HERALD OF THE AIR FLEET

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP81-01043R002500220001-5
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 65
• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: October 29, 2013
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: January 1, 1958
• Content Type: REPORT

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EXPLANATORY NOTE
This publication is a translation of Herald of the Air Fleet, (Vestnik
VozdushnogoFlota)a monthly journal of the Soviet Air Force published by
the Military Publishing House, Ministry of Defense, USSR.
Every effort has been made to provide as accurate a translation as
practicable. Soviet propaganda has not been deleted, .b,s it is felt that such
deletion could reduce the value of the translation to some portion of the
intelligence community. Political and technical phraseology of the orig-
inal text has been adhered to in order to avoid possible distortion of in-
formation.
Users and evaluators of this translation who note technical inaccu-
racies or have comments or suggestions are urged to submit them to:
Commander, Air, Technical Intelligence Center, Attention: AFCIN.4B,
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio.
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AIR TECHNICAL INTELLIGENCE TRANSLATION
AF-WP-0-AUG 50 450
(TITLE UNCLASSIFIED)
HERALD OF THE AIR FLEET
(Vestnik Vozdushnogo Flota)
3
1958
AIR TECHNICAL INTELLIGENCE CENTER
WRIGHT-PATTERSON AIR FORCE BASE
OHIO
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?JGreetings from the Central Committee of the CPSU, from the
Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, and from the
Council of Ministers of the USSR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OA 04 e 4 4 1
Road
Victories for the Kolkhoz
Editorial
60 3
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On the Essence and. Principles of One-Man Authority in the
Soviet Armed. Forces . . . . ? 10040 00 ? 44 ?? ?
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A. M. Lartkov
Aerial Reconnaissance Under Adverse Weather Conditions . 4 ??
T. S. Goryachkin
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N. D. Grigor'yev
Firing Unguided. Rocket Missiles at Aerial Targets . .
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A. M. Khalyavin, Ye. F. Muratov
Bombing Und.er Adverse Weather Conditions. . . 3 4644116461644
Low-N. S. Zatsepa, A. I. Filippov, B. S. Chuvikov
Altitude Bombing . . . . . a.0 ? ?? ? 6 666 9444 OOO
A Young Pilot Flies on Instruments. . 0666,4 4 SOO ?64 ?
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D. K. Kudis
The Mechanical Conditions for the Phenomenon of Weightlessness
V. S. Pysluiov
Automatic Aerostats . 0486041M OOOOOOOOOOOO
V. L. Agamirov, V. P. Antipov, A. N. Glukharev, D. P. Morozov
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Years and People 5. In the Sky of the Ukraine . 4464606040
S. N. Romazanov
The Wife of a Pilot OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 60644
Mikh. Petrov
FROM THE EDITOR'S MAIL
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Winged Hearts . ?
Yu. I. Loginov
REVIEW AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Combat Application of Rocket and. Reaction-Propelled. Weapons . . . . . . . . . 114
B. V. Aleksandrov
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GREETINGS FROM THE CENTRAL COMMITTEE OF THE CPSU,
FROM THE PRESIDIUM OF THE SUPREME SOVIET OF THE USSR,
AND FROM THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS OF THE USSR
To the Men of the Valiant Armed. Forces of the Soviet Union
The Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the Presidium
of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, and the Council of Ministers of the USSR warmly
salute and. cordially congratulate the soldiers and. sailors, sergeants and. first ser-
geants, officers, generals and admirals of the Armed Forces of the USSR, and. the
former military men now in the reserves and. in retirement, upon the occasion of a
nation-wid.e celebration? the Fortieth Anniversary of the Soviet Army and. Navy.
The Soviet Army and Navy, created and nurtured by the Communist Party under
the leadership of the great Lenin, for the defense of the achievements of the October
Revolution, have carried out with honor their military duty to the Socialist Mother-
land.. Relying upon the mighty power of the Socialist order and. upon the wholeheart-
ed support and inexhaustible energy of the masses of the people, our Armed. Forces
defended their beloved Fatherland, in fierce battles against threatened. enslavement
by the imperialist beasts of prey and helped. the nations of Europe free themselves
from the Fascist yoke. The Soviet warriors displayed. iron tenacity, and. unyield.-
ing bravery and. mass heroism in fierce battles against numerous enemies. The
best sons of the workers and peasants, fighting und.er the combat banners of the
Soviet Army and. Navy, entered. many brilliant pages in the heroic chronicle of the
struggle and victories of our multinational people.
The Soviet people love their Army dearly, are proud of its combat glory, and.
piously revere the memory of their warrior-heroes who gave their lives in the strug-
gle for the freedom and independence of our Motherland..
Surrounded. by the love and constant concern of the people, the Party, and. the
Government, the Soviet Army and. Navy have been turned, into an invincible force of
the Socialist State. In their combat ranks, splendid cadres of commanders and.
political workers have arisen who serve as an example of loyal service to the people
and. Party and. who labor indefatigably to perfect the combat training of their person-
nel and. to improve Party-political work in the units and on the ships. The Party
organizations of the Army and Navy, steadily putting the policy of the Party into
.practice, are cementing the unity and solidarity of troop personnel around. the Lenin-
ist Central Committee of the Communist Party and. are mobilizing men at arms for
the successful fulfillment of the tasks confronting the Armed Forces of the USSR.
The Communist Party and the Soviet Government, loyal to the peace-loving for-
eign policy of Lenin, struggle firmly and consistently to preserve and consolidate
peace. At the, same time, taking into account the present-day international situa-
tion and. the policy of armament race and preparation for a new war being pursued. by
the imperialists, the Party and Government are untiringly seeing to the strengthen-
ing of the country's defense potential. The Armed Forces of the USSR now have at
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their disposal modern combat equipment and. everything necessary for the reliable
defense of their Motherland..
The Central Committee of the CPSU, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the
USSR, and. the Council of Ministers of the USSR express their firm confidence that.
in the futuie as well the valiant warriors of our Armed. Forces, boundlessly devoted
to the Socialist Motherland and. their people, will defend in a trustworthy manner the
achievements of Great October against the encroachment of the imperialist aggressors,
and. will vigilantly stand. on guard. over the peaceful labor of Soviet men and. women
for the sake of the triumph of Communism.
Dear comrades! Companions in arms!
Be worthy of the high. trust of the Soviet People, the Party, and. the Government,
who have assigned. you to the defense of our hallowed, borders and the state interests
of our Motherland!
Master your modern combat equipment and weapons persistently, improve your
military and. political knowledge, intensify discipline and good organization in your
ranks!
Strengthen your combat friendship with the soldiers of the countries of the Social-
ist camp who, shoulder to shoulder with our Army, stand guard. over the peace and
security of our peoples!
Piously preserve and. multiply the combat traditions in which the history of our
Armed. Forces is so rich! Bear on high the honor and. =fading glory of our combat
banners!
Glory to the valiant Armed Forces of the Soviet Union!
Long live the great Soviet people ? the builder of Communism!
Long live the Communist Party of the Soviet Union? the inspirer and. organizer
of all our victories! .
The Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Union of the SSR
The Council of Ministers of the Union of the SSR
C
THE ROAD TO NEW
VICTORIES FOR THE
KOLKHOZ SYSTEM
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The Communist Party of the Soviet Union and its Leninist Central Committee
have elaborated an imposing program for the further development of Communism
in our country. All Soviet people, with great enthusiasm, tenacity, and persistence,
are striving to live up to the historic decisions made at the Twentieth Congress of
the CPSU.
In recent years, under the leadership of the Communist Party, our people have
attained, outstanding success in the development of socialist industry and agriculture,
in cultural development, and. in raising the welfare of the working people. In the
two years that have elapsed since the Twentieth Congress of the CPSU, the output
of industrial production has increased by 21% and that of heavy industi y by almost
24%, while the national income has risen by 18%. .The reorganization of the nation-
al economy has been of exceptional importance in furthering the development of the
socialist economy.. It has contributed to the further development of creative initia-
tive among the masses, to their participation in the management of production, and
to efficiency and concreteness in the management of enterprises.
Simultaneously with the growth of industrial production in our country, problems
bearing on the fundamental development of all branches of the rural economy are be-
ing successfully solved.. On the basis of the resolutions ad.opted at the September
Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU (1953), the Soviet people have succeed-
ed in increasing cons id.erably the production of grain, sugar beets, cotton, flax,
potatoes, and. vegetables. The lag in animal husbandry is being overcome. As a
result of measures taken by the Central Committee of the Party the kolkhozes have
become stronger organizationally and economically. The material and technical
basis of kolkhozes, MTS [Machine-Tractor Stations], and. state farms has also been
strengthened..
The decisions mad.e on 25-26 February 1958 at the Plenum of the Central Com-
mittee Of the .CPSU mark the most important stage in,the building of Communism in
our country, in the further growth of the socialist economy, and. in the development of
the kolkhoz system.
The February Plenum heard and. discussed, the report of the First Secretary of
the Central Committee of the CPSU, Comrad.e N. S. Khrushchev, "On Further Develop-
ment of the Kolkhoz System and Reorganization of Machine-Tractor Stations", and
outlined, practical measures for further strengthening and development of the kolkhoz-
es.
The Plenum noted the outstanding success achieved in the past few years in the
development of industry and agriculture. Socialist industry provides agriculture
each year? with more and more tractors, combines, and other agricultural machines.
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In the last four years alonethe agriculture of our country received. 908,000 tractors
(in 15 hp units), 293,000 grain combines, 143,000 silage harvesting and corn harvest-
ing combines, 467,000 trucks. The rural economy is now provided to a great extent
with modern farming equipment. The Party has trained, remarkable kolkhoz cadres.
There are thousands of Communists doing supervisory work at MTS and. kolkhozes,
many of whom have come from industrial enterprises, and. there are various agri-
cultural experts with higher and. intermediate specialized. training.
All this has made it possible to raise kolkhozes to a higher level of development,
to expand. the. communal organization at kolkhozes, to strengthen them economically,
to increase agricultural production, and. to raise considerably the income of the
kolkhozes and. the welfare of kolkhoz members.
The Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU has pointed, out the exception-
al role of the MTS in the building of kolkhozes, in equipping them with machinery,
and. in strengthening the unity of the working class and. the peasants.
MTS are the most expedient form for the initial stage of kolkhoz bUilding, the form
by which the Government has helped, the kolkhozes to develop and. become strong.
"The MTS", as is stated. in the decision of the Plenum of the Central Committee of
the CPSU, "was the great political and. organizing force around which the peasants
banded. together into kolkhozes and. became convinced of the advantages of large-scale
mechanized agriculture. Technical progress in agriculture and. its re-equipment
on the basis of new technology, training of skilled, cadres of mechanizers, 'and im-
provement in crop cultivation and. animal husbandry were achieved through the MTS. "
The MTS have played a great role in increasing the production of grain and other
food products, as well as raw material for industry. Great is their organizing role
in the fight against backwardness in different areas of agriculture.
The Communist Party and all the Soviet people value highly the exceptionally im-
portant role of the MTS in the building of kolkhozes and. in the development of social-
ist agriculture. But this is not by any means to say that this particular form should.
be constant and applicable once and. for all to all stages of the building of socialism
and the development of our socialist agriculture.
Our Party has always followed and, continues to follow the doctrine of Marxism-
Leninism, the instructions of the great Lenin, that the organizational forms of ad.-
ministration in industry and. agriculture cannot be given in their final form for all
periods of historical development but must be perfected in accord. with the changing
situation to meet the d.emand.s of the given stage of development. Routine, conser-
vatism, and a tendency, to hang on to the old. forms can only hinder our progress in
building Communism.
The February Plenum of the Party's Central Committee, inspired, by the creative
spirit of Marxism-Leninism, adopted a resolution "On Further Development of the
Kolkhoz System and Reorganization of Machine-Tractor Stations". The Plenum
pointed out that now that the kolkhozes have become economically and. organization-
ally strong the existing form of the production and technical servicing of the kolkhozes
through MTS no longer corresponds to the needs of economic development or the
need.s of the development of the productive forces of agriculture, and that in many
instances it is even beginning to impede further growth of the leading kolkhozes and
to hamper the initiative of kolkhoz cadres and all koikhoz members' in utilizing more
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effectively the potentialities of kolkhoz production. A situation where two enterpris-
es ? kolkhoz and MTS ? are conducting a single production process on the same
land often leads to lack of personal responsibility in the organization of production,
reduces the responsibility for increasing productivity, and. gives rise to great and
unnecessary expenditures to maintain a parallel administrative apparatus.
In the present period, of the building of kolkhozes, the MTS have in many ways ex-
hausted. their functions. Life itself d.emand.s a change to new organizational forms,
elimination of difficulties in the development of the kolkhoz system, creation of con-
ditions for a greater flowering of the productive for ce.s, and. a rise in labor produc-
tivity. This is why the Plenum of the Party's Central Committee con sid.ers it de-
sirable to change the existing order of production and. technical servicing of the
kolkhozes and. to reorganize gradually the MTS in the interests of further growth of
socialist agriculture and. development of the kolkhoz system.
Considering that the majority of kolkhozes are economically strong and are now
in a position to acquire and. make more efficient use of tractors, combines, and. other
agricultural machines, the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU considers
it advisable to sell these machines directly to the kolkhozes. Having the necessary
machinery at their disposal, kolkhozes will put them to more effective and productive
use, which in turn will accelerate technical progress in agriculture, raise labor pro-
ductivity, and. permit a considerable increase in agricultural output. The sale of
agricultural machines to kolkhozes and. reorganization of the MTS will bring agricul-
tural. machine building closer to the needs and. requirements of kolkhozes, will there-
by increase the contact between industry and agriculture, and will have a favorable
effect on the further strengthening and broadening of the union between the working
class and the working peasant masses.
The resolution of the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the pro-
positions of Comrade N. S. Khrushchev's report "On Further Development of the Kol-
khoz System and. Reorganization of Machine-Tractor Stations" give a Marxist analy -
sis and. substantiation of the necessity for reorganizing the machine-tractor stations
into repair and. technical stations (RTS). They outline the ways to a further and
still greater development of socialist agriculture. For this development, all the
necessary economic and politicalprerequisites have matured. in recent years.
The planned reorganization, as stressed. in the decision of the Plenum and. the
propositions of N.& Khrushchev's report, must be introduced gradually, with con-
sideration of the specific conditions in different areas and. of the possibilities of the
kolkhozes,tolerating no bureaucratism or undue haste.
The decision of the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the proposi-
tions in Comrad.e N. S. Khrushchev's report are valuable contributions to the further
development of Marxist-Leninist'theory. They include the answers to the most im-
portant theoretical questions concerning the development of socialist agriculture and
the further development of our country on the road to Communism, in these Party
documents the questions of combining the two kinds of property ? national and kol-
khoz ? in the period, of transition from Socialism to Communism have been elaborat-
ed, creatively and. in the spirit of Leninism, and the need, to strengthen both national
and. kolkhoz property has been established.
V. I. Lenin, who with the insight of a genius drew up the cooperative plan for re-
organizing agriculture along socialist lines, advanced the important principle that
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Editorial
cooperatives are socialist establishments, provided that ownership of the means of
production is concentrated in the hands of a proletarian state and. that the alliance
of the working class with the peasantry is secured under the leadership of the work-
ing class. Here Lenin had in view the key economic positions of the national econo-
my: large-scale nationalized, industry, transport, land., mineral resources, banks,
etc. Nevertheless, the great Leader and, Teacher of the Communist Party never
contraposed the government and. cooperative sectors. He stated definitely that the
growth of the cooperative system was identical with the growth of socialism.
It is on these principles that the Communist Party bases its policy in respect to
the continuous development of socialist agriculture. The growth of cooperative and
kolkhoz property fully corresponds to the interests of the building of a Communist
society. In the propositions of N. S. Khrushchev's report a profound. analysis is
given of the qualitative changes in the development of kolkhoz property. It is em-
phasized, that thi@ property has been created. by the collective labor of the kolkhoz
peasantry, with. the active participation of the working class and the entire nation
and with government aid playing a decisive part. Under these conditions, coopera-
tive and kolkhoz property approaches national property more and more. The meas-
ures proposed. by the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU are based. en-
tirely on the need. for further strengthening both the national and. the cooperative
kolkhoz property.
In connection with the reorganization of the machine-tractor stations, the pro-
cedure and, the conditions of selling agricultural machinery to the kolkhozes have been
w orked. out in the decision of the Plenum and propositions of Comrade N. S. Khrush-
chev. It is stressed in these documents that "the sale of equipment to kolkhozes
is a question of great political and economic significance. Its solution affects the
interests of millions of kolkhoz membr.::s as well as the interests of the 'Government."
The Central Committee of the CPSU has entrusted the regional committees,
regional executive committees, territorial committees, and. territorial executive
committees to stud.y thoroughly the economic structure of different areas and. kol-
khozes and. on the basis of general principles to work out specific measures for the
sale of agricultural machines to kolkhozes, taking into account the peculiarities of
each area.
The Central Committee of the CPSU warns against a mechanical approach to the
reorganization of the MTS and. points to the necessity of taking into account local
conditions and. the economic status of the kolkhozes. In the decision of the Plenum
of the Central Committee of the CPSU and in the propositions of comrad.e N. S. Khrush-
chev's report, the functions of the repair and 'technical stations and the problems of
the material and tecimical supply of kolkhozes have been defined, and serious atten-
tion has been given to the organization of the procurement of agricultural products
after reorganization of the MTS.
Considering the fact that the reorganization of machine-tractor stations is of
great importance to the state, the Plenum of the Central Committee decided to bring
it up for consideration at the session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, but before
considering it at the session, to conduct an open discussion of the proposed measures
at general meetings at kolkhozes, MTS, sovkhozes, industrial enterprises, construc-
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tion projects, scientific organizations and. ewacational institutions, in military units
and. establishments, and on the pages of newspapers and magazines.
The Plenum has required. Party committees and Party organizations to disseminate
widely the explanation of the proposed measures and. to organize public discussion of
the propositions in Comrade N. S. Khrushchev's report, to study closely and. to general-
ize the suggestions made by the working people regarding improvement of the organi-
zational forms, the strengthening and. development of the kolkhoz system, and. the
further development of socialist agriculture.
The entire Soviet people are discussing with great interest and. enthusiasm the
resolution of the February Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU and. the
propositions of Comrade N. S. Khrushchev's report. The Soviet people see in these
documents renewed. concern of the Party for the further growth of our Motherland,
for the greater welfare of the workers, and. for further strengthening of the might of
the socialist state.
The published documents on the further development of the kolkhoz system have
called forth an enormous surge of creative activity on the part of the Soviet people.
In all corners of our great Motherland active discussion of the historic documents
of the Communist Party is taking place. Every citizen of the Soviet Union considers
the solving of state problems his vital concern. Everywhere general meetings of
workers, kolkhoz members, the Soviet intelligentsia, and. servicemen are being held..
Scores and. hund.red.s of letters arrive at newspaper and, magazine editorial offices.
And. everywhere ? at the meetings, in the letters, in the pronouncements of the
Soviet people ? one hears the voice of general approval of the wise policy that is
being put into effect by the Communist Party.
The personnel of the Air Force, as all the men of the Soviet Army and Navy, strong-
ly approve the proposed measures of the Party on the further strengthening of the
kolkhoz system and even greater expansion of socialist agriculture. The military
airmen fully understand. that implementation of the decision of the Central Committee
of the CPSU will further the growth of the welfare of all Soviet people, strengthen.,
our economic structure and. the defensive capacity of the Soviet state. ?
In the unit where Comrade N. S. Ponomarev is the Party Organization Secretary a
Party meeting was held at which the decisions of the February Plenum of the Central
Committee of the CPSU? and the tasks of Communists were discussed. Comrade Ye
F. Tolochko, director of an MTS, and. Comrade A. M. Tarasevich, brigad.e leader at
GasteLlo E:c?ikhoz and Hero of Socialist Labor, were invited, to the meeting.
Navigator officer B.N.Koryakin, a former agronomist, took part in the discussion.
He explained, the meaning of the decision of the Plenum of the Central Committee of
the CPS-LI-and. illustrated it with specific examples.
Comrade Tarasevich told. the Communists about the work on his kolkhoz. He
reported. that there were 29 trucks and. 6 tractors at the kolkhoz. In the course of
this year the kolkh.oz can acquire all the equipment it needs. The kolkhoz members
unanimously approve of the Party decision.
MTS Director Comrade Tolochko said. in his speech that at present the organiza-
tion of labor at kolkhozes is very efficient. Every kolkhoz has trained. its own cadres
and. they can successfully organize efficient utilization of equipment. He reported. to
the men that the cadres of mechanizers are willingly going to work on kolkhozes.
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All Communists heartily approve the decision of the Plenum of the Central Com-
mittee of the CPSU. To the concern of the Communist Party they respond with new
successes in political and. combat training.
Ser,vicemen visit kolkhozes on their days off duty. They speak to the kolkhoz
members and. hold. discussions. Airmen are welcome guests at kolkhozes.
In the units and groups of the Air.Force, active discussions of the decisions of the
February Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU and. the propositions of Com-
rad.e N. S. Khrushchev' s report are carried. on. These historic documents are dis-
cussed. at meetings and elucidated. during period.s of political information and discus-
sion. They are studied. by the enlisted, men in their political study groups. Propa-
gand.a work is carried, on actively by commanders and. political workers, and the co-
operation of a wide circle of officers, propagandists, and. agitators has been enlisted..
In response to the d.ecision of the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU,
the military airmen have rallied, more closely around. the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union and. its Leninist Central Committee. With great creative enthusiasm
they are perfeating their combat skill, mastering modern aviation equipment, in-
creasing the combat readiness of air units and the quality of combat and. political
training, and. strengthening military discipline.
* The Air Force,like the Soviet Army and. Navy, is vigilantly guarding the state
interests of its socialist Fatherland.. It is guarding the peaceful labor of the Soviet
people in the making of Communism.
??????????111114.???????????????????????????????????
A
ON THE ESSENCE AND
PRINCIPLES OF ONE'-MAN
AUTHORITY IN THE
SOVIET ARMED FORCES
411111111116
Lt. Col. A. M. LAR ' KOV,
Candidate of Historical Sciences
Guided. by the Marxist-Leninist teachings on war and. the Army, the Communist
Party has developed, thoroughly the basic principles of organization of the Armed.
Forces of the Soviet State. It has firmly and. consistently pursued and. continues to
pursue a course aimed. at the centralized. leadership of troops, at one-man authority
in the Armed. Forces, for it considers the latter to be the best form of controlling
the troops, since it corresponds to the very nature and. function of the Armed. Forces
and meets the requirements of present-day military science.
In creating a regular, strictly disciplined army, V. I. Lenin pointed, out that in
army leadership, we must have the strictest centralism,unity of will and. actions on
the part of thousand.s of men, with a high d.egree of discipline and. organization. "One
must fear guerilla organization", wrote V. I. Lenin, "the self-will of individual de-
tachments, and. disobedience to the central authority as one fears fire, for this lead.s
to d.estruction... "
However, in the early.period. of the organization of our Army and Navy the neces-
sary prerequisites did. not as yet exist for introducing one-man authority,, since
there were not enough proven military cadres devoted. to the revolution. Many corn-
mand.ers who had. been promoted. from the ranks of workers and. peasants did. not have
adequate military training, and. therefore the Party was compelled. to bring into the
Army old. military specialists, some of whom did not believe in the durability of the
Soviet Government and some even regarded. it with hostility and. frequently committed.
treason.
For the strengthening of Party leadership among the troops, for Communist in-
d.octrination, and. for the political and. ideological cohesion of Soviet soldiers, as
well as for the purpose of controlling the activity of the old. military specialists, the
Institute of Military Commissars as the direct representatives of the Party and. the
Soviet Government was introduced, in the Army and. Navy in 1918, and. Political Or-
gans and. Party Organizations were formed.. The Party sent its most prominent
workers to leading posts in the Armed. Forces. Tens of thousands of Communists
cemented. the ranks of the Army and. Navy.
Favorable conditions for putting one-man command. into practice took shape only
after the triumphant termination of the Civil War. In 1925, during the period of
carrying out a military reform, the Central Committee of the Party accepted a
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10 A. M. Larlkov
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11111MINOINIMOINIMIlb.
Decree concerning one-man command in the Army and Navy. One-man authority
was not yet complete at that time and. was carried out in two forms: military com-
missars remained, with non-Party commanders and chiefs, but their control func-
tions were limited; Communist commanders who, in accordance with the level of
their training, could at the same time carry out the duties of commissars had assis-
tants for political affairs.
As the command cadres grew in the military and. political respect, their rights
and obligations were expanded, and.their responsibility to the Soviet State was in-
creased.
The Party always regarded the Institute of Military Commissars as a temporary
measure dictated by special circumstances. The Party introduced it again at the
beginning of the Great Patriotic War, but not in order to check on the commanders?
rather because tremendous responsibility and great difficulties and ordeals had de -
volved upon the commander. The political workers had to take upon themselves
not only the political but also a share of the administrative functions in order to
make it possible fbr the commanders to occupy themselves more with operational
and tactical problems, to get to know the enemy, and to destroy him definitively.
The military commissars carried out with honor the tasks which had been placed
upon them. The command personnel acquired combat experience, became seasoned
in battles, and became mature in all respects.
Proceeding from that, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR issued a
Decree in October 1942 "On the Establishmentof Full One-Man Authority and the
Abolishment of the Institute of Military Commissars in the Red Army", In the de-
cree it was stated that "...new circumstances connected. with the growth of our
command and political cadres testify to the fact that the reason has completely dis-
appeared for the existence of the system of military commissars",
Full one-man authority means the abolishment of the division of authority. Full
one-man authority is the kind of administration in which the full measure of power
in a military unit, on a ship, in an Air Force command, in a training establishment
and a military institution is concentrated in the hands of the commander or tbe superi-
or officer.
Since it is the most nearly perfect system of controlling troops, one-man com-
mand has been called upon to guarantee the following: unity and centralism? and
at the same time maximum flexibility and operational efficiency? in controlling
the troops and their combat operations; initiative and freedom of commanders in
reaching decisions in accordance with the missions which they have been assigned;
full responsibility of the commander for all aspects of the life and combat activity
of the troops entrusted to him; correct formulation of training and orientation for
his personnel, as a single pzocess, a high degree of discipline and organization;
organization of effective control over the fulfillment of military regulations and orders
of higher authorities.
The Soviet commanding officer, within the limits of the mission and responsibility
assigned him, is granted great authority. The order of a superior is law for his
subordinates, and the unquestioning fulfillment of the requirements of regulations
and subordination to one's superior is a law of military service.
Our military commanders have been justifying with honor the confidence of the
Party, the Government, and the People. The Great Patriotic War confirmed. this
On the Essence and Principles of One-Man Authorit 11
in brilliant fashion.
Through its untiring organizational and indoctrination work, the Communist Party
has reared. the best officer cadre in the world., a cadre which represents the back-
bone of our Armed Forces, binding them into a single disciplined organism. A
new type of officer has been created.? a man of the people and its faithful servant,
boundlessly devoted to his Motherland., equipped with the Marxist-Leninist philosophy
and the most advane.edmilitary science in the world.
One-man authority in the Soviet Armed Forces rests upon firm and indestructible
foundations, the likes of which do not and cannot exist in the armies of capitalist
states. There is no class unity there, no community of interests and purposes be-
tween the rank and file and. the command personnel, since the officer corps, being
a closed caste of imperialist military menials, opposes the basic mass of soldiers
and sailors as an alien and. hostile force. Under such conditions there is no social
medium for a reliable, durable, and. stable rallying of the soldiers around their
superiors, while one-man authority is reduced to a means for suppressing the will
of subordinates.
Complete moral and political unity of the entire personnel has been achieved in
the Soviet Armed Forces. The ideology and policy of the CP, expressing the basic
interests of the entire Soviet people, ideologically and organizationally unite all Sovi-
et warriors, from soldier to. marshal, in a single monolithic combat team.
Among us, one-man authority and the leader activity of the officer cadres rest
on the Soviet socialist patriotism of the soldiers and on their highly developed sense
of duty to the Motherland, on conscious discipline and on a high level of combat ac-
tivity. That creates the most favorable conditions for productive activity on the
part of the command personnel.
The present-day international situation, the swift development of military tech-
nology and methods of armed combat dictate urgently the necessity for further in-
tensification and constant improvement of the combat readiness of our Armed Forces,
and of the leadership and control of the troops. In modern warfare, a control of
the combat operations of troops which will guarantee efficient cooperation of all arms
is mandatory. Success in present-day combat and operations depends to a great
extent on swiftness in reaching the most nearly correct decisions and carrying them
out, i. e., on the timely influence of the commanders on the course of the battle.
Corresponding to the tremendous scope of responsibilities resting on the corn-
mand.er with one-man authority, he needs many-sided and extensive knowledge. Let
us take an Air Force commander, for example. His activity is extremely varied
and. complex. It requires many-sided knowledge, a high. degree of political maturity,
the ability to direct all Air Force services that support flying training. The Air
Force commander is not only the organizer and leader of flight training, but he is
also a pilot. Under his command are officers with the most varied specialities.
To direct them, to be able to notice shortcomings in time, to help the officers, to
teach and. indoctrinate them? all that is a very complex and responsible job. For
that purpose the commander must be well acquainted with the special features of
the service and the work of each of his subordinates, and possess the necessary
knowledge of many Air Force disciplines.
The Air Force commander trains and indoctrinates officers ?both pilots and
navigators. He organizes and, together with them, carries out missions in the air.
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12 A M Larikov
From that it is clear how attentively each Air Force commander is obliged, to con-
cern himself with his own personal improvement, to have a deep understanding of
Party principles,* of leadership, and. troop control, and. of the principles of one-man
authority in the Soviet Army. Without all that, further growth of officer personnel
authority, improvement of troop leadership, and. improvement of their combat readi-
ness are impossible.
In actual Army life and the work of our officers there are still individual instances
of misunderstanding and. sometimes even of misinterpretation of the essence of the
Leninist principles of one-man authority, of deviation from those principles, of
violation of the regulation requirements in the mutual relations between superiors
and. their men. Some officers who are immature in the political sense have a very
narrow understanding of leadership and, troop control; they reduce it to a simple
formal division of servicemen into superiors and. subordinates. Actually that is an
important and. complex problem which cannot be placed. in such a narrow formal
framework.
One-man authority, as the best form of troop control, rests among us on the col-
lective leadership by the Communist Party of all the Armed. Forces, on the Party's
military policy. And. from that it follows that every military leader (superior) is the
guid.e of the collectively developed, policy of our Party and Government, the servant
of the people, and. the exponent and. defender of its interests, and. its will. In his en-
tire activity he is guided. by the policy and ideology of the Communist Party; he pro-
ceeds from the Marxist teaching on the deciding role of popular masses in history,
Including wars, and. he leans on the support of the masses.
The higher the political maturity and. toughness of our officer cadres, and the
deeper the understanding they have of the policy of our Party, the more successfully
and. fruitfully are they able to carry out the role of leaders in the Armed Forces of
the USSR.
The commander in. the army of a socialist state is not simply and solely a superi-
or who has been granted. great authority and. power; he is a military and. political
leader and. an educator of men. Every command.er(superior) exercises authority
within the limits set for him under the supervision of the Party and. he acts in com-
plete conformance with its directives and with. the laws of the Soviet state. Fulfill-
ment of the policy of the Party and. of its Central Committee is a basic principle in
the building of our Army, and, "in the leadership of the Soviet Armed. Forces as a
whole.
In developing the principles of building up the Armed. Forces of the Soviet State
and of their administration, the Party has always been dir'e.ct-ed by the instruc-
tions of V. I. Lenin concerning the fact that the policy of a military department ?
as indeed, of all other departments and. establishments ? is conducted upon the exact
basis of general directives which are given by the Party in the person of its Central
Committee and. under the direct supervision of the latter.
The October Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU. decisively condemned,
a departure from these baEtic principles of Leninism. In the decree of the Plenum
the following statement is made: "The Plenum of the CC of the CPSU notes that re-
cently former Minister of Defense, Cornrad.e G. K. Zhukov violated the Leninist Party
principles of leadership of the Armed Forces, conducted. a policy aimed, at curtailing
the work of the Party Organizations, Political Organs, and. Military Councils, and. at
41.
?
On the Essence and. Princi les of One-Man Authorit 13
the liquidation of leadership and. control over the Army and. Navy on the part of the
Party, its CC, and the Government".
Some officers' failure to understand. the essence and. significance of Soviet one-
man authority in the light of Marxist doctrine concerning the decisive role of the
popular masses in history, and. in thelight of the Leninist principle of board. ad.-
ministration as the basic principle of Party and. State leadership, lead.s to grave
errors in actual practice.
Leninism teaches that acknowledgement of the decisive role of the popular mas-
ses in history does not preclud.e but rather presupposes. acknowledgement of the im-
portant role of personalities, chiefs, leaders, and. military commanders ? but on
one indispensable cond.ition! that these personalities express the interests of social
progress, the interests of the popular masses, and. stand. at the head. of the masses
and lead. them. A leader without the masses is not a leader but a lone wolf.
In exactly the same way, the acknowledgement of board. administration as the
basic principle of Party and. State leadership does not exclude but necessarily pre-
supposes the personal responsibility of every worker for the segment of work as-
signed. him and. presupposes also one-man authority in the administration of individual
branches of State activity, including control of the Armed. Forces, as the type of
command. that correspond.s best to their specific features and. function. One must
not underestimate, much less ignore, these specific features. But one must not
make them absolute either. Questions of military development are regarded. by
the Party as having an organic connection with questions of general Soviet and. Party
development. "The building of our Army was successful", wrote V. I. Lenin, "only
because it was achieved, in the spirit of overall Soviet building." Guided by this
Leninist principle, the Party has indeed, developed. Soviet Socialist principles of
leadership and. one-man authority. in the Armed Forces.
Our Party manifests constant concern for strengthening one-man authority, im-
proving and. actuating the work of the Political Organs and Party Organizations, and
for strengthening the ties of all Army Communists with the Party and, with the Politi-
cal Organs.
One-man authority in the Armed. Forces of the USSR, even the most all-embracing
does not by any means constitute unlimited, power in the hand-s of individuals. The
authority of every superior and. the norms of his mutual relationships with his men
are strictly defined, by our regulations.
A false, non-Party interpretation of one-man authority as the completely unre-
stricted. and, uncontrolled. power in the hands of individuals is directly connected. with
the cult of personality alien to Marxism and Leninism.
Men who are immature in reference to the Party and. who in addition are power-
loving, who d.o not und.erstand. and. indeed, sometimes do not even want to grasp the
Leninist principles of one-man authority, identify it with the special role of individual
persons. For them, one-man authority is not a form of administration of troops,the
principles of which have been strictly defined, by our Party within the framework of
overall Party and. Soviet development, but something in the nature of a grant of .
feudal prerogatives.
Deviation from the Leninist principles of leadership of the Armed For ces, and
a distorted interpretation of one-man authority and subordination give rise among
some military workers to forms and. methods of work that are alien to our Party and,
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A M Larikov
"Congratulations on your new rank",
officer V. M. Sinyukayev congratulates
Squadron Engineer V. I. Isayev, as he hands
him his new shoulder boards.
Photo by: A.I.Dotsenko.
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4101:01101
its cadres: alienation from the mass-
es, barren bureaucratism, underesti-
mation of Party-political work, and.
conceit. Such forms of leadership
result in a weakening of moral and.
combat unity among the personnel.
the basis of the combat readiness of
our Armed Forces ? to a disruption
of the relationships and cohesiveness
among soldiers and officers, superi-
ors and subordinates, commanders
and. political workers.
The harm of such forms of
leadership lies in the fact that on the
one hand. they fetter the creative in-
itiative of the subordinates, give rise
to lack of confidence in one's work
and. to a fear of responsibility, and
on the other hand, contribute to the
spread. of such a negative phenomenon
as sycophancy.
Incorrect method.s and. forms
of leadership gave rise to serious
shortcomings in the indoctrination
of young officers. Yet assistance
to young officers in their work, in-
doctrination and. expert leadership of
them, are .a matter of great state importance. When working with young command-
ers one must not repudiate them or fetter their initiative, but one must create all
the necessary conditions for developing such valuable command. traits as ind.epend-
ence, firm will, decisiveness. In young officers, confidence in one's own strength
and actions grows together with experience, knowledge, and. military, political,
and. cultural horizons.
Occasionally, from some commanders who d.o resort to unseemly method.s of
leadership ? crudity ? one hears that they are displaying great exactingness and
implanting Order and discipline. Actually, however, this has nothing in common
with real exactingness and the strengthening of discipline. On the contrary, cru-
dity lead.s not to organization but to disorganization of work and. service, not to
strengthening but to weakening of discipline, for it discomposes people and. evokes
a feeling of bitter resentment.
Our Army is strong in conscious discipline, at the basis of which lies the pro-
foundly recognized. sense of personal responsibility of Soviet soldiers for the defense
of the great achievements of Socialism. For this very reason they displayed. un-
precend.ented heroism in battles with the enemy.
Of course not all our soldiers are equally conscientious and. dii.sciplined., but they
must all be indoctrinated, in the spirit of deep responsibility for the fate of the Mother-
land. For conscientious soldiers strict military discipline and. obedience to one's
4
;A
?
On the Essence ancli.alreles of One-Man Authorit 15
superiors is never a burden, since they recognize its necessity. It goes without
saying that discipline and, obedience are obligatory for all ? for both those who have
realized, and. those who have not yet realized, the necessity for them. For the latter,
coercive and. punitive measures are appropriate and. in order. But we must not con-
fine ourselves to such method.s alone.
We often say, and. very rightly so, that an army must live and. operate like a well-
adjusted. clock mechanism. But this mechanism does not consist of mechanical
parts at all. Its "cogs" are living Soviet men with their feelings, ideals, and. habits.
The moral force of our Army is a great force. The outcome of a war, as V.I.
Lenin taught, is in the last analysis decided, by the esprit of the masses who carry
on the war, and. shed. their blood.. From that it follows that a Soviet commander
must be a skillful educator capable of influencing the conscience, feelings, and ac-
tions of his men, and. must always be able to draw a strict boundary between exact-
ingness and. will on the one hand. as the most precious qualities of a Soviet commander,
and, on the other hand., coarseness and arbitrariness as qualities which are profound-
ly alien to a Soviet commander.
The Soviet Army has created. a type of commanding officer who is strict but just,
considerate and. attentive, restrained. and. tactful.. Coarseness never was and. never
will be a sign of the will, exactingness, and resoluteness of a superior. On the
contrary, it testifies to the helplessness of the leader, to his inability to lead men
in the true sense of the word. and. with full knowledge of his work, to the low level of
his culture, to his forgetting the elementary requirements of Communist morality,
of Soviet laws, and. of military regulations. One-man authority is not arbitrariness:
"I do as I please". Our Party wages a merciless battle against such method.s of
leadership.
"...the internal structure and. ord.er of the Army of the Workers and. Peasants
Soviet State, wrote M.V.Frunze, "must be free of all privileges that are not neces-
sitated by the requirements of the service and. do not follow from its nature. Only
on such soil is conceivable the realization of comradely cohesion and. mutual under-
standing between Army superiors and. subordinates,which are the basic guarantee
of the physical and spiritual power of the Red Army".
Every Soviet commander and superior officer is a leader of the masses. The
tasks assigned. a military unit and. group are solved, under his guidance by the entire
personnel, and. no matter how capable and. energetic the superior may be, he is not
in a position to solve them alone. His capabilities as a leader are revealed. in full
force precisely by how well he organizes a job and mobilizes the personnel to carry
out assigned. tasks.
Soviet one-man authority lies not only in the ability to give an order, to demand.
an account, but also in the ability to organize a task, to select and. allocate person-
nel, to rely for support in one's work on the Party and. Komsomol Organizations,
and to make fuller use of their great power. But that presupposes that in his varied.
activities the commander must take counsel with his deputies and assistants, support
valuable undertakings and. suggestions, and. encourage their initiative. Every com-
mander must foster within himself the need. to mix with the team. He must be able
to hear out both his equals and. his subordinates, take counsel with them, and. reach
decisions while taking their suggestions and. opinions into account. Commanders
with one-man authority cannot forget that their orders have the force of law. It is
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16 A M Lar'kov
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precisely that circumstance that places special responsibility upon them for their
orders and instructions.
Only a politically immature and, conceited worker who does not understand. the
essence of Soviet one-man authority, who has lost contact with life, can despise
the counsels of others and, regard. every piece of advice from his subordinates as
a blow to his own rights and. authority. On the contrary, the commander's authority
depends directly on the extent to which he is able to lean upon the team of men under
his leadership and. to make use of their knowledge and. experience.
The art of leadership must be studied with an unsurpassed. leader like V. I. Lenin.
One of the most powerful aspects of Lenin's leadership was his amazing ability to
listen to what others were saying, to analyze suggestions and to draw conclusions
from them. Lenin's style of work is our invaluable heritage and we must study it.
"The strength of our Army", said V. I. Lenin, "is in the closeness of the com-
mand personnel to the masses of Red Army soldiers." The commander, the superi-
or, must constantly see to it that the men regard. him as a person who is exacting
and strict but who is at the same time close to them, a just, thoughtful, and. sympa-
thetic superior.
Let us call to mind how V.I..Chapayev, the legendary hero of the Civil War, formed.
his relations with his men, He used to say to them: "On duty, I'm your commander,
but after duty, come to see me, If I'm. dining, have a seat and. dine with me; if
I'm drinking tea, sit down and have some tea with me." And. yet some of our superi-
ors, in their relations with their men, are always and. in every respect official to
such an extent that they've begun to consider it almost degrading to have any contact
with their men, assuming, apparently, that "the feeling .of remoteness" exalts them.
Alienation from the masses, contempt for the vital needs of other men ? this is a
dangerous disease. It leads to the loss of Party spirit and. of high principles, i, e.,
to the loss of qualities without which a genuine Soviet military superior is unthink-
able.
In accordance with the principles of Soviet one-man authority, the Interior Service
Regulations require the superior to become thoroughly acquainted with his personnel,
to know the abilities of each of his men. A politically mature and. experienced officer
will always find, the opportunity to have a heart to heart talk with his men, to form
for himself a clear idea of their personal qualities, to clarify their mental attitudes,
their needs, and spiritual interests, and to help them with deeds and. with kind. ad.-
vice. That makes it possible for superiors to know constantly about the difficulties
encountered by their men, to anticipate possible frustrations and to forestall them
in due time, to exert,an active influence .on the mens' conscientiousness and. actions ?
something that is especially important in the Air Force. For such an officer, un-
expected occurrences in the conduct of his men are hardly likely.
Deviations from Lenin's principles of leadership of the Armed. Forces and distor-
tion of the Party principles of one-man authority have led to the weakening of Party-
political work in the units, and to a belittling of the role of the Army Political Or-
gans and. Party Organizations. And. yet one-man authority in the Army not only
does not denote any belittling of Party-political work, but, on the contrary, intensi-
fies its significance, increases the responsibility of the commanders and. Party-poli-
tical workers towards the Party, the Government, and. the People in the matter of
training conscientious, manly, and able defenders of the .Motherland.
?
?
a
a
On the Essence and. Principles of One Man Authority
17
Party-political work is not the allotted department of the political workers. It
is the work of our Party in the Army, which it carries on through the political Or-
gans and. Party Organizations and in which all Army Communists are obliged, to
participate.
Underestimation of Party-political work was leading to the spread. of an absurd, ?
from the point of view of an elementary comprehension of Party tasks in the Army?
opposing of political workers to commanders, was weakening their friendly joint
work in the solution of problems they share in. common and in the achievement of
mutual goals for strengthening the combat power of the Armed Forces.
Bureaucratic methods had. here and, there begun to spre.ad. even to Party-political
work. The leading role of the Political Organs with.. respect to the Party Organiza-
tions was often belittled., since, in Spite of the Regulation of the CPSU, the leader-
ship of the Political Organs and, Party Organizations hd been given to the command.er s with one authority.
In the life of the Army Party Organizations, the role of criticism had. been strong-
ly disparaged under the pretext of specific Army conditions. All this had been
weakening their activity in the solutions of problems of combat training, their in-
fluence on the life of the troops; all this had. led, to training Army cadres erroneous-
ly with respect to Party principles and the standards of Party life; had been leading,
not to the strengthening, but to the weakening of one-man authority, since without
criticism and, self.criticisai without well-formulated Party-political work, the Party
Organizations cannot be an effective support for the commander.
Our Party takes the specific conditions of Army life into consideration. Precise-
ly for that reason discussion. and. criticism of a commander's orders are not allowed..
Occasionally people say that criticism undermines-the authority of the command.-
era. Not at all. Party criticism does not undermine authority but, on the contrary,
strengthens it -- if of course one takes the criticism in Party spirit and. reaches. the
correct conclusions from it,
After all, what is authority? How is it maintained.? The authority of the leader
lies in the respect, the confidence in. him on the part of the Party, the People, and.
the team. A firm authority constantly growing stronger is maintained, through good.
work, through the results of that work, through high personal qualities of the worker
in political and. practical matters, and through the strong ties between the leader
and the masses. And. criticism is called upon precisely for the very purpose of
improving the work, of perfecting the personal qualities of the leaders, of bringing
them close to the masses and, consequently, of enhancing their authority.
The authority of any worker, particularly of a commander, is a great force.
After all, scores, hundreds, and thousands of men go into battle behind, him, upon
his orders, and under his leadership. Consequently our Party and. people are vital-
ly interested in seeing to it that the .authority of the commander and superior be
supreme.
The most important condition for the supreme authority of an officer is his per-
sonal exemplariness in every respect ? in training, in. discipline, and in daily life.
We say that the Party Organizations and Political Organs must protect and, sup-
port the authority of the commander. But after all, that can be done only if there
is something to support and. protect, when this authority exists. It would be point-
less to support and, protect that which does not exist.
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A M Lar'kov
Authority is not an anniversary gift. It is not issued, even as an honorary supple-
ment to one's position and. rank. It is acquired through one's attitude towards work,
toward.s the fulfillment of one's duties, and through the deed.s and capacities of each
man.
At past Party meetings and. conferences, the Communists spoke with great warmth
and love about a great many officer-leaders, men who work selflessly, have a deep
sense of responsibility, and. are strong-willed. and, cultured.,. and who at the same
time are modest, and. close and. accessible to their comrades and men. In the
Greetings of the Central Committee of the CPSU, of the Presidium of the Supreme
Soviet of the USSR, and of the Council of Ministers of the USSR to the men of the
valiant Armed. Forces of the Soviet Union, stress is laid upon the fact that in the
combat ranks of the Army "...remarkable cadres of commanders and. political
workers have emerged., who serve as an example of loyal service to the People and
Party, who labor untiringly to perfect the combat training of their personnel and. to
improve Party-political work in the units and. on the ships".
The principles of Soviet one-man authority require that the Soviet commander with
one-man authority combine within him high andvaried moral and. combat qualities: a lofty
ideology, Party maturity and. high principles; a deep knowledge of his work and. a
creative attitud.e towards it; exemplariness in discipline and. the ability to combine
the commander's high qualities of will? firmness and. exactingness towards his
men? with tactfulness and sympathy; the ability to knock a strong team together
and. to lead. it; to lean for support on the Party and Komsomol Organizations and
through them to rouse the entire personnel to a solution of assigned tasks.
Commanders who have developed and, cultivated such qualities in themselves,
always achieve important results in their work, and. surmount difficulties encountered
along their way. Cultivation of those qualities is a decisive prerequisite for the
successful activity and growth of officer cadres, and. for enhancing their organizing
role and. authority among the troops.
The October Plenum of the CC of the CPSU constitutes a very important event in
the life of our Party, an event that has historical significance for the Soviet Armed
Forces. The Plenum is a new manifestion of the concern of the Communist Party
for strengthening and intensifying their combat power. The Plenum laid the founda-
tion for a new stage in the life of the Army and Navy.
The Plenum corrected serious shortcomings in. the leadership of the Armed. Forces,
nipped in the bud the tendency towards alienation of the Army from the Party, to-
wards weakening of the Party's leadership of the Armed Forces, restored. the role
of Party-political work to its rights; 'directed the efforts of Army Communists to-
wards further strengthening of the monolithic unity of personnel, towards rallying
it round. the Communist Party, towards the correct training of Army cadres in the
spirit of Leninist Party zeal.
The wise. decisions of the Plenum of the Party Central Committee have evoked
among all the Army Communists a surge of energy, the desire to work even better,
to give all their efforts and knowledge to the great cause of strengthening our Armed
Forces.
Party meetings and Party activs have shown how closely and. indissolubly Com-
munists are rallied round the combat staff of our Party, its Central Committee.
One of the most characteristic processes going on right now in the life of the
?
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a
On the Essence and Principles of One-Man Authority
41?11MOIMMIIIMOM
.19
Army is the general reanimation of Party-political work, the activization of the Army
Party Organizations and. of all Communists, the development of criticism and. self-
criticism,
Of course, that is still only the beginning of the important work for surmounting
shortcomings which has been outlined in connection with the decisions of the October
Plenum of the CC of the CPSU.
One of the most important tasks resulting from the decisions of the Plenum is to
intensify ideological work, the Party-political training of Army cadres. Without
that it is impossible to achieve reorganization of work as required by the Central
Committee of the CPSU. Carrying out the decisions of the Plenum helps the Army
Communists raise the combat readiness of our troops to a new height.
DELEGATE TO THE 13TH CONGRESS OF THE VLKSM
[All-Union Leninist Communist Youth League]
Instructor-Pilot Lt. B. G. Samorodov is the commander of an
outstanding Komsomol crew. Without regard for time, he trains
young pilots, and fosters high moral and combat qualities in them.
A good sportsman and. a lead.er in sports events,Samorod.ov imbues
his trainees with a love for sports.
Comrade Samorodov is the deputy secretary of a squadron
Komsomol Bureau. For outstanding ratings in combat training
and. political training and for active participation in Komsomol work,
he has beenwrecommended for the award of Certificate of Honor by
the CC of the VIIKSM.
The Komsomol members showed their high confidence in
Lt. B. G. Samorodov by electing him delegate to the 13th Congress
of the All-Union Leninist Communist Youth League.
In the sketch: Lt. B. G. Samorodov
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AERIAL RECONNAISSANCE
UNDER ADVERSE
WEATHER CONDITIONS
Lt. Col. T. S. GORYACHKIN,
Hero of the Soviet Union
In the last war, darkness and adverse weather conditions were utilized, for covert
preparations for battle or operations. There also arose a need. for carrying out air
reconnaissance under these condtions, which limited, to a certain degree the operation
of the enemy's AA defense facilities, reducing their effectiveness. Furthermore,
interception of reconnaissance aircraft by fighters was also complicated.. But it
must not be forgotten that at the present level of development of AA defense facilities
these advantages are reduced. considerably.
A modern AA defense system is capable of bringing organized. counteraction to
bear on a reconnaissance aircraft by various means. Either in an adverse weather
situation or at night, the plane can be located by radar stations long before the ap-
proach to the objective and. fighters can be sent out to meet it.
As the reconnaissance plane approaches the objective, guided. missiles, antiair-
craft artillery, and barrage balloons will be brought to bear on it. Consequently,
darkness and adverse weather conditions have begun to lose their advantages in con-
cealing the flight of a reconnaissance aircraft. Therefore, secrecy of the flight and.
surprise appearance over the objective to be reconnoitered. have acquired. exceptional
importance. To achieve this and. thereby reduce the effectiveness of the AA facilities,
various. measures ? both on the ground. before flight and. in the air ? can be taken.
First of an, it is necessary to study well the objective of the reconnaissance, the
AA defense facilities that the crew may meet along the flight route and. in the target
area, and. the tactics of the enemy's fighters. This will make it possible to choose
the route and. the flight profile correctly, to propose measures for overcoming the
AA d.efenies, and. to find, the best tactical means and. method.s of air reconnaissance.
Avoiding .areas that are not to be reconnoitered, but are covered, by strong AA d.e-
fense facilities, the reconnaissance plane approaches the object to be reconnoitered.
covertly. lithe target is at a considerable distance from the front line, it is ad.-
vantageous to fly to it at an altitude at which fuel consumption is minimal, irrespec-
tive of the thickness and. height of the upper deck of the cloud. cover. In this connec-
tion, it should. be kept in mind, that high altitude does not ensure concealment from
the enemy's radar hcilities, since their detection range is related. directly to the
aircraft's flight altitude. Thus, in a number of cases it is still exped.ient for the
reconnaissance plane to travel at the minimum altitude (particularly on the last leg
Aerial Reconnaissance Under Adverse Weather Conditions
AMMO `411111111111111111?0111?11/
21
of the route before the target).
The flight to the reconnaissance area and. back is n-Lad.e both over friendly territory
and, over enemy territory. The leg of the route to the front line is considered. safer
as far as enemy fighter counteraction is concerned, as compared, to flight over hostile
territory. However, under conditions of utilizing new ways of fighting, it is not
impossible that there will be fighter counteraction against a solitary reconnaissance
aircraft even over friendly territory, where it can be discovered, by radar facilities.
It is very important under adverse weather conditions and. at night to inform the
crew in good. time of the situation in the air. This knowledge will make it easier
for the reconnaissance plane to evad,e enemy fighters. To this end., the areas cover-
ed by the fighter forces of the enemy, if they are not the object of reconnaissance,
are bypassed. or are flown over high altitudes. The vectoring of the enemy fightera
can also be made more difficult by changing course and. altitude. But it must always
be kept in mind. that modern fighter interceptors carry special equipment that per-
mits making the entire process of interception automatic. In addition, they are
subject to preliminary vectoring from ground. rad.ar spotting and. vectoring stations.
In the approach to the front line and. the reconnaissance objective, the reconnais-
sance ai;craft may encounter antiaircraft artillery action; hence the necessity for
timely AA and. rocket evasion maneuvers ? changes in the direction, altitude, and..
speed. of flight, intensified observation of the air.
The destructive capabilities of AA defense facilities, as ia known, depend. to
some degree on how the aerial target is moving: evenly and. in a straight line, in a
straight line with. acceleration or with deceleration. It is easier to intercept and.
hit an aircraft if it i,s flying in a horizontal regime; and. conversely, it is more diffi-
cult when the plane is changing course, speed., and. altitude. This, of course, does
not mean that it is necessary to "toss" the plane around. from sid.e to side during the
entire flight when there is no need. for it. Everything must conform to the situation.
Darkness and. various weather phenomena? cloudiness, fog, haze, snow, rain?
reduce vertical and. horizontal visibility and. complicate air reconnaissance. .Reduced
illumination of the earth's surface makes it more difficult or virtually impossible to
take aerial photographs without artificial lighting and. the use of light-sensitive photo-
graphic materials or radar and. other equipment.
However, darkness and. adverse weather conditions may to a certain degree facili-
tate the carrying out of missions. If, for example, the objectiye of the reconnais-
sance is far from the front line, it can be reached. by flying in or above the clouds,
coming out at a characteristic check point located, to the side (on the flank) of the
objective being reconnoitered.. It is sometimes possible to approach the check point
by means of a radar eight. Penetration of the cloud, cover to a safe altitude is checked.
by a radio altimeter. After regaining orientation, the crew continues to fly in the
cloud.s toward. the objective in 'such a way that exit from the cloud, cover coincides
with the start of reconnaissance.
Inadequate visibility compels the crew to reduce flying altitude in the visual meth-
od, of reconnaissance; this, as a consequence of the considerable angular distance of
objects at highflying ,speeds, makes observation of them more difficult. In addition,
the crew's time of observation at a low altitud.e is extremely limited.. In connection
with this, it is necessary to make more than one pass or to plan and. execute a Com-
plicated. maneuver. The quality of the reconnaissance in such a case will.depend.
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1111811111111111111111111111111? ?11P
T. S. Goryachkin
' 1111.11==M10111
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1115411111116 .101111111111111
considerably on how well the crew stud.ies the objective in advance.
However; aerial reconnaissance at low altitudes also has its positive aspect: it
ensures secrecy in the flight of the aircraft and. surprise in its approach to the ob-
jective. In flying at low altitudes, moreover, not all the AA defense facilities can
function effectively. The fighter forces are also limited, in their maneuvering in
attacking the reconnaissance plane.
Reconnaissance can also be made by photography and. by visual observation
simultaneously, with the photographing being done either from an oblique mount or
from a vertical mount by banking the plane. In either case the aircraft can pass
to the sid.e of the reconnaissance objective, which ensures against being Mt by the
fire of the enemy's AA artillery.
When the cloud cover (not more than 3-4 points) has breaks, the reconnaissance
plane flies above the clouds, and. the objective is observed, in the spaces between
them. In this, it is necessary to take into consideration the fact that in flying above
the cloud.s the speed. and. altitud.e affect the duration of visual observation through the
spaces between the clouds. The greater the altitudes over the cloud cover, the less
is the angular distance of the plane in respect to it, and, therefore, the more time
for observation of the reconnaissance objective through the "windows". At higher
speed.s the angular distance, naturally, increases. With greater cloudiness, the
possibility of photographing or scanning the objective on a single run is not very
great, because the time of flying over a "wind.ow" is very brief.
For proper utilization of the cloud, cover, the reconnaissance crew studies the
nature of the cloud, cover along the flight route and. in the target area even before
taking off. It happens sometimes that the crew covers part of the route in -good.
weather, but encounters adverse weather conditions over enemy territory, and, vice
versa,
If t weather in the area of reconnaissance is not known in advance, then the
crew climbs to the highest altitud.e so that it can continue the flight and. make the
reconnaissance from a high altitud.e in the event the weather conditions over enemy
territory are good., or descend. and. carry out the reconnaissance from beneath the
clouds if there is a cloud cover.
If there is a thick haze over the enemy territory, it is better to fly at a high alti-
tud.e. The crew can obtain good. reconnaissance results if it is directly over the
objective or not far from it. In photographing, light filters are used, reducing the
deleterious effect of the haze on the quality of the negative.
Precipitation (snow, rain) sharply reduces the possibility of visual Observation
and. photographing. For reconnoitering airfields, railroad. terminals, and. other
large objects under such conditions, one also flies in or over the clouds, coming
out of them in the area of the target. The objective will be seen better if the plane
goes over it at a low altitude or not too far from it. In the first case, the observa-
tion is conducted through the bottom ports of the cabin, and. in the second, case
through the side ports. When the aircraft turns away from the objective there is
the possibility of visual observation, and when it is turning toward. it there is the
possibility of oblique photography with the vertical mount.
In the flight, the crew may have to cross a weather front or enter an area of.
thunderstorm activity, particularly when the weather situation is not known well
enough. Thunderstorm activity will compel the crew to deviate from the akis of
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Aerial Reconnaissance Under Adverse Weather Conditions
23
011.1.111111111\
the route in flying to the reconnaissance objective. It is better to fly either to one
side of a thunderhead. or over it.
Cirrus and. cirro-cumulus cloud.s are not always favorable for concealment. As
a rule, they have a small vertical thickness, and. visibility in them attains several
kilometers. However, even such clouds can be utilized, for concealment, by flying
above the deck of the cloud, cover and. coming out underneath it in the area of the re-
connaissance objective.
Cirro- stratus cloud.s attain a considerable thickness, and, visibility in them is
low. Such cloud.s are considered. the most favorable for concealment from enemy
fighters.
With a multi-layer cloud, cover, when the lower stratum is less than five points,
it is possible to fly in the clouds or below the top stratum. Under such conditions
the reconnaissance is mad.e through the breaks. If the bottom stratum is more
than five points, i. e. , does not permit viewing the objective, it is best to fly below
the base of the cloud, cover.
In flying at medium and. high altitudes it is necessary to take into account the
possibility of a contrail being formed. by the plane. It betrays the presence of both
our own plane and. the enemy's plane. With the appearance of a contrail it is neces-
sary to change the flight altitude.
Also to be taken into consideration is the position of the sun relative to the object
of reconnaissance. In flying above the cloud.s, if observation is mad.e through breaks,
it is necessary to keep to the sunward. side in approaching the target and. to make the
run on it from out of the sun. Otherwise the objective will not be seen very well
and, in addition, it will be difficult to observe the situation in the air.
In relation to the nature of the objective, various tactical maneuvers and recon-
naissance methods are used., taking weather conditions into consideration. It is
desirable to conduct the reconnaissance of communication lines, for example, by
flying in the clouds or above their upper limits, periodically coming out under the
cloud.s for observation. In coming out of the clouds it is recommended. that the
position of the plane relative to the road, be considered.. If the road. is straight for
a considerable distance, it is best to cross it at a slight angle. The cloud, cover
should. be entered. and. left in a straight line, and. turns in one direction or the other
should. be made in the clouds so as to change' course and. confuse the enemy.
Reconnaissance of troop concentrations and other mobile objectives is best made
from low altitudes and at high. speed.s. It is possible to fly to the area of recon-
naissance in the clouds and, leave the clouds so as to effect surprise. The high
speed, of a modern plane makes locating it by sound difficult, while a low flying alti-
tud.e makes it difficult for the enemy's radar stations to detect and. track it.
For a detailed. examination of the reconnaissance objective in flying at a low alti-
tud.e and. for encompassing a greater spatial range in photographing, the crew should
gain the appropriate altitude quickly close to the object of the reconnaissance (if the
cloud, cover permits) and., having passed. it, again descend or climb and. enter the
clouds. .
After the area of reconnaissance is passed, it is advantageous to change the direc-
tion of flight in the clouds or at the minimum possible altitude, If, for example, the
direction of flight from the object reconnoitered coincides with the direction to the
next object of reconnaissance, the crew can take a false course to the left or to the
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24 *
1111111111101?11
S. Goryachkifl
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right and. take the direction required only after entering the clouds. This method
is particularly applicable under conditions when it is known in advance that enemy
fighters are operating in the given vicinity.
If it is difficult to make a running reconnaissance because of a low cloud, cover
or heavy precipitation, then the approach to the objective is repeated. on the return
trip. By that time the conditions may change in favor of the reconnaissance air-
craft. The reconnaissance crew determines in advance the direction and. rate of
movement of the cloud cover by its shadow or by other signs and. decides on further
action.
All the above, indisputably, does not exhaust all the possibilities for the crew of
the reconnaissance plane. It is necessary to expand. constantly the tactical outlook
and. to learn how to function skillfully under adverse weather conditions, displaying
in this an intelligent initiative.
V.D.Stulenkov
Capt. V . D. Stulenkov has proved.
himself to be an outstanding pilot-in-
structor who knows how to find, the pro-
per approach to each student, His pu-
pils are successfully mastering combat
aircraft and. are completing the training
program with excellent and. outstanding
marks.
V.D.Stulenkov takes an active part
in Party political work. The Commu-
nists have elected, him the d.eputy secre-
tary of the squadron Party Bureau.
rb
FIRING UNGUIDED
ROCKET MISSILES
AT AERIAL TARGETS
?411111111111111111111111111111110
Engineer Lt. Col. N. D. GRIGOR'YEV,
Docent, Candidate of Military Sciences
Unguided. rocket missiles with which a fighter aircraft is equipped. are divided,
depending on design characteristics and. the principal combat capabilities, into two
types: point-d.etonating and. time
Point-detonating missiles of comparatively small weight and. caliber are designed.,
like conventional artillery projectiles, to destroy a target with a direct hit. Destruc-
tion of the target is effected. with the aid. of demolition and. fragmentation action. The
point-detonation rocket missile is superior in explosive strength to the aircraft ar-
tillery projectile and. destroys a medium-size jet bomber with ?near two hits.
Time-fuzed. rocket missiles are usually equipped. with a powerful warhead for de-
molition and. fragmentation action which yield.s upon explosion several thousand. frag-
ments. The time fuze of these missiles is d.esigned to work upon impact with the tar-
get as well as after a given time interval following launching. The time setting of
the present-day fuze is set automatically depending on the range of fire d.etermined
by the range-finding device of the sight.
The target is hit .by time-fuzed. rocket missiles, even, when the explosion occurs
at a certain distance from the target due to the blast effect and especially to fragmen-
tation. The distance between the point of explosion of a time4uz.ed, rocket missile
and the target, sufficient to insure the latter's destruction, depends on a number of
circumstances (for instance, on the heading, the rate of closure of the missile with
the target, and. the altitud.e at which the explosion takes place). In isolated, instances,
this distance amounts to 100-150 m.
The hit probability increases sharply with a decrease in the distance between the
point of explosion and. the target. This calls for special attention to aiming accura-
cy on the part of the fighter pilot when using time-fuzed as well as point-detonating
rocket missiles.
The superiority of unguided. rocket missiles over aircraft artillery projectiles
lies first of all in the greater power of the former. Furthermore, they can be aimed.
and. launched. rapidly in one volley or a number of volleys (actually in 0.5 seconds).
This gives the fighter considerable tactical advantages in attacks at high rates of
closure when he lacks sufficient time for aiming and. firing. Attacks at high rates
of closure are widely employed, to lower the effectiveness of bomber defensive fire
and. of countermeasures on the part of enemy fighters under combat conditions.
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Time-fuz.ed. rocket missiles can,
in addition to this, also give the
fighter considerable tactical advan-
tages in an aerial combat with a
group of bombers. For instance,
in an attack on a flight of bombers
flying in closed, formation the effec-
tiveness of a volley of time-fuzed.
rocket missiles increases approxi-
mately twofold. as compared. to the
effectiveness of fire at a single tar-
get.
In aiming with the aid. of semi-
automatic sights, point-detonating
rocket missiles are employed, like
conventional fighter artillery weap-
ons as far as firing procedures are
concerned..
Aerial gunnery with point-detonat-
ing rocket missiles is performed. at
ranges not over 2000 m. The rocket
missile designed. to be used, at such
distances moves one and. a half times
slower than an artillery projectile.
With equal firing ranges, the time re-
quired. to obtain the lead. angle will be
approximately one and a half times
greater than that for cannon. There-
fore, before firing a volley or a
series of volleys of point-detonating
rocket missiles, the pilot must aim
accurately for a certain period, of
time, aligning the central point of
the reticle with the aiming point. The
period, of preliminary aiming is ap-
proximately equal to the following:
AzkAs.
A
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xfo
?..
"
Excellent results during the winter training
period, were achieved. by Military Pilots First
Class Captains A. I. Sukhov and. V. P. Ponomar -
yev. All missions were carried out by them
with good. and. excellent results. In the photo-
graph: Capt. A. I. Sukhov (left) and. Capt. V. P.
Ponomaryev after flights.
at a range of 1500 m ? 4 sec; at Photo by G. I. Makarov.
1000 m 2.5 sec; at 800 m 2 sec; at 400 m ? 1.5 sec..
The 'effectiveness of firing point-detonating rocket missiles at a bomber depend,s
to even a greater extent on the direction of attack than it does in firing from a cannon.
It is known that attacks in a horizontal plane are the least effective because in this
case a comparatively high rate of change of bank complicates aiming and. a minimum
target area is exposed. to fire. Attacks in the vertical plane, particularly from above
and. behind. as well as from above side rear (in'these cases, the target area increases,
particularly at high altitudes, because of the target aircraft's angle of attack)are more
effective by about 20-50%. In addition, attacks from above the target offer the fight-
er great possibilities for speed. maneuvering.
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Firin Un uid.ed. Rocket Missiles at Aerial Taret.s.... 27
As far as the safety of the fighter from explosions of point-detonating rocket mis-
siles is concerned., actually no limitations exist on the attack; therefore firing can
be carried, out even at minimum ranges.
Firing of time-fuzed. rocket missiles differs significantly from firing cannon and
point-detonating rocket missiles. In order to avoid damaging one's own aircraft
with rocket missile fragments, the fuzes of time-fuzed missiles are equipped. with
inertial safety devices which control the arming of the fuze. Usually the fuze is
armed. after the action of the solid, propellant rocket engine terminates at a distance
which is safe for the aircraft making the attack. To avoid, damaging one's own
aircraft by fragments, it is recomMended that the pilot of a single aircraft fire from
the rear hemisphere at a range of no less than. 400-500 m, and. that firing in a group .
be at no less than 600-800 m.
When using conventional semi-automatic sights, firing of time-fuzed rocket mis-
siles is most effective from the rear hemisphere with an angle-off about 0/4.
It is advantageous to employ time-fuzed. rocket missiles against bomber groups
for the purpose of destroying and. breaking up their combat formations. The most
efficient attacks on a group of bombers are simultaneous successive group attacks
by fighters. In this, the greater the defense fire of the bomber group, the greater
is the importance of a group attack on the part of the fighters.
Depending on the conditions, it is recommended. that the following three mettiod.s
of group gunnery be employed.: with individual aiming and. independent determination
of the moment of firing; at the command. of the leader with individual aiming by every
pilot; at the command. of the leader without individual aiming (with automatic time
delay setting of the time fuze by the radar range-finder).
Group gunnery with time-fuzed. rocket missiles with individual aiming and. ind.e-
pendent determination of the moment of firing is carried out in the same way as fir-
ing with cannon. A specific target is pointed, out to every pilot in such a way that
the trajectories of the simultaneously attacking aircraft d.o not cross. The pilot
fires independently, which makes possible more accurate aiming.
The shortcoming of this method. is time straggling of the missiles' explosions.
This has, especially in firing at minimum ranges, undesirable moral effects on the
attackers, since they are forced. to pass directly through the region of missile ex-
plosions. At high altitudes, where the fragments scatter rapidly over large distanc-
es from the point of explosion, no danger exists for the fighter aircraft. At low
4 altitudes, travel through the explosion zone following a volley of time-fuzed. rocket
missiles is und.esirable in. view of possible fragmentation damage. The
group firing with independent determination of the moment of firing can be recom-
mended. only for high altitudes as well as for attacks at low and. medium altitudes,
provided, that firing takes place at ranges of 1000 m or more.
Group firing at the leader's command. with individual aiming is characterized, by
the simultaneous character of the volley fired. by the entire attacking group. This
enables .the group to approach the target at minimum ranges (600-800 m) and after
the volley to employ vigorous maneuvers to bypass the region of greatest fragment
saturation, particularly at low altitudes. Experience shows that this firing method.
gives good aiming accuracy with sufficient training and. experience in formation fly-
ing, especially in attacks at small angles-off which prove to be most advantageous
when employing time-fuzed. rocket missiles.
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3
N.p.Grigor'ziv.
11111111.111100.111/11111/14 milermoran
The entire maneuver for taking up the initial position and going into the attack is
carried, out by the group simultaneously in a single combat formation. The leader
takes the group to the target and., upon conclusion of rough aiming, gives the order
"Get ready!" Following this command. the pilots in train, as well as the leader,
commence aiming ? each on the targets which were assigned. to him previously.
After precision aiming (this takes 6-8 sec) the leader gives the order: "Fire". The
group fires simultaneously and breaks off the action with a vigorous maneuver.
Group firing at the leader's command. can be recommended. for :various attack
conditions; this is the reason why it is the principal method. of firing time-fuzed.
rocket missiles. Its successful employment must be preced.ed. by training.
Firing of time-fuzed. rocket missiles at the leader's command without individual
aiming produces high effectiveness only with automatic delay setting by the radar
range-finder. This method. is recommended. for pairs of fighter aircraft, During
the attack, the leader of the pair takes accurate aim at the bomber aircraft, and the
wingman concentrates his attention on main-
taining close combat formation (sharp"bear-
ing" with a distance between the aircraft of
40-80 m). Upon conclusion of accurate aim-
ing, the leader gives the command: "Fire!"
After this command the pair fires a volley.
In view of the fact that the time delay
is introduced, into Or fuze automatically, re-
liable range aiming is insured.. The wing-
man's firing errors, due to inaccurate aim-
ing, are very insignificant if he is capable
of maintaining good combat formation. The
Important thing here is for the wingman, re-
peating the evolutions of the lead. aircraft, to
keep a small distance between aircraft axes
during the attack.
Experience shows that firing by a pair
with experience in formation flying yields
good. results; the effectiveness of the wing-
man's gunnery is 75-80% of the leader's ef-
fectiveness.
Fig. 1, Versions of attack on a
group of bombers by fighter aircraft
at the leader's command. employing
automatic setting of the time delay
in the fuze of a time-fuzed rocket
missile.
This method can be successfully used for destruction of the most important tar-
gets ? above all of the leading bomber aircraft.
Figure 1 shows two versions of group firing at the leader's command. without
Individual aiming. In the first case a fighter pair is attacking a flight of bombers,
directing the main attack at the flight leader. In the second case, the bomber flight
is under simultaneous attack of a fighter flight element with two methods of firing
in use. The flight commander and the senior pilot, in close formation, fire on the
lead aircraft at the command of the flight leader, while their wingmen fire at the
same command at the bombers in trail using individual aiming.
This firing method permits an efficient increase in the composition of the group
engaged in a simultaneous attack; hence, it permits an increase in the overall effec-
tiveness of the attack.
Let us consider
fuzed rocket missil
The fighter can
show that a volley
individual firings.
issiles at rial Tar ? ets
29
the firing method,s employed by single fighter aircraft using time-
es.
fire rocket missiles individually or in a volley. Calculations
of two missiles is little inferior in effectiveness to two aimed.
If the fact is taken into account that the fighter must remain in
the firing position longer to fire two
shots, and. as a rule be subjected. to
fire from the bombers, it becomes ob-
vious that in most cases a volley of
time-fuzed, rocket missiles is more pro-
fitable.
One of the important problems of
combat employment of time-fuzed rocket
missiles against bomber groups is selec-
tion and allocation of targets. Ln solv-
ing this problem the possibility of a frag-
ment's damaging not only the aircraft
directly under fire but also those next
to it in formation must be taken into ac-
count and the degree of tactical impor-
tance of individual targets must be esti-
mated. Correct choice and. allocation
of targets between the fighters can in-
crease effectiveness of the attack by
20-30%.
Evaluation of the effectiveness of
firing on bomber groups flying in various
combat formations shows that the group
suffers the greatest losses when first of
all, the lead aircraft of flights and, squa-
drons and the aircraft in trail closest to
them and. on the inside are subjected to
fire; in all cases it is desirable to fire
upon aircraft located in the line of sight.
Firing on lead aircraft and those in trail
closest to. them and. on the inside is ad.-
vantageous because they are ins id.e the
combat formation and., in case of a pos-
sible deflection of the missile, the prob-
ability of hitting neighboring aircraft is
increased.. In firing at aircraft located
in the line of sight, errors in explosion
range are compensated. by an increase
in probability of hitting a target flying
before or after the aircraft directly
under fire.
Front-line fighter aircraft have,
"Our planes are returning!" says tech-
nician Lt. V. Ostrikov (left) watching de-
scending aircraft, to his friend, Senior
Lt. V. Kudryavtsev. Officers Oatrikov
and Kudryavtsev, are both Komsomol
members and. are topnotch in combat and.
political training.
Photo by G. I. Makarov
Declassified in Part- Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @50-Yr 2013/10/29: CIA-RDP81-01043R002500220001-5
30
N. D. Grigor ' yev
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
in addition to unguided. rocket missiles artillery armament which can be used. simul-
taneously with the rocket missile.
Firing of cannon and. rocket missiles in one attack can proceed in three ways:
cannon and. rocket missiles simultaneously; rocket missiles with subsequent switch-
ing of the sight over to "cannon"; cannon with subsequent switching of the sight over
to "rocket missiles". Simultaneous firing of cannon and. rocket missiles is accom-
plished. by switching the sight to "cannon" or "rocket missiles". However, this
method. of firing at aerial targets is not recommended. because of the great difference
in ballistic characteristics of artillery projectiles and. rocket missiles, whose tra-
jectories lie lower by 20-30 m and. more.
The considerable difference in the time of travel of rocket missiles and artillery
projectiles also results in considerable error in the lead. angle. This method. can be
used. with greater effect in attacks on linear ground. targets.
In an aerial combat with bombers simultaneous firing should. be recommended.
only to combine a volley of time-fuzed. rocket missiles with an aimed. burst from
cannon. Here the sight is switched. to "cannon", aim is taken at specific aircraft
(it is better if the aircraft is in the upper part of the combat formation), and the
volley of time-fuzed. rocket missiles is intended, for exerting moral pressure on the
crews and. for breaking up the enemy's combat formation. Such firing is recommend.-
'ed. for the initial period, of attack,
In successive firing of rocket missiles followed, by cannon (or vice versa) with
corresponding switching of the sight, the fire power of the fighter can be used. with
maximum effect. If the attack is launched. at ranges at which firing of rocket mis-
siles is still possible, the total damage effect of the two method.s of successive
firing is about the same. However, firing cannon first-- and. then rocket missiles?
has its advantages. It permits the employment of time-fuzed. rocket missiles with
maximum effect, and hence a more rapid. breaking up of the enemy's combat forma-
tion. After this task has been completed, other fighters can fire rocket missiles
even at the beginning of the attack, and. later fire cannon, making approaches at
minimum ranges and. with maximum utilization of artillery fire.
In aerial combat with bomber groups possessing weak defense armament or total-
ly lacking it, it is most advantageous to fire volleys of rocket missiles at the begin-
ning of the attack. In this case the task of breaking up the bomber combat forma-
tion is accomplished with considerable success by fighter attacks at short ranges
with maximum utilization of artillery fire.
Fighter combat formations engaged. in firing time-fuzed rocket missiles, should.
not differ from those used. for group firing of cannon. However, when the fighters
intend to fire rocket missiles from ranges of 600-800 in, it is very important that
the combat formation of the simultaneously attacking group be small in d.epth. A
combat formation considerably extended. in depth lead.s to an increase in the range
of fire for the aircraft in trail and. in isolated. cases the lead aircraft can. be hit by
fragments of rocket missiles fired. by the aircraft in trail.
The combat formation "bearing" with a distance between the aircraft of not more
than 60-100 m is recommended. for simultaneous attacks by a pair firing rocket mis-
siles at minimum ranges. Simultaneous attack 131. a flight is carried out better in
the "wedge" combat formation with an overall depth of not more than 150-200 m.
At long ranges in a sharp combat formation, bracketing of one's own aircraft by the
I.
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?
?
Firing Uz.lguid.ed. Rocket Missiles at Aerial Tar ets
31
radar range-finder is possible.
The distance between pairs attacking in succession should. be set in accordance
with the method. and. order of firing as well as with the rate of closure with the tar-
get, the size of the bomber combat formation, and the number of aircraft in it. It
also d.epend.s on the type of range-finder used. by the following group.
When optical range-finders are used. in successive attacks by pairs (or flights)
against small bomber formations, i.e. , when the fighters attacking in succession
must aim at the same targets, the distance between pairs must be approxi_ma.tely
equal to the firing position (the latter is determined, from the moment of commence-
ment of aiming to the moment of breaking off the attack). The magnitude of the
firing position, as is known, depends above all on the range sweep for which the
sight is designed, and. is usually between 800-1200 in. At such ranges the succes-
sive group can cond.uct aimed. fire without suffering interference from the preceding
group. The first group has time to retreat to a sufficient distance from the target
at the moment of commencement of firing by the successive group.
When radar range-finders are used., the distance between subsequent attacks
must be increased, in such a way as to have the preceding pair out of the bracketing
zone of the radar-range finder at the moment of aiming by the successive pair (Fig.2
This zone usually does not exceed. 1'5? (from the aircraft axis). The radius r of the
radar range-finder bracketing zone d.epend.s on the distance to the target D, the angle
of the bracketing zone, and. is equal to the product r = D tan 4). With an angle ePs = 15?,
the radius of the bracketing zone at a distance of 800 m is equal to 220 m, at 1000 in
it is 270 in, ,at 1200 mit is 320 in, and. at 1500 mit is 400 m.
A fighter aircraft breaking off the attack at a speed. of
900-1000 km/hr requires not more than 5-7 sec to escape
the bracketing zone to the sid.e (with an average accelera-
tion force of not less than 2). Consequently, when using
radar range-finders, the distance between successive at-
tacking pairs must exceed. the size of the firing position
by an amount equal to that by which the successive fighter
group will approach the target during the time of exit of
the previous group from the target bracketing zone. This
value is equal to the prod.uct of the mean rate of closure
and. the time required. for withdrawal to one sid.e in break-
ing off the attack (5 to 7 sec). With a rate of closure with
the target of 200 km/hr the latter amounts to 250-350 m.
In the case under discussion, the distance between suc-
cessively attacking pairs (or flights) of fighters must be
established, in accordance with an extent of the firing posi-
tion equal to 1000-1500 m.
When fighter pairs (or flights) make successive attacks
on a bomber squadron flying in a "wedge" forivation, i. e. ,
under conditions when the successive groups can aim at
different targets, the efficient distance depend.s on the Fig. 2. Diagram of target
method. and. ord.er of firing, attack by successive groups
If, for instance, the second. pair of fighters intends employing radar range-find.-
to fire rocket missiles at the beginning of the attack, the ers.
rI-Fdit, Dart - Saniti7ed Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/29 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002500220001-5
..........
: 32
distance between pairs is dAtermined, as in the previous case, by the type of range-
finder used. If, on the other han4J the second par intends to fire rocket missilab
from minimum distance on the command of the leader at the end of the attack, the
distance between pairs can be decreased when optical range-finders are used.
The smallest distance is equal to the distance by which the successive group
will approach the target in the time necetsary for the preceding group to MVO off
to the side by 300-400 114 in order to avoid being hit by explosions of the time-
fuzed rocket missiles.
At a fighter speed of 900-1000 km/hri, 64 sec are quite sufficient; therefore,
the minimum distance between pairs must be numerically equal to 6-7 times the rate
of closure. For instance, if the rate of closure is equal to 50 m/sect the distance
between pairs can be reduced to 300-350 in,
Successive attacks in e combat formation from great distances will lead to an
increase in time between attacks, will impair fire cooperation between the attacking
fighters, and will make it easier for the bombers to repel their attack.
Successive attacks at reduced distances will put the next group of attacking
fighters in a difficult position, since this distance will not permit the group to '
conduct aimed fire, particularly with rocket missiles, whereas the fighters them-
selves can be under the fire of the bombers.
The greatest errors in firing time-fazed rocket missiles are caueed by inac-
curate estimates of the range and by the tlelay setting in the fuse. Therefore, fadat
range-finders should be used whenever possible for range measurements. In using an
optical range-finder, the fighter pilot must put the determination of the range above
everything else. For this the pilot must; learn to identify the target easily and
know thoroughly its dimensions in order to have an accurate base.
One of the errors during firing of ttme-fused rocket missiles is firing from a
great distance which exceeds the rated capabilities of the sight. With such an error
and with automatic delay setting, the mistiles explode far Short of the target. Ala
manual delay setting, range straggling of bursts increases sharply and the effective,-
ness of the use of time-fuzed rocket missaes declines. Fighter pilots must know
well the sweep of aiming ranges for which the sight is designed under various operat.
ing conditions and for various missile ballistic characteristics.
A thorough study of the sight and the peculiarities of firing rocket missiles
will increase the level of fire preparednelms or fighter pilots.
,01.1
...
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved
N1 D1 Giigor'y -
.rIasified in Part - Sanitized COPY APP
for Release
d for Rel
6 50-Yr 2013/10/29 CIA-RDP81-01043R002500220001-5
a
?
?
BOMBING UNDER,
ADVERSE WEATHER
CONDITIONS
Lt. Col. A. M. KHALYAVIN
Maj. YE. F. MURATOV
The success of bombing by means of radar when the ground. is not visible depends
to a considerable extent on the efficiency and. teamwork of the crew, and above all
on the cooperation between the plane navigator and. the radar operator. Modern
sights make it possible to bomb either with preset wind, data or without them. How-
ever, the setting of wind, data into the sight considerably facilitates sighting and. im-
proves the quality of bombing. Therefore, proper gauging of wind in flight is of
great importance.
In our unit the radar operator determines the wind, since he has the opportunity
to follow continuously the radar check point on the control leg and to pick out the
most characteristic radar check points for computing the course angles (KU) and.
the slant ranges (ND) to them on the control leg. Use of a variable scale reduces
the error in determining the ND and. KU of the check point selected.. It is. difficult
for the plane's navigator to combine wind, gauging with the operations and calcula-
tions of navigating.
During the preparations for bombing we use pilot balloon data on the wind, and.
forecasts of wind.s at various altitudes. The pilot balloon data on wind. should. be
received, no later than 2 hours before bombing. Sometimes they are reported. to us
by radio just before bombing.
In bombing missions we do not put off determination of the wind until the control
leg, which is as a rule chosen not far from the target.(150-200 km). After the re-
quired. altitud.e has been attained, and the regime of horizontal flight established,
we immediately proceed to the performance of this task, which is especially impor-
tant in level bombing on the range or under combat conditions.
On the control leg near the target, various enemy AA defense facilities may
. make it difficult to maintain the assigned regime of horizontal flight necessary for
determining wind.. In such cases, the crew will have to use for bombing the wind.
data obtained on one of the legs of the route. It is necessary to take into account
the fact that data for wind. calculatiai cannot be determined, without considering the
weather situation, since the wind, changes direction and velocity on different legs
of the route. In preparing for the flight, therefore, we analyze the distribution of
air currents at the flight altitude on the basis of topographical pressure maps and.
select control legs for gauging the wind in such a way that the wind, forecast on them
50 Yr 2013/10/29? CIA-RDP81-01043R002500220001-5
34
,
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 9 50-Yr 2013/10/29 CIA-RDP81-01043R002500220001-5
A. M. Khajjavin F Muratov
751'4 68 10 12 14 16 18
I . t I
4) til
N
.
20 22
24
26 28 30
32
34
36
.1
I .
1 t
l
260"
38 46.42 44 46 48 50
.11.,,
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,
1,,as
.4111 lippar,?_290
:11---", t%
.d. -
*04:%10:11"fillaillii 1 eari 00* ,
.cr
03 - Cg
*4
FilloP""
t?,
v :
?,:t 41 4 ? Ole ill re
t #
14444 4t4,
*4
.411111111111
4.,?44-4414101.1"410 iw
*Ott'
t*
voi9pmiltitie
A.44v
4. vonn,?Ipolt toso
4rirevt04,0,
satiosa.
wiev* olume
N*140.104,4, 111111#4. ;$0004-10
gitaiiiiitt.--,-1111113111111_
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Fig. 1. Grid, for computing ground. speed. and. angles of drift.
11011111101MIONINIWSIMIMIMMIIIIMMIMINO
coincides approximately with the direction and. velocity of the air currents over the
target.
In our opinion, the most accurate and. easiest method. of determining the wind. in
flight by means of a radar sight is by taking two bearings on a radar check point
located, off the line of flight, For measuring wind by this method., a plainly visible
check point if possible, not too large ? is usually Selected.. Check points of
large area change their configuration when the course angles to them change. This
introduces considerable inaccuracy in the computation of the KU [course angle] and.
the ND [ slant range] which leads to errors in computing the ground speed. and. the
angle of drift. The error in determining the ground. speed. d.epend.s on the distance
traveled, between computations, and.the shorter this distance the greater is the er-
ror. Therefore we.take a time base between computations within the limits of
5-8 minutes of flying time. Its magnitude is limited by the visibility of the radar
check points. The shorter the distance between the first and the second computa-
tion of the KU and ND of the radar check point, the greater is the error in measur-
ing the angle of drift.
In flying over a locality with a large number of uniform radar check points, there
is a danger of making the computation for the second. determination of the KU and.
ND from an entirely different check point that resembles the first. To exclud.e the
possibility of such instances, the radar operator constantly follows the radar check
point selected. for measuring the wind, or chooses a reliably recognized reference
point.
The data obtained. from the .IKO [PPI] of the sight are processed. by the navigator
or the radar operator on a grid. fpr determining ground. speed. and. drift angle. This
grid is mad.e on a scale of 5 km to 1 cm and. makes it possible to compute W [ground.
Prissifid in Part - Sanitized Copy Approve or e
ww=ziartriarissamainsr
Bombin Under Adverse Weather Conditions
MII11101111111111111111M11111111111111ar
Fig. 2. Determining W and. US
by twice measuring the distance
to the check point on the course
line or close to it.
35
speed] and US [drift angle] more accurately than
with a wind. computer. Slant ranges are converted.
to horizontal distances by the graph attached. to this
grid, (Fig. 1).
On some flights we find. W and. US (for com-
puting wind.) by twice measuring the distances to
the check point on the course line or near it (Fig. 2),
or by two aircraft position markers (Fig. 3).
The accuracy in determining the wind by the
methods described is quite satisfactory for bomb-
ing with the automatic sight. To verify the data
processed. by the sight after the wind is set into the
computer, the navigator refines the angle of sight-
ing and the angle of drift, performing synchroniza-
tion and cross trailing by a radar checkpoint on
the control leg parallel to the bomb run or direct-
ly on the bomb run. By the sighting angle obtain-
ed. from the navigator, the radar operator com-
putes the ND for releasing the bomb and sets on it
the computer marker for checking bombing range.
The slant range is computed by the formulas:
ND H
rel = H sec (po
covp
or on the NL-1O [navigator's rule]:
sin (90?- cp?
H ND?
Strongly affecting the accuracy of bombing is the calibration of the sight; it
should be accurately adjusted. just before bombing. In bombing under range condi-
tions, the radar operator checks the "zero altitude" and.. the "5:1" and, "6:1"frequen-
cy divider before each bomb run. Then he sets the antenna in forward. coverage
and. the scale on the IKO within 30 km. Having set the work selector switch on "cali-
brate", the radar operator turns the computer marker on an "ND" (by using the
slant-range drum) equal to twice the bombing altitud.e plus 2 km and informs the
navigator that the calibration of the search part has been completed and. that the
sight is ready for the calibration of the sighting part.
The entry onto the beginning of the bomb run (NBP) is one of the most important
stages in flights for bombing with the radar sight under adverse weather conditions.
The approach to the NBP and. to the target is Made, as a rule, from a characteristic
check point; but if there is no such check point (or if for tactical reasons it is inex-
pedient to pass over it) then the approach to the target can be mad.e by turning the
aircraft on a precomputed target course angle (KUt). We have used. this method. in
approaching large-scale, plainly visible tactical targets when the bomb run was pre-
50-Yr 2013/10/29 CIA RDP81 01043R002500220001-5
-^-?-?41
36 A M nal avin Ye F Muratov
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
cisely prescribed, and. when the bombing was done by corner reflectors on bombing
ranges. We brought the plane to the area of the target with a deliberate deviation
of 40-60 km to the sid.e of it (the magnitude of the deviation depends on the distance
at which the target blip is visible on the IKO scope). Spotting the target at a dis-
tance of 100-120 km, the navigator gave the pilot the command to turn onto a course
perpendicular to the bomb run or close to it. After the aircraft entered. the ,MKapp
(magnetic course of approach to the NBP), the navigator followed the target blip on
MS
ihill.?.4?141411.....__C_our se line
00140.1 MOMS ????? YEMM NOM.
*041
N true
Line of assigned
track
Nom,
S On 49
IBU= lateral deviation
FMPU = actual magnetic co
ZMPU = given It
MK = magnetic course
MS = aircraft position
IPO =I: true bearing of check
of
urse
acttial
angle
point
KUO c check point course angle
USbc = angle of drift on bomb course]
4'
Fig, 3. Determining W and US by two aircraft position markers.
the IKO and, at the moment it reached KUt ['course angle of target] , gave the Orri -
mand to turn onto the bomb run. The course angle for the beginning of the turn to
the target is determined by the formula:
KUt= BMK [bomb run magnetic course] - MKapp + ce ,
where oc is the correction for the radius of turn of the aircraft (cfc will have a plus
sign when the target is situated in the left half of the IKO scope and a minus sign
when it is in the right. half),
The a correction is computed on the ground during the preparation for the bomb-
ing mission. Its magnitude depends on the true flying speed, the angle of bank ri in
the turn, the length of the bomb run. Sbr, and the angle of approach to the bomb run.
We will present an example of computing KUt, taking g into consideration.
BMK = 90?; Vtrue 800 kmihr; 13 = 20?;
Sb = 50 km;
MKapp = 00; KUt= ?
?
50-Yr 2013/10/29: CIA-RDP81-01043R002500220001-5
v'r
Bombing Under Adverse Weather Conditions
37
V2 14 km;
g tan/'3
URL
cic = 0.28;
Sbr
UR = turn angle; LUR = turn angle to left]
LUR = R tan UR = 14 km;
2
KUt = 90? - 16? = 740.
Fig. 4. Method of turning the aircraft onto the bomb run on the course
angle of the target (KUt).
In flight, it is convenient to use a table of corrections for the turning radius of
the aircraft for given conditions of approach to the target. Usually the speed, the
bank of the aircraft, and. the length of the bomb run are known in advance and re-
main practically unchanged in flight. The table should contain only the angle of ap-
proach to the bomb run, which is equal to BMK [bomb run magnetic course] + MKapp
and the a correction,
For example,. for Virue = 800 km/hr; p = 20?; and. Sbr = 50 km, the table would
appear as follows:
!MK* Mart
600
700
80?
900
100?
110?
1200
a
9?
11?
13?
16?
190
220
26?
For taking into account the angle of drift on the bomb run prior to the beginning
of turn, the operator sets the course line of the IKO light filter at an angle equal to
USbc (usbc is the angle of drift on the bomb course). As thee aircraft comes out on
? Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/29: CIA-RDP81-01043R002500220001-5
-
??????'
?
N\
?
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/29: CIA-RDP81-01043R002500220001-5
38 A? M. KhalLavin, Ye. F. Muratov
4.1111111111
the computed. KUt the pilot begins his turn at the command. of the navigator or radar
operator.
During the entire turn the navigator and. the operator watch the movement of the
target blip on the IKO scopes and, comparing the course angles to the target with
the compass readings, give the pilot command.s for increasing or decreasing the
bank in such a way that at the moment the aircraft comes out of the turn the magne-
tic course is equal to the bombing course. If the course angle of the target changes
more rapidly than the compass reading, the bank of the aircraft is reduced.; and.,
conversely, if the course angle of the target changes more slowly than the magnetic
course, the bank is increased., in an attempt to gain a position where the course angle
of the target and the difference BMK - MK (MK is the magnetic course at the moment
of cross-checking the readings ) are equal in magnitud.e and change uniformly during
the course of the turn.
Bringing the aircraft out on the bomb course is analogous to bringing it out on a
landing course by the OSP [ILS] system. During the entire turn to the target, the
radar operator takes readings of the course angles to the target on the IKO and
reports them to the pilot, for whom they replace the readings of the ARK [automatic
radio compass] needle. This facilitates intercepting the bomb course when there
is no characteristic radar check point at the beginning of the bomb run.
The principal task of the radar operator in bombing with the radar sight is that
of making the target blips on the IKO scope clearly visible for the entire course of
the bomb run.
In bombing on a range, we achieved, this in the following manner. At the begin-
ning of the aircraft s turn onto the bomb course, the radar operator raised the anten-
na to the maximum, and. about 150 -200 prior to entry onto the bomb course lowered
it to 5-80 and. switched it to sector rocking. This procedure of antenna operation
provided excellent visibility of the target on the IKO scopes during the progress of
the entire turn. At the moment of changing from a regime of preliminary synchron-
ization to basic synchronization at a flying altitude of 10-12 km, the tilt angle of the
antenna was within 10-12?, while at the moment of releasing the bomb it reached
15-18?.
In the process of flying from the NBP to the moment of bomb release, the radar
operator periodically reported to the navigator the slant ranges to the target, its
position relative to the course line and the sighting marker, and also advised the
navigator of changing over to the sight, the beginning of the safe release zone (under
range conditions), release of the bombs (arrival of the target at the ND of release),
and the end of the safe release zone.
The slant ranges when changing over to the sight and of the beginning and end of
the safe release zone are computed. in advance in the preparations for flight and are
determined, in relation to the bombing conditions and the size of the range.
Such a procedure of operation and. cooperation between the navigator and the
radar operator in bombing with a radar sight und.er adverse weather conditions facil-
itates better execution of the mission and reduces repeat approaches to a minimum.
?
?
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/10/29: CIA-RDP81-01043R002500220001-5
Returning from night flights
Photo: T. N. Mel'nik
?
,
,
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
LOW--ALTITUDE BOMBING
1. Target appEck:
The success of low-altitude bombing depends to a great extent on the accuracy of
the approach to the target. If the aircraft approaches the target inaccurately, it is
necessary for the crew to execute an additional maneuver in order to carry out its
mission.
On the basis of our own experience we would like to tell of the peculiarities en-
countered. by our crew while carrying out route flights and. bombing in winter and,
summer, under normal and. adverse weather conditions.
Naturally, the carrying out of low-altitude flights is bound up with the constant
observation of ground check points, and therefore it is necessary to devote great atten-
tion to questions of visual orientation. In order to picture better and more easily
the peculiarities of low-altitude air navigation, we shall point out the range of visual
detection of check points and the time at the disposal of the navigator for identifying
them. With good. clear air at an altitud.e of 100-200 m over level terrain it is possi-
ble to detect various check points at a distance of from 15 to 25 km, whereas it is
impossible to recognize any additional details (river bends, crossroads, distinctive
forest edges, etc.) at such a distance. From such distances churches, factory
chimneys, etc., by means of which it is possible to identify a check point, are dis-
tinctly visible. From the above-mentioned altitude it is possible to determine the
distinguishing features of populated. points (district centers, large villages) at a dis-
tance of up to 10-12 km.
In carrying out low-altitude flights, particularly under winter conditions, one
should not count on large ranges of target detection or on distinctive check points.
Therefore, preparation for these flights should be carried out with particular thorough-
ness, Before each bombing sortie we studied in detail the flight route, its turning
points and the areas of distinctive control check points. Usually we took the follow-
ing maps: a basic flight map with a stale of 1:1,000,000 and maps with scales of
1:200,000 and. 1:500,000.
The map with the 1:Z00,000 scale is used in all cases when it is necessary to de-
terrnine (identify) some small check point or to carry out an approach to a small-
scale target, of which there are many in the course of coordinated action with ground
troops.
In order to facilitate target spotting, the target approach leg of the flight route
(transferred from the map with the 1:1,000,000 scale according to characteristic
points)is plotted on the map with the 1:200,000 scale. Twenty-five-kilometer mark-
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Low-Altitude Bombin 41
ings, mad.e beforehand. for the simplification of dead reckoning., are also indicated on
this segment. The reading of these markings on all legs is begun from the turning
check point.
A thorough study of the flight route and a proper preparation of the night map make
it possible for the crew to spend. the minimum amount of time on the visual checking
of the route, since both the pilots and. navigators picture to themselves mentally the
sequence of check points along the prescribed, flight route, For dead. reckoning and
for determining the position of the aircraft we make extensive use, in addition to
visual observation, of the navigational, barometric, radio and radar instruments
installed. in the navigator's compartment.
Magnetic compasses are used. just as in ordinary flights. I would. only like to
point out that in preparation for low-altitude flights it is necessary to pay particular
attention to magnetic anomalies in the area of the forthcoming flight. True, it was
not necessary for us to fly over such regions, but the experience of other crews
shows that the strongest influence of magnetic anomalies on compasses exten.ds to
altitudes of 1500 in. Therefore, while flying over a zone of magnetic anomaly it is
necessary to switch to air navigation by means of ground. check points, and. to stay
on course with a previously compensated GPK [directional gyrocompass] and. by
using the astrocompass when possible.
If anomalies are ignored along the flight route, one may find, himself in a difficult
situation which may even result in loss of orientation.
The .ARK-5 [automatic radio compass] radio compasses are used. just as in medium
and high-altitude flights. The difference consists only in the radius of their possible
use. The barometric instruments ? the VD-20 [air pressure] altimeter and the
KUS-1200 airspeed indicator ? were used as usual. The high-altitude ratio alti-
meter was used in all flights. The quality of reception of the reflected pulse up to
an altitude of 50 in and higher was good. Altitude reading is simple and convenient;
a reading accuracy of within 5 in is possible.
The NI-50 B navigational indicator was used. in all flights without exception for
checking the course and for determining the wind. The wind was determined by
cross-checking the aircraft's no-wind coordinates furnished by the indicator and the
actual markings of the aircraft's position.
On the basis of flights carried out by us, it is possible to say that, in view of the
negligible magnitud.e of the wind near the ground, there is practically no need for
measuring it. Of course, if the wind reaches 30 or more kilometers per hour it is
imposSible to disregard it, since under such conditions the drift of the aircraft at
speeds of 500-700 km/hr is more than 2-3? and the failure to take it into account may
lead to considerable lateral deviation.
The crew has very little time for transition to conducting,detailed low-altitude
orientation; therefore, the NI-50B meter readings (even the no-wind ones) of the
track flown and the special 25-kilometer markings on the map facilitate the execu-
tion of this task in the shortest time possible.
The accuracy of the indicator reading is somewhat increased if the value of the
longitudinal wind, component is set in on the wind. input. Thus, during one flight
(average MPU [magnetic course angle] = 80?), at the beginning of the flight route I
determined our groundspeed from the time and. distance traveled. It turned. out to
be greater than our airspeed by 20 km/hr. On the course input I set the map angle
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equal to the MPU (800); on the wind. input, the KU [course angle] 800; the wind, di-
rection "arbitrary", equal to 80?, and.wind. velocity 20 km/hr (if the ground.speed.
were less, it would. be necessary to set the wind, direction opposite to the MPU
in this case 260?).
After the aircraft had. flown 350 kin, the course line computer showed. an error
of 5-. 7 km which was of no practical importance in the determination of the aircraft's
position in this area, The accuracy was quite sufficient.
Since in flights over ngged. and. mountainous terrain a frequent change in the wind
is possible, it is advisable tp set the wind, velocity at zero on the input.
I would. like to draw attention to the fact that the navigator is not always in a posi-
tion to measure the drift with the instruments at his disposal, In this he should. be
aided. by the rear gunner who, in the absence of severe turbulence, can with suffi-
cient accuracy determine the drift with the aid. of his sighting station.
On our plane the rear gunner carried, out this task in. the following manner, First
of all he would. lock the sighting station in the direction of the aircraftTs longitudinal
axis in the horizontal plane. The station would. be lifted, from the support along the
vertical. He would. set a base line of 7 m and a range of 200 m on the sight. Then
he would. switch on the transformer and, this would conclude the preparation of the
station for measuring drift. Choosing any small check point (a tree, a chimney, an
isolated. house, etc.) over which the aircraft was flying, he would. carry on further
observation of it in the field, of vision of the sight. As the check point would. recede,
he would. determine the direction of its displacement relative to the central point of
the collimating ring. The direction of the displacem ent of the check point shows
the direction of the drift of the aircraft (since the rear gunner faces backwards, he
observes the relative shifts of the check points and. of the aircraft in reverse), and.
the amount of driftang is determined. by the angle of the ring. With the data cited.
above
Base mm
17 xRange mm
7' 500
500 zlO.
17200
When the check point has considerably receded. from the aircraft, the aerial gun-
ner determines visually how many rings go between the longitudinal axis of the air-
craft (the sight is fixed.) and.the check point under observation. The number of rings
in this case correspond.s to the number of degrees of drift of the aircraft. Such a
method of measurement made it possible to determine the angle of drift with an ac-
curacy of ip to 1-i. 50; this is quite sufficient for air navigation and. bombing.
While carrying out flights we even devoted, attention to such a method. of wind.
measurement as the purely visual observation of surrounding conditions. A partic-
ularly distinctive check point for this purpose is smoke rising from factory chim-
neys, from the smokestacks of standing locomotives, from bor]Iires in the forest,
etc. Of cour se, it is not possible to determine the wind, accurately in this way,
but one can get a general picture of the amount and direction of the wind,, Estimat-
ing how the air movement under observation (by means of the smoke) is "helping"
the flight, whether it is decreasing or increasing the ground.speed of the flight and.
in which direction there is drift (to the left or to the right), it is possible, with suf-
ficient accuracy for all practical purposes, to introduce corrections for the course
being followed. and.f or the flight speed.. The accuracy of such wind, gauging entirely
depends on the. degree of the navigator's 0training. Incidentally, such skill is ac-
.
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Low-Altitude Bombing
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quired. very rapidly.
The most valuable feature of this method. is that it does not require any cornputa-
tions. I think that those navigator s who will find it nece s sary to fly at low altitud.e s
will appraise this method. of approximate determination for its true worth.
HIS FAVORITE PROFESSION
M.N.Kozh.in
Well-deserved, prestige is enjoyed at the Air
Force school by instructor Lt.Col.M.N.Kozhin.
He fervently loves his profession. Thoroughly pre-
paring for his classes, Kozhin conducts them in an
interesting and. profitable manner. He devotes
much attention to the practical training of cadets
directly on the airfield., in the cockpit, on the stand.
and. on trainers prepared. by him. Kozhin imparts
his rich experience as a teacher and. method.ologist
to the others. Communists have put great conli-
d.ence in him by electing him a member of the Party
Bureau, Officer Kozhin has on many occasions re-
ceived. expressions of gratitud.e from the command.
for the fine results of his training and. education of
future pilots.
I
A radar sight giving a sufficient view of the terrain being flown over at altitudes
of 100-200 m was used. by.us in all flights without exception, both for air navigation
as well as for determining the wind., With the presence of good radar check points,
the sight to a con sid.erable degree facilitates air navigation and. transition to detailed.
identification of the check points being flown over and. of the area of the target.
In view of the fact that the best ranges. of detection of radar check points are
mainly within 50km, it is advisable to use a va,riable scanning scale (10-70km),
extending it to a magnitud.e of approximately 40-50 km. But if flight over a dis-
tinctive check point at a greater distance is anticipated., naturally it is necessary, to
set, the scale at 70 km. It was in practice unnecessary to use a scale of. 100 and
200 km at low altitude.
:Carrying out flights over steppe regions and.using the radar sight, we were able
to observe railroad.s at a distance of up to 30 km on the PPI scope.
Measuring the di8tance to radar check points located, on the radio-range leg, we
would. immediately obtain a complete picture of the correctness of our maintenance.
of the prescribed, flight route (with respect to heading),
I would. like to draw particular attention to the execution of low-altitud.e flights
at night. One such flight was carried, out by us at an altitud.e of 300 in and at a speed.
of 550-600 km/hr. Weather conditions were as follows: overcast, 10 points; visi-
bility of illuminated check points along the horizon, 35-40 km. During this flight
we became convinced, that low-altitud.e navigational conditions are still more corn-
plicated. at night than in the daytime, even at a lower altitude. What makes them
complicated.? In the first place, it is impossible to identify check points by their
contours and. by additional distinctive details (approach roads, small rivers, churches,.
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44 N S Zatse a A. I. Filippov B. S Chuvikov
crossroads near the check point, etc.); in the second. place, it is extremely difficult
to collate the map with the terrain due to the blinding effect of the light necessary
for reading the map; in the third. place, when the check point is not illuminated, the
range of its detection is reduced. to 2-5 km, which does not even allow the minimum
time necessary for identifying a check point; in the fourth place, limited visibility
actually excludes visual orientation. There are, of course, still other peculiarities
which complicate flying, but it seems to me that this is sufficient for coming to the
conclusion that the detection of small targets at low altitudes and at high flight speeds
is a very difficult task. As the basic instruments for conducting orientation and.
dead reckoning we used. the NI-50B navigational indicator as the course-line com-
puter, and the radar sight for scanning within a radius of up to 40 km the terrain
being flown over, depending on the size and. radar contrast of the check point.
When check points are not illuminated., it is possible, with the aid of the radar
sight, to fly the aircraft to populated. centers of approximately regional importance.
The range of their detection was within the limits of 25-40 km. Other navigational
equipment is used. in night flight just as in the daytime.
Such, in short, are the peculiarities of air navigation and. of the navigational con-
ditions encountered. by a crew while approaching a target at low altitude.
Col. N. S. Zatsepa,
Military Navigator First Class
Low-altitude bombing at high speeds is an extremely complex aspect of combat
employment. The main difficulty for the crew lies in the fact that the ground objec-
tives beneath the aircraft shift with a high angular speed, as a result of which scan-
ning of the terrain is greatly reduced, Even 1,1nder bombing range conditions crews
making their first flights spot the target area with difficulty, particularly if observa-
tion is conducted. through an optical sight.
Our pilots and navigators successfully overcome all difficulties arising during
the process of mastering low-altitude bombing. Over extremely rugged and moun-
tainous terrain targets are hit'accurately on the run. atlow attitude, not only by individ-
ual aircraft but also by elements.
It is about the experience of our topnotch crews that we would like to say some-
thing.
Our training for low-altitude bombing begins with the execution of preliminary
complex tasks. The first task consists of approaching the bombing range area at
low altitude for the purpose of familiarization with the outline and the visibility of
the targets. It should be said that the targets themselves on our bombing range are
outfitted with vertical panels 2. 5 - 3 in high in the form of a fence. This is done
in order to bring the representation of the target closer to actual conditions ? in-
deed, to a crew at low altitude all ground objectives in reality seem not flat but
dimensional. The crews fulfill the second preliminary task for the sake of training
in sighting with photobombing. As a rule, sighting is accomplished before the land-
ing approach (from altitudes of 500-300m) with the AP-5 [autopilot] switched off,
but with the course stabilizer switched on. To state it differently, the crew turns
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-Altitude Bomb in: 45
the aircraft in accordance with the KIP [true compass bearing].
Only after these preliminary complex exercises have been well executed. is the
crew allowed, to prceceed to low-altitude bombing.
In order to hit the target accurately from low altitudes the crew determines the
sighting data (US, ) in good. time. We recommend making the necessary computa-
tions at a distance of not more than 50 km from the target and. on a course parallel
to the bomb course. The angle of drift (BURP) [lateral deflection of radar sight]
is measured. in two ways: by the speed at which the ground. passes and. by the mark-
ings of the actual positions of the aircraft.
The dropping angle can be determined by the "cold rangintmethod, the essence
of which consists in the navigator's measuring the time of traveling the base line
(it must correspond. to the no-wind or computed dropping angle) under a flight regime
corresponding to that of combat and. at the true bombing altitude. The stopwatch
Is set the moment a small check point comes into the cross hairs of the optical sight
at a sighting angle equal to cP , and. is stopped. the moment the check point passes
the vertical with. the gyroscope switched on.
Let US determine the course followed, by an aircraft with the time of bombfall
S T
and bomb deviation
from which
A
S H tan = A,
= tb , and.+ = t A.
The time base of the dropping angle, clocked by the stopwatch, Fills the time of
the bomb trail must be (with a correct dropping angle) equal to the time of bombfall
from a given altitude. If there is no such equality, it is necessary to correct the
dropping angle.
The relation will be expressed by the formula:
tb + t T,
in which tb is the time base of UV [sighting angle], equal to the dropping angle;
t ills the time of flying the bomb trail;
T is the time of the bombfall.
The time of traveling the base line, as we have already said, is measured in the
air, but the bomb-trail time is computed on the ground before the flight, assuming
that W = V.
If the sum of tb + t A is greater than T, it is necessary to decrease 4) ; and, vice
versa, to increase 4) if the sum turns out to be less. By how much should0 be
increased or decreased?, By solving a specific example, it is not difficult to con-
vince oneself that a difference of 1 second alters the dropping angle by 1. 5 - 20
.
Flights indicate that BURP and 4) can be definitized simultaneously by the "cold
rangingimethod, according to a base line equal to the dropping angle. However,
it should be remembered that if 4) , according to which the base line is read, is
located within the limits of 60-70?, the US will, in fact, be equal to half of the meas-
ured US, and if 4) exceeds 70?, the US will be equal to 1/4 of the measured US.
The navigator measures the true altitude, as usual, with the aid of a high-altitude
radar altimeter. But the pilot, without fail, checks the measurement with a low-
altitude radar altimeter. After this the indicated flight altitude, which the pilot main-
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46 S. Zatsea, A.I.Filipov c.ov
tains on the bomb course, is established..
A few words about the peculiarities of working with an optical sight.
By means of the synchronization knob we set 4) on the sight at 200 less than com-
puted. For example, if 4) = 72?, on the sight 4) is set at 52?. We set the sighting
angle at 700 and. increase it by 20? with the aid. of the attenuator which we leave
switched, on throughout the entire bombing. We release the bombs only by means
of the automatic release when the UV and readings coincide, since when the com-
bat button is used for this purpose, additional errors due to delayed reflexes ?
common to all navigators ? occur.
The cross hairs of the sight are laid over the target best of all by using the
sighting knob. We do not recommend turning the sighting knob to "bracketing"
since as a result of this navigators very often throw the dropping angle off and. cause
the bombs to fall short.
It is much easier to hold. the target in the cross hairs of the sight by switching on
the W motor 5-6 seconds before release as recommended. in the instructions. Even
in light turbulence it is necessary to use the vertical gyro. As a result of failure
to maintain horizontal flight with. a caged. gyroscope, considerable bomb deflections
in range are possible. If, on the bomb Course the aircraft gains or loses altitude
at the rate of 1 m/sec, the dropping angle will decrease or increase accordingly by
10; this results in a bomb short or over of 100-150 m.
It is necessary for the navigator to watch the longitudinal stabilization bubble of
the gyroscope, on the position of which the dispersion of the bombs with respect to
range depends, since lateral errors are negligible.
Corrective turns on the bomb course during crosstrailing must be extremely ac-
curate, since at high indicated speeds along the course the a-rcraft is very stable
and, therefore, it is not easy to execute a corrective turn onto a new course.
Such has been some of our experience in low-altitude bombing.
Maj. A. I.Filippov, Military Pilot First Class,
Capt. B. S. Chuvikov, Military Navigator First Class
PERMANENTLY ON THE UNIT ROSTERS
B. V. Panin (1941),
,In battles with the Fascist German in-
vaders, an alumnus of the Lenin Komsomol,
pilot Boris Vladimirovich Panin displayed
courage, bravery and. true heroism.
During one flight it was necessary for
Panin to photograph an enemy airfield. At
an altitude of 5700 m he was attacked by seven
enemy fighters. Partin put the aircraft into
a dive and flew off to the side of the target.
The radio operator informed him: "There is
no one behind." But in a few minutes the
aircraft was attacked again. The voice of
the radio punier resounded in the earphones:
"I got one Banking the plane, Panin saw a
black trail from the plunging fighter. A little
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?Low-Altitude Bombing
47
higher the cloud cover was visible. Profiting by the confusion of the Fascist pilots,
he put the plane into a climb, turned, and entered the clouds. The enemy thought
that Partin had. gone. But that is not the way of a Soviet pilot. Panin turned the
aircraft and. flew it to the reconnaissance objective. "Did the enemy believe that
I fled, isn't he waiting?" And. here was the airfield,. There were no enemy fighters
in the air. Having photographed the .assigned objective ,the scout headed for the
east.
On 4 August 1943, while carrying out a combat mission, this fearless pilot died
the death of the brave.
By decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, Guards Junior
Lt. B..V. Panin was posthumously awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union,
By order of the Minister of Defense of the USSR he has been forever entered. on
the rosters of unit X.
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Flights are well organized. in unit X. Accurate control, carried out from the
command post, here plays an important role.
In the photo: Military Pilot First Class, Maj.I. M. Shcherbo, a master of
aerial combat and. of sniper fire, at the command post. Photo: G. I. Makarov
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
A YOUNG PILOT FLIES
ON INSTRUMENTS
? Lt. Col. D. K. KUDIS
Military Pilot First Class
There is a solid, heavy overcast above the ground. You cannot make out where
the lower limits of this grey covering begin. The air is damp and colorless. Look-
ing closely you see torn shreds of clouds floating just overhead; you hardly have
time to follow them with your gaze before they merge with the dark grey mass and.
dissolve into it. And there is not a glimmer of light. A gloomy picture! But pi-
lots think of it differently on a flying day, glad of the nice "pea?soup".
Climbing in the air, the weather reconnaissance plane reports to the flight con-
troller the altitude of the cloud base and the thickness of the clouds. But then the
metal wings penetrate the dark mass of the clouds and burst into "freedom"; then you
see the dazzlingly bright rays of the sun spilling over the snow-white cloud, deck, fill-
ing the cockpit of the aircraft with warmth and light. And you see the clear and.
peaceful distances stretching all about.
Having completed.his mission, the pilot penetrates the cloud deck and lands.
Instrument flying! It requires great skill, an exertion, of moral and physical
strength, and systematic training. The phrase "instrument flight" has become cus-
tomary. However, the flights themselves are not customary for all. The most
highly trained pilots feel confident and calm in the clouds. Such confidence comes
only when you learn to transfer your attention to the instruments immediately upon
entering the clouds', to "read" them correctly and to react in accordance with their
readings. Only under these conditions is it possible to form an exact and clear idea
of the position of the aircraft in space.
Man, unfortunately, is not adapted to "feeling" the aircraft without seeing the na-
tural horizon; and even more important than this, sensations ? in such cases may be
deceiving. Sometimes ,they suggest that which is not at all so, and if you do not learn
to trust the instruments and to determine the position of the aircraft in .space in ac-
cordance with their readings, you will not be able to fly.
Pilots intercepting aerial targets often fly for a prolonged period in the clouds,
keeping an eye not only on the instruments and the position of the aircraft, but also
on the target which is also flying in the clouds. It is possible to spot and attack the
target only with the aid of a radar sight. But this is the second., the more advanced
stage of fighter training.
Until now among a certain segment of pilots the opinion still exists that not all pi-
lots can fly under adverse weather conditions at night. A natural 'question. suggests
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50 D. K. Kudis
itself: Why?
If the pilot flies successfully at night under favorable weather conditions and even
In the daytime under adverse ones, and. is suddenly found. untrained, for flying in
clouds at night, should. not the cause be sought, not in his capabilities, but rather in
the errors committed. by the instructors during the initial training period.?
? Flights under adverse weather conditions are a difficult aspect of training. Pre-
cisely for this reason it is necessary, during transition to them, to take particular
care in considering the individual characteristics of each pilot. Only by knowing
well the psychological peculiarities of the trainee is it possible to raise the degree
of his training correctly and. consistentiyto the level of a pilot first class.
Nervousness on the part of the most experienced, pilot before a flight under ad.-
verse conditions is a legitimate feeling. But the more instrument flying he does,
the less nervous he is apt to be, and. the more confidence he acquires in the success-
ful accomplishment of his mission. In individual instances of flying in the cloud.s,
especially at night, the pilot experiences not only nervousness but also fear. This
prevents himfrom concentrating his attention on the instruments and. from calmly
sizing up the situation.
Let us take an example, A certain pilot flies well with. his instructor in the closed
cockpit of a two-place aircraft under ordinary weather conditions. He has complet-
ed. a program of instrument flights in a closed, cockpit, has soloed, in the daytime in
a thin cloud, cover with a high base. Once he was forced. to make a landing approach,
when the weather suddenly became worse: visibility was reduced. to 2 km and. the
overcast dropped to 200 m. The pilot found.hirnself in what was for him an adverse
situation. The flight controller clearly and. calmly gave command.s from the ground.;
the pilot acted. correctly and. landed. the aircraft safely. However, it was a hard. and.
painful experience for him. Sharing his impressions and experiences during this
flight, he frankly admitted., "I never experienced, such sensations while flying under
normal conditions at school. I flew like everybod.y else. In the regiment I used to
d.r earn of flying in the cloud.s and. felt proud. of the pilots who flew und.er adverse con-
ditions, with limited. visibility, and. who could. accurately and. confidently make their
landing computations. I knew that it wasn't easy, and. carefully studied. the instru-
ments, often practiced. in the cockpit of a plane, and prepared. myself for flight.
"My first instrument flight in. a closed cockpit was very difficult. I distributed.
my attention among the instruments incorrectly: keeping an eye on the bank, I would.
not notice a change in altitude; maintaining altitude, I would. fail to maintain my course
and speed. The second flight was the same. Later I learned, to act correctly and
received, a good evaluation; but I did.not have confidence in being able to solo on in-
struments. ,I did not admit this to anyone. During my first solo flights I piloted, on
instruments with comparatively good visibility. Of course, this did. not bolster my
confidence.
"I understood that, in contrast to the others, I was in need. of a greater number of
flights with the instructor under varied. conditions. When I entered. the cloud.s in a
fighter for the first time, I was jumpy; but then I quickly calmed down, since I knew
that at any minute I could. leave the clouds. And that is what I did.
"When I had. to fly above the cloud, cover for the first time and. I heard by radio that
the weather in the area of the airfield had. suddenly become worse, I was so alarmed
that I thought of using my parachute. True, ?the thought that I had to handle the flight,
?
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A Youn Pilot Flies on Instruments 51
that for this purpose I had. sufficient practice, proved, stronger; but nervousness pre-
vented. me from correctly distributing my attention among the instruments. I often
mad.e corrective turns, although there was no need. for this. I wanted. to see the
runway more quickly.
"Penetrating the cloud. deck, out of confusion I descended. to an inadmissibly low
altitude, almost to hed.gehopping level. Fortunately the plane came out on. a line
'with the runway; but I overshot in my calculations. There could. be no question of
a go-around., nor did the flight controller insist upon it. Evidently he understood.
my condition, basing his jud.gement on my landing approach and. profile. When I
climbed, out of the cockpit I did. not even feel ashamed. of my fear, but only felt re-
sentment for not having learned, earlier to fly und.er such conditions. But, to be
sure, that was up to me. After all, the instructor could. not have known my thoughtsly
No, in the young pilot's opinion, he could. not have known. But is is necessary
to know. Many pilots make a big ? sometimes fatal ? mistake by concealing their
doubts, and. commanders commit a no lesser one by not studying to a sufficient de-
gree the pilots' mentality and. temperament. I am convinced, that if this pilot had
had. a sufficient number of practice flights with the instructor under minimal weather
conditions, he would. not have experienced, such a mental trauma.
It is possible to cite still another, almost analogous, case. The pilot carried.
out his first flight in the cloud, cover with the instructor when the weatherWa's such
that the instructor himself encountered difficulties and. was able to land the aircraft
(with a low overcast and. rain) only after a go-around. And. the young pilot natural-
ly concluded, that if such a task proved, to be difficult for an experienced, highly trained.
instructor, what would. happen to him when he began to fly alone and. found. himself
in a similar situation? It is no wonder that for some time he lost faith in his own
abilities and. mastered. instrument flying later than the others.
The cause here lay not at all in physiological deviations from the norm, as the
physicians were inclined, to think. The experienced, commander understood. this
and. now the pilot flies in all kind.s of weather, in the daytime and. at night, and. re-
calls with a smile his former feeling of fear.
It is too bad. that some commanders ignore adverse conditions while flying with
young pilots -- and not only with young ones! ? And this lead.s in the end to a lack of
confidence on the part of the pilot in his own ability when he finds himself in a more
adverse situation,
Of course, not all young pilots react thus to their first flights in the cloud cover.
Each one has his own peculiarities. However, in the initial training stage it is
necessary to approach the choice of flying weather with care and. not to rely on
satisfactory evaluations received, for exercises carried out in a closed. cockpit. The
morale of a pilot is different when he find.s himself alone in the clouds than when he
is flying with the instructor in a two-place aircraft. This is only natural. It is
possible to cite a number of examples in which young pilots, finding themselves in
an adverse situation, particularly at night, have confused. the instruments, and. have
incorrectly determined, the altitude and. attitude of the aircraft. Only self-control
and faith in the instrument readings gave them the confidence which is necessary
under complicated flying conditions.
I shall cite an instance from my own personal experience. I was carrying out
my fourth night flight under adverse weather conditions. In the cloud.s my ARK-5
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52 D. K. Kudis
[automatic radio compass] failed. Distrust of the remaining instruments immediate-
ly set in, It seemed. that the course was inaccurate and that the time for approach-
ing the airfield, was stretching out too long, and. I involuntarily began to doubt the cor-
rectness of the radio bearings received while approaching the airfield. and the land.-
ing course. My state of alarm ceased. only when I became convinced, of the correct-
ness of the readings of the other instruments. Since that time I check the operation
of the ARK-5 on the ground before flight with particular thoroughness.
By this example I d.o not mean to say that night flying in the clouds involves extra-
ordinary difficulties. No! But it offers convincing proof that it is necessary to
prepare thoroughly for such flights, and. to develop confidence in the safeness of them
in all kinds of weather. .If the pilot is calm, self-possessed, healthy, and. has prac-
tice in piloting an aircraft by instrument, he will always complete every type of
flight successfully.
Every fighter pilot must strive to become a pilot first class. If, from the psy-
chological point of view, he is ready for flying under adverse weather conditions and.
is sufficiently trained., he will fly on instruments with confidence.
To fly without flight accidents is the very first task of every pilot. There can be
no flight accidents wherever proper attention is devoted, to methodical work, wherever
all possibilities are utilized, for giving the pilot systematic training in instrument
flying, wherever the instructor flying personnel is constantly perfecting its theore-
tical, methodological, and. practical habits and. transmits them to its subordinates ?
here indeed no flight can give rise to doubts as to its outcome.
It would. also be possible to speak of the meteorological support of flights and of
the serviceability of instruments and equipment, of everything which ensures the
organization of a flying day. But all of that, in my opinion, concerns methodical
work with people, the level of which depend.s on the ability of the instructor person-
nel to organize things so as to eliminate the possibility, not only of, flight accidents,
but also of their causes.
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THE MECHANICAL
CONDITIONS FOR THE
PHENOMENON OF
WEIGHTLESSNESS
WOW
Lt. Gen. of ITS [Engineering and Technical Service}
V. S. PYSHNOV, Honored. Scientist and Technologist
Before man commenced flying, or while he flew only in air balloons not subject to
large accelerations, the impression existed that the magnitude of the force of gravity
and the position of the vertical was unchangeable. But even in first flights in aircraft
a loss of correct feel for the vertical became evident. In turns with a small bank
angle the illusion arises that the aircraft is flying straight and that the surface of the
earth is tilted. This illusion can be overcome through training, though it sometimes
is felt even by experienced pilots.
In order to fly correctly, pilots have trained themselves to jud.ge the position of
the aircraft not by their own sensations but by the position of the aircraft's surface
relative to the visible line of the horizon. It is natural that, upon entering cloud
cover, the pilot found himself in considerable difficulty; and., after making his exit,
some time was required for him to judge in what position his machine was. In a
number of cases this lead. to difficult and. even dangerous moments; dives, nose spins,
inverted flying. As a result of the development of the mechanics of blind flight, the
pilot was forced to give up completely any feel for the vertical and. to orient himself
exclusively by the readings of the instruments. It was established that the feel for
the vertical is not only independ.ent of the true position of the latter but is mainly
formed by the pilot himself,i. e. , as a result of the actions of the control elements
(elevator, heading, and throttle control).
In making advance maneuvers pilots became acquainted, with the illusion of the grav-
itational force (its direction and. magnitude); thus, for instance on sharp turns, at the
beginning of a loop, and when pulling out of a dive, an apparent increase in weight
by 2-4 times and more was felt. Simultaneously they came across weightlessness
phenomena of rather short duration and. not sharply manifested, to be sure. Much
more marked., but also of short duration, was the sense of weightlessness felt by
parachute jumpers in jumps from free and. moored. aerostats in the absence of wind.
The sensation of weightlessness occurs in flight sometimes quite unexpectedly as
a result of turbulence. Cases are known in which aircraft passengers have fallen
to the ceiling of the cabin even though the aircraft was in a normal position. With
increase in flight speeds, the condition of weightlessness may become more prolong-
ed. In approaching the first cosmic speed., equal to 7.9 km/sec, the duration of the
condition of weightlessness increases sharply. The first Soviet artificial earth sat-
ellite was in. orbit for three months, during which time its weightless condition lasted..
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54
V S P shnov
. r
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In dealing with new phenomena, familiar methods of analysis are used, and the
phenomena are compared. with known facts. This has its positive as well as negative
aspects. Of course, theoretical principles must always be used. However, theore-
tical method.s may be of little use if they are applied. formally. Many examples of
this are known in the history of science.
Mechanics is the fundamental science of the motion of bodies. Before the inven-
tion of the airplane, it was applied, to a considerable extent in the study of motion of
celestial bodies and of machine parts. Experience gained, in these studies was ap-
plied. to the study of aircraft and rocket flight. It is known from astronomy that a
point exists between two planets at which the forces of attraWon are equal and op-
posite. Consequently this is the point of weightlessness. So reasoned Jules Verne
in his novel "From the Earth to the Moon" and made an error in ascribing the sen-
sation of weightlessness in the projectile to the moment of transition through this
point.
In studying the motion of machine components, the concept of centrifugal force
was used.. D'Alembert's principle which was applied to this is as follows: "If a body
is mad.e motionless and if we add to the effective forces the forces of inertia which
are equal to the product of the body's mass and. the acceleration of its motion and.
which are directed opposite to the acceleration, we will obtain a state of equilibrium."
From this it is clear that the forces of inertia are conditional. Applacation of
d'Alembert's principle simplifies in a number of cases the stud.y of problems in
strength of materials, stresses applied to supports and other problems, if the nature
of the motion is well known, as it is, for instance, in the motion of a mechanism with
sufficiently rigid, connecting members. Obviously we cannot apply d'Alembert's
principle if the nature of the motion is unknown, which is true in the study of aircraft
flight. It cannot even be applied, to mechanisms in which the connecting members
are deformed. or the supports are displaced..
Explanations of the condition of weightlessness are very often based. either on a
case when there is no force of attraction or when there is an equilibrium between
the acting forces of attraction and. the centrifugal forces of inertia.
The first situation insures weightlessness, but is not absolutely necessary. Equi-
librium between the acting forces and. the inertial forces provides weightlessness on-
ly in a case when the former are forces of mass distributed throughout the elements
of the body. But then there is no necessity of applying the forces of inertia.
The questions of weightlessness, apparent weight, and. the apparent vertical may
quite conveniently be studied in the following way. Sensation of weight is connected
with transmission of forces within a structure or a living organism, i. e. , by means
of loads, pressures, or internal stresses.. Thus the source of apparent weight is
in the local conditions or pressures which subsequently must be transmitted to all
parts of the body. If, such localized, stresses are absent, a condition of weightless-
ness will result. Take for instance, a man standing on. the floor. The sensation of
weight is determined, by the fact that he is supported. by his legs and this support is
transmitted to all parts of his body. Should. the support,, i. e., the floor, suddenly
collapse, a condition of weightlessness will occur.
Second example: in a flying aircraft, the lifting force is applied to the wings, the
thrust, to the propeller or jet engine; the resistance is distributed over all parts
located in the air flow; and. the force of gravity, over all parts of the aircraft, re-
?
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ti
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The Mechanical Conditions for the Phenomenon of Wei htlessness 55
gardless of their function. As a result, the lift, thrust, and head resistance will be
transmitted through the structure to all parts of the aircraft proportionally to the
value of their mass. Let us assume that a body for instance a pilot ? is in an
aircraft and his mass is 1/50 of the aircraft mass. Then 1/50 of the lift Y, the
thrust P, the resistance Q, and side force Z in slipping will be transmitted to him.
As far as the forces of gravity are concerned they will not be transmitted. The sen-
sation of weight will be determined by the ratio of the resultant forces Y, P, Q, Z, and
the force of gravity, and the apparent vertical will be directed along this resultant.
It can easily be seen that the direction of the resultant is independent of the true
vertical, and it is for the pilot to influence the magnitude and direction of forces (lift
and thrust) in order to bring the resultant into the vertical position and make its
magnitude equal to the weight. In this case the flight will be rectilinear and uniform
(Fig. la).
As soon as the pilot, by pulling the stick toward him, produces a lift greater than
that required to fly in a straight line, a feeling of acceleration will appear and the
position of the apparent vertical will change (Fig. lb). In banking the aircraft, the
lift will tilt with the wing, and with it will tilt the apparent vertical. If the thrust is
sharply decreased, the apparent vertical changes its position (Fig. lc). From this
Y
G
Fig. 1. A diagram for calculating the position of the apparent vertical:
a-horizontal steady flight; b-start of maneuver; c-horizontal flight with
braking.
it follows that the location of the apparent vertical in reference to the aircraft depends
only on the ratio of the lift, resistance, thrust, and. side forces (in slipping). Since
the magnitude of these forces is influenced by the speed of flight and the actions of
the pilot, the apparent vertical cannot serve as a direct indication of the aircraft's
position.
If the elevator is set so as to put the aircraft at an angle of attack corresponding
to absence of lift, and the amount of thrust is such that it balances the force of re
aistance, we obtain a resultant force equal to zero, and a condition of weightlessness
will result. Thus the prerequisite for weightlessness is absence of local stresses
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11111111111811111111101111111111
V. S. Pyshnov
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NOM
which must be transmitted to other parts of the body. A condition of total weight-
lessness is rather difficult to simulate, while a condition of partial weightlessness
is quite easy to simulate. If a chair were to be manufactured to follow the contours
of the human body, sitting in it would produce a state close to that of weightlessness.
This condition is even easier to achieve by immersion in water, especially if the lat-
ter has a density equal to the density of the human body. The required density of
the.water can be obtained by dissolving in it a definite amount of salt. However,
the above-mentioned methods do not produce a condition of weightlessness for the
internal organs; hence orientation in space is retained.
YO) P
Area of weightlessness
Fig. 2. Diagram of flight under a condition of weightlessness.
Weightlessness can be felt in jumping from an aerostat, but for a limited time
only, so long as the speed. of fall is negligible and, consequently, air resistance is
slight. In jumping from an aircraft no state of weightlessness results, since a
man is acted. upon by local pressures in the air stream. As for the apparent verti-
cal, it is directed along the effective line of resistance. How long can a condition
of weightlessness last during an aircraft flight? If the choice of angle of attack
and engine thrust results in a condition of weightlessness, the motion of the aircraft
is analogous to the flight of a body in a vacuum and is determined only by the force
of gravity. As is known, the flight path in this case is a parabola*. To lengthen
the flight along the parabola, the flight must be begun on the ascending branch. As-
sume that, as a result of a maneuver, an aircraft flying at high speed started. a
steep climb (Fig. 2). At a certain velocity close to maximum in horizontal flight
thrust will balance resistance and, after lift is eliminated a condition of weightless-
ness will occur. This will last until the aircraft returns to the original altitude
along the descending branch. The duration of weightlessness can be found very
easily. Let the velocity at the initial point be V and. the slope of the flight path be e;
then the vertical Nyelocity will be Vy= Vain e . The time of climb to the apex of the
parabola is t1 y and the time of descent is identical. We finally obtain
9.8
Vsine
t 2 t - 2 .
J. 9.8
It would seem that with an increase in the angle e the time should increase. But
?????????
this is not so. In commencing a sharp climb a drop in velocity will occur. Ap-
*More accurately this will be a motion in an ellipse. Motion along a parabola is con-
sidered only for short ranges of flight, when the curvature of the earth's surface can
be neglected.
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The Mechanical Conditions for the Phenomenon of Wei htlessness 57
411111111^111?1111110. 'ft1111111111111?11111111111111111.11111111L.
411111111111111111111111
parently the optimum angle e will be approximately equal to 45? - 600. With a sharp
climb an undesirably rapid. turn of the aircraft will occur at the apex of the trajectory
By assuming different velocities V and taking e= 450, we obtain from the formula
t = 0.29 V the following values for the time (see table).
Consequently a condition of weight-
lessness can be observed in a modern air-
craft for a period. of 1 - 2 min. To pre-
vent a disruption of this condition, it is ad-
visable to install a special autopilot to con-
trol the angle of attack and the magnitude
of engine thrust, while the flight should
take place in the absence of wind.. The
greater the flight speed, the longer may a
V 111 /SIC
100
200
500
1000
t
29 sec
58 sec
2 ski peri 25 sec
5with
condition of weightlessness exist.
Let us consider in sequence the sensations of a passenger flying in a ballistic
rocket. At the moment of takeoff upward. along the vertical (Fig. 3a), the rocket is
heavily loaded with fuel, and in spite of great thrust is. moving with A small accelera-
tion. The passenger will feel some increase in weight and. the apparent vertical
will coincide with the true, vertical. Subsequently as the rocket is accelerated., its
weight will decrease, but the acceleration will not yet be large because of consider-
able drag in a medium of great density, As the rocket begins to leave the dense at-
Fig. 3. Variation in apparent weight during a rocket flight: a-climb a-
long the vertical; b-inclined motion with the motor in operation; c-motion
after cessation of thrust.
mosphere, the ratio of the excess thrust (P-Q) to the weight G will increase and. the
apparent weight of the passenger will increase considerably as a result of a decrease
in. Q and G.
At some point the control system will begin to turn the rocket and. will put it on
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58 V. S. Pyshnov
the inclined, flight leg (Fig. 3b); the passenger will be pressed. heavily to the floor of
the rocket. The position of the apparent vertical will still coincide with the axis of
the rocket, but the surface of the earth will appear inclined. As soon as the motor
ceases operation, the force which pressed the passenger to the floor will disappear,
and., if the drag remains, the passenger will be pressed to the ceiling (Fig.' 3c). With
a further increase in altitude and a decrease in air density, the resistance will grad-
ually diminish and finally will practically disappear ? a condition of weightlessness
will result. It will continue as long as the rocket moves in space with rather low
density. But since a very small resistance force remains, objects swimming inside
the cabin will begin to move towards the forward. wall and will be pressed to it very
lightly.
Under the action of the slight resistance, the altitude of flight will slowly decrease
and the line of motion will be like a spiral inclined more and. more steeply in the di-
rection of the earth's surface. Upon entering into the dense layers of the atmosphere,
an extraordinarily large and sudden increase in resistance will take place, and the.
rocket passengers will be pressed violently to what will be the front wall with respect
to the line of motion.
If, under a condition of weightlessness, the rocket rotates in flight, stresses in its
structure will appear which will keep the rocket components from flying apart. These
stresses will cause a local feeling of weight and. the feel of an apparent vertical. The
weight will depend on the speed of rotation and the distance from the center of gravi-
ty of the rocket; while the apparent vertical will pass through the point under discus-
sion and the rocket's center of gravity. Since man can detect rotary motion, this
circumstance will prevent a feeling of weightlessness.
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AUTOMATIC AEROSTATS
"Mk
Engineer Lt. Col. V. L. AGAMIROV
Engineer Maj.A. N. GLUKHAREV
Engineer Capt. V. P. ANTIPOV
Engineer Capt. D. P. MORO ZOV
Aerostats are lighter-than-air flying aircraft. The first flights in them in
Russia go back to the thirties of the eighteenth century. At that time people went
up in free aerostats that moved, with the atmosphere. Later on there began the de-
velopment of other types of aerostats also captive and. guided., those equipped. with
engines and control surfaces (dirigibles and motorized. aerostats).
In recent years, automatic ( pilotless) aerostats have become most widely develop-
ed
The flight of an aerostat and. its drift at a constant altitude are determined, by the
lift of the lighter-than=air gas contained in the envelope. If the lift of the aerostat
is greater than its flying weight, then it climbs. Up to the zone of tautness, i. e. ,
the altitude at which the gas fills the entire envelope, the lift of the aerostat is con-
stant; in further ascent the gas escapes into the atmosphere, the lift decreases, and
at the static ceiling it becomes equal to the flying weight.
Equilibrium of an aerostat at the static ceiling is attained, at the moment the lift
is equal to the flying weight.
Strictly speaking, an aerostat in flight is almost never in equilibrium but is con-
tinually oscillating. Equilibrium is disturbed by changes in the temperature of the
gas relative to the temperature of the outside air and by loss of part of the gas when
the zone of equilibrium is exceeded at takeoff; the gas permeability of the envelope
also has an effect on equilibrium. All this results in that the lift of an aerostat is
constantly changing.
In daytime flying under the influence of solar radiation the envelope of the aerostat
is heated to a temperature higher than that of the ambient air. And. since hydrogen
halba good heat conductivity, this heat is transferred to all the gas contained in the
+elope. The heating of the gas increases the lift of the aerostat and it rises until
s an equilibrium of forces is again attained at a new altitude. A part of
will escape through the appendix, by means of which the envelope
osphere, and the greater the superheating the greater will
in the equilibrium altitude of the aerostat in this
en
such time
the expanding gas
Is connected with the atm
be the loss of gas. The increas
is not great ? about 4 m for each degree
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of superheating (for hydrogen). Conse-
Automatic Aerostats
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L A amirov P Anti ov A N Glukharev
quently, in itself superheating in daytime flying constitutes no danger since the dis-
turbed. equilibrium is restored automatically.
With superheated. gas in night flying the situation is different. The gas inside the
envelope is cooled., its temperature gradually equalizes with the temperature of the
ambient air, and. the reduction in the volume of gas leads to a reduction in lift and to
descent of the aerostat.
To restore equilibrium with a new lift value, the flying weight is reduced? part
of the ballast (sand., metal shot, liquids, etc.) is thrown overboard..
Thus, the principal factor affecting the flight endurance of an aerostat is super-
heating and. subsequent cooling of the gas in its envelope.
When envelopes were made of rubberized materials the gas was superheated. to
60-700 C, which required a large expenditure of ballast, hindered, the extension of
flight duration, and, consequently, also limited, the possibilities of using aerostats.
Now envelopes are being mad.e of transparent plastic film, due to which the flying
qualities of aerostats have been increased, considerably, and the possibility has arisen
of using them to perform new tasks.
The plastic (polyethylene) film has a higher coefficient of translucence to waves of
the visible and. the infrared. spectra. This reduces the superheating of the gas, per-
mits carrying a smaller stock of ballast and. more special freight, or, with the same
amount of ballast, increasing flight duration.
Mass utilization of aerostats for directed flights for very considerable distances
has in large measure been made possible by successes in the investigation of the jet
streams in the atmosphere.
In connection with the fact that in the northern and temperate latitudes the air is
cold while in the southern latitudes it is warm, under the influence of the deflecting
force of the earth's rotation quite narrow zones of great temperature contrast are
created. in the atmosphere, which leads to the rise of strong wind.s and. the movement
of large masses of air from west to east (jet streams).
Jet stream is the name given to currents of air at altitudes of 9-12 km (near the
tropopause) that are characterized, by high wind. velocities (150-250 km/hr on the
average). Their length 'is several thousand, kilometers, their width attains 1500-
2000 km, and. their height 4-6 km. The speed. of the wind. is at a maximum at the
axis of flow (200.609 km/hr) and. gets weaker on the periphery.
The flight of an aerostat relative to the ground. may take place at different altitudes
(up to 25-30 kin) and. in any direction. However, the greatest distance and stability
of flight are achieved when jet streams are utilized., But the jet streams of the
temperate and high latitudes (40-80? N. Lat. ) are quite variable. Developing in one
latitude, they dissipate relatively quickly (in two to four days) and reappear in another,
Consequently, in order to make use of these streams for salving problems in present-
day navigation, it is necessary to know their altitude and geographic location.
The study of jet streams and. of the possibility of utilizing them for aerostat flying
for considerable distances has been going on for some time. At the end of WW
LI
some countries were launching automatic aerostats with incendiary and demolition
bombs (Fig. 1). The jet streams over the Pacific Ocean were used for this. About
9000 such aerostats were released, and a substantial part of them reached their tar-
gets.
Experiments are being conducted in various countries in launching aerostats by
0
MOW'
MIRW1101111
the so-called. "Boomerang" system. The essence of this sys-
tem is that the automatic aerostat flies in the jet: stream first
toward the east at an altitude of 9-14 km and. then, at a com-
mand transmitted. by radio, it rises to 25-27 km. There, get-
ting into the stream flowing from the east, it moves westward.
On the return course, instruments suspended. from the aerostat
make the required, measurements, photographs, etc. At a ra-
dio command. all this equipment is cast off andlowered. by para-
chutes in the area where the flight started..
These and other examples confirm the existence of steady
streams of air that can be utilized, not only by automatic aero-
stats but also by aircraft for the purpose of economizing on time
and fuel.
Like any free aerostat, an automatic aerostat (Fig. 2) con-
sists of three main elements: an envelope, a suspension, and. a
load.. The envelope is filled, with hydrogen or helium. Scienti-
fic apparatus or other equipment is suspended. from it by a spe-
cial suspension system. There are automatic facilities for
controlling the operation of these instruments and for ensuring
their landing on the ground..
A distinction is made between aerostats used once and
those used. several times. Among th.e former are those whose
envelope is not preserved, after use. After the prescribed, task
has been accomplished., it disintegrates and. the load is detached
automatically or on signal from the ground. and. is lowered by
parachute.
In the multiple-use ae.rostats, the envelope can be automa-
tically converted into a parachute, thus reducing the rate of de-
scent of the load. The load, detaches immediately upon touching
the ground.
In both types of aerostat the envelope is made of nearly
non-stretching material. The gas in it can expand. only to the
limit of the design volume. When the zone of tautness is ex-
ceeded, it escapes into the atmosphere; this is accompanied. by
a reduction in lift. If the loss of lift is not compensated. for by
Fig. 1. Aerostat jettisoning an equal amount of ballast, the aerostat will begin to
with torpedo. descend..
Of vital importance is the d.e sign pattern form of the en-
velope. Efforts to reduce its weight compel selection of a form that has the least
surface for a given volume. Such a form, as is well known, is spherical. How-
ever, with an envelope of spherical form and. large volume, difficulties arise in.
suspending the load..
The most convenient are cylindrical envelopes, but their surface area is extreme-
ly great. Therefore, quite frequently combined forms are used. that incorporate a
combination of various geometric solids of revolution.
Every envelope is made up of a number of separate lobate panels that are first
glued together and then sewed with thread. while the seams are pasted with .tapes;
-
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welding is used. in joining together polyethylene panels.
On the outside of the envelope there is located, a number of components and the
envelope is reinforced, at the points where these components are attached.. In some
envelopes of large size general reinforcement is also used to increase their strength.
This reinforcement consists of polyethylene strips with threads of glass fiber glued.
to them. The coefficient of expansion of glass threads is much less than that of
polyethylene film. Therefore, most of the stress on the envelope is taken up by the
strips while the envelope itself is practically free of stress.
The principal components mounted, on the envelope are the inflation appendix, the
maneuvering appendices, automatic gas valves (in envelopes used. more than once),
and. the suspension system.
Inflation appendices are cylindrical sleeves through which the envelope is filled.
with gas. In some designs (fabric), they are also used. for inspection of the inside
of the envelope.
To discharge the excess of gas when the zone of tautness is reached., special
maneuvering appendices are used., 1. e., sleeves with mechanical valves installed
in them that prevent air from getting into the envelope when the aerostat is descend-
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ing
To free multiple-use envelopes of gas when convert-
ing them into parachutes, there are gas valves that are
automatically opened. by special mechanisms --- timing
devices, automatic barometers, etc. Insid.e such enve-
lopes there are concentration systems for pulling the bot-
tom portion to the top in conversion to a parachute.
To connect the load, to the envelope there are various
systems of suspension each of which includes two princi-
pal parts: elements mounted. on the envelope itself, and.
component parts that connect them with the suspended.
load.. The purpose of the former is to transfer to the
envelope the stresses from the weight of the load and. to
distribute these stresses uniformly over its surface.
Usually these are lugs, parabolic bands, and. jacket nets.
Most extensively used is the system of suspension on
bands, which makes for a more uniform distribution of Fig. 2. Schematic diagram
stresses. However, for envelopes of large volume, of an automatic aerostat.
especially non-spherical ones, use of this system pre-
sents considerable difficulty; because of this, concentration clamps have come into
wid.espread. use for the suspension of polyethylene envelopes.
These clamps are shaped. rings into which the pleated edges of the envelope are
gathered. and. fastened, with collars.
In addition to the elements mentioned., there are in the suspension system various
shroud.s, bands, turning mechanisms that provid.e for free movement of the load.,
and. others. Necessary accessories of every aerostat are automatic uncouplers that
detach the load, from the envelope either in flight or on the ground.. These automat-
ic mechanisms operate in relation to flying time, altitude, or on a command. from
the ground. transmitted. by radio, In aerostats with multiple-use envelopes in. which
the load is detached. at the moment of landing, impact-type automatic uncouplers are
Inflation
Maneuvering
appendix
Envelope
appendix
Concentration
ring
Suspension
Automatic
uncoupler
Load
4
?
?
?
Automatic Aerostats 63
amimmummormummummomormor dummuumaimmanommemaimmoisom....--??minummemomenowormommommum.
used.
The load.s suspended, from the aerostat are carried, either in standard, light gondo-
las or on special beams.
An important place in the construction of modern aerostats is occupied. by automat-
ic equipment d.esigned. to regulate the flying regime, to control the work of the appa-
ratus and. its landing, and. to determine the location of the aerostat from the ground..
These are electric power sources, shortwave and. ultrashortwave radio receivers and.
transmitters, barometric stabilizers of flying altitude, etc.
The large number of automatic devices of varying purpose requires, as a rule,
that a special command. and programming mechanism be included in the layout to
control the work of all the above elements in a certain sequence by a predetermined.
time schedule. This mechanism sets the time for the beginning and. the sequence of
operations of the special apparatus, modulates the radio transmitter with the call
signals assigned. to that particular aerostat, sets the time for the radio apparatus to
begin operation, gives commands to cast off ballast, etc.
Inasmuch as the command.s sent to the automatic apparatus are coded., the com-
mand. and. programming mechanism is connected to a special decoder. Receiving
signals transmitted. from the ground. by radio, the decoder determines their corre-
spondence to a given cod.e andthen transmits them for execution. If the command.s
do not correspond. to the code, the decod.er forestalls the operation of the apparatus.
The aerostat is piloted, automatically only in respect to altitude by reducing or
increasing the lift by means of the automatic gas valves, the maneuvering appendices,
or by jettisoning ballast. To jettison ballast, the automatic aerostats are equippecl
with special ballast jettisoning devices consisting of a ballast carrier and. a control
mechanism.
The ballast is cast off in portions, for which purpose there are measuring facili-
ties. Electromagnetic valves have recently come into widespread. use. The prin-
ciple of their operation consists in magnetizing and. demagnetizing an iron powder
(the ballast)by passing a current through the winding of a magnet. When magnetized.,
the powder coagulates and.forms a plug; when it is demagnetized. it returns to a free-
flowing state. The moment for jettisoning' ballast is determined by time or flight
altitude or is given by rad.io command. from the ground.
Comparative simplicity of construction, a high flying altitude, long duration in the
air, and. movement for long distances with air masses in directions 'known in advance?
these are the principal positive qualities of modern automatic aerostats. These qua-
lities, and. the possibility of controlling flight altitude by means of modern electronic
and. automatic apparatus make it possible to use aerostats in scientific research
work.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/29: CIA-RDP81-01043R00250n77nnni_
ENGINEER OF A
LINE UNIT
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Engineer Col.
A. YE. TATARCHENKO
Engineer of a line unit...The commander's deputy for the Air Engineering Serv-
ice...Let us think about the meaning of these words... Today not a single important
matter in the regiment can d.o without the engineer. He is always busy and. is usual-
ly on the go.
The figure of a messenger suddenly appears beside him.
"Comrade engineer, the commander is asking for you."
And. again, the unit duty officer gets an order to find, the engineer: the inspector
has arrived..
And. there, visible from afar, a technician dashes out of the TECh [technical
maintenance unit] hangar toward. him. Evidently something serious had been found.
in disassembling a plane and. the engineer's help was needed.
Multifarious and. complex are the duties of an engineer, and. he not only knows
them but also fulfills them selflessly and. creatively. Yet it seems that it is only a
very short time since the young officer first came to the unit. Even the most ele-
mentary? from the point of view of an experienced, specialist ? questions not in-
frequently grew into a major problem in those days...
I, for example, remember well my first period, of service in the regiment. In
May 1943 our group of Academy students arrived, at one of the front-line airfields.
It was spring. On the cold, clear mornings a greenish-white haze spread. through
the sparse grove of birches at the edge of the airfield,. On the front there was a lull
preceding the battle of Kursk. The aircraft to which I had. been assigned. as under-
study to the technician flew only one combat mission during my period of service.
I had. only to help service the plane, to camouflage it, and. occasionally to participate
in replacing an engine on some other machine. Even with such a small amount of
work I, as a green engineer, frequently got into difficult situations.
For example, I knew perfectly well that the aircraft should. be supplied, with com-
pressed. air. I also knew in detail the theory of compression. Adiabatic and. poly-
tropic curves were no secret to me. But I had. no idea how this was d.one in actual
practice.
In order to fill the gaps in my knowledge, I spent evenings at the compressor and
batterp.charging stations. I studied. the automatic starter and. learned, how to start
a plane with it. I visited. the GSM [fuel and. lubricants] depot and. studied. the proce-
?
?
?
-..
En.ineer of a Line Unit 65
dure of analysis, storage, and. distribution of fuels and. lubricants. In other words,
I studied. with enthusiasm the so-called, supply kitchen, which is so very important
in our operating specialty and. to which so little attention had. been devoted, in the
period of training.
Yes, there are many contradictions in the status of a young engineer just arrived.
at a unit.
On the one hand., there is a great responsibility for every sortie , while on the
other there is the actual helplessness of the first days and. months; he ia the superior
of many subordinates, and. yet the subordinates are more experienced than he is.
And at every step there are the riddles posed. by life...
? The commander returns from a mission.
"Engineer, something or other tips my plane to the left. Even my arm gets
tired. What can be done?"
Your brain works feverishly. Cx's and. cy's flash through your mind., but the
right answer you cannot find..
"Perhaps the angles of incidence of the Wings are different, Comrade Command.-
er...
And. you keep thinking, "tips to the left...tips to the left...arm gets tired....
What does the arm have to do with it?" And. how should. you remember that on this
fighter the wings are non-detachable?
But saying not a word.,. the commander takes a pair of pliers, goes up to the left
wing, and bend.s down the trailing edge.'
"Is that enough, Comrad.e Engineer? Or should. I bend. it More?"
How is a young engineer to know whether it is enough or not.
"Have to test it aloft, Comrad.e Commander."
"That is right!"
The commander got into the machine and. tried it out. Everything was all right.
There you have your angles of incidence...
Another time the commander complained, of engine vibration. And.. again academic
abstractness revealed. itself. "Crankshaft out of balance" was the diagnosis of the
young engineer. The commander even choked, on hearing this revelation, but first
he ord.ered that the sparkplugs be changed.. And. it must be admitted. that the vibra-
tion disappeared. as though by magic.
How much effort the commanders, senior engineers, and. his comrades put into'
initiating the young specialist into the unit! The old. fliers tell tales of 'how at one
time they would. try to make a fool of any new man, and, especially an inexperienced.
officer by a whole system of prearranged. "skits". Those times are long past. An
atmosphere of comrad.e ship and. a spirit of mutual assistance ? this is the standard.
of behavior of .aircraft specialists in our times. It must be remembered., however,
that the attitud.e toward. a new man depends to a great extent on himself.
The young engineer sent to a unit should. tell himself honestly: Yes., I have com-
plete. theoretical training, but I have little practical experience. The people who
will be working und.er my direction have immeasurably more experience than I. On
what then should. our, relationships be based.? Obviously, on a mutual exchange of
knowledge. I will teach them, 'but at the same time I will learn from them. Does
that mean that at firsti should, shut my eyes to the shortcomings of the work of My
subordinates? Not by any means. It is wrong to believe that you do not have the
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
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? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
66
A. Y
Tatarchenko
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/29: CIA-RDP81-01043R002500220001-5
pumemmaimmow
$.
moral right to make proper demands
until you acquire experience your-
self.
Having explained this to him-
self, the young engineer can go bold.-
ly to the line unit. He will be met
by a cohesive team 4 friends and corn-
, rades-in-arms. Not only will they
not try to undermine his authority,
? but, on the contrary, with all the
strength that the team is capable of,
they will help the young specialist
to become a full-fled.ged aircraft
engineer.
Indubitably it is impossible to
? foresee in advance all the difficul-
ties that will be encountered in the
???? early stages. Mistakes, too, are
unavoidable. Some engineers, for
example, when beginning their work,
concern themselves only with serv-
icing aircraft equipment for flight,
forgetting to analyze how this equip-
ment is used..
Yet is is quite clear that the
capabilities embodied in an aircraft
are realized, only th operation. Im-
proper use of equipment may lead
to abuse of its capabilities and, con-
sequently, to air accidents or their
causes or ? to a reduction in the
combat potential of the aircraft.
The notionthat the capabilities
of equipment are manifested, or are
reduced. to nought precisely in the
process of application is confirmed
by actual practice.
...A fighter is serviced for a
scheduled, flight with d.rop tanks. Its flight characteristics (except for range and
endurance) are lowered because of this. However, it is decided. to intercept a target
flying nearby without taking off the tanks. Why? Just because it takes time to drain
the fuel, while no device for jettisoning full tanks had. been made in time. Further-
more, the commander decided, that the tanks might be useful in any case.
Here we encounter the fact of incomplete utilization of all the capabilities of the
'aircraft, since interception of a close-flying target with drop tanks is considerably
more complicated...
A fighter is returning to the airfield.. Passing over the flying field, the pilot ?
\e
44#
"An indefatigable efficiency man" ? that is
what they call senior technician Lt. A. I.
Shishkin in unit X. In 1957 he made four
rnajor. efficiency suggestions that made it
possible to save quite a bit of government
means.
In the photo: Efficiency-Officer A. I.
Shishkin at work on a new instrument.
Photo by A. I. Dots enko
?
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
?
?
?
6111111.1111.111111?1111.111?1111111MINIMINIIIIINNISINIMINIMINNIIII
En ineer of a Line Unit 67
111111111110111111111111111111111.1111111?1111111111?1111111111111111 11111111111111111111101111111111111111
suddenly pulls up steeply, creating considerable acceleration forces. One of the
tanks breaks loose, and the other is automatically jettisoned.. Fortunately, the
pilot countered the incipient bank in time, and the tanks fell in an uninhabited. area.
After the landing it was found that the outer skin of the wing was damaged.. All this
happened. because the pilot abused. the capabilities of the aircraft. He did not con-
sider that with drop tanks great acceleration forces cannot be permitted. And this
could. have led. to a serious accident.
...To "facilitate" the interception of a high-speed. target, it was decided to send.
up a supersonic fighter on patrol. However, the target was not attacked. at the pre-
scribed. limit. It happened that at the moment the target was spotted the fighter was
flying at such an angle to its course that the turn into the rear hemisphere and. the
subsequent pursuit on the part of the interceptor took too tnuch time and the "enemy"
managed to cross the prescribed. limit.
In this case it would. have been better to intercept. ,the target from an alert posi-
tion on the ground, because the climb to the required. altitud.e to get to the estimated.
point of encounter at a prescribed, angle-off would have taken less time than the turn
and. pursuit from the patrol position.
...In an effort to expend. a minimum of time for gaining speed when the target ap-
peared., the commander of a flight patrolling an area established, a high flying speed.,
which, naturally, resulted. in excessive consumption of fuel. On the turns the outer
wingmen,in order not to lag behind., were compelled, to change to maximum rpm and.
some even turned, on their afterburners. As a result, the flying time of the element
was red.uced. substantially, and. one of the wingmen returned, to the airfield. with near-
ly empty tanks. This example again shows insufficient consideration of the capabi-
lities of aircraft equipment. By turning on their afterburners, the pilots could. have
accelerated. their planes quickly, while the distance at which the "enemy" was spot-
ted by ground. radar would. have given the element time to gain the initial position for
attack.
Engineers teach pilots the utilization of combat equipment primarily at exercises
that are conducted as part of the program of ground. training courses. They ac-
quaint the pilots with new equipment and. new instructions, give tests and grad.e them.
On the whole, however, participation of engineers in the teaching and training of ?
flying personnel is still inadequate. This is not because there are too few exercises
but because they are frequently devoted. either to mere theory or.to practice alone.
Engineer Capt. V. A. Konstantinov, during a session on aerodynamics, for example,
explained, to the pilots in detail how to construct curves of rated..and available thrust
and how to find, characteristic flying speeds by these curves. However, both the
figures presented and. the curves themselves pertained, to 'some abstract aircraft and
not to the one the pilots flew yesterday and. would fly tomorrow. Naturally, interest
in the lesson was not very high.
Just the opposite in nature was a lesson conducted. by officer V. D.Novikov. In
connection with the fact that there had. been several cases where the flaps of the
afterburner did not open, he read. to the pilots the instructions on safety measures
in switching on afterburning. The engineer recounted. 'in detail what to do 'and. when,
what to push, and where to look, but he did. not support his aCcount with theory,. he
did not explain the essence of the method. of augmentation by. afterburning. As a
result some of the pilots gained. the wrong impression that 'augmentation is the re-
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Declassified in Part- Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/10/29: CIA-RDP84-01043R002500220001-5
68 A Ye Tatarchenko
merwmassousommilemummummui
suit of an increase of air through the engine When the flaps are opened.
Yet it is known that this is a method of temperature augmentation in front of the
jet nozzle. .Supplementary expansion of the gases lead,s to an increase in the speed
of their discharge. The nozzle flaps must be opened. to maintain the consumption
of air. If the flaps are closed., it is reduced. and. the engine becomes overheated.
The theory of such augmentation should, have been explained. in the lesson, and
then the pilots would. have understood. better why, in switching on the afterburner,
it is necessary first of all to watch the temperature of the exhaust gases; and. it
would. also have clarified the other recommendations.
In instructions for the Air Engineering Service, too, theory is not always tied. in
with practice.
With his advice and., where necessary, with his calculations, the engineer is ob-
liged to help the commander and. the pilots make the most expedient decision in each
specific case.
And., of course, the majority of the lessons conducted in line units should be of
an applied nature, i. e., should be devoted, to a study of one's own plane, the methods
of utilizing it in. combat, and. its technical operation.
In the press they frequently write about the organization of servicing aviation
equipment, how engineers and. technicians replace engines quickly, how they take
care of equipment at parking and. work areas, how they improve the regular inspec-
tion work. Also encountered. are negative examples of attempts to take off with
catwalks left on the wings, of tools left in the aircraft, of chocks not removed, in
time. But this hardly exhausts the concept of air engineering competence, the
principal representative of which in the unit is the engineer. He watches keenly the
rhythm of life in the regiment, studies the methods of combat utilization of aviation
equipment, systematically analyzes and, generalizes the experience in applying it.
The engineer is vitally interested in the general success of the undertaking to which
he has dedicated. his life.
By their participation in many new undertakings, deputy commanders for the Air
Engineering Service, officers V. M. Raskin, V.G.Derkach, V.P.Zamorov, and many
others have done themselves credit.
'Once during training two identical groups of aircraft took off on a mission from
the same airfield.. The second. group required. 3 minutes and. 20 seconds more from
starting to takeoff than did. the first. The interval between paired takeoffs was on
the average 10 seconds greater and. between landings of the aircraft 50 seconds great-
er. As a result, the second group took 5 minutes and 20 seconds more for takeoff
and. landing than did the first. The result was that it lost 8 minutes and 40 sec ond.s
at the airfield., while 0,e first group spent this time over the "field of battle".
On the basis of the experience of this and. other flights, officer Raskin worked. up
a whole series of recommendations for the spacing, starting, taxiing, takeoff, flight,
and. landing of aircraft, which increased, the effectiveness of the operating equipment.
Once; two groups were ordered. to attack target No. 1 using live ammunition and
then, after a short period of time, target No. 2.
Engineering and. navigational computations showed. that too little time had. been al-
lotted.for servicing all these planes for a. repeat combat sortie. Not relying on the
computations alone, engineer Zamorov conducted. a servicing rehearsal which con-
firmed. the fact that there 'really was not enough time, However, the officer d.ecid-
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for R
5.
a
Itt
n ineer of a Line Unit 69
ed. to find ways for carrying out the order exactly within the prescribed. time. He
suggested that a spare group of aircraft be serviced.. Then the pilots of the first
group, after returning from the attack on target No. 1, could change over to the
ready-serviced. aircraft. A double crew of armorers could. service the machines
they left by the time the second. group landed.. In this way each pilot would change
over to the plane that he had. already flown over the range. By virtue of such orga-
nization, all the crews hit the targets precisely on time and carried out the ord.er.
In practice, an engineer often is in a position where it is necessary to make
quick and. quite complex calculations associated, with the use of aviation equipment,
and these calculations have to be mad.e in circumstances that do not permit use of
textbooks and. manuals.
I dare say, it is difficult to find, an aspect of life in a unit that does not interest
the commander's deputy for the Air Engineering Service. For example, does not
the planning of combat training concern him, inasmuch as he is responsible for the
equipment and. the technical operation in carrying out the plan?
In one of the units the engineer, analyzing the results of the work, could. see that
from year to year the flying plan was considerably overfulfilled.; that more engines
were replaced. and. more regulation inspection work was performed than required.;
that the balance of spare equipment was below the permissible limits; that the work-
ing day was frequently in excess of the norm? although all this did not follow from
the tasks that were assigned. at the beginning of the year.
What was the matter here? Perhaps many additional tasks were assigned. during
the year? Yes, this did. happen, but they were usually assigned in place of others
and. had. little effect on flying time. It was found that the shortcomings of planning
in the new year were an echo of the method. used. to evaluate the results of the unit's
work. The results of the work were evaluated, by three basic criteria: absence of
accidents, fulfillment of the flying plan, and. fulfillment of the plan for elements of
combat application. Among the units without accidents the best was considered the
one that had. fuliilled, its flying plan. The elements of combat application were con-
sidered. secondary. This resulted., in the first place, in that at the beginning of the
year it was convenient to set the plan of combat application low, .since this would. en-
sure certain fulfillment of it. In the second. place, they did. not save on fuel ,and.
spare equipment but operated. under the slogan "Let's fly", not thinking through care-
fully, pencil and. slide rule in hand., the organization of the flying days.'
By fall, they began to discuss in the unit how the limit of fuel had. been exhausted,.
and telegrams poured. out:Give us fuel! And they supplied, it and even praised. them:
"Well done! They have used. up all their fuel and. December is still a long way off."
What were the results usually by the end. of the year? The plans for flying time
and, for a number of elements of combat application were overfulfilled, but for certain
important elements of combat application they were generally unfulfilled.. Evidently,
the engineer decided., such planning has basic shortcomings if the consumption for
fulfillment of each element of combat application is higher than in the other units.
Obviously the planning was poor if fuel, engines, and. spare parts were systematical-
ly obtained, at the expense of other units. The engineers and. technicians, working
day after day over the prescribed time, without the required, number of ground.ed
days, and. even with a shortage of spare parts, could. not provid.e such servicing of
aviation equipment as would. eliminate failures and., therefore, the causes of flying
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I
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70 A. Ye. Tatarchenko
accidents. Finally, it must be taken into consideration that the increase in the
number of flying days was compensated by a reduction in the number of days for
ground. servicing, and. this resulted. in a deterioration in its quality.
And. the engineer was absolutely right when he suggested. that the basis of evalua-
tion of the work of a unit be first of all the fulfillment of the plan according to the
elements of combat application. And. if this plan is fulfilled, without a significant
excess of flying time over the allotment, then it can be considered. that the planning
is at the proper level. In such' a unit it will be possible to conduct flying operations
by a strict schedule without "snatching" weather, without prolonged, waiting for
openings in an overcast sky.
It must be said that the idea of regular flying operations on days and. nights strict-
ly fixed. by a schedule is definitely superior. Only with such organization is it pos-
sible to overfulfill the plan and. reduce the causes for flying accidents. We have
every reason to believe that flying operations without proper alternation of ground.
and. preliminary servicing, flying days, and. grounded. days will be just as impossible
as operation without fuel.
Of course, the schedule is not an end. in itself. The unit must be ready to carry
out a combat mission on any day, irrespective of whether that day is listed, in the
schedule as flying or non-flying.
An experienced. d.eputy commander for the Air Engineering Service does not con-
fine himself to a limited, range of "purely engineering" problems; he constantly con-
tributes his efforts and. knowledge to those "bottlenecks" in the daily life of a line
unit that are inevitable in any business.
A good. engineer organizes the servicing of aviation equipment in such a way as
to trouble the commander as little as possible with problems that he can and. should
solve himself, since even without this air commanders are occupied every day,
every hour with the resolution of complex and, responsible problems in all kind.s of
fields.
An engineer, like any other worker, cannot successfully solve even a single prob-
lem unless he relies on the Party organization. In his work with young officers and
with junior specialists the engineer leader must be very considerate and tactful, must
study the men comprehensively, must develop high moral combat qualities in them,
must give of his knowledge and. experience, must instill a feeling of confidence in
successful mastering of complex aviation equipment.
Y
2 ,
,
The aviation specialists of unit .X are con-
stantly working on improving the methods of tech-
nical servicing of aviation equipment. To this
end., many instruments, stands, and. devices have
been developed. here. Senior Technician Lt. I. T
Machnev ? chief of the regulation inspection work
group ? has also mad.e a contribution. He de-
signed. and. assembled. a general-purpose instru-
ment for testing electrical systems and. aircraft
armament.
In the photo: Senior Technician Lt. I. T.
Machnev preparing a testing and. measuring stand..
Photo: A. I. Dots enko
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71
72
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A. Ye. Tatarchenko
A LIFE DEDICATED TO THE MOTHERLAND
The name of Lt. Gen. Vasiliy Petrovich Kuznetsov, a talented test engineer, is
well known to those who work in the field. of technical equipment of the Air Force.
He entered. the field. of aviation many years ago. In 1920 the regimental command
sent the capable young engine mechanic to the
Leningrad Military Engineering School.
After finishing school, V. P. Kuznetsov
began working as a mechanic in the Moscow
Training Squadron and later at the central
airfield. Here in 1925, a senior mechanic,
he serviced.domestically-produced. aircraft
for the first group flight on the Moscow-Mon-
golia-Peking route, a distance of about 7000
km. The'flight was mad.e under very difficult
conditions, but was completed without a single
breakdown; V. P. Kuznetsov, the flight mecha-
nic, took care of this, indefatigably attending
to the equipment both on the ground. and. in the
air. For performing his duties on this flight
in exemplary fashion, he was awarded. the
Order of the Red. Banner and an honorary Sil-
ver Weapon.
In the 30's, engineer Kuznetsov, already
graduated. from the Zhukovskiy Academy and
assigned to the Scientific Research Institute
of the Air Force, was confronted with prob-
lems associated. with aircraft engines, equip-
ment, fuels, and. lubricants. Studying engines,
the inquisitive experimenter, together with
Lt. Gen. of ITS [Engineering- other engineers, found. a solution to what was
Technical Service] V. P. Kuznetsov. at that time one of the most vitally important
problems of the VVS [Air Force], a problem
associated with increasing the flying range of aircraft.
Vasiliy Petrovich has done much to make passible the use of high-altitud.e engines
in aviation. To him belongs the idea, that such engines must be tested. not in an alti-
tud.e chamber, but und.er natural conditions by Means of special facilities mounted.
on a truck. To this end. he organized. an expedition to the Pamir, and. there under
difficult climatic conditions, together with other engineers, he tested. new and. power-
ful air-cooled. and liquid.-cooled. aircraft engines with superchargers.
The main testing point was at an altitud.e of 5000 m, 1. e., an altitud.e where fly-
ing can be done only.with oxygen masks.
Squalls and. storms threatened. to throw the men and the mobile engine-testing
station into the chasm. The testers .suffered. from headaches this was "altitud.e
sickness" because they had. to breathe rarefied, air while doing heavy physical
4
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r?F,
Ico
En ineer of a Line Unit 73
work.
The tests in the mountains went on for five days. The work that was done faci-
litated even more extensive incorporation of high-altitud.e engines.
A year later V. P. Kuznetsov wrote a book, "High-Altitude Testing of Aircraft
Engines M-25, AM-34N, M-85, and. M-100" (Voyenizdat [Military Publishing House]
1939), that still retains its importance at present.
From 1938 to 1940, Vasiliy Petrovich directed. an engine outfit. Sparing no ef-
fort, he gave of his wealth of experience to young aircraft engine specialists.
During the Great Patriotic War, V.P.Kuznetsov occupied. the post of Deputy
Peoples Commissar for the Aircraft Industry. He rendered. much assistance in
many ways to bureaus of design and. plants which were developing new types of air-
craft engines, not infrequently participating directly in. the solution of this or that
design problem.
V. P. Kuznetsov has worked, just as productively in the postwar years. As a
member of a government commission, he has done much to improve the quality of
aircraft industry production.
Lt. Col. of the Technical Service A. Ye. Musiyenko
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/29: CIA-RDP81-0104nPnn9cnnoonnr11 c
Sa...N0**10,....s.M.aisaisis0.4fralla.:????????????,~0.00.ftemetmoN,
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/29: CIA-RDP81-01043R002500220001-5
THE WORKING DAY OF
AN ENGINEER
Senior Engineer Lt. V. A. GRECHIN
...Night. Dawn is still far away. The frosty silence over the airfield is con-.
stantly broken by the powerful roar of jet planes which are taking off on missions,
returning for fuel, oxygen, air, and then ? off again into the air.
? .1 e1 ! A. 1 ? .1.1- ??? ? 0 IOU stle:of people, fiiP1 tricks, starter assemliies.
tne 6nel e
6/
The technical personnel is readying the planes for repeat sorties. Work in the dark
is strenuous. But everything is done without bustle. If the equipment is serviced
properly the day before, everything goes smoothly.
Difficulties sometimes arise from other causes. Sometimes for a number of rea-
sons several pilots fly the same aircraft. From the beginning to the end of flights
the plane is in the air. The inspection and checking has to be done in those few min-
utes when the plane returns for refueling. Even with tight scheduling, the specialists
manage to do all that is essential.
It cannot be said that we accomplished all this with ease. Our success was due to
good. ground training, timely and efficient execution of regulation inspections and ad.-
ditional work. Every piece of equipment, and that of aircraft in particular, requires
careful attention.
Servicing planes for night flying is no simple matter.
With the development of equipment, the methods of operation and. maintenance of
it on the ground. and in the air change accordingly. In contradistinction to previous
years, the present-day basic method. for assessing the condition of equipment is that
of instrument testing by using testing and measuring devices.
This apparatus finds particularly wide application during post-flight check, when
defects are eliminated and regulation inspection work is carried out. Experience
has shown that combat readiness of a plane is entirely dependent on preliminary serv-
icing.
It is often said that the workd.ay of the engineering-technical personnel begins
?
?
I.
?
?
The Working Day of an Engineer
75
early in the morning and ends late at night, and that the technician "lives" on the
parking area. Everyone usually answers the question: "Why 'is that so?" in the
same way ? "Plenty of work. Flights, servicing for flights, checks, regulation in-
spection work. And then there are so many unforeseen details that take up a lot of
time." There is indeed so much to be d.one that one can hardly manage to do every-
thing in the course of the day.
When I came to the unit to fill the post of a special equipment engineer, I got ac-
quainted. with the nature of the work and. my round of duties and. the d.oubt crept into
my mind. whether I would. be able to cope with the work. But life makes its demands.
Pilots must fly under all weather conditions, both day and. night, and fly aircraft
that is operational and carefully serviced,. It became necessary to organize the
workday on lines that would ensure efficient use of every man's every minute.
Taking a single d.ay as an example, I shall try to illustrate how aircraft equip-
ment is serviced in our unit, what problems an engineer has to solve, what difficul-
ties are encountered and how they are overcome.
With the change-over to a seven-hour workd.ay it seemed. impossible to do all
the tasks in so short a time. And ind.eed. many in the beginning could not cope with
the situation and were often lagging behind.. But due to proper organization and. con-
certed effort, the proper tempo was found.. Now every specialist knows precisely the
content and. the sequence of inspections and methods of making them. This ensures
fast d.etection of the smallest defects in equipment and. helps to determine their causes.
The day we are going to speak about began with political studies in a group of ser-
geants. An engineer was holding classroom instruction. In two hours we assembled.
at the parking apron. The problem for the day had been assigned at formation, and.
now group chiefs quickly assigned. the mechanics to their work stations.
Let us now see what an engineer does.
In the first place he organizes and checks all the work, inspects several machines
in every outfit, checks equipment, and. makes entries in the forms.
While the specialists are servicing the aircraft equipment, the engineer manages
to visit the TECh [Technical Maintenance Unit] group where he gives instruction on
additional work and. sees that regulation inspections are carried. out.
In the middle of the day in question the engineer met a representative of one of
the supplying plants. Such meetings occur quite ,frequently., Many questions have
to be settled. together with the representative; claims and. technical statements must
be drawn up; instruments and. assemblies out of repair must be returned. and..new
ones received, in exchange. But this is not all. We try to take advantage of every
visit of a representative to find, out the characteristic equipment failures in other
units and groups, the operational peculiarities of individual assemblies, instruments,
installations, and systems. The plant representative can tell many things from,his
own. experience and. also of the experience of Work organization on other airfields.
Such discussions help us to avoid, a whole series of failures in aircraft equipment.
We also often have our own suggestions right in the unit for the elimination of minor
defects. Sometimes, for instance, the indicator of the TRZ-52 fuel flow meter gets
out of repair. We took one of the.d.evices apart and. found. that the cause of the failure
was due to the dropping out of the scale ball from its tube. Such a defect we elimi-
nate ourselves.
The present meeting with the plant representative proved. of great value for the
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/29: CIA-RDP81-01043R002500220001-5
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/29: CIA-RDP81-01043R002500220001-5
THE WORKING DAY OF
AN ENGINEER
Senior Engineer Lt. V. A. GRECHIN
...Night. Dawn is still far away. The frosty silence over the airfield is con-.
stantly broken by the powerful roar of jet planes which are taking off on missions,
returning for fuel, oxygen, air, and then ? off again into the air.
? .1 e1 ! A. 1 ? .1.1- ??? ? 0 IOU stle:of people, fiiP1 tricks, starter assemliies.
tne 6nel e
6/
The technical personnel is readying the planes for repeat sorties. Work in the dark
is strenuous. But everything is done without bustle. If the equipment is serviced
properly the day before, everything goes smoothly.
Difficulties sometimes arise from other causes. Sometimes for a number of rea-
sons several pilots fly the same aircraft. From the beginning to the end of flights
the plane is in the air. The inspection and checking has to be done in those few min-
utes when the plane returns for refueling. Even with tight scheduling, the specialists
manage to do all that is essential.
It cannot be said that we accomplished all this with ease. Our success was due to
good. ground training, timely and efficient execution of regulation inspections and ad.-
ditional work. Every piece of equipment, and that of aircraft in particular, requires
careful attention.
Servicing planes for night flying is no simple matter.
With the development of equipment, the methods of operation and. maintenance of
it on the ground. and in the air change accordingly. In contradistinction to previous
years, the present-day basic method. for assessing the condition of equipment is that
of instrument testing by using testing and measuring devices.
This apparatus finds particularly wide application during post-flight check, when
defects are eliminated and regulation inspection work is carried out. Experience
has shown that combat readiness of a plane is entirely dependent on preliminary serv-
icing.
It is often said that the workd.ay of the engineering-technical personnel begins
?
?
I.
?
?
The Working Day of an Engineer
75
early in the morning and ends late at night, and that the technician "lives" on the
parking area. Everyone usually answers the question: "Why 'is that so?" in the
same way ? "Plenty of work. Flights, servicing for flights, checks, regulation in-
spection work. And then there are so many unforeseen details that take up a lot of
time." There is indeed so much to be d.one that one can hardly manage to do every-
thing in the course of the day.
When I came to the unit to fill the post of a special equipment engineer, I got ac-
quainted. with the nature of the work and. my round of duties and. the d.oubt crept into
my mind. whether I would. be able to cope with the work. But life makes its demands.
Pilots must fly under all weather conditions, both day and. night, and fly aircraft
that is operational and carefully serviced,. It became necessary to organize the
workday on lines that would ensure efficient use of every man's every minute.
Taking a single d.ay as an example, I shall try to illustrate how aircraft equip-
ment is serviced in our unit, what problems an engineer has to solve, what difficul-
ties are encountered and how they are overcome.
With the change-over to a seven-hour workd.ay it seemed. impossible to do all
the tasks in so short a time. And ind.eed. many in the beginning could not cope with
the situation and were often lagging behind.. But due to proper organization and. con-
certed effort, the proper tempo was found.. Now every specialist knows precisely the
content and. the sequence of inspections and methods of making them. This ensures
fast d.etection of the smallest defects in equipment and. helps to determine their causes.
The day we are going to speak about began with political studies in a group of ser-
geants. An engineer was holding classroom instruction. In two hours we assembled.
at the parking apron. The problem for the day had been assigned at formation, and.
now group chiefs quickly assigned. the mechanics to their work stations.
Let us now see what an engineer does.
In the first place he organizes and checks all the work, inspects several machines
in every outfit, checks equipment, and. makes entries in the forms.
While the specialists are servicing the aircraft equipment, the engineer manages
to visit the TECh [Technical Maintenance Unit] group where he gives instruction on
additional work and. sees that regulation inspections are carried. out.
In the middle of the day in question the engineer met a representative of one of
the supplying plants. Such meetings occur quite ,frequently., Many questions have
to be settled. together with the representative; claims and. technical statements must
be drawn up; instruments and. assemblies out of repair must be returned. and..new
ones received, in exchange. But this is not all. We try to take advantage of every
visit of a representative to find, out the characteristic equipment failures in other
units and groups, the operational peculiarities of individual assemblies, instruments,
installations, and systems. The plant representative can tell many things from,his
own. experience and. also of the experience of Work organization on other airfields.
Such discussions help us to avoid, a whole series of failures in aircraft equipment.
We also often have our own suggestions right in the unit for the elimination of minor
defects. Sometimes, for instance, the indicator of the TRZ-52 fuel flow meter gets
out of repair. We took one of the.d.evices apart and. found. that the cause of the failure
was due to the dropping out of the scale ball from its tube. Such a defect we elimi-
nate ourselves.
The present meeting with the plant representative proved. of great value for the
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/29: CIA-RDP81-01043R002500220001-5
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy A ?proved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/10/29: CIA-RDP81-01043R002500220001-5
78 V. A. Grechin
critique of this case helped. us to prevent similar failures on other aircraft.
Thus the day passes in our unit. It must not, however, be forgotten, that any
experience must be utilized, only with account being taken of specific conditions.
Now and, then it happens that some engineers d.o not plan their workday, consider-
ing this to be of no consequence. . This results in following the path of least resist-
ance, in distracted. attention, in leaving a number of questions unresolved.!
We too have had. such difficulties. But life showed. the necessity of revising the
routine practice. A plan, and. a specific plan, is necessary for every day. In our
work there are no insignificant details. Everything must be foreseen, considered.,
and. executed. on time and. with observance of a definite tempo.
YEARS AND PEOPLE
(Memories of the War Years)
A "know-hower" is what they call V. S. Khobotov, first
sergeant of the reenlistment service of unit X. V. S.Kho-
botov is an .excellent aircraft specialist and efficiency
man. He has built a device which permits testing of the
hydraulic system without starting the motor on the park-
ing apron. In the photo: V. S. Khobotov, first sergeant of
the reenlistment service, at work. Photo: A. I.Dotsenko.
5. In the Sky of the Ukraine
One evening in the first days of February 1944 Gen. Krasovskiy' s aid.e came to see
me, and. brought me a small file, resembling a desk writing pad.. This was the cor-
re spond.ence between Maj. Sichelschmidt, commander of the 210th German Assault
Gun Battalion and. Hoffman Schoenberg, head. of the Assault Artillery School, located.
in the rear area of Germany. Maj. Sichelschmidt and the head of the school were
evidently friend.s and. wrote to each other very frankly. The letters of the Hitlerite
officer showed quite clearly the situation which had. arisen in the rear of the Fascist
army by 1944. It was obvious that Nazi Germany was marshaling her last efforts
and that many officers began to realize the inevitability of the approaching catastrophe.
In the course of offensive operations which had developed, by the end. of 1943 and.
the first half of 1944 the Soviet Army defeated. the army group "North" and. reached.
Narva and Polotsk. At this very time the southern enemy concentration was utterly
routed.. After liberating Pravoberezhnaya [right bank] Ukraine, our troops reached.
the Dnestr and. the approaches to L'vov and. Kishinev.
It is dear that this advance was not easy. The enemy did not want to give up his
positions and. open the ways of approach to his borders. ch his southern flank the
enemy had the largest troop concentration, Army groups "South" and. l'A" occupied.
a defensive position on the sector stretching from the mouth of the Dnepr to the river
Pripyat'. There were five armies in both groups. If one takes into consideration,
that to the south of the river Pripyat' 19 tank divisions were concentrated, one can
have an idea of the feverish efforts with which the Germans were defending their posi-
tions in the Ukraine.
At the beginning of February 1944 troops of the First Ukrainian Front under the
command. of N.F.Vatutin, overcoming the stubborn resistance of the enemy, broke
through a strongly fortified. German defense line in the Belaya Tserkov' area and.
rushed. to meet the troops of the Second. Ukrainian Front, which, under the command
of Gen. I. S. Konev, had. turned, to the offensive from the area north of Kirovograd. On
3 February units of both fronts joined in the Zvenigorodka-Shpola area, closing the
circle around. a large enemy concentration. In this way was formed. the Korsuni-
Shevchenko "kettle", into which fell ten infantry divisions and. one motorized. brigade.
The advantages of Soviet troops were so obvious that there was no doubt the German
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy A proved for Release
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80
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Co_py Approved for Release
S. N. Romazanov
divisions which had. gotten into the "kettle" would soon be definitely d.estroyed.. Yet
the Soviet command, led, by humane principles, proposed, that the German command
discontinue resistance and. surrender. The Hitlerite generals declined this demand.
We were forced to resume combat operations.
Units of our army carried. on day and night aerial combats, supporting ground.
troops at the front. In a short time Soviet pilots mad,e 3539 combat sorties, down-
ing 75 enemy planes in 56 aerial combats alone,and, destroying on enemy airfields
123 planes, mostly three-engined. 3u-52's. More than 200 tanks, 800 vehicles, and
over 400 various depots were destroyed. and. damaged, by strikes from the air.
One of the main problems which our units were facing during that period was the
destruction of junction railroad. stations and. bridges (for the disruption of transporta-
tion). The air raid. on Shepetovka station by a ground. attack group headed. by Lt.
I. M. Dolgov can prove how successfully the pilots carried, out this important mission.
The large railroad center of Shepetovka, a junction of several railroad, lines,
played. an important part in supplying Hitler ite troops operating against our front.
While making a reconnaissance flight, Lt.Dolgov established. that there were 14 large
trains (covered cars, fuel tank cars, trains with tanks and. guns).
On returning to his airfield. Dolgov reported everything to the commander.
"It would. be good. to send. a division of bombers against such a target," said. unit
commander Maj. Yefremov.
But it was not within his authority to scramble
enough time for it. And the commander d.ecid.ed.
with Lt. Dolgov at the head. against Shepetovka.
Now the group of seven groun&attack bombers
the lead pilot. To his right in the rear flew Maj.
worker, a highly competent pilot.
It was snowing. Thick snow masses were whirling in the air, blinding the pilots,
swallowing up the planes ahead. in their milky shroud.. In order not to lose sight of
each other the pilots kept in closer formation, straining their eyes to the limit.
Visibility being very poor, they had. to d.escend. to hedge-hopping flight. There were
still 15 km to Shepetovka when four planes, flying a bearing formation under the com-
mand, of Lt.Dolgov, headed. for it and. got ready for the ground-attack operation. At
this time three planes headed by Maj. Sharonov swooped down on AA batteries in order
to suppress their fire and. enable their comrades to carry out the mission successful-
ly.
They approached. the station at an altitude of 400 m, started to glide, and struck
with their cannon and machine guns at the train concentration. Bombs were dropped
from an altitude of 50-70 m. Explosions were heard. one after another, and a minute
later, when the planes had turned and were flying away from the station under strong
AA fire, an explosion of such force was heard, that for some time the entire station
was engulfed. in a cloud of fire and smoke. The guerilla detachment commander re-
lated to us afterwards that during the assault of ground-attack planes three railroad
cars loaded with TNT blew up on the tracks. This blast transformed the junction
station into a scrap-iron graveyard. As a result the station could not be used. for a
long time.
All the pilots and. aerial gunners who had. taken part in the assault on Shepetovka
were rewarded. and. promoted in rank. Group commander Lt. Dolgov was promoted.
a division; besides there was not
to send. ond'Il" group of seven planes
headed for Shepetovka; Dolgov was
Sharonov, regimental political
?
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?,111
?
I
.Years and Peofil
81
to the rank of captain and was awarded. the Regimental Commanders' Order of Suvorov,
Third. Class,
The rolling barrage of Soviet fronts was moving on westward. By the beginning
of July 1944 units of the First Ukrainian Front reached. the line Kovell-Chertkov-Kolo-
myya, preparations for the liberation of the city of L'vov were beginning.
Under the leadership of the Communist Party the Soviet people knew not only how
to restore the losses sufferei. by the Soviet Army during the war but also to insure
its further growth in number and. quality. By the summer of 1944 our army was
considerably stronger than the German Fascist army in quantity and quality of troops,
in abundance of equipment, in experienced, command., and. in the skill of soldiers and
officers,
New Air Force groups arrived, in order to strengthen the Second, Air Army: one
bomber, one fighter, and two ground-attack air corps. More than 3000 planes were
concentrated. on the L'vov and. Sokal' line of advance. These machines were not
like those with which we had. begun the war. Fighter planes with a distinctly increas-
ed flight range had begun to arrive in sufficient quantity. The new Yak-3 aircraft
was the lightest fighter in the world.. It had. unusually high horizontal and. vertical
speeds, In its combat qualities the Yak-3 surpassed. the German "Messerschmitts".
Whole units, activated in the rear area and armed with La-7 fighters joined our
ranks. Frontline pilots and. recently graduated ones from schools relearned to fly
a new plane, mastered air combat tactics, and. arrived at the front perfectly trained..
They immediately appreciated. the qualities of these machines, The Pe-2 bombers
and the 11-2 ground attack planes were also improved and met all the requirements
of a combat situation.
By that time the skill of the pilots increased noticeably. Heroes of the Soviet
Union, famous pilots and navigators served in almost every unit. Entire units con-
sisted of experienced air Soldiers who had. gone through the great school of war, each
of whom had. several orders and. medals for combat exploits.
Nikolay Shutt, a fighter element flight commander, downed. three enemy bombers
in an aerial combat over one of the Dnepr river crossings,
Nikolay Shutt was famous all along the front for his courage and skill. I was par-
ticularly pleased to hear of his constant victories. The fact is that I once recom-
mended. to the commander that he be given an award.; and now I was glad that I was
not mistaken in the man. I met Nikolay Shutt during the combat near Khar'kov. On
some businessl flew to the fighter division commanded by Gen. K. G. Baranchuk. On
one of the airfields I saw the following picture. One of our fighter groups returned
from a mission and landed. But one of the fighter planes remained in the air and
for some time performed acrobatics over the airfield.. One figure followed. another.
This was a whole cascade drawn boldly, beautifully, confidently. One could see
that a great .master was controlling the plane. Many people had. gathered on the
airfield and. all of them ? from the commander to the ordinary engine mechanic ?
admired the pilot and regarded. his piloting as if it were a usual occurrence.
"Has he been assigned the mission to pilot over the airfield?" I asked a pilot who
was standing next to me.
"No mission at all. In an aerial combat the group downed many planes. He
downed two, it seems, and now he is announcing it to us. This is a kind of salute
in honor of his victory."
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/29: CIA-RDP81-010431Rnn9cnn99nnni_
a ?
.82
S N Romazanov
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/10/29: CIA-RDP81-01043R002500220001-5
't?4
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Hero of the Soviet Union, Guards Capt. A. V. Lobanov,
relaxing in the circle of his combat friends. This
was on the day when Lobanov downed his 26th ene-
my plane (1944).
To be frank, this liberty seemed superfluous to me; but noticing how pleased the
aviators were, how proud they were of their comrade's skill, I excused it in my
thought and agreed with the commander who had permitted the pilots such a fancy.
In the evening, listening to stories about an aerial combat with a large group of
enemy planes, I noticed that Nikolay Shutt's name was mentioned more often than
that of others. Undoubtedly this pilot had. distinguished himself in battle and what
is more ? he had. been the soul of the combat.
On entering the mess hall I noticed that cooks and waitresses bustled about the
good food for the pilots. One table was laid separately: there were dishes prepared
with special care, as if intended for one who was celebrating his name day.
"One might think you were welcoming a guest of honor," I said to the man in
charge of the mess hall, pointing to the separate table.
"Comrade General, there is a tradition in our unit: we lay a separate table for
the pilot who has distinguished himself in combat. He is, so to say, our name-day
man. Today Nikolay Shutt distinguished himself in battle, He often celebrates his
name-day with us,
"Who established such a tradition?"
"No one did it, it came of itself. The workers of the mess hall want to thank the
hero ? and besides, the pilots themselves enjoy it, "
After supper I invited Shutt for a talk. A stately, fair-haired, handsome fellow
of the rank of Senior Lieutenant, appeared before me. He looked as I imagined a
hero-pilot would.
? A few months later I learned that the division commander had recommended him
for the title of Hero of the Soviet Union.
-
?
?
?
P7?4.1
?1111111111.111
4
Years and People
I '
83
Now, during the days of battles for L'vov, I heard of Shutt's new exploits and. I re-
joiced. in his success.
Many pilots, who had. distinguished. themselves in the engagements near Stalingrad.,
during the battle in the Kursk bulge, in fights for the liberation of the Pravoberezh-
naya Ukraine, were awarded the distinguished. title of Hero of the Soviet Union.
I remember a conversation. On the far approaches to L'vov on the bank of a small
river Iwas waiting for my turn to get on the ferry with the river-crossing commander
officer I.Dmitriyev. Seeing a crowd of soldiers at the ferry, I suggested. to the Lieu-
tenant to disperse and. camouflage the men.
"If you fear an air raid of the enemy," he said. to me, "you are mistaken, Our
planes are patrolling in the sky."
He pointed, to a group of four of our fighters which was flying by.
"But there may be more planes of the enemy and.theywillbreakthroughto the river-
crossing.
"They won't, Comrade General'; Dmitriyev replied with confidence, "That time has
passed."
Suddenly, as if in confirmation of our conversation, a large group of German bom-
bers appeared. on the horizon. We counted. 24 planes. Our fighters, flying at great al-
titude, attacked the enemy from above. The multifold quantitative superiority of the
enemy did not scare the four brave men. They confidently attacked the lead group of
planes; then, having broken up the formation, they began to select their own definite tar-
gets. An aerial combat began. One after another, before reaching the target the bom-
bers dropped their bombs and.flew back. A Ju-87 detached itself from the group and
at great speed sWooped toward the river-crossing. But our fighter followed it closely,
overtook it, and shot it up. The Ju-87 fell close to the bank.
An hour later I was on the airfield from which planes
ware t21eing nff to guard the
river-crossing. I asked to see the pilots who had taken part in the unequal combat.
"Squadron Commander Capt. Lobanov, " one of them introduced himself.
The Star of the Hero was displayed on the pilot's tunic. His face still retained
traces of a recently vanished. smile. "He is a jolly fellow", I thought and suddenly re-
membered that about a year ago I met him in the Belgorod area. He then was playing
the accordion in a circle of friends. It seemed to me he was a young pilot, just be-
ginning the war. And now...a hero, squadron commander, terror of Fascist pilots.
"You got the Hero for the Kursk operation?"
"Yes Sir, Comrade General!"
"Do you still play the accordion?"
Lobanov became embarrassed, as if we hadbeen talking of some of his weaknesses.
In the evening I attended flight critique discussions conducted by Capt. A. V. Lobanov
with the pilots of his squadron. He related simply and in detail about aerial combat.
The captain spoke about the tactics of the enemy, about the necessity of creative ap-
proach in the matter of solving combat problems, showing keenness of wit and. resource -
fulness.
When the day of combat work was over, the pilots assembled in a dugout. By the
light of a cartridge shell wick flashed the rows of mother-of-pearl bass keys and the
tune of the "Polar Waltz" was heard. It flowed like the waves of the northern sea about
which the song was telling.
"Our captain likes songs of the sea," said somebody next to me. I sat and thought
how remarkable our men were: they knew how to live beautifully, to struggle and win,
I was always sorry that after each meeting of this kind parting was sure to follow.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/29: CIA-RDP81-01043R002500220001-5
Vt.
I I ?
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Hero of the Soviet Union Guards
Petukhov (1944).
Maj.
a particularly hard work. At one
of the meetings the Front command.-
er said to us members of the Air
Army .command:
No important operations for the
liberation of the city will be under-
taken until reconnaissance ? first
of all, air reconnaissance ? sub-
mits a complete picture of the situa-
tion in the hostile camp."
Reconnaissance was being made
night and day on aircraft of all branch.
es of aviation. Pilots carrying out
the missions exhibited. much imagi-
nation, skill, and. courage.
Preceding the operation, recon-
naissance photographers alone photo-
graphed. an area of 17,000 square
km. From reconnaissance photo-
graphs, 30,000 various defense ob-
jectives of the enemy were interpret-
ed.. On the basis of this material, Maj. Gen. of the Air Force I. S
maps of separate sectors were be- with Chief of Staff Maj.Gen.F I.Kachev (1944).
War-time paths of life often took people in differ-
ent d.ir ections for ever. Each one had. his own
work, his own fate in store for him.
If the enemy offered stiff resistance in
Pravoberezhnaya Ukraine, one can imagine the
furious bitterness with which he tried, to hold
LIvov? the largest administrative and political
center of Western Ukraine, the junction of eight
railroad. lines, a city beyond. which Poland. began.
The German Fascist command. concentrated. large
forces in the L'vov area. On near-by airfields
700-720 planes were based..
Very fierce battles were expected.. Yet
the Soviet troop command. showed. reasonable
caution. Front headquarters was seeking for
ways and. means to attain victory involving the
minimum losses in equipment and. manpower.
From experience we knew that even important
victories could. be won at the expense of little
bloodshed.. This demands a thorough knowled.ge
of the enemy ? of his strength, disposition, and.
plans. Now the most complex problems were
rising to full height before all types of recon-
naissance. Air reconnaissance was faced. with
.Poibin (right)
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nd Pea 1 ,
85
ing drawn up; many other documents which played. an exceptional part in conducting
combat operations were being prepared..
One can say that here, for the first time, not only special reconnaissance units
were working both on a broad, scale and, accurately according to a strict plan, but
also subunits assigned. in all groups.
Before starting to liberate the city, ?several of the enemy's bases of operationhad to
be destroyed.. The participation of reconnaissance subunits in this particular area.'
was of special importance, owing to frequent changes of the combat situation. Eve*y,
day combined, arms and aviation commanders as well needed. information about the
location of new firing points, dumps, and. important objectives. Aviation group,
unit, and. reconnaissance outfit commanders maintained, direct c:.71.tact with ground.
commanders and. supplied, them with new data. Reconnaissance planes flew in any
kind, of weather, appearing where they were not at all expected..
On those d.ays, in addition to reconnaissance, our pilots conducted, continuous
patrolling operations over ground troop combat formations. Once a fighter group,
head.ed. by Guard.s Maj. Petukhov was carrying out such a mission. At a distance of
10 km from the position of our troops on enemy territory the fighters noticed. from
afar a large group of "Junkers" aircraft escorted. by four FW-190's. The Guards-
men's attack was so swift that most of the bombers turned, back and. only four of them,
escorted. by one fighter plane, engaged in combat. All the five planes of the enemy
were downed. and as they were plunging downwards they exploded, over their own
troops. As to Petukhov's group, it returned, to its airfield. without any losses.
The offensive against L'vov was planned. for 14 July, but already by the 13th the
retreat of German troops in the direction of Sokar had. been noticed. Fascist troops
were withdrawing beyond. the Bug. It was clear that the Hitlerite command, was try-
ing to lead. its units out of our artillery and. Air Force strike zone. First Ukrainian
Front commander I. S. Konev issued. the order: right flank troops must pursue the re-
treating enemy without allowing him to consolidate his position on the second defense
line. On 14 July troops at the front changed, over to the offensive on the central
line of advance.
Heavy fighting d.eveloped in the Zolochev-Plugov-Zborov area on the central sector
of advance. Here the Germans. concentrated. three tank and. one mechanized. divisions.
The advance of our troops was delayed., and. some units found. themselves in an excep-
tionally difficult situation. A certain number of additional planes had to be assigned.
to assist them. The army commander ordered. the .scrambling of reserve air units
and. an increase in combat sortie intensity. On this day our pilots made 4350 sorties.
A rain of rocket and. gun missiles, an avalanche of bombs were falling on the heads
of enemy soldiers, on tank, artillery and. mortar combat formations. Soviet Air
Force massed. strikes on 15 July altered the situation to such a degree that already
on the 16th it was possible to move First Ukrainian Front mobile units into the break-
through. This is what the front commander said. of this day's Air Force operations:
it n 15 July at a critical moment, the Air Force saved, the situation of the 38th Ar-
my."
As usual, the
distinguished. themselves.
main line of resistance the enem
lorious "infantrymen of the air" the ground-attack planes ?
The ground troops CP announced: "Not far from the
has concentrated a large tank task force. A
counterattack is expected.. "
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86 Years and People
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"Foil the counterattack!" ordered. the Air Force group commander. Ground-at-
tack planes are taking off into the air. At definite intervals group after group head
for the tank concentration area, drop their bombs, and. fir e on the targets.
A fighter group headed. by regiment commander Capt. S. D. Luganskiy, Twice Hero
of the Soviet Union, escorts the ground.-attack planes. Fighter planes vigilantly
scan the sky. But it is clear of enemy planes; the Soviet Air Force lords it un-
challenged, over the sky. Only now and then down below, much lower than the ground-
attack bombers, an enemy fighter will fly past; but, seeing the reliable escort, it
does not engage in combat. However, Fascist pilots often avoid, a combat also in
those cases when our ground-attack planes or bombers are unescorted, The Hitler
"aces" have lost some of their arrogance, their tactics have changed. As thieves,
getting into somebody's house, first think how
to get out of it, in the same way German pilots
fly at low altitudes, always ready to flee from
Soviet fighters. Now the Germans attack like
thieves too when they come upon a solitary,
defenseless target. But Soviet planes fly most-
ly in groups, under a powerful cover?where-
as Goering's laud.ed "aces" travel by devious
routes and over the woods, There is no tra.ce
of their former arrogance or impudence!
The tactics of our ground-attack planes,
bombers, and. fighters change too: "One must
look down more, and. not let the enemy attack
one stealthily!" Escort fighters receive the
order: "Look for the enemy close to the ground.,
carry on combat in hedge-hopping flight!"
Germans resorted. to provocation as well.
A plane or two fly above, while down below an
element Or squad:ron of "Messers" lies in wait.
We got wise to these tactics too.
Air supremacy passed entirely into our
hands. Yet even now each mission d.emand.ed.
Twice Hero of the Soviet Union great skill and courage. An AA shell fragment
Guards Capt. S.D. Luganskiy (1944). shattered a landing gear wheel, the shell pierced.
the wing and. wed.ged. the aileron of Lt. Leoni-
d.ov's plane. Pilot and. gunner could. leave the plane by bailing out, but Communist
Leonidov, a squadron Party organizer, took the ground.-attack plane in for a landin
In this case it is not easy to land a heavy machine, but the brave pilot carries out
the landing successfully. A few hours later Leonid.ov is in the air again, once
more ground.- attacking the enemy. On this day ground-attack planes destroyed.
more than 90 tanks of the enemy.
On those days the tank brigade deputy commander would say to me:
"Each height is a firing point. Artillery mortar positions are located, on the
many 'forest fringes here. When our offensive began the Germans introduced into
battle a. great amount of equipment. And. at this difficult moment we again saw
groUnd-attack planes over us ? our comrades-in-arms, our neighbors from above.
g.
?
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Years and. People
87
They pressed upon the enemy in large groups. What a formidable for The pi-
lots impetuosity and. heroism also inspired. us ? tankers, infantry and. artillery-
men."
Bombers were not inferior to ground-attack planes either. During the battles
for L'vov I happened. to be on airfield.s where bomber units of Gen. I. S. Polbin, the
legendary hero of the Great Patriotic War, were based..
...The red regimental banner flies over the airfield.. Fluttering like a flame,
ft,
'-,Ame*OreOr
.4
Lt. Gen. of the Air Force A V. Utin (1944),
it rises above everything else, and it seems to fly, seeing the squadrons off to battle.
A dive bomber taxies up to the flight line and halts as if ready for a jump. Gen.
Polbin is in the pilot's seat. He is now going to take a large group of planes on a
scheduled. bombing mission. The powerful roar of engines fills the environs of the
airfield and a wave of bombers zooms into the sky, heading west. Their 'mission
is to wipe out with a strike from the air the resistance of Fascists who had dug in
at one of the large inhabited points.
There is low overcast over the target; the bombers cannot dive. General Polbin
knows that there are many military dumps at the inhabited, point, artillery and motor
vehicles on its outskirts, and. trains standing at the railroad station.
The planes are making the bomb run approach. Through cloud, rents they see
the target, determine its coordinates... and scores of medium and. large bombs fall
on the enemy. A column of smoke rises over the Hitlerite strong point.
Fighter planes of groups under the command. of Maj. Gen. of the Air Force.A.
Utin, Maj. Gen. of the Air Force M. M. Golovnya, and. Col. A. I. Pokryshkin distinguish-
ed themselves in the battles for L'vov.
Here for the first time we mention Gen, Utints name, The young generation of
pilots, now serving in the ranks of the Air Force, must know that this highly com-
petent aviation commander and first-rate pilot has trained. a whole galaxy of famous
air soldiers. Heroes of the Soviet Union A. I. Pokryshkin, G. A. Rechkolov, D. B.
Glinka, N. D. Gulayev and dozens of others grew and. matured in his units.
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88 S. N Romazanov
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Having become first-rate pilots and. carrying on combat traditions, Gen. Utin's
wards in their turn raised. masters of aerial combats. A.I.Pokryshkin has an ex-
ceedingly great number of pupils and. followers. The fame of the "Pokryshkin school"
spread. throughout the Soviet Army. He who wanted. to follow Pokryshkin had. to ad.-
here to the following rules: the fighter plane must find, the enemy and. destroy him;
quantity does not determine the success of battle, but rather the skill to strike with
dead. certainty, resolution and. exact calculation in battle ? these are the highest
qualities of a fighter.
And. further ? a defective radio station on a plane is the worst enemy. A sortie
on such an aircraft is a crime. The soldier who does not know his weapon thorough-
lyis no soldier.
These rules contained, the principles of an advance school of aerial combat.
Communists were in the front ranks, while non-Party people strove to earn in
combats the distinguished. right to join the ranks of the Communist Party. On the
days of the L'vov operation .1527 persons were ad.mitted into the Party. These were
pilots, navigators, aircraft specialists, soldiers and. officers of rear area units who
had. distinguished. themselves in carrying out combat missions.
The following figures tell of the tension and. scale of Air Force combat activity in
the L'vov operation. In 16 combat days the pilots of our army made more than .
33, 000 sorties; carried. out 578 aerial combats in which they downed. 592 enemy planes;
dropped. on the heads of the enemy over 17, 000 aerial bombs and. fired. over 100,000
rocket and gun missiles. The intensity of aviation fire was so great that one bomb
and. six shells burst in every circle with a 10 m radius.
All the efforts of the Fascist German command to hold. L'vov were foiled.. The
L'vov task force of the enemy was half-encircled and. on 27 July it was liquidated..
The Soviet Army offensive, developing in the second. half of July 1944 on a vast
front ? from the Gulf of Finland to the Carpathian mountains ? was continuing.
Combat operations were being shifted to the territories of Poland., Czechoslovakia,
Hungary and. Yugoslavia. The front was approaching the eastern borders of Fascist
Germany.
.111ftrrm.??????ho?????M?????+????????...umm.ams?Ino?ow.?........?MP
SOVIET HELICOPTERS
Ten 'years ago, in Moscow? our own helicopters wer,e for the first time taking
part in an aerial review. They had. been built by a design team under the lead.er ship
of I. R. Bratukliin. Since then, at almost all reviews, we see new Soviet helicopters,
improved, every year. Thus, at the review in 1955 Yak-24 twin rotor helicopters
were already flying. Available here are also the small coaxial scheme machines of
the N.'. Kamov d.esign team.
Helicopters of the M. L. Mil' design team ? the Mi-1 and. Mi-4 ? are widely used
in the USSR. They are being used in the Air Force and in many branches of national
economy. The Mi-4 found large-scale application for geological survey work in
Arctic and..kntarctic.pioneering expeditions. With their help hundreds of people were
saved, during floods and disasters at sea. Helicopters are being applied, more widely
in transport, particularly in medical transport, in liaison service, in the struggle
against agricultural pests and. forest fires.
Soviet helicopters are not only not inferior to foreign ones in their performance,
?
?
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loommovammisessioiremor Years and. Peopill. 89
The Soviet TsAGI1-EA helicopter in flight (1932)
characteristics, but in a number of features they are considerably superior to them.
Established. record.s are graphic evidence of this.
In 1955 pilots G. A. Tinyakov and.Ye.F.Milyutichev on a 'Yak-24 helicopter establish-
ed. two world. records: altitud.e and. carrying capacity. In 1956 on the Mi-4 helicopter
two world, records were also broken.
A remarkable record. was established. in 1957 by pilots R. I, Kaprelyan and. G. V.
Alferov on the new powerful Soviet Mi-6 helicopter, d.eveloped. by a team of designers
under the leadership of M. L. Mil'. They lifted, a load. of 1,2,004 kg to an altitude of
2432 m, exceeding the record. of the American pilot Roy Anderson (1956) by twice
the amount. Such successes could. be attained, owing to the high level of Soviet
science and. to the technical equipment of our industry. They are the quite natural
result of the work of many years of a large team of scientists, designers, engineers,
pilots, mechanics and workers, which was carried, on in Our country in the domain
of propeller aircraft for more than 30 years.
Already in 1927 there appeared in TsAGI [Central Aerohydrod:ynamic Institute]
the first and. only at that time scientific research and. design group for build-
ing helicopters.
The Soviet Mi-6 helicopter with turboprop engines (1957).
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11.
90
rM1
S. N. Roma zanov
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Five years later (1932) successful test flights of the first Soviet TsAGI 1-EA
helicopter took place. This was much superior to aircraft of a similar type in use
at that time.
Its immediate creators were Prof. A. M. Cheremukhin, Engineer K. A. Bunkin, and
the author of these lines. Engineers I. P. Bratukhin, G. I. Solntsev, A. F. Maurin
and. V.P.Lapisov, who were young at that time, took part in a series of research
projects.
The first mechanics of our own helicopter, I.D.Ivanov and. S.A. Trefilov, earned.
deep gratitud.e for their work.
The 1-EA helicopter was built according to a basic plan suggested by B.N.Yur'yev
as far back as 1909-1912. Most helicopters are being built even now in our country,
as well as abroad., according to this plan.
Test flights were cond.ucted. from 1930 to 1934. Prof. A. M. Cheremukhin con-
tinuously served. as a pilot on the helicopter. He made a great number of flights,
demonstrating a straight-up takeoff, vertical climb, "hovering" in the air, a strict-
ly vertical let-down and landing on a pre-selected point, motion forward and. to the
sides, any kind of turn while "hovering" over a specified spot.
Onl4Auglist 1932 Prof.Cheremulchinascended on the 1-EA helicopter to an altitude of
605 m. This was a record. result at the time. The officially registered altitude
record. set by the Italian helicopter ''Ascanio" was only 18 m.
It is quite natural and. understandable that the experience obtained, as a result of
building the first Soviet helicopters ? TsAGI 1-EA, TsAGI 5-EA, TsAGI 11-EA ?
and autogiros has served as the basis for designing new and. improved machines.
?Li.
lit Ot.)V let? Pia` 6 .1.-LeliCOPte r -vvith turboprop engines is a new achievement in the prac-
tice of helicopter building in the entire world.
Candidate of Technical Sciences,
A. M. Izakson
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THE WIFE OF A PILOT
MIKH, PETROV
They were expecting a child, in pilot Sergey Prolchorov's family. Prokhorov's
wife, Natasha, had. lately become particularly worried. and. even a little sad,
Whenever Sergey's colleagues or neighbors met him, they would. more and. more
often inquire about his wife's health, expressed. their good. wishes and. asked him
what he would. like to have: a son or a daughter. Embarrassed., Sergey would. ans-
wer:
"If a boy is born it will be o.k. If it's a girl it will be good. too..."
Natasha's mother, Anna Vasil'yevna arrived from Chelyabinsk. She was a bus'.
tling, elderly woman who brought into the couple's life a particular homelike atmos-
phere.
Natasha had taken a leave of absence. There were always flowers in the room;
her girl friend.s from the school where she taught brought them, but most often it
was Sergey. Walking across the field. on his way home from the airfield he would.
always pick a big bunch.
"Why do you pick so many flowers? I have nowhere to put them," Natasha would
say, but the glance she cast at her husband was warm and. affectionate.
Once Sergey came home beaming and. excited.. He related that their element had
been declared outstanding, the general had. expressed. his appreciation and reward.ed
him with a watch bearing his name.
"But this. is already the third. watch with your name inscribed, on it.. What shall
we d.o with them?"
"Have you forgotten our son, Natasha?"
"What if it's not a son, but a daughter?"
"It will be a son, a son," ? Sergey repeated. insistently. "It must be a son. You
know, I'll most certainly teach him to fly. Fancy: we are at home and. our son ap-
pears in the door-way robust and. happy, in his hands he has flowers, but they
are peculiar, they have a strange smell...
" 'This is for you mother, I brought them from Mars' ? he will say. I picked,
them myself...
" 'From Mars?' we utter perplexed..
" 'It is quite simple. I took some tourists there. Now give me something to eat:
I had. breakfast long ago, and now it is almost dinner time,'
"You are a dreamer, you always invent something," Natasha laughed.
30'
,
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Mikh. Petrov
The Prokhorovs called their son Mikhail. Sergey was in seventh heaven. Of
course! His dream had. come true. To his comrades' questions as to what it was,
he would, answer tersely: "Mishka, and. he weights almost four kilograms."
Capt. Prokhorov even lost weight. The pilots joked.: "Things do happen: it can-
not be helped.? he is a 'nursing father: ' Joking was all very well but family mat-
ters worried. Sergey. As long as there was no child.? everything was clear and.
simple. Now they had. a son and. he imperiously demanded. his rights. Natasha's
leave of absence was over and. everything became more difficult for her. In the
morning, having fed Misha, she hastened. to school, then she appeared at dinner
time and. left again. Returning from his flights Sergey often found. his son crying
loudly. Anna Vasil'yevna, walking about the room with him kept repeating: "Don't
cry, my darling, mother will come ? she'll nurse and. soothe you."
One evening Prokhorov made up his mind to have a heart to heart talk with Na-
tasha.
"Here at last, you and. I have come to have true, great happiness", he said.. "Now
you must quit working to take care of our son..."
"Leave school?"
"Of course,. What do you need it for? Bring up Mishka, meet me when I come
back from flying ? this is now your main calling, so to speak, your duty towards
the community and. the State. In a word., you are a mother, and that is most impor-
tant.
I
A minute of silence followed. It seemed that each one was thinking his own
thoughts. What was to be done to avoid, an imprudent step, so that life would be
interesting and. meaningful as before?
Natasha approached. her husband. and., taking. his hand., said:
"You know, Serezha, though I am a mother, I have other duties, too. lam ac-
customed to work, I love the school and it would be hard for me to part with it and,
after all, why did I go through college?"
"I do not understand you," Sergey said. indigna
a life. What else do you need.?"
"I cannot agree with them," Natasha replied.
not only this."
"But I am guarding your peace and our son's
all the bother with the backward ones, checking
some for .you."
ntly. "Other women dream of such
quietly. "For me the aim of life is
childhood... The school, children,
their home work ? all this is burden-
"You are speaking of some kind of peace for me," said Natasha staring at her
husband. "1 am not eager to have such peace, I don't want it. It may be hard for
me, but as long as mother is staying with us, I won't give up work."
This was said firmly and Sergey was surprised: this was the first time he had
ever seen his wife like this. He tried. to prove to Natasha that her leaving work
would be only temporary, Misha would grow up and. she would return to school again,
but all was in vain.
"You don't love your son," said. Sergey angrily.
Suddenly Natasha was silent. She looked. into the corner of the room where her
son's crib was standing, then she slowly raised her glance to her husband and her
face changed, it became gentle and bright. She approached Sergey and murmured.
softly, as if afraid of waking her son.
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The Wife of a Pilot
93
0
"You are both dear to me, Serezha, I love you both."
Service in the Air Force is not very easy. But with maturity the pilot acquires
composure, self-control, self-reliance and., along with them, one mor e. precious
quality ? daring, the ability to take risks.
All was going well with Capt. Prokhorov. His element became the leading flight
section in the unit. The element pilots, officers Loganyuk, Roshchin, Lomakin,
loved their profession very much and. flew with inspiration, carrying out their mis-
sions excellently. Yet Prokhorov often pondered.? was this enough?
He considered. that each pilot should constantly improve his skill and. look for
new method.s of aircraft combat employment.
"Look, my friends," he once said. after flying, sitting down on the grass and in-
viting the pilots to d.o the same. "I want to consult with you. You know how diffi-
cult it is under present conditions to approach a target. Radar facilities and PV 0
[AA defense] are strongly developed.. What if..."
Having outlined toss bombing by fighter planes of which he had. alread.y heard,
Capt. Prokhorov suggested. that they should. master this method.. The pilots dis-
cussed, their command.er's plan at great length and. with enthusiasm, they made their
own suggestions, they argued. and did not notice that dusk had. fallen. The, decision
was taken ? the entire element would. get to work!
At home Prokhorov briefly related to his wife the difficult problem which now ab-
sorbed. the pilots of his element and asked. for her help (Natasha had. graduated. from
the department of mathematics and physics). Now he envied her knowledge of
mathematics!
"You should. eat something first", Natasha advised.. But Sergey did. not even want
to listen.
He drew diagrams, crossed them out, drew, again, wrote down formulas, substi-
tuting coefficients, added and multiplied; that evening he and Natasha sat up late,
bent over the table, and. checked. calculations.,
In the morning, when Capt. Prokhorov was on his way to the unit HQ he had. in his
pocket the complete calculations for different variants of toss bombing.
At headquarters Prokhorov stated his plan in detail and. on the same day the group
commander summoned him.
Having listened. to Prokhorov attentively and. after thinking over his suggestion, he
decided.:
"Good! I authorize the experiments, but won't you need other pilots for this, too?"
"Such pilots are to be had, Comrade General."
"Who are they?"
"All the pilots of our element."
"How good are they?"
"They are eagles!" the captain said. with confidence.
"Won't these eagles turn out to be gray quails in reality?" The division com-
mander looked searchingly at Prokhorov.
"I will vouch for them, as for myself, Comrade General."
"All right! This is the answer I expected from you. I know pilots Roshchin, Lo-
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.94 Mikb.. Petr ov
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1?691??
ganyuk and Lomakin, they won't let you down. "
The commander took a slide rule, checked. the accuracy of a few calculations and
asked. after a short pause:
"Who checked. the mathematical calculations connected. with bombing?"
Prokhorov answered. proudly:
"My wife, Natasha!"
"Your wife?"
"Yes, my wife!"
"What, is she an engineer?"
"No, she is a teacher and knows physics and. mathematics well."
"Your wife Natasha", said. the general smiling. "It is good. when pilots have such
wives. Tell her that I am very grateful to her for her help."
Experimental flights began. On the plan chart appeared.: Capt. Prokhorov's
element flies according to a special plan. The Party organization secretary was
interested, in the results of the flights and. helped. the pilots in every. way.
Capt. Prokhorov, Lts. Roshchin, Loganyuk and. Lomakin'became enthusiastic a-
bout the flights and did. not notice how fast time was going by.
A month of experimental flights was coming to an end., but the results were not
comforting: bombs dropped. either short of the target or far beyond it.
Sergey became sullen, reserved., gloomy, and even his face grew thin. Evenings
he would. sit late into the night over his notebooks and. manuals, drawing, figuring
and. checking. He would. go to bed. late, stayed.. awake long, his dreams were troubled..
"What is the matter?" thought Sergey. "Why are the results so poor?"
He became irritable and. even short-tempered., which he had. never let himself d.o
before. Natasha did. everything she could. to help her husband.. She knew that it
was hard. for him and. that a new task had. complicated, the alread.y difficult work. She
realized, that a pilot always had. to be cool and. self-possessed.-- that is the main
thing in his profession. At times with a joke or a smile, and. with her self control
she helped. her husband. to recover his .good. mood.; she encouraged him and. mad.e him
believe in success.
One evening Sergey sat up particularly late. When the clock struck midnight he
jumped. up and. said. loudly"
"Well, that's it!"
"What are you talking about?" asked. Natasha, quietly sitting with a book on the
sofa.
"Natasha, is that you?"
"Yes, Serezha."
"When did. you come in?"
"About nine o'clock, as soon as ,I put Misha to bed. And. didn't you notice? Well,
have you solved it at last?"
"Yes, now I have solved. it and,, perhaps, conclusively."
"That's good.: your torment will be over... "
"And. your troubles, too. I decided. to stop all the experiments. In the morning
I will go to headquarters and will give up: evidently do not have the capability.
Natasha looked, at her husband anxiously. She suddenly recalled. a resolute,
I I
? ?
a
?
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The Wife of a Pilot
95
strong-willed Sergey. She remembered. his stubborn day-after-day toil, his search
for a solution to a difficult problem. Yes, this is how men and. their characters
are tested.. She did. not find, it strange that at this moment in her mind, rose pictures
of courageous Soviet men, strong in. spirit, persistent and. iron-willed..
"Aren't you ashamed., Serezha", said. Natasha, trying to speak as gently as possi-
ble. "After all, you are a strong man..."
"What is the use of such strength! For 30 days we have been flying back and.
forth in group or individual flights, and. what are the results? I feel ashamed. even
to look my comrades in the eye."
"You must look!"
"It is easy for you to say so, sitting on the sofa...You get into the cockpit in my
place!"
"Each of ,us has his problems. In my teacher's cockpit it is also not always cozy
and pleasant. You got scared. of the very first failures. Are you afraid. to look
your comrades in the eye? Don't be afraid. of that. No one will blame you for not
having succeeded. in everything at once. But if you stop half-way, lose heart and.
swerve from your course ? beware.! Then where will you turn your eyes?"
"But why doesn't it work out? How to determine the moment for pulling the plane
up out of horizontal flight and. the point of bomb release?"
"Serezha, did. you consult with the other pilots ? Roshchin, Loganyuk?"
"They have had. the same results,"
"Never mind, you must keep on trying. Do you think that those who split the
atomic nucleus got everything at once? They had. still greater difficulties. And.
you are ready to flee from the battlefield. after the first failures."
"I, flee? Never! You know what the general told. me when I saw him? 'Won't
these eagles turn out to be gray quails in reality?' As it happens, I am the quail,
and. a plucked. one at that...." ?
"No, Serezha, you are just tired. and. that is why you lost faith in yourself, but
the main thing..."
"What is the main thing?"
"The main thing is that you should. consult people more ? you have dozens of
Communists they.will help you, and'. d.on't you lose hope. Then our Misha will
fly to the moon and Mars sooner. Rif; you who predicted. this for him", Natasha
smiled..
Sergey and. Natasha entered. the club. In a prominent place in the hall hung a
photograph of pilot Prokhorov. Natasha was the fir st to notice it.
"Serezha, read it! It's about you."'
Ona huge plaque the following was written: "Capt. Prokhorov's element achieved
excellent scores in toss bombing. In aerial gunnery matches Capt. Prokhorov took
first place, scoring 595 points. Flying in pair with Capt. Sumin, he intercepted,
the target 100 km from the airfield.. Firing at a ground. target, he hit it with a large
number of shells. Capt. Prokhorov trains his subordinates skilfully and. is the com-
mander of an outstanding element, Comrade pilots follow Capt. Prokhorov's exam-
ple!"
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96
Mik.b. Petrov
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When the Prokhorova took their seats and. the lights went out, Natasha said. soft-
ly:
"I am so happy now. I am proud. of you, Serezha."
"And I am proud of you," answered Sergey, slightly embarrassed, and. as if re-
calling a long forgotten conversation, he added.:
"It is not only of me they write there, It's of both of us, you and. me, Isn't that
so, Natasha?"
Ismarret...????^????^??????????????????????raratomoter ,
TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION IN CLASS
At the beginning of the year we held. instruction classes for the flying personnel
in matters of technical training. The classes were lively and interesting and. proved.
very useful to the flying personnel. Yet they required. quite a lot of work: it was
necessary to consider carefully the class program, to select instructors with practi-
cal experience and sufficient theoretical training. The flying personnel had. to be
divided, into two groups, according to the level of their knowledge.
In a special classroom the following aircraft equipment was displayed: an electro-
mechanical trainer simulator of an airborne radar intercept station, a trainer for
call signs of homing radio stations, an operating electrical layout for starting tht
engine, a mock-up of the fuel system, of oxygen equipment, etc.
The commander was worried, that they might waste flying time because of the
classes. So that this wovdd not happen the pilots flew additional days pi-cLokiAlig and
following the classes; in this way the total number of flying hours during the month
did not change.
It is better to hold. such classes at the beginning of the winter and summer periods.
But this is not enough. No less than one day a week should be devoted, to technical
instruction. 'A combination of classes and. systematic ground training is very use-
ful.
In units based on dirt airfields it is better to organize classes during the spring
thaw, when there is no flying. In the above-mentioned air group, the classes
were held. for a short period of time. So that the instructors would. have time to con-
duct classes in several units, they changed. to a two-day schedule. At first classes
were held. in one unit only, two days later ? in a second unit, and then in a third.
In the course of technical training, after class the main consideration was given
to subjects directly associated with the coming flights. Much time was spent in the
trainers. Owing to such studies the pilots began to carry out training exercises
and. flights much more successfully.
?
411.11?11.1111MOW
V.I. Vinogradov
' ;),?
t ? r
e t
FROM THE EDITOR'S MAIL
NO11111110111111111?
HOW TO AVOID A DROP IN ENGINE RPM
AT HIGH ALTITUDES
'11111111111INNINII
In flying aircraft equipped. with VK-1A engines at high altitudes, a drop in max-
imum rpm is sometimes observed.. We were able to eliminate this shortcoming by
replacing the ART-8V {automatic fuel regulator] unit. However, for a long time
the reason for the failure was obscure, inasmuch as no divergence from technical
specifications was found. in testing the units removed. and. in disassembling and.
measuring the parts.
The following incident helped. to reveal the cause. On one engine, the rpm fell
from 11,560 to 11,200 at a high flying altitude. In testing the dismounted. unit in a
pressure chamber, it was found that in a vacuum corresponding to an altitude of
14,000 m the valve of the automatic accelerator functioned at a fuel pressure of
7.5 kg/cm2 instead, of at a pressure of 8-10 kg/cm2.
Displacement of the valve of the automatic accelerator at lower fuel pressure led
to premature discharge of the fuel from the spring housing of the servopistons of the
plunger pumps .and. to a reduction in their output. The amount of fuel fed to the in-
jection nozzles was reduced, and under, the conditions of high-altitud.e flying this
caused. a drop in the maximum rpm.
Consequently, the difficulty in the operation of the engine was due to imprecise
adjustment of the ART-8V unit on the stand after its repair and assembly. How
then.explain the drop in rpm in such cases?
A number of forces act on the valve of the automatic accelerator. It is known
that the air pressure behind' the compressor fluctuates and varies within a very
wide range ? from 3.52 to 4.7 kg/cm2. This affects the fuel pressure, which
opens the Valve of the automatic accelerator.
With rise in altitude, there is a drop in atmospheric pressure and the pressure
behind the compressor. 'Up to an altitude of 11 km the latter declines somewhat
slower than atmospheric pressure due to an increase in the degree of compression
of the air in the engine. At altitudes above 11 km the degree of pressure no longer
increases, and. the air pressure behind the compressor drops faster in direct
proportion to the density of the ambient air.
The unit is adjusted and tested on a special stand both after it is built and after
it is repaired.. Consequently, the pressure of the air in the air filter of the ART-
8V depends on the installation and. not on the engine. Its magnitude is constant and
comprises 4 kg/cm2 . But the units shipped out by the plant or a repair enterprise
are adjusted at a Specific pressure of the air which enters the chamber of the auto'7
matic accelerator on the side of the spring. Thus, the engine will function normal-
ly only when the air pressure behind. the compressor is 4 kg/cm2,
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98
From the Editor's Mail
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
The situation is different when the air pry sure, behind, the engine compressor is
less than 4 kg/cm2? let us say 3. 52 kg/cm ? and. the automatic accelerator of
the ART-8V is adjusted. at the lower limit (for example, the pressure for opeiling
the valve of the automatic accelerator for an altitude of 10 km is 26.0 kg/cm `' at
the lower limit). Then the valve of the automatic accelerator will operate at a
fuel pressure below the lower limit, since the pressure of the air on the side of the
diaphragm chamber is less than at the time the unit was adjusted on the stand. This
phenomenon, as we convinced, ourselves, is the cause of the drop in engine rpm at
high altitudes. If, however, the pressure behind, the compressor is great, on the
order of 4. 7 kg/cm2, and. the automatic accelerator is adjusted at the lower limit
(according to technical specifications), then the gate of the accelerator valve will
already open at a higher fuel pressure, because on the side of the air chamber it
will in fact be greater than that at which the adjustment was made. Consequently,
from the lower limit the adjustment will approach the upper, but will still be within
the technical specifications, and. the engine will function normally.
Now when releasing the unit, we check without fail the pressure of the air behind.
the compressor, and. if it is below 4 kg/cm2 we adjust the ART-8V at the upper
limit of high altitude characteristics. In this way we have been able to eliminate
the drop in. engine rpm.
Senior Engineer Lt. D. Ye. Bugrov
AN INSTRUCTIVE ANALYSIS
The aircraft made a landing. Upon inspection it was found. that the hatch cover
of the tank filler was missing. What was the reason? This occupied. the thoughts
of the engineer of the unit, V.N. Pisarev. Experience suggested. to him that since
such an incident had occurred, then, apparently, there was a weak link in the sys-
tem of checking the condition of aviation equipment. Possibly the checking was
superficial and. no check was made to see if the hatch cover was closed; or else the
mechanic was not attentive enough during the inspection.
It was necessary to d.evise measures to prevent such instances in the future. To
this end. the following procedure was established.. During preliminary servicing,
the technician together with the electrician and. specialists from service groups
first. inspect the aircraft completely. The irregularities found. are entered. into
the aircraft flight servicing log. And. only after the inspection is completed. d.o they
begin to eliminate the defects. The unit commander forbade diverting personnel
from work associated with inspection of aviation equipment. The flight technician
checks the work of his subordinates. He writes d.own the deficiencies noted. in his
work log, so as to analyze?them later during the technical critique.
Another thought came to mind.. Should not the entries in the aircraft flight serv-
icing log be made more specific? Instead, of a general phrase that the post-flight
inspection had. been made, the engineer now requires that the item numbers of the
unified regUlation check-list by which the defect had, been corrected. be indicated..
The aircraft technician signs to the effect that that specific item has been taken
care of, while the flight technician verifies it. ? The technical personnel began to
study more thoroughly the documents in the raffled, regulation check list and the
v
?
0.6
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From the Editor's Mail 92.
procedure of aircraft inspection. However, there were not enough of these d.ocu-
ments for all. On the order of engineer Pisarev, the pages giving the procedure of
aircraft inspection were photo stated.. Pocket-type books were made up of these
photostats and. were distributed, to each technician. Now all the work is done in
strict conformity with the inspection procedures. Flight technicians began to check
more purposefully the quality of aircraft servicing.
Similar meastires'were undertaken for the other services also. As a result, it
was possible to eliminate many shortcomings, and. the number of failures of .aviation
equipment was halved..
To work out the inspection sequence, a trainer was built in each squadron. This
trainer is a wooden model of the aircraft on which the numbers of the check-list
items are entered. in different colors, corresponding to the inspection sequences.
Green represents post-flight inspection, blue is preflight inspection, and. white is
flight-line inspection. Such a trainer plane has been extremely useful in integrat-
ing young technicians into the outfit.
Thus did. Viktor Nikolayevich Pisarev analyze as a true engineer the loss of a
hatch cover and. draw conclusions that made it possible to improve checking the
condition of aviation equipment.
Engineer Lt. Col. N. G. Grigor ' yev.
USE OF A PORTABLE RADIO DIRECTION. FINDER SCOPE
BY THE FLIGHT CONTROLLER
Mod.ern radio and radar facilities make it possible to obtain sufficiently accurate
data on the air situation, but the flight controller gets most such data on request.
Although the route is laid. out on the plotting.board., which is located, right beside
the flight controller, nevertheless this does not give him a complete picture of the
air ,situation. The most important sector in.which the flight controller must. know
the air situation is the area of the airfield. (approximately within the radius of the.
large circle). But it is this sector, as a rule, that coincides with the "funnel"
(zone of silence) of the radar, station, and. the flight controller gets no information
from the radar on the aircraft in this zone. The landing system scopes are also
outsid.e his field. of vision.
In some units the scope of the portable radio direction finder is combined, with
the plotting board. of the radar station. This facilitates in some d.egree the control
of flights, but it still has some shortcomings.
We think that, in ordinary flying, of all the radar facilities the flight controller
needs only the portable scope of the radio direction find.er.
If the portable scope had. two tubes, one of them could. be combined, with the plot-
ting board for the use of the ground. controller on duty and. the other could. 'be used
by the flight controller. In the version with one tube, in our opinion, it is desirable
to set up the portable scope near the flight ,controller..
For, this it is necessary to detach the cathode-ray tube from the .unit- and. mount
it on the flight controller's table; around. it to place the'azimuth scale and a map of?
the flying area; and. in the center of the tube to place a. movable rule with a range
scale. Then,, knowing the aircraft's azimuth and range, it is possible to'd.etermine
4
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
00 From the Editor's Mail
its position on the map.
Course to home airfield
0f?
\\\\III?
I of,
//-
Azimuth
scale
ace;
\
,A
allearnomm
Direction of VP?
Direction finder
scope
Revolving rule with
range scale
'rec
5
Top of the flight controller's table with the tube of the
ARP-6 [automatic radio direction finder] scope mount-
ed. on it.
The map and the scope should, be arranged. so that the direction of takeoff and. land.-
ing is parallel to the VP? [runway] on them.
The figure shows the top of the flight controller's table with the tube mounted. in it.
If the size of the table does not permit laying the map out on it, then even the tube a-
lone Will facilitate the control of flights.
If group flying is being conducted and. the entire group is performing a single mis-
sion, while the commander is at the post equipped. with portable scopes of the radar
stations, then it is desirable to have at the command, post a direction find.er scope
combined with the plotting board. of the radar station.
Engineer Maj. A. M. Belikov
4. DEVICE FOR REMOTE CONTROL OPENING OF A PARACHUTE
Among our parachutists there has recently come into wid.espread.use a new re-
mote-control method. of opening a parachute that permits keeping the body strictly
prone, face down. In other words, the parachutist does not have to bring together
his separated arms, search for the rip cord ring, and pull it at the prescribed. time.
He need only press a release lever to open the parachute.
Now used in the VVS [Air Force] are several types of semi-automatic devices
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From the Editor's Mail
101
that permit timed opening of a parachute in training and. sports jumps.
16
15 Z
13
13 17
20
1111% 1111114bpA,
AO mop
'f
S
15 3
10
11
2627 8 '51
2
15
34 35
View of lever and
housing from top
Device for remote-control opening of parachute (diagram of im-
proved design).
1-housing; 2-cylinder; 3-piston; 4-two actuating springs; 5-re-
lease lever; 6-pawl; 7-cable; 8-Bowd.en sheathing; 9-clamping
nut; 10 and 12-connector nuts; 11-locknut; 13-shock absorber
bushing; 14-shock absorber; 15-loop of rubber strip; 16-return
spring; 17-shaft of lever and. housing; 18-shaft of lever and. pawl;
19-shaft of pawl and housing; 20-holes for bolts; 21-roller; 22-
screw; 23-collar for fastening the device; 24-holes for rivets;
25-strap for the wrist; 26-bayonet pin; 27-shaped, nut; 28-tip; 29-
end, nut; 30-threaded. bushing; 31-cable tip; 32- slotted., screw;
33-collar, 34-line of split housing; 35-screws; 36-rubber strip;
,37-hole; 38-safety catch.
The kinematic diagram (see figure) shows one of the recommended, devices. The
principle of its operation for remote-control opening of a parachute is based. on the
action of the springs (4) with a reserve of potential energyin the compressed. posi-
tion. The d.evice is attached. to the palm of the right hand by means of a rubber
strip (36) and is set in operation by a sudden, instantaneous pressure on the release
lever (5) by all the fingers (except the thumb). In this, the piston (3), held, by the
pawl (6), in a cocked position, is set in motion by actuating the springs (4); being
connected, to the upper pin of the rip-cord, ring of the parachute through the cable(7)
and collar (33), it opens the parachute pack. A KAP-3 safety device is mounted. on
the parachute as usual, only on the left.
The remote-control device for opening a parachute does not prevent using the
main rip-cord. ring. Its small size d.oes not d.isturb ,the style of drop and.,permits
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102 From the Editor's Mail
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
611111111111111111Millft
executing all the figures in the d.elayed. jump. This semi-automatic device is very
simple in design; it is made of 38 parts, 21 of which are taken from the KAP-3,
which simplifies manufacture considerably.
The aluminum housing (1) in which the entire mechanism is contained is made of
two symmetrical parts held together by five steel screws (35). The total weight
together, with the Bowden sheathing (8), is 250-300 g.
The compressive force on the release lever in raised. position is about 3 kg,
while the force of the actuating springs, which pull the pins out of the cones of the
parachute pack, is less than 25 kg. After the release lever is pressed, the device
opens the parachute pack in less than 0.1 second.
In order to use it in jumping, it is necessary to sew a plate to the top valve on
the right of the pack with a six-strand linen thread (just as for the KAP-3) in such
a way that there is an angle of 40? between the plates. The bayonet pin (26) is
fixed to the plate in the same manner as on the KAP-3; the actuating springs of the
device are also cocked the same way.
The cotter key safety lock is removed from the device in the plane at the com-
mand. "Prepare to jump", and with its cord is stuck under the rubber strip, after
which the parachutist, observing the safety rules, takes the initial position for
jumping from the plane.
Senior Lt. V. P. Vartazarov, parachute instructor
LETDOWN TO LANDING COURSE ALONG A RADIODROME
The approach fOr landing under adverse weather conditions is a most difficult
and important stage, completing as it does the flight mission. On the last straight
leg after the computed. turn, the pilot, flying on instruments, penetrates the cloud
cover downward. in the direction of the outer homing radio station. All his atten-
tion at this period, is concentrated. on holding to the prescribed letdown regime.
With a cross wind and, a deviation from the landing course, piloting the aircraft in
downward penetration of the cloud cover is difficult. In addition to holding to the
letdown regime, the pilot is compelled. to correct for errors in course and to take
into consideration the angle of drift.
In order to correct for errors in course, appropriate corrective turns are mad.e
to one side or the other, as shown in the figure, (a). Execution of such corrective
turns, as well as the' choice of lead in course for the angle of drift, especially when
flying in a cloud. cover, distracts the pilot's attention from holding to the prescribed
letdown regime and. not infrequently leads to undesirable consequences.
However, there is no need. to correct for errors in approach in this manner. Our
experience in flying has 'shown that if the turn to the homing radio station is com-
pleted earlier or later, i. e. , if the course at KUR [ course angle to radio station]
= 00 differs from the-landing course by + 200 or more, then it is necessary to let
down 'along a radiodrome with a constant cour se angle of the radio station. For
this purpose, it is necessary to proceed as follows.
After the turn it is necessary to head, the aircraft toward the homing radio station
(KUR = 0?) ?and. to determine' the magnitude of the course error. If the readings of
the DGMK [long-range gyromagnetic compass] diverge from the landing course by a
a
?
?
From the Editor's Mail 103
considerable magnitude, then, before entering the cloud, cover, it is necessary to
turn the aircraft in a. direction which increases the course error in order that the
ARK [automatic radio compass] needle moves 100 in the opposite direction and.,
holding to this course angle, to begin the letdown. In this case the cloud, cover is
penetrated. downward without any corrective turns. The pilot can glance at the
DGMK periodically. As the aircraft descends, the readings on the DGMK will ap-
proach the landing course (b).
BPRS{ inner 1,1
homing radio vim
station]
DPRS[ outer
horning radio
station]
Corrective turn
to PRS[ homing
radio station]
1-5
Tu.rnaway
to
KUR=10?
Trajectory of aircraft movement along a
radiodrome and the accompanying instru-
ment readings.
At the moment when the ARK and.
DGMK needles diverge at an equal angle
(10?) in different directions, it is neces-
sary to turn the aircraft to the homing
radio station. This in turn will result
in the aircraft's having a flying course
equal or close to the landing course.
Piloting a plane in penetrating the
cloud, cover d.ownward. is simpler by this
method. Maintaining the ARK needle at
10?from the zero position presents no
difficulty to the pilot. Although the let-
down to a landing course along a radio-
drome does occur with a gradual cor-
rective turn of the aircraft the pilot ac-
tually does not feel this turn.
Before the aircraft enters the
landing course there is no need to coun-
ter the drift, since in the final analysis
it will affect only the character of the
radiodrome. Depending on the force
and direction of the wind., the aircraft
will come out on the landing course
sooner or later. At the end, of the radio-
drome, i.e. , at the moment, the aircraft
approaches the landing course line, the
pilot need. only turn the plane toward. the
homing radio station by 10?.
This method. of letdown, further-
more, shortens the track and. the time
the plane spend.s in. the clouds, eliminates
cases of aircraft getting close to each
other in penetration of the cloud, cover
by a group, especially from high altitudes.
It can be used. on all types of aircraft dur-
ing the approach ,to a straight-in landing
with any letdown regime.
Engineer Maj. A. M. Mikhaylov,
Military Pilot Third Class
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
REVIEW AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
WINGED HEARTS
Notes on belles-lettres for 1957
devoted, to aviation
In our achievement of victory in the Great Patriotic War, an important role was
played by the Soviet Air Force. Many truthful and heartfelt books have already
been written about our glorious pilots and. about their combat assistants ? the me-
chanics, engine mechanics, men of the Air Force rear area. Writers have been
emphasizing through the medium of literature the fact that the secret of the fearless-
ness and. invincibility of Soviet pilots lies not only in powerful equipment made in'
the Soviet Union, but chiefly in the strong wills and. the high degree of skill of our
aviators.
During 1957 in various publishing houses of the country, more than ten novels,
stories and. tales appeared. dealing with Soviet pilots. They all give a sincere ac-
count of ordinary Soviet people for whom nothing on earth is dearer than their Social-
ist Motherland. and. who, loyal to their sacred. military oath, rise at the first call of
the Party and. the People to the defense of their country's skies, their country's soil.
The story "The Inexorable Air" 1 by I.Arsent'yev is interesting.
The author tells about events with which he is well acquainted.. Consequently it
it not by chance that the portraits of the military pilots appear so convincing. They
are all fellow officers, They fought together over the Northern Caucasus and. over
the beautiful Crimea, scorched, by the sun and. by the war. After carrying out doz-
ens of exploits, many of them ended. the war over Berlin.
In the title of the story, the basic theme is brought out, as it were: the air, the
inexorable air. It is not just the cloudless blue of the sky which we admire in
days of peace; it is a threatening element, hot with the explosions of anti-aircraft
shells; it is the site of ruthless air skirmishes. And. the strongest man is victorious
in these skirmishes. The one that maneuvers skilfully, the one that is irresistible
in swift attack, the one that does not lose his composure and. the noble feeling of
mutual assistance, the one that is confident of the cause he is defending ? that man
will win without fail.
Combat experience does not come quickly and. easily. The author's merit lies
in the fact that he rejected. a schematic solution of the theme, was not tempted. by an
easy portrayal of "ready made" warriors, who had. mastered. the difficult art of com-
bat ?no one knows when and. where, The artistic tact of the author helped. him
present portraits of the main characters as they developed.. Following the young
1 I.Arsent'yev. "The Inexorable Air". A story. Kuybyshev, 1957, 328 pp, price:
6 rubles, 15 kopecks.
?
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?
?
Review and Bibliography . 105
1
pilots with interest, the reader sees them become toughened gradually from skirmish
to skirmish, and. sees well-d.eserved. success come to them after initial failures.
One of the best, most successful portraits is that of Grabov, the regimental com-
missar. There is none of the bluntness in Grabov with which some writers at times
endow political workers (incidentally, we may say, in a completely artificial manner).
A pilot by calling, and. in essence a Communist, Grabov is in no way outstanding in
his outward. appearance. He is rather stout, in an ordinary leather raglan overcoat,
and. in heavy soldier's boots. That, at least, is how he was seen for the first time
by the young guardsmen when the commissar came to their quarters to become ac-
quainted. with them, And from their first brief conversation, it became clear that
before them was a man who was congenial and. close to them in a fatherly way. Along
with a grim, strict, exacting concern, there is also a feature in Grabov's character
that raises him above everything that is petty and. personal ? his .high-principled.
Party zeal. Life belongs to the common cause, and. once that is acCepted., then a
Party conscience and., for example, self-love.? which does not admit of self-criti-
cism ? cannot exist together.
That is why, when the young men, who had. just arrived, in the regiment, saw like
boys only the romantic aspect of an episode where they observed. Grabov's damaged.
"Little Star" return to the airfield., the commissar expressed. himself candidly and
even with excessive sternness towards himself:
"How did. I fly? I botched it. Once the craft was disabled., that means I flew
badly."
As though answering the surprised, glances of the pilots, he explained: "It was bad.
because getting back to the base on a wing and. prayer is an uncertain business.
That's only superficial heroism, I think...I recommend. avoiding it."
"Why then, did. you purposely expose the craft to German. shells?" asks ()eta?,
and. in his naive question, childish mortification for the commissar, as well as an
attempt to justify him are very obvious, To the inexperienced, pilot it seems that
the commissar is casting aspersions upon himself,
In reply Grabov gave a barely noticeable smile: "Purposely or not,the reason is
simple: my bomb run was set up wrong...Come to the CP this evening, and. I'll give
a critique of this sortie."
Grabov's conduct is a, striking and. instructive example. Many have been learn-
ing skill and. endurance from him. Communist Boroda, whom Grabov used, to take
along as his wingman, was also learning from him. Later, in battles over Etilgen,
Boroda, with more than one "viper" alread.y to his personal score, was shot. down.
Although wounded., he continued, fighting the Fascists in the ranks of amphibious land.-
ing forces, and, he died the death of a hero.
Arsent'yev paints the picture of the commissar with sure, sparing, but expressive
strokes of the brush. He d.epects him in various situations, to which also the psy-
chological reaction of the hero precisely corresponds, In the air Grabov is an in-
exorable avenger, a skilful commander. On the groundle is an intelligent older
friend., able to warm one with a smile, give support with his advice, and., if neces-
sary, to criticise as well. Thoughts for his comrades under his command. do not
leave the commissar in the evenings at the campfire or in any temporary hut, A
sense of responsibility for the life of his fellow-officers is strong within 'him.
"In war, of course, where death lurks at 'every step, casualties are.unavoidable",
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Review and. Bibliography
he thought. "Casualties, but not senseless suicide as the result of underestimating
the enemy. Let's just take Olenin as an example. He's brave, that goes without
saying, but that's not it...he's a big show-off. He's young. He likes to create an
external impression occasionally..." (p.46).
As a teacher Grabov comes to light especially clearly on the pages devoted, to a
regimental Party meeting. Through the specific errors of Olenin and. Popov he ex-
plains the harm of a false notion about heroic deeds.
Grabov does not confine himself to criticism but notices in time a change in char-
acter on the part of a subordinate and. encourages him by his confidence. Thus, it
is precisely to Olenin first that he entrusts the test flight of a new two-place craft
that the regiment had received..
The image of the commissar emerges alive and penetrating. Throughout.the
entire story he justifies the author's characterization: "Grabov was deeply convinced.
that you can direct men's thoughts and. actions in conformity with the will of the Party
only when you yourself merge with the group and become its soul." (p.45).
There are many episodes in the story which reveal the high combat morale of
Soviet pilots, their friendship, mutual assistance, and. pure faith which helps them
endure all.
Pulya's plane caught on fire. He could. have bailed out without exposing himself
to unnecessary risk. But in the gunner's cabin was a wounded. man? Umanskiy..
Fighting the fire, Pulya, badly burned., manages to land the plane. Lt. Popov, at
the risk of danger to his own life, land.s on enemy territory near the commissar's
"Little Star" which had. been shot down, thus saving the commissar from certain
death.
Another character in the story unexpectedly reveals his genuine worth. Here is
Lt.Averin. He has neither a good. nor a bad. reputation, only some unpleasant traits:
He doesn't know how to make friends and likes to Show off...But at the decisive mo-
ment he repeats Gastello's exploit, directing his burning fighter plane at Hitler ite
tanks...His friends hear a tense, hoarse voice in the headphones: "This is Averin
calling.. .Farewell, comrades! For the Motherland!"
The read.er senses a deep moral purity in the personal life of the pilots, in the
feeling of the love proven by fire between Ostap Pulya and. the girl armorer Tanya,
and between Vasiliy Cherenok and. Galina Puchkova the sister of a tankman whom
he had. saved..
The story has many plots. It does not just contain the unique chronicle of one
regiment only. The pilots d.o not live and act in isolation. Their combat and. per-
sonal lives are closely interwoven with the fate of many people: tankmen, infantry-
men, kolkhoz workers, doctors, etc.
However, from time to time, Arsentlyev goes off key in a tone unusual for him.
For example, a trivial little anecd.ote sound.s doubtful on the lips of the Ukrainian
Ostap. Similarly a vulgar remark about military medical assistant Sof'ya Nikola-
yevna is out of character for Cherenok. It seems to us that such details d.o not a.d.d.
to the beauty of the story.
Interesting characters of fighter-guard.sm.en were created by V. Bogovitskiy. 2
Z V: Bogovitskiy. "Winged Guard". A story. Kazgoslitiviat [Kazak State Litera-
ry Publishing House]. Alma-Ata, 1957, 211 pp., price: 4 rubles, 85 kopecks.
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simossimmarimaramosommammimitam
The author has succeeded. in reproducing the spiritual life of his characters in vivid.,
honest pictures. It is difficult to name the main character, for there are several
persons at once in the center of the narrative: Major Orlov and. Lt. Col. Panfilov,
the regimental commander; Pilots Iskrin, Bagin, Beloded., and, others. The images
do not overshadow one another.. They help present more fully the entire friendly
team of the regiment, purposeful in its goal of victory, the characteristic features
of its individual members, and their manifold social and. personal interests.
The theme of training young aviators in the rigorous conditions of the front has
been embodied organically in the contents of the story as one of the basic thread.s
of the plot.
The image of Regimental Commander Panfilov is significant and full-blooded..
A Hero of the Soviet Union, he is worthy of emulation. Every pilot is mentally
proud of him and strives to resemble him. Inner composure bespeaks the integrity
of his character. This integrity has been reflected, also in his external behavior,
as well as in his manner of dealing with his subordinates. He is exacting but not
faultfinding, he inflicts punishment justly, but d.oes not consider the guilty man in-
corrigible.
During the period of training for combat, Iskrin, alread.y a seasoned. pilot, sud.-
denly revealed an important error: he would become carried, away too much by the
attack and as a consequence would. not always be capable of carrying on the battle
soberly and. judiciously. The commander noticed. this at once and. realized, why
Iskrin was bringing his plane out of a dive at a low altitude. In addition to the com-
mander's reprimand., we see Panfilov constantly helping Iskrin to temper his will
and not give in to dangerous enthusiasm, to control himself in any situation.
Panfilov does not just require his men to fulfill their mission exactly., We feel
what a noble influence the commander exerts upon the pilots, encouraging in them
a feeling of human dignity.
In Orlov who became Panfilov's successor .by the end. of the story, the fine soul
of a Soviet man trained.by the Party is !displayed. before us. Not a single enemy has
the power to defile and, sully this soul, to abase or 'to destroy it ? it is 'indeed, im-
mortal.
The picture of Maj. Orlov is successfully supplemented. by his love for Katya, the
radio operator, and. by his adoption of the orphan Anya, who even by her name re-
minds him of his own little daughter who, together with her mother, had perished.
during a bombing raid. Orlov's feeling is shown in an unforced. manner, warmly,
with restrained, power. The love of a widowed. man is painful and deep in precisely
that way.
The picture of Capt. Tasoyev has proved to be an essential defect in the story in
our opinion. In his person recurs the routine tendency to portray a staff worker
negatively. No one asserts, and. ind.eed, it could probably not be proved., that there
have not been and are no negative people in the world., and. that there are none on
staffs or among pilots. For example, in the story "The Inexorable Air", Skvortsov
is depicted. realistically, a coward. and scoundrel who, just to be one the safe side,
picked up a German leaflet calling for surrender to the mercy of the enemy. The
pilots unmasked. him and he would not have escaped. their judgement; but Skvortsov's
own cowardice brought him to his own distruct ion.
The case is different with Tasoyev. Of course he is not to be compared. with
A?.
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Skvortsov; he is a negative type of a different kind.. He is not a potential traitor,
perhaps, not even a coward.. But what we have in mind is the character in its psy-
chological deveropment. Tasoyev's negative qualities ? excessive ambition, a
perfunctory attitude toward his duties, etc.? are only stated. by the author. Even
though Tasoyev is by far not an episodic character and an important part of the plot
is connected. with him, he "barely glimmers" on only a few pages and on the whole
seems unreal and fictitious. Chief of an operations section, he cherishes one goal:
to become chief of staff, to obtain as many medals as he can. His egotistical ambi-
tions somehow remain unnoticed by the team. Finally even the author himself waves
Tasoyev aside by citing a dry report as to his fate (the captain's legs were torn off
during a bombing raid,, when he was on his way to attend a course for chiefs of staff).
This mechnical device by which the author closes the book on Tasoyev, indicates best
of all the static nature of the character.
In contradistinction to the preceding stories, Yu. Ryshkov's novel, "Captain Bys-
trova"3, can be considered. as a work about one hero. It is well known that during
the period of the Great Patriotic War, Soviet women showed. their worth not only on
the home front, laboring selflessly for defense, but participated, directly in battles,
serving in various branches of the Army. The deeds of our glorious women pilots
We still have a noticeable dearth of works about women who were frontline soldiers,
will never be forgotten.
including women pilots. Ryshkov's novel is an encouraging sign. Captain Bystrova
is a composite character taken from life. The story of the life of the woman pilot
during the war is told. with great lyricism, a life which calls to mind the life of many
of her frontline women companions-in-arms.
The reader becomes acquainted with the heroine for the first time when she flys
patrol over Soviet ships proceeding on their course under the sure fighter cover of
Naval aviation. The end of the artistic biography of Capt. Bystrova coincides with
the logical d.enouement of the plot of the book: victory has been won, a promising
peaceful 'vista has opened up before the heroes, the fulfillment of new cherished de-
sires awaits them and they, continue to live a full life but, to the regret of the
readers, beyond the limits of the novel.
It was not easy for13ystrova at firsts She still remembers with shame one of her
first combat sorties, when, having been overtaken by "Messerschmitts" and. fired.
upon from two directions,, she did not accept battle but took cover in the clouds. But
.she expiated. this guilt .during her entire subsequent life and struggle. And many
ordeals fell to her lot ? in the air, on the ground., and on the sea.
In the air, she always knew that Lieutenants Nikitin, Megrelishvili, and. other
comrades were at her side; on the, ground, on Soviet soil' which had been temporarily
seized.b.the enemy, she, a pilot who had. been shot down, was aid.ed, by ordinary
Soviet people, including the old man Kozima Potapovich, who accepted. the position
of village elder upon orders from the commander of the partisans. On the sea,
Bystrova is saved, by sailor friend.s: once her "Yak-3" was forced, to land directly
on the waves near some sub-chasers, She is amicably called. "our Natasha" by her
3 Yu.Ryshkov. "Captain Bystrova", A novel. "Dawn of the East" Publishing
House, Tbilisi, 1957, 294 pp, price: 6 rubles, 35 kopecks.
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ra?h
109
sailors, whom she had. been vigilantly protecting from the Fascist vultures.
The novel is also good. in that two characters, as it were, have been harmoniously
blended in one person, in one figure: Capt. Bystrova and. then that same "our Natasha"
which is the only way her combat friend.s refer to her among themselves.
War did not kill the human beauty in her. Together with a burning hatred for the
Fascists, under whose heel her mother and. sister were languishing somewhere, love
was born in Natasha's heart and. proudly claimed, its right to exist. Subcommander
Sazonov respond.s to her love with a simple pure feeling. The development of the
plot in the novel is so conditioned, by the contents of Natasha's military fate, that
after meeting her beloved, only three or four times, she is separated from him for
many long years. However, whether a regular air battle is going on,or a battle on
the ground.? a partisan battle in which Capt. Bystrova also takes part ? we are sure
to hear, through the din of the explosions, the strong pure melody of Natasha's love.
The image of Bystrova is charming also on the pages describing her visit, after
being wounded., at the home of the parents of Air Force Doctor Bokeriy. Here, her
little friend.s ? neighboring boys ? quarrel among themselves on an "awfully im-
portant" question "of principle": Is she really the well-known lady pilot who has real
medals? And. if so, then why does she wear everyday civilian dresses and ? hor-
rors! ? milk the landlord's goat. Natasha conciliated. the boys by coming to the
school to meet them in her officer's uniform and., as the saying goes, in full regalia.
While Natasha, or NataPya Gerasimovna, or Captain Bystrova, as the central
heroine, has been drawn fully and. thoroughly, the same cannot be said.,unfortunate-
ly, about Sazonov and. the other characters. Some of them are rather sketchy;
It is also obvious that the plot of the novel could. have been better balanced,, more
finished, by curtailing unimportant details and insignificant ramifications of the plot.
Stories written in a literary-documentary genre were published. in 1957. One of
them is about the illustrious North Sea pilot Boris Safonov 4, and the other (an a-
bridged. version). is about Hero of the Soviet Union Leonid. 13elouspv.
The initiative of the Military Publishing House of the Ministry of Defense, which
has prepared. and published these stories, must b.e welcomed., for books about pro-
minent Soviet aviators present great interest for a wide circle of readers'.
The above-mentioned, stories in general leave a satisfactory impression, but they
are not of equal value. Ss Glukhovskiy's story was written in a noticeably better
manner, on a higher professional level. An energetic style, the ability to single
out the main thing and, to concentrate the reader's attention on it, a simple language, ,
free of palling literary cliches ? all this bespeaks the fact that the author has an
adequate mastery of literary.technique.
Belousov rises to his full height before us, a trainee of the 151st Regiment of the
legendary Per ekop Division and, a worker at the January .Uprising plant. Leonid. has
grown up together with his native land, studied., and. matured.. The hour of war struck
4 N. GiPyardi. "Over the Icy Sea". Voyenizdat [Military Publishing House],
1957, 304 pp. , price: 6 rubles, 35 kopecks.
5 S. Glukhovskiy. "Indomitable Heart". The Little Library of the magazine
"Soviet Warrior", 1957, 49 pp., price: 50 kopecks.
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and, unsparing of his own life, he is defending the Motherland. One cannot read
without agitation how, after losing his legs, he strained every nerve of his indomit-
able heart to return to his friends and fellow-soldiers.
In N. Giltyardi's story, the figure of Safonov, Twice Hero of the Soviet Union,
has been presented. in a tangible manner. More than other episodes, those dealing
with skirmishes with the enemy are successful, where the pilot's tactical motto is:
caution ? maneuver ?fire. The chapters dealing with the pilot's childhood are
also successful.
But in general, in its artistic qualities, the story leaves something to be desired.
Its main defect is its occasional affected. pedantic style. It is all the more a pity
since frequently that style-is employed, to express sensible and., in principle, indis-
putable ideas. Without giving a moment's thought to the artistic burd.en of, speech
characteristics, the author has an old. kolkhoz worker express a grandiloquent tirade
in one breath (p. 31).
At times N. Giliyardi employs the style of a recording stenographer (p.86) as
though forgetting that in a literary work, even if it is documentary, one must not
describe the hero as though filling out a cad.re registration card. on him.
The author's tendency at every convenient opportunity to stress the uniqueness
of the hero's talents seems wrong to us. Everything is accomplished readily and.
swiftly, everything comes easy to him as his due. All he had. to do was return
home after a trip to Tula "and. in some two or three months (that is actually what
the author wrote! Yu. L.) the Sinyavin Organization of the Osoaviakhim [ Society for
the Promotion of Defense and. Aero-Chemical Development] became one of the best
in the Plavsk Region" (p. 47). .
He gave a talk on balloonist Kryakutnoy (incidentally the whole talk is given
verbatim!) and. on the spot he is told.: "That is probably the best talk we've ever
heard. at our meetings" (p.64). "From the very first training sessions the detach-
ment commander valued, the young trainee's capabilities in the business of flying".
(p.71). "He gained, the reputation of being the best agitator, during the first months
?of his stay at the Air Force School" (p..98). The. number of similar instances
could, be increased, but even the above are quite enough. We feel that the reason
lies in the fact that the author d.id. not achieve a d.eep knowled.ge of his hero's char-
act,er.
We would. like to mention the brilliant tale "Dubnyy" by V. Trikhmanenko, publish-
ed. in the magazine "Far East" (No.3), the stories "The Fighters" by V. Mel'nik
and, "Updraft" by A. Pozdnov, which were published in a second. edition, and. A. Bek's
novel about an aviation de signer ? "The Life of Berezhkov". An adventure story
"The Secret of Temir-Tepe" by L. Kolesnikov has appeared. on the bookshelf for this
year about trainees at an Air Force school who exposed. enemy agents. The story
calls upon us to intensify our vigilance all the time.
Let us pause briefly at M. Vodop'yanov's book, "Winged. Heroes". It is a collec-
tion of short tales, executed by an experienced, hand., about prominent aviators. The
author introduces us to veterans of the Russian Air Force and. to Soviet pilots whose
names have already become legendary ? Chkalov, Grizodubova, Osipenko and.
Raskova, Gastello, Pokryshkin, Kozhedub, and. many others. In an original manner,
the book has shown us, through historical personages, the development of aviation
and. the triumph of Soviet thinking in scientific engineering and designing.
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It is gratifying that many republic and. regional publishing houses are putting out
literary works about Soviet aviators. But that also restricts their dissemination to
definite territorial limits. And. many of the above-mentioned, novels and stories de-
serve being brought to a broader circle of readers. It is desirable for the Military
Publishing House, for the "Soviet Writer" Publishing House, and. for others to help
bring that about, by reprinting the more successful works.
During the postwar period., Soviet aviators have achieved, great success. The
old. notions about the limits of speed.s have been broken, and. unprecedented. equip-
ment has been created. and. mastered..
Let us hope that in the future as well our belles lettres on aviation will be based.
on lofty Party principles and. will foster Communist awareness and. patriotism in
Soviet men and. women. Those excellent qualities are deeply inherent in our great
people, and. inherent also in its winged sons.
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Yu. I. Loginov
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LIQUID FUEL
ROCKET ENGINES
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Among the new aircraft engines that have been developed during the past World
War, and particularly during the postwar period, an important position is occupied
by rocket engines and. their principal variant, liquid fuel rocket engines (ZhRD). The
successful development of engines of this type made it possible for Soviet scientists,
engineers, and workers of many plants to build and. launch artificial earth satellites.
In connection with this, even greater grew the interest and attention of aircraft engi-
neers, technicians, and a wid.e circle of readers in liquid fuel rocket engines,
The recently published work of G. B.Sinyarev and M. V. Dobrovol'skiy, "Liquid
Fuel Rocket Engines'1 provides answers to many questions associated not only with
the construction, analysis, and. design of ZhRD but also with servicing of engines
of this type. In it the reader will find, the principles of the theory of liquid fuel rocket
engines, information on their classification and fields of application, the necessary
data on thermodynamics and. gasodynamics, on fuels for ZhRD, on the design of com-
bustion chambers and the processes that go on in them, and other useful information,
The authors of the book tell of the first ZhRD, built in the Soviet Union by F.A.
Tsand.er in the early thirties. In 1939 engineer L. S. Dushkin developed a liquid fuel
rocket engine with adjustable thrust for aircraft.
S. P. Koroley' s first flight in a ZhRD rocket plane was made in our country in
early 1940. (By the way, in the book the date of this event is given incorrectly.)
Two years later, pilot G. Ya, Bakhchivandzhi made successful flights in a rocket plane
designed by V. F. Bolkhovitinov, on which ZhRD were installed,
The broad scope of the work in building ZhRD facilitated the successful develop-
ment of domestic rocket engineering. In 1933, the first rocket developed by M.K.
Tikhonravov was launched in our country. This occurred much earlier than the first
launching of the well-known German V-2 rocket, In subsequent years, the launch-
ing of rockets in the USSR was repeated, and the altitude of their flight steadily in-
creased, All this served as an important condition for the launching of artificial
earth satellites.
Questions of thermodynamics and gasodynamics (Chaps. 11,111, IV) are expounded
in this book in their relation to the phenomena in a liquid fuel rocket engine. The
characteristics of the operating process are necessary not only for determining the
excess oxidizer ratio, the magnitude of which should correspond to the optimal pro-
gress of the process of combustion and exhaust but also for the technical servicing
of ZhRD power installations, since without this it is impossible to understand what
oes on in the engine 1.....a.ider changing conditions of its operation,
1G. B. Sinyarev and M. V. Dobrovol' skiy, Zhidkostn e raketn e dvi ateli [Liquid
Fuel Rocket Engines]. State Publishing House of the Defense Industry, Moscow,
1957, 580 pages, price 14 rubles, 65 kopecks, Second edition.
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By clarifying the processes that occur in th.e combustion chamber and the exhaust
nozzle, it is possible to evaluate the distribution of temperatures and speeds of the
gas flow, which is very important for operating the engine and. d.etermining its basic
parameters, as well as for the subsequent calculation of the cooling of the combus-
tion chamber and the exhaust nozzle. In addition, analysis of the thermodynamic
cycle of the ZhRD permits a graphic presentation of the method of operation and the
basic features of a heat engine.
The authors devote not a little attention to the choice of fuel as one of the very
serious problems studied in the theory of ZhRD (Chap. V). It is known that the
chemical propellants that produce energy in combustion consist of two components
a fuel and an oxidizer.
Examined in the book are the basic characteristics of some types of promising
propellants. Analysis of Mend.eleyev's periodic system has mad.e it possible to se-
lect the elements that have the greatest store of chemical energy. On this basis,
there have been compiledtables of the thermodynamic properties of the combustion
products of all the basic elements that can be used. as propellants for ZhRD. How-
ever, calculations show convincingly that chemical propellants have a quite definite
limit of specific thrust on the order of 380 kg-sec/kg, At the same time, for further
improvement of rocket vehicles it is necessary first to increase the specific thrust
of the engines. The authors show that great possibilities lie in atomic powered
rocket engines.
The methods-of thermal calculation of the engine chamber (Chap.VI) are illus-
trated. with numerical examples, which facilitates considerably the mastery of the
material expounded in the book and its application in practice.
Together with the theoretical principles of the calculation of cnt-tli?n_g liquid fuel
rocket engines (Chap.VII), the authors examine the method based on experimental
formulas of the theory of heat transfer. They discuss in detail the scheme of ex-
ternal cooling and. the form of the cooling channels; they present a number of numer-
ical examples for calculating the elements and assemblies of the cooling system.
The second part of the textbook deals with the designing of liquid fuel, rocket en-
gines. It is generally known that the elaboration of each engine design depnds on
its purpose, the propellant selected., and certain operating data. However, the
methods of computing the characteristics of an engine, its design form, size, and
heat transfer are usually quite general in nature and, with minor exceptions, are
suitable for engines of all types. Proceeding from this, the authors give the model
procedure for designing them and analyze the design of individual assemblies.
In addition, a number of questions that may interest the engineering and. technical
personnel of the Air Force directly are conveniently expounded in the book. Among.
them are, for example, the process of combustion in the chamber of a ZhRD and the
latter's peculiarities, the form of the combustion chamber, the principal require-
ments in starting and stopping the ZhRD, the fuel system of liquid fuel rocket en-
gines, the individual designs of ZhRD used for different purposes and with different
systems of fuel supply, ignition, and stopping.
The book by G. B. Sinyarev and M. V.Dobrovol'skiy can be useful to engineers and
technicians engaged in the operation of rocket equipment or specializing in this field,
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AVIATION ABROAD
COMBAT APPLICATION OF ROCKET AND
REACTION-PROPELLED WEAPONS
In recent years guided reaction-propelled. missiles have been occupying an im-
portant place in the armed. forces of capitalistic countries. As is reported by dif-
ferent sources in the press, development of this type of weapon has proved that it
can successfully resolve a great number of combat problems and. will find wid.e ap-
plication in military operations on land., sea, and. in the air.
Guided missiles are under development and have been partially accepted as
armament in the Army, Air Force, and. Navy of the USA. The different types of
guided. missiles are divided, into appropriate classes, determined, primarily by the
point from which the guid.ed missiles are launched, and. by the location of the target
which they are intended, to destroy. For instance, missiles of the "surface-to-sur-
face".class are launched. from the ground. or from naval ships and aimed. at ground
or above-water targets; those of the "air-to-surface" class are launched from air-
craft and. aimed at ground., above-water or under-water targets; those of the "sur-
face-to-air" class are launched from the ground. or from ships and aimed at aerial
targets; and. those in the "air-to-air" class are launched. from aircraft and directed,
against aerial targets. This classification is officially accepted in a number of
countries.
Characterizing guided missiles by their combat application, military specialists
consider missiles in the "surface-to-surface" and. "air-to-surface" classes as types
of ,offensive weapons and. the missiles of the "surface-to-air" and. "air-to-air" class-
es as defensive. Naturally, the greatest interest in the imperialistic countries,
whose leaders engage in aggressive policies, is expressed in the offensive weapons
and the possibilities of their use and. combat employment. This explains the fact
that the "surface-to-surface" class of .guided missiles has received the most wide-
spread, acceptance in the USA. The missiles of this class in existence and. under
development are divided, by the military specialists of the USA into three categories:
tactical. guided. missiles, intermediate range guided missiles ,and. intercontinental
(strategic) guided. missiles.
From the data published. in the American press there are at present several
types of tactical guided. missiles of the "surface-to-surface" class in the weapon
arsenal of the armed. forces of the USA. The most important of these are: in the
Air Force ? the guide d. winged. missile "TM-61 Matador" with an effective range up
to 1000 km; ,in the ground forces ?the guided, ballistic "Redstone" rocket ,with an,
effective range of up to 800 km and. the ballistic "Corporal" rocket with an effective
range of up to 1201m; in the Navy the guid.ed winged missile "Regulus".
There are no intermediate range guided. missiles (not to speak of intercontinental
Aviation Abroad.
115
missiles) in the weapon arsenal of the USA as yet. Judging by the press, trial
launchings of intermediate' range ballistic rockets, designed. for an estimated. effec-
tive range of up to 2500 km ("Airplane", 10/25/1957), are being conducted. on prov-
ing grounds. The intercontinental guided. winged. missile, the "Snark" (Fig. 1), is
being prepared for acceptance as armament. Use of atomic warhead,s is planned.
for all of the above-mentioned. guided. missiles ? including those for tactical employ-
ment ? and hydrogen warheads are planned for intercontinental missiles.
The question as to how effectively the problems faced. by the armed. forces can be
solved with the help of this new armament causes animated. discussions among Amer-
ican military specialists. A number of characteristics possessed by the guided.
missiles of the "surface-to-surface" class lead.s some foreign military leaders to
the conclusion that these missiles are capable of resolving almost any of the missions
now carried out by piloted, aircraft, and. that in a short time they will be able to re-
place modern bombers, They point out that it is possible to hit targets under any
weather conditions with the help of guided. missiles. In addition, their application
will not be limited, by the availability of regular
airfields.
Nevertheless, a great number of military
specialists in the USA are of the opinion that
guided. missiles of the "surface-to-surface"
class are at their present stage of development
only an auxiliary weapon for aircraft and. cannot
replace them. In support of this belief are
quoted. such arguments as insufficient (in view
of great dispersion) accuracy of guided. missiles
in hitting small-scale targets, the impossibility
of their employment against moving targets,
and. the present inadequacy of their control and.
guidance systems.
Since tactical guided. missiles of the "sur-
face-to-surface" class have been issued. as ar-
mament to the US Army comparatively recently,
and. since there. are no intermediate range guided
missiles and no intercontinental 'rockets in the
armament of combat units, the problems of their
combat employment have not been 'solved. On
the other hand., the very fact that some types of
Fig. 1. Launching.of the SM-62 missiles have been d.eveloped, and accepted. as
"Snark"guided. winged. missile. armament for units is a proof of the existence
of quite d.efinite plans for their employment.
For instance, some views on the application of guided. missiles of the "surface-
to-surface" class have been expressed. on the pages of the "Air Force" magazine
by the Chief of the USAF General Staff, Operations, Maj.Gen.Bergquist. According
to his statements, launching installations of intercontinental guided missiles, intend-
ed for striking the most important objectives deep behind the lines of a potential.
enemy, will be located throughout the territory of the continental US in such a way
that it would. be impossible to destroy a majority of them with one blow.
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Fig. 2. Launching of a TM-61
"Matador" guid.ed, winged. missile.
Launching installations for intermediate
range guided. missiles will be located., in his
opinion, in such a way as to insure the destruc-
tion of the greatest number of enemy targets
and to insure the least vulnerability of their
own positions. This rather general idea has
been recently given substance. At the last
session of the Council of the aggressive North
Atlantic bloc, American military leaders open-
ly demanded. of their European partners in the
bloc that both stockpiles of atomic weapons as
well as rocket launching pads be located. on
their territories. Intermediate range ballistic
rockets of the "Jupiter" and. "Thor" type were
under discussion at that meeting. American
military bosses are planning to construct
launching installations for guided. missiles oi
the territories of France, Italy, Denmark, aad,
Norway with a clear intention of making sure
that targets in the Soviet Union and the peoples'
democratic countries are within their reach.
Inter continental guided. winged. missiles and.
ballistic rockets, as well as intermediate range
ballistic rockets, are expected to be used main-
ly in strategic aerial operations in close coopera-
tion with strategic aviation. The main princi-
ple of the employment of such missiles is thought
to. be their mass application simultaneously a-
gainst a great number of targets deep behind, the
enemy lines. It is thought that the greatest ef-
fect can be achieved, by employing rocket weap-
ons to destroy targets with strong anti-aircraft
defenses, in cases when enemy aviation has
mastery of the air, and also when the employ-
ment of bomber aviation is limited, or made im-
possible.
The. view is also expressed. in the press ("Air
Force", Sept 1956) that the study of the territory
of a potential enemy makes it possible to divid.e
his rear-area targets into two types: permanent
targets,, or even groups of such targets, occupy-
ing comparatively large areas; and. important
small targets. widely dispersed. over a large ter-
ritory. The character of the latter and. the
former puts, in the opinion of the magazine,
different demands on the means of aerial attack "Fig. .3. Launching the guided. bal-
Since intercontinental. ballistic missiles and.
listic "Redstone" missile.
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Aviation Abroad. 117
intermediate range missiles do not as yet possess sufficient accuracy, it is proposed.
that they be used. mainly against large area targets(or groups of them) located, in a
comparatively small region. It is pointed, out that one of he essential requirements
for their effectiveness is the determination with the greatest accuracy of the coordi-
nates of the target and. of the launching installation from which the missiles are to be
launched ("Military Review", March 1957). In other words, large,war industry and.
administrative centers, whose coordinates, as is pointed. out, are not hard. to estab-
lish, are to be earmarked. as such objectives.
Guided missiles of these two types will not be capable, in the opinion of some
authors, of carrying out the principal task in a strategic operation which is the de-
struction of the facilities of aerial attack by the potential enemy, since the facilities
will be located. on dispersed. launching bases and. airfield.s --targets too small, under
present conditions, for guid.ed. missiles of this type. Destruction of such targets
will be mainly effected, by aircraft possessing the required. maneuverability and. hit-
ting accuracy.
Some military specialists maintain that intermediate range guided. ballistic rockets
of the "Jupiter" and "Thor" type can be attached, to an army group in a theater of
war, to be employed, in its interests.
The problem of location, dispersal, and. camouflage of launching sites is directly
related. to the combat employment of guided missiles of the "surface-to-surface"
class. It is quite natural that launching sites for intercontinental guid.ed rockets
and intermediate range rockets, numerous and. bulky launching equipment, as well
as the rockets which themselves have structures of considerable size will be rather
easily spotted from the air.and. will serve as good, targets for the enemy's bomber
aviation. The American military press proposes that launching sites be located, in
a mountainous region which would limit the field. of observation, in structures located,
d.eep underground or even under water. It is recommended. that the most easily
recognizable structures (concrete pads with a regular outline, symmetrically laid
approaches, fuel storage containers) be carefully camouflaged from reconnaissance
from the air.
Tactical guided, winged. missiles and ballistic rockets are intended, by the Ameri-
can Armed Forces for employment in theaters of war for the purpose of the support
and security of operations by the ground forces. However, the combat employment
of various types of these missiles can 'be different both inmature as well as in the
tasks assigned. The deciding factor in this problem is the mobility of a given type
of guided. missile and its effective range. , Judging by the opinions exp;essed by
military specialist!, tactical guided winged. missiles in the armament of the units,
such as.the TM-61 "Matador" (Fig. 2) and. the "Redstone" ballistic rockets (Fig. 3),
which have an effective range of 800-1000 km, will be employed, mainly to destroy
large targets behind the front lines (railroad junctions, concentrations of troops and
military equipment, army depots); they will also operate against airfields of combat
aviation, artillery, large calibre gun emplacements, and. means of atomic offensive
located within the limits of their striking distance, i. e.., they will perform those
tasks which were previously, assigned to tactical aviation.
Insufficient strike accuracy and limited, maneuverability of these means of d.estruc-
tion make their employment against small- scale .and moving targets almost impossi-
ble. For the purpose of increasing their strike effectiveness it is proposed. to equip
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118
Aviation Abroad.
these missiles with atomic warheads.
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Fig. 4. Launching of the "Regulus" guided. winged
missile from the submarine "Tunny".
According to concepts formulated. by military leaders, guided. missile sub-units
are to be attached. to field. and. air armies, especially for operations under adverse
weather conditions.
The experience in employing existing units of "Matador" guided. winged. missiles
shows that they are intended, by the Air Force staff to give support to their tactical
aviation in theaters of war, and. are put at the disposal of the Air Force commanders.
Therefore their organizational form is a wing, consisting of three squadrons with
five launching installations in each. At present, a wing of "Matador" guided. winged.
missiles has been formed. in Western Germany and. attached. to the commander of the
USAF in Europe ("Interavia" No. 8, 1957).
The "Corporal" tactical guided. ballistic rockets, with a range of 120 km,have a
somewhat different application. Being also a weapon attached, to a field army in
theaters of military operations, they are called upon to carryout tasks which they
share with aviation and artillery. The comparatively short range and high strike
'accuracy make it possible to employ these against targets located, directly on the
battlefield as well as against those behind the zone of corps reserves.
Military specialists in the USA believe that .under the conditions of an atomic
war, which will be characterized, by rapid changes in the situation and. the operations
of the troops emplooyed. in dispersed and extended. combat formations, guided. missiles
of this type will be able to give support to the troops in any weather without changing
firing position in periods of deep penetration and. at critical moments of the battle.
Installations for launching them must be located,not in the immediate vicinity of
the front, but behind the lines in such a way as to make it impossible for the enemy
to seize them by surprise in case of a sudden breakthrough or infiltration through
the combat formations. Since the "Corporal" rockets are Army weapons, their
organization is reminiscent of that in the artillery. Initially, "Corporal" battalions
had an organiz.ation completely similar to artillery battalions, i. e., they consisted
Z
Declassified in
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Aviation Abroad. 119
of a headquaxters battery and several firing and. service batteries, Each battalion
contained about 600 enlisted, men and. officers.
According to military specialists, experience showed. that such organization is
too bulky and. lacks maneuverability. Now a battalion of "Corporal" rockets has a
personnel of 250 men and consists of a headquarters, a service battery, and one
firing battery ("Interavia" No. 8, 1957). It is proposed. that each field army will be
reinforced with three battalions of "Corporal" rockets. At present several batta-
lions of "Corporal" guided. rockets with similar organization are located, in Europe
as part of the ground. forces of the USA.
The "Lacrosse" tactical guided missile, recently accepted as armament in the
US Army, has an effective range of up to 16 km and. is designed. for direct fire sup-
port of the troops in the field. Battalions of "Lacrosse" missiles are expected. to
be included. in the ranks of corps or even division artillery.
Leaders of the US Navy are also intimately concerned, with the problems of em-
ploying guided missiles of the "surface-to-surface" class.
US Naval .experts believe that guided missiles are the basic form of future naval
weapons and that their employment on warships will increase the strategic capabi-
lities of the Navy and will make it possible to deliver strikes on targets located, at
large distances from the shore, I. e., to increase
the fire power and. the combat capabilities of ships
At the same time ships can divert such weapons
rapidly in any direction from which danger threat-
ens. Some specialists express the opinion that
a ship equippedwith guided. missiles of this class
will represent too tempting and. vulnerable a tar-
get for the aircraft and guid.ed missiles of the ene-
my. Others on the other hand, are inclined, to
think that this opinion is not sufficiently convinc-
ing, in view of powerful method.s of anti-aircraft
defense, including guided anti-aircraft rockets
with which warships are armed..
Many military specialists in the US believe
Fig. 5. Launching of a "Rascal" that the possibility of employing guided missiles
guided winged. missile from aB-47 will enhance the role of the submarine fleet in
"Stratojet" bomber. carrying out strategic operations. Submarines
with atomic engines, which considerably increase
their cruising autonomy and range, will make it possible to employ guided. missiles
with particular effectiveness, insuring sneak delivery of this weapon to enemy shores
and bombardment of targets very far behind enemy lines.
Installation of guided missiles on submarines does not require extensive modifica-
tion in their construction. Only the torped.o equipment is replaced, by a launching
device, a guidance system, and. an airtight hold for storage of one or two missiles.
At present the US Navy, possesses warships and. submarines armed with guided.
missiles of the "surface-to-surface" class (Fig. 4).
Arming of the US Navy with guided missiles proceeds mainly in two directions:
construction of new ships specially designed. for the use of such weapons; and. modi-
fication and reequipment,of existing ships. In addition to warships under construc-
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120
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tion, which are designed to use guided. missiles, the shipbuilding program of the
US Navy in the 1957/1958 fiscal year provides for the construction of 8 destroyer
escorts, 5 destroyers, and. 3 atomic submarines, specially equipped.for this purpose
("Navy Times" 5/28/1957).
Desire on the part of the US Navy to decrease the vulnerability of guid.ed. missiles
of the "surface-to-surface" class and. to preserve the greatest surprise in their em-
ployment led. to the design of a guided. missile launched. from a submerged. submarine.
According to the press, some US firms are already working on the development of
such a missile, which has been given the name of "Polaris". The proposed. range
of its flight is reputed. to be 2400 km. It is believed, that the missile will serve as
the armament for submarines with engines driven by atomic energy. ("Interavia
Air Letter", 10/25/1957).,
The class of guided. "air-to-surface" missiles has a different function. It is
planned. to equip strategic bombers with them, to insure destruction of targets pro-
tected. by a powerful system of anti-aircraft defense. Employment of such missiles,
in the opinion of American military specialists, will lead. in practice to a decrease
of the vulnerability of the bombers themselves, since destruction of a target by a
guided. missile does not require the bombers entrance into the zone d.efend.ed. by ac-
tive means of anti-aircraft defense. On the other hand., guided. missiles of the ?
"air-to-surface" class, due to their small dimensions and. high flight velocity, repre-
sent a target less vulnerable to anti-aircraft defense. One of the disadvantages of
employing missiles of this class is, as was shown by tests, a d.ecr ease in the range
of the bomber due to the external suspension and. the great weight of the missile.
At present, strategic aviation in the USA is being armed. with the GAM-63 "Ras-
cal" guided. winged missile of the "air-to-surface" class. From information in the
American press, the maximum range of this missile and. the maximum flight speed
are reputed. to be 240 km and. 1800 km/hr,respectively. Carriers of the "Rascal"
missile will be the B-47 and. B-52 strategic bombers (Fig. 5).
The tests conducted. have shown that two "Rascals" can be installed under the wing
in an outside suspension system on each sid.e of the fuselage. It is proposed. that
the new B-58 "Hustler" strategic bomber be equipped. with these missiles also, The
missiles are launched. from the bomber at an altitude of 12-15 km and at a range of
140-160 km from the target. Under the propulsion of its own motor the missile
reaches an altitude of 25-30 km and.. then dives at a shallow angle on the target.
Guidance is initially effected from the carrier aircraft and. later by an inertial sys-
tem with astronavigational corrections.
American military specialists conced.e that the maximum range of the "Rascal"
is insufficient to insure the safety of the carrier bomber. With the present depth
of anti-aircraft defense, the carrier bomber proceeding to some target behind the
enemy lines can run into fighter planes of the anti-aircraft defense prior to the
launching of the missiles and. under these conditions, will represent a rather vul?
nerable 'target.
The fact that military units, ships, and. aircraft are armed with guided. missiles
of the "surface-to-surface" and "air-to-surface" class and. the crash development
of new, more advanced types of these weapons are proof of the fact that the military
leaders of the USA are planning a very wide application of these for the purpose of
aggression. Lt. Col, B. V. Aleksandrov
7
031,
4
A
,rmanimmommem,mummaimmoomi.mamsomsmamoommmommommmognmasuseinummininimmemirimirisimegumemamm
TO OUR READERS
In the twelfth issue of the magazine the editors includ-
ed a "Readers' Questionnaire" and requested readers to ex-
press their opinion on a number of points touching on the
materials published, in the magazine during 1957.
We have received, many letters. Besides the answers
to the Editors' questions, many readers have sent in various
remarks and. suggestions.
The Editorial Board thanks all the readers who have
complied, with its request and will endeavor to give considera-
tion to all the remarks and proposals.
We await other letters and. other proposals.
THE EDITORIAL BOARD OF "THE HERALD
OF THE AIR FLEET"
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