GENERAL EDUCATION IN THE USSR (SIR-2658)

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 177
• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: September 3, 2013
• Sequence Number: 2
• Publication Date: May 29, 1958
• Content Type: REPORT

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OEN AL IIDUCATIO
ZN USIA
*port by
Dr. Votodrair o}un.C1nadyn.Vo A r Deormat on Dittsion
Th. Library of CoNgroosio Washington, DoC.
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PLAN ,010 RE T ON SIUMRALI alICATION LW USSR
) Orsanisational and Administrational prinelples it the MISR
eduilational system, and basis alms of Soviet *due/atonal
volley,
2) System of Waal Education In USSR.
A) Pre0schoo3 edusation 0 ineludins all statistical in.
formation 6 eurrieulum.
A4 nementary eehool 0 ineludi all statistical intermit
tion So curriculum; pedcAgogical sushilithshas 0 inelud
Ing all statistical intOrmatien & currieulum.
year Wools 40 Including all statistical infatuation
eurrieulum.
) Teachers Institutes 0 ineloding all statistics]
information.
) 100year *shoo s tns1ui, aU statistical thttion
& ourrisulus.
) Pcdagolleal Institutes 0 inelud an ctatis
information.
) Universities 0 tne1u4in all statiitcsl into tLon
6 curriculum.
Paratton of associate pro ems, teasers for
Universities instructors of Candidate of
Sciences and Doetor it Sciences,
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3) Reterenses
4) Appendix 4 Universities in UMW noes, addresses# etc*
5) Appendix no Aviation Institutes In USU.
6) Appoodis1. Statistics on ifroviet General leuoation.
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4
1) VIIIR has * state Wool systems all soviet
Wool. are opened, maintain/As and eemplately sontrelle4 by
the governments Preosshcol institutions (kAmiftrprtens,
gaisreunds, "MO and extrawsibelastis edusational and cu1.
tura% organisations (clubs, libraries, 000) Ar* 010 tor
the most part opened and maintained by the state, and its
local organs Of authority. WI* sems are maintained by trade
unions (prorsoyusi), but all operate under full control at the
Ministry if Sducation or Ministry of exam*, and other Minis
tries and their :Weal *mins,
2) All Wools a other Mimetic 1 and cultural
111141404111 ere e plostelky tomato free any eitursh 0 relistous
ormnistation. The t loins at retgti subjects is not 410
lowed in any school or other onal and/or cultural
organisation with the emeeption tee seminaries open.* tor
the appose of Supplying; priests for the test etwittoss the eomo
Iste allow to operate Sohools and other Usual and
cultural Institutions ere undo obligation to 41 at**
nts a msterielistic Inter
and of human society
3) There is only
union. (
Odusation in
tattoo of ail phenomena of nature
in the
19550, PP.
?
?
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14)
to
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4) Immo t eshool age is under compulsory at.
tedium of a ?goal Besot (samiletka) tree of charge.
Tuttle% s*$ tree in ail ileheols from 1919 to 19220 and from
to Wm, Prom 1J to around 1928 tuition was paid in
an primary and woman sohools in cities and tom, as
also in higher adusationsi institutions, War invalids and
NU plena Amens the workers? were given exemptions of up
to complete exemption trim tuition, This is documented by
the resalution of the 10th All.Ruseian Congress of the Soviets,
Dee. 270 102 *points 6 (see 'tirektivy VKI(b) I postanovleniya
SOVetekego proviteVetVa 0 narodnom obratovanli ta 1917 .
1947 god e (Direetirte$ or the VKP(b) and resolutions of the
Soviet Somnolent on IstiOnal Zducation for years 1917.1947)
NosoWir, 1947, Lib. or Co call No, LAW KR 2280 Al 1947, p.
Inking Into account the extremely f v$,;- material (financial)
situation of the Republio, W. 10th All.Russian Congress of
the Soviets, in order to support normal school existence
(itte), anon AI a t,r measure, calculated only tor
iod, the establishment of monetary
tuition In primary end Secondary schools in QUI= and towns,
as also in hi r educational institutions,.. The same
$b6 dittieult transition
book 41$0
31 aVluet*
the Postanovieniye WsI! i$111( RSFOR ot
go? (R*solution of the AllaRussien Central
atty. C, tee and Soviet of People's Commissars of ROO
(the form, name of all of USS)) from August 31, 1925), "point"
3, Comments ?Op to the time of establishment of a network of
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universal elementary school educations the Oblast, Bxecutive
Committees reserve the right to charge (studente) tor tuition
in primary and secondary schools ot attics and towns, in also
cadent). with the decree of the MIX and SNK on March. 22, 1923.4,****
(turther le ;4.1 references given)***" The extensiveness of
this doe
PrePagan
a?.
ntation is done in view of the fact that lfter
publioationa state most emphaticaliL, that all edu
Elation was tree before 1940, as also state wal* publication
outside of the Unh? including USA* It is very strange indeed
to note, for instance, that a supposedly serious and beautio
ful aro soreferenoed book like "Soviet Prormi?sional Manpower"
by Nicholas DeWitt of the Russian Roweerch Center,
University,
University, puelished by the National Science foundation,
Washington, DX*, 19550 states on page 14s in 1940 tuition
fees **** were Introduced *0** krior tot his 'zime? higher
education al well ,s other forms of etucation, was tuition
0
which the above documentatlo' of the existence of tuition beo
f
ON 1940 we taken, appears as a referenoe source in
Mr* DeWitt os book* Mt DeWitt also quotes emphatical r an
pp. XXVI and XXVII from a paper by A. rgson that* "However,
d spite ny harassing deficiencies it seems that the Soviet
Government does not falsify those statistics which it elects
to publish n other words, 'Contrary to co,on supposition,
the Russiy . seem generally not to resort to fallitleation in
the sense of free invention and double bookk ,? ping*," This
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naive optimism will be shown below to be quite undeserved,
espeoially taking into account or the latest Soviet statistio
cal publication, "National Sconomy of USSR Statistioal
Collection (Narodnoye Ithosyaystvo Statistioheskiy
Sbornik) published in 1956 by Central Statistical A+oiniatra
tion of SR1 in which a multamde oi wild figures given be
fore are completely neglected or changed often by a factor or
Lw much an 5* as will be elaborated lateri
It is unfortunate that the ell. does not have the
space here to correot many more inaccuracies and frequent
naive lief in the truth of Soviet propaganda exhibited in
Nr* DeWitt's book, which will undoubtedly lead to innuelort
false ii a.tQne on the oart of the readers and stuoonts who
will uc- Ar* DeWittla book as a source
?rem 19401 ("Higher Educat on (Vysshaya Shkola),
Moscow, 1948, p* 547; lig a Co call No* LAW 260 *Al2 1948),
to 1956/57 ("izvestiyan Moscow. Feb* 26, 1956, No* 49, p* 6,
col. 1) tuition paid by the student for attendance In all
5?Lal won ry sohools (technloal schools (technikumy),
pedagogical achoo)s, medical schools, eta,) and in the 8th,
9th and lOth grades of the bnAl eeconry :whole co 200
rubles a year in scow, Leningrad, and citles of the
Union, in other cities, towns end villa 150 rubles a year.
In all institutions of higher learning 4 rubles in Moscato
Leningrad* and capital cities of the Union, 300 ruble else
where, 500 rubles a r in musical artistic and theatrical
al 6
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A
?
tr, ,
institutions of Mailer learning, Tuition in correspondence
and evening schools is halt of that In other., Prom 19507
tuition in all educational institution is free, Al]. books and
sehool materials in Au educational institutions must, hoover,
be purchased by the student, Highly outstanding students
of higher educational institutions and secondary technical
schools receive substantial monetary stipends, Due to the
low salary of workers, and especially peasants, high cost of
livings and the resulting high cost of sending youths to towns
and cities where such secondary and hi r educational instido
tutions exist, the aecumulated a to of room, board, books,
etc,* even without the tuition are largely prohibiti/e to
workers and especially peasants, and can be afforded only by
children of speclaXiaed workers, government officials, communist
party members, etc*, Even workers living in the towns and
cities where higher educational institutions exist find h'
education
education prohibitiVe*
5) All
'1? ,
for thea
out all Union are formally identical, The pro
avoceeding eehool is a cnttnuatio.. of
type schools through
tit ",f
in h
at the pre*
vious one (0440 the prog ;4 or the 5th of the 7**Iyear
school (semiletka) is a continuation of the program in the 4#1
grade of 014; ntary school, the priv of the 8th gra* oft
106* r school (ftsystlietka) la a continuation of the
t
in the 7th grade of the Tomo sehool) XX, (Sources e, MO
me
kiy, *Proovt hchenlye v
pp. 7017)0
* (A*ucation in R 1955,
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Schools are conducted in the various republics in
their respective is, but the Russian language is a coma
pulsory subject in all schools of the Uhion (Sources ibid),
Study ot the Russian language in Union Republics (Latvian,
Betonian? Ukrainian, Georgian* etc.) is begun in the second
grade.
The Russian language program in non4ussian schools
consists or less material than does the same program in
Russian schools, se %ms noted in "Narodnoye obrsiovanlyen
No, 2, 1955, pp. 1447,trance examinations in the Russian
language to higher educational irlstitutions are conducted on
the basis ot the pro s of the Russian schools? That moans
that students iiattng from nonoaussian schools* have lese
chance of ssing the entrance examinat one, oomPant4 io t
students who dusted dram a Russian school, In higher
grades of the jolty of schools in the sowealled *Autonomous"
republics of Nt (actually a part of 80* all subtle'le
f
Et1
r,
are taught in the Russian lingua * and the native unge
is taught only as a separate subject, Due to this, their
weekly curriculum le 1 ,9 ater than in Russian schools
and, as is noted :44n "Narodnoxe Obrasoveniye," fio, 2, 195$,
p 17, "the overload of the curriculum in nonAusstan schools*
has an adverse effect on the progress of the students
to shallow studies of school subjects, and affects adverse:II
the health of the studentsos In the sv? magazine it is noted
that in the sA schools "there are also many teachers of the
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Russian language who don't know the native language of the
students* These teachers find great difficulties in their
work*"
Russification of non-Russian nationalities by the
Russians is officially motivated by the followings "In non-
Russian schools, the Russian language is the source of com-
munist upbringing of the children, the means of their joining
the progressive Socialist culture*" (Source: "Aarodnoye
Obrazovaniye No* 2$ 1955, p* 14)*
A similar picture of Russification, though on a
lesser level, is seen also in all Union republics of the USSR
and its satellites* Thus, the deelarations of the communist
party of USSR, an to the right to study in one's own language
of 44 different nationalities in R0S*LosSoR*0 and also in the
other Union republics of the USSR are not based on fact.
The thn of Edcati in. USSR
According to the program of the communist party in
USSR, the aims a academic as well as ideological education
and training are till to prepare the succeeding generations
to a final and conclusive seizure of power of the whole world,
and the establishment therein of a universal communist state
(see Nedynski *Education in USSR" 1955, pi, 7).
e e sill in oviet 44tion
1) All directives concerning education are given
by the Central Committee of the communist party, or rather
the Politburo* Laws and resolutions that stem from these
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directives are put into proper form by the Council of Minister::
and officially released in the name of the Supreme Soviet of
the USSR. These resolutions determine the type of schools
to be maintained, establish the rules of conduct to be folw
lowed by students and teachers, determine the distribution of
graduates to jobs, etc..
2) Preoschool institutions, and schools of general
education (elementary, 7**year school ("semiletki"), 10.0year
schoqp. (ndesyatiletki"), schools of worker and peasant youths:
schools of adult education, are directed by the Ministries
of Education of tile Republics they are situated in.
3) Lower professional educational institutions
(trade schools and railroad schools, schools of factory team
nology) that graduate skilled workers, are under direct control
of the Allw.Union Ministry of Labor Reserves. The other lower
professional educational institutions are maintained and conft
trolled by the Ministries of Specialities.
4) Programs and methodology of secondary professional
educational institutions (industrial and agricultural ntechnicum
medical schools, pedagogical schools, etc.) are under the con
trol of the Ministry of Higher Education of the USSR. The
financing and material maintenance of these institutions is
done by the Ministries of Specialities. Medical schools, for
instance, are financed, etc., by the Ministry of Public Health,
pedagogical schools are financed by the Ministry of Educations
etc.. (Source: Medynskiy, "Education in USSR," 1955, p* 7417).
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5) Universities, higher technical, agricultural,
economic, and Judicial institutions (33 universities, 181
technical institutes, 109 Agricultural 6 Forestry, 30 (monad
cal and Judicial, i0 total 34, are un r full and direct cone,
trol, of the Ministry of Higher Zducation of the USSR in all
phases 04 administrative, scholastic, financial, etc* The
other Institutions of Higher Education (pedagogical 04 2220
medical 0, 77, art 0 47, physical culture 40 15 11 17,
literary, and historioal*archive institutes ?? 5$ teacher's
institutes 04 54 total by Jan. 10 1956 40 371)are under ths
rt noial? and other material control ot the appropriate
S* Wised Ministries of the Republics in which they are
situated. 1ln total n
o ;
r of lusher educational ir.stitutions
is 7240 (compiled from vochn k diya postupayuahchilth v
vriehyys uchebnve zavedeniya 1950 Moscow)
In questions of pro,methodology, etc the
control is in the 1 nds of the Ministry of H r Education
of the USSR, In 1945 Committises on the Affairs of educational
culturei, Institutiono (lib tries musfums0 readlna halls,
lecture oproav
were later
) were ton
" in 11 republics, They
netted Ministries of Cultures Thus in
1
,
flc
two AlltoUnion Ministries re in char of education The
Ministry of Hisher Education and the Ministry or Labor Re
serves, and two ministries each in every individual Republics
the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Cultures Besides
thio, some Iteparate phases of
t
uostior are under a aeries of
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committees(Committee of Physical Culture and Sports Committee
on Affairs of Arts Ministry of Cinematoeraphys Committee of
Radio Information of the Soviet of Ministers of the USSR)a
Ministries of Zducation of the Individual Republ:cs of USSR,
kray and oblast' organs of public educations nave titair
school inspectors, part of whose duties is wethodolo6ical help
to teachers and control of their work,
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III.WeIgLajleneral Education in USSR
The system of general public education in USSR is composed of:
1) institutions Of pre-school discipline,
2) schools of genaral education of all grades and types, and
pedagogical "uchilishcha",
3) Higher Educational Institutions: Universities, Teachers' Institutes,
Pedagogical Institutes Degrees,
Besides the system of general education there is a network of
secondary and higher trade and professional schools, the discussion
of which is beyond the time scope of this report, and can be given
in a separate report, if such is required, and which is, in the
opinion of the author of this report of high importance in the study
of USSRAidres*
A, Pre-school Institutions kindemtna
Pre-school institutions take care of children from 3 to 7 years
of age* The acting regulations governing these agencies were
approved by the Ministry of Education in 1944* Among the points
covered by the statute are the taming:
10 A kindergarten is a State institution for Soviet upbringing
of children 3.7 years*
2* A kindergarten, irrespective of the organization or
institution that maintains it, is conducted on the basis of the
"Regulations of the Kindergarten" ("Ustava detskogo sada') and
the program,pmethodical direction of the Ministry of Education of
ROSOF4080,R00
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3. For the realization of abovementioned point le, the
kindergarten:
bYthust cultivate in the children love of Soviet Homeland, its
leaders, the Red Army, thus aiding the successful upbringing of the
children in later schooling; children must be told, in understandable
to them terms, of the life and work of Lenin and Stalin, arousing
and strengthening in the children love for Lenin and Stalinu(Stalin
is now probably replaced by Khrushchev and others). (Source:
Ye. Ne Medynckly, "Prosveshcheniye v SSSR" ("Education in Twig,
moscow, 1955, pp. 47-54)e
Kindergarten teachers must graduate from pre-school secondary
pedagogical institutions (doshkollnlye pedagogicheskiye uchilishcha),
of which by Jan. 1, 1956, there was 47e (Source, "Spravochnik dlya
postupayushchikh v srednvye spetsiallnyye uchebnyye zavedeniya 1956)0
Besides these there are also pre-school Oepartloents of 57 pedagogical
"uchilishcha" for pub14.o school teachers 14 pre-school pedagogical
"uchilishcha" have also correspondence departments, and 2 have
evening sections. Table I how z tA.P'4, distribution of pedagogical
institutes among the various republics
14
a.
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Republic,
TABLE 1
Doshkollnyye
pedagogicheskiye
uchilishcha (pre*
school pedagogical
institutions
Correspondence
Debts at pre*
school pedago?
&Leal institu*
tions
Evening Debts
of premischool
pedagogical
institutions
R.S.F.S.R.
Az. S.S.R.
Latvian 3 3.11.
Uzbekh. SoSeR.
bolorusskay
S.S.R.
Kare1o4inskaya
4S6R. (now part 00
Ro)0F.34Re
lOviovOOloWhowirMrovvvvion
40
1
1
14
2
000O
000*
WOO
NO ON NI NO
(Table I was compiled L
ilaWISOIRIIIMIFYIVIVAItag#11.?
the author from the "3pravochnik dlya post*
upayushchikh v Jredni4Hre 4ctala1lnyye uchebnyye zavedeniya" 1956).
One must note from Table 1 a signifieani, 'et: namely, that pre..
school ped ogical "uchiliahchel 41 out of a total of 47, are
located on the territory 0: R.3.Fe6.R., whereas spy republics
Estonia, Latvia, Kazakh Reoblic, Ukraine (Ukrainets population i$
second in number only to Russia's), Azerbaidzhan, Armenia, etc., do
not have a single preschool "uchilishche among them. This is an
indication of a basic inequality in status among the republics,
based on solely Political factors -0 Rusaiata desire to dominate and
absorb everything. The various republics mentioned, not being able
to prepare enough personnel to staff their kindergartens, are
forced to draw on the output of Russia's "uchilishcha", drafting
teachers who cannot even speak the native language of the republic
concerned, leading to Russification of kindergartens, or to neglect
15 se
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kindergarten education altogether. This phenomenon is manisfested
also in other forms, to be mentioned later, which lead to the cone
elusion that Russia is definitely exploiting her supposedly equal
Union republics, which arc reduced to colonies of R.S.F.S.R.
For the preparation of preeschool workers of higher qualifioae
tions, some Peaagogioal Institutes have special preschool depart'
ments. In R.S.F.S.R. such departments exist in Moscow (Pedagogical
Institute im. V. I. Lenin), in Leningrad (Pedagogical Institute im.
A. I. Gertsen), in Gorlkiy, molotov, Ryazan', Rostovenameonu, and
some others,
Children booke have e very important part in pre school child
It the end of their stay in kirAteearten, children must
be able to count to 20.'30: compare numbers, 'tee able to write numerals,
add and subtract aulabere from one to ten, know weights and measures,
know the day of the week, be able to tell time being accurate to
the hour. The child muet be able to cogently and understandably
retell a short story to others, tell of an episode in his or her
life know by heart several poems. ta4
Numbers of children attending kindergarten in USSR between
1929 1955:
ear
urn ' o
children in
thousands
ers o
children in
thousands
TABLE 2
5,917
1,130 2,260
TABLE 2
as 16
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The numbers of children attending kindergarten, given in table 2,
'between 1929401955, were carefully checked in several sources. This
was done in view of the obvious irregularity in the table, deviating
from standard Soviet practice of giving statistics in an orderly
manner, according to the maxim that every phase of Soviet life must
show progress from year to year, and alao because this table can be
used to show the real state of affairs in premechool education in
USSR, which affects the rest of the educational system as well.
As seen from table 2$ the numbers from 1933 to 1940 show a
cataetrophic decline from 5,917,000 in 1933 to 1,130,000 in 1940.
The documents rPOW which these figuree wore derived are the
following:
1) point "b" in Stalin's report during the XVII meeti
Communist Party of USSR, on the fulfillment of the first fiveeyea:
plain, given in Jan 260 19340 was said: "The rise in the number of
children in preeschool education was fr A 838,000 In 19r2, to
5,917,000 in 1933!'
II) in the resolution of the XVII meeting of the Coaxuni t
Party concerning the second fivewyear plan (1933e1937)t giv n in
January 19340 the etatement mentioned above was confirmen:
% ',..not counting preeschool education, which even in 1932 reached
?2 million chi1dren0.3"
III) the law on the 4th fiveftyear plan, concerning the
reconstruction of the national economy of USSR in 1946401950$ states
in the section on kindergartens: "...to increase the number of
children attending kindergartens in 1950 to 2,260,0000 that iu
to double the number (of children attending kindergartens) in
1940". (I, II and III, were obtained from pp. 70.76 of "Direktivy
_
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VIP(b) i post. sov. pray. o nar. obi?. za 19174947"). Prom this
document it follows that in 1940 there were 1,130,000 children
attending kindergartens in USSR.
4) The data in table 1 for 1955, 3,000,000 children, was
derived from directives of the fifth five?year plan (19514955),
where it was stated: "To increase the number of kindergartens by
14
?
The numbers from 1933 to 1940 show a decline from 5,9170000 in
1933 to 1,130,000 in 1940.
n re is a ell t chance that the authors of the fonrth five
year plan did not look at the statistics given In the first and
second five.year plans, but :Lt, is more probable that the obviously
too great numberipen by Stalin was decreased consciously. The
increase of almost 5 minion, a seven,fold increase, in the space
of 4 years can not possibly be true, if only because it ia physically
impossible to train the number of teachers necessary, and also to
build the number of buildings to accomodate them all, and all that
in the most difficult period of Soviet rule, when in ono part of
the Union ? Ukraine to in 1932-33 over 5 million Ukrainian peasants
died of hunger, among them a very great number of children of
preaq.chool age. It seems that Stalin, in order to cover up the
reality in USSR during these years, used statistics as a smoke
screen, a device now often used, and not without su ess, by trained
disciples of Stalin.
in July 1956, the Central Stat :Leal Division of the Council
of Ministers of the USSR, publ hed a work called: "Narodnoyc
khozyaystvo SSSR Statia ichvity Sbornik." (a statistical survey).
This collection contained (on p. 248) the table 2a,
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Data etven in table 2a differa atarply from that in table 2
(with Olit otoeption or I entry for 1940), thua reruting the
voAntioueily published data on the 414.1tbjects The number of childrim
2wfol00
entimivo iiome other datiA, 9ab113hqd in ttg;t $amo eolleetIon
arta:404,4i uh3t dit.tui rviw Lj pub 31,,,cki atglounattnaoht
alminiahed, amost 64016 in 1950 and 19554* almoat
The aontroverfa
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tvarten in V13.4
ater role in eduoatlon than it doeep 1441 the WA
a?
0
trtta
4rgieo
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aa the equivalent of the first grade of public school. Table 3
Shows the distribution of kindergartens in various years among the
urban and rural population.
Numbers of children in kindergartens in USSR (expressed in
thousands). Source: .(HTNa-ri)4nue.: Khozypystvo SSaE - :A at i che skiy
,ibornik?, 1956, MO3COW, p. PLO:
Table 3
ear
1928
1940
1950
1954
1955
an
ura
119 11
906
958
1305
1410
266
211
272
303
From table 3 it follows that only approx, 20 percent of the
kindergartens were situated in rural areas in all periods shown,
while one must note that the rural populaton of the USSR comprises
now 56% of the total. This points out a general tendency of the
'ik,iet government to improve the conditions in cities, in spite of
the fact that the standard of living in the collective farms is
far lower from that of the cities
1) Elementary school le a 4-,grade ashoolk. for etiden of 70/10
yeam of age. From 1930 on, attendance is compulsory and tuition
in it is now free. The course of study is identical with that of
the first four grades of the semiletka and the first four grades
of the desyatiletka. The numbers of children attending the firat
4 grades of schooling (in either elementary school semiletka, and
deLya-ile ka) are shown in table 4,
gib 20 40
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B) Schools of Prima and Seconda General Education in USSR
The primary and secondary school system in USSR consists of
elementary school (4 grades) for children 7.10 years of age,
semiletka (7myear school) for children 70413 years of age (7 grades)
and Desyatiletka (lOmyear school) m 74016 years of age (10 grades).
Table 5 shows the number of children attending public school in
U611, during 1927401956. These numbers are taken from three dill*
ferent original Soviet sources. (I) 01 From Stalin's report to
the 17th Congress of tiw Communist party concerning the work of Ts ??
KVKP(b) on January 26, 1934; (Directives and resolutions..4. 70,
Joi:z of Cong. Coll No. LAW KR 2280 0A1 1947). (ii) .0 "Cultural
opment in USIA" Statistical Collection Gosplanizdat,
p. 518, (II1)0- "National Soonomy of USSR" w- Statistical
Collection, Central 6tatl3tic:a1 Adminiotration of the Soviet
of Ainisters of USSR, Mescow 1956, Lib. of Cong. Call No.
H. A. 1433 .A5 1956, pp. 17, 224.
The contradiction between Stalin's statistical publications
concerning the numbers of children attending elementary school in
1928-11.7 million, 1933019.6 million, and the data (1956) given
by the Statistical Admidatration of USSR for the same years
(19280-10035 million; 1933-47067 million), points out once again
the necessity of being very careful with statistics published
officially by the USSR, but this table leads to another very
important conclusion api; to the present condi ionsin USSR namely
that the number of students in public school during 19501 and
1954/55 fell 4harp1y from 19.67 millions to 12.7 millions that
a, 22.
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is a 7 million decrease (36%)* The official explanation for this
decrease is that the enrollment during these years consisted of
children born during the war, and the birthrate during the war
years was considerably reduced* (Source; footnote on p* 221 of
"National Economy of USSR" 0 Statistical Collection 1956).
Aims of element school education in U ? $ ? $ ? R.
The public school must, in way understandable by the children,
of 7010 years of age, instill in them the background for a world
outlook of dialetic materialism, systhematically develop the ins',
teresta and curiosity of the children, and develop their memory,
attentiveness, thinking, speaking* The children are taught to
observe the objects and manifestations of the world around them,
get an understanding of the materialistic quality of the world,
are to look at phenomena in terms of their logical relationship
and development* (Source: Ye* N. Medynskiy "Public Education in
USSR" (Narodnoye obrazovaniye v SSSR) Moscow, 1952, pp. 58-A59).
The ro ram and curricula of elementa education
The programs and curricula of elementary schools (as also of
the semiletka and desyatiletka) are formed by the governments of
the individual Republics of the USSR, but the programs must be
essentially identical (in reality the Ministry of Education of
RSPSR forms the pro-Tams, and the other republics copy them).
in 1955/56 a new curriculum plan for all branches of schools of
general education, including the elementa4 school (grades 104)0 was
instituted in USSR. (Source: "Narodnoye Obrazovanlye, January 1,
1955) pp* 12). This new plan was worked out by the Academy or
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Pedagogical Sciences of R.S.F.S.R., jointly with the Ministry of
Education of R.S.F.S.R., on the basis of directives of the 19th
Congress of the Communist Party of USSR on the establishment of
polytechnioalmtype instruction in schools of general education,
which were based on the premise that the secondary school of
general education must not only prepare the students "to enter
institutions of higher education, but also form a basis for the
preparation of students for entrance into secondary technical
educational institutions, and even, in a greater degree to
prepare skilled workers for different branches of the national
economy: Industry, agriculture, transportation, communications."
(Source: ibid.) The new curriculurnapproved by the Ministry of
Education of USSR, contained aome changes with respect to the
old one. The new and the old curricula are shown in table 5.
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Table 5
Subject
Number of hours
?
er
week
; *
08
Total number
of hours
old new
old new
old new
old nevi
old new
Russian 1
uage
Arithmetic
Nature atudy
History
Geography
Physical
education
(7,0
C
Art (draw*
IMO
Singing
ahopwork
and manual
training
15 13
0
1
04
2
14 13
7 6
S.
i?
15
40
2
TOTAL
twanaoseys*wwas
2 2Lil 24 24
2
9 3.716 1734
6 856 796
2 83 66
2 99 66
2 82 66
2 2 198 264
1 1 132 132
132 132
1 40 1
25 2k 27 26
12
300 3234
The new curriculum for elementary school (grades i.4) now
includes,a ahcpclass once a week and has 2 hours a week of gym
instead of 1 for grades 1 and 2; and 9 hours of Russian instead /1
for the 4th gr e, Decreased were the Russian language in the
first and third grade by two hours a week and in the second grade
by one hour, arithmetic in the second and fourth grades by 1 hour
history by 1 hour (4 gr.,), nature wady and geography were
decreased by t hour each (in the 4th grade).
Thus, the "Polytechnization" of the elementary school curriculum
was expressed in the inclusion of a shop class once a week in all
four grades (132 hours), an incase in the physical education
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(from 198 to 264 hours), a 66ehour decrease in arithmetic, a 132-hour
decrease in Russian, a 17ehour decrease each for nature study and
seography, and a 33.hour decrease in history, and also in the
66 hour decrease of the total number cf houre (from 3300 to
3234),
Comparing the two plane, one must note that according to the
new curriculum, the standards of education will be somewhat
:Lower than oefore without even any improvement In the "technical"
quality of the students, as 1 hour of manual training a week
ehich anyway very little equipment is available in USSR for
most schools especially in rural communities) will not help much,
especiany considering the ages of the students Involved, A
positive quality of the curriculum is that in spite of the
decrease, a lot of time is devoted to arithmetic e 25g of the
curriculum.
The arithmetic pregram of elementary school includes counting
4 arithmetical operations on any whole numbers, abstract numbers
as well as concrete number (measurements of things), the notion
of fraction, nd elementary concepts of geometry, The solving of
probleme io an important part of arithmetic study.
The etudy of history is given by the Soviet government an
"Important" task, Teachers of history must explain to the
children the role of Lenin and Stalin (now Stalin is doemphasized),
and the role of, led by them, Communist Party in the struggle
for communism and to evoke in the children "wholehearted love of
their Socialistic Homeland, and fervent hate of all (its) enemies
and oppressors of workers".(8911ree:, Meidynekty),IEducation in
.026 to
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USSR", Moscow, 1952, p. 63). The first parts of the study of his-
tory are given in classes of Russian or of their native in the
second and third gr e* In the fourth grade, 2 hours a week are
devoted to study of elementary history of the USSR.
Physical education has as its aim to improve the health of the
children, and to cultivate "conscious discipline and collectivism",
Fourth grade studeAts have to take an examination in the Russian
language, written and oral. NoneRuseian schools also have
examinations (written and oral) in the native languages.
Almost i of all the elementary schools in the Union have only
one teacher (are one-room schools) who fulfills all academic and
administrative functions. Other schools have or more teachers,
at most 40 students per teachers
In two-room schools, one teacher leads the first and third
grades, while the other leads the second and fourth gradese Every
year they switch roles, the second taking the first and fourth
grades, etc., so all children have the same teacher for four years.
Such an approach allows the teacher to know closely all his students,
and thus be able to approach them individually.
In one-room sehools one teacher takes care of all four grades,
either at the same time or in two sessions. The marking
system is based on 5; five being excellent) 4 good, 3 satisfactory,
2 bad, I very bad (2, and I are failing marks).
Table 6 shows the number of separate elementary schools in
USSR (not parts of 7-year schools or 10 year schools) and the
numbers of students attending, and also the average number of
student e per school for the years 19404/41 to 1955/56. This
27 a.
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table was constructed on the basis of statistical data published in
the "National Economy of USA" 0 Statistical Collection" 1956, p. 223.
Table 6
Y ars
um er o se
mentary schools
(gr. 1.4) in
thousands
4o 43,
01
Number of students in
elementary school in
millions
The aver ;:e number
of students per
school
125.9
9?8
*8
126.4
745
111.1 108.8
3.6 3.6
60 32.4 33
ovirosawitisOraliltiolowlimOissw
From the preceeding table it follows that in separate elementary
schools in the period of 1954056 there were on the average 3233
students p r school, that is during these years the overwhelming
majority of these schools were one-room schools. This table first
shows that in 1950/51 the average number of students in these
schools was 60 students per school, that is in that year the majority
Of schools were two-room schools, and only a smaller number were one-
room schools, which is contradictory to fact.
Obrazovaniye of the ministry of education of SFSR published in
1950 No. 1, pp. 17018 states
"In 3talingrad ob1ast10 in 1431 out of 3171 points of
habitation (vil1age3) of the oblast, there are no schools due
to a very small number a achoo1emae children liv ng there. 1184
azine "Narodnoye
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points of habitation have elementary schools, the numbers of
students being from 8 to O. Such distribution of the rural
population is characteristic also of other oblast' ?rays,
Autonomous Republics."
Thus the number of twoioroom school in 1950/51, was nearly
that of 1955/56, that i3 1184 were onedsroam schools, and 556
schools were schools with numbers of students exceeding 40 per
school. This data confirms the above quotation, and the previous
conclusion that the statistical administration of USSR gave an
exaggerated figure for 1951 attendance of separate elementary
schools (Table 4) and that the ovrwhelming majority were
lwroom schools.
ito 29
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B3.)
Elementary school teachers are trained in pedagogical
schools 4- "uchilishckilsocondary professional pedagogical
schools). The total number of these "uchilishche by
January 1, 1956 was 360, including 3 correspondence schools
(sources "Spravochnik dlya postupayushohikh v sredniye
spetsiallnyys uchebnyye zavedeniya" (Handbook for enrollment
in secondary special schools) 1956, Moscow).
Ninetro*two pedagogical uchilishcha have correspond**
once school departments, the students of which are mostly
people who are already teachers but have not graduated from
a pedagogical "uchilishche or its equivalent, and are
obligated to graduate from these correspondence schools with*
in a certain time, 57 of the pedagogical suchilishche
? have preschool departments to prepare kindergarten teachers*
Table 7 shows the distribution of the pedagogical
uch 1 'helm among the various republics of US
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Republic
14 INS ellis$
TAM 7
rrowrirotwo+~.040?0
ordinary
kopulatiom pedagogics:1
(millions) %towel** oetiods
Corresp?
11111.6.0601111?04mIlleloWNIO0?0011114041111MVAIMIllwANNOtrawaskowsisegfirvondwontrtiolger***041,40.4iMsliaiso
Likrainisn
B4 13.R.
Uzbek 3?Seft ?
Kazakh 3 .3
Georgie
?
Aserbirshen
t"1
loi.??
Lithuardan
seS.R.
:old a 4 OS A.
tetviaz %R1
gir s.s.n.
el EV
No?4,00A0
4100#
10j1441:61,Sil
t,oitto+4
4*V
2.7
2.7
1.9
4
1.1
3
5
8
0?1011111016"10116111110PoisrmouftitimmiqiiialAweintonsaluvreftwo040.4.,00.1044.4
3
00110610M.
AgtkAgeikk
,e,falittAtt.A
404(4400
41144,10i*
emishmor
4)0.2 357 3
w0a34,1011POOvrVMAWOOMMO010001144/POWfsw#WW(firiYiviMMANollikeOtalsW.RIVOMPAinewaivr.0001K01,tiRotr,f? WA tea,
oftt?
Gorresp.
cloperiasete prom/school
of
uchilishoha departments
79
*wow
dmippoors.
Wisakeits
wooPirt
92
23
13.
3
1
1
2
1
3
Ovarovoo.
eewiromisoswooddobstobome$144400MS'Av
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One must note the disproportionality in distribue*
tion of pedagogleal uchilishoha compered to the population,
11.80P.5,R, has five times more uchilishch than Ukrainian
84,34,11., while 11.8?P?S,R, has only 2.7 tit, the population
Of Ukraine, Of 92 correspondence departments 79 are in
ReS,?S?Roland Ukr.11,810R,, Oeorgia, Axerbaydshan, Uzbek
3.3?R?, K4sakh S.S.R., and Kirgiz $4,R? Go not have among
them a single correspondence department. All three correspond
once schools of the Union are located in 114,F.S.R?. The
logic of such uneven distribution is in the Russifieation
motivations ot Russia, Xt gives the Russian people a privi
lege of training the greater t,rt or schoolteachers, who will
be sent for employment in the other republics. The students
who wish to become teachers but cannot afford to live in a
place where one of their national schools is located, are
toreed to study in a Russian correspondence school or depart
ment, thus not learning their own language, but concentrate*
ing on Ruasian, must go to Moscow to take examinations, etc,*
while they are not trained to teach in the sehools of their
native rb11o, thu$, lowering their worth as teachers and
leading to further Russification,
fore 1947 the pedagog cal Wilishche was a
year secont.ry school; after 1947, a 4*year school, Prom 1940
to 1956 the tuition was 200 rublos a year in Moscow, Capital
cities, and 150 rubles in smeller towns,
Theg duate of such a sahool is given the title of
teacher of public school and those finishing the pre school
?
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department, a teacher in preschool oducation? Those who
finish the pedagogical uchilishohe with excellent marks,
but not more than 5% of the total number of graduates earn
the right to enroll in an institution of higher learning,
and all others may also, after three years of work in their
profession (teachers in public school and kindergartens)
enroll in an institutior of high.lr learning, after having
passed the customary entrance examination (Sources
sSpravochnik dlys postupayushchikh v voishiye uchebnyle
savedenlya 1956" Moscows 19?u, 3)0
Table 8 shows the cUrritulum or the pedaogiul
uchilishche,
?L,1
!
?
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No. Subjeat taught
1)
TABLE 8
Number of hours
Number spent on
oath part of eubjeet
Russian language and methodology
of teaching the Russian languip, 447
s) Russian language
b) Aethodolo of teaching
Russian
Literature
a) Literature
b) Children's literature
3) Mathomatica and mothodology of
teaching mathematics
a) Arit tic
b) A:Lgebra
o) Geometry
d) Mothodolo of Leaching
arittic
4) Physies
5) C*,tp, try and minerolo
6)Mtu1e study and methodology of
teaching nature study
a) Anatomy and physiolo
b) Botany
d ic evolutionary theory
01 BasZoology
(Larvinlom)
e) Methaoloa of teaching
mature study
G ography and Uodology of
teaciling 4e4rephy
a) Qoneral study of the '4trth
b) Geography of foreign
countries
o Geography of t U.S Ey
d Methodology of tahing
geo aso?
- 34
189
647
254
110
274
v OA I I a NO SIM
35?
90
:$25
64
248
144
182
73
254
110
6$
57
42
35
110
72
72
35
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Mrisittowor000t
No. Subject taught
worapakaieremmfarfoiiMmormownit.WM...?
/410...,41111.100111111WoomlumiottiliNNIMMANDIRIONSIWWWWWoroomokorpolOPoryw.rpowee *WNW
8) History and methodology of
teaching history
a) Hie tory of USSR
b) New History
c) Methodology of teacaing
history
9) Hiatory of AP (b) Comm, Party
or USSR)
10) Constitution of U4464,A0
11) "s'oychology
12) ?edagogical
13) History of pedagogy
14) Logic
15) School hygiene
16) Gellipapily and the methodology of
tcaching caligrapil
17) Drawing and methodology of
teaching drawing
3inging and tilt methodoloey of
tcaching singing
'44wsica1 culture and methotiology
of physical culture
Practical work in shops aitid on
collective farms
Obsrvatiori of lessons and trial
lessons
4. 35
It
laiiIMNONIONWS101?01001011,10,1401.10?111P0
Nurber of hours
Total.
399
92
51
57
190
64
54
36
245
09
205
212
NuMber spent on
each part of subject
1,44141, 11104
254
110
'35
92
51
57
190
64
54
36
108
245
209
230
205
212
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Pedagogical uohiliehcha, as all other special
secondary schools, admit students or both sexes, ages from
14 to 30 (evening and correspondence schoole have no age
limItation), and admit all who have graduated from a Teyear
school and passed the entrance examination, During the last
few years, admitted also are students who have completed sece
ondary education (10eyear school), and they have a twoeyear
program, while those who entered from a Teyear school have
a kwyear program, The twoeyear program concentrates on
methodolrogy, pepholoey? 'Niel pedagogical practice, etc.
The entrance examinations are based on a program compiled by
the Ministre f Education,
PedagozIcal uchillehcha of the sa type existee
in Russia before the communist revolution of 1917, and they
were called teachers! seminaries, The total eumber of these
schools by Jan, 1917 was 170, including 26 women's schoo114
the total number of students attending these schools was 20
thousand, Each year they graduated 5e6 thousand, (Source:
Medynskiy? "Prosveshcheniye v SUR" (Educ in USSR) 1955
p. 177) high quality teachers for elementary seeoole? The
number of Soviet pedagogical uchilishch at the present time
(Jan, 1956) is 357, that is only twice the number fore the
revolution, and they graduate (including about 2,500 corre-
spondence school students) about 30 thousand teachers a year
(this can be deduced from t total number of students
graduating from technical schools e 312 thousands* and the
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number of pedagogical schools 40 about of the total, so
if these statistics are true, the number of graduates from
pedagogical schools each year is about 30 thousand ("Economy
of USSR" Statistical Colleation? 1956; p, 27, el. 229)).
if one compares the old teachers' seminaries with
the Soviet pedagogical uehllishcha, one finds that only at
the present time do the Soviet schools approach the old ones
in the quality of teachers produced, One of the factors in
thia is that the pre-revolutionary teaching even under
tsarist despotism, was not doetrinary andoneesided as it is
today with all biological, literary, political, social, etc.
studies being perveated to the core with communist ideology
to the absolute exclusion of all othert, The old-time teachers
eould? therefore prefvnt his students with a less oneesid,..*
and stilted world outlook, and were not forced to give them
a standard party line that many of them do not themselves
believe in the least.
One may note at this point that western observers
scei to forget that the high standard of some Soviet schools
is not duo to Soviet accomplishmentes In fact the contra:4\
is true, Until 1935 the soviet schools, due to their so-
called trial of "ultrnemodern" and "ultraeprogressive" educa
tion? were steadily falling in quality until they reached an
incredibly lee state and only a thorough revision (with, of
course, no nlways under the Soviet system, a thorough purge)
of the whole system with a return to old-time teaching
methodology and curriculum, started the schools on a rise in
quality until today Oft of the results are high though
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still not as high as in the oldetime schools' and with the
dictatorial political and social oneesidednees being forced
on educations they cannot reach the old time levels except
in a purely academic way in the phyeical & mathematical
science:4 Only with democratization and establishment of
academic freedom can these schools scorn e truly educational
.nstitutions and progress from where the old schoolo left
off* And this Is not in the leapt bit a vindication of
tsarist despotiom, but a condemnation of the Soviet system
that with all its technical pro6roen cannot attain the quality
of education in tsarist schools*
"Econoey of USSR" e Statistical Collection for 1956
has no direct rererence as to the number of teachers working
in elementary school and also in the firat four grades of
the eemiletka and the desyatiletkas but on the buds of other
materiel in the same publication one can calculate that by
June 1956 the number of teachers in the said grades was around
680 750 thousand* Thus, on p. 223 of the said publicstial
one finds that the total number of students in elementary,
heart and 10eyear school in 1956 wae 28*2 minion, and -
there were 1655 thousand teachers; that te on the average
Aore were 1604 etudents per teacher* Since the ave4age num
ber of students 041t teacher in grades 14, is generally Wier
than for gradem 5e10, the average num#1, of students per
teacher in these gradee would prc'babiy be around 18e20* Page
224 of the said Statistieal Collection indicates that the
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numlAr of students in grades im4 in 1955 was 13,6 nallionil
From this it follows that the number of teachers in grades
1?04 was around 680 to 750 thousand 4 The veracity ef these
figures for teachere in grades 1m4 is further confirmed on
p. 195 of the Statistical Collection (1956) in the number of
actually employed teachers, library and cultural m educe,
tional workers, having had secondary education was 818.6
thousands on June 1, 1955. Obviously this figure includes all
teachers of the first four grades of public school, whose
highest 4ucational requirement is graduation from a secondary
school, and also some teachers in grades 5 A,7 of To?year
schools and 10myear sehools who have complet' d only secondary
s(hool. Excluding from the total number the library workers,
nd educationalmcultural workers (working In youth clubs, eta.)
and the teachers in grades 51.7, the number of teachers workm
trig in grades 14 would be about 700 thousand.
Not all teachers in grades Imit have completed even
sec? ry education. These teachers are by law, enrolled in
the 92 correspondence sections of secondary pedagogical
schools in USSR. The total num r of secondan technical
elorrespondence school student in UR is 297 thousand.
("Sconomy of USSR statistical Collection 1956 p. 227)1 of
this about 2045% are enrolled in pedagogioal correspondence
schools (about 60m65 thousand stu nts). These pedagogical
schools as a rule take only students who are actually engaged
in teaching at the time, The percentage of teachers who now
39 -
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have still not completed secondary education is now at least
1045%, because of the increase in the population and the
number of schools, and also because of a great influx of the
better prepared elementary school teachers into the 54,7 grade
of rural Teyear and lOslear schools, due to the eatablish
ment of compulsory Twyear education in rural areas. The
graduates of secondary pedagogical uchilishcha are first of
all taken by urban areas, so the rural areas are filled by
comparatively lower quality teachers and are generally ot
considerably lower tyz., and the urban schools prepare stu
dents much better.
Another factor contributing to the low qualitr of
rural schools and reflects negatively on the training of the
students is the great economic poverty of rural residents, of
*WA the author has had firsthand experience. One illustra
tion of the very difficult material condition of *sante
that the author has seen himslf is the following. In 1940
two very good friends of the author's were teachers in a two
room school at Putivka village in Poltava County, Ukraine
and the author's little son was staying with them for the
summer. The author came there himself at intervals, bringing
bread, belt pork and other provisions from Kiev. Due to the
rpetual state of .emimbunger among the Ititolkhoe children
0
who lived in the villa& and attended school, the author brought
considerable quantit3r ot food which the two teachers secretly
distributed among tae hungry children, To do so openly would
-
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be to challeee the maxim that "life became better e life
became happier" and would be a dangerous admission of the
fact that the parents of the children could not feed them.
And this in Ukraine, where the soil is, as is universally
known, the best in the world for grain cultivation.
These two friends confided in the author that at
tendance during the cold winter months was low* but not be
cause of a lack of interest in the students or a lack of
care in their eirents, but in a much more fundamental lack e
a lack of shoes. The children especially of large families,
tried very hard to get to school by sharing the Baum shoes.
For instance if there were two pairs of shoes available,
two children would come to the schoolhouse, but one of them
would return home carrying the other ix' of shoes in his
hands to give to another child, who would then come to school,
and if there were more children, the process continued. Some
families, however, cd not have even enough shoes even for
that and if the parents had to go to work* the children sines
ply couldn't come The author contributed two pairs of shoes
to be thus c rculated. During Spring, Summer and Autumn all
rural children went barefoot. The teachers were very happy
with these shows not only from obvious human feelings, but
doubly so, because teachers In whose schools the attendance
was low were punished, and these shoes enabled them to have
Later
com ratively excellent attendance. They weregommendediti
the authorities.
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This was by no means exceptional, such conditions
existing throughout the Soviet Union.
In spite of all handicaps, the teachers finishing
secondary pedagogical uuchilishche are well prepared for
their duties and in the ?Wes where the better teachers are
placed, and where the residents are materially much better
off than the.aunts, the schools give an undeniably positive
is
result and the quality of training is high, This/specially
true in capital cities like Moscow, Leningrad Kiev, etc. The
rural schools however, because of the severe handicaps menw
tioned, graduate much poorer quality students. Lapecially
excellent schools with the
st teachers and excellent equip,*
merit are established in Moscow, Leningras? etc., for the
amazement and admiration of them by tore ign visitors, whose
opinion of Soviet education would be somewhat difterent it
they chanced to visit a real rural school. If thoy did, the
ravings about Soviet scholastic excellence would not exist
in the American newspapers. The Soviets aro excelient prop*'
gAn44 artiste, and to obtain the best equipment in the world
for a few schools is not too hard, so their purpose is easily
accomplisheo It is astounding however, to see the intense
tual stature of viators whom they manatod to fool, and who
do not refills that Moscow and Leningrad are not by far the
whole of usu.
One must note howeverlthat many soviet elementary
schools in the cities prepare students with high quality
"
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academic knowledge who go on to secondary and higher education.
The gap between the schools in large cities and large incluse
trial areas and all the others is, however, very great, and
very few rural students have any chance at all of Eetting
higher education, and as a result a privileged class of urban
residents is being more and more firmly established. Insti-
tutions of higher education, which are comparatively few, will,
therefore alweys have enough good students drafted from good
schools in the cities selected by competitive examinaUons,
to assure high quality in the higher educational system. The
children of peasants, however, become themselves peasants,
The same situation exists also among poorer industrial workers,
who, even if the tuition is free cannot afford to give them
higher education because they cannot afford to give them
material support while they study. These children are forced
to enter into the industry at a comparatively early age to
help support the family.
The results of urban elementary school education
In USSR (4 grades) are near to the results of elementary educa
tion in the USA (6 grades). This is in part explained by the
fact that children in USSR enter school a year later than in
the USA, the Soviet kindergarten playing a more import nt role
in USSR than in USA: and also that the USSR has 6mday a week
attendance in school, as opposed to 5eday in the USA.
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The ear school semiletka
By decree of TsIK and SNK SSSR (Central Executive
Committee and Soviet of People's Commissars of USSR) on
August 140 1930 compulsory elementary school education was
put into effect in the whole Union, and 7-year education in
urban centers. ("Narodnoye Obrazovainye", 1948) p.25, L. ol
C. call not LAW KR 2280 *A2 1948)* The second 5-year plan
(1933?,1937) extended compulsory 7-year educ ? tion in the urban
centers had already been accomplished. Point "e" of the plan
ttates:
"to accomplish durirk; the *ecnd five-year plan not only the
liquidation of illiteracy among the poopie of the Union,
liquidation oP semi-illiteracy among the workiw dult popu-
lation and establishment of universal elementary education,
but the realization of universal compulsory polytechnical
education in the sphere or 7-year education especially in
the rural areas, as in cities this problem has been basically
already solved durinG the first five-year plan."
Actually, however, universal 7-year education in
rural areas diAl not even begin to be in effect until 1949,
and even in the cities it was not fully accomplished by 1949.
This is indicated by the fourth 5-year plan.
The fourth five-year plan (1946-1950) states
'to raise the number of elementary 7-year and 10 year schools
by 1950 to 193 thousand, and the number of students in these
44 0.
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schools to 31.8 million, providing universal compulsory
education of children from the age of 7 on, in the cities as
well as rural arca."
Narodnoye Obrazovaniye No,10 January 1950 (an official
publication) states on p. 16: "(The fourth fiveeyear plan)
of 1949 had considered the promotion of all children in the
rural areas to the fifth grade who had completed elementary
school that summer. In order to fulfill this tremendously
important government directive in all rural areas a gr e w deal
was done to extend the network of 7eyear schoola to staff
these schools with teachers, to widen and better equip the
existin6 doemitory facilities and establish new ones. A great
tioal was done also to explain to the studentu their parents,
and the entire rural community the political and cultural
meaning of transition to universal 7eyear education...
As a result of reat organizational and propa8andaeexplanatory
work among the population, on September 1 1949, 97.2% of all
students who graduated that summer from the fourth grade of
urban and rural echools had enrolled into the fifth grade."
The quotations clearly indicates the fact that
the transition from 4year to 7eyear compulsory education was
not even begun until 1949 and the statements made in the
second five year plan (19334937) as to the establishment of
universal 7-year education in rural areas by 19370 had no
connection with reality.
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This indicates the propagandistic nature of the
five year plans, and shows of what little value they are,
except in an indirect m nner, in studying Soviet reality,
The transition of rural areas to 7-year compulsory
education (in 1949) was conducted without a preliminary prepar-
ation as to bui4dings, teachers and equipment, and as a result,
the 7-year schools were established in the existing elementary
schools with the same elementary school teachers, making it
necessary to run the school in two or three shifts a day.
Confirmation of this comes from the same article in Narodnoye
Obrazovanlye, No,10 1950, p016 (Some questions on 7-year
education): 'However, the administrations of public education
could not supply all the newly accepted students with class-
room space. Therefore the number of schools working in two
shine was increased, and some schools were forced to conduct
studies in three shifts."
Additional teachers were drafted from among the
more prepared elementary school teachers elsewhere as was
already mentioned previously.
Furter confirmation of this comes from the si114
article on p016 of Narodnoye Obrazovanlye:
"Great difficulties arose also with the selection
of teachers in the newly organized 7-year rural schools,
In most sections (cray, oblast', and autonomous republic)
for teaching in the new fifth grades elementary school teachers
e ea
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were drafted. Aleo in some newly opened schools (for instance
in ?moment* oblast') for teaching in the fifth crade were
drafted teaohers of the elementary schools in the area where
the 7-year schools were established orcin; them to teach
in boqi7."
The same article indicates that some students are
forced to go to school a distance of 6 to 10 kilometers and
some even more than 10 kilometers (more than 6.2 miles),
Since transportation for these children ia not available, they
are forced to walk, and sine proper clothe, shoes, etc.,
are not available, many children are fecjuntly absent from
schools especially during the winter months du, to cold,
spring - due to impossible road conditions etc.
Due to these conditions, and also the inferiority
of teachers forced to teach in higher articles than they are
qualified for and forced to teach subjects that they are not
acquainted with,the quality of students is poor.
The following quotation from Narodnoye Obrazovaniye,
No.1, 1950, p.170 serves to exemplify the fact that part of
the teachers in ilrades 5-7 have only completed secondary school:
"in 3talingrad oblast,, in the extension of the nat-
work of rfeyeax schoolsin connection with the transfer to
compulsory 7qear education in rural areas)290 teachers were
needed - 112 teacners of the Russian language and 78 teachers
of mathematics. These teachers were drafted from a number of
the better prepared elementary school teachers,"
47
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The requirement for elementary school teachers
being the completion of a secondary school, the teachers
drafted in this case to teach in grades 5.7 were also ones
who only completed secondary school, especially in view of
the fact that teachers do not choose their schools but are
appointed, so ever if a teacher who has had hi:;her education
wanted to teach in elementary school in spite of the lower
salary, he could not do so,
?Ordinar:e (full time) teachers of the 5th to 7
6ra4es in USSR must graduate from a "teachers, institute'
(at the present time (1955-56) some -"hap;os were made which
will be dealt with later)* Therefore all elementary school
teachers forced to teach in the 5th to 7t11 Grade of the Y-year
school had to enroll in a correspondenc Uivision of a toacherss
vt
institute. Teacher
xistitutes zraduated teachers of the
following four specialities: Russian lan6ua6e and literature;
physics and matlematico; nature study and c egiraphy; history*
To receive full pay, each teacher must teach at
leat 16 hours a week* Aecor(i 116 to thcr curriculum of
grades of 7-year chools, this is possible in small schools
for teachers o? only two specialities; RuuLan lanata6e and
literature and mathematics and physics* In history, for
iniitance? there are only 8 hours a weel, available, in geography
and nature study - 15 :loars* Thus, history teachers have to
take on the responsibility to teach other subjects, for
Instance forei-n lanEouaze, physical culture, drawing, drafting,
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singing, ioe. responsibilities for which they are not prepared.
Such difficulties are, of course, not raced by 1arger urban
schools, which as a rule Ilave several sets of classes for each
6rade. Rural T?year schools, however, with one set of classes,
mostly have for these classes only two teachers, who during
class hours conduct two classes each at a time, and equally
divide between them the available hours. It is obvious that
such a system leaus to lower quality or preparation in the
students. The students zraduati from Imtah a school have
considerably lees chance or passin the entrance examinations
into professional sou,ondary schools, mpare
h,ive graduated from urban 7-year
to stuiicntt* who
The ?quality of learnine, in the 5-7 grades of the
100?year schools, is without a doubt hi6her than in the 5-7
grades of 7-,year schools ?specie:4y in 10.*year schools in
the cities, whore hija quality teachers shop equipment, etc.
are available. Rural 10*Pyoar schools are also somewhat higher
in quality, but not much hi6her? due to lack of buildins?
laboratories and shops, and poorer quality of teachers as well
af4 poorer preparation of the students by rural elementary schools.
The old and the new curricula of the 57 6rade8 of
th 7year school (1951
", and 1955/56) are shown in table 9.
The Eilource for tke old curriculum was Ye. N. Meaynskly
"Narodnoye Obrazovani v 6S3R0" (idtwation in US R) Moscow,
1952? p.74* the source for the new one wau "Narodnoye Obrazovaniyen
No.9,19551 p.49
A* 49 4*
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,
?tactic occupation
(work in the field and
shopwork)
,
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The new curriculum for 7 year schools, (19550056)
given here in table 9 for only the 5th, 6th and 7th grade,
In comparison with the old one (1953152), because the curricu
lum for the first four grades was 3iven earlier, and the
curricula of the first four zrads of elementary school and
7-year school are identical* The new curriculum was formed
at the directive of the 19th Concress of the Communist Party
on the establishment of "polytechnical education' in schools
of general education. As been from table 9 the new curriculum
for the 5.07 grades of the 7-ye school differa from the old
only in the inclusion of "practical oc tion" classes - two
hours a week in the 5th and 6th grade, and inging lessons -
1 hour a week in the 5th and 6th 6rades. This was done at
the expense of dimlnishing the number of hours of mathematics
in the 5th and 6th .rades by 1 hour a week, diminishik, the
Russian language by 1 hour a week, chemL ry in the 7th iorade
by i hour a week, and biology in the 6th ;IFoade by 1 hour a week*
From this follows that polytechnization" of the 5-7 grades
was effected only by the inclusion of 4praetica1 occupation" -
shopwork and work in the fields, unless one is to consider the
ad
Won of in Ieasons as effectine "polytechnizat on,"
which is somewhat doubtful, to say the least*
Sine % there are no shops in moat of the Nhools and
no shop teachers as wello the positive eTect;s of ''polytechni
It any will he very alight in the nem future as well
as the present* The resultine dimunition of the number of hours
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devoted to mathematics, chemistry, physics, and bio1ogy by
3240310 will, however, have a olearly negative effect on the
proficiency of the students in these subjects$
52 40
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're:'chers1 In titutes
The traininz of teaailere for the 5.07 grades was,
before 1917, accomplished by 17 woo-called teachers' traininc
institutea with a threeft.year curriculum. The students of these
teachers' traininG institutes were usually zraduates of teachers'
seminaries (now callQd pa joicai uchillshcha), after they
had been taachin6 for several yearz, in elementary schools.
Teacher' institutos save very ivod traininkL. Aside from
ordinary subjects, her were t
it: psychol,o4y,pedazotia? and
methodoloa. PedatA61 al practiv, was wIry well omanized
and gave excellent resulta. Wome:10 however were not accepted
into the teacher0 institutes.
Even thotkiA teachers' inatitute;$ v4ere not cronsidtwod
ashihir educational institutions In pro.oravolutionury
they were neverthUeso truly important educational centers
oT hi6h0vIality pedaLpOocal
With tile eAabUshment
Bollshevik powers these
inetatutes were transformed into 4year inAltutes the
4o-called higAer educational Institut& (Intituty JarodnooD
?bra ovaniya) with raculitets for tranInz of teaOherz eor
7 oracles. in 1935, when a sharp turn Was taken to revert
to pro.orevolutionary tQaohing modcw? teachers' institutert were
reestablished with a twoowyear curztoulum, for the preparation
or teachers for the 5.p1th grades. Teacher's Institute dmitted
atudents betwven 1935 and 1948 who had 6raduated from the 9th
6rades The trail/lint; of teachers in such two year teachers'
53
? !
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institutes was notably of lower quality than that a000mplished
by the old-time institutes, besides which academic freedom was
also very much taken away, and the 3tudent8 were compelled to
study the history of the Con:moist Party and historical dielee??
tic materialism) conforming with iliarx -Gels - Lenin theories,
and other subject:3 with view of eonununiotic indoctrination
future teachers. In 1944 the statuteo or the teachera I
institutes were clua4.,;,(A? and aocordin to the new plan, td4
wom ?yi n thc it s of ftdl fiedLcd, Qducational
institutions, even thou they were not co in actuality. The
;qd 4 - o
students aooepted to b .Graz.ku44t,; o'Jr , 10year chool 0
Curricula wr udied,i) and for tho i'd?rvi;i' time a coup , te uni
xorst? curriculum as for tew-141 in.stitutes with
uniform textbooks put to we. By statute$ eaoh teachers, in
stitute to pro ppaotiQ.e for EltudcT t t by i an,
eachers
exprimcntal 7ea seIool. But e41.1 after th reform the
quality
1evd
of teschcr 41:r1ni; could oot rca..
J.
pre, revolution
?
?
00,64N
4\t?? t ttorrl
0,?? ? #4,A
? .
h
others were c.epartitiakr, of A.
tf7J.d to
lmvidc teach
?
indlcutes that
were of better qual
r ior
r, de artment5
4
than the indL
,1 cal Inst
,
V.,
.r*
A.
tutes
aLcra
iciU 1 umes
y one since the
former .1004 use ?ti.ae room and laboratory Vacilities oC the
6peoici inatitlAtet$ and also was Eava1i with better' quality
tft.'
pe;.1
poun.. t y poviUtd a lai7,1 or. quality of training*
54
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In 1945 there were 196 teachers' institutes, 106
of which were independent, but starting with 1953, there began
a transformation ot teachers' institutes into 4-year pedagogical
institutes, which up to that time prepared teachers for only
the 0-010 zrades of 10 year 3-cnoo1s (Aedynsieciy, "Narodnoye az-
ovanlye," 1955, pp. 182-184).
Handbook for enrollment into inotitutiens of HO=
Learning in the USSR in 1956 ( ravocanIA kioscow, 196, where
are named all insti iutions. of hiaer learai% in the 6Ov1et
Union by Jan 1, 19.56 .cept military) indicates that in
1956 in. USSR there only 5 teacher ; imtitutea;
I) Karzhi Tersi institute, Karshi Uzbek 3SR, ul
Kucbaba 17 Speciai:i Uzbek lar_,uao i
and 1,terature;
'luzsian 1an6uae a..d 1:J;c;rature; hiztory; glysice and matheatIcs.
There ie a correspoth section .0., in the aame
2) Leninahad ,c)'.)raenls Teachers; Inatitute, Leninabad
Tadzhikskaya SSR, ulo Ord2honikidze 12. Specialities: Tadzhik
lappage and literatui Uzbek langw;!6e and literature; hiwtory;
physics and mathematlez; nature study and geography
3) Novaya Villnya Teachers' institv Novaya Villnya
Lithuanian Salo ui. KrC.cuvo 50 Specialities: polish language
and literature; Russian languago ctnd literature; history;
physics. and mathematics; natvirc study and geograp There is
a correspondence section ill tho aamk apecialitiest
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4r;atemparitantt reathlk Toticht,,',2,4*7
aa4 Uzbek SR.4t u10
and litivmatouI4e;
vow
1;1 .1C, /AA, 44 Ift
r'? ""1
A
inotitute im0 3. Ards
,
111,4 . 0 Tadzhik
?fcc'i (,s'
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14
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04:44;ta
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er, Ittle he', ,
4, ?,?. ,..0;44., 4,;,4 lgo? C4 4 t
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ratli
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1 444 , r ? ,
0,1
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'4.711441,- .14,44r?g*N 1. I,Arr4t, ,rir4rA
, to 4
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to ? 4i:44** '4!.* "'" ? ''' ' ? ?
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4, .4. 4' ?
t 9: t7* ? 4 * 4114.:
divo -4 oArt.
;
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.!4A, q44,114.44???,
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b..i
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
even though Amarioan students have to spend 9 years for the
same training in USSR in 70'year school plus 1 year of kinder-
art n. This is explained by the fact that in USSR the students
attend school 6 days a week, which about in 9. years makes
and 4/5 or a year more than if it was 5 days a week, and
beoouse the curriculum devotes more attention to these subjects
than In the USA*
57
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.11
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E
The eurricula of the first 7 grades of the 10 year
school are identioal to those of the 7-year sohool. As the
T*Year school curriculum was discussed earlier, the following
discussion shall concern only the last 3 gradesm The old
currioulum (19500/51) given in Medynskiy, "Narodnoye
Obrasovaniye v SSW 1952, pi bb; and the new curriculum
(1955/56) given in Narodnoye Obrasovaniye No. 9, 1955 p. 49;
are compared in table 10*
The polytechnised curriculum for 1955/56 Utters
from the old curriculum for the IMMO grades.ar 1950/51 by the
fact that the new curriculum has 83 hours more physics thaG
the old plan, and besides this a new subject - "practice in
homing, machinery, and electricity" (149 hours) - was intro-
dueed. This, together with the physics comprises 232 additional
hours of study. This increase was made at the expense of a
decrease in the number of hours devoted to literature
100 hours less, nature study 50 hours less, psychology -
33 hours less. The new plan so completely eliminates the
study of logic - 66 hours, which altogether adds up to
249 hours 1 ss and o the new plan cells for 17 hours less
than the old ones The polyteohnization o.L the new curriculum
for grades 640 wi thus expressed by an 0 hour increase in
physics, and the inclusion of 149 hours of "farm practice, etc"
58
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Subjects
No of hours
previous
grades
TABLE 10
No of hours per week per grade
rt
new old new
Russian language and
literatuies reading 76 71
Literature
Arithmetio 35 33 " 00 40 VID I. le 1156 1090
Alpaca, geometry,
trigonometv 11 9 6 6 6 6 6 6 957 891
Nature study (old)
biology (Laii) 9.5 8 2 2 2 1/2 a. .. 445 395
Constitution of SR 2 2 0 a fie 04 401 . 66 66
History 9.5 8 4 4 4 4 4 4 709 660
Geography 10.5 10 3 3 3(2) 3(2) . . 528 512
PhybAcs 5 5 3 3 2 4 4(5) 5 478 561
00
Total No
of hours
gr 9gr lOir 10
old row old now old new
MI
op
a?
.? 2508 2343
5(6) 6(5) 6 4 5 4 544 444
Astro
Ministry
Psychology
Logic
Foreign Lang
2.5
11
Physical education 12
Drawing (freehand)
Drafting 1
2
. . . . 1 1 33 33
2 2 2 2 4.(3) 3(4) 3,0 314
2 1 w 00 m 66 33
. . . 2 -0 66
iork and practical
occupation 10
Pars4,1,31; practice &
mar
no creeds.
TOTAL 195 193 32 33 33 33 33 32(33)9669 9652
40
3 3(4)
2 2
op
4110
3 4 3 726 693
2 2 2 594 660
011
198 1
1 1 132 132
a 132 198
11W.,
40 40 110 040 ? 330
1(2) ??? 2
2 ea ei 149
59
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indicated above,
Farm practloe is intended for schools at collective
farms, and machinery and electricity for city schools. It is
doubtful that such polytechnisation of 840 grades of rural
schools will give significant results, if one is to note the
low state of agriculture on contemporary oollective farms in
USSR* Practically it will be reflected in that students in
grades 840 instead of resting during the summer, shall work
in the fields and on the farms, and on Sundays in the fall
semester shall work gathering the harvest (potatoes, beets,
etc.) on collective gardens, and also work plowing, which
was actually What lhey were doing before the establishment of
p ee cAn c4v,
the eotimootivicatien plan. Thus, for instance, in the official
publication of the Ministry of Education (Narodnoy- obrasovaniye
No. 80 1954 p* 54) it is noted: 'Many etudents of our school
(Zcolyanskaya srednyaya shkola voronishskoy oblasti) take part
during the summer in collective farm work and work 30,5Q)and
more full work
0 This, by the way, ref443 to children
14-16 years of age, whose "vacation" during which thy do this
lasts only two months.
Practice in machinery and electricity in urban schools
(149 hours) will have significant results only in schools that
have sufficient equipment, and teachers qualified to teach it.
In general the polyt chnization is only in the initial
stage of execution, and how far it will go only the future will
show.
t
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Secondary schools of general education had, in the
old plan, one aim, and that was to propar4 students for higher
edueations Now, however they have to perform the additional
function of supplying workers for industry and agriculture.
This was due to the increase in numbers of 10-year schools
especially in the cities, the number of graduates of which ax-
cud the higher education facilities available. Therefore it
U necessary to prepare students for practical technology and
also probably the military.
The num 'r of 10-year schools Shall continua to grow.
According to the fifth five-year plan, in 1951-55 there should
have been acoomplished complete oonversion to universal 10-year
education in the larger cities, and according to the sixth five-
year plan for 1956-60, there should be completeds "universal
secondary eduction in (all) oities and rural areas, through
teaching children and youth in secondary schools of general
education (10-ye schools) and secondary special (professional)
schools* To develop polytechnical eduoation in academic schools,
by at: .nting the tudents with the most important branches
of cant porary industry and iculture': Me newspaper
?Ievest ye for F b* 260 1956, p 6, col. 1)
The establishment of universal 10-year secondary
education in I er cities of the Union, intended by the fifth
five-year plan (1951-55) was not accomplished due to the nettles
sity to pal' tuition in the 10 grades of academic schools and
63.
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rt
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all srades of special (professional) scv=ls, whioh made such
education prohibitive to children of poorly paid workers. Only
In 19560/57 tuition shall be free in all grafts of the afore
mentioned secondary schools, and also in hi er educational
Institutions (awe source as above). The universal secondary
education was not accomplished also due to the tact that the
existins number or secondary general and special schools is
insuffident to accommodate all graduates of 70year sohools.
Therefore during the sixth ilveilpyear plan the number a schools
in larger cities should increase. As was noted above, in
other cities and in rural communities universal secondary
education should be completed in 195649603 but one can safely
say now that this probl especially in rural communities,
cannot be solved in the given time because of the following*
1) It is urgently necessary to erect many new school
buildings for 8.10 grades of lOwyear schools, and equip them.
By the way according to the 20th congress of the Communist Party;
"Xolkhozi (collective farms) must take a wider pert in construomo
ting and equipp ng of schools and dormitories. (S e source
as above). In the cont gporary economic position ot the col ec-
t4ve fame it will be aposst.ble for thm to build sehool?build
inss for the number of schools necessary (In cities and to
construction of 0011001$ is financed by the gover f?ent).
62
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2) iThe absence of the number of Washers necessary
to supply the great numbers of asw 10-year schools.
3) Parsers, due to poverty, shall not be able to
send their Waldron to distant 10-7ear schools, where they
would have to pay for their subsistence in dormitorims, for
their clothes, and for their books and school supplies. As
was already noted above, 7-year universal compulsory education
was supposed to have been attained in the second five-year plan,
while in actuality in rural areas it was only begun 17 years
later - from 1942 and is still not completed. Establishment
of universal 10-year compulsory education in rural areas, Is
therefore a question of the distant future - at least 30-40 years,
if it can ever be attained under slave labor conditions of
Soviet collective farms.
In grades 840 of Soviet 10 year schools a groat
? phasis Is given to mathematics, physics and chemistrimproxi-
r,?1
matey 37% of the total number of hours in the curriculum, The
teaching of mathematics emphasises the relationship between
theory and practice. The students nust apply their math t
cal knowlefeio the solution of probl da from physics, maths-
mattes, astronomy etow Pbysics in sroes 6-10 is taught be
ginning from mechanics kinematics, statics, dynamics, A great
deal of thus is devoted 'be hydro- and svio-mechenics. After
mechanics follow stud of hest, molecular physics, change of
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state, gas state physlos, electricity, optic* scoustles,
atomic strueture. The studies of physics in grades 54 is
acoompanied by demonstrations, and a small number of laboratory
exercises to the students. In grades 8140, great dela more
time is devoted to laboratory work.
The physics course, according to the new plan, must
be closely related to practice in electricity and maehineri?
The chemistry given in grades 040 le mostly in
organic, and some concepts of organic chemistry are also intro.'
ducted. One must note that not all 1001rear :schools, in fact,
only comparatively 1 number at them, especialty in rural
areas, have properly equipped physics and other laboratories.
Therefore pod results in $ 0 of physics end chemistry are
accomplished mostly in large cities end in model 100year
sehools which exist mostly to Impress foreign visitors.
A great deal of attention is devoted in cities where
are universities or l e pedagogical institutes, to maths
matical "634apic games." Thus in the magazine Vspekhi
MatiVsmaticheskikh Nauk," Vol f 8, No. 5/58, 1953, pp, 163 1 8
are given probl s which were presented at the math 4 stual
olympie games in Stalingrad for students in the 9th grade at
the second round ot the contest4 One of th is the following:
Prove the identity:
004111.40114110110410111010110.04ew el 01,0101101101.11100010SPIPPOWO 1RM ViNfal.00100*.001111010101011.1 fik ??? ? 41Mb
logx2 1og24 Logf,g4 log z: loge log46
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The 10th grs4e studenti were given the followings
? two for x in terms of a and b and determine the
relationship between a, b and x (what happens When 4 in*
oreases,,eto.)
142)5 (x ib2)5 (x ib2)5 *(z 142)5
At the M014Ow mathematical olympics in 1952 for students of
the 10th ade at the seoond round the following problems
was givens
?rove that the sums
Cos312x + awicos a3ocoss30x 404 alcoam
can take on negative as well as positive values.
From this, of course, it does not follow that such
problems could be solved by students of the said grades in all
lOwyear schools of the WM These probi s were solved by
the best students of some lawyear schools of loge cities.
These olympics are significant, however, because a large
number of students attended thee. Thus for Instance in the
first elimination round of the atorementioned Olympics of the
city of Stalingrad, 1019 students of grades 740 entered, and
students qualified to the second elimination. In the first
round of the Moscow olympics 1.500 students took part, (Uspekhi
mat nod vol. 8, NO, Ik/54 pp. 194*197) of which 770 were ad
mitted to the second round. Of these 282 qualified for the
second round by solving these and other problems. Such olympics?
ki?
65
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as was mentioned before, are held in all Urge cities having
universities or large pedsgosioal institutes, treparstion to
these dimples is usually Oireete4 by the maltematies depart
unto ot the universities or pe ogles; institutes. Judging
by the quality ot the partiotpants in these olympies, and
their results, the meohinlealomathematioel departments and
physioslocathematisal departments ot universities and pools
gogloal institutes in cities Aire the above olympies are bald
ere amply supplied with qualified students, with od mathemil
matteal backgrounds supplied by tho extra training given Or
some 101**yeer echo is whieh prepare students to the olimpiess
These ol os conducted In 02T4 (doubtless play a signittout
role not only in the preparation of students tor suoseseful
work in universities in physios-mathematios department's but
also in seleetion within the univeralties of the more
talented *song them for pr variation, otter graduation to the
first oolontitic degree candidate ot rhysioal Mothemstimal
14141401*
4,* 66 Alt
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Part - Sanitized Copy Ap
School
Years
1914/15
1933/34
1934/39
19
1950/51
1954/55
19554/56
Number o
10,yr
schools
1,953
2,436
12,469
180800
15,000
25.200
26,900
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Total
number of
students
in all
grades
635,591
011 798
,028,156
2,200,000
p.0,200,000
200,00C
5,40,00o
TABLE 11
No. of students in
grades 8 10
In cities Among them
and rural in rural
areas areas
1380677
1,408046
2,370,000
1,5000000
5,140,000
5,250,000
15,084
548,757
1,000 000
640p000
20280,000
2,370,000
Average
nuMber of
students
per
school
325
822
724
650
680
603
550
?
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No of
studento
in the
10th
grade
450,000
290,000
1,100,000
1,300,000
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Table 11 was conctructed on the basis of data published for
years 1914 to 1939 in "Prosveshcheniye v SUR", by Y. N. Medynskty
(Education in USSR), 1955, p. 81, and for years 1940 to 1956 in
"Statisticheskiy sbornik" (Statistical Collection), Moscow, 1956
P. 223. From this data the following conclusions may be drawn,
The difference between the numbere of schools in year 1914 to
1933 is about 500 schools) and the difference between the numbers
of students attending these schools is about 16 million, which
is contradictory if one takes into account that for 1953 schools
635, 591 students and for 500 additional schools 0 1,500,000
students, that is thern increase in the number of studeas per
school is too great to be possible, Also the average number of
students per school was in 1914 0 325 and in 1934 0 822. Since
the room facilities were about the same as before, it follows that
the only way such a thins could be accomplished would be by con0
duoting school in 3 sessions. The data for the relative numbers
of urban and rural 100year schools is also of a highly dubious
nature) indicating that between 1935 and 1955 many more rural
100year schools were built than in the cities, almost equalling
the numbers of schools in the cities, This is completely untrue
since) as was shown before, the estaluishment of 10-year education
in rural ems is only beginning at the present time.
It is very important to note that the quality of education
given by general secondary schools existing in the Russian
Empire before the revolution was not only not of a lower caliber
compared to that of the contemporary Soviet schools of secondary
'education, but was actually of a higher caliber. This refers
specifically to the physioal0mathematical field and the foreign
A, 68
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:Languages* Por instanee mantic geometry, and differential and
integral calculus were taught in the last grades (7th year ?
10th year) of the pre0Soviet "real uchilisheha" (called elsewhere
"real symnadum"). These subjeets are not now taught in any
100year sehools ln the Soviet Union* Besides this elementary
mathematics 0 algebra, geometry, trigonometry, were taught
more thoroughly before the revolution being approached with
more depth than they are now.
Students were better trained in the solution of problems in
elementary mathematics, using specially written problem manuals.
These "real lichilishoha" supplied the atudents for Higher
technical schools, to enter which the students had to pass a
difficult competitive examination, much more difficult than the
entrance examinations to contemporary Soviet schools of higher
education. Two languages 0 nch and rman were compulsory
in "real uchilishcha" and the teaching was conducted on a high
level 0 approximately on the level of contemporary Norwegi
I?;', ? '
gmnasiums. Foreign I . e teachers were trained in foreign
countries, and were highly qualified.
In contemporary Soviet 100year schools only one foreign
langu e Le mandatory, and the teachers teaching it are
deprived of the possibility of studying foreign countries,
?
and are of a cow4quently low ellalberi many Soviet secondary
school teachers did not even reoeive any svcial Z,uage
training in a foreisn language tvachers, institutes as it is e un
noted in official publications of the Ministries of Education.
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As a result foreign language teaching is continued in higher
education, which did not have to be done before. The programs
of all "real uchilishcha" were identical throughout the Russian
empire, all teachers had to be graduates of higher educational
institutions, and all material facilities were alike throughout,
so the quality of education in small towns did not differ from
that in large cities, and the graduates had the same chance of
entering into institutions of higher learning no matter where
they cams from, while now the difference between rural and urban
education is very great, as was shown Were, an the graduates
of city schools have much more chance of continuing their
educations than the rural students, Religion Was taught in
the "real uchilishcha", but was compulsory only to the students
who were of .14. religion, Jewish and catholic students, for
Instance, were exempt from religious studies of the Russian
Orthodox church, Very little time was devoted to religion, and
teachers of other subjects 40 biology, physics, eta,, were
not forced to accept church doctrines, and so enjoyed a measure
of academic teed= which does not exist in the Soviet Union
today, when party doctrine is forcibly imprinted on all studies,
notably of nature, biology, etc., and every t acher must
conform or be sent to Siberia. Religion in higher educational
institutions was not compulsory for anyone. So the supposed
domination ofirei? Soviet education by the Orthodox Church, stressed
so ?insistently by the Soviet prop anda published in the 1950
edition of Encyclopedia Americana (see Vol, 27, p. 239g) as the
truth, is pure fiction.
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The second type of secondary school ot general education in
pre4olshelk Russian Empire was the gymnadum *there humanities
were stressed, as opposed to the etress on the sciences in the
"real uchilishoha", In gymnasiums three foreign languages were
compulsory. Latin, French, and German. In some of them, called
classical gymnasiums four languages were compulsory. Greek, Latin,
French, German, The level of mathematical and physical teaching
in the granazium is about equal to that of the better contemporary
Soviet 10-year' sehoolsin large cities. The teaching of languages
in the gymnasiums, being held on a high level, allowed the
students of higher grades to read classical literature in
original form. The study of literature was very bre, not
centered on Russian literature, and presented in total
academic freedom.
In Soviet schools, however, the students cannot read
original classics and read selections published in Russlao
which the authorities deem as harmonious with MarxismooLeninism.
Thus 10-year school students cannot study humanities in any real
sense but are isolated from all forms of thinft except the
official communist propaganda.
The gymnasiums, like the "real uchilisheha", were all of an
equal level regardless of where in the Russian 4oitTire they
were, and all students had an equal chance to enter Universities,
The gymnasium students were also eligible to take the entrance
examinations into technical higher educational institutions, even
though their preparation in the sciences was lower than that or
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"real uchilishcha". In order to graduate, all students of
gymnassiums had to take a special "maturity examination",
which were written by special committees of teachers headed by
the supervisor of schools of a region (popechitell uchebnogo
okruga), thus an equal level of knowledge was required to
graduate, Beginning in 19440 the same type of test was in.
stituted in the Soviet Union, distributed likewise from central
sources 0 Ministries of Education of Union republics, One of
the greatest faults with the tsarist educational system was
the tuitions which made it prohibitive to workers and peasants.
The Communists, a?us received from the tsarist regime the
heritage of a high-quality educational system and promptly pro*
ceeded to destroy it, through the following reforms.
The Decree of AllAtussian Central Executive Co ttee of the
Soviets from October 16, 1918 states in Paragraph 1: "All
schools of the R.S.P.S.R. (the former name of all USSR) shall
be renamed "One Labor Schools" (Note 2), The separation of
schools on elementary, higher elementary schools* gymnazium,
real uchilishche, trade schools, technical schools, commertial
school) and all other forms of elementary and secondary schools,
shall be abolished"... paragraph 2) "One Labor School" is
divided into two parts * the first for children from 8 to 13
years of e (a five0year course) and the second for children
from 13 to 17 years of age ( a 40year course)" (from 1923
the "One Labor School" was dividdd into two parts the other
way around 0 the first half being a four year course and the
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and the second m rivet. "(paragraphs 304) The schooling in the
first and second halves of the ("One Labor'I school is free of
tuition, compulsory and universal secondary education, by the
way, is something that is not realized even today (as was
pointed out earlier), and indeed cannot be realized in the
near future. "(paragraph 5) In the schools of parts I and 11
coeducatbnal system is established" (in 1944 segregation
according to sex was reestablished, on the motives that
coeducation did not give the desired educational effects, but
in 1954 coeducation was reestablished on the very opposite
motivation m that segregation by sex leads to undesirable
effects, and coeducation is indeed a desirable feature)."
(paragraph 17) "The assigning of homework and compulsory home
projects is forbidden..." (paragraph 19)" All examinations,
m entrance, promotion, and final m are abolished."
The Resolution of TsKVKP(b) (Central Committee of the
Communist Party) of February 12, 1933, paragraph 2 I), repeals
a circular letter from the "One Labor School" division of
Narkompros (National Coissary of Education) of R.S.F.S.R.
from August 19180 to the effect that: "textbooks must be
totally banished from schools." It is interesting to note that
letter was only repealed after 15 years of its being in effect.
Part V of the same Decree of October 16, 1918 of the
Central Executive Committee of the Soviets states:
secondary educational institutions, and also schools resembling
them in kind, governmental, public and private, are divided
according to the following plan of division of men's gymnaziums:
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the first three normal classes with (first three) preparatory
(classes) are (hereby) converted into independent schools of
level Is and are reconstructed on universal basis for the said
level... Grades 4, 5, and 6, shall form schools of level III the
8th grade is abolished." So the number of years in secondary
school was dimlnished by one.
Among other notable reforms of that time was the fithg
and frequent exile or execution of all teachers of "bourgeoisie
origin" (sons of priests, sons of landowners, sons of tsarist
government workers who had titles, etc.) purely because of their
birth, even though they cooperated fully and may have been
excellent teachers. They were replaced by incompetent and
unqualified persona, because none others were available. The
methodology of teaching was changed to "ultraprogressive",
the curriculum was greatly diminished, only one foreign language
remaining taught. Religion was abolished and communist props,
agenda was instituted instead; the teaching of separate subjects
was abolished, and the project methods the Dalton Plan and the
"complex" method established. Discipline became voluntary 0.
to be enforced by the students themselves,
The results of these curious reforms was felt very quickly.
The graduates of secondary schools did not have enough prepare
tion to continue in higher educational institutions, and Unim
versities and higher technical schools had to drastically
lower their entrance standards, the graduating engineers,
doctors, etc not knowing even elementary mathematics.
Doctors for instances did not know how to make out prescriptions
in Latin, and were so poorly prepared as not to know arithmetic.
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Old druggists often had to turn down prescriptions which called
for dooms hisbly poisonous to the patients, The general disimot
titillation of education was so drastic as to necessitate equally
drastic reforms to revert to the oldwstyle educational system,
Beeman' with the Aug* 250 1932 and July 1936 resolutions of
the Central Committee of the Communist Party, a Sharp reversion
to the prewiloviet educational system was effected, in 1930 the
10th year was added back to secondary education. The 1932 reso*
lution returned the following: "the basis form of the orpoisation
Of Instruction in prl ry and secondary schools must be the
recitation? with a careful classification of all mils and a
systematio echfidule of studies." Grading and examinations were
also returned. The 1936 resolution returned disotpline to schools;
even the tsarist practice of requiring students to wear uniforms
was rewired. In 1944445 the prewrevolutionary Wet maturity
examinations was returned, and the preforevelutionary practice of
distribu sold medals to excellent students, formerly branded
as "antimarxist" was reeatataished. Disoipline became quite
severe and militaristi (much mare severe than under tsarlst
re ), The sciences were I once more and the eurw
?team was Increased and mere diUtot4lt. The " le
games" In mathematics in, large cities was established positive
innovation, /n *pits of all, however, the Soviet second**
education has in general not yet reached the tsarist level, and
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it is doUbtful that it can do so in the near future. However,
comparing the level of secondary education in large cities of
VSSR with the secondary schools in the USA, it is evident that
in physlealomathematical sciences the Soviet schools are quite
superior. There is no need, for instance, to teach trigonometry,
algebra, solid geometry, etc., in Soviet higher educational
institutions, while in the USA most colleges are forced to
teach them*
able 12 shows the numbers of schools, students and
teachers in various periods.
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Soboola of
TOLE 12
amid odusatica Lis USSR for 14271/26 to 1955/56
Years
Types of schodra.,,, 1927/
Total number of
schools
thousends)
immludings
elementory
70yesr
10.year
No of teachers in
all thisli schools
(in thousands)
of students
(in aillions)
inaatings
el 0 ,ntary
?wirer
10??year
118.6
108 8
606
1.8
347
114
8.4
201
009
3940143. 195C1/51
?.
4
111
1954/s 1955/56
12509
45407
18.8
14
3408
9,8
31,24,
12.2
2014 2974
126154 11101
59.6 6005
15 2502
1433
1950
108.8
58.7
2609
1620 1665
33.3 29,6 28?2
Sources "Ecotomy of 1133R0 oh Statistical Collection 1956
306 306
1007 9040
15 a 15.1
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Tesehers of the higher grad'''s of secondary school are
graduated by pedagogical institutes and universities.
1) Pedagogical Institutes
The pedagogical institutes have a four*year curricuo
lum. In 1936 there were in USSR 99 pedagogical institutes with
73.817 students y In 1941 there were 112 pedagogical institutes.
By September 10 1946 the network of pedagogical institutes was
as is shown In table 49
Republic
Total No. of Pedagogic
(sal Institutes
11.8.7011.11, 65
Ukrainian 20
loruss tan MI
Axerbaydshan SEIR 2
Georgian R
Armenian UR
Turkmen $$R
Uzbek SSR
Tadzhik $U 2
Xasakh SM 6
Kirgiz UR 1
1.78
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20 I Cent d.
Xarolowlinnish 83*
Moldav Salt
Latvian UR
Lithuanian 3
Estonian R
Aside from this there were in Moscows Pedagogical Institute of
Foreign Language, Music Pedagogical Institute, Pedagogical
Institute sTsontrosoyuss, Thus* there were in USSR in 1946
123 pedagogical institutos, with 79,000 students. (X, wo
Medynekiy0 wProsveshcheniye v 3831111 Xduoation in 11-40 pp, 1834,5)
By January 10 1956 in USSR there were 222 pedagogical
institutes inoludIng 4 correspondence institutes, whose speciali
sations are indicated in table R.
Pedagogical Xnstitutee
o6 at
?mop,
Depts.
Pedagogical Institutes prep ring
teachers for I subject
Pedagogical Institutes preparing
teachers tor 2 subjects
Pedagogical Institutes preparing
teachers for 3 subjects
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Table Id* Cont d ?
Pedagogical Institutes preparing
teachers for It subjects
Pedagogical Institutes preparing
teachers for 5 subjects
Pedagogieal Institutes preparing
teachers for 6 subjects
Peagogicai Institutes preparing
teachers for 7 subjects
Pedagogical Institutes preparing
teachers for 8 subjects
Peda ogical Institutes preparing
teachers for 9 subjects
Pedagogical Institutes preparing
teachers for 10 subjects
Pedagogical Institutes preparing
teachers for 11 subjects
Evening
Pedagogical Institute preparing
teachers for 6 subjects
Poreign langtiase pedagogical into
stitutes for 2 languages
Foreign 1an84540 Inw
stitutes for 3 languages
Foreign lanopto pedagogical in
'tautest for 4 languages
Correspondence pedagogical in
stitutes for 6 subjects
Correspondence pedagogical In*
stitutes for 7 subjects
Correspondence pedagogical in.
stitutes for 8 subjects
Correspondence pedagogical law
stitutes for 9 subjects
29
25
20
36 j 13
14
2
2
2
TOTAL 222
Higher educational institutions 1
of physical culture 15
TOTile 237
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20
22
19
28
12
4111
2
11
io?
IMO
UM
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This table was compiled by the author trom data in
"Spravochnik dlya postupayeshchikh v vysshiye uchebnnz
zavedeniya 1956" (Handbook for students entering higher educaft
tional institutions in 1956) Ministry of Higher Idusation of
USSR. The data is completely accurate, because the handbook
gives names and addresses of all the schools in question, and
any fictitious names or omissions for propaganda purposes would
be too evident to be published here.
The higher educational institutions of physical
culture were included in the table since they prepare physical
education teachers for becondary schools.
Among the 222 pedagogical institutes in USSR, by
January 10 1956, there were the following 6 women's pedagogical
institutes .1
1) Dagestan Women's Pedagogical Inetitute un, Gamzata Tsadasa
Makhachkala, ul. im. 26 Bakinskikh komisearov, 43
Specialties s Russian language and literature; mathematics.
2) Kazakh Women's Pedagogical Institute
Alma4ta0 ul. Mira, 113
Specialties: Russian lansuage and literature; mathematics;
geography.
3) Kirgiz Women's Pedagogical Institute ime V. V. Mayakovskogo
Frunze, uls Dzerzhinskogo, 48
Specialties: Kirgiz language and literature; Russian language
and literature; history; mathematics; geography;
nature study and chemistry; English language;
?German language.
81
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4) Xokand Women's Pedagogical Institute
Xokand Uzbek 38R, ul, Karla Marko, 61
Specialties, Usbek language and literature; Russian language
and literature; history; pedagogy and psychology.
Correspondence departments the same specialties
5) Nary Women's Pedagogical Institute im. Y4 V. Stalin&
Nary Turkmen 38111 Urallskaya ul., 63
Specialties, Turkmen language and literature; Russian language
and literature; history) nature study and chemistry.
6) Sta34nabad Women's Pedagogical Institutes
Stalinabad Tadzhik SISR, ul. lienina, 139
Specialties: Tadzhik language and literature; mathematics; nature
study and chemistry. (Same reference source was
used for this as for the preceding table.)
The presence of women's pedagogical inaitutes in the
repubilos indicated shows that the Soviet government could not
to this day liquidate the historical national traditions of
segregation accordirlt; to sex (women in these republics once had
to wear veils, etc.) and had to comply with the antagonism of
the population on this question in the republion indicated, to
the extent of oogretating education, even though the Soviet
policies were qulte stringent in that direction, and from the
first days of Soviet government all institutions of higher educa-
tion with the exception of some in these problematic areas were
always coeducational.
Russitioation? however, was more successful in the
areas indicated, as 3 out of the 6 women's pedagogical institutes
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not having their own language, and 5 out of 6 having Russian
language and literature as a specialty servos to confirm ono,
again.
Al seen from data shown above, the larger pedagogical
institutee have several departments, including foreign language
departments. Some of these pedagogioal institutes, as for
instance the ones in Moscow and Leningrad, have wellesequipped
laboratories and other facilities, as well as excellent teach-
ing staffs. As a rule these institutes admit the better press
pared Wvadents through competitive examinations, while the r
smill provinoial institutes with oneythree specialties aro badly
equipped and have staffs with far lower qualifications than those
the
of rpm ones. The students in them are also of a poorer
quality. Thus educational results on v,rious levels of quality
of the institutes are obviously unequal. The graduates of the
bigger institutes normally are placed to work in Large cities,
while the others are placed in rural areas. A great deal of
attention is devoted in pedagogical institutes to pedagogical
practice and discipline. In the thir4s0fourth year, the students
have several week' of uninterrupted pedagogical practice, teachiu
Ing in the higher grades of nearby secondary educational Instimm
tutions, Teachers of pedagogical institutes are present during
? the lectures of the students, and later, in conference, make
suggestions as to methodology, etc. The total curriculum is
composed of about 4000 hours, ten to twelve percent of which is
devoted to pedagogical studies and practice.
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Curricula and educational requirements of every sub'
ject are drawn up for pedagogical institutes by the Ministry
of Higher Idueation of the USSR, and are consequently identical
in each pedagogical institute where the subject is taught.
The pedagogical institute of USSR is a graduate as
well as undergraduate school, without the distInction made in
USA between undergraduate and graduate studies, and the curricu
lum includes the graduate as well as undergraduate studies in
a single sequence. In mathematics, for instance, the pedagogim
cal institute curriculum includes the theory of functions of real
variables, theory of functions of complex variables, also probam
bility, uumber theory as elective courses, etc. Besides these
some courses are included, as for instance a special 402mhour
special course on all elementary mathematics, taught in the
t.
third year, the program of which is on a high level, and for
which there are textbooks written by the best mathematical
specialists. The importance of this course is very great in pro
paring students to teach mathematics in secondary schools.
Prom 1945/46 compulsory maursovyye rabotys (extensive
scientific reports) were instituted for students of the second
and third year. The marks given for these reports are equiva
lent in importance to final examinations. The aim of 4e rew
ports is to deepen the student's knowledge of the rticular
subject, to get the student to learn scientific material on his
own, to get him to determine for himself the most important
points in the development of his theme to acquaint the student
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with scientific Xiterature and teach him to extensively use
Ind habii"?ally read scientific monographs and periodicals.
\rostra Vysshey Shkoly No. 10, 1947, pp, 37039 mentions some
such reports in physics submitted by the itologda Pe4agogioal
Institute. Borne of those are the followings "Neutron v? die
*ovary and important properties)" "Theory of vacuum and gasp,
filled photoelectric tubes;" "The study of the phenomenon of
ionic dissociation in relation to concentration of the so1u04
tion (copper sulfate solution, for instance).
In 1955/56 a new curriculum for pedagogical insti4?
tutus was drawn up by the Ministry of higher Education of
USSR on the basis of directives of the SOVNARKOM in connection
with the "overburdening" qualities ot the old plan, the multi
tude of subjects, and repetitiousness*
According to this now eurricu;um plan, the weekly
study requirement is 324?36 hours (6 days a /week) of compulsory
required classes of a theoretical and practical nature within
the Institute buildings (the old plan often reached 40444
hours a week), Elective courses are taken outside of the
34?36 hours* (see Vestnik Vyashey Shkoly* No, 2, P. 15).
After cealion 4.6d the passing of final examinations in all
subjects, the students must, before they can be employed, pass
a special government examination, instituted in 1937. (see
"Ifysshaya Moles 40 Osnovnyye postanovleniya, prikazy
instruktsii, Moscow, 1948, p* 15004452). The head and members
of the special commissiongAving these examinations are, for
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each Institute, approved by the Ministry of Higher idueation
of the 10411, Members of these commissions are, various depart-
ment heads of the Institute, the professors of the most advanced
fields in each subject, and one*two outside specialists not on
the staff of the given Institute. The work of these commissions
is done from June 1 to June 30 and from September 1 to
September 30. Which subjects the student must be examined in
at these examinations, is determined with respect to which
specialty the student wishes to teach, by the Ministry of Higher
Education of the USSR. The tests are both written and oral.
Students who had A's and B's in all required subjects, and got
Age in all subjects of the special postgraduate examination, re-
ceive a 'diploma with exoellence.? The chelorls and Master's
degrees do not exist in these as well as all other Soviet schools,
Due to the greater curriculum, a 6-day work week, and
the two months longer school year (September 1 to July 1), the
time spent for studies is considerably greater than that opent
in attaining the Bachelor's and Master's degrees in the MA.
Also, eince in the larger cities - as Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev,
Khark Vand other cities with Universities - the quality of teach-
ing staffs available to teach in the pedagogical institutes is
quite high, the quality of secondary school teachers profuced
by them is undoubtedly high.
One must note, however, that these comments apply to
the better regular pedagogical institutes, not evening or comes
pondenee elections of such instituten? the number of students in
86 cm
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which equals, and even surpasses that in the regular institutes
and which can only give a *secondhand* type of education that
cannot be compared to that in the regular pedagogical institutes.
In addition to that, as was mentioned before, many teachers in
iseoondary schools have no higher education of any kind. Thus,
in the official publication of the Ministry of Higher Educations
(Narodnoye Obrasovaniyes No. 8, 1954, p. 28) states,
'Among 1676 teachers in grades 8-10s 428 teachers do
not have a higher education lin Kurt& obi-mall.' This means
that 25% of the teachers of Kursk oblast' do not have a higher
education. And Kursk oblast', being centrally located, is ny
no means an exception, a similar situation existing all over
the Soviet Union. These teachers without higher education teach
predominantly in rural areas and small towns. A situation like
the, with a great number of teachers teaching higher grades of
high schooilbeing themselves only high school graduates, is
csrtainly unique, and the Soviet propaganda of their school eye.
tem being the best in the worlds with the bestaitrained teachers,
is altogether false. Due to the great percentao of such
teachers, the SOVIA; Union shall have to use them for a long
time, especially if one takes Into account that it plans to
establish universal compulsory secondary education throughout
the Union, and has a great shortage of teachers. The existence
of such teachers is the reason for the great number of students
enrolled in 41 evening sections and 189 evening sections of
pedagogical institutes, and also the 4 correspondence institutes
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with many departments. This wholesale preparation of teachers
by correspondence schools is also a phenomenon unique with the
Soviet Union, That oorrespondenceloschool education is of in-
terior quality is obvious.
The "Economy of the Me #a Collection of Statistics
(1956), does not give any figures on the numbers of students
attending regular pedagogical institutes in 1955/56, but they
can be approximately calculated from other data. As was noted
earlier, the num r of students attending 123 pedagogleal instiw
tutes in 19407 no 79,000. According to the fifth- five?year
plan (1950055) the admission of students into pedagogical instil-
tutes was planned to be increased by 45%. If this was aecom0
plished, then in 1955/56 there should be in the 123 regular
pedagogical institutes 115,000 students, and in all 218 Ways
gogical institutes in 1955/56 there should be approximately
2200240)000 regular (attending) students. In addition to this
there are about 101000 students in the 41 evening sections who
are mostly secondary school teachers during the day.
According to data given by Ustnik lrysehey Shkoly No. is
1953, po 191 "In pedagogical and teachers, Instititues there is
at the present time more than 300,000 eorreepondience students 14
*Economy of USSR ? Statistical Collection" Moscow, 1956, po 194,
shoo that the total number of teachers, library and cultural
wokkere with higher and secondary education is in MR 1,725,000,
In previous discussion of the elementary school we noted that
the number of teachers in elementary sehool was about 700,000.
88
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From this it follows that the naber of teaehers in UM see?
ondary schools is about 900,000, not including library and cultu.
ral workers. If one assumes that the number of correspondence
students in pedagogical institutes is now the same as in 1953
(300,000), then the conclusion is that the number of teachers
teaching in the upper grades of the 10.year school who do not
have higher education is 37% of the total number of teachers of
the upper grades of 10.year schools, because correspondence
school students are in overwhelming majority teachers of the
upper grades of secondary school who have not yetc completed
secondary education but are required by law to do soo
The total number of students in pedagogical institutes
of USSR . reeular and correspondence, is at the present time
about 520.540 thousand (220.240 thousand regular and 300 thou.
sand correspondence). The total number of students in higher
educational institutions in UM including both regular and
correspondence, is according to the "Economy of USSR . :natio
tical Collection 1956" p. 227, was in 1955/56 1,867,000
(1,228,000 regular students). From this it follows that the
total number of students of regular and correspondence peda.
gogical institutes in USSR is about 30% of the totals the number
of regular students being about 20% of the total number of
regular students of all higher eduoational institutions in MR.
As seen from the above mentioned table the number of
subjects for which a Pedagogical Institute prepares teachers,
varies from one to eleven, The largest are found in Moscow and
LeningradO
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1) Moscow Oblast' Pedagogical Institute,
uli Radio, 10a
Specialties' Russian language and literature; historyi maths
maticss physics; natural sciences and chemistry'
geographyl Inglish Isanirmages German language;
French language; physical culture
Correspondence departments the same specialties
2) Moscow City Pedagogical Institute im. V. P. Potemkin
Moscow, Davydovskiy per., 4
Specialtiess Russian language and literature; history; matheu?
mettles; physics; geography; natural sciences and
chemistry; drafting and drawing; English language;
German language; French language.
Correspondence department; the same specialties
except physics
4) Moscow State Pedagogical Institute ills V. I. Lenin
Moscow, M. Pirogovskaya ul., I
Specialties; Russian language and literature; history; mathe
matics; physics; natural sciences and chemistry;
geography; pedagogy and psychology; defeetology;
English language; German language; French language.
) Leningrad Pedagogical Institute mi. A. I Gertsen
Leningrad, Nabereshnays Moyki? 48
Specialtiess Russian language and literature; history; mathe
mattes; physics; natural sciences and chemistry;
geography; pedagogy and psychology; defectology;
IngAish language; physical culture,
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Department of peoples of the Par East.
Correspondence department, the same specialties except
English language, pedagogy and psychology, and department of
peoples of the Par Bast.
Evening departments Russian language and literature;
mathematics; history; natural sciences and chemistry) geography.
5) Leningrad pedagogical institute
Leningrad, Malaya Posadskaya ul., 26
Specialties; Russian language and literature; history; mathe?
mattes; phyoics; natural sciences and chemistry;
geography; English language; German language;
French language,
Correspondence department; Russian language and liter*
ture; history) mathematics; geography; natural sciences
and chemistry.
smallest pedagogical i.netttutee are the followings
The
1) Osipenko pedagogical Institute im. P. D. Osipenko
Osipenko Ukrainian SSR, ul Dyumina, 15
Specialty: mathematics
Correspondence department: same specialty
2) lavyanak Pedagogical Institute
Slavyansk Stalinskoy obi., ul. Shevehenko, 15
Specialty* mathematics.
Correspondence department: same speclalty
3) Chernigov Pedagogical Institute
Chernigov Ukrainian 33R ul. Lassalya, 1
-91
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Specialty: mathematics
Correspondence department: same speeialty
4) Aserbaydshan Pedagogical Institute of Russian language
and Literature im? Mirsy Fatali Akhundova
ilakuo ul Polukhinao 205
Specialty: Russian language and literature
According to the statistical data published In the
official periodical of the Ministry of Higher Education of US
(Vestnik Vysshey Shkoly0 No, 1# 1955# pp, 406) there is a total
of 10,000 professor:10 instructors, etc? in pedagogical instils
tutes at 14$0,30R,, It this is true, then the total number of
instructors of all levels in pedagogical institutes of the -
Is about 180 20#000, as the number of pedasogical Institutes is
approximately half of the total number of them in USSR (see
"Spravochnik diya upayushehikh v vreshyle uchebnlye
savedeniya v 3SSR v
Rand
Par nroUtng in Instittu
tions of Higher Education in SR in 19560
The above mentioned oftisIal periodical (Veitnik
neshey Shkoly No, lo 1955, PP, 1012) states on page 5 that in
pro J)gisal institutes of R.SJ4IISORs, there are 3,500 teachers
holding the degree of Candidate of Sciences (the term *seism*
IA used as translation of the Russian lin:Lukas,* which includes
all fields of knowledge, e?g, the humanitiees not only the
"sciences* in the American sense), a degree which as shall be
92 lib
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explained later, Is equivalent to the Ph* D. degree in the
United States, and that in 1953 there were 6,918 instruetors
of pedagogical institutes who did not hold a degree of any
kind, that is university gradates* The sum of the two figures
given above is 10,416, not including Professors of the pads.
gogical institutes* This seems to be a rather tree use of
statistisal figures on the part of the Soviets, as the number
of instructors astUalatts full professors who have to hold
Doctorate degrees, is Wan ilian the total number of instrus
tors of all levels 4 L. professors w obviously nonsense,
By Statute of Higher Edueation 10 law governing; all
higher educational lhotitutions, every taoulutet must be headed
by a Professor who Is a Doctor or Science* The above periodloio
cal states that in R*Solt*S.R* the pedagogioe institutes have
11300 departments (chairmanships ?e? kafedra)* Since the number
of pedagogical institutes in awsoosA, la about half that of
the whole Soviet Union, there must be in the Soviet Union about
3600 faculftets of pedago:leal institutes* Since every depart
ment (katedra) must be headed by a professor, it roll* , that
by law the minimum number of Professors4octors should be 3600,
and taking into account that departments need several
Professors to teach advanced subjects, the number of Professors
needed 4t is much higher than 3600* Actually, however,
their number is considerably smaller than even that. Vestnik
Voshey Shkoly No* 9 19470 p* 31 states that in pedagogical
institutes of UM %slip now are working 475 Professors,Doators,
93w.
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2,183 Docents ? Candidates of Winces, and 7,343 inetrustors
and assistants.. Sines the number of Candidates ot Selenees in
1955 was shown Om to be 3,500, that is about 1.7 times the
number of Candidates in 1947, allowing for an analogous increase
in the number of frofessor4ostors should now be about 700.
This means that the number of ProtessoroDoetors in pedagogical
institutes is now only 20% of the minimum required by law, or
about 4 Professors per institute.
The problem of meeting this shortage in pedagogical
institutes is so ?at that the fulfillment of the required mlnift
mum ot tillins of all positions of taculetet chairmen by full
professors, is a question of the distant future, even though
sem* pe Weal institutes as for instance the ones in Moscow,
Lonazgraci, 0400, are doubtless fully staffed with Professors,
leaving s ller teal Institutes without any, leading to
unequal results In the training of teachere by the instituteso
Pedagosioal institutes underwent during the Soviet
rule a considerable number of drastic changes. In 19202 in
U? there were about 80 pedagogical institutes, including peda
600041 faculitete of universities with 240816 studento. In
1923/2k there was only 47 of them with 200641 students, while
in 1927 the number tell to 27, with 15,500 students. This de
crease was oftioial4 explained by that the institutes were
founded on inourtioient Mterial basis, and could not sure
the needed quality of scientific training," *Therefore, it was
necessary to liquidate series of pedagogical institutes, and
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to bring the network of pedasogieal institutes into assordanse
with the tinanetel eondition of (the USSR), and the eadres of
instructors available.* (Vestnik Wsshey Shkoly, No. 11, 1947
pp. 36041).
The surricula of pedagogleal institutes were often
changed, and before 1930's they were divided into two cats
series io industrial and agricultural, with *ultramodern* teach
ing techniques, and as the same issue of the Vestnik points outs
save was manifested the influence of *projeeelpstbods, trying
to transfer the eenter of gravity of the work from stuffy claps.
rose to collefeive farms and industry, manila% the so-called
'production practise' in collective terms and industry.* The
curriculum of the same period had 3 of it devoted to the
academie study and 23$ of the time on the so4wcalled *poly
technical cycle.* This lyteohnisation* of pedagogioal inatl
tuts', stemmed from the goal of *to a the tutu,* teacher with
the knowledge of industrial or agricultural production, depend'.
ing on the specialisation of the institute (asrlaultuval pods
gosioal institutes, and industrial pedagogical institutes)
(Source ibid.)
Atter the resolution of TeX VOW on September 5, 1.931
on *1 ,Iltary and secondary schools, which revealed ant
Leninist theory of school mortification (deterioration) and the
project fi thod,* the pedagogical institutes were more geared to
prepare teachers for seeondary schools and In 1934 58% of the
total time was devoted to academic preparation of the teacher.
.1 95
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The same resolVtion liquidated in pedagostest Institutes the so
called *laboratorp?brigade. method, and the main method of study
became again the lecture and individual laboratory work ofthe
students, Previously classroom lectures were forbidderjebrigades"
of the students had to reed textbooks, while the professor fulo
tilled only the role of a consultant to whom questions were
directed from time to time. Normal testing had been abolished
and the test question was dim:4W to the whole "brigades Which
answered it as a *up, and was marked on its performance as a
'group, no individual marking being permitted. This situation
exIst4 in all sohools, not only the pedagogical institutes.
The above -ntioned resolution also abolished the *free
ourrioulue whieh allowed each tlacher to formulate Ppro4eets4
aoeor4ing to his wishes. AUendanse was herewith also made
compulsory, and with stringent shooks on atteince, Th resew
lution also abolished the "4 *ovation practice on collective
farms and in industry." (Sources ibid.)
The complete roVersion to pre,Soviet methodolosy and
eurriculum V*4 , de in 19360 which Insisted on not academic
teaching, but also required original research to be done by the
instruetors: professore, etc., or pedagosisal Institutes as part
of their duties. Prior to this practically no rePearoh *ark of
ally kind 'a conducted In the Soviet Union.
One 04 not at this point that it took the Soviets
i.e years or experimentation loading to complete ruination of the
whole school system before they reverted 'back to the old methods,
and the results rose in quality, hut hove not yet reached pre
revolutionary level,
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artaasxTxss IN USSR
Universities in USSR fulfill a double runction of
preparing scientific workers for research institutions and
preparing teachers for secondary schools.
According to the "Handbook for Enrollment in
Institutions or Higher Education" (Spravochnik dlya post-
upelushchikh v vyeshiye uchebnyye zavedeniya) 1956, Moscow,
Mins of Higher Ed., 19560 there are in USSR 33 universitieo
as shown in table 15with the numbers of faculttets? number
of specialties, and date of establishment ot each. Puller
intormation on ow* of the 33 universities, including namse
of testi:04st' and specialties ot each are given in Appandit
45'
As is seen from the table/41;wn above, the greatest
number of departments (faculstets) w 12, are at the Leningrad,
Moscow, and Kiev universities; the greatest number of
specialties are at the Leningrad University .0 52 and Moscow
tint Tatty w 37, Twonty ono out of 33 universities in USSR
mom, been established atter 1917. The most recently establo
lished are the Was University (est, 1951) and Turkmen
University (est. 1950). The oldest universities are Villnyus
University (est, 15791 Soviet 0 1940), Moscow University
(est, MO, Lavov University (eat. 1758, Soviet 4. 1944),
Sas& University (est. 1800, tharskiv University (est. 1805),
Leninsrs4 University (est. 1819), and Kiev University (est.
1834).
(f7
,
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?,,?? ,
? , ", ,
-
? :74`.%;17=
.?;(- ' k,"
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The total number of departments (faculeteto) is
233; the total number of lahdras is 1,900. latedra is near
in meaning to the deportment in American usage; every Paeulca
tot has several Itafedras, 41,11, the Physics Faculltet may have
a Theoretical Physics tatedra, a Nuclear ftsics latedra0
Optics Wedra, etc.* each Kendra being: beaded by a Chairman,
(3ourees lialmillOreshey 311ko1y No 5* 1954, p 48,). Among the
faeulitets in all 33 universities are 7 mechanics thematics
faculetets0 and y physics faculstets.
In 19905, there were at the Untv mattes 120?
fullatimo professors, assoc. professors (doeents), and in
*tractors, 3, poi* ducsos students sorting tor the de
of "candidate of Sciences*, and about 100,000 students (see
Vesta* Vysshey eitkolly0 5,1950 pp 474).
lam universities 40, Moscow Ohiversity, Leningrad
University, iiev University, Sharticiv ataverstty, Tbilisi
University* etc., especial4 the first 4.pee? Woo a leading
part in the most advanced and vital scientirle re reh of
the Soviet Uhione
scientific woke
advanced in so for the other h.reduoationel institutions,
Some of them ? Moscow, 41114 Monis Santo' etc., have
spec Scientific Removal In i'lloutes, Advanced students
can cam on researeh there under the smidance of a Wiled
scientists, to fulfill their greduatton reguloremont of a 'work
Presented tor the 01 loos,
hu,
not only prepare histedy qualified
cam
reseure" that is often voo
q9
4* 1;4 ?
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One may note here the Moscow UhlversiAr is afforded
the greatest eare and endowment by the Soviet government.
In 1953 a tones of new buildings were construeted for It,
tar more modern and bettor equipped than those of the other
universities. These buildings house the MechanlesomathematLes
fault/tot, physics tasullteti biologfoseil science facuiltet,
chemistry fteulttet, poles/ faculitet, and geography fteu10
tin. The new, buildings house about 1000 scientific, laboratories
with the best and newest equipment. Humanities fesulotets
were left in the old buildings*
, The moehanissmmathematies rtuittet has a number or
vorldotimous scientists, as Xolmogorov, VInogradov, Pont
Aleandrovi trovekiyi Oellfond, solinbevi and others, the
other fleulotets m4oy likewise a large portion of the best
Soviet setentific workers.
Moscow University serves not only as a Wen Inc
eater. but a sours* ot propaganda se well, being constantly
shown to innumerable foreign dig?tsi ssientists and other
notables, who are lett breathless with the splendor, that the
Soviets, despite many hardships and shortages, chose to
amass at this one 4dA t onel center leai1ng the others in
rathitr *ki 400001011d4 Inns, a fact whisk therm est
to mention to their torei 4 visitors. The visitors, as
planned by the Soviet., write upon return to their various
homelands of the wonders of Soviet ettusatio 1 klnditione in
general, thinking that all their educati I cmteri are emactly
Joe
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like Moscow aiversity, The visitors are ted
sonorous portions ot lies about the pay, world* sonditions,
woOkins hours and condttions of the se/eat:Lets In USSR. Some
premolars of Moslem University ere Indeed so priv31140000
but as ever the official Soviet publications intended mainly
tor domeette use indicate, the conditions in other Universities
end other Meier educational institutions are quite dicrento
lbw :term of study in Soviet universities is t years,
*wins Ole the student must tultal requirements of the
etirivalum eorrespondin6 to his intended olalty, write*
*work presented for the diploma* (a thee sthat
;
rewind tor vox )ksteres dope. but of a nob
aeope), and pazz special vernmentaeondueted 40minetions*
The students in the thivotrsittes ot ft are the very beet
students trots all the 1,04eyear school* who are select44 on Vs
basis si stat coagietitive e inationse The test
Ilion to for enrollment in the Univereities ot 14esems
and Ziev.
/0/
14q
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Curri Lila of 3ovi t U Ivor.
The curricula or Soviet hlgher edueational inti
tutions in effect up ,to September 1, 1955, were designed to
graduate specialists of a 'narrow profile, that is highly
specialised in a wall portion of a technioal field. Thus
even in 1953/54 there were eoparate curricula for 460 inde
pendent speoialtieelmcfessions, 135 of which were subdivided
further into 510 specialties (pee Vestnik Vysehey Shkoly, No, 5,
19550 pp 19*23)4 Universities prepared student** or 62 dieter
ent "professions" (oe- Vestnik Vesher Shkoly? No 5, 1954,
p 47), in which for instance the chemistry'Orofession" was
divided into 27 specialties; math atics was subdivided
into 10 specialties (see Ibid., No 4, 1955, p The
student mid to choose his profession before enrollment, his
specialty had to be chosen in *boat the third year. Every
specialty had it owu eparate curriculum*
In 1954 there was a reconsideration of ell
curricula of Soviet institutions of hIsher education in
connection with the 4overnment resolution on 1mprov
ent
in the training of specialists (see Vestnik Vysshey Shkoly,
No 5, 1955, p 19), This resolution espressed the desire of
the Minlstry of Higher Education to diminish the nomenclature of
specialties and widen the scope of specialists to be graduated
from the Universities* The nOmenclature was diminished from
460 professions to 2600 and 061000.1 the specialty
/ 0 2
2
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d
e1assitioations40% (see Ibid. No 5, 1955, pp 2223),
that is the policy changed drastically from that of narrow
specialisation to a wider, more senora character of scientists*
In connection with this, on Sept 1, 1955, the
curricula of the first, second and third year at all faculitets
osi? Soviet Unlversities were changed to produce 44de profile"
speolalists; in the fourth and fifth year the old curricula
xAre retained temporarily until the graduation of students
who were in them at the time of the *Wiwi except that in the
Physies3"mathemstieal r, ul,tete biology facuittets, chemistry
tat:14,We and geogr40447 41 famil'tetso in the 7th master
was in. a ()ourse in''mothodology of thing? of
36012 hours, and in the 6th semester was includ-* po
* sioal
practice of 6 weeks* duration, with a cessation during this
period of all other studieet_
In the new curricula specialised subjects were
teed and subjects at general ohmmeter were stressed
lar specialties were fused into a broader theoretical basis
with as little separatton as possible and only in advanced
studies, This - that IA the first two-three years of
studi s, students of related specialties shall study the same
subjects in the same scope. Thus, the6 specialties of geolety
were, in the new eurrIculum given 27 *abjects in oommon, for
which 66m60% of the total number of hours of study for the
professions shall be devoted, while 320634,0 of the time sh011
to special separate subject*, not oountini the tii open
t, i,
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in field work and the "work presented for a Uplom$6"
In physiesenly the following 10 speeislties were
lefts theeretLeel physics'; optics; xray metal physies;
magnetism; solid state *Wei; eleetrophysies; strueture of
matter; radio physies? Chemistry is left with only the
following four speeialties out of 2/1 inorganie *Ministry;
orgss4o chemistry; analytic ehemistry; plveleal chentstry
The profession of "geology and prospeeting of useful mineral
deposits was "left with two cielties: geology and pros
pectins of atogenous" nommore type useful mineral
deposits; geology and prospecting of solid nonwore type
useful mIncel depostts0 The profession of zeo sloal
methods of sesreh and prospectIng of useful mineral daposite
was left with thsicollowing specialties: geophyeical
methods or prospecting for altos of ore and non-ore type
deposits; geophysieel methods of prospecting for petroleum,
gas, and coal deposits.; geophysical methods of study of
Winos.
left
Zn all other new mimic
sod subjects, only t
for the student to take
a,
120 to
3
? of the t
hours each is
de
le* ives and special
seam* 0 These electives and special a'? ?aari klai an
role in the curricula of universities, in extending and
deepening the students' knowledge in some special field, in
acquainting them with experimental techniques, methods sad
nature of scientific rem oho help the students in fulfilling
ted
k
Ali ?
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the ?work presented for a diploma, and also reveals Which
et the etwdeate are Imre WW1 and have an inclination to
research
In the old (Were 1955) eurrieula of Soviet
universities# coneldersair greater mount of time was
devoted to electives and special seminers? Thus in the old
geology eurrieula 626 to 944 hours were devoted to eleotives
and special seminars, while now only 316 to 400 hours wars so
devotei; in the old biology eurrioula, 444:0456 hours were
devoted to then while now on VI 3706
Part of the t to ly devoted to e *octaves and
eiminars in tor instance, biological curricula is now
devoted not
to fora
New sub*:
are also
ralised biological subj. too but also
sicsa chemistry, higher mithamaties,
eluded which were formerly not given,
U for instanee biophysics* (tor all spesialti.. of the
biology tsoulttet) ichtyo with
omparative Wog ma soosso
ties) plant
and siolosists) ( : Vestal
1955k PP 28#33)4 turrteula no
two related spool
basic
(tor ooloOcal
olo (for botanists
stihri syt
for the specialties ot
include 4
mantrestation
and
instead at
Slavie
aity *soh*
sification) ?
Ia
105
k
w prepare
ly No lis
student for
0flt Thus the ourrieulum
s and litersUre now
angusse (another
?ialties ot ?classical
literature had now a
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second specialty each ?0 either Russian or one of West Nuropean
languages. A second related speolaby was also ineluded
geophysics, geochemistry, some specislties of biology, astro
nosy, and some others (sources Vestal( Vs4y Shkoly No 7,
1955, pp 1-5), The establishment of doublewspeoialty (or
double-protile) curricula was explained by the Ministry of
Higher adueation that since there was not enough need of
specialists of those types and so it is necessary to give the
student another profession in order to assure his being usefully
paced, (sources Ibid.)
The whole shift to leas specialisation was explained
by the Ministry of Higher Education by "need ot various branches
of industry, culture and educatlon" in connection with the
feat that menyistudents have to be placed in teaching positions,
SW *inning with 156 not less than 80% (previously 60*, of
graduates of the philological, historical, geographical and
biological faculitets and not less than 60% (previously 20%)
Of graduates of physicslAesthematical facuistets shall be placed
yearly in teaching positions of secondary school*, where
'wide-profile" socialists are ncded (sourest Vestnik VOshey
StamaY Wo 20 1955, P 32)0 It is planned also to abolish and
annex to universities the smeller #:* togioal institut t in
citi's where universities exist, Where parallel pr on
of tesehers occurs? as universAties griduate,tesiohers of much
higher quality. These reforms also Include ephasts on
pod training. of university students and a closer
26
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relationship between secondary sohoo s and the universities.
In eenneotion with this, the diplomas of university graduates
acquired an additional meaning. Instead ot beim; narked
"physielst," "nalammiatoisian," eta., the new designations vet
Physleist. Seeondary school proxies Wisher," "Mathismatioian.
Seoondary school matbamatios toothily," eta (source: Vestnik
Wssey Shkoly No 110 1955, p. 32).
Only the future will Om the results ot such a
sharp shift to "widermprotile" stiu0Sotion In higher 54ueational
institutions of USA especially the universities. One must
note, however, that similar sharp reforms of curricula in
universities and other hither educational institutions of
us
U well as in other o oi *;oviet oilugation, have
*cc+ 4efores Tima in 11120 university curricula were
reoriented towards narrower
drastic reforms poured in
curricula time or study
Of "ultra
specialisation* Also in 1532
theddogy, behavior
which resulted in liquideo
rn methedcloilea and vaulted a return
to'
pr viet educational methodsp a basic necesetty in view a he
deterioration of the school s of that t described
?alter in the discussion of *moo eduestional institutions.
educational Institutions deteriorated just as mer edly
d r the
end primary
educational
Asti
Um? it not more so than the act*
Atter the 3.cond World War, viet h
ons were eharacterise
tendency towards, nem sp.* ealsation, while
107
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period ;wideness a baste polier morsel Words more generalised
education. It is Latoreating to note that this latest
Sonsrellaattoz policy marks another return to preoSeviet
edusationalv,tewi Whisk emphasised broader Ossetian, as
opposed to very narrow speolaillsattem4 even though from time
to Use there were diseuesions on posSibie illiereliee in
epesiallsatien (soureet Orgisnisatatis Wavlintis
Universitet*, v 333A4 (Organisation of Administration of
Universities in WAR) by Prot. Volodyeir #44unoChudrnivs
Rosoerch Promo on USSR Okra foundation) Mew York, 1
This rearms while undoubtedly leading to the Improve
t in the training of secondary aehool Washers, hoe the
? to effect OA the htifillment of the *Ma Mein goal of
the unlversitios m the trainins of scientists tor seienseft
research institutions, so it seems possible that the
sharpness of the reversal may lead to ? new polio changes
in the futures
pass ell sub ee s write a
than paSS a
OM
Wee
in
lark.
7
the VO
Dip
entocondueted series o
thf The Diplomas" Mabota (Work Mown
atuden
al sad
no lasting
ther 'sample of 3ovlet oduealional views reinstituted
".,.4 ?
too VI tansy* ra to is a
?-
nt research
imbrues a small part at the data shish comprises
168
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the speeisity it the students* ?Sem universities in MI6 as
the Oseow, Eason', teninired, arstev, eta., bsve Wense.
researih institutes of verie's speeisitiest The work of these
Institutes is theeretieal reseereho and solution, of problems
*rising in industry, etc' The setentitic remora eenducted in
these institutes is done by the professors and selentitie
workers of the ft:411W of latedra of the given swishy, as
well as a num*or of upperi*ciaes students of the faeul,tet or
kaftan, who under the guidance? of their teachers fultUl
therein their requirements for the diplemnara rabetao
%stalk vys Shkoly No 7, 1954, p 44 indica, that in the
Institute of the Sarstov University Upper
?M: :.4 conduct 14 to 20 works presented tor a
diploma At the Moscow University part of the students
kmwtge f4t111 their dplonnara robe remote at
different researeh institutes (thai.. one sposiallaing
themeties) of the University, is the peater port of
? students at mural science fakul,tets at N.scow Univers ty
assembles and $00414111$4111 sisterisl gathered during several,
years
of studios, 10:watery work# and field tiers
ti
the work of the motion cal
mathematic taouL't.t at the Moscow University*. con e sun
tram Warm ion Oven by P 3# Aleksandrov in Vestn
Sway lito 5 1956, 1244 Accordi
of the facia tet was a sod of two
eleetives, C sory sab4seta inolud
and
anal is $eorntz7,
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hisher Slobs% wathosatteal analysis, ditterenUal equations,
et.* Tho ditforontisi equations eourse is taught in the
woad rear or tibe well-known egotist of oblih ealiber
L. S. tontryasini who redesigned this course kilns it In
elosely with problems of technology and natural sciences
regulation theory and oscillation theory tor instance, Thus
students from the very otginning study material closely
eonneeted wt l the newest 4cientitic dowioients and their
praetical ifl.ti?$fl4es atudents ot the thkru par attend
the course ''Anslysis lased in a large moesure on
material of 00A porary mathe,tica.2 atrial oint,
glective 00Ur406 *Ad a
narsit ahith t re is a
aonoidarable number aro also designed 0604:0141y 414 Ube
of rerlecti 4 the newest scientific develop,iO4nts. Their
*abject matter is con
tantly being ahangedo depending on
which new problos aria* in
applictatione Thus at the
4
r ?
&tics wd its practical
* of Acadamiclans I. G. Fetrovekib
3 LI Sobolev, and Pro Le Se Pontry 0 on at:er t al
equations' ina cit Aced
len ke Ne ?Kolmosorov on the
qaestions or contemporary sis and also the theory at
probability; Prot% 40 Go Xurosh on aloaloras and
Prot Lilo Go
on tunctional
ysia
'
t
methods of theoret cal physics* 7$ti4ti*U7 anallze the
newest developments in these fields of 4athematice. Mem
of these seminars not only voter to the newest ovit and
foriiips math tical works but thomselvql solve
/10
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,4op Prefileser4estors, and 2200 ftedbielled et atensesi
The iame this sours also at the other meithematleal seminars.
given at Woe* Unlversity. ilekdandrov gives the following
examples At the present time, the ?rash mathematioal Wool
seined important results in the field of topoloSY, It Applied
to topology new alsebraio methods, Now at out faoulitet several
semtnars &Ire exiitenee, among thew f$otae seminars organised
by various karedrai Which are working in this field* The
first works or seminar mom4ors bear evidenoe that out' esientists,
ineludins the youth, graap the modern methods and successtally
apply them,'' Seminars and electives of the meohanicswmathemati *
tacul'tet of NOS4OW UniversIty, aceordi tG Aleksandrov,
include all the
r developments ot cont porarymatheseltioa
sciontces, lncludin& calcuattaK mathematics and computer
machinery mathematics* At Moscow University a zits:Lou:Latina
th tics katedre (doper nt) with Aced oician setit# Sobelev
'
at the head has been foruted? This kafedra conducts work on the
development of caloulatinti machines, 101 also the solution of
series of oretical problems, connected with design of
calculating machines, closely related to von tlelds as
'
sib atisal 1 co
done al; this
ease too orten, not
iitna taiS, OS One
an e she teristio of
aU the universities, lout is ,V11 best t U 3R,
In 3,955 at %0400W University there were 2600 seientitic
workers, in 210 kare4res (4eparolic nts) Including 89 academician*,
400 )?rorifsOr" tors,5, 1200 Condi -tot* ot Seiencea; that is
t %
M.*
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approstsattly 650 at the seiontitie peilassigissi I it
the jvers$7 hold *steatitic( demos, (3eurees Vested* VIeshil
3h)W1 No 5, 19554 p 11))
Th. Wuaational results of the universities sr* mush
hisher than those at ped
teal institute for obvious reasons
GUS year more of study, better tee/shows and equipment, better
prepared students enrolled, etc., and therefore nanrosere
students of univeraties become aspirants (graduate etudents
working for the degree of Candidate of *donee), take part in
the work of seieneefttre qeroh institateet end maim mush better
secondary sehool teuther?P than graduates of pedagogleel
institutes, ak part of university graudatee become instruetors
in hlgber eduoational institutions, including ped4 eal
institutes
Taking into a*oeunt the greater unt of time spent
tor studies than In the OA m yearep delta a week,
300,34 hours a week, a lt r year of study Sept.. I to June 30;
the better preparation of students in U$S than in the USA
(the riot universities# be twin numr, have a *hole* of
the best Or a great number of stud nts wanting to t in); a
greater ,,,unt of time and attention spent on the
4iplomnaya robots (a thesi or a much wider seope than the
Master,* thesis required in the VSA)) the results of study
and preparation for fulother solentific study and research are
in the better Soviet universities greater tiv4 t
for a Masterls degree in the USA0 fte Soviet it
312
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better universities are also better prepared to work at aspirants
for three years Os attein the degree of Candidate of Mince 40
* degree that in the Pkystesl?Nathemittioal scienoes$ ohemistrb
geology, ete, (not in liumanaless histor), eta.) is equivalent
to the American demo of Pb, D. There are no degrees in USSR
equivalent to the American Ba4belorts and Master's desrees All
the graduate ot =1461484 sets Is a diploma with his specialty
indicated OR it, the extent of his accomplishments, though is
091041ent to the American Master's degree. The 4ter students
got a "diploma it the timt grade " the average and lowrr get
a Aplems at the second irst
10,3
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The salentificopedagogical staff. of Soviet
unlversItics* have among them speeialists in all main fields
ot knowledge. Weelally in the greater universities there
is a considerable number of highly qualified scientists who
group around themselves the younser generation ot scientists
and together with them solve the most difficult problems
posed by modern soignee. Thus* as states Vestnik liyeshey
%kW", No. 5* 1956* pp. 5011* physicists or the Tomsk
University continue their researoh irksolid state physics*
and also actively conduct research In radiophysics. At
Chernovets University* tulder th; direction or Prot.
lovieh
research on semicomluctors is being done. At Oorokly Univers*
sits radio sloe research is being done*
the
field extensive research is in done also at Liaratov
Univerolty. At the Middle Asian University lex work is
in done in the field or alkold chemist
University* Prof. Yu. T.
At Aserbaydzhan
daiiyev* conducts with his
collaborators some frultrul researoh in the field of
petroleum chemistry. Groups of oology spesialists at tvov*
Kazan* and Irkutsk Universities conduct lotortant research
in their field." In th 195504960 five-year plan* s
univeralties plan to organize nuclear physics .aboratories
equipped with particle accelerators 4,, cyclotrons and 4itatrons
of various power, so that the students workiing in that specialty
could t to work with particle accelerators* Xn the near
,
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future Iaberaterles are to be organized for ?Gamic ray research
at the ioningradl Yerevan, Kazakh, and Middle Asian Universities.
In these to be soon established laborstories, research in
chemistry of artificial isotopes and their application to
stud ly of catalytic reaction mechanisms may be broadened
Riophysioal laboratories shall likewise be established, where
the action of artificial radioactivity on living organisms
shall be studied. In the near future the laboratories of
Academician V. N. Shapochnikov in foiov, Prof. Bo A. Rubin,
Prof. T. N. odnyev; Prot, V. A. Chesnokov; and other scientists
working in the field or photosynthesIs shall enlarged and
roved. At Leningrad University Academician Tere Jilin with
his aoworkers conducts rear tio on art4,4161441 photooatalysis.
More than 15 untversities are workin6 lo the field of semi
oonduetor research,
Inteirsating work in this field is conducted also by Prof.
S, 0, Xalashnlkov, (brows of universit$ workers take part in
the study or the electrical and optical properties of rmanium
Silica; and other OP
conductors; methods or synthesis or
semiconductor materials, photoconductivity ot 40condactors
(includingfrocesses of transformation of various radiation
energies into electric energy); semiconductor detectors of
intrawored 11, to and in working out the is of quantuw$
ohanics and phenceenologlcaI theory or electronic pro o sae,
in solids,
H
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These themes charaeterise major interests of a
number ot leading scientists in a number of Soviet universities
The above Information is, of *wise not by any means complete*
but some conclusions can be formed from it on the in Jf lye
solentific work in the most important fields of modern
technology done by Soviet universitlee,
As was shown above* the number of raoulftets in all
the 33 Soviet universities la 263; the =Wow of kafedras is
1* *0; the total number pedatiogical.solentific workers is
12,0000 Vestak Vpia4ey Jakoly* No. 5, 1956, pp. 5.11 states
that in univereltim ',,tcozog,tit! 414t jadi ial hi4her educational
Institiu ,onstA 195/6 th re were 16 COO solentifio.pedagosi*
Gal workers* tnc1u4ina 1500 Proreasor.Doctors (about 10)#
53% of the sciorAl ic.pedap cal workers in them hold
acientiric 4e4rees. This ansthat
p ogical workers had sciitic d
f the scientific
or Candidate of
Scianac or Doctor or Science.. Since the number of Professor.
stors ;LA IQO
Aittexa", ?
? *
r of C dates of $alences must
can approximate the ;umber of
Professor.Dostors and Docents who work in the thi 1tt of
Wiato Prom the ratio at 12,000 to 164400 it 4ollows that the
approximate lumber of Frotessorm tors In univ rattle* of
USSR is
n 100 and 103001 the number ot Candidattes of
Sciences as) is tween 6,30 and 7#
account that the num of karedras pa
and by law each must
* *
rt
Taking into
s) is 1900*
headed by u rofessor*Doctor* there is
so
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not even the legal minimum of the frotessormftetors needed
to till #ositions or department heads, end sines many depart.
mento need than one Professor-Doctor to teach advanced
subjects, the thortage is quite pm-umonced, the need being
5000 to 6,000 ProfessorwDoctors. The preparation of the
scientists required 041 be a long and arduous tasko since
the degree or Doctor of Science In USSR is considerably more
advanced than the Minoan Ph. D., us will be shown in the
following section (h).
The Shortage a ProtessorftDoctors he Soviet Uhion
may be explainlird by the following two reasons4 1) Rust of the
universitie, Or 33 were establish during Soviet
An,*
rule without having prepared the Protessc: necessary.
Hig4 qualifications are needed for the Doctor ot Salome,
requiring about - 12 years or productive scientific work
atter the attaint of the Candidate of Sciences greeo and
the publication of solentiric works that are important contri
butions to science.
Contributi - to the shortage is the tact that
Profesoor40aters are not distripbu:4,4 eguslIt. Ono third
of their total number work at Moscow University, for inetanoso
and another one sixth is at Kiev University, whish leaves RAM
alIer universities even more badly understaffed.
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As sus u the vista same Late power, they law,
stituted a series it swespins reforms thronghout the *duea.,
UAW 4,4.4 One of them vas the establishment on August 2#
1 or new rules at enrollment into universities, approved
by Lenin* Mese rules announsed that all *Mons oould
enroll in universities without showing any diploma from
secondary or Wan"' *shoo* and without any entrance maw
Siena* The payment of tuition was abolished* Ai a result of
that in Moscow ilsiversity alone there was in 1921 27# stup
dents, many of never bothered to even sd4endthe university'.
Very few students were qualified to ?rstand the lociUmet or
work in the laboratories* Prom 1 there was establi a
"class yr:Wipe of student selection for universities* This
meant that only re at ?proletariat" class and sons of
members of the proletariat were eligible* All son* at priests,
government workers, and even sons of the kaiaks, the well. to-do
armors (who too cows a better se, 30050 acres of lend
or ins
), were
the number
WA out at the mwelv*rsities*
students at *scow MiLversiti Inw
s shawl from 270 to 13,000.
In 1929 in MOSCOW, Let
*them, so-called Hrebtaks" rot f stet ) wars
established whidh were de to woos to universities
thoscAtudents t proletariat did not have aor
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education and oonseopently could not understand the work being
done at the univeraW, On Sept 20 19220 by signature of Lean
a new set of rules mans the universities was estab2ishe4
This statute changed icatedras (departments) by "subjeet commissions,
sed of equal numbers of teachers and students0cemmuniste
something that was, to exy the least, completely without prscedents
These , satins regulated all phased a university lite. The
slim* WAWA* was applied to faculitets with the tormatlon of
"learne4 soviets" 41 ,+-#24 half at teachere and half or students,
ate oommunist partly appointed a rector to head 1440ich university,
and he beaame a bete dictator or all niviratt$ policies, sink
controlled the votes of t students c uniste in the "subject
co-q atone and "learned soviets" ir party supervisor. The
objective,ot those retorms, as stated by Vestnik Voshey Shicoly
No?4 40 19470 17,0 451 "000in one blow to end with the old schools"
Th a Soviets were looking for a new structure system for universi
ties and tried t m out in the old universities* as well as the
t.w ones 0 established at about that time.
Newly establishod'acrildby University, for instance,
tfr
yen a curious assort at of tacolttets
ineterineannstructioni physiooppo
pedic, etc
la
now, mining,
rotessional, envoi?
In 'Ukraine in the w:i* t5 all universities were closed,
and in their, place "institutes at Public Etiumatten" were
tablithed with tagitaqatil social itraini: professional ettu. ation,
// 9 -
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Zn s ioso& thewitiuttiss were retained, and Si
even in i92/23 lissom University was extended or establishment
et several Institutes 07 It 01 of mathematiesomechanics institute,
physics, zoology. soi: 8410A440, stool, At Leninvad University
institutes at liatheostechenteso astronomb chemistry were 0440
tablished, At Tomsk University the "Siberian PhialcooTeohn1,441
Institute was opened.
Many professors of universities es lolly et law and
historioalftphilological faculftetio which wore clo 4, student'
dismissed and teachers fire
Prom 1932 on asherp reversion to he reestablishment
of pro.? viet methods and utruature in the universities was of
tooted in connection with the resolution ot TiIK $$ on curricula
and in higher edacationsl institutions*
As stated in Vostaik Vssbey Ne? 54947
this resolutions
0
000 ?
policies of the NAR
an end to expert tattoos and erring
with res ti\po tiie universities."
This re lation devoted a spec
1140414 ditiVitiV
48 educational institutions prep
in enema scientific tields and
nt" to the universities,
then the oxisti universities
hi
P 05
it ie specialists
A.gawm.A.144malift
OVOWAxmou
universities in those republics whore 1;hey 4o not ea t (Ukraine
aAd others) " As the abovementioned article states* "This
authoritative resoluOion put 411 en4 to I talk of t re be
no used to the universities*"
came the ti of roestab ish
nt; of previously abolis d tea 'tete Leniinsrs4 the
cherai story fecal tet and biology recta et were reopened
ill 14
1
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Moscow University the ohemistry faculttet was reestablished*
In Ukraine, the Sao Uhiversith Marolkiv UnivOrsity4 Odessa
University, and Dnepropetrovsk Uhiversity were reestablLshed
ly these universities a aeries 4t\pcientificoresearell institutes
was opened, Odessa Qamrsity annexed a physical.chemical
research Institute, an seOronomical observatory and a geophysical
research station.
In 1937 Uie h ties raft:Mots boon to be row
established. Thum at Zeninirad University a philology taculitet
W40 r0Op0404.
resolutions ot t
UMW in 934 and 1 no
/vestal:1i t 4 scientific d ,f,rees and titles, which the aoltiote
WA formerly abolishetif and the lade of which cau:c44 unog
qualified persons ?o tioyeil br tho 14m4vereittes1 ahoy:14
lowering Ws teachi
petitive syst
entrance examlnatio
0
leflo to a
2 'r
s =dards Also reinstated was the 0,101**
eu%.tng Proteesors and Docents* in 1937
tor students were likewise stsWihed
tow
the preo4oviet edus VIOWS
in the Wily or work 4,0 at the oniversi
ties* New curricula thus oriented with the increase to -$ years
I bay love ,d the
4$'
?These aurritoula devoted a
and special
stunts were en
at the students
t ot t to
d nstat d *lea course. 4
ric In the scientiticoresearch
W41 geared to the production of
1
institutes* The whole syst
"nerrowprotile specialist
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The Soviets, Wins inherited a tradition of excellent
universities, with a system of tkishity quAlltried scientists In
many fIeZds, instead of teprovins them were at first tryi Item
bard to destroy them. Their reckless and stupid experimentation
that lasted 3446 years, had 1Weigght the universities to almst
coolete Mtn, having destroyed the system and ejectad tram the
universities many expert scientists especially in history end
other humanities, and in biologicel sciencesq Only the physical
mathematical)chemical 104 tecludocal sciences were not c etely
destroyed.
as realized the extent of the
they had made,
he Soylets wade sharp atetO POW,36 C-44. oystem an4 try to
undo the # only thanks to thecol-4130mm ot *asap
tits of the old school and their students were they able to tet
the universities back on their test s process or resrstLon
is continued to this days but has not yet qualitatively reached
re. wig * their preeenOwday 1001year school* had
not yet reached the ualit ot the old system and ,ho on down the
40444 In the knowle
4444W
or foreign x so the
knowle of which had enabled et'. nte to draw on fore an aurae*
at scion itic 4evel wit in
western oWervers t the Soviet Union with a
educational 0/s1ew, torsetting Oat that syst was built
centuries ot hard work Oo a state in *doh even 14 years
'4oviet snort concentrated On its deStrUOtiOn 00U1d not
AeltiCk destro it Only credit to0 the SOVietS is tMt
-
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'44!
they had had the sense to return to the old methods wbon they
saw their education crumbling into dusts and aUtowerd the rem-
nants of the old school of scientists to build It up win,
Even now the 1ea4ere ot Soviet science are not tiommurtistoproduagi4
as is testified by the tact that almost none of them are members
et the communist party, despite the many personal advantages
and privileges that membersktp in the party ?otters its - berss
ani despite the pressures put on them to Join,
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Resolutions of the =AMOK in, 1934 and 19370 returned
to the :014 or Soviet *ducat/on t old degrees ot Nagister and
Deater ot Alenees0 renaming the former "Oae414ate a 3eloneeb4"
These resolutione also eatsbliOed he organlsatione to regalaVe
the giving of '40 The highest organleatoion for tf4 giving
of degrees is the 1Washaya atestatsionnaoka koslealia" (upreme
attestatlan Won) at the SOVNARKON 543110, 44 states Vestnik
V$sshey Shkely No. 90 4630 pp. 24030, the right to actv4t the
Doctorate dissertation ie given to 1b iihr educational inst440
teams and seienoe.reeearch establiehmentst r t to aeeept
th Candidatoe dissertation was gAven to 278 higher eleoational
institutions and 211 aelenceareseareh Lnotltatee.
Ameht the 31 universities *bleb, exie1 in 197, onli
21 reeeived the right to accept Doctorate ard Candidate diegm
unotiittOrto The amarding of (tepees on the beets ot defense et
aseertation *an be done by those insfAtetioas0 however, only
tor the cic ;to of Can4idate of Saiences, and they aan reaorvite 1
the asplraht for a doetorate enc. sueeeestully teAd Ms
dieeertation to the
deoldes whether to
viewe Candidate dieee
ttestation Coareission
d the de eol
10116 04.11 take aw
de: 0 it it wants to even atter it has been
The following 7 universities ad not
4.
litt then
re
idate
riot& with resp to the lectorate dograeat Oor kly
Kazakh, IfasmeIeeitiratish, Molotov, Uzbek Urai nett
'
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it I
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and Chernovilsy Universities did not set any et the above riabts
(sowoes Vysshaya *kola, i. et C. call no.ZR0Al2
pp. 3290330). The * reme Attestation Commission Widths the
universities into three categories, indicated that the above*
ntioned universities do not have the necessary standards.
Ompses are warded in the followins tieldoss
1) physicalemathematioal sclersoes;
2) Ommt441 1141400114
3) biolosIcal SOW0044
4) polosi4al4minerolosical saisnew4
5) technical Sa$114014
6) agricultural 3ototoes;
7) bloom
8) ? macs;
philo
IQ) geopsphyl
11) ju4iaial,
C$1 so s;
13) , disinei
14) pharmace010411 aolenoes,
15) wtsriusoienoesi
16) artt;
17) arohi
GM$ Abov
%0 f only he t4 ropriste field from the
$ without moattGnine awls' a* eoto Doctor or
Medlar C Wt. ot Veterinary &demos Deetor ot AvAso
('0?e4 MC, pp.
? ?
, ? .. J.
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Persons holding the Candi te at $s.iwes,
and con4uoting the eorresponding pedsiottosa and r0000roh work
at a higher edueational Institution under the direction at a
Professor, are given the title or Decent,
Moons holdins the dove. at tor at Lances and
4
conducting pedagosioal and researeh work of lea4ins quaaity in
higher efteational i tuttoma or seisms researeh establish,
wants are siva the title of Professors
The title at Aseistant is given persons who have
graduated trom a r cluciaonal institution hitt aufti lent
on fmr teaciang or research work an4 eon4uat og sueh
work in a r educational institutitio
et a Profeseor or a *went (mums lad),
Statistical Information given in Narodno spy* vo
SUR Statiatiohoshiy atomise Moscow, 1956, p 233k LnCUO$tU
taw ems Win
that in 19$ at USSR the number at scientific workers was
223 among thee the having Dootorste es the
number hulas Candidate degrees a* 76,000
The dissertation presented for 4 Candi4ate ot atce
pee must reveal the plural thevretical knowle at the
&marmot, his special knowledge In the tleld of the dissertation,
and talent tor i ?pendent scientific research which mos
expres in the achievement of a w4 or i clientitio
result
The We ztte dissertation be ail
arab work, the result at which is the solution or them
:enSralisation of soientitie problems or a seientlfteally
presentation at new pro with considerable selentitie
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interest, The , tar of Scienee is an acoomplished scie*tiet
Who had Oven signitiaant contributions to e4ence0 having mode
general theoretical conclusions, and Win' a lame number of
sotentitis works published *arm nifysehara Sbkolso" Moscow
p. 301 Vestmik Vieshey Shkely No. 80 195541 p. 14)0
The Genital As :'bi7 a the Academy of Solaces ot
bus the right to sward Doctorate degrees "bowie cause"
wttbout defense of a dissertation, to especially noted Soviet
and foreign scientists. PUll members ot the Aca4emy of Sciences
of ars liven doctorates at the moment ot their election to
membership.
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From the day of the resolution of WOMEN In
1934 ton the reestablishment of **Lentil/is degrees and titles:
to 194t 5,236 persons resolved Doctorate degrees 1309 without
.fending a dissertation, in which during the first six years
886 persons got the Doctorate without having to defend a dist*
sir tion, While during the second six years 423 persons re
eeived them. The great number of Doctorates given without Is
dissertation *wins the first six years is explained by the
tact that this degree was In the first place given to those
Professors who hied already achieved Doctorates before Soviet
rule, and whose Doctorate (as 11 scientific degrees and titles)
were at first taken away by the Soviets, Also during the time
when there were no degrees many scientists achieved a high
status of competence, despite the Soviet expenteentations, end
in the tollowins years the number of Doctorates given without
defending dissertations, was less and less with every year,
and the main my of attaining a doctorate is now the dieser
tation?
Prom 1937 to 1947 the number or degrees of Candidate
of Soienees awarded was 25057. It the new data in the 1956
statistical collection is to be trusted, then at the present
time there are 78,000 Candidate degrees, that is within the
period of 6 years about 55,000 (s must hove died in thie
period) that is every year about 8,00: were graduated, The
same statistical collection, however, on /040 23 states that in
1950 4,093 aspirants were graduated not all of whom received
k
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the degree, and In 1955 7,607 were graduated, tree which also
not all resolved the demo, so it is evident Oat the Soviet
figure ot the total number of Candidates of Same (78,000)
is optimistically issagierated for propaganda purposes, while
the actual number Is not more than 6000Q.
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Vesta Visehey Shkoly No 9, 194, pp. 3640 states that the Supreme
Attesting Commission confirmed in the degree tot Doctor of Scions, in 194?6
484 pwrsons, end it 194 ? 640 persons, in the fields shown it the
following WU.
Molds
ommthsestioel
?eel
biological
Osalogyominera
Teatiniaal
Agricultural
Hist**
Eat-modes
Phil000phy
iiilology
it,leogrep4
pAti
Nodioloo
Pbarmagutioal
s
Fed.1,0
VeterinorY
Art
iirchitecture
Miter/
Idait
0
Total
736
60
113
2,9
411
37
19
6
42
14
23
2
603
50)
909
703
a.)
4*4
3,4
1.3
?5
"a
1.2
24
2608
38
3,
4
15
3
12
151
13
a
8.0
440
7.4 ,
649 ;
151
44 28
3,5 20
2?2
09 2
302 27
11
.6
2?7
302 151
39
77
54
6.1
1149
7,4
443
3,0
1.4
03
4112
1?7
144
#4.1
Avw.,
02
8
2,5
1.7
1132
100
30
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Prom this table it follow' iwhat the number of persons
having received 4?ot:orates in physicaimmathematioalo, dummies:14
bioloOcal, geolosioal*minerolesioal and teehnical rielola in
1946 we* 46,' or the total number of persons who reaeived 400tero4
ates luring; this year, and e$' ot the total In 19470 In one
assumes that suoh a relationship between the sroup of s cialLies
indicated and the total, then the number of persons in MR
holding doetorate kiegrees In t,he MIAs is now &WW1 4,300 to
4,6001 that le about a h' bt the total number of Doctorates
in 4$11 (WOO)
to the rule approvel by SOVNARSOM SUR gm
North 1, 1939 (see I'Vysohaya ***la Moscow I p0 299 232)0
the main meth od of preparation of Prift.scorm
V
gioal so attic
s is ?he process cal1, upirantura," An aspirant (person
undergoing; asplrantura) le A graduete student working for the
Jos c of Candidate of Seienc,s, or a Candidate of Seienoes
workina for the of Oootor of 3alencei In Shich case it is
calleJ dokterantura. A4pirantura is by
such
in effect only a
reluoational institutions and s4v enceitomteeare ins*
stitut whioh stsfte4 with W I Outlined actAwitic
"leaders" and has t correspendIng *dentate research taallities#
Arent 8ont4ent also
preparation of professor-op
can take place are coal
koo'luostion at the rso
All Candidate 4
owipi
intatution0 and
e4ras in whioh
cal cadres by way of aspir
the All Union C*44, ttee of H
io of the appropriate "narkometl"
t oontienta must piss examinations
4
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in Mardsmotenintism, their specialties an4 one foreign lingua.**
The aspirant works for a certain definite katedra under the di
rection or an advlsor who bears reeponeibillt for the results of
the aspirant's work. The advisor formulates an individual:LW
carrie4 for the aspirant, which is a three-year program. The
aspirant is to fulfill works re2ate4 to his dissertation th
0431 ImatiosalY studY sources 10 toreisn and Russian literature
i his specialty, study and attend cl.taes in related subjects,
and perfect his knowlo e of forciln lan
00#
in which th, aspirant took nla entrance e is etudiel In the
second I , Inge in which he rnw be proficient
before 4etwilAitt; his dissertation lik% studied in the 2nd year.
Aspirants have full ;see tram the first yeux or pirantura or
all facilities of laboratories, special librarioir and the library
of the Atstlemy of Joiences on equal bias with resular res,arch
kers in the institutes The aspirant r t take an examination
*
at he end of each year in his specialty and toretan vases,
witshin the scop of his individual curriculum. it the end of
the t,rs indicated by his individual curriculum the seplrant
must detenct his dissertation for tkiA twee a Awidato ot
uols is
b) he tails
ir t must be iismissed from aepirantura its
commended, by his advisor on motivos of do
n scientific research work;
) he does not eu
ions in his 3p4cialty and foreign
t on t? his dls\ertation work.
132
nstrate4
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I!
All accepted aspirants get ?vernment stipends during $isw
pirenturas Thy also get an allowance tor the acquisition ot
solontaic literative. The amount ot this allowance is equal
to the stipend Itscit? The aspirant to also allowed to 8 4024,
ment his income by teaching in 4 higher educational Institutions
but no more than 30 hours a month. The aspirant gots 11 days
vacation in the Winter and 2 months in the Summoro
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TO **Winters are aceepted persons not older than
45, or in exeeptional eases 50 mire of ase, holding the degree
ot Candidate of Sciences, knowing two toreIgn languaos (* tiara
is studied during doktorantura), and having recommended thea.
selves as competent solentitie research workers* Acceptance to
doktorantura is by e oetition on the basis of judgement or the
caliber of scientitic works publish ,0 by the applicant, anti an
e, nation in the knowledge of two foreign lan5us4,e. The
doktorant enjoys the same privileps in using totalities ot the
institution he works in, Doktorantura is conducted by the
ademy of Sciences of Wai and also i i 1are universities,
where faeilities or advanced research are available nsi**
bility for the work of the doktorant is assumed by his s nted
advisor or two advisors.
The term or etudy is determined for each doktorant
individually, depending On the level of hie knowle et and the
nature a the dissertation work to present o4,4?4000
of more than four pare of work44 including the defense of the
dissertation* without taking the doktorant away from his main
1;
4
work. Beciently a sys was devised for the * ktorant to finish
doktorantara in t years, being panted a leave or absent* with
full pay from the institution of his main WO*.
The theme of the dIseertation is included in
regulexi schedule or the researoh plan of the institute where
the dissertation is fulfilled, among all the regular non degree
research being done by the institute,
134
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The doktorants finishift their 4oktorantura must be
proficient enough in three for*Ign languages to fully utilise
all seientitis literature in those languages in their fields
Doktorants who have derended the dissertation tor the Doctor of
Selene* degree are considered as having finished their doktoran
toys.
Acoordi 4 to intonation found in %stalk Vysshey
SikoLy &A, 19550 ps in Soviet universities, economic mots
and judicial institutes, in the period or 1)4704955 inclusive
6757 persons finithed aspirantura, only 1925 (28050) at which
defended the diasertation on times A similar situation of late
presentation exists also in doktorantaras This is explained in
Vestaik Volahey Shkoly No060 1955, pp 1245 by Correspondent
W ber or the Iao. t of Sciences or us" Valls Xusnitsov (from
Tomsk University), by the fact that the theoretical preparation
of aspirants is ususlly cooposed of four subjects, one or them
in i toreign lengusge, one in philosophy, and two in their
specialty, all or which he must pass during one and a half years,
In which the tint two subjects take up half the times Kuinitsov
feels that the OM and 4 halt years left, aro insufficient for
the preparation of a dissertation for Candidate or Sciences deetre 0
In the same Vestaik, Kunitsov notes that a consider*
ale number or Candidate dissertstlons are not of any scientific
values This he explains by the tact that the rei4t sitility
for the aspirant's rinishing his work on time le put with his
advisor. Such 4 4 assumes that eaoh *spirant' attain* become
? .
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a ocientlfie worker, and it he does not beoome such, his advisor
is blamed. Me is blamed for ohoosing the 'mons theme for the
assertation of the aspirants And thus advisors are apt to try
put themselves out of blames* way by taking Appropriate measures?
*wising a theme which is not a search of something new, yet will
be satisfactory for a dissertations "This is *Ay there are yet
so tow Candidate dissertations that contribute to science In any
real ways In most cases they are deveior -nts or subjects already
known%
Vestnik Vyashey Shkoly. Nosl, 19554 104, gives some
los of strange themes in pedagoslcal sciences for which
Soviet aspirants received Candidate degrees: uZt sometimes is
also this was, A teacher writes on the theme /Bole and Signitio
canoe of the Sahooi letin Board (stennays assets) in the
Work of Communist Upbringing of 7th Ora. Public $chool Studentest
And lo, be was a'..#q4 a degree of Caudidate of Sciences (Ir take
the dissertation for Candidate of P, gleal Sciences taping
Over the t Hors, by the "Lege pr.ad0 method-. New
pedagoa herett?1
irks it of ours. 'etp not follow that
there are no OsnAlIdate dissertations that have definite scientific
value* DoubtieSa aspirate who undergo aspirators* the
universities 004 inatitutes of the Aca$ t at Science of II
in the fields of physics, mathematics, biolo
others have presented dissertations of e*ident worths This is
indicated in part in Mathematical Reviews ( :glean publication),
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where are reviewed same positive Soviet works, among Candidate
degree dissertations. Many of these works equal in scope Mori
-
sot Ph o dissertations. One must, however note that these
dissertations do not equal in se the dissertations for a
stir degree which exiated before Soviets came into power.
This is $o because the Register aspirsat was atAring as a, rule
in a better universities than the present soviet ones, even
though they were few in number (9), and consequently the students
and therefore aspirants were better prepared in encoachins
their Nag:Lotter aseertationo end it 144$ of a higher level.
Prof. Kusaitsov corroborates this in the already mentioned
article in iteartaik Voshey Shkoly: ?To der,, 0 the to r
'
ter dissertation in pre -revolutionary Russia was harder then th
present Candidate tissertationo but easter than contw rary
Doctorate."
far applioant knew at losst Wee languages
to Germano Latino and some tour 1 Aa4e0 adding Oreek
to the other three. Therefore he did not have to study a new
e during his preparation pert
sad also did not have to pass e
or any correspondent Wool* e
for the
ons la
star de
t
smolentint
ft.
ent or the Tsarist system.
He had lastmed to pass I subjeets al rtatni , to his proteselon
before he was allowed to defend the dissertation, ono of which
was a written e " ion on a
t-
the examination. So tile
!Wawa than the pre At
not revealed to ia until
degree had a greater Sifli
quivalent et Candidate of
Wows. Also his knowledge of the Paolo anguasee was very
*137
,
'
,
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much greater than the presentoday knowledge of he Candidate
or Sciences* This can be seen from the tact that the Candidate
aspirant has to s One linguae and then study another for
only one year, and the carom
examinati4n in foretiA language
required before ooduatiOn of pre4oviet secondary schools*
In the present 100year schools, however, only one language is
taught, and that on a comparatively low level with respect to
the former depth with which th c was treated* The
contirmatiolt ot this comes from the following fact given by the
Vestnik Vyeshey Shkoly No*5* 1955* p*47* At the Moscow Xnstitute
of tisnolerrous Metals and Gold where entrance e
foreIgn lansuages are t yen, 60 of ali (Citv
?natio* in
oat start
the continuation of their aecondary school language cour, -t
booming ullth the phabet* At the graduation from the pre
Soviet slum, however, the student could treely Sk at
least two toreich lInguages, al et with the sit-0 proficiency
as the present-47 **condom school radustes or No and
Demo** The knoll* e
tial tor all siantific
foreign languages Is V soon
rkers who wish to attain anydepth
In their researches and have to follow toren literature*
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As states Vestnik Wsshey Shkoly No. 8# 1955, pp. 12015
(article by V. N. KUsnitsov), a considerable part of Doctors
of Sciences got their doctorate by a dissertation at the end
of a doktorantura. Notwithstanding the measures taken, however,
the ranks of the Doctors of Sciences in educational institutions
under the Ministry of Higher Education are filled lately at a
very slow rate. "The system of preparation of Doctors (of
Saienceo) is, in ou?opinion# contrary to the very notion of
Doctors of Sciences. A Doctor of Science is an accomplished
scientists in his field, having had -a considerable number of
works (published) and coworkers working under his direction.
16 falOWS that at Doctor of Science not oaf need no advisors,
but himself ia able to guide a group of scientists. Dootorantura#
however, does not differ in principle from aspirantura. In
both oases the theme is given by the advisor and the applici t
work under the guidance of the advisors, the only difference
beIng that the theme of the doctorant is more complex and
broader (in scope) than that of the aspirant."
4L, pre0rirolutionary hussian universities, the Magister
prepared 41s Doctorate dissertation working at the university
as "extraordinary" professor (lower in rank than "ordinary.",
which was the highest), chose himself the theme of the dis
sertation, had no official advisors, and after finishing it sent
it to the offloial reviewers (retsenzent). If they found it
satisfactory he was given the right to defend it at the
university, After being granted the Doctorate he received the
right to be an "ordinary" profess?
and to the one and a half
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times the pay of the "extraordinary" professor that went with
it At no time was the appliaant forced or hunted in any war*
Being unhampered by any time schedule he *mad work at his
:Leasure and submit his work only otter he was abeolutolY
positive of its results*
The contemporary Soviet dissertation s, es Prof. igusnitsov
mentions above, Usher in level than the A 4 strate disserOation,
but lower than the preorevolutionary Doctorate, and the time is
still distant when the Ciandidate dissertations shall reach the
scope of the '-:is Ate diesertations*
the 3oviet Doctorates
shall reach the itoope of the preiwrevolutionary Doctorate* It
sbell not happen until the lOwyear school reaehes in quality the
teaching of pre *revolutionary gymnasium, the university reacbes
the quality of the old university, the system et preparation ot
Candidates will be analogous to form*r ster applieenta* and
the preparation or Doctors be snalosous to the p paratton of
preorevolutionary Doetc4, which, in the opinion of the author of
this report Is impoesible until the Communist system exists
00 more,
The present Candidste? of domes, is, however, se was
noted previously, in Aisles, methematios, eherAistry, biolo
technology etc equivalent to the ;riosn Pho D. degree,
4
while the Soviet Doctorate is considerably Usher, end in thie
lies a considerable
van of the Soviet system as opposed
to the rican system* This tact of tiv, superiority of Soviet
Doctorates, is ilot only the opinion of this author, but ite
recosnised by many responsible scientists* A notable example
is Dr. achard M Dorzoth of the Bell Telephone laboratories,
E 4
t
140
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quoted in this by Harrison Es Salisbury in the article on
Dr* Kapitsa on po 3 ea. 2, of the Wdnesday, July 11 1956*
lasue of the New York Times,
At Ws time* while the Communist Party in Russia is
twins all possible ? an to gain domination of the whole world*
and the 114,140 is forced to dsrend Itself and lead the deems
or the free'world0 and wale the USA has now the fulleolvantage
over the 11441i in riculture* Industry* transportations and
free initiative of its people* the level ot science is of the
utmost koortance? America la fully able at the pr sent t
to effeet the needed ehang2a to pl*rove its educational system*
and Is potentially able to maintain the finest ducational Aisteim
in this world* far surpassi that of the Sovi too It thaa
es are not effected however we mag be lad to
'
eventual
Joviet scientific supremacy* witich would be dlaastrous tor
the fre* world*
;.
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MAJOR SOURCES USED IN REPORT
"Dlrektivy W(b) 1 Postanovloniya Sovete9so Pravitelostva
o Narodnom Obrasovanil sa 1917.1947 Cody plroctives of the
V1411and Resolutions of the at Government on National
&Nos ion for Years 1917494714 Nosoow, 1947,
L, of C. Call No.; it KR2280 .A1 1947
'incyclopedia Americana" Vol. 27.
DivestIva" No. 49* Pobruary 26 1956.
"Narodnoye Khogyaystvo SUR atatiatiohoskity Sborritic"
(National Economy of
Statistical Collection) 1956.
t4i142710111100 Obrazovenlyea by To. 14. NOOrnokly, 195.
"Ns
LAW 022
rodric
1955, No
Utredno
Noectowi
Obrasovantie" 1948. I. of C CCU No
0 .A2 1948.
? Obrasovarilye No. 1 1950* No 8 1954, No. 1,
2, 1955. and 9 1955
? Obretovattire v ? $R (Pu
952. by Ye. 14. liodynsklq.
York
Jul 11 19560
Lie Education in USSR)
isatelya Upravlenlya Oniversiteto
Of A iniatration of Universities in
Bohm4hud iv. New York, 1954.
"Prosveerheheniya v SSW" (Iducat
Nedynekty0 19550
"Soviet Profeeslona 3. npower
Washinston. D. CO3 19550
14$
v S8
) by Prof.Vo1odmir
R) by To
lotto:Lae DeWitt
vochnik dlya Postupaiushobikh v Sre
MI bum Zsvedentya v 1956 g0"
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ra Spe talonyle
-6000660017ZOnl?1701-0-1-8dCll-V10 ?0/60/?1,0Z -1A-09 ? eseeiei -104 panoxIdv Ado Pez!4!ueS -1-led LI! 1084!sseloaCI
*946/ 15IN Pull "556T
*IT rifin, e
:g ft ea 47 econ set '1 *oo tiOt ?45 *om
-vaet 0 ou -etet '6 .041 'L6t 'II "061 IS .014
Alms womAk AW41104
*V10 taw mem Isom it p
?
toe( sittom itateaget ntivioAst
VC16T. .10A WIN mart memo, vtottodens,
*0100 ?I 946/ A valusown
Wuqmpti Omni% A qA qoqnsIod attp mutlootagdga
9-ZOOOZZ0017ZOnl?1701-0-1-8dCll-V10 ?0/60/?1,0Z -1A-09 ? eseeiei -104 peAOJddV AcF65-pazq!ueS u! PeWsseloaCI
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giales
asites ostabli
raid Wm.
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Untver4tiea in USSR
Pollowing are the 33 Soviet universities with their
addresses, dates at establis)( nt and tamdstetsi
A) story tseulltet.
Specialty, history.
B1 Philolo fasulsto 0
Speolaltiess Aserbaydshan lansuase and literature; AUS81041
and Utast 1; library science and ball* ; Journal ;
Iranian languages and literature,
C) LAW taeulftet.
4pesisoltys jurisprude e.
loaXlmathematical taculitet.
ape tallies, mathematics; physic!),
IS) Chemistry tsculot t
44altyl chemist
16001
cialtiest
a) Goo
ialtiesi
sits; phr
taiO4 tat
taw zooiosi?
foul' e 0
ey and se
400 0
Correspondence so tionts
cisltiest ma tica; hist*
t
enoe
used mineral
14
A)
apectialtys him
34 Philolosy taeuiftet
Is:Sliest Belorussian
e and literature; j
?C) law t
Specialty,
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5O-Yr 2O3/Qq ? rsiA
liters*
als
cisme
liters Russian
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D) Physicakomathematical 2so4ltet
deities/ mathematics) physics.
E) Chemist? taculobet.
4444410 I try
F) Mlology fecurtot,
cialties; botany') zoology
asologyoseopsiphy faculitet,
claltiesi geology' and seareh for sites
sits) physical geography; economic goo
II) Correspondence section.
Specialties/ history; ' loruis*an %age and literature;
Russian lonspage and Meraturs; Ournali jurisprudenoe;
mathematics; lea eography; econmala ge hy; bot
zoology'
user mineral
vs es ished 1519, ot
acul#tet*
0 snd itserature ussian
science and bib logrsphy;
and lite tun; German
and literature
es facallUet,
insmaes ard ere till
C) law faculftet.
opecialtyt Jpruno,
0 calomel
cialtie physics;
0$
tot of
phoysical
tet ct me
sling
and
t?
?
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lart*
history;
crcitts
literature
50-Yr 201a/09/03 ? riA_DiThrl'o.,
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soU ociomes taloa I tot*
taw. zoology; soil eolorwo and agro4thomistryl
rsoulltet*
logy smi search for sites of 004 mineral
oolou and onginooring geology*
MIA tot *
oat hydrolown physical goo
?
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a:
C) Chemistry taaulltet.
Speoisitys elismist270
D) Pivology taaultt t
Speoialtiess botany) zoology
2) XI. ;motion*
Speetaltiost sian lamas? and literature; mathematics) boWiory;
zoology*
141 Correspondenae section*
4ecisatiesi Ukrainian lang zi llterature; Russian
and literature; mathematics
YO LI,* t im M 4olot v
x, vlif ; es a one 2
AI His acultteto
Spacialtil htstory* '
Bi) Philology tacul$tet.
2,eala1t1.es: Arm/L-4a idrewmge and 111wratmre; Rogan la
and litsrature iinglish I Iguage d 4iLorature Iranian
aopages and literature; 44,man 10 c and 1 terature; Prenah
:Language and lit %%mum 4,
C) Boonomio3 fagulsteti
4,41;U:fittest Aunt% of national eo may; aoacovnt
rrudence.
0. Physic
zati al taculOteto
tioe; plysios; mechanics,
4 Chemistry facalltet
4ecia1tyi ohemistry*
F) Mology ta4ortet*
tany; zoolny*
0) Oe ...#..0. raoulltet*
. 4paotatleel al4a1 geogr ; oncs
li, Correspoodenae seotiOn.
.41alti si finances ,,.-.4. credit; p1r
ting0,
geograohy*
tqtr,t4ii
ot national ec
?
ar
.1
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8) Law fouliteti,
Apocialt's prispruderas,
C) thystoal*matheastioal :aim:Met*
Spocialtiost methomatics; physics,
Cheast tacul*Utt
Spoolaltari 00 I) ortlyt
IC) ilL4otratipsoll soicace race t t ?
SpeolaItiest botiov zoology.
r) ;Hol tuulltxt.
Specialtios$ polo " 4na pro citing tor elmtst petroleam
and Oposits; geoloi survey ,Id search tor sites ot use-
f4 miAeral t4
G) facul'oto
3poci4tAael physical go 7) economic goo
H)4#orruipon4eno, 9,cottano
Apeololtios, lunS-,,I,e and li4,z0r4turo hiatfort
t pht,vicalvozract; %kortollo .72,ograp Wenn z
? 44
veyw, V I ti
ef314,
*
litstorpwitya1 riu ta tet
hiseotAmo,4i letvace
40atatiost 41 ' '
vagivAse 4 it totilt MO
iy
,K.1, ?
4) Latt St44111
4.1tyl jUrittputt
looathcmatt a t121ote'4.
Uu
ta4 otalcal 0 um; mal
04) olaltyt
Eilol
#
040$ A '4WVO
r 4A1' 4,4
r)
4441a3
wineral
14 of
, of si
0)
s lard $
1, .0^1c0140.
a*.
10
tem
004011t:,t*
410It2,11,ca1 survey
&ophyaio At
tittparoil ainoral
peLum
d Sa3
t oul'Ueto
1 al oosrap
0
tic iota
lowo
(4; Wit Pode
zoarol for tea ot oftiag,
is or seoches sad pro$* otv
and prospacto,
deposites0
000m,
eography tom
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H) C;orresponden to ae tiono
;$/v ialtiest Russian lanspago an iltorature; Tartar langu
awl literutoirc; history; mathumati a; botany; oology?
AO Kazakh S as Ui s is, ! 4irov
Ma v aya un,, ts s
A) History ta,alltot*
AsIty; history,
Philolo17 tai,ul!tet*
6peiAaltiost Kazakh languito and llteratiaro* riasolan language
ankl literatdre; journalism,
41,
0 Law tasAiilftet.
SpeQialtys jurisprudeme*
SoonomUs ta4u11tot*
Specialtiest Industrial 04onom
rzit; a000tAnting*
6) Physioa*mathematiJai ta414
3pc4i1t.iu mathematio; physic40
IP) Chemistry facAlitoto
Aotti: chemistry.
0) Biologyosoil scUeme ?tot*
4cQialtissl botany; aoology.
4 Geography 1.414;ulttot40
IniAaltios; physiGal &ograp
1) Correspondeme section*
Kazakal Iangaap
an litteraare; R4 an lanvage
ancl literuturt4 hUtory; mathematioa; journalism; botany; zoo*.
zooiny; lariztopritm:;e; oQonoml4a; finanues and u*ellt;
*loal pograpby*
',rude itortomi(g) '1n4wet an4
ilonomii:; go
'
ver I*
P
A Historpophilolo y
history; Russ
46orsklye4 uares And lit t
ettablisted 19400
'e and Iltorature; 71nno
Physicalmathematioal 44414et9
4it1ties: mathomatios; physifgl.
4) Forestry e
forest ???
t
neering faegliteto
engineering*
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ricultural taaulitet*
Speolaltiess asronomy, gooteohnis*
0 Correspondence section*
3pecialtleat wiatilimmi44400; histor$; Russian langu o ani Mem.
tura; "Pinnodougorehlye" languages and literature*
1,1 veit tin it h vehe
3 OV, aya *;
A) History tacul'tet*
spoialtyl history*
!Loonomlos faaulitet*
040cialty: political ezonomies,
) Philosophy ruallteto
3piXtjs*t philosoph$40 psyl,
0 Philology raiwIltet*
4peoia1tiess Ukrainian lansua4,to unA 1/44;ratAre* Russian
and literature; ' lioh 1 uavo and IlLeratax French 1
and literature*
Jouxuallam faoglqiet*
Jpecialty: journalism.
F) Law faculltet*
?vet otaity jarlsprkierwe
G chataceeminatiusatiws faoul, tot*
vf,t11,1?mati3s; trobanica#
Occialties1
H)
laity*
co tacalltst*
to.
1) Chemistrv fa ul'tet*
4oci4tys chemistry*
J) titolosyftsoll soienze taoul,tet*
3pecialtiess botany; zoology*
It) Geology tactalttet*
laltiess eo eurv4
rU 4F sits; hy4ro10 and
L) ap acul'toto
Jpecialties 8 phy ical g
t
m) corroapon* e seotion*
ecialtleas at ties; pho
; history; HUstilan lang
and ltteratare; 4ingitalt
learch or site f useful
nanoerIng stolo geophIsic
eonomic spograp1y0
physi al se r,* ucononti
o?
d litera ure; Ukrainian
e and :Littera ure; French
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language and literature; philosophy; political eco
zoology; 40000aliss, jurtsprudenos?
A History saulttets
Specialty; history.
a) Ph1Zoi taoullteto
Specialties: mix language
and literattirei
; establish 191
d o ature; 1iutan Una
C) Po 1 e tacui tet
Specialties; English language; German 1ang
D) Boo csoolaw aoulltet#
Specialtlest industri e40091106;
jurispra nce#
Phymicalleathomatical tacull,te
Specialties, botany; zolgogy
3pe ialtiess
0 Mal
Otecialtiess
facult?et
physical too ; ea?
SW 8010040 taculqete
botany; zoolo
11) Correspondence seotion
"ottoialti al Russian I and It
tics; bot wi? zoology; Industrial
e 400
uage and 1
s tsoul
lidav
terature,
tet?
credits
C) thYs
osialtiess
10) Chemis
?Laity;
Mol
oultourial coo
ise4;109
urej
vtnot c
tanyj
u loprwleno
ricult oral
hmule et*
) soil solo e and
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? established 1919; Soviet est. 19404
A nista N?philol taloa 'tett
tattoo htStOTlJ Latvlan :Language and literature; Russian
language and literatures
? .11) Zeonositos tocul,tet?
ZpeoiaMe.* industrial economies; Mane iin4 area
cultural economics; juriaprudence?
Physicaloosatheniatical factilitet*
:4peate1tiotis phis; mathematice4
Ctimptry faoultteto
Specialties* cheatstryj 3i1Lateteohnoloug,
13) o304,r AwAt teto
4poolaltiest zoolo
V) Osotraphy raculotet
cialtiess physical geo
eoonam44 go
0) Construction e ,ering Plata I tot
eislotiest induittriali and civil construction$ ricultural
construction' arehiteo tura*
ti) ,ohanica ctechriology) At*.
cialtiest alachineobuilding technology, ,Jtal cut;t1 tJine
and Itstrtments, electrical stations, nettgalte and el* ; oleo**
141tication ?et industrial antorpri a and lila illations
47 ?
I) Svonl aootion,
Nialtioas maehinsobuil toahnology4 murpal /Jutting mahinea
and instrumento; e14otrical otations$ netWOr?gb and ayaterso,
inaut an4 olvil oconotruation; $14 h and telonhone
uoitataticatiorase
Correimularmse tietttifig
eialtioal 4vian 1 4;
and literitura; hiatorn
hy, economic geograp
4 literatures Russian language
SAN jurisprudetnee; p sioal
13) % 'MMUS taculttot.
dealt paitical etoonomloso
,
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,
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(1) tacul#tet.
3peolaltiesi oesphyl psychology
:4 Pala fseulotet
cialtieso Romelin Impose and literature, SomanowOormanto
languages and Weratures English language literature;
German lamae and literature; Preach lawno and literature;
ah 14100110 and literatures Swedish language and literature;
horwestaa language and literature; Danish luso. and Ii4erature)
Itslian I and literature) Slavic Uaguages anci literature,
toligh e and literature) Czech language and literature;
en3. sna literature, classic oblac i Greek
and iterature; and rauxel 4journa1ismo
0 faculottet
Specialties* tern 1 and litoratves ChLMI 1
an4 literature; KoreanI and literatovj
an4 literaturo; Vietntmoge 1 kt' ant literbture;
and Iltorau, Tr154164 1 a an literature; Tokio
and literatarel Arabian luntooges an4 Moraturel
P) LAW taculltet4
3peolalty; juriaprudenao
ftwiloa taoulstet
cialtiess ph ci$; pop
11) Pleolmiesistath
tics departwent4
141tiest mat atio4) obanloo; ast
X) itiaoulotet*
laity*, o
0 24410 EA me taoul,tet*
oialtieas tun 1 $ lo1O to
ot mon and saval0; ao ewe 4nd t he
f *tot.
0rn t I 04g aurv y and mart* t itoa t tutuX
,
o tiv4o 04 a 3 f / totti
itil &who 'zr hj104417
Section*
an
j Otorsio
000
4,-
41,
10
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s?
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eq.
N) (orresporAdenoe sectlono
3pe4altiess aatheliuttios; history; Russian language and 1110er
Ours; 4nglish language and literature; German 1 Alf and
literature; politioal economies; philosophy; jurisp
bOtany; zoolosy; phplcal geomphY; ettonomiu SeograPhY) icoanaligme
LI 3t? ro t
vovi ve 8 0,
A) History tasulitet*,
ialtys history*
XI) Philolo. Raeulite
ocialtiest Ukrainian :11Ainet a41 llwratare; Russian I ita
an literature; 314vie 10 uages an licoraturot Pollsh language
and lititrature; ,,,044seh wiliage and literature; classic philology:
Omek lamp: m 0 Mi eto,Are j ti LitigOage and II Leratuhre 4
) j0411:na11 ra0 al, t t ? ?
014141 jon1iwa*
D) Foreign lang a faeuiste1400
3poola1tleas Engllsh language; Gera=
taaul,toto
lalVt prispruden000
P) Physlos f?31.111toto
acialtyl DI loo
:::..ohanicuomatha3T.ttul
eolaltp mathem4tUso
Ch Ilitatnt roe te
4ecialtyt obwaistovy*
I) Molog$ tallu:t to
laitio vow; zoologyo
3) Ocolo acal'toto
ecialtiest geological survey and searh, for sites tusett4
mineral de sits; geolocy p4tiX t altos or asetul
c4apoeits
faou' ttetio
Frenah lailsaageo
. .
f.
Vetlialtiess it ala
there 16 no enro loont
teto,
eoPaphy; twonomic Iwo
or these spvcialties).
1) Corrospoottetwowotiox!,
pecUte* historv Ukrainian la* 4 lit t ; Russian
1 a4 literature; mathematics; ju pradene botanw.
AA
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @_50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
icu In rart - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
an annex to Po
0 Mists 011
0441ties1 htstozr
0 r 1
vont*
faaulstet?
Ilan language and literature
?
shed in 1916 aa
14 Um ts4u1itst0
Specialty' jurisprudsnoso
C) Physlosksesthomatical tsoul'tet
Speolaltisst mathematics; physics
.0) Monts tac44tet,
43414143 stry
atolugy tactil I Wt
Sp W14404 botany; zoolo
Specialt1
14posits;
0)
?
taculitet,
polo and se
eology and e
,
hr
taculttcto
cialtiest physical goo
0) Twychnol*, factul,tat
eialtiegs tec #logy of in*
equit nt and tea 1 of heat 4rea
h fax, a
neeri
s ot usof31 mineral
ology*
aconomic
I) Corr.
41cia2tioss
zool physi
section,
Ice; history
abstanc* not
at of metals,*
no? botany;
170
C) iburnsli
ialtro J
t ?
' \
;
'?
H''H;??
?
Declassified iny 10 Sanitized Cop A proved for Release 50-Yr 2013ingim
? f".1 A
_ i-art - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
DI ?hula ikihv fasulotits
ialtiest t# losephy; psychology*
It) Economia tossulitet.
Specialty; polibical economics,
P) Law taoulitst
oialtys jurtsprude ego
0) Physics Sioulitetoo
Specialtisss Ayala; seep as,
H) Mischanicsomathamatics faculltet.
4peotalkin geohaz4ons3 astronomy
,i) Ch n trr maltUet*4
ecialtzts obomistryo
0 lo soil science
3pecia3tiest taro 1 ) physiolo of p an a;
or men and animals Antbropo owl soil 00 entle and
tt) A iscult4s,
cialtiesi palmy awl search for sites ot useful mineral
deposits) seology 4144 pr,AP
,, , *
t att,ea ot potrolom and
4opGstts; losioa , lovely / * It or aorta
t 4
thodo ot sesroh*s prospecting of sites
alta; geochemistry' hydro,'hology sad e
r4 uomet;
LG:oo
metaorol
mute
station;
osi physics; history; Rua; son
botsgys zoology; phoical ge
r "1"14161 "411 "A41-!1!
attanj vtitanckt la
(;) Phyaloal
43/41104111
and Literatures
'tioal rue I tot
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 50-Yr 2013incvnl
ueclassified in Part - Sanitizeclmax.4.0D roy_tt for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
0 Chemistry taculltet*
Speklialtyt ohemistry.
E) Biology t.oulotot.
Spcvialtiess botany; zo4logy*
F) Geography facul,tets
Jpecialtiess physical goolsraphy; oaonomic geography*
0) Correspondonoe sactiOn.
Jpecialties: history; Rusolifin language and litrerature; Ukrainian
languasit and literature; mathematics; physidal ge*Anp ; economic
geography; boLany; 400logy.
Rostov S ate Univ si im V I
svovi?nis sfollus r r eA,4
Historyvhiloirty faculiteto
Spiecialtioat hi tory; Russian :Vivi
as' ,i); established 19
ani literataire.
8) Myst w4hematical fao4l4ot.
ialtie4$ mothemutica; phys! Q44; meatanios.
C) Chemlatry faoulitet
laltyt ah6m4siwy*
Otolo o 1 s ine &tl'tet,
Jpoiatiet botany 400lo
Osologpogeograph*If faoulttet.
e babies: physioal seogr y; eol"41mla geoseaptily*
P) Law tacalitet.
ialty; jurisprud nau,
0) Correspo d4no.; section,
cialties: hl Wry; mathe tics; Rus Ian
e; boa fly; pnywical g ographi; ea
vo
History a ul e ?
Spa laity* hiatory.
Philo 4 tai*i 'tee.
Speolaltyt lab an
an4 liter
? 4 gootraphy*
and literatu
C) k iMtheaaies sou teto
Jpecialtiess mathematics; meohani so
D) Physics taculstet,
400a1141 physics.
14
4.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Relei@i_?_0-Yr2013/09/n:1 ? rIA_DninnA
, A
ueclassified in Part - Sanitized COpy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
Ci2edetz7 faculttet*
3pecialtyt hirststx,
F) Biology faculttet*
Specialties: botany; zoology*
0) Osology faaulitet*
Specialties: olosical survey and search for sites of useful
mineral deposi a) geology an4 prospecting of sites 4f usetul
?Lto?ral leposito
H) Geography tacalltet* I
oialties: physical geogr by; sOopomio geosraphy*
I) Correspondence section*
4ecia1ties: Russian It.--uale and literature) history; inatheritaties;
botany; zoologa; physio i eogr ; eoonomio geograpirt*
am a *a
A) History fa ulftetp
Specialty: astory*
B) Philology raculttet*
ecisitiest Uzbek long and literature; Aussiai* language
and litrature) journalism*
C) Eastern faculltet*
3pec.i1atiest Indian lang
literature) IranowArshanian
0 Law taoulstot*
4ec1aityt juripradonce*
" ) p
al tles t
eloal utathoztalit
0) Obeilist
aialtyt he
' q A
d literature; Uw language and
es and literature*
u104et*
0) Biology soil scienag faculftet*
4ecialtirst botany; zoology) soil scion?andothei
otos; pOsice
11) Geology taculltet
4peola1tio11 geological sum y and search for site 0 useful
aineral 44posits) hylrogeology and %lingering geology*
,,mraphy taculltet
apeciutiest physical seograPhri toonomie
of soil*
151
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release' 5'0-Yr 2013/09gn ? ^
1
srtphy; hydrology
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
,7) Correspondence section,
3pecia1ty: jurisprudence,
24 TL. L3 v r
na ; established 1948,
A) Nistory*philology kaculotete
Specialties: history; Tadzhik language and literature; Russian
language and literature,
B) Law faculttet,
Specialty: Jurisprudence
C) Economics faculltet,
Specialties: industrial economics; agricultural economies,
D) Physicalrmathematical raculitoet,
Specialties: mathematics; physics,
2) Natural sciences faculltet,
Specialties: geological survey and search for sites of useful
mineral deposits; botany; zoology,
11 Correspondence section,
opeuialties: Jurisprudence; industrial, economics, agricultural
vaonomics; trade economica,
Tartu State Uhivera t
ax' u $ ns oy 0, Yullkooli, 42; established 1802
A) Historpophilology facul,tet,
Specialties: history; Estonian langur e and literature; Russian
lang?e and literature; library soien e and bibliography,
00 Law faeulltet,
Sp cialty: jurisprudence*
C) Sciencesoatbamatica tacul'tet.
Specialties: mathematics; phisicu: :;klemistry; any; zoology;
physical geograp economic geography*
D) Economics faculitst,
Specialty: finances and credit.
E) Medical science tacuistot,
Specialties: the healing art; phx eeuttcs stomatology; phyaical
conditioning,
19 Correspondence section.
Specialties: history; Estonian language and literature; Russian
language and literature; Jurisprudence; mathematics; physical
conditioning library science and bibliography.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03 : CIA-RnpRi_ninAoon
,
Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-R0P81-01043R002400220002-5
1934$*
A History Pieu1ste$0
i Speolaltiest historyj philosophy) peyoholosy
aq Philology fasulttst0'
1 ,
3peotaltiesi aessogian 14004, and literature) Russian laws.
and literature) journalism; Iranian 1ansuas00 and literature;
1
TuxUlo languasea and literatursi ismitasao
C) INNWeipm if 1 s and literature t$QtZIt*t.
aialtiaa Ush swag, literature; airman lansuage
and Uterature; noh i401U0$0 and literature
UononLos faculstet* ,
?stoat '4s Manses and credit) *mounting*
E) Law frasalotet*
aisLtys jurisprodottoo.
P) Neohanies?mathessatios taaulftet
3peolialtiees matheaatiosi meobanios*
0) Physics faoulitot*
Specialty: physics,
11) chimistry taoulotet*
SVsoialtys ohemistriy*
I) Kola ulttet,
speoialtiess taw) zool
Yvi
agerapwfaaul
otaltiest phrtioal
UrVeY ara arch tor s
4 '
t t
; economic $e
'Cul mineral
X) Corresp44,nae motto
oialiAless ao untins finances and (treat; Industrisl 000nosioci
spa
Va.
talUses history) USSIAA
literature*
B4 onoaau?4 aoi.L*tot*
oialtiess jurisP ) planning of national economy,
oulturel two cs*
C) Physios L'tei
4poolaltys physics*
,
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03:It
CIA-RnpRi_ni n
ft
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
D) Nsahsaisaomsthematics tas4ltet0
apecialtless asthmatics) mechanic**
111) Chemistry taculotet
? ialtyl chemistry
P) Biol *soil SOWN. tacul,tst*
Speetaltiest taw zoology*
a) 640010170101.01MAY faaulttst*
cialtiess geological surrivir and search tor sites or useful
M deposits) chemistry; slog 1000,604; economic
seosraphy, soil hydrology; meteor* osy*
il) COMOSpan nee oeetion.
!AM's* history; Russian languaga an4 literature stsic.j
botanr; zoology; physi al 0 04, economic geography
A Philo *
ecialtiets
and literature;
literature; MAW=
e; rman laws's*
faaulttet*
ialtiest atom jurieprudena
C) Phys calmmathematical facul 4
limelosatliess t tics; hstcs.6
Technol ulttot
isltiest stzisl and civil
r sopir and sewer**
ol.
deltic**
1) slcal
3pecia1tyl 041410
hy taculft t
I cool 4)ph,ysital
somitt1 t
me on necrtns);
014rOble
ction*
ume Od lite ur W$iM I
e? jurispruden ei his $
Specialties*
and literature;
tany; zool
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03 CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
,4r7:"rt
III ranSized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
A MLstory.p
$psoialtissi ht?toryj
Russian laws, and literature
2) *Ma iaal tasulitoto
SposialtioSs stablutaaties) physics.
C Cheats twat I tit.
isItyt tri?
;lb sstsbl1ishsd194)
tap mid litorsturej
14 ?X
SpesialtieOt
11)
oisitys the hea1ifl its.
11) Conyespondenee 4340ottorto
apecialtiest historts Ukrainian las
langusge mid literature; mat tics;
same Mull/ tee.
and literature; Russian
414; zoslogyo
tet
ecialty rot*
Philolt
" eoialtiest
and literature$ sian
German i.
3p eisItiest
3peeidtitts
Volta
d 1933.
TAU
lte ure;
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy APproved for Release 2 50-Yr 2013inwm
920
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
) ftateslowithemettiosl tioulltsto
SpeatAltiest mothosties, meolaniosi physieso
0) Obeid, tsoulttet
4peolaitys tanfil
Siolop tseafteto
Speolaitiest botany; so4osy0
19 Geology result, ?to
43404 ogled survey and searoh ot sites of useful
ral de 14s4 geology An4 prof:00)4AI% of sites of useful
net41 leposits,
0) Gorrespondome se iotOrto
oisltiess history; sitin
msttos physiow journal $ bo
'
a) Philo)A feoul,tet*
* lvaltios$ Ian i uses an4 litareture;
ard Uteretare
Declassified in Part- Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 50 -Yr 2013/09/03: -RDP8 -
fl a
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
Al Hiallory taoulttet,
esisit's histerr,
10 Philai faaulobst,
Oialtiess and lit raimmis
and litersturs, Osman lansmap and Morita.,
0) Physioaleiniabonatiaal tsaulltsto
Spootaltioss mathamaties, Moos.
4 Mods
Speolaltys
lo
oialtioat
40.41altys
taaulototo
6147
*soil Wien** f otet,
tam goolsly.
taaulltot
cal geopelty.
ot sections
*torn Utesinlan
Menton;
Lan lops?
and ten WO;
and literature; maths*
,t04.4isstt The data in this k9p4Adt, ?il* tram
k liling in lonatit ens ofvvua "
It illora stvapso kb v it oh*
VOtSiatrit Nalitkit, NOS', l Sad atitett IA
V. ys V by Tee So 340tions4h .
08 R* Of
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ase
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
ow'
r. ?
z
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
A \
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
100
?
Has im *mini mot 0110
aas 411 eifellitit SO tibia*
v.
it
oco tr4etion and
indastryl mains eoristructIon
anti inibruavintej aso new and
war) nia maehimrayax4 teeimeil
teohnology
teolool
toehnologx
of the
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-RDP81-
I IA -5 4an ??? _c
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
?
,
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5 ?
1,90st
loior
0 t
v 1,) ? t,u/b()/E QZ JA-C)----g-eS89.18e1 JO I peACLIddV MOO pezwues -P9d 1-1! Peg!ssepeCI
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eteotirog UM* Puy WOW
1114r41 14401140* JO troops
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ozietail italnuovoite ur
reuertliong
4.112111 Puy uonvelliti Puma?o stoottee uT itlueViSt 414) lasquiti
V "TM
TeArtoodom ;re otte ifta eke tea slid *VOA JO
1,404,1U4rJM 404A00 04430 utrniamuTopy Tommou team? im
PIWITTM14 T otuortoltte0 Tec141144114$ MA 110 Ammo
remligo meaj.morvi sago formin Tentormitse luTmortoj
9-ZOOOZZ0017Z0021?1701-0-1.8dClei-V10 C0/60/CLOZ JA-09 aseepei Joj paAaiddv ;(doo pez!PueS Ped UI PeuissPnAn
4
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
TAW& a
Graduation of 41tetaiellaste in =sat trot& litisber adszeational Inztattiations
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
ueciassitied in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
V.
101040 C
Numbers of licientifie Workers in thousands)
1
j Total number ot scientific
workers
11
In scienceoresearch
establishments
0.2 223.9
in hitoner educational
institutions
In industry, administra
t4on1 etc.
the total number or
s ntifio workers
holdiug the degree of
Doctor or Sciences
Candidate ot Scines
holding the title or
Professor
Docent
4nior
Junior Research Pellew
and Assistant
0 ?
Declassified in Part Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 50-Yr 2013/09m
45*
7.3
9*0
8.3
9#5
78.01
16.2 17.1
ruk
ID rs r,
????? ?
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
Table D
Numbers of Aspirants (grad. students workins for the depot or
Candidate of Selenees) in I= at end of year, indicated
4, 1 * 1955
4
4044
940 1950
Total
r vspirants
thousands)
Including'
In er edacitiorlal
Usti utions
In soiencelwroseare4
establis 41tits
41101001004400.1A400060.mroVoweignmio.PIN001.44.0*.iliArmorappotavtil
c 16.9
13.2
00 4
21.9
124
(i(
%
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/09/03 : CIA-RDP81-01043Rnn94nn9,,nnno_
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr i043/09/03 ? CIA-RDP81-01043R00240027non7
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Co .y Ap ? roved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400220002-5
Table V
Enrollment of Aaptranta (at end of year indicated) tn
',?
-
:rd'? .
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/09/03 CIA-RDP81-01043R00240029non7