FUNDAMENTALS OF MILITARY GEOGRAPHY

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP81-01043R002400130005-2
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: C
• Document Page Count: 89
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: October 28, 2013
• Sequence Number: 5
• Publication Date: March 14, 1957
• Content Type: REPORT

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MAT
o JUGOSI4VV.,
Maj iir General Ivan A; BOZITOH
046tel Milan 4.4) KNEZEVICH
Belgrade, 1954
?
?????????????????44,
Military Publishing House "Vo no Delo"
Editors
Lt-Col General Blazo JANKOVIGH
Major General Sredoje UROSHEVIGH
Major Geieral Vekoslav KOLB
Major General Branko POPOVIOH
Major General Drago DJUKANOVIGH
Colonel Shpiro SMNTIOH
Captain I elass Radomir DJURASHIvid.
(acting as Chief editor)
Printed by: Jugoslav Printing House, Belgrade
???????????????????????????????
The second. volume of military geography "Federative People's Re-
public of Jugoslavia" was written with the aim of giving the reader the
essentials of military geography of his own country. The book presents
general and most importanti i.e. most characteristic information about the
importance of the Army, physical features of individual regions, mountains,
rivers, towns, etc. and their influence on military operations in wartins.
Many an interesting detail, that could not be included in this book, shatilr"
be carefully studied, for they, in addition to these presented here, are
the basis for a deep study of military geography.
Accordingly, this book, together with the first volume
Military Geography in General" --- aught to be a fundamental for
in his further study of military geography of our fatherland.
It is necessary to point out that today, when aar socialistic
building-up is in full swing, almost all statistical data gets out of date
very soon. In the course of working at this book We twice collected
latest information and data, but this does not mean that they will be valid
... Hon
the reader
011040/2.
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when0 the reader gets the book, for with this speed of development, a plan of yester-
day is reality bodaY, and a fact today is changed tomorrow. Therefore, one ought
to read niwspapers and other publications continually in order to keep pace with
the development of economy as a very important military-geographical element of our
country and its defensive potential.
All the titles and names in this book have been taken from the newest map of
Jugoslavia, scale 1:500,000, published by the Geographical Institute of the Jugoslav
People's Army in 1950, it being most competent in this respect,
Our very useful assistants were: Colonel Serutcher ZRDAVKO and Lt-Col
Lazarevich ANTONIJE.
We are grateful to the Jugoslav Air Force Headquarters for photographs of
individual areas and geographical. ogjects.
MO') 1954
????0?110?00410???????
GEOGRAPHICAL-POLITICAL POSITION
Authors
AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
Federative People's Republic of Jugoslavia is located in the south of
Europe from 40* g1 to 46? 531 northern latitude, Within the same parallel are
Bulgaria and-South Rumania in the east, and Middle and Northern Italy, Southern
France and Northern Spain in the west. The meridian distance between the southern-
most point (three borders junction - FPRY, Greece andAlbania - on Lake Prespa)
and the northernmost(village Budimoi, 11 km east of the point where' the borders .
of FPRY, Austria and Hungary meet) is 667 km. In addition to other factors, this
north-south extension causes a considerable variety of climate in our territory.
Further on, Jugoslavia covers the territory between 13? 23' and 230 021 longitude
east of Greenwich, thus being included in the Midde European Time Zone. Parallel.
distance between the westernmost point (6 km west of village Zag, northwest of
Kobarid) and the easternmost (Cangine Kale, elevation 1744 m, in Malesevo Mountains
towards Bulgaria) is 774 km.
According to the latitude, Jugoslavia is in the middle of the Northern
Temperate Zone.
About three-quarters of Jugoslavia belongs to the Balkan Peninsula. It
covers the middle part which is crossed by the Morava and Vardar Valleys, and
the whole north-western part between the Sava and the Adriatic Sea. In the
north, with the rest of its territory, it penetrates into Middle Europe from
which it is separated by the line: the Danube, the Sava, Ljubljana valley,
the Idrijca, the Soca. Although it is partly a Danubian and Adriatic country,
Jugoslavia is primarily a Balkan state.
Land, river and lake frontiers are 3,026.2 km long, while the coast
without islands (from the Bojana to village Lazaret) is'2?016 km (or along a
straight line 645 km). The proportion between its land and sea frontiers is
about 3:2. It is accordingly a continental-maritime (semi-central) country.
? 1 fp ? .4
r.
The Balkan Peninsula is a natural bridge between Europe and Asia: intense
traffic circulates across it. It is open towards the European main body; it is
separated from Asia only by narrow straits (Bosporus from 0.3 to 6 km Wide and
Dardanelles 1.3 to 7 km wide), it is only about 400 km from Africa. Thanks to
its 'vicinity to ancient civilizations and good communications with Asia, the
Balkan Peninsula made its appearance on the stage of history before the Apennine
and Pyrenean Peninsula. It is a cross-roads of international roads running from
Northern and Western. Europe to the Near and Middle East, and the theatre in which
the conflicting interests of great powers collide. Even today, imperialistic
states do not leave the Balkans, especially the Jugoslav peoples, to live in
peace. Before the Turkish invasion, a densely topulated peninsula (4,000,000
inhabitants), culturally and economically developed, it was, due to its position,
exposed to various invasions, often plundered, ruined, and at a standstill for
centuries, while other peoples, far away from the Balkan Peninsula, were in the
position to make progress.
The Nderative People's Republic of 'Jugoslavia is naturally connected
with many wide geographic and economic regions: the Pannonia Plain in the north,
the .VlaSka Plain and the Black Sea Basin in the eaSt the Mediterranean in the
south, and .11e Lombariia-Venetian Basin it the wed.
At the same time, Jugoslavia is a Danubian country, for the Danube flows
across its territory, an international river .(second in Europe in length)
connecting eight European states, and through a net of canals, it is connected
with the Rhine, From the point where the Danube enters Jugoslavia to Ram
(mouth of the Nera RODr) both banks belong to it.
Along the valleys of the Sava, Drava and Mura,. historical communications
run toward the West and these valleys are natural gates in our northern frontiers
through which Western Europe is connected with out net of communications. Along
the valleys of the Sava and the Danube) that are naturally connected with the
valleys of the Morava and the Vardar, run transcontinental communications of
international importance connecting Middle and Western Europe with Zagreb,
Belgrade and Salonika, The Morava-Vardar Valley is continued at Nis by another
transcontinental Magistrd1.3,inal Nis -Istambul, and further on,. across Asia
Minor to Baghdad and the Persian Gulf' and -other countries of the. Near And Middle
East (Syria, Palestine Egypt, Jordan and Arabia). This magistral line runs
along the valleys of the Nisava and the Maritsa. Invaders moved along these
valleys either from Asia to Europe in order-to-occupy the Balkan Peninsula or.
from Europe to Asia. The Turks in the .Middle Ages used the ?same f route to pone.
trate into Europe, and also the Crusaders traversed the BalkataPeninsulaalOng
the same magistral line: in a new era it was the magistral line of German
aspirations (Drang nach Osten), In. World War I, the Germans, together with the
Austro-Hungarian Empire and Bulgaria, attacked Serbia in October 1915 and took
possession of these international routes Which were very important from the
strategical point of view, forlurkeyl.who was on: their. side, Was supplied along
them.-
? This 'geographic position of Jugoslavia is 'very favourable regarding economy
and culture, for it brings her nearer to neighbouring economic and cultural areas,
and far parts of the world, but at the same timei this position was the cause of
fatal events in the history of our people,.
For that reason the geographic position of FPRJ with regard to both
strategy and politics is very delicate, requiring watchfulness and readiness for
the defence of frontiers and peaceful development.
Jugoslav south-western border is the Adriatic over which Jugoslavia
communicates with the Mediterranean and other parts of the world. FPRJ is
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at the same time Adriatic and Mediterranean country; it is one of East Med-
iterranean countries; so it has all the advantages resulting from its semi
-
central position. The Adriatic penetrates deeply into the body of Central
Europe. Its northernmost bays - Trieste and Rijeka - are most suitable
:ports for the Danubian countries. When at the beginning of the eighteenth
cdntury Trieste became the main port of the Northern Adriatic, Austria
built railroads in the territory of Present Jugoslavia from 1846 to 1849
(Maribor - Oelje - Ljubljana - Trst). The importance of Trieste has been
growing since. sea and land communications, starting from the Northern
Adriatic, traverse Jugoslavia, making it important and its position delicate
from the 'strategic point of view.
Vital strategic lines of operations run from the Northern Adriatic
east, north and west 'rd. They are: from Trieste or Ripka - St. Peter --
krasu (Pivka) Postojna Ljubljana - Maribor - Vienna, or via Jesenice
to Carinthia; Trieste - the Soca valley to Carinthia; or Trieste - Udine
(Videm) Kanalska valley - Carinthia; Rijeka - Zagreb - Budapest. From
the military, Political and economicpoint of view, Trieste will be very
important in the future, too.
Jugoslavia has comparatively many neighbours - 8. In Europe only
Germany is surrounded by more than that - 94 A great number of neighbours
usually does not give any political and strategic advantages. England)
thanks to her position in the Isles, has no land borders with other coun-
tries, so that she had many strategic and economicadvantages for centuries -
until the aircraft appeared - in comparison with continental countries.
Situated in the Isles and protected by her powerful navy from any hostile
invasion, She has been able to build up her empire in peace for the last
300 years. Her territory has not been invaded since 1066 (William the
Conqueror);
Jugoslavia has common frontiers with: in the west: Italy, the
Adriatic Albania; in the south: Greece; in the east: Bulgaria and
Rumania; in the north: Hungary and Austria.
1
SHAPE
On the map FPR of Jugoslavia looks like a triangle whose points are
round a little and whose basis is mainly the Adriatic. From Triglav to
GevgeliJa it is long about 890 km; the height of the triangle from the point
of view where the borders of Jugoslavia-Hungary and Rumania meet to Metkovic
is 412 km. The geometric centre is between Sarajevo and Zvornik (east of
Kladanj) and the central triangle within the area Serajevo Zvornik
Zavidovici.
The shape of Jugoslavia, accordingly, is a triangle extended from
north-west to south-east. Albania penetrates in its territory in the form of
a wedge from south to north in the southern part of the triangle,
Although being considerably extended, Jugoslavia has a sufficient
depthA !yin ?4.1A
its central part km), while some other countries in 'Europe are
much narrower at the widest point, as for example, Hungary 270 km, Bulgaria
320 kmo Austria 260 km, Czechoslovakia 280 km Switzerland 205 km, etc.
It is difficult to defend small and extended countries from hostile
invasion. The Germans cut up Czechoslovakia on March 15, 1939, in several
hours. Austria is of similar unfavourable form
Nevertheless, the Shape of FPRY, taken as a whole, cannot be con-
sidered unfavourable, for the state frontier has no sharp angles that would
cover large sections of the territory. From the operational and strategical
il
point of iiiew the north-west region is vulnerable due to recess of the Hungarian
border along the sector extending from the three borders point (with Austria)
to Donji Miholjac; especially because this area is surrounded from the three
sides (borders with Austria and Italy). Besides, this projection of Hungarian
border threatens our vital communications Ljubljana - Zagreb e Belgrade, for
they run near tie frontier (the distance from Donji Miholjac to Slavonski
Brod ie about 74 km) and south of the Sava there is no parallel communication
that could play the role. of the first if the latter is lost. (Such a railway
line is 'under construction now: Belgrade - Ripenj Valjevo Zvornik Tuzla
where it would join the existing line Tuzla - Doboj Banja Luka Bosanski
Novi, and from Bosanski Novi it would run to Karlovac). The region south of
the line: Pec Pristina Surdulica Descani Kladenac is more vulnerable,
Thr the territory of Jugoslavia south of this line gets narrower, and it is
traversed by the most important communication that runs along the Morava -
Vardar valley to Salonika. The People's Republic of Macedonia is squeezed
between Bulgaria and Albania, Between Leskovac and Vranje the Bulgarian border
is only 30 km far from the Morava valley. In World War this south region
was not defended sufficiently, so that the Bulgarians in the oourse of the
second day of the war in 1915 cut off the Serbian line of retreat toward Greece,
forcing the Serbian Army to withdraw towards Albania and Montenegro under
most unfavourable conditions. Also in World War II attention was not paid
to the shape of the south-eastern part of Jugoslavia and the protection of
Macedonia and its connection with Greece, which allowed the cutting off of
Macedonia by the German forces in the initial phase of their offensive in 1941.
The Weakness of such a shape is not only in its extension, but also
in the length of its periphery (land frontiers are long 3,026.2 km and the
coast 2,016 km). The People's War of Liberation proves clearly that geographic
form, although very important by itself,..need not be the decisive factor in
ware
SIZE
The Federative Hople's Republic of Jugoslavia covers the surface of
256,850 square km. It belongs to the group of countries of medium size
(small: under 200,000 square km, and large over 1,000,000 square km). Jugo-
slavia is twice as large as Czechoslovakia, 2,75 larger than Hungary, three
times larger than Austria; somewhat larger than Rumania. Bulgaria, Greece
and Albania together would hardly cover its surface, and also Portugal,
Switzerland, Belgium, Holland and Denmark altogether. FPRY is about 13,00* square
Ian larger than Great Britain; its surface is 5/6 that of Italy, or that of
France.
The size of the individual people's republics are:
PR Serbia
? ? ? ? ?
PR CrOatia.....,............,
PRSlovenia..... selliSikel#401,4101
PR Bosnia and Herzegovina.
at:*
PR Maceacnia..,,.......
PR Montenegro........,.....
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TOTAL:
88,766 square km, 34.56%
", 21,91%
" 7.88%
" 19099%
It 10.91%
" 5?44%
56,.284 "
;6-i2
otA 13,967
11
11
256,850 square km 99.99
*11441411/6
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The FPR of Jugoslavia is in possession of the Adriatic coast from
village Lazaret to the mouth of the Bojena.
The straight air line of the Coast is about 645 km, and the
length of the Coast with bays 2,016 km.
According to the Law of Territorial Waters Shore area is divided
into two zones:
a) Home waters, which include all bays and channels;
b) Territorial waters, which embrace a zone of six nautical
miles from the border of home waters, i.e, from the shore of islands. In
addition to these six nautical miles, the same law provides that a further
z6ne? of 4 nautical miles belongs to FPRY; both marine fauna and flora be-
long to Jugoslavia within this zone.
Outside these zones the sea is international property.
According to the relief and other military and geographic elements,
the Adriatic Coast may be divided into 5 sectors:
a) ISTRIAN SECTOR - from village Lazaret to Volosko;
b) CROATIAN LITTORAL SECTOR - from Volosko to the Zrmanja;
o) NORTH DALMATIAN SECTOR - from the Zrmanja to Makaraks
(inclusively);
d) SOUTH DALMATIAN SECTOR - from Makarska to Cavtat (inclusively)1
e) THE SECTOR EXTENDING FROM MAT TO THE MOUTH OF THE BOJANA
(kainly Montenegrin sector).
ISTRIAN SECTOR. The western Shore of Istria is low, almost the
full lehgth rocky and dissected. In front of the shore there is a great
number of small, stony islands and rocks that might make tile approach
difficult, but their significance does not go beyond tactics; towards inland
the Shore is open and with good communications. A zone of about 18 km in
widthextending along the western coast (from the shore to the line Pirau
Vizinada Kanfanar Marcana, does not exceed 200 km above sea leavel.
Small groups of trunks and bushes are the remainder of sometime rich oak
forests. West of the line Piran Pazin Labin is Red Istria known by
its red earth and Mediterranean climate. Red soil is fertile. Western
parts are cultivated (vinevolive? lemon, orange, etc). Localities
along the coast are densely situated. Inland is short of water, for lime-
stone is predominant. The eastern sector is low and dissected onl:r in the
south to Rasa Bay; farther on towards north, immediately along the shore,
mountain ridges 400, 500 1 atd rising; they are steep and rocky (Oteetri
Brgud and Ucka).
?
Some important parts in this peninsula are: Pores, Rovinj, Pula
and Plomin. Shipyards are in Pula. Lovran and Opatija are seaside health
resorts.
Oommunication between the Istrian sector and hinterland is diffi-
cult due to the mountain ridge of Cicarije. The only railway line Pula -
Pazin Divaca - $t. Peter na Kraau (Pivka) - Ljubljana is insufficient,
goes round and only a few kilometres west of the Italian frontierstone
south-eastern from village Bazovica. Now, there is a new railway line from
Lupoglav to Stalije, and another one under the Ucka (tunnel) from Lupoglav
to Matulje is under construction. This line will connect Istria as a
whole, and especially Pula with Rijeka and hinterland.
colgagaa: The Istrian sector is not suitable for landing oper-
ations due to configuation of the shore, nor does it offer favourable con-
ditions for offensive operations after a landing operationvbecause oper-
ations in the north would be difficult due to natural obstacles Oicarija m
Um.* 'However, Cicarija can serve to landed forces, if they succeed in
dominating it, as a position from which they would be able to cover the
landing of strong forces ahd as a good defensive position for the defence
of Istrial'as an important maritime-operational point, if attacked from in-
land,'
By its geographicial position in the Northern Adriatic, with its
eastern coast facing the Gulf of,Quarnero, and west facing Trieste and
Venetian Bay, and in the vicinity of main ports of the Northern Adriatic -
Rijeka, Trieste and Venice - Istrian Peninsula dominates over the Northern
Adriatic.
Istria itself may be a strategic objective because of large
reserves of first-class coal (Italy is short of coal), bauxite and special
sand for the production of famous Venetian glass. Besides, political im-
portanee of Istria is great and, finally, in the war it may serve tb the enemy
as a base
CROATIAN LiTTORAL SECTOR Includes Croatian Littoral. Mbuntaim
ridges of Velebit and Rijeka Katst extend along the shore i The height of the
shore is 300 - 500 metres, and in the area of Velebit over 1,000 metres., The
coast is not dissected. The following islands are in front of this sector:
Krk, Crest Losinj, Rab, Pag and a lot of small islands protecting it and
blocking the entrance of Rijeka Bay (Gulf of Quarnero)., These islands are
separated from the mainland by Tihi Kanal and Velebit Kanal which is deep
and naVigable for all vessels. By its relief the coast is strong and suit-
able for defence Quarnero islands are of limestone. Their Shores are
dissected and the deepest inlets are extending from north-west to south-east.
Coasts are steep, and those facing east and north-east are exposed to strong
winds. Islinds of Ores, Krk, Rai), Pag and Losinj are hilly, and only here
and there low and suitable for cultivation. North-eastern and eastern parts
are bare; and south-eastern and westernparts are covered with bushes. The
islands of Silba and Olib are low (up to 80 metres), of limestone and partly
covered with bushes.- Islands extending from Losinj toward south-east up to
the island of 1st are higherl.with steep Shores, of limestone, rocky and
predominatly covered with bushes.-
Some important ports within this sector are: Rijeka and Susak) our
largest and most modern port; Bakar and Kraljevica? very good small havens.
Crikvenica, Selce and Novi are of no military importance, are tourist places
and serve to working people as resorts. Senj is separated by a steep mountain
from hinterland and, as St: Jura! Lukovol Jablanac, Iarlobag? Starigrad and
Obrovac, is of local importance.
The Croatian littoral sector is connected with its hinterland by
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Ogulin Karlovac Zagreb (second-class h...ghway and
Karlovac Zagreb (second-class highway),
Senj Brinje Josipdol Karlovac (Second-class highway),
Jablanac Otocec Karlovac and Otocac Bihac (secondrclass
Karlobag Gospic Bihac (second-class highway) and
Obrovac Udbina Bihac (Sluni) (second-class highway),
All these communications traverse Karst and enclosed area, of
Velebito'Velika and Mala KaPela-and can be easily bloCked and defended,
Pother ,on eastward they run along the Kupa and Una valleys and on along
the Saft valley.
Ooncluslow The Croatian littoral sector is unsuitable for
landing operations due to the relief and morphologic teatUres of the coast;
it is suitable for defence, and landing operations of strong forces cannot
be expected.
. . .
1101/H DthvIATIfN SECTOR: The coast along the secior NinrSibenik
is at and hilly and accesdible from the sea.; along the sector Sabetik a
Makardka the coast is steep; high and unsuitable for landing operations.
From Sibenik to Split low mountain ridges are extending along the coast:
VilaJa and Kosiak: from Split to Makarska there are Mosor and Biokovo)
medium mountains. The coast is dissected and protected by many islands
extending in two or three rows, except along the sector south of Sibenik
to Drvenicki Kanal (about 30 km), where there are no bigier islands.
Ports: ji ?;. (held by Italy for a long time; due to this the
h arbour is not built ? gmitaal - by its natural position is a first-
plass harbour. There is Sibenik Channel first, and then a narrows ziga
zagging channel leading to the port; this channel can be blocked easily.
The entrance is protected by the island of Zlarin and a lot of small
islands (about 70).. The port is under construction and its capacity is
growing. Sibenik is connected with hinterland by a railway line and by a
second-class highway via Drnis and Kan. ?Np.W. is the most important
port on th.e. Dalmatian Coast with regard to its Reoaraphical position and
communications-with hinterland. In the middle of the entrance is the
island of Otovo. The islands of Drvenik? Solta and Brac forathe outer
protective line of the port. Split is connected with hinterland by two
railway lines andseveral'second-class highways. Other ports are small
3nd only of local importance.
The island of Brae is the biggest island in Dalmatia (389 square
km)? about 500 metres high in average, of limestone, hardly passable, but
well cultivated. Its southern shore is steep.
The island of Hvar is the longest Dalmatian island (about 65km),
hilly, covered with bushes, the outer (southern) coast is steeper than the
northern.
The island of Vis is a hilly island, of limestone, but fertile,
with steep coast - especially western and southern. It is very important
from the strategic point of view as early as the Venetian Republic reigned
over the Adriatic (from the XV century to 1797). Strategically, it is
*vy
important due to its geographic position: in the middle 'of the Adriatic,
half-way between the Gulf of Trieste and the Strait of Otranto, and at the
same time the westernmost bigger island as an outpost in front of Middle
Dalmatia. In the XIXth century, the English realized its importance, and
in 1806 their naval forces, together with the French and Russian Navy,
entered the Adriatic, took the island of Vis and were holding it in
possession until 1816 when, by the decision of Vienna Congress, it was
given to Austria. Italy tried to occupy it in 1866, but the Austrian Navy
defeated Italian naval forces in the vicinity of that island. Today, the
island of Vis is a vital operational point in the Adriatic.
Communications between this sector and hinterland are:
Zadar Benkovac Knin and Vodice Knin (second-class highway),
Sibenik Drnia Knin (second-class highway),
Split Knin and Split - Sinj Livno Kupres Jajce Banja
Luke sesondfclass highway),
6mis Duvno Kupres and Omis Imot ski (second-class highway),
Frnm.Zadar to Mekarska there is a second-class highway running
aleng the eoast; it runs northwestward to Rijaka and Lallift and south-
eastward to tIcinj.
The Railway line Sibenik Perkovic and Split Perkovic and further
on to Knin forks to Gospic 4 Ogulih ? Karlovac - Zagreb and along the Una
valley to Bihaa - the Sava valley (filmja).
The railroad Zadar Knin is under construction. In addition to
economic importance, it is very important from military point of view, for
it connects Zadar, the biggest town and port in North Dalmatia, with hinter-
land and makes-possible quick concentration of forces for the defence of the
northern part of North Dalmatian sector (Kotari), which is suitable for
landing operations,
Co4c1usion: North Dalmatian Sector, considering configuration of
the coast, is more suitable for landing operations in the north, i.e. from
Nin to Sibenik, while, with regard to the open shore, i.e. that is not
protected by islands, it is more suitable in the part south of Sibenik, from
the island of Zlarin to the island of Drvenik Mali. The other parts of the
North Dalmatian Sector-is unfavourable for landing operations due to steep
and high rocks and a lot of Mg islands off shore. All communications from
this sector run divergently: to the north and north-east: the Sava valley,
eastward to the Neretva valley, Mostar and Sarajevo. A number of parallel
mountain ridges of medium height in the close hinterland of this sector
makes operations from the shore towards inland difficult to a considerable
extent, and facilitates the defence.
SOUTH DALMATIAN SECTOR. The shore is steep and up to 1000 metres
high, except around the mouth of the Neretva. About 12 km southmast of the
mouth of the Neretva, there is the inland Klek Neum (6.5 X 0.8 km),
navigable even for the biggest ships. This sector is protected by the
islands of Brae, Hvar, Korcula, Lastovo, Mljet, a group of islands in front
of Dubrovnik and peninsula Peljesac. The Ston Isthmus, 1300 metres wide, ?
connects the Peljesac Peninsula and the mainland. Peljesac is about 70 km
long, and from 3 to 8.5 km wide. Along the whole length of the peninsula
extend two narrow low ridges; they are mostly bare, falling abruptly into
the sea.
From Dubrovnik to Oavtat the shore is very steep, with a few small
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islands in front of it.
Along this sector there are the following ports:
Nakarska . not very important; a resort for working people. About
7.5 km south-east is village Podgora in an inlet of the same names the
eraddle of our Navy.
Ploce - in the mouth of the Neretva, under construction now, intended
to be a modern harbour, protected from all winds, with long pier. The port is
connected with Sarajevo by a railway line and a second-class highway.
Dubrovnik (Gruz) - is the best built port in South Dalmatia, navigable
for all ships. Connected to Sarajevo by a railway line and a second-class
highway.
Oavtat of the same importance as Makarska.
Communications with the hinterland:
Makarska - village Kozica Imot ski Duvno Kupres Bagojno and
Makarska - Vrgovac Ljubuski Mostar (second-class highway),
Dubrovnik Metkovic Mostar (second-class highway)
Dubrovnik Metkovic Mostar (railway),
Dubrovnik Trebinje Stolac - Mostar or Dubrovnik - Trebinje Bileca
- Nevesinje (to Bileca second-class highway and railroad, and on second-class
highway only),
Cavtat Dubrovnik or Cavtat Hercegovni (second-class highway)
Conclusion: South Dalmatian Sector is less favourable for landing
operations and of little inOluence on our possible theatres of operations.
Closed towards inland by mountainous terrain like other sectors, ex-
eept at Ulcinj in the direction of Scutari. Open towards the sea, for there
are no islands in front of it. The coast from Cavtat to the Boka Kotorska
Strait is predominantly bare and steep, and here and there very steep, rocky
and of limestone.
? Important bays are: ?Boka Kotorska, Budva and Bar,
There are many ports in Boka Kotorska, and most important are:
Hercegovni, Zelenika, Tivat and Kotor. Boka Kotorska is a large haven, well
protected by the surrounding mountains, but insufficiently connected with
hinterland; it has only one way out to the high seas. It is suirounded by
mountains of medium height that are bare, of limestone and steep.
Budva, Bar and Ulcinj are local ports. Pile railway line Belgrade
Bar, which is under construction now, will make Bar the main sea port for
Serbia, Macedonia and Montenegro
Connection with the hinterland:
Gruda - Trebinje (second-class highway),
From Boka Kotorska: Hercegovni Grkvice and Risan Orkvice Bileca
Avtovac Kalinovik - Sarajevo, i.e. Kalinovik - Foca (second-class highway),
Risan Orkvice Niksic Savnik Pljevlja Vardiste (secondi.class
highway))
Kotor Danilovgrad Niksic (second-class highway),
Budva - Cetinje (second-class highway),
Bar Virpazar - Titograd (road and railway line cut by Scutari Lake,
second-class highway).
kallagm: Due to relief and geographic features of the shore, close
and deeper hinterland, the sector is not suitable for landing operations or
operations conducted by stronger forces.
CONCLUSION ABOUT THE FRONTIER
ALONG THE ADRIt1TIC COAST
In the main, our frontier along the Adriatic Coast protects our terri-
tory well. This is the result of topographic features of the greatest part of
our coast that is protected by many islands and also of topographic features
of both close and deeper zone of Dinara Mountains which are extending paralle3
to our coast.
? The strongest sector is the Croatian littoral sector, and then the
Sector from Cavtat to the Bojana (Montenegrin Sector), although not protected by
islands; then South-Dalmatian and North-Dalmatian sectors and, finally, as the
weakest, the Istrian Sector.
Considering the relation between individual sectors and the whole
territory of our country, their importance is increasing from south-east to
north-west. This because North-Dalmatian, Croatian littoral sector and Istrian
Sector are nearer to our vital economic regions and are better connected with
them. Therefore, they are more important from the military point of view. How-
ever, when once standard gauge track Sarajevo - Ploce and new railway line
Belgradd - Bar are open to traffic, the economic and military importance of
South-Dalmatian and Montenegrin sectors will be greater.
ALBANIA
The length of the boundary is 465 km. It runs along the Bojana river
first, then in the form of an arch with sharp bends over the Prokletije en-
circles the northern part of Albania, separating it from PR of Serbia and
Montenegro, descends down to the south with the end on Prespa Lake.
The boundary runs along the Bojana river from its mouth up to 2.5 km
west of village Dajci, where it leaves the Bojana and runs straight to the north
over the eastern slopes of Rumija, leaving the summit Tarabosi to Albania, and
at village Zogaj appears at the southern shore of Scutari Lake. Then it Outs
the Scuteri Lake with two angles of 90? and climbs to the high summits of
Prokletije. Here it penetrates into our territory in the form of a sharp wedge
in the vicinity of the summit Ilijina Glava (elevation 2,176 m) and then in the
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form of an arch south of Gusinje and Play appears at the Bogicevica mountain
(half a outh-east of the summit Maja a Spalit elevation 2,358 m). From
here the arCh winds towards south-east, running down to Mbtohija and along its
south-western border, over ?ea Marines and Cafa Fruit, cutting the Pastrik
(elevation 1,989 0p the river Bell Drim and the Koritnik (elevation 2,394 n)
From MetohiJa to Ohrid Lake the boundary' runs across hA,gh mountains southward:
KolObaku (elevation 2,174 m), Korab (elevation 2,764 and Desat (elevation
2,375 m), from which it runs .down to the valley of the rivet Orni Drim and 8km
along this river, then up to the Jablanica (Ora Kamen, elevation 2,258 10)
again. From the !l'ablanica the boundary runs down to Ohrid Lake, cutting its
southmwestern part and over the Galicica to Pre spa Lake where the three ISoundava
ies FPRY, Albania and Greece meets
The boundary is natural along the whole length except from the mouth
of the Bojana river to the Scutari Lake, because it does not run along this
river, but leaves it west of village Dejci, ceding its upper part to Albania
eompletely (both banks).
In the sense of etnology, the boundary runs so that a considerable
number of Shqiprians (about 750000)j that settled themselves in Metohija and
Kosovo Polje ih the time of the Tui4ki6h reign) are left in our territory.
In additicn to the big arch, formed by the bounda9dine around the
northern part of Albania, which might be of strategic importance, in the northern
" part of that arch " in the Prokletije - there are two juts which might be ith-
portant from tactical-operational point of view only, although high mountains
,ede,rease their importance. The point of the western jut which is the northern
most point of the Albanian territory (the summit Molina Glava) is important
because it is only about 10 km far from out vital 1Be: Pee - Andrijevica -
Titograd, and also from the cross-roads Andrijevica. The eastern jut in the
-north reaches the Bogicevica mountain and from the above mentioned line, from
its highly vulnerable part - Oakor - it is not far more than about 15 km.
Natural openings are: Scutari, 101.0?id and Prqkpa lakes, then the valley
of Grni Drim (west of Debar) and the valley of Beli Drim along the line Prizen
Kukes, as well as the upper part of the Bojana river(Bar - Scuteri); all these
openings can be blocked and defended easily.
General characteristics of this boundary line is that, except the lake
district, it runs along the ridges of medium and high mountains, that are hardly
passable, wild, scarcely populated and with few communications that never run
across them, but go arpund.
With regard to the relief, the boundary line may be divided into four
sectors: Titograd sector, Prizen sector, Debar sector and Ohrid sector.
. ,TITOGRAD SECTOR. Extends from the mouth of the Bojana river to the
Bogicevica mountain exclusively (watersheds of the Lim and the Deli Drilla), The
zone from the sea to the Scuteri Lake is flat, and the Bojana valley is swampy,
malarious and unhealthy. While the boundary line is running along the Bojanal
considering its valley being flooded from time to time, it is protected by this
river, but along its upper part both banks are in possession of Albania.. Only
one good road (second-class highway) crosses the frontier within this maritime
sector from Scutari to Bar and Ulcinj. There are two roads from Uloinj to the
Bojana river and further on to Scutari. Behind the frontier, in our territory,
is the Rumija mountain (elevation 1,593 m) traversed by horse-paths and un-
populated. East of this zone, in the Albanian territory, a seaside plain begins
full of lagoons, lakes and marshes. The Scutari Lake is a natural and big
obetacle for the side that has no vessels,
The Scutari Lake has an inlet 12 km long in the direction of north-
east that cuts the plain and swampy ground between the Lake and the slopes of
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the Ptokletije ranges, fOrming a definite defile at village Hoti.
In our territory in the hinterland is the plain Zeta with Titograd in it,
and on the Albanian side there is a flat zone from 5 to 10 km wide extending
towards Scutari, The-second-class highway from Scutari to Titograd crosses the
frontier at village Hoti, entering the above said defile. Thi e- defile may be
blocked and defended easily, and, consequently, it is very important from the
operational-tactical point of view. From the Scutari Lake to the Bogicevica
mountain the boundary line is running along the Prokletije ranges. These are
almost impassable even to alpine units.
The Zeta plain may be used for the concentration of troops to operate
along this sector. For the bringing up of supplies and evacuation may be used
the Valley of the Zeta river along which runs a good road and the railway line
to Niksic and the highway to Cetinje and Kotori
PRIZREN SECTOR. Extends along the frontier from the Bogicevica mountain
to the summit Kolobaku inclusively. This sector forms the north-eastern and
eastern parts of to great arch of the boundary around Northern Albania. The
northern part of this Sector extends over the high mountains Bogicevica and
Junicka Planina, whose ridges are bare, rocky and craggy, towards Albania their
sides are very steep, bare and rocky, and facing our territory they are not very
steep and are covered with dense forests; they are difficult to pass, The sector
?facing Djakovioa is the weakest in the topographic sense, for the boundary line
runs down from high mountains to 1,000 in and lower along over 30 km, and the
Albanian side is higher at several places. This part is passable in the Albanian
territory, although there ,are no good communications, especially on the Albanian
sideA
The southern part of this sector is mountainous terrain; it runs over
the high mountains: Pastrik, Koritnik and Kolabaku The Pastrik and the
keiitnik are forested, but the part south of the Koritnik is woodless and
levered with pastures. The summits of these mountains are rounded but their
sides are steep; they are hardly passable. Between the Koritnik and the Kole-
bak there are two paths worth mentioning: Prizren m the valley of the Flemska
Reka village Vraniste - village Kukes (in Albania) and TetoVo.- the Tetovska
Reka v. village Brod.- village Bica; (in Albania).
In our territory there are the following communications running to the
frmnt4Ar line: thira.ninAA road from Djakovica to Gala Prusit and a .rourth'class
toad Prom Djakavica to Village Ponosevac - village Marina Oafa Morines to
Village TropojaAn Albania. Besides, there are several bad roads and horse
paths:
Through the southern part of the Prizren sector flows the river Deli
Drim; it is narrow and deeply cut between the mountain massifs of Pastrik and
Koritriik. The highway Prizren - Kukes runs along this valley. The valley can
be blocked and defended easily,
On the Albanian side only horse paths lead to the frontier. The
boundary line runs along the watersheds of the Drim and the Bell Drim. Once
the frontier is captured, there are no positions from which Metohija could be
defended,
Conclusion: The Prizren Sector is very important to us, because, along
it we have to defend our region Kosmet which, by its pOassability, communicabil-
ity, fertility, population and other factors is a very suitable concentration
area even for strong forces. Titanki3 to its communications with all neighbouring
regions (via Cakor with the valley of the Lim, Novi Pazar, the valley of the Iber
and the Zapadna Morava, with Kursumlija, Krusevac and Nis, with Medvedjal Lebane
and 'Keskovac, with Gnjilane, Vranje, Kacanik and Skoplje).it.is a first-class
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form of an arch south of Gusinje and Play appears at the Bogicevica mountain
(half a outh-east of the summit Maja a Spalit elevation 2,358 m). From
here the arCh winds towards south-east, running down to Mbtohija and along its
south-western border, over ?ea Marines and Cafa Fruit, cutting the Pastrik
(elevation 1,989 0p the river Bell Drim and the Koritnik (elevation 2,394 n)
From MetohiJa to Ohrid Lake the boundary' runs across hA,gh mountains southward:
KolObaku (elevation 2,174 m), Korab (elevation 2,764 and Desat (elevation
2,375 m), from which it runs .down to the valley of the rivet Orni Drim and 8km
along this river, then up to the Jablanica (Ora Kamen, elevation 2,258 10)
again. From the !l'ablanica the boundary runs down to Ohrid Lake, cutting its
southmwestern part and over the Galicica to Pre spa Lake where the three ISoundava
ies FPRY, Albania and Greece meets
The boundary is natural along the whole length except from the mouth
of the Bojana river to the Scutari Lake, because it does not run along this
river, but leaves it west of village Dejci, ceding its upper part to Albania
eompletely (both banks).
In the sense of etnology, the boundary runs so that a considerable
number of Shqiprians (about 750000)j that settled themselves in Metohija and
Kosovo Polje ih the time of the Tui4ki6h reign) are left in our territory.
In additicn to the big arch, formed by the bounda9dine around the
northern part of Albania, which might be of strategic importance, in the northern
" part of that arch " in the Prokletije - there are two juts which might be ith-
portant from tactical-operational point of view only, although high mountains
,ede,rease their importance. The point of the western jut which is the northern
most point of the Albanian territory (the summit Molina Glava) is important
because it is only about 10 km far from out vital 1Be: Pee - Andrijevica -
Titograd, and also from the cross-roads Andrijevica. The eastern jut in the
-north reaches the Bogicevica mountain and from the above mentioned line, from
its highly vulnerable part - Oakor - it is not far more than about 15 km.
Natural openings are: Scutari, 101.0?id and Prqkpa lakes, then the valley
of Grni Drim (west of Debar) and the valley of Beli Drim along the line Prizen
Kukes, as well as the upper part of the Bojana river(Bar - Scuteri); all these
openings can be blocked and defended easily.
General characteristics of this boundary line is that, except the lake
district, it runs along the ridges of medium and high mountains, that are hardly
passable, wild, scarcely populated and with few communications that never run
across them, but go arpund.
With regard to the relief, the boundary line may be divided into four
sectors: Titograd sector, Prizen sector, Debar sector and Ohrid sector.
. ,TITOGRAD SECTOR. Extends from the mouth of the Bojana river to the
Bogicevica mountain exclusively (watersheds of the Lim and the Deli Drilla), The
zone from the sea to the Scuteri Lake is flat, and the Bojana valley is swampy,
malarious and unhealthy. While the boundary line is running along the Bojanal
considering its valley being flooded from time to time, it is protected by this
river, but along its upper part both banks are in possession of Albania.. Only
one good road (second-class highway) crosses the frontier within this maritime
sector from Scutari to Bar and Ulcinj. There are two roads from Uloinj to the
Bojana river and further on to Scutari. Behind the frontier, in our territory,
is the Rumija mountain (elevation 1,593 m) traversed by horse-paths and un-
populated. East of this zone, in the Albanian territory, a seaside plain begins
full of lagoons, lakes and marshes. The Scutari Lake is a natural and big
obetacle for the side that has no vessels,
The Scutari Lake has an inlet 12 km long in the direction of north-
east that cuts the plain and swampy ground between the Lake and the slopes of
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043R002400130005-2
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the Ptokletije ranges, fOrming a definite defile at village Hoti.
In our territory in the hinterland is the plain Zeta with Titograd in it,
and on the Albanian side there is a flat zone from 5 to 10 km wide extending
towards Scutari, The-second-class highway from Scutari to Titograd crosses the
frontier at village Hoti, entering the above said defile. Thi e- defile may be
blocked and defended easily, and, consequently, it is very important from the
operational-tactical point of view. From the Scutari Lake to the Bogicevica
mountain the boundary line is running along the Prokletije ranges. These are
almost impassable even to alpine units.
The Zeta plain may be used for the concentration of troops to operate
along this sector. For the bringing up of supplies and evacuation may be used
the Valley of the Zeta river along which runs a good road and the railway line
to Niksic and the highway to Cetinje and Kotori
PRIZREN SECTOR. Extends along the frontier from the Bogicevica mountain
to the summit Kolobaku inclusively. This sector forms the north-eastern and
eastern parts of to great arch of the boundary around Northern Albania. The
northern part of this Sector extends over the high mountains Bogicevica and
Junicka Planina, whose ridges are bare, rocky and craggy, towards Albania their
sides are very steep, bare and rocky, and facing our territory they are not very
steep and are covered with dense forests; they are difficult to pass, The sector
?facing Djakovioa is the weakest in the topographic sense, for the boundary line
runs down from high mountains to 1,000 in and lower along over 30 km, and the
Albanian side is higher at several places. This part is passable in the Albanian
territory, although there ,are no good communications, especially on the Albanian
sideA
The southern part of this sector is mountainous terrain; it runs over
the high mountains: Pastrik, Koritnik and Kolabaku The Pastrik and the
keiitnik are forested, but the part south of the Koritnik is woodless and
levered with pastures. The summits of these mountains are rounded but their
sides are steep; they are hardly passable. Between the Koritnik and the Kole-
bak there are two paths worth mentioning: Prizren m the valley of the Flemska
Reka village Vraniste - village Kukes (in Albania) and TetoVo.- the Tetovska
Reka v. village Brod.- village Bica; (in Albania).
In our territory there are the following communications running to the
frmnt4Ar line: thira.ninAA road from Djakovica to Gala Prusit and a .rourth'class
toad Prom Djakavica to Village Ponosevac - village Marina Oafa Morines to
Village TropojaAn Albania. Besides, there are several bad roads and horse
paths:
Through the southern part of the Prizren sector flows the river Deli
Drim; it is narrow and deeply cut between the mountain massifs of Pastrik and
Koritriik. The highway Prizren - Kukes runs along this valley. The valley can
be blocked and defended easily,
On the Albanian side only horse paths lead to the frontier. The
boundary line runs along the watersheds of the Drim and the Bell Drim. Once
the frontier is captured, there are no positions from which Metohija could be
defended,
Conclusion: The Prizren Sector is very important to us, because, along
it we have to defend our region Kosmet which, by its pOassability, communicabil-
ity, fertility, population and other factors is a very suitable concentration
area even for strong forces. Titanki3 to its communications with all neighbouring
regions (via Cakor with the valley of the Lim, Novi Pazar, the valley of the Iber
and the Zapadna Morava, with Kursumlija, Krusevac and Nis, with Medvedjal Lebane
and 'Keskovac, with Gnjilane, Vranje, Kacanik and Skoplje).it.is a first-class
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highways (Bit olj Vel.usino Larin; Bit olj Sakulovo Bani.ca; Brod a. Bac 0,
Sakulovo and Brod - Zivojno Banica) arid a railway line (Bitolj Sakulovo ?.6
Voden - Salonika) which makes operations of strong armoured and motorized
forces possible.
Conclual,m: The weakest point on this sector is 25 laa wide .passage
tn Bitoljsko Pole, that is, between the Baba mountain and western slopes of
the Nidze mountain in which strong forces of all arms could operate. From the
topographic point of view, the sector between Prespa Lake and Bi.toljsko Polje
(the Baba mountain) is the strongest.
MOUNTAIN SECTOR. Includes high mountains Nidze and Kozuf (from the
peak Starkov Grob - elevation 1,876 in) inclusively to elevation 1,034 in south
of village Hum. This sector is very strong in the sense of topography, very
steep southward towards Meglen lowland and rocky; northward towards the river
()ma Reka elopes of these mountains are not steep, and towards Kavadarci and
Negotino down to the valley of the Vardar their slopes are very long. This
seato_r is suitable for deep and strong defences in our territory. The Nidze
and the Kozuf are in our territory, wooded from 1,000 to 1,200 in and in Greek
territory they are bare.
Only horse-paths and foot-paths cross the frontier on this sector. On
both sides of the frontier there are some roads constructed by the Allies and
German-Bulgarian forces on the Salonika front in World War I; none of them
crosses the ridge.
Conclusion: This sector is
and in oases of offensive operations
northern side, for the terrain drops
Field).
naturally, strong and suitable for defence ,.
towards south offers advantages to the
gradually towards Solunsko Polje (Salonika
VARDAR SECTOR. Extends from the eastern slopes of the Kozuf mountain
to the convergence in the Belasica mountain. It drops down from the elevation
1,034 in to the Gevgelija lowland area along the long, mainly bare ridge and to
the Vardar valley which it crosses southeastof Gevgelija. Slopes an both sides
, .
are good and Strong positions. The Gevgelija loWland area is an important
corridor, wide about 22 km, which is, more or less, broken terrain; its wedtern
border are the slopes of the Kozuf mountain; and the eastern (west of .Lake
Dojran) hilly ground. Along the Vardar valley rund the railway and highway
Skonlie - Salonika. In our territory the Gevgelija lowland area is squeezed
by Demir KaPiia (defile) and in the Greek territory by Cirganska Kiisura
(another defile) through which run communications from Skoplje to Salonika..
The frontier line appears at Lake Dojran from the south (east of
village Start Dojran) running across the lake for 8.5 km. Of the total surface
of the lakes Jugoslavia is in possession of about 45 square km, or almost
two-thirds, While ane-third belongs to Greece. The lake is about 6 km broad.
Lake Dojran is surrounded by hilly ground; on the eastern shore of the
lake is Greece, between the Krusa mountain and the lake, there is a. gate
through which a railway line runs eastward - to the lower Struma (Sere Bko
Polje); in our territory, a secondaola.ss highway goes round the lake from the
south and from the west, running to Valandovo, Strumica and Stip. Along this
communication the valley of the Vardar can be by-passed, because the Vardar
Valley, due to frequent narrow defiles is an obstacle for operations from the
south to the north and vice versa.
Between Lake Dojran and the Belasica mountain there is a strip of
land passable @mg the lake. The frontier line runs along the eastern slopes
of the Kara Tas mountain, which is in our territory, overshadowing and blocking
this passage.
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From the elenvation 1,474 m, the frontier line, after a sharp bend, runs
eastward along the ridge of the Belasica mountain to the convergence (elevation
1,880 m). The Belasica is a mountain of medium height (almost 2,000 in high) with
a narrow ridge and narrow foothills (only 7-8 km), with steep slopes on both
sides. In our territory it is wooded almost from the foothills to the top: in
Greek territory only the upper Part is wooded. It is almost impassable, es-
pecially due to the steep sides. Only paths can be found on it. Inhabited
localities are only at the foothills.
Imalligam: Flanks are the strongest points on the Vardar Sector: the
right, leaning against the Kozuf mountain (elevation 4034m south of village
Hum), the left against the Belasica mountain. The right flank is tactically
stronger, because the eastern spurs of the Kozuf mountain make the organization
of a deep defence possible; the left flank is tactically weaker, because on the
very steep and narrow ridge of the Belasica mountain deeper defence cannot be
organized.
In the centre of the Sector the weakest parts are the Gevgelija lowland
area and Lake Dojran. The parts between the Vardar and Lake Dojran$ as well as
between this lake and the Belasica mountain is low mountainous and hilly ground
that makes the organization of deep and strong defence possible.
CONCLUSION ABOUT
TIE GREEK FRONTIER
The greatest part of the Greek frontier is topographically very strong,
beeause seven-tenths of the frontier line runs along the. ridges of high mountain,
mountains of medium height and hilly ground, while only about three-tenths across
lowlands, lakes, broken and hilly ground.
In the sense of topography the strongest parts oflhe frontier are the
mountains Baba, Nidze, Kozuf and Belasica. The weakest parts are: Prespa Lakes
Bitoljsko Polje, Gevgelija lowland area and Lake Dojran.
From the economic and military point of view the most important parts
of the frontier are Bitoljsko Polio and the sector between Gevgelija and Lake
Dojran. This because ofiheir passability, communicability and economic im-
portance of regions behind them (Bitoljsko Pap, Prilepsko Polje, the Strumioa
lowland area and Radovic Polje).
THE BULGARIAN FRONTIER
The length of the frontier is 537 kilometres. General direction of
the extension: south - north. The frontier begins in the Belasica mountain,
at the convergence of the Jugoslav, Greek and Bulgarian frontier (elevation
1,880 m) six kilometres west of the peak Tumba (elevation 1,889 From here
it abruptly drops down to the river Strumical valley, crosses this river and
runs up the Ograzden mountain, crosses its main .ridge and runs northward across
the eastern part of the Male seveke Planine mountains and then along the ridge of
the Vlaina Planina mountain; further onl the frontier line bends northia4estward,
running up the Osogavska Planine Mts. (the summit Rujen - elevation 2,252 m),
crosses the main ridge of these mountains and drops down steeply toward the
saddle Deve Bair east of Kriva Palanka. From here it runs northward along a zigft,
zag line across the Zeravinska Kuka (elevation 1,429 m), the Miljevslce Planine
Mts. (elevation 1,732 m) to the saddle Dascani Kladenac and then north-eastward
across the Ruj (elevation 1,706 ri) and the Breben mountain, crossing the river
Nisava east of Dimitrovgrad. From here it extends north-eastward across the
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.Vidlic mountain, the peak Srebrna .Glava (elevation 1933 m) and along the main
ridge of the Stara Pla.nina mountain, where, after a sharp bend, it runs along
the ridges of this mountain and its farthest northern .spurs to the river Timok
and along this river to the convergence of the Jugoslav. Bulgarian and Rumanian
frontier at the mouth of? the Timok river.
The frontier' is mainly natural, for it runs along mountain ranges and
watersheds, except between the Srebrna Maya and the Krvavi. Kamen (elevation
1933 m) east of Lake Vlas,ine. From the ethnical point of view, the frontier line
is traced correctly, except the southern part where it cuts the ethnic territory
of Macedonia, leaving its considerable part (Pyrin Macedonia with 200i,..000 Mace.,
donians) to Bulgaria.
The form of the froritier id t idaily tiroiceiri with four large juts, of
which two juts from our terriory togards Bagaria ,(the northern jut from Pirot
and Dimitiovgrad toward Berkovica and Sbfia, and the soUtherh jut in the beleevo6
BerOVoiiStrumica area in the direction of the valley of the river Struma) and two
juts. from Bulgaria towards our territory (from Vid.in and Belogracik in the dire"
eCtioitofNtjecar and Knjazevac, and the southern jut from Trn to Oustendil
toWards the valley of the Jona Moreva.), All these juts are very important from
the operational point of view.
Gates:
the
valley of the river Strumica in the direction of Petrie;
the valley of the river Nisava towards Sofia;
the lower Timok towards Vidins
Important saddles: Dzami Tepe (east of Pehoevo), Cerna Skala (northeast
Of Delseve), taVe Bair (east of Kriva Palanka), southeast of Bosiljgrad (in the
valley Of the river Dragovatica) and northeast of Bosiljgrad at village
arezimirovoi (in the valley of the river Jerma, Daseani Kladenac (east of village
Kano), St. Nikolas (in the Stara Planina mountain east of village EA1110),
Xadibogaz (east of Minieevo) and Vrska Cuka (southeast of Zajecar).
Considering the relief, traffic, and economic conditions, the frontier
zone may he divided into three sectors: southern, Biddle and northern
SOUTHERN SECTOR. Extends fram the convergence of the Belasiea mountain
valley of the river Strumica, between the river Vardar (Bregalnical and the
to the Milievske Planine Mts. exclusively. The frontier line runs except in the
river Struma to the Zerevinska Ouka; here, it leaves this area in our territory
running northeastward crossing the river Dragovatiea and some smaller tributaries
of the river Strums.. This sector is strong from the topographic point of view,
and especially: the Ograzden, the Malesevske and the Osogovske Mountains; it is
weaker in the valley of the river Strumiea and east and northeast of Delcvvo.
The average heights are about 1,700 m:above- sea level. Wooded in the southern
and middle part more than in the northern from the saddle Deve Bair to the
Miljevske Planina Mts; thinly populated and of no economic potential. Passable in
the Deloevo and Bosiljgrad area; conmunicability: poor.
Important gates, saddles and communications are:
along the valley of the river Strumica: second-class highway to
Stip and Valandovo:
Breznice Peheevo (road for vehicular traffic);
Gornja Dzumaja Delcevo liocani, second-class highway (except 5 lun
from the frontier line in our territory a fourth-class road);
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the saddle Deve Bair (in Bulgarian territory a railway and highway, in
our territory a Scond -class road);
the valley of the river ,Dragovstica from Custendil to Bosiligrad and
Vranje (second-class highway).
a01111112a. The southern sector is predominantly the eastern frontier of
PR, Macedonia. It is to protect the Vardar valley and our communications in it
and communications with Salonika and Greece in general. Due to this, this sector
is very important and highly vulnerable at the same timer which was Proved in
the offensive operations from Bulgaria into our country in World Wars I and II.
MIDDLE SECTOR. Extends from the Miljevska Planina Mountains inclusive to
the peak Srebrna Glava inclusive. This sector is pertly forested, difficult to
pass, with poor communications, except in the valley of the river Nisava. Thinly
populated and of little importance from the economic point of view. The' valleys
crossed by the frontier line (the rivers Jerma Gabre Nisava and Visibeica) are
narrow here and there and have defiles that are easy to defend.
Important saddles, gates and main communications on
this sector are:
- the valley of the upper Jerma at village Strezimirovci the Vlasina
Vladicin Han (second-class highway);
- the saddle Dascani Kladenac (a path in Bulgarian territory and a fourth7
class road in our territory) 611 Vlasotinei Leskuvac (from village Dejan a second.
class highwath
- northeast of Trn - the valley of the river Jerma the river Babusnica -
Bela Palanka - or the Babusnica Viasotinci Leskovac (second-class highway);
- the valley of the river Nisava at Dimitrovgrad - Pirot
class highway and railway);
- the upper Visocica r village oka Rzana Pirot (first-class high-
way);
this sector is predominantly mountainous: average height; 1700 DUt above
sea level.
L.
Shortcomings: between the Miljevska PKnina Mountains and the Da0anski
Kladenac the frontier line gets nearer to the valley of the river Juzna. Morava
between Vraniska Banja and Grdelica along which our most important lateral. com-
munications $erallel to the front and communications to Salonika run, Along the
line Strezimirovci (*.Ina Trnvn praapinne that distance is under 30 km. Be-
sides, this sector is thinly populated, economically poor, and there are no
suitable areas for concentration (except Pirotsko Polje), staging and supply of
troops.
Gonclusion: This sector is important to both sides, and to us it is vul-
nerable because of the vicinity of the frontier to the river Juzna Morava. In
the history of warfare we find that the Bulgarians or their allies have always
attacked our territory along the vital communications: Sofia - Pirot Xis and
across the saddle Deve Bair - Krive Palanka Kumanovo Skoplje, and along
secondary lines of operations Strezimirovci Vlasina Surdulica Vladicin
Han and Bosilj grad Kriva, Feja Vranjska Banja with the aim of cutting the
valleys of the Morava and the Vardar, in which they often were successful.
:1 ? 0 /2e'
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NORTHERN SECTOR. 3,ctomds from the Srebrna Ulava kexclusively) to the
convergence on the Danube,. To the saddle St. Nikolas it runs across high moun-
o: s and motains of medium height, the greater Part of it forested, especially
un Bulgarian id difficult to pass, broken ground with Poor communications,
Fr'01711 th:u1Sadd61:11S. ;11c0188 to Vrska Cuka it runs across mountains of middle height
,first and then across hilly ground, This Part, too, is forested on the Bulgarian
side more than on ours. PassabilitY and communicability are better, especially
In the Bulgarian Part of the frontier zone. North of Vrska Cuka the frontier
line runs across hilly ground to vi2lage Bregovo where it appears on the river
Timok and along this river to the convergence. This part is Passable, with better
oemmunioations, thinly forested, densely Populated and economically mbre developed.
part of this sector forms a deep wedge into the Bulgarian territory in the
direction of Berkovioa,
The Bulgarian jut in the direction of Zaiecar and Knjazevac brings the
front nearer to the valley of the river Timok and lateral communications parallel
to the front in it, to the mining area Bor-MaJdanpek and to junction Zaieoar and
Eiliazevao. The shOrtest way to Belgrade is from this jut, and, besides, the part
of the frontier from the saddle Kadibogaz to the peak Srebrna Glava 0, in the depth
of about 60 lzin if; on the flank of the Nisava valley.
ilohsidering the relief' the frontier is topographically strong in the
Middle and on the right flank, and weaker on the left flank; therefore, our mines
ef strategic raw material around Bor and the vital basin of coal in the Timok
valley are insufficiently protected by nature.
From the mouth of the river Timok to village Bregovo the frontier line
runs along the Timok for 15 km which is muddy and unfordable at this place. The
right, Bulgarian bank, b13 a little higher than the left. Further on southward the
distance between the frontier and the river is from 5 to 15 km, which does not
offer safety to our lateral communication Nis - Negotin and other important
obielits.?
:From the frontier ridge the ground is steep towards the Tim* valley,
While it is doping towards Bulgarian territory and the Danub041 From the mouth
of the Timek-to Vrska Ouka the terrain is easy to pass, well 'populated, thinly
weeded, but. nevertheless, 'without good communications. From Vrska Cuka : south-
ward the terrain is broken,- wooded, thinly populated and short of commilnications;
abruptly falls down into the valleys of the Timok, the Bell Timok, the TrgOviski
Timok ,and the Visocica and in general it is difficult to pass On the Bulgarian
side, :due to gradual sloping of the ground, circumstances are more favourable in
any case passability is better, the number of good communications is gTeater,.
military' units could quickly and easily appear on the frontier lineythe area is
more densely populatedy the reserves of food and forage in the viol-flirty of the
frontier are greater. Owing to this, after the capture of the points of resistance
along the frontier line, the advance of Bulgarian, forces toward the Timok valley
Is easier and shorter than our penetration Into the Danube valley in Bulgarian
territory.
Conclusion: On the northern sector our vital mining areas (Zajecar,
Bort Naidanpek) should be protected and the shortest ways from Bulgaria to the
valley'. of the riverVelika Morava and further on to Kragujevac and Belgrade should
be blocked.
Froth the *rational point of view, the left flank of the middle sector
and the right flank of the northern sector are closely connected.- This connection
is necessary, for it is imposed by the parallel extension of the line Nis - Sofia
and the frontier line from the saddle Kadibogaz to the peak Srebrna Glava; be-
sides, the terrain between the Timok and the Nisava is passable and has good .
communications.
1,77p
CONCLUSIONS
AEOLDE
BULGARIAN FRONTIER
The frontier, as a whole is topographically strong. The weakest points
are the Timok Gates north of Vrska Clikal the Nisava and Strumica Gates and the low-
land areas northeast of Delcevo.
Considering the relation between frontier zones and the territory of
Jugoslavia, its economic and political centres, middle and northern sector are
mere important. However, the actual military and political situation in 1915 and
1941 gave priority to the southern sector.
THE RUMANIAN FRONTIER
The length of the frontier is 557 km. General line of extension:
southeastionorthwest. The frontier begins at the convergence of the Jugoslav,
Bulgarian and Rumanian frontier at the mouth of the river Timok and runs along
the Danube to the mouth of the river Nera. From here it runs along the river
Nera to village Kusici where it leaves the Nera and curves sharply east and north
around Bela Orkva; at village Vojvodinci it turns northeastward and after a big
arch around Vrsac runs northwest to east of Sasa Tomic, south and west of Jimbolia
(in Rumania) to the convergence of the Jugoslav, Hungarian and Rumanian frontier
(at village Raba). The frontier line is natural along the Danube only.
From the ethnical point of view, the frontier line cuts mixed population,
leaving a number Of Rumanians in our territory and a number of ow people in
Rumanian territory.
The frontier line is considerably broken, especially along the Danube,
at Vrsae and Bela Orkva, Notable Rumanian juts:
Vlasko, whose point is at Brza Palanka,
Djerdap (Iron Gates), whose point reaches Donji Milanovac and the
mouth of Porecka Reka,
Bazjas, between the Nera and the Danube with the ridge Lokva, whose
point reaches village Vraoev Gab
Oravical whose point reaches village Vojvodinci in the vicinity of the
road and railway line Vrsac - Bela Orkva.
Our juts: the jut of the Danube pointing Turn Severin and Orsava whose
furthermost point is the Xljuc area; east of Bela Crkva and east of Vrsac.
Considering the relief and hydrographic features, the frontier may be
divided into two sectors: the Danube Sector and the Banat Sector,
THE DANUBE SECTOR. Extends from the mouth of the river Timok to the
mouth of the river Nera. It is very strong, because the Danube is a very strong
strategic obstacle. Considering the relief of the valley, it may be divided
into three subdivisions: eastern, middle and western.
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worimmarn.a...
The eastern subdivista extends from the convergence at the mouth of
the Tjmok to the point where the Danube emerges from the Iron .Gates at, Teltijai
*e right bank is, in the main, higher 'than the left and thus more suitable
. ?
for crossing from our territory to Rumania. From :this subdivision eastward a
great 'plain spreads (V3.aslcoftPontiska)'. opening the way to the granary of Rumania
and its Vital regions. Fram the mouth of the. Porecictt Reka (T)onji M.1..a.novao) ? to
the mouth of ,the Timolt the Danube juts into theiuman,ian territory in the depth
,
of about 30 Ian, and in width from 20. to:0 25 Ian. This jut is encirculed by the
Rumanian territory from three sides ?? southeast, northeast and northwesto
According .to its form and 'size it could be operationally important to Rumania;
however, 'due to the width of .1.16 .Danube and nature of its bank on olir -side in
the ,western part of the jut steep, and in the eastern overtopping * these advan,-
?
tages are insignificant.
The middle subdivision extends from Tekija to Golubac and includes the
Iron Gates. Considering the features' of the defile, high- and steep, often rocky
banks of the Danube, almost unapproachable' from the southand from the north)
? . ?
mountainous terrain on both banks - the crossing of stronger forces is t Otically
and technically neXt te) Impossible.
Al
The western subdivision extends from vu.A.-a,,?? v? +h, village Ram. Ong this
Part the Rumanian bank is considerably higher (Lokva) so that the crossing from
the left to the right bank is quite easy. This ovbclivisi?n is important to us,
for it protects the approaches to the valleys of the rivers Velika Morava, }Cava,
and pek.
Conclusion: On the Danubel sector the strongest part is the middle sub-
division) due to steep, high and rocky banks, as well as due to the lack of
approaches in Rumanian territory, while there are thFee roads in our territory
from Brza Palanka across the Veliki Groben Mountain and on to the mouth of the
river Porecka Reka; - along the valley' of the river Porecka Reka from village
laokbCevac and from: Majdanplpk to bonji Milanovac. All these three ' roads run
towards a point the mouth of the Por'ecita'Reka.
? The eastern, subdivision is topographically weaker, especially its
eastern part 'facing Mala VI.aske: (Oltenija.): however, our bank l?igher than
Rumanian here.' Being on the periphery, it is not of great operational iraportance;
it "protects the entrance of the Timok Valley from the north and our mining region
Majdanpek - Dor from the east and northeast.
' The Western subdivision,' is topographically the weakest for : the Rumanian
bank Is o onsid?bly higher and enveloping our frontier one Considering that
this subdivision protects the approaches to the lower parts of the Peki the Mlava
and the Velika: Morava and the apprach to Beagr...a.Ae along the right bank Of the
, ? - - ?
Danube it is very important and, at the same time, highly vulnerable.
THE BANAT SECTOR, The frontier runs across a plain, unprotected either
_
by relief- or by rivers: it is wide:' open. This Sector is bare except east of
Vrsac and south ofBela Orkva, along the ridge Lokva. The Banat sector may be
, ,
divided into two subdivisions .southern and northern.
The soiiheibn subdivision extends from the Danube to the river Brzavao
The terrain on the Rumanian side is almost along the whole sector higher than on
our 'side and in the form of a horse shoe blocks all directions 'that lead from our
side eastWard. On the Rumanian side the terrain ascends and reaches 1,000.m
above Sea leVei) so that operations eastward would soon encounter well defended
position. On our side there are the Deliblato Sands (50-60 in high) which, in
. .
'connection with fenny, here and there swampy ground along' the lower parts of the
rivers?Taiis,'Begej and Tisa, and With a good engineering organization Could
'serve as the ,first suitable position for .the' defence, of Belgrade.
40.0 4110 23.
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This subdivision is jutted eastward in relation to the northern subdivision)
and exposed to flank action from Timisoara) but, on the other hand, threatens this
town from the south.
Gates:
- the valley of the river. Nera, and
the valley of the river Karas.
Conclusion: This subdivision is very important to Rumania, for the valleys
of the rivers Nera and Karas are approaches to vital Rumanian metallurgiccentres
Anina. and Resica. In our territory, communications to Pancevo and Belgrade run
from this subdivision (distance from 90 to 100 RIO.'
The northern extends from the river Brava to the convergence.
This zone lies in the plain, unprotected', and in itshinterland is the river Tisa,
about 15.1m distant in the north, and about 50 in other parts.
Numerous communications run northeast, convergently towards Timisoara and
Arad
ConclUSion:. For Rumania this subdivision would be enormously important)
for operations could be conducted in the plain and along an orograph,ically corn.*
pletely =protected line of operations towards the capital) Belgrade, over which
this frontier zone hangs from the northeast and from the north (the distance
between Jasa Tomb c and Belgrade is from 90 to 100 len),
00NOLUSIONS
ABOUT THE
RUMANIAN FRONTIER
This frontier zone runs along two different sectors: the Danube sector
which is topographically very strong) with the Danube as an obstacle) strengthened
by steep and high banks on both sides, which makes this sector impassable without
large preparations and modern equipment: the Banat sector which is open and un-
protected, Without any stronger obstacles and passable always and everywhere.
The degree of passability drops down in case of rainy weather due to muddy, groundi
which restricts movements of vehicles to roads with stony surfaces Only; howeveri
there are no roads of this type in the middle zone of the Banat sector.
THE HUNGARIAN FRONTIER
The length of the frontier is 623 kilometres, General direction of the
extension of the frontier .line: east-west. From the convergence of the Jugo-
slav, Rumanian and Hungarian frontier at village Raba, the line extends 14 km
westward (air line) to the river Tisa, cutting it south of Szeged (Hungary);
further on, westward, it runs north of Horgos, around Subotica and along a broken
line southwestward towards the Danube, crossing it about 7 km north of the village
Batina; then it runs southwestward across Baranje north of 'Ben Mina stir towards
the river Drava reaching this river 8 km east of Donji Miholjac. From, here it
runs along the river Drava cutting the new bed of this river, leaving many small
bridgeheads in ours and in Hungarian territory. The only larger bridgehead at
villages &Tale and Gole (23 km wide and 6 km deep) belongs to Jugoslavia. At
Legrad the frontier line leaves the river Drava and runs along the rivet Mura
to the mouth of the river Lendava. From here it runs for about, 8 km along the
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river Lendava and further on northwestward crossing the upPerPalt of the Mala
KrkA and the Veika Krka, bendingwestward soon towar3. 4 convergence of the
JugoI
sql Htingar tan and Austrian frontier ?eaevauion 380 m, a
The frontier lino
and the river Mura.
runs
along natural lines on] Y along the river Drava
From the ethnical point of view, the frontier line has been traoed so
that, due to mixed population, a certain number of our people have been left in
Hungary, and some of the Hungarians have been left in our territory.
The frontier has the form of a big arch jutting southward, which gives
opportunity to the southern warring party to advance towards the vital object -
Budapest - convergently. Prekomurje is also an important jut,.
Gates: Pannonia Plain, at Zdale Gale, laotoriba and Donja Lendava,
About a half of the total length of the frontier
are rivers.
The Danube divides the Hungarian frontier into two sectors:
The right sector (eastern) - 'Vojvodina from the convergence
slavisl Rumania and Hungary) to the Danube.*
Jug o7
The left sector (western) '.he Drava sector from the Danube to the
convergence (Jugoslavia, Hungary and Austria).
1411E RIGHT SECTOR (the Vojvodina Sector) is divided
by the river Ti sat
into two subdavl a.
The right ubdivision the Banat subdivision,), extends from the conver-
gence to the river Tisa for about 20 lima It is inserted between the river Tisa
and the Rumanian frontier and is very narrow. It can be easily blocked and
defended.
The whole sector lies in a Plain, open and bare, except
zone along the Tisa, passable, except during the Period of rains.
two railway lines: at Djala and Banatsko Arandjelovo - to Szeged,
the narrow
There are
The left subdivision (the Backa subdivision) extends from the Tisa to
the Danube, this is the most important part of' the frontiers for the shortest
lines of operations run through it, considering the main strategic objects on
both sides (Belgrade - Budapest). ' Its right flank is jutted 's: little northward)
so that the distance to Budapest is only about 250 kra?,
Behind this subdivision is the Veliki Kanal ((reat Canal) connecting
Bezdan to Vrbas, Srbobran and Becej.
The Backa subdivision, together with the Banat subdivision, protects
the granary of our country, for behind them are our main agricultural regions.
The -whole right sector is in a plain, passable in all directions and
topographically unprotected. It is completely bare, except in the centre
(north of Subotica), where there are some woods, and aloha the left bank of the
Danube, where there are narrow wooded tones.
On the right and left flanks of the subdivision the ground is consider-
ably lower with:two rivers A the Danube and the Tisa. Their characteristics are:
abundance of water, slow current, considerable meandering, flooding of valleys
and wide swampy zones 'along them. In the Central Part of the subdivision,' in
ta6 area west of Horgos to Ridjiea, the Backa Table' extends (30-40 in high),
? ? ?
6
41i
t?.0/
?or..
communications with a part of the Posavina (the valley of the river Sava) from
Jasenovac to Zagreb although in that direction the ground is hilly between the
two rivers.
Or lateral communications along the whole length from Nasice to Ludbreg,
there ate otilia railway line and a fihird-class road running along the nort4-
eastetn foothills of the Croatian and Slavonian mountains. In the eastern part
there are a narrow-gauge railway line and the third-class highway from Slatina
via Donji Miholjac to Osijek. There are several roads and railway lines leading
towards the Draval that is to the frontier: to Donji Miholjac (bridge demol"
ished), to Moslavina, to Noskovci (railway bridge demolished), to Bare (railway
bridge adapted for vehicular traffic - partly demolished), Djux'djevao Ferdinand-
avac (highway), Virje Zdala (highway), Koprivnica Gyekenes (railway bridge)
and Koprivnica Legrad. The above mentioned bridges and the bridgehead Zdala
Gola connect the Podravina with the left bank of the Drava. Across the Croatian
and Slavonian mountains it is connected with the Posavina by several railway
lines and roads from Nasice, Suhopolje, Djurdjevac and Koprivnicat
Behind this subdivision extends an almost unbroken range of hills from
Djakovo to Varazdin: Krandija (elevation 602 m), PaPuk (elevation 953 m), Bib
Gora (elevation 307 m), Kalnicko Gorje (elevation 643 m) and Ivancioa (elevation
1061 m). This ridge is very important, for on the right bank of the Drava it is
the first obstacle to a possible penetration towards the Posavina, protecting
the Posavina with its lateral communications parallel to the front running from
Zagreb to Belgrade, and also the political and economic centre of Croatia .
Zagreb, This ridge is extending, more or less, parallel to the frontier line
and can be organized as a defensive zone.
Conclusion: The Drava subdivision is very important, for it protects
and blocks the gates from the Podravina to the Posavina, also our vital
objects Zagreb and our traffic line of greatest capacity Belgrade Zagreb
which, in relation to the Hungarian frontier, appears as a first-class lateral
communication parallel to the front
The left subdivision the Mura subdia4sion), extends from the mouth of
the Mura to the convergence.
The southeastern part of this subdivision to the mouth of the river
Lendava runs along the Mura, lying in the plain of Prekomurje with the Drava
immediately behind. The northwestern part extends along the eastern slopes of the
ridge that drops down from the convergence (elevation 380 to village KobilJe.
At .a. distance from 8 to 10 km behind the Mura lies a ridge formed by the eastern
spurs of the Slovenska Gorice, it, too, can serve as a line of defensive
positions for checking hostile penetration.
The Prekomurje is thinly wooded, economically strong, well populated,
with many good communications and well passable.
The northwestern part of the frontier runs across hilly ground,
average height of which is from 300 to 400 ma This hilly area dominates the
terrain spreading east and northwalfrom the frontier and can serve as the
organization of positions to defend the Prekomurje Plain, The Prekomurje is
our large bridgehead on the left bank of the Mura, wide about 50 km and about
30 km deep. Shortcomings of this bridgehead are: open flanks at Donja Lendava
and Redgota, that is, weak support of the flanks by the Mura river. Behind this
subdivision', along the line of the Slovenska Gorice and its eastern spurs, and
in connection with the Mural a zone of defence could be organized.
Conclusion: The importance of the Mura subdivision is the result of
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itsf
cause
sition on the
it bloelts the lines
_e
.tiribor an Oelie.
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fi'?11tier line, of its leaning against Austria and be.
of operations leading towards our tmporMnt objeCts$
and via Varazdin and Zagreb.
GOtiC USIOtIS
ABOUT THE
WNBIJN FRONTIEft.
The right sector is wide open; with the exception of swampy areas along
e rivers" it is passable everywhere for all branches of the an-14F.- Topograph-
ieally, it is very weak, and the weakest is the .central part of the Backe sub-
division. The left- sector is incomparably stronger (the Drava and the Mura and
the .greatian?Slavonian Mountains and the mountains in northeastern Slovenia) and
e defend,
easy eo eeeend.
IE? AUSTRIAN FRONT3R
The length of the frontier is 323 kilometres. G eneral direction of
the extension east-west. Starting from the convergence of the J,ugesla.vs?
Hungarian and Austrian frontier (elevation 380 in in the Prekomurje), the frontier
line runel,southwestward to the river Kuonice, then along this river to the river
Mural, along the latter to village Radgona and further on to village St. Ilj
Where it leaves the Mura crossing the railway line and the first-class highway
Meelibor i Graz; immediately thereafter it runs across the western slopes of the
Slakeeniiko Gorice, ascending the ridge of the Kozjak mountain and along it west,-
ward to the ,Kosenjak mountain and its summit (elevation 1522 m); from here it
bends Southwestward and steeply drops to the Drava, crossing it about 4 km from
DrOrograd up the river: From the Drava, the frontier line runs across mountains
of mediate height and high mountains across the peak Pee (elevation 2126 m) and
Stacey? (elevation 1929 m) to the Savinj ski Alps 3 km east of the summit Karavanke
ridge' the Kosut mountain (elevation 2134 m), the summit Stol (elevation 2236 m),
the peak Xep (elevation. 2143 m) to the peak Pec (elevation 1509 m), this peak is
the convergence of The Jugoslav, Austrian and Italian frontier.
Almost along the whole length the frontier is natural, for it runs
along the ridges of high mountains or along rivers. except from the sourde of the
. _
Kucni.de to the Hungarian convergence.
From the ethnical point of view, the frontier line has not been
traced satisfactorily' because about 100,000 Slovenians live in Austria, in
Oorinthia, and partly in Styria, while about 50i000 Croatians live in Burgenland
(eastern Styria.).
The frontier line is slightly broken with only one large and sharp
jut into our territory and one jut into Austrian territory. Important Austrian
juts are
e the Radgona wedge e sharp wedge whose point is in the vicinity
of the spa Slatina?Radeneii
"b the Jezersko wedge, whose point is in the vicinity of the summit
Grintavec (elevation 2558 m). Same the borders of this wedge in our territory
are high mountains, this jut is insignificant,
From our territory toward Austria there is only one jut in the
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?Prekomurje worth mentioning that reaches in the north of the convergence only 6
km south of the river Rab.
The Radgona (Austrian) jut and. the Prekomuro
(our
operational importance.
Sobota
Gates:
4et are Of tactical
0
?? the valley on the left bank of the Mura from Radgona toward Murska
0 the Mura valley at S (Spielfel4),
e the Drava valley towards Dravograar
e the valley of the river Mem. Gustanj Pliberk.
All these openings are vulnerable places on the frontier and are very
important from the tactical and operational point of view,
Considering the relief within the frontier zone the frontier can be
divided into two sectors: eastern and western.
Extends from the convergence (elevation 380 m) to
the peak Pee inclusively ?elevation 2126 m), 20 km west of Dre.vogTad. According
to the relief, rivers and. communications Maribor St. Ilj Steles, the sector
is divided into three subdivisions: the Prekomurje subdivision, the Mura sub-
division and the Drava subdivision.
The ?Prekomde Subdivision extends from the convergence (elevation
380 m) southwestward across the hilly terrain to elevation 400 in; from here it
runs southward along the river Kucnica to its mouth. The ground is wooded and
broken, but passable. Communications run from north to south, parallel to the
frontier. There is only one highway across the frontier: Radgona Jenersdorf,
and in the south two highways: Mu.rska Sobota RadkerOurg. In the same dire
ection, from the convergence southward, the spurs are sloping; they can serve as
a number of successive tactical positions.
Our jut northward on the Prekomurje subdivision brings the frontier
line to only 6 km from the river Rab. Important railway line ap.d a highway,
connecting Gre...Z and Hungary, run 'along its valley. At the same time this sub-
division lies on the flank of the Mime eubdivision. Its weak point are the gates
east of Radkersburg.
Mura Subdivision extends from the mouth of the river Kucnica along
the Mura to the point where the frontier line leaves the, Mura (1.5 km southeast
of Spilj). The Mura is about 150 in broad, with fast Current and low banks. From
Vratja Vas to St. 11j., where the eastern spurs of the Slovenska Gado? reach the
Mura, the right (Jugoslav) bar* is higher than the left (Austrian). In Austrian
territory the frontier zone along the Mura is wooded here and there, passable,
With good communications, populated and cultivated. In our territory the hilly
terrain of the Slovenske Gorice is broken, wooded, with many vineyards and
orchards. The subdivision as good communication and is easily passable, and the
plain south of village Apace and around Gornje Radgona- well cultivated and
populated.
Important crossings (bridges on the Mura) are: second-class highway
Murak (Ormirek) St. Lenart Ptuj and the second-class highway Radkersburg se
Gornje Radgona.
The Drava Subdivision extends from the point where the frontier line
leaves the Mura to the peak Pec west of Dravograd Leaving the Mura the frontier
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roved for Release
ne leaves the Mura' to the peak Pec west of Dravograd. Leaving the Mira the fron-
tier line turns southward, crossing the railway line and thr highway Maribor
Graz, running across the ridge of the SlOvenske Gorice and drops down to the valley
of the river Pesnica; from here it ascends the 'low ridge of the. Kozjak and the
Kosenjak,' a mountain of medium height (elevation 1522 m), from where it falls
steeply down into the valley of the Drava, 'crosses this riverabout 4 km northirest
of Dravograd, and then the railway line Dravograd ? Gustezj Cebveo, running up to
the peak Pecs The ground along the whole zone is very broken, densely forested,
diffieult to pitss, with poor communications and thickly populated except in the
area of the Slovensla Gorice which are full of vineyards.
From the frontier line towards our territory, towards the Drava the
ter,rain falls down steeply, leaciing in the valley on the left bank of the river
only a narrow flat zone ala ag which runs the second-class highway frem Maribor to
Dravograd. These steep sides are =suitable for settlements and therefore thinly
popuiated:. The, way out from :the Drava valley to the frontier line ;is difficult
except from Marenberg to the saddle Radel with the thirdarclasi highway_ to Eibiswald
'Autria), In the north', towards Austria, the terrain is sloping down and is
therefore more populated, has ,.better CommunicationS and is passable.
South of the Drava along Its rIh1 bank eirtends the ridges or the Pohorje
(On Vrh, 1543 ra), Prom DraVograd to Maribor. Its top is easy to pass,
1;rith very broken sides; tt is. Or medith height', Wooded and thinly populated,
cittparettivtlly easy to pais on the top, but its slopes hoitheth and Southern 4
difficult to pass. Its northern m
61.0.?. ac% the Drava leaving only a narrow
yv),-
passage for the railway line Maribor Dravograd,
Between the Drava and the peak Pee the frontier line runs across the
terrain of medium height; wooded and broken and difficult to pass. In Austrian
territOry the terrain drops steeply down into the Pliberk lowland area; in our
territory it also fa31s steeply down into the valley of the river Meza.
The crossings and gaps worth mentioning on this subdivision are:
Stras St Ilj Maribor (railway and second-class highway),
Ehrenha.usen .Zgornja, Kungota (second-class highway))
-.Leutohael:i Zgornja Kungota (second-class highway),.
Eibiswald the saddle Radel Merenberg (second-class highway),
....lorolf0p9rg -.the valley of the river Labotnica ---Dravograd (railway
and Se0011. 6class highway),
?? Celovac (Klagenfur) Gustanj Dravograd (railway and second-.
Class highway).
? On the flanks of' this subdivision there are two natural gaps:: the valleys
of the Mira and the Drava.,
aro
Considering the rely of the subdivision, impassability and lack of
communications in the central part, except the highway Eibiswald Marenberg, the
subdivision is not suitable for military operations except along the valley on
its flanks.
Conclusion: The eastern sector is topographically weaker along the
Prekomtrje and the Mura subdivisions where the ground is hilly. The Mura is the
biggest obstacle here. The terrain along the Drava subdivision is mainly.lowe.
mountainous, and partly of medium, height (the Kosenjak). Behind this subdivision
parallel to the frontier, flows the river Drava, and along its right bank extends
the Pohorje all of which makes this subdivision very strong. Behind the left
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flank of the subdivision extends the mountains of medium height (the Urslie Gora
elevation 1696 in and the Mozirske Planine Mountains, elevation 1695 n).
The eastern sector blocks all lines of operations leading from Austria
to the Podravina and the Posavina - that is: to the Zagreb region by way of
Varazdin, Maribor and Celie?
The following regions in our territory can serve as concentration areas:
the Prekomurje (considerably advanced); the area between Cakovec, Orthoz and
Varazdin; the Ptuj Polje and the Drava Polie, the valleys of the Savinia and the
Mislinia southeast of Sloven Gradeci
In Austrian territory: the valleys of the Rab and the Mura and the lowland
areas smith of Graz and around Leibnitz.
THE WESTERN .SECTOR. It extends from the peak Fe 0 at Dravograd at the
Western Point of the Karavanke mountains. Considering the relief it can be divided
into two subdivisions:
the right subdivision, from the Peak Pee to the saddle Jezerski Vrh
exclusively;
-''the left, from the saddle Jezerski Vrh inclusively to the convergence of
the peak Fee:.*
The.riht subdivision. Here from the frontier line runs, in the main,
across ,the higher mountains of medium height and over individual high peaks (Pee,
elevation 2126 ,m, Olseve:.elevation 1929 m) and over the sayinjski laps. The.
ground is very broken, forested, with steep sides, deeply cut valleys and rocky
in the Savinjski AlPs?
The left subdivision extends along the Karavanke mountains: ,at the be-
ginning the frontier line runs across the saddle Jezerski Vrh (elevation 1216 m)
and then ascends the Kosut mountain (elevation 2134 m); from this mountain it
runs down towards the saddle. Ljubelj (elevation 1370 in) and then towards the
peak Pec. .The ridge of the Karavanke is high: from the saddle Liubeli to the
peak Ped.its..northern slopes drop steeply down to the valleys of the Dmva and the
Zilja, and also its southern slopes to the Sava valley. The 1Saravahka are
difficult. to pass, they can be Passed by mountain units, and here and there by
,alpne'units'onlY. The Karavanka are densely fr.-)rested 'and almost tuPoPulated;
settlements, appear along their 'southern and northern foothills= Elbreo in our
territory, and in Austrian territory, too, are railways and highways.
Communications:
VelikoVec Zelezna Kala the saddle Jezerski Vrh to Kranj and the Sava
valley (second-'class highway);
,Celovec fislorovije the sstddle Ljubeli to Trzic and the Sava valley
(second-class highway);
Beljak - Kranjska Gora - the source of the Sava Dolinka (second-class
highway);
the railway line Celovec jesenice, running through an 81Lm tunnel under
the Karavanita.
gairlasomownswesosbmiellaiNVOINO?
* Note: the two above-mentioned peaks have different names: the first Pec,
and the second Pec (Petz and Petch)e
,?
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Q,521121,2212a: This sector is topographically very strong, for the relief
of the Karavanke makes It strong, and since the frontier line runs alongt,11...e...,main
ridge, there are no advantages for either of the two cOuntries 0 In the southern
pat of this sector spread 'lowland areas and fields along which very good comalunica"
tions run towards the Political centre of FR Slovenia " Ljubljana... Besides, our
heavy industry (Jesenice) is in the valley of the Sava Dolinka, and somewhat south.'
ward big industrial centres (Krani, Medvode, Ljubljana, Menges, Ka/unlit, Domzale,
ete).
As concentration areas in our territory may serve: the,Redovlji.Ca
lowland area, extending southward to KrEinj, then the Kranj Polio, the Sora Polje
and the Ljubljana Polje. All these areas are densely populated, with a strong
military-econom.to potential and have all the resources required for maintaining
large unitse.
In Austrian territory, the lowland, area between Pliberk and Dobrla
Ves and the Drava river, the valleys around Oelovee and Beljak can serve as con!.
centration areas.
NOTE: The Austrian frontier is divided into two sectors-- considering its
orographic and hydrographic features.. However, observed in connection with oper-
ational and important lines of operations and Objectives of these lines of oper-
ations, (from the Prekomurje arid Maribor to Zagreb; frOm the Dravograd area,
village Mezioaf vil1ag Solcave to Oelie and Zicleni Most; from the Kaievanke area
to Ljubljana) the frontier could be divided into three sectors:
1) The eastern2*(MaribOr) sector .1tom the convergence (Jugoslavia,
Hungary, Austria) to the Kosenjak mountain (exclusively);(this sector blocks 411
lines of operations leading from Austrian Styria to the Fedravina and Zagreb
area.
) The central (Sostanj) sector from the Kosenjak mountain (inclusivel
to the 8aVinj6ki Alps (the Summit Orintavec ft elevation 255e in e)totitsively); this
sector blocks all linos of Operatiofts leading from Austrian'Eastern Corinthia
(the area: St. Andraz m Velikovee Pliberlc) between the Pohorie and the
Savini ski Alps to Celie and Zidani Most areas.
3) The western (Oorenj sic()) sector from the Savinj ski Alps to the conm
vergenee (Jugoslavia, Austria, Italy). This sector blocks all lines of operations.
leading from the Gelovec - Beljak lowland area to the upper Sava and Ljubljana
area.
TIE ITALIAN FRONTIER
The length of the frontier line is about 225 km. Italy is the largest
country in our neighbourhood. We are separated from it by the Adriatic Sea in
the main, and by land frontier.
The land frontier with Italy begins at the convergence of the Jugoslav,
Austrian and Italian frontier. From here it runs straight southward, cuts the
watershed at village Ratece and the first-class highway and the railway line from
Jasenice along the Sava Dolinka valley to Italy in the valley of the river
Ziliica or the Bela., Further on, it ascends high mountains, turns westward
across the peak Mangrt (elevation 2670 D), then southwestward across the saddle
Predel (elevation 1156) and the peak Kanin (elevation 2585) to village Ueeja
whale it leaves high mountains. 'Here, along a big arch, it runs southeastward
across the Peak Matajur (elevation 1643 m) to the ridge Kolovrat where it
approaches to 5 km from Tolmin, reaching the upper Idria. It runs along this
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"J) "
rivei? west of village Kozbane and then around the Brdo roaohes the river Soca at
sollcan about 3 km northeast of Gorica. Here it crosses to the left bank of the
river Soca and across the plain southwestward to the. river Vipava, leaving Gorica
to Italy, At village Miren it erosies the Vipava, ascends the DOberdobska Planota
and somewhat east of village Doberdob turns southeastward, enveloping Trieste
from the east and then from the south and at village Lazaret reaches the Adriatic
Coast
From the ethnic, economic, geographic, topographic and military point
of view the frontier line has been traced unjustly and unnaturally:
m compact areas populated by Slovenians have been Ceded to Italy,
Kanalske Dolina, lieziia, Beneska Sloven*, Trieste and the former zone A insofar
as it was taken: over by Italy:
4 GOrieal the economic, traffic and cultural Centre of a large area,
Of whiCh the greater pari is in jugoslaVia, has been cut off from this territory;
m the frontier line approaches to the valley of the river Soca to 2
or 3 km here and there, and at Solkano it crosses this Aver, remaining on its
left bank, which all offers great operational advantages to Italy;
m PR of Slovenia is cut off from the Sea by an artificial zone whose
width is about 3 km, so that a territory that for centuries has graviated towards
the sea and has lived off it, is cut off from it now.
Tip frontier is a broken lino with large and sharp juts in both sides.,
The Italian' /Uto worth mentioning are:
? the Trebiz jut, reaching Ratece; its boundaries are: in the north, ,
the Austrian frontier (the ridge of the Kaimski Alps and partly the Karavanke), in.
the south "the lines the Mangrt (elevation 2678 m) - the saddle Predel,
m the Cedad jut whose point is on the ridge Kolovrat; its boundaries:
in the north, the line from the Matajur (elevation 1643 m) to the ridge Kolovrat,
and in the southeast the river Lida,
m the Goriea jut, whose point is north of village Solkan; its boundaries
in the north: the Southern foothill of the Brdo, and in the east, the line:
Solkan gft Dpatje Selo,
the Trieste jut, whose point is southeast of village Bazovica
(towards the elevation 741 in V. Gradisee)1 its boundaries are; in the north-
east, the southwestern foothills of the Kamenski Kras, and irn the 'southeast
and the south: the western spurs of the Oicarije: this jut reaches to 34 km
from the highway and the railway line Divaea Pazin Ftlati
From our territory westward the following areas are jutting:
- the Bovee-Kolarid jut, reaching in the west the line: the Kanin
mountain (elevation 2585 - village Uceja - village Prosnid; in the northwest
It is bordered by the line: the Mangrt - the Predel m the Kanin; in the south,
by the line: village Prosnid - the peak Matajur m the ridge Kolovrat?
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e KoisIto ju
southward ideati the direction
Gori
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extending between the river Idria and the river Soca
of Ermin, reaching to 3 inn from the railway line
e Kras jut, pointed towards Trzic (Monfaloone) and the bay of the
same name, reaching to lei from international communications leading from the
west via Venice and Trzic to Trieste.
Al].. above mentioned? j.0.0 ???? are.. very important from
ational point of view.
and apex'-
Along the Italian frontier there are the following natural gates:
the Bela valley the river Ziljica Ratece the valleyof the
river Sava Dol.inka
? the valley of the river Nadiza Kobarid (this gate, considering the
narrow valley, can be called a defile),
the valley of the river Soca from Solkan to Tolmin,
the valley Of the river Vipava whose boundaries are: in the north;
the line, the tird,a Trnovski Gozd Nanos, and in the south the Kamenski Kras;
the main communications from the Soca valley ea.stward-to our oountry via Postojna
to Ljubljana or via Ilirska Bistrica to Rijeka run along this zone.
An these gaps arel'rulnerable places on the frontier and may be of
great tactical-operational importance, especially operational. It is necessary
to stress that these openings, crossing to our territory, get narrow in the form
of defileswhich can be blocked, and defended easily, except the valley of the
river Vi v
In general, the whole zone between the Julian Alps and the Adriatic
Sea is a broad gap through which nations mired in history from the Pannonia 'Pia
to the Apennine Peninsula.
Considering the relief within the frontier zone, the frontier can be
divided into three sectors.
The Northern Sector (high mountains
The middle Sector (low mountains and mountains of medium height),
The Southern Sector (the Gorica Sector
The rorthern Sector (high mountains). Extends from
the valley of tiie river Uceja.
e eonvergenbe to
Only in the Ratece. watershed .the ? ?.frontier line rnOS''acroSs-the. terrain
easy
?-
oasy .to ,pass; ? ? other .r :1;31_6 roekT,., bare
ridges and almost impossible to passunits, northernmost
. ,? ? ? , .?.? ? (alpinend
.? ? " ?? ? ? ??ith ?? ?? ? ?
siopes of t"ie ridge are'wooded ..from 'Where the'Mangrt ?drops - tOwarde:Ratece 'a:rid' the
?
terrain below 1.S1500.'M? above sea-leve.;.?
The -frontier line rums, in the Main, along ridges of mountains, giving
no advantage to any of the two Countries. From the river Uceja to the saddle
Predel the 'terrain drops steeply' down to the river Soca and Koritnica so that
tactical positions in our territory have not the depth required. In this part
westward ktoward6 the -rivers .Tagliamento and Bele) the terrain drops gradually,
offeiin to the opposite side a sufficient depth for the organization of a number
of support positions.
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i* 35 "
Main communications running across this sector to Italy are:
Jesenice Kranjska Gora Ratece Bela PE3e Trbiz the Kanalska
Dcl-
Ponteba (first-class highway and railway line),
Bove? ?? village Log (in the valley of the river Koritnica the saddle
Predet .6 Lake Rabelj ?? village Rabelj (in the valley of the river Ziljica Trbiz
(second-class highway),
Along the left (southern) border of the northern sector runs from
village Zag (in the Soca valley) a third-class highway along the Um*, valley to
Traeent and Udine.
The northern (high mountains) sector includes the central massif of the
Julian Alps which are composed of limestone and dolomite. Individual peaks are
separated by deep and steep valleys. The ridges are teeth-like, sharp, with sharp
peaks covered with snow. In middle parts, below 1500 in above sea level, mountains
are overgrown with evergreen trees: abaci* them alpine pastures can be found.
Bue to this characteristic visibility is poor.
THE MIDDLE SECTOR (mountains of medium height or low mountains). -Ex-
tends from the valley of the river Uceja to the Soca at Solkan. Considering the
relief, we have two subdivisions here: mountains of medium height and low moun-
tains,
the
.........J.Thesubdiviionotmouinsofmediumheiht extends from the Uceja to
a of the source of the river Idria.
Communications worth mentioning are Kobarid Targent (second-class
highway); Kobarid Cedan (first-class highway along the valley of the river
NedizOi Kobarid Cedad (a road for vehicular traffic via village Livek).
The frontier line runs along the ridges of mountains over the dominating
peaks, giving no advantage to either of the two countries, except on the Ko/ovratf,
where the summit elevation 1243 m - is in our territory. Along the upper Nedize,
our bank (the Kobarid Sto - elevation 1668 m) considerably overtops the Italian
bank. -On the ridge west of Kobarid none of the two sides are in a better or worse
position.'' On both sides the terrain is well grown with trees, so that visibility
is equally poor?
The subdivi.sIon of low mountains extends from the upper Idria to the
Solkan bridge on the river Soca.
? The valley of the river Idria, up to its exit fromthe mountain west
of village'Kozbani is deeply cut b'etween two ridges of low mountains extending
from the Kolobrat mountain southwestward. The valley is very narrow, banks very
steep, rocky here and there, over 300 metres high, fairly wooded. The river
Idria is fordable in summer. Along each of the banks there is a third-class
road; along the upper part of the river they continue as horse paths. The ridge
on our side is higher and extends between the Soca and the Idria, and on the
Italian side it is lower and extends between the Idria and the Nadiza; both ridges
are wooded so that visibility is considerably restricted. There are no tactical
advantages, while Italy has operational advantages because of the small distance
between the frontier and the Soca.
From village Kozbane to Solkan our side is higher than the Italian;
nevertheless, visibility is quite restricted due to dense population, partial
woodiness and many orchards and vineyards. The unfavourable circumstances is that
the frontier reaches to the slope northwest of Solkan, which directly dominates
the entrance of the mountainous part of the Soca valley.
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3
Lin communications ares Koisito Gorica (second-class highvtay):
Ma no sa (second-class highway); village Koz13a.ria. CeTad and Kozbana "
Clan" (secondmola.ss highway); village Idria. Osciad (sdoond-class and third-class
ihwa
THE SOtTF SECTOR (the Gorica Sector) Extends from Solkan to village
zaret which is at the Adriatic Coast. Considering the variety of the relief,
eonfigluration of ground and the relation to the Adriatic, this sector is divided
into three subdivisions e Gorica subdivision, the Kras subdivisron and the
Is r a. subdivision*
The Gorica subdivision extends from Solkan to the river tripava.. The
frontier line runs across the fertile, densely populated plain and along the
eastern border of the town of Gorica, along the railway line Solkan Gorical so
that the railway line and the railroad station are in our possession'.- The ground
is easy to pass everywhere.
Main communications are: A,jdovscina m Nova. Goriaa Gorica Videm
firstoclass highway and the railway line); Trieste - Dornberg Gorica (railway
tine and secondyelass highway); Solkan Gorica. (the railway line Jesenice
Gorica)
liras (Doberdob) subdii(,..2a extends from the river Vipava to village
Ja4j?This subdivision includes the northwestern aPurP- of the Komenski Kras?
whigh is) in average,: a plateau from 300 to 400 metres high with a few ridges
extending parallel, -yram southeast to northwest. On the frontier line the average
height above sea level is about 200 metres. The ground is of limestone, with many
funnamshaped holes in the limestone formation and cave6). Predominantly 'bare: ,
covered with "bu.Shes and sitiall woods in some places, difficult to pass off the
roads, good 60MmtnioatiOnO4
'The litrian subdivisio extends from village Jamlje to village Lazaret.
To elevation '741 in v. Gradisce it runs along the ridge almost parallel to the
seaside separating the narrow, artificial zone of the former A Zone from its
natural hinterland. From elevation 741 it runs along the western spurs of the
GicariJe and in the form of an arch envelops the town of Trieste and the Milje
Bay from the east and 'Tram the south. The ground is of limestone, with a number
of potholes, difficult to pass, but with a lot of good communications.. The terrain
is bare arid open. The frontier line is jutting into our territory with the point
towards elevation 741; this jut is about 5 km deep and its base is about 8 km. long, -
so that it may be of great importance (vulnerability to our communications
Divaea V Pula,etc).
All main communications connecting Trieste with its natural hinterland
across our country run along this subdivision. Trieste Rijeka, Trieste
Ljubljana, Trieste m Gorica, Trieste sm Pula. The frontier line runs around the
former A Zone (now ceded to Italy), which offers us all tactical and operational
advantaged. Its weak point is about village Bazovica and the northmwesternmost
part. Along this subdivision the frontier line has been traced only 3-6 km from
the sea, so that an artificial zone was created here by which PR Slovenia has
been out off from the sea.
Water is available from cisterns and well spread waterworks; besides,
there are several strong watersprings and Lake Doberd6b in Italy.
The main communications in this subdivision are: Komen m Trzic and
Komen m" Opatje Selo - Gain (highways); besides, there are a number of good
roads for vehicular traffic.
THE SOUTHERN SECTOR (the Gorica Sector) is a strong bridgehead for
Italy on the left bank of the river Soca with two strongholds: the Doberdobska
Planota in the southern, Kras subdivision and the town of Gorica in the nOrthern,
?
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- 37
Gorica subdivision.
CON9LUSION,. Taken as a whole, the Italian frontier is favourable traced
for FPRY as to the relief, for in our territory, in hinterland, the terrain ascends
to a considerable depth and on the left bank of the Soca continues into mountains
diffieult to Pass, of limestone, waterless and thinly populated (the Trnmski Gozd,
and somewhatnorthward the highest peaks of the Triglav massif), while in Italian
territory it drops to the great Friulian Plain through which the way is open to
Venetian Plain and Lombardy. In our territoryt.the unfavourable circumstance is
that the frontier line extends from Gorica to northeast of Bovec at a small distance
(from 4 to 8 km) from the river Soca along whose valley our important communications
run (the highway Nova Gorica m Kranjska Gore and the railway line Nova Gorica m
Jeseniee).
RELIEF
?Jhgoslavia is predominantly a country of mountains
mountains and hills. Her total surface is:
v., below 200 metres above sea level
above 200 metres' above sea level
' 441
from 200 to 500 metres
from 500 to 1,000 metres
frOm 1,000 to 1,500 metres
from 1,500 to 2,000 metres
over .2,000 metres
of medium height, lovs
30%
70%, viz:
25%
27.5%
14%
3%
0.5%
As evident, the main representative of our highlands is the zone between
200 to, 1,000 metres, with 52.5%. Of the total surface, 82.5% is under 1,000 metres,
which is4s. considering weather conditions, suitable for agriculture.
The highest peaks are usually on the frontier or in the vicinity of it.
In the north: Kepa 2143), V. Stol (trig. 2236), Kosuta (elevation 2134 DO,
Grintaveo (trig. 255$), Pec (trig. 2126); in the northwest; Triglav (trig. 2863)
with Skrlatica (elevation 2738 m), Mangrt (trig. 2678), Kanin (elevation 2585 m);
in ,the southwest: Prokletije ( trig. 2656)1 Vrace Planina (trig 2582) Rudoka
Planina ( trig. 2662) Titov Vrh ( %rein) (trig. 2702) Koritnilc (trig. 2394)
Korab ( elevation - 2764) , De sat ( trig, 2375), Jablanica ( trig. 2259) ; in the south:
Galicia (elevation 2088 m), P410 stAr (trig 2600) Nidze (trig. 2251); in the
east: Midzox, (trig. 2169), OsOgovske Planina (trig. 2252). On the other hand,
In the north, 5/6 of the total lowlands of Jugoslavia are concentrated around
five big rivers (the Danube, the Drava, the Sava, the Tisa, the Morava) ? The
rest are isolated lowland areas around towns and narrow river valleys in mountain-
ous regions and the low terrain along the Adriatic Coast.
Looking at the physical map of our country, we see that the zone of
highlands lies immediately along the Adriatic Coast spreading from there deeply
in hinterland. Such relief has naturally separated the Adriatic Littoral and
islands from the rest of the country and made the construction of communications
difficult. At the same time, this relief has for centuries protected the central
part of the country from invasions from the sea, as well as the coast from
Turkish invasions from inland.
4
The influence of the relief of our country is great and various'. First
of all, it influences the climate: this influence is getting greater in connection
with the extension of our country from the north to the south (667 km). Accord-
ing to its latitude, Jugoslavia should actually have Mediterranean climate,
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
3
Lin communications ares Koisito Gorica (second-class highvtay):
Ma no sa (second-class highway); village Koz13a.ria. CeTad and Kozbana "
Clan" (secondmola.ss highway); village Idria. Osciad (sdoond-class and third-class
ihwa
THE SOtTF SECTOR (the Gorica Sector) Extends from Solkan to village
zaret which is at the Adriatic Coast. Considering the variety of the relief,
eonfigluration of ground and the relation to the Adriatic, this sector is divided
into three subdivisions e Gorica subdivision, the Kras subdivisron and the
Is r a. subdivision*
The Gorica subdivision extends from Solkan to the river tripava.. The
frontier line runs across the fertile, densely populated plain and along the
eastern border of the town of Gorica, along the railway line Solkan Gorical so
that the railway line and the railroad station are in our possession'.- The ground
is easy to pass everywhere.
Main communications are: A,jdovscina m Nova. Goriaa Gorica Videm
firstoclass highway and the railway line); Trieste - Dornberg Gorica (railway
tine and secondyelass highway); Solkan Gorica. (the railway line Jesenice
Gorica)
liras (Doberdob) subdii(,..2a extends from the river Vipava to village
Ja4j?This subdivision includes the northwestern aPurP- of the Komenski Kras?
whigh is) in average,: a plateau from 300 to 400 metres high with a few ridges
extending parallel, -yram southeast to northwest. On the frontier line the average
height above sea level is about 200 metres. The ground is of limestone, with many
funnamshaped holes in the limestone formation and cave6). Predominantly 'bare: ,
covered with "bu.Shes and sitiall woods in some places, difficult to pass off the
roads, good 60MmtnioatiOnO4
'The litrian subdivisio extends from village Jamlje to village Lazaret.
To elevation '741 in v. Gradisce it runs along the ridge almost parallel to the
seaside separating the narrow, artificial zone of the former A Zone from its
natural hinterland. From elevation 741 it runs along the western spurs of the
GicariJe and in the form of an arch envelops the town of Trieste and the Milje
Bay from the east and 'Tram the south. The ground is of limestone, with a number
of potholes, difficult to pass, but with a lot of good communications.. The terrain
is bare arid open. The frontier line is jutting into our territory with the point
towards elevation 741; this jut is about 5 km deep and its base is about 8 km. long, -
so that it may be of great importance (vulnerability to our communications
Divaea V Pula,etc).
All main communications connecting Trieste with its natural hinterland
across our country run along this subdivision. Trieste Rijeka, Trieste
Ljubljana, Trieste m Gorica, Trieste sm Pula. The frontier line runs around the
former A Zone (now ceded to Italy), which offers us all tactical and operational
advantaged. Its weak point is about village Bazovica and the northmwesternmost
part. Along this subdivision the frontier line has been traced only 3-6 km from
the sea, so that an artificial zone was created here by which PR Slovenia has
been out off from the sea.
Water is available from cisterns and well spread waterworks; besides,
there are several strong watersprings and Lake Doberd6b in Italy.
The main communications in this subdivision are: Komen m Trzic and
Komen m" Opatje Selo - Gain (highways); besides, there are a number of good
roads for vehicular traffic.
THE SOUTHERN SECTOR (the Gorica Sector) is a strong bridgehead for
Italy on the left bank of the river Soca with two strongholds: the Doberdobska
Planota in the southern, Kras subdivision and the town of Gorica in the nOrthern,
?
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- 37
Gorica subdivision.
CON9LUSION,. Taken as a whole, the Italian frontier is favourable traced
for FPRY as to the relief, for in our territory, in hinterland, the terrain ascends
to a considerable depth and on the left bank of the Soca continues into mountains
diffieult to Pass, of limestone, waterless and thinly populated (the Trnmski Gozd,
and somewhatnorthward the highest peaks of the Triglav massif), while in Italian
territory it drops to the great Friulian Plain through which the way is open to
Venetian Plain and Lombardy. In our territoryt.the unfavourable circumstance is
that the frontier line extends from Gorica to northeast of Bovec at a small distance
(from 4 to 8 km) from the river Soca along whose valley our important communications
run (the highway Nova Gorica m Kranjska Gore and the railway line Nova Gorica m
Jeseniee).
RELIEF
?Jhgoslavia is predominantly a country of mountains
mountains and hills. Her total surface is:
v., below 200 metres above sea level
above 200 metres' above sea level
' 441
from 200 to 500 metres
from 500 to 1,000 metres
frOm 1,000 to 1,500 metres
from 1,500 to 2,000 metres
over .2,000 metres
of medium height, lovs
30%
70%, viz:
25%
27.5%
14%
3%
0.5%
As evident, the main representative of our highlands is the zone between
200 to, 1,000 metres, with 52.5%. Of the total surface, 82.5% is under 1,000 metres,
which is4s. considering weather conditions, suitable for agriculture.
The highest peaks are usually on the frontier or in the vicinity of it.
In the north: Kepa 2143), V. Stol (trig. 2236), Kosuta (elevation 2134 DO,
Grintaveo (trig. 255$), Pec (trig. 2126); in the northwest; Triglav (trig. 2863)
with Skrlatica (elevation 2738 m), Mangrt (trig. 2678), Kanin (elevation 2585 m);
in ,the southwest: Prokletije ( trig. 2656)1 Vrace Planina (trig 2582) Rudoka
Planina ( trig. 2662) Titov Vrh ( %rein) (trig. 2702) Koritnilc (trig. 2394)
Korab ( elevation - 2764) , De sat ( trig, 2375), Jablanica ( trig. 2259) ; in the south:
Galicia (elevation 2088 m), P410 stAr (trig 2600) Nidze (trig. 2251); in the
east: Midzox, (trig. 2169), OsOgovske Planina (trig. 2252). On the other hand,
In the north, 5/6 of the total lowlands of Jugoslavia are concentrated around
five big rivers (the Danube, the Drava, the Sava, the Tisa, the Morava) ? The
rest are isolated lowland areas around towns and narrow river valleys in mountain-
ous regions and the low terrain along the Adriatic Coast.
Looking at the physical map of our country, we see that the zone of
highlands lies immediately along the Adriatic Coast spreading from there deeply
in hinterland. Such relief has naturally separated the Adriatic Littoral and
islands from the rest of the country and made the construction of communications
difficult. At the same time, this relief has for centuries protected the central
part of the country from invasions from the sea, as well as the coast from
Turkish invasions from inland.
4
The influence of the relief of our country is great and various'. First
of all, it influences the climate: this influence is getting greater in connection
with the extension of our country from the north to the south (667 km). Accord-
ing to its latitude, Jugoslavia should actually have Mediterranean climate,
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2014/03/04: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400130005-2
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
aves should be searched in advance, because after heavy rains they may
with 'water and be completely flooded There is also the danger of ceilings
and waiia falling down, especially during bombing*
The karat s 'very Porous* it is marked by sinks or karst holes, inter'
withspered abrupt ridges and irregular protuberant rocks, and by caverns and
underground stream. Rivers disappear into subterranean Passages of the karst
formation. There is little water on the surface* The lack of water is not the re"
ult of insufficient rainfall, but of its disappearance from the =face and $1111-
e to such hydrographic features, large karst areas are waterless terrain 'whore
sotiraei anc). springs are tens of kilometres far from villages. Waters in the karst
can b ea$11Y Oontaminated, especially if a part of the karst terrain is in the
enemy' territorYi
considering the difficulties in water supply, it is necessary to make
hydrographic maps in Peacetime showing surface and subterranean streams, their
capacity and their route during the period of droughts.
The relief and the structure of soil are very important from the
point of view, for passability and communicability depend on them.
The karst relief impassable for vehicles off of roads, and for horsor
other morphologic feattires. Movement is difficiat by night even along knoni
and men off "ofpaths due to many potholes, funnel-like hollows, gaps, abysses arr
is important because of air raids.
the wooded karst, especially covered with dense evergreen forests
scrubeicovered country ("raa.ldja")*, military units are confined to roads. The
terrain is to be cleared for the construction of fire positions with much expl.ostr-
an many Personnel engaged.
Due to the above mentioned characteristics-7 highways (a few) are very
portant for movement, manoeuvering, bringing up of supplies and evacuation. Thc,
re highly vulnerable, therefore, and endangered by bombing; demolition of roads
would have worse consequences than in ot Ler terrain, Canyons, sheer rocks',
defiles and narrow passages are especially vulnerable places.
According to the degree of woodiness, we have: strong karst, bare Imre'',
thinly covered karst and covered, Le., wood with ed karst. Strong karst is wiout arr
plants. Bare karst is covered with pastures, more or less stony, and with bushes
he're.: and, there.. Thinly covered karst is partly covered with bushes, small woods,
most' often. virgin forests, Wooded, i..e. covered karst, is forested or coVered
bushes;' 'often it is covered with forests, sometimes 'a primeval forest:. One should
bear- in mind that parts presented an maps as woodland in reality can be high and
.dense' forest's, or virgin forests, or bushes.
According to the relation between the stone and the earth-, we have:
biting-karst, strong karst and moderate karst.
Biting karst is stony and rocky terrain of limestone,. Difficult to pass
even on:foot, It can be found in high mountains, and higher mountains of medium
height ofthe Dinara' 'system, in southeastern Herzegovina, south Dalmatia, south"
western and southern Montenegro- and in northern Albania. it can also be found
around' Rijeka, along the Croatian and Daknatian -littoral.
"Makija"
with thorny scrub.
even for infantry.
unload personnel of
through "maldja".
is typical Mediterranean bush; it is dense an n
The ground covered with "makija" is very difficult to pass,
Paths are to be cleared with machetes. It is advisable to
everything that is not necessary during the movement.
?
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Strong karst is where a stony surface is predo rdnant. Infantry can move
across it without using hands: impassable for horses. It includes the rest of
Herzegovina and Montenegro and the central plateau of West Bosnia.
The rest of the karst region is moderate karst, is?, where the surface
is equally covered with limestone and earth. Horses can move easily. Moderate
karst is predominant in other karst regions of our country and in general in the
Balkan Peninsula.
t?
Theoretically, biting and bare karst can be found along the Adriatic
Coast, and covered, 1,0, wooded karst further on inland. There are large forests
in the area of Slovenian Karst (Notranjsko) and Rijeka Karst (Corsi Kotar), in
Croatian highlands (the Velika Kapelal the Mala Kapela and the Pljesivica) and in
the mountains of West Bosnia.
b) ie In1unce of Kast on
Org1inization. Eguipment and Operations
In the large, compact regions of karst, whose borders were mentioned
above0 individual military and geographical elements express a great _and character-
isti, influenoe on the life, activities, movements and combat actions of all
branehes of the army. This is the result of specific orographic, hydrographic,
olimatio, economic and traffic circumstances in this area, which impose certain
measures during combat actions and operations different from those we generally
apply in ordinary mountainous terrain.
Communicabilitz. The karat region is the poorest in view of communica-
tions in general, and regarding good communications (highways and railways) in
particular. The Slovenian karst and the Istrian karst are exceptions. After
World War II, in the era of building up of Socialism, the karst .regions change,
.4c)o. A number of highways and railway lines are under construction:. they will
run across karst regionsconnecting all parts of our country with the Adriatic
P . ,
Sea
The existing highways have a solid surface, but due to the relief, some
of them are often steep and narrow (about 4 metres). Secondary roads are usable
for light vehicles, because they are steep, stony and narrow. The pack horse is
very useful here.
In winter roads are covered with snow drifts and traffic is suspended.
Paths and secondary roads dissappear under snow and ice out of use for several
weeks.
Quartering is poor due to thin population, scattered localities and
small capacity of houses in mountains. Circumstances within the zone along the
Coast are better. There are few hostels in the mountains, but several are under
construction.
Supply Service. The population are dealing with cattle breeding, a
little with agriculture, then forestry, on lakes and the sea -.fishing, Due to an
intense ind.u.strialization of the country every year more and more people ask for
employment in new industrial and mining enterprises.
The greater part of the karst region is short of firewood, and also of
water in the sumer time. The population use rainfalls as drinkable water from
cisterns.
Due to thin population and lack of fertility of the soil, military units
cannot reckon with local procurement; every operation must be prepared in advance
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2014/03/04 : CIA-RDP81-01043R0(174nn1fInnnz,
and the bringing up of supplies organized well.
Comparatively great differences in height cause great difference
in the beginning and lasting of individual seasons, and also the difference be-
tween winter and summer temperatures.'In the main, there are two temperate zones
very different from each other: the low, coastal zone .of mild, modified Med-
iterrariean climate and mountain zone with continental climates The temperature in
-the coastal zone in winter time corresponds to a sunny spring day, while the ad'-'
Jacent mountain zone, not more than about three hours climbing, ,is covered with
snow and ice. Troops must take this into account.
Winters are mild in low, coastal zones and in low winter valleys. -Winter
is shirt and almost without MOW. Only "buran lowers the temperature below zero.
Spring begime in the second half of February or at the beginning of March; it is
very shert and rainy. Summer temperature appears in April; summer lasts about
five Ptnths; it is very hot, sky is cloudless and from the end of June to September
almest without rainfall. Fine weather lasts almost continually till the end of
September, when a longer rainy period begins: in the north earlier, in the south
later.
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There is a continental climate in the mountainous regions. Severe winter
lasts from three to six months, which depends on the altitude above sea level; it
:is very cold with deep snow that begins to melt in high regions (about 1600 metres)
not bifore April or May. Snow storms, lasting several days, often suspend the
traffi:C.. Spring is short. In low regions sdmmer is very hot and dry; in the
mtuntains it is warm during the day ;mly tor a few hours, while nights are chilly.
Ili mountains rainfalls are abuncWit ih autuMn and in spring. In suMmer there are
nt rainfalls and watert In alOun411 aild in Spring mornings are misty.
Strong winds blow in both temperate zones in winter - from October to the end
of March; southeast - njuge (usirko") and northeast --"buran; they sometimes blow
immediately and suddenly one after another.
agagzatian and Equipment. The length of march columns on bad secondary
roads is four to six times greater than on the roads of this class in the plain.
The circumstances, as well as tactical, supply and march requirements (departure,
arrivalv'marCh discipline) force the division of large units into columns each
of Which ought to be tactically and operationally as independent as possible (com-
posed of all branches of the army able to operate in a given area and to supply
itself directly).
Special equipment is required due to sudden changes of temperature and great
differences between day and night temperatures.. The population of karst regions
wear warm clothes during the whole year, so that the same is recommendable for the
troops operating here.
. Tents are an important part of military equipment, and in case of a
longer bivouac blankets. Boots are also important. Ordinary boots are not
resistant to sharp limestone. Strapped boat-shaped, soft-soled footwear worn by
the population of karst regions are suitable. Canteens, sometimes two, are indis-
pensable. For the protection from sun stroke, it is recommended to put scarves under
the cap in order to cover the nape of the neck.
The influence of karst on movement, accommodation, supply and combat action
is similar to the influence of high mountains. Orientation is often difficult due
to monotonous landscape; visability, observation and fire are restricted due to
broken ground; karst is almost impassable, especially for tanks and vehicles; con-
struction of communications is possible only with great efforts; digging is often
impossible and engineering work (trenches, shelters, etc) difficult. Shortage of
water makes combat actions and operations difficult. In summer time march should
begin early; karst Valleys, lowlands and large potholes are not to be crossed after
10 o'clock in the morning because of gun stroke.
-400,04/43
".43.,
?
Reserves of water in cisterns, wells, springs, rivers and streams are
decisive factors in connection with the location of a bivouac.
jr2jkgjsiLcfjijg_.hmoTanIL.adn.
This region may be divided into three .groups: the Alpine, the Dinara
and the Sar-Pelister group, The first group includes the spurs of the Alps
around the source of the river Sava and ,its tributaries (the Julian Alps,. the
Savialjski. Alps and the Karavanke). The second group includes. mountains in the
southeastern part of the Dinara system, within the area: Sarajevo - Mostar -
Titograd Poo the upr Ibari The.t4rdgroup includes high mountains in the
sadth. and Southwest, along the right bank of the Vardar from the. Sar Pl.anina
mountain to the Greek frontier.
e The relief characteristics of the mountains of the first and second
group are rivers deeply cut in rocks - in the Alpine group the SaVa Dolinka, the
Sava Bohinjka and the Savinja with their small tributaries; in the Dinara group
the Limp-the Piva, the Tara, the Neretva and the Moraca, narrow and high ridges,
steep slopes, narrow and often very deep valleys, very difficult to pass, thin ?
population, spoor and insufficient communicability, poor visibility, hard life;
in the SarmPelister group high mountains are surrounded by hollows of former and
present lakes.
Weather conditions are characterized by low winter and summer temper-
. ..
atures; in average, in winter from 10? to 12? below zero, and in summer from
plus 40 to plus 80 centigrade; high mountains about in rainfalls'
In ViOW of economy cattle breeding and forestry are worth mentioning,,
. The influence of our high mountains on combat actions, activities of
individual branchs of the army and organization and formation of troops. to opera.
ate in high mountains ip great. It is stronger in so far as high mountains are
covered with karst.' Due to difficult construction of communications high '
mountains are short of them, and out of roads are difficult to pass due to sharp
differences between hiEh and lowlands. Gradients are steep and difficult for
motor and horse-drawn vehicles. In high mountains weather conditions are severe
and life is hard, while lowland areas are of restricted economic capabilities and
insignificant, for villages are scattered or do not exist at all. Only special.
formations - alpine units - are able to cope with difficulties in high mountains.,
tWonia
This lowland area includes the plain: of the Vojvodina and extends beyond
the frontiers to Hungary and Rumania. Climate is continental, with about 609 mm of
rainfalls in average per year. The average temperature is 11? centigrade
This plain is the granary of our country. All branches of agriculture
and egricultural industry are highly developed. Pannonia is poor with coal, ores
and water power. It is a woodless plain.
A moderate steppe zone, our Vojvodina is ataracterized by specific
climatic and pedologic features that influence activities of the army.
It is characteristic for this region that heaviest rainfalls are in the
first half of summer (29-33% of total yearly rainfalls). In spring rainfalls are a
little greater (25-28%) than in autumn (24-26%), while winter is the driest season
with only 16-17% of total rainfalls. The first maxima of rainfalls is in June, and
the second in October.
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004100/44
:
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Dry months are July, August and September, and especially the
January to API''ile
The surface layer of the soil is mould formed on the ground of humus. This
ayer is not thicker than 2 metres (1 metre in average).
The problem of woods in the Pannonia Plain today is the problem of under-
ground water; When the water stem of land is favourable, i.e. when the roots of
fo1'est trees roach underground water and when the soil does not contain alkaline
salts) woods can grow in sand and in hilmu$6 But in spite of that, steppe character.
.
istiOs of climate in this Plain negatively influence the forestation of this region.
? In the Vojvodina there are small surface areas that we generally call
nsalt'sPorl.ngs". They aile formed where the level of the underground salt water is
high (whatever the reason) so that salt water appears on the surface. They can be
found in Banat, Srem and Backa. This salt surface is quite difficult to cultivate.
".MT5 problem of water supply appears here, especially with large units, for under"
ground water available in wells might be undrinkable due to alkaline and other
Dunes can "often be found in Vojvodina, especially -northwest of Deliblato
(Deablatska'PesOra), This terrain is an obstacle for the army, because the
stOilitrofrlhe ground is equal to zero 'where there are no trees; the sand is
constantly mOving. This terrain is very Porous* Under the ground, good, drink-
able, water can be found. Dunes are ridges of sand piled up by the wind.
,
The 'Deliblato Sands region is about 60 km long and about 30 km :wide at tbe
widest.place. In dry weather the sand is granulated (if not bound by vegetation) so
that it :is. an obstacle for the movement .of trains, motorized units and tanks. ..Sn(f.
penetrates Into engines and stops operating. In wet weather the .sand is comi5act
and .(14)t to a certain, extent, but the mash-like sand makes difficult and slows
down the turning of wheels. ?
The influence of the soil of Pannonia on the activities and combat actions
of the army is significant. It will be discussed therefore in detail, although it
lies outside our country by its greater part, Camouflage of engineering Objects,
positl.ons, movements and actions of any kind is difficult, especially from enemy
. air observation, so that 6*.prl.se, is difficult to achieve; this refers to autumn,
winter and spring when there are no crops, .Hiilocks and insignificant hollows are
:very important here; stone and wood for construction are very short in this region.
There areno otographic obstacles to check movements and manoeuvering of any branch
of the army in. any direction, but, on the other, hand, .there are several water
obstacles of tactical, operational, and even strategic importance (the Danube, t11,e
Tisa, the Drava-, the Sava). These rivers are big obstacles, especially because of
swampy. Zones along their banks that sometimes maY- be very. wide (5', 10 km and even
more. than ,In spring a*.t in the autumn, i4ie4 the soil.is-soaked, cross-
dountry.Movement is difficult even for infantry, and for other arms it is impossible
in low-lying terrain. '
According toits geographic position in Middle Europe, its relation to
neighbouring regions and communications with them, 'Pannonia is a very important area
from the economic, traffic, strategic,: operational and tactical point of view.
According to its sizes passabilitr, communicability, fertility-, agricultural
wealth and. dense population it has a large operational capacity and may serve as a
first-class concentration area for large operational units.. Pannonia, as a whole,
is naturally protected from all sides, partly by mountains, partly by broad rivers!I
however, Military and political, it is unprotected, for all the mountains sUrrouncl-
ing the lowland and gateways from, those mountains to the lowland are in the tern" '
. tory of neighbouring countries which, in this way, dominate it, In the south the
rivers Danube, Drava and Sava are partly or entirely in our territory. .
Continental (European) and intercontinental communications run across the
0
-945
Pannonia. Plain: from Western Europe .via Vienna and Budapest to the Black Sea
(Odessa and Oonstantse): from North Germany and Poland via Prague and Cracow,
Budapest and Belgrade to Athens or Istambul, where they extend to Mediterranean
sea routes and .land communications of Asia Minor. There are good communications
with the Adriatic Sea via Zagreb to Rijeka and via Ljubljana to Trieste and fur's
there on to the Venetian Plain and Lombardy. The Danube is of great military,
'economic and political importance, for it connects Middle Europe with the western
part of the Black Sea and with the Balkan Peninsula.
Pannonia has always been important. The Romans occupied its southern and
western parts at the beginning of our era in order to protect the northeastern
frontier of their empire. In the sixth century of our era the Huns invaded it,
making it a base for their plundering raids in all directions, especially to the
Byzantine empire and Italy, Towards the end of the ath centuryPannonia was the
prey of Hungarians and served to them as a base for raids on France, Germany,
Italy and the Balkan Peninsula. In the XVI and XVIIth century the Turks held
possession of about three-quarters of Pannonia and from there they attacked Middle
Europe (the siege of Vianna 1529 and 1683). In World War I (1914 and 1915) in
the southern part of this plain (Vojvodina) strong Austro-Hungarian and German
forces were concentrated for the offensive against Serbia. In World War
Pannonia was Hitlerts jump-off position for the invasion of Rumania, Bulgaria,
Jugoslavia and Greece.
The,ReRion of Pannonian Valaus
In-fact, this region includes the border of the former Pannonian Seat.ex-
tending along the middle and lower Drava with the Mura and the Sava with the Krki
and the Kupe, then along the lower ?Una, the Vrbass the Bosnia river, the Drina and
almost along the whole length of the Kolubara, the Velika Morava with the Zapadna
Morava and the Alma Morava and the Mlava.
Climate is continental with slight indications of Mediterranean climate
in the western part and the influence of Aegean climate in the Velika Morava
river system. The upper parts of the above mentioned rivers are abundant in rain-
falls (over 1,000 mm), while in their lower parts the quantity of rainfalls is
smaller but somewhat better than in the Pannonia Plain.
In view of the economy,they have many characteristics of the Pannonian
Loaands as far as agriculture is concerned, but the valleys are rich with ores,
woods and sources of energy, so that mining and industry are developed here. .
The influence of this region on combat actions is considerably different
than that of the Pannonia Plain. Small woods, forests here and there, large
orchards, bush and groups of trees offer shelters from air observation. The
ground is hilly, and on the sides of valleys there are good positions and obser-
vation postal 'material for the construction of various objects is available here,
which makes possible the construction of good highways in connection with hard
surface of the ground. Passability is good and lees depends an weather conditions,
212.22110 of Aegoayalleys
The backbone of this region is the valley of the middle and the lower
Vardar with lower parts of its tributaries the Treska, the Lepenad, the Poinja,
the Bregalnida and the Cm Reka. The valley bf the river Strumica is included
in this region*
Main characteristics of the relief, of Aegean valleys are many funnel-like
lowlands and defiles, so that every river valley is composed of a number of
hollows and defiles extending one after another alternately. In the Vardar valley
from its source toward the mouth of the following hollows and defiles take their
? .
02705
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..urn each after the Otb.?er!:,, .(at Tet(*o) DervenSica defilep-'. the Sk913lie 19w-
:.14ncl..area r defile,area -.the Voles defile (at. Titov
Vele ) ' ,Tikves ( from. itho:'. Mouth. :of the ?Bregelnica to ? Dear. '.Kapij a.) the Deiir
'Kapija defile 444. k)!Oi qs0golika'.lowland, area aii.the -01.ganska defile (Gipsy defile).
In the valley of the 11011:1a is the IciceVe hollow., and .in the valleys of the
Mala lct.e*a .and the Gee,i4.:.'..s:RekaPcrec;, -in the. valley of the 'Orna'Relca the Bitolj!-
. .
Prilep
,l,owlan4,,ared...-.'01:::::,;-1$1,riovO; in the valley of the pregalnica are MaTesevo
(:PerovCi).., and the Kocane 'lowland area, in the valley of the
S.trimica .the -S.trUr4C.::'IoWland area., Lake Pre spa and Lake .011rid.' are Also hollows
,full of. Water
The climate of the Vardar valley is under the influence of the Aegean Sea
in January plus 1? to plus 40 centigrade); rainfalls about 450 MM. little.
This iS a subtropical region where poppies cottony tobacco rice and otl."' -
industrial plant's are cultivated i Cattle breeding is developed in :mountains on
tnan pastures; in the lake regions fishing is developed, and the eastern and
northeastern parts are rich in ores4
Si#ropic climate sand wry little' amount of rainfall during the dthilmer,
when many sting6 and stream. get dry, influence activities and .combai-actions.of
the army. Besid04.66aeregions are bare and easy to observe frointhe air. Timb=
is not,availalbie. Karst appears in mountains: the Karadzica, the Suva' G-cra' and
the Bistria Plaina. Coldness is severe in mountainous regions in winter time;
in the valleys win-Or is moderate
Considering the time and formation of our mountains they ray be
into three zones:
a) western zone of more recently formed mountains, extending from the Alr',1,
across the southwestern part of our country to Albania and Greece;
b) the central zone of mountains and hollows ,of ad, in the main the
Rhodope .massif;
cY eastern zone of more recently formed mountains, ' extending from the
Carpathian Mountains across the Eastern Serbia, and in the form of an arch, to the
.Balkan mountain-in Bulgaria; in the outer eastern part of this zone is the bordr.7
of the Vlaska lowland area.
By the structure and direction of extension these,zonesare different:
they are composed of 'various mountain groups. We have six mountain systems in ow
country:
- the Alpine system
- the Dinara system
? the Sar-Pindus system
- the Carpathian system
- the Balkan system
0, the Rhodope system )
belong to the
western zone
of more recently
formed mountains
belong to the eastern
zone of more recently
formed mountains
belongs to the central
zone of old mountains.
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WESTERN ZONE OF MORE RECENTLY
FORMED MOUNTAINS
This zone is the largest and morphologically the most separated whole in
country. It covers almost a half of the territory of our country (over 40%) aproar.1-
ing between the Adriatic Littoral, the central (Rhodope) massif and vast Pannonlan
Plain with its border in the north. We have three mountain systems in this zone:
the Alpine in northwest, the Dinara in the middle and the Sar-Pindus in the south-
west.
The Alpine Szstem
The mountains of this system extend from the north across the AustriPr
tier and from the west across the Italian frontier, covering the northwestern pr T:
of our country. Their southern border is the river Idrijca - the south border cf
the Ljubljmsko Polje - the upper Krka Motlika Karlovac - Zagreb - Varazdino
The system also includes mountains extending between the Sava, the Drava and the
Danubir to the mouth of the Sava river, known as the Croatian-S3avonian mounted :1?
r,
The Alps, the greatest part of which is out of our country, are dividod
into three zones: southern zone: the Southern Alps (limestone), central zono:
Primeval Alps and the northern zone: the Northern Alps (limestone). Our cou-4-...
is in possession of aoutheastern spurs of the Southern Alps and Primeval Alps,
separated by the Drava, except the Pohorje which, although on the right bank of
Drava, belong to the Primeval Alps.
The Alps are predominantly composed of limestone and dolomite; mountains ,
interspersed with abrupt ridges and irregular protuberant rocks, sometimes over
1,000 metres high, steep and narrow valleys. Their influence on the activities,
quartering, movement and combat action of military units is very strong. Units a'
confined to roads, except alpine units, The construction of good communications -
difficult, and therefore they are few andfhr between. Climate: severe alpino,
with a large amount of rainfall and long-lasting snow. The region of the Alps
thinly populated in the lower parts; in the ul5per parts population is thinner a----.
thinner. Slopes fall dawn to basins and hollows of small dimensions that, al-
though cultivated intensely, cannot offer billeting to large units.
In the lower and middle parts the Alps are overgrown with evergreen faro,'
above which spread alpine pastures, due to which forestry and cattle-breeding ,m
the main branches of agriculture,
a. The Southern AI limestone
This zone is divided into three main mountain massifs: the Julian Aip
Karavanke and the Savinjske Alps with the Kamnik mountains. These high mountaf
extend south and eastward to the zone of mountains of medium height and low mo172%r
spreading at their foot.
_The Julian A1..._4
The Julian Alps extend in our country northward and northeastward to the
river Sava, and in the south to the line: the river Ljubljanica - the river
Idrijca.
This i6 the highest mountain series in our Alps and at the same time tho
highest in Jugoslavia. By the upper Soca, the river Koritnica, the saddle Proc"
e fin fir
???
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and the.. river Ziljica it. is divided into two mountain groups: the western .group
, . 4 ,
with the -$.0fait''Kanin ..(elevation '2585. m) adr.oSs. :which . runs ...the present state
frontier and the peaka-liombon rig... 2208 .. on. our side, and tv...tealan..5errluuKi....
(t r territory
the .Montaz.ii.o..(ttig.,2754).; the eastern group. the'. peaks .M.an&t (trig..., 2678'
. $
:the JelOved .,(01.evation. 2643 la). the., .Triglav --(trig:. Sk.riatioa-.(elevation
9 . . , .
2738 M),, the(trig.anci...many .-oher, peaks: over 2,000 Metres. . Eastward,.
the 'Triglav -drops clown. -into the table4and Pokijuka.. T.4eSe two massifs,. the r
we Stern, a#d, the eastern, are very strong defensive zones that can be easily defended
by weak forces ..1)Y. the 'blockade of .a. few saddles. . 'T4e western' 'massif protects t1'.19
valley of. th.e. :river Soca', along which 'important lateral' COmmunicationa runt.. and.
the:.-eastern inaSsif valley. 'Of .the 'river Sava. ?
, r
Important 'saddles' and crossings from the. Soca valley across.
..to Italy. are: the SaLidl:e1?.-Predell?. (eleltatian 1156 m,-'14ghway. Bovec ?Trbi,z).,, the
valley of t4e. river 'Uceia '(highway Vil1ar3e Zap the valley of the river Ter -
Tarcent the valley of the river Tegliathento)
Important saddles and 'crossings leading from the Sava valley across the
eastern massif to the Soca valley and the Kanalska Donna: the Passage from the
Sava Dolinka to the Ziljica valley; Kranjska Gora Ratece Trbiz (railway and
highway); the saddle vrsic (elevation 1661 m), highway Kranjska Gora the upper
Soca Bove,
The orographic knot of the Julian Alps is the Triglav from which a number
of ridges of high mountains extend in all directions: northwestward across the
Jalovec (elevation 2643 in.) to the Mangrt; northward and northeastward several
ridges toward the Sava Dolinka across the peaks of the Skrlatica (elevation 273g r
southwestward across the lakes of the Triglav and from here towards the massif of
the Km n and southeastward and eastward across the peak Rodica (trig, 1962).
Several valleys, along which best communications run - mainly paths f lead from
the Sava and the Soca valley towards the massif of the Triglav.
South of the line: the river Sava Bohinjka, the river Baca, Koberid, the
upper Nadiza, Diemona the 'greater part of the terrain is of mountains of medium.
height, and its smaller part are low mountains. The ridge Kolovrat with the
summit Matajur (trig. 1643) on the Italian frontier extends along the right bank
of the Soca from Kobarid to Gorica (Gorizzia). The slopes of the Kolovrat from the
Matajur to 'west of village Voice steeply fall down into the $oca$ and gradually,
in the form of long spurs, westward and southwestward, ? so that relief advantages
in this section of the Kolovrat are on the western side.- Mountains of medium
height with the *peaks Porezan (trig. 1622 m), Blegos (trig.. 1562 T-c), Tose '(trig
1021) extend along the left bank of the Soca to the Sava, They are rocky and
difficult to pass (saddles are about 1,000 in high), and by the surface structure
they are similar to the Dinara system having some characteristics of this system
(karst here and there). Across this region two second-class highways run to the
Soca valley: Skofja Loka Zeljezniki Podbrdo Tolmin and Skofja Loka -
'Gorenja. Vas - Oerkno Tolmin. This southern road forks into several good second-
class and third-class roads running towards Ljubljansko Polje Vrnika, Dont
Logatec and Ajdovscina.
? Country at the foot of a mountain range is more suitable for all combat
actions than high mountains, and therefore more important from the military point
of view, because it has more communications, is better passable, and conditions
for living and for quartering are more favourable.' Water and other supplies are
available. Terrain is forested and conceals the disposition and activities of
troops.
The Karavanke
The Karavanke extends from west to east as an unbroken chain of high
mountains steeply falling northward into the valley of the river Drava, and more
steeply south-rard into the valley of the river Sava. The western border of the
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Karavanke is the river Ziljica, the northern and eastern the Drava and the Mislinja,
and the southern border the Sava Dolinka, the Kokra, Jezerski Vrh and the valley of
the upper Savinja.
The northern slope is of slate and granite, and the southern and the ridge
itself of limestone. Due to this, the ridge is Sharp, teeth-like and with sharp
points.
The highest peaks are: Kepa (trig. 2143), Stol (trig. 2236) and Kosutnikov
Turen (elevation 2134 m).
East of Jezerski Vrh the Karavanke is lower than 2,000 metres, except the
peak Pee (trig. 2114), wooded and difficult to pass. There are several saddles,
but onlypaths and ordinary roads run across them.
The Karavanke continuo in the east in low mountains of medium height: the
Mozirska Planina, the Kozjak, the Konjiska Gora and the MAceljsko Pogorje; all
are forested, easy to pass and communicative. These are last positions for the
defence of the Oeljsko Polje, Rogatecko Polje and the valley of the river Bednja.
There are three saddles in the Karavanke: ? Koren (north of village
Podkoren), Ljubelj and Jezerski Vrh (highways to Austrie)4
The Karavanke, high mountains; difficult to pass, covered with karst on
the top, is a partition wall between FPRY and Austria. Operations of strong forces
are canalized to the three above mentioned saddles which can be easily blocked
and defended on both ?sides; neither of the countries is in a better or a worse
position. The Karavanke is a narrow mountain chain from the convergence (Pee) to
the saddle Ljubelb due to which the organization of defence in depth is impossible
on this sector; east of the saddle Ljubelj the depth, in connection of the SavinjArl
Alps, is considerably greater, so that conditions for a deeper defence and pro-
tection of the Kranj and Ljubljana Polje are more favourable.
1:12.1.,11,Ls1...L.e 1as
These mountains extend south of the eastern part of the Karavanke along
the both banks of the upper' Kokra and Savinja; they are in close connection with
the Karavanke the saddle Jezerski Vrh is the border between the Karavanka(andthe
Savinjske Alps. Ridges and peaks above 1,500 in are bare, 'sharp and very difficult
to pass, while slopes are ferested. Ihe' highest peaks:. .-Stbrzid (trig, 2132),
Grintavee (trig. 2558), Ojstrica (trig. 2349) and Kalski Groben (trig. 2223),
Only footpaths run across these mountains. The roads run round mountain
massifs along valleys. .There are the following highways:
Kranj Jezersko Zelezta Kapla Austria), second-class highway;
From Kamnik two second-class highways eastward to the valley of the
river Savinja;
From Oelje up the Savinka to village Plesnik (second-class highway).
The Savinjske Alps continue in the south in a chain of.mountains of
medium height and low mountains beginning with the Menina mountain '.(trig. 1508),
extending along the left bank of. the Sava, across the peak Javor (elevation 1131 in),
the peak Mrzlica (elevation 119 m), the Buhor (trig. 1023) and the Medvednica
(trig. 1035 m). This chain is a suitable defensive line for the defence of the Sava
valley between Ljubljana and Zagreb from an attack from the north and northeast.
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E2211.1.11,21LLSaibLAIU2
These foothills extend east of the Ljubljana lowland area) along the both
banks of the Sava, ending in the Krsko-Brezioe lowland area, or in the border area
of the Pannonia Plain; in the northeast they end with the Mbdvednica mountain (Sleme
trig. 1035) and the Ivanscica mountain .(trig. 1061).
The foothill of the Alps) or the Slovenian For Allos, consist of mountains
of medium height and low mountains intersected by valleys and hollow's around rivers
and streams falling down from the high Alps. As a whole, the foothills of the Alps
are very important economically. In addition to favourable conditions for agriculm
tuief they are rich with water power and coal (Trbovlje); they are forested with
good communications and well populated. Since the general direction of the extension
Is west,..eaStp they are very, good Positions for blocking the river ealleys behind
ems
On the border of the foothills Of the Alps the Sava has cut a-defile from
village Kresnice (8 km west of Ldtija) to Krsko along which important international
communications run.
Along the right bank of the Krka? from the line Novo Masto Metlika to
Samobor, extends the Gorjanci Zumberacka Cora mountain which is of limestone.. It
drops down steeply into the valley of the Kiika? and gradually into the valley of the
river Kupa. From the southeastern part of the Gorjanci extends a low slope to near
the muth of the Kupa; it is the Vukamericke Gorice (trig. 253); it separates the ,
4Sava valley from the Karlovac lowland area on the middle part of the Kupa.
b) Primeval Alns
Of these Alps we are in possession of southern spurs extending along the
left bank of the Drava: the Kosenjak (trig. 1522) and the Kozjak (trig. 966)4 they
are mountain's of medium height and low mountains, poorly communicative, 'overgrown
with dense forests, steeply falling toward the Drava and thinly populated.
South of the Drava is a separate Part of the Primeval 'Alps- the Pohorje
(trig. 1542) a forested mountain of medium height with paths and poor roads only;
better communications run around this mountain in the north along the Drava valley
and in the south.
The Kosenjak and the Kozjak in the north and the Pohorje in the south
form a defile about 55 km long (from Dravograd to Maribor) through which runs the
Drava. These mountains and the Drava defile together with them are strong positions
for the defence of. the Savinjsko and Oelje Polies
North of the Kozjak begins the SlovenskenGorice'(trig..402) extending south-
eastward between the river Pesnica and the river Mura to Oakovecfnit is a hilly,.
fairly wooded terrains with famous vineyeards and good communication's. The Slovenske
Gorice is the watershed' between the Drava and the Mural and from the military point
of view it is a suitable manoeuvering ground and a good.. position for the protection
of tItie Drava valley and the Ftuj .Polje. The region extending between the Drava
and the Mura east of the line: Ljutomer Ormoz is called Medjumurje. It covers
the eastern spurs of the Slovenska Gorica, and from Oakovec to the mouth of the
Mura the plain is about 20 km wide
Prekomurje is a comparatively small region, but it is important due to its
enveloping position in relation to the western part of Hungary. From Prekomurje the
shortest lines of operations (the valley_ of the river Zela and the river Raba) lead
to the territory west and north of Lake Balaton. On the contrary, as a bridgehead
north of the Mural it strengthens the protection of vital objects-Maribor and
Ptuj.
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According 'to its relief, Prekomurje has two parts: the northern, a hilly
region, characterized by the ridge which extends southeastward from the convergence
to the line of village Dubrovnik; its slopes fall gradually down reaching in the
south near the river landava; eastward and northeastward its spurs extend to the
Hungarian territory, with slopes forested, well populated and communicative and
passable. The southern Part of Prekomurje is a plain) in fact, the valley of the
Mural, which is in the eastern, frontier area swampy. There are dikes along the
Landava and its northern tributaries. In the other part the plain is passable,
fertile and densely populated.
From Prekomurje to Hungary there are two railway lines, two highways and
several secondary roads. These railway lines connect Prekomurje with the rest of
our territory across railway bridges at Mursko Sredisce and Verzej; at these places
and at village RadenCi there are road bridges. Along the plain from Donja Lendavas
via Murska Sobota toward Radgona (Austria) runs a second-class highways
In the region of .the Alps, between mountains, there are many greater or
smaller hollows And Nelda. Most important are:
in the Sava valley: the Kranj lowland area on the left bank of the
Sava and SOrsko Polje on the right bank; these two hollows are naturally connected
by the Sava valley with the Ljubljana Pap in the south and further an seuth. Of
Ljubljana ,With Ljubljansko Barje. This alpine region the Ljubljana lowland area
is very important from the economic and military point of view, for it is fertile,
densely populated and with good communications, with highly developed' heavy in"
dustry and timber industry. . Surrounded by high mountains that Are Wild difficult
to pass and poor With sources for the supply of an army, this plain is of tremendous
importance; international transcontinental communications from Italy and Austria to
Zagreb :and Belgrade run across it. Ljubljana is the junction. This area IS economic
and vital centre of Slovenia with Ljubljana in it as the political, odonotiC and
cultural centre of PR of Slovenia. The Ljubljana lowland area is situated on the
crossroads of communications between the Danube Basin and the Adriatic Sea,' alpine
countries and Balkan Peninsula.. Through the Ljubljana Gap, Postojna the saddle
Razdrto and the Vipava valley the Romans from Lombardy and the Venetian Plain in-
vaded the Danube Basin and the Balkan Peninsula,.
b) in the Savinja valley: the Savinja valley extending from village
Radmirje (the upper Savinje) t(nOelaie., Important communications :from Dravograd
southward and eastward run along this valley; the junction is Celle.
As the Ljubljana Plain with hollows around it is theTvital area. for Western
Slovenia, so. is the Savinja a1ley for Northern and Central Slovenia:.' Important
industrial' enterprises are located in the Savinja valley, and also all branches of
agriculture are well developed..
The Savinje vaile, like the Ljubljana Plain., is well protected by surround...
ing,mountains.
c) in the Drava valley: the Drava field on the right bank between Maribor,
Pragersk") and Ptuj and the Ptuj field on the left bank of the Drava: These fields
have the same Characteristics as those under a) and b) and are vital centre of the
northeastern part of Slovenia. The main junction and economic centre is Maribor;
others are Pragersko and Ptuj. These fields are also naturally protected, but less,
since they are nearer to the Austrian frontier, and in the cast nearer to Hungary,
where the Sloven ske Gorice extend between the Drava and the Mura (ground suitable
for manoeuvres easily passable in all directions); thus being not .a strong obstacle.
d) in the Mara valley: the Mura field between Radenci and Ljutomer on the
,
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right :bank, and Raven sko Polje between the river Kubinca and Murska Sobota and Dol"
insko Polje between Murska 'Sobota and Donia Lendava on the left bank. These fields'
have the same characteristics as those under a), b) and c) and are important economic
centre of the northeastern Part of Slovania. Important junctions are: Radgonal
Id.14Pmers, Marsh Sohota and Donja Lendava? The manoeuvering terrain of Prekomurje
protects these fields from the north and northeast and the Slovenske,Gorice from the
west; in the east toward Hungary and in the northwest toward Austria they are open.
e) in the Krka valley: Krsko Polje, drained and fertile, well pro-
-tooted by the surrounding low mountains. Very important for in the operations
between .Ljubljana and Zagreb it is a by-pass way :cound the narrow valley of the Sava
from LJugliana via Novo Mesta and Kostanjevica oward Brezioee. This field is
naturally connected with Posavina (the Sava valley) southeast of Breiicel Posavina
begins at Samobor and Zapresic getting wider towards Zagreb.
These mountains extend southeast of the line .Zagreb Varazdin, across
Croatia and Slavonia, ending with the Fruska Gora, whose farthest spur is the
Bezanisks Ebsa at Zemun. They follow the Drava and the Danube in the-south, forming
important positions for the defence of these rivers.
Individual mountains are:
The Kelnicko Gorje (trig. 643), the Bile Gora (elevation 207 m), the
Psunj (trig. 984)) the PapUk (trig. 953), the Kradija (elevation 697 n)? the bilj
Planina (trig. 459), the-Pozeska Gora (trig. 616) and the Fruska Gora (trig. 539).
Southwest of the Bile G oral between the river Lonja and the river Cazma is the
islolated Moslavacka Gora (trig, 489).
The above mentioned Mountains form a chain, which is cut by the Vinkovci
Depression between Djakovo and Sid, and make the watershed between the Drava and the
Danumbe on one side, and t he Sava on the other and protects the Sava valley from
the north.
The Croatian -Slavonian. mountains, by their extension, height) depth and
surrounding terrain, offer very favourable conditions for the defence of Posavina
and, at the same time, protect the international communication Zagreb - Beograd) as
well as the gmanary of Croatia and Slavonia, The depression between Djakavo and
Id is a vulnerable place across which the above mentioned international communica"
tions might be threatened from the mirth.
In Croatia and Slavonia one-third is lowland and two-thirds are highlands.
Main lowlands in PR of Croatia are:
Posavina, extending along the Sava valley from the Brezice lowland area t
the mouth of the Sava, Posavina is the granary of Croatia, very well cultivated,.
densely populated, of strong economic potential; overgrown with oak forests; from
Zagreb to Belgrade across Posavina run all kinds of communications of the biggest
capacity (highways, double railway track and the navigable Sava).. Thanks to its
direction of extention in relation to theHungarian frontier and its capacity,
Posavina is a first-class lateral line of operations. From the north it is
naturally protected by the ridges of the Croatian-Slavonian mountains and by the
Fruska 1ora, with the exception of the sector of the Vinkovici Depression; the
surrounding low mountains are also overgrown with trees and other cultures.
The part of Posavina along the right bank of the Savat between Zagreb and
Sisak, is called Turopolje, and along the left bank, between village OgRknvo and
Jasenovac, is called Lonjsko Polje? These two fields have all the characteristics
of Posavina, being its integral parts.
411110**/53
"53.,
'POdraVina, extending along the Drava from Legrad to Opijeki economically as
rich as Posavina, but less forested. Podravina is a vulnerable area, being situated
on the very frontier, Where the Drava is the natural border (except Gola and Zdala
communities where both banks belong to us). .From the north it is naturally protected
only by the a2ava which is 'about 2.50 metres broad and always rich with water. Our
bank is higher than the northern-everywhere, with an insignificant exception east of
Legrad and Lakoe, where the hillocks of the Hungarian side reach the very left bank;
the valley is.often flooded, especially in spring.
The slopes of the Oroatianspaavonian mountains reach the southern border of.:
Podravina; they may strengthen the organization of the defensive zone along the Drava.
The Pozega lowland area, with important junction Of roads and railways at
Pleternica and Slavonska Pozega; sufficiently irrigated by the #ver Orljava and its
ti"ibutaries; well cultivated and densely populated; it is protected from all sides by
low mountains with only one natural gap in the south toward Posavina) formed by the
Orljava valley. -
The Karlovac lowland area, or the Lower Pokulje,' lies hoitheast of Karlovac,
with the junction of communications - Karlovac. The river Kupa flows across this
field; its tributaries water it and make it fertile. Towards the Sava it is open by .
the Kupa valley and by the plain at Klinca Selo. This field offers all the conditions
necessary for quartering and supply of military units, and also for .the use of all,com!.
bat means, except during longer periods of rain.- The central part of the field is
densely forested, fairly swampy, thinly populated, poor with communications and quite
difficult to paps. The peripheral partionly are well populated, passable and with
good communications.
2. The Dinara System
The Dinara system covers the greatest part of the western zone Of more rec-
ently formed mountains. Its borders are in the north: up to the line:: the river
Idrijca, the southern borderxf Ljubljansko Polje, the upper Krka, Metlika, the river
Kupa to Sisak, the Sava to the river Kolubara; in the east: the line: the Kolubara,
the Ljig, the Dicina, the Marl the Sitnica and Matohija; in the south: the Bell
Drim and the Drim, and its southwestern border is the Adriatic S9a.
The Dinara system rises abruptly from the Litioral to the highest peaks) and
then gradually drops down toward the low Posavina and continues in the Pannonia
Limestone is predominant here. All. .the mountains from the lower Soca to
:Albania are of limestone which is often over 1,000 metres thick. By their karst:. e
characteristics they form the region of true, bare, waterlessand deep Dinara karat,
Along the internalIfone, facing the Pannonia Plain, geological composition of the
ground isvarious. This zone is full of rivers, overgrown with trees and the whole
area looks like a green belt. The border between this green belt and the bares.
karst zone was explained in the section "Karst". The economy of these two zones is
also different. The karst, woodless zone is waterless and short of cultivated, areas. '
The green zone, however, is important from the economic point of view. In lower parts
towards the Sava are agricultural and orchard regions and in higher Parts' woods and
pastures. The ranges of the Dinara mountains, except the farthest southeastern parts,
extend from the northwest to the southeast'. In the northern part the zone of the
Dinara Mountains is the narrowest - from Ogulin to Novi (straight line) 35 km. South'',
eastward this zone becomes broader; between Dubrovnik and Cacak it is about 230 km
wide.' Southeastward the Dinara Mountains gradually turn in the Prokletije-eastward
and from here bend from the normal Dinara direction, extending from the southwest
to the northeast, via the saddle Cakor and the mountains Hajla, Zljeb, Mara Gora)
Regozna towards the river Ibar.- The Dinara mountain system is composed of parallel
tangos' and hollows between them, usually karst fields. -Nevertheless, this mountain,
system is not an Unbroken wall; there are also lateral hollows and valleys by which
,
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this system is divided into parts. All these gaps are very good defensive positions.
The territory of the Dinara mountain system, as a whole, by its geographic position,
great distance from the state frontiers, relief and passability, ores and water power,
is our best protected and most suitable region for building up of our heavy and war
industry.
The western part of this system is particularly short of suitable saddles
adross which the Adriatic Littoral would be connected with the hinterland. ThereT
fore, important are the following natural gaps: Sibenik m Drnis Knin - the river
Una; the Neretva valley and the BoJana valley with the river Zeta.
In order that they might be studied easily, the mountains of the Dinara
system are divided into the following series:
The Istrian and the Slovenian -Rij eka karst;
The Croatian highlands;
Dalmatian Mountains;
Bosnian Mountains:
f) Montenegrin Mountains;
The Prokletije, Metohian and Raska Mountains;
0 West Serbian Mountains.
The Istrian and the Slovenian-Ri'eka Karst
This karst covers the area from the border of the Alpine system in the
north and in the east, to the line Karlovac Ogulin Kraljevica in the south.
Istrian
Karst
General characteristics: limestone is predominant with typical karst
phenomena: pot-holes, funnel-shaped holes in limestone formation, cracks in lime"
stone, absence of normal surface streams, canyon valleys (the river Mirna and the
river 'Rasa), very thin vegetation, futility of soil and thin population. Ethnic
characteristic: people have been Slovenians for 1,300 years. The economic character-
istic corresponds to physical and geographical features. The original cover of
woods has been taken off.
Istria is divided into three geographic regions:
- White Istria
- Grey Istria
Red Istria
Each of those regions has its awn geological, climatic, hydrographic,
phytogeographic and anthropographic characteristics that have a specific influence on
the activities and combat of the army.
White Istria is formed of Trieste kars t and the Oicarije which are the
northern border of the Istrian peninsula. From the southwest it is a part of Trnavski
Gozd, Hrusica and Nanos, and from the northeast of the Pivka mountain and continues
00. 0/55
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southeastward in Gorski Kotar in Croatia. White Istria is bare country of chalk lime"
stone on which typical karst of white colour has been developed, thence the name of
White Istria.
Due to medium height, about 800 metres above the sea level) the -temperature
Is low, amount of rainfall fairly high, especially in the Ucka.mountainvthe Wind is
Strong, middle-European vegetation poor. Due to this, the population is forced to
occupy themselves with intense cattle breeding.. Of the total area of the Oicarije
52% are pastures and noadows? 5% corn fields, 2.5% vineyards, 1% gardens and 394
terile land. The Cici are Shepherds, colliers and timljerMen. Thinly populated: 25
per square km. No towns,
The Oicarija is a chain, of low mountains and mountains of medium height
extending from Trieste to Volosko. It steeply drops down southwestward, and grad-
ually_northeaatward. It continuos in another chain that ends with the summit of the
1.1.cka 13964 Two second-class highways and a railway. line run across the
western part of the Cicatije and the Ucka, and a second-Class highway in the eastern
part, and also several secondary roads,. The Cicarije:ie a Strong obstacle between
the Istrian peninsula and the rest of the country. The line: . the. Oicarija ?-? the
Ucka may serve as a position for the defence of the Istrian landing area.
GteV Istria is formed of sand and clay grey colour is predominant, thence
the name of Grey Istria.. It has a normal hydrographic network on the surface ,s0
that the growth is luxuriant, but without Mediterranean elements; it is richer with
*ter, the slopes of clay are washed out by rain so that cultivated land. plIras down;
bottoms of valleys are swampy. The population occupy themselves equally with agri-
culture and cattle breeding (there are lineyards, too). There are from -50r0 100
inhabitants per square km. Larger settlements are developed on hillocks, In Grey
Istria very important are the Buzet-Pazin lowland area in the centre and the Capic
lowland area southwest of the Ucka; they are most fertile parts Of Grey Istria and,
at thesame time, most suitable for the concentration, quartering and supply of
.troops.
.Red Istria is formed of a thick layer of red earth, hence its name. The
line 6eparating Red Istria from Grey Istria runs from the mouth of the river Dragonja
to Plomin. Red Istria covers 70% of the total territory of Istria. Small bunches
of trees and bush are traces of one time dense oak forests. A thick layer of fertile
red soil gives vitality to flora. The environment of Pula, Porn and Buje are rich,
well cultivated agricultural regions: vineyards are best here. Western parts (along
the coast) are covered with almost unbroken zones of vines, olive trees, fruit trees
and corn. Coastal localities and ports are: Pula, Rovinj, Vrsar, PoreC, and Novi
Grad in which one-third of all inhabitants of Istria live (100 per square km). West
Istria is completely a Mediterranean country with a comparatively low amount of
rainfall, up to 700 mm. It is an undulating ground with the average height in the
north of about 450 metres, gradually dropping down to the shore: Red Istria is poor
in water, and therefore, vegetation is thinner on the hills than in the hollows.
In some places drinking water is not available and maaria appear there; such areas
are not populated. Red Istria has a number of highways. The port of Pula is pro-
tected, large and best in Northern Adriatic. The entrance of the large harbour is
700 metres broad, with the shore 5 km long and the depth of the sea of about 30 m;
it is mild and drinkable water is available. The eastern coast of Istria from the
Cape Nera to the northernmost point of the Rijeka Bay is separated from other parts
of Istria by a chain of mountains of medium height and low mountains extending along
the coast.
The islands of Veliki and Mali Brioni are important because they block and
protect the entrance of the port of Pula; these islands are tourist resorts now.
The main lowland in Istria is extending along the western coast with the
average width of about 10 km. Inland, the important lowland areas are around
Pazin? Buzet, ?epic and along the lower Rizana. Considering the geologic composition
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Of soil ,in lowlands, bareness, shortage of 'water and weather conditions, shortage of i
,
armYeStIPPlie,s these lowlands, eicettt4e.valles of Grey Istria, are not very im-
portant. ':,The 'valley's of the Nirna and "ihe:gasa'are'flooded.Peri.odicallt, swampy;
they are typical canyon valleys; and thus obstacles worth mentioning.:'
' . , . , .. , ,
-gga21.211211 abo t Istria. In whole Istria; except Geey Tstria? -the problem
,
,of water, 'wood, food and other sUpp14.es arises.. The peninsula is open in the west
$ I
and in the south- and, protected by mountain 'ridges in the east except from Cape
mAnanjak,to'gapie Nera (hilla Punta)('Black Point). The whole territory of Istria is
1.1aanoeuvering ground with many phenomena ofkarst and its influence on combat actions;
communicability is good (except White Istria) . The ground rises from southwest to
northeast and along the line Trieste r Opatija it is partitioned off by the Cicarija
,mountain. Mostly undulating and broken ground offers possibilitiesafOrthe selection
of Suitable defensive positions, while deep river Valleys are natural obstacles
.that.cughtato be taken into account.
Slovenian Karst
The Slovenian karst covers the area north of the Oicarije and the Ucka to
the river Idriica and the southern border of Ljubljansko Polio, and in the east
to the line: Metlika - Novo Mesto - the river Krka. Important sectors are:
..the Baniska Planota between TOlmin and Oorica; from 600 to 1000 metres
high, Part* wooded, of limestone, with many funnelieShaped holes, difficult to
Pass, waterless and thinly populated. Steeply drops down to the Soca and the
Idriieae. Its border in the east is Cepovanska valley, separating it from the
TrnoVskt Gosd mountain. The Capovanska valley is waterles, with 300-400 metre
high sides and an average width of about one kilometre, along which an important
secOndseclass highway runs from Gorica to Tolmin.
11011.knJska Planota, by its geographic position, is a very important
sector", and by its topographic features a very strong sector within the natural
defensive zone of the left bank of the Soca, In the north it borders the Julian
Alps, in the south the peak (trig. 646) northeast of Gorica, and in the southeast
the TrnoVski Gozd, thus blocking the valley of the Baca and the Idrijca; it con-
siderably influences the defence of the line of operations; Gorica Aidovacina -
Ljubljana,- the Vipava valley and the line of operations: Gorica Pcstoita -
Ljubljana.
0. the Trnovski Gosd extends between the Gepovanska valley and AJdovacinat
from 900 to 1400 metres high, of limestone, densely forested, short of drinking
water in summer, and almost unpopulated. In the south it borders the mountains
Hrusice and Nanos, and together with them blocks the Vipava valley from the north
to the east. Drops abruptly down to the Vipava valley. BY its physical
characteristics unsuitable for the action of larger units and a serious obstacle
to them.
- the Hrusica extends between Vipava?,Postojna and village Planina. Similar
to the Trnovski Gozds In the south it is connected with the Nanos :mountain which
has the same characteristics as all the above mentioned mountains of the Slovenian
karst. On the southern border of the Nanos is the important saddle Razdrto, a
cross-road of the first-class highway Ljubljana Postojna Vipava-- Nova Gorica
and Postojna Razdrto Trieste.
The Komenski Karst extends between the Soca, the Vipava and the Adriatic
Sea; in the east up to the line: the saddle Razdrto Trieste. Consists of
several low ridges running parallel to the sea, dropping abruptly down in all
directions, especially to the Vipava and the sea. This region is also a karst area,
thinly populated, short of drinking water, mostly bare, with the average height
above sea level of 350 metres, with individual peaks from 400 to 600 metres, well
;??",.
communicative, but fairly difficult to pasA. The junctIon of communications is
Kamen.
The westernmost part of the Komenski karst belongs to Italy, ending there
with a peak (trig. 275) and the Doberdob plateau; it is .a strong Italian bridge-
head on the left bank of the Soca on the line of operations Trzic m Trieste m
Rijeka and Gorica m Ljubljana.
The whole series of the Slovenia karst mountains has the common character-
istic of karst regions with all specific features influencing combat actions; it is
a serious obstacle to the advance across the Soca eastward and vice versa.
The Vipava valley is worth mentioning here. Its bottom is water-tight;
hydrographic network well developed; it is fertile under the influence of Mediter-
ranean climate, well cultivated (covered with vineyards), densely populated and
with good communications. A first-class highway runs from Gorica to Trieste and
Pula, and in the north along the Soca valley to Bowe, towards the saddle Predel
(elevation 1156 m) and the saddle Vrsic; in the east over the saddle Razdrto to
Postojna or via St. Peter na Krasu (Pivka) to Rijeka.
.1. 1.4.1. (ivy
In the rest of the eastern area of the Slovenian karst there are three
from the south to the north.
The western furrow: Rijeka - the valley of the river Reka - the valley
of the river Pivka - the river Unec Vrhnika.
The middle furrow: the valley of the upper Kupa - the river Oabranka m
the Los lowland area m Lake Cerknisko.
The eastern furrow: the Kocevje lowland area - the Ribnica lowland area -
Turjak Ljubljana.
Between the western and the middle furrow extends the Pivka mountain with
the peaks Sneznik (trig. 1796) and Javornik (trig. 1268); it is densely forested,
difficult to pass, thinly populated and almost waterless.
- Between the middla and the eastern furrow are mountains of medium height
and low mountains covered with woods and large pastures in higher regions; and
with fields and meadows in lower regions; sufficient amount of water is available;
the peaks are: Goteniski Sneznik (trig. 1289), Velika Cora, Mokrec and Krim
(trig. 1107) extending from the northwest to the southeast. East of the eastern
furrow are: the Kovevski Bog and the Mala Gora.
This whole region is characterized by a number of subterranean rivers.
The Bela Krajina lowland area (around Ornomelf and Nbtlika) is important.
It is an area full of vineyards.
Main communications are:
Second-class highways from the Ljubljana lowland area to the Kupa
Ljubljana - Novo Mesto Mbtlika Karlovac; Ljubljana - Ribnica - Kocevje m Brod
na Kupi; Ljubljana Velike La sac - Los Cabar; for the connection with the littoral;
Ljubljana --Donji Logatea Postojna - St. Peter na Krasu (Pivka) Ilirska-
Bistrica; Novo Mesto Kocevje Ribnica Loz - St. Peter na Krasu; Velike Lasce m
Cerknica Postojna Razdrto Sezana; Cabar Prozid - St. Peter na Krasu.
The importance of these furrows and mountain ranges between them? is very
great. The above mentioned furrows in this karst region are natural lines of
communication and operations, making possible the construction of communications and
movement of almost all branches of the army. Along a part of? the middle furraw
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the upper KuPa' Cabar, Prezid and further on via St. Peter na Krasu m Pivka) adt-
vanced our 20th Division in tho Trieste Operation in 1945. Bordering with the
:Nanos the Hrusica and southeastern spurs of the Julian Yips in the north and
thanks to their direction of the extension (north-south), these furrows atid noun
-
tains between them are a strong protection Of the Ljubljana lowland area from the
14,0t and southwesty as well as of the Karlovac lowland area from the west and
blOckathe approach to western Pannonia valleys of the Krka, the Kupa and the Sava
and prevent the deployment of enemy forces in the Zagreb area. They would play a
silnilar role in Possible operations from the east .westward, i.e. from Pannonia to
the Venetian Plains The Postojna Gap is the most vulnerable place in this area.
fed
The Rijeka karst is a, natural southeastern joined piece of the Cicarije
and the Pivka and the northwestern extension of the Velebit and the Velika Kapela;
it is terrain of medtp height and low terrain 'with all the characteristics of the
karlti,densely forested, difficult to pass and thinly populated without drinkable
waterlil- higher regions. In the south this karst reaches the line: Kitaljevica
Vfbovsko Ogulin.
.The main mountain is :the Risnjak (trig. 1528) with the peaks Risnjak
1528),,trig 1506 and Ohruc (trig. 1377).
The southeastern part between Rijeka and the upper Kupa is the limestone,
forested plateau Gorski Kota''', Gorski Kotar is covered with dense, primarily
evergreen forests, arid in this respect it is one of the richest parts of our
country,; The yearly amount of rainfall is over 1,000 on here.
Iftlaire,a1NIMMI
Main communications are:
Rijeka Delnice Vrbavsko Karlovac (second-class highway);
Rijeka Fuzine Mrkopalj Vrbavsko Ogulin Karlovac (second-class
The railway line: Rijeka - Ogulin Karlovac - Zagreb.
The Rijeka karst influences the life, activities and combat actions of all
branches of the army in the same way as the Slovenian karst. Bordering the adjacent
Gicarijaa it blocks the approaches from the Rijska Bay to the depth of our territory,
especially the line of operations Rijeka - Karlovac.
The line Banjsica Nanos Risnjak is a whole - position 4.. defensive zone
that blocks the gap between the Julian Alps and Rijeka Bay..
b) The Croatian Lika Hi hland6
This region lies between the Adriatic Sea and the line: Kraljevica
Vrbovsko --Ogulin Bihac - the upper Una and the Zrmanja to its mouth. It is a
plateau from 500 to 600 metres above sea level, separated from the sea by the high
ridge of the Velebit; it is of limestone, with several large well cultivated and
populated hollows, as for example:
119121211a, about 40 km long, and about 10 km wide, in which Gospic,
an important junction of roads is situated.; The railway line Zagreb - ?Karlovac
Knin Sibenik and Split run across this field, and also several second-class high
ways, connecting Licko Polje with the sea and the hinterland; it is flooded by
a few subterranean streams.
191212112. about 15 ImIlong and about 3
5 km wide, in which Otocac, an
-#48.11/59
Lata,
-59
important junction of roads is situated; it is fertile; watered by the subterranean
river Gacka, and in the westernmost part is Lake Svicko
.......2.22,1,12.^ Krbacsl, about 20 km long, and up to 5 km wide) along the borders
of this field important secend-class highways run toward the se a and the hinterland.
Udbina, a junction of roads, is situated in the southeastern corner. Watered by
several subterranean streams, among which the most important is the Krbava.
? Totova Korenica P,2112 is a small lowland area in which Titova Korenica is
........
situated; along the western border runs the second-class highway from Slunj via Lake
Plitvice to Udbina.
There are other small fields
Ogulin, Plasko - that are insignificant.
From the military point of view all these fields are very important, for
on this karst plateau they are the only fertile areas in which water, food and other
supplies are available and accommodation possible. All these fields are protected
by surrounding mountains which, in connection with these ftlds-are good positiens.
The western border of this region is a simple, and bare mountain ridge
Velebit, difficult to pass (Vaganjski Vrh trig. 1758) which abruptly falls down
into the Adriatic Sea.; The ridge is 136 km low and from 14 to 20 km broad. Along
the eastern border of the Croatian (Lika) highlands extend steep and rocky moun-
tains the Velika Kapela (the peaks: Bijelolasica, trig. 1533), and Klek (trig.
1182) the Mala Kapela (trig. 1280) and the Pljesivica (trig. 1649).
Due to the lack of cultivated land, the Croatian (Lika) plateau is un-
suitable for agriculture, but conditions for cattle breeding, especially sheep
..
farmingvare favourable; 20% of the total area is pure karst, about 22% cult,i-
vatable land, while the rest are forests and pastures. The western wells of the
Velebit, facing the sea, are bare and rocky, while the eastern slopes and their
spurs are forested.
The following commUnications cross the Velebit: second-class highway
Obrovac (on the ZrManja) Lovinac Udbina; karlobag Gospic Peruzic;
Jurai Otocac; Senj Otocac or Senj Brinje Josipdol; Novi - Ogulin. Along
the -coast and along the Velebit runs the second-class highway; Kraljevica
Crikvenica Novi - Senj Sv. Juraj Jablanac --Karlobag Obrovac. East of
the Velebit runs the second-class highway: Graeae Lovinac Gospic Otocac
Brinje Jasenak and the railway line Knin Ogulin.
Second-c1as3roads running over the Velika Kapela and the Mala Kapela are:
Novi Jasenak - Ogulin; Senj Brinje Josipdol; Otocac Licke Jesenice -
Dreznik Grad. There are no rcads in the Pljesivica mountain.
The Croatian (Lika) highlands, as a whole make difficult the advance from
the Adriatic coast inland and there are a number of very strong positions for the
defence of valleys and gaps leading northward and northeastward .
The Velebit makes landing operations difficult, offering favourable
positions for defence with the aim of preventingihe advance in case the attacker's
landing operations are successful. The Velika Kapela, the Mala Kapela and the
ajesivica offer favourable positions for the defence against the attacker that has
crossed the Velebit. Extending parallel behind the Velebit, those mountains would
form the next defensive zone on this sector of our boundary front.
From the line Ogulin Slunj Bihac northeastward the Croatian (Lika)
highlands extend into hilly terrain which slants down to the Sava. The hills worth
mentioning are: the Petrova Gora (trig. 507) and the Zrinjska Gora (trig. 615)
which are rioh in ores. It is a low region of green karst, furrowed by a hydro-
graphic network, known as Kordun (east of Karlovac to the line Glina Topupko
Velika Kladuza Slunj) and Banija (east of the above mentioned line); it has good
communications with all the characteristics of manoeuvering ground with strong
ojile44/160
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nippl_flirtAonnne,
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economic potential and in relation to the Croatian (Lika) highlands more suitable for
operations in any direction.
During the Fourth Offensive, in January 1943, Kordun was the' concentration
area of the German SS Division "Prince Eugen" for the Operation "Weis, I" for the ad-
vance along the general line of operations: Karlovac Bihac tiosanski Petrovac,
and the Northern Banija the concentration area of the German 369th Division.
These mountains extend between the Adriatic Sea, the river &mania., the
Dinara Mountain), Imotsko Polje, Vrgoracko Polje'to the Neretva at Metkovic.. The whole
region - is .bare, except a small area north of Knin and some areas northeast of the
'loser and north of Vrgorac. Northwestern part from the coast to the line NoviRrad
BedkoVac .-,Biograd is a flash, area known' as Kotari. The coastal zones wide about 16
km, is completely a flat area. .From the line Novigrad Betkovac -,,Skradin- extend a
hilly belt) as the first stronger position in the hinterland of Zadar and Biograd.?
From Sibenik to Split, along the coast, extend low, mountains the Vilaja (trig,. 738)i
the Opor (trig. 690) and.the.Kozjak (trig. 780). The next .defensive zone would, be the
mountains: the Orlialc (trig. 674), the Promina (trig 1148), Which is rich in coal
,
and boxit6p # 'and the Mo sec (trig 843)
,East of the valley: Kosovo ft Petrov() Polje - the valley of the river,
Vrba Klis and sea coast to the river Neretva extend the Dalmatian mountains of
mediu0Lheight,Samong which worth mentioning are: the Svilaja (trig. 1509), the
Mbsori (trig, '1340) and the Biokovo (trig. 1762) above Makarska. Ihe- ridges of these
mountains are narrowl-sharp and bare and the sides like terraces, steep, bare and
only in lower regions overgrown with "makija" and bushes. From the Biokovo south- .
eastward the ridge drops down to the Neretva and extends into hilly terrain.,
DaIma4an mountains include the Dinara mountain, too, which extends from
the upprr7na and..Zrmanja to Busko Blato. In the southwest it borders the Sinj
and the Vriika.lowland areas and the upper and middle part of the Catina. The
Dinara is an unbroken ridge extending southeastward, of an average height of 1700
metre's; its highest teaks are: Dinara (trig. 1831), Troglav (trig, -1913) and
Konj (trig. 1841). Its sides are steep, of karst and difficult to pass; the eastern
slopes are wooded, while the western are predominantly bare; population thin mostly
in surrounding fields.
The importance of .the area west of the valley Kosovo 7 Petrovo 'Polje - the
river Vrba and the importance of the area east of it are different from the military
point of view. in the western part flat ground on 'the coast makes landing of troops
possible) and its passability,the advance inland. Such favourable lines of eperte
ations are: 'Zadar Obrovac - the Zrmanja valley - the Una valley or Biograd
Benkovac Knin the valley of the river Butusnica - the Una :valley or Sibenik
Drnis Petrov? Polje Kosovo Knin the Una valley. In this western area the
hilly ground Offers a number of successive positions that block all lines of openations. The eastern area, considering the relief, has similar characteristics to
the Velebit in the Croatian (Lika) highlands. The strongest position, somewhat
deeper behind, is the Dinara ridge, since there is only one second-cIass highway from.
Sinj to Livno. This ridge can be passed round only on the flanks: in the north,
along the second-class ,highway Knin Drvar, and in the south, Sinjsko Polje
Arzano Duvno, so that it is a very strong zone for the defence of West Bosnia.
Important lowland areas in Dalmatia are: Kotari, Kosovo at Knin, Petrov?
Tolje at Drnis, Vrlicko Polje around Vrlika, Sinj sko Polje, 15 km long and 7 to 8
Ian wide, and Imotsko Polje. These fields are well cultivated; drinkable water is
available and conditions for quartering and supply of small units are favourable.
Important communications, connecting the Adriatic Goaast and the hinterland, as well
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as .lateral communications running parallel to the extension of mountain ranges and
numerous fields, run across them.
Communications worth mentioning in the western area are: second-class
highways Zadar ?breve? - Graeae; Bankovac Knin; Sibenik Drnis tnin; Zadar
Biegrad Sibenik Split. The railway line: Split - Sibenik Knin. In the
eastern area the junctions are Split and Sinj, and most important communications are:
Split w $inj (second-class road and railway line); Omis Imotski (second-class
road); Makarska Ljubuski; sepond-class highway along the coast Split - Metkovic;
behind the mountains runs the lateral second-class highway Knin Sinj the Cetina
valley Vrgorac Metkavic or Sinj Imot ski Ljubuski Capijina. From northern
and middle Dalmatia there are two general lines of communications separated by the .
Dinaral One of them runs between the northern part of the Dinara and Obrovac to the
16.17.4 valley; the other between the southern part of the Dinara and the sea eastward
to Mostar and Sarajevo. '
a)
Bosnian MountainS
The Bosnian mountains extend between the Dalmatian mountains, the middle
part of the Neretvap-the Ivan Sedlo, Sarajevo, the river Zeljeznica, the river
BiStrlrgai. the river'Drinal the river Sava, the rivet Una. This mountainous region
indludes the following groups of mountains:.. mountains of West Bosnia, Bosnian
mountains of medium height and Bosnian fore-mountains,
Mountains of West Bosnia
The Croatian (Lika) highlands extend across the upper Una into the region of
mountain ranges and hollows of West Bosnia. These highlands extend from the upper
Una to the middle part of the river Neretva, the river Rama, Gornji Vakuf, the source
of the river Pliva, Kljuc, Bosanska Krupa. This region is difficult to approach and
to pass; it is a geographic middle in the relief of Dalmatian and Bosnian mountains.
It is eharacterized by long mountain ranges extending from the northwest to south-
east. Between the ranges lie large) long karst fields. Bottoms of fields are of
lake sediments with layers of hard coal and lignite. Mountains, rising above these
fields, are sovered with large forests and pastures, but according to their geologic
composition they have all the characteristics of the karst. The zone of the high
mountains begins with the Dinara range along which the border. between Dalmatia and
PR Bosnia and Herzegovina runs.
Parallel to the Dinara which is the first ran ?e extends a second short
maga, composed of mountains: the Vigenac Trig. 1.50 the Sat (trig. 1872), the
Staretina Planina (trig. 1675) and the Velika Golija (trig. 1891), The Velika Golija
is naturally connected with the Cincar mountain; between these two ranges are:
Grahovsko Polje, of local importance; a second-class highway runs
across it from Livanjsko Polje via Bosansko Grahovo to Drvar and further on to the
Sava valley. The altitude above sea level is over 800 metres; composed of ,a few
small fields which are dry, with a thin layer of earth, partly covered with karst,
with the smaller part cultivated and the greater covered with pastures,
Livanjsko Polje - the largest of all hollows in West Bosnia (711 metres
above sea level, surface area: 380 square km, 60 km long and 10-15 km wide). The
bottom is flat and under water 7-8 months in the year. The northern part is-SWampy;
in the southern is Busko Blato. Otherwise, the soil is fertile and sown with various
cultures in summer; intersected by subterranean streams.
Livno is the road junction. There are the following second-class roads:
Livno the saddle Vaganj Sinj - sea coast,
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Bugojn (to the valley of the river Vrbas
Prozor the valleys of the Rama and the Neretva
Drvar to the valleys of the river Unac and the Una
Livno Bosansko Grahovo - the Butusnica valley ,- Knin or from Bosansko
Grahovo to Drvar,
Livno Prisoie zano, the
11.-om whero
second-class rnna forks in all
direations,
Livno Prisoje Duvno.
Due .to the great Importance of Livno as a junction of roads and the line of.
extension of .Livqnisko Polje, the Germans, in the Fourth Offensive 1943, during the
"Weiss IV operation. ordered the SS Division "Prince puryonll to operate alonr, the
, --i 0 ,., ., 0
.f?11?wing:liile.'ofc5Perations: livanjsko Polje - Drvar Bosansko Grahovo Limo m
Duvno w.f.:Mosta/4A.
followin7 mountains: the Osjocenica mountain
(trig. 179 0 the 19.ekoveca trig. 1961) with the Lunievaca (trig* 1.706), the.
Oinear (trigs 2006), the Liubusa mountain (trig, 1797), the Vran mountain (trig.
2074) and the Qvranica (trig, 2228). Between the second and third range is .the
valley of the Un-.41 and hollows:
? GlamockO Polio, the surface area of which is 130 square km, about 35 km
longt, but very narrow (3.4 km). The northern part is swampy and flooded from
autumn to May; there are two lakes, in the southern part of Flamocko Polje; altitudes
above sea level is 88.2 metres;- a second-class road runs across Glamocko- Polie from
Livno to Drvar and forks ' on to Mrkonjic Grad.
During the Fourth Offensive in 1943; in the period of the "Weiss 11" Oper-
ation, the German369th Division advanced across this hollow' along the general line
of operations: Kijuo Livno.
" Duvanjsko POlje, the surface area of which is 122 square km, 862 metres
above sea level, long about 15 and wide about 10 km. The main river is Sujica,
the flowing off stream of Kupresko Tblje; in addition to it there are some other
subterranean streams. This is the driest, 11-.)st drained field in this region.
is the most cultivated culture.
The fourth ran is comrmed of the following mountains: the Grmac (trig.
1604), the Srnatica elevation 1341 m and the Struganica trig. 1478); the range is
broken here and continued in, the southeast with the mountains Vitorog.(trig. 1907)
and Radusa (trig. 1956).
The Grmac may serve as a very suitable position for the defence against the
attack from the north and for blocking the lines of operation leading toKnin.and
'Dryer,
Barley
The fourth range is separated from the third by the following hollows:
the Bihac lowland area on the Una;
the Bosanski Petrovac lowland area, in which Bosanski Petrovac is situa-
ted, and important junction of roads running towards the Una and the Sana valleysl
and southward to Drvar;
- 63
the southwestern slopes of the Grmec mountain (east of Bosanski Petrovac)
are called Bravsko Polio, It is woodless land with pasturos, 1,100 to 1,200 metres
above sea level. The second-class road from Bosanski Petrovec to Kljuo runs across
it;
KUptesko Polje, the surface area of Whioh is 93 square km, altitude above
sea level 1,100 metres, due to which it is cold in Kupresko Polio.- It is about 14 km
long and from 5-10 km wide. An important second-class'highwaTrPs across Kupresko
Polio from the Vrbas valley (from Bugojno) to Livno andDuvno. .Although situated
fairly' high, barley, wheat and oats are cultivated successfully. 111.e smaller part
of it are fields; the greater pastures;
Ilavno Polje (between Kupres and Duvno) is of local importance. Across
this hollow a second-class road runs from Duvno via the Prozor saddle to the Neretva
and the Vrbas valhys. A4kevsko Polje is between Kupresko Polje and Ravno Polje;
the valley of the river Rana to its month; its sides are steep, but an
important highway runs along it from tha Neretva valley to the Vrbas valley (via the
Prozor saddle) and to Split.
From, the military point of view the mountains of West Bosnia, with their
parallel ridges extending from the northwest to southeast, are a strong obstacle with
several successive defensive positions against the advance from the Dalmatian
Littoral., In relation to Dalmatian mountains they would form the next defensive
/one., They are suitable because their ridges are long and lie parallel to long
valleys; a few communications cross them and even these can be quickly blocked and
defended by weak forces.
In the north-south operations individual ridges would play the role of
partitim walls, making difficult signal communication and cooperation between
individual columns.
The hollows (Livanisko Polje; Duvanjsko Polie, Glathocko Polje, Grahovsko
Polje; Imotsko Polje) may serve as the only suitable areas for the concentration of
troops.
These mountains are mostly forested; forests are like primeval forests
here and there. The western part is partly covered with karst and is completely
bare on southwestern slopes, while the northern slopes are forested. They are
difficult to pass either because of karst or because of forests, or because of
both. In winter time these mountains are covered with deep snow and movement is
impossible. The fields are flooded, and when water flows'off, impassable till the
middle of summer. Strong, cold winds and mist make movement difficult,. Settlements
are concentrated in hollows and lowland areas where small tactical units can get
almost all supplies.
Bosnian Mountains of Medium Height
These mountains are northeastern and eastern spurs of mountains of West
Bosnia extending northward to the line: Bosanski Novi - Banjaluka - Doboj
Tuzla.- Zvotnik, i.e. to the furrow that makes the valleys of the rivers: the Saila,
the Gomjenica, the Vrbanja, the Usora and the Spreca; in the eagt, they extend to
the river Drina, and in the south to the line: the Sarajevo lowland area the
river Zeljeznica - the river Bistrica to its mouth.
Here, on the left bank of the upper Vrbas and on the right bank of the
Rama ends the region of Pure karst with large' karst fields and bare and dry karst
mountains, and begins the green wooded zone, rich in streams and sources, the
mountains of which are. gradually sloping down to Posavina.
Karst appears here and there, lying .over impermeable rocks, so that karst
appears on the -surface only without, karst fields.
& Oa &
W&Ww
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Bosnian mountains of middle height are divided into four sectors by deep
valleys of the Sana, the Vrbas and the Bosna:
The sector between the lower Una and the Sana: only two mountains: the
50 and the Lisa c trig 8071.---
jdan
trig*
The sector between the
Sana and the Vrbas is
Manjaca (trig. 1239, the Lisina trig. 14 7 and the Dimitor
karst appears here, covered with woods. There are two roads:
Jezero - Jaice and Kliuc Banjaluka?
filled
e sector
w th mountains: the
trig. 1483 moderate
iuo Nrkonjic Grad
between t e Vrbas and the Bosna. In the southern part of this
south of the river Le.sve.): the Vrenica, the Bitovnja;
the viasie (convAtion 1943 m) the Cemarnica the
sector ttuntains are higher
north of the river Lasva are:
Borja and the Uzlomace
The whole sector is forested; first-class pastures are in the Vlasic
olintain.
Communications worth mentioning are: Banjaluka Doboj (second-"class
highway and railway line) and some parts of narrow-gauge railuay lines, as well as
the narrow-gauge railway line Donji Vekuf Travnik Zenica. Good roads run along
the Vrbas "valley and the Bosna valley, and along the Bosna valley also a narrow-
gauge railway line and a normal railway line.
The sector between the Bosna and the Drina. East of. Sarajevo in the Roman -
iia (trig ,'1629),a karst mountain with steep rocks in the south.
North of Sarajevo, between the Bosna and the Krivaja are: the Ozren (trig.
1532), the Zviiezda (rig. 1355), the Groben and the Ravan mountains, and between
the Erivaja and the Spreca are: the Javor, the Konjuh and-the.Ozren; all are
densely forested, interspersed by abrupt ridges, difficult to pass and rich in
Ores.
South of. Sarajevo is the Trebevic (trig. 1629) and southeast the
Jahorina (trig. 1913).
Plateaus .and mountains of this sector are covered with woods and pastures,
so that cattle breeding Is developed. This region has been without communications
so far, except some-narrow-gauge railways in forests constructed during the-Austrom
Hungarian reign for the exploitation of forests. East of Sarajevo, between the
Romanija'and the. Jahorina, a narrow-gauge (0.76.m),railwaY line and A second-class
highway .from Sarajevo to Visegrad and Titovo Uzice are under construction.
Bosnian mountains are rich in ore, first of all iron ore.
The zone Of mountains rich in ore, as stated above, begins with the Petrova
.Gera and the Zrinjska Gora in Croatia, extending over the Una sotheastward to
mountains rich in ore in Middle Bosnia. This zone is naturally extended over the
Drina andends with the Podrinje mountains in Western Serbia (the GWevou the
Bora*, the Jagodnja, etc). Among the mountains rich in ore in Bosnia, the low
mountain Majdan (trig. 650) is worth mentioning because of iron ore with the mine
Ljubija, southwest of Prijedor, then high mountains rich in ore between the upper
Vrbas and the upper Bosna; the Bitovnja (trig. 1744) above the Nerotva, the
Vrarlica (trig. 2112) at Foinica and the Vlasic (elevation 1943 m) at Travnik. This
whole region around the upper and middle Bosna is rich in coal, iron and other
ores (Vares, Zenical Kakan and Breza),. so that the valley of the middle Desna is
becoming the centre of our heavy industry; thence the great importance of the Bosna
valley from the economiccnd military point of view. In addition to ams, these
mountains are rich in forests, in lower parts deciduous, inhigher) evergreen and
pastures, so that in addition to mining, conditions for timber industry and cattle-
breeding are favourable.
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7'77
.65..
Lowland areas worth mentioning are:
- the Prij dor lowland area, with the river Gomjenica (a tributary of the
Sana) flowing across it and the Sana. This field is about 30 km long and from
8 to 10 km wide, highly fertile, wooded and well populated, offering all supplies
for the army. Drinkable water is available. Communications from Banjaluka to the
Una valley and those running northward along the Sana valley cross it. Prijedor
is the junction. This area is surrounded. and protected by low mountains;
Skoplje, in the valley of the upper Vrbas (extending from Gornji Vakuf to
Donji Vakuf with Bugojno in the middle), about 30 km long and from 3 to 5 km wide;
it is the most fertile lowland in Bosnia and densely populated. Across it run a
secondyclass road and a narrow-gauge railway line from the Bosna valley via Travnik
to the Vrbas valley at Donji Vakuf. From here they run southward via Bugojno to
Gornji Vakuf and northward to Jajoe. The only second-class highway to Split runs
from Bugojno, Kupresko Polje and Livanjsko Polje;
the Zenica lowland area in the Bosna valley, in which our heavy in-
dustry is under construction now;
- the Doboj lowland area at the mouth of the Spreea, in which our important
railway junction .is under construction. From this area northwestward leads a
valley along the Bosna, spreading from Modric on to Posavina;
? Glasinacko Polje is at the altitude of about 900 metres; it is rather
small, with good pastures and some crops. The junction is Podromanija, with a
second-class highway coming from ,Sarajevo and forking to Rogatica and Vlasenica.
Karst is predominant in western and southern parts; thinly populated, economically
poor and unimportant for the troops that would operate here;
- the Sarajevo lowland area lies west of Sarajevo, around the upper part
of Bosna which receives two tributaries in, it: the Zeljeznica and the kliljacka.
It is about 20 km long (north-south), from 7 to 10 km wide (east-west), with the
altitude above sea level of about 500 metres. It is well drained, and therefore
seldom -flooded:. The ground is flat, fertile and well cultivated. It is a junction
of important communications running convergently from various directions: from
Posavina along the Bosna valley, from the Adriatic Sea along the Neretva valley
via Mostar and the Ivan mountain; from the Drina valley along the Praea valley and
from Zvornik via Vlasenica and the Romanija; from the Vrbas valley via Travnik
and Kiseljak; from Herzegovina - Nevesinjsko Polje and Gatacko Polje - via Kalinovik
and along the Zekjeznica valley.. This area is economically strong; well protected
by surrounding mountains.
The Romanija and the Jahorina block the Praca valley in the west,
thereby the approach to Sarajevsko Polje from the east, from the Drina vali
The Zone of Bosnian Fore-Mountains
Y4
These mountains extend north of mountains of the central massif, that is
north of the 4. A, line: the Sana,
the Gomjeniea
7
the Vrhnnip_ the Usore, the Spreca
,
to Zvornik and further on, including hilly ground, slope down to the Sava valley.
This hilly ground, especially along rivers are the richest regions of Bosnia.
Individual mountains are separated by the same rivers as the mountains
of Central Bosnia; worth mentioning are:
-the Kozara (trig. 978) between the Una and the Vrbas; north of it along
the Sava extends the Prosara (trig. 363), and west of it, on the Sana and the Una,
hilly terrain with the peak Kriva Glava (trig. 446). This area is forested except
the northern slopes of the Kozarae
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The Kozara ,with, ether northern spurs on the Bosnian fore-mountains may
serve as a position for the defence onthe right bank of the Sava for checking the
advancelraMIAle nort4; bo6ides, it served to our forces for threatening communica
tions south of. Ito So during the Fourth Offensive, in 1943, our forces from the
Kozara threatened the communication': Kostajnica Besanski Novi Prijedor -
Danialuka along 'which the 714th and 717th Gernan divisions were bringing up supplies.
the Netajica (trig; 652) between the Vrbas and the Ukrina extends along
the bank: of the Sava; wooded and steeply drops down into the Sava
the Vuojak (trig, 352) between the lower Ukrina and the lower Bosna:
northeastern part is densely forested; it gradually slopes towards the Sava.
the Trebovec (trig 618) and the Majovica (trigi-915).extend along the
bank of the.SPre0a between the Posna and the Drina; wooded, broken, dropping steeply
down to the Spreia and 'sloping down to the Sava, The spurs of .the, Majevica.reach
the savat The m'aievica re:lion with the large Tuzla basin in the south and the
SPrela..valleY is one of ..he richest .ternins in ore in our country; in addition to
'rude oil, here is the best coal mine of lignite - Kreka, then "Tito's mines" - and
of 'hard toal in Banovici and mines of salt in Tuzla.
The following lowland areas and hollows are very important:
Posavina, hilly and flat terrain south of the Sava, between the Ukrina
and the Drina, ending in the east with Semberija at Bijeljina. This is the most
fertile area of the whole Bosnia, well communicative, densely populated, well
sUltivatedo wooded and intersected by streams. Posavina with Semberija is the
southern border of the Pannonia Plain. The economic potential of Posavina is in-
creased by the navigability of the Sava along the whole length within this plain.
From the north Posavina is protected b Y the Sava;
- Lijevce lies between the Vrba6, the Sava and the northeastern slopes
of the Kozara; has the same characteristics as Posavina;
41, Sprecko Polje, about 70 ki long, but narrow (from Tuzla to Doboj) wide
from 3 to 4 lcm, while south of Tuzla the valley is getting broader), altitude above
sea level about 200 metres, rich in woods, meadows and pastures. The zone along
the river is swampy, flooded in spring and in autumn; well cultivated along the
borders. An important highway runs across it from the Bosna valley (the future big
railway junction - Doboj) to Tuzla and further on to the Drina valley at Zvornik.
The railway line Tuzla Zvornik is going to be constructed. These communications
are a part of a long, important lateral communication which is under construction,
running from Belgrade, via Stepojevac, Valjevo, along the Jadar valley, connecting
the present railway line from Loznica to Zvornik, and via Tuzla, Doboj, Banjaluka,
Bosanski Novi to Karlavac and Zagreb. In this lowland area large units to operate
in northeastern Bosnia could concentrate and quarter.
The Bosnian fore-mountains, which at some places reach the right bank of
the Sava, can serve at those places as positions for the direct defence and checking
the crossing of the Sava from the north, while the mountains southward would make
strong and tenacious defence possible.
Conclusion about the Bosnian mountains: These mountains lie in the
centre of our country. The highest are in the south dropping gradually northward,
The line of extension is north-westsoutheasti .Due to this, Bosnia rivers,
generally flowing from the south to the north, cut. thorn at many places, making
defiles and narrow, deeply cut in valleys. Thinly populated to a considerable
extent,
4114100/67
-67-
e) HerzeRovinian Mountains,
These mountains extend between the Neretva, the saddle Ivan, the Zeljeznica
and the Bistrica, the Drina, the Sutjeska and Gatasko Polje, Trebinjsko Polje and the
Adriatic Sea.
From the sea coast towards inland the terrain elevates, forming several
terraces from which individual ridges, rocks and peaks rise abruptly.
The first terrace extends between the sea coast and the river Trebisnica;
the highest peaks reach the height of about 900 metres.
The second terrace extends between the right bank of the river Trebisnica
and the line: Stelae Ljubinje and the Ljubomir lowland area on the one side, and
the lime. Dabarsko Polje village Fatnica Bileca, on the other. The main mountain
is the Viduia with the summit Kobilja Glava (trig. 1419).
The third terrace extends between the line Dabarsko Polje - village
TOniila 4 Bileca and the line Mostar - Nevesinjsko Polje Gatacko Polje. It begins
with the peaks of about 1200 to 1300 metres (the Snikeznica and the Trusina)
extending in the mountains: the Velez (trig. 1969(, the Bjelasnica. (trig. 1867) and
the Baba (trig, T737).4
, North of the third terrace the following line is formed by the mountains:
the PreilJ (elevation 2155 m), the Crvanj (trig. 1921), the Mjedena Glava (trig.
.16,2) and the Lebrsnik (trig. 1985). These mountains are mostly separated from the
1hIrd tirralipe by Nevesinjsko Polje and Gatacko Polje and on the other side they
reath the upper Neretva.
, t
*ie last line is formed by the mountains: the Igman (elevation 1502 m),
the Bjelasnica (trig. 2067)1 the Visocica (trig. 1974), the Treskavica (elevation
2088 m), the Lelija (trig. 2032) and the Zelen Gora (trig. 2015)4
The surface of the above mentioned four terraces is the purest karst of
the Dinara region, It is almost completely bare; thinly wooded on northeastern
slopes. Only the fourth terrace is somewhat better forested. The consequence is
that this area is short of water. With the exception of some fields watered by
small streams, all streams are dry in summer; springs are very rare. Gross-country
movement is very difficult and fatiguing even for infantry.
Most important plateaus and lowland areas are:
Nevesinjsko Polje with the surface area of 188 square km; 894 metres
above sea level; it is about 30 km long and about 10 km wide; fertile and well
populated along the borders. This is the largest plateau in Herzegovina. The
junction is Nevesinja with seeond-class highways running to Mostar, Dabarsko Polio,
Gacko and Kalinovik; this field is naturally protected from all sides by mountains
of medium height;
- Gatacko Polje with the surface area of 62 square krat about 22 km long and
about 5 km Wide; about 950 metres above sea level; the subterranean stream MUSnica
flows hero; well cultivated and populated along the borders. Localities worth
mentioning are: Gacko and Avtovec. A part of the field is periodically flooded
in October, November, February and March, but water does not stay more than 10-15
days. The second-class highway from Nevesinje to Trebinje and Niksio mins across
Gatacko Polje; it is naturally protected by ridges of mountains of medium height;
Debarsko Polje, about 20 km long and about 4 km wide; about 500 metres
above sea level. Second-class roads from Nevosinje to Bileca run across'it And
footle/68
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- 69 -
t f0/41(s at Berkovici to Stolac?
medium height:
PoPovo Polio with the surface area of 181 square km, about 30 km long
and from 4 to-5 wide; about 250 metres above sea level. The subterranean river
Trebisniea flows across it. The source is at Bileca and it sinks in the western"
Taoist part of this field. It is the most fertile hollow in Herzegovina, but it is
flooded every year 6-8 months, so that it cannot be cultivated more than 4 months;
755 are e?11n fields, 15% are Pastures, and the rest is unProductive soil. In the
middle of it maize and millet are cultivated and along the borders are vineyards,
fig?trees, olive trees, tobacco and ether Mediterranean plants. Important communica-
tions running across this field are: railway line from the Neretva valley to
Trebinje, Dubrovnik and Zelenika. Tho field is naturally protected by the surround"
ing ridges of mountains of medium height and low mountains.
-
of mountains of
The whole of Herzegovina is short of water: esP3ciallY drinkable water,
and in the PoPovo FolJe area wood is very scarce. .
. k
. Other fields in Herzegovina
(north of Mostar, on the left bank of
Mostar) mostarsa..^ Bit+.6 and L-11.1bUSICO
-
checking the advance from the coast inland. Right flanks of these zones border
the strong obstacles of the Neretva, and the left the Montenegrin pure karst.
are smaller: as for example Dijelo PolJe
the Neretva)? Kostarsko Polje (south of
Polio (south of Mcatar'sko Blato).
All these fields and hollows are very important for the arMY: for they can
serve as suitable, :t4D,t is the only suitable , areas for concentration, quartering
and supply of troops,' 'Concentration, 'quartering and supply out of these fields*, are
next to imPossible: for they are surrounded by the region of Purest karst..
In addition to these fields there are a number of lowland areas along the
lower Neretva and around Its mouth. The Neretva valley gets broader from Qapljina
and those fteids are now on the left bank and then on the right bank. This low;.artd
area is mostly' swampy' terrain, full of lakes, reedy tracts, thus fati?lq!? and difficult
.pass., Mostly m4rshy -parts are Lake Deransko? Svitovsko Blato southeast of
Gabel.ti and the. tract along the sea coast. In winter time and in spring it is flooded...
Along the Neretva valley run important communications - roads, and a railway line gi?
from Mostar to Ploce, 'Dubrovnik, .Trebinje and liercegnovi.,
The following roads run across the above mentioned terraces':
Ploce Metkovic - Mostar - Konjic the Ivan mountain -. Sarajevo (second-
highway and railway line),
Slang - village Ravno- at Popovo Polje (traffic suspended during floods)
Liubinie Stolac - Nevesinje Kalinovik - Sarajevo and Kalinovilc - Foca (second""
class road).
DubroVnik m Trebinje Bileca Gacko Camerno -, Foca (second-class road
except from Camerno to Kosman Ordinary road for vehicular traffic).
Lateral communications are:
F3s
?
Metkovic Dubrovnik - Hercegovni (second-class highway),
Stolac Ljubinje Trebinje and Stelae = Bilecn (second-clnss
rnaa).
Mostar - Nevesinje Gacko (second-class highway).
Sea coast from the mouth of the Neretva to Hercegovni is characterized by
a specific kind of karst; only in lower regions vine is cultivated and olive trees
and maize, in higher regions poor pastures can be found here and there, but the
surface is mostly bare.
0 Montenegrin Mountains
These mountains cover the area: in the south and southwest, to the sea,
the Bejana and Lake Skadar in the southeast; to the Prokletije; in the east t to the
upper Lim (to Bijelo Polje) and in the north to the river Ljubovija and the river
Ootina. From Herzegovina mountains it is separated by the furrow: Cemarno
Gatacko Polje Trebinjsko Polje.
In this region we have two sectors separated by the furrow: Gacko
Niksic the river Zeta - the river Moraca - Lake Skadar. West of this furrow to
the sea is the Montenegrin karst, and east are the Montenegrin high mountains.
Montenegrin Karst
This region is a karst plateau which, in fact, is the extension of
Herzegovina karst: average height, 1,000 metres. The whole region is short of
water, mostly bare, but bush can be found here and there; difficult to pass. Oulm'-
thated areas are at Grahovo, Niksic, Cetinje, along the lower Zeta and the Moraca.
The sides of this plateau are steep, rocky, and especially steeply
dropping dewn t? Boka Kotorska and the Adriatic Sea.
Mountains and peaks worth mentioning are:
- north of Hercegovini is the Orjen with the summit Orjen (trig. 1895),
a wild, rocky and waterless mountain, although with the highest rainfall in Europe
(Orkvice, .4626 mm per year);
- southeast of Boka Kotorska, and directly above Kotor is the Loveen
(trig. 1749), extending southeastward in a rocky ridge to the saddle Sutompan.
From this saddle towards Skadar is the Rumije mountain (trig. 1593) with the
saddle Sutorman over which runs the second-class road and railway line Bar -
Virpazer. In the southeasternmost part, above Skadar itself, the Rumija ends
Itfth the peak Tarabos (trig. 595).
? Montenegrin karst, in connection with Hercegovinian karst terracos, is a?
strong obstacle to the possible advance from the sea coast deeper inland. Steep
shore and ridges along the coast, beginning with Krisosije, the Lovcan and the
Runija, offer suitable positions for the coastal defence and for checking landing
operations, as 14011 as the penetration inland.
Important communications are:
second class road: Trebinje Niksic - Titograd,
second-class road: Risan Trubjela Niksic,
second-class road: Kotor Cetinje ^ Titograd,.secondclass road: Njegusi - Danilovgrad in the Zeta valley,
second-class road: Kotor Budva Petrovac Bar - Ulcinj,
second-class road and narrow-gauge railway line: Bar - Virpazar,
_
The four above mentioned terraces are four strong defensive zones .for
,....40*111.169
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?1'
railway line:
:Line:
This region is
and potholes.
Bileca Niksic Tad Plavinaa?
ed by many karst fields and protuberant rocks,
][1f).1Portant lowland areas are:
Niksicko PolJes abott 667 metres above sea levels 20 km long and from
12 to 15 km wide which is the 0OUrce of the riVer Zeta whiOh sinks in 02rinici;
across this field run the railway line and the second-class road from BileCa to
Titograd with the junction at Niksic ff'om 'where 3' road forks to Plievlici The
field is fertile and well Populated along the borders; water? is available so that
quartering and supply of smaller units is Possible; it is surrounded by ridges of
mountains of medium height; the natural gap is the Zeta valley leading to Tito-
grad;
Grahovsko Polio, about 722 metres above sea level, 5.5 km long and 4. uv
4.^
1311141de;
Oetinjsko Etilies with the junction of roads Cetinje, is of local
Pcrtance;
Bjolopavlick? (Zeta) Pclie is in the Zeta Valley along which run the
i'ailwaY line and the historical road from Albania to Niksicko Polio and further.
on through the defile Duga to Gatacko polio, Mostar and Sarajevo.. In fact, this
is the valleyof the river Zeta which gets broader here and there from 3 to 5 km;
it is one of the most productive parts of Montenegro; highly fertile and well
:populated; .
? Titogradsko Polje (Zeta) extends from Titograd tp Lake Skadar, in the
Moraca Valleys with the altitude above sea level of 65 metres, about 25 km long,
and in the south about 30 km 'wide (looks like a triangle). This plain is the
most Important in this region. It is suitable for the concentration of troops
for operations against Albania; from it to Albania runs a second-class Toad:.
Titograd 0 Tuzi Skadar. Many communications run convergentlY to this plain;
Its southern Part, along the shore of Lake Skadar, is periodically flooded.
On both banks of the Bojana the ground is flats getting wider towards
the Adriatic Sea; flooded in winter and in spring; malarial and unhealthy; a
third-class road runs across it from Bar to Skadar; and from lAcinj to Skadar two
cart-tracks. The Bojana is navigable for 'smaller boats.
Montenegrin karst is characterized by a number of small fields and
hollows, often aligned one after another, forming fairly deep and long furrows;
they are most suitable connection between individual towns and regions. Such
furrows extends
- between Gatacko Polje and Niksicko Polje; known as "Duga"; a horse
path runs along it only;
- the furrow between Grahovo, running via village Gra to Cetinje; a
good cart-track and a third-class road;
- the furrow leaving the above one at village Dub leading to the Zeta
valley at Danilavgrad;
- the furrow extending from Niksic along the valley of the river Gracanica
bending over the Prokornice mountain (trig. 1926) from the north and from the
east, joining the Zeta valley north of Spuz.
WO long and important furrows in Montenegrin and Herzegovinian karst ares
Nevesinjsko Polje .- the river Zalomska Reka Gatacko Polio - the
defile Duga Niksicko Polje - the Zeta valley - Titogradsko Polje and Lake Skadar.
m Popov? Polje Grahovske Polje - the Grahove furrow - Grab." Getinie "
Oetin sko Polje - Rijeka Ornojevica - Lake Skadar.
These two furrows are natural entrances into Montenegro from the Lake
Skadar side and thereby they are very important from the military point of view.
Montenegrin High Mountains
The height of these mountains above sea level is over 2,000 metres; they are
rocky; lower parts are forested, while in higher regions pastures of alpine type can
be found.
The river Piva, the Tara, the Lim and the Moraca have cut in those
mountiins deep, narrows steep and rocky defiles and canyons; due to this, roads do
not run alon their valleys. The above mentioned rivers have divided the Monten-
,egrin.high mountains into three parts:
The western part (on the left bank of the river ave.) is the extension
of Herzegovinian mountains the Zelengora and the Lebrsnik in the southeastern
direction and begins with the karst and high mountain the Volujak and with the
summit V. Viteo (trig. 2396) and the mountain Maglic with the summit Maglic
(trig. 2386). 'They .continue with the Golija (trig. 1942) and further on south"
eastward the Vojnik, (trig. 1997), the Stozac (elevation 2227)s the Maganik (trig,
2139).andAhe peak Kamenik (trig. 1784) which steeply drops down in the Moraca.
The central part between the Piva, the Tara and the Moraca are the three
mountains; Durmitor, the Treskevac and the Sinjajevina.
, Durmitor is a very dissected massif with longitudinal and lateral
ridges that steeply drop down into the Tara and the Piva where they form, with the
adjacent mountains, defiles and canyons over 1,000 metres deep.. The summit is
Bobotov Kuk (trig. 2522). Durmitor is difficult to pass, especially in winter;
upper plateaus are bare. There is no road in the Durmitor; between the Durmitor
and the Sinjajevina there is a.third-class road: Niksic Savnik Pljevtja; it
forks and another third-class road runs to Zabljak. In the northwest the Durmitor
slopes down upon a karst plateau in the corner between the Rya and the Tata
filled up with the Pvske Planine. South of the Durmitor in the bulge of the river
Komarnica extends the karst and bare mountain Treskavac (trig. 2093).
Southeast of the Durmitor extends the Sinjajevina with the summit
Jablenov Vrh (trig. 2203). There are no roads in this mountain. Upper regions are
bare.
The Sinjajevina is the shortest of wood and water of all Montendgrin
mountains.
The eastern part between the Tara on one side, and the upper Lim, the
Ljubavija and the Ootina on the other is filled with the mountains; the Zijovo
(elevation 2182), the Komovi (elevation 2484 m), the Bjelasioa (elevation 2137 m),
the Lisac (elevation 1690 m), the Ljubisnja (trig. 2238) and the peak Plijes
(trig. 1717) south of Foca.
In this part most important is the Komovi with the summit Kucki.Kom
(elevation 2484 m) ad the hydrographic centre for the Lim and the Tara. Southeast
of the Komovi, in the bulge of the upper Lim, is the high, forested mountain the
Visitor (trig. 2210); it is separated from other mountains, drops steeply down in
all directions, especially towards Gusinje and Play,
? 111106/71
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le I
In this part of Montenegrin, high mountains instead of limestone sands and
slate appear. They are rich in humus, rocks are rounded; rich in water and forests.
The most difficult to pass and least communicative territory in Montenegro and in the
neighbouring area in Herzegovina is the region within the line: Tito -grad " Niksic wi
Bileca Gacko Ealinovik Foca . pljevija mojkovac Kolasin - Titograd. This
area is over 110 kilometres long from Foca to Titograd, and 60-100 kilometres wide
fromAtkeic, 1.90 Bileca to Plievlia. OnY a second and third-class road runs across
it from Niksio via Savnik to Plievlia besides this, there are only horse paths and
footpaths.
In this territory the river Piva, the Tara and the Gotina flow from southeast
to northwestr,but there are no roads, not even paths, running along their valleys"
canyons, so that the valleys of these rivers are not lines of operations, as for ex.
ample, in Bosnia, Valleys of the una, the Sanal the Brbas and the Bosna.
1
The region of Montenegrin mountains is of medium height and full of high
mountains, of limestone, intersected by deep rivez, valleys, thinly populated, poor
communications, difficult to pass, short of water and supplies, owing to this, this
region does not offer any favourable condition for operations of strong forces. Only
mountain and alpine units can operate hereti
lowland area of great importance, and that
. the lowland area around Lake Play and Gusinje. It is important because it
is situated near Albania and can serve for the concentration of smallerunitse It is
930 metres above sea level, cut by the upper Lim; surrounded by ridges of high moun-
tains and natural gaps are only in the Lim valley.
Gatecko Polje Niksic (horse path through the defile Duga) E. Titograd,
Bajovo Polio iliksic (second-class road),
the horse path from the Drina valley from !him Savnik Kolasin further
on to Andrijevica (second-class road),
Pljevlja (second-class road),
Titograd - Andriievica Ivangrad, Andriievica - Pee and Andriievica
Play Gusinje (second-class road))
M4-1-newv,ntl MAjkovAn Polje (second-class road).
. V
g) The Prokletilaa1121111.and Raqhllounkling
The Prokletije
The FtTkletije extends from Lake Skadar northeastward along the river
Otjevna? then turns eastward to the peak Djaravica (trig. 2656) west of monastery
Decani; here it turns northward, over the Bogicevica (elevation 2530 m) and the
saddle Oakor extending to the chain of mountains composed of the Hajla (elevation
2400 m) the Zljeb.(elevation 2352 m), the Mokra Gora (elevation 2155 0, the Suva
Planina (trig. 1750) whi-ch rounds Metohija from the north.
The Prokletije is the southern border of the Dinara system. It is a chain
of calciferous mountains severely wild, pathless and difficult to pass.
73..
Communications worth mentioning are: .
-.second class road Titograd Tuzi Skadar,
- horse path from Play to Selimaj (Albania),
- horse path Gusinke Seloe (Albania),
- second-class road Andrijevica Oakor Pec.
From the military point of view the Prokletije is a strong, strategic moun-
tain, in which only small mountain, most often alpine units, can operate. The
Prokletije protects Metohija from the north and northwest.
At the same time, the Prokletije is a strategic .partition wall, separating'
the troops operating east and west ofit, for example along the lines of operations:
Mnorfla AVgAar nrgriq'MA+. 'HIP VAllAV nf thA rivnr Drifint
Metohija Mountains
Metohija mountains fill a plateau whose borders are: in the north and
northwest: the Prokletike; in the south, the Sar Planina; in the west, mountains
extending along the Albanian frontier (the Junicka Planina the Pastrik); in the
east, the river Sitnica and the river Nerodimka.
Frem this wide and alMost round plateau, Metohija? surrounded from almost
all sides by.high mountains, flow'rivers into two seas: the Black Sea (the IloP%r
with the Sitnica) and the AlEria-0.0 Sea (the Beli Drim with its tributaries). :The
average height above sea level of this plateau is about 550 metres. The chain
formed by the southeastern spurs of the Sava 'Planina (trig. 1750), the Oicavica
(trig. 1091), the Crnoljeva (trig. 1177) and the northern spurs of the Sar Planina
(the Nerodimka mountain) separates MAohije from Kosovo Polje.
Metohija is fairly wooded, fertile, insufficiently cultivated, thinly
populated in the central part, densely populated along its borders.. Passable in all
directiOns.
Kosovo Polje extends on both banks of the Sitnica; it is a large lowland .
area, extending almost the meridian. It begins from Zvecan above Kosovo Mitrovica
extending to Kacanicka Klisura in the length of 84 km; it is the widest between
Pristina and Drenica - about 18 km. The lowest part lies at the height of about
500 metres above sea level. Across Kosovo Polje runs the so-called "Bosanski.put"
("Bosnian road" - not continuous now), connecting Skoplje and Sarajevo.. With
northern Serbia it is connected by the valleys of the Ibar and the Lab, via Medvedja
and via Gnjilane. Besides, there are several second-class roads from Kosovo Polje
across Metohija toward Pec, Djakovica and Prizren and further on towards the
Albanian frontier. Through Kacanicka Klisura it is connected with the Vardar valley..
As it can be seen Losovo Polje is a big junction of roads running divergently in all
directions. It is, therefore, an important strategic object;
Important communications are:
a) On the Kosovo -Metohija plateau;
second-class highway Pee - Kosovska Mitrovica,
second-class road Djakavica Prizren; this lateral road forks in
Orahovac Pristina highway,
second-class roadyrizren Suva Reka Stimlje Pristina and Stimlje
Uro sevac
second-class road and railway line Kosovska Mitruvica Pristina - lIrosevao"
Kacanik Skoplje.
4 4 .174
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railway line Pristina Pec.
b) running to the Kos( i,."-MetOhije plateaus
second-class road Andriievica'- Cakor ? Pee, .
highway and ra.i3.way line Kraljevo R.aska, Kosovska
Mitrovica
second-class road and railway line Nis - Prokuplje Kursumlija
Urosevact,'
highway and cart-track Leskovac Lebane Medvedie Pristina,
second-class road Vranie BuJanovac Gnjilane Pristina and Gnjilane
secidild -class road and railway line Skopije m Kacanik Urosavac,
UrnAnVan.
-
horse-path Tetov6 --the Sar Planina mountain Prizren,
second-class road Kukes (in Albania) - Prizren,
several horse-Paths from Albania towards Djakovica; main paths run over
the saddles Cafa Prusit and Cala Marines.
From the military point of view the Kosovo -Metohija plateau (Kosmet m
KOsovo-MetchiP) is very important. - It is possible to conduct operations from
Kosmet along the valley of the Mar o the valley of the Zapadna Moravai towards
Podujevo --KursumliSa -.Prokuplje to the Juzna Morava valley and toward Nis, via
Gnjilane towards Vranje, through KacaniCka Klisura towards Skoplje,. via Djakovica
and Pfizren to the 'prim valley and towards Pee-- Cakor to the valley of the upper Lim.
So Kosmp* is a Tymylnevivorino and strategic area.
Considering the density of population, fertility, communicability and
passability, it is suitable for the concentration of large effectives.. The easiest
way to penetrate to this area is from the east via Gnjilane and Poduljevo; 41 the
westp-the Weakest line of operation is from Djakovica to Cafa Prusit, which is
'highly important for Albania, for it runs round the Pastrik and the Koritnik.
:
D4 mlro ?Mhilv++ a 4 rt
Raska mountains extend westward to the line: the Cotina, the Ljubovija?
the upper Lim; southward to the chain of mountains extending from the saddle Cakor
to the Ibor; eastward to the river Ibar and northward to the line:: Novi Pazar
Sjenica - the river Uvec to its mouth. This is a narrow zone with two chains of
mountains t.
- between the Cotina and the Lim extends the bordering chain between
Montenegro and Serbia composed of the following mountains: the Kovacs Planina
(trig. 1533) south of Cajnice, the Gradina Planina (trig. 1424 north of Pljevlje?
the peak Kamena Gora (trig. 1483), the Lisa Planina (trig. 1509) north of Bijelo
Polje. This chain of mountains is densely forested except the part east of
Pljevlje; karst can often be found here and that is the reason for the Shortage of
water; it is difficult to pass and with poor communications;
? II
WH!
- 75 m
between the Lim and the Uva c extends a chain of mountains of medium
height which begins at Priboj with a narrow, quite wooded ridge extending south of
Nova Varos in the mountains: the Zlatar (trig. 1627), the Jadovnik (trig. 1734),
the Giljeva Planina (trig. 1499) and the Krstaca (trig. 1755). This chain is
bare, With karst here and there, difficult to pass and almost pathless; only a
cartrack,runs across it: PrijepoIje Sjenica. Slopes dropping down to the
river Lim Are foisted. From the Giljeva Planina extends southeastward a chain of
mountains of medium height between the Sjenica lowland area and the plateau Pester;
further on is the Jarut mountain (trig. 1428) and at the, efid the Rogozna mountain
(elevation, 1564 M) east of Novi Pazar it the cornentetween the Raska .and the
Ibar. This chain is in its western part bare and Calci6rous; its middle and
eastern Parts are'forested. Passability and communicability: poor; there is only
one road: . Novi Pazar Rozaje Ivangrad.
Raska mountains are wooded, except the central region around Sjenica and
Pester which is covered with pasturesl'so that this area is .suitable for cattle
breedinglsheep and Cheese of Sjenica are famous). Rich forests.in the mountains are
not exploited because of undeveloped network of communications and the whole region
is economically undeveloped; roads are under construction now.
;?
Fields and lowland areas worth mentioning are:
m the Sjellica lowland area (about 1000 metres above sea level)., 12 km
long, passable for all branches of the army; in summer water is short; swampy
along the river Vapa. Climate.: continental; winters: severe;
-.Pester (from 1200 to 1400 metres above sea level), a plateau mainly
bare, calciferous, with subterranean streams; passability: good; terrain:
manoeuvering;
m the Novi Pazar lowland area, fertile and well cultivated.
Communications in the territory of Raska mountains worth mentioning are:
third-class road Raska - Novi Pazar Rozaje m Ivangrad;
third-class road Priboj Prijepolje Bijelo Polje Ivangrad,
a good cart-track Kosovska Mitrovica -.Novi Pazar (road) - Sjenica
(cart-track) - Prijepolje.
river
Raska
river
la West Serbian Mountains
These mountains cOver the area between the river Drina in the westrthe
Sava in the north, the Kolubara, the Ljig, the Dicinarthe Ibar and the lower
in the east, and in the south up to the line: Novi Pazar --Sjenica - the
Uvac to its mouth. ?
The river Zapadna Morava and the river .jadar with the Kolubara divide
these mountains into northern, southern and fore-mountains.,
The southern part - south of the line: Bajina Basta - Titovo Uzic6
the Djetinja - the Zapadna Morava - begins with the Zvijezda mountain (trig. .
1673) north of Visegrad in the bulge of the Drina; from it southeastward are ex-
tending the following mountains: the Tara (trig. 1544), the Zlatibor (Tornik, trig.
1496 and Cigota 1422 m), the Javor (trig. 1520) and the Golija (trig. 1883).
Between the Moravica and the Ibar, north of the Golija extends a
wild, forested and high ridge, intersected by deep defiles, which over the
Camerno mountain (trig. 1579( ends with the Jelica mountain with the peak Ovcar
(trig. 985) on the right bank of the Zapadna Morava. ,The peak Ovcar with the
peak Kablar (trig. 885) on the left bank form the 0vcarska-1Kab1arSka defile in
which two big power plants have been constructed. The whole ares 4.s unsuitable
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for operations of strong forces except in some lawland areaS and valleys that are
Passable and well cultivatea. It is covered by medium mountains, difficult to passe
and with poor communications, densely forested esPeciallY in eastern and western
regions where Primeval forests can be found; karst can be found in the western part.
The southern part of this area) including the Zlatibor'and the Javor is called Start
Vlah. ECOnDMie Potential for the requirements of larger units is weak.
-
Lowland areas worth mentioning are:
The Pozega lowland area around Pozega where the Djetinja and the MoraVica
meet forming the ZaPadna Moreva? The road and the railway line Visegrad Titovo
Uzice -.PozegaGaoak and the third-class road from Valley() via Pozega to Ivanjica
_
run across this lowland area.
14M.11 comMUhicationS are:. $
s6Cond -class road tOva, Varos dtijetina Titovo Uzice and Nova Varos
Ljubis itovo Uzice;
cart -tl'ack Sientea IVanJi di and from IvaniiCa second4.class road
ArilJe 4 Pozega; IvanJica Guca 0 ak,
second-class road :Raska 7 Kralje o (along the Ibar valley) a road and
a railway line.
As evident, all the roads run from the north southward; there are no
lateral roads across the mountains.
The northern part extends from the Zapadna. Morava valley to the line:
the Ja.dar, the Kolubara, This area is covered by a main chain of mountains that
begins at 1,J6znica and extends in the form of an arch southeastward to the river
Ljig; the mountains are: the Gucevo (trig. 779), the Boranja (elev. 81 m)
the Jagocina (trig, 940 m), the Sokolske Planina (with the summit Rozanj (trig. 971)),
.th9 Pcvlien (trig. 1346), the Malien (trig. 1103) and the Suvobor (elev. 864 m). In
the east the' are naturally connected with the R,udnik mountain, These are mountains
rich in ord of West iSerbia and represent a natural extention of the Majevica
mountain.
From the military point of view this chain of mountains is a strong
strategic obstacle against the advance from the Sava valley to the Zapadna Morava
At the same +.4171e.. in connection with the mountains of the southern part Isk
w - - VA" - .
the Zvijezda and the Tara -1 it prevents the possible enemy from penetrating from the
west across the Drina. Both these roles it played in the war of 1914 and 1915.
Communications running over this chain, and worth mentioning are;
cart-track Ljubovija Krupanj Zvornik,
cart-track Ljubovija Pecka. and from Pecka to Valjevo second-class
Suvobor).
cart7trackRogacica -Valjevo,
cart-track Titovo Uzice - the Povljen Valjevo,
second-class road Titovo Uzice - Kosjerici 7 Valjevo,
Ownk Ganji Milanovac the Suvobor Valjevo (cart-track over the
c7,
The fore-mountains (West Serbian fore-mountains) extend in the nort4 up
to the line the Jadar 7 Valjevo - the Kolubara. They are: the Cer (trig. 687), a
low mountain, with the Iverak and the Vlasic mountain (trig. 447( extending to
village Slovac,
-7?.'
From the military point of view the Cer and the Viasic are very good
positions for the protection of Valjevo and the Kolubara valley, either from the north
or from the south. These mountains played this role in World War I in the Battle of
Cer.
Lowland areas worth mentioning are:
Posavina, extending into Melova. and Tamnava.
1) Macva is about 30 km long and 34 km wide; situated between the Sava
and the Drina; highly fertile and densely populated;
2) Tamnava (Kolubara) is about 30 km long and about 10 krrt wide o It.1
also, is very fertile and densely populated.
44.
luoavi.um 4.uSG2
Debre to Obrenovac (Zabrez).
-
In a limited sc5ngp Aytnnag along the Sava from village
the ValRvo lowland area extends to village Divci; second-class road
and railway line along the Kolubara valley run across it; fertile and well populated.
These lowland areas, considering their communicability and being pro-
tected from the north by the river Sava, can serve as the concentration and quarter-
ing area of larger units. -
3. IheSa.....a...-Pind
The borders of this system in the east are: Lake Pre spa the upper
Orna Reka 7-the river Treska - the river Lepenac - the river Nerodimka; in the
north: the upper Nerodimka - the river Suva,Reka;.in the west: the river Topluga
to Its mouth and then down the Bell Drim to the frontier and the Albanian frontier;
in the south: the Albanian and Greek frontier..
This system begins in the north with the Sar Planina mountain and ex-
tends straight southward between Lake Ohrid and Lake Pre spa across Greece and ends
at its southernmost point - Cape Matapan. It is about 700 km long and from 80 to
225 km wide4
The mountains of the Sar-Pindus system extending in our territory are
composed of old slates over which limestone can be found here and there, which
Makes this area considerably different from the Dinara system. The highest peaks
of these mountains were covered with glaciers during the glacial period; by their
forms (hollow with lake,, sharp and teeth-like peaks.) deep and ntAAn defiles)
glaoilirel lend a beautiful scenery to the whole area.
These mountains are very important for econoty. Pastures make the des-
velopment of cattle breeding possible - sheep-farming in Macedonia; water power
makes the development of industry possible, and terrain offers excellent conditions
for the development of winter sports (Popova Sapke in the Sax' Planina mountain).
Lowland areas are important, too, because they make the development of intense
agriculture and fruit-growing possible by their fertility.
Tim parallel chains of mountains extend from the Sar Planina mountain
in the direction north-south; they are separated from each other by Lake Ohrid,
the valley of the Crni Drim and the valley of the river Radika (right tributary
of the Orni Drim).
The eastern chain is formed by the following mountains: the Sar
Planina mountain with the peaks: Ljuboten (2449 Livadica (elev. 2491 10,
Jezerska 0, (elev. 2604 m), Bistra (elev. 2640 m), Kobilica (elev. 2526 m) and
Titov Vrh (trig. 2702 m). (Trans. note: Titov Vrh is the new name for Turciri
which is still on the map). The ridge of the Sar Planina mountain is 80 km long.
In the part extending from the saddle Kara Nilola (horse-path Tetova-Prizren) to
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Cop Ap roved for Release
Mavrovsko Polie is the highest and the broadest Part of the Sar Planina mountain
called the Rudoka mountain with the summit Titov Vrh (trig. 2702). The Sar-Planina
is very difficult to Fess: wild and mainly bare; its slopes are very steep and
forested in the northeast.
Northwest of the main ridge of the sar=Planina parallelto it between
Urosevac and Pnizren extends a chain of medium and high mountains: the Narodimka
(elev., 1628), the Zar-Planina (trig:- 1723) and the jezerska Planina (trig: 2092);
-this ichain of mountaihe is connected with the Sar-Planina by the high ridge of the
Sar-PlAnina 'between Prizren, the Deli prim and the Albanian frontier extends a
ridge .of i.rieclium mountains, ending', with the massif of the Koritnik (trig, 2394): The
Koftitnik rina the massif of the Pastrik (trig. 1989) form the defile through which
flows L/V4"
.uue A ' w .
LA, "r).3 A Dem_
South of the Sar0Planina- is the eastern dhain .of high, caldiferoUs
, ,
,
mount:144101 the Bistra Planina (trig 2111); the Sto,govo (eleV,i 227)) and the
Karaorm4n .(trig,. 2242) and the chain of mountains ektending'fx,'00 the -Bistra Planina
southward in the ilinska Planina (trige 1909)p the Plakenbka'Platiliia (trig i 1999)4
the saddle Bukovo (elev. 33.90 m), the Istok Planina. (trig.. 1661-10 and the Gaidica
(elev.. .088 m). This last chain of mountains in connection with the Sari?Planina
forms ',bhe watershed between the Vardar and the Crni Drim;,from'the PlakenSka
,
,?
Planina the watershed extends to the Bigla and the Baba mountain.
The western chain is formed by: the Korab (elev. 2764 10, the Desat
(irig 2375) and the Jablanica (Orni K. trig 2259( ending at the Western shore of
, . ,i, .
Lake Ohrid. The boundary between thefFPRJ and Albania runs along this ridge.
. ,
Between the upper Vardar and the river Treska extends a chain of
mountains southward i it begins with the Zeden mountain (trig, 1260) which blocks the
entrance of the Polog lowland area from the northeast; it eilteild's to the Calciferous
Suva Gora (trig. 1852) and fOrther southward the peak Debra -Vode (trig. 2062) which
is connected with the Bistra Planina by the Bukavik mountain. 'Southernmost, this
chain ends with the peaks Kula (elev. 191?) and Konjarnik'(trig, 1874).
All above mentioned mountains are partly fOrestedt i.e. their eastern
slopes are forested here and there; in higher regions pastures can be found;
paSsabilitY is poor, population thin, few communications, mainly or se-Paths running
fi'am Polog and the Kicevo lowland area to the valley of the river Treska and Pore?
lowland area..
'cart-track Kacanik Globocica, and from there second-class road to
Tetovo ? Gostivar Zirovnica Debar - S.6ruga Ohrid,
second-class road Gostivar Kicevo Ohrid,
second-class road Debar 7 Kicevo Brod
cart-track Brod along the Golema Reka valley to
village baunje?
,
a
Tetavo Gostivar and further on narrow-gauge
Both the eastern and the western chains are strong positions for the
defense of our territory from an attack from the west. Only at Debar is a gap
worth mentioning: south of Struga the road runs over the top and the saddle Cafa
San (elev. 1234 m)) 'while in other parts only paths in high mountains difficult to
pass can be found. Further on in the depth of our territorY-the following lines of
operations are worth mentioning: Debar - Mavrovi Hanovi Polog; Debar the
Killevo lowland area - Prilepsko Polje; Strusko-Polje Ohridsko Polje Bitoljsko
Polje.
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Lowlands:
Polog (Tetovsko Polje), about 50 km long, and 7 km wide;, among hollows
In this area Polog is very important from the military point of view due to its econ-
omic potential. It is all in green in summer time and surrounded by steep slope' of
the Sam Planina and the Suva Gora. The bottom is of fertile lake secliments, well
watered and the most fertile area in West Macedonia. The undulating foothills of
Polog are protected from cold winds offering most favourable conditions for fruit-
growing,
Considering the economic wealth and communicability, there are all con"
ditions for quartering and supply of large units. Polog is about 25 km from the
frontier and separated from it by high mountains; the only gap is in the north in the
Vardir Valley and which connects Polog and Skopsko Polje.
? Strusko Polje-and Ohridsko Polje (the Struga and the Ohrid lowland
areas) are situated on the northern shore of Lake Ohrid; from the east to the west
they are about 20 km long, and from the north to the south they are about 10 km
wide; they are separated from each other by the medium spur of the Plakenska
Planina; the Orni Drika and its tributary the Sateska flow across the Struge lowland
area, atsuga is, a junction of roads (second-class) running from Debar, Kicevo,
Elbasan and Kostur; Struga and Ohrid are connected by a narrow-gauge rail-
way line which, according to a project, will be replaced by a normal track. They
are fertile and well cultivated fields, naturally protected by mountain ridges from
the east, north and west, and by the lake from the south.
The Struga and the Ohrid lowland areas, considering the fact that they
are naturally protected, economically strong and junction of communications, can serve
for quartering and mipply of large units; the weak point is that the Struga lowland
area is near the frontier (about 5 km). Since the southwestern part of the lake
belongs to Albania, for the protection of this sector gunboats are required on Lake
Ohrid,
m the Kicevo lowland area has a surface of about 43 square km and lies
614 metres above sea level. Easily passable, fertile and with good communications:
It can serve as the concentration area for forces to operate on sector Debar.- It
lies in the middle between Polog, the Debar lowland area,-Strusko Polje and Ohrida6
sko Polje and Prilepsko Polje and Bitoljsko Polje with which it is connected by good
communications. This circumstance makes the Kicevo lowland area very important from
the operational point of view and Kicevo becomes a vital junction of communications.
The railway line Prilep Kicevo is under construction because of rich iron-ore
discovered in the vicinity of Kicevo.. This line will also be of great importance from
the military point of view;
Albania,
- the Debar lowland area, important junction of roads in the gap towards
II. MIDDLE ZONE OF OLD MOUNTAINS
AND HOLLOWS
Middle zone of old mountains and hollows is situated between the western
and the eastern zone of more recently formed mountains. It begins with the Pannonia
Basin in the north, then over its southern border, Sumadije and Pamoravlje, extends in
the Rhodope massif in the south. This zone is different from the zones of more
recently formed mountains by its geologic composition and relief, for here we have
mountains that are remnants of onetime mainland that covered -central regions of our
country, from Hungary in the north, to Greece in the south. Pannonia massif sank
in tbe north, in the course of long periods of the formation of the earth, forming
the vast Pannonia Plain, while the Rhodope massif in the south, on the contrary,
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
raised itself and got disintegrated, forming 5ma11 hollows and mountains, and in the
far south *it sank and formed the Aegean Sea, Due to this, in this zone we have two
geographic r.etions: the Rhodope region with old mountains and hollows, and Pannonia
Plain, north of it.
The borders of this system are: in the west: Lake PresPa m the upper
orna Reka the river Treska the river IlePenao - the river Sitnioa " the river
t41,1e river zaPadna_Nbrava. ' the river Di?ina ' the river Liig " the river
lalliba%'a; in the rlorth: the 'river Sava the'Danubel in the east: the river Velika
Morava and the '?river juzna Morava - the Nis lowland area - the valley of the river
Kutins'- Reka fa 'the Rilj moiintain on the Bulgarian frontier in the south: the
Greek fl'eritiers
The mountains of the Rhodope system are parts of the oldest mainland of
the Balkan Peninsula; all these mountains are of a similar geologic structtre; they
are.mOstlY composed of slate and granites extending in various directions have wide
and rounded tops and steep slopes; there are no long ridges here as with other
-skstems,, but groups of :mountains mutually separated by lowland areas, fields and
lakes,
The region is outlay the Morava-Vardar valley which runs from the north
Southward and which,isa,very important 'traffic line; not ,cmly our communicatiOns,
communications' df the Balkan Peninsula, but also transcontinental communications
leading to the Aegean 'Sea and Asia, run along this valley. All Other important
traffic lines of thb calitral part of the Balkan Peninsula: the West Morava line,
the Nisava"Maritsklirle, the KumanovomOUStendil line) the Kosovo-Ibar line, the
Tetovo-Drim 1ite, the Yeles..!Bitolj line andother secondary lines are connected to
"hts basic traffic arterial line.
In order that .mountains of this system could be studied easier, they are
divided into two large 'groups; Macedonian mountains and Serbian mountains.
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horse-path Kocani Carey Vrh the peak RuJen m Oustendil.
Being on the frontier, the plaogovSke Plant* are very important. Their
relief is more favourable for.,u4 for: in depth there are several successive support
positions, while in Bulgaria their is insuffiCient.anebesideSi'these:.mountEans
drop*wn.:steeply into the Glisten-4U lowland area. Together:with:the, adjacent moun
:tains they block the Kriva Reka and the DelceVo lines of operations and protect the
Kocane lowland area, Ovce Polje and the Kumanovo lowland area, and further on the
.,'Vardar valley and approaches to, Sicoplje.. These, mountains played iiportant, roles in.
the war of 1913 and in World War I in 1915 between Serbia and Bulgaria. .
. 2. South of the Osogovske Planina, along the frontier., extends a chain
Of mediUimtuntains (the VlainaJlanina and the MaleSevske.Planina 7ftrig. 1414)v
which pretest the MaleseVo lowland arealromthe east. This chain is fairlyeagy:to
Pass. :11 the SectorHeDelcevo; the following third-class roads run across it;
Delle'Vo ? 'Pool (5 kin, cart-track) Cornja :DzuMaja: and Delcevo:m Celina Skala
Custend114:Through the Male sevska Planina runs 6 cart-track: Pehoevo m Breznica:
in the valley ofthe river Struma, Over_the,Saclae DjamtTepe.
Southward is the Ograzden:(trig. 1744) crossed by the frontier. The
Pgrasden is a densely forested mountain, difficult to pass and broken, w#11 poor
Ommunieattons. Together with the Belasica mountain It makes the Valley of the
rp:rerlitrumiea narrow and forms a vall.eTabo#.5.km wide between these two mountains
along whish 'the Strumica flows off to Bulgaria.
3. The Plackoviaa (trig. 1754) is situated in the middle between the
Bulgapt00:frontier and the Vardar. Being'forested4 broken and. difficult.to.pas4 it
is:unsatable for operationsof large units, but might serve as the support of.
Oanks,eflerces operating along the lines Of operations t Delcevo Kocani 4?.:St4ip
or7$trumica RadoVis - Stip or vice versa. At the same time) it'makevthe4defence
along those lines-of operations easier - in the north in Connection with the southern
spurs of the Osagovslw 4anine, in the south in connection with the Smrdes mountain
further on southeastward over the elev. 939 in, is.connected-with the western
part of the Belasica, thus blocking all the lines of operations that:leacLfrom the
Strumica valley to:the_VardarNalley.
The Plickovica, with its characteristics, influenced the activitieEt.of
the 3rd Macedonian Striking Brigade inthe course of 1944. Once, it, gave up the
pursuit of Already clefeatedenemy:Torces. because of dense forests. 0r1. toile, other
hand, just because itHis4unsuitable for operations on a' larger- scale,- it served to
the 3rd Macedonian Striking Brigade for the organization .of a hospital and t1716
PlackoVica detachment.
Macedonian Mountains
The Vardar divides these mountains into two groups:
mountains east of the Vardar and
The mountains east of the Vardar extend between the Bulgarian and the
Greek frontier, the Vardar and the river Kriva Reka. They are:
1. The Osogovske Planine Mountains (the Rujen, trig 2252, the Carey
Vrh, trig 2085); steeply drop down northeastward and northliii'd towards Custendil and
Krive Palanka, sloping down in :Long spurs towards KocanskoPolje?. the river
Bregalnica and Ovce Polje. Over the Orni Vrh (trig. 1115) the western spur appears
on the Vardar forming in connection with the Jakupice mountain, a defile north of
Titov Veles.
East of Kriva PalanIca on the frontier, is the saddle Deve Bair with the
second-class road Kumanovo Kriva Palanka Custendili
Main communications are:
second-class road Stracin Kretovo - Stip,
third-class road Kumanovo Sveti Nikola Stip
II.... 81
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
IMM
I ,
I
1
1
I
Between the Vardar and the river Kriva Lakavica extends a chain of low
and medium mountains formed by the Konecka Planina (trig. 1152), the Gradeska
Planina (trig. 1002) and the Pious (trig. 997). Only the Grade ska Planina is
forested, while with othei's only low regions are woodedl mostly ridges) while slopes
are bare; they are short of water. The slopes of the Vuojak are steep, forming,
together with the mountains west of the Vardar the defile Demir Kapija. This chain
of mountains is the last defensive zone for the protection of the Vardar valley from
the east.
441 In the far southeast lies the Belasica mountain (trig. 1880) ex-
tending like a wall from the east to the west: drops steeply down northward to the
valley of the river Strumica and southward to Greek territory; mainly forested*
Its spurs, extending southwestward, cover the area between the Vardar and Lakel
Do4ran; the ground is hilly or covered by low mountains, and in connection with the
eabtern spurs of the Kozuf mountain, is full of suitable defensive positions for the
blockade of the Vardar line of operations. Southernmost spurs of the Belasica
form south of Gevgelija the Ciganska Klisura (in Greece). The Belasica? which al-
most belongs to high mountains, is an obstacle to the advance from the south to the
north and vice versa, but its role is paralyzed by the fact that the frontier line
runs along the top ridge of the mountain, offering no special advantages to either
of the two countries.
Characteristics of the Belasica mountain (fairly difficult to pass,
poor with communications) steep slopes, narrow ridge, forests) influenced the activ-
ities of the 3rd Macedonian Striking Brigade at the end of May 2944. Approaching its
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
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Lowland areas worth,mentio n are
locansko Polje in the Bregalnica valley, between the Osogovske Planine
and the Plackovica; about' 45 icm long and from o tp1O ii wide wide, well Wauer'au ve-
cause of ries fields. Across this imiland.aiea runs ?a second-cletssoad from Bulgaria
? . ,
,.
A a Delcevo to Stip, where, it .forks in two roads: to the Vardar valley - to Titov
Veles and to Irivolak., This area is naturally Protected by ridges of medium mountains
from the north; east and south, and the only gap ' is the Bregalnica valley towards
/IA
K6call5k?'.P?1-je is well populated only along the borders, -=e; on foothills of
Osogpvska Planine and the Plackovica, while the middle is swampy and covered by
fields.
the
rice
From the military Point of view this field is very important, for it is
the Junction of all roads running from Bulgaria over the ()sogavske Planine. it can
sere as the concentration area for the troops to operate along the line of oper-
ations: Stip Kocane Delcevo Gornja DzumaJa (the Struma valley) or toward
Custendil (Bulgaria: Keustends1)
1 ?
the Pijanec lowland area also lies in the Bregalnica valley around
Delcevo; it is small and narrow. Important because it is the junction of two third-
class i4. cads that cross the frontier (one from Gornja Dzumaja, another from Custen-
dil); from here a road runs to Pehcevo, Berovo and Strumica, another to Kocane.
malesevo lowland area lies around Pehcevo and Berovo (the upper?
i'egalnica); similarly important as Piianec. From this lowland area the following
roads and path 6 run: third-class road Berovo Delcevo Kocani and Berovo
Strumica; a good cart-track Berovo - Mitrasinci Vinica Kocani (running in the
southwest round the mountains the Golak and the Bejaz Tepe); horse-path Berovo
1;
If
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?
83 -
position between Bulgaria, Greece and Albania; it is well populated, but woodless.
pOrtantamunications run convergently to this area from Kumanovo Titov Veles
Kocane Stip and Strumica: This fact gives to Ovce Polje great importance from the
operational point of vibw.
the strumica lowland area in the Strumica valley; begins from
Radovis, where it is called Radovis Polje, then getting somewhat narrower and
?a? c .
getting %qluer northvtrumica, where it is about 10 in wide and getting narrower
again towards the frontier. Well watered because of rice fields, well cultivated
and populated, ,with marshes here and there. It often flooded, and now meliora-
tion is being carried out. From the Strumica 101414td area a second-class road runs
to the Vardar valley via Valandovo, and to ,the Struma valley along the Strumica
Valley; a branch runs across the Ograzden. mountain to Berovo and Pehcevo; a second-
class road runs via Radovis to Stip.
The Strumica lowland area is important because of its vicinity. to the
frontier, for it can serve for the concentration and quartering of troops. The
natural gap is in the east, formed by the Strumica valley, but that gap can be
blocked by the positions in the Ograzden and in the Belasica,
gevgelija-Valandovo lowland area is connected to the Salonika
lowland area by the Giganske-Klisura; it is situated between Demir Kapija and Ciges
anska Klisura;.,about. 30 km, Icing and from 5 to 6 km wide; this is the lowest area in
Macedonia (.41?74 Metres above sea level), with good communicaticns, woodless and
often flooded by the Vardar; important because of international communications
running towards the Aegean Sea (Salonika). This is a typical Aegean valley p The
natural gap i is in the smith formed' by the Vardar valley, and the smaller one in the
northeast via ValandoV.o. ftrmed by the river Anska Reka.
All mountains east of the Vardar are well known from the operations of
. the Dojran lowland area spreads along the shore of Lake Dojran; it
Is divided between our country and Greece. It lies on an important line along which
a-railway line runs from Salonika to Istanbul 'via Seres and along the Struma valley
to Gornja Dzumaja. In our part of this plain there is a second-class road from
Greece via Valandovo to Strumica, Radovic, Stip, Ovce Polje, Kumanovo and the Morava
valley. This road by-passes the Vardar defiles, runs across ground suitable for
manoeuvering and is more suitable for the operations of strong forces than the
Vardar valley.
00 the Serbian ArmY against Turkey in 1912) and from the operations of the Bulgarian
Army against the Serbian Amy in 1913 and 1915, when the Serbian Troops of New
Territories
(Macedonia) fought bitterly the Bulgarian 2nd Army which advanced to
the Vardar valley with the aim of cutting off the retreat of the Serbian Army to
Salonika and prevented it from bringing up supplies from Salonika.
'In 1941, the Germans broke through the front along the Strumica line of
operations0 outmanoeuvered mountain positions and quickly invaded /the Vardar valley
from where they went on advancing down the river.
Mountains west of the Vardar. These mountains extend westward up to the
line take Prespa - the upper Grna Reka - the river Treska, eastward and northward
to the Vardar, and southward to the Greek frontier..
Mountains worth mentioning are:
The Jakupica ?(Solunska Glava, trig. 2540). This is one of the highest
mountains in. Macedonia; its middle regions are forested, higher Parts are full of
Pastures; it is very broken and furrowed by the tributaries of the .Vardar; by its
geographic position and relief it is a strong position for the defence of SkOplje
and valleys in the upper Vardar area, and also communications running from the Vardar
to the Morava valley; its eastern spurs (falling steeply .down in the Vardar
valley) form the Taor defile which extends from the Titov Veles lowlqnd area to
village TaOr. From the top knot - Solunska Glava (trig. 2540) - mountains extend in
all directions like a star; the Golesnica, in the east, the Dautica in the south,
the Karadzica in the northwest. The whole massif is poor with communications .
(horse-paths only) and unsuitable for the operations of large units. By these
characteristics, and in connection with the chain of mountains between Polog and
the river Treska: the Suva Gora - the Debra Voda - the Konjarnik - and the dee,
narrow and almost pathless valley of the river Traska, this massif does not 'allow
direct operations from the south northward towards the Skoplje lowland area and vice
versa, but forces the troops to take the by-pass via Kicevo and Tetovo or the Vardar
valley (the retreat of German and Bulgarian forces in 1918; pursuit of Turks by the
Serbian Army in 1912 towards Bitolj).
Mountains south of the Jakupica, between the river Babuna? the Gm
Reka, the Vardar and Pelagonija (the Prilep and the Bitolj lowland areas) form a
separate group. They are medium mountains, bare, except the Babuna which is
partially wooded, very broken, difficult to pass and poor with communications.
Main mountains are: the Babuna with the peaks Luta (trig. 1499) and Kozjak (trig.
1746); second-class road from Titov Veles to Prilep runs over it (the saddle Pri sad) ;
the Klepa (trig. 1149) on tile right bank of the Vardar; the Dren Planina, separated
from the Babuna by the saddle Pletvar over which runs a third-class road from
Prilep to Kavaderci and Negotino.
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The Selecka Planina (tri, 'l 63) extends as a ridge norhsr?th from
Prilep to.Brid within the great bulge of the Orna Ptelca; in the west it border's
itoijsko, poije and in the east the Orna Reka. Belongs to lower medium mountains
below 1500 ,m) It is bare, stony land/ with rocky. sloPes? Eastern slopes, facing
e river Orna 'Reim, are very steep and rocky, while those facing Bit?1islc? P?111e
drop' gradually down to the Plain. Passable for the units of mountain type; there
are only. horSePaths and three cart-tracks on it? In the southern Part, ilk the
bulge of the Orna Reim, there are traces of roads from World War I. Population
only in lower regions.
Between the Orna Reka, the Vardar and the Greek frontier extends the
chain of high mountains the Nidze and the Kozuf with their northern spurs. The
Kozuf and the Ilidze are high mountains, steep and difficult to pass; the Kozuf
(pealcs, pudica do elev. 2050 ml Porta, elev. 2104 mrx Zelenbeic, elev. 2171 m); the
Nidze (peaks: laimakcalan, trig. 2521, Sokol. trig'. 1882, Dobro Polje, trig', 1877
and Kozjalt, trig. 1814) The slopes of these mountains. facing Greece are very
steeP1 while northern slopes drop gradually down, especially towards 1Cavadarci
and NegiYtin
The northeastern spur of the Kozuf mountain (Flora, trig. 1727) forms
with the Grade ska Planina the defile Demir Kapija on the Vardar. Southeast of the
Kozuf mountain (4n Clirreece) extends a sur towards the Vardar which, with the spurs
of the Beiasi?a mountain, forms the defile Oiganska Klisura.
Paths are the only communications in these mountains 4 These mountains
are 8,,natural obstacle that makes possible the organization of a defensive zone from
the Vardar (at Gevgelije) to Bitoljsko Polje.
The next group is formed by the mountains between Bitoljolco Polje,
Lake Prespa and the Resen lowland area: the Baba (the summit Fenster trigi 2600)
and the Bigla, - extending northward; between them is the: .saddle Djavet with the road
frcaLaltelj to Resen and Ohrid.'
The Baba is a chain of high mountains, bare, stony here and. there)
roc difficult to pass, with poor communications, covered by pastures The
slopes facing Bitolj sko PolJe and Lake Pre spa are steep.
The area west ..of Pelagonija to the line Kicevo Bitolj is covered
with -a number of medium mountains mutually separated by fairly wide valleys,' Of
various form And direction of extension; mainly wooded, except the peak Luben
(trige-1762). The upper Orna Reka ,flows between these mountains and divides them
into two groups. The ,northern group: the Baba Sac (trig. 1697). and the Luben
(trig. 1762); the southern group: the Buka (trig. 1495.) and the ridge northwest of
Bitolj between the river Seranica and the river Dra,gor (battlefield in the .Bitolj
Battle in 1912). Several good communications - -roads arid better cart-tracks - run
along the valleys extending between these mountains and around them: Bitolj
.Re wen, Bitolj Kicevo, Kicevo - Brod - Prilep and others; there are no other dome,
munica.tions but horse-paths in these mountains.
Lowland areas worth mentionin are
Pelagonija, formed by the Prilep lowland area in the north. and Bitoljsko
Polje in the south. It is relatively about 580 metres above sea level; highly
fertile and by its climate suitable for cultivation of industrial plants. However,
along the Orna Reka the terrain is swampy and unhealthy, so that big works are there
now with the aim of regulating the bed of the Orna Reka and draining the ground.
The field is woodless; woods can be found only along the western border on the foot-
Pelagonija can serve for concentration and quartering of large units.
It is naturally open only towards the south where the plain extends into the Larin
lowland area. -Important junctions in Pelagonija are Bitolj and Prilep from where
a railway line and roads lead to Greece, towards the Vardar at Titov Veles and Orad*
sko, towards the Kicevo lowland area and towards the Lake District (Lake Prespn- and
Lake Ohrid) 6
, The gesen lowlahd area north of. Lake Prespet, around the town of Rosen;
bordering in the west the Istok Planinag in the north, the PlakenSka PlAnin4i in the
east the Biglsa mountain and the noivOwe Stern spurs of the .Baba ,mountaind
densely populated with good cptnmunidations and passable. Swampy in the vicinity of
lakei dommunications dro8Sind itt the toad Bitolj 44-, the saddle Djavat a Rosen -
the saddle Bukovo Ohrid Struga. From Resen towards the lake run two road.6 and
further on southward, along the eastern shore, a cart-track to Greece, and along the
western shore, a road to Albania. tery suitable as the concentration area for
smaller units.
The SkOPIJO lowland area in the Vardar valley. .Average height above sea
level is 250 Metre's. Situated between the Skopska. Orna Gora in the north and. the..
jakupica in the south and bordering the Zeden mountain and the spurs of the :Sax*"
Plani.na and the Sii,Vaciora im'theweStl-in the east it borders the hilly ridge sloping
down from Kumanovo' toKatlanove along the river :Pcinja. -A very important junction
of communisati..,ons is ,in this area to which roads and railway lines run convergentl.y1
from the Morava-Vardar .vaIleY, from the north ' from Serbia-, .and from .the south from
Greece', along the 'Il?ar valley, across Kosovo Polje and through Kacanicka Klisura;
from Lake Ohrid across the Kicevo lowland area and Polog; from the Bulgarian
frontier from Kriva. Palanka? via Kumanovo? from DelcevO across Ovce Polio and from
Strumica via Stip. The .1coplje lowland area is very important from operational and
strategie point of view. The area itself and slopes surrounding it are woodless;
the plain is well cultivated, while the central. part (east and .northeast of the
Vardar) is swampy, difficlat: to pass and with. poor communications. There are only
a few paths across the marshes. ::.liatural gaps are the valley of the Vardar, the,
Treskal: the Pcinja.and the ;lepena0, but since their valleys are mainly composed of
defiles, they can be easily blocked and defended.
The Kumanovo-PreSevo lowland area is about 20 km long and about 10 km
wide north of Kumanovo, or about 5 km around Pre sevo; it is narrow at village
Lojane-. This area is as bare as the Rujen mountain which is in the east of it;
well poimlated mainly along the eastern and western edges and well cultivated. The
river Konjarska Reka flows in the middle of it. International communications
Belgrade Skoplje - Salonika run across it, and a road from the river Kriva Reka
valley runs to the Kumanovo lowland area. This line of operations has always
played a Very important role in wars between our country .and Bulgaria. Kumanovo
is an important junction of communications from where roads run divergently to
the Morava valley, to the Skoplje lowland area, to the Vardar valley, to Ovee
Folje, to the Bregalnica valley and, finally, along the Kriva Reka to Oustendil.
In 1912, the Serbian and the Turkish armies fought a meeting engagement'
at Kumanovo, known as the Kumanovo Battle, in which the Turks were defeated,
The Titves lowland area covers the valley of te middle Vardar, and
foothills on the right bank from the mouth of the river Orna Reka to Demir- KaPiJa*
It is woodless, but due to its specific climate, suitable for the cultivation of
some Mediterranean plants, especially sesame, tobacco, etc.
b) ?gltian Mountains
These mountains are divided by the rivers: the Velika Morava, the '
Juzna Morava and the Zapadna,Morava into three groups:
The first group between the Juzna Morava in the west and the river
Kutinska Reka and the river Luznica in the north, the Bulgarian frontier In the
east and the river Kriva Reka in the south. In this territory there are two Chains
of mountains extending from the south northward, one of them along the Bulgarian
frontier, another in the .middle i.e. closer to the Juzna Morava.- In the first
4.* ? ? .186
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chain of mountains the peaks, worth mentioning are: the Biljin with the summit Straza
(trig 547)4 :the.Dakat Planina with the peaks Bele Vode (trig. 1829) and Orn,00k
(trig.' 1829', the Miljevska Planina (trig. 1732), the peak Ostrl.ka.(trig. 1650) the
peak Krvavir, Kamen (trig. 1,733) and the Grazaad.a. (trig. 1719) ? The second chain is
formed:'by the mountains: the Petarios, (elev. 1806 m), the Desna Kobile (trig. 1922),
the VI; Streser (trig. 1875),the Oemerriiii (trig. 1638') with the mine Mackatioa., the
Ostr*,,ib, (trig. 1546), the Krusevica, (trig. 912), the Garina (elev. 1057 m) and the
Selicevica (trig,* 902). The western spurs of this chain fall down steeply to the
Juzna MOr8,178, valley and, with ,the KukaVica`mountains form Grd.elicka Klisura (the
Gi.edelica defile) which :extends from Vladiciri Han to Grdelica. Al]. these peaks and
mountatna, Are forested; -intersected by the tributaries of the Juzna'llorava and the
Struma difficult to ss with few'communicationsf and thinly populated
North and northeast of Kumanovo are: the Rujen Planina (trig, 969)0 the
Kozak trig. 1284)s the Siroka- Planina (elev, 1352 m) and the German Planina (trig,
138$),:. The'llnian Planina is completely bare, while the northern slopes of the
Kozak are thinly wooded.
The mountains, of this -group are of great strategic importance, for they
protect, our vital, communications running along the Juzna Morava valleys and the
frontier is here closest to these communications (25-30 km). In this part the Balm
garians out off athese communications from Vranje in 1915 during the second day of the
Skoplie?
Hain communications are:
second-class road Leskovac Vlasotinci Pirota
cart track Vlasotinci Daseani Kladenac,
cart-track PredelJane Trava Dascani Kladenac?
third-class road Vladicin Ham Surdulica Trn,
third-class road Vranje Bcmiligrad,
cart track V1asinsko jezero (an artificial lake- Lake Vlasina)
second-class road and railway line Nis - Leskovac Vranje Kumanovo
The second group is between the Juzna, Morava, the Skoplje lowland- areas
the Lepenac, the Sitnica., the Ibar and the Zapadna. Morava.
Mountains worth mentioning are:
the Skopske Orna Gord with the summit Ramno (trig. 1651); it extends
between the Lopenac, tie Skoplje lowland area, the Kumnovo Presevo lowland area
and the Bin,ecka Morava. It is a ridge about 50 km long, intersected by many small
rivers, difficult to pass, low slopes and foothills that are well popnlated. Its
western spurs, together with the Sar-Planina, have formed Kaca.nicka Klisura (the
Kacanik defile). Only paths can be found in it. By its geographic position and
relief, and in connection with the Sar-Planina, it blocks the way from the Vardar
water system to Kosovo Polje and Metonija, and eastward offers a strong defensive
sector.
The Kapaonik extends along the Ibar defile from Kosovo Polje north-
lard to the river Josanica. It is the highest massif of Serbia with the summit
Suvo :Radiate (trig. 2017); it is about 120 km long. The Kopaonik is mainly
forested, except in the northern part around Suvo Rudiste and large clearings in
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the middle and southern part; intersected and difficult to pass, only with paths, while
better roads run around it.. Very rich in ore, and in the valleys are many mineral
springs. The higher regions of the Kopaonik are an undulated surface, overgrown
with thick mountain grass, evergreen forests and pastures. Drinkable ,water available
in lafige quantities. In the north, to the Zapadna Morava, the Zeljin .(trig. 1785),
the Goc (trig, 1124) and. the Stolovi (trig. 1375). At the bottom of the Goa is
Vrniacka Ba,nja, and at the bottom of the St?olovi is Mataruska Banja. The .Kopaonik
is a strategic ,obstacle to the operations conducted east-west, and even a stronger
obstacle (together with the river Ibar) to the operations conducted west-east; in
operations north-south and vice versa it appears as strong partition wall that sop-
arates 'the forces along the Ibar valley and along the line of operations; Krusevao
Kursumlija 1; Kosovo Polje. Supported by the Veliki Jastrabec in the east and the
Ciolija.`iri the west; the Kopaonik is a very strong defensive sector against the pen-
etrationefrom north to south and for the protection of the Kosovo-Metohija area.
The Veliki Jastrebac (elev. 1492 m) and the Mali Jastrebac (trig. 946)
extend from the west to the east; tkickly forested, intersected by the tributaries
.
of the rivers the Toplica and .0.0 llosina, difficult to pass, 'better communications
ran around them, and only a cart-track over them, over the saddle between the
Veliki Jastrebac and the Mali Jastrebac from Djmnis to Proku.plje. Through the east
em foothills of the Veliki Jastrebac runs a better road from Blace to the Rasina
valley through Jankova Klisura (Jankots defile). The Veliki Jastrebac and the Mall
Jastrebac protect .the .rich valley of the Toplica with Prokaplje, an important ,
junction and the Dobric lowland area from the north* tastward, the Toplica valley
is open and protected-by-the Juzna Morava to a certain extent.
South of the Toplica to th6 Binacka Morava and between the Juzna Morava
and the Kopaonik and Kosovo Folje are lower medium mountains (1000 - 1400 Metres),
thickly forested, intersected , difficult to pass, poor communications, th1411Y
populated; the exceptions are individual small hollows and valleys of some email
rivers.
Mountains worth mentioning are: the Vidojevica (trig. 1154) and the
Pasjaca (trig. 894) which blocks the Toplica valley in the south, and the Radan
(trig. 1409).
Between Pristina and Vranje is a chain of medium mountains formed by
the Goljak and a number of individual peaks. The chain begins in the west with
the Koznica mountain (elev. , 1221 m), extending in the Goljak with the peaks;
Lisica (trig, 1186), TeIce (trig: 10$1) and Kitka (trig. 1154), and then over the
peaks Velja Glava (trig. 1181),,Orlova Co elev. 1274 m) and Sv. Ilija (elet,
1270 m). South of the Koznica are the Androvacka Planina (Ostri Vrh (trig. 1040)
and the Zegavac (trig. 1071).
Between the Juana Morava and the river Veternica is the KukaviPal a
medium mountain, which, by its eastern slopes and neighbouring mountains the
Ostrozub and the Oemerink (both on the right,.bank of the Juzna Morava) forms
Gredelicka Klisura (the Grdelica defile):
All the mountains of the second group are a series of strong successive
defensive positions bettOenAhe valley of the Ibar and the Juzna Morava. Extension
of individual mountains in various directions makes connections of them possible for
the organization of good positions for defence against an attack from any side.
Fields and lowland areas worth mentionin
The Gnjilane lowland area about 500 metres above sea level; wood-
less, surrounded by forested mountains; easy to pas, with good communications;
the .shortest way between the Juzna Morava and Kosovo, Polje crosses it; Bujanovac
the Konculj defile Gnjilane Urosevac.
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Maio Kosovo ? the valley of the river_ Lab; the centre: Podujevor from
560 to 600 metres above sea level, 16 1m long, about 5 km wide, well P?Pulated,Pass'
able and communcetive? Lies on an important line: Nis - Pristina..
The Valley of the river Toplica extends along the left bank of the Top-,
:Lica river and along the slopes of the Veliki Jastrebac., Lies on the important lines:
Nis Pristina and Nis Prokuplje Jankove Klisura Brus " the 'bar valley,
Leskovacko Polje with the junction of communications Keskovac extends
from the defile Kurvingrad in the north, which separates it from Nisko Polje, to
Grdelicka Kiis4ra in the south. It is fertile, passable and densely populated.
The Vranje lowland area extends from the southern pirt of Grdelicka'
lilisara to BUJanovaciv. It is from 600 to 1500 metres wide and well cultivated; the
slopes of sUrrounding mountains are populated. From this area roads run toward Nis
. . ok,
Skopljel Iak 'Vlasinat Bosilj grad, Kosovo Polje and Nbdvedie.
The third :group covers the area between the Zapadna McTaval the
the,Dannhe4 the ,Sava, the Kolubara, the Ljig and the Difiina. c'
Morava
IT-1
V t3 ?Ljars.a
The central mountain of this group is the Rudnik (Veliki Sturpt - elev.
1132 -m) hickfl in a natural Axtenc4on of the Serbian mountains rich in ore (the
Gucevo em the Suvobor)* From the Rudnik chains of low mountains extend northward to
the Danublfi9 eastward to the Velika Morava southward and southeastward to the
Zapadna Morava.
e.?...yeter#ah(1 464thern spurs of this 'chain are hil:ls,.and.they cover
the whole area betweenth6.:KOlUbara:ancl the. 14147in:the -weStv aricl the WlilcaMorava
In the east, The tributaries of theserivers:flOW from the east to the west or
reverse (the_41Japh0J1.1..gthe jaSenio4',..the 4penicai the Turija, theiaper)
and divide the-4bOVemen.O.Oned.Spurs'intO:SeVeral zones. rThe first (northern):
zone extends from the:Sava*nd'Ahe Danubato..the 14no t4e;:rier'Ralia"-$tepos!
the peaks 4v.aIajrig..:5a1).,'EarOahSki.Vis-:(#.1.g..408.),..the..second zone
extends 'south Otth6:firOt'.111)::tothe'linel: .:ther river 4aseni?oa
the river Tu.rija the peaks are: ,KoSmaj (trig. 629). 'and'VarOvniCa:(trig,.:405).
.The'::third-One.erOnd,s's014: of the second up to the 11.ne; .'the river Lepenica "
satornja the .riVer-I'CaCer;the'..peaks:Are::: V.encac (trig.''.658).411.4.P#ulja (trig.
:696).-TheHWestOn--patbf:.this territory is Covered with mani*a.41JHijoods,
4edgeS'and:OrOhar04Wh#h m4ke.sobserVa:tion.c.lifficult; thill-,.e4AtOtpart,it lois
enclosed and:..41bbsettatiOliAS.:!$ter.. Oommuncabi1ity and pasability: good,
In rainy weatfher the terrain is altost'imgosahle and. cart-tracksHolit-of Use.
-.TheseregionS Of hilly terrain suitable..:fOimanoeuvering have goal
communications. In the history of 'arfare of Serbia they played a significant role
in preven+i,ftr. 4.11:clAnktinfiiilth g advancin. towards the Zapadna.MoraVOalley.and
prevent Ing - - .
:KragujeVad..41 WOr14:11a.r-Ii:these spurs on the right hank.Ofithe:...:river 4lubara.
made a StabO#i-defah*of'Sumadija'against the enemy's advance southward and south-
eastward 4OSSi1214-And'the- spurs onthe left bank of the Velika Morava protected
Sumadija and Kragujevac from the east and northeast.
-South of t4e. Rudnik mountain .and west of the river Gruza extends a.
low mountain, the jotlenik (elev. 748 1001), and between the Gruza and the Veldka.
Morava are the Gledioka Planine (Samar (trig. .922)) and the JUhorjtrig
'
.14.21.11ELIkilliJaLlalIgUuaa
The Cacak lowland area extends from Cacak along the Zapadna Morava
valley to Kraljevo; about 30 km long and about 10 km wide. This area is well
04,1**0189
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cultivated, densely populated: important junctions of communications are: Oacak
in the west and 'Kraljevo in the east. A railway line and two-second-class roads run
along this valley from Cacak and Kraljevo along the Zapadna MoraVavalley to the
Velika Morava and Juzna, Morava valleys. At Kraljevo the valley of the Zapadna
Morava is someWhAt narrowet and fUrther on eastward gets wider tolrstenik where it
SuddOhly beiiomes narroweil :then it is wider again (the KruseVac lowland area) and
narrow again, tortheait of KrU.Sevact this defile is the eastern end of the valley of
the =attadna Morava and the ohiy naturai connection with the valley of the Velika
Petora'irlje is the ,large valley of thllower Velika Morava from Svilajnac to
its mouth, about 55 km long and from 12 to 2., kin wide. Pomoravlje belongs to the
southern bOrder of the Pannonia Plain; it is the moat denselY populated and best
oultivated region in Serbia, with a very high economic potential. The bed of the
Velika M,rava is not regulated, so that the valley is often flooded. (Traps. note:
February and March 1955 the biggest floods for the last 30 years. Last year the level
was gtut 6.5 metres above normal; this year (1955) almost 7 metres. About 50,000
ha flooded this year). No woods except willow groves along both banks, on the
hills are orchards and vineyards. Along the right bank of the Velika Morava runs a
second-class road from the Danube valley via Pozarevac and Svilajnac to the Juzna
Morava valley, and along the left bank a second-class road and railway line from the
Danube valley from Belgrade, via Smederevo, Mala Krsna and Velika Plana to the
Zapadna Morava valley and the :Tuna Morava ',alley.
In fact Podunavlje is the northern and northeastern side of the ridge 'which
extends from Belgrade to Smederevo between the Danube and the river Ralja. , From the
broad top of this ridge the terrain drops steeply down to the Danube. The slopes are
interseeted by many brooks and watersh*, which makes these Slopes difficult to
pass from Belgrade to Smederevo. Podunqvlje is very well cultivated and full of
orahards and vineyards; well populated. The main road runs along the foothills,
along the Danube, and a cart-track along the,. ridge itself. Thanks to this ridge the
right bank of the Danube on the sector Belgrade - Smsderavo is considerably higher
than the left (Banat). This ridge is a good position for the protection of Serbia.
THE AREA OF THE PANNONIA PLAIN WITH
ITS BORDERS
The Pannonia Plain lies between the spurs of the Alps in the west, the
Carpathian mountains in the north and in the eat, the mountains of the Dinars
system in the southwest and the northern parts of the Rhodope massif in the south.
It was formed by the breaking and sinking of the old Pannonia continent. The de-
pression form in that way was filled with water and was known as the old Pannonia
Sea. In the east it reached the Banat mountains and to the steep sectors extending
from Goltbac and Gornjak via Despotovec to the Bagrdan defile; in the south its
border was: the Ze1j4n, the Stolovi and the Zlatibor, and in the west it reached
the foothills of the Alps. Later, the sea became a lake that became smaller and
smaller. Finally it disappeared (except some lakes, for example Palic and Balaton)
because of the flow off through the Carpathian Mountains (Iron Gates). It is to
distinguish : lower parts - Pannonia Plain and higher parts directly around it "
its borders. Our country is in possession of southern parts of the Plain (Vojvodina)
and borders.
Pannonia Plain
The bottom of the Pannonia Plain, while it was under water, was covered with
sea and lake sediments and flat. Later on, limestone, clay, sands and other sed-
iments came above the original surface of the bottom. Its thickness is hundreds
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of -metres.. The I, arinoni.s. Plain is the largest in our country, most fertile and with the
?
igheOt_agricultural potential, so it is the granary of the FPRY? It is very well
cultivated and densely populated; small, woods can be found here and there (except in
e Srem).-, mainly along the Danube and the Tisa. Thanks to its relief it is pass
able n all directions in dry weather, but in rainy weather the terrain is difficult
to pass (-off of roads) even for infantry. It is short of stone and timber, so that
construction and repair of roads are difficult. The network of communications is
dense, but, there are only a few roads with -hard surfaces. Big rivers flow across
'this'plain "(the Danube, the Drava, , the Sava, the Tisa). Their currents are slow;
they are winding, forming many bends, backwaters and aits, flooding ,banks in rainy
4
weather,. al bigger 'rivers are navigable. Dikes are. built along many sectors in
.
order. to prevent floods.
The Pannonia Plain' is cora osed of:
,e St of the. river. l.Tisa to the 'Rumanian .frontier; in Rumania part of
_ +1.3z-A Tharivihn
Banat. In -one 801.41.4k u borders vux,
- '
forested but its slopes are cleared and cultivated, In the north and in the east
the Srem is protected .by the Danube and the Fruska GOra and its eastern spurs,
The rest of the Srem is a plain falling down towards the Sava southward;
the northern part of the plain is passable, while the southern part is not so dry,
and even swampy along the Sava. There, are many drainage canals in the southwestern
part between Zemun, Sremska Mitrovica and the Sava,. Therefore, that area, in the
southwestern partbetween Kupinovo and Jarak covered with large swampy woods, is
unsuitable for broad manoeuvering of tank and motorized forces. The southwestern
part of the Srem between the Bosut and the Sava is similar: covered with large
woods, with many swampy places and without any road with hard surface.
With the exception of the Danube and the Sari, the 13osut-is the only
obstacle ,worth mentioning, especially because of its muddiness; it flows from Vine'
kovci southeastward and poUrs into the Sava at Bosut?
Beginning with the narrow frontier sector, it is only 14 km wide. Banat be-
comes wider and wider southward, because of the extension of the frontier south-
eastward.; on the Danube it is about 80 km. wide. The north-south depth is about 150
Although Banat, is, in general, a simple plain., we distinguish a few regions
n it, different with .regard to passabili,ty and relief. The northern half, approx-
imately up to the line Jasa Tomic Zrenjaniii, is a flat plain, easily passable
almost the whole year. There are no rivers, but only brooks. and drainage ditches.
The next ,region, reaching the line Vrsac - Alibunar in the south and then along the
both banks of the Tamis up to the Danube at Pancevo to Pancevacki Rit inclusive,
is rather swampy; during a very dry season it is passable everywhere, otherwise
only, in some zones where there are communications. Marshes are west of Vrsac, so-
called Vrsacki Ritovt. The Tamis, the Begej and the Brza.va, as well as drainage
canals and dikes-along them are Considerable obstacles. The southeastern part of
the Banat, between Vrsac, Alibunar, Kovin and Bela Oricva is somewhat higher, in its
central part by about 50 metres, than the surrounding plain, and in the soUth up
to 100 metres and is called the Alibuna,r Grada (Del.ibla.tska. Pescara) whose southern
part is sandy and fertile. Greater part of the sands is, wooded now, - The Albuna.rska
,
Greda. is characterized by steep slopes. Southernmost part, between Vreatc, i.e.
Bela Crkva, and the Rumanian border is covered by the farthest spurs of the
Carpathian Mountains* Banat is completely open towards Hungary and Rumania.
Backa, between the Tisa and the Danube; along the middle of Backa runs
Veliki Kanal from Batina on the Danube to Becko Gra.diste on the Tisa; at village
Mali Stapar begins the Mali Kansa running to Novi Sad. In the north, towards
Hungary, Backa is wide open
North of the Veliki Kanal, in the area from village K.rnjaja to Vrbas, the
terrain is about 20.km higher than that south of the ,Veliki Kanal and also the
tracts along the Danube and the Tisa; it is the Telecka Kosa. It steeply drops ToPo
down southward to the canal, and in the north it is connected with the Backa Table-
which cover8 the whole area between the Danube and the Tisa, except low, swampy
tracts along these rivers which are from 5 to 15 'km wide. The Backa Tabla and the
Telecka Kosa are characterized by many very long Spurs and also by many long
shallow holes 2-3 metres deep and 20-30 metres wide.
Sr.= lies between the Danube and the Sava; in the west its border is
east of Ilok, village Sot, village Tova,rnik, village Lipovac about 13-km west of
Sremska Raca. On the right bank of the Danube is the Fruska Gora (trig. 539), a
low mountain, riaing in the Pannonia Plain like an island between Vukovar and
Slankamen; it is part of the old continent; it is rich in hard coal and marl
(northern slopes) used for the production of cement (Be coin). The Fruska .Gora is
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Otherwise, the Srem has good communication, except through the swampy ?
woods a.Leng the rivor .$pacva. The .main direction of communication Is east-west;
ciouble-traCk railway line, new highway and the old secondcla,s$ road ,run in that
direction; besides, along the right 'bank of the Danube, from Sremski ,Karlbvci to
Vukevar? .runs a road:, ma:inifthird-class read. The southern and the northern part
of the .Srem are connected. ,by t he following Communications: Zemun
??
Petrovaradin, Sabac Rum, 'Vrdnik, Sremska. Raca Sid Ilaca Yukovar; roads:
first clasS, highway Zemin 'Partfiiradin and three roads over theFruska Gora, (from
Ruma, Silemska Mitrovica and 'Sid),. Besides, there are several ca.rt.:-.46acs. Without
a hard- surface. The main .junction of roads is Rums.. There is no ,co*ctidn with
Banat .or Backa, except in Novi Sad (only one bridge for both. vehicular and railway
traffic). In the south, over the Sava, there are the following bridges: at Zeraun.
(for both vehicular and railway traffic) , at Sabac ( railway bridge, ada,pted.for ,
vehicular traffic, toe), at Sremska Mitrovica and at Sremska Raoa. .(for ,vehl.O14.1.ar
traffic). (Trans. note: at Sremska. Raca - railway brid4e)1. A railway' 'bridge at
Ostruznica is under .construction.
The Srem is. connected to our People's War of Liberation i prove
guerrilla actions, the Srem Front and breakthrough of the same in 1945 r.,11.11.8 proves
that our units fought during the People s War of Liberation suCceSsfully. atcl not
only in mountainous. terrain, but also in frontal combat in the plain against a
technically and numerically stronger enemy.
Barania is the triangle between the Danube, the Drava and the frontier.
This large bridgehead is about 30 km long in the .middle (Osijek Knezevo)i while
he
base - the river Drava at its mouth to near Donji Miholjac -6 is about 50 Ian long.
The; eastern side along the Danube is about 40.16 long. ,The tract a;iong the Danui*.is
swampy, especially In the-corner between the Danube and the Drava. The belt on the-,:
left bank of the Drava is somewhat drier. Both zones are wooded .to a considerable
extent. From Bell Manastir to Batina extend from southwest to northeast a series .of
hills, or the so-called Belemanastirska Greda. (elev. 243 ?m) about 20 ikm long, and
up to 5 km broad. This ridge could be used for the defence of the bridgehead. Vls
ibility is somewhat, difficult because of vineyards.., The 'rest of Baranja is a 'plain,
easily passable and communicative. Railway line Osijek Mana.stir and further
on to Pec is worth mentioning; it forks into railway lines to Batina and Beremend?
Besides, there are several narrow-gauge lines. The network of roads is similar to
the network of railway lines: the axis is the second-class road Osijek Bell"
Manastir and further on to Hungary. It forks into several -roads running towards
the frontier. Baranja is connected to the rest of our territory by a bridge for
vehicular traffics and a railway bridge in Osijek. The approach to these bridge's
from the north is difficult because of rivers, marshes and dikes.
The relief and hi..7,h fertility of Pannonia Plain make the movement-, of
all branches of the army possible in all directions (in dry weather); it is suitable
for quartering and supply of the largest bodies.- Ground features influence combat
actions (reconnaissance, security, attack and defence.)
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INIMMINSII???????
Borders of, the Panrioni.a pi..e142
?
The western, border, of the Pannonia Basin begins with the ,depression that
'separates the FruSka Gora from the'Slavonian mountains. It includes the whole region
that was once covered by the Pannonia Lake extending to the Samoborska' Gora and the
river Sutla' west c5f Zagreb, to the Pohorje at Maribor (Ptujsko l'olje and Dravsko
Pole) and the siovenska cro'ricta, north of the Drava. These parts are the extension o
Pannonia Plain At many places along* the western border are coal mines, mineral
springs and oil reserves in the Sava valley and in Prekomurje.
The southern border Oovers the -regions .south of the Sava and the Danube?
This areais inclined toward the Pannonia basin. In Northern Bosnia, it covers the
zone, of Bosnian fore mountains composed of soft rocks' (lower .Posavina.) as well as the
lowest ,terrain around the mouth of the Una, the Vrbas, the Bosna and the Drina This
is the weal
. _ . _
thiest area In Bosnia.
The Bosnian border extends beyond the Drina to West Serbia, including the
northern foothills of the West Serbian mountains with Macva and Tamnava and extends
further on to Pomoravlje, Stig and Branicevo.
III. THE E1STERN ZOI\E OF MORE
RECENTLY FORMED
MOUNTAINS
The eastern zone of more recently formed mountains extends between the
Morava valley in the west and the Vlaska. Plain and Bulgarian Podunavlje (Bulgarian
sector of the Danumbe valley) and includes the Carpathian mountain system and the
Balkan system.
5. The CarDathian Sistern
This system is in northeastern Serbia, It is the natural extension of
the long chain of mountains (the Carpathian Mountaps) which covers a great part of
Rurnania. The southern border is the river Crnica kat Paracin) - the river Crna
Reka. In the west it extends to the Velika Morava, and in the north tothe Danube,
Which has split this system into two parts: the smaller in Serbia andlthe greater in
Rumania.
Our part of this -system is composed of low and medium mountains, the
tops of which are considizably rounded. They fall steeply down towards the Danube
and the Crna Reka, but towards the Morava and the Timok gradually; in the formr'of
long spurs. Population is rather thin. Cattle breeding, forestry and mining are
developed, for the mountains of this system are very rich in ore. They are difficult
to pass; good communications are rare.
Mountains and hills worth cautioning are:
from Tekija (on the Danube) to Zajecar, between the river Porecka
Reka and the Timok is the chain ,f low mountains: the Miron (the peak Mali Strbasc,
trig. 626, and the summit Veliki Strba.c, trig. 768), the Veliki Groben (trig. 655)
and the Deli Javan (trig. 1135). All these ridges drop steeply down towards the
Porecka. Reka and the Danube, and gradually eastward toward the Timok and the Danube.
These spurs reach the Danube and so our bank if higher than the Rumanian along the
sector Brza Pa3.anka - Prahovo.
the Majdentl'elc: mountains cover the. area between -010 Danube, the river
Pek ara, the Prirprtka Reka; the nothern part -of theSO, mountains id a Chain of low
mounais ho:,'Severni Kuj (t,r,i4. 727) , tie Soirj.0. (trig o6) the, Liskovac
(trig i ;$9). and the Staric4 (-01.0 197). This chain runs Parallel to the Danube,
ten tunuis.01.1thward and extends over the Mali Krs (trig. 99) and the Veliki
Krs
(trig ).1.40) to the mines in Bor. All these mountains are intersected by deepvafleysb thickly .
forested, di.fticult to pass, thus making'tia development of traffic
in this iegton Very difficult, but the5i? are rich in ore4. population is thin, .and.
agricUl.ture poor.
the Homoljske 1,D1a6iiie (trigt. 925 m) extends between the, Pek,, the
Pe arid the Mlava. Theya're forested and iii.erSOcted. by many 'deep valleys
of nuthero, tie,..sta,. 11 rivers and brbOlcs4 Southward and, northward siAlrs. drop
steeplydc..1.Wri?to fertile lowland -ar Fa
eiag of and Hotiolje and to 00 Pek valley.
. .
. ?, ?
NorthWe.stitat'd.i "between the l'e)c and .tirie Ivilavai the 61)urS. of these. toatitaihs reach
the Dahub'e, at Yeliko GradiSte't here, they are considerably lower than the, ridge
tokva (trigi 549) and on the left.i.bank of the t'anube (in Rumania). The Homoljske
Pla.ninai,Vogether With the peak Zletovska. Glavcina (trig. 634),form Gornjacka
Kiisura kC,16iiijak 'defile) west of village Krepollin.
,the Be;..janica, (trig. 1336) ,and the Kucaj (trig. 1284) have the sur-
face of .limestone with many :potholes and caVerns, but are forested. Gradually
dtp15.-ctown:,?towards.;.the Velika Morava and.'';Oteeply towards the upper M3.a,va and Orna
Reka; difficult to pass. The Kucaj and the Samanjo mtrantains for the -defile Ca.stois
brod.0.6: along which- runs the .seCond-4class road Paracin Zajecar. From the
Beljanica northeastward, between the Velika .Morava and the Mlava, over the peak
Zletovska Glavcina (trig. 634) extends a chain of hills whose furthest spurs reach
KoStolac. Thl.s chain is woodless, passable and with good conimunication,s; these
hills are positions between the Velika Morava and the 'Mlava.
Main communica.tions are: .
second-cla:ss road Kladovo Brza Palanka 'Negotin
second-class road Donji Mila.novac Negotin,
second-class road Pozarevac KuCeVo. Ma.jda.npek - Negotin,
second-class road Pozarevac*.- Petrovac Za.gub.ca Box' - Zajecar,
second class road Pozarevac Svilajnac Cuprijat
secandclass road Parazin B011eVac Zajecar
railway line Prehoiro
Negotin Zajecar,
railway line Pozarevac Kucevo
Brodica,
railway line (narrow gauge) Pozarevac Petrova.c Ladne Vode,
railway line Markovac Despotova.c
railway line (narrow gauge) Paracin Bol evac Zajecar,
railway line (narrow gauge) Zajecar Bor
Ord. Vrh.
The region of the Carpathian mountain system is short of communications;
this shortcoming is the result of.. the relief, for the mountains are very broken, so
t hat passability is very poor in general.
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94 **
By their geographic position, their relief along the Danube and further
n the south and by impassability,. the mountains of this 'system Make the crossing of
the Danube from Golubec tn Klad.ovo:dif-fieult, and also the possible penetration ,
southward; likewisei. they -would make difficult our crossing- the ,left bank of the Dan-
ube. In the history of national wars of Serbia operations were conducted only from
the north to the south in the westernmost part of these mountains. These. mountains
make the possible penetration from the past towards Pomoravlje difficult, except along
the Orna Reka valley which can, be blocked and easily defended. In this region (Bort
"Majdanpak) there are mines of strategic raw material (gold, Copper pyrites).
? . .
Fields and lowland areas are
Stig with the Mlava in the Mlava valley; it is a long but rather narrow
valley which gets very wide along the 1014er Nlavat This valley is very well cultie
vatedi densely 1)0Pulated, woodless, with good communications. Marrow gauge railroad
from Pozarevao to Gor'niak (Ladne Vode) and a second-class road to Zagubicat Bor and '
Zajecar run along this valley. The lowland Stig lava is important, for it is the
easiest way to penetrate towards Bar mines from the northwest arid to the Zajecar
area.
Branicevo is a valley along the lower Pek; extend,s from village?
Idesnica, to the mouth, from 20-22 km, mainly along the left bank of the river Pek.
It is about 2 km wide, at village Branicevo it suddenly gets wide joining the Dan-
ube val1oy Its extension un the river is a still narrower valley - Zvizd around
Kucevo. Along this valley run the railway line from Pozarevac and the road fromileliko
Gradiste to Kucevo and Brodica, towards the important mines of Majdanpek. It is of
similar economic importance as Stig, but the valley is somewhat smaller and closed
by low mountains in the south. From the military point of view it is of local im-
portance.
Kljuc is situated within the bulge of the Danube, between Kladovo and
Brza Palanka. It belongs to the western border of the large Vlaska Plain across
which the Danube flows. By its wedge-like form it embraces from the north the
westernmost part of the Vlaska Plain, from there leads the shortest way to Krajova,
but first a strong obstacle is to be crossed the Danube.
Krajina around Negotin - from Brza Palanka to the Timok - is also
a part of the western border of the Vlaska Plain. It is a fertile agricultural and
vineyard region, well cultivated and densely populated. Krajina is protected in
the east by the Danube to the mouth of the Timok and then by the lower rriraoki.,.
In hinterland (westward) the terrain becomes elevated extending to the Kiroc and
the Deli Jova,n mountains, both of which are difficult to pass.
? . .
6. The Balk.mlys...1,4
The mountains of this system extend from the Carpathian system south-
ward to the line: Nisko Pole - the river Kut,inska Reka - the middle part of the
river Vlasina Trn (in Bulgaria). The western borders are the Velika Morava and
the juzna Morava.
?
The river Nisava divides this mountain system into two groups:
a) The group norOz,.,x...L.2f.11e.j,km.. On the right bank of the Timok
along the Bulgarian frontier extends the Stara Planina from the Vrska Guka to the
peak Srebrma. Glava (trig. 1933) where it leaves out"- frontier. The summit is
Midzor (trig. 2169(, and the peaks: Tri Ouke (elev. 1937 m), Tri Kla.denca (trig.
1967), and Srebrna Glava (trig, 1933). From the Vrska. Cuka the ridge drops down
to the Danube gradually extending into hilly terrain.
?
The slopes of the Stara Planina facing the Nisava and the Timok are .
partilly forested and intersected by deep canynn-line valleys. The western slopes
soses/45 ?
r.???
?Mj,
'77?1'
' ?
krv
5
fall steeply down into the narrow valleys of the Timok and the Visocica, while too?
wards Bulgaria they gradually drop down to the Bulgarian Podunavlje. This region is
thinly populated, with a very weak agricultural potential; there are only a few com-
munications and saddle; the main are: Vrska Guka, Kadibogaz, Sveti Mola and the
valley of the river Visocica. The frontier line between Jugoslavia and Bulgaria runs
along the ridge (to Srebrna Glava). Considering the above mentioned characteristics
of slopes on both sides, Bulgaria is in more favourable position with respect to the
strength of-the frontier line. Nevertheless, the Stara Planina, due to its impasse
ability, protects the valleys of the Nisava and the Timok, and indirectly the Morava
valley.
? On the left bank of the Timok, mountains worth mentioning, which can
serve as good positions are: the Tupiznica (trig. 1162) and the Tresibaba (trig.
787), the Rtanj (trig,. 1560), the Devica (elev. 1186 m) and the SvrIjiska Planina
(elev. 1344 WI which, together with the Suva Planina (the group south of the
Nisava) form the Sicevacka Klisura on. the river Nisava, and finally the Samanjac
(elev. 853 m) and the Ozren (trig. 1174). In the east is the mountain Vidlic (trig.
1377), between the river Visocica and tile Nisava which b.,5,4 its ex.tensl.on parallel
to the Nisava valley protects the latter from Pirot to Dimitrovgrad anclit together
with the spurs of the Greben mountain (south of the Nisava), makes the Nisava
valley narrower in the Dimitrovgrad area.
b) ? TheNisava' . The main ridge is the Suva Planina
(trig. 1808) extending' between the Nisava, the Kutinska Reka and the Luznica.
Southwestern slopes are thinly wooded, steep, rocky and difficult to pass; north-
eiistern slopes are fairly wooded, also steep and difficult to pass; two spurs run
down from them to the Nisava? one from the. peak Litica (elev. 1683 m) towards village
Spaj (northwest of Bela' Palanka), another from the summit Trem (trig. 1808) towards
the Sicevacka Klisura which it forms together with the Svrljiska Planina. Both
spurs are strong positions in the Nisava
Other 'mountains worth mentioning arev
the Sto with the summit G. Stol (trig. 1239), the Vlaska- Planina
(trig. 1440), the Greben (trig...1201) on the frontier, the Crni Vrh (trig. 1461) and
the Rti.j (trig. 1700' on the frontier.,
This group south of ',the Nisava is very. important because it protects,
together with the northern: group, the maincommunication running along the Nisavavalley to the Anna Morava valley. There is a number of successive positions
which make a successful defence posssible._
Main communications in this area are:
second-class road Zajecar Knkazevae Pirpr,
pekninae sti. Nis,
second-class
second-class
second-class
second-class
second-class
road Paracin Deligrad
road Paracin - Buljevac Zajecar,
road Knjazevac Sok? Banja Aleksl.nac,
road Aleksinac - Svrijig Pirot,
road Knjazevac Svrljig - Nis e
first-class road Nis - Bela Palanka Pirotr
second-class road Vlasotinci - Babusnica Trzi
northward to Nis, Bela Palanka and Pirot,.,,
railway line Zajecar Knjazevac
railway line Nis -? Pirot Dimitrovgrad.
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Nis1,co Polje at the mouth of the Ni.sava; it is a very important
junction of 1.nternation communications running to Sofia - Istambul and Salonika 4?
Athens; it is very fertile, well populated, woodless. From all sides naturally
protected by the mountains; the gap in the east is the Ni.sa.va valley, but being
narrofi, it can be easily blocked in the vicinity of Si.cevo. In the north and in
the .south there are natural gaps made by the Juzna Morava. The importance of Nis
as 'a juncti.on of communications has always been great: From Nis the ways are open
to the Velika Morava and the Morava-Vardar valley and the Toplica valley with
_
communications' leading to Kosovo Polje.
Bela Pa.lanka and the Pi rot. lowland areas: both are of similar
importance and co.n be used for the boncentrarion and quartering of large units to
operate along the Nisava, line of operationS.
- the Aleksinac lowland area extends from Djuni.s in the north to Nisko
Polje in the south which it is naturally connected; it is about 5 km wide the
valley of. the Juzna Morava with Aleksi.nac (railway station Zitkovac) as the junction
of communications. This field is well cultivated and densely populated, with small
woods on the ,surrounding hills. Across this field rim lanterna.tional communications
to Salonika .and Istambul; it is well protected in the easi by the mountains the
Ozren arel the Kala.fat, and natural gaps are only in the Juzna Morava valley.
Kraiina around Knjazevac (the valley of the river Bell Timok) is a
lowland area about 22 km long and about 3 km wide with the second-class road and ,
railway line frika 4jazevac to Za,jecar. This area is thinly wooded ,' well populated,
easy to pass From this field runs a cart-track over the saddle Kidibogz to
Bulgaria*
**********
The Federative People's Republic of Jugoslavia is rich in sea and land
waters.. This wealth is the result of favourable weather conditions, watertight
soil in the greater part of the country, woodiness of areas around the springs of our
rivers, alpine glaciers in the areas of springs of our big rivers and '0,e possession
of the seavloast in the length of 1,916 ht.
The surface layer of the land is composed mainly of clay and other
in-
permeanle 'rotas, so that water flows off on the surface. The exception are karst
.areas where -water Sinks in the gaps of limestone formation; there are many under-
ground streams. . Most of them are within the Adriatic water system and least within
the ,,Aegean water system.
Favourable 'weather conditions influence, inter alia, the geographic
distribution of rainfalls per year and per month. Jugoslavia belongs to those coun.
tries .that are -characterized by a large amount of rainfall. Large -amounts Of rain*
fall are in the western mou4ainous areas of the Alpine and Dinara -systems, and
small along -the mid.dle and lower Vardar, in Pomorevije and Pannonia. Plain.
The water level at the Littoral in summer time Is very 'low, especially
In the Aegean water system. So, for example, the capacity of the Vardar at high
level Is..565 cu. metres per second, whi3 e. during summer low level period it is only
.2 ,cu. metres, or .14 times less. After the Danube the Sava .is the 'richest in
water; during the high level period in spring and in .autumn - -its capacity is
4,078 cu. metres per second, and when the level. is low during slimmer 'months; 668 cu.
metres, or 1,120 cu. metres, in average. The Tisa and the Morava come after the
Sava. The capacity of the Tisa is about three quabters, ?and of the Morava l/16 Of
the capacity of the Sava for the same period of time.
The capacity of the Danube is the Iron Cates in summer time is five
times greater than it receives from the Sava.
Our rivers are very important for Our economy.
The Adriatin SEd
The Adriatic Sea is our largest reservoir of water. It was created
by the kinking of around during the later Tertiary, when the process of the forming
of the Dinara mountains, the Alps and. the Apennines was over, In fact, it is a deep
arm .of the Mediterranean, separating the Apennine Peninsula from the Balkan Pen-
insula; in the Strait of Otranto it is only 73 km broad. . From the Strait of Otranto
to the port of Kaorle (on the Italian North Adriatic Coast), the Adriatic Sea is about
800 km, long; it is widest between Onus and Termoli (Italy) - about 200 km; its sur-
face. is about 140,000 square lan. The depth of the sea varies; in the northwestern
part it is very shallow and up to the line Ancona BAa the depth is less than 50
metres: From this line southeqs-tward it oats deeper and deeper up to the deepest
point (1,223 -metres) which is 80 kin southirest of Herzegnovi. The line: peninsula
Peljesac - the islands of Korcula, Lastovo, Palagruze, Pianosa, Trendti and penin-
sula Gargano is formed of the peaks of an underwater partition-wall, which is, with
respeet to the depth, the natural boundary. From that line northward the sea is
shallow (the deepest point - 266 metres.- at the island of Jabuka); south of this
partition-wall the depth gets greater rapidly..
?
Since the Adriatic Sea is part of the Mediterranean, it has all. the
.00004/?8
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4.
, .1_ , 1.4 - 41 _, .
, ,0 aimotetiitid6 .0f. it.; ,,.in. the stiptier..,t,4?14! 0..! :;WPiat"911.;11.s clear and the alw..,0 P . esst!
'titmice it .is Salt, blue and .14art.iii.'4,0-Pth0, the.temPOiratWe is *s 4. . 0 ( giP'.'4$grado) 2
on the sl'Arfade, plue,..25?'''.0.:111'.??701,4 ,qb..thot our ?seitt.i,,!?0 wt#Pr than the At14#1.0,,
(leant , .. e d.' fer6i406..be'wee..0ttie iids,.4:s. about 0.5 metre, while , at Some 'seas . it is
from 10 to'?15:419ttoa.,), : ThP:iq 'li .b1oint of: rainfall along OV?r..CooStal ione is high
due to 1,ntense...Oval56,1'Siani 2:T.-till. e Medi
'-te.rranezin-. and .motuitails xtending
e
.: . ,. . , , . ..
4 . 1 ? 1 P
:along the dotitif, ' .
The Adriatic Sea cont4 4cOnsider:O. quantities of salt .compared
to ,,. .
he Atl,antid Ocean :" 3.1%, thij 3 amk Sea #.; ..he'Reltiti ,Sea "09%
,
seation,
_ Our coas.t-, ery.dissected. It is fAl of bays, inles, channels,
peninsulas and i.sIandOs De to thess.characteristiq0 it is knoren1 In literature .as
"the Palmation '3tPs dotiOt"s.
Along. the greatest part the coast is high and steep. except along the
eastern and sout,heri Istria, between Zrrnanja and Sibenik, at Split', at the moutli of
the Neretva, in -81.0.orina'and,',Ztupa(1z no-1-4a Kotcirska .,southeast of Tivat).. The line
of the depth of 10.-meitties rims along, .-the very coast, which enables big ships to
approach the shortt....,..Slopes of the, mountains begin almost 'everywhere in the
immediate vicinity of the.. ?Oast, their height being from 300 ,to 1000 metres. They
are crossed, except by Tare roads, only by bad paths, and besides, the slopes are
broken, rooky, very 'steep, mostly of karst, difficult to pt.ssi,. ,in case of small
gradients terraces can be found.. MOvement 'along these ,slopes .is difficult and slov,
and supply with 'drinkable water and wood difficulta3mot everywhere. Such is the
shore along the Vel..ebit:Ohannel (Littoral Seotor). from 04$ to 6 km northwestof
Floc*, then from Ston' to Oatrtat; in Boka Kotorska and from?Bildva to .Bar.' Along
these parts of our coast the defence has many strong positions, and from the peaks
observation is easy and visibility good. The defence is strengthened by numerous
islands, aligned almost always parallel to the shore; islands* obstruct the approach
and restrict navigation. Finally, waterless terrain and areas in hinterland almost
without any supplies are a very unfavourable zone of operations, and the assailant
who would try' to land in this sector, would meet difficulties re suiting from the
.topographic and geologic structure of the coast and hinterland and from their stall
economic and traffic capacity.
The coast is low from Ulainj to the Bojanal the lowland along the
Bojana is flooded in winter time, and besides, unhealthy in Ertintir...because of maim
aria. Along this shore the sea is deep and big ships can approach its
The whole .coast? as well as islands, has many good ports ? and anchor-
ages. Many small ports and numerous islands. are -811.1.table shelters for smaller
ships (torpedo boats and submarines). The best harbours with regard to capacity?
installatiOnb and .facilities are: Trieste, 'Pula, Rijeka, Zedar, Sibenik,
Metkovic, Flocs, Gruz? Zelenika, TiVet and Kotor. In addition to these ports,
there are 80 ports on the coast and 64 ports in the islands of local importance
without modern installations and with short
Fairly large and well protected bayo e4ong:Our coast are: Gulf of
Quarnero, Bakar Bay, Paski (at tke, island of Fag)
. Split), .Gits Pay and Bole Kotoraka.
The.laiends have the same geOMOiiihologic characteristics as the head-
landi i.e. karsid..n.,flost. of them have very dissected coast, Steep, ..with many havens.
Almost all, of . thO4C, have peaks very suitable for ' the observation of the sea. The
line of extension :Of /elands is north-west1-6 south-west, lies the same as the main-
land, .whose submerged ridges they are.'
Sibenik Bay, Ka.stel Bay (at
-sipossif99
1.99_
Along the whole length of our coast there are 71 islands populated per-
manently, 645 small islands which are not populated and 454 rocks also unpopulated.
All islands are divided into two groups the northern group, in which
the biggest are: Krk (408 sq 1011), ?Rab ('86 sq km), Ores (400 sq kin), Losinj (744
sq km), Fag (287 sq km),, Uglanj (46 s4 km), Pasman. (57 sq km) and Dui Otok (117
sq kin); the southern group, in which the bigger islands are: Solta (52 sq let),
Brae '(396 sq km), .Hvar (289, sq km), Yis (86 sq km), Korcula (273 sq km) Idljet
(98 sq km) and LastovO (33 sq kin).
The most distant from the coast are the islands of Palagruza and tiabuka,
which, according to their geographic posjtion? might be included in the southern
group.
Between these two groups (south of Sibenik where the boundary between
them is) and from Dubrovnik to the Bojana? there are no islands worth mentioning
and the coast is open.
Our islands make the defence of the coast stronger; thanks to their ex-
tension I-parallel to the coast and their elongated form they play the role of ad-
vanced positions and outposts preventing the direct apprc.ch to the coast. The
approach to the coast is restricted to a few channels between islands that can
easily be blocked, and at the same time, they make the defender's navigation alma
the 'Channels by the coast possible. All islands are very good bases for our sal.
marines, assault boats and other units which can hinder the activities of the
enemy 'against our coast. But, they can serve to the attacker as jump-off positions
(once he takes possessionof them) for landing operations on our coast.
During the People's War of Liberation, in addition to landing operations
on the islands of Fag, Rab and Ores', landing operations were conducted on the
island of Krk (April 1945) by our 26th Division. These landing operations were con-
ducted because of great military importance of the island; it blocks the Gulf of .
Quarnero and dominates the northern part of the Velebit Channel; it prevents navic;*
gation between Senj and Kraljevica, and besides, it was necessary to take that island
in order to take Ores and Istria.
There are few peninsulas, and the biggest are: Istria P ljesac and
Lustice. (at the entrance of Boka KOtorska).
Along our coast from Bakar to Dubrovnik there are a number of channels
extending between the mainland on one side, and islands and peninsulas on the other,
or they are straits between individual islands and peninsulas. Worth mentioning
are: the Velebit Channel, -between-the headland and the islands Of Krk, Rab, Fag
and the northeastern part of the Kotari peninsula, over 100 km long; the Zadar
Channel, between t he mainland and the , island of Ugljan, the Sf.benlk Channel, between
the mainland and the island of Zlarin.,' the Split Channel, extended into the Brae
an.nel, between the headland and the islands of Solte and Brac; the Hvar Channel,
tVexithe island of Brat: and the-island of Hvar; the Korcula Channel, between th,
I of Hvar and the island of Korcula; the Neretva Channel, between the headland
ie Peljesac peninsula; the Lastovo Channel, between the island of Korcula and
of La,stovo and the Mljet Channel, between the Peljesac peninsula and the
et Of Mljet.
The importance of channels is great in peacetime and in wartime, because
they protectships, make ooncealed .navigation possible and offer favourable con-
ditions for manoeuvering, raids, etc..
Navigation along our coast is difficult because of many islands, rocks
and shallow places here and there. Due to this, navigation is possible only in
zigg-zagging 'channels; some of the channels are unsuitable for big ships, while
others are full Or rocks, which all requires a sound knowledge of our sea, es-
pecially.in wartime.? when lighthouses must be in the dark. In these circumstances
navigation is possible only if every obstacle is known.
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-066'0400
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ilarim, ;
"bura" (northeast) and "siroko" (southeast) influence navigation,
too* "Bura" 'blows up to 14 days in winter-tine; it is a very strong wind; "jugo"
("sirko") blows 3, sometimes, 9 days. In winter-time this wind brings rain, in
summer"time,OPPressive heat. It Makes high waves and is dangerous for small ships
"Bura" is mor :dangerous because Of suddenness and strength. MAW ports are in -
sufficientlYrotected from these winds, so that in some of them ships at anchor
may become caSta4ays. "Bura" is specially strong in Quarnero. the Velebit Channel,
at Sibenik4 in:the Brao Channel:, During' a very strong "bura" coastal liners have
to stop sailing. Both winds slaw down sailing and make the entering and leaving
Ports difficult.
. In summer tiles strong winds blow seldom. Naistral" blows foost often.
It is a refreshing breeze that soothes the heat at- the Littoral; it blows from the
sea shoreward and begins about 10 O'clock in the Morning, blowing till-iunset. Dur-
ing the night it is replaced by the wind called Itistokit which blows from the land
seaward and begins bloWing in the evening*
The sear flogs froth the southeait northWestward along the very
. , ,
coast. It depth s from 7 to. 8 metres; winds do not influence it. Its speed is
5 km per hour in average*
The share of the Adriatic in our economy is enormous* 'Fi611,7sPonge,-
corals,. chalk and gypsum can be found there. Sea navigation is very-profitable..
If wehad no sea, we should be cut off from countries overseas as, for example,
Hungary, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Switzerland, etc.. The sea opens the way to
the worlds makes Possible direct contact with markets abroad*. Besides ; the Adriatir'
Sea is of great touristic importance, .Frol Istria to the Montenegrin Littoial .b4eri
ake numerous seasicie resorts and tourist objects, where many visitors come from the
ol-stinti4Sr and from abroad?
It addition to edonotic iMportahcei the Adriatic Sea is very important
for odr coUritry from the political and strategic points of view. 1 The struggle for
the Adriatic has been fought 13 centuries and our peoples have remained undefeated.
are:
Lakes are navigable for small ships.
The largest lakes of this type are in southern Macedonia and
The main problem of our sea is its connection with the hinterland, con-
structian of communications in the mountains that would have to connect thesea and
hinterland, as well as the economic development of the mountainous region itself,
and the immediate background first. The Free TerritorY-of Trieste is isolated
from the hinterland and will be unable to flourish as long as it is artificially
separated and isolated from its geographic background
If we look at the western coast of the Adriatic Sea that belongs to
Italy, we Shall see that it is considerably different from our coast, that it has
no advantages; bilt, on the contrary, disadvantages. The Italian coast is not
dissected, has no natural bays, no islands, and only one peninsula (Gargano); the
sea is fairly shallowalong the coast and does not allow the approach of bigger
ship 6 The northwestern part of the coast, from the Trzio Bay to the delta of
the Po, is composed of numerous lagoons which makes the approach of ships to the
shore difficult and therefore in that part there is only one good port - Venice.,
Lakes
Lakes can be found in all parts of Jugoslavia. According to the way in
which lake basins are formed, according to their origin, we have: tectonic, glacial-
karst and river lakes,
Tectonic Lakes
Tectonic lakes are the largest lakes in our country and most important
for the economy. Their basiss are lowland areas formed b the dropping of the
terrain towards the middle Tertiary; at that time these lowland areas and basins
were filled with water.
Oiroso/101
with the surfade area of 348 square km, 285 m deep, 30 km
long and 14 kin wide; lies at 695, in aboVe Sea level, It is supplied with water from
springs on the shore and at the bottom. The spring at the monastery of St. Maui is
of the greatest capacity. The lake is never frozen. The water of this lake flows
off by way of the Orni Drina. Fishing is very developed. Population here live on
fiShing. Main fishing places and markets are! StrugA Ohriti and PnAgrAtiAeqiz Well
known fish are: trout - the best fish in Lake Ohrid, and maybe in the Balkans .
-then eel and carp*
The southwesternmost part Of this lake (about 97 square km) belongs to
Albania. and all the rest tn SlIgnonvin.
illaltaal is second by its size (286 square km), 853 in above sea levels
It is 54 m-deep. In Winter time its surface is entirely frozen; sometimes the ice
cover Is so thick that sleighs can be driven from one side to another. The lake
has no visible tributaries or flow-off' streams, but undoubtedly its water flows
under the Galicica mountain to Lake Ohrid, Lake PresPa, too is rich in fish of the
same kind as Lake Ohride The greater part belongs to Jugoslavia, and the smaller.
the southern part, to Greece and Albania (about 100 square km).
LaUlLtla is about 52 square km large, and about 10 m deep; north"
south it is about 9 km long, and about 6 km wide; 48 in above sea level. It is
divided between our country and Greece, The smaller part (one-third) belongs to
Greece. Supplied with water from springs at the bottom and on the shore. Some
level rises so that the lake floods its shores. In winter time only'
shallow places along the shore are frozen, the whole surface seldom. Flows off
to the Vardar. Very rich in fish.
All these lakes may be important from the military point of view, as
they may appear as considerable obstacles or support of flanks. Populated and
fertile areas along their shores can be used as concentration areas for large
units and, finally, they can be used as lines of communications. All this on
condition that navigable combat means are available, in order to prevent the enemy
from crossing the lake.
Glacial Lakes
There are very many glacial lakes, but they. are the smallest and can be
found in those mountains that once were covered with glaciers. Worth mentioning are:
In the Julian Alps area: Lake Bled (1.5 square km, 476 in above sea level),
Lake Bohinje (4.5 square km, 526m above sea level). They are up to 45 in deep.
Besides, there are sevel Triglav lakes. Lake Play is of the same origin (5.4 square
km, 1,007 in above sea level) in the upper Lim area, as well as other smaller lakes in
the Montenegrin mountains, in the Prokletije, in the Sar-Planinal the jakupica, etc,
Although they are not very large, they are very deep, water is clear; very cold and
greenish. Are of the same importance from the military point of view as tectonic
lakes, but are smaller.
Karst Lakes
Many karst fields are under water
summer; they are perioaically flooded fields
Polje, Popovo Polje, Mostarsko BlatN etc).
streams are unable to take water away. They
lakes rises and falls regularly. They are:
jezero at Jajce and Plitvicko Azera between
from autumn till spring, and even till
(Oerknisko Jezei0o, Livanj6ko, Glamocko
Some Icarst hollows are closed and
are karst lakes. The level of these
Svicko Jezero.at Otocac, Plivino
the Pljesivica and the Mala Kapela,
411,04iii02
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103 gm
supports of flanks, and since they are navigable, they are communications of great
capacity
Plavieka Jezera are in the most beautiful part of Croatia; there are 16 lakes ,from
higher lakes tater falls down to lower ones, forming a waterfall of 40 stairs.
1
Lake Skadar belongs to this group, too:, it is the largestlaice in our couri
try; in, 'summertime. its surface is 370 square km4 and. in minter time -UP to 530
square 1t4 the greatest depth is 44..m, and,. the surface: is '6 in above sea level.
The southwesternshore is steep because of. steep Slopes of the RuMija-mountain,
-While the northern shore isflat and swampye The Moraca ,and other smaller rivers
flow into this - lake, and the Bojana'flowS off. The lake is rich in fish, especially
carp and eels lashing is well developed'on'this lake.' The lake is, navigable, sel-
dom.frozent only its northern Part. The level rises and falls; in autumn it rises
2?3 in and water floods -lower Parts of the Shore, so tat it is swampy-and thinly
The Danube
Melioration is very important for the economy of Montenegro; it will give
about 13)000 ha of new cultivable land that will meet all the requirements of
Montenegro in corn and industrial plants.
River Lakes
In our plain and along big rivers there are many river lakes formed in the
meanders cut off from rivers and in old river beds. Most of them can be found
along the Danube, the Tisa, the lower Drava and other big rivers. Some of them are
re-filled with water during floods. Water is then fresh. However, in sluggish
lakes 'water is braokish- alkaline, as for example, Palicko Jezero (4 square km)
and. Ludasko j'ezero at Subotica and Rusanda Jesero (1.52 square km) at Melenci. All
the three are mineral (curative) lakes.
These small lalcesr toe, can influence combat actions to a considerable ex-
few. they are natural obstacles that generally cannot be crossed without boats
and they are difficult to by-pass) because the surrounding terrain is Often swampy
_ ,
and difficult to pass., and sometimes impassable.
The rivers of Jugoslavia flow off in three directions: eastward to the
Black Sea, southwestward to the Adriatic Sea and southward to the Aegean Sea;
accordingly they belong to the Black Sea water system, to the Adriatic Sea water
system and to the Aegean Sea water system.
1
1 '6
Due to the relief of the terrain Dalmatian and West Bosnian mountains) the
_ t .
watershed between the Black Sea water system dhrthe Adriatiti Sea water.a7gtem, is
close to cur western frontier, and the watershed between the Black Sea water
system and the Aegean Sea water system is closer to the southern frontier of our
Country. Thus, about 76% of the total area of FPRJ belongs to the Black Sea water
system, about 20% to the Adriatid Sea water system and about 10% to the Aegean Sea
water_system.
The Black Sea Water System
About. 70% of the total area of our country belongs to the Black Sea water
system. The generalcharacteristics of this water system is that the main rivers,
the Danube, the Sava and the Drava flow mainly from the west to the east, and al-'
most all their tributaries join them at right angles, i.e. flow in the direction
north-south,or south-north, In case of an action from the north seuthwari.or from
the south-northward? the Panube, the Drava and the Sava are obstacles that might.
influence' Operations .(combat operations) to a considerable extent, while their
tribUtarias with their own valleys might be lines of operations and communications.
In case of an action from the west eastward or from the east westward the roles.'-ere
exchanged, whereby the Danube, the Sava and the Drava might serve as obstacles and
The Danube is the only big river in Europe flowing southeastward.. It i
the only waterway that connects the central and southeastern parts of Europe,
binding them to the Black Sea and straits in it. The Danube is the arterial waterm
way of Jugoslavia; it enters Jugoslavia 7 km up the stream from villag,e Batina
leaves it at the mouth of the Timok.
The general direction of the Danube through our oountry is northwest.
southeast with bends in the western and eastern parts of the Fruska Gora (at
Vulovar and Slankamen) and east of Belgrade. Up to the mounth of the Drava the
bed of the Danube is divided into several backwaters and between them is a number
of alt s. The direct valley along both banksvespecially along the right bank, ar
zones from 5 to 10 km wide, .ready tracts, overgrown with trees., Both banks are 1044
and flats.
From the mouth of the Danube down the river, the right bank is higher.
From Vukovar to Belgrade along the right bank extend the spurs of the Fruska Gora?
and from Belgrade to Smederevo the furthest northern spurs of the Rhodope mountains.
Along this sect or, however, the left bank is low and swampy at many places, eon
pecially at the mouths of the Tisa and the Tamisit.
Water lag. The highest water level is from April to the middb of
June (at this time the snow is melting in the Alps)
After the Volga, the Danube is-theJongest. river in Europe; it is 2,860
km long. Across Jugoslav territory it flows in the length of 591 km. From the
point where the Danube enters our country north of village Batina to the mouth Of
the river Nem, or for 368 km, both banks are in possession of our country.. The
altitude above sea level is 78 in at the mouth of to Drava, 73 in at the mouth of
the Sava, and 35 in at the mouth of the Timok.
Width in average 1000 m4 here and there even 2000 m and along indivn'
idual sectore it
-?from the frontier to Novi Sad 5004Q00 in and at low water level at
some places up to 250 in;
-from Novi Sad to the mouth of the river Karas, southwest of Bela Grkvap
about 1000 PAP:
- in the Mali Kazan and the Veliki Kazan (the Iron Gates) 170-200
- down the river from Sip (northwest of Klasdavo) up to 1500
Eglki!!
from Bezdan upstream, at low water level, about 20 in, but just a few
Ian downstream the depth is only 4 in;
- at the mouth of the Sava, at low water level, 2-3 in;
in the Iron Gates there are many places where the depth is 53 in.
?4.2s1
From the Hungarian frontier to the river Kares 0.6-2.5 misec; in the Iron
Gates it varies; where the width is greater the speed corresponds to the speed in
0 0 0 0 .404
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
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103 gm
supports of flanks, and since they are navigable, they are communications of great
capacity
Plavieka Jezera are in the most beautiful part of Croatia; there are 16 lakes ,from
higher lakes tater falls down to lower ones, forming a waterfall of 40 stairs.
1
Lake Skadar belongs to this group, too:, it is the largestlaice in our couri
try; in, 'summertime. its surface is 370 square km4 and. in minter time -UP to 530
square 1t4 the greatest depth is 44..m, and,. the surface: is '6 in above sea level.
The southwesternshore is steep because of. steep Slopes of the RuMija-mountain,
-While the northern shore isflat and swampye The Moraca ,and other smaller rivers
flow into this - lake, and the Bojana'flowS off. The lake is rich in fish, especially
carp and eels lashing is well developed'on'this lake.' The lake is, navigable, sel-
dom.frozent only its northern Part. The level rises and falls; in autumn it rises
2?3 in and water floods -lower Parts of the Shore, so tat it is swampy-and thinly
The Danube
Melioration is very important for the economy of Montenegro; it will give
about 13)000 ha of new cultivable land that will meet all the requirements of
Montenegro in corn and industrial plants.
River Lakes
In our plain and along big rivers there are many river lakes formed in the
meanders cut off from rivers and in old river beds. Most of them can be found
along the Danube, the Tisa, the lower Drava and other big rivers. Some of them are
re-filled with water during floods. Water is then fresh. However, in sluggish
lakes 'water is braokish- alkaline, as for example, Palicko Jezero (4 square km)
and. Ludasko j'ezero at Subotica and Rusanda Jesero (1.52 square km) at Melenci. All
the three are mineral (curative) lakes.
These small lalcesr toe, can influence combat actions to a considerable ex-
few. they are natural obstacles that generally cannot be crossed without boats
and they are difficult to by-pass) because the surrounding terrain is Often swampy
_ ,
and difficult to pass., and sometimes impassable.
The rivers of Jugoslavia flow off in three directions: eastward to the
Black Sea, southwestward to the Adriatic Sea and southward to the Aegean Sea;
accordingly they belong to the Black Sea water system, to the Adriatic Sea water
system and to the Aegean Sea water system.
1
1 '6
Due to the relief of the terrain Dalmatian and West Bosnian mountains) the
_ t .
watershed between the Black Sea water system dhrthe Adriatiti Sea water.a7gtem, is
close to cur western frontier, and the watershed between the Black Sea water
system and the Aegean Sea water system is closer to the southern frontier of our
Country. Thus, about 76% of the total area of FPRJ belongs to the Black Sea water
system, about 20% to the Adriatid Sea water system and about 10% to the Aegean Sea
water_system.
The Black Sea Water System
About. 70% of the total area of our country belongs to the Black Sea water
system. The generalcharacteristics of this water system is that the main rivers,
the Danube, the Sava and the Drava flow mainly from the west to the east, and al-'
most all their tributaries join them at right angles, i.e. flow in the direction
north-south,or south-north, In case of an action from the north seuthwari.or from
the south-northward? the Panube, the Drava and the Sava are obstacles that might.
influence' Operations .(combat operations) to a considerable extent, while their
tribUtarias with their own valleys might be lines of operations and communications.
In case of an action from the west eastward or from the east westward the roles.'-ere
exchanged, whereby the Danube, the Sava and the Drava might serve as obstacles and
The Danube is the only big river in Europe flowing southeastward.. It i
the only waterway that connects the central and southeastern parts of Europe,
binding them to the Black Sea and straits in it. The Danube is the arterial waterm
way of Jugoslavia; it enters Jugoslavia 7 km up the stream from villag,e Batina
leaves it at the mouth of the Timok.
The general direction of the Danube through our oountry is northwest.
southeast with bends in the western and eastern parts of the Fruska Gora (at
Vulovar and Slankamen) and east of Belgrade. Up to the mounth of the Drava the
bed of the Danube is divided into several backwaters and between them is a number
of alt s. The direct valley along both banksvespecially along the right bank, ar
zones from 5 to 10 km wide, .ready tracts, overgrown with trees., Both banks are 1044
and flats.
From the mouth of the Danube down the river, the right bank is higher.
From Vukovar to Belgrade along the right bank extend the spurs of the Fruska Gora?
and from Belgrade to Smederevo the furthest northern spurs of the Rhodope mountains.
Along this sect or, however, the left bank is low and swampy at many places, eon
pecially at the mouths of the Tisa and the Tamisit.
Water lag. The highest water level is from April to the middb of
June (at this time the snow is melting in the Alps)
After the Volga, the Danube is-theJongest. river in Europe; it is 2,860
km long. Across Jugoslav territory it flows in the length of 591 km. From the
point where the Danube enters our country north of village Batina to the mouth Of
the river Nem, or for 368 km, both banks are in possession of our country.. The
altitude above sea level is 78 in at the mouth of to Drava, 73 in at the mouth of
the Sava, and 35 in at the mouth of the Timok.
Width in average 1000 m4 here and there even 2000 m and along indivn'
idual sectore it
-?from the frontier to Novi Sad 5004Q00 in and at low water level at
some places up to 250 in;
-from Novi Sad to the mouth of the river Karas, southwest of Bela Grkvap
about 1000 PAP:
- in the Mali Kazan and the Veliki Kazan (the Iron Gates) 170-200
- down the river from Sip (northwest of Klasdavo) up to 1500
Eglki!!
from Bezdan upstream, at low water level, about 20 in, but just a few
Ian downstream the depth is only 4 in;
- at the mouth of the Sava, at low water level, 2-3 in;
in the Iron Gates there are many places where the depth is 53 in.
?4.2s1
From the Hungarian frontier to the river Kares 0.6-2.5 misec; in the Iron
Gates it varies; where the width is greater the speed corresponds to the speed in
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In both Backa and Banat the Tisa is followed by a railway line and a
class foad; in Backa closer to the bank, in Banat at a distance of 1045 km.
From the military point of view, considering the width, depth and
quantity of water, the Tisa represents an obstacle and can make the organization of
defence, in connection with the surrounding terrain, easier against the penetration
from tile east westward and vice versa. The Tisa may serve as both a line of com-
munication and lateral line of operations; besides, its valleys (in a broader
sense) may serve for the concentration and quartering of large units, being rich and
fertile.
TIlsrT in" enters cur country from Riimania at 4asa Tomio-and flows into
the Danube at F4noev, It is.rgulPltecl for naY1,414ti011 onlr in its lower part: fro,
the mouth .0'..Pance*(3 km), .and,dtri4.4 high Water level period up to Village.0P0vO4
./slot fordable& :The tanis is an ObStadle,frot Kait4h6ebes (in Rumania) to its mouth.
Its bed fr6m Kot' davnstr6am 18 regUlatedi fib Width is: to KostatS 2060 4114
and fr6m there to theEolith 5064d0 III -iae depth i to PanceVo 1-3 Tra and further
on 3.5 to .Speed of current: small; High water 1ev61 period in '.t1.2?.e uloPer Part
1400Vtram 2 to 3 days, and in'therlawer part 8 days and even longer, The river
flood s large areas downstream of Orlovat at the same time when the Danube floods
its banks. At some places between the Danube and the Tanis there are permanent
swampy tracts. The southern part, so-called "Pancevacki Rit", is reclaimed.
.1.
The Karas springs from the Banat mountains in Runanis and flows into
the Danube southwest of Bela Orkva, The Karas is an obstacle from. Mercina (in
Rumania) to its mouth. Its width is from 10 to 50 in, depth from 0.5-2 in. During
the high water level period the river floods the whole valley. The valley is from
1500 to 2000 m wide to Grebenac, and further on upstream from 300 to 400 metres,
easily passable, downstream to the above mentioned place often marshy.
The Nera also springs from the Banat mountains flowing through Rumania
as a big and fast. river, which is a considerable obstacle. Its valley along the
middle part is canon-like, but broader in the upper part (the Bozovic lowland
APria) and in, the lower part where it enters our country southeast of Bela Crkva
where it represents the frontier between Jugoslavia and Rumania. It is important
as an obstacle and also because of the second-class road running along its valley
through the Banat mountains. Through the defile along the middle part of this
river there are no comMunications.
The Right Tributaries of the Danube
The Drava-(405 In) enters Jugoslavia at Dravograd. .To Maribor it flows
through a-aefilej011owed.by the Pdhorje along the southern bank and the Kosenjak
and the Kozjak along the northern bank, and there the Drava s only 70 in broad.
From. Maribor on it enters Dravsko POljel and at Ornoz the lowland area around
Varazdin and Cakovec. To Mariboiv both banks are high, and in Dravsko Polje the
left beilk IS higher from nmer=rte nekevec4 for the 'spurs of the Slovenske Gorica
slope down tothe river. From the mouth on its left tributary the Mura-- 7 km
Southeast of Ketariba - to Donji Miholjac, the Drava mainly represents the frontier
line between Jugoslavia and Hungary and a fairly' strong obstacle. From Donji
Miholjac down the river both banks belong to. Jugoslavia, From Bare to its mouth
the Drava is regulated for navigation, but practically navigation functions only
from Cadjavica to its mouth (105 km)... Down tO the Varazdin lowland area the
river has to.backwatera. Its valley farther on is sandy and undulated, here and
there swampy and nal of reedy traetsvbackwaters and aits.. The tight bank is
higher than the .left everywhere except at Legred, where on the left bank the hill's
are on the very bank The approach to the river in this part is possible only
along communications. . In spring the country is flooded,
0.0?????111/107.
- 107 -
? 1115121:12zU
The highest water level is from the end of April till the middle of June;
the lowest from December till February and from August till October,
Nlaw
m From Dravograd to Maribor 100 in in average (low water level);
IP From Maribor to the mouth of the Mura from 60 to 160 m;
From the mouth of the Mura to the mouth of the Drava 300 in low water
level; up to 600 m (high water level).
The depth of an average water level:
? .From Dravograd to Maribor 3 in;
.011rom Maribor to the mouth of the Mura 3.5 in;
44 From the mouth of the Mura to the mouth of the Drava 4?5 in.
The speed, of the current:
- During the high water level period 1.5-2.2 mbec;
- During the medium water level period 1.2-1.5 mime;
-During the low water level period 0.6-1.2 misec.
There are no fords in the Drava. There are a number of railway bridges
and'bridges for vehicular traffic; railway bridges are on the railway line Dravograd
Labot, Pragersko Maribor, Pragersko Ptuj, Varazdin - Cakovec, KopriVnica -
Gyekenes, Virovitica Bare, Podravska Slatina Selje, Osijek - Beli, Monastir:'
bridges for vehicular traffic are at: Dravograd, Vuzenica, Vuhred, Brezno, Maribor,
Ptuj, Ormoz, Varazdin, Bare, Donji Miholjac, Osijek. At Bare, Cadjavica and Donji'
Miholjac the bridges were demolished during World War II so that they are out of use.,
From the military point of view the river Drava is a serious obstacle by
its width, depth and speed of current; as well as by the configuration of its banks..
The importance of this obstacle is especially great from the mouth of the Mura
(Legrad) to Donji Miholjac? where this river is the frontier line between Hungary
and Jugoslavia.
From Cadjavioa downstream it can be used as a line of communication,
since it is navigable along this sector.
Of the tributaries of the river Drava, its left tributary, the Murat is
worth mentioning. It represents the frontier between our country and Austria from
Spilj (Spielfeld) to Radgona, and between Hungary and our country along its lower
part northeast of Cakovvc to the mouth at Leerad.
T.L i
1G s up to 150 in wide, very fast and has low banks.
The valley of the Mura is wide, fertile and densely populated.
The bridges across the Mura are: at Spilj (in Austria) railway bridge
and bridge for vehicular traffic, at Cmurek (Murek - in Austria) a bridge for
vehicular traffic, at Verzej (both), south of Hotiza a bridge for vehicular traffic,
at Mursko Sredisce (both), on the road Gorican Latenje (in Hungary) a bridge for
vehicular traffic, east of Kotoriba a railway bridge, ?
From the military point of view the Mural in connection with the northern
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"109 4"
spurs of the Slovenske Gorice, represents a strong frontier line between Spilj and
Radgonai
The right tributary of the Drava, the river Mislinja, flows into the
Drava at Dravograd. Its valley, in connection with the valley of the river Savinja,
makes operations possible along the line of operations: Celje Dravograd - the
valley of the river Labotnica (Austria).
The Sava (total length 940 km our longest river). Formed by two
the Sava Dolinka, which springs at Ratece, and the Sava Bohinikat which flows
from Lake Bohinje. These two rivers join each other at hadovijica, from where the
Sava flOws across Radovljicko Polje, Kranjsko Polje and Liubliansko Polies, and after
that it enters at village Kresnica a long defile which it leaves at Krsko. Now comes
the Krskioarezice lowland area at the mouth of the river Krka. From Zagreb down"
stream to its mouth at Belgrade the Sava flows across a Plain. The width of the
river uptre4m,of Ljubljana is up to 100 m, downstream to Zagreb 100150 in, and
further on from 250 to 500 in.
The depth at Brezice 2.9 in, at Zagreb 4.1 in, and from Sisak to the mouth
7468 m in average.
Speed of current: to village Rugvica (about 20 km east of Zagreb) is
great, downstream of village Rug*ica it is moderate, and from Sisak on m low. It
is during-the medium water level period along the sector Brezice Rugvica 16 -2,497
m/seo; from village Rugvica to Sisak 14.2 misec, from Sisak to the mouth it does
not exceed 1 m/sec.
High water level period generally comes after the melting of snow in
Mai-ch or April, and ,exceptionally earlier (December 1952 when the Sava unexpectedly
flooded Posavina)? seldom in October and November after long and heavy rainfalls.
The high water level period lasts from 10 to 12 days.
Floods in valleys are the result of high water level almost every Year,
and occasionally several times in the same year. Downstream from Zagreb floods may
cover enoriaously large regions. Floods deteriorate communications 'in Posavina,
bridged acirOss the Sava are 'coupled with similar difficulties as ot the Daniabei , The
,
Sava i8 the biggest tributary of he Danube in our country and oue biggest interhal
riYetq'I,40nheotS the region of' the AlpS with the Danube Basin and Pomoravljei and
by meanti Of it8 right tributaries the Dinara region and the Littoral with Poduhavlje.
Ljubljaita; Zagreb and Belgrade are situated on it,
rivers:
off
The approaches to the river are bad, primitiveland during a rainy
Period and after high level period need repairs or even reconstruction. Donly
approach must be reconnoitred before crossing, especially during the high water
level period when, due to the fact that the tanks are flooded, one must reckon
with serious difficulties during the crossing.
From Radovliica the Sava is an obstacle by the quantity of water and
by its high banks, that are deeply cut in to the mouth of the river Sora. From
Ljubljensko Polje to Krsko Polje the Sava is an obstacle not only because of the
quantity of water, but also because of difficult approach to its banks in the de-
file. This was proved by the following example: during the Peopleis War of Liber-
ation, in January 1945, the 14th "Slovenia" Division, operating'within.the Sava
area (east of Litija), was unable to cross the Sava from the left of the right
bank in spite of the fact that it had boats, because of waves caused by the current
and uneven bottom of the river bed. Further on downstream,' in addition to the
quantity of water, marshes and woods makes this river a bigger obstacle, especially
from Zagreb to the mouth of the river Una at Jasenovac, and also along the left
bank in Slavonia and Srem. In spring low banks are generally flooded and then the
Sava is a serious obstacle. The Sava is navigable from Sisak (592k). The project
is to make it navigable to Zagreb (Podsused). During the lowest water level period
navigation is suspended entirely.
Important bridges are at: Ljubljana, Litija, Radece, Sevnice, Zagreb?,
Sisak, Jasenovac, Bosanska Gradiska, Slavonski Brod, Samac, Brcko, Sabac and
Belgrade (railway and vehicular traffic). Construction and maintenance of pontoon
409
Pr6m the military point of view the river Sava is a serious obstacle by
the quantity of waters depth and length, as_w4.1,as.hy the considerable width of it8
swampy?valleyir It valley could-ibrVe as alpasig for. o:perations.southwtird of torthib.
Ws*,?60d..04,10:;:is,the. line of opeheftbilhs for the MiaE6e from the West eastwakd and
vice trMidali
. t4o1y Opillated and?ecohomically.strOngi the .Valle7.1....dan be used for..
quatteKr4 ?y. masses.
i bile to the above mentioned conneAiofis between its valley ahd individudi
regiehi? it is possible to transreii operations from one region into another; besides,
the SaVa taliey oan serve as a firbti?class la.teral line of operations
_
The Germans and Austro?HungarianS Un4dr the command of General tiakenzeh
Belgrade
sieadtt r5:e
laat several places along the sectOr from the mouth of the Drina to
The left tributaries of the Sava
hKkr is a small river with deeply cut bed. It is important because
along 1.68 v.iIey runs a second-class road connecting?Kranj and Velikovac (in Austria)
via Jezerski Vrh,
a spring between the Kamniske Planine and the Savinjske Alpe,
flows along .a narrow valley to the provincial town of Breslovca, where it enters the
Gelje lowland area; at Celje it bends southward, entering a defile again, and flows
into the Sava at Zidani Must
The Savinja i8 an obstacle from Celje to its mouth by the profile of its
valley; it is. typical mountainous river that Winds along narrow valleys. ..Due to
?
a- -rff-i'. do.^14Ndtcr-(about 41 m /1.6r 23-km)d the speed or its current islgPeat,-and at
.. - , . . , ,. .. , -.., ... .
5. "(AI. ,..v.I.: :. ei . ., . .. 7 . .7.- , .. i?.??_, . ;
mahy.p+adeb.vie river is eititge14.0ti8 fOr oiaidg8 dUrlpOhe 4ignyater level perioue
e'heighi.Ot the batik 8 ii?difterei.M,iii)St1404M .4 Celle ',,the, right, bank. is fi.'6P 3: .
I. 5 in high in Avera.e.i^i 'Pi kA trio -letm TAJ' and brokeno.at-Zidahl Mo6t the river is
' 4 As. i- ? ' -1. ' ' , ' .
, .. 5, ""Y.? ' li, --.-i-..---, tower , - , / ? --. -- - - _
mit in the steep 81466i 1.,Xtilidth.i0 Proi,70, t6.100 m.,,.and downbtreat at Ri,?Mske
Toplice 40;1.50 M here and ;',110i4ei The depth Vdieet during the low water level period.
it is 15 in. did duriiig the illih. v)atet leVel lieriod it is from 10 to '6 rit. The
river 8e1dot floodsi, Iss bahksj and theh day .Lowor TheustQavinje is not hava.ga-
1,
bie? but is busy with raft traffic.
The importance of the Savinja lies in the fact that the taih railway
double-track line with Zidani Most and Celje, Maribor and Austria runs along it8
valley, and also other communications from Celje to Austria.
The Sutia is a small river with a road from the Brezice loWland area
northward to Dravsko Polje; it is the boundary between PR Croatia and Slovenia.
? ItLE2ali (132 km) spring from the Kalnicko Gorje; its tributaries are
the Cazma and the Ilova which springs from the foothills of the Bib o Gora. All
the three are typical plain rivers with slow and winding currents; they often flood
the country. These three rivers receive water from a number of streams and brooks
from the territory surrounded by the Medvednica, the Kalnicko Gorje, the Bib o Gora,
the Papuk and the Psunj. The lower Lonja flows across Lonjsko Polje which is swampy
here and therd.
ThUtliallt is a small river flowing across the Slavonska Pozega lowland
.11 ? ? 410
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?
The Bosut (186 km) 1)ringS south of Vihkovci, flowS through this town and
oins the Sava .at village Bosut 5 km north of the mouth of the Drina); it is an ?bar'
stacle from village Podgradje to its mouth because of muddy bottom and swampy banks,
Its bed is deeply cut in, declivity insignificant, bottom veiy muddy. Its banks are
from 2 to 7 in high, steep and wooded; only downstream at Moravia they are not steep
and are approachable; composed of hard clay) at the mouth mostly steep and broken.
Width: 451,55 in, and between villages Apsevci and mbravic 150 in here and there* The
depth is during the low water level Period to village APsevoi 0.54.5 in, further on
to 'village Morovic 1.5-2 in, and from there to the mouth about 2 in. During the high
water level Period from 4 to 7 in. During droughts the bed is entirely dry at many
places; only stagnant water can be found then. Floods cover large areas.
The Sora springs between the Alps and the Dinara karst. It is a mountain-
ous river, but at skofja Loka its valley gets wider in the Kranj lowland area. It is
very important'for second-class roads run along its valley and along the valley of its
tributaries from Skofja Loka, across the saddles at Podbrdo, Oerkno and through village
Ziri to the valleys of the Idrija and the Soca.
anica springs from the western slopes of the Pivka mountain (at
Ilirska Bidtrica) under the name of the Pivka. Flows northward and at Postojna sinks
into the Pcistrona Cave. At Planina it appears again under the name of the Unec,
flows for ab6Ut 10 km, sinks again and, finally) appears again as the Liublianica
at Vrgnika? Further on, it flows across the large, fertile and partially swampy
Ljubljansko Barje and through Ljubljana itself; downstream of Ljubljana it joins the
Sava.
The Ljubljanica is an obstacle from Vrhnika. Both banks are followed
by stairs 3.6 ni high, along the upper Part oloss to the river, along the lower part
running along the river at a distance from 150 to 250 M. The lower Part is winding.
In Ljubljansko Berje the banks are low, in Ljubljana retained by ,walls, and further
on .downstream filled with sand and pebbles. Its width is from 30 to 70 in. Depth:
at low water level 1-2 in, medium 1.6-2.8 In, high water level period: 2.76-4m. The
river floods Ljubljansko Barje every year and sometimes twice a ye4t.
The Irk springs from karst at village Krka southeast of the Ljubljana
'lowland area.- it valleyis fairly wide) becoming considerably wider.from'Ndvo
Nbsto. The lower Krka flows across the Krsko4itrezice lowland area and joins the
Sava at Brezice. The Krka is an obstacle from its spring to village Dvor because
of its rockY-banks deeply cut in, and further on downstream because of the quantity
of water, too. Before it enters Krsko Polje vest of Novo gest?, the bed of the
Krka ia deeply cut between high, partly rocky and Unapproachable 'banks. Downstream
from Novo most() to the mouth the bed is wider and winding, and at the mouth it i$
somewhat muddy. In Krsko Polje the banks are low, overgrown with trees and flooded.
The width is fairly constant: 65 to 120 in. But the depth varies: 1.34-6.4 m.
High water level, periods are frequent, appearing every spring, and even in June and
October, and last quite long. At that time a large area in Krsko Polje is under
water which is from 1 to 2 in deep at some places. In normal circumstances this
river is fordable at some places.
It is important because along its valley run roads connecting the
Krsko-Brezice lowland area and the Ljubljana lowland area in the Sava valley; these
roads by-pass the long defile on the Sava between Ljubljana, Zidani Most and Krsko.
Thelwa springs from the spurs of the Risnjak To the Karlovaa. 7LoWm.
land area it flows along a narrow valley which is somewhat broader at Ornome1j and
Metlika. At Petrinja the Kupa enters the swampy Plain of the Sava and at Sisak
flows into the Sava. It is navigable only during the high water level period in the
length of 1301M (from KarlOvac to the Mouth) and at normal water level only from
village PokUpsko.
By thequantity, of water the Kupa is an obstacle along. the whole length.
In plains the bed is winding. In the upper part the river is pressed by surrounding
hills; the-current is fast because of underwater rocks. In aVerage,'At8 banks are
from :5 to 8 M high and quite broken, Along the sector village,BrkiseIina .(towards
Glina) -:the Mouth-, the approach to the banks is difficult becallse.of muddy terrain
and often is confined to existing Communications. The Width is from 100.0 190 in.
The depth is 3-5 in at Sisak during the low water level period. Water level varies.
During the high water level period the country is flooded, often-twice a rear;. then,
fairly:lrge:nrens.at Mrztlikn, in the Katinvne inwinnd-ana-in Posavina are fInciand.
Water flows off very slowly, and remains here and there for mont4s.
The right tributaries of the Kupa worth mentioning are; the Dobra, the
Korana? on whioh:KarlOvac is situated, with its tributary the Mreznicavandthe,
l'he beds of all these rivers are very narrow and deeply Cut in rocks,
especially in Upper parts, so they are considerable obstacles like the Kupa.
The Kupa is very important because of communications that run ,along the
shortest way into the Sava valley downstream of Zagreb. Along the valleys of the
tributaries of the Kupa run roads connecting the Kupa and the Sava valleys to Lika
and northwestern Bosnia
The Una (255 km) springs 5 km south of village Donji Srb. Flows into
the Sava-at AsenOvac. It flows across various regions of the Dinara system;. its
valley connects the Sava valley and the region of North Dalmatia and the Adriatic
Sea (the Una railway line).
In the main, the Una valley is narrow, with defiles in some places, it
is wider at Kulen Vakuf, Bihac, Bosanska Krupa and Bosanski Novi. From Kostajnica
the valley is about '1 .km wide; at Dubica it enters the Sava valley and flows across
marshy ground-which is difficult to pass. The Una is an obstacle from Bosanski
Novi to its mouth. The bed is not regulated, The banks are from 2 to 5 in high,
of earth and broken, retained'by a wall at few places, thickly overgrown with
bushes - easy to approach. With: 80-175 m. Depth: variable, in average in normal
water. level 2-4 in. In exceptional cases, during the high water level period the
riirer floods its banks, but floods do not endanger lines of communications that run
along both banks. Only at the mouth the floods of the Una join those of the Sava.
Downstream of Bihao there are very few fords. Small barges can navigate up to
Bosanski Novi and up the river Sam., a tributary of the Una, to Projedor.
A second-class road and the so-called Una railway line run along the Una
valley, connecting (via Bihac and Knit)) the Sava valley to Slbenik and Split, and
reverse, the Adriatic Sea to northwestern Bosnia and the Sava valley. Owing to thisf''
the Una valley is of first-class importance from the economic, traffic and military
point of view.
Its tributary the Sana is worth mentioning; it is an obstacle, from
Prejedorto its mouth by its width (75-130 ML) and by its depth (1.5 tO 3.5 m). Its
banks are broken, 2-3 in high, thickly overgrown and difficult to approach.
mi,he Vrbas (240 km) springs from the foothills of the Vranina mnnntain.
The Vrbas valley is narrow, with steep, rocky and craggy .sides. Between Gorng
Vakuf and Donji Vakuf the valley is wide, known as SkopIje, a lowland area 30 km .
long and 5 km wide; Skoplje is one of -the most fertile and most densely populated. .
lowland areas in Bosnia. North Of Banjaluka the valley gets wider and gradually
spreads into a fertile lowland area called Lijevce which r:nctends into the swampy:
Sava valley.
The Vrbas has the characteristics of a mountainous river even in a
plain. Its bed is not regulated, but left -to the influence d natural forces and.
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
50-Yr 2014/03/04: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400130005-2

be,14 rhe deliviy is consideMb1e about O M pe king
in igh of earth i bOken;thickly atietsgoWn tIth Viiiii6b and difficult tb.a,ptfroa,oh
along the whole length. In the original `heti, dridi badiwater0 are numerouS aits,.
some of them cultivated' .The width of main currePt dttrifig the liormal water level
-Period is 65"110'm) and thd width of Parallel backwaters 10-40.1n. DUrihg the normal
water level period the depth is 1.5-3 in, and in backwaters up to, 1.5 in. Speed of
current is 14.5 misec in normal circumstances. Floods are normal Phenomena in
spring and in autumn, when the ground is covered with water from l to 1.2 in deep;
In some places water remains one or two months and during that.Perfod oa.rt"traoks
are out of use for heavy vehicles; practically =serviceable for transportation.
From Banjaluka only rafts can navigate.
1 of water even in drY
, make oi'teh posSib 6 ,he dis6ovei,y of the originale
e hunks are ,from 2 to 7
gives:the impression op Numerei113, bAc . a, er
-inonthe up to 1 :M deep
A se-6?nd -class road runs from Gornki Vakuf along the Vrbas valley to its
mouth northwest of Srbac, and from Gornji Vakuf to Jajce also a narrow-gauged railway
line. From Donji Vakuf to Banjaluka the valley is narrow and canyon-like, but a
Iiitle wider at Jajces9 in this part the valley can be easily blocked and defended..
valley can
the Vrbas valley there are some rich agricultural areas: Skoplje and Lijevcat
in those areas all supplies for men and animals are available, as well as material
for engineering works. In that part where the valley is a defile, Jajce is an imes
portant economic centre. However, even in. the valley between Donji Vakuf and Banjaluke
some wider Places with localities can be found in which supplies for smaller units
are available'.
From the military point of view the Vrbas valley is a line of operations)
in the direction north-south, extending via the Prozor saddle and along the Rama
valley into the Neretva valley and to the Adriatic Sea
During the Fourth Offensive in 1943, in the period of "Weiss III' Oper-
ations) the 'German 717 Division advanced along the Vrbas valley, along the general
line' of operations: Jajee, Donji Vakuf, Bugojno, Gornji Vakuf, Prozor, with the
aim of encircling our forces within the bulge of the Neretva (in cooperation with
Throes advancing along other lines of operations). The enemy failed.
.1,
The Bosna UO8 km) springs west of Sarajevo from many (30-40) springs-
I , .
in the foothills ofthe Igman mountain. At. the very beginning it is a-strong and
. fairly broad river.. Its valley is variable: now wide as in Sarajevsko Poljei
...
Zenidko PoljeraZepcansko Polje, and Dobojsko Pap, and then narrow: the narrowest
plape.is.at Vranduke Fertile and well cultivated along the whole length. At
'llodric the Bosna enters Posavinal and at Samac.flows into the Sava.? Not so fast,
as the Vrbas and with smaller delivity. The Bosna is an Obstacle from Maglaj to its
mouth. The valley looks wild at some places. From Doboj downstream it forks into.
several branches.. Numerous swampy backwaters are separated from the main current
by gravel.- The delivity is small, about 0.8 in per km. The banks are from 2 to 6
in high, broken, overgrown with trees and bushes and easy to approach during dry
weather periods. Now one bank is higher, then another. Down to Doboi aits are
small and unclutivated, from there downstream they are larger and well cultivated..
The width of the river varies, from 80 to 185 m.. Narrow places' are between Maglaj
and Doboj. During the normal water lei=e1 period the depth is from 3 to 6 k, and
in backwaters up to 2 in.. The riverfloods the country in spring and autumn every
yeara. It seldom floods the country between Maglaj and Debob.but further on down
.to Modric more-often. Downstream of Modric is an area 4 km wide, generanYflooded
eery year, froi which water flows off after floods in 14 to 18 days. The river is
not navigable for ships, but lumbering and floating trade is highly developed.
Even when the water level is normal, fords are rare; there are several bridges. In
addition to the old narrow-gauged railway line Brod - Sarajevo, the new nOrmalwtrack
railway line Samac - Sarajevo has been constructed in the valley of the Bosna.
From the military point of view the Bosna is the most important of all
rivers in Bosnia. Its valley is comparatively most suitable for operations; besides
It connects some regions very important from the economic point of view ..and Sarajevor
.4100110/113
,?????:
e
113
0.
a vital junction of communications, from where a good communication runs divergently
ii all directions. Via the Ivan saddle it is connected with the Neretva valley. The
Bosna valley, along the valleys of its tributaries the Usora and the Lasva, is in
connection with the Vrbas valley, and along the valleys of the Spreca and the Krivaja,
With tile Drina valley: which makes nnssible manoeuvring and regrouping of forces from
one line of operations to anotherl
, During the Fourth Offensive in 1943, in the period of the mWeisp II" Oper-
ation, from the upper Bosna region (Sarajevo area) operated the German 718tiii Division
along the general lines of operations: Sarajevo, the Ivan saddle) Kongo with the
dim of ericir.irig our forces in the lati!6 of the Neretva (in cooteration with forces
-
operating along other lines of operations) The enemy failed
The Bosna is the biggest Bosnian river Besides, its valley is the
widest, most fertile and, naturally, most densely !Populated of all other valleys in
Boshidi In its yang are situated many towns and vital basins of strategid raw
material (iron, coal) and basihs of our heavy inftkry (Zenica) With the main
junction 62 railway lines - Doboji
?i a. (333 kin) together with the. Pats. 467 ,km) is Ported by tWo fe,St4
Mountainous rivers, rich in water from the veil- bOtitcel the Tara (J.34 kW. and the
Piva (88 km)l. The Tara springs from the northern '6iopes of the ZijoVo mountain, and
ihe Piva t Piva Monastery.. The sides of their, Valleys are steep and rocky (the -
Piva 500400 Ill' high, the Tara Up to i000 m)4 They are obstacles by he speed of he
current and cOnfiguration of banks rather than .by t he. qUantity of 1,4ateri
'During the Fifth Offensive in 1943, the basic operational idea of the
enemy was to encircle and defeat the main striking group of our Army in the area
between the Piva and the Tara. However, in spite of a terrain difficult to pass and
obstacles formed by the canyons of the Piva and the Tara, our forces crossed the
lower Piva in force and broke through the enemy's encirclement. These two rivers
join each other in Scepan Polje and the Drina, formed in that way, flows by Foca and
Visegrad winding northeastward to-Rogacica, where it turns northwestward, .and at
Zvornik it turns northward and flows in that direction to its mouth at Raca.
- Its valley along the whole length from the springs almost to Koviljaca is
a stony, mountainous defile, with rocky sides, wooded here and there. It is a little
wider at Foaa, Gorazde and Visegrad. From Zvornik downstream the valley becomes
broader (2-4 km), and from Loznica even more; at Janja plains open: Semberija in
Bosnia and Macva.in Serbia separated by the Drina.
The width of the Drina is variable: at Foca, for example, it is about
100 in, otherwise in the upper part it varies from 100 to 180 in, and in the lower
part up to 300 in. The depth is between 1 and 4 in; the speed of the current is 1.7
m/sec everywhere. The bottom is stony and with sand bars in some places; the Drina
is a fast and wild river, fordable here and there; bridges are at Foca) Gorazde,
Medjedja, Visegrad, Ljubovija and Zvornik; the well-known is the bridge at Visegrad,
a stone bridge with 9 spans, built in tiae XVI Centuryby Maimed Pasha Sokolovich,
Turkish grand vezier, but originally a Herzegovinian. On the Tara, the bridge at
Djurdjevica Tara is important (the road Savnik Pljevlja).
It could be navigable for ships from Zvornik to the month if the bed had
been regulated; it is navigable for rafts from Bajina Basta,
Its narrow valley does not allow construction of roads along the whole
length, but on some sectors only.
This powerful mountainous river is able to produce over 8 billion KWh.
A big power plant is under construction at Zvornik, that would produce the same
amount of electric energy as the power plant in the island of Maribor.
Although the river Drina was a strong obstacle, our units crossed it
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
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so 114 t's
during the Fourth Offensive, advancing from Herzegovina; we crossed the Drina at Foca
in spite that it was defended by the Italians and the "tchetniks". The crossing was
performed north of this provincial town (1st Division) and south of it (2nd Division)
on, rafts. The crossing of the Drina Proves.the ability of our forces to cross ob*
stades during the Peoples War of Liberation.
The left tributaries of the Drina worth mentioning are:
The buzlesica, a mountainous river, flowing into the Drina 6 km downstream'
from village Hum. Connects the upper Drina to Gatacko Polje via Camerno. Along its
valley ran the old commercial road from Dubrovnik via Gacko and Foca to the empire
of Nemaniici and to Constantinople'. Ruins of old castles can still be found in its
valley, they blocked the Way. It is famous for hard and bloody combats during the
Fifth Offensive' The enemy organized defence along this river but our forces broke
through.
,The Praca, with the railway line Sarajevo Visegrad Titovo Uzice
running along its valley.
During the Fifth offensive in 1943, when our forces broke the front on
the sutjeska-, the enemy,,taking advantage of the Praca as an obstacle organized a
new front along it, but without success, because it was broken too.
The right tributaries:
Coti0 (Ceotina) flows south of Pljevlje and joins the Drina at Foca.
rdable? but there are few fords, because of difficult approaches to the river.
11214.42 (the length: 191 km) springs from two branches of the KOMMi and
the Prokletije. These ,branches join each other at Cusinje, and immediately after
that flow into Lake Play under the name of the river Ljuca., From the lake it flows
nbrthward under the name of the river Lim. Its valley is narrow, banks very steep,
rocky, =forested or overgrown with trees.- The depth is from 1 to 4 in, and the
width it the upper part 30,n4 and in the lower up to 100 in. Bridges are at MUrino,
Ivangrad, PrijepolJe, Ustibar, Rudo. Along the lower Lim a railway line (0.76 m)
runs from Medjedja to Priboj.
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smaller rivers, important by 'Positions extending along these rivers which played an
important role in 19144 ,Fr011Ithe military point of view the Kolubara, with, its rich,
wide, 1;essab1*nd coomm7in4eat4ve va1ley .m.11:cr serve as a line of operations. A fairly
large :obstacle on this line is a ridge of low and medium mountains the watershed
between the Kolubara and the Zapadna Morava,' which can make difficult the transfer of
operations to the Zapadna gorava valleyi
.1219,211ajttgla is our biggest river after the Sava (216 km). It flaws
'
across the middle Id Serbia, dividing it into two parts: eastern and wettern. This
is the biggest and longest river in Serbia, with a very well developed water gystem;
its valley Is the richest valley in Serbia, Therefore, Its importance from both mil-
itary and economic point of view is very great.
It is formed by two rivers: the Juzna (knacks.) Morava and the Zapadna
(the Golija) Morava4
Crna Cora,
The Juzna Morava (295.9 km) springs from he northern spurs of the Skopska
At village Binac it is a mountainous river and flows through the Konculski
Tesnac (defile)# which is about 10 km long, Froin Vladicin Han to Gfdelica it flows
through a defile known as Grdelicka Klisura, which is about 30 km long, and further
downstream through the Stalac defile for about 20 km,'
Vranje,
second;
' T46, Crni Rzav .and the Beli_Rzav are small mountainous rivers; important,
because they connect Visegrad and Titovo Uzice via village Mbkra Gora and village
Sargan (secondreclase road and 0.76 mi railway line).
The va114 of the Jadar is fairly wide; fertile and well cultivated.
Connects Lohica and Valjevol i.e. the Drina valley to the Valjevo lowland area and
the upper Kolubara. In 1914, during the offensive of Austro-Hungarian forces from
Bosnia to Serbia it served as the line of operations for the upper Kolubara valley.
The Kola= (iA/ km). The Kolubara is an obstacle from village Slava?
to the mouth because of muddy bottom and configuration of. banks. The bed is divided
into several backwaters here and there. Declivity small, The bottom is muddy al.
ong the whole length. The banks are up to 3 m high, broken, here and there swampy,
overgrown With thick bushes. At the mouth, the river forks into many backwaters.
The width of the Kolubaia is from 15 to 60 in, The depth at normal water level is
1.2 in. Current very slow. Floods are 'considerable and or the whole plain along
the river, whereltr waters of the Tamnava, the Ub and the Kolubara mix together.
High water level of the Sava causes overflowing of the Kolubara. The Kolubara
valley, is very fertile, rich and well populated. There are few bridges. ,
Its tributaries are:
The Lig - with the narrow-gauged railway line (0.76 m) running along its
valley and connecting the Kolubara valley with the Zapadna Morava valley via Gornj1
Milanovac and Cacak,
left tributaries worth mentioning are: the Tamnava and the UN
? * ? 14.4.5
,
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2014/03/04
The Juzna Morava hag plenty of water from its mouth to 10 km, northeast of
but very little fuither on upstream (in dry weather) 0.500 Cu. in. per
water level varies; overflows its valleyti
Width: )upper and middle part from 15 to 30 in, the lower part up to 100 104,
Depth: at medium water level in the upper part 1.5 in, in the lower 2-3 in.
Speed of current: high water level - 2.6 mbeci medium water level -
1.3 m See; low .6. 0.6 m/sec.
Several fords.
Bridges: 2 wooden, 1 of concrete (at Dzer), 18 railway bridges.,
Flooded: Aleksinacko Polje, Risk? Pole (1948), Leskovacko Polje.
No meliorationt
In severe winters ice is a danger for bridges-,
Tributaries of the Juzna Morava. Left Tributaries:
The Vete'rnica - valley fairly rich and populated. Flows into the Juzna
Morava north of Leskovac. At normal water level fordable everywhere,.
From the military point of view it is important because it is a by-pass
for any force whose task wneiri be to outmanoeuvre the Grdelicka Klisura,
The Jablanica - along which a road and .a cart-track run between Leskovac
and Pristina via Medvedja.
?
Tie To1ica - from the military point of view important because a second-
class road and railWay. line run along its valley and along the valley of the river
Lab., connecting Kosovo and Nis. Due to this, the valleys of the above mentioned
rivers are most suitable lines for operations from northeast towards Pristina, i.e
in reverse towards Nis.
? 900
416
j
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springs fram,th Rujen mountain and flows into the Juzna
at Bujanovac Itsiioy is wide, fertile, well cultivated and densely poPillatede It
is a part or the morava.Vardar valley, 'whibh means that this small river and its 'valley
is very ibiportant from the military, trai i i
d and economic pOnt of view.
,
?
A seCond -class road and railway line run along its valley; these eathmuno.
rrahing from the Juzna MoraVa valleY over the Presevo watershed run dcwn
t6 the vahuleevalley Owingto this, this valley may become a Part ok-a very imbi
portant line of operations strategical),.00mmunieations and lateral commuhicationsf;
2121112111 - flows off frotitalo Ylasina and lirto the Juina.MOraVasnorth4
west of vlasotincii From its source to Viasotinci it floWS through a defile thus -
being unrilroduatile and fairly Poor4T:Se0ohdolass roads. run along its ,Valley connect'
in Leskovacko Polje6hd Pirotsko P4J0 to POloPaianack:o Poijo, a cart-track runs
f4,01a village Svodje -towards the saddle Dtscahi Eladenaci ahd a branch via Orria Trava
towards Lake Vlasina.
talaya.. is I driea bytwo tna11 river, the right is (14110d :the
Nisava, springs at village Gin1 n Bu1ia ahd'illoWdthrough Dimitrovgrad, and the
leftithe Jermal-springs east bf tttke,v 4iindi They Join each other at villae
sukovo tithe sOUtheasterh pat of Pirotsko Poljoi
Both branch ? are small toUnaihotit rivers important because along their
valleYs arid along the-valleys 0.fa their tributaries run commuhicatians from Juge-
blavia.to Bulgaria along the very important line of operations (the Nisava.ltne of
operations). From the Sukavo bridge the? Nisava flows? northwestward, connecting
Pirotsko Polje, Belopalanacko Polje, the Sicevacka Klisura and Nisko Polje.
At the bridge at village Sukovo the Nisava enters Pirotsko Po/je,-.a.flat?
fairly large, fertile, cultivated and densely populated lowland area, 14 km: long, and
from 2 to 4 ki? wide; this area is separated from the Bela Palanka lowland area
(Belopalanacko Polje) by a short defile.
"
Belopalanacko Polje is somewhat smaller, 16 in long and 1-2 km wide;
fertile like Pirotsko Polje.
At village Gradiste the Nisava enters the Sicavacka.Klisura (Sicevao
defile). The Sicevac defile, with the exception of a small part, is very narrow,
with very high, bare and rocky sidAge Then the valley becomes wider, extending
into Nisko Polje which is fertile, well cultivated, populated as the two mentioned
above.
From village Sukovo to its mouth the Nisava is fordable at several places
at normal water level. The bottom is either stony or gravelled; the width is from
500 to 100 in, and the depth from 1 to 1.5 in.
The Nisava valley, although often broken by defiles, is fairly wide, fertile
well cultivated and thickly populated. If we add that it is an extension of the Moro,
ava valley towards the east, then its importance from the military, traffic and econ-
omic point of view is great. It is of special importance from the military point of
view because it is the best and Shortest way between the Morava valley on one side
and the Sofia plateau and the valley of the river Maritsa, on the other.
It is a serious obstacle to the advance from the north southward and vice
versa, in connection with defiles and surrounding terrain -the spurs and steep slopes
of the Svajiska Planine, the Vidll.c mountain, the Stara Planina and the Vlaska
Planina mountains.
The Moravica springs from the Devica mountain, flows across the Soko
Banja lowland area, through Bovanski Tesnac (defile) and flows into the Juzna
Morava at Aleksinac. It is important because its valley is the connection between
.... 17
if
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tje Juzna Morava and the Timak; along its valley runs a second-class road: Aleksinac
Soko Banja Knjazevac (or Boljevae Zajecar).
atkoslor Morava springs from the Golija mountain and flows northward
to the mouth of the river Djetinja east of Pozegi. Up to this town it is called
tie Moravica; from there It turns eaStward and flows under the name of the Zapadna
Morava until it joins the Juzna Morava at Stalac. Along the MoraVica valley runs a
second-olass road from Pozbga to Ivanjica; further on, as a cart-track it runs over
the Javor mountain to Sjenica.
From the Pozega lowland area the Zapadna Morava flows through the Ovear-
Kablar Defile (0Vcarsko-Kablarska Klisura). After this defile its valley is wide,
fertile, rich and densely pOpulatedi
The Zadpdna Morava is ridher h*tier than the Juzna Morava; it is from
IOU to 150 rp4 wide and 1:2'42 in aeep! Th 6 blottOM is hard and gravelled; Current:
medium Speed; in the lower parts fords are rare.
The tributaries of the Za adna Morava. The left tributaries:
1122.2121iall is important because it connects the Zapadna Morava and the
Drina at Visegrad via Sargan and the rpier Rzav.
The Dicina connects the Kolubara and the Zapadna Morava.
The Gruza - with a seaond-class road and railway line running along its
valley from Kragujevac to Kraljevo.
The right tributaries:
The Ibar (195 km) springs from the western spurs of the Hajla mountain.
Its valley is narrow with insignificant widenings. .Its banks are very steep and
high, up to 700 in here and there, and wooded. From Kosovska Mitroviea.to Raska it
flows through a defile; at Raska the valley is a little wider but gets narrow again,
and at Kraljevo the Ibar enters the Morava valley, where it is 60-70 m broad. There
are few bridges: at Rozaj, Kosovska Mitrovica, Raska, Usce and Kraljevo.
Considering the depth, width, speed of current, configuration of banks
and profile of its valley, the Ibar is a serious obstacle . The importance of the
river Ibar is that it connects the Zapadna Morava valley and Kosmet. Its importance
is greater because a road and a railway line run along its valley; its valley is
thus a second line connecting Serbia and Macedonia.
The Ibar valley plays the role of an important line of communications;
so it served to the Germans during World War II to relieve the traffic along the
line.: Belgrade - Nis - Skoplje and, besides, the railway line in the Ibar valley
was the export line for raw material from the Ibar Basin. In order to break this
railway-line,'the Kraljevo Partizan Detachment attacked Usce and the railway bridge
105 in long, for those were the most vulnerable places along this line. In addition.
to strong ener* forces that defended the above mentioned places, an armoured train
was brought from Kraljevo., In spite of such a defence, Use? was taken at the end of
September 1941 and the railway bridge demolished, and between Raska and Usce opera
ated a partizan train, since the Ibar valley had been liberated on this sector.
The tributaries of the Ibar, important from the military point of view,
are:. the Sitnica and the Raska,
The Rasina (82 km) is important because of a second-class road that runs
along its valley to Jankova Klisura (t rough the defile as a cart-track), connecting
#
the Zapadna Morava valley (Krusevac) ough Jankova Klisura, to the Toplica valley,
or via Brus to the Ibar valley.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Cop Ap roved for Release @ 50-Yr 2014/03/04:
The Velika Morava is formed at Stalac by the Zapadna Morava and the
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Juzna Morava and flows northward.. Flows into the Danube east of Smederevo, at the old
fortress of KuliC.
From Stalac to the Bagrdanski Pesnac (Bagrdan Defile) its valley is wide,
fertile and well populated. After the Bagrdanski Tesnac it flows along a 5-20 km
wide valleY, along both sides of which is hilly terrain. The Velika Morava floods its
valley almost every year.
Although the quantity of water is sufficient for navigation, it is not
navigable because its bed is not regulated,.
The Velika Morava has the characteristics of a plain river. Along a
straight line it is 245 km long.
Winding, it cuts bends alone. Its bottom is gravelled and sandy. From
the mouth to the Ljubicevsko most (the bridge at Liubicevo) it is navigable for
larger objects (up to 100 tons),
Melioration is being carried out bends are being cut, but the declivity
will be increased.
'The width at the mouth is up to 280 in, in the Markoveo area only 50 in, in
average 110430 in.
Water level and depth: water level variable; depth at normal water level;
2-3
Speed of current:
high water level' 2.4m/sec;
medium water level 1 "
r low water level...we.. 0.5 "
During the low water level period the river is fordable at many places.
The tributaries of the Velika Morava. The left tributaries:
The Lepenica - important by the connection between the Velika Morava and
the Zapadna Morava Via KragujeVac. Along its valley run a second-class road and a
railway line from the Velika Morava valley via Kragujevac to the Gruza valley and
the Zapadna Morava valley at Kraljevo.
- The Jasenica is important by the connection between the valleys of the
Velika Morava and the Kolubara: second-class road Velika Plana - Topola Arand-
jelovac Lazarevac. Along the valley of its left tributary the Lug runs the main
line Velika Plana - Belgrade. The terrain on its right bank is higher than
on the left and, together with the river Jasehica, offers good conditions for the
organization of defence from the attack from the north.
The Ralja is importnlat because of the railway line Belgrade - Mala
Krsna Pozarevao or Smederevo and strong positions along its right bank (the
VarovnicrA)G
lo
The right tributaries:
The Resava. Along its left bank there are good positions, on which the
advance ofthe enemy from the north towards upper Pomoravlje could be checked; the
flanks of these positions are supported - the left by the Velika Morava and .the
right by the Beljanica and the Kucej mountains, which are difficult to pass.
The importance of the Velika Morava is very great, both from the military
and cultural Point of view. The valley, which is 20 km wide at some places, is so
fertile that we call it the granary of Serbia. Densely populated - over 100 inhabitants
per square km.. Quartering and food are available even for operational units
f?;'
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e?;,"'?,
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,
,
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The Velika Morava valley, as well as 'the valleys of the lUzlia Morava and
the Zapadia Morava, ahd also the valleys of some tributaries, especially the Nisava
and 'she Mbravica?.are Suitable as line of operations tactical lines and lines of
comMunications, the rivers themselves as obstacles and their banks as positions.
OfDerationS along the Velika Morava valley would not meet such difficulties, as on
some &her Lines in Serbia either east or west of the Velika Moravai
As a line of dommunicatiohs., in addition to railways and good roads on
both Ade's or the Ve]:ika Morava, may be used the Velika Morava itself, along which
rafts loaded with supplies dan navigate 4 Once when the Velika Morava is regulated
for the navigation of steaterb, its importance as a line of Communications will be
much greater t However, it May separate friendly units advanding along both banks
by its wide bed, swampy tracts and quantity of water.
The Velika Morava as an obsticie, with its valley and surrounding hilly
nnti molitainoue terrain, offers very favourable conditions for the organization of
defence on both sides,
The k4ava (122 km) springs east of Zagubica and flows into the Danube at
Kos.bolac The valley of the lower Mlava is called Stig, one of the most fertile
4 ? 6 -
areas In werbial The upper Iliava, to Gornjacka Klisura, is a mountainous river flow-
ing across the lowland area Homolje by Zagubica. From Petrovac the current gets
slaw, and the bottom mudc,ly. Due to this, although the Mlava is not very broad (30
m) and deep (14.5 m), it is not fordable, nor can be crossed without bridges; there
are several bridges, Along the Mlava valley run a railway line (0,76 m) from '
POzarevac and a second!sclass road which, via Zagubica and Brestovacka Banja, led to
Bor and Zajecar, so that this valley is a natural connection between the lower Mar-
ava and the Timok valley,
From the military point of view the Mlava is important because in its
middle and lower parts it is closely connected to the Morm-ra valley, thus becoming
an integral part of a line of operations that would run along the Velika Morava
valley. This role played the valleys of the Velika Morava and the'Mlava in World
War I in 1915, when they were used by the Germans.
The Pek (112 km) isworth mentioning from the military point of view, con-
sidering thatits-valley is a natural connection between PamoraVlje and Timocka
Krajina (Krajina on the map). A railway line and a road run along its valley to
Brodica
The Porecka Reka (39 km) is formed by two river: the Ornajka and the
Saska. The first springs from the Stoll and the second from Majdanpek. The Porecka
Reka flows into the Danube east of Donji Milanovaci
The upper Porecka Reka flows along a narrow valley, with steep, rather
rocky and thinly populated banks. The valley in the lower part is somewhat wider,
but banks are the same as along the upper Porecka Reka and also thinly populated.
The whole area within the water system of this river is called Porec.
-From the militarST point of view the Porecka Reka is Very important, for
on the sector from Golubec to Tekija it is the only good approach to the Danube from
the south. Besides, it is the shortest connecting link between the Danube (Donji
Ililanovac) and the lower Timok (Negotin).
The Timok (182 km) is formed by two rivers: the Deli (Knjazevacki) and
the Grni (Krivorirski) Timok.
Fordable at normal water level along the whole length, with the exception
of the part from village Bregovo to its mouth, where it is muddy. The left bank is
a little higher than the right; population fairly thick. The Timok is an obstacle
froth Knjazevac, i.e. from Lukavo to its mouth because of it's water mass and Configur-
ation of banks. Width: down to Zajecar l5.630 in, and further on downstream 30-60 in. .
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Depth: Speed Of current! to Zajecar L245 fUrther on downstream
()S05-04,8'misec. The bottom is gravelled, and in lower tart muddy, The banks are
imainlyhigh and broken, at some places rocky, in lover Part swampy. During the high
water level Pqriod the rivet floods the plain. at Zajecar and Negotin. The banks are
overgrown with high .trees and bush.
Along the valleys of the Orni Timok and the river ?mica run a second=
class road and a railway line (0.76 m) from. Zajecar to Paracin.
From the military point of view the Timok is an important river, because
its valley can seriie as a lateral line of communications, but its weak point is the
vicinity of the frontier (6-10 km); further on, the river as an obstacle, with the
surrounding terrain, offers favourable conditions for the organization of defence,
whose Positions would be supported on flanks by the Danube and the Stara Planina
mountain and, finally, its valley' and the valleys of its two branches can be used
as lines of operations either from the north southward or in reverse, or from the
east westward or vice versa.
system.
0111411LialuJilLaltaka
About 20% of the total surface area of Jugoslavia belongs to this water
This water system, is very long, but very narrow, because mountain chains
of the Dinara system, which form the eastern border of this water system, are exr
tending mainly parallelto the Adriatic Coast and at a ,small distance from the coastIm
line. Owing to this, most of the rivers of this water' system are .short. They are
narrow, almost without any valleys, so that surrounding terrai4 naturally, is unr
productive, poor and thinly populated. Fairly long rivers as thejleretva, the Drim,
the Sum, spring beyond the eastern border of the main ridge) piercing through it, OP
that their valleys are Very' narrow ani with high, 'rocky sides.
The following rivers beyond to this water system:
The Soca springs south of the saddle Vrbic. Down to Bovec it is an
obstacle because of the configuration of its banks and steep slopes, and in the lower
part also because of the quantity of water and speed of current ?. DINnstream of
Gorica during the low water level period it is not an obsta46 because its water L.
taken away: 'along the Soski Kanal via Trzic for industrial. purposes.
From the spring to Bovec the Soca .flows through a rocky defile, where
its bed is from 6 to 45 in broad. .At Bowe and village Zaga it widens up to 50.0 t4
Further on to Kobarid its valley is rocky, 40 in broad; from here to ay.. Lucija (the
bridge on the. Soca) the bed is deeply cut in rocks, about 80 m widel,gravelled. From
S7. Lucija to village Log, 3 km southwest of SY. Lucija? the 80?,3 :flaws through a 30-.40
mL deep and rocky defile; further on to village Solkan it is also rocky, 40-80 m wide.
Downstream of Solkan the bed is gravelled, to Gorica deeply cut in rocks and 80-200
in wide. From Gorica towards Trzic it is from 100 to 200 in wide and towards the
mouth about 150 in. The Soski Kanal is from 60 to 80 m broad.
The bottom of the bed is rocky in mountains and def:Iles, and gravelled at
wider places. Along the whole length the bottom is covered with large stony blocks*
The banks of the Soca are rocky in mountains and defiles; down to Boyce
there are high rooks; from Kobarid to Sv. Lucija they are 3-15 in high and broken;
,from here to village Log high rocks can be found, and fUrther on to village Solkan
the banks are rocky and 10 to 30 in high
In the lower part, in the plain from Solkan to Gorica, the banks are 10
to 60 in high, steep) mainly stony plateaus; from Gorica to village Gradiska tie
banks are 2 to 20 in high, steep and rocky. From the mouth of the river Vipava to
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village Zagraj, 3 km southwest of Gradiska, they are rocky; from Gradiska on the banks
are 1 to 3 74 high
The width to Solkan is 10 to 40 m further downstream 100450 in.
The depth normal to Bcvec 0.3-1 in, to Kobarid 0415-1 in, to Sy. Lucija
0.5-2 in, to Log 2-4 in, from village Zagraj to Trzic 03-0.5 in, and from here to the
mouth 1-5 in, Between Sy, Lucija and Solkan the depth is greater at some places
because of dams at power plants.
Water level: usually normal from May to September, high, due to melting
snow, fram March to April, and due to rains, in October and November. Water level
rises from 4 to 6 m, and sometimes even 7 In; low in mountains in January and February,
and if the summer is dry, in July and August too.
The left tributaries of the Soca: The Idrijca along whose valley runs
the second-class road Sy. Lucija - Idrija Donji Logatec. Along the valley of the
right tributary of the river Idrijoa, the river Baca, runs a second-class road from
Tolmin via Podbrdo to Skofja Loka and a railway line from Sv. Lucija via Podbrdo
(a tunnel over 6 km long) to Jesenice.
The Vipava - with the first-class road Gorica Ajdovscina Postojna.
.t-briblus.t1?.........riesoftheSoca: The Koritnica springs underneath the
peak Jalovec; flows into. the Soca east of Bovec. Along its valley runs a second-
class road over the saddle Predel and along the valley of the river Ziljicato
Kanalska Dolina (Italy) and further on to the valley of the river Zilja in Austria,
The Ter (Tore) springs north of Tarcento (Italy); normally, with very
little water, but in spring and in autumn water level rises up to 5 in. Receives
all small rivers and brooks that spring along the frontier section south of village
Zaga - the Veliki Vrh (trig. 1558 m). Some tributaries are: the Nadiza (Natisone)
and the Idria (Judrio); the upper Idria is the frontier line between Jugoslavia and
Italy.
The river Soca is a very strong obstacle in case of advance from the
west eastward and vice. versa. This importance is not the result of its width and
quantity of water, but first of all because it is deeply cut in high and medium
mountains, because its banks are rocky, often very high and steep, and places
suitable for crossing very rare.
By its position in relation to the frontier, and considering that a very
good first-class road runs along its valley, and to ToImin a railway line) too, the
valley of the Soca would be a very good lateral communication if it were not too
close to the frontier line, from which it could be placed under a, powerful artillery
fire.
During the First World War, within the Soca area, twelve battles took
place; the most famous was the twelfth one, known as "the battle at Kobarid"
In Istria the biggest rivers are: the Mirna, the clau and the Rasa.
They are not very important from the military or economic point of view, except
that their valleys are narrow and deep, making the advance difficult.
The Zrmanda (79 km) springs at the joining point of the mountains the
Velebit and the Dinara? south of the source of the river Una; flaws mainly alohg a
narrow and steep Valley; flows first into the Novigradska Mora and then flows off,
to the Velebit Channel. It is a Strong obstacle, not so much by the quantity of
water, as by the characteristics of the banks, which are high and in some places
very steep. The speed of the current is great with many cascades. There are few
places suitable for crossing, and the construction of bridges is difficult because
of steep and almost unapproachable banks and because of fast current. From Obrovac
it is navigable for small ships. Never gets frozen.
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It is important not only as an obstacle, but also by a secondeClass road that
runs along the upper valley from Knin to the Una valley or to Gracac (Lika)
The aria (111 km) spring under the name of the Butusnica in the vicinity of
the sources of the Una and the Zrmanja? at the joining point of the Velebit and the
Dinara It le famous by the falls'at-Skradin? known as "Skradinski Buk", where
water falls down' along17 stairs for over 40 Downstream of the falls the river
is navigable, flows through Prokljensko'Jezero (Lake Prokljan) and through Sibenioka
praga into the sea. The Krka is a serious obstacle from Knin to its mouth, especially
because of steep banks. Al.eng its valley' in the upper part. of the river 13Utusnica
runs, a sebond-class road from -Knin via the Grahovo saddle to Bosansko ahovo and;
'besides, the Una railway line:,
the mouth of the Rama and at Jablanica; in Mostarlethere are: an iron bridge of
modern construction, two big bridges of concrete and an old Turkish bridge only for
Pedestrians and pack animals with a span of 20 m wide and 19 EL high. Downstream of
Mostar there are bridges at Capljina and Metkovic and a railway bridge at Gabehe
e allta (107 km) is the longest river inDalmatia. Springs in the Vrlika
lowland Areal from the foothills of the Dinara muntaine flows across the Vrlika low-
land area and Sinjsko Polie and into the Brac Channel at Omie. At village Zadvarie
'there are -beautiful cascades m'velika Gaavica and Mala Gubavica4 This river is
similar to the lil'ka and the Zr1PnJa. The falls "Gubavioan are 48 m high. The power
plant ?Tit" is constructed here.
As an obstacle it is important because of the second-class road which runs
along its valley connecting the Northern and the Middle Dalmatia: Knin "e Sinj
14,19:karska or Imatski) as well as because of a third-class road which r'uns- along its
valley inland from 'the sea over the Moser and the Biokovo. Finally) it can
for the .organization of a firm defence in connection with the surrounding country.
The Neretva (208 km) springs from the southern spurs of the Zelengora in
the vicinity of the saddle Gemerno. 'Until the river Rama joins it, the Neretva
flows northwestilard; from here to its mouth, south of Filoce, it flows southward.
The first part of this river is called Bora, extending from the source to village
nog. This part of the river has great declivity, steep and 500-600 in high and
wooded "banks. The second part is called Zupa, extending from Ulog to the south of
the river Rama. In thispart the valley is deep and narrow, deeply cut in between
the mountains;, the Orvani) the Prenj, the Visocica and the Bitovnja.
From the mouth of the river Rama to Mostar the Neretva flows between
the mountains the FrenJ and the Ovrsnica. Here, the current is fast, practically
there is no 'valley, but individual widenings; the bed is very narrow, the banks
are very high (800 11300.m), rising abruptly, and bare. Lowland areas worth
mentioning are BiJelo Polie --north of Mostar, Mostarsko Polje - south of
Mostar and Neretva - from Oapljina to the mouth of the Neretva.
From Mostar to OaPliina the Neretva valley is quite different from the upper
part. The river flows south of Mostar across Mostarsko Polje, then at village Buna
enters a narrow valley with hilly terrain on both sides which are 150-250 in high;
very steep and rocky. Woods gradually disappear to be replaced by pure Herzegovinian
karst; Bosnian Middle-European climate is replaced by Herzegovinian - Mediterranean
climate; vineyards appear, fig-trees, olive-trees, dog-roses; instead of Bosnian
wooden houses, Herzegovinian compact villages with houses of stone appear. At
village Pocitelj U. km northeast of Gapljina) the valley becomes wider and at Capljina
it is about 3. km wide,
From Oapljina the Neretva valley becomes a wide, partly swampy and ine
sufficiently cultivated plain. This plain is not healthy, Liecause it is flooded
from Novembei. till April. At the mouth of the Neretva, a wide, swampy delta of
12 arms is formed. This delta is 10 km wide. the width of the Neretva is from
100 to 150 in; the depth is nowhere less than 1 m, and at some places (eddies) it is
10 to 20 ne
Fi-om.Metkovic it is regulated and on that sector smaller boats can navigate
(utl to 1000 tons). In spring and in autumn the water level rises rapidly and the
crossing by a ferry is possible only upstream of4vil1age Pocitelj. Fords are rare
and can be found only down to MetkoVic. Bridges wotth mentioning are at Kenji?, at
Along the Neretva valley run a second-class road and a railway line (0.76 m)
from Ploca to Konjic and further on over the Ivan Planina mountain to SaraJevo and
to the valley of the Bosna river. The middle part of the Neretva is connected to the
Drina valley via Nevesinje and Gecko, and the upper part from Ulog via Kalinavik.
From Jablanica to KOnjic there is an artificial lake now, which will produce
tremendous energy for new power Plants
.From the military point .of view the Neretva, by its extension and communioa-
tions riming along its valley, could be very suitable line of operations from the
Adriatic Littoral and further on to Serbia, but the relief of the territory across
whic.11?.it flows and the profile of the valley make this very difficult: The very
entrance ,into the Neretva from the sea is under protection of very good positions on
both sides of the mouth and the entrance into the Neretvanski Kanal is defended by
the .peninsula Peljesac and the island Hvar.
Along the whole length of the river, the Neretva is a serious obstacle by the
configuration of its banks which are very difficult to approach, by steep and rocky
sides of its valley and by the quantity of water in spring and in autumn. During
the Fourth Offensive in 1943, our forces cane to the Neretva which. had to be crossed
in force. But that was not the only difficulty; the situation was critical because
our forces were encircled. We defeated the enemy in detail andcreated conditions
for the crossing of the Neretva. We crossed it on the sector: .Jablanica Ostrozac
under ourattack, without pontoon bridges and with thousands of the wounded. During
the low water level period in summer and during droughts the river is fordable at
some places. The difference between the low and high water level is mat; the
Neretva is one of those rivers whose water level is variable, especially after heavy
rainfall's in high Herzegovinian mountains.
The tributaries of the Neretva are: The Rama, an impertant tributary of the
Neretva, because along its valley runs a road, a Connecting link between the Neretva.
valley and the upper Vrbas via the saddle at Prozor. This is a small mountainous
river, with a deep and narrow valley, like the Neretva; since a big power plant is
under construction at JablaniCal a lake will appear in the Neretva valley, from
Kongo to the mouth of the Rama, and along the lower Rama, 30 km long.
The Trebizat springs near Imotski. It connects the Neretva valley and
Imotsko Polje, Duvanjsko Polje, Livanjsko Polje and Sibjsko Polje.
The Moraca (94 km) is formed by two rivers, the Zeta and the Moraca.
The Zeta springs from Niksicko Polje, east of village Carey Most, in the
southern part' of this field, sinks, to reappear 6 km further down near village
Paeija, west of monastery Ostrog. Joins the Moraca north of Titograd.
The Zeta is importaftt because its quite wide valley connects Titograd and
Niksic; a narrow gauged line and a road runs along its valley. The appearance of
this valley among high and karst mountains makes it more important, for it is a
part .o1 that long furrow that extends from Nevesinjsko Polje in the direction
the Zalomska Reka Gatacko Polje - the Duga defile - Niksickp Polje - the Zeta
valley - the Titograd lowland area - Lake Skadar.
The Moraca springs from the northern slopes of the Stozac mountain beneath
the peak Moracka Kapa. It is a mountainous river, with a narrow and wild valley
which is wider north of Titograd (Zeta). It flaws into Lake Skadar west of Plavnica.
The lower Moraca is about 200 m broad and about 3 in deep; its valley is
rather marshy. The Moraca is the biggest river in Grna Gora (Montenegro). Its
whole water system was called Zeta in the Middle Ages and reached the Drina
?
0408.1124
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br,
?
?
In addition to the Mora0a, Lake Skadar receives the following rivers:
The Orrloievica Rijeka. Springs near Plijeka ernojevica from a very strong
sour'ce so that it is navigable even for shiPs from Rijeka Crnojevioa to its mouth.
It is l71m long and its valley is marshy.
The Crmnica - a sller river ; but worth mentioning for it waters the
fertile area Grmniclo Polie. Flows into Lake Skadar at Vil'Pazar which is connected
to Bar by a Second-class road and a narrow gauged (0.60 m) 'railway line, and to
Rijeka OrrloJevica by a road* (, \
From Lake Similar flows off the river,: the Bojana, along a wide, mainly swampy
valley and flows into the sea at Sv. Nikola.. It is navigable for small sea Steamers
from its mouth to village Oboti ( in Albania), and during the high water - level period
__. .L
along the whole length. It is a con.siderable obstacleparticularlyA spring
and in
a.uttunn. After it leaves Lake Skadar it receives from the left side?an arm of the
river Drim which permanently covers its bed with drifts, which spoils regular. flowing .
off from Lake Skadar and navigation on the Bojana. That raises the level of lake
Skadar, so that it often floods low places on the shore, espe'cially in our territory.
If the bed Of thd Bojana Were regulated for regular navigation for sea
steamer's, Skadar would be a sea ports
?
,
The titer Bojana, aS the frontier line between our country and Aibania;. is a:
Stralg obstacle.
The Drim - formed by the Bell Drim and the Orni prim.
-
The Bell Drim springs from the Zljeb mountain. With the exception of the part
Immediately after the snurce which is in mountains and 'a few kilometres long, the-Be14-
Drim flows across hilly ground to Prizren. This part is 'called Podrimlje.,
West of Prizren it enters a defile between the mountains the Pa.strik 44 the
Koritnik, about 40 km long, called the Vrbnioka Klisura. This defile extends into
Albania until the Beli Drim joins the Orni Drum at Kukes
From Vrbnica to Kukes a second-class road runs along the left bank from
Prizren. . .
. ? .,
The Beli Drim is rich in water; it is a rapid river with hard banks and bottom.-
During the normal Water level .Period fordable at several places. The level rises .
in Spring and in autumn; then the crossing is only possible across bridgeS, of wylich.
the "Siranjski most" on the road Prizren Djakovica is .in our
From the military point of view the Beli Drum is very important for our
country and for Albania for along its valley the best communication from Northern
Albania to Metohija and Kosovo Polje and in reverse runs along it, so that it can
beused as a line of operations.
?
. The Orni Drim springs in Albania and shortly after that flows into Lake
Ohrid at monastery Sy Naum; it leaves the lake at Struga and flows straight to the
north; joins the Beli Drum at Kukes. West of Debar it leaves our country and enters
Albania.. Its depth is up to 2. km the current is very rapid. North of Struga
it enters a defile, leaving it'tvsouth of Debar, and further on flows across the, Debar
lowland area. In this plain its banks are deeply cut in here and there.
Fords are rare, and also bridges., of which worth mentioning are: at Struga;
Debar and Kukes.
Some of its tributaries are:
The Sateska, a small Hver, whose valley is the connection between the Kicevo
lowland area andthe Struga lowland area. A road and a railway line (0.60 from
"l25
tarid (Struga) to Kicevo run along its valley.
The Redika, a mountainous river with the , bed deeply cut in mountains, narrow
valley, steep and high sides and rapid current. It is a 'strong obstacle. Along its
valley runs a road which connects the Debar lowland area to Polog via Mavrovi Hanovi;
and along the valley of its left tributary runs the third-class road from .Debar to
Kicevo.
Subterranean streams
In addition to the above described rivers of the Adriatic water system; there
are a number of underground rivers that belong to this system, although they do not
flow into the Adriatic Sea directly. Some of them, as for example, the Pivka and the
Uncle were mentioned before as part of the Ljubljica.
Subterranean rivers worth mentioning are:
The Reka flows from the western slopes of the Obruc mountain by Ilirska
Bistrica to Divaca.
The Lika, -about 30 km long, 1-6 in deep, collects water from Licko Polje by
several tribRanes (the Jadova, the Otesica). During the high water level period
floods the field north of village G. Kosinj for several weeks.
-MU,PnAbil-A
Vta%.:xLa 4oAdwr
fava.seiNemega
field for several weeks.
Pole), 3-4 in deep; in spring and in autumn floods
the
The Sijica flows across Duvanjsko Polje, where it sinks. Together with its
small tributaries, during the long periods of rain in spring and in autumn, floods
Duvanjsko Polje which becomes a lake; the traffic is entirely suspended and done.
fined to by-pass roads in mountains difficult to pads.
The Bistrica flows across Livanjsko Polje.
- The Trebisnica (94 km) springs south of Bileca, flaws through Trebinje and
across Popovo Polje, and there, in the westernmost part of the field, sinks. It is
not fordable at normal water level, so is a considerable obstacle. The banks of.
the upper Trebisnica are high and rocky. Partially' dry in ...summer, but in spring
and autumn floods Popovo Polje, whichlecomes passable net sariier.than in June.
From the military point of view it is an obstacle. :
Along its valley run a railway line from Oabela to Trebinje - Titograd and ,
Dubrovnik and a kcond-class road which forks via Trebinje and Bileca to Gacko
Polje (Gatacko Polje) and the Drina valleyl.or from Trebinje via Vilusi to Niksio.
The valley of the Trebisnica is 'a defile from Bileca to Trebinje, with the
exception of some small widenings; the plain sourh and west of Trebinje is, for the
most part, well cultivated and fertile.. Further on northwestward the valley
spreads in Popovo Polje, whose southeastern part is of karst, difficult to pass
and covered with bush. The greater part of Popovo Polje, is well onitivated.
By the direction of its extension (north-south and then east-west), by the
configuration of its banks, by the profile of its valley, steep sides and by
Its impassability, the Trebisnica valley offers favourable conditions for the
organization of a firm defence, either with the front facing the sea or the east.
The PlemlalaLiallE.guLaq
The Aegean water system covers 10% of our territory.
The axis of this water system is in the Vardar which collects all water
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ni
se 127 a.
from:Macedonia; except the river Orni Drim which' flows into the Adriatic Sea and the
rivr Struthica- which flows into the riverStruia and ,into the Aegean Sea.
Characteristics of this river system are: .the :country is unforested 'and be.*
Cause of that 'water level varies; some rivers are even dry in summer?timef.while
idurrn.stormS they beCome torrents..
The Strumica is the tributary of the river StrUMa, Springs from the southern '
spurs of the:.,Plackovica mountain. Important because It :connects the Struma valley
'with the Bgalnica and Ovce Polie via the valley Of the tiVer Kriva-Lakvica. Itp
valley can 'serve as a line of 'operations from the Strui*valIey to the Vardar "valley'
via StrUmica and Valandovo, or via Stip .towards Ovce Polje and Skolje. Besides,.
its upper and middle valley can serve as a'conoentration area and as a 'part of the
_operationarbase for the .forceP to oPerate.PaPtvard:.along the Struma 'valleY or
southward to Solunsko Polio (Salonika lowland area), for it is. fairly. large, fertile
and rich. The river Strumica floods its valley downstream of village Dabilja, due to
which the terrain is fenny; melioration, tlat is being carried out now, Will make
this valley very useful.
The. Vardar (258 km in our territory) is the most important and the biggest
river in Macedonia, Its importance is equal to the Velika Morava and '0,e Maritsa,
what the Velika Morava is for the northern part of the Balkan Peninsula, or
theMaritsa.for the eastern, the Vardar is for the southern pari'
'The Vardar springs southwest of Gostivar, at village Vrutok, on the eastern
side of the Nicpurska Planine mountain (trig. 2197 m); flows across the Tetovo
low-
land area (Polog), then through the defile between the Zeden mountain and 40
spurs of the Ser4.Planina mountain, across the. Skoplje lowland arear through the Taor
defile, the Titov Veles lowland area, the Titov Veles defile, Tikves? the Demir
Kapija defile and the Oiganska Klisura (defile).
All in all the Vardar is about 350 km long, of which are plains, and +de--
files. Its width varies: in the Tetovo lowland area 35-40 in, at 8k.oPlie' 90400 ms
at the Mouth even up to 450 in, and during the high water level period 569 m41
Depth: 1-4 in. Speed of *current 1-3 m/sec. From Titov Voles it is navigable for
ordinary rafts, 'and from Gradsko for larger rafts. Water level Varies, To Skoplie
the bottom of the Vardar is covered With big stonos, sandy in the middle part and
muddy in, some places in the lower part; there are few .bridges; worth mentioning
are: at Gostivar, Tetovo, Skoplje, Titov Veles, Krivolak, Udov and Gavgelija.
There. are four railway bridges. at Skoplje, at Titov Vales) and 2 south of the
OiganSka Klisura (in Greece), The declivity from the source to Gaigelija is
500 in. Along' the Vardar valley run: the railway line Skoplje -Salonika and a road
which deviates here and there; by-passing the defiles (froM.Skoplje.to Titov Voles)'.
The middle and the lower Vadar may be an obstacle by the quantity of water,
At the beinning of June 1944, the 3rd Macedonian Striking Brigade had to cross the
Vardar from the left to the right bank on the sector village Gradec (south of the
Demir KaPI.ja); with the aim of joining the 2nd Macedonian Brigade which was *
stationed in the Kozuf mountain. However, since the Vardar was deep, and the
situation did not allow preparations for 'the crossing, the Brigade did not cross.
The left tributaries of the Vardar:
The Tetovska Reka (Sarska) is a mountainous river: it connects Tetovo and
Prizren; in the river valley there is a cart-track?. and over the saddle Kara
Nikola (elev. 1875 m) in the Sar-Planina there is a horse-path.
The L.2ER,L.1..ac springs from the northern spurs of the Sar-Planina; at Kacanik
it enters the Eacanicka Klisura (the Kacanik Defile), about 25 km long.. The .
Lepenac is a rapid mountainous river; it often floods the road running along its
valley; besides, there is the railway line: Skoplje Kosovska Mitrovica -
KralJevoi
The pciLLia springs beneath the peak Bele Vode (trig. 1829 m) in the jiikat
mountain. The valley of the upper Poinja, to village Trgoviste, is very narrow,
pathless here and there. From Trgoviste the valley becomes wider 200-500 in in
the length of about 15 km and on that sector th9re is a third-class road
Trgoviste Bujanovac running to the Juzna Morava valley. Then the Pcinja flows
between the Kozjak and the Rujen Planina mountains, through a 15 km long defile,,
turns southward and enters a km wide valley. At village Klecevce it receives
the Kriva Reka from the left side, turns southwestward, flows through Katlanavo.
and into the Vardar. Its tributary is the Kriva Reka which springs from the
northern slopes of the Osogovska-Planine. Its valley connects the Skoplie-Kumanovo
lowland area and the Oustendil lowland area via the saddle Dove Bair. Along its
valley runs a second-class road that, further on? connects the Sofia area and
upper Povardarje (Povardarje - the Vardar valley).
The Bragaida springs from the Malesevake Planine, flows across the lowland
areas: Malesevol Pijanec? Kocane and Stip. Waters all these areas and tales them
fertile, especially the Kocane lowland area. To Delcevo it is not an obstacle;
from Delcevo to Istibanja flows through a rocky defile, which is a serious obstacle.
Along this sector the road Kocane -Delcevo by-passes the valley from the south.
In the Kocane lowland area the bed of the Bregalnica is sandy and muddy and forks
into several arms,. irrigating rice fields, At Stip the valley gets narrow, and
from there to its -mouth the Bregalnica flows through a narrow and pathless defile
with a few insignificant widenings. - ? '
From the military point of view the vallelrof the Bregalnicat considering the
direction of the Plow from Deleevo to Stip and fairly suitable connection with the
Struma valley over hilly terrain east and .north of Delcevo, from which two...roads
run to Bulgaria, one to Gornje Dzumanja, another via Kadin Most to OUstendia and
Marek (Dupnica), could serve as a line of operations from the Vardar valley towards
the Struia and vice versa. Wide placPs in its valley, especially the one in the
Kocane lowland area, are suitable for concentration and quartering:of. fairly large
unit s&
By its quantity of water the Bregalnica is not an Obstacle in normal circum*
stances, for it is fordable almost everywhere.
Although the river Bregalnica does not represent an Obstacle by the quantity
of water, rice fields around Kocane are a serious obstacle. In 1944, the 3rd
Macedonian Striking Brigade, advancing from the Plackovica along the Bregalnica
valley towards Kocane? came to rice fields, across which only infantrymen could
pass. ether tarts of the brigade passed along a cart-track among rice fields after
a careful reconnaissance.
The well-known "Bregalnica Battle" was fought on the Bregalnica in 1913
between the Bulgarian and the Serbian armies. Bulgarians, although allies of the
Serbs in the war against Turkey, unexpectedly attacked the Serbians, but were
defeated, and thus that second Balkan War ended.
The right tributaries of the Vardar:
The Treska, springs from the Bistra Planina mountain under the name of the
Velika Reka and enters the wide rand long Kicevo lowland areal fertile and well
cultivated. The remainder of the flow is in a defile, the middle part of which
is called Porn..
FrOm Kicevo downstream to its mouth the Treska valley is of karst,. impassable,
thinly populated and poor, both in supplies and roads. Along its middle part runs
a path from Skoplje to Brod.
Although the river Traska, by the direction of its flow and its position in
case of operations from upper Povardarje to the Vrna Reka valley - Pelagonija,
might be important, it cannot be used as a line of operations because of karst and
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impassability of its valley. Only some small,detachment could operate along its
valley from upper Ftvardarje, for only in some places in its valley there is a
footpath.
The river Treska is a serious obstacle, considering the configuration of its
banks, surrounding terrain and rapid current.
?
?
The 112122aa springs from the southern slopes of the peak Solunska Glava
(trig. 2540 m), the summit of the Jakupica; the upper Babuna is a mountainous river,
and in,its middle part it flows along a 1-2 km wide vane :4 along which the railway
line Titov Voles Prilep runs; the lower Babuna flows through a defile, wild and
bare valley, joining the Vardar southeast of Veles. The river Babuna is important
because its valley is the shortest way from the Vardar valley to the northern part
of Prilepsko Pole; besides, a railway line runs along its middle part. The road
Titov Velee m Prilep does not run along the valley of the river aabuna, but crosses
It and runs along the valley of its right tributary the Ornicka Rake., choosing the
shorter way over the saddle prisad in. the Babuna mountain,
The itallahl (201 km) is the most important tributary or the Vardar; springs
from the southern spurs of the Baba Sec Aountain. The valley of the upper Grua Reka
A
is.Unfdrestedj rOoky, short of water, and narrow o; dowtistresri of village Zvan the
vafletr is wider -3 kin), fertile and well cultivated to village Bucin, where. the
Orta.Reka leaVes the country of medium mountains and enters Prilepsko PolJe. From
Bilcin, it, flows across Priiepsio Polje, and further on through Topoldanski Tesnac
At Bakarno Guthno (about 2 km long), entering Bitoljsko Polie, aboUt .35 km long and
about 13 km wide. It flows across this lowland area to village Skodivii where
it enters the Mariovska Klisura and through it to village Vozarci, enteting the
Tikves lowland area and flawing into the Vardar southeast of Gradsko.
The valley of the Crna Reka downstream of village Zvan, and especially
Bitoljsko Polje; is 'highly fertile and well cultivated. From the economic point of
view-Prilepsko Polje and Bitoljsko Polje (Pelagonija) are the centre of the whole
region on the right side of the Vardar.
The upper part of the Grna Reka is fordable; after it enters Prilepsko Polje
and Bitoljsko Polje the crossing is more difficult, because the banks and the
bottom, are muddy, so that crossings are possible usually across bridges. In the
Mariovska Klisura and down to its mouth the Orna Reka is a strong obstacle by the
quantity of Water and rapidity of current, and especially by the configuration of
the banks. At the mouth it Is muddy. Although the middle part of this river
Is mountainous, it is fairly :passable nevertheless, for there are bridges in that
part of the river, and the whole Mariavo area is intersected by roads constructed
in World War I,.
? The Mariovo area is a thinly poptlated area; population live an cattle
breeding, saw mill and lumber industry.
The river Raec is 'worth mentioning among the left tributaries of the Orna
Reka; it is a small river with a narrow valley, important by the road Gradsko m.
Prilep running along its valley over the saddle Pletvar.
The right tributaries of the Cm Reka, the Semnica and the Dragor, are worth
mentioning; they are small rivers flowing along marrow valleys till they enter
Pelagonija. In Pelagonija, the Semnica, in particular, is a serious Obstacle in
rainy weather because of its muddy bed. The Dragor flows through_Bitolj. Both
rivers are important because along their valleys run roads connecting Pelagonija
and Bitolj to the Kicevo and the Rasen lowland areas.
Along the upper Orna Reka runs to village Bucin roads; along the middle part
from village Brod to village Skocivir (the road to Kajmakcalan), and along the
lower Orna Reka from village Vozarac to its mouth (the road Gratsko - Prilep).
In Pelagonija roadsdo not run along the river itself because of swampy terrain.
Winding flow of the Orna Reka almost impassable and pathless valley exclude it as
a line of operations.
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The Vardar valley is naturally Connected to the Morava valley and both are
called the Morava-Vardar valley, a natural furrow and the most suitable way from
the central and northern part of our country and the Balkan Peninsula in general
to the Aegean Coast.
By its flow across the middle of People's Republic of Macedonia and having as
many tributaries as the Morava, coming from various directions* east and west; the
Vardar make traffic between various regions of our South possible, and also
between almost allof them and its valley; which is the hydrographic and traffic
spine Of Macedonia. In its valley and in the valleys of its tributaries there are
larger and Smaller fertile and rich areas Which; it addition to the economi6
importance?are also important froi the military point of view i Por examplei,the
SkoPlje lowland area. in Connection with the Kumanovo lowland area; is a firstiii
class Operational ana'manoeuvering territory; the Titov Voles lowland area is the
most important junction of communications in central Macedonia.
Leaving the Demir Kapijal. the Vardar enters lower Povardarje at Gradeq; it
extends to the mouth of the Vardar in the Salonika Bay. The Gevgelija and the
Salonika lowland areas, separated by the Oiganska Klisura, are most Important
areas here
? The geographic and strategic importance of the Vardar is being increased by
the-existenee of the large and well developed port Salonika, which is the mpst
iiiportant port on the northern coast of the Aegean Sea. Salonika may be useful
to us duiing the war, as connection to overseas countries if Greece is either
neutral or our ally:: Important are the railway lines: Salonika - Skoplje and
Salonika - Bitolj.
0 Accordingly, the Vardar valley, depending on the situation, may be used either
is a line of operations or as a line of communications or as a lateral line of
operations.
Hydrography: Conclusion
If we look at the map, studying all the rivers of our country, we shall see
that the-most Important is the area between Osijek (the mouth of the Drava) and
Smederevo (the mouth of the Velika Morava). Within this, comparatively small
territory, all rivers of the Black Sea water system in our country are being ,
gathered, with the exception of a few smaller rivers of the northern part of
Serbia
(the Mlavat-the Pek the Porecka Reka and the Timok). *This means that all
waters La
ers oi e Pannonia Plain, the greatest pare of Slovenia, Croatia (except
, _ /
Dalmatia), Bosnia, Serbia and the greater part of Orna Gora, i.e. the Danube,
the Drava, the Sava, the Drina, the Tisa and the Morava with their tributaries
flow across this ter'ritory.. This is the hydrographic centre of FPRY and, at
the same time, the most important centre of that kind in Europe. ?
The whole network of the above mentioned rivers must influence preparations
and conduot of operations (combat actions) to a great extent, especially within
our part of the Pannonia Plain, in the northern part of Serbia and in the north-
eastern part of Bosnia. This for the reason, because the above mentioned rivers
will-appear now as strong obstacles separating friendly or enemy forces, now as
supports Of flanks and then as lines of communication, etc. It follows that no
preparation of any operation or operation itself within this hydrographic centre
cannot be planned without taking into consideration the influence of one or several
big rivers in one of the above said roles.
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Influences On the Climate of Our Countr
There are variousweather conditions in our country. Differences, in climate
are the result of the geographic position of our country and influence of eurround-
ing large water and land nasses (Europe-Asian Continent in the northeast, Sahara,
permanently hot North Africa and the Mediterranean in the ,south-and:the 'Atlantic
Ocean in, the vest)4, -However) the striking differences in climate.of-FPRY appear
under the influence of the relief of neighbouring parts of Europe and the relief,
woodiness, quintity of surface water and configuration of ground in Jugoslavia it-
self, This local influence changes influences coming from outside to .a considerable
extent.
-Weather conditions in our country mainly depend on the reliefs The terrain of
our country drops down from the eastern Alps, Bosnian and Serbian mountains towards
the Pannonia Plain, from where, along the Pannonian valleys, the influence of the
continental -Climate of Northeastern Europe penetrates into the heart of our 'country.
If it were not for the Pannonia Plain in .the north of our country, which intact is
a-large ganp.butchains of Mountains instead, as along other frontiers of our
country, the northern part of Our country would have the moderate continental climate
with more rainfall and would not be exposed to the disadvantageous influence of the
continental climate of Northeastern Europe'. .The influence of the continental' .
climate is mitigated by the eastern zone of the more recently formed -Mountains to a
certain extent (the .Carpathian mountain system and the Balkan mountain system),
while the western zone of more recently formed mountains (the Alps and the Dalmattan
mountains) separates the areas exposed to the continental climate from those in-
fluenced by the Mediterranean climate.
The iilountains of the Dinara system extend parallel to the Adriatic Coast .and
not far from it. Thus they mitigate the influence of the Mediterranean climate .
coming from the Adriatic.. Mediterranean climate, modified to a certain extent, can
be found in the-Littoral and in the islands, in the. valleys of some rivers, spread-
ing over some lower saddles into the central part of the country.
The Rhodope mountains are cut by the MoraVa-Vardar valley along which penes,
trates the influence of the Pannonia Plain from the north, and the influence of the
Aegean Sea from the south. Owing to this the differences between the Pannonia
Weather Zone and the Aegean Weather Zone are not sharp. They are different from
those in the Dinara Weather Zone, in which the transition from one climate to
another is midden and sharp
Our region of high mountains (the Slovenian Alps, the Dinara - Sar Planina
chains, the isolated Rhodope mountains and the mountains of the Carpathian -
Balkan arch) are distinct from adjoining parts, making thus a separate whole by
their height and distance from the seas, by low summer and winter temperatures and
heavy rainfalls.
The geographic position influences the climate of FPRY favourably. By its
geographic latitude FPRY -extends northward almost to 470 (in. Prekoturje 46?539,
sOuthWard to 41?. (the southern part-of Lakeyrespa 40?510. Accordinglysnour
county lies *ithin the Temperate Zone, its greater part being in the southern
half of the Northern Temperate Zone. But, weather phenamana? especially temperatures:
are not distributed in the territpry of our country according to the latitude of
individual regions, which Means' depending on the distance of these regions from the
equator. In the direCtion.nerth-south Our country covers over 61?';. this influences
the length of,the d4 and the duration and intensity of insolation.. In the northern
most part of the Country in sumMer.time the day is by 42' longerthan in the
southernmost part; he insolation is longer by the same length of: time, but the
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rays of the sun in the south fall at a greater angle and, consequently, heating is
more intense in spite of shorter insolation.
The influence of large adjoining regions is worth mentioning: the Mediterran-
can and North African in the south, the Atlantic Ocean in the West, which sends us
warmth and moisture (mild winters, abundance of rainfall in winter time) and the
continental influence of the vast regions of Northeastern Europe - the largest:
Weather Zone in EuroPef across the Pannonia .Plain from the north and northeast and
Viaslca Plain (Rumania) and Timo4a Krajina from the east. The influence of the
climate of:- Russian eastern and northeastern steppes, although in a mild forms pen"
etrates to Vojvodina (lack of rainfalls).
ype of Climate and Reios
IWith regard to the geographic division of weather zone0 and corresponding
type of climate, we have the following zones in our country: littoral region along
the Adriatic Coast - Mediterranean climate, Pannonia, in the north - continental
climate, and mountainous regions, in mountains - Alpine climate. All these weather
zones, except the littoral one, are not sharply separated from one another, but
gradually exceed the limits of each other, forming transitive weather zones, as for
example, the zone of moderate continental climate that extends between the areas of
Alpine climate and ie areas of continental climate.
Mediterranean Climate and Its Re ion
- Mediterranean climate is formed under the influence of the Mediterranean,
from where it spreads across the Adriatic and the Aegean Sea to our Littoral and
Povardarje. Chains of the Dinara system of mountains, often rising abruptly from
:bhe very coast, prevent the influence of the Mediterranean from penetrating into
the central regions of our country, so that Mediterranean climate is confined to
the narrowtract of the Adriatic Littoral and islands. This zone is the narrowest
below the Velebit, the Mosor, the Biokovo and along the southern Montenegrin
Littoral. Nevertheless, up the valleys of the Soya, the Neretva, the Bojana, the
Moraca, the Vardar, then over the low saddles, this influence penetrates, somewhat
changed, deeply inland as the moderate Mediterranean
Mediterranean climate is Characterized by hot and dry summers and short mild
winters; there Is an abundance of rainfall in winter time.
The Adriatic-Mediterranean region is generally characterized by high summer
temperature (summer heat lasts 3-5 months), especially in July, the hottest month
of the year..
In Adriatic islands that are surrounded by the ma summer is not so hot as in
the rest of the Littoral.
On the mainland summer temperature is somewhat higher, especially in low
areas of North Dalmatia, lowlands of Herzegovina and around Titograd. .Summer
temperatures in these areas are higherthan in the islands. ,Bare, karst ground in
these regions andihe-air are so hot in sunny summer time, that they are, together
with the Vardar region, the hottest regions in our country in summer,
The influence of the Mediterranean penetrates to our country along the .Vardar
valleN across lowland areas and through defiles, getting weaker And weaker towards
the north. It penetrates and spreads out along the Vodena-Ostrovo valley too,
reaching Pelagonija, but somewhat changed.' Also, it penetrates along the Struma
and the Strumica valleys to the Strumica lowland area.
This moderate and changed type of Mediterranean climate retains its basic
charaoteristics to the greatest extent in the lowland areas of southeast
Macedonia - the Gevgelija Valandovo and Stramica lowland areas and in Tikves?
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The temPerature in these areds is not much lower than in the Adriatic Littoral.
Winters are fairly mild.
Mediterranean climate is important for our economy. Hot and sunq summers,
with long lasting, quiet and permanently clear weather is very favourable for the
cultivation of tropical plants and fruit.
Weather conditions during the winter are favourable, because the temperature
seldom, usually for a very short period of time, falls below zero. During January
,the average temperature in the Littoral is above 5? Centigrade,
Winds. Main winds in our Adriatic region of Mediterranean climate are "bura"?
"lugo"77roko"), "maistral" ("smorac") and "kopnenjak". "Burn" is the result
of 74nAtrAti nn of noTd air front from inland over the Dinara mountains and through
gaps in them, sliding quickly down the slopes towards the sea. "Bura" is sometimes
so strong that it devastates the country: takes off the red layer of earth, makes
the country bare and dries up the soil, uproots trees, knocks down people, takes
off roofs, and even railway cars, obstructs navigation on the sea and demolishes
Ships.
1
1
"Bura" is a dry, often very cold wind, blowing in powerful strokes from the
northeast or from the east, sometimes falling with the strength of a hurricane
down the steep, bare and karst slopes of the mountains extending along the Adriatic
Coast.
Main placs at which "bura" penetrates are:Trieste Bay, Gulf of Quarnero
(especially Senj), Sibenik., Cape Floe?, Vrulja inlet (between Omis and Makarska),.
Trstenik Bay (at the northwestern ...ate of the Mijet Channel) and the Drim(Medua)
Bay. "Burs." 'is comparateively weak on thewe stern shore of Istria, in the Zadar
Channel, west of the islands of Dugi Otok? Kornat and Mljet and all along the shore
between: Cavtat and Ostri Rt (at the entrance of Boka Kotorska).
"Bura"'blows in winter. It is like a storm in that Teriod especially at the
end of October, in December, January and March, but sometimes it blows even in May
as a .storm. The frequency of stormy "bura" in individual years is variable; in
some winters there is no strong "bura", in others it blows like a storm for months
almost permanently.
In summer time "bura n usually blows one day, sometimes .a.feW hours, but in
winter time up to 14 days. Sometimes at the same time "bura" blows in the Gulf of
Quarnero, and '.'jugo" in the southern Adriatic.
"Jugo" comes from. North Africa; crosses the Mediterranean, where it absorbs
moisture; and appears in our Littoral as a southeast wind.
"Jugo" is a warm, moist wind, bringing oppressive heat, vapour and rain.
It is stronger and blows more often in the southern part of the Adriatic than in
the northern.
It blows in every season, but most often from March to June in Northern
Adriatic and from aUtumn to the end of winter in Southern Adriatic.
On the Adriatic, "jugo", in spite of its velocity and duration, is less
dangerous than "bura". It blows always with the same strength, so that ships are
able to get to harbours. It may be dangerous only off the Venetian shore and off
Dubrovnik because of high waves and sometimes because of a sudden change of
direction.
In summer time "jugo" blows up to three days
stops sometimes three weeks.
in winter even 9 days, and with
"Maistral"..(1smorac.).bloWs in summer time shoreward from the or
? ? ? ? it ? /13 3
133 -
west from 10 a m. to 6 p.m. It is a very pleasant refreshing wind.
"Kopnenjak" ? blows from the middle of May till the end of August seaward during
the whole night; direction: from northeast or east; it too, is a pleasant breeze
In the Aegean region of the Mediterranean climate blows a wind similar, to
"burs.", bringing cold air from the Balkan-Podunavlje area towards the Aegean Sea.
It is called "vardarac". Most often it drops down from the Sar-Planina and the
Skopska Orna Cora mountains, blowing along the Vardar valley towards the Salonika
lowland area and Salonika Bay. It brings clear and dry weather.
OUr Littoral, compared to the mountainous region in hinterland, gets come?
paratively little rainfall, although it extends along the Adriatic Coast. In the
lower parts of the Littoral the yearly amount of rainfall in about 1000 mm; in the
Islands it :is less - about 800 Dim. In the mountains in the hinterland this amount
rises to 2000 mm.. It is the highest in the Krivosije area (Crkvice).and.in Gorski
Kotar, so that these regions, in addition to Scotland, are most rainy in Europe.
The driest month is July, but the summer drought lasts sometimes from May to
September. Then the land is dry in the Littoral and flora disappears, to get green
again in autumn with first rains.
In the Aegean Sea climate zone the amount of rainfall is small, less than
500 mm. The rainiest month is November, the driest July - When all brooks and
small rivers are dry:
It is evident that the region of Mediterranean climate gets the highest amount
of rainfall when they are not needed (winter), and the least in summer time when
they are necessary.
Continental Clirnate:and.' Its. Rein.:
Continental weather zone includes the Pannonia Plain with lower parts of its
border. Its border, from:the climatic point of view, is the transition between the
climatic influence of the region of high mountains and continental influence.
The climate of the Pannonia Plain is mainly influenced by the severa con-
tinental climate of Northeastern Europe, which comes into our country in a somewhat
changed form over the comparatively low Carpathian mountains. .This climate is
characterized by cold and long winters, hot summers, variable temperature during
the year, low amount of rainfalls and shortage of summer Showers. -
?
This low amount of rainfall is the result of the chain of the Alps and mountains
of the Dinara mountain system, which cool the warm and moist winds blowing from the
sea, due to 'which these winds lose their moisture in these mountains and coma to the
Pannonia Plain without it. Due to its continental position, the Pannonia Plain is,
after Macedonia, the poorest region in rainfall (from 500 to 500 mm), and in some
years this amount is less than 500 mm. This quantity is insufficient for the grow-
ing of woods and because of that this region is similar to a steppe. However, the
favourable circumstances are that the heaviest rainfalls are at the end of spring
(May-june), that is, when crops and vegetables need moisture, and snowfalls at the
beginning of winter, to cover crops and to protect them from cold winds. Without
this favourable distribution of rainfall, the Vojvodina would be a desert, and not it
is our granary. Summer in the Pannonia Plain is hot; it is as hot as the Adriatic
Littoral. Pannonia is very cold in winter. Average temperature in January ranges
from 1? below zero to 2? below zero (Centigrade), but sometimes the temperature
falls dawn to -306
"Severac" is the' most famous wind in Pannonia. It is a branch of air currents
that cone into the Pannonia Plain from the Eastern and Northern Europe, penetrating
further southward. It is a dry and cold wind, dangerous for crops in Vojvodina
when they are not covered with snow
13. ?
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The temPerature in these areds is not much lower than in the Adriatic Littoral.
Winters are fairly mild.
Mediterranean climate is important for our economy. Hot and sunq summers,
with long lasting, quiet and permanently clear weather is very favourable for the
cultivation of tropical plants and fruit.
Weather conditions during the winter are favourable, because the temperature
seldom, usually for a very short period of time, falls below zero. During January
,the average temperature in the Littoral is above 5? Centigrade,
Winds. Main winds in our Adriatic region of Mediterranean climate are "bura"?
"lugo"77roko"), "maistral" ("smorac") and "kopnenjak". "Burn" is the result
of 74nAtrAti nn of noTd air front from inland over the Dinara mountains and through
gaps in them, sliding quickly down the slopes towards the sea. "Bura" is sometimes
so strong that it devastates the country: takes off the red layer of earth, makes
the country bare and dries up the soil, uproots trees, knocks down people, takes
off roofs, and even railway cars, obstructs navigation on the sea and demolishes
Ships.
1
1
"Bura" is a dry, often very cold wind, blowing in powerful strokes from the
northeast or from the east, sometimes falling with the strength of a hurricane
down the steep, bare and karst slopes of the mountains extending along the Adriatic
Coast.
Main placs at which "bura" penetrates are:Trieste Bay, Gulf of Quarnero
(especially Senj), Sibenik., Cape Floe?, Vrulja inlet (between Omis and Makarska),.
Trstenik Bay (at the northwestern ...ate of the Mijet Channel) and the Drim(Medua)
Bay. "Burs." 'is comparateively weak on thewe stern shore of Istria, in the Zadar
Channel, west of the islands of Dugi Otok? Kornat and Mljet and all along the shore
between: Cavtat and Ostri Rt (at the entrance of Boka Kotorska).
"Bura"'blows in winter. It is like a storm in that Teriod especially at the
end of October, in December, January and March, but sometimes it blows even in May
as a .storm. The frequency of stormy "bura" in individual years is variable; in
some winters there is no strong "bura", in others it blows like a storm for months
almost permanently.
In summer time "bura n usually blows one day, sometimes .a.feW hours, but in
winter time up to 14 days. Sometimes at the same time "bura" blows in the Gulf of
Quarnero, and '.'jugo" in the southern Adriatic.
"Jugo" comes from. North Africa; crosses the Mediterranean, where it absorbs
moisture; and appears in our Littoral as a southeast wind.
"Jugo" is a warm, moist wind, bringing oppressive heat, vapour and rain.
It is stronger and blows more often in the southern part of the Adriatic than in
the northern.
It blows in every season, but most often from March to June in Northern
Adriatic and from aUtumn to the end of winter in Southern Adriatic.
On the Adriatic, "jugo", in spite of its velocity and duration, is less
dangerous than "bura". It blows always with the same strength, so that ships are
able to get to harbours. It may be dangerous only off the Venetian shore and off
Dubrovnik because of high waves and sometimes because of a sudden change of
direction.
In summer time "jugo" blows up to three days
stops sometimes three weeks.
in winter even 9 days, and with
"Maistral"..(1smorac.).bloWs in summer time shoreward from the or
? ? ? ? it ? /13 3
133 -
west from 10 a m. to 6 p.m. It is a very pleasant refreshing wind.
"Kopnenjak" ? blows from the middle of May till the end of August seaward during
the whole night; direction: from northeast or east; it too, is a pleasant breeze
In the Aegean region of the Mediterranean climate blows a wind similar, to
"burs.", bringing cold air from the Balkan-Podunavlje area towards the Aegean Sea.
It is called "vardarac". Most often it drops down from the Sar-Planina and the
Skopska Orna Cora mountains, blowing along the Vardar valley towards the Salonika
lowland area and Salonika Bay. It brings clear and dry weather.
OUr Littoral, compared to the mountainous region in hinterland, gets come?
paratively little rainfall, although it extends along the Adriatic Coast. In the
lower parts of the Littoral the yearly amount of rainfall in about 1000 mm; in the
Islands it :is less - about 800 Dim. In the mountains in the hinterland this amount
rises to 2000 mm.. It is the highest in the Krivosije area (Crkvice).and.in Gorski
Kotar, so that these regions, in addition to Scotland, are most rainy in Europe.
The driest month is July, but the summer drought lasts sometimes from May to
September. Then the land is dry in the Littoral and flora disappears, to get green
again in autumn with first rains.
In the Aegean Sea climate zone the amount of rainfall is small, less than
500 mm. The rainiest month is November, the driest July - When all brooks and
small rivers are dry:
It is evident that the region of Mediterranean climate gets the highest amount
of rainfall when they are not needed (winter), and the least in summer time when
they are necessary.
Continental Clirnate:and.' Its. Rein.:
Continental weather zone includes the Pannonia Plain with lower parts of its
border. Its border, from:the climatic point of view, is the transition between the
climatic influence of the region of high mountains and continental influence.
The climate of the Pannonia Plain is mainly influenced by the severa con-
tinental climate of Northeastern Europe, which comes into our country in a somewhat
changed form over the comparatively low Carpathian mountains. .This climate is
characterized by cold and long winters, hot summers, variable temperature during
the year, low amount of rainfalls and shortage of summer Showers. -
?
This low amount of rainfall is the result of the chain of the Alps and mountains
of the Dinara mountain system, which cool the warm and moist winds blowing from the
sea, due to 'which these winds lose their moisture in these mountains and coma to the
Pannonia Plain without it. Due to its continental position, the Pannonia Plain is,
after Macedonia, the poorest region in rainfall (from 500 to 500 mm), and in some
years this amount is less than 500 mm. This quantity is insufficient for the grow-
ing of woods and because of that this region is similar to a steppe. However, the
favourable circumstances are that the heaviest rainfalls are at the end of spring
(May-june), that is, when crops and vegetables need moisture, and snowfalls at the
beginning of winter, to cover crops and to protect them from cold winds. Without
this favourable distribution of rainfall, the Vojvodina would be a desert, and not it
is our granary. Summer in the Pannonia Plain is hot; it is as hot as the Adriatic
Littoral. Pannonia is very cold in winter. Average temperature in January ranges
from 1? below zero to 2? below zero (Centigrade), but sometimes the temperature
falls dawn to -306
"Severac" is the' most famous wind in Pannonia. It is a branch of air currents
that cone into the Pannonia Plain from the Eastern and Northern Europe, penetrating
further southward. It is a dry and cold wind, dangerous for crops in Vojvodina
when they are not covered with snow
13. ?
? ? 111 ? I .?1+
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without even such reserves, except some springs 12 to 15 km from villages.
Both the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Italy did not solve the Problem of water
supply before World War I.. Both.began the war insuffilti0411y prepared for the life
and activities of troops in karst regions.
It is indispensable for all commanding officers to have information about
waterless regions or areas Poor in water, with the exact data about the hydro
graphic network (springs, brooks, rivers, their description and capacity).
"aura" is able to stop any movement by its velocity, especially along mountain
roads and paths in winter time.
7:1.1 the region of the Pannonia Plain one must reckon with "kosava" (breaking of
telephone lines, snow or sand drifts on communications, overturning of tents and
even sheds, high waves on rivers and difficult crossing, etc), and in rainy periods,
mud, that makes movement out of roads impossible. Here, too, the shortage of
healthy drinking water is to be taken into account.
The size of population plans an extremly important role in the economic de
velopment of every country. Likewise, the number of inhabitants of a country is of
tremendous, significance with regard to war potential as one of the chief elements
Hof it. The amount of labour, the size of the army of a country and its supply
depend on the number of population.
The development of capitalism caused big changes in the ,Nographic distribu-
tion of population and dense Concentration of population in towns and great move..
merits that included tens of millions. Whole continents have been populated by
emigrants, that is, people who could not exist in their own capitalistic father-
land in Europe..
The emigration of Jugoslav peoples, due to chronic agrarian crisis and im-
poverishment of working class that was greater and greaterl reached its climax
between 1878 and 1914. The emigration ended with the world's economic crisis in
1929 thenceforth America has shut the door to new immigrants.
Many a capitalist country has tried to solve the problem of unemployment by
way of emigration. About 909,000 emigrated from. Italy to France up to 1921, and
to America about 10,000,000 "People.
. .
.Wars generally throw the number and geographic distribution of population
Into disorder. In that respect, the consequences of the Second World War are
worst. go, for example, many people were forced to work in industrial centres of
fascist countries, where an incredible concentration of population from all
occupied countries was created:. Motives for forced migration may be racial
(example: forced evacuation of population from Crimea to Siberia, depopulation of
Jugoslav national minorities in Rumania and Hungary, the extermination of Jews in
Germany and occupied countries) and also political, usually applied by fascists
(killing of progressive elements of people in concentration camps or in jail or
devastation of whole provinces).
Casualties during World War II were:
killed in battle $899,90900,001040,11.00441004900.0004,
killed in pamps and prisons 4,44lospoiop?ollsolloses
killed by bombing ...!i.............t......s....
died in concentration'and..P 0.W...cariip...44...
,TOTAL
14,450,000
5,000,000
2,860,000
11 000 000
33,310,000
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From tb.e middle of 1941 till 1943 the fascists killed or depopulated 28
million people
During our People's War of Liberation we suffered so terribly that about
1,700,000 people were killed, which is a very high percentage compared to the
above mentioned casualties.
1224121,101.2f.atlaltrFt..E..22
? 194. to 1913
According to the census rolls of 1921, 1931 1948 and 1953 and according to an
est mate, our population was:
Year Population per sq. km.
tA
Increase (decrease)
In figures
Remarks
),.921 124425,000
m00000001 110.01WM4W.....00
101 14,438?, 000
m00i10War 0060011100000
190
---w,
1948
16,420,000
m.040 ...... 0010?
15,751,000
*should be
18,310,000
..... sarag
49.4
00
61.4
should be
71.4
Decrease
671,000
1949 16,040,000
t
1950 1 1A_9q)..non
milm.w..4 .....,7?...."? ?
I
1 1952 16,780 000
00
1953 16.99271000
00
M01090M00004a4 ...........
WI
From 1940 till
1948 the increase
should be
1,890,000, so that
the real defeoit
Is 2,559,000
Estimate
...... .. 400i0.000041
ye;
66.1
1,176,275* I 7.5%
J. Estimate
* From 1948
to 1953
Between 1940 and 1948 the number of population was decreased by 671,000 due
to severe war casualties and reduced natality in the period between 1941 and 1945.
This shows that the war brought to us a real defecit of over 2,559,000 people.
But, in spite of that, in relation to 1921 our population increased by 3,615,000
till the beginning of 1948, and by 4,502,277 people till March 31, 1953.
This increase is far greater than the total population of Norway or Ireland,
almost equal to the population of Finland, somewhat less than those in Denmark and
Switzerland. The increase of population in socialist conditions will certainly be
quicker because by the improvement of living standards, high natality will be
increased, and the mortality rate will be decreased, especially with children.
Nevertheless, we need about 8 years ta covet the deficit caused by the war. '
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00
*A
The nun Per of population and density by people's reptiles, On basis of the
census of 1953, are:
Ellmhar...(2f.E22g.LILL:Ia
Serbia.? 4?44411040?40.040.40i$4044*(i#41i0ii
Serbia in a narrower senseii;.:ti...
Autonomous Territory of Vojvodina...
Autonomous KOSMET district.. ....,...
I
?
Bosnia a4(.1.1.19reg&irina.0....9??,?'s???? 0410
Nacedonia..,??.?
Orna Gora (Montenegro).,..............
6083 544
4460 405 \01.41
1,713 905
809)234
3,913,753
1,462, 61 '
2)843)486
1/303)906
419)625?,
78,67?
100
69,53
72.24
55.37
49070
31?C4
The eensus -roll of 1931 showed that 13.2% of the total population lived in
towns, .while the census roll of 1953 showed 25%, Countries with developed industry
have a higher rate of population inhabited in towns (Great Britain and Belgium over
6:-.9 Sweden 36.6%, Hungary 30%),
,In 1921 we had only two towns with over 100,000 inhabitants Belgrade and
Zagreb. In 1931 Snbotica joined them, in 1948 Sarajevo and Ljubljana, in 1953
SkOPlie.
on 31 March 1953, population ih towns were:
Belgrade (together with ZemUn) eflaioiiyilt40,6166*
0100414,4100.41.41silooliisisoi414,11litaliriatti
Zagreb
Ljubljana Weeeeeeeeeeeveeeeeeeeeeelee""4""4"4
Par*VO, 11.?,?????????????????????.? ???????????iiiSilibivi
SkO.plje
..44.4441e.44???4)...44?44.4.?4??04.....44.4444.4441)41,11144
Subotica
Novi Sad. .4.44.4.4)414444.4)......A46?4.444eitee?...4i14044?4444144)
Maribor
Split ?
Rijeka
Nis.
Osiiek
?
0650000040?010.0 000 i*opostiisi4.10.1,.?????,4.414.1940411
..9041.esosisoolp?oosoope???4.44 '40 ISIS
Oi./soselli444461441,1444.445,1poogeoeos44C4Coirs4'41.Noir4o
469,988
3501462
1381211
135465/
121'551
1151402
83/223
771124
eseo44.416 15,377
751112
60,677
57,320
. .
S?0406?0041?0000000?400?04 04000 044? .$4'40'.4S
The present increase of population in towns and new settlements comes from
the rural population. Inexhaustible labour of our country could not be employed
in the industry of former Jugoslavia, but now, due to a rapid industrialization of
the country, labour from the rural population is badly needed. Medhanization and
chemicalization of agriculture will free a great number of peasants who then will
be employed in towns. This process is different from the conditions in former
Jugoslavia, because the increase of population in towns is under the control of the
Government; besides, big centres will not be asylum for unproductive elements as
they were before.
Nationalities
On 15 March 1948 there were 13,791,000 Jugoslays or 87.4% and 1,812,573 other
races or 11.37%.
By nationalities the number of population were:
Serbians 040,0 11.??????wea
.Croatians foo.lose4o,esseolpoes
Slovenians ?,?? ,.?
Macedonians ..5..... ........
Moslems not oriented ..c.,
Montenegrins 0000000440004
5. 6,547,000 or 41.5%
3,7850000 or 24%
.. 1,415,000 or 9%
809,000 or 5.1%
? 809,000 or 5.1%
426,000 or 2.
.44.44-W?144444
osoosilieo
.4144400/139
043R002400130005-2
? National minorities:
Albanians? 4*',0"4???????
? Hungarians :00.
Vlahe 40040040
Turks
Slovaks
Italians
Rumanians
?ep 139'
fooses,'?ise, 750,000 or 4.8%
40-4414?.41444444).4441.44.44..41
4)441.44.44.4.**4144.4)4?.
.414444).44?44....,4444444)... 103,000 or 0.7%
O1)........4)44.4444.44414444. 79,573 or 0.5%
64,000 or 0.4%
0?? 0,04401 61,000 or 0.0
O55655 20,000 or Oa%
7,000 or 0404%
? ..... 6,000 or 0.03%
44,000 or 0.3%
Bulgarians s
Oso...?????ollos
Russians ....
Jews 515511.*
? Poles 0400000
? Others .. **se
9010?1000 00?40 00
O00400 II?0000 ?00
?4 0400400044000
400000000000 O? I
?
?
f")
National minorities in Jugoslavia have all rights as Jugoslav peoples and
opportunity for a free economic, social and cultural development. Members of
national minorities are in every body of people's authority from, the lowest to
the highest, they have their own educational institutions, books and press in
their own language, etc. ,
, In the building up of socialist society, general and technical education of
new cadres play an important role. About 45% illiterate pppulation (about
60000,000) were inherited from former Jugoslavia. In 'PR Bosnia and Herzegovina
we found 87% illiterate women in Kosmet 85% in Macedonia 67%" Very good results
have been achieved in teaching them how to read and write.
In the socialist condition of life it is very feasible to make an industrial
worker of a peasant by educating him, because the progress of production depends
directly on education of illiterate working masses. This is possible by the
ideological building up of large masses of people by way of the Socialist Union of
Working People, trade unions, youth organizations and pre-military education,
supported by 'various cultural institutions (theatres, cinemas, libraries, museums
and the like). Our People's Army plays a specially important role in educating
large masses of our people.
The quality of the Army depends, in addition to other factors (ideologic and
political in particular), on the pre-military education of the total population
and preparations for various functions in war time (operational; rear service, etc).
,GOMMUNICAT? IONS
The disorder 1.n the geographic disposition of productive forces, which we
inherited from the fotmer Jugoslavia, has left its traces in the inherited traffic
network of communications.
The strongestdnfluenCe on the construction' Of CommunicatiOns is the influence
ofthe:telief geolOgiostruCtureand. geographic disposition of productive forces
(for lancl'communicatiOns)? quantity of water and profile of the bed (for river
navigation)... ? Better natural conditions forthe construction "of communications are In
the north of .FPRJ.S. little unfavourable in the south,' and worst in the southwest.
Natural conditions in our country, that were a serious obstacle to the construction
of communications before, arena longer an obstacle to such an extentias they were;
the working enthusiasm of our youth proved that while the following railway lines
were .built: -13rckoBanbVidi, Samac- Sarajevo , NiksicTitograd, Doboj -
Banja Luka, The following railway lines are under construction: Brola Vares.
(21 tunnelSalong.20 km, of the railway line), Sarajevo:- Konjic Jablanica.
Mostar-.Ploce (called:Kardeljevo for aTeriOd oftima):and:the Adriatic Line
Beograd iiihr.,-All,these railway lines were bbiltinlinsUitable mountainous or
karst terrain, running a numl?er of rocky ridges, where many artificial
443
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? 'objects : had to be .constructecl'.(tUnnelS, draining canals, retaining walls and
embankments', 'dikes, :etc). Each of the above mentioned lines was constructed in an
unuettallyr shortPeriod of time regard.' to . our teciini'4Ue and all., that,?,. 'taken. .
as a, whole, in a 2.very brief period.,. from : 1946 tin., today. ??? '?.: ?,.
Traffic is in. operation.. ,along r roads, .-ralLway lines, navigable ..rivers, ',.?ca.1161g4
o lakes,' on the sea, in - the 'air; . then we ?- have post, telegraph-, -.telephone...; and. ?
? ? ,
..All these types'. of traffic are being developed today; old roads and railway
lines are.", Under.. 'repair:, new are .Under construction, bridges":. are being built
ships are built, ports enlarged and ir traffic: better and better.'2..
? f
History of the development pf our railways is, on a small scale, the reflect-
ion of our nannieg for the last hundred years:
'It was characteristic ? for. .the end of . the last 001,.'urY._ arid."for-? the beginning -
of the present. one that big Capitalistic countries began to: 'cOnstruc?.t:, rail.ways.
intensely in colonies,... occupied territories, and :semirclepend.ent.: countries. That. ?
1#/ag.: ,t1.16 .result of a. race': :for the sources,' of raw.?, material and far...market s for an:.
intense exploitation, of backward' and ensle.Ved-,count.ries. So railways were built.'
. _ . . .
for the,..accountof. foreign' 'capital, and r: not for the interest of people and a
further development,. of the countries in Which they, were built.... Such was the case'.
.with''railways.in our cOuntry, eyerywherep except in Serbia and Montenegre ,railways
w? built ;under .foreign control and . occupation... The result was tha.,t. first railway
linea,.,Connec.ted the wealth of Slovenia, Croatia.,. Vojvodina, Bosnia and Herzegovina
to Vienna and Budapest': and that ? of Macedonia to Salonika. The 'network of. railway :
lines .built up ti11.1918 reflected the disintegration of . our country among different
rulers :and, , at the same time, the conflict of Interests and struggle.. of imperialistic
countries. TIT.-- the ..Balkans,' -.aidtig., the .'-?"-Tren Road" . the... Wealth of Ct'Ar '-cauntry...was
carried.: away to foreign countries.: 'Sat the situation in our country in 1918 was:'
individual parts -welt' not at 'all '-:-Ootinetted by ? railwayS although they Were ',very -
close :?-to., one -.another,' a.S example, Serbia:. and Bosnia and Herzegovina,,Serbia and
Vojvodina (except the international :road and railway line).
,
Railwavg
? ?The network of our ?railways. suffers' the 'same shortcomIn that exist in ?
..-?? .nba1aneed geographic disposition of productive forces, which i's'-a--"?ohardeteriStic ?
? ......:.6r.:**talIg'.ii.Badie7ChaiaCte.rit.tiCE6rf':' the :?d:eneity.'6nd'ai'spti8itibn'...-6f rai1-
Way' lines in 'all.:...parts"-of,.. our C.bunt..1 and. ? intercommunication
? ? , ? ?? network. itself the. ,requirement .-' of people In those
? , ? . . , ?
? _.?Viit'ito.T.ai-sand????to ? Ititurni--?? A?onditi.-Onn-# blit?-..primari y serve to thP?,?.71:rifieregt.... of.
foreign and ? ?? ? ? ? -? ???? ???
? . ? ?? ?. ... ? - ? .
? ? ? ? ; ? ? ?? ? ? - ? ? ? " ? ? ' ' ? . . ?
?It is worth.' mentioning :?.:th4t nt less than ???
?? ? ..frontiers In the north and northwest fr.om Jugoslavia to fore while
in.'"'the'???;.66.iith.:.and..? In ? 'the east. there are only 3 railway'line '-(.t,WO ..t.0-.'Gree0e ? aod..? one
?
to Bulgaria), .' to lbania.? ? ??-?'- -?
, ? ,? . ? -, ?.; ? , ? , ?
?
Austro-Hungary built the first railway, .our ,CaliritTy in1846-1849i'
connecting Vienna and Graz, ? Via *Zidarii Host ?.and -LjtibIj , to 'Trieste the , main
Austrian 'Port at that time. Thenceforth, the raily4 network .the territory of
$16venia; ?'Ordatib,...and Vojvodina was rapidly 'Turkey the
railway line Salonika ',- Skoi4je KosavOca-MitroVia;?'t11e lines .7 Nis:
Sofia and Nis 'Skoplje were 'built in1P9..'-' At theSame time Austro-Hungary built
the ? narrow gauged line; Brod branches to Trebinje,
DtibrOVnik and .and then': t he line ; ''Sardj'ev 4'Vise grad., ? ???
, ? : : ,
In forrmr
.r. ".
I ? k,
Jugoslavia the building up ..of railways was"c'-'ntinued, but on a,
'tery limited scale. The difficulty _ in the inherited railways is because their
' ? . ?????? . . ? .?.. -
' 009 e
01.
I t 4
tracks are of various width (normal 1.435 m and narrow. 0.76 and 0.60 m). Narrow
gauged lines were not built as secondary lines to connect two main lines, but as
main lines and in the very centre of the country; for example in Serbia and Bosnia
Delgrade Cacak - Sarajevo) p The tarrow-gauged linos are of small. oaps,city; at
the points where these lines join the normal ones goods are to be utioaded, which
requires additional labour and takes time.
- The total length of all railway lines inherited in 1941 was 10,700 1.01 (7395
km normal and 3305 km narrow gauged).
We inherited only 43 km of railway lines Per 1000 sq km as compared to Italy
75 km., Germany 123 Ian and 380 km in Belgium.
* During the occupation our railways were damaged from 57% to 60%.
Ifter ithe liberation of thecountry our railways were reconstructed by the
end of 1946. In accordance with our planned economy new lines have been built;
they meet the requirements of economic, cultural and other interests of our
peoples,' and the requirements of national defence in wartime.
??
Main Internal Railwa Communicattng
- The spine of the railway traffic is the lines Sezana Ljubljana Zagreb 7
Vinkovci - Belgrade 7 Nis - Skoplje Gevgelija (with the extension to Salonika),
which is an international line because it connects the Western and Central Europe
to the Aegean Sea and Near East. Its strategic and economic importance ?is very
&eat. It forks into many other lines that run into other parts of our country.
Most important of them are:
1) .Sezana Dutovlje - Nova Gorica Podbrdo Jesenica;
2) Divaca. Kanf,anar (Royinj) - Pula;
3) Sent Peter na Krasu. (Pivka.) Rijeka;
4) Ljubljana: (a) LjubljanaTrebnje (Sevnica). Novo Mesta 7
Karlovac, (b) Ljubljana - tresenice;
5) Zidoni Most - Celie - Maribor (Dravograd# Ptuj);
6) Zagreb: (a) Zagreb - Karlova,c, Ogulin - (Rijeka) (b) Za
Ostar?ije Gospic-- Knin Perkovic (Sibenik) 70 Split (Sinj)(
/
ZagrebBjelovar Virovitica - Osijek:, (d) Zagreb - Varazdini
7) SUnja:(a) Sunja Bosanski Novi - Banja Luke, (b) Sunja
Bosanski Novi - Knin - Split;
8) Brod - Doboj (Tuzla) Zenica - Sarajevo - Knojic - Mostar Gabela
(Place) - Hum (Trebinje Bileca - Niksic Titograd)- Uskoplje
(Zelenika) - Dubrovnik (narrow gauged 0.76 In);
a\
Vrpolje flmrIn Doboj Zenica - Sarajevo;
10) Vinkovci: (a) Vinkovoi Brcko ft Banovici, (b) Vinkovci Osijek,
(c) Vinkovci Erdut (on the Danube) -Somber;
u)
Stara Pazova Novi Sad - Shbotica;
12) Belgrade: (a) Belgrade - Obren.ovac Lajkova.c (Valjevo) Cacak ,
(Kraljevo) Tito Uzice Visegrad 7 Sarajevo (narrow gauged 0.76 m),
(b) Belgrade -- Pancevo (Vrsa.c 7 Bela Crkva) Zrenjanin Milosevo
(Kikinda)-- Novi Knezevac - Szeged (in Hun ,;ary) (c) Belgrade Maio, '
Krsna Pozarevac Kucevo - Brodica;
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13) nadenovac Arandiolovac Lajkovac Vaijevo narrow. gauged 0.76 ma
14) Velika Plana - Mala Krsna - Smodorev;
25) Laixlvo Kragujevac Kraljevo Kosovska Mitrovica Skeplje;
(narrow gauged lino 0.76 m);
Krusovac (*aljevo Oacak);
JJ, A Nisi (a) Nis Knjazevac Zajecar Negotin Prahovo, (b) Nis .
d't
pirot ? Dimitrovgrad, (c) Nis - Eursumlija Pristina Pec;
Skoplje Tetgvo Gostivar (normal line) and further on narrow
gauged line 0.60 m Kicevo (Struga) Ohrid;
20) Titov Voles: (a) Titov Voles Stip - Kocane, (b) Titov Voles -
Prilep Bitolj.
Planned economy required the construction of new railway lines that would
avert-Phortcamings of the railway network. New railway lines connect our largest
and Most iffiportant mining are with industrial centres, thus strengthening our
economic potential., These lines are:
-1) Brcko BanOvici, 89 km long; runs to the rich mines of hard coal
(Titots nines" Banovici.
2) Samao - Sarajevo$ 240 km long. makes an intense transportation alonc. the
Bosna valley possible where there are reserves of vital ore (iron and coar);,alse,
the transportation of timber from the forests within the Bosna river water system.
Was line is a part of the future Adriatic Line: Sarajevo - the Ivan Planina
mountain the Neretva valley - Ploce.
3) Niksic -'Titograd, 56 km long; rakes a quick, reconstruction of Titograd
and economic development of Orna Gora possible; serves for the exploitation of ore
from tie southern part of Crna Gera and crude oil from the Ormnica area.
???
41 Doboj Banja.Lukel,83'km long; connects the valley of the river Bosna
v
and the valley of the river Vrbas; in fact it is our new lateral communication
(fmrallel.toTa'possible front line), extending from the east to the west., that
would f-.-un fram.Belgrade,:via StepojeviC, Lajkavac; Valjevoi,Lodlica, where it
will join the railway line SaMac Zvornik (probably Sabac - Zvornik), and from
Zvornik it will be extended to Tana - and Doboi -in the west :this railway line
will be extended from Bosanski- NoVi or from Biha,c to. Karlovac.?
Pican;
Our youth built these four railway lines voluntarily.
Other new railway lines are:
5), Skoplje Radusa 'Tetavo Gostivar, which will be ext.:mded to Ohrid;
6) Lupoglav Stalije, which runs to large coal basins Rasa, Podlabin and
7) Lapovo n. Despotaciac? connecting the main railway line to the basin of the
Despotovac mines of hard coal;
8) Bihac Kulen Vakuf Knin;
9) Kursumlija Pristina;
10) Bor Orni Vrh;
t.
143
11) Petrovac na Mlavi - Ladne Vode;
14)
Pteserje
15) Sezana Dutovlje;
16) Kucevo Brodica;
17) Sabac Zvornik;
18) The railway line across ipancevacki Rit;
19) Bosut Bije4ina.
A-total of 1312 km of new line 6 have been constructed to far. The raLway
line (normal track) that will run along the Neretva valley to Pio& is under conie
struction, and the Adriatic Line i Belgro/de Stepojevac Valjevo = Pozega
Titovo nice Priboj - Bijelo Polje - Titograd Bar is being prepared; it will
be 510 km long (300 km air line).
Our Railway Lines for the ittpanatimal
Communication
Oi i. most important railway line (Sezana - Ljubljana - Zagreb - Belgrade -
Nis - Skoplje Gevgelija) connects our country to the countries of Central and
.Western'Europe (Austria, Italy, Germany, Switzerland, France, etc.) in the north-
west, to Bulgaria arid Greece in the east and south. At the same time, it is-very
important for international iiailway traffic in Europe, because it is a part of a
transcontinental line that connects Western and Central Europe to the Near and
Middle East.
It forks into other lines that also connect our country and neighbouring
countries. These are:
1) Ljubljana. (a) Jesenice Beljak Insbruck - (or Munchen is Zeurich;
i.e. Celovec (Klabnfuft) --Vienna (and further on to Germany and Czechoslovakia)
(b) jesenicsun (Trio_L....1.
Lruu ? OrixawJ
2) Zidani Most - Oelje - Pragersko - Maribor - Vienna and Pragersko Ptuj
Kotoriba - Nagy Kanizsa - Budapest, (b) Celje Dravograd, i.e. Maribor
Dravograd and further on to Atria;
3)
,Zagreb Krizevci Corekenes Kaposvar - IBtidapest;
4) Vinkovci: (a) Vinkovci Dalj Sombor Subotica - Budapest, (b)
Vinkovci - Osijek - Pecz;
5) Belgrade: (a) Belgrade - Novi Sad - Subotica -Budapest, (b) Belgrade
Pancevo Vrsac Timisoara, (c) Kikinda Timisoara - Bucharest - Odessa; '
6) Nis - Dimitrovgrad - Sofia -Edirne - Istambul;
7) Gevgelija - Salonika, Bitolj Lerin Salonika.
On 'basis of the density and cOmposition of our railway network, one will
find that the transportation of troops towards the frontiers, for the
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moment, until the projected lines and lines under construction are finished, is
as follows:
Quick transportation is feasible westward (towards the Italian frontier);
northward (towards the Austrian and Hungarian frontier) and eastward (towards
the Rumanian frontier north of the Danube),
Delayed transportation can be carried out southwestward. (towards the
Albanian frontier), northward (towards the Danube); eastward towards the
Bulgarian frontier and southward towards the Greek frontier.
Slowest transportation would be towards the Adriatic Littoral towards the
Dalmatian and Montenegrin sectors (until the normal gauged line Sarajevo - Ploce and
Beograd - Bar are constructed).
the
The road network which we inherited suffers from the same Shortcomings as
railway network.
Before the war, the total length of our roads was 33,731 km, of which only
897 were with modern surface, The disposition and density of roads did not meet
the requirements of individual parts of our country. Most of them and the best
were in northwestern and northern regions of the country, and the least in southern
and central areas.
The roads in the Dinara-llps zone have a better surface than those in the
Pannonia Plain; they are easier to maintain, because material for repair is
available on tie spot.
After the liberation of the country, careful attention has been paid to
adaptation of roads not only with regard to modern motorization of the transport-
ation, but also to actual economic and cultural requirements of our peoples'.
The lengrh of roads is planned to be increased up to 35,000 km, of wgich 2500 km
would be with modern surface.
In addition to the existing international roads Subotica - Novi Sad -
Belgrade - Kragujevac; Zagreb - Varazdin; Sezana - Postojna Ljubljana;
Ljubljana - Jesenice; Split - Trogir; Postojna (Kozina) - Rijeka - Novi;
Postojna Gorica Bovec; Pula - Labin; Zagreb - Varazdin - Maribor and
Maribor - Celje Zidani Most, new roads have been constructed, of which the most
important is the highway Belgrade - Zagreb, which will be extended to LiYbijana.
Nets rnntie are open for traffic: Tvpngrmd Rozaje and Titovo Uzice Kokin
Brod - Nova Varos ("Partizans' Road") Belgrade - Smederevo and Belgrade - Valjevo.
The road Prijepolje Bijelo Polje was reconstructed and a few new bridges
of concrete will be built on that sector in order that buses between Serbia and
Crna Gora could operate regularly. Along the road Belgrade - Kragujevac -
Kraljevo Pristina Skoplje wooden bridges will be replaced by bridges of rein-
forced concrete. Thus, this road will be arterial line during the repair of the
new international road Belgrade Nis Skoplje that will take place very soon..
Water Communications
Inland Navi ation
River borne transportation and navigation in channels and on lakes is a
special type of transportation.
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Olir rivers 4re navigable in the length of serefsewitioe
Our ndigable channels .. ...........,............i.?...
?
1,990 km
Total
1,790 km
200 km
Of all kinds of transportation, the river-borne transport is most suitable
for imperishable goods, as for example: ore, building material, bricks, tiles,
stone, gravel, sand, lumber, coal, mineral cll., corn, etc. Ore from MaidanPek,
for instance, is transported by funicular railway to Donji Milanovac, where it is
loaded in barges and transported by them up the Danube and the Save to the foundry
in Sisak. River-borne transportation is always best when the speed of transport-
ation is unimportant.
Large quantities of goods can be transported by water communications. The
tonnage of a barge is 60-70 railway wagons, that is, the capacity is considerably
greater than that of a goods train, whose average capacity is 500 tons. A convoy,
however, with a tugboat of about 800 HP, composed of 10-12 barges, carries goods
In the capacity of 600-800 railway wagons.
The second great advantage of river-borne transportation is its cheapness;
Power invested by river transportation means for the tugging of the same quantity
of goods is 12 times smaller than by railways, 72 times than trucks and 1,700
times than air transport. Then, investments for maintenance of water communications
are incomparably smaller.
So, various kinds of transportation are different. The cost of a ton/km (the
transportation of a ton for one kilometre) is the least on the sea, somewhat
greater in riverwborne transportation, greater in land transportation and greatest
in air transport. So, it has been found that for the transportation of wheat for
2000 km the cost of railway transportation is by 112% greater than the cost of
transportation of wheat at the same distance along the Danube; the transportation
of afirewood is by 142% greater. Further on, in case of wheatp.the transportation ,
cost along the Danube is only 17.9% of its export price, while railway cost is 38%.
.Special importance of river-borne transportation lies in Unloading railway
communications. Together with the development of economy the turnover of goods is
rising, and the turnover of goods is onthe increase much more rapidly than the
length of railway network, construction of locomotives and wagons. , SO, river
borne transportation takes a great deal of total transportation of the country,
and therefore it is much older than railway transport.
However, under the influence of our climate, the river-borne transportation
is not possible during the whole year. In average, two and a half months in a
year river transportation is suspended because Of ice, which means that every
fifth day of the year, it is not used for transportation. Then, abnormally low and
high water level makes navigation 'difficult. Further on, navigation On the "Danube
network Should be technically on a higher level, that is, navigation ought' to be
safer than it is. The Danube waterway should be cleared and made navigable along
the whole length for boats over 600 tons. In addition to the above said, river
beds must be permanently clear from Detritus.
In conclusion, we can say that our country has an excellent position on the
Danubian arterial waterway and, therefore, we Should take maximum advantage of it.
for the transportation.
Fluvial Navigation
The Danube is, ?by its size, the second navigable river on the European con-
tinent. Its importance for the development and life of the countries of Central,
Southeastern and Eastern Europe is tremendous. It is an international river.
The navigability of the Danube and its important geographic position .are vital
for the economic development of European countries. For some Danubian countries,
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as Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Austria:, Danube?#,:the way- out to :the sea. .Pros-
'pects'for the future navigation on the Danube are bright. The Danube is a navigable
atieta.114,01 and in ,the near .future it will .be. connected to :the:P&simPortant
parts of Europe:by.canals. Also, it will be in contact with seas and oceans around
Europe .and with the most important sea ports in various regions of Europe.
The navigation, on the Danube is not so developed today as it should be, con -
didering.fts international position and suitability for navigation. But .in the
near future it Will be highly developed as the result of industrialization of .the
Danubian countries and digging of canals.
Ihle to the importance of the Danube river system, many countries have recently
been dealing with Plans .0f,now.to connect it, with other rivers irrEuropei Scp,there
10 ,a project for the construction of a canal from the mouth of the Danube to the
mouth of the ,river Dnieper, so that boats could directly navigate .from the So#h-
ep.8tortr:E'urope. to the ijssR. This canal ,would be 190 km long and would run
partially across the lakes along the Seaside' and partially. across the sea at a
distance from 30 to 300 in from the coast, with a breakwater along it so. that boats
'.11.134, navigate in any weather conditions. Then, there Is. another project .for the
'construction Of an International water communication (the Danube r the Morava
the :Vardar to the Aegean Sea .(length 640 km)), by which the Danube would be
connected to Salonika.:This cOmPunication between the Danube and 'the Aegean Sea
woUIV1 shorten the way across the Black Sea by 1500 km. Our project is worth
mentioning: the canal; the Danube - the Tisa - the Danube across the Vojvodina
iii.the 'length of 240 km; width 60..100 mc. After the construction of this canal,
this rich region would have about 2000 km of water communications, which means the
densest network of water communications in Europe after Holland (90 km of water
communications Per 1000 sq km); Since the 18th century there has been a project
for the digging of a 6anal. that would connect the Sava and the Danube between
'v,#oyar and Samac',4 .Thi6:banal would :Shorten the way from Vukovar to Samac by 420
km4, Further on, regulation of Bosnian rivers would connect the Danube and the
Sava with this economic area, especially with regard to Bosnian ore and wood*
The connection between the Danube (the Sava) and the Adriatic Sea would be very
important in this.case. In addition to the canal the Danube the.Tiza - the Danube
there is a project for the construction of the canal Sisak - Zagreb, which would
be Part of the future navigable way Belgrade.- Zagreb Ljubljana. Thus,. by
way of the Sava the Danube will be connected to Slovenia and Croatia. In that way;
industrial'regions,of Slovenia and Croatia will be connected by a water communica
tion to the. agricultural regions of the Vojvodina and Northern Serbia.
There are two big .obstacles in the Danube for navigation: Djerdap and
drifts of sand at the mouth. . These two obstacles have .been overcome by technical
installations..
The river Danube, that spinal column of the Middle European system of water
communications, the old arterial line to the Levant, flows by 20.7%., i.e. about
onerfifth of the total length of the river, through Jugoslavia, and about 22%,
that is, more than one-fifth of the total surface area of its water system is in
Jugoslavia. More than'seven -tenths, i.e. about 71% of the total surface area of
Jugoslavia is covered by the Danube water system And the Damube itself is navigable
along the whole of its length in the Jugoslav territory. Jugoslavia keeps the key
position within the river system of the Danube, that artery of Europe.
Together with its .tributaries the Sava, the Drava and the Tisa, the Danube
forms the main network of river communications in Jugoslavia. It flows across
the economically most active regicns of the Pannonia Plain. In addition to Banat,
Backa, Srat and Baranja, other strong economic regions are in its vicinity;
Podravina, Posavina, Sumadija, Pamoravlje and Timocke Krajina.
If we look at the map of European water communications and first of all
the line the Rhine - the Danube, with all branches of it (planned or .in use), then
we clearlysee the importance of Jugoslavia in the key position-W.Lthin that network
of water communications. Jugoslavia keeps the position of the. most -important
*AO
junction of communications of this Euro6ean spine of water communications .(the Rhine.
0, the Danube), because in its territory the Danube receives 4 number. or secondary
water .0omMUnications (the Sava, the Drava, the Tisa, canals).. If We add that ue
greatest part of navigable waterways of the Danube water System is in Jugoslavia;
then We can Say that Jugoslavia is a state of the first degree among Danubian State.04
"The Convention On the Regime of the avigation On the Danube Of August 18
1948" providesthat the navigation on the -Danube is free and open, to citizens,
boats and goods of all countries On basis of equality with regard to port and,
navigation tAlce61 as well as With ,rel'ard.to the conditions of navigation for cafte-
terical 14i4tpbSes. The Same Convention provides the freedom Of navigation on the
Danube in conformity with interests and supreme rights of Danubian. States; according-
ly, the control Of navigation belongs to the Danubian States rn'..contracting Parties
of the COnVentiOn'(F1711j, OzechoSlovakia, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria,, USSR
Gunboats of nOnDahUbian countries are not allowed to navigate along the
Danubev1Whilo gunboats of the Danubian States may navigate beyond the frontier only
if that.is.prOVided-by a bilateral Agreement of the countries concerned.*
Other navigable rivers Are:
The Tisa navigable along its whole length of 164 km in our territory;
The Tamis is navigable Only from Pancevo to its mouth in the length of 3' km.
The Drava is navigable from its mouth toGadjavicajn the length of 105 Irm;
The Sava is navigable from Sisak in the length of 592 km. Its navigability
depends on Water level. ,During the low water level period it is navigable Only from
Zebrez4 and during the medium water level period from Sabac to its mouth.
The KUpa (for smaller boats) from Karlovac to Sisak (136 km) during the
normal water level period, otherwise from Pokuptko to Sisak. Only;
The Krka from Skradin to its mouth (15 km);
The NeretVa from Metkovid:to its mouth (20 kin);
The Ornojevica Rijeka (12 kin) and the Bojana along the whole length (21 kin).,
All these rivers serve also .for river-borne transportation of passengers;
DahUb0;. the Sava, the Drava, tholamiS, the Neretva', the Krkai the Zrmanjaaand
watiuji.ca
the
the nr4- D44;Orn.
?
Navigation is not sufficiently developed on all our canals. For the moment;
boats circulate along the following canals:
Bezdan - Becej - Backo Gradiste (the so-called Veliki Kanal 124 km long);
Mali Stapar - Novi Sad (the so-called Mali Kanal 68 km long) is not navigable
temporarily, because it is not clear;
the Begej Kanal (76 km long).
* Germany and Austria, as countries still under occupation which had not
signed Peace Treaty, could not sign the Convention, but, being Danubian
countries, have advisory status as far as the control of navigation in
their territories is concerned.
0004110/i48
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Navigation on lakes is poor in our country. Navigation is exercised on La,
Skadar along the line: Ornojevica Rijeka - Piavnica Virpazar, on Lake Ohrid
are routes: Ohrid Sv. Naum and Ohrid Struga; on Lake Prespa, during summer,
tourist steamers navigate along the whole length of the 'shore.
Gross tonnage of our pre-war marine was 390,000 tons. During the occupation
all our ships were taken away by the occupators, and partially sunk; some of them
escaped and joined the Allies. After the liberation we found 15,000 gross tonnage.
The enterprise "Brodospas" salvaged 20 ships - With the gross tonnage 40,317 tons
Hand in, shipyards they have been made fit for navigation.
the end of 1952, the Jugoslav marine had 251,838 gross tonnage, to say
no hing about shipping undqr 50 tons?
Total transPortation
3,384,395 ,tonst of which 2,
is coastal navigation.
of cargo, taken as gross tonnage, auripg 1/a4 was
347,837 is long distance navigation, and 1,036,558 tons
General information about most important ports of FPRY:
JjUitar*
Character and rank. Being in the vicinity of RiJek4 (10 km), Balca.r is an
integral part of the Rijeka harbour area, ,operating as a branch of the Igjeka port.
In the main, serves for unloading of special cargo and for export of lumber.
-General"data. The port is situated in a naturally protected bay. Entering
and manoeuvering in the port are easy. The only danger is "bute that can blow
like a-storm in wintertime. Two transoceanic ships and three smaller boats of
coastal navigation can be put to shore at the same time.
There are no regular lines (except local lines) in this port*
Communications running to hinterland: connection to the railway line
Rijeka Zagreb.
Character and rank. Local port now; large, modern port is under construction.
The existing break-water will be extended by 250 11-4 for the protection of the port
and for putting in of two transoceanic vessels. The port will have modern
installations for loading and unloading cargo. It will be connected to hinterland
by the railway line Belgrade - Bar which in under construction. Serbia, Kosmet
and Macedonia will then graviate to this port.
Communications running to hinterland: for the time being, the narrow-gauged
railway line Bar - Virpazar (0.60 m).
Bar is a port along the regular line of coastal navigation.
Dubrovnils
Character and rank. Export, import and tourist port. Economic background
of the port, together with Ploce, are PR Bosnia and Herzegovina and PR Cm Gora.
General data. The port is situated in a naturally protected bay - Gruz.
The approach to the port is safe. Along the embankment there are nine places for
transoceanic ships and seven for smaller ships of coastal navigatipn.
The regular line of coastal navigation touches Dubrovnik. All lines of the
-149"
"Jugoslav Line" touch Dubrovnik conditionally.
Communications running to the hinterland: the narrow-gauged railway line
Dubmvnik Gabela - Mostar - Sarajevo, then Dubrovnik - Niksic - Titograd.
Roads to: Split, Kotor, Sarajevo, etc. Air lines during the summer season to:
Sarajevo, Belgrade, Zagreb, Titograd, Skoplje.
11221*
Character and rank. The port is being developed into one of our main export
and import harbours. . After the construction of the railway line Sarajevo ? Ploce
some of the northeastern parts of our country will graviate to Ploce. It will
soon be a large, modern port with modern installations for loading and unloading
?argo.
General data. The port is situated in a naturally protected bay which ships
reach along a Channel 1000 m long, 60-90 in wide and 9 in deep. Two transoceanic
ships and 1.i2 smaller boats of coastal navigation can be put to shore at the same
time. The embankment for passenger steamers is separate and120 in long.
Regular line touches Ploce.
Communications running to hinterland: connections to the narrow-gauged
railway line to SarajeVo? Dubrovnik, Titograd, Zelenika. Good roads to Sarajevo,
Split, Dubrovnik.
Kotor
Character and/anke
Gora). the:same time a touristic centre. .
General data. The port is very well protected and safe. Medium ships with
the draught up to 6 m can be put to shore, and also several small boats.
The regular line touches Kotor,
Connections: the road to Hercegnovi, Dubrovnik, Cetinj Titograd, Bar,
Ulc inj.
The port is of local importance (transit of goods to Orna
Rileka.
Character and lank. The main import-export harbour. Centre of our maritime
trade* Connected by first-class lines of communications with the whole Jugoslav
territory, so that its economic background are PR Slovenia, Croatia (without
Dalmatia), Serbia so far and even Macedonia. Good railway communications with the
Danubian countries make Rijeka a transit port for foreign goods.
General data. The port is protected from all winds. The depth along the
shore varies; from 5 to 9 in. The embankments can receive 20 transoceanic ships and
a number of smaller ships. The length of operative embankment is 4,470 in. The
port has 38 cranes.
There are regular lines of coastal navigation and transoceanic lines.'
Pula.
Character and rank. The main port of Istria.
General data. The port is composed of two bays in the southern part of
Istria. The outer serves as anchorage, while the inner is the commercial port.,
The inner port can receive only medium and small ships.
The regular line touches Pula.
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?
Connections with hinterland: the railway line Fula Divaca joining the line
Trieste Ljubljana - Rijeka. Good roads to Trieste and Rijek.. Air lines to
Rijeka and Zagreb.
Character and rank. Import and export port. The turnover of goods influenced
by. developed industry (three factories of cement, the shipyard "Vicko Kratulovic")
factorY" of Plastic material the enterprise "Brodospas" etc. A.) The port 4s the
economic centre of Dalmatia and a touristic centre.
General data. The port is divided into two Parts The 'town Port is the
commercia), Port, while the northern Port, that includes Vranjicki Zaliv and
Solinski Zany, is the industrial Ports The town Port can receive three transm
oceanic ships and a number of Passengers an cl cargo boats of coastal navigatiani.
It
The wind nbura influences the manipulation in the northern port, in which Pour
transoceanic ships can be Put to shore at the same time.
4
The regular line of coastal navigation touches the
"Jugoslav Line" touch Split conditionally.
port and all the lines of
onhedtiOns with hinterland: the railway lne to Knin and from there to
Bihac Belgrade, that is, Ostarije Zagreb. The narrow gauged railway line to
Sinj. Good roads to: Dubrovnik' garajevo Zadar, Zagreb Air lines to. Belgrade
?
Derovnik, Sarajevo, %pale, Titograd and Zagrebi
Character and rank. Ore, non-metals and lumber exported: ore, coal and coke
rrinnrtAd ( for local Industry).,
--General data: the Port is to be entered along the channel of &v. Ante, 1.5
km long and 120.-300 m wide. The port is entirely protected. There, is place for
4 transoceanic ships and for a number of medium and small boats. New embankment
Is under construction.
?communications running to hinterland:? the railway line Sibenik Knin and from
there Knin Osta,rije - Zagreb, Knin Bihac - Belgrade (Banja Luka). Good roads
running to Zagreb and Split.
Character and rank of the port. Local, serves for-the supply Of the town and
environment. 'nnnAitiorinc, that are ,o ,u4110v ^om4miy.t ir.LO u4+A 141+0,0010_
coastal navigation is nighly developed.
General data: the port is safe in any weather conditions.
receive one transoceanic ship and several smaller.
Ships of the regular coastal lines touch Zadar.
Connect ions: roads to Knin and Sibenik. In summer season, air lines to
Zagreb and Sibenik.
klolUa?
The. port is of local importance. Serves for the export of bauxite and
lumber from.Orna Gam. The port is not entirely protected from south winds.
Capacity of the embankment: one transoceanic ship and two smaller.
The embankment can
regular line does not touch this port.
? ? ../151
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- 151 -
Communications: the narrow-gauged railway line to Sarajevo and Titograd,
roads to Dubrovnik, Kotor and Ulcinje
In Boka Kotorska, serves for military purposes.
4Alnata22:
a) In The Adriatic
Rijeka - Kotor
Rijeka - Ulcinj
Split - Dubrovnik
Rijeka - Split
Rijeka - Split - Place
Split Kotor
On the main lines ships touch only bigger ports.
Local navigation between small ports is carried out by ships grouped in
seven administrative sections: Pula, Rijeka, Zadar, Sibenik Split, Dubrovnik and
Kotor
) Regular Lines Outside the Adriatic
CT
The name of the line I The number of voyaged'
The Adriatic
North America
per year
22
Ports
#.
Rijeka, Split, Cape Bon
(Ras Addar), Algiers'
Tangiers, Casablanca, New
York, Philadelphia,
Tangier, Trieste
The Adriatic -- Rijeka, Dubrovnik,
24 Messina, Algiers, Oran,
Northern Europe
Tangier, London, Hamburg, Rotterdam, Antwerp,
Trieste
Levant
41
Rijeka, Trieste, Sibenik,
Dubrovnik, Laodicea,
Beirut, Alexandria, Port
Said, Venice, Trieste
Large Shipyards are at Rijeka, Split and Pula, and smaller at Losinj,
Korcula, Trogir and Kraljevica.
The role of our marine in the international trade on the sea is getting more
and more important because of an increased number of ships, especially large ones.
?fi
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2014/03/04: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400130005-2
* ? 0 4. 5 2
11111:0111111NININIIIIIIIIMMINEMINEW
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
50-Yr 2014/03/04: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400130005-2
under the control of the state enterprise "JAT" J'ugoo?
Its lines are:
MO WI On U...,.
"JO
u.]53 dis
,Nosowimor
Number of Inhabitants per Number of services
post-offices post-office per inhabitant
yearly
Belgrade
Novi Sad
Zagreb Ljubljana
- Sarajevo
Titograd
SkoPlie
Zagreb
569
348
(For Vojvodina
9,539
5,240
46
32
11*
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Zagreb -
Zagreb .
Zagreb
Belgrade
Belgrade
Dubrovnik
Sarajevo - Dubrovnik
Split
- Sarajevo Split
^ Hercegnovi
Dubrovnik
Split
Rijeka
Zagreb Rijeka - Pula
Skoplje Ohrid
70("014^1ft
4...6461VU
Split
Ljubljana
Sarajevo
Skoplje
Cetinje
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Zagreb Graz - Frankfurt
Zagreb Zurich
Sknplje Salonika Athens
Zagreb - Munich - Paris
Skoplje Istambul
Seasonal International Lines
705
230
523
363
151
84
TOTAL IN FPRY
10101110fAM,
4,769
3,060
3,315
8,425
8,643
4,937
IIIIr WI*
2,973 6,022
All our
and telephone
phone. Minor
WM
39
post-offices (with the exception of a few of them) have telegraph
service. Post-offices in islands use telegraph instead of tele-
post-offices have only telephone service.
Telephone and telegraph service is being automatized now. The plan provides
teleprinters in the seat of every People's Committee in districts. Telephone
communications are automatized in every town, but not long-distance network.
"Groups" of some smaller networks are automatized only in Slovenia. So, for
extimple, Kranj, with some pllces in its vicinity, Bled, Radovljice, JeSenice and
Skofja Loka, are connected in a network and in contact without any exchange.
There are a few similar networks, and our plan is to organize such group's in the
whole territory of Jugoslavia.
Radio Stations are in the centres of republics: Belgrade,. Sarajevo,
Skoplje, Titograd, Zagreb and Ljubljana, and at Dubrovnik, Split and Rijeka. They
communicate with foreign countries, too.
These services are under the control of t-le General Directorate of Posts,
Telegraph and Telephone in Belgrade. The whole territory of Jugoslavia is
divided into eight Directorates (now enterprises). They are:
esies/i53
rtA
ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY
The most important, basic elements for the development of every process of
production are land and soil, reserves in ore, waters, forests. All these elements
play an outstanding role in that process.
Along with the development of science and technique people become more and
more independent from geographic elements and more successfully overcome obstacles
caused by unfavourable weather conditions. The development of traffic is very im-
portant in overcoming natural obstacles.
The sea, deserts, high mountains and other regions difficult to approach were
obstacles to the development of mankind at the time when it had. primitive transport.
The development of technique has overcome these obstacles, and as a result, settle*
ments and various branches of industry have been developed in regions that, by
? 0 ? 0/154
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2014/03/04: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400130005-2
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
50-Yr 2014/03/04: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400130005-2
under the control of the state enterprise "JAT" J'ugoo?
Its lines are:
MO WI On U...,.
"JO
u.]53 dis
,Nosowimor
Number of Inhabitants per Number of services
post-offices post-office per inhabitant
yearly
Belgrade
Novi Sad
Zagreb Ljubljana
- Sarajevo
Titograd
SkoPlie
Zagreb
569
348
(For Vojvodina
9,539
5,240
46
32
11*
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Zagreb -
Zagreb .
Zagreb
Belgrade
Belgrade
Dubrovnik
Sarajevo - Dubrovnik
Split
- Sarajevo Split
^ Hercegnovi
Dubrovnik
Split
Rijeka
Zagreb Rijeka - Pula
Skoplje Ohrid
70("014^1ft
4...6461VU
Split
Ljubljana
Sarajevo
Skoplje
Cetinje
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Zagreb Graz - Frankfurt
Zagreb Zurich
Sknplje Salonika Athens
Zagreb - Munich - Paris
Skoplje Istambul
Seasonal International Lines
705
230
523
363
151
84
TOTAL IN FPRY
10101110fAM,
4,769
3,060
3,315
8,425
8,643
4,937
IIIIr WI*
2,973 6,022
All our
and telephone
phone. Minor
WM
39
post-offices (with the exception of a few of them) have telegraph
service. Post-offices in islands use telegraph instead of tele-
post-offices have only telephone service.
Telephone and telegraph service is being automatized now. The plan provides
teleprinters in the seat of every People's Committee in districts. Telephone
communications are automatized in every town, but not long-distance network.
"Groups" of some smaller networks are automatized only in Slovenia. So, for
extimple, Kranj, with some pllces in its vicinity, Bled, Radovljice, JeSenice and
Skofja Loka, are connected in a network and in contact without any exchange.
There are a few similar networks, and our plan is to organize such group's in the
whole territory of Jugoslavia.
Radio Stations are in the centres of republics: Belgrade,. Sarajevo,
Skoplje, Titograd, Zagreb and Ljubljana, and at Dubrovnik, Split and Rijeka. They
communicate with foreign countries, too.
These services are under the control of t-le General Directorate of Posts,
Telegraph and Telephone in Belgrade. The whole territory of Jugoslavia is
divided into eight Directorates (now enterprises). They are:
esies/i53
rtA
ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY
The most important, basic elements for the development of every process of
production are land and soil, reserves in ore, waters, forests. All these elements
play an outstanding role in that process.
Along with the development of science and technique people become more and
more independent from geographic elements and more successfully overcome obstacles
caused by unfavourable weather conditions. The development of traffic is very im-
portant in overcoming natural obstacles.
The sea, deserts, high mountains and other regions difficult to approach were
obstacles to the development of mankind at the time when it had. primitive transport.
The development of technique has overcome these obstacles, and as a result, settle*
ments and various branches of industry have been developed in regions that, by
? 0 ? 0/154
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2014/03/04: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400130005-2
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
50-Yr 2014/03/04: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400130005-2
under the control of the state enterprise "JAT" J'ugoo?
Its lines are:
MO WI On U...,.
"JO
u.]53 dis
,Nosowimor
Number of Inhabitants per Number of services
post-offices post-office per inhabitant
yearly
Belgrade
Novi Sad
Zagreb Ljubljana
- Sarajevo
Titograd
SkoPlie
Zagreb
569
348
(For Vojvodina
9,539
5,240
46
32
11*
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Zagreb -
Zagreb .
Zagreb
Belgrade
Belgrade
Dubrovnik
Sarajevo - Dubrovnik
Split
- Sarajevo Split
^ Hercegnovi
Dubrovnik
Split
Rijeka
Zagreb Rijeka - Pula
Skoplje Ohrid
70("014^1ft
4...6461VU
Split
Ljubljana
Sarajevo
Skoplje
Cetinje
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Zagreb Graz - Frankfurt
Zagreb Zurich
Sknplje Salonika Athens
Zagreb - Munich - Paris
Skoplje Istambul
Seasonal International Lines
705
230
523
363
151
84
TOTAL IN FPRY
10101110fAM,
4,769
3,060
3,315
8,425
8,643
4,937
IIIIr WI*
2,973 6,022
All our
and telephone
phone. Minor
WM
39
post-offices (with the exception of a few of them) have telegraph
service. Post-offices in islands use telegraph instead of tele-
post-offices have only telephone service.
Telephone and telegraph service is being automatized now. The plan provides
teleprinters in the seat of every People's Committee in districts. Telephone
communications are automatized in every town, but not long-distance network.
"Groups" of some smaller networks are automatized only in Slovenia. So, for
extimple, Kranj, with some pllces in its vicinity, Bled, Radovljice, JeSenice and
Skofja Loka, are connected in a network and in contact without any exchange.
There are a few similar networks, and our plan is to organize such group's in the
whole territory of Jugoslavia.
Radio Stations are in the centres of republics: Belgrade,. Sarajevo,
Skoplje, Titograd, Zagreb and Ljubljana, and at Dubrovnik, Split and Rijeka. They
communicate with foreign countries, too.
These services are under the control of t-le General Directorate of Posts,
Telegraph and Telephone in Belgrade. The whole territory of Jugoslavia is
divided into eight Directorates (now enterprises). They are:
esies/i53
rtA
ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY
The most important, basic elements for the development of every process of
production are land and soil, reserves in ore, waters, forests. All these elements
play an outstanding role in that process.
Along with the development of science and technique people become more and
more independent from geographic elements and more successfully overcome obstacles
caused by unfavourable weather conditions. The development of traffic is very im-
portant in overcoming natural obstacles.
The sea, deserts, high mountains and other regions difficult to approach were
obstacles to the development of mankind at the time when it had. primitive transport.
The development of technique has overcome these obstacles, and as a result, settle*
ments and various branches of industry have been developed in regions that, by
? 0 ? 0/154
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2014/03/04: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400130005-2
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
50-Yr 2014/03/04: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400130005-2
under the control of the state enterprise "JAT" J'ugoo?
Its lines are:
MO WI On U...,.
"JO
u.]53 dis
,Nosowimor
Number of Inhabitants per Number of services
post-offices post-office per inhabitant
yearly
Belgrade
Novi Sad
Zagreb Ljubljana
- Sarajevo
Titograd
SkoPlie
Zagreb
569
348
(For Vojvodina
9,539
5,240
46
32
11*
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Zagreb -
Zagreb .
Zagreb
Belgrade
Belgrade
Dubrovnik
Sarajevo - Dubrovnik
Split
- Sarajevo Split
^ Hercegnovi
Dubrovnik
Split
Rijeka
Zagreb Rijeka - Pula
Skoplje Ohrid
70("014^1ft
4...6461VU
Split
Ljubljana
Sarajevo
Skoplje
Cetinje
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Belgrade
Zagreb Graz - Frankfurt
Zagreb Zurich
Sknplje Salonika Athens
Zagreb - Munich - Paris
Skoplje Istambul
Seasonal International Lines
705
230
523
363
151
84
TOTAL IN FPRY
10101110fAM,
4,769
3,060
3,315
8,425
8,643
4,937
IIIIr WI*
2,973 6,022
All our
and telephone
phone. Minor
WM
39
post-offices (with the exception of a few of them) have telegraph
service. Post-offices in islands use telegraph instead of tele-
post-offices have only telephone service.
Telephone and telegraph service is being automatized now. The plan provides
teleprinters in the seat of every People's Committee in districts. Telephone
communications are automatized in every town, but not long-distance network.
"Groups" of some smaller networks are automatized only in Slovenia. So, for
extimple, Kranj, with some pllces in its vicinity, Bled, Radovljice, JeSenice and
Skofja Loka, are connected in a network and in contact without any exchange.
There are a few similar networks, and our plan is to organize such group's in the
whole territory of Jugoslavia.
Radio Stations are in the centres of republics: Belgrade,. Sarajevo,
Skoplje, Titograd, Zagreb and Ljubljana, and at Dubrovnik, Split and Rijeka. They
communicate with foreign countries, too.
These services are under the control of t-le General Directorate of Posts,
Telegraph and Telephone in Belgrade. The whole territory of Jugoslavia is
divided into eight Directorates (now enterprises). They are:
esies/i53
rtA
ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY
The most important, basic elements for the development of every process of
production are land and soil, reserves in ore, waters, forests. All these elements
play an outstanding role in that process.
Along with the development of science and technique people become more and
more independent from geographic elements and more successfully overcome obstacles
caused by unfavourable weather conditions. The development of traffic is very im-
portant in overcoming natural obstacles.
The sea, deserts, high mountains and other regions difficult to approach were
obstacles to the development of mankind at the time when it had. primitive transport.
The development of technique has overcome these obstacles, and as a result, settle*
ments and various branches of industry have been developed in regions that, by
? 0 ? 0/154
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2014/03/04: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400130005-2
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
?
0
-racking gives about
160
300 Product n our country about 40).
Stores of bituminous slates in our country are rich. Under the microscope
shows the remnants of algaw,'marine arthropods, fish and other organisms.
c)oks like coal. At a high temperature, a black oily liquor is e)ctractedefrom
ituminous slates tar1 which contains all the el ?
ements of crude oil Refining
. ,
tar gives gasoline of the highest quality and a lot of parafin. Stores in
Serbia, in Aleksinac. Also in Macedonia, within the Bregalnica River water
system and in Dalmatia along the coast and in the islands.
Metals
ko.itn The base of economy, and thereby of war potential, and also of
economic .policy and political independence of a socialist country, -represents
heavy indUstry. Metallurgy produces iron, steel and non-ferrous metals for heavy
industry.
The basic task of iron-metallurgy is to extract iron from iron-ore, to refine
t and to prepare it for use, while the task of non-ferrous metallurgy is to ex-
ract metals from all other ores.
For the production of iron are required i.ron-ore and coke: for a ton of
unwrought iron: a ton of coke an-1. 1.5 tons of ore. For the production of high
quality steel the following is added to iron: manganese or chromium or molybdenum,
and for special steel - wolfram or nickel.
Main stores of iron-ore are in Bosnia vares and Liubija (during World War II
the Germans paid careful attention to mines in Ljulpija and protected them oa.refully);
in Croatia: at Tomasi.ca (north of Sunja), Beslinac, 'Petrova Gora, Samoborska Gora?
the Velebit (under exploration); in Serbia: the Kopaonik and Ma.jd.anpek; in
MaCedonia: Slopca and Ta,jrniste at Kicevo.
Smeltin Zenica, Vares jesenice and Sisak; smelting mills at Store
and Ilijas are under construction.
koundries: Zeni.ca., jesenice Store Smederevo, Gustanj . Foundry at Nil.csic
is under construction. A sheet-iron factory at Zem.un and a foundry at Ilijas are
under construction.
22221E. Copper is the most important of all non-ferrous ;metals; it is the
key material of many industries. Without it there is no electro -technique, no
automobile industry, no aircraft industry, not even manufacturing of machines,
no armament. With its rich stores of this metal Jugoslavia is on the top of the
list in Europe.
Main stores are in Serbia: Bor, where metal is extracted from ore and
refined, and Majdanpek, in which exploitation has not begun, but the prospects
are greats
During the production of copper, a small quantity of gold and sulphur is also
produced.
Lead. Lead is also a very important metal. Usually found in ore connected
with the zinc ore. Lead is an indispensable metal for electro-technique, chemical
Industry, industry of building material and armament. By its stores Jugoslavia
Is in first ,place in Eurorxi.
Main stores are in Serbia: Trepca (one of the biggest mines -in the woad
then new mines Ajvali.ja,..Novo Brdo and Janicevo in the vicinity of Pristina..
? ? ? *
61
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
?
50-Yr 2014/03/04: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400130005-2
161
? The ore is also exploited at Rud.nik, Lece Medvedja (between La.skovac and
Pristina) and Veliki Majdan at Zvornik. Orna Gora: Suplja Stena at Pljevlje
the spurs of the Ljubisnja mountain. Slovenia: Mezica basin. Macedonia:
Zletovo, Bosnia: Srebtinica, Olovo, Kresevo,- Fojnica. (under exploration).
During trite production of lead a considerable quantity of silver
a by-product.
appears
as
Aluminium. Aluminium is extracted from bauxite ore in furnaces. Beside
Isatommossomatm??????????i
Hungary and France, Jugoslavia is the richest ,,country in bauxite ore in Europe*
Production of aluminium is coupled with a tremendous consumption of electric
energy (for each kilogram - 20 NO. Aluminium is a. very light metal, but it is
brittle, so it is usually mixed with magnesium and the alloy, Dura.luminium, is
used for the construction of aircraft. Aluminium is broadly applied in war
industry, because a large number of articles are made of it, beginning with canteens
and various parts of arms to aircraft.
Bauxite is found along the coast of the Adriatic Sea from Istria to the river
Bojana and in the northern islands. A factory of alum is at Moste at Ljubljana.
Aluminium is extracted at Lozovac at Sibenik and at Strnisce (Kidricevo) at ?tub
where pure metal is extracted from ore. At Razina at Split a factory of aluminium
has been constructed.
? Nickel. Monoply in extracting this. metal is held. by Ganada. Small store:8.
are In Serbia: Ba, Kadina Luka, Stragari (pot exploited).
?11ercutt. Mercury is used in chemical industry, pyrotechnicp, medicine,.
electro-industry and metallurgy. Jugoslavia is among the richest countries in the
world in this metal, and third in Europe. .The largest store that is being ex-
ploited is Idtlja in Slovenia.
Pyrite. Pyrite is very important to the chemical industry and often contains
gold. Majdenpek is a pyrite mine, Sulphuric acid is a by-product.
Very important are metals thaty added in small quantities,, improve the -qual-
ity of steel or serve for the production of various alloys. Here they are:
Elaganese extracted at Gevljanoific (Bosnia) and Qer at Kicevo (Macedonia).
Chromium. Stores in Serbia: Jezerina east .of Prizren and Deva at Djakavica;
Macedonia:. RabroVo at Valandevo, Lojana at Kumanovio and Radusa in the Sat-Planina,
mountaine.- Jugoslavia, is the richest country in Europe and the. sixth Lathe world
by its stores Of 'ohromi-t.z..
Wolfram. Important for the production of special steel for armament and
manufacturing of electric bulbs: The ore is exploited in the vicinity of
Neresnica.
Antimony is extracted in the mines Krupanj, Zajaca and Bujanovac (all in
Serbia , by the production and reserves Jugoslavia is in the first place in
Europe; antimony is also available at Fojnica and Srebrnica, but it is not ex-
plated there.
Gold can be found in the mines at Homolje and in the river Pek (at Neresnica,
where it is exploited). Gold is a by-product of copper. There are silver-ores
In Jugoslavia, but no mine gives exclusively silver. Silver can be found in com-
bination with lead and zinc, whose ores contain about 120 gr. of silver per ton.
50-Yr 2014/03/04: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400130005-2
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62
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
162
on Metals
eseseirsOsolo*ow
MaRnesi is used in making firebricks in furnaces in which Metal is smalted?
Stores in Serbia: Goles In Kosovo Poli e, brenica at Vueitrn, Bela Stena The
Ibar valley (Jarando), GornJi milanovac ?a0ak basin (no exploitation).
Asbestos is used for non-combustible articles. *Stores in Macedonia:
Bogoslovce west of Stir); in Bosnia: Bosansko Petrov() Selo, and in Serbia Brvenik
at Raska, Rujiste at Kosavska Mitr'ovica and Stragari at Arandjelovac..
is used for electrodes and for coating of metals stores at
ProkuPlJe and Pakrac.
Barite' is used in cheimical indUStr for the Production of dye6, in medicine
barium sulPhate), etc; Stores: at Velika Kladusa and KresevO (in Bosnia),
ToPusko and Ricioe (Croatia) and Pie se (Slovenia):
Marbla is used for decoration of btildings and monuments; stores: the
encac mountain) RQP0cevo and Pee (Serbia), in the island of Brac and in the
icinitY of Tetovoi
Granite is used in house bUildingi etc* stores: jablanica the Kopaonik
-
the Bukulja.. the Cer, the Motajica the Mos1ai4 taCka Gora-7 the Pohorie the
- ,
Peli
ste r 11 the Beiasica, and the Skopska arna Gora.
Salt (common salt) is got by the evaporation of salt water at Ulcinji Ston
Pag and in Istria or by the eVaporation of salt springs at Kreka and Simin Han
at Tuzla. A new salt mine is now open at the village Tusanj (at Tuzla) where salt
is available as hard mineral.
Fireproof Cl is available at Arandjelovac where it is manufactured.,
Marl, earthy, crumbling deposit consisting chiefly of clay mixed with calcium
carbonate; used in cement industry. Best marl is in Dalmatia near Split and
in Istria. Other stores that are exploited: the Fruska Gora (Beocin), Popovac
at Cuprije, in the Sar-Planina mountain, at Labin and Pula in Istria, Anhovo at
Gorica, Trbevlje, Podsused and Ralja.
Porcelain ware is made of our clay; when broken it is greyish; we do not
have Pure white clay (kaolin) to form the paste of porcelain.
Energetics
moommemmitilmig.
One of the basic prerequisites of the economic development of society is a wide
base for the production of energy.
If we do not count human labour, basic sources of energy are divided into
those that cannot and those that can be restored. The first group includes coal
and crude 011, the second water power, wind and wood. Mankind spend now 93.7% of
energy that is exhaustible, and only 6.3% of energy that is practically inexhaustm
ible:
Germany, England, Poland and Sweden are ahead of our country by their
sources of energy, Czechoslovakia, France Italy, Rumania, Hungary, Bulgaria and
others are behind.
In world reserves of energetic sources water power participates with .9.6%1
and in our country with over 620%. Thus, the future of our energetics is water
.1163
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0
Et,
- 163 -
?'01
power, and then in coal.
The appearance of steam engine 1764 to 1780 in the Production, 1803 with
shipping and 115 with railways, and also electrification at the end of the 19th
century, caused the technical revolution in the development of productive forces.
Today, however, atomic energy promises the same. Steam engines and electricity
have made possible forming of gigantic industrial enterprises and tremendous
concentration of production.
Coal as a source of energy has been known from ancient times. More than
120 years coal was the main source of energy. Since 1900 its importance has
been constantly falling, while from 1900 to 1935 the importance of hydro-energy
was increased 6 times.
New branches of industry, some branches of chemical industry in particular,
and first of all the production of aluminium, require enormous quantity of
electric energy. Owing to this, water energy is to be used for these branches of
industry, especially in countries that are short of coal.
However, coal is no longer only a motive power. It is more and more used as
coke in metallurgy and chemical industry (gasoline, atc):
At the beginning of the ath Century crude oil and its derivates appeared,
so that coal lost its monopolistic position. Thenceforth; in many Capitalistic
countries collier owners have ceased to invest new capital in coal mines, and as
a result, coal output is stagnant.
Napthaa We said that the production of coal is stagnant or even at a dem
crease. The situation with naptha is quite different. It belongs to products
whose consumption is increasing because of an increased Production of internal
combustion engines (cars, aircraft, motor-boats), especially in war, because
modern armies are motorized and their operations directly dependent on oil.
? During the last decade the? struggle for oil fields in the Middle and Near
East reached a climax (oil fields recently discovered in Saudi Arabia and
surrounding islands). Alvrican oil companies are exploring countries in South
America.
? There are considerable reserves of oil in our country. The regions from
Lendava to the Rumanian frontier and around Ulcinj and Petrovac na Moru are being
explored now.
Water Power Water power depends on the declivity, of rivers and quantity
of water in rivers. If there are no natural waterfalls, taey.can be .created by
the construction of dams and artificial lakes. Water power is inexhaustible and
will last as long as. the Sun and the Earth, because it depends only on rain and
snow.
Water power in Jugoslavia at medium water level, i.e. 9 months in a year,
amounts to 9 million horsepowers, while the remainder three months it is '
million HP. Tremendous water power lies in a majority of our rivers as the
Drava, the Sava, the Soca, the Kupa, the Korana, the Una, the Sanaa the Pliva,
the Drina, the Lim, the PraCa, the Zapadna Morava, the Ibar, the Neretva, the
Vardar, the Radika, the Treska, the Desnica, the Zeta, the Moraca? the Musavica
Rijeka, the Crnojevica Rijeka and all other rivers of the Adriatic Sea water
system, and also subterranean streams the Licanka (at village Lie) and the
Lokvarka (at village Lokve) which falls down towards the sea .--- Vinodol? forming
an inexhaustible source of water power. From former Jugoslavia we inherited
thermo-electric power stations in a capacity up to 360,000 KWh and hydro-electric
power stations with the capacity of 180,000 KWh, or 2:1. When we finish all new
hydro-electric power stations that we have 'started this proportion will be just
the opposite (1:2). At the beginning of 1954 that proportion was: 57% of thermo-
electric power stations : 47% of hydro-electric power stations.
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162
on Metals
eseseirsOsolo*ow
MaRnesi is used in making firebricks in furnaces in which Metal is smalted?
Stores in Serbia: Goles In Kosovo Poli e, brenica at Vueitrn, Bela Stena The
Ibar valley (Jarando), GornJi milanovac ?a0ak basin (no exploitation).
Asbestos is used for non-combustible articles. *Stores in Macedonia:
Bogoslovce west of Stir); in Bosnia: Bosansko Petrov() Selo, and in Serbia Brvenik
at Raska, Rujiste at Kosavska Mitr'ovica and Stragari at Arandjelovac..
is used for electrodes and for coating of metals stores at
ProkuPlJe and Pakrac.
Barite' is used in cheimical indUStr for the Production of dye6, in medicine
barium sulPhate), etc; Stores: at Velika Kladusa and KresevO (in Bosnia),
ToPusko and Ricioe (Croatia) and Pie se (Slovenia):
Marbla is used for decoration of btildings and monuments; stores: the
encac mountain) RQP0cevo and Pee (Serbia), in the island of Brac and in the
icinitY of Tetovoi
Granite is used in house bUildingi etc* stores: jablanica the Kopaonik
-
the Bukulja.. the Cer, the Motajica the Mos1ai4 taCka Gora-7 the Pohorie the
- ,
Peli
ste r 11 the Beiasica, and the Skopska arna Gora.
Salt (common salt) is got by the evaporation of salt water at Ulcinji Ston
Pag and in Istria or by the eVaporation of salt springs at Kreka and Simin Han
at Tuzla. A new salt mine is now open at the village Tusanj (at Tuzla) where salt
is available as hard mineral.
Fireproof Cl is available at Arandjelovac where it is manufactured.,
Marl, earthy, crumbling deposit consisting chiefly of clay mixed with calcium
carbonate; used in cement industry. Best marl is in Dalmatia near Split and
in Istria. Other stores that are exploited: the Fruska Gora (Beocin), Popovac
at Cuprije, in the Sar-Planina mountain, at Labin and Pula in Istria, Anhovo at
Gorica, Trbevlje, Podsused and Ralja.
Porcelain ware is made of our clay; when broken it is greyish; we do not
have Pure white clay (kaolin) to form the paste of porcelain.
Energetics
moommemmitilmig.
One of the basic prerequisites of the economic development of society is a wide
base for the production of energy.
If we do not count human labour, basic sources of energy are divided into
those that cannot and those that can be restored. The first group includes coal
and crude 011, the second water power, wind and wood. Mankind spend now 93.7% of
energy that is exhaustible, and only 6.3% of energy that is practically inexhaustm
ible:
Germany, England, Poland and Sweden are ahead of our country by their
sources of energy, Czechoslovakia, France Italy, Rumania, Hungary, Bulgaria and
others are behind.
In world reserves of energetic sources water power participates with .9.6%1
and in our country with over 620%. Thus, the future of our energetics is water
.1163
?
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0
Et,
- 163 -
?'01
power, and then in coal.
The appearance of steam engine 1764 to 1780 in the Production, 1803 with
shipping and 115 with railways, and also electrification at the end of the 19th
century, caused the technical revolution in the development of productive forces.
Today, however, atomic energy promises the same. Steam engines and electricity
have made possible forming of gigantic industrial enterprises and tremendous
concentration of production.
Coal as a source of energy has been known from ancient times. More than
120 years coal was the main source of energy. Since 1900 its importance has
been constantly falling, while from 1900 to 1935 the importance of hydro-energy
was increased 6 times.
New branches of industry, some branches of chemical industry in particular,
and first of all the production of aluminium, require enormous quantity of
electric energy. Owing to this, water energy is to be used for these branches of
industry, especially in countries that are short of coal.
However, coal is no longer only a motive power. It is more and more used as
coke in metallurgy and chemical industry (gasoline, atc):
At the beginning of the ath Century crude oil and its derivates appeared,
so that coal lost its monopolistic position. Thenceforth; in many Capitalistic
countries collier owners have ceased to invest new capital in coal mines, and as
a result, coal output is stagnant.
Napthaa We said that the production of coal is stagnant or even at a dem
crease. The situation with naptha is quite different. It belongs to products
whose consumption is increasing because of an increased Production of internal
combustion engines (cars, aircraft, motor-boats), especially in war, because
modern armies are motorized and their operations directly dependent on oil.
? During the last decade the? struggle for oil fields in the Middle and Near
East reached a climax (oil fields recently discovered in Saudi Arabia and
surrounding islands). Alvrican oil companies are exploring countries in South
America.
? There are considerable reserves of oil in our country. The regions from
Lendava to the Rumanian frontier and around Ulcinj and Petrovac na Moru are being
explored now.
Water Power Water power depends on the declivity, of rivers and quantity
of water in rivers. If there are no natural waterfalls, taey.can be .created by
the construction of dams and artificial lakes. Water power is inexhaustible and
will last as long as. the Sun and the Earth, because it depends only on rain and
snow.
Water power in Jugoslavia at medium water level, i.e. 9 months in a year,
amounts to 9 million horsepowers, while the remainder three months it is '
million HP. Tremendous water power lies in a majority of our rivers as the
Drava, the Sava, the Soca, the Kupa, the Korana, the Una, the Sanaa the Pliva,
the Drina, the Lim, the PraCa, the Zapadna Morava, the Ibar, the Neretva, the
Vardar, the Radika, the Treska, the Desnica, the Zeta, the Moraca? the Musavica
Rijeka, the Crnojevica Rijeka and all other rivers of the Adriatic Sea water
system, and also subterranean streams the Licanka (at village Lie) and the
Lokvarka (at village Lokve) which falls down towards the sea .--- Vinodol? forming
an inexhaustible source of water power. From former Jugoslavia we inherited
thermo-electric power stations in a capacity up to 360,000 KWh and hydro-electric
power stations with the capacity of 180,000 KWh, or 2:1. When we finish all new
hydro-electric power stations that we have 'started this proportion will be just
the opposite (1:2). At the beginning of 1954 that proportion was: 57% of thermo-
electric power stations : 47% of hydro-electric power stations.
Declassified in Part- Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @50-Yr 2014/03/04: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400130005-2
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
162
on Metals
eseseirsOsolo*ow
MaRnesi is used in making firebricks in furnaces in which Metal is smalted?
Stores in Serbia: Goles In Kosovo Poli e, brenica at Vueitrn, Bela Stena The
Ibar valley (Jarando), GornJi milanovac ?a0ak basin (no exploitation).
Asbestos is used for non-combustible articles. *Stores in Macedonia:
Bogoslovce west of Stir); in Bosnia: Bosansko Petrov() Selo, and in Serbia Brvenik
at Raska, Rujiste at Kosavska Mitr'ovica and Stragari at Arandjelovac..
is used for electrodes and for coating of metals stores at
ProkuPlJe and Pakrac.
Barite' is used in cheimical indUStr for the Production of dye6, in medicine
barium sulPhate), etc; Stores: at Velika Kladusa and KresevO (in Bosnia),
ToPusko and Ricioe (Croatia) and Pie se (Slovenia):
Marbla is used for decoration of btildings and monuments; stores: the
encac mountain) RQP0cevo and Pee (Serbia), in the island of Brac and in the
icinitY of Tetovoi
Granite is used in house bUildingi etc* stores: jablanica the Kopaonik
-
the Bukulja.. the Cer, the Motajica the Mos1ai4 taCka Gora-7 the Pohorie the
- ,
Peli
ste r 11 the Beiasica, and the Skopska arna Gora.
Salt (common salt) is got by the evaporation of salt water at Ulcinji Ston
Pag and in Istria or by the eVaporation of salt springs at Kreka and Simin Han
at Tuzla. A new salt mine is now open at the village Tusanj (at Tuzla) where salt
is available as hard mineral.
Fireproof Cl is available at Arandjelovac where it is manufactured.,
Marl, earthy, crumbling deposit consisting chiefly of clay mixed with calcium
carbonate; used in cement industry. Best marl is in Dalmatia near Split and
in Istria. Other stores that are exploited: the Fruska Gora (Beocin), Popovac
at Cuprije, in the Sar-Planina mountain, at Labin and Pula in Istria, Anhovo at
Gorica, Trbevlje, Podsused and Ralja.
Porcelain ware is made of our clay; when broken it is greyish; we do not
have Pure white clay (kaolin) to form the paste of porcelain.
Energetics
moommemmitilmig.
One of the basic prerequisites of the economic development of society is a wide
base for the production of energy.
If we do not count human labour, basic sources of energy are divided into
those that cannot and those that can be restored. The first group includes coal
and crude 011, the second water power, wind and wood. Mankind spend now 93.7% of
energy that is exhaustible, and only 6.3% of energy that is practically inexhaustm
ible:
Germany, England, Poland and Sweden are ahead of our country by their
sources of energy, Czechoslovakia, France Italy, Rumania, Hungary, Bulgaria and
others are behind.
In world reserves of energetic sources water power participates with .9.6%1
and in our country with over 620%. Thus, the future of our energetics is water
.1163
?
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0
Et,
- 163 -
?'01
power, and then in coal.
The appearance of steam engine 1764 to 1780 in the Production, 1803 with
shipping and 115 with railways, and also electrification at the end of the 19th
century, caused the technical revolution in the development of productive forces.
Today, however, atomic energy promises the same. Steam engines and electricity
have made possible forming of gigantic industrial enterprises and tremendous
concentration of production.
Coal as a source of energy has been known from ancient times. More than
120 years coal was the main source of energy. Since 1900 its importance has
been constantly falling, while from 1900 to 1935 the importance of hydro-energy
was increased 6 times.
New branches of industry, some branches of chemical industry in particular,
and first of all the production of aluminium, require enormous quantity of
electric energy. Owing to this, water energy is to be used for these branches of
industry, especially in countries that are short of coal.
However, coal is no longer only a motive power. It is more and more used as
coke in metallurgy and chemical industry (gasoline, atc):
At the beginning of the ath Century crude oil and its derivates appeared,
so that coal lost its monopolistic position. Thenceforth; in many Capitalistic
countries collier owners have ceased to invest new capital in coal mines, and as
a result, coal output is stagnant.
Napthaa We said that the production of coal is stagnant or even at a dem
crease. The situation with naptha is quite different. It belongs to products
whose consumption is increasing because of an increased Production of internal
combustion engines (cars, aircraft, motor-boats), especially in war, because
modern armies are motorized and their operations directly dependent on oil.
? During the last decade the? struggle for oil fields in the Middle and Near
East reached a climax (oil fields recently discovered in Saudi Arabia and
surrounding islands). Alvrican oil companies are exploring countries in South
America.
? There are considerable reserves of oil in our country. The regions from
Lendava to the Rumanian frontier and around Ulcinj and Petrovac na Moru are being
explored now.
Water Power Water power depends on the declivity, of rivers and quantity
of water in rivers. If there are no natural waterfalls, taey.can be .created by
the construction of dams and artificial lakes. Water power is inexhaustible and
will last as long as. the Sun and the Earth, because it depends only on rain and
snow.
Water power in Jugoslavia at medium water level, i.e. 9 months in a year,
amounts to 9 million horsepowers, while the remainder three months it is '
million HP. Tremendous water power lies in a majority of our rivers as the
Drava, the Sava, the Soca, the Kupa, the Korana, the Una, the Sanaa the Pliva,
the Drina, the Lim, the PraCa, the Zapadna Morava, the Ibar, the Neretva, the
Vardar, the Radika, the Treska, the Desnica, the Zeta, the Moraca? the Musavica
Rijeka, the Crnojevica Rijeka and all other rivers of the Adriatic Sea water
system, and also subterranean streams the Licanka (at village Lie) and the
Lokvarka (at village Lokve) which falls down towards the sea .--- Vinodol? forming
an inexhaustible source of water power. From former Jugoslavia we inherited
thermo-electric power stations in a capacity up to 360,000 KWh and hydro-electric
power stations with the capacity of 180,000 KWh, or 2:1. When we finish all new
hydro-electric power stations that we have 'started this proportion will be just
the opposite (1:2). At the beginning of 1954 that proportion was: 57% of thermo-
electric power stations : 47% of hydro-electric power stations.
Declassified in Part- Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @50-Yr 2014/03/04: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400130005-2
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1
16
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
great suocess of our new chemical industry is the Production of Ph0t0"PaPer,
oto and roentgen films, tyloeviriter ribbons and carbon paper in Zagreb. There is
so a new factory of Plastic mass at ICa6te1*Sucurac at Split,
The following factories have been ,'Saba.c.,:and? Stil4oti.ca factories of .-
?.. ? . ? . .
? .
chemical'heavy..-.1nduaty7,-.(uliohr?triC acid, fertilizers, copper sulphate blue
vitriol,e Hrastnik aria, Krus?c factories of similar products; at
Ceije a factory of=blue '','.14a.r.1.:0,9r are
produced carbide, azote and ferrochroxne; at Sibthlik,,jajqe and Dug! Rat are
,e' 'eon,ti?o...),Chetaidal-,-.enterprises::proauCing::,0.anainiclet carbic1.e, caustic soda, ferre??
alUoys and at Gorazde a factory of a.zote...fertiliter,s is .under :.con
stiiotion; at evaa.:-.11ear'.,.TtizIa-, 'Caustic soda, ammonbicarbonate;ia and at Osijek
and Dolac Matches;.,::at Djurdjenovac " and Sisak.,7 .-,tannin; at Prij,ed6r, .at
.(near Maribor),
paper industry; at VIdemKrsko, dOi'iaarle 'Zagreb :cellulose for. paper;
at Paracin, Araridjelovac, 1, 3 ik .S.16 ..P14t 17n4 ry StraZa._,(.:on the -river. bUtia,at
Rogatec) and Pancevo, glass; in .Zagreb a-fac.tory. of Speci.al.. opti,:cal.':,.7,3,,ass,. at
Skopijo a factory for the production of nicotine; atRijeka, Sisak-,-,and.BosanSki
Brodent.erprises for purification of.Crude factories of :.meclidamenta,. at Zeiminf
Belgrade, Zagreb.and Lji1121.jana; at..,..Skpiplje 4-r...factory of a.Lcaoid.e s -
industry,od This branch of :industry. is . very . complex, ?considering raw
material the. main, food industry is :divided milling,
. . , .? . .
. . .
iriciu-St?t's-'clealing' with the ..grinding. of Cereals; -(b) oil industry (olive ma.11.0);,
, ? . .
sugar
:,-1-114.u6tiy; (d.) (e); industry Of -milk Products;
?'canned...,foel.inditStry.'
Sugar factories are at Zupanjal- Zrenjani,n, Novi .Vrbas, BeIgrade,. Ptprisja,
.1, Crvenka. and 13elje; at Brcko, Urosevac, VrlDa.s, Zrenjaniti, Zagreb,. Ljubljana
, _ .
and Titev 1Ai1e are ? ol.ive-raills; at Omi.s Bakar, Gruz 9 Zadar, Kgter, and Bar are
also olive nis; at ,Kijevo near Belgrad?, Saba?, Novi Sad, Skoplie, Vara.zdin,
Mostar, ' Banjo; Luka arid Doboj :are factories for canning fruit and vegetables; at
Kraguj evac Svetozarevo, Naadenovac Velika Plana, Sub otica, Sid, ..S,eSvete near
.T.'etiirija
Zagreb,Murska Sobota and Banatsko Ramkovicevo are abbatoirs
.. ?. Maribor, .
with installations for canning meat; at Rovink, Vela Luka,- Lastovo
.Y.Oniiza. Bela Zadar 'and 'in 13oka Kotorska are factories for canning fish; at
. :
Osijek Zupanja are factories of powdered milk; at 'Jabuka near 'Pancevo?-is the
factory that uses maize as raw material producing starch, syrup for drugs and
alcohol; -_ two factories of -spirits are in Belgrade', and one in Ci'venka; besides,:
there are 22 factories of spirits; there are 23 breweries; a factory of liquerS..is
at Zadar, and a., factory of champagne and first class export wine is at Ra.dgona...,.
This branch of industry produces yeast and raw material for penicillin, too.
Textile and other branches of indust. With the exception of rubber in"
dustry, that has not been known more than 150 years, textile and leather ing"
iliStrieS are very old, as old as the food industry. Today, there are more than
30,000 articles produced by the rubber industry.
Cotton is the most important plant for textile industry. It was wool that
reigned in the textile industry up to the end of the 18th century. New spinning
mills under construction are in Macedonia, Herzegovina. and Kosme-t. Bosnia and
Herzegovina and Macedonia are increasing the capacity of their weaving mills,
especially for wool they are producing in considerable quantity.,
Considering that the rubber industry depends on import; it is not so developed
as other branches of industry. For a further development of rubber industry it is
essential for us to create a base of raw material in the country. .The construction
of a factory for the production of synthetic rubber is being prepared.
Textile factories are at: Trzic, Litija, Skofja, Loka,_ sja,rse, Maribor,
Kranj Paracin,.. Grdelica, Prijepolje, Belgrade, Zemun, Leskovac Pristina, Cakovec
,Varazdin? Zagreb and Duga R,esa.; a factory of nes and curtains is at Zrenjanin.? at
*sow-04.69
cl)
?
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- 169 -
Tetovo and Skoolje Industry of woolen products' at Osijek industry of flax; at Novi
. 9 f .., ? -
Sad industry of silk (natural); new cotton mills are at Stip, Sinj Mostar and
, , .,
Pristina.
In all prople s republics there are
22 leather factories.
Rubber industry is most developed at Borovo, Kranj, Nis
Rakovica.
Tobacco factories are at: Nis, Sarajevo
Zagreb, Rovinjs, Zadar, Ljubljana and Skoplje.
Pirot Zagreb and
Banja Luka Mostar, Titograd,
Lumber and furniture industry is developed at the following centres:
Zavidovici, Zivinice, Foca, Donji Vekuf, Hadzici, Kra,nj, Celje? Maribor, Sloven
Gradeo, Kocevje, Del.nice, Ogulin, Belisce near Valpovo, Djurdjenovac, Karlovac,
Pakrac, Virovitica, Sisak, Susak, Sremska. Mitrovical Za.brez, Gorica, Bla.zuj near
Sarajevo.
Cement is produced at: Beocin, Popovac near, Cuprija, Skoplje, Podsu.sed.,
Pula, Korome,cno near Labinl. Omis, Trbovlje and Anhovo (north of Goriza) and
especially at Split.
Porcelain is produced at Arandjelovac
?Stup near Sarajevo and at Zagreb.
riculture
Cultivated areas in all parts of the world are fairly limited
enlarged by melioration of vast swampy areas.
The whole territory of Jugoslavia II divided as follows;
Plough fields
and Ga.rden.s
Orchards
Vineyards
Meadows
Pastures
Fish ponds
Forests
Swampy _and
Barren areas
0e3%
7.9%
Cultivated
land
but they can be
Agricultural
land
Total FPRY: 100.0%
Agriculture produces articles of large consumption that serve as food,
clothing, fodder and those that are used in industry. These articles are produced
by agriculture together with fruit-growing and viticulture, cattle-breeding,
forestry, hunting and fishing, and are manufactured by food textile, leather,
lumber and rubber industries.
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n dcU
eg
r ir1dth3trym
Fauna depends on Flora, The lack of flora decreases the number of animals
:grass eaters*
The' influence of climate and other geographic elements on flora and on
cattle breeding is very important* But the Yield does not depend only on these
ements beeaus it can be lowered due to wrong cultivation of land (poor cu].-
r
ivation, .b1d seed, lack of fertilizers, etc).
Fertile land is not only a natural condition, but also the basic moans for
husbandry. Land and soil are not equal in all countries, because they depend on
geologic structure and relief of ground, and especially on climate and water regime.
There are countries in which not more than 2-54 of fertile soil are cultivatedo9 on
t e other hand in other countries every square foot is cultivated*
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
170
tion to vegetable, agriculture; produce s animal-products: meat, wool,
S kins, etc. Oattle-breeding products are important raw material
-
our country there are areas of bAre karst and swamPs* of the total area,
a',1?04t?..3.9,,iilli,on,hectars.require 'hydro -techrlical MeaSUres, drainage* :About'
63 Zillion hectars have already been meliorated, while 762,000 hectars remain to be
Protection of our agriculture from drought is an important Problem, for
b.e.w4ole.cuntry,, for southern regions and Pannonia Basin -in Particular* _Large
share of meadows and pastures in te total cultivated area is the result of prem
dominantly Itountainous terrain in, our country. So, meadows and pastures are
'3.2%,in'Orna Clara, 67.2% of Slovenia, 51% of Croatia, 50% .of Macedonia and
Bosnia and Herzegovina and 41118% of Serbia' Plough fields and gardens in. Serbia
(without Vojvodina and KosmetYare exactly a third of its territory (33%) and in
Vojvodina 70,3%*
The penetrationof 6aPita1ism to the country and rapid increase of.pOPulaiion
caused the impoverishment of our small land-holders. Since ?a slow development of
industry and otherbranches of economy ' made the inflow of farmers from the country
to towns' impossible, they had to remain in the country and caused division Of
Otliertligil stall farms Large estates strengthened on -account of small ones
Capitalism-qui:,clkened the press of impoverishment of mall holders and created
proletariat 10 the count,r0',.SuPij157 of labour was greater than demand, since Poor
farmers be0am.:benant'fairMers, which 'caused low wages* However, agricultural
crisis in ,f0.111D4ropean countries was most acute after 1931, and Considering that
the population (?OfifOrmerF:JugOslavia was increased by about 2 million during the last
ten
ten rearsl.,)fiCre' the war, - situation of poor farmers at the end or' 1940 was far
more difficult.
? New agrarian refom. in Jugoslavia has provided that land belongs to those
,
t4at-/./e41-t*ate4t 240,000 Poor farmers,' families became owners of 439,000
.hael)ar0-..9fOult(rival,?le . Machines and tools and other inventory abandoned by
the Germris c their collaborators were divided among these farmers. The last
agrarian ref orrLi
finally liquidated large private estates.
Before the war) :the Government held only 77,000 hectars divided among 8
large estates; at the ' beginning of 1950 the re were 858 such e state s
Our collective farming, as one of the basic forms of socialistic trans-
formation of the country, is, being developed ,on the principal of unconditional
voluntarindss, free of elements of administrative management and based on a free
competition of economic forces.
Predominantly natural agriculture is reflected in domination of cereals
0/sr other cultures, esPeciallY industrial plants, then over fruit growing and
viticulture* Of6 the total value of agricultural production in 1949 crops were
, ,
59.2%, fruit growing only 2.5%, viticulture 3.9%, cattle breeding 33.5%9 fishery
009%0 In 1952 aleulb 5000900 hectars were overgrown with industrial plants to
arimmiimn111111111111111111111101.iii
71
1,
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'17l
203,000 hectars in 1939 This mans a higher structure of agriculture) because
cereals were left to be consumed by proimers themselves, while a comparatively
small quantity went to market. On the contrary, industrida Plants were brought
to the market almost 100%. Fruit and vines can be cultivated on the soil tbat is
unsuitable for cultivating cereals.
The base of raw material for our food industry has been enlarged to a conm
siderable extent and will be enlarged in the future, too. In recent years the
areas under sugar beet have been enlarged from 47,000 to 100,000 hectors, Under
sunflowers from 19.600 to 75,000 hectars and under soybean from 3,500 to 25,000
hectars, The areas in which industrial plants are grown are mutually disconnected.
In Vojvodina, Eastern Slovenia and Posavina with Maeva are widely grown sugar
beet, sunflower, soybean, rape and hemp. Hop is widely grown in Slovenia (the
valley of the River Savinka), and chicory in Croatia (1,000 railway wagons in
1950)i Macedonia is the main producer of poppies and iu our sub *tropical region
which, in addition to cotton, produces first-class tobacco, rice and simples
(these are also produced in Dalmatia),
Cattle breeding, In mountainous regions of our country Sheep breeding is
the basic branch of cattle breeding, because there are many good and rich Pastures.
Cattle, ,horses, pigs and fowl are not raised intensely in these regions, but in
lower regions where conditions are more favourable. Splitting or otherwise small
.farms caused intensity in raising Sheep and fowl on account of cattle breeding and
even pig breeding. After the liberation we did not find more than 50% of the
pre-war number of animals, Measures have been taker, for the increase ,of the stock
-not only up to the pre-war level, but more than that, and that is achieved.
, ahem. Fishery is a branch of economy including pisciculture, fishing and
fish industry. Centres of our fishing trade are in Istria (Ravinj) and northern
parts of the Littoral. Fish is an important article, because it contains fat and
albumin* Besides, there is no trouble in feeding them.
? Without a proper developed agricultural production, it is impossible to
produce necessary quantities cf raw material for food industry, textile and
leather industries.
In former Jugoslavia cattle breeding was gradually faAing off because of
the lack of fodder.
EsTs2,1tsi is a branch of agriculture.
It was estimated that before the war that woodiness of Jugoslavia was
31.2% to 37.4% in Austria, 33.2% in Czechoslovakia, 28.3% in Bulgariai to say
nothing of countries poor in forests aci for example "4+11 CI-Gt- England
p /w/ff, .5
with 4.5%. Onetime, our country was densely forested, but many invaders
devastated our forests for centuries. Today, 3341% of our territory ,is overgrown
with trees, in spite that occupators exploited our forests mercilessly during
World War II. Woodiness in individual republics is as follows:
Sloveniawitaa4444,4es???
Kosmat. ................
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Crna Gora..
Macedonia.,
Serbia...
Vojvodina..
???06?00410.0
???????????0*???????? 200710
????????????????????? 1941.%
????????????????????? 6.4%
The lack of woods in Vojvodina is the result not only the influence of
eastern climate of steppe with low rainfalls (500-600 mm of rainfall per year),
but also of relief - vast plain and, finally, of humus - porous land
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By e sttucturel are mixed forests (4%Aeciderous and 16% coniferous
3 beech,
10.4% oak trees 2% pines, 10.3 juniper trees anctfir trees. 41 13W.'
wo:Odsraya*Ig(.r'tbail::40 years, and ' of high trees 54% are Young (1-40 'Years), %
4?16:miOle'age.:(41-80:Years)i,vhi!le 13% are %older than 80 Years.
UPAO:,the .beginning of this century our country was thickly forested, because
regeneration was much greater. than internal consumption. However, during this
centUry.over600i000 hectars of woods have been cleared or about 25% of forested
areas only in Bosnia.andjierzeg?vinat and about 19% of .all woods in Serbia.
Macedonia was deforested 'Ong ago, while Dalmatia Was transformed into a.karst
region,brVenice rulers. The Present, situation hardly provides the balance between .
ear1T'regeneration and Our needs.
0 whole territory of our country is 29,658,904 hectars, of Which forests
cover 8,744,725 hectars, which means 0.47 hoctars Per inhabitant. Thusp Jugoslavia.
is an export country, because import countries are those with less than 0.35
4ectars, per inhabitant. Wood was one of basic expdrt articles before the war, and
today, in:the,period of intensive industrialization, 'export is indispensablevbe-
.6ause for export articles we get .machines and means f6r reproduction.
When dealing with the exploitation of forests, the following factors are
important:, '1average mass of wood and yearly regeneration far hactar in average.
Taking into account thickets, average mass of wood per hectar in Jugoslavia amounts
tO1Q9...Cull 116 or in total 798,120,000 cu. in. The average. regeneration of this mass
13:1493 cu. ma. Pr'hectar .in a year, or in. total 14,165,400 cu. in. .The share of low
woods. is considerable (16%), and in high woods, young, virgin trees are predominant,
Systematic efforts are therefore required in order to improve the present situation
and adapt lumberindustry to the present condition-of woods. With .the development of
industry - forestry is to be changed, too. First of all, cnnspmption of firewood is to
be decreased and consumption of technical wood to be increased.
Wooded areas with better trees (coniferous and oak) were before the war
exhausted to a considerable extent, and especially during the occupation when
forests were cut down in areas easy to approach.. Woods were devastated also because
farmers cleared land in order 'to get cultivable land.
Before the ,liberation woods were exploited for .industrial purposes by big
private and Governmental 'enterprises. About .3/4 of the :mass of wood were exploited
by private enterprises, and only 1/4 by the Government. The share of foreign
capital in this branch of industry was estimated at 5010.. Capitalists were attracted
by large areas of oak forests in Slavonia and Srem overgrown with best oak trees in,
Europe and also those in Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia'
After the war forestry is mechanized and modernized.
. our country unforested areas, or areas with small woods are as follows:
Macedonia - central part, Pelaganija Zegligovo the Skoplje and the
Tetovo lowland areas;
Crna Cora southern and southwestern parts, the Zeta and the Niksic lowland
areas, the valley of the River Zeta, the Cijevna valley', the region from Boka
1Corotska to the River Bojna (with the exception of SOMB small areas along ridges)
within the area of the Sinjajevina the Durmitor.- the Treskavac regions above
1500 in are bare;.
Herzegovina - with the exception of northern and northwestern areas the rest
of the territoryis either thinly wooded or entirely bare;
Dalmatia - except the areas north of Knin, northeastern of Split and the
region north of Vrgoracko Polje and eastern of Imotsko Polje, all other parts are
bare;
osee e/173
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173
Serbia northern areas are thinly wooded, and in the south to the line: The
Ger mountain, IcocelJevo, Lailcovac, Arandielovad Paracin, DesPotovac, Petrovac na
Mlevi, Golub40, basins of Prokuplje, Nis, Leskovac, Pirot, Kniazevac, ZaJecar;
Iosmet Kisovo PolJe and the area north of Prizren;
Vojvodina the whole region except the Fruska Gora and narrow belts
along the Danube and the Sava;
Croatia and Slovenia - the whole coastal area of the Croatian Littoral from
Rijeka to the mouth of the River Zrmania, Thinly wooded areas are around
Bielovar, Daruvar, Banova Jaruga and Podravina at Cakovec, Varazdin, KoPrivnica
and Virovitica;
Istria the area west of the line Piran, Pazin, Labin;
Slovenia . karst areas along the sectors Gorica, Ajdovscina Sezana and
Ljubljansko Bare;
Islands in the Adriatic Sea - all except Hvar, Korcula, Lastovo and Vis;
Bosnia and Herzegovina - Samberija; the basin Brcko Samac; the-.Liievte
area; Kupresko Polje, Livanjsko Polje, Duvanjsko Polje and Glamocko Polje*,
People's authorities, supported by the people, afforested from 1949 to
1953 large areas in Dalmatia, Herzegovina, Orna Gora, Macedonia and Northern
Serbia.
On basis of analYsis of conditions of our economy and economic Potential
the latter being the result of geographic factors and working enthusiasm of
people, we can conclude briefly;
kFicultilE2.0i Husbandry: Present cultivable area will be sufficient to
produce raw' material for food and manufacture to meet our remniremsntg withnnt
import; this will be achieved by further socialistic reconstruction of country
life, mechanization and chemicalization of ctitivation of land, SOMB products are
exported. Fruilks,) grapes and wine will be important export articles,
Cattle breeding: due to decreased basic stock of cattle as the result of
long occupation of the country, there was no export immediately after the war*
Lard, ..skins and wool for food and industry will be imported for a certain period or
time.
Fore3try: Wise economic policy will enable us to develop the lumber in-
du.stry and export of wood;
Fishery: Collective fishing will play an important role
441,
our
ecrInntriVt.
V e ?
We are exporting considerable quantities of canned fish (sardine, tunny, eel
In particular).
In -case of war our agriculture will be able to meet our requirements and to
make us free from any import, on condition that we defend our regions under
cereals.
It is an important characteristic of Jugoslavia that main agricultural areas
and tracts under cereals (Eastern Slovenia, Srem, Backa, Banat, Northwestern
Serbia and Pamoravlje) lie across the periphery and that they are vulnerable
being exposed to possible attacks from the north and from the east.-
We mentioned before that our country has 23 of 26 articles of
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? ? ? ? ? 47 4
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strategic raw material (iron, copper, lead, zinc, bauxite, magnesia, chromiut,
manganese, antimony, barite, wolfram, gold) mercury, molybdenum pyrite, asbestos,
etc). Our country is provided with vital ores, and when its meets its own re-
quirements, considerable quantities can be exported. Even in case of a blockade
we have suffiotent sources of energy and fuel and other mineral raw material
(except some salts required in the chemical industry).
of war
following basins of ore and energetics
- the basin in the valleys of the rivers Timok and
Zletov.o area;
^ Idrija mines;
Mezice mines;
Donja Lendava oil fields;
- the Koprivnica coal basin;
- all hydro-electric power stations on the Soca and the Drava and also
regi
Industry. Metal manufacturing industry and industry of ?machines have re-
cently begun to produce first products, making our country free from importing
its articles, Import of machines will be gradually decreased.
Chemical industry does not meet all our requirements since it is
full swing now.
Lumber industry meets our requirements and produces many articles for
export.
Textile and leather industries depend on the import of raw material.
Otherwise, the capacity of these branches of industry would be able to meet
all our requirements and even produce articles for export, if they had 100%
of raw material provided (cotton, wool and skins).
Food industry meets our requirements and produces some articles for
,export.
Military industry: depends on the quantity of steel and other metals
produced by our metallurgy. New high furnaces for smelting mills and Siemens.,
Martin furnaces for the production of high quality steel are installed. They
will soon produce sufficient quantities of metals, and coke mills at Zenica
and Lukavac sufficient quantities of coke from our own coal. The base of
energy for our military industry is secured.
Our military industry, although very young, has been successful from the
beginning. It has produced new guns, mortars and military equipment.
Military industry is being built up in areas that are naturally protected
Our whole industry is prepared for a quick transition to war output.
0.0m0m0m,0
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