-radiation in this reaction, the yield of chlorination
products being greatly increased (up to 85,000 molecules per 100 ev of absorbed energy, as compared with 1000
for ultraviolet radiation). There are references also to the increase of the content of the 7-isomer of 1,2,3,4,5,6-
hexachlorocyclohexane (HCCH) to 32% in the chlorination of benzene under pressure in presence of y-radiation.
3. The object of our investigation was the development of a method for the preparation of HCCH by
the action of radiation. It was found that in the chlorination of benzene under the action of Co" radiation
at low temperature (from ? 80 to ? 40?), hexachloran having an increased content of 7-isomer was formed
(15-17%, instead of 10-12% in photochemical chlorination). The amount of HCCH formed is proportional to
the energy absorbed. With rise in temperature to ?34? a sharp increase in reaction rate was observed. In the
chlorination of benzene under the action of 8- and y-radiations from a fragment source, analogous results
were obtained.
4. Results are given for the chlorination of benzene with gaseous chlorine in the temperature range + 20
to + 60' and for the relation of reaction rate and content of various isomers to the dose of absorbed energy,
the temperature, and the concentration of chlorine in benzene.
5. The prospects of manufacturing hexachloran by the radiation method are discussed.
Research Institute of the Ministry of Chemical
Industry of the USSR
3'72
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DETERMINATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL PRODUCTS OF THE RADIATIONAL OXIDATION
OF HEPTANE AND 2,2,4-TRIMETHYLPENTANE
V. V. Saraeva, N. A. Bakh, L. V. 'Rybin, and V. A. Larin
In previously published papers it was shown that, in the oxidation of hydrocarbons with molecular oxygen
under the action of radiation at comparatively low temperatures, peroxide compounds, carbonyl compounds,
and acids are formed. In the present paper we present results on the formation of alcohols and on the identi-
fication of individual carbonyl compounds and acids formed in heptane and 2,2,4-trimethylpentane in the region
of direct proportionality between their concentrations and absorbed energy. Identification was effected by
partition chromatography. The G-value of the reaction for each compound identified was determined.
2. It was shown that in heptane both aldehydes and ketones were formed and that 700, of the total amount
of carbonyl compounds was 2-hexanone. Only ketones were detected in 2,2,4-trimethylpentane, and 70% of
the total amount consisted of 2-methyl-3-hexanone. The bulk of the acids formed in heptane and 2,2,4-
trimethylpentane contained 3-7 carbon atoms. Acetic and formic acids were formed in small amounts.
3. Comparison of the results with the mass spectra of heptane and 2,2,4-trimethylpentane indicates that,
in the processes of radiational formation of carbonyl compounds in the liquid phase, no appreciable role is
played by radicals, the formation of wItich is associated with the ianizational decomposition of molecules
during electronic bombardment in discharged vapors.
The results are interpreted with the aid of concepts concerning the occurrence of nonchain radiational
reactions.
Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR and M. V. Lomonosov State
University, Moscow
OXIDATION OF METHANE WITH OXYGEN UNDER THE ACTION OF FAST ELECTRONS
B. M. Mikhailov, M. E. Kuimova, and V. S. Bogdanov
1. The oxidation of methane with oxygen under the action of 120-key electrons was investigated. A
study was made of the effects of the composition of the original methane-oxygen mixture, the pressure, the
temperature, and the duration of irradiation. The relative amounts of methane and oxygen in the mixtures
were: 1: 1, 4: 1, and 9: 1, the pressure were varied from 760 to 190 mm, and the duration of irradiation
from 15 to 60 minutes.
2. Of the methane that reacted, 50% was converted into liquids and 50% was converted into gases. The
reaction products consisted of H20, HCOOH, H2, CO, CO2, alcohol, peroxides, and traces of CH30. The main
carbon-containing product of the oxidation of methane was formic acid.
3. Increase in pressure and increase in the methane content of the original mixture (from 50 to 80%)
result in increase in the rate of the oxidation reaction.
4. With increase in the duration of irradiation of a methane-oxygen mixture, the relative amounts of
the reaction products change only slightly and their composition remains constant.
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5. The yield of the oxidation reaction was determined; it is 6 methane molecules and 7 oxygen
molecules per 100 ev.
Institute of Organic Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
OXIDATION OF HEXADECANE UNDER THE ACTION OF y-RADIATION
Yu. I,. Khmelnitsky, M. A. Proskurnin, E. V. Barelko, I. I. Melekhonova,
and A. T. Slepneva
1. The initiation of oxidative chain reactions is one of the methods of utilizing ionizing radiations in
chemistry and chemical technology. A process of this sort that is of great interest and practical importance
is the oxidation of paraffins.
2. An investigation was made into the oxidation of paraffins of high molecular weight initiated with
Co" y-radiation at various dosage intensities, the case of hexadecane being taken for study.
3. Experiments were carried out on the stability of hexadecane under Co" y-radiation in a vacuum.
4. A study of the temperature-dependence of the radiation-induced oxidation reaction based on the for-
mation of nonvolatile carboxylic acids showed that, with rise in temperature above 120?, the reaction rate
increases appreciably.
When irradiation is prolonged beyond a certain limit that is specific for each given temperature, it no
longer has an appreciable effect on reaction rate.
This result is in accord with the results of N. M. Emanuel's experiments (J. Phys. Chem. 30, 4, 847, 1956,
and other papers) on the effect of initiating additions on the rate of oxidation of paraffins in its initial stage.
5. On 'the basis of the regularities observed, a series of experiments was carried out on the conditions
for the oxidation of technical paraffin.
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR and
All-Union Research Institute for the Petroleum
Industry
EFFECT OF IONIZATION DENSITY ON THE RADIOLYSIS OF HYDROCARBONS
I. V. Verishchinsky and N. A. Bakh
1. In order to make a comparison with previous results on the radiation-induced oxidation of hydro-
carbons under the action of x-rays and fast electrons, in the present investigation we have studied the effect
of the radiation of a deuteron nuclear reactor on liquid benzene and cyclohexane in presence and absence of
molecular oxygen.
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2. In the liquid phase, among the products of the radiational oxidation of benzene, phenol, aldehydes,
and small amounts of peroxides were detected. Among the oxidation products of cyclohexane, hydroperoxides.
disubstituted peroxides, cyclohexanone, and acids were found.
3. In the gaseous products of the radiolysis of benzene under low pressure, hydrogen and acetylene were
found. The G-value of the reaction with respect to the polymerization product formed was about ten times
as high as the yield of gaseous products. In the radiolysis of cyclohexane under low pressure, hydrogen and
a polymerization product were again formed. The number of hydrogen molecules liberated was equal to the
number of cyclohexane molecules converted into polymer.
4. The yield of molecular hydrogen liberated in the radiolysis of benzene rose substantially in presence
of molecular oxygen. In the case of cyclohexane, the presence of oxygen had no effect on the yield of hydrogen.
5. Comparison of the G-values of the reaction for products obtained with radiation at different ionization
densities enables us to make a demarcation in the mechanism by which the products are formed, distinguishing
reaction between radicals from reaction between radicals and molecules.
Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
FORMATION OF CROSS LINKS IN THE IRRADIATION OF POLYETHYLENE WITH
IONIZING RADIATIONS
A. N. Pravednikov and S. S. Medvedev
1. The number of cross links formed in the irradiation of polyethylene with ionizing radiations is pro-
portional to the dose and is independent of the radiation intensity. When we take into account that a stationary
concentration of free radicals and double bonds is generally not attained during irradiation because of the high
viscosity of the medium, this relationship indicates that each cross link is formed as the result of the absorption
of one quantum of energy, which activates two neighboring polymer molecules.
Cross linking due to the recombination of two polymeric radicals formed by the rupture of two C?H
bonds under the action of radiation isnot very probable owing to the comparatively great distances between
these radicals and the low mobility of the chains.
2. The activation energy for cross-linking processes at above 200?K is 0.5-1 kcal/mole; at lower
temperatures the activation energy is zero. In other words, below 200?K cross linking proceeds as a result
of processes, the rates of which are independent of the temperature of the sample; at higher temperatures
further processes are superimposed on these processes, and these also result in the cross linking of polymeric
molecules; these further processes increase somewhat in rate as the temperature rises.
3. For an understanding of the mechanism of the processes leading to the formation of cross links, it is
necessary to examine the reactions proceeding with the participation of atomic hydrogen in the polyethylene
during irradiation. Clearly, in the system under consideration, atomic hydrogen may react either with the
free radicals formed during irradiation:
?CH2?CH2? CH2--
- CH2? ? CH2 ---FH/N
4CH2? CH = CH ? +Hz
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(1)
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_
or with double bonds:
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? CH2 ? CH = CH ? + H -9- ? CH2 ? Ck ? CH2 ?
or, finally, it may tear an H atom from a polyethylene molecule:
?CH2?CH2?CH2-- H?>? CH2?CH ? CH2--FH2
(2)
(3)
It may be shown that the rate of the last reaction is considerably greater than those of the first two reactions.
All these reactions (particularly Reaction 3), owing to the comparatively low rates of diffusion of gases
in polyethylene, proceed mainly in the immediate vicinity of the place where the atomic hydfogen is formed
(and therefore of the position of the primary radical), which will be encouraged also by the enhanced energy
of H atoms formed by rupture of C?H bonds under the action of radiation. Recombination of the primary
radical and the nearby radical formed by Reaction 2 (or 3) leads to the formation of cross links.
The scheme that we haye examined leads to the experimentally observed kinetic laws and, in particular,
to the observed relation between activation energy and temperature of the sample (the increase in the rate of
cross linking probably occurs at temperaturs close to the vitrification temperature of the polymer).
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of the Chemical Industry of the USSR
?PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS IN POLYMERS DUE TO THE ACTION OF NUCLEAR
RADIATIONS
B. I. Zverev, V. L. Karpov, and S. S. Leshchenko
1. Irreversible change to a state of disorder in crystalline polymers as a result of the action of nuclear
radiations is associated with change in molecular structure.
2. Crystalline polymers differing in chemical nature require differing amounts of absorbed energy to
effect the order-disorder transition. These differences can be utilized for the comparative characterization
of the lattices of polymeric crystals.
3. The method of radial-distribution curves prepared from the electron-diffraction diagrams of polymers
rendered amorphous by irradiation enables us to determine some of the peculiarities of the structure of the
systems formed.
4. The changes due to irradiation in the phase state of crystalline polymers are connected with changes
in a whole complex of the properties of the polymers.
L. Ya. Karpov Pbysicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR
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LAWS OF THE RADIATIONAL DESTRUCTION OF VITREOUS POLYMERS
B. L. Tsetlin, N. G. Zaitseva, V. M. Korbut, and V. A. Kargin
The process of radiational destruction of vitreous polymers is determined both by structural changes that
are general for polymers subjected to the action of radiation and also by some peculiar phenomena associated
with gas formation in the mass of a vitreous material.
The over-all directicn of the change in the molecular structure of a polymer is determined by the relative
rates of the simultaneous processes of cross-linking and destruction. Investigation of the effect of irradiation
on the thermodynamic characteristics of various polymeric materials, mainly polymers of methacrylic esters,
shows that destructive processes are greatly accelerated by the presence of a quaternary carbon atom in the
polymer chain; destruction is accelerated also by the introduction of substances of low molecular weight
(plasticizers). Radiational-vulcanization processes are intensified by increase in the size of side chains. The
presence of aromatic groups in the polymer stabilizes it with respect to the action of radiation.
Gas formation plays an important part in the radiational destruction of vitreous polymers. It brings
about a complex strained condition, which is associated with shrinkage phenomena and also with the formation
of supersaturated solutions. As a result of contractive internal strains, samples may form cracks, which often
appear a long time after irradiation. The formation of supersaturated solutions is manifested by the appearance
of gas bubbles and swellings in the samples.
An examination of the relative rates at which the mechanical-strength properties of various polymeric
glasses fall during irradiation shows that both the over-all rate of the rvliation-induced changes and also the
relaxation properties of the material play important parts in this phepomenon.
In the irradiation of polymeric glasses with fast electrons, in several cases a peculiar phenomenon is
observed: the formation of a tree-like system of internal cracks. From our investigation of this phenomenon_
we concluded that it is associated with the general processes occurring in the radiation-induced decomposition
of polymers; the mechanism of this kind of crack formation appears to consist in the absorption of similarly
charged decomposition products of low molecular weight on micro defects, resulting in the further development
of these micro defects owing to the electrostatic interaction between these products.
Our investigation of the effect of temperature on the radiation-induced destruction of polymethyl
methacrylate shows that this process is irreversible. This is confirmed also by the lack of dependence of the
rate of destruction of polymethyl methacrylate on the ratio between dosage intensity and duration of irradiation.
In the paper, use is made of experimental data reported in the article by B. L. Tsetlin, N. G. Zaitseva,
V. M. Korbut, and V. A. Kargin entitled "Effect of High Energy Radiation on Polymeric Glasses" which has
been submitted for publication in the Collection of Papers on Radiation Chemistry (1957), and also in the
report by B. L. Tsetlin, N. G. Zaitseva, and V. A. Kargin, which has been submitted for publication in the
Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.
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377
Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
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PROCESSES OF GAS LIBERATION IN POLYMERS UNDER THE ACTION OF NUCLEAR
RADIATIONS
I. Ya. Petrov and V. L. Karpov
1. Investigation of processes of gas liberation (the yield and composition of the gaseous products) during
the irradiation of polymers aids in the characterization of the chemical reactions that are occurring in the
polymer molecules.
2. The yields and compositions of the gaseous fractions formed during irradiation are primarily determined
by the molecular structure of the polymer and the conditions of irradiation (intensity, dose, temperature, etc.).
3. Processes of gas liberation are related to the relative stability of the polymer to the action of radiation.
Results of the investigation of gas liberation may be used for characterizing stability to radiation.
4. The possibility of controlling gas-liberation processes and stability to radiation of polymers by
modification of molecular structure, is discussed.
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR
ROLE OF GAS FORMATION IN THE DESTRUCTION OF POLYMERS UNDER THE ACTION
OF RADIATION
A. B. Taubman and L. P. Yanova
f
I. Investigation of the effect of accelerated electrons on gas formation in polymers, and alio on their
diffusional permeabilities and mechanical properties, sholls that the character of their destruction depends on
the correspondence between two concurrent processes with respect to their intensities. These processes are 1)
destruction of macromolecules or the tearing-off of side groups, which is accompanied by the formation of
gaseous decomposition products of low molecular weight, and 2) cross-linking between individual units of the
polymer chains with formation of a three-dimensional network.
2. In polymers in which irradiation causes rapid destruction (polytetrafluoroethylene, polymethyl
methacrylate), the destruction process is determined not only by the depolymerization of chains, bit also by
gas formation, which results in the formation of additional internal stresses and so causes increased brittleness.
3. When polytetrafluoroethylene, polymethyl methacrylate. and polyethylene are subjected simultaneously
to irradiation and elevated semperarure, gas formation is only slightly intensified; but when the polymer passes
Into a molten condition, the intensity of gas formation rises suddenly over a short temperature range. It follows
from this that the processes of destruction and removal of side groups of macromolecules are reversible and that,
in the fusion of polymers, equilibrium in the process destruction-1r-- recombination of free radicals is displaced
to the left as a result of increase in the rate of diffusion of gas molecules in the mass of the polymer and the
consequent facilitation of the formation of a new gas phase in the form of bubbles.
4. The gas-permeability of polymers and the way in which it changes under the action of radiation affect
the destruction processes. High original gas-permeability which is increased during irradiation is favorable to
the preservation of the original mechanical properties of the polymer, and vice versa. Hence, the sensitivity to
radiation of polymers that have received a powerful destructive treatment is increased if they have low gas-
permeability, which limits the possibility of the removal of the gases formed from the mass of the sample. The
important factor in these considerations is not the absolute amount of gas formed, but the ratio of the rates of
its formation and separation.
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When it is difficult for the gas to get away, even for feeble gas formation,the polymer may change
greatly in mechanical properties and be degraded even with relatively low doses of radiation (e.g.
polytetrafluoroethylene). On the other hand, under conditions under which gas can readily escap5 the polymer
may preserve its original properties to a considerable extent even,when the amount of gas formed is large and
much higher doses of energy are given (e.g. polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride).
Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
CHEMICAL CHANGES IN SOME VINYL POLYMERS UNDER THE ACTION OF IONIZING
RADIATIONS
N. A. Slovokhotova
1. In vinyl polymers subjected to the action of ionizing radiations, degradation and cross-linking processes
occur, the predominance of one or other process being dependent on the structure of the polymer. In polymers
containing quaternary carbon atoms in the main chain (polyisobutene, polymethyl methacrylate), degradation
processes predominate, and in other polymers (polyethylene, polymethyl acrylate) cross-linking processes
predominate.
On the basis of an investigation of the infrared spectra of polymers it was shown that, in the irradiation
of polyisobutene and polymethyl methacrylate with ionizing radiations, side groups are torn from the main
chain; in polyisobutene double bonds appear of the type
Cl-I2
R?C , and R2C =
whereas in polyethylene conjugated double bonds of the type RI-IC =CHR' (trans) appear.
3. The predominance of processes of degradation or of cross linking during irradiation may be explained
by the varying stabilities of die free radicals formed in these polymers and by the dependence of the possibility
of energy migration along the polymer chain on the structure of the polymer.
4. In the irradiation of polyisobutene and polyethylene in a carbon dioxide atmosphere, carbonyl groups
make their appearance, this being established by the presence of the corresponding absorption bands in the
infrared spectra of the polymers.
It was shown by the method of labeled atoms that direct carboxylation of the polymer molecules occurs.
3'79
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR
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RADIATIONAL VULCANIZATION OF RUBBERS
T. S. Nikitina, A. S. Kuzminsky, L. A. Oksentevich, and V. L. Karpov
1. An investigation was made into the radiational vulcanization of the following rubbers: natural (NK),
butadiene-styrene (SKS-30), butadiene (SKB-40), nitrile (SKN-26), silicone (dimethylsiloxane).
The radiation used consisted of x-rays having the parameters 80 kv and 200 ma.
It was shown that there is a relationship between the dose of radiation and the density of the three-
dimensional network formed during radiation on the one hand, and the strength properties on the other.
The rubbers investigated can be arranged in the following order with respect to diminution in did rate of
a three-dimensional network under identical conditions: silicone, SKN-26, SKB-40, SKS-30, and NK.
NK was found to have a low tensile strength, as compared with samples prepared with standard straight
sulfur vulcanizers. It is suggested that the low strength of NK radiational vulcanizates is due to loss of the
ability to crystallize when stretched, this being caused by radiation-induced changes in the rubber.
Data are given which characterize the radiation-induced processes occurring in rubbers during irradiation.
2. An examination was made of the effects of some of the main ingredients of rubber mixes on the
radiational-vulcanization process and of the peculiar behavior of these mixes in this process. It was shown
that sulfur and tetramethylthiuram disulfide reduce the rate of the process, some compounds (diphenylguanidine,
mercaptobenzothiazole) have almost no effect, and compounds containing heavy atoms (ZnO, chalk, kaolin)
somewhat increase the rate of the process.
A hypothesis was advanced concerning the inhibiting effect of sulfur-containing compounds and the
acceleration of the cross-linking process owing to the increased absorption of x-rays by compounds containing
heavy atoms (the accelerating effect of the latter is not found when Co? radiation is used in the process).
3. Data were obtained concerning the part played by carbon black in the radiational-vulcanization
process. It was shown that both gas carbon and lamp black are sufficiently "active", chemical bonds between
the rubber and the carbon black being formed.
Some information was obtained concerning the significance of the degree of oxidation of the carbon
black in this process.
Research Institute of the Rubber Industry and L. Ya.
Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the Ministry of
Chemical Industry of the USSR
EFFECT OF IRRADIATION ON THE PROPERTIES OF SILICONE RUBBERS
Yu. S. Lazurkin and G. P. Ushakov
Experiments were carried out on the y-irradiatcn of silicone rubbers, including polydimethylsiloxane,
with the object of investigating their stability to radiation and the possibility of preventing their crystallization
at low temperatures. During irradiation, silicone rubbers undergo various changes.
1. Owing to cross-linking, the elasticity modulus rises linearly with dosage for doses ranging to 500-600
x 104 roentgens. At 400x 106 roentgens, it is increased by a factor of 14-18.
2. Up to 400 x le roentgens, the vitrification temperature remains almost unchanged(-120 to -125'), but
It then begins to rise somewhat, attaining -110 to -115' at 1100 x 106 roentgens.
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3. As cross-linking proceeds, the rate and extent of crystallization falls and there is a lowering of melting
point that is approximately proportional to the dose (from ?350 for the original substance to ?55' for material
that has received 170 x 106 roentgens).
4. Samples that have received more than 400 x 106 roentgensalmost cease to crystallize. Although
there may be signs of crystallization after a long time, the melting point appears to lie below ? 80?.
5. At a dose of 400-500 x 106roentgens,hard rubbers having a modulus of 200-250 kg/sq cm and high
stability to frost (Tg = - 115 to -120? ) are obtained. Although their strengths at room temperature are in
the range 30-40 kg/sq cm, i.e. do not differ from that of the original rubber (when calculated for the initial
cross section), the extension at break is very low (15-200/0).
6. Cross linking is not the only process proceeding during irradiation. In the present investigation other
processes (formation of an unsaturated structure, degradation) were not studied.
Our estimation of the closeness of structure of the three-dimensional network formed in a silicone rubber
by radiational cross-linking (estimated from the specific swelling and the elasticity modulus) shows that
crystallization is almost entirely suppressed when there is one cross link per 10-15 monomer units.
Laboratory of Measuring Apparatus of the Academy
of Sciences of the USSR
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF VULCANIZATES OBTAINED BY THE ACTION OF
NUCLEAR RADIATIONS
Z. N. Tarasova, M. Ya. Kaplunov, V. N. Kuleznev, and B. A. Dogadkin
1. An investigation was made into the structure and properties of the radiational vulcanizates of
SKB, NK, SKS-30A, SKS-30AM, and SKI and their carbon mixes obtained by irradiation in an atomic reactor
at a dose of 1-5 x 107 roentgens.
It was shown that, with respect to the extent of cross linking, the rubbers fall into the series:
SKB > NK > SKS-30A > SKI.
2. Natural rubber vulcanized by irradiation has a thermomechanical stability that is superior to that
of vulcanizates obtained with thiuram without sulfur, and it shows the least change in properties in the process
of "chemical relaxation of stress", which indicates the formation of bridge linkages of the C?C type.
3. With the aid of infrared spectra it was established that carboxyl, hydroxyl, and ester groups are
present in the vulcanizates of NK, SKS-30A, and SKB obtained by irradiation in air.
It was shown that there is a reduction in the degree of crystallization occurring in the stretching of
natural rubber vulcanized by irradiation (as compared with sulfur-vulcanized rubber).
4. The physiocomechanical and hysteresis properties, and also the durability to repeated deformation,
were determined for rubber-carbon mixtures subjected to radiational vulcanization. As compared to sulfur
vulcanizates, these products have somewhat low strength characteristics, low residual deformations, low
hysteresis, and high durability to repeated deformation.
5. In contrast to the case of sulfur vulcanizates, the thermomechanical stability of rubber-carbon
mixtures subjected to radiational vulcanization is substantially higher than that for unfilled rubber, the
difference being greatest for active carbons.
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6. It was shown that natural rubber can be covulcanized with butadiene-styrene rubber by the irradiation
of a mixture of these rubbers.
Research Institute of the Tire Industry
CHANGE IN THE CAPACITY OF SOVIET ION-EXCHANGE RESINS UNDER THE ACTION
OF IONIZING RADIATIONS
A. P. Smirnov-Averin, Yu. G. Sevastyanov, and G. A. Popov
4
1. A study was made of the stability to radiation of Soviet ionites of the types KU-2, SBS, EDE-YuP,
and MMG 1, for which no data are given in the literature.
2. Results were obtained concerning the change in the exchange capacity of these ionites produced by
y-radiation.
3:: The dosage intensity was measured with a ferrous sulfate dosimeter. The dose was 1022to 5.1022 ev
of absorbed energy per gram of resin.
The effect was investigated of a and 8-activities introduced into cationites by irradiation with neutrons
from absorbed beryllium and silver.
Physical Institute of the Principal Directorate on the
Utilization of Atomic Energy
PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE RATIONAL SELECTION AND COMPOUNDING OF
PLASTICS COMPOSITIONS INTENDED FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF MEANS OF
INDIVIDUAL PROTECTION IN WORK WITH RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
S. I. Gorodinsky, V. L. Karpov, L. M. Nosova, and M. N. Shteding
1. High -polymer materials used for the preparation of means of individual protection must conform
to several special requirements, particularly ready cleansability from radioactive contamination so that it is
possible to use the material repeatedly.
Among other equally important requirements are good mechanical properties, high elasticity, fairly
high resistance to wear, and very low water-absorption. These requirements should be satisfied by any sort
of polymeric material intended for the preparation of means of individual protection.
2. Components usually present in polymeric materials, e. g. plasticizers, stabilizers, fillers, dyes, etc.,
have substantial effects on the sorption-desorption properties of the material.
3. In order to select the best polymeric materials from the point of view of the special requirements,
methods for the assessment of sorption-desorption properties were developed. Use of these methods has enabled
us to characterize a wide range of polymeric materials and compositions.
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4. Detailed investigations were made of compositions based on polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, and
other polymers. The effects of factors in the technological treatment and of individual components of the
compositions on the special properties of the polymeric materials were studied.
5. On the basis of our investigations we have enunciated the principles underlying the rational selection
and compounding of compositions of high-polymer materials that satisfy both the special requirements and
also the technological requirements. Various materials are suggested for possible use in the preparation of
means of individual protection.
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR
SOURCES OF IONIZING RADIATIONS FOR INVESTIGATIONS IN RADIATION
CHEMISTRY (developed in the Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy
of Scienc,..:s of the USSR)
a.
V. I. Zatulovsky
In connection with investigations in radiation chemistry it was necessary to develop and prepare sources
of ionizing radiations. Two types of source were developed: specialized x-ray apparatus and apparatus work-
ing with radioactive cobalt preparations.
I. X-Ray Apparatus
1. In investigations in radiation chemistry, objects of considerable area are irradiated. The necessity of
having the maximum possible doses of radiation makes it essential to use x-ray tubes having large exit windows
and working at very high power for long periods. In many problems the tension across the tube must be of the
order of 70-100 kv maximum.
2. For these investigations we constructed specialized dismountable x-ray tubes and developed
generators for feeding them. Evacuating apparatus was designed, and it was constructed entirely of metal; it
enabled us to attain a vacuum of r 8.106 mm in the tubes.
3. The paper gives a short descripuon of the powerful dismountable tubes: a) with a cylindrical tungsten
anode (Model TRTs-3a) and b) with a half-cylindrical tungsten anode (Model TRP 1). The tubes work at a
p.d. of up to 90 kv maximum with an anode current of up to 200 ma. Data are given on the intensity of
radiation of the tubes and their use characteristics. For comparison, the same information is given for the
sealed tube, Model BFV-70, manufactured by the MRTP works for x-ray spectrum analysis and used by the
Institute of Physical Chemistry in radiation chemistry.
4. The paper gives a short description of the generating apparatus (Type ARKh-90-200) for feeding the
tubes referred to in Paragraph 3. The nominal rating of the apparatus is 90 kv maximum, anode current
200 ma. The apparatus has a 4-kenotron rectifier in which V 1-0.3/70 kenotrons are used, a smooth continuous
voltage regulator, and stabilization of the potential difference for the filaments of the tube and the kenotrons.
Data acquired in the course of the use of several sets of ARKh-90-200 apparatus are given.
5. Together with these tubes and the ARKh-90-200 apparatus, a small-scale x-lay apparatus (Type
ARKh-100-20) was developed with a short-focus dismountable tube, Model TRB-3. The nominal rating of
the apparatus is 90 kv maximum, anode current 20 ma. Data are given on the intensity of the radiation of
the tube and the use characteristics of the apparatus.
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IL Co" Apparatus
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6. The paper states the basic principles upon which the design of the apparatus was based, and it
describes the apparatus which has now been working for two years with a Co" preparation equivalent in
activity to 400 g-equiv of radium. Matters concerning the protection of personnel from radiation and the
dosimetry of useful radiation are examined.
7. The design and use characteristics of x-ray and cobalt apparatus are compared.
Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
MINIATURE-SCALE PREPARATORY WORK ON POSSIBLE INDUSTRIAL APPARATUS
FOR CARRYING OUT RADIATION-INDUCED REACTIONS WITH THE AID OF ISOTOPIC
6
SOURCES OF RADIATION
A. Kh. Breger and Yu. S. Ryabu4chin
?
1. Possible industrial apparatus for radiation-induced reactions and conditions necessary for miniature-
scale preparatory work on this apparatus. Character of the radiation, types of sources, intensity of the dose
and its distribution in the working spaces of the apparatus, sizes of the objects to be irradiated, remote control
and inspection of the physicochemical conditions of the experiments and processes occurring in the objects
of investigation during the irradiation.
2. Isotopic apparatus for investigations in radiation chemistry at the L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical
Institute.
Apparatus with sources of 0)0y-radiation having activities of 280 and 1440 g-equiv of radium. The
principles of the apparatus and its special features. Use characteristics of the apparatus (volumes of the
working spaces, average dosage intensities in the working spaces, possibilities of carrying out complex
physicochemical investigations, etc.). Method of assembling powerful sources from standard commercial
Cog? preparations.
3. Study of the dosage field in the working spaces of the apparatus.
a)
b)
c)
Problems of scientific dosimetry in investigations in radiation chemistry.
Calculation of the dosage field in working spaces of apparatus having cylindrical sources.
Experimental study of tU dosage field. Comparison of the experimental results with calculation.
4. Direction of further work.
a) Increase in the specific activity of preparations; extension of the range of isotopes available for use
in investigations in radiation chemistry.
b) Miniature-scale work on the configurations of sources with the object of developing methods of the
highest possible reliability for the calculation of the dosage fields of powerful sources.
L. Ya. Karpov Physicochemical Institute of the
Ministry of Chemical Industry of the USSR
384
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PRODUCTION OF IMPULSE IONIZED RADIATION WITH A 1.2 Mev LINEAR-
ACCELERATOR VACUUM TUBE
P. Ya. Glazunov and M. G. Kuzmin
In the course of the recent development of some fields of science associated with the study of the action
of radiations on matter, a demand has arisen for new technical means for the production of very powerful sources
of high-energy impulse radiation.
In the present paper a method is proposed for the production of impulses of accelerated electrons with the
aid of the usual vacuum accelerator tube fed from a condenser-valve multiplier giving a p.d. of 1.3 Mv.
For the production of single impulses or a series of impulses, three schemes are used.
In the first two schemes a high-tension impulse of given form and duration is fonned and applied to an
electron gun.
These schemes permit the generation of impulses of electronic current of from 10 microseconds to
1 millisecond duration.
The leading and rear fronts of 10-microsecond impulses do not exceed 1.5 microseconds. The strength
of the electron current in the impulse is greater than 100 ma, which, for an energy of 1 Mev, corresponds to
a power of 6.25.1018 ev for a single impulse.
The third scheme is a mechanical system? a rotating shutter. It permits the production of single
impulses of up to 200 na and having a duration of from 10 milliseconds to 2 seconds.
Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of
Sciences of the USSR
USE OF SOURCES BASED ON UNSEPARATED FISSION FRAGMENTS IN RADIATION-
INDUCED CHEMICAL PROCESSES
P. V. Zimakov, E. V. Volkova, and L. A. Krasnousov
1. Sources based on unseparated fission fragments are the most promising sources of 8-and y-radiation
for use in industry. This paper examined the possibility of utilizing the 1i- and y-radiations of fragment
sources in radiation-induced chemical processes.
2. Characterization of the first laboratory samples of irradiators based on unseparated fragments. The
fragment irradiators that we use are solid concentrates prepared in different forms (cylinders, discs, granules),
their activity being firmly associated with a carrier. They are mixed 8- and y-irradiators. The principal
y-irradiators present are zirconium and niobium, and the principal 8 -irradiators? cerium, strontium, and
yttrium. The maximum energy of the -rays is 3-3.5 Mev, and the maximum energy of the 7-rays is 0.73 Mev.
3. The use of fragment irradiators as sources of internal irradiation. When the irradiators are introduced
into neutral media, such as alcohol, benzene, and acetone, no leaching of the activity is observed. For work
in corrosive media, the irradiator is enclosed in a thin-walled glass envelope. In these cases both the y- and
the 8-radiation is utilized, with the result that the dosage intensity is increased several times.
The dosage intensity of useful radiation from fragment irradiators depends on the geometric form of the
source.
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The use of B -radiation in fragment irradiators makes it possible to increase the useful life of the
irradiator considerably, for the half-life of the B -sources present is greater than the half-life of the y-sources.
4. A comparison was made of the efficiencies of sources based on unseparated fragments and sources based
on radioactive cobalt in radiation-induced reactions.
The following processes were investigated: chlorination of benzene, decomposition of hydrogen peroxide,
oxidation of paraffin. It was shown that, for identical doses of absorbed energy, the rate of decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide, the yield of hexachlorocyclohexane in the chlorination of benzene (content of y-isomer
15-17%), and the reduction of the induction period in the oxidation of paraffin (from 360 to 60 hours) were
independent of the source of the energy (fragment irradiator or radioactive cobalt). No essential differences
could be detected in the courses of these processes, in spite of difference in the distribution of ionization
density created by the fragment irradiator and radioactive cobalt.
5. For the production of identical doses .and absorbed energy, a considerably smaller amount of the
fragment source is required than of radioactive cobalt. This simplified the problem of protection from radiation.
Owing to the comparative cheapness of fragment irradiators, their use may have 'a considerable economic
advantage over the use of radioactive cobalt.
Research Institute of the Ministry of Chemical.
Industry of the USSR
386
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
S. D. Kaitmazov, A. M. Prokhorov, and A. B. Tsentsiper. Electronic Paramagnetic Resonance
of Radicals Obtained from 1120 and H202
N. N. Tunitsky and S. a Kupriyanov. Initial Stages of Radiation-Induced Reactions in Gases
M. T. Dmitriev and S. Ya. Pshezhetsky. Kinetics and Mechanism of the Oxidation of Nitro-
gen Under Electron Impact
A. S. Baberkin. Chemical Action of C063 y-Radiation on Solid Crystalline Salts of Ionic
Structure (KNO3, KC103, KC104)
S. A. Brusentseva and P. I. Dolin. Effect of KC1 and KBr Concentration on the Yield of Mole-
cular Radiolysis Products in Aqueous Solutions
N. A. Bakh, V. L Medvedovsky, A. A. Revina, and V. D. Bityukov. Radiation-Induced Reactions
in Nitrate Solutions
A. M. Kabakchi, V. M. Erokhin, and V. A. Gramolin. Some beta on the Action of Ionizing
Radiations on Concentrated Aqueous Solutions of Inorganic Salts
A. L Chemova, V. D. Orekhov, and M. A. Proskurnin. Formation and Transformation of Iron
Compounds in the Radiolysis of Aqueous Solutions
B. A. Gvozdev and V. N. Shubin. Action of Accelerated Electrons on KMn04 Solutions . 10
E. M. Nanobashvili and L. P. Beruchashvili. Action of y-Radiation on Colloidal Solutions of
Cobalt, Nickel, Silver and Gold Sulfides 10
V. L Medvedovsky. Simultaneous Polarographic Determination of H202 and 02 in Nitrate
Solution During Their Irradiation 11
V. Ya. Chernykh, S. Ya. Pshezhetsky, and G. S. Tyurikov. Kinetics of. the Decomposition of
Hydrogen Peroxide Under the Action of y-Radiation 11
V. G. Firsov and B. V. Ershler. Radiation-Induced Oxidation of Solutions of Quadrivalent
Uranium 12
Ts. L Zalkind., V. L Veselovsky, and G. Z. Gochaliev. Mechanism of the Establishment of
a Stationary Potential Difference in the System Pt/ Aqueous Solution. / Au Under the
Action of y-Radiation 13
N. B. Miller, Ts. L Zalkind, and V. I. Veselovsky. Radiational-Electrochemical Processes in
Aqueous Solutions of Uranium Salts. . 14
P. I. Dolin and V. L Duzhenkov. Radiational-Galvanic Element Based on the Oxidation-
Reduction Reaction Fe2+-4 Fe3+ 15
Ya. M. Kolotyrkin, N. Ya. Bune, and G. S. Tyurikov. Corrosion Behavior of Metals in y-Irrad-
fated H2SO4 Solutions 15
M. N. Fokin, T. V. Matveeva, N. D. Tomashov, A. V. Byalobzhesky, V. 11 Valkov. Effect
of Accelerated Electrons on the Corrosion of Iron, Stainless Steel, and Aluminum in
Sodium Chloride Solutions 16
L L. Rozenfeld and E. K. Oshe. Change in the Electrochemical Activity of Metals Under the
1'1
3
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Action of Radiation
D. M. Shub, G. S. Tyurikov, and V. L Veselovsky. Radiational Sensitization by Means of
Oxide Semiconductors in Reactions of Formation and Decomposition of Hydrogen
Peroxide in Aqueous Solutions Under the Action of y-Radiation 18
E. V. Barelko, L. I. Kartasheva, P. D. Novikov, and M. A. Proskumin. Oxidation of Aqueous
Solutions of Benzene Under the Action of High-Power y-Radiation 19
V. L Duzhenkov and P. I. Dolin. Action of X-Rays on Dilute Aqueous Solutions of Some
? ? 20
Organic Substances
387
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20
21
22
23
23
24
25
26
26
27
27
28
29
30
31
31
32
32
33
34
35
36
36
37
38
38
39
40
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S. I. Gorodinsky, V. L. Karpov, L. M. Nosova, and M. N. Shteding Principles Underlying the
40
41
42
43
43
c-s. ? .2Y....oW
V. D. Orekov, N. A. Proskumin, V. A. Shalpaty, and A. A. Zansokhova. Linked Oxidation-
Reduction Processes in the Radiolysis of Aqueous Solutions
Ya. L. Shot:Inman and T. G. Ratner. Investigation of the Fading of an Aqueous Solution of
Rational Selection and Compounding of Plastics Compositions Intended for the Con-
struction of Means of Individual Protection in Work With Radioactive Materials. . . .
V. L Zatulovsky. Sources of Ionizing Radiations for Investigations in Radiation Chemistry
Methylene Blue Under the Action of X-Rays
I. V. Vereshchinsky, L. T. Karpuslikin. and V. N. Slicheglov. Synthesis and Transformations
(Developed in the Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Academy of Stience,s of the USSR)
A. Kb. Breger and Yu. S. Ryabukhin. Miniature-Scale Preparatory Work on Possible Industrial
of Leuco Compounds of Dyes Under the Action of Fog? y-Radiation
T. E. Pavlovskaya and A. G. Pasynsky. Effect of Irradiation of Protein Solutions With X-Rays
Apparatus for Carrying Out Radiation-Induced Reactions With the Aid of Isotopic Sources
of Radiation
P. Ya. Glazunov and M. G. Kuzmin. Production of Impulse Ionized Radiation with a 1.2 Mev
in Air and in A Vacuum
M. A. Klienolth andl:Miska a. Action of CO' y-Radiationon Proteins and Amino Acids
B. N. Tarusov. Effect of Ionizing Radiations on Animal Fats
Linear-Accelerator Vacuum Tube
P. V. Zimakov, E. V. Volkova, and L. A. Krasnousov. Use of Sources Based on Unseparated
N. A. Khenoldt. Effect of the y-Radiation of Radioactive Cobalt on the Absorption Spectra of
Carbohydrates
T. N. Rysina. Effect of y-Itadiation on the Absorption Spectra of Nucleic Acids and of Pyrim-
Fission Fragments in Radiation Induced Chemical Processes
idine and Purine Bases
S. E. Manoilov, Significance of the Ionization of Iron-Containing Compounds During the
Irradiation of an Organism With X-Rays
A. L Gelbshtein, M. I. Ternkin, G. G. Shchcglova. T. V. Ilyukhina. and M. A. Proskurnin.
Isomerization of Xylencs Under the Action of y-Radiation
B. M. Mildiallov, M. V. Tarasova, V. G. Kiselev, and V. S. Bogdanov. Transformations of
Gaseous Saturated Hydrocarbons and Ethylene Under the Action of Fast Electrons . . .
Kh. S. Bagdasaryan, T. S. Nikitina, and V. A. Krongauz. Some Problems in the Radiation
Chemistry of Mixtures of Organic Substances
A. V. Zimin, S. V. Churmanteev, and A. D. Vezina. Action of y-Radiation on Mixtures of
Benzene and Carbon Tetrachloride With Fluorine-Containing Substances
P. V. Zimakov, E. V. Volkova, and L. A. Krasnousov. Prospect of Preparing Hexachloran by
. the Action of Itasdiation
V.V. Saraeva, N. A. Bakh, L. V. Rybin, and V. A. Larin. Determination of the Individual
Products of the Radiational Oxidation of Heptane and 2,2,4-Trimethylpentane . .
& N. Mikhailov, N. E. Kuimova, and V. S. Bogdanov. Oxidation of Methane With Oxygen
7
Under the Action of Fast Electrons
Yu. L Khmeinitsky, M. A. Proskurnin, E. V. Barelko, I. L Melekhonova, and A. T. Slepneva.
Okidation of Hexadecane Under the Action of y-Radiation
L V. Verislichinsky and N. A. Bakh. Effect of Ionization Density on the Radiolysis of Hydro-
carbons
A. N. Pravednikov and S. S. Medvedev. Formation of Cross Links in the Irradiation of
Polyethylene With Ionizing Radiations
B. I. Zvercv, V. L. Karpov, and S. S. Leshchenko. Phase Transformations in Polymers Due
to the Action of Nuclear Radiations
B. L. Tsetlin, N. G. Zaitseva, V. M. Korbut, and V. A. Kargin. Laws of the Radiational
Destruction of Vitreous Polymers
L Ya. Petrov and V. L. Karpov. Processes of Gas Liberation in Polymers Under the Action
of Nuclear Radiations
A. B. Taubman and L. P. Yanova Role of Gas Formation in the Destruction of Polymers
Under the Action of Radiation
N. A. Slovokhotova. Chemical Changes in Some Vinyl Polymer; Under the Action of
Ionizing Radiations
T. S. Nikitina, A. S. Kuzminsky, L. A. Oksentevich, and V. L. Karpov. Radiational
Vulcanization of Rubbers
Yu. S. Lazurkin and G. P. Ushakov. Effect of Irradiation on the Properties of Silicone Rubbers
Z. N. Tarasova, N. Ya. Kaplunov, V. N. Kuleznev, and B. A. Dogadkin. Structure ana Pro-
perties of Vulcanizates Obtained by the Action of Nuclear Radiations
A. P. Smirnov-Averin, Yu. G. Scvastyanov, and G. A. Popov. Change in the Capacity of
Soviet Ion-Exchange Resins Under the Action of Ionizing Radiations
388
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389
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ACADEMY OF SCIENCES USSR
DEPARTMENT OF ATOMIC ENERGY UTILIZATION,
COUNCIL OF MINISTRIES OF THE USSR
ALL-UNION CONFERENCE ON THE APPLICATION OF ;
RADIOACtIVE AND STABLE ISOTOPES IN THE
NATIONAL ECONOMY AND SCIENCE
ACHIEVEMENTS OF NATIONAL SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY IN USING
RADIOACTIVE METHODS FOR PROSPECTING AND DEVELOPING
USEFUL MINERALS
V. N. Dakhnov
Paper Read at the Plenary Session
Moscow 1957
391
am.
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Editor
Professor A. G. Tarkhov
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392
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The great possibilities of radioactive methods for investigating the chemical composition and structure
of materials, their high accuracy and many-sided use, the considerable prospects that existing methods will be
refined and that new, more accurate modifications will be produced have determined the advantages of apply-
ing the methods of nuclear physics to the solution of numerous problems encountered in prospecting for and
developing deposits of useful minerals [2].
The natural radioactivities of the uranium and thorium families have long been used very effectively in
prospecting for deposits of these minerals. But the considerable differences in the content of radioactive ele-
ments in the soils of various types and mineralogical compositions, and the relations of these contents to the
conditions under which the rocks were deposited makes it possible to use measurements of the natural y -ray
intensity for studying well sections composed of sedimentary rocks of 145w radioactivity, in particular for study-
ing sections of oil and gas wells without taking cores.
The use of radioactive methods in geology has developed on a particularly large scale in recent years,
due to the new methods of studying rocks, which are based on the use of nuclear reactions and other processes
occurring when radioactive radiations act on materials, which have become available due to the vast develop-
ments in nuclear physics and measuring techniques. These achievements in nuclear physics, which occupied a
comparatively short space of time ? i.e., the last decade or so ? have produced a number of highly effective
ways of studying rocks in bore-holes without core-sampling, and radioactive isotopes and their radiations have
been widely used for solving a vast number of problems in geological prospecting and technology [5, 7, 10-12].
The following are some of the methods which have been developed and introduced into various branches
of industry:
a) Neutron-logging of bore-hole sections, using the moderation and subsequent absorption processes oc-
curring with neutrons in rocks. These processes cause changes in the neutron density, in the intensity and spec-
tra of the prompt y -rays emitted, and in the intensity and spectra of the induced y -activities, depending on
the chemical composition of the rock.
b) Study of the y -ray intensity scattered from a source specially inserted in the well;
c) Measurement of the y -rays emitted by radioactive isotopes introduced into the medium.
The above methods enable one to study the geological strata in bore-holes in more detail and more ac-
curately, and as they do not require costly core sampling, to determine the sites of mineral deposits more ac-
curately. They also provide a means of studying the strata in lined wells in detail and of deriving more exact
information about the technical state of the well.
The present communication gives a short review of the current situation as regards the industrial use of
radioisotopes and their radiations in prospecting and development of useful minerals, and of the most important
achievements in perfecting these methods which have been performed at the establishments of the Academy
of Sciences,USSR,of the Ministries, and of the higher educational organizations. Some further ways of perfect-
ing radiometric methods and their industrial utilization are also pointed out.
During the two years that have passed since the July meeting of the Academy of Sciences, USSR on the
Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, the use of radioactive methods in prospecting and development of useful min-
erals has extended considerably 1 primarily due to the refinement of radiometric methods used in the oil indus-
try, and secondly due to the wider use of these methods in prospecting for other useful minerals (additional to
oil, natural gas and the radioactive elements).
The most important achievement in this field during this period is the industrial testing of the y -ray
scattering method for studying the strata in coal bore-holes.
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A number of electrical methods are widely employed together at the present time for studying the strata
in coal bore-holes; these have facilitated the discrimination of coal seams in bore-hole strata, the determin-
ation of their thickness and structure?and sometimes the volatile and ash contents to a certain degree. Since
some coals (brc4n coals and transition types preceding anthracite) frequently have electrical properties very
similar to those of the surrounding sediments (sandstones, dense argillites and friable limestones) the electrical
methods cannot always give an unambiguous answer to the problem. This has obliged geologists to abstain from
using the highly efficient coreless methods of boring.
The method in which the coal seams are detected by the intensity of the scattered y -rays using a Co6?
source (which was developed by the team of workers at the Urals branch of the Academy of Sciences, USSR,
directed by Bulashevich) which has been given extensive trials in the production divisions of the "Geofizugle-
geology" Trust in the Chelyabinsk, Sub-Moscow, Donets and Kuznets basins and in the East Urals coal form-
ation, enables one to detect coal seams in bore-hole strata (5, 7].
The coal seams are of anomalously low density relative to the adjacent rocks. The densities of coal
seams vary over the range 1.1 - 1.6 g/cm3, rising with the rank of the coal and the ash content: they are
about one unit less dense than the adjacent rocks (argillites, siltstones, sandstones and limestones). This results
in exceptionally favorable conditions for using y -ray scattering methods for detecting coal seams in bore-holes.
With an appropriate distance between primary y-ray sources and scattered y-ray detectors the coal seams
stand out clearly as maxima on the scattered y -ray intensity traces (Fig. 1, curve 5; Fig. 2, curve 2). When
combined with cavity and.elecuical measurements it enables one to detect the coal seams unambiguously and
even to study their structures via the electrical data.
The work so far carried out should only be considered as a preliminary but highly effective experiment
on the use of radiometric methods for studying coal bore-hole strata. There is no doubt that when a whole num-
ber of radiation methods are used gether it will be possible to study coal seams in more detail? as to their
volatile and ash contents.
Ryapolova's work (carried out at the Ministry of Transport Construction) has demonstrated the efficacy Of
radiation methods in the study of water bore-hole strata. The detection of rocks saturated with fresh water from
geophysical data is often a fairly complicated problem, since the water-bearing rocks differ little in electrical
properties from adjacent ones. The prospector frequently encounters the need to detect water-bearing rocks in
carbonate strata and the difficulties here are greatest. An experiment on the use of radiation methods for study-
ing water bore-hole strata has shown that measurements of the natural y -ray intensities and the prompt y -rays
from neutron absorption enable one both to increase the accuracy with which water-bearing rocks are detected
and also to estimate their probable yields in some cases. The latter is of great practical interest in the choice
of those to be utilized. Radiation methods are also of great practical interest in that more promising horizons
can sometimes be detected in old lined wells, thus providing increased well output and extended life.
As has peen noted 'above, the industrial use and further refinement of radiation methods has occurred on
a particularly large scale in the oil industry, the aim being the study of the geological structures and technical
states of wells. The volume of radiation studies carried out by the Glavneftegeofizika.Undertaking of the USSR
Ministry of the Oil Industry reached 7 million meters of bore-hole strata in 1956, some 150 industrial groups
operating in this field.
The results from the use of radiation methods in oil and natural gas prospecting weie mainly as follows:
1. These methods raised the efficiency of coreless boring in the carbonate and hydrochemical deposits
of the Volga-Urals oil province considerably, ensured their correct delineation in the carbonate and hydrochemi-
cal deposits, and facilitated the detection of increased porosity and permeability in carbonate sediments, which
latter are promising as regards possible oil/gas content.
2. Radiation methods ensure much more exact differentiation of bore-hole strata which have complex
rocks of high resistance when the boring is carried out with strong salt solutions. Under these conditions the stan-
dard electrical methods are of little value.
3. Radiometric and electrometric methods, when combined, enabled one to discern the gas-bearing strata
in bore-holes quite clearly for a number of areas in the Volga-Urals oil province, and in the deposits of the North
Caucasus and the Western Ukraine (Fig. 3, curve 1). In most cases this was impossible by the use of electrical
* Glavneftegeofizika = Main Administration for Geophysics Translator.
394
4
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logs alone. Accurate determination of the gas/oil contact ensured that the correct choice of usuable strata was
made and that development was correct.
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Fig. 1. An example of the detection of coal seams by y -ray scattering (Moscow coal basin).
1) apparent resistance curve; 2) inherent polarization potentials; 3) induced polarization
potentials; 4) natural y -ray intensity curve; 5) scattered y -ray intensity curve; 6) coal;
7) clay; 8 ) limestone; 9) sand.
The coals are clearly detected from the scattered y -ray intensity maxima (cross-hatched
areas).
4. An important contribution was made to the practical use of radiometry by the devalopment of neutron
methods for differentiating oil-bearing strata from water-bearing: this was first performed by the group in the
Radiometry Laboratory of the Gubkin Oil Institute, Moscow (A. I. Kholina, 0. A. Barsukov, et al.). These methods
facilitate the wide use of radiometric logging in research on the opening up of oil deposits which are exploited
by contour water-pumping (12]. This method uses the difference in the chlorine contents of oil and water-bear-
ing strata to solve this problem, neutron methods being used, since chlorine is one of the basic components of
salt water; use is thus made of its specific nuclear properties. The neutron absorption cross-section of chlorine
(32 barns) exceeds that of the other main elements present in the rocks of oil deposits very gready, these having
cross sections of 0.0002 - 0.5 barn. Neutron absorption by chlorine gives an increased prompt y -ray intensity
and a change in its spectral composition. Thus with appropriate well preparation the oil-bearing strata can be
distinguished from the water-bearing by the reduced thermal neutron density and by the increased prompt y -ray
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intensity (Fig. 4, curves 3 and 4), particularly in the regions below 2 Mev and above 4 Mev (Fig. 5, curves 5
and 6).
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Fig. 2. An example of the detection of coal seams
by y -ray scattering (Chelyabinsk coal basin).
1) apparent resistance curve; 2) scattered y -ray
intensity curve; 3) dense sandstone; 4) friable sand-
stone; 5) argillite; 6) argillite and coal; 7) coal.
The coals are clearly detected from the scattered y -
ray intensity maxima (cross-hatched areas).
When these methods were used in deposits
where the strata waters were highly mineralized
it was possible to establish the way water moved
during contour water-pumping (Fig. 6) in impor-
tant areas such as Tuimazinsk and Bavlinsk. This
would be impossible by other methods without dril-
ling an enormous number of test bore-holes.
To differentiate oil and water when the stra-
ta waters contain relatively little chloride (e. g.,
when the waters are alkaline) the team directed by
F. A. Alelcseev at the Academy of Sciences, USSR
Oil Institute developed a method of differentiating
oil-bearing rocks from water-bearing which uses
sodium activation (10). The trial groups of the
"Tatneftgeofizika" trusts showed that this method
could be made more accurate by using thermal
neutron activation of manganese, the manganese
being present in thd metal of the bore-hole liner,
the thermal neutron densities being higher in the
oil-bearing strata than in the water-bearing ones.
5. The use of radioactive isotopes increased
the accuracy with which the technical states of
wells can be studied, e.g., determination of the
height to which the mortar has risen around the finer
and the quality of the cementation, detection of
areas where water circulates around the tube or points
of damage to the liners and determination of zones
where the boring solution has penetrated (6, 11].
In this connection a special mention must be made
of the work carried out under the direction of G. N.
Strotsky (*Grozneftgeofizika" Trust which was dir-
ected to improvement of methods for using radio-
active isotopes to study the technical states of wells.
In particular the "Grozneftegfizika" Trust has pro-
duced bore-hole radioactive isotope injectors which
have allowed the work to be carried out much more
rapidly with isotopes and which have much reduced
the radiation hazard to the operating personnel.
For example, Fig. 7 shows the detection of a flow
in the cement around a liner, using the injector.
Isotopes have found a wider use in solving complex
problems such as the detection of fissures in the hydraulic disruption of strata by pumping activated sand into
the fissures (Fig. 8). Clear results were also obtained when boring wells with active solutions. In this case the
fact that the boring solution penetrates deeper into porous and permeable rocks makes it possible to detect them.
Analysis of the data gave quantitative relations between the rock porosity and the observed y -ray intensity.
This method is of particular interest for detecting fissured zones in carbonate rocks, this being in the majority
of cases impossible when other geophysical methods are used.
In order to use the various isotopes in a scientific fashion in well-logging,A. A. Korzhev and others(All-
Union Geophysics Research Institute) have studied their sorption on rocks. They showed, in particular, that
cesium was the most adsorbed, and iron and iodine the least.
396
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Fig. 3. Detection of the gas-bearing part of a stratum using the (n,y ) method.
1 (n,y) intensity curve (NGM - 50); 2) natural y -ray curve (GM); 3 ) ap-
parent resistance curve (KS) (probe M, 2.5 A 0.5 v); 4 1 inherept polarization
potential (SP); 5) clay; 6) sandstone; 7) limestone; 8) ) gas; 10 )
water.
The gas-bearing part of the stratum (detected from the inherent polarization
potential) is distinguished by a sharp rise in the (n,y)curve (cross-hatched
area).
(671
f170
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517
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lit P
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,
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.
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Fig. 4. An example of the determination of the water/oil contact by combining
(n,n) and (n,)') methods.
1 IApparentresistance curve oa(probe B, 7.5 A 0.75M); 2) inherent polarization
potential, U1p; 3 ) (n, n) curve, n n; 4 ) Ira curve (prompt y -rays).
The water-bearing part of the stratum is distinguished by a sharp drop in nn while
I fly is raised.
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397
?:??
7111,
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2014/01/31 CIA-RDP81-01043R002800180003-5
tg:
-
Fig. 5. An example of the determination of an oil/water contact: 1) appar-
ent resistance curve (probe B, 7.5A 0.75M); 2) inherent polarization poten-
tial; 3) natural y -ray intensity; 4) intensity from (n, y) log (probe length
Ln =60 cm); 5) intensity from (n, y) log (spectroscopic method Ln = 33 cm);
6) the same (L1=38 cm); 7 ) thermal neutron density; 8) oil-bearing sand-
stone; 9 ) water-bearing sandstone.
The use of radioactive methods for research on oil and gas wells has lead to multimillion ruble econ-
omies in materials due to the more exact identification of geological strata in bore-holes, to the detection of
oil and gas beds, to the improvement in means of checking up on the development process in the fields, and to
the elimination of large losses due to unproductive work in unjustified maintenance.
Very much less progress has been made in using radioactive methods for locating and developing useful
ore-minerals (7). In spite of the demonstration by A. P. Ochkura,et al. (All-Union Institute of Prospecting Geo-
physics) that in principle it is possible to detect ore-inclusions from data on y -ray scattering, the method has,
so far, not been widely used in practice. The neutron methods for detecting boron-containing rocks which have
been developed under the direction of A. P. Vinogradov and V. I. Baranov (Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry
and Analytical Chemistry), with the cooperation of the Gubkin Oil Institute, Moscow, have given good results
with wells in Eastern Siberia, but they have not been utilized. Little attention has been paid to the use of in-
duced activity for work on the chemical compositions of ore inclusions, primarily for locating and developing
bauxite and for the detailed study of bore-hole strata in regions of sulfide ore orogenesis.
398
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1440
URI
1460
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4 14911
000
010
1311
0-517
N.N.NP20...vssSN.\?CONNXN.W.ss.
..... ? .? . .
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Fig. 6. An example of the detection of a water/oil contact during opening up,
radiometric logging being used.
1) limestone; 2) clay; 3) oil-bearing sandstone; 4) transition zone; 5) water-
bearing sandstone; 6) region of liner perforation.
A number of researches have shown that it is possible to use y -ray methods for detecting bauxites, which
differ by their high radioactivities, and for detecting calcium salts in bore-holes and complex evaporite de-
posits, but these cannot be considered as of adequate importance as regards the use of radiation methods for
finding useful minerals. The testing and introduction of radiation methods for detecting ore deposits leaves
much to be desired. The Ministry of Geology and Conservation of Mineral Resources, USSR must, in our opinion,
be primarily held responsible for this, as having not devoted the requisite attention, and not having circulated
the results which have been obtained to a wide circle of workers in the geological service.
The results from using radioactive methods in the oil industry and the commencement of their effective
introduction into the coal industry cannot be considered in isolation from the results carried out in the radio-
metry laboratories of the Academy of Sciences,USSR Oil Institute, of the Urals branch of the Academy of Sciences,
USSR of the All-Union Geophysics Research Institute, and of the Gubkin Oil Institute, Moscow. The scien-
tific teams in these institutes and the study groups of the divisions in the Ministry of the Oil Industry have car-
ried out the following research during recent years.
The y -ray scattering processes in rocks have been studied analytically (G. M. Voskoboinikov, L G.
Dyadkin,et al?);,also the neutron distributions in oil and water-collecting strata pierced by a bore-hole (S. A.
Kantor and 0. A. Barsukov).
Some of these problems., which are very difficult to solve by mathematical methods, have been studied
by analog methods at the Volga-Urals branch of the All-Union Geophysics Research Institute and at the Gubkin
Oil Institute, Moscow. This work has particularly demonstrated the effects due to fresh-water infiltration zones
produced by the boring solutions on the prompt y -rays from radiative neutron capture in lined and unlined
wells, and the optimum conditions for carrying out measurements designed to detect the oil/water contact have
been determined.
The work carried out at the Volga-Urals branch of the All-Union Geophysics Research Institute (Yu. A.
Gulin) and in the radiometry laboratory of the central division in Moscow has shown that it is possible to study
the densities and porosities of rocks from data on scattered y -ray intensities.
The distributions of epithermal neutrons have been studied at the Volga-Urals branch of the All-Union
Geophysics Research Institute, the Gubkin Oil Institute, Moscow, and the Moscow Oil Institute. This work con-
firmed that it was possible to determine rock porosities more accurately by recording epithermal neutron densi-
ties, and has also elucidated the role of epithermal neutron absorption by chlorine in differentiating water and
oil-bearing strata by the (n, y) method.
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399
1
4.,
i/17,0//m Tv.
IN 411 IX IN SXm /XI 1101 irnetnin
2
'I
25511
21011
IMpAriwn
271/0
Fig. 7. An example of the determination of the site
of a flow in the cement around a liner by injecting a
radioactive solution.
1 ) Natural y -ray intensity I ; 2) y -ray intensity
Y
IX after injecting the active solution and pumping it
around the column. The injection was made at 2680 m
depth (shown by the arrow). The flaws in the cement
are shown cross-hatched.
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Much attention has been devoted to improv-
ing the accuracy with which the results from radio-
metric logs are interpreted. To this end the radio-
metry laboratory of the All-Union Geophysics Re-
search Institute (directed by V. M. ZaporozhtS) has
developed methods of calibrating units used for re-
cording natural y - ray intensities in bore-holes in
rihr units and for those used to record neutron cap-
ture y -rays in arbitraryunits based on surrounding
the unit with water. Nomograms were also devel-
oped from which the rate of recording required to
ensure the requisite degree of accuracy could be
read off.
Further work on a method of determining
rock densities has also been undertaken. The (n,y)
method was reconsidered as it had been shown that
chlorine has a marked distorting influence.
Work on this topic has shown that the expon-
entially diminishing relation of capture y -ray in-
tensity to rock porosity found earlier is only obser-
ved in rocks which contain no strong absorbers; when
the chlorine content is high the relation of capture
y -ray intensity to rock porosity is linear. This ex-
plains the source of considerable errors in the rock
porosities found by earlier methods, and reveals new
'and more accurate ways of determining rock poros-
ity.
The newly developed methods provide a
means of determining rock porosities from epithet-
mal neutron densities, these being only slightly af-
fected by the chemical composition.
Much attention has been devoted to develop-
ing new types of radiometric well-logging equip-
ment. The following new units should be noted:
a) logging units using proportional neutron
counters for recording thermal neutron densities
Academy of Sciences,USSR Oil Institute and Gub-
kin Oil Institute, Moscow). Industrial tests of these
units have confirmed the advantages of the (n,. n)
method for work on the storage properties of strata,
and the detection of oil-bearing strata has been fa-
cilitated by thermal neutron density measurements.
b) Units for operating at high temperatures in wells (All-Union Geophysics Research Institute, "Groznefte-
geofzikeTtust from which qualitative diagrams have been obtained on working in bore-holes at rock tempera-
tures up to + 150?C.
c) Scintillation counter units (developed by the All-Union Geophysics Institute in conjunction with the
"Oil Equipment' factory and the Academy of Sciences,USSROil Institute), these having advantages over the
earlier units using gas-discharge counters as regards count rate and wider control over their spectral sensitivities.
The scintillation units produced by the "Oil Equipment* factory for recording thermal neutronswere built
using neutron-sensitive phosphors;
400
^
PI 11,
25 5 Oh i
nit /40bri i1 0 /100Imp/mir
mirmimmcsiblamm
maninnmiummissa
Nowatzsamuiprzos
euinnutivEramimms
Fig. 8. An example of the use of radioactive isotopes for determining
the sites of water-fissuring in strata.
1) Apparent resistance curve, pa(probe 6,7.5A 0.75M); 2) inherent polar-
ization potential, Up; 3) ly natural y 'ray intensity: 4)I .-ray
Y1
intensity curve after hydraulic destruction and injection of activated
sand.
d) A two-channel unit using boron screening (Gubkin Oil Institute, Moscow) for determining water/oil
contacts and for carrying out lateral (n, y) sounding, etc.
The Machine Operation and Automation Institute of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences has produced a
4-channel unit for measuring the natural y -ray intensity, the neutron capture y -rays with two sizes of probe,
and the thermal neutron density,simultaneously, using one single-core cable.
The most important trend in the development of radiometric equipment is the design of small neutron ,
generators for well-logging. Such units are at present produced in the USA and have great advantages over
polonium-beryllium and other similar neutron sources.
As well as being widely used for studying bore-hole strata and the technical states of wells, these methods
are used for prospecting for useful minerals on the surface.
For example, they were used successfully on the eastern side of the Kuznets Ala-Tau for delineating erup-
tive rocks buried under intrusive deposits and for detecting zones of tectonic faulting.
F. A. Alekseev, at the Academy of Sciences,USSR Oil Institute, has directed work on radiation methods
of detecting oil deposits from the surface []3. The field groups from the Institute found that the natural y -ray
intensity was often reduced over oil deposits, there being rings of raised activity at the peripheries. Analogous
results were obtained by the "Bashneftegeofizika" Trust for oil deposits.
The physical basis of the method is not clear. It may be that the observed effects are due to changes in
the lithology of' the surface deposits in the vaulted areas of the structure, but the authors still consider that a
direct relation between the y? -ray intensity changes and the oil deposits should be sought. The Academy of Sci-
ences,USSROil Institute has designed field radiometers for continuous recording of y -ray intensities from sur-
face vehicles and aeroplanes.
Radiometric methods have also been successfully tested in other branches of mining. For example, G. I.
Pokrovsky and A. A. Chernigovsky (Zhukov Air Force Engineering Academy) have shown that it is possible to
use radioactive isotopes for work on soil displacement in explosions. A. D. Godroshko,et al.(Academy of Sciences,
USSR, Institute of Fuel Resources) have worked on the design of units for coal enrichment using the y -ray ab-
sorption of the material. Similar work has been carried out in other research Institutes.
To sum up, we must observe that the use of radiation techniques has extended considerably in the last two
years as regards the location and development of useful mineral deposits.
However, the present successes do not exhaust the vast possibilities of radiation methods and we must par-
ticularly point out that there are still a large number of unci-11 ved problems in both the use arid refinement of
radiometric methods.
First, we must once again emphasize the need for ihe wide use of-radiometry in locating and detecting ore
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11
??.
4
deposits, particularly with regard to deposits of boron, manganese, mercury and aluminum. For example, the
exceptionally high capture cross section of boron for thermal neutrons would enable one to detect it reliably by
neutron methoas in rocks containing 0.25%B or more, or even less than this under some conditions.
The chances of detecting manganese are also very good, due to its high capture cross section (12.7 barns),
high prompt y -ray energy (up to 7.3 Mev), high activation cross section (12.7 barns) and relatively short half-
life (2.6 hours). Thus manganese could be detected by neutron absorption, (n, y) and induced activity.
The high capture cross sections of mercury (380 barns), tungsten (19.2 barns), cesium (29.0 barns) and par-
ticularly of some of the lanthanide elements (samarium, europium, gadolinium, dysprosium) gives promise of
success in developing ways of detecting rocks enriched in these elements. When setting about this work atten-
tion must be paid to all the nuclear properties of these elements.
The short half-life of aluminum (2.3 minutes) and the fairly high activation cross section (0.21 barn)
make prospecting for bauxite and determination of the aluminum contents of bauxite by induced activity meth-
ods very promising.
When sulfides are studied by induced activity methods it will evidently be possible to detect copper (Cu"
and Cu66, half-lives 12.9 hours and 5.3 minutes,respectively) nickel (2.6 hours) etc. For this purpose y -ray
spectroscopy must be used to the full extent.
To increase the certainty of work with ore bore-holes, existing methods must be widely tested and used,
but work on new methods must proceed at the same time, particularly with y -ray measurements, when the
bore-hole walls are bombarded by high-energy neutrons, photoneutron methods and resonance absorption of
neutrons in rocks.
Radiation methods should also be widely used in surface prospecting for useful minerals and in geological
mapping, e.g., for delineating various types of intrusion, detection of tectonic fault zones, etc., for which pur-
pose equipment of high sensitivity must be used.
When radiation methods are ,givenextended use in coal bore-holes attention must be paid to the deter-
mination of ash contents; this can probably be done by coal seam density measurements based on y -ray scat-
tering and on silicon,content measurements (from the intensity of the hard component of the prompt y -rays).
Much attention should be pada to y -ray scattering, (n, n) and y -ray spectroscopic methods in work with oil
and gas wells. These methods enable one to identify the rocks more accurately and to study the porosity and
oil and gas saturations.
When radioactive isotopes are used, much attention must be devoted to short-lived isotopes with half-
lives from 1 - 20 days. Centers where these isotopes are prepared continuously should be organized in the
southern and eastern oil-bearing regions. When work is carried out with hydrogeological bore-holes the great-
est attention should be given to y -ray scattering methods for detecting highly porous rocks, which are of re-
duced density, of course; and to the use of short-lived radioactive isotopes for detecting fissured zones. Con-
cerning the further refinement of equipment, there is the need to produce units of higher sensitivity for well-
logging to detect y -rays and neutrons of various energies, which are designed to operate at temperatures up
to 150 - 200?C. Industry must provide much help in the development of these units by producing electronic
components and special cables designed for operation under the above conditions. Particular attention must
be paid to quicken possible production of well-logging neutron generators and betatrons designed to give power-
ful monoenergetic sources. These will raise the accuracy considerably and extend the range of problems which
can be solved by radiometry.
When questions of interpretation of the results from radiation measurements are dealt with, much atten-
tion must be given to more efficient ways of determining porosities and oil- and gas-saturations as well as to
methods of determining the chemical compositions of rocks quantitatively. Radiometric and other geophysical
methods will have to be. used extensively to solve these problems.
Activation analysis is of particular interest, in that it is the most exact way of studying the chemical com-
positions of rocks.
More attention will also have to be devoted to the more accurate determination of absolute ages of rocks,
particularly with the object of deciding on the genesis of useful mineral deposits more precisely.
402
er.
?
Solutions of the above problems will raise the efficiency of location and development of useful minerals
and will produce conditions favorable to the still wider use of radiation methods in the mining Industry.
LITERATURE CITED
[1] F. A. Alekseeva, A. P. Grumbkov and Yu. E. Kirshfeldt, The Possibilities of Using Radioactive Methods
to Detect Oil Deposits, Session of Academy of Sciences on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, July 1-5, 1955;
Session of Technical Science Section (Acad. Sci. USSR Press, 1955).
[2]
V. I. Baranov, Radiomeuy,Acad. Sci, USSR, Press, 1956).
?
[3]
D. F. Bespalov and A. P. Grumbkov, A new Radiometric Unit, Oil Industry 1956, No. 9.
[4]
Yti. P. Bugashevich, 'Theory of neutron logging" Bull. Acad. Sci. USSR, Geophys. Ser. 1, No. 3
(1951).
[5]
G. M. Voskoboinikov and L. L. Dcev, "Density logging in coal borcholes? Prospecting and Conser-
vation of Ore Resources 1956, No. 10.
[6] S F. Vybornylth, Tracer Methods for the Research and Control of Technical Conditions in Oil and Gas
Wells, Oil Industry, 1955, No. 7.
['I] V. N. Dakhnov, "The current state and development prospects of radiometric well-logging:' Pros-
pecting for Mineral Resources 1956, No. 6.
[8] I. G. Dyabkin, "Theory of y -y logs in well-boring., Bull. Acad. Sci. USSR, Geophys. Ser. 1955, No.4.
[9] S. Ya. Kantor, Theoretical Basis of Neutron Logging, Applied Geophysics, No. 13 (State Sci. Tech.
Press for Petroleum and Mineral Fuels, 1955).
[10] N. K. Kukharenko, Yu. S. Shimelevits, D. F. Bespalov and V. A. Odinokov, "A new geophysical method
for detecting oil- and gas-bearing strata, and for locating the water/oil contact in lined wells" Oil Industry,
1956, No. 3.
[11] A. I. Obolenskaya, The use of Radioactive Isotopes for Studying Wells, Appl. Geophys. No. 14, (State
Sci.- Tech. Press for Petroleum and Mineral Fuels, 1956).
(12) A. I. Kholin, Delineation of Oil and Water-bearing Strata in Lined Wells by Radioactive Methods,
Session of USSR Acad. Sci. on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, July 1-5, 1955., Session of Technical Sci-
ences Sections (Acad. Sci. USSR, Press, 1955).
403
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_ -
-
? .. 7 .7_ . _ _ _
4
v
?
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES USSR
CENTRAL COMMITTEE ON UTILIZATION OF ATOMIC ENERGY
COUNCIL OF MINISTRIES, USSR
ALL-UNION CONFERENCE ON THE APPLICATION OF
RADIOACTIVE AND STABLE ISOTOPES IN THE
NATIONAL ECONOMY AND SCIENCE
USE OF NUCLEAR RADIATION FOR AUTOMATION AND
TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESS CONTROL IN THE USSR
N. N. Shumilovsky and L. V. Melttser
April Conference, Plenary Session
Moscow, 1957
405
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2014/01/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002800180003-5
,
Editor
S. T. Nazarov
406
???
USE OF NUCLEAR RADIATION FOR AUTOMATION AND
TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESS CONTROL IN THE USSR
N. N. Shumilovsky and L. V. Melttser
According to the directives of the 20th Party Congress [1], an increase in production by means of automatic
devices has been recognized as a problem of the first rank: the necessity for developing every possible application
of radioactive materials in the control and automatic regulation of production processes is especially emphasized.
Technological progress in industry and, in particular, in the automation of production processes has been
accompanied by a rather considerable increase in the requirements on the methods aird techniques of automatic
control. The requirements with regard to speed of operation, sensitivity, and accuracy have been made more
stringent,and at the same tittle the field of application of automatic-control methods for obtaining more com-
plete and accurate information on the process being controlled, has been extended.
The use of nuclear radiation yields the possibility of widening considerably the region of application of
automatic-control methods and also offers new solutions for problems which arise in automation. In this connec-
tion, nuclear radiation has a number of advantages in measurement technique (non-contact properties, absence
of any effect due to external conditions on the radiation source, absence of any interaction effects between the
medium being controlled and the measurement device, high stability and duty capabilities of radiation sources,
quick operation, etc.).
All control techniques may be divided into three groups, based on the feasibility of using a given control
method (with or without the use of nuclear radiation). The first group pertains to cases in which only radioiso-
topes can be used to control a given process to avoid disturbing the process itself. Examples of this situation
are measurements of the thickness of a non-magnetic plating material on a non-magnetic base, non-contact
measurements of thickness and weight of moving material, location of damage in underground conduits,etc.
In these cases, the use of radioisotopes is definitely indicated, without regard to expense, since no other means
is feasible.
In the second group we include processes which can also be controlled by other methods. However in these
cases the use of radioisotope methods may make it possible to solve certain problems more simply and conveniently,
and hence should be given preference.
The third group includes all processes which can be controlled in a simpler way by the usual methods, I. e.,
without the use of radioisotopes.
Turning to a survey of the basic trends in the development of automatic control using nuclear radiation,
we may note that certain approaches have already become well established. Typical examples of these are
methods which exploit the effects of absr,rption and scattering of radiation in the material being controlled, the
ei;ect of ionization in a material beingirradiated,and so forth. These methodshave found application in various
branches of industry and one of the basic present-day problems is the further improverpent and development of
these methods and initiation of large-scale production of appropriate devices (also the development of new tech-
niques and devices).
It should be pointed out that even though the number of newly developed methods in this field and the
new experimental techniques do not lag, and may even surpass those of foreign countries, the introduction and
industrial acceptance of devices of this kind lag far behind that which is found abroad. One redeeming factor,
407
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1.7
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however, is the theoretical work which has been carried out in the field of measurement techniques [-10].
research has furthered the work on the development of methods and devices and has created a theory and given
methods of engineering calculation for nuclear-radiation devices so that the design and development of these
systems can be carried out in a scientific and rational way.
Along with the trends which have been mentioned above, there are a number of other approaches which,
while well-known to physicists, have still not received wide development in the field of measurement technique.
Here we refer to the use of nuclear spectroscopy, neutron fluxes, certain nuclear reactions and a number of other
phenomena for control of technological processing which are well-known in present day physics. These methods
of control are especially desireable since, in a number of cases, they could yield solutions to such important
problems as the automatic, continuous non-contact control of the composition of complex materials. We now
consider, in somewhat greater detail, each of the approaches which has been mentioned above.
1. Use of the Penetrating Properties of Radiation and Measurement of Absorption
and Back-Scattering in the Material Being Controlled
This method has, at the present time, been used more than any other.
As is well-known, the absorption of 8-and 7-radiation in a material is given, with rather good accuracy,
by an exponential law.
= Joe pjd= md)P = Joe 'ix mP
(1)
where J0 is the intensity of rile radiation flux incident on the absorbeL; J is the intensity of the radiation fluxi
which passes through a layer of absorber of thickness d(cm) and density p (g/cm3); pi is the coefficient of
linear' absorption in cm; pm = Nip is the coefficient for mass absorption, cm1/2; p =pd is the weight of the
absorber, referred to a unit area, g/cm2.
From Equation (1) follows directly the possibility of determining density, thickness, and weight of an irradi-
ated material. In turn it is also possible, using the difference in the density of the absorber medium, to obtain
information un solid-impurity contc;It and so forth.
In a number of cases (measurement of the thickness of plating, concentration of material, etc.) it is possi-
ble to use effects associated with back-scattering of 8 -radiation in the material. The strength of the scattering
of the radiation in the backward direction is a function of the atomic number of the scatterer and is approxi-
mately given by a Zn-law where n is less than unity and depends on the experimental geometry.
The operating principles of devides in which use is made of radiation absorption are extremely varied. In
certain cases (for example, in measuring density, thickness, and weight) the values of the parameters to be deter-
mined are obtained from the amount of absorption in the material being controlled. In other cases, in which
"relay" operation is used, it is important only to establish the fact that radiation is incident on a detector. In
this case, the detector and the radiation source may be moved with respect to each other or with respect to an
object which passes between them and blocks the radiation patn. Finally, there are cases in which it is not nec-
essary to establish the presence of radiation or the amount of absorption, for example, in determining the fre-
quency of alternation between various states in which the amount of absorption differs (non-contact tachometer,
counting of objects, etc.).
At the present time, devices which measure the amount of absorption or back-scattering are used in various
branches of industry.
In the metallurgical industry use is made of non-contact control and regulation of the level of a metal.
for example, in a crystallizer for continuous pouring of steel [11]. A diagram of the regulator of the steel level
in a RU-2 crystallizer developed at the All-Union Scientific Research Institute for Ferrous Metals is shown in Fig. 1.
A good deal of work has been carried out on the use of devices for controlling the thickness of rolled iron and the
thickness of plating [12]; these devices were developed at the Central Laboratory for Automation of the Ministry
of Ferrous Metallurgy in conjunction with the P. N. Lebedev Institute of Physics of the Academy of Sciences, USSR,
408
4
?
On the basis of incomplete data, it has been found that the application of devices for controlling the thickness
of rolled iron at the V. M. Molotov Steel-Rolling Plant in Leningrad and the "Zaporozhstal" plant has reduced
the 'Ejection rate for metal thickness by a factor of two and has reduced the outage time by a factor of ten.
The instruments themselves have been improved considerably while in use. Radioactive marking of rolled-iron
has also been successfully carried out at the V. M. Molotov Steel-Rolling plant in Leningrad. The results ob-
tained at this plant indicate that the application of radioactive marking yields considerable economies.
A number of original devices for the control of the level of
ore and the density of pulp in non'-ferrous metallurgy have been dev-
eloped. In the device which is used to control ore level [13], use
1 is made of a scintillation counter and a pulsed photomultiplier voltage
supply. The use of this system has made it possible to reduce by a
factor of ten the activity required of the Co'? source; also it performs
satisfactorily without special dc-ac converters. A diagram of the
level-measuring instrument in the channel of an underground bunker
is shown in Fig. 2.
Special attention is merited by an instrument with a vibrating
2 radiator for controlling pulp density [14] in which the radiation is
modulated. An external view of this device is shown in Fig. 3.
The application of y-radiatron for quality control of manufac-
tured goods is one of the most important ways in which nuclear radia-
don is utilized. At the present time more than 1000 instruments for
7-defectosropy of materials are being used in the Soviet Union.
The control and inspection of welded and cast parts by means
of y-rays is obligatory according to present regulations on boiler in-
spection and the technical requirements of many ministries and de-
partments.
47
N.
N.
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the
RU-2 level regulator: 1) 7-radia-
tion source; 2) shielded container
with collimating holes; 3) crystal-
lizer; 4) counters; 5) thyratron-
relay control circuit.
In recent years the "Mosroentgen" plant has developed several types of 7-devices for industrial radioscopy.
Many new devices have been built directly in plants themselves, for example, in the shipbuilding industry.
Methods of y-defectoscopy for welded Joints and castings have been developed at the Scientific Research
Institutes. In the research which has been carried out on photographic 7-defectoscopy, the sensitivity of the
method for delineating minimal defects as a function of 7-ray energy has been established. Regions of appli-
cation for 7-rays from the isotopes Co", Cs137, Ir192, Eu152154, Tuln other and oer 7-radiators have been established.
-
Recent work has been done on problems of radioscopy, including methods of improving resolution of defect
images on 7-pictures [15]. A method has been developed [16] for radiography of welded seams in tubes which
makes use of y-rays from the isotopes Co". Cs137, 11'192, Eu152-154 and Turf? and studies have been carried out on
the application of the stopping of x-rays froJn the B -radiation of Tull?. This work has shown that using inter-
changeable targets it may be possible to obtain from the B -radiation of Turn, x-rays with energies from 65-
32 key. Special prototype devices have been developed to investigate the use of this radiation in defectoscopy
of light alloys of aluminum, magnesium and titanium.
Studies have also been carried out on the sensitivity to defects in different metals in radioscopy using
y-radiation from Tuln [17] and the sensitivity of photographic methods of y-defectoscopy using isotopes with
different 7-energy [18].
The application of rdefectoscopy on a large scale in the national economy has made it necessary to find
methods for automatic 7-control of products. One of these methods involves the use of a scintillation counter
in an ionization scheme. Considerable progress has been achieved in this field [19, 20', 21].
Methods of automatic y-defectoscopy in which use is made of electron-optics and television methods
appear to have great potentialities and can widen considerably the possibilities for product quality control. Work
carried on in this direction by Corresponding Member, Academy of Sciences, USSR P. V. Timofeev indicates the
possibility of considerable improvement (by several orders of magnitude) in the sensitivity of defectoscopes.
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Fig. 2. Diagram of installation for measuring me
level in a "non-ferrous automatic installation" in
the channel of an underground bunker: 1) y-
radiation source Co"; 2) radiation detector;
3) channels; 4) measurement unit; 5) indicator.
The coal mining industry has developed and
introduced the use of a 7-relay [22] which is used
to count carts and to control the filling operation
(Fig. 4), to realize non-contact foot-pedal control
of an electric locomotive, automatic stopping of the
nain at a red signal light, as well as a number of
other measurement and control operations (Fig. 5).
In Fig. 6 is shown an external view of the 7-relay
developed at the "Red Metallurgist" plant for auto-
matic control in the coal mining industry.
Work has been carried out [23, 24] on the
attenuation of 7-radiation by different isotopes in
coal and rock. The results of this research have been
used in building a prototype radiation separator which
is intended for automatic separation of lumps of coal
and rock which differ both in size and density. At
the same time a method has been developea and used
under laboratory conditions for determining rapidly
the contents of mineral impurities in coal (in parti-
cular, the ash content of coal).
In the petroleum industry, devices which use
nuclear radiation have been used, for example, to
control the level of petroleum products [25] or to
determine the position of the boundary between two
materials in a covered reservoir.
Under the direction of Yu. S. Zaslavsky, a
group of engineers have developed the ARTTU-2
regulator for automatically maintaining the kero-
sene-water boundary in the water-kerosene rinsing
column of a cracking system. The regulator con-
sists of a 7-relay and a pneumatic relay which con-
trols the water-outlet valve for the column. Great
interest for the petroleum industry attaches to the
realization of automatic control for the sequential
A
Fig. 3. External view of the densitometer with vibrating radiators: unit A
contains the radiation detector and the comparison circuit; unit B contains
the main radiation source, the amplifier and the power supply; the pulp pipe
line being irradiated is positioned between units A and B.
410
?
?
?
-r
?
Fig. 4. Application of a 7-relay for controlling the filling of coal carts.
transfer of petroleum products through pipelines. Work in this field is proceeding in two directions. An experi-
ment on an industrial scale has been carried out [26] on the sequential transfer of petroleum products over the
line from Grozny to Trudovaya (887 km) in which the dividing line was marked by triphenylstibine containing
radioactive Sb124. The results of this work were more or less positive although the method has one important
shortcoming in that radioactive materials are introduced into the petroleum products.
The other approach being explored by Yu. S. Zaslavsky et al, involves density control of the products which
pass through the pipelines, through the absorption of 7-radiation in these materials. This method has many poten-
tialities; however, there is a great deal of difficulty from the point of view of the measuring technique itself
since the requirements on the accuracy in controlling the density of petroleum products are better than 0.1 clo.
In the textile industry instruments are used to control the uniformity of product and the weight of moving
fabric [27]. In Fig. '/ is shown a schematic diagram of a device for measuring and recording the uniformity of
products from a spinning machine. The device makes use of a differential measurement scheme and provision
is made for automatic computation of the variation factor.
The devices for automatic control of the weight of moving fabric use a comparison scheme. An external
view of a data-pickup element for such a device is shown in Fig. 8. Two versions of the instrument have been
constructed. In the first a T1204 radiator is used, in he second a Sr" radiator is used. The measurement range of
the first instrument is 150-800 g/m2, that of the second is 800-5000 g/m2. Ionization chambers are used to detect
the radiation. The uncertainty in a weight measurement is not greater than 110. At the Nogin factory the use of
an instrument for controlling fabric weight has made it possible to save a great deal of fabric.
Other work is being carried on; for example. apparatus is presently being developed and tested for auto-
matic control of the operation of a disintegrator which employs a radioactive transducer.
411
ri
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Fig. 5. Application of a y-relay in a filling device.
In the paper manufacturing industry a "Goznak
Weight Meter" has been developed [28]; this machine
allows the continuous automatic control of the weight
of paper and makes use of the absorption of 8 -radia-
tion in the paper. It is convenient to express the
weight of the paper in terms of a unit of area of a
sheet, which is given in g/cm2 or g/m2.
Work has been carried out to study the errors
which arise due to changes in the position of the
material in the gap between the radiation source and
pick-up device. It has been found that by setting up
a collimating grid in the radiation path and increas-
ing the area of the source, this error can be reduced
considerably. The "Goznak Weight Meter" (Fig. 9)
makes use of the comparison principle through a
differential system of ionization chambers, a "dynam-
ic; variable condenser and a "profile slide-wire"
recorder which provide high accuracy and good
measurement sensitivity and a fairly linear scale.
The radiation ?source is T1204. The uncertainty in a
weight determination is less than Vb.
In the fur industry a radiation "thickness"
meter has been developed [29] which makes possible
the continuous automatic control of fur thickness by
the absorption of B -particles without damage to the
fur itself. A diagram of the measurement scheme is
shown in Fig. 10.
In the tanning industry a method Has been
developed for controlling the thickness of skins
[30] by the absorption of 7-radiation from Ce144.
The instrument makes use of a very simple compar-
ison scheme (Fig. 11) in which the comparison source
is placed on the needle of the indicating instrument.
The radiation detectors are halogen counters in
which the average current is measured.
Fig. 6. External view of the y-relay GERN-3.
412
-
_ _
1.
4
a
I.
?
.1114.1.1,
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of an instrument for me,vuring and recording
non-uniformity of products in the spinning industry: A) squaring integra-
tion channel; B) linear integration channel; 1) shaping device; 2) oper-
ating chamber; 3) main source; 4) comparison chamber; 5) auxiliary
source; 6) load resistance for the chambers; 7) micrometer screw for
positioning the auxiliary source; 8) electrometer amplifier; 9) recorder.
In the dairy industry experiments have been carried out on the continuous control of the quality of dairy
products by absorption of 8 - and y-radiation [31]. Using the relation between the concentration of dry materials
in condensed milk and the density of this product a method has been developed for automatic control of the quality
of condensed milk in which a radiation densitometer (PZhR-1)* is used.
Fig. 8. External view of the data-pickup device used in the automatic
control of the weight of a moving fabric.
?PZhR-1 is a radiation densitometer for liquids [32] for general industrial use (a refinement of The Scientific
Research Institute for Thermal Instruments, MPSA).
413
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4*,
ii
NNW
414
, 111.
4..... 0 0
4... 43)
CI 13 CJ ??-?
cd 'V
._ L.. ..-?
s...
I., 1.-: an
'V
ell 0 (1)
-a CO
.0
14
0 V) ??-I
0
ca 8 07 1.4
... ..-40
,4,-", .
c....
??-?
c... .. o.
C.)
a)
.--t 8 co
rz. ?.1
ri
" 0 ._-_..
C.)co
Cr)
coo CU
U f:s u
1...
se N
z ,..,.
0 ?,.
.11 4.0
CO
;IT?,..
C)
1.., LI
C = c?I CA
? r..I
I... 0
atl an ? -
.... ts
I.
a) c o ,--4
C.)
0 ????11
1.., ..-.
? 4...
.- 0 ..
46 ,..3. 0.,
...
a,
.0 s..a
V....
E ? o
bp ?a - CO
.....
...... .... ;0.4)* "4
CU P
,. al
4...
VI
.-% -Co ? 1.41
130
Cd
? ?
4 .r.....
=
t6 ? 0
O ..... cc) 'CI
Pcl1...
t' .
?_C) 7
_L
C
O tO L)
?.--... ??-? E 0.
?.... = ..,
an a?I
O 0 0
E '-'
,... ?
cd co 0
to E 4.,
,0
? 00
...% t.:?.?
u ..,,,
? ..
o
a)
co 14
attenuator;
?
In the manufacture of refractory materials, A. N. Lyulichev and E. V. Levintovich have carried out work
on a non-contact determination of the weight by volume of refractory objects in the region from 0.75-3.35 gice
and have obtained data for the construction and design of special apparatus for automatic control of the quality
of refractory material.
In the gas industry and in communications it is extremely important to develop above-ground methods fot
locating damage points in underground trunk lines. Work in this field has been directed primarily toward deter-
mining leakage points in gas lines [33] and breaks in the hermetic lead shield around communication cables [34].
4.
Fig. 10 Diagram of the apparatus for measuring fur thickness with a radiation
thickness meter: 1) vacuum-tube amplifier with galvanometer; 2) ionization
chamber; 3) radioactive radiator; 4) fur pelt; 5) straight edge boundary;
6) shunt; 7) roller.
In both cases the damaged trunk line is filled with radioactive gas (methyl bromide or radon) and the leak
is located from the surface using an ordinary field-type radiometer.
In the plastics industry, in rolling large quantities of plastics, automatic stops are used for the rollers [35].
The working principle is as follows: on the operating arm of the device are placed collars containing sources of
insignificant and completely harmless doses of radioactive material. Radiation pick-up devices are placed in
the danger zone and these control the stop. When the operating arm moves into the danger zone the roller is
brought to a stop instantly.
In marine transportation, earth-removal machinery equipped with y-depth meters is widely used in meas-
uring river channels and ether work. Systems furnished with y-depth meters allow the dredging operation to be
carried out by continuous remote control of the bottom content in the removed material, allowing optimum use
to be made of the dredging machinery. During the useful navigation period in 1956 when the earth-removal
equipment of the Ministry of River Fleet had 36 y-depth meters in operation, according to S. N. Dedyukov (36),
a saving of more than two million rubles per year was realized.
The Physics Institute, Academy of Sciences Latvian SSR [37] has developed a whole new series of relay-
type instruments for a wide variety of industrial purposes. These instruments are used for object counting, for
control of the level of beer in the brewing industry, for counting carcasses which are transported in the meat
industry, for control of the filling of aluminum tubes with cream in the cosmetic industry, for regulating voltage
and temperature in accordance with the position of the arrow of an indicating device with a radioactive source
placed on it, and for many other purposes. An outstanding feature of all these devices is the use of a standard
circuit, their small size and simplicity of operation. As a illustration, in Fig. .12 is shown an external view
of a radioactivity-level meter (RIU-3) which is designed to measure the level of liquids in large-diameter vessels
and in large carrying containers. The device contains only one vacuum tube and is very small. Using one of
these instruments it is possible to measure the levels in many containers very rapidly.
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The Scientific Research Institute for Thermal Instruments, MPSA in recent years has developed and established
in industry a whole series of devices for general industrial use (densitometers, concentration meters, level meters,
consumption meters and so forth).
The possible use of a noncontact measurement of the density of a liquid [38] based on the absorption of y -
radiation in the liquid is shown in Fig. 13. In addition to the PZhR-1 densitometer mentioned above, the Scientific
Research Institute for Thermal Instruments has developed more refined models, the PZIR-2 and PZIR-3. The
PZhR-2 instrument uses a modulated radiation and a scintillation counter. In the PZhR-3 instrument use is made
of a compensation scheme with a differential ionization chamber. An external view of the PZhR-2 instrument is
shown in Fig. 14.
The radiation concentration meter, RKM-1 [39],uses the effect of back-scattering of 8 -radiation in the
controlled medium (solution). The current produced in an ionization chamber by the -particles reflected from
a medium of complex chemical composition is approximately equal to
I zr. czo ck,
k-1
(2)
where I(Zi)...I(Zn) are the currents due to reflection by the various components of the mixture; ci...cn are the
concentrations by weight of the components.
For a binary mixture (n = 2) the sensitivity is given by the expression
s
(3)
The sensitivity becomes larger as the difference I(Z1) ?I(Z2) becomes larger, that is, the greater the
difference in atomic number of the components of the mixture. An external view of a RKM-1 concentration
meter is shown in Fig. 15.
Fig. 11. Block diagram of the device for measuring the thick-
ness of hides: 1) main radiation source; 2) main detector;
3) comparison radiation source; 4) auxiliary radiation source
(for shifting the zero reading); 5) comparison detector.
The level meters developed by Scientific Research Institute for Thermal Instruments are presently being
produced in industrial quantities.
416
3-
Fig. 12. External view of the radioactivity level meter RIU-3.
Because of space limitations in the present report we cannot present a comprehensive review of all the
devices which make use of absorption and acattering of nuclear radiation which are applied in the various fields
of industry. However, even from the short description which has been given it is apparent that the field in.which
work is being carried out is large and that very important results have been achieved. For this same reason we
are not in a position to give a comprehensive picture of the overall economic effect due to the introduction of
these devices in industry.
?
All the instruments considered above should also be evaluated from the point of view of accuracy (noting,
incidentally, other features of their operation). From this point of view it is convenient to divide all devices in
which absorption is used into two basic groups;
a) Devices and methods of measurement the accuracy of which depends directly on the accuracy of
measurement of the radiation flux. At the present time this group has been most widely developed;
b) Devices and methods in which the results of measurements are almost independent of the accuracy of
the measurement of a radioactive flux and changes in the intensity of this flux or the conditions under which it
is detected in the medium being controlled. In this group we include relay schemes and certain other devices
which employ measurements of frequency, phase, or time.
a) Devices, the Accuracy of Which Depends on the Accuracy of the Measurement
of a Radiation flux
An analysis of the errors in the measurement of density or weight by absorption of radiation carried out on
the basis of Equation (1) indicates that, in general, these errors are independent of the actual method and apparatus.
The uncertainty in the measurement of the average intensity of the radiation flux arises as a result of two
independent factors [3], which are due to imperfections in the measurement apparatus and the statistical nature
of radioactive decay:
ilf(Alapp)7+ (A41)2 T (4)
where ,6,1 is the mean square error in the measurement of the intensity of the radiation flux; &Tapp is the error
due to imperfections in the measurement apparatus; Ain is the error due to the statistical nature of decay.
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The quantity isJ11 can always be made rather small by choosing a source of high activity.
The minimum in A,Jfi occurs when
ii.??p?d = 2.
(5)
Hence, the choice of an isotope is determined by the best approximation satisfying the conditions given in
Equation (5) in a given region.
? case.
Fig. 13. Schematic diagrams of the non-contact liquid-density
measurement: a) using y-radiation absorption: 1) radiation
source; 2) medium being controlled; 3) measurement device;
4) radiation detector; b) using y-radiation scattering: 5) med-
ium being controlled; 6) radiation source; 7) shield; 8) radia-
tion detector; 9) meter.
Using Equation (1) and Equation (4) it is easy to determine the error in the measurements in any practical
For example, in a case where thickness is measured, differentiating Equation (1) we obtain an expression
for the absolute error in the thickness measurement
lAJ (AJapel? (kJ f1)2
tz d ?
(6)
For a given requirement on the accuracy of the thickness measurement, the activity of the radiator is found
from the expression
a
.087T ell d I
Ad id q 264t/V-77-e.
+ V -4-ii:dr21,217--j (1Japp)2
418
(7)
?
?
where t is the duration of the measurement; c is the detection efficiency; a is the number of quanta per
decay event; and 0 is the solid angle subtended by the detector at the source.
pjapp is independent of the activity of the radiator in the general case and can be reduced only by proper
design of the measurement circuit itself.
The most ideal measurement circuits are those in which a compensation principle is used. In these circuits
a comparison is made between two radiation fluxes, the one being measured and a comparison (or standard) flux;
thus, the difference can approach zero in a continuous fashion. The application of the compensation idea allows
one to reduce, it considerable degree, errors connected with changes in the external conditions and power supplies,
variations in rad.oactive decay, etc. In Fig. 16 is shown a comparison circuit for measuring the thickness of rolled-
steel stock [40]. In this circuit a differential ionization chamber is used and errors which may be produced be-
cause of changing operating conditions in both halves of the chamber are relatively small.
Fig. 14. External view of the PZhR-2 densitometer: 1) source unit;
2) detection unit; 3) electrohics unit.
Fig. 15. External view ot the concentration RKM-1 meter.
At the present time the scintillation counter is starting to receive more widespread acceptance; in the
majority of cases, these devices are found to be much more effective than other radiation detectors (ionization
chambers, Geiger-Muller counters) and require a radiator with a much smaller activity. However, because of
its inherent instability the use of scintillation in comparison circuits in recent years has been attended by a
number of difficulties. Although uncertainties due to varying operating conditions in both halves of a differential
419
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ionization chamber can be neglected in the majority of cases, non-uniform changes in the characteristics of two
scintillation counters practically exclude the possibility of using these in comparison circuits. This situation is
an indication of the importance of the problem of developing comparison circuits which operate with one radia-
tion detector. This problem has been solved successfully. Two approaches have been investigated [41]. In the
first case, the flux being measured and the comparison (standard) flux are allowed to strike the same phosphor of
the scintillation counter; each flux is alternately cutoff by a lead shield. From the phase of the fluctuations at
the output of the photomultiplier it is possible to determine the sign of the unbalance and to compensate for it.
Thus, in this scheme both signals pass completely through the same detection channel. One shortcoming of this
design is the need for a heavy lead shield. In the second case, (Fig, 1'1), the flux being measured Fi and the
comparison flux F2 strike different phosphors Ph1 and Ph2 which are connected by a light pipe C to the same
photomultiplier. The light fluxes from the phosphors are interrupted by the opaque half-disc A and strike alter-
nately the cathode of the multiplier. A shortcoming of this scheme is the need for two inputs (phosphors) which
can exhibit different variations in their characteristics, as a function of time. However, in this scheme the chief
cause of instability, I. e., the photomultiplier, can be excluded from consideration.
I
7
Fig. 16. Diagram of device for measuring the thickness of rolled-steel
stock: 1) differential ionization chamber; 2) main radiator; 3) com-
parison radiator; 4) adjustable attenuator; 5) vibrator power supply;
6) servo motor; 7) rectifier.
Another step forward is represented by a scheme with a vibrating radiator [14] which is free from the short-
comings of the schemes mentioned above. This scheme was developed primarily for the control of density
(Fig. 18) and comprises two radiation sources (the main source and the comparison source), one measurement
channel and a comparison wedge. A feature of this scheme is the use of modulation; this is realized by means
of two electromagnetic vibrators which operate in opposite phase. The radioactive radiators are placed at the
ends of the vibrators, Changes in the phase of the unbalance signal control the position of the comparison wedge.
No heavy moving parts are involved.
Finally, we come to one extremely interesting method [38]. This is the scheme used in the PZhR-2 den-
sitometer (Fig. 19). The chief feature of this device is the fact that here, for the first time, has been successfully
realized a comparison measurement scheme in which only one source and one radiation detector are used, that
is, this scheme has the smallest possibility for apparatus errors. A feature of the measurement is the fact that
the radioactive isotope is located on a rotating disc and alternately sends the radiation to the same scintillation
counter through two paths; first, through the medium being controlled and then through the comparison wedge.
The amplified unbalance signal controls tne position of the comparison wedge.
420
?
1
?
Fig. 17. Scheme for measurement with two phosphors:
1) object being controlled; 2? standard.
10
Tmflhhhhl
Fig. 18. Diagram of the densitometer with vibrating radiators: 1) main
radiation source; 2) comparison (standard) source; 3) phosphor; 4) pulp
pipe line; 5) comparison wedge; 6) reversing motor; 7) and 8) lead
radiation diaphragms; 9) photomultiplier; 10) amplifier.
From a consideration (2,f the cases which have been presented, it is apparent that a number of potentialities
in automatic control techniques have been opened by the use of modulated nuclear radiation.
b) Devices, the Accuracy of Which is Independent of the Magnitude of the Radia-
tion Flux
As has been indicated in our survey above, relay-type operation has found wide application in a number
of different fields of industry. A distinguishing feature of relay schemes is their simplicity and the fact that the
magnitude of the radiation flux (once the threshhold has been exceeded) does not affect the results of the measure-
ments. A typical scheme, that developed by the Institute of Physics, Academy of Sciences, Latvian SSR (Fig. 20)
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operates on alternating current and has been used widely, in particular, for position-regtilation of voltage [37].
A thyratron relay of the All-Union Central Scientific Research Institute for Ferrous Metals (Fig. 21) is used mainly
for control of the level of liquid metals.
Of particular interest is the circuit of a y -relay in which transistors are used (Fig. 22) and one in which a
scintillation counter is used (Fig. 23); these have been developed at the All-Union Coal Scientific Research In-
stitute for automation in the coal-mining Industry. The possibilities for use of radiation relays are extremely
wide. For example, in addition to the excellent but complicated densitometer which makes use of modulated
nuclear radiation, attention is merited by the extremely simple position density regulator developed at the In-
stitute of Physics, Academy of Sciences, Latvian SSR [37]. This regulator (Fig. 24),which consists of an ordinary
hydrometer which does not make contact with anything and is very accurately controlled by the radiation relay,
makes it possible to realize continuous control and regulation of the density of a liquid. This circuit contains
only one vacuum tube and the use of relay-type operation means that changes in the radiation flux have no effect
on the results.
0.)
???4
sk
11
7
Fig. Diagram of the PZhR-2: 1) disc;
2) object being measured; 3) comparison
wedge; 4) scintillation counter; 5) integra-
ting unit; 6) amplifier; 7) phase-sensitive
device; 3) reversing motor; 9) needle;
10) induction coil; 11) auxiliary device;
12) synchronous motor; 13) radioactive
source; 14) power supply.
-=-"i1=3.---lisei eff-Vicit.?_ff;
08.
Fig. 20. Typical relay scheme developed by the Institute
of Physics, Academy of Sciences, Latvian SSR: 1) radio-
active isotope; 2) shield; 3) measuring meter.
A natural transition from position control using a relay scheme to continuous control is the apparatus dev-
eloped by the Institute of Physics, Latvian SSR for counting products which pass along a conveyor.
On one side of the conveyor there is a radiation source, on the other there is a detector which senck a
pulse to the counting circuit each time the radiation beam is interrupted by an object on the conveyor. The
counting accuracy is independent of the accuracy of the measurement of the radiation flux and the position of
the object on the conveyor.
To demonstrate the possibilities of development along these lines we consider in greater detail a frequency
liquid rate of flow meter developed at the Institute of Automation and Remote Control, Acad. Sci. USSR [42].
A general idea of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 25. The flow of liquid causes the rotation of an impeller
wheel on one of the vanes of which is placed a small amount of radioactive material 1. The radiation flux
422
4
A
a.
6
penetrates the wall of the pipe line and strikes a radiation detector 2 connected to the indicator 3. In the path
of the radiation flux is located a shield 4 which is chosen so that the radiation strikes the detector only for a short
interval of time in each revolution of the impeller wheel. Hence, the number of radiation pulses which strikes
the detector is equal to the number of revolutions of the impeller. At the output of the indicator unit there is
a meter 5 which reads the value of the instantaneous rateof flow and an electromagnetic pulse register 6 which
records the integrated consumption.
Fig. 21. Diagram of the thyratron relay
developed by All-Union Central Scientific
Institute for Ferrous Metals.
The thickness 1' of the shield is chosen from the
formula
In m
'
(8)
where m is the required depth-of-modulation of the radi-
ation; pi is the linear absorption coefficient for y-radia-
don of the given isotope in the shielding material.
The accuracy of the measurement in any given case
is independent of the accuracy of the measurement of the
radiation flux and is determined by the quality of the
measurement circuit and can be made quite high if so
desired.
As a matter of fact, this method of measuring rate of
flow and consumption is actually based on the notion of
a non-contact tachometer; hence, all that has been indi-
cated applies in other cases in which it is desired to meas-
ure the rotational velocity of inaccesible objects.
We may note that the use of a differential or rel;'
scheme allows one, in a number of cases, to increase the
accuracy of a measurement by almost an order of mag-
nitude.
The analysis which has been carried out gives an indication of the importance of careful consideration of
the approach to these problems and indicates the potential development of methods in which modulated-radia-
tion and flux-independent techniques are employed.
2. Use of Radiation-Induced Ionization in the Material Being Controlled
The ionizing properties of nuclear radiation have been used widely to control the technical parameters of
gaseous media. The current of an ionization chamber inside of which ana-radiationsource is located is propor-
tional to the pressure Pin the chamber (neglecting recombination) and is equal to
/ = 3.7. 107arien1 . (9)
Here a is the activity of the source in millicuries; n is the utilization factor for the source; e is the charge of
the electron; n is the number of ion pairs produced by an a-particle in 1 cm of path; 1 is the dimension of the
chamber; P is the pressure of the gas in mm Hg.
This effect has been used [43] in the development of devices for controlling gaepressure.
If the pressure in the ionization chamber is maintained at a constant value, I will depend on the composi-
tion of the gas medium; from this fact there follows the possibility of realizing automatic control of the composi-
tion of a gas. The first steps in this direction were taken by N. I. Shteinbok [44] and showed that this important
and necessary work merits a great deal of attention.
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If the gas flows through ?the ionization chamber, some of the ions are carried from the chamberrand the
? current I is reduced. A scheme based on this principle, which is used to measure the velocity or consumption of
a gas [45), is shown in Fig. 26. Two electrodes, at different potentials, are placed in the path of a gas flow. A
layer of radioactive material is placed on one of the electrodes, thereby Ionizing the space between the electrodes.
The ions which are produced under these conditions move with a velocity which is determined by two factors.
fve
-4/00v
Fig. 22. Diagram of the y-relay from All-Union Central Scientific
Institute for Ferrous Metals.
VT3
E220v
line
Fig. 23. Diagram of a fast-acting y-relay from All-Union Coal Scientific
Research Institute.
1) A component along the y axis representing the velocity of the ion motion along the lines of force of
the electric field
VY = kE
(10)
where k is the mobility of the ions; E is the intensity of the electric field;
2) A component along the x axis, representing the velocity of the gas flow Vx.
424
?
The larger the value of Vx the larger the number of ions that are removed from the interelectrode space
and the smaller the current in the circuit.
We should point out that the ionization current depends on other things besides the rate of flow, in particulars
the radiation intensity, the mobility of the ions, and recombination.
Some increase in accuracy can be achieved by the application of a differential circuit connection [32];
however, the effects due to changes in mobility and ion recombination remain.
In 1955-1956 at the Institute for Automation
and Remote Control, Academy of Sciences, USSR,
a new method for control of gas consumption was
developed; this method is based on the use of modu-
lated radiation and has none of the shortcomings
which have been enumerated [46, 47]. The essence
To control
and alarm unit
Fig. 24. Diagram of a non-contact density regulator
developed by the Institute of Physics, Academy of
Sciences, Latvian SSR: 1) hydrometer; 2)* visual
indicator; 3) pointer; 4) scale for setting the count-
ers (determining the limits of the density being regu-
lated); 5) gas counter; 6) container; 7) radio-
active isotope Sr"; 8) density scale; 9) measure-
ment beaker; 10) control and alarm unit.
are particles which move in the direction of the
of the method (Fig. 27) is that the tube along which
the gas flows is irradiated at a certain point by a
continuous flux of radiation. Under these conditions,
ion tracers (packets) are formed inside the tube which
move along with the gas flow and cause current
pulses in the detector, which is insulated from the
gas flow. By measuring the average time required
for the displacement of a packet over a fixed distance,
it is possible to measure the velocity or consumption
of the gas. A theory has been developed and methods
of engineering calculation have been devised for
such consumption meters [7] which make it possible
to determine the basic pertinent parameters and, in
particular, the required activity a of the source
(in the majority of cases 8 -radiation is used)
a ?
npair 8E
, (11)
3.7 -11Yfradlsplra (1 ? 'back AEme an
where SE is the energy required for the production
of one ion pair in the gas being considered; trad is
the irradiation time; lisp is the spectral utilization
factor; n rad is the utilization factor for the radia-
tion, which indicates what part of the total number
of particles produced in the decay of the 8 -particle
radiation beam in the side of the tube;
n back is the coefficient
for back-scattering of the -radiation; Emean is the mean loss of energy of particles in the packet; npair is
the required number of ion pairs in a packet determined by the formula
les D2
lpair
=
kctidet. (12)
where Ics is the current sensitivity of the detector; kc is a constant; Uder is the voltage between the plates of
the detector; D is the diameter of the pipe.
The following features are characteristic of this method of gas-consumption control: a) the absence of
any contact between the measuring elements and the vs, b) the absence of any dependence of the measured
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results on changes in the magnitude of the radiation flux and properties of the gas flow (the measurements are
of an absolute nature and the accuracy is determined only by the accuracy with which the time and the distance
are measured).
At the present time the Scientific Research Institute for Thermal Instruments, MPSA has developed sam-
ples of an industrial consumption meter RGR-1 for general industrial use, which operates by this principle [48].
In the consumption meter a successful application has been made of a comparison measuring circuit in which
the drift time is kept constant and the distance between the radiator and the detector is changed as the consump-
tion changes. The use of a comparison scheme allows a considerable improvement in the accuracy of control.
An external view of the consumption meter is shown in Fig. 28. According to the data, this rate-of-flow meter
is a considerable improvement over those which have been developed abroad [49, 50] in which consumption is
measured indirectly by the removal or recombination of ions.
Fig. 25. Diagram for the liquid-rate-of-flow
meter of the Institute of Automation and Remote
Control.
Flux
Flux
it
11111 mil
0111 11111
11111 1111'
To! yr,
I I., LI
Radioactive isotope
Fig. 26. Control of gas consumption or velocity
by ion removal.
1114
1111
1111
IN
1111
111
III
Radioactive ?*?
isotope
Fig. 27. Automatic control of gas consumption by a tracer-
molecule method: 1) nuclear radiator; 2) modulator;
3) detector; 4) ion packet; 5) time-measuring device.
3. Use of Nuclear Spectroscopy Methods
We have mentioned above that this approach in the technique of automatic control has, as yet, just been
touched upon. All existing methods of automatic control, as a rule, make use of the integrated effect of radia-
tion flux without separating the individual components according to energy. However, because of the fact that
each of these components interacts differently with the material being studied, the possibility arises that this
feature can be used to obtain additional information about the composition of the material. The development
of simple radiation detectors, sensitive to only a given portion of the energy spectrum, and the concomitant
development of computer techniques for automatic analysis of the data of combined measurements furnishes the
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Fig. 28. External view of the RGR-1 rate-of-flow meter.
possibility of building machines for non-contact automatic cOntrol of the composition of multi-component
mixtures.
The energy of the reflected 7-radiation is affected strongly by the energy of the 7-radiation emitted by
the source. Owing to this situation it is possible to measure selectively the radiation intensity, using 7-spectro-
scopy methods. The wide application of these devices depends chiefly on the development in a form suitable for
Industrial application of 7-spectroscopy techniques, primarily scintillation methods.
By using a group of radiation sources with different energies, one can determine simultaneously the concen-
tration of the individual components in a multi-component system. The development of automatic machines
of this type also requires the development of appropriate computer techniques.
A significant step forward in the use of the spectral properties of radiation would be the use of secondary
radiation (bremsstrahlung and x-rays), produced in the interaction of 8-particles with matter. By changing the
disposition and material of the target, one can form regulated sources of secondary radiation at a given energy
or, conversely, can determine the composition of a target by changes in the secondary-radiation spectrum.
A practical step in the use of spectroscopy methods for automatic control is represented by the development
of a device for automatic "one-side" control of the thickness of objects at the Institute of Physics, Academy of
Sciences, Latvian SSR. This device operates by virtue of the fact that the thickness of an object can be gauged
from the intensity of the back-scattering of 7-radiation from Cs, the energy spectrum of which is entirely
different from the primary radiation. Using a scintillation detector and special discriminators it is possible to
distinguish the secondary radiation spectrum. There is no need for unwieldy lead shielding. The apparatus is
comparatively simple and convenient for measuring thickness of objects of which only one side is available for
measurement.
There is no doubt that the application of radiation-spectroscopy methods in measurement and control will
receive extremely intensive development in the hands of both physicists and people concerned with measurement
techniques.
4. Use of Neutron Flux
In turning to methods based on the use of neutron fluxes we should make mention of the potentialities and
the relatively small amount of work which has been carried out in this field. In technological process control
use can be made of the absorption, scattering, and slowing-down of neutrons in the medium being controlled.
Neutrons can be used in measurements of the moisture contained in different materials, in defectoscopy of thick
objects, in "one-side" control of the level of hydrogenous materials, in control of temperature, and various other
applications.
There are several extremely interesting methods for automatic control of the composition of materials in
which use is made of neutron fluxes [51]. Nuclear reactions are used for activation analysis; these reactions lead
to the production, in the material being exposed to the neutron flux, of various radioactive isotopes.
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From the intensity, form, and energy of the radiation due to the induced radioactivity, It is possible to
get information on the composition of the material. The higher the induced radioactivity, the greater the
accuracy with which the element content can be determined. This technique is not very useful for automatic
control of continuous technological processes since the magnitude of the radioactivity required for stable detec-
tion is such as to require extremely intense neutron fluxes; also, the product being examined becomes highly
radioactive. Phenomena more suitable for continuous technological control are nuclear reactions of the type
such as (n, y) which frequently are not accompanied by the production of radioactive isotopes and require
considerably smaller neutron fluxes, which can be easily obtained from low-intensity neutron sources of the
(Po+ Be) type, etc. In this case, the radiation intensity J depends on the intensity of the neutron flux tD, the
effective cross section for capture in the appropriate nuclear reaction 03, and the number N of atoms of the
element which undergo the reaction. Thus,
(13)
It has been shown experimentally that whereas an accurate activation analysis of the contents of the majority of
elements requires neutron fluxes of the order of 1010 neut /cm2 sec and higher, the use of nuclear reactions usually
means that fluxes of from 104 to 106 neutiem" sec are sufficient. In this case the secondary radiation can be
detected continuously and analyzed in detection apparatus directly while the neutron irradiation of the material
being controlled takes place. The successful solution of the problem of automatic control requires the construc-
tion of detection apparatus of high efficiency for secondary radiation and low sensitivity to the primary neutron
flux, the development of simple spectrometers which are rapid in operation, and the development of computer
techniques for evaluating the combined measurements.
Mention should also be made of the use of modulated neutron fluxes. Methods in which tracer atoms are
used are not widely applied in automatic process control since they usually require the contact" introduction of
radioactive isotopes into the material being controlled and the subsequent removal and dosimetry of the sample.
The application of modulated neutron radiation opens the possibility for automation of this process. For example,
to realize non-contact automatic control of the consumption of material passing along a tube, the tube can be
irradiated by a continuous neutron flux at a certain point. An automatic measurement of the drift time of "hot"
objects in the medium provides an automatic and non-contact determination of consumption. These problems
require a great deal of work on the production and development of suitable methods for modulating neutron fluxes
and measuring small activities but will undoubtedly be feasible in the future.
? ?
?
Improvement of process technology. Automation very frequently requires an appraisal of industrial tech-
nological processes from the point of view of increasing the speed, simplicity of control, and reliability of the
apparatus.
Nuclear reactions can be used to intensify chemical processes, to improve the properties of certain scintil-
lating materials and semiconductors, to remove static electric charges which are produced in industrial processes,
and in many other cases.
For example, the removal of static charges is of considerable interest in a number of industrial fields (paper
manufacture, textiles, defense, chemistry, movie films, etc.). We present an example from the textile industry.
Warping of synthetic fibers is extremely difficult because the threads become electrified and tend to separate.
This effect reduces sharply the speed of the warping machine and causes a deterioration in the quality of the
product. The Institute for Automation and Remote Control, Academy of Sciences, USSR in conjunction with the
Shcherbakov Silk-Weaving Combine and the All-Union Central Scientific Research Institute of Silk has carried
out work on the removal of static charges at the weaving machines of the Shcherbakov Combine. The results
of this work indicate [52] that the use of a radiator at the warping machine makes possible a three-fold increase
in the production rate without deterioration of the quality of the product.
428
?
VW,
?
SUMMARY
1. The material presented in the present report gives an indication of the laige scope with which work on
the use of nuclear radiation is being carried on in the Soviet Union toward the control and automation of tech-
nological processing and on the potentialities which have been opened for the further development of this field.
2. New and original methods and devices in which nuclear radiation are applied have been developed
for control of industrial processes in the USSR. In the majority of cases these devices and methods have been
tested industrially and have been widely used for both selective and large-scale automatic control and have res-
ulted in widespread savings in the national economy.
3. The following steps will be required to further the development in the fields which have been indicated
and to extend the fields of application of industrial devices in which nuclear radiation is used:
a) it will be necessary to increase the scale of operations at the Academy of Sciences, USSR and the
associated republics, and the scientific research institutes of the various fields of industry in theoretical research
in the development of new instrument systems and, in particular, systems for general industrial use of automatic
control of manufacturing processes. It will be necessary to improve the coordination of the work in this field;
b) it will be necessary to enlarge the specialized construction bureaus, plants, and works which manufac-
ture measurement and control apparatus, new electronic and semiconductor devices and automatic measuring
apparatus using nuclear radiation;
c) it will be necessary to improve the quality, and durability of, and to simplify the delivery of, radioactive
radiators. It will also be necessary to make more precise the existing rules on work protection in divisions which
are concerned with the use of radioactive radiation in industrial control instruments and devices;
d) it will be necessary to extend the education of specialists on the nuclear-radiation control of technolog-
ical industrial processes at the institutions of higher learning and technical institutions.
4) Only solutions of all the complex problems which have been considered will make it possible to
solve in a meaningful way the problem posed by the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
on the use of nuclear radiation in automation and apparatus construction.
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[1] Directives of the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union on the 6th Five-Year
Plan for the Development of the National Economy, USSR, 1956-1960, State Political Press, 1956).
[2] N. I. SliteinbOk, "Basic problems in the application of radioactive radiation in measurement techniques,'
Progr. Phys. Sci. (USSR) 54, 2 (1954).
[3] A. M. Bogachev, B. I. Verkhovsky and A. N. Makarov, "Theory of a method of measuring thickness
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[4] G. G. Jordan, V. B. Brodsky, and B. S. Sotskov,"Application of radioisotopes for technological process
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[S] N. N. Shumilovsky, "Application of radioisotopes in measurement technology," Proceedings of the
Conference on Electrical Measurements (Acad. Sci. Ukrain. SSR Press, 1957).
429
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it
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2014/01/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002800180003-5
[9] L. V. Melttser, Application of Radioisotopes for Automatic Control of Gas Consumption Using Tracer
Molecules, Dissertation, Inst. of Automation and Remote Control, Acad. Sci. USSR (1956).
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and L. A. Rubinshtein, "Experiment on the introduction of instrumeats for measuring thickness of plating and
rolled stock." ?
[13] E.Ya. Ovcharenko, "Application of scintillation counters with electronic modulation as industrial
7-radiation indicators." ?
[14] G. I. Birger, B. I. Verkhovsky, and E. Ya. Ovcharenko, "New type of radioactivity densitometer."
[15] N. P. Grazhdankina and I. G. Fakidov, "Investigation of image spreading in defectoscopy in the
radiology of steel by y-rays from Co"."
[16] S. T. Nazarov, "A method for radiology of welded seams in tubing."'
[17] S. V. Rumyantsev, "7-Defectoscopy of thin-walled objects using Tml".? ?
[18] 0. N. Zhukov, "Application of soft-radiation isotopes for control of welding in shipbuilding."?
[19] L. K. Tatochenito, "Ionization method of rdefectoscopy." ?
[20] L. K. Tatochenko, V. S. Tokmakov.and V. K. Latyshev, "Control of welded seams by radiology methods
in coarse-metallurgy plants." ?
[21] N. G. Fakidov, A. A. Samoichvalov, N. N. Davidenko,and M. D. Avramenko, "Application of
scintillation counters in betatron defectoscopy." ?
[22] V. G. Segalin, Application of Radioactivity Methods and Automation in the Coal Industry (Coal
Tech. Press, 1956).
[23] V. D. Goroshko, "Application of radioactivity methods in coal dressing processing," Bull. Acad. Sci.
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[24] V. D. Goroshko, "Application of nuclear radiation for coal dressing and quality control." ?
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[26] B. Z. Votlokhin, A. Z. Dorogochinsky, and N. P. Melnikova, "Industrial experiments on the control of
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[27] S. S. Shvyrev, A. N. Slatinsky, and K. D. Pismannik, "Application of radioisotopes in the textile
industry." *
[28] E. A. Nekhaevsky, "Experiment on the application of radioisotopes for industrial control of the weight
of moving paper ribbons and fabrication." *
[29] V. A. Pchelin and T. A. Shmeleva, "Radiometric method for determining the thickness of hair cover-
ing of fur pelts." ?
[30] S. M. Smirnov, "Application of radioisotopes in the tanning industry."?
[31] A. Ya. Vainberg, "Experiment on the application of radioactive radiation or automatic control and
regulation of technological processing in the manufacture of dairy products." ?
[32] G. G. Iordan, "Investigation of the radiation from radioisotopes for technological process control,"
Instrument Manufacturing (USSR) 1956, No. 1.
Indicates report will appear in the Proceedings of this Conference.
430
Y.
?
0
[33] V. I. Kuznetsov, "Determination of points of gas leakages in underground conduits using radio-
isotopes." ?
[34] T. V. Abramova, "Determination of leakage points in the lead shield of communication cables." ?
[35] V. S. Medvedeva and I. S. Roizen, "Use of radioactive materials in safety technology." ?
[36] S. N. Dedyukov, "Application of radioisotopes and radiation in river transportation." ?
[37] Ya. A. Auzan, V. E. Banashek, Kit. E. Tunne, I. M. Taksar, A. D. Tumulkan, P. F. Chaplinsky,
I. A. Eimanis and V. Ya. yanushicovsky, "Instruments for automation and remote control using noncontact radio
active relays,'
[38] G. G. Iordan and K. S. Furman, "Measurement of the density of liquids usirg 7-radiation." ?
[39] G. G. Iordan and T. G. Neiman, "Measurement of the concentration of solutions using 8 -radiation." ?
?
[40] A. M. Bogacitev, B. I. Verkhovsky, and A. N. Malcarov, "Method and apparatus for measuring the thick-
ness of rolled-steel stock using nuclear radiation," Factory Lab. (USSR) 21, 7 (1955).
[41] B. I. Verkhovsky, V. A. Sotnikov,and V. V. Yakushin, "Measurement of nuclear radiation using a
scintillation-counter method of reducing effects of apparatus imperfections." ?
[42] N. N. Shumilovsky, Yu. V. Gushchin,ancl M. I. Tolokonnikov, "Investigation of radioisotopes for auto-
matic control of liquid consumption."*
[43) V. B. Brodsky, "Measurement of gas pressure using a radiation method," Bull. Lab. Inst. Sci. Research
(USSR) 1954, No. 5.
[44] N. I. Shteinbok, "Operating principles for a-ionization gas analyzers, "I. Tech. Phys. (USSR) 26,
1 (1956).
[45] S. Ya. Samoilov, Soviet Patent Application No. 75354, 1947.
[46] N. N. Shumilovsky and L. V. Melttser, "Application of radioisotopes for measuring gas flow rates and
for automatic control of gas consumption using tracer molecules," Proc. Acad. Sci. (USSR) 106, 4(1956).
[47] N. N. Shumilovsky and L. V. Melttser, "Automatic control of gas consumption using tracer molecules,"
Instrument Manufacturing (USSR) 1946, No. 3.
[48] G. G. Iordan, K. S. Furman,and T. G. Neiman, "Apparatus for automatic control of gas consumption
using 8 -radiation." *
[49] I. E. Lovelok and E. M. Wasilewska, "An ionization anemometer," J. Sci. Instr. 26, 11 (1949).
[50] I. Kohl, "Radioisotopes in process instrumentation," Chem. Eng. Progr. 48, 12 (1952).
[51] V. A. Korotkova, "Analysis methods using radiation. "?
[52] P. A. Polonik, L. V. Melttser,and N. I. Panyukov, "Experiment on the application of radioisotopes
for removing static electric charges in the silk industry." ?
'Indicates report will appear in the Proceedings of this Conference.
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ACADEMY OF SCIENCES USSR
DEPARTMENT OF ATOMIC ENERGY UTILIZATION,
COUNCIL OF MINISTRIES OF THE USSR
ALL-UNION CONFERENCE ON THE APPLICATION OF
RADIOACTIVE AND STABLE ISOTOPES IN THE
NATIONAL ECONOMY AND SCIENCE
THE ORIGINS AND SYMPTOMS OF THE ACTIONS ON
LIVING ORGANISMS OF SMALL RADIATION DOSES
A. V. Lebedinsky
Paper Read at the Plenary Session
Moscow 1957
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f
Ionizing radiation has only been relatively recently considered in work on the effect of various external
factors on organisms. Quite naturally, attention was initially paid to effects from large doses of ionizing radia-
tion. With regard to its lethal action, the effect can be demonstrated graphically (See Figure).
Radiation death has been thoroughly investigated
Average dose, g by many workers, and so has the mechanism by which
MN Wig 49000g the living organism is killed. Without going into de-
/00days
tails,we should emphasize one conclusion from this work,
which is of the greatest importance for the general
fadays theory of radiobiology. The experiments on the effects
of large doses of ionizing radiation have demonstrated
/d their basic physiological features very clearly. Ioni-
ays
zing radiation is an agent which does not merely op-
S. erate at the site where it is applied, but also acts dir-
ectly via the internal environment of the organism.
this. Important effects occur in the connective and lymphoid
tissues. The permeability mechanism alters abruptly,
gm in. this mechanism belng the one that determines the pas-
sage of materials between blood and intracellular fluid.
These changes may be large and develop so rapidly
? ?
/min. that conditions incompatible with the continued exis-
tence of the living organism are developed within a few
Mean life span after single-shot whole- hours of radiation.
body x-ray irradiation (white mice)
These experiments have revealed many sides of
(From Rajewsky ? ).
the problem concerning the actions of ionizing radia-
tions on 'living organisms. A criterion of such action is
the abrupt disturbance and termination of vital activities. Naturally,such an estimate is of no value at all in
drawing conclusions as to the importance of change in the natural level of ionizing radiation on the life-span.
A simple calculation shows that even when the work is carried out with small doses of limited usable magni-
tude the level is some 150 times that due to the constant action of natural radiation sources.
4
0
In this connection, the problem of the action of small doses of ionizing radiation on the human organism
has assumed particular importance because the natural radiation level has been raised in recent years. This Is
mostly due to the testing of nuclear weapons, which tests have so far not merely ceased, but have even become
more widespread in spite of the repeated declarations by the Soviet Government that they should cease. The
relative data show that the rise in the natural radiation level is due both to a rise in the y -ray background,and
particularly to the increase in radiation sources present within the human body.
Four sources of natural radiation are known at the present time: cosmic rays and radiations front radioactive
elements in the soil, in the air and in the tissues and fluids of animals and man.
Measurements show that the cosmic radiation, which originates at a great height, gives a dose equivalent
to 0.028r/year to man at sea level. The main sources of radioactivity in the earth are uranium and thorium
which decompose to daughter radioactive elements also emitting y -rays and nuclear particles. Being present
in the earth's crust and in the materials used for building purposes they also give a dose of about 0.028r4'ear.
Certain data enable us to assume that the irradiation of the internal environment due to radioactive trace
B. Rajewsky, Strahlendosis und Strahlenwirkung ( G. Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart, 1956).
435
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elements present in the tissues is some '10% of this figure, i.e., about 0.030r/ year.*The radioactive sources in
the atmosphere are the gaseous decomposition products from uranium and thorium ? radon, the concentration
of this being some 0.3. 10-12c4iter of air. On the average we may assume that' this source(air) produces a radia-
tion dose of about 0.001r,5'ear to man.
The radioactive elements present in the body are 1C40, Cl?, Cs Ra and certain others. The potassium is
about 0.27o by weight, being mostly present in muscle (up to 0.35%). The radioactive isotope le? is about
1/8000 of this. The dose rate due to the isotope is about 25 mrad/year." Carbon is present in all organic
compounds, comprising about 18.2% by weight of the human body. The C14 content is some 10-12 of the total
carbon, thus giving a dose of about 1.5 mrad/year to man.
Thus, the general contribution due to radioactive carbon and potassium in the body is equivalent to a dose
rate of about 27 mrad/year.
In addition, there is the skeletal radium ,amounting to about 60 iic"gui in areas:of normal radioactivity,
i.e., where the radium content in the water is about 10-13 gmAiter. The radiation from the skeletal radium,
according to the work of English investigators, gives a dose rate of about 37 mreb/year ???? to the skeleton.
Since the radioactive elements are present in the body, it is constantly subjected to the action of y -rays
and a- and 8 -particles. Sievert's recent work [1] has shown that the 1(40 is the main y -ray source for man;
the fraction due to radium is not more than 2%. The -particle sources are 1(40 and C. a -particle irradi-
ation is due to radium, thorium and radon.
This short description of the natural level of ionizing radiation which gives a dose rate to man of about
0.1r/year from both internal and external sources does not allow for the radium present in osseous tissue.
The dose received may vary within within certain limits. Variations are observed in the cosmic ray in-
tensity in a given locality, but these are of short duration and do not usually exceed some tenths of a percent.
In someareas of the earth, particularly where there are monazite sands, terrestrial radiation may be some 10 times
greater than in areas of normal activity, and the dose rate may reach 0.6r/year. The increased radium content
may cause the activity of inspired air to reach 10 12 c/liter, depending on the weather conditions. Assuming
the most unfavorable combination of factors we take it that the dose from external sources may vary up to 0.1r/
year, and in certain restricted areas of. the Earth's surface up to 0.6r/year.
With regard to the natural radiation level, this chang-q with the 1(49 content of the organism, which is
mainly determined by the muscle developed. The y -ray intensity variations found for bodies by Sievert are
20 - 30% of the mean. The data available on the radium contents of human bones from different localities
show that this varies with the area: from 10-9 to 440-4 gm and from 3.8.10 -11 gm to 4.3 ?10-19 gm per skele-
ton. The possible rise in the content of this element requires particular attention.
Radium is a well-known deposit in bones; allowing for equilibrium between radium and its decay products,
we may assume that the energy in the short-range a -particles is five times greater than that in the 8 - and y -
rays, i.e., as the radium content rises it is only the bones that receive the main increase in radiation dose. Al-
lowing for this,we may conclude that the possibility of increased natural radiation is mainly due to the in-n
crease in the 1(49 content, i.e., not more than 0.012r/year. Similarly we may assume that the radiation dose due
to natural activity varies from 0.1 to 0.12r/year, except for territories where terrestrial activity is high, and
making no allowance for increased skeletal radium.
As was noted above,nuclear weapons tests have raised the natural background in recent years. Fine par-
ticles of radioactive fission products formed in the explosion are deposited from the air. They penetrate into
the upper stratosphere and are blown about by the air currents found at this level, and 10-20% fall on the earth's
surface annually. Since they depend on the direction of the air streams and the local relief, the amounts of
?
As in Russian.
?? A rad is the unit of absorbed dose for all forms of ionizing radiation, equal to 100
= 0.001 rad.
??? A reb = roentgen equivalent biological. It is the amount of energy absorbed by a
cally equivalent to 1 r of X or y -rays; millireb (mreb) = 0.001 reb.
436
erg/gm; millirad (mrad).
tissue which is biologi-
4
?
these deposits of radioactive fission products are very variable.
?
This radioactive fission-product fall-out causes a rise in the natural radiation level. The Sr" and Cs132
are the materials most important to man in the fall-out.
Cs137 (33 years) raises the y -activity of the earth's surface. Since Cs132 takes part in biological
cycles,and is incorporated into organisms,it can increase the natural activity of the human body.
The rise in y -background is not the same everywhere. Data published recently show thal. the surface
radiation at various points in the USA rose during the period from October, 1952 to September, 1955 from 5.8
mrad (San Francisco) to 160 mrad (Salt Lake, Utah). The corresponding figure for New York was 17 mrad, and
for Chicago 24 mrad (2).
For 1956 sufficiently detailed figures on the Sr" activity deposited at various points on the Earth's surface
from fall-out have been compiled.
The figures show that in various areas of the USA the Sr90 fall-out varied from 1,62. 10-3 c/km2 (New
York) to 8.85 c/km2 (Salt Lake). We are currently attempting to compute the rise in activity that has since
occurred from Sr" fall-out. Supposing that tests of nuclear weapons were to cease at once. we would expect
that the activity would rise until 1968, equilibrium then being reached. A high level of 14,10-13c AM2 will
occur in places which today have the lowest Sr" content. The English calculation which is based on the as-
sumption that the tests will continue at the same rate as at present indicates that in 100 years time levels of
The order of 200 x 10-3 c /km2 will be reached [3].
'%'hus,we must expect a rise in the natural backgrouad due to increased earth y -activity and natural
radioactivity of the human body. The latter is due to Sr which mostly causes increased activity in the os-
seous tissues in which it is deposited, But the body y ?-activity can also rise due to deposition of Cs137 which
is a natural component of the radioactivity in the human body, as recent investigations have shown.
The absolute magnitude of the rise in natural background is at present small, the rise in earth y -ray
background being about 0.1% of the natural level. It is otherwise with the increase of body irradiation due eo
the Sr90 fall-out.
This isotope occupies a special position for a number of reasons, primarily because it participates in bio-
logical processes.
Sr90 plays a particularly important part in biological processes. It enters the human body inevitably even
when uptake from dust and water is prevented.
The biological chain begins with the incorporation of Sr" into plants. Since it is deposited on the top
layers of soil, it enters the plants together with the calcium, particularly with agricultural crops. According to
Klechkovsky's data [4], when the rate of uptake in the above ground parts of the plants (wheat) are compared
for various radioactive isotopes (of zirconium, strontium, cesium and ruthenium), it is found that the strontium
is taken up most rapidly. The uptake of Sr" in the plant may be considered as a specific process of biological
concentration of this element. According to B. V. Kurchatov, P. M. Chulkova and V. P. Shvedova [5] the soil
contamination per km2 is about 5 mc in some areas of the USSR. The activity per km2 was about 0.1 mc in
dry grass, i.e., some 20% of the Sr" is taken up in a comparatively small amount of hay.
The uptake in plants is the first step in the chain which ends with deposition in human bones and the ir-
radiation of organs enclosed in the bony tissue.
We now turn our attention to the initial link in this process. This process is such that at equal degrees of
contamination the Sr" uptake varies on different soils. Klechkovsky's data show that beans accumulate this
isotope to a greater extent than do cereals. Hence at the same degree of soil contamination and with the same
soil, the population will be variously affected by the contamination according to the crop type which is domi-
nant.
The next link in the biological chain is Sr" incorporation into animals, particularly into cow's milk. Yu.
I. Moskalev and D. I. Ilyin have studied the process recently [6] and have found that when the Sr" solution is in-
jected into the cow in a single shot, the concentration is 0.03% of the amount on the third day. The total Sr"
output on the fifth day is about 0:04% of the amount injected.
437
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-segraansel?rrc---zia
? ..,???? tide?????
We must emphasize that single injections of strontium were used in these experiments. When we may
assume a systematic uptake from fodder containing this radioactive isotope the relationships will be different.
The reason is that not only the strontium present in the food,but also the strontium loosely bound to various tis-
sues (particularly that bound to bony tissues), will appear in the milk. According to Moskalev and Ilyin's data
the latter process has a biolVcal half life of about 350 days. Henceieven if the cow eats contaminated fodder
for only a short while ,the Sr'' will be eliminated in the milk for a long while. Some 1.57o of the injected Sr90
is taken up in the bones. Thus the second link in the chain ? the animal ? introduces a new feature into the
fate of the Sr" ? its prolonged fixation in the site of uptake, due to its participation in the metabolism of bone
salt.
Measurements of milk and bone activities show that their contents of this isotope have increased continu-
ously during recent years, reaching 5.3 strontium units in New York, i.e., 3.3 x 1042 c /gm Ca.
It would be of exceptional importance to analyze data on the Sr" contents of human bones which would
reveal the end of the biological chain. Unfortunately only single measurements have been made. But even
these show that Sr" is present in bones to the extent of about 2402 c/gm Ca. So we hay assert that not only
is there a tendency for the natural radioactivity to increase on account of me Sr" fall-out at the present time
but also that the activity of the human body is rising since the isotope takes part in the biological chain.
When evaluating the importance of Sr90 fall-out to man we cannot afford to neglect yet another chain in
which it participates, which is of particular importance to populations consuming sea foods ?fish, molluscs and
seaweeds. In these objects increased biological concentration of the radioactive isotopes is seen particularly
clearly. According to Marei's data [7], when uranium fission products or Sr" + Y" are added to aquarium water
the specific activities of fish bones are 657 and 563 times greater than those of the water, respectively; for the
fish muscle the figures are 24 anti 13 times; for the bodies of molluscs (toothless) they are 420 and 133; in algae
the ratios are 810 and 280. For crab muscle the ratio is 350 when a fission-product solution is used. For plank-
ton (Daphnia) in water containing Sr" + Y" the figure is 10-4 (when the specific activity of the aquarium water
was 10' c/liter).
We cannot neglect Csiri when describing the rise in the inherent radioactivity of living organisms, since
this also takes part in biological cycles, although in a rather different way from Sr99. The important basic dif-
ference, emphasized by Klechkovsky, is that Cs137 is,to a considerable extent,bound in a non exchangeable form
by the soil and so enters into plants in amounts much less than in the case of Sr". But Cs's' appears in cow's
milk in amounts some five times greater than Sr" (relative to that injected). In addition it enters the
human body by an additional route, i.e., via animal flesh; some 5% of the injected Csin appears in the rurni?
nant's flesh.
The fact that the biological chain ends with man is of considerable importance to the fate of fall-out.
When the radioactive isotopes (particularly Sr") enter the human body via milk or flesh,they are incorporated
as indicated above. An important physiological factor accelerates this process. Animals with single stomachs,
including man, absorb more radioactive isotopes from the gastrointestinal tract than do the ruminants, so the
deposition is more complete. The difference is by a factor of 5 for Sr" and Cs137.
The increase in body activity which is at present occurring has received continued attention primarily
because of advances in the medical sciences. We have in mind particularly the vast increase in the use of ?x-
ray; which are essential in the diagnosis and treatment of some diseases. According to the English data, the
dose received by humans in this manner now amounts to about 22% of the natural level.
All this undoubtedly implies a change in the conditions in the environment in which man lives. The
question arising which demands an answer is. what consequences may this have for humanity?
Very great difficulties are encountered in giving an answer to this question at the present time. This is
due to our lack of knowledge as to the role played by radiation energy in normal life processes.
All we can say in answer to this question is to state the following facts: 1) organisms are capable of con-
centrating radioactive isotopes; 2) the isotopes are nonuniformly distributed amongst the various systems in the
organisms.
It is presumed that the natural activity has a certain importance in causing variability in genetic mater-
ials. It is considered that 1/1000th of the natural mutations found in the fruit fly are caused by natural
...1015Vaa, rot*.
438
?
A
importance to the performance of vital activities. On the other hand, there are a number of pieces of infor-
mation which oblige us to exercise caution concerning deductions based on the undoubted existence of 'spec-
ial' relations of the organism to ionizing radiation taken as a factor in the environment.
The criterion to which we refer consists in estimating the degree to which the destroyed functions are
restored, i.e., the reversibility of the changes caused by the ionizing radiation. From this point of view all
of the changes we have indicated are 'unessential* regarding performance of vital activities: i.e., the changes
in the numbers of mature cells in the blood, anomalies in some cells, reduction in the number of spermato-
zoids, depression of epithelial mitotic activity, changes in the EEG's at these doses ? all of these are only
temporary disturbances, i.e., they are completely reversible.
From this point of view, all the initial changes present no obstacle to the performance of vital activities.
By evaluating the initial changes via their reversibilities we might hope, as it were, to obtain some sort of ans-
wer to the question. But this is not so, and a number of serious difficulties arise when we attempt to use this
criterion to evaluate a number of other changes produced by ionizing radiation.
The first difficulty is encountered when this criterion is applied to changes occasioned by radioactive
materials incorporated in the body. Any type of recovery naturally implies the removal of the causal agent,
or else the production of a physiological state in the living substrate which goes by the name of 'adaption'.
When the natural body background is raised by isotopes of long half-life this condition is not maintained; on
the contrary a particular type of integrated change occurs. Thus, the 'restoration' criterion is inapplicable or
has a very restricted application when evaluating changes produced by materials incorporated in the body.
Thus, we first have to deal with the effects due to integration of changes. This integration is not only due to
the prolonged action of the niaterial but also to the summation of effects due to internal and external irradi-
ation; one of the principal biological features of the actions due to various types of ionizing radiation is that
the primary effects are nonspecific; this, of course, facilitates summation.
The second difficulty is due to the existence of changes to which there is no physiological compensating
action. This refers to changes in genetic materials which have genetic consequences, and also to disturbances
produced during development. Actions which are expressed via a temporary depression of the rate of develop-
ment of some definite cells of a growing organ may be nonreversible since during the depressed period other
undamaged cells may continue to develop and become adult. The initial changes are irreversible in such cases.
V.V..Yakovlev's experiments may serve to illustrate this; he found that irradiation of pregnant rabbits on
the 9th day after fertilization, i.e., at the time when the organs of the central nervous system are beginning to
form, caused a marked disturbance in the reflex activity of the foetus on the 20th day. Ionizing radiation is
well known to cause teratological anomalies if it acts on embryos while the organs are forming.
Fina1l3; the third difficulty in using the reversibility criterion is as follows. As is well known, changes due
to ionizing radiation occur, which are in essence injuries to tissues in which the depolymerization of protein com-
plexes is a basic process [22], lipoid phases are also destroyed [23], and a number of other disturbances caused.
Regeneration is the process. which normally heals any injury in a tissue, thus providing the repair when the causa-
tive agent has been eliminated. But the regeneration processes are particularly sensitive to ionizing radiation.
Strelin and his co-workers have studied this aspect of ionizing radiation in detail. This work, which was car-
ried out with various tissues and various biological objects, showed that the capacity to regenerate was depres-
sed by ionizing radiation when the injuries were caused in any other way (mechanically or chemically).
All these considerations restrict the chances of using the reversibility criterion, which retains its value
only for a limited number of phenomena. An important relation between the restorative capacity and the radi-
ation dose must be noted here. In spite of the difficulty of estimating capacity to recover in a quantitative
fashion, the data available enable us to assume that this relation is expressed by a S-shaped curve, the ordinate
being the degree of reversibility of the changes in vital activities, and the abscissa the dose. We assume that
the S-shape is due to two concurrent processes caused by the ionizing radiation. One of these is the change in
the vital function at the various doses, the other being the changes in the restorative process. When drawing up
the corresponding curves we should take the maximum value for the restorative processes as occurring at the
natural radiation level (i.e.. about 1.10 r/day). The inflection on the S-curve lies in different dose ranges for the
various vital activities: so the curves for the degrees of restoration of the various processes are displaced re-
lative to one another along the abscissa.
439
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In summing up the results of attempting to answer the question as to the importance to the performance
of vital activities of the changes produced by small doses of ionizing radiation in tissues, we must point out the
extreme vagueness of the problem. This obliges us to resort to considering certain special features of the re-
lation between the ,?rganism and ionizing radiation, and to compare them with those shown with respect to
other forms of energy in the environment.
The special relations between organisms and ionizing radiation are well illustrated by the small range of
dose between those that cause the initial effects and those that cause the nonreversible changes in a given sys-
tern of organs. For example, a distinct reaction is observed in the blood system at about 1 r, and irreversible
injury to the blood-forming organs may occur at a dose of about 400 r. The serious changes in the blood-form-
ing organs, which may lead on to leukemia, can in some cases arise after doses of 50 r. Thus,in some cases the
range is 1:400, dropping to 1:50 in others.
One reason for this may be the absence of accommodation and adaption mechanisms, i.e., the capacity
to counteract injuries which exist in relation to other forms of energy. This may be due to the natural radiation
level, unlike other energy forms in the environment, being practically constant in magnitude. The light in-
tensity at the earth's surface may change by factors of hundreds of thousands or millions during the course of
the day. The amount of energy emitted by the human vocal apparatus varies by a factor of 104 in going from
a whisper to fortissimo singing. Finally, both these examples presuppose adequate reactions on the part of the
restricted systems in the organism. But,as with other general irritants ? electric current, mechanical energy ?
the limits of permissible change are thousands and tens of thousands of times greater than the natural levels.
The present rise in the inherent level of radioactivity, which threatens to become still greater in future,
impels us to be extremely active in evaluating the situation. Knowing well that the causes of these changes
are the continuous nuclear weapons tests, we must use all possible ways of combating the existing hazard. It
seems to us that all current scientific knowledge should impel scientists in all countries to support the humane
demand of the Soviet Government that an international agreement on the cessation of further experimental ex-
plosions, should be concluded.
LITERATURE CITED
Sievert, "Untersuchungen uber die Gammastrahlung des mensctilichen KOrpers," Strahlentherapie 99,
2, 13 (1956).
[2] M. Eisenbud and J. Harley, *Radioactive fallout through September 1955," Science 124, 3215, 251
(1956).
[3] The Hazards to Man of Nuclear and Allied Radiations (London, 1956).
[4] V. M. Klechkovsky, The Behavior of Radioactive Fission Products in Soils, Their Uptake in Plants and
Accumulation in Crops (Moscow, 1956) (From material submitted to the Scientific Committee of the UN).
[5] B. V. Kurchatov (ed.), PM. Chulkov, and V. P. Shvedov, Comparative Data on the Atmospheric Con-
tamination by Fission Products* (Moscow, 1956) (from material submitted to the Scientific Committee of the
UN).
[6] Yu. I. Moskalev and D. I. Ulyin, Data on the Metabolism of Cesium, Strontium, and Mixed -Emit-
ters in the Blood '(Moscow, 1956) (From material submitted to the Scientific Committee of the UN).
[7] A. N. Marei, "Water organisms as indicators of reservoir contamination by radioactive substances?
Gigiena i Sanit. 1955, No. 9.
[8] N. P. Dubinin, "Problems and tasks in radiation genetics Vestnik Akad. Nauk SSSR 26, 8, 22 (1956).
[9] D. I. Zakutinsky, Removal of the Consequences of Injuries Caused by Ionizing Radiations* (Report to
the Conference on the removal of the consequences of injuries caused by ionizing radiations) (Moscow, 1956),
3.
p.
[10] L. N. Burykina, The Action of Chronic Small Doses of Radioactive Strontium on Dogss(Report to the
Conference on the removal of the consequences of injuries caused by ionizing radiations) (Moscow, 1956) p. 68.
? In Russian.
440
?
?
???
[11] N. A. Kraevsky, 'Pathological anatomy and some questions of radiation sickness pathogenesis" Byull.
Radiats. Med. (Moscow) 1, 3 (1956).
[12] P. D. Gorizontov, "Pathological physiology of radiation disorders" Radiatsionnaya Meditsina 1955,
80-174.
[13] L. A. Orbeli, Action of Ionizing Radiations on Living Organisms' (Session of Academy of Sciences,
USSR on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy) (Moscow, 1955).
[14] Z. Bacq and P. Alexander, Fundamentals of Radiobiology (London, 1955).
[15] E. H. Betz, Contribution a 1' tude du Syndrome Endocrinien (Paris, 1956).
[16] G. S. Strelin, "Some regularities in the biological action of ionizing radiations? Med. Radiol. 1, 27
(1956).
[17] N. I. Nuzhdin, N. I. Shapiro, and 0. N. Petrova, Sterilizing Action of Ionizing Radiations on Mam-
mals. Part I. Effect of x-rays on the fertility of male mice. Symposium on Radiobiology' (Moscow, 1956) p.83.
[18] N. I. Nuzhdin, N. I. Shapiro, 0. N. Petrova,and 0. N. Kitaeva, Sterilizing Action of Ionizing Radia-
tions on Mammals, Part II. Effect of Roentgen and Gamma rays on the Festral Cycle in Female Mice. Sym-
posium on Radiobiology*(Moscow, 1956) p. 113.
[19] M. N. Livanov, 'Central-peripheral relations in radiation sickness? Med. Radiol. 1, 19-26 (1956).
[20] Yu. G. Grisoryev, "The primary changes in the functional state of the cerebral hemispheres in man
when acted on by radiation' Communication I, Vestnik Rentgenol. i. Radiol. 1954, No. 5, 3.
[21] Yu. G. Grigoryev, *The primary changes in the functional state of the cerebral hemispheres in man
when acted on by radiation' Communication II, Vestnik Rentgenol. i Radiol. 1956, No. 2, 3.
[22] A. M. Kuzin, "Biochemical basis of the biological action of ionizing radiations' Essays on Radio-
biology (Moscow, 1956),p. 5.
[23] B. N. Tarusov, Basis of the Biological Action of Radioactive Radiations "(State Publishing House of
Medical Literature, Moscow, 1954).
? In Russian.
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91???????,:.
4
?
4
4
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES USSR
DEPARTMENT OF ATOMIC ENERGY UTILIZATION.
COUNCIL MI MINISTRIES OP TIIE USSR
ALL -UNION CONFERENCE ON THE APPLICATION OF
RADIOACTIVE AND STABLE ISOTOPES IN THE
NATIONAL ECONOMY AND SCIENCE
THE USE OF RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES IN CLINICAL MEDICINE
A. V. Kozlova
Paper Read at the Plenary Session
Moscow 1957
443
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Editor
A. P. Belousov
II
I( I I
1 I
11 6 Radioactive iodine also proved useful in the surgical treatment of thyrotoxicosis and goitres. The study of
11
! i thyroid function following subtotal resection for thyrotoxicosis reveals relapses long before the appearance of
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Radioactive isotopes have been used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in the Soviet Union for not
more than eight years. During this short period the methods of radioactive isotope diagnosis and therapy spread
fairly widely through the clinics in various parts of the country. The effectiveness of the method attracted many
specialists to this field, who started work even before all the requisite conditions had been established.
Radioactive isotopes found the most extensive application in Internal medicine, endocrinology, derma-
tology and especially oncology, where isotopes have been incorporated into daily practice.
Sufficient experience has accumulated up to the present time concerning the use of isotopes in differ-
ent fields of medicine,on the basis of which an attempt can be made to draw preliminary conclusions not only
about the effectiveness of the method but also about the expediency and safety of its use, specially in those
cases where isotopes are introduced into the patient's organism.
In recent years the question of the possibility of grave consequences following the use of isotopes has re-
ceived much attention abroad. Reminders of the carcinogenic action of radioactivity have been growing louder
and louder. It is essential for us to have our own point of view on this extremely important question.
It is well known that no less than 10-20 years are necessary to reveal the carcinogenic effect of radio-
active substances in man; with only an eight year experience of isotope use we can not, as yet, submit proofs
denying or confirming this possibility. However, we must decide already now to maintain the closest observa-
tion of those patients who had been subjected to isotope therapy; moreover, it is necessary to delimit more strict-
ly the indications for the use of isotopes both for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.
The use of isotopes in the clinical study of medical conditions contributed much that was new to the in-
vestigation of the pathogenesis of various diseases, and revealed the interaction of various organs and systems
in the disorders of their functions. Practically, this has found expression in more precise diagnosis of diseases,
which in turn has led to more exact indications for the various therapeutic measures and greater effectiveness
of the therapy prescribed.
Radioactive iodine is the substance most extensively used in the diagnosis of various disorders. At first
these investigations were directed principally towards the demonstration of disorders of the thyroid gland itself--
thyrotoxicosis and hypothyroidism. The simplicity and availability of the method made its use possible not only
in hospitals and therapeutic centers of the Union, but also under field conditions.
The numerous investigations carried out showed that the use of radioactive iodine in the diagnosis of thy-
rotoxicosis and various forms of thyroid disorders was a simpler and more precise method than the determination
of basal metabolic rate and of iodine-containing protein in the blood used previously. Thus, for example, it is
possible to differentiate between cases of alcoholism, increased nervous excitability, compensated hypertensive
states and Parkinsonism, all accompanied by a raised metabolic rate, and cases of true hyperthyroidism by means
of radioactive iodine. According to the data of Soviet and foreign workers it has not been possible to demon-
strate a complete correspondence between the indicators of basal metabolic rate and iodine absorption by the
thyroid, the latter being a more exact indication of the functional state of the gland. Another advantage of the
use of radioactive iodine over the basal metabolic rate determination is that it is a method which characterizes
the formation of the hormone. Basal metabolism is a consequence of the enhanced function of the gland.
The use of radioactive iodine becomes particularly valuable in the diagnosis of the more blurred forms of
thyroid disorders, as well as in demonstrating thyroid dysfunction in other endocrine diseases in which clinical
diagnostic methods did not give conclusive results.
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t.
manifest symptoms. Not infrequently this method revealed cases of retrosternal goitre.
Animal experiments using radioactive iodine have demonstrated that the synthesis of diiodotyrosine and
thyroxine can occur in other tissues besides the thyroid. Thyroidectomized and hypophysectomized rats were
given radioactive inorganic iodine. After 24-96 hours 3050 of the labelled iodine could be found in the small
intestine and the liver as organic iodine, viz. diiodotyrosine and thyroxine.
How difficult can be the diagnosis of thyroid pathology can be seen from the data of Z. I. Rozhnova and
K. I. Kalinina showing that of 400 patients referred for investigation with a diagnosis of hyperthyroidism in-
creased thyroid function was found only in 54%, decreased activity in 4% and normal activity in 4250 of the
patients. It should be noted at the same time that in a small number of cases normal radioactive iodine abs-
orption is encountered in patients with manifest hyperthyroidism. On the other hand patients with clinically
established euthyroidism show increased iodine absorption in rare cases.
In the assessment of the thyroid function it should not be forgotten that diseases of some of the internal
organs may affect the rate of absorption and the total content of radioactive iodine in the thyroid. Thus, the
excretion of radioactive iodine by the kidneys is impaired in cases of renal dysfunction and circulatory dis-
orders. The rate of absorption of radioactive iodine and its total absorption are appreciably lowered after the
administration of certain therapeutic substances such as, for example, thiouracil, or compounds containing io-
dine.
The iodine content of foods is not great and therefore a most varied diet, including iodized salt, exerts
very little effect on the rate and total absorption of iodine by the thyroid. Greer and Astwood investigated
the effect of 61 foodstuffs (independently of their iodine content); it was shown that cabbage, strawberries, car-
rots, spinach, oysters and milk lower the rate of iodine absorption.
Investigations indicate that the patients' age affects the rate of radioactive iodine absorption. The rate
of iodine accumulation in middle aged patients is twice that observed in elderly patients. The rate of accu-
mulation is 0.5-1.4 times higher in women than in men of the same age.
Therefore a number of factors which appreciably affect the total absorption and the rate of accumula-
tion of iodine must be borne in mind in assessing the functional state of the thyroid.
Numerous studies made in the Soviet Union have shown the close functional connection between the thy-
roid and the internal organs. Thus, for example, there is an obvious connection between the thyroid and the
cardiovascular system. This is inferred by the effect of the thyroid hormone on the different aspects of meta-
bolism, which doubtless affects the function of the cardiovascular system. Disorders of the cardiovascular
system, in their turn, may produce thyroid dysfunction (lowring of its activity) by way of circulatory impair-
ment. In connection with this, the study of thyroid function in cardiovascular diseases gives much valuable
data for diagnosis, determining more precisely the phase and stage of the disorder.
M. N. Fateeva, K. L. Georgadze and others have demonstrated some increase of radioactive iodine abs-
orption in the first stage of hypertensive disease and a decrease of its absorption in the third stage, which is
explained by profound disorders of circulation. Parallel changes in the indicators of thyroid function and basal
metabolism were only observed in the first stage of the disease. As the disease progresses, thyroid function de-
creases while basal metabolism indicators show a rise. Thyroid hypofunction in the sclerotic stage of hyper-
tensive disease should be regarded as a compensatory state. Patients with rheumatic heart conditions (compen-
sated stage) most frequently show normal rate of absorption and normal accumulation of iodine. When the rheu-
matic process becomes more acute the accumulation of iodine in the thyroid increases, which corresponds to the
clinical picture of mild hyperthyroidism. Cardiac decompensation is accompanied by marked lowering of the
rate of absorption and the total content of iodine. Changes in the rate of iodine absorption can be demonstrated
much earlier than the appearance of clinical symptoms, which is very important from the point of yiew of pro-
phylaxis and the earliest possible treatment of the condition. Of no less importance, diagnostically, has been
the use of radioactive iodine in the differential diagnosis of functional and atherosclerotic cardiac impairment.
In the first case there is little impairment of thyroid function. Lowering of thyroid function is seen regularly in
atherosclerosis. At the same time, other methods, even electrocardiography, often do not make it possible to
arrive at the correct diagnosis.
Increased absorption of radioactive iodine is also seen in exacerbations of tuberculosis, in encephalitis,
446
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diencephalitis, post-concussional syndrome and pregnancy (E. I. Tildionova et al). The iodine-absorption curve
In these cases differs markedly from the absorption curve in hyperthyroidisms. No changes in basal metabolism
occur in these cases.
A marked connection between thyroid function and the state of the kidneys has been demonstrated. L. I.
Kazakova's work showed that increased thyroid function is observed in nephritis; it becomes normal as renal
function improves. Renal insufficiency is characterized by lowering of thyroid function.
Interesting data have been obtained in the studies of thyroid function in various dermatoses. Thus, F. I.
Sulthovy showed, using radioactive iodine, that in eczemas, even in the absence of clinical signs of thyroid
dysfunction and with normal radioactive iodine absorption, insufficient formation and circulation of thyroid
hormone can be presumed from the delayed excretion of the iodine.
The examples cited of the use of radioactive iodine in diagnostics make it possible to appreciate the
value of this method of investigation.
A study of blood volume, erythrocyte volume, plasma volume and bleeding time has been made with
the help of radioactive isotopes?I131, P32, and Nag?in connection with the diagnosis of cardiovascular dis-
orders.
The determination of the circulating blood volume using radioactive phosphorus has been carried out in
our clinics in various diseases. It has been established that iii myocarditis and myocardiodystrophy, during
the compensated stage the volume of circulating blood is decreased, with diminished total volume of erythro-
cytes and decreased amount of plasma; in M. N. Fateeva's view this can be explained by an adaptation reaction
on the part of the organism, designed to le'ssen the work of the heart. When there is insufficiency of circulation
developed as the result of cardiac failure, an increase of blood volume is observed with an increased amount of
plasma and normal or even diminished erythrocyte volume. According to A. L. Mikhnev's data an appreciable
lowering of blood volume of the oligocythemic type is observed in the first and second stages of hypertensive
disease. In the third stage with circulatory insufficiency the blood volume approaches normal; M. N. Fateeva's
findings show that in pernicious and hemolytic anemias the blood volume decreases while in myelomatosis and
lymphadenomatosis it is increased.
Studies of the permeability of erythrocytes to radioactive phosphorus showed that in different diseases,
such as endoarteritis obliterans as well as in polyarthritis and some forms of tuberculosis, the erythrocyte per-
meability is increased; in chronic nephritides and cirrhosis of the liver it is decreased.
The study of hemodynamics in patients with cardiovascular diseases and with diseases of the lungs, liver
and peripheral blood vessels is of great practical importance. The use of isotopes for this purpose has made this
method available for wide application. The rate of blood flow both in the greater and lesser circulations has
been determined in the various stages of hypertensive disease, in rheumatic heart diseases, cardiac failures and
in diseases of the lungs and liver. A definite slowing of the rate of blood flow has been demonstrated in dis-
orders complicated by cardiovascular insufficiency.
Methods for the determination of the rate of blood flow and of blood volume (which characterize the com-
pensatory functions of the organism) should find extensive application not only in the field of internal medicine
but also in surgery, to. disclose the functional state of the cardiovascular, system prior to major operative pro-
cedures, which could give valuable data as regards indications and contra-indications for surgical intervention.
Of no less importance are data obtained in the postoperative period which can reveal the state of the patient's
compensatory mechanisms.
It has proved to be possible to determine the rate of tissue blood flow, both from the tissues into the blood
stream and from the blood stream into the tissues with the help of radioactive isotopes, radioactive sodium in
particular. The rate of tissue blood flow cannot be equated with capillary permeability. The latter affects the
rate of passage of radioactive substance from the capillaries into the tissues. The passage of the radioactive sub-
stance from the tissues into the blood stream is determined, evidently, by other factors as well, since there are
states in which increased permeability of the capillaries is associated with slower penetration of the radioactive
substance into the blood stream, as for example in shock.
Clinical observations have indicated that the development of cardiovascular insufficiency leads to slow-
ing of tissue blood flow, with a definite interrelation of the degree of insufficiency and slowing of the blood
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flow. Subjects with compensated heart failure show normal rate of tissue blood flow, which decreases on the
appearance of incipient edema; the resorption of sodium almost completely ceases in patients with severe cir-
culatory insufficiency. The diagnostic importance of this method lies in the possibility of revealing early states
of decompensation which may not be recognizable by other clinical methods of investigation; it can moreover,
serve as a test of the effectiveness of therapeutic measures.
The rate of blood flow in rheumatism depends not only on hemodynamics but also on the permeability
of the capillaries and connective tissue; therefore,complete correspondence between the degree of decompen-
sation and slowing of sodium resorption has not been observed.
The study of capillary permeability by means of radioactive isotopes allows the determination of the
state of histohematic barriers in the organism and of the rate of passage of electrolytes from the blood into the
tissues and from the tissues into the blood which is of great importance in assessing the water balance of the
organism.
Studies of the hematoophthalmic barrier revealed its dependence on the functional state of the visual ap-
paratus.
N. N. Zaiko has shown that the blood vessels of the middle ear possess barrier function. The hematolaby-
rinthine barrier assures a constant composition of endo- and perilymph which is essential for the proper func-
tioning of the auditory apparatus.
The indicator method has also confirmed the existence of barrier function in the vessels of the joints.
This barrier is impaired in inflammation, trauma and disturbances of joint innervation.
:Studies of the rate of blood flow and of tissue blood flow have proved to be very useful in surgery. Thus
the study of peripheral circulation by means of radioactive sodium in such diseases as arteritis obliterans has
proved to be exceptionally valuable in following the dynamics of the process.
In orthopedic practice the study of peripheral circulation has proved very useful in investigating circula-
tion in the stump both at rest and during movement; peculiar changes have been observed which must be re-
garded as signs of adaptation. Studies of local circulation in the stump have led to rational recommendations
concerning the making of prosthetic appliances (V. N. Boyarskaya). The use of radioactive isotopes permitted
V. A. Polyakov to obtain valuable data on the processes of consolidation in compound and simple fractures of
bones. The author showed that the mineral substances used in the formation of the bone callus are not derived
from the ends of the broken fragments but from the whole organism, and moreover that these mineral substances
are derived from the external environment.
Radioactive isotopes proved to be useful in the diagnosis of malignant tumors in cases where biopsy was
difficult or dangerous for the patient, as for example in tumors of the eye, in malignant melanomata and cere-
bral tumors. The increased absorption of radioactive phosphorus and iodine by rapidly growing tissues, such as
are encountered in malignant tumors, permits their detection by means of special counters and so assists in the
differential diagnosis of malignant growth and inflammatory processes.
The examples cited of the diagnostic use of radioactive isotopes indicate their undoubted value and use-
fulness which have placed the diagnosis of various diseases on a very high level indeed.
In evaluating this method of investigation from the point of view of its safety we must emphasize that we,
contrary to foreign workers, have found no serious grounds for alarm. As is well known, in foreign practice not
only the short-lived radioactive isotopes but also those with a very long half-life period are used, among them
Fe59 (1- ?47 days), S35 (7 ?88 days), Nan (7 ?1100 days), Feb (7 ?1500 days) and C34 (7 ?1.7-106days).
Moreover, the magnitude of indicator doses used abroad is tens of times greater than that of doses used in the
Soviet Union. The introduction of isotopes with a long half-life period into the organism is always hazardous
with respect to their carcinogenic action.
The Soviet Ministry of Health has prudently forbidden the use of long-lived isotopes. The use of minute
doses of short-lived isotopes (or diagnostic purposes cannot, most probably, exert any appreciable harmful effect.
And still it would seem advisible to keep a record of all the patients who had received radioactive isotopes for
diagnostic purposes in order to trace their state of health over a period of at least 10-15 years. At the same time
it is essential to limit the use of isotopes in certain age groups, namely after 40 years. Taking into account the
448
high sensitivity of the organism to Ionizing radiation in childhood, methods of investigation using radioactive
Isotopes should not be applied to children. Radioactive isotopes should be used therapeutically in children only
in cases of such diseases as the leukemias, in which the expectation of life with any of the others methods of
treatment does not exceed a few years.
The use of radioactive phosphorus for the treatment of anemias, leucopenias or other diseases is absolute-
ly impermissible. Unfortunately it is so used in isolated therapeutic centers.
Radioactive isotopes have found the greatest therapeutic application in the treatment of thyrotoxicosis,
some forms of disorders of the blood-forming organs,in dermatology. and especially in oncology.
In the course of the course of the last two years 2448 patients with thyrotoxicosis have been treated in
the therapeutic centers of Moscow, Kiev, Sverdlovsk, Chelyabinsk and Stanislay. The disease was in the first
stage in 94, of the cases, in the second stage in 46% and in the third in 45%, i.e., the patients had predominant-
ly medium to severe forms of thyrotoxicosis. The majority showed diffuse goitres. The treatment was carried
out in the main according to the fractional method in which the patient is given 2-3mC of radioactive Iodine
three seven times with intervals of six eight days; the total dose varied between 4 and 20 mC. Much more
rarely a single dose of 6-10 mC was given.
Analysis of the material shows that both methods of treatment give a fairly high percentage of cures or
considerable improvement; it varies between 51 and 90%. The percentage of cures with 3ingle doses of radio-
active iodine reaches 81-90%. (Material from the Moscow Endocrinological Institute ?800 patients, from the
Stanislav Goitre Clinic ?290 patients).
In the case of the fractional method of treatment as carried out in various therapeutic centers the per-
centage of cures varies within wider limits ?from 51 to 88%. With both methods the patients were followed
up for three months to tliree years. Relapses were observed more frequently following fractional treatment and
occurred in 25 to 12%. Complications in the form of hypothyroidism occurred more frequently with single doses
of radioactive iodine. In the majority of cases the hypothyroidism was transitory.
We stould like to draw attention to the inadequate consideration of the age of the patients subjected to
radioactive iodine therapy. In many centers this treatment was given to patients aged from 20 to 60 years.
Taking into account the high degree of radiosensitivity of tissues in the younger age groups, radioactive iodine
treatment should be recommended for patients over 40 years of age, the younger ones being given other forms
of treatment.
Radioactive phosphorus has been used for the treatment of blood disorders. The best results have been ob-
tained in the case of erythremias. As is known,radioactive phosphorus therapy is used in most centers only in the
later stages of the illness when medication and bloodletting cease to be effective. The universally accepted
procedure is to give radioactive phosphorus (internally) in the dose of 2 mC two-three times with intervals of
six eight days directly after bloodletting. As shown by N. V. Nikolaeva, with this type of procedure it is often
sufficient to give 4-6 mC of radioactive phosphorus in order to obtain a therapeutic effect.
In the last five years 201 patients with erythremia have been treated in the research institutes of Moscow
and Leningrad and in the clinics of the Sverdlovsk and Chelyabinsk Medical Institutes. Of these, 177 were given
one course of treatment and 24 were given two courses on account of relapses (Table 1). The results of radio-
active phosphorus therapy proved to be much better than those of drug treatment and roentgenotherapy formerly
used.
Less favorable results are obtained in the radioactive phosphorus treatment of patients with leukemia.
Analysis of available data permits the recommendation in the majority of cases of lymphoid and myeloid leu-
kemia of combined methods of treatment, including roentgenotherapy, blood transfusion, radioactive phosphorus,
vitamin therapy and other measures. Even these complex methods of treatment, however, do not result in cure.
The use of radioactive phosphorus in combination with other therapeutic measures leads to longer remissions,
reaching three years in isolated cases, chiefly in the myeloid form of leukemia. In the case of the lymphoid
form of leukemia the prospects for the use of radioactive phosphorus are still less encouraging.
Radioactive isotopes have been used not without success in dermatology. Radioactive phosphorus in the
form of external applications has received the most extensive application in this field. It has the advantage, in
treatment of skin conditions, of the small penetrating capacity of its 8 -radiation, which does not exceed 3-4 mm
in the tissues.
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TABLE 1
Results of Radioactive Phosphorus Treatment of Patients with Erythremia from the Materials of Moscow, Lenin-
grad, Sverdlovsk and Chelyabinsk Therapeutic Centers
Number
of patients
Number of courses of treatment
Duration of remissions
1
2 and more
6-12
months
1-4
years
4-6
years
Negative
results
No information
201
177
24
87
72
26
10
6
TABLE 2
Results of Treatment of Patients with Leukemia from Materials of the Moscow, Leningrad, Sverdlovsk and Che-
lyabinsk Therapeutic Centers
Number
of patients
Results of treatment
Duration of remissions
Improvement
No Improvement
1-6
months
6-12
months
1-1., 5
years
2-3. 5
years
198
140
58
53
55
30
2
Relapses after seemingly successful treatment by various means, including radiation, are characteristic of
many skin diseases. Taking this into account, it is extremely important that radiation should only affect the sur-
r face layers of the skin without causing sclerosis of the underlying tissues.
The earliest application of radioactive phosphorus was in cases of flat capillary angiomata frequently seen
on the face, often involving half or the whole face. Prior to the use of isotopes no treatment was available ex-
cept in cases with minimal involvement.
The introduction of radioactive phosphorus has permitted the treatment of these patients. The results
can be considered as completely satisfactory.
Analysis of the results of treatment of patients (945) seen only in the clinics of provincial towns of the
USSR shows considerable improvement in 50 to 90% (average 63.6%), insufficient effect in 31.7% and compli-
cations in 4.7% of the cases.
Complete disappearance of the lesions was only observed in small children; in adults the lesions usually
became noticeably paler.
Radioactive phosphorus proved successful in the treatment of eczemas, neurodermatites and pyodermia.
From pooled data of 470 patients with neurodermatitis,75% were cured.
TABLE 3
Use of Radioactive Phosphorus in Skin Diseases. Period of Observation from One to Four Years.
f
ti I
Diagnosis
Number
of patients
Cure
Improvement
Negative
result
Relapses
Percentage
Capillary angiomata
945
'1
63.6
29.4
Neurodermatites
470
75
25
19
Eczema
1244
85
15
23
11
Treatment of 1244 patients with eczema resulted in cures in 85%; in 15% the treatment proved ineffective
and relapses occurred in 23% of the patients.
Radioactive phosphorus has become firmly established in the treatment of capillary angiomata, neuroder-
matites and eczema, and is used not only in central therapeutic establishments but equally widely in regional
clinics. This convenient and simple method of treatment can find even more extensive application when -
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radiating isotope applicators are manufactured on a commercial scale. In this case it is expedient to use iso-
topes with a longer half-life period, such as strontium, yttrium and cerium.
As already mentioned, the most important use of isotopes has been in oncology. Radioactive cobalt is
most frequently used for the treatment c,f patients with malignant tumors; radioactive gold and iodine are used
much more rarely. The use of isotopes in the treatment of malignant growths has led to appreciable improve-
ment of results. The main reasons for such a change are the following.
In the first place it has become possible to use radioactive preparations extensively for the treatment of
patients with malignant tumors. Before radioactive cobalt became available to oncological centers natural
radioactive substances ?radium and mesothorium ?were used for therapeutic purposes. However, these sub-
stances were only available in a few central oncological establishments; the majority of oncological depart-
ments throughout the country employed surgery in combination with roentgenotherapy.
In the second place, of great advantage has been the construction of y -installations with powerfulsourca
made of radioactive cobalt. The use of tele-y -therapy opened up new possibilities of treatment of patients
with malignant tumors of internal organs who had not, prior to this development, been subjected to radiation
therapy at all.
And finally, in the third place, a no less important advantage of isotopes is the possibility of introducing
short-lived isotopes into the patient's organism in those case, where surface irradiation is either impossible or
unpromising. This latter development has led to considerable extension of indications for radiation therapy in
the case of gravely ill patients for whom no specific treatment was previously available.
We shall attempt to support these statements by factual material. We shall consider only those forms of
malignant tumors whose treatment prior to the use of isotopes has been, in the majority of cases, unsuccessfl.
Cancer of the female sex organs is one of the most frequently encountered forms of malignant neoplasms.
Both surgical and radiation methods of treatment are used in early Cases, whose incidence still does not exceed
20-30%. The percentage of cures in various therapeutic centers reaches 70. Treatment of patients with more
severe forms of the disease and especially with diffuse extension of tumor to the pelvic lymph nodes leads to
cure in not more than 10-15% of cases, using both the surgical and the combined as well as purely radiational
methods of treatment (N. P. Dmokhovskaya, S. S. Dobrotin, E. P. Ivanitskaya). According to the data of the
Roentgenological and Radiological Institutes in Moscow, Kiev and Leningrad the percentage of cures in the third
stage of the disease has risen in recent years to 30-35%.
TABLE 4
Results of Radioactive Co6? Treatment of Cancer of the Cervix.
Roentgenological
and Radiological
Institute
Total
Number
of Patients
State of Disease
Length of
Follow-up
I
II
III
IV
Number
of
Patients
To
Cured
Number
of
Patients
To
Cured
Number
of
Patients
To
Cured
Number
of
Patients
To
Cured
In Leningrad
In Moscow
In Kiev
502
91
221
53
?
12
90
?
66
196
?
65
64.3
?
65
249
91
122
36
35.1
35
4
?
22
?
?
?
1 to 3 years
5 years&mo
1 to 5 years
Until quite recently patients with carcinoma of the lung who could not be treated surgically were only sub-
jected to symptomatic medication. It should be remembered that of the number of all patients who seek help
the percentage of those suitable for surgery does not exceed 10-15%. The length of survival of patients treated
only symptomatically is not greater than six months.
Tele-y -therapy in carcinoma of the lung has only been used fairly recently in certain institutes. The first
results obtained permit the recommendation of this method for those patients who cannot be treated surgically,
as it leads to resumption of working capacity and prolongation of life (Table 5).
In cancer of the oesophagus surgical treatment is possible in not more than 20-30% of the patients (V. I.
Kazansky, L. G. Savinykh and others).
451
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1
TABLE 5
Results of Tele-y-therapy in Carcinoma of the Lung from Materials of the V. M. Molotov Roentgenological and
Radiological Institute.
Number
of
Patients
Stage of
Disease
Length of Survival
1 Year
Up to
2 years
16
Up to
3 years
6
Up to
4 years
3
Up to
5 years
6
Above
5
2
No information
3
56
III?IV
20
The method of treatment developed in the V. M. Molotov Roentgenological and Radiological Institute,
which consists of the combination of tele-y -therapy with an intra-oesophageal method of treatment allows
food to pass again through the oesophagus, improves the general condition and prolongs the life of the patients.
It is well known that the expectation of life in patients with cancer of the oesophagus does not exceed a few
months from the time of confirming the diagnosis.
TABLE 6
Results of Treatment of Cancer of the Oesophagus from Material of the V. M. Molotov Roentgenological and
Radiological Institute.
Number
of
Patients
Stage of disease
Length of survival
II
IV
80 10
54 16
' 51 25
One Year 2
3
4
Cancer of the bladder is one of the frequently encountered forms of malignant neoplasms. Until recently
only surgical treatment was used, with a high incidence of relapses. Patients unsuitable for surgery were not
subjected to roentgenotherapy since it was ineffective.
Methods for the treatment of in9perable cancer of the bladder have been developed in recent years at
the Moscow Roentgenological and Radiological Institute. A combined procedure was used: tele-y-therapy
supplemented with intra-tissue method of treatment by means of radioactive cobalt needles introduced into
the tumor or application of a colloidal solution of radioactive gold to the opened bladder. In other cases tele-
y-therapy was combined with an intravesicular method of treatment using radioactive sodium solution.
The results obtained show that isotopes provide effective treatment in cases of inoperable cancer of the
bladder (Table 7).
TABLE 7
Results of Treatment of Cancer of the Bladder.
Roentgenological
and Radiological
Instf tute
Number
of
Patients
Stage of disease
Result of treatment
I
II
III
IV
Freedom from symptoms and restor-
ation of working capacity.
Negative
result
1-2
years
2-3
Over 3
In Moscow (the
V. M. Molotov)
In Leningrad
174
183
16
15
130
160
28
8
9
29
96
116
29
4
40
34
Total
357
31
290
36
38
212
33
74
Until recently cancer of the breast has been treated by a combined method consisting of radical mastec-
tomy and preoperative and postoperative roentgenotherapy. An intra-tissue method of treatment has been
452
men.
C
developed at the. P. A. Gertsen Oncological Institute In Moscow which consists of the insertion of radioactive
cobalt or radium needles after the. removal of the tumor sparing the breast. The results obtained are not in-
ferior to those of surgical treatment (Table 8).
TABLE 8
Results of Intra-tissue Method of Curietherapy from Material of the P. A. Gertsen Oncological Institute.
Number
of
Patients
Stage
of disease
_
Healthy
Total
67-66%
I
II
III
8
1-2
years
14
3-5
26
6-9
27
99
31
60
Failure of treatment in cases of malignant tumors very often depends on theappearance of metastases in
the absence of relapse at the primary focus. Until the use of isotopes treatment of metastases was usually con-
demned to failure. The use of telegammatherapy, of radioactive solutions and preparations has made it pos-
sible to obtain satisfactory results in these severe forms of neoplastic disease.
TABLE 9
Results of Radiation Therapy in Metastases of Various Localization (Submandibular, Cervical, Supraclavicular,
Groin Lymph Nodes).
Therapeutic center
Number
of
patients
Results of treatment
Length of follow-up
Healthy
c/o Cures
The P. A. Gertsen Oncoiogi-
cal Institute
The V. M. Molotov Roentgen-
ological and Radiological
Institute
581 .
107
168
52
28%
48%
From 1 year to 6 years
From 1 year to 7 years
The use of colloidal radioactive gold solution allows treatment of patients with what would appear to be
hopeless conditions and who are unsuitable for the usual methods of radiation therapy.
Thus, according to the materials of the V. M. Molotov Roentgenological and Radiological Institute, of
87 patients of whom 22 had metastases of malignant melanoma and 65 relapses and metastases with various
localizations satisfactory results were achieved in 50: cessation of growth of the tumor, disappearance of pain
and improvement of the general state for a period of from one to four years.
The examples cited here, illustrating the results of treatment of the most severe forms of malignant neo-
plasms in which until recently treatment was completely unsuccessful, indicate convincingly the extension of
therapeutic possibilities associated with the introduction of radioactive isotope treatment.
The possibilities of the clinical use of radioactive isotopes are still far from having been exhausted.
The further development of therapeutic methods using isotopes should follow four main directions.
1. Construction and manufacture of new powerful gamma-installations both of the stationary and rotary
type.
2. Manufacture of various types of radioactive devices for radiosurgical methods of treatment.
3. Manufacture of colloidal solutions of various radioactive isotopes and also of devices for their intro-
duction.
4. Serial manufacture of special apparatus designed for the diagnostic use of isotopes.
The variety of methods of isotope therapy makes it possible to take into account the individual peculiari-
ties of each case, which leads to a considerable increase in the number of cures.
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tiW
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES USSR
DEPARTMENT OF ATOMIC ENERGY UTILIZATION,
COUNCIL OF MINISTRIES OF THE USSR
ALL-UNION CONFERENCE ON THE APPLICATION OF
RADIOACTIVE AND STABLE ISOTOPES IN THE
NATIONAL ECONOMY AND SCIENCE
ISOTOPES AND RADIATIONS IN AGRONOMY
V. M. Klechkovsky
Paper Read at the Plenary Session
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Moscow 1957
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Progress in the agricultural sciences is very closely connected with the development of general knowledge
of nature and with progress in physics and chemistry in particular. As these sciences and the industrial proces-
ses related to them have developed, new ways of performing scientific experiments have been produced which
have deepened our theoretical understanding in agronomy, just as in biology, medicine and a number of other
branches of science.
Engels, commenting on the role of production in the development of science, noted the Importance of
the body of fresh mechanical, chemical and physical facts accumulated during the development of industry,
which is not only basic material for scientific observation, but also provides completely new ways of carrying
out experiments and constructing instruments which did not formerly exist (1). Timiryazev has emphasized
the great importance of the experimental methods of physics and chemistry when applied to physiological prob-
lems. "One may say" he writes in his review of the development of biology in the 19th century "that all the
brilliant advances in physiology were closely connected with the application of physical and chemical methods
to the more complex and detailed problems of physiology, these methcds frequently being ingeniously refined
in the process. The rule is here again proved that the discovery of new research methods is frequently the source
of more notable progress than is the acceptance of a new theory or a fresh compilation of facts" (2). This evalu-
ation of the role of new experimental research methods which arise in the course of development of our general
knowledge of nature and of industry, and of their importance to physiology, and hence agronomy also, is very
applicable to the present time, when a rapid technological revolution is occurring with an unceasing extension
of opportunities for scientific experiment, due mainly to progress in nuclear physics and current atomic physics
in general.
Agriculture is at present the widest field for the application of scientific and technical achievements.
The application of industrial techniques to agriculture on a large scale, using the various scientific research
methods in agronomic work, will, in its turn, exert an important influence on the development of science and
technology.
But we must remember that the relation between science and production in agriculture is different from
that in other branches of industry, which latter could not have developed without the prior development of the
various scientific disciplines (e.g., electrical technology or atomic industry).
Agriculture developed historically long before any exact scientific experiments existed. And only grad-
ually, hand in hand with the development of our knowledge of nature, did the enormous practical experiment
that is agriculture become the object of study and scientific generalization. At this stage agriculture science
did not provide the prerequisite for a new industry to arise, but existing practice was merely systematized and
rationalized.
We would need to say no more about this relation between science and production in agriculture today
were it not that this relation sometimes is not apparent even now. As was. remarked above, since science is
less responsible for the development of agriculture, the ground was laid for the occurrence of various dogmatic
doctrines in agronomy, the unoriginal deductions of which are of little assistance or are even a hindrance in practice.
As the exact sciences have developed and been widely applied in agronomy, the field open to dogmatic
doctrine has been further and further reduced. In addition, the attachment of agriculture to industry has provided
a sounder basis for the increase of the scientific influence in agriculture.
The large part played in cultivation,at its present technological level,by the chemical industry and agro-
chemistry, for instance, is well-known: this has occurred by the application of chemical knowledge and chemi-
cal methods to agricultural questions: e.g., of chemical theories to the feeding of plants and of chemical con-
ditions for soil fertilization; it has given an agronomic basis to the production of industrial fertilizers, and a
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scientific basis for the correct application of fertilizers has developed and continues to develop.
But the development of agrochemistry and agronomy in general is indissolubly linked with the progress
of general chemistry, physical chemistry, biochemistry and physiology, with the constant enrichment of agron-
omy by new theoretical concepts and new means of experiment. Hence Timiryazev's noteworthy comments
[3] that *current cultivation has become what it is only because of agrochemistry and plant physiology" must
be considered not only as a profound evaluation of the role of active scientific intervention in agriculture, but
also as applying to the direct connection between agronomy and scientific knowledge. Only by working to ex-
tend our knowledge of the processes of agriculture, using all the best methods currently availlble, can we en-
sure the required development of agronomic science free from tendencies to dogmatic scholasticism. Only
when agronomy is closely connected with general scientific knowledge can we use completely the fresh tech-
niques which have developed together with new industries.
In our day, when humanity has attained the atomic age, new atomic techniques are being rapidly devel-
oped and introduced into the most varied branches of science and technology. Progress in nuclear physics and
isotope chemistry, which has been crowned by the production of nuclear power, has revealed a wide field for
the application of atomic techniques in agriculture and agronomic research.
One of the main items in this arsenal of techniques is the use of isotopes of various chemical elements
and a variety of forms of nuclear radiation. ), -rays, B -particles of various energies, and fast and slow neu-
trons have become readily accessible means for research and for practical use of their action on organisms, in-
cluding microorganisms, higher plants and animals. This action may be utilized to alter the genetic proper- ,
ties of the organisms in order to increase their productivity; it can be used as a means of regulating the rates of
biochemical processes, and as a disinfecting or sterilizing agent. Nuclear radiation sources are widely used for
producing new equipment for use in agricultural experiments.
The production and use of atomic energy results in the formation of an enormous amount of radioactive
materials (fission products from heavy nuclei). Fission products, together with some other radiation sources
(such as Co60) are the most accessible forms of radioactive material for use as radiation sources in agriculture,
e.g., for radiation disinfestation,etc. But this does not restrict the body of agricultural problems which arises"
in connection with fission product formation (when atomic energy is produced). These fission products are the
radioactive isotopes of elements (strontium, ruthenium, cesium, cerium etc.) which formerly had been almost
completely or even completely neglected in agricultural science. Agronomy is at present faced with the seri-
ous problem of studying the actions of fission products on plants and of elucidating the laws which govern the
rates of the long-lived fission products when these enter the agricultural circulation of matter. These laws
must be studied so that scientifically sound protective measures can be taken to prevent the undesirable conse-
quences of radioactive materials accumulating in agricultural products. Investigation of all these problems will
give rise to essentially new branches of agronomic science, such as radioisotope agrochemistry and agricultural
biophysics.
There is no doubt that the vast increase in power sources produced by the inexhaustible sources of nuclear
energy will in the future prove of great importance not only to industry and transport but also to agriculture.
But at the present, the problem of using atomic energy occupies nc obvious place in agricultural science, this is
for the future. At the present time the practical use of atomic energy in agriculture lies predominantly in the
use of isotopes and radiations as new means of scientific experiment.
The use of isotopes and radiations in agronomic research has extended considerably in recent years. And
if today we can say that some important practical problem has been solved on this basis we can assert with com-
plete confidence that many partial questions of practical importance have had new light thrown on them by the
use of isotopes. In addition, the use of isotopes has assumed a very important part in work on a number of theo-
retical problems directly related to agronomy.
When evaluating these successes we must allow for the fact that the history of the use of isotopes and radi-
ations in agriculture is as yet comparatively short. The initial stage of using atomic techniques in agronomic
research was characterized by the posing of comparatively simple problems from which the utility of the new
methods could be tested. But at the same times we must remark on the tendency which appeared in some work,
which was to find some quick direct way of raising the productivity of cultivation (and livestock production) by
using atomic techniques, e.g., by using the stimulant action of radioactive substance and nuclear radiations, and
458
0
ts.
thus hoping to obtain results of importance in practice.
But it has now become clear that progress in this direction cannot be considered as a light task, either
with regard to the use of isotope methods in agronomic research or the direct action of nuclear radiations on
organisms; very careful systematic detailed work is required. For this purpose a number of important methodo-
logical questions have to be resolved in using radiations and isotope methods for dealing with problems in ag-
ronomic science.
?
?
Passing now to a review of the ways of using radiations and isotope methods in agronomy which have so
far been defined, we must first expound some results obtained by using tracer methods for research on the most
important biochemical processes on which agriculture is based. The first of these is photosynthesis.
Vinogradov [4] was the first to determine the isotope composition of the oxygen evolved by plants during
photosynthesis; he concluded that the photosynthetic oxygen was derived from water and not from CO. As
radioactive carbon was used for this research on photosynthesis, we now have a profound knowledge of the chem-
istry of this process in the successive links of which the carbon is incorporated; the organic compounds are
formed which provide the precursors for the synthesis of all the compounds which go to make up the organs of
the plants and the formation of produce. Work using radioactive carbon and stable nitrogen isotopes has shown
that there are effects, caused by the spectral composition of the light and other factors, which exert an influence
on the course of photosynthesis and the routes taken by the primary accumulation of materials formed in photo-
synthesis. This work has provided agronomic science with new theoretical concepts as to ways of controlling ,
the most important processes, such as photosynthesis [5].
The use of radioactive and stable isotopes in work on the absorption and metabolism of materials in
plants has lead to discoveries which provide a deeper insight into the mechanisms of the primary processes by
which the elements taken up by the plant roots are incorporated, and which elucidate some important aspects
of the relation between root feeding and carbon uptake by the plant. Tracer methods have revealed the part
played by the root carbon dioxide in the formation of acceptors required for the binding of inorganic nitrogen
compounds and the synthesis of amino acids; new light has also been cast on the factors defining the oxygen
metabolism of plant organs, as related to the carbon dioxide sources used in photosynthesis [6].
New data has been obtained by tracer methods on the relation between photosynthesis, mineral absorption,
and the root synthetic activity; these are of great interest as applied to the adjustment of plant nutrition, and in
relation to research on the external environmental factors which influence metabolism, growth and development.
One of the basic general concepts of contemporary science in the field of plant nutrition, which was developed
by D. N. Pryanishnikov [7], is that there is a close connection between external factors and the metabolic proc-
esses in plants, found by the use of radioactive and stable isotopes and new methods of research. This concept
has been given a deeper concrete content.
The use of isotopic methods has led to the discovery of the continuous rapid turnover process which oc-
curs in the plant proteins, nucleic acids and nucleoproteins. Using stable nitrogen and radioactive carbon iso-
topes it has been shown that chlorophyll turns over rapidly in plant leaves [8, 9]. Tracer methods have lately
been used for research on the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in bean-root tumors and have given the unexpec-
ted result that the nitrogen is not fixed in the bacterial cells but in the surrounding root cells [10].
Isotopic tracers were successfully used in work on the transfer and exchange of materials between graft
and host in plant grafting, for research on the relations between the separate parts of the root system in fruit
trees [11] and for elucidating the role of the various roots in the uptake of nutritional elements in grasses. Some
features of the uptake of phosphorus from the external medium during the initial phase of growth and develop-
ment were established; new data on the relation between phosphorus uptake and state of nitrogen nutrition were
obtained. Isotope methods were successfully used in work on the effect on uptake of mineral elements of the
development of root microorganisms [12].
The use of isotope methods in research on the non-root (leaf) nutrition of plants appears to be very desir-
able. By using isotopic labels it was possible to carry out accurate detailed observations on uptake processes
during non-root nutrition, on the participation of the materials in metabolism and on their removal to other
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parts of the plant from the treated leaves [13]. The use of isotope methods to study non-root nutrition is well
known to facilitate experiments on the efficiency of this type of nutrition in cotton plants, sugar beets and other
agricultural crops, and it hp given an impetus to the general field testing of this method in our country.
Tracer methods have been fairly widely used in experiments on the efficiency of various methods and
times of fertilizer application to the soil, mainly with phosphorus fertilizers. The advantage of this method of
studying fertilizer problems is primarily due to the fact that the amounts of the element taken up from the la -
belied fertilizer and soil can be deterinined directly. In tracer phosphate experiments numerous facts were ob-
tained of great interest in the practical use of phosphate fertilizers.
In experiments with labelled superphosphate the importance of fertilizer grain size was clearly demon-
strated: this affects the phosphorus uptake at various growth periods ? in particular fine granules were shown
to be advantageous for providing phosphorus at the commencement of growth (the fertilizer being drilled in
with the seed), and coarse granules being better during the subsequent vegetative period [14]. These results
pose the problem of reconsidering the granular specifications for superphosphate given to industry.
Much attention has been given in agricultural experiments in recent years to certain methods of combin-
ing organic and superphosphate fertilizers, or organic fertilizers and lime. Isotope methods have provided very
convincing objective data on the simultaneous application of superphosphate and organic fertilizers. It has also
been shown what,relations between the organic and mineral dressings have to be observed in order to give a posi-
tive advantage in phosphorus uptake. The rates and completeness with which plants use phosphate fertilizers
when the fertilizers are used alone or in admixture with organic material were also discovered, as well as the
relation to the depth of drilling and site of application (in the rows, in holes or in pits). It was found, in,par-
ticular, that to increase the phosphorus uptake from superphosphate it was sufficient to mix it with very much
smaller amounts of organic material (humus) than usually recommended. It was found that the advantage of
shallow drilling the superphosphate (or superphosphate - organic mixture) when a scattering technique was used
existed only during the mutual growth period, and that fertilizer more deeply drilled (18 - 20 cm) was taken up
better during almost the whole of the vegetative period, apart from a few days at the beginning. It was also
confirmed that the best way of providing phosphorus' was to combine the main application (at the bottom of the
cultivated layer) with local applications of small amounts by dusting or depositing it in rows, holes or pits [15].
The use of isotope methods to determine the amount of nutritive material taken up from the fertilizer,
together with chemical analysis of the plant material enables us to determine how much of that element taken
up from the soil is derived from compounds naturally present in the soil or applied in earlier doses of fertilizer.
Thus we may elucidate the effect of various modes of fertilization on the use the plant makes of materials nat-
urally present in the soil. The data are of great interest in dealing with questions relating to the correct fertili-
zer application system during crop rotations and in developing more efficient ways of using fertilizers.
We should also point out that isotope methods enable us to determine the uptake from various forms of
fertilizer directly if the isotope label can be introduced into the fertilizer during preparation. This method is
not always convenient, however, `e.g., when ground phosphate rock is used. Neutron irradiation of natural phos-
phates does not solve this problem satisfactorily, since the atoms may change their chemical states during acti-
vation [16], the induced activity being in a different chemical state from the rest of the rock. In this connec-
tion Sokolov's proposed method for comparative estimation of the availability of various fertilizer forms is of
interest; this consists of using an isotopic trace, in the so-called 'selective absorption' method [17]. The con-
cept on which this is based is that in using two different forms of fertili..er at the same time, one being labelled
to a known activity and the other unlabelled, the unlabelled being compared with the labelled standard on the
basis of the amount of.label taken up by the plant from the standard.
Isotope methods have lately been further refined, advancing their use in comparative studies on the vari-
ous times and methods of fertilization. It has been shown [8] that by using a simple scheme (in a field or lab-
oratory experiment) the amount of an element present in a plant can be divided into more than the two frac-
tions corresponding to uptake from soil and fertilizer. For example, when the basic application is combined
with an application along rows or at the roots, the fractions derived from the soil, the basic fertilizer, the
amount applied along the row, and the amounts applied at various periods to the roots can all be determined.
This all extends the chances of getting results of value in practice by means of exact experiments which answer
questions related to the scientific basis of rational fertilizer use in agriculture.
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4
P;cle.
Tracer methods have also been used successfully for research on the processes whereby soils react with
fertilizers, in connection with the absorption of phosphates by soils [19]. New methods of determining the cap-
acities of soils to absorb materials have been developed and related to certain other properties of soils which
are important in agriculture [20]. A new rapid method for estimating the quality of irrigation water, based on
isotope methods, has been proposed in connection with the properties of irrigated soils [21]. Work in which
isotope dilution was used to determine the amount of phosphorus taken up from soils is of great interest [22].
It is extremely necessary to elucidate some questions of principle regarding processes involving isotopes
In generalwand radioactive isotopes in particular, if ;.sotope methods are to be used successfully in future agro-
nomic and soil research. Two such important processes stand out at the present time. One is concerned with
the differences in behavior of the isotopes of a given element which are related to their mass differences, in
systems such as soil and plants.
The mass differences between the isotopes of the lightest elements (hydrogen in particular) exert an im-
portant influence on the chemical and physicochemical properties of compounds which differ in isotope com-
position. These differences affect the behavior of hydrogen isotopes in biological systems [23], which must be
borne in mind in isotope experiments with this element.
With regard to the mass differences of isotopes of elements such as nitrogen, sulfur, calcium, etc., it has
so far usually been assumed that the differences do not influence their behavior in biological experiments in a
material fashion.
In this connection we may' consider Vlasyuk's sensational paper [24] which appeared in 1953, on experi-
ments in which, it was stated 'the radioactive isotopes of calcium and phosphorus are taken up 10 - 50 times
more slowly by plants than are the stable isotopes of these elements." The astonishing part of this work was
not the general deduction that the isotopes of an element behave differently, but that the differences observed
in the rates of uptake were so astoundingly large. The same author (1955) described a hydroponic experiment
with summer vetch in which the specific activity of the plant calcium (in various experiments) was either al-
most equal to, or two, four or five times less than,that of the nutrient solution. He concluded that Ca45 atoms
'enter the plant at a different rate from those of the stable isotopes' [25]. It might appear that these data and
conclusions should have attracted considerable attention since they cast doubt on the general applicability of
tracer methods to uptake, transport and metabolic processes in plants. But we know of no work in which these
conclusions 'have been considered critically on the basis of experimental data, although while they have not
been generally acknowledged,they have also not been verified.*
N. I. Seletkova of this Laboratory in 1956 undertook some experiments analogous to those cited. Vetch,
pea and tobacco plants were grown in sand cultures fed right from the start with a nutritive mixture containing
Ca45 ? labelled calcium. Determination of the specific activities of the calcium in nutritive mixtures and in
various parts of the plant did not confirm the conclusion that there are sharp changes in the ratio between the
calcium isotopes when they are taken up from the nutritive mixture into the plant, as found by Vlasyuk [24, 25].
The deviations in the specific activities of the calcium from various test. plants did not exceed ttie errors of ex-
periment, as found by repeated measurement of the specific activities of the calcium from the nutritive mix-
tures. Thus we conclude that the data cited are of dubious veracity as far as the difference between the rates
of uptake for radioactive and non-radioactive isotopes of calcium. The difference in the properties of ions and
molecules of differing isotopic composition as it may appe.t in conditions of agronomic experiment has not
been settled, but it is evidently of real importance only under conditions where the accuracy demanded is enor-
mously greater.
But the detailed study of isotope effects in biological systems is of great theoretical interest, and the prob-
lem muse undoubtedly attract greater attention the more widely isotope methods are used and the greater be-
comes the demand for precise accuracy in the results obtained by these methods.
? We note that an analogous problem of the behavior of different isotopes of the same element in biologi-
cal experiments has also received attention with regard to animal organisms. It has been stated [26] that when
the balances for the radioactive and stable isotopes of cobalt are drawn up it is found that they do not behave
in the same way: 'While stable cobalt is taken up to the extent of 65 - 70 - 75%, radioactive cobalt is only
taken up to the extent of 25 - 30%." Hence it was concluded that living cells react differently to different
coba:t isotopes.
'It' ?
& 4IL
4. ? .;
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The second question of principle related to the use of tracer atoms in soil, agronomic and physiological
research is that of the role of radiation effects which always occur to some degree when experiments are per-
formed with radioactive isotopes. This question is closely related to the more general problem of the biologi-
cal action of ionizing radiations in general.
The action of ionizing radiations in plants has a few aspects which we will deal with shortly in connec-
tion with the future prospects of using isotopes and radiations in agronomy.
Since radioisotopes are widely used in physiological, agronomic and soil research at the present time, the
problem of the action of their radiations is of great importance, purely from the methodological point of view
when they are used in nutritional mixtures or in soils and are taken up and accumulated by plant organs. If
the use of radioisotope methods in such work is to be successful it must be verified that the activity levels used
and the ionization doses given are such that the radiation does not materially distort the course of the proces-
ses investigated. For example, the specific activity of a labelled fertilizer must be such that irradiation does
not influence the uptake in the root (or in the leaf in non-root feeding), or on the transfer, distribution and ac-
cumulation of the element in various parts of the plant. When metabolic processes in plants are studied with
isotopic labels the specific activity of the labelling element or compound must not exceed a level such that
the radiation causes, directly or indirectly, changes in the rates of the metabolic processes under study. In
addition, when deciding on the specific activity of the starting material for use in such experiments one should
always bear in mind the other side of the question, namely, that the activity level must be high enough for the
activity measurements to be accurate with the minimum amount of activity to be expected in that experiment.
Up to now this question has been dealt with on the assumption that normal tracer doses of radioisotopes
have no material effect on the biochemical and physiological processes in plant experiments. But the concept
of a tracer dose is'arbitrary and systematic studies should be carried out, from which the limits of tracer doses
could be determined more accurately for typical conditions of agronomic or physiological experiments.
The literature data, even on a question as simple as the effect of the radiation from P32 on the uptake of
phosphorus is very contradictory. On the other hand, in a number of experiments in which the specific activity
of the fertilizer was varied over a very wide range there was no appreciable effect on the phosphorus uptake,
whereas on the other hand, experiments have been described where even extremely low levels of activity caused
certain changes in the phosphorus uptake [27].
The need for a detailed consideration of the limits of tracer, tolerance and destructive doses in isotope
studies in agronomy cannot now be doubted. Work in our laboratory has provided data of interest both from
methodological and more general radiobiological points of view.
Right from the start it was clear to us that a rational solution could only be obtained by a many-sided
study of the general physiology of the actions of radioactive materials on plants, carried out over a wide range
on concentrations and ionization doses. The results showed that doses at which clear signs of radiation damage
appeared in higher plants in general lie far outside the limits of dose required when using the isotopes as tracers.
But the sensitivities of plants to radiation damage depend on many factors, so it would in general be in-
correct to specify standard limits which are the same for all cases at tracer, tolerance and injurious levels in
plants.
In addition to the non-uniformity in radiosensitivity of various plant forms, the sensitivity will obviously
change with age. In the early phases the growth is most stable against the destructive action of radiation.
It has also been found that thc sensitivities of plants to the destructive action oi radioactive materials
depend strongly on the nutritional conditions and other external factors. For example, plants supplied with in-
sufficient phosphate appear to be much more sensitive to the destructive action of radioactive phosphorus than
do plants with an adequate supply (28J. The disturbance to metabolic processes occasioned by shading or al-
teration in the water supply affects the radio-sensitivity by reducing the accumulation of photosynthetic pro-
ducts.
Specific questions of dosimetry in applying radioactive materials to particular plants are of much greater
importance to the study of the action of the radioactive materials; so far these problems have been dealt with
but little.
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This implies that the actions of radioactive isotopes of various elements must be related to their chemi-
cal properties, since thdse determine how they become distributed in the organs and tissues of plants. In this
connection,not only are the specific distributions of isotopes such as those cf carbon, phosphorus, sulfur, cal-
cium, cobalt, zinc, etc., of interest, but also those of isotopes of other elements, particularly fissions products
(strontium, zirconium, ruthenium, cesium, cerium, etc.). Some of these products can accumulate in consider-
able quantities in the reproductive organs, or, accumulating in the root system, are only transferred to the
above-ground parts of the plant to a slight extent.
The different distributions of radioisotopes of the various elements in plants and their varied take-up
rates will result in different radiation actions being exerted on the plant tissues when the external concentra-
tions are the same. Important differences due to the type of decay and energies of the particles emitted will
also be present. For example,when the maximum 8 -ray energy is small,a large fraction of the energy liber-
ated in the decay of the radioactive material in the tissue will be absorbed completely, almost independently
of the size and shape of the organ. When the -ray energies are high, and particularly with isotopes giving
y -rays, the fraction of the energy which is absorbed by the organ which contains the isotope may be extremely
small. This difference is most marked in higher plants due to their specific structuret which have organs of
small transverse cross section. For example, calculations show that the organs of a leaf of thickness 0.2 mm
absorb only about 25% of the energy liberated by radiophosphorus present in the leaf (29).
Hence the radiation doses (expressed in physical roentgen equivalents or in rads/unit time) received from
radioisotopes with high-energy radiations vary not only with the concentration in the organs but are also very
strongly dependent on their size and shape.
One further factor, which formerly fell outside the field of view of workers dealing with the actions of
radioactive substances on plants, is important here. If a considerable part of the energy liberated by a radio-
isotope is not liberated in the organ in which it is contairied (e.g., a leaf) but in the surrounding medium, the
radiation dose received by the organ is made up of two parts - one due to internal irradiation (i.e., due to de-
cay occurring within the organ) and the second due to external irradiation i.e., due to irradiation from adjacent
organs and plants. This external irradiation, particularly in the case of y -emitters, is determine4 not only by
the shapes and sizes of the organs of the plant, but also on those of the plant assembly in which it is present.
For example, if there is one plant per pot, or several plants, each of which contain the same amount of
some isotope emitting hard 8 -rays or y -rays, then the organs of a single plant will receive a lower dose-rate
(radshec) than those of a plant which is one of several growing in the same pot. If there are several such iden-
tical pots with plants containing the same amount of isotope, the external radiation field will increase yet fur-
ther due to the adjacent pots, and hence the dose received by each plant separately will increase.
Thus, even in experiments with the same radioactive isotopes at the same concentrations in the feed
medium, and with the same rate of uptake into the plant and identical distributions in the plant organs, the
dose conditions may be far from equal. Neglect of the 'radiation assembly" factor must be particularly borne
in mind when comparing pot and field experiments if the isotope used emits y -rays.
The circumstances considered briefly here are important in work on processes related to the biological
actions of radioactive materials in their agronomic aspects, and also in problems related to the agrochemistry
of fission products.
As it is not possible within the scope of this review to consider the complex array of problems in cur-
rent agricultural science.* I shall give only one example to show what special phenomena and specific prob-
lems are encountered in isotope agrochemistry and agricultural biophysics when the actions of radioactive sub-
stances in general are studied; and of the behavior in soils and actions on plants of fission products in particular.
Gulyakin and Seletkova (32) have shown that when elements such as radiothorium are taken up via the
roots of plants the activity of the above-ground organs appears to be almost entirely due to the accumulation of
short-lived daughter elements ( thorium X and thorium B) rather than of the parent radiothorium, which
? A detailed discussion of the behavior of fission products in soils, their uptake by plants and accumulation
in crops has recently been published by Klechkovsky, Gulyakin et al [3O]. For a general review of the litera-
ture on radioactive contaminants of soil and plants see the paper by Polyakov and Germanova (31).
463
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accumulates to a considerable extent in the roots, scarcely penetrating to the upper organs. So when a radio-
isotope and its daughter products are present in the nutritive medium in a state of radioactive equilibrium, the
equilibrium relation is sharply destroyed as they are taken up by the roots and transferred to the above-ground
organs, the parent becoming separated from its decay products.
A phenomenon analogous to this has been observed [30] in relation to certain short radioactive chains in
the fission product group. For example, even when equilibrium solutions of Sr90 + Ye? react with soils, the par-
ent and daughter isotopes were observed to be absorbed differently. The separation Was particularly marked on
extracting the Sr" + Y9? from the absorbed state (after radioactive equilibrium had been reattained) into a
neutral salt solution. When these were taken up via the roots from a soil containing Sr90 + Y90 in equilibrium
the parent strontium outstripped the yttrium daughter. The activities of plant specimens taken not long after
uptake of this isotope pair had begun,were not constant, but increased with time as the daughter yttrium ac-
cumulated to restore equilibrium. A similar effect is found on taking up the radiostrontium via the roots into
the above-ground oigans not only in the case where the isotopes are derived from a soil, but also in pots filled
with quartz sand containing Sr90 + Y90 in equilibrium.
But when the Sr" + Y9? are further transferred throughout the organs t e.g., from lower to higher leaves)
it is found that the yttrium daughter is relatively more mobile than the parent strontium. The clearest evidence
for the greater Y" mobility relative to the Sr" in the above-ground transfer processes is found when the Sr90 +
Y9? is introduced via separate leaves, other leaves from other parts of the plant being removed for observation.
When the Sr90 + -Y90 is not introduced through the roots but via the leaves of a sunflower, it is found that
the activities of specimens (taken from leaves higher up than the treated ones) fall by a factor of 8-10 by 10-
15 days after taking, which implies that the shortlived daughter yttrium is predominantly transferred to these
leaves, the ratio of stroqtium to yttrium in these leaves being several times leis than the equilibrium value.
These data prove firstly, that when the uptake, transfer and distribution in plants of radioactive mater-
ials which are genetically related nuclides are studied, we must allow for phenomena in which radioactive
equilibrium is disturbed, since serious errors result from ignoring this fadt. Secondly, they show that when corn-
puting radiation doses to the tissues of various organs in which the uptake is related in a similar mannertwe must
allow for the differing uptakes and distributions of parent and daughter nuclide.
This whole exposition leads us to conclude that when studying the actions of radioactive substances on
plants we encounter an extremely complex problem in agronomic science, primarily due to the enormous var-
iety of conditions which may occur in any experiment, and to the difficulty of defining an accurate biophysical
picture of radiation action on plants.
The complexity of this problem must particularly be borne in mind in relation to the numerous possibili-
ties of raising the yield of crops and the quality of agricultral products by using such techniques as soaking the
seeds in solutions of radioactive materials or inserting small amounts of radioactive material in the soil [33, 34].
This problem, in spite of its long history, is still extremely confused, and the deductions are extremely contra-
dictory. We may make the following comments on the basis of the material which has accumulated as to the
effect of such methods on plants, and as to the effects of radioactive substances in general.
Numerous experiments are described in the literature in which accelerated growth and development and
raised yields are claimed from the action of radioactive substances on plants. These results were obtained in
experiments in which the dose range was extraordinarily wide, beginning with experiments in which the seeds
were soaked in solutions at concentrations of 0.5?c/liter and ending with vanishingly small 'homeopathic' dos-
es of radioactive substances introduced into the nutritive solution or into the soil, these being enormously less
than the natural activity of the medium.
Meanwhile over this verywide dose range, numerous experiments have shown either no stimulant action
on plants, or else the action was stated to be negative.
Some workers start from the concept that the naturally radioactive elements are just as necessary for plant
life as are the other essential non-radioactive elements (e.g., trace elements), when investigating the actions of
small doses of radioactive materials on plants. It is asserted that the radioactivity is a factor which influences
the role of the naturally radioactive materials in the organism (33).
The work of Vinogradov, which appeared comparatively recently, is of great interest in this connection;
C.,
he showed in a unique xperiment with the naturally radioactive isotope le? that its activity had no material
effect on the growth and metabolic rate of the mold Aspergillus [35]. The results from this experiment consti-
tute an extremely critical contribution to the debate on the absolute need of plants for a natural level of radio-
activity.
The contradictory nature of the whole of the material on the stimulant action of radioactive substances
and on their being necessary to plant lifeinvels us to consider this problem far from solved at the present time
and as requiring further and more profound study, particular note be laken of the dosimetric picture and par-
ticular care being taken to elucidate the conditions under which the observed effects can be reproduced system-
atically.
In the future, more profound study of the actions of radioactive substances on plants should be carried out
over a wide range of radiation doses and in various controlled experimental conditions with more detailed at-
tention to the dosimetric factors than has hitherto been the case, since the practical and theoretical importance
of such research is not restricted to the doubtful prospect of using radioactive substances for stimulating the
growth and development of plants directly, and thus improving the yield or the quality, In practice, as may be
concluded from the above discussion, the real problem is to obviate any rise in the activity of agricultural pro-
ducts caused by the scattering of fission products over the Earth. The use of radioactive substances as stimulants
or *radioactive fertilizers* is bound to lead to a rise in the general background of radioactivity in agriculture
which is certainly undesirable. Hence the search for the practical aspects of radiation stimulation must he dir-
ected primarily to their actions on seeds, tubers, etc., the radiation being applied externally via X- or y -rays.
Irradiation in this fashion is very much simpler,and the accuracy of the dosimetry is much greater than when
the seeds are soaked in radioactive solutions or when *radioactive fertilizer* are placed in the soil, for instance;
in addition, external irradiation does not cause a rise in the activity of the product.
Although the results from work on the direct physiological action of external radiation on seeds or veget-
ating plants* give us so far no firm basis for asserting that we will in this way be able to render any positive ef-
fects stable; this research must not only be directed to giving results in the light of the general problems of rad-
iobiology, but also to answering the practical problems of agriculture. In this due, interest will not only attach
to particular stimulation effects, i.e., more rapid growth and increased yield, but also to the search for ways of
regulating metabolic processes in order to change the compositions of plants and to cause the plants to accumu-
late compounds which are of interest in practice (e.g., vitamins) [34].
There is,however, yet another important factor impelling us to consider the many-sided development and
profound investigation of the actions of ionizing radiations in general (and of radioactive substances in particular)
as being a very urgent present problem, to be dealt with under the most varied experimental conditions. The
urgency of such work is connected with the genetic action of radiation, and with the prospects of using radiation
for selection purposes,which have lately become apparent.
While the genetic action of ionizing radiation has been known for a long while, it is only now with the
enormous extension of experimental facilities that have become available with the development of atomic energy,
that reliable data have become available on the chances of obtaining results of value by the use of radiation on
agricultural plants.
We do not propose to give here either a general evaluation of the practical prospects of radiation genetics
and selection in agriculture, nor to consider the special genetic and selection problems which arise in this con-
nection. They will be dealt with in detail in another paper at this conference; however,I shall deal with one of
these questions which is of more general importance in connection with the prospects in that section of the work
which requires a combined attack by various scientific disciplines.
One of the most important recurring problems in this field is the elucidation of opportunities for producing
directed changes in the heredity of plants by devising the appropriate irradiation schemes. Contemporary bio-
physics and radiation genetics dispose of general methods of comparison, detailed study, and establishment of
the most varied modes of radiation action (in the wide sense of the word).
In this respect.,external irradiation is of great interest, but so are a variety of conditions of irradiation pro-
duced by radioactive materials taken up by plants. By using radioactive isotopes of various elements for this
A summary of these results is given in Kuzin's paper [34].
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purpose and making use of their special distributions in organs and their localization in tissues while bearing in
mind their types and energies of decay, we may produce various types of irradiation and approach a solution of
the problem in this way.
It is also of interest to see whether one can change the radiosensitivities of plants by adjusting the condi-
tions of nutrition and other factors, while seeking conditions most favorable for radiogenetic and radioselective
purposes. For this purpose we undoubtedly require the united effort of radiobiologists. biophysicists and selections
geneticists directed to the elucidation of the nature of radiation action on plants and to seeking means of
consciously directing radiobiological effects, including their genetic consequences.
From this point of view, the effect on plants of factors such as neutron irradiation is of interest. One of
the characteristic features of neutron action (we have in mind primarily slow neutrons) is its relation to the
chemical and nuclide' composition of the tissue. For example, the distribution of the energy absorbed by the
plant tissue on neutron irradiation between the various ionizing particles (protons, cc particles, recoil nuclei,
electrons, y -rays) is to a considerable degree determined by the contents of elements such as nitrogen, boron,
etc. Changes in the content and isotope composition of these elements can change the. balance of energy be-
tween the various ionizing particles to a very great extent. Nonuniformity occurs in the localization of the
primary nuclear reactions and the ionizing particle tracks produced, and hence in the specific distribution of
primary acts of radiation action within the cell when neutrons are used.
In this connection,it has been found to be possible, by changing the chemical composition of the plant
(with regard to nitrogen, boron and other elements), via the nutritional conditions, to produce a known non-
uniformity in the distribution of primary acts in the cells of tissues and hence to proceed to theregulation of
neutron irradiation effects by producing some specific distribution of primary acts of ionization and excitation.
Calculations [36] show that the fraction of the energy dissipated in a plant tissue which is due to the
activity induced by neutron irradiation is negligibly small. But in general, we must surely assign some role in
the radiobiological effect to the neutron induced activity. The specific nuclide distributions here, may also
be important as their neutron capture cross sections are different. Hence, while the quantitative contribution
from the induced activity to the total dose may be small, its importance in producing the specific radiation
picture observed on neutron irradiation cannot be excluded, and it may have a special relation to the genetic
effects of irradiation.
The experimental study of all these problems and the more complete mastery of radiation effects in neu-
tron irradiation also demand the united efforts of biophysicists, radiobiologists and geneticists.
A deeper and more complete explanation of the mechanisms of the primary processes which produce the
physiological and genetic effects of irradiation is of great interest to agricultural science. The development of
research in this field should not only facilitate the solution of what are especially radiobiological problems in
one of the most promising fields for using atomic techniques to provide the requirements of agriculture ? by ob-
taining new and useful inherited qualities in agricultural plants ? but should also contribute to raising the general
theoretical level of agronomic science and of biology in general.
We may advance successfully if we take from new atomic techniques in agronomy all that they can pro-
vide in the way of a deeper understanding of the phenomena and processes which form the subject of this science,
as well as in the way of high accuracy and objective observations and experiments, and thus continually follow
the rapid progress of general scientific knowledge.
This present review has been concerned with but few of the theoretical and practical problems of agri-
oulture,in whose solutions all thecurrently available scientific techniques must be pressed into service, with.radio-
active isotopes and radiations playing an important part in this. The problems we have not touched upon here
concern the use of isotopes and radiations in the protection of plants from pests and diseases, and the conservation
and elimination of losses in crops and agricultural products. Isotopes and radiations will find application not
merely in agronomic research but also in zoological and veterinary investigations.
The wide field for the introduction of isotope methods (and atomic techniques in general) into agricultural
? By nuclide composition, as distinct from chemical composition, we mean the composition as specified,
not merely by the contents of chemical elements, but also by the contents of nuclides, i.e., the separate iso-
topes of each element present in the organ.
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science includes the use of radiation sources and instruments for investigating the operation of agricultural
machines and tools. A number of units for this purpose have been produced for use in agricultural experiments.
(For determining the moistness and density of soils, weighing plants while growing, observing the distribution
and seepage of irrigation water in soil, etc.). The wide area of application of isotopes and radiations in agri-
cultural science ,and the varied methodological and technical problems that arise,have given rise to a demand
for new methods of measuring radioactivity, and for the refinement of the existing ones. Some of the develop-
ments appear to be useful in other fields of science and technology as well.
In particular we may refer to some types of highly sensitive and very stable particle counters that have
been developed by Tselishchev at the Timiryazev Agricultural Academy. The demand for an increase in the
sensitivity of radiation equipment did not arise accidentally in the agronomic establishment. It arose from the
very essence of the specific problems encountered in agronomic science at its present stage of development;
these problems have been dealt with briefly above.
E.g., when striving to reduce the size of tracer doses in order to reduce the level of radiation "interfer-
ence" produced by the tracer itself, it is extremely important to be able to measure small activities as accur-
ately as possible and to have available very sensitive equipment. When the laws governing the uptake and dis-
tribution of fission products in plants are studied, it is important to measure minimal activities with the great-
est possible accuracy. Since some fission products and a number of radioisotopes used as tracers in agronomic '
and physiological experiments have comparatively low-energy emissions,we also require apparatus of high sensi-
tivity and high counting efficiency. Experiment shows that development of these, in agronomic laboratories in
which isotopes and radiations are..used,is of creative interest in methodological questions connected with the
use of atomic techniques proper, and this not only raises the level of agronomic work but also aids in solving
more general problems of introducing new methods of experimental study in scientific work.
The above discussion leads us to conclude that agriculture and agronomic science, which are connected
in many ways with the development of industry and general scientific knowledge, now present a wide field for
the application of the new technical means and fresh scientific experimental methods provided by the progress
of contemporary physics. We also see that participation in the atomic age sets before agronomy not only the.
task of using atomic techniques for its own purposes, but also brings forward some entirely new theoretical and
practical agricultural problems demanding resolute attention and actively creative study.
We must further the work that has already begun on these problems (in the fields of plant biochemistry
and physiology, agrochemistry, soil-working and plant protection), and also develop as rapidly as possible those
lines which have for a number of reasons so far not received attention appropriate to their theoretical and prac-
tical importance in the general utilization of isotopes and radiations in research.
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