HERALD OF THE AIR FLEET

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP81-01043R002400050009-7
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 64
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: October 31, 2013
• Sequence Number: 9
• Publication Date: January 1, 1957
• Content Type: REPORT

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This publication is a translation of Herald of the Air Fleet, (Vestnik
Vozdushno-go Flota)a monthly journal of the Soviet Air Force publishedby
the Military Publishing House, Ministry of Defense, USSR.
Every effort has been made to provide as accurate a translation as
practicable. Soviet propaganda has not been deleted, a..s it is felt that such
deletion could reduce the value of the translation to some portion of the
intelligence community. Political and technical phraseology of the orig.
inal text has been adhered to in order to avoid possible distortion of in-
formation.
Users and evaluators of this translation who note technical inaccu-
racies or have comments or suggestions are urged to submit them to:
Commander, Air- Technical Intelligence Center, Attention: AFCIN-4B,
Wright"-Patterson Air Force Base Ohio,
AIR TECHNICAL INTELLIGENCE TRANSLATION
(TITLE UNCLASSIFIED)
HERALD OF THE AIR FLEET
(Vestnik Vozdushnogo Flota)
1957
AIR TECHNICAL INTELLIGENCE CENTER
WRIGHT PATTERSON AIR FORCE BASE
OHIO
AF-WP-O-JUL 58 400
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy A proved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/10/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002400050009-7
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Table of Contents
The Heroic Army of a Brother People ? . . ? . ........... . 1
Editorial
Night Training of Pilot and Navigator. 5
TACTICS
A Fighter Attack is Repulsed 10
V. P. Kopylov
The Combat Capabilities of Fighters and. a Method
for Determining them 15
V. Ya. Kudryashov, P. G. Nikitin
TRAINING AND EDUCATION
The Moral Make-up of the Soviet Pilot 21
I. I. Sushin
Readying Fighters for Night Operations
. . . 32
Ye. V. Sukhorukov
Some Special Features of Air Navigation in Night Flying
41
N. P. Nepomnyashchiy
A Difficult Examination 49
A. N. Kiselev
EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATIONS
and. their
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
Climbing in Interception . . . . 55
A. M. Tara senkov
New Air Liners 64
Preparing the Radar Sight for Bombing . . . ? ? . . ? .. .. . ?.
. . 67
A. N. Davydov .
The Fight Against the Corrosive Tendencies of Aviation Fuel .71
. . . . . . . . .
Ya. B. Chertkov, V. N. Zrelov
Aircraft Technician G. S. Kashkalov .. 75
Yu. F. Ger shevich, N. G.. Kontkov
ANSWERS TO READERS QUESTIONS
The International Geophysical Year 83
N. Z. Pinus
FROM THE HISTORY OF SOVIET AVIATION
How Problems of Air Navigation Used. to be Solved. .
B. V. Sterligov
? I .......
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? -
. . . 88
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Table of Contents
Skill Born in the Quest for the New. 99
M. Ya. Yelenin
FROM THE EDITOR'S MAIL
Class Rating of the Instructor Pilot. 104
P. S. Khudyakov
A Recommendation with Which it is Impossible to ?Agree 105
V. K. Balditskiy
REVIEW AND PUBLICATIONS
Actions of a Crew in an Uninhabited. Region . 107
S. N. Sibiryakov
120 Thousand. Kilometers on the Aircraft TU-104
3. Over the Countries of the South (Conclusion) .. . ...... . .110
A. K. Starikov
THE HEROIC ARMY OF A BROTHER PEOPLE
The Chinese people are marking a glorious historical date. Thirty years of the
Chinese People's Liberation Army haye been completed.. This is a day of great
joy, not only to our Chinese friends, but also to every Soviet individual, to all hon-
est people on earth who follow the immense progress of New China with respect and
love.
For many hundreds of years the vast country which spreads from the Pacific
Ocean to the snow-clad. summits of Karakorum and the shifting sands of the Gobi s
desert was under the yoke of Chinese and. foreign exploiters. The national resourc-
es were plundered. by greedy predatory imperialists and. their Chiang Kai-shekiit ac-
complices. Workers and farmers, all of China's people endured terrible tortures ?
and. suffering at the hands of feudal lords and militarists, who mad.e fabulous pro-
fits from the people's misery. But the hour of great battles had come. The Com-
munist Party roused. the mass of people to a war of liberation. The Peoples Libera-
tion Army was the mighty force by which the Chinese people crushed. the Kuomintang
hordes and the imperialistic armies, and. won the freedom and independence of their
native land.
The Chinese Peoples Liberation Army came into being in the fire of the Nanchang
insurrection on 1 August 1927. In that period the troops of the Nationalist army,
among whom the Communists were carrying on large-scale orientation work, turned
their weapons against the reactionary Kuomintang government and went over to the
Revolution. That was a great victory for China's revolutionary forces. A powerful
uprising of peasants soon took place in the provinces of Hunan, Hupeh, Shansi and
others. As a result of these events the first units of the Chinese Revolutionary
Army were organized. under the leadership of the Communist Party of China.
The history of the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army has had four periods of devel-
opment. During the first period (1927 - 1936) the Chinese people, relying on this
Army, waged. a revolutionary civil war against the large landowners and the bour- ,
geoisie. In carrying out this task, the army did. not limit itself to armed struggle
alone, but also organized the mass of people and. carried on extensive political pro-
paganda for China's Communist Party. During the second. period (1937 - 1945) the'
Peoples Liberation Army of China fought as a unitednational front against the Japa-
nese invaders. After the defeat of imperialistic Japan the third. period began. On
its way to victory, the Chinese Army had to endure the most difficult trials in its
struggle against the reactionary Kuomintang clique, which wanted. to turn back the
Peoples Revolution with the help of its for masters. And finally, in 1949, the
fourth period. began. New tasks now confronted. the Chinese Peoples Liberation
Army: to defend the building-up of socialism in their native land; to safeguard the
sovereignty, the territorial integrity, and. the safety of the country; to be ready at
any time to liberate the island of Taiwan where the followers of Chang Kai-shek
are still entrenched.; to stand vigilantly guarding peace and security.
The history of the formation of the glorious Chinese revolutionary armed forces
' ?
'
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-(Alz v? ?
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Table of Contents
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Skill Born in the Quest for the New
M. Y a. Yelenin
FROM THE EDITOR'S MAIL
? Class Rating of the Instructor Pilot?
P. S. ,Khudyakov
A Recommendation with Which it is Impossible to Agree
V. K. Ba.klitskiy
000000 o ?
REVIEW AND PUBLICATIONS
Actions of a Crew in an Uninhabited Region .
S. N. Sibiryakov
120 Thousand Kilometers on the Aircraft TU-104
3. Over the Countries of the South (Conclusion)
A. K. Starikov
? ?
0000
99
o . . .104
105
107
110
THE HEROIC ARMY OF A BROTHER PEOPLE
The Chinese people are marking a glorious historical date. Thirty years of the
Chinese People's Liberation Army have been completed.. This is a day of great
joy, not only. to .our Chinese friends, but also to every Soviet individual, to all hon-
est people on earth who follow the immense progress of New China with respect and
love..
.For many hundreds of years the vast country which spreads from the Pacific
Ocean to the snow-clad, summits of Karakorum and. the shifting sands of the Gobi.
desert was under the yoke of Chinese and. foreign exploiters. The national resourc-
es were plundered by greedy predatory imperialists and, their Chiang Kai-shekist ac-
complices. Workers and. farmers, all of China's people endured terrible tortures
and. suffering at the hands of feudal lord,s and. militarists, who made fabulous pro-
fits from the people's misery. But the hour of great battles had come. The Com-
munist Party roused. the mass of people to a war of liberation. The Peoples Libera-
tion Army was the mighty force by which the Chinese people crushed the Kuomintang
hordes and the imperialistic armies, and won the freedom and. independence of their
native land.
The Chinese Peoples Liberation Army came into being in the fire of the Nanchang
insurrection on 1 August 1927. In that period the troops of the Nationalist army,
among whom the Communists were carrying on large-scale orientation work, turned
their weapons against the reactionary Kuomintang government and went over to the
Revolution. That was a great victory for China' s revolutionary forces. A powerful
uprising of peasants soon took place in the provinces of Hunan, Hupeh, Shansi and
others. As a result of these events the first units of the Chinese Revolutionary
Army were organized. under the leadership of the Communist Party of China.
The history of the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army has had four periods of devel-
opment. During the first period (1927 - 1936) the Chinese.ifeople, relying on this
Army, waged a-revolutionary civil war against the large landoWners and the bour-
geoisie. In carrying out this task, the army did not limit itself to armed struggle
alone, but also organized the mass of people and carried on extensive political pro-
paganda for China's Communist Party. During the second period (1937 - 1945) the
Peoples Liberation Army of China fought as a united national front against the Japa-
nese invaders. After the defeat of ,imperialistic Japan the third. period. began. On
its way to victory, the Chinese Army had to endure the most difficult trials in its
struggle against the reactionary Kuomintang clique, which wanted. to turn back the
Peoples Revolution with the help of its foreign masters. And finally, in 1949, the
fourth period. began. New tasks now confronted the Chinese Peoples Liberation
Army: to defend the building-up of socialism in their native land; to safeguard the
sovereignty, the territorial integrity, and the safety of the country; to be ready at
any time to liberate the island of Taiwan where the followers of Chang Kai-shek
are still entrenched.; to stand vigilantly guarding peace and. security.
The history of the formation of the glorious Chinese revolutionary armed forces
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AI l''''leStiftRtla0046
?
Editorial
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is closely connected. with the names of Mao Tse-tung, Chu Teh, Peng Teh-huai, and.
other outstanding leaders of the Chinese people. "This Army," says Comrade Mao
Tse-tung, "is strong in that the people who joined, it are self-disciplined people. They
joined, together and. are fighting not for the mercenary interests of a few men or of
some small group, but for the interests of broad masses of the people, for the in-
terests of the entire nation. To coalesce closely with China's ma.ssee, to serve the
Chinese people devotedly --- such is the only aspiration motivating this Army."
The fact that the army has become a true Peoples Army has made it indestructible.
China's young Peoples Liberation Army had to overcome enormous difficulties. The
enemy had guns, tanks, and. aircraft. The American imperialists were not chary
with loans and armament supplies for the Kuomintang factions. In only a single
campaign against the Chinese Liberation Army there were 150 American and. Cana-
dian pilots participating, whereas the Peoples Army was lacking in even the simplest
weapons which had. to be taken in battle.
The enemy had. a considerable numerical superiority. There was a time when
160,000 soldiers of the Peoples Liberation Army fought against an army of 700,000
on the side of Chiang Kai-shek. However, even this could. not stop the aroused
people. Through fire and. smoke marched. the units of New China. They d.id. not
weaken in battle; on the contrary, they became even stronger as more and, more
soldiers joined their ranks. By the beginning of 1932 the Peoples Liberation Army
had. grown to 300,000 men, and. later there were more than a million. In the course
of crushing the Kuomintang hordes, the number of men in the Peoples Liberation
Army reached almost folur million. This is the most striking evidence of the draw-
ing power of the ideas for which the soldiers of New China were fighting under the
leadership of the Communist Party.
The struggle was very hard.. Fearing the growth of the revolutionary forces, the
counterrevolutionary Kuomintang clique tried, in every way to strangle the Peoples
Liberation Army., Using its numerical and. technical advantages, and. enrolling
Ge man and American generals as advisers, -it blockaded, the revolutionary units
maAy times., but to no avail.
The Great March to the Northwest is inscribed in golden letters in the history of
the Chinese Peoples Liberation Army. Having broken through the ring of the
Kuomintang blockade, the soldiers covered. about 13,000 km, fighting along the way.
They traversed uninhabited steppes and mountains covered with eternal snow, forced
7ossings over dozens of rivers, and repeatedly broke out of encirclements, con-
tinuously repelling enemy attacks. The successful completion of the Great North-
western March proved, convincingly the invincibility of a people aroused in the cause
of their liberation.
In 1946 theChiang Kai-shek clique controlled. 80% of China's territory including
all the large cities and the greater part of the railroad lines. By this time the
United States had equipped. 166 Kuomintang divisions. From 'October 1945 to July
1946 alone, they gave to the Kuomintang, besides infantry and artillery armament,
800 aircraft, 200 naval vessels of various classes, 12,000 armored. vehicles and.
trucks, and other armament. Nevertheless this new venture of the trouble-makers
also collapsed before the all-conquering wave of the people's wrath.
The Chinese people frustrated. the enemy's plans. Again, as before, the Peoples
Liberation Army increased its ranks while advancing, improved, its combat and. moral
Editorial
and. political qualities. In only three years of war the Kuomintang losses amounted.
to several million men. The losses in armament were also enormous: 50,000 field
pieces, more than 300,000 machine guns, over one thousand. tanks and. armored cars,
and many airplanes.
Now all these events are part of the past, but the people will never forget the
great campaigns. They will never forget how the young peasants went to 'the front
equipped. with the most primitive weapons such as scythes and.pitchforks. The peo-
ple will never forget the fifteen young soldiers of the Peoples Liberation Army who,
having donned. enemy uniforms, secretly penetrated. into the enemy camp, created a
panic there and took a whole company of Kuomintang soldiers captive. "This is not
an exceptional case in my division," wrote the division comman.der. "Every Red..
Army man is just waiting for an opportunity to show heroism."
No matter under what conditions the people of' China and. their Peoples Liberation
Army found. themselves, the Soviet Union always rendered. thein active and. diversi-
fied, assistance. After the signing of the Sino-Soviet non-aggression pact in 1938,
Soviet volunteer pilots and other military specialists came to China to offer help in
military operations. Their arrival took the arrogance out of the Japanese pilots.
The Japanese command. quickly transferred its air bases 500-600 km to the rear.
Soviet pilots accomplished, immortal feats of heroism in the skies of China. Es-
pecially memorable to the Chinese people are the victories won by our pilots on 18
February 1938 in an air battle over the city of Wuhan and. on 23 April of the same
year over the island. of Taiwan when Soviet military aircraft bombed remote Japanese
air bases. The air battle of 29 April 1938 will also be remembered. The Soviet
fliers engaged. in combat with 36 enemy planes. In this air battle 12 Japanese bom-
bers and. 9 fighters were downed and. the rest were put to flight. In 40 months of
war against the Japanese invaders, 986 Japanese aircraft were d.owned. and. destroyed
with the help of Soviet fliers.
In the course of WW II, the Soviet people helped. the Chinese people-to defeat utter-
ly the Japanese Fascist invaders. The soldiers of the Soviet Army fought heroical-
ly for the liberation of the Chinese people, as though they were defending their native,
land.. Thus, Soviet and. Chinese brotherly friendship in combat was molded. and
strengthened..
A Peoples Republic was proclaimed in China on 1 October 1949. Comrade Mao.
Tse-tung said. at that time: "Our national defense will be strengthened., and. no im-
perialist will be permitted to invade our territory again. The armed forces of the
people have to be preserved, and. developed, on the basis of the heroic and. well-temper-
ed Peoples Liberation Army. We shall have not only a powerful land. army but a
powerful air force and a powerful navy as well."
How has the Peoples Liberation Army of China developed, in the 30 years of its
existence? Now it has all branches of service. Its personnel is persistently
mastering military science and. new combat technology. During training exercises
the officers and. men demonstrate their increased c.ombat skill. There was a time
when the Peoples Liberation Army of China had. at its disposal a very small number
of aircraft. Now they have their own Air Force supplied with the best combat equip-
ment.
The Chinese military pilots, as well as all the men of the Peoples Liberation Ar-
my, must be on the alert all the time. The imperialists have not relaxed... The
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O'N,ZretSti7 6',1*";.re:VtAZig
Editorial
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growing strength of Peoples china infuriates them. Again and again they ,provoke
new military actions against Peoples China. But they cannot break the will of a
people bent on building socialism. The events of recent years have proved, this
most convincingly.
When the American imperialists invaded. Korea, thus creating a direct threat to
China on its northeastern border, Chinese peoples volunteers came to help the
brother Korean people. The long-suffering Korean land. was burning from enemy
bombings a.n.d. artillery fire. But in the fire of the conflagrations true heroes were
born. For example, there is Chinese pilot Cheng Chang-hua. He was not yet fif-
teen when he joined, the ranks of the men fighting for the freedom of their people.
He became a private and, later, a commander. The ottfit in which Cheng Chang-
hua served destroyed. 47 enemy planes.
Air battles went on day and night both close to the ground. and. in the stratosphere.
The defenders of Korea were learning to act decisively and. to stand fast before the
hateful, enemy under any conditions. There were days when even the American
yellow press panicked.: 11100% losses"? such was the headline in a reactionary
American magazine which told. about the results of an air battle. In this battle the
Chinese pilots attacked. a group of "Flying Fortresses." Three of them were downed.,
and. the remaining five were heavily damaged,.
Both in the air and. on the ground. victory over the enemy was being forged. Dur-
ing the military operations in Korea more than 300,000 Chinese Peoples Volunteers
were decorated. with titles of heroes, exemplary fighters, and fighters who had. ac-
compliihed. heroic deeds. Many thousand.s of soldiers were awarded orders and
medals of the Korean Peoples Democratic Republic.
The Chinese land. is still exposed. to the attacks of Chiang Kai- shekist bands and.
American aggressors. Recently, for instance, the press reported, new violations
of Chinese air space by Chiang Kai- shekist and. American aircraft. Planes of the
aggressors not only break into the territory of China but in a gangster-like way fire
at and. bomb the peaceful population.
Chinese pilots and all the men of the Peoples Liberation Army are constantly in
combat readiness. Their faces are hard., their eyes are vigilant, and their hands
hold firmly the weapons given to them. by the people. They give the aggressors the
rebuff they deserve.
The Peoples Liberation Army has reached. its Thirtieth Anniversary strong and.
hardened.. Under the leadership of the Communist Party it is a reliable defender
of the revolutionary achievements of the Chinese people. It is an army of the new
type, imbued. with a spirit of patriotism and internationalism. It reliably guards the
interests of the Chinese Peoples Republic and. vigilantly protects the bord.ers of its
country.
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oi
NIGHT TRAINING OF PILOT AND NAVIGATOR
Night flying is one of the most complex aspects of combat training. Its difficulty
is caused. by the fact that night flying is primarily instrument flying, which requires
intensified, attention on the part of the flying personnel, as well as a great exertion of
moral and, physical energies. Piloting an aircraft at.night, even und.er normal
weather conditions, has, in contradistinction to daytime flying, a number of charac-
teristic features which complicate carrying out a mission. Among these are: the
considerable difficulty of determining visually the aircraft's position in space; the
artificial illumination of the flight and. navigation instruments and equipment in the
pilot's compartment and that of other members of the crew; the absence of visibility
or the distortion of the natural horizon on a dark night; the difficulty in determining
the distance to the pinpoint and area light check points; the reflections on the glass
surfaces of the cockpit enclosure.
The flying personnel encounters even greater difficulties if night flying is carried.
out under adverse weather conditions, when the possibility of visual piloting is com-
pletely precluded. At this time air navigation is carried, out only through the use of
electronic and. astronomical facilities, while bomb sighting is carried, out only by
means of electronic facilities.
Night flying is within the capacity of every pilot and. navigator. But there are
many difficulties of all kinds on the path towards combat skill. In order to surmount
them, the pilots, navigators, radio-gunners, technical personnel, and all specialists
must exercise a maximum of persistence and tenacity, high discipline and. good or-
ganization, and,? above all they must have an excellent knowledge of their work
and. systematic training.
There are many commanders in the Air Force, who regard. seriously the organi-
zation of training classes for the flying personnel. For example, such classes have
been well organized in the group commanded by officer Ye.I.Kravtsov. They are
conducted by experienced, leaders on a high methodological level, with perfect simu-
lation of all the operations of the pilot and the navigator in the scheduled flight. A
great deal. of attention is given here to the development of the correct sequence of
operations by the crew members in special cases of flying. The classes are very
useful; consequently it is not fortuitous that every officer is interested in them.
The practical training of flying personnel at night begins with the development of
the elements of piloting technique under normal weather conditions. And this is
understandable. Faultless piloting technique is not an end. in itself but rather a
means for mastering the elements of combat application.
At every one of the stages in training it must be remembered that an error oc-
curring there which is not eliminated can lead. to grave consequences later on. Let
us examine at least one such instance where a pilot, taking off in an I1-28 aircraft,
raises the nose wheel, sometimes too soon and. sometimes too late. Let US assume
that the instructor noticed. this error but attached no significance to it. Then in a
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t Wi...Ts1 T.:1 144, tak
6
Ni ht Trainin of Pilot and Navi at or
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solo night flight it can give rise to a more serious error, and. that will be sufficient
basis for a flying accident.
Or another example. While training a pilot to make a landing approach with the
aircraft landing lights switched. on and. without any illumination from below by the
ground. floodlights, the instructor noticed. that the pilot had. a tendency, while making
his landing computation, to descend. lower than the prescribed. altitude; but the in-
structor paid no attention to it. Yet, during solo flights, the pilot may commit the
error of descending. even lower and. the glid.e path will be very shallow. As a re-
sult, at the very beginning of round-out, the light beam of the landing lights will
turn out to be directed almost horizontally towards the runway and, will illuminate it
inadequately. Such ,an error will result in starting the round-out at too high an alti-
tude, in violating the landing profile, and, as a rule, in a rough landing.
Lack of know-how in taking into account the peculiarities of the red light of the
landing system signals is usually the cause of premature loss of altitud.e by individual
pilots as they approach for a landing at night. The actual distance to those lights
is deceptive at night and. a false picture of the distance to the runway is created.. The
task of the commander lies not only in analyzing some error or other by the pilot on
the ground. but also in pointing out during flight how he must operate, and in giving
him confidence in carrying out a given element of flight. At the same time one
must not be guilty of such a dangerous practice during training as that of thinking:
"He'll get it by himself", or "He'll get there with practice".
The same thing must also be said. with regard. to the training of flying personnel
for instrument flying. Only the pilot who has perfectly mastered. piloting technique
visually and. by instruments can be consid.ered as trained, for solo night flying. That
is why it is important to organize the systematic training of the flying personnel even
before the beginning of night flying. For this purpose, maximum use must be made
of the TL-1 trainer.
After, acquiring firm habits of flying on instruments on a TL-1, the pilot will more
readily master the program of flying in a closed cockpit or in the cloud cover on a
combat trainer and in a combat aircraft. Training on a TL-1 is particularly im-.
portant for fighters, upon whom d.emand.s are made, as upon no one else,for excep-
tional speed. of reaction as well as for swiftness of operations and the ability to spot,
attack, and. destroy the enemy under the most adverse conditions.
The technique, of instrument flying is identical for both nighttime and the daytime.
'However, in order not to' disrupt the flight regime, it must be remembered that at
night turning one's attention away from the instruments for the sake of getting one's
bearing visually and. for the sake of caution is possible only for a very short time.
Otherwise, on a ,dark night or over the sea, poorly experienced, pilots may get a
false impression of the position of the aircraft. In all instances the pilot must guid.e
himself only by his instrument readings to determine the aircraft's position in space.
Slowness and. indecision are inadmissible here, for they may entail loss of one's
orientation in space. The following example is typical,. In unit X, pilot A. M. Shu-
bin was carrying out his first solo flight along a flight route on a dark night at an
altitude of 4500 m. Being without adequate experience, he tried, to facilitate pilot-
ing by frequently turning his attention away from the in in ord.er to deter-
mine the position of the aircraft by the light check points of which there were very
few. As a result,' it appeared, to him that the craft was turning to the left. In 01'-
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ainin? of Pilot and Navi ator
d.er to correct the apparent turn he banked the craft to the right and., absorbed. in
making his course correction, came down too low. His subsequent actions were
also wrong. He kept reestablishing the aircraft's position in accordance with the
light check points. It must be observed, that even the crew navigator was not able
to help the pilot; he lost his head. and. displayed. lack of discipline, and. that compli-
cated. the situation even further.
That incident shows that piloting an aircraft on a dark night must be carried, out
only on instruments and the flying personnel must be so taught.
By training only individual crews in the technique of night flying it is impossible,
of course, to solve all the problems of night training completely. One of the most
complicated. features of such training is flying in a group under normal and. adverse
weather .conditions. Commanders must be very careful in granting permission for
pilots to fly in a pair or in an element. It is not precluded, that some pilots will not
be able to master flying in a group and. they should not be assigned. such a task.
As a consequence of the great difficulty of visually determining and maintaining
interval and. distance between aircraft, the technique of group flying at night is
markedly different from daytime flying. Group teamwork in flying must be develop-
ed, among the personnel of permanent crews. Before the beginning of night flying,
the commanders must organize detailed, ground. training of the flying personnel. Spe-
cial attention should be given to such questions as adjusting the intensity of cockpit
illumination, the illumination of the radio-gunner's compartment in the lead. plane
and. his duties during the flight, the duties of the group leader on the ground and. in
the air, the actions of the lead. pilot and. of the wingmen during special cases of
flight, studying the flight route with an indication of the place and order of assembly
and breakup of the group.
In the solution of the problems of the night training of flying personnel, a great
d.eal d.epend.s on the personal qualities of the commander-instructors. Above all,
the instructor himself must know how to fly, bomb, and. fire in an outstanding man-
ner under any conditions. In the units and. outfits of the Air Force there are many
commanders who .have mastered the skill of training flying personnel in night flying.
Thus, officer A. I. Romanov successfully imparts his experience to his pilots. A
high level of flying skill and a methodological background. make it possible for him to
show the trainee correctly how one element or another of flying must be carried out,
how to analyze his actions, how to d.etermine his inad.equacies, and. how to point out
ways for eliminating them quickly.
It should. be pointed, out that successful execution of the combat training tasks of
night training of pilot and. navigator is unthinkable without a high d.egree of coordina-
tion in the crew, and. the firm friendship. and. close cooperation of all its members.
During a flight, it is very important for the actions of one member of the crew to
complement those of another. In addition to the pilot and the navigator, there is a
radio-gunner in the crew who, during any flight, from the time the engines are started.
up to the time of taxiing in to the parking area, carries out complex and. varied, duties,
and is the combat assistant of the pilot and navigator.
The engineer, aviation technicians, mechanics, and. all the specialists bear respon-
sibility for the good. working ord.er of the aircraft. They must always remember that
when they service an aircraft for a sortie there is nothing that is of secondary impor-
tance; that the slightest defect is the potential cause of a flying accident. Perfect
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Night Training of Pilot and Navi ator
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functioning of all the assemblies of the aircraft inspires the flying personnel with con-
fidence in carrying out their mission. The special features of night flying require
precise functioning of all the instruments and other equipment of the aircraft, since
the pilot notices any error during night flying later than he would during the daytime.
Failure of even, one instrument hampers the execution of the mission and. frequently
even makes it impossible. Consequently, the mechanics and. instrument technicians
must prepare all the instruments with special care.
Important and. crucial tasks also face the personnel which services the ground. faci-
lities for air navigation. It is well known that not a single flight is possible without
suitable ZOS [ground. aids to navigation] facilities. Facilities for landing, vectoring,
and. control must always function efficiently, without any interruptions. Even brief
interruptions in the functioning of ZOS facilities may have a negative effect on execu-
tion of the as-signed mission. On the skill of the men servicing the ZOS facilities,
on the accuracy of determining the target location depend. the outcome of vectoring the
fighters to the aerial target, the accuracy of bombing, and flying safety.
Great responsibility for carrying out night flying is placed upon the flight control-
ler. Poor visibility hampers not only the flights but also control over them. In
order to carry out his duties, the flight controller must have a good understanding of
the entire procedure and. of all the special features of night flying; he must, while at
his place of work, feel the entire dynamics of the flight, and. for this purpose, he
must know hovv to fly under any conditions.
To control a matter without being familiar with its essence means to control
blindly. The flight controller is a highly disciplined, and exacting commander who
does not allow the slightest infringement of the rules and. requirements of flight serv-
ice
The outfit commanded. by officer I. I. Yefremov serves as an example of good train-
ing and. efficient control of flying by day and by night. He thinks over carefully the
order for carrying out each flight scheduled. in the planning table, and. provides for
everything down to the last detail. In getting ready for flights, the commander
makes a detailed study of the weather situation, of the special features of the flight
area and of the alternate is.irfield.s, and takes into account the possibilities of utiliz-
ing electronic facilities.
While controlling the flights, officer Yefremov never forgets the main task of the
flight controller to guarantee complete flying safety and. strict Order on the ground.
and in the air. By making active use of electronic facilities he always knows the
location of each aircraft. Information on changes in the weather and. in flight condi-
tions has been organized in an exemplary fashion in the outfit. Furthermore, the
flight controller has good. radio contact with the alternate airfield.s and the bombing
range. Since he knows the special features of night flying and. the swiftly changing
climatic conditions in the area of his airfield, Yefremov follows all changes in the
weather situation attentively. Efficiency and strictness in controlling flights, with-
out a shadow of rud.eness or panic, discipline the pilots and. inspire confid.ence in
them. The pilots know that in a difficult moment during the flight they will receive
help in good time and will be able to get out of the serious situation. It must be ob-
served that during the organization and. control of flights in this outfit, particularly
serious attention is given to stacking the aircraft, not only on the flight route but also
in the area of the airfield..
-
N ht Trainin of Pilot and Navi ator
But unfortunately we also still have among us flight controllers who allow flagrant
violations of the rules of flight service and. who, by their actions, fail to guarantee
flying safety. For example, a whole number of. deviations from the rules of flight
service was committed. by Officer Z.G.Finkel'shteyn while he was night flight con-
troller.. His irresponsible attitud.e towards execution of his service duties resulted
in the unsuccessful termination of the flights that. night.
The night training of flying personnel must not even for a minute escape the field.
of vision of the Political Agencies and. Party Organizations. The "Instructions to.
the Organizations of the CPSU in the Soviet Army and. Navy", 'confirmed. by the cen-
tral Committee of. the CPSU, require that the Party Organizations have a deep under-
standing of all aspects of combat training. That means that the guarantee of 4 solu-
tion for the complex tasks of night training must attract the special attention of the
Party Organizations.
Training the flying personnel to fly in an outstanding manner, to fire and. bomb
accurately, to intercept aerio.7 targets and. to destroy them at night, means solving
a problem of great State imprtance. A high level of night training intensifies the
combat readiness of the units and. outfits of the Air Force and. makes it possible for
our Air Force to operate under any conditions by day and. by night.
1
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ltopp
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TAKT MIKA
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TAC TICS
A FIGHTER ATTACK IS REPULSED
(At Air Force Exercises)
Lt. Col. V. P. Kopylov
Bombers are d.esigned. for striking blows against ground. objectives. In the interest
of carrying out their basic mission they usually strive to avoid, aerial combat, for
which purpose, as a rule, provision is mad.e for a fighter evasion maneuver ? flight
along a broken course with a change in speed. and. altitude. If, however, they do not
succeed in avoiding an encounter with the enemy, bombers are forced to conduct ac-
tive defensive combat, attempting to disrupt fighter attacks and., if possible, to hit
them with precision fire. For this they use speed, direction and flight altitud.e ma-
neuvers, and. closing or opening the combat formation along the front and. in depth.
However, the possibilities of a fighter evasion maneuver by bombers are limited.
After assembling the group and, gaining the required altitud.e on the flight route, the
navigator determines the wind., for which a specified. flight regime is maintained..
Maintenance of the flight regime is also necessary before reaching. the NBP [initial
point, of bomb run], when the crew switches on and. adjusts in the automatic pilot.
The carrying out on the bombing run of any maneuver unrelated. to the lateral course
setting is out of the question.
Thus, in the majority of cases, a fighter evasion maneuver can be executed only
on the flight route, long before the target approach, when the probability of an en-
counter with enemy fighters is still small. But if flight is mad.e to the maximum,
operational radius, then it is also not desirable to carry out the maneuver, since it
shortens the flight range. A change in course and. speed., for the purpose of disrupt-
ing fighter attacks and. not provided. f or by the flight plan, considerably hinders spot-
ting the target and approaching it at the required. time.
I , /
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
?
A Fighter Attack is Repulsed 11
But what is to be done if an encounter with fighters, nevertheless, takes place?
The answer i.s simple ? know how to combine maneuvering with precision firing.
Only thus is it possible to overcome successfully the countermeasures of enemy
fighters.
In one exercise a group of bombers was assigned. the mission of striking a blow
against an "enemy" objective at a prescribed. time. Analyzing the tactical and.
aerial situation, the commander established, the fact that fighters can intercept their
group even prior to their approach to the "front" line. It was not possible to use a
fighter evasion maneuver since they were flying with maximum radius. Consequent-
ly, it was necessary to prepare for repulsing the attacks.
Preparing for flight, the crews acquainted themselves in detail with. the conditions
under which they were to carry out their mission. The commander thought out in
detail the organization of air observation and. warning of the "enemy's" approach,
and. outlimd variants of the combat formation while repulsing fighter attacks, especi-
ally emphasizing the importance of precision aimed. fire by radio gunners and of
mutual fire support among the crews.
After taking off and. gaining the required. altitud.e the bombers intercepted, the
flight route, where they found. themselves in broken cirrus overcast. Under these
conditions they were intercepted, by fighters 15-20 km from the "front" line and. were
attacked. successively by pairs. However, despite limited, visibility, the bomber
crews spotted. the "enemy" in good. time, thanks to which the pilots took up the posi-
tions in the combat formation assigned by the commander, and. the aerial radio gun-
ners got read.y to fire. The radio gunners of aircraft directly subject to attack con-
ducted. tracking fire, and, the others supported them with obstruction fire. The
fighters were repulsed by simultaneous well-aimed. fire.
The bombers won this air battle because air observation was well organized., the
crews were warned, in good. time of the threat of attack, and. precise and. uninterrupted.
control was established. The commander mad.e a correct choice of combat forma-
tion, guaranteeing mutual fire support among the aircraft for repulsing "enemy" at-
tacks. The crews quickly took up their position in formation.
But even when observing all these provisions, fighters can inflict considerable -
losses on bombers when aerial radio gunners are poorly trained. in conducting pre-
cision aimed fire. The interpretation of photostrips showed. high accuracy of fire.
In the evaluation of it only the bursts delivered, from the range of effective fire were
considered., along with the organization of fire coordination and. support within the
group. The precision fire of aerial rad.io gunners and. its correct organization are
the main prerequisites for the defense of combat formations.
It is well known that aerial combat is brief. In this short period, of time the will
and. training of crews are put to the severest test. Only courage, discipline, high
morale and. excellent training of flying personnel for the defense of combat forma-
tions will bring success to bombers in aerial combat.
Insofar as the deciding factor in repulsing fighters is precision fire, we subordi-
nate the entire process of training aerial radio gunners to the main task ? inculcat-
ing in them the habits of sniper fire at aerial targets., Training in precision fire is
not an easy task. It includes training for aerial gunnery on the ground., photo gun-
nery, combat gunnery in the air, and., finally, aerial combat with fighters.
All ground. training is directed. toward. ensuring flight training. On the ground.
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lettilftre;
12
V. P. Kopylov
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fixed practical habits are cultivated in. determining initial data for firing, in aircraft
Identification, in working with sight setting, and. in sighting aerial targets.
It is very important that the habits acquired be consolidated and. perfected.. There-
fore we strive to avoid long breaks between training on the various gunnery trainers
and directly in an aircraft. Regardless of whether aerial gunnery is planned. for an
impending flying day or not, aerial radio gunners are required. to undergo training
on gunnery trainers. On a flying day, if the nature of the flights permits, flight
personnel conduct photogunnery from the ground against aircraft which are taking off.
For this purpose,_ special trainers mounted on. tripods, were provided for the pilots
and aerial radio gunners. Gunners, by training constantly in sighting, acquire hab-
its of precision firing.
No less important' is a thorough analysis of each air battle, bringing out the errors
committed. During one training flight a bomber element was subjected. to three at-
tacks by fighter pairs. Among the crews in trail Were young aerial radio gunner,
Privates N. A. Goncharov and V. I. Zamaziy. After landing, the gunners reported
that all three fighter attacks, in their opinion, were successfully repulsed. But
when the photogunnery films were interpreted it became clear that both aerial gun-
ners had. begun delivering fire from distances .exceeding the range of effective fire,
and. had. used up the entire supply of FKP [camera machine gun film while repuls-
ing the first attack. Thus, analyzing the firing results we ascertained, that the gun-
ners were not able to estimate properly the distance to the target and. delivered, their
camera' fire too hastily.
For those aerial radio gunners for whom certain elements of gunnery d.o not come
easily we organize supplementary training. During the first period of instruction
some gunners were not able to track the target and. to frame it correctly at the.same
time. Thus the habits of simultaneous target tracking and. framing in aerial photo-
gunnery did not come easily to Sergeant N. P.Svistunov for a long time. If he tried.
to frame the target correctly, then he would forget about tracking and. vice versa.
It was necessary to place the gunner under special supervision, to conduct supple-
mentary training in photogunnery from the ground against aircraft taking off, and. on
a ,trainer under the direct guidance of an officer of the aerial gunnery service. Each
photo firing was thoroughly analyzed. and. the errors were explained. The results
soon became apparent. Whereas at first N. P. Svistunov had only poor and satisfac-
tory evaluations, good ones subsequently began to appear, and. lately he has been
carrying out excellent photogunnery and combat gunnery.
Flights for firing from a camera machine gun. are a stage of preparation for com-
bat gunnery. They are conducted in order to cultivate in young gunners the habits of
working in the air with sight settings and with the sight, and to give them practice in
sighting aerial targets. In practice firing from combat weapons in the air they ac-
quire habits of the combat application of aircraft artillery weapons and. prepare them-
selves for conducting defensive aerial combat.
However, practice aerial gunnery is carried. out under conditions far different
from those wider which actual combat takes place.. A most complete picture of
actual combat can be reproduced during the process of practice aerial combat, con-
ducted jointly with fighters -- provided., of course, it is correctly organized.. There-
fore, we organize practice aerial combat with particular care; we attempt to keep
the crews participating in a sortie from knowing beforehand. by how many fighters and.
DecI
A Fi hter Attack is-Re ulsed
13
on what leg of the flight course they will be attacked.. At the same time we require
fighters to conduct active combat with bombers, utilizing various tactical methods.
It is at times difficult to organize aerial combat between bombers and. :fighters
based on different airfields. Because of the lack of coincidence between flight days
and between the different weather conditions in the areas where the fighters and bom-
bers are based., flights are often aborted.. The organization of aerial combat between
individual crews is particularly complicated.
In order for all crews to obtain practice in conducting defensive aerial combat
singly and. within the composition of small groups, it is possible to practice the peri-
odical landing of a fighter pair or flight on. a bomber airfield. This will considerab-
ly simplify the organization of joint flights. However, while organizing joint aerial
combat sorties from one airfield., we cannot simplify the air situation. For bom-
bers the element of surprise in. an encounter with fighters must be preserved., and.
the same is true for fighters training in the interception of aerial targets.
The organization of aerial combat in formation represents a certain amount of
difficulty. For this the flying personnel must be skilled in air observation while
flying in formation, in giving rapid and clear warning of the enemy; they must be
skilled, in the execution of maneuvers within the group by planes in trail as well as
by the entire group, and. also in mutual fire support among crews and components.
However, it is possible to drill in. these elements not only in aerial combat flights.
For example, flight personnel must undergo training in circumspection during each
flight. In order to cultivate the habit of constant air observation we require crew
commanders to listen periodically in flight to reports by gunners on the air situation.
In group flights, whether it he a flight for purposes of formation drill or for com-
bat application without aerial combat, the formation leaders train the wingmen in
combat change of formation along the front and in. depth with prescribed distances
and. intervals, and in group maneuvering.
Aerial radio gunners of lead crews are trained in fire control on the ground. For
this purpose the instructor creates from bombers and fighter mockups in the class-
room different variants of the air situation. The radio gunners are stationed in ac-
cordance with combat considerations. The instructor, imitating with the aid of
mockups the different stages and variants of aerial combat, trains the gunners in
giving warning of the enemy, and. instructs the leaders in giving commands and in
fire control.
If the training process is set up in this way, then practice aerial, combat will be
the final stage in the tactical preparation of bomber crews.
During a sortie for carrying out a regular exercise, "enemy" fighters (coming
in out of the sun) attacked a bomber group. Because of poorly organized warning
and. fire control within the group, some of the aerial radio gunners could not quick-
ly join in combat. The gunners opened. "fire" from different ranges and. some did
not succeed in firing at all. Analyzing this battle, we became definitely convinced
that it is necessary to shift the training of aerial radio gunners over to group aerial
combat.
We have begun to devote great attention to crew coordination. There are cases
in which insufficiently experienced, aerial radio gunners forget before firing to set
in the initial firing data or to set the sight on. "gyre. In the course of combat,
flight speed and altitud.e often change and the gunner may not notice this and may not
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.tf,4 j.17,777.47 r5M, e
14
V. P. Kopylov
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Introduce the correction into the mechanisms for computing .altitud.e and. speed. If
the pilot or navigator does not inform him in time of the change in flight regime, an
error in firing is inevitable.
Our pilots and navigatcirs know which operations a radio gunner must carry out
prior to firing in flight, and, inquiring b.y SPU [aircraft interphone system], they
check the correctness of armament preparation for firing, and. the radio gunners
report on their .operations. to the crew commander.
Certain comrades, campaigning for the sequence of training to proceed. from the
less complicated to the more complicated, consider that aerial combat flights should.
be carried out at first by an individual crew and. later in a group.
It is not possible to agree with this opinion. It is difficult to determine before-.
hand which type of aerial combat that of an individual bomber or that of a group ?
will turn out to be more complex. Much here depends on existing conditions. If
a pilot knows how to pilot an aircraft in a group, then we consider'it senseless to
establish such a sequence in aerial combat training.
In order to inculcate flight personnel with confidence in their technique,, it is
useful to organize aerial sham battles between a bomber and. one or a pair of fighters,
choosing for this purpose the better crews with perfect mastery of piloting technique
and experienced in conducting aerial combat. It is best to conduct sham battles over
the airfield so that flight personnel can observe from the ground the dynamics of the
entire combat. For fighters this combat must be free and. creative. The aerial
radio gunner while observing fighter operations, is constantly required. to inform
the crew commander of their intentions and. of the air situation. Attempting to dis-
rupt or hamper a fighter attack, the pilot, taking account of the specific situation,
uses a particular maneuver. General direction of the engagement (by radio from
the alert command po.st) is entrusted to the commander organizing the aerial sham
battle.
After conducting an aerial sham battle, a detailed. analysis of it is conducted in
the presence of all flight personnel with a report of ground. observations, an analysis
of crew reports and of camera firing results, and with the showing of films. This
will aid in finding the most effective methods of conducting defensive' combat with
bombers.
Present-day systems of detecting aerial targets and the high flight speeds of
fighters do not always permit bombers to avoid an encounter and. combat with them.
A high degree of crew coordination, the ability to conduct combat with tactical com-
petence, and. to repulse fighter attacks with precision fire will make it possible for
bomber crews. to overcome enemy countermeasures and to carry out the assigned.
mission succetssfully.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized
THE COMBAT CAPABILITIES OF FIGHTERS
AND A METHOD FOR DETERMINING THEM
Candidate of Military Sciences Col. V Ya.Kudryashov,
Lt. Col. P. G. Nikitin
For the correct utilization of fighter strength and an objective evaluation of the
anticipated, results of operations it is necessary to know the fighters' combat capa-
bilities in the execution of a definite combat mission and in a .specific situation.
However, until this time it has not been possible,, in our, opinion, to consider the
question of a method for determining combat capabilities as completely solved.
There is no uniformity of interpretation of the term "the combat capabilities of
fighters." Various .meanings are included in this concept. Thus, the probability
of hitting the enemy in aerial combat, determined by the ballistic prediction or by
the correlation of rounds per second from the weapons of the fighter and. of the air-
craft attacked by him, is sometimes taken as the basis of the combat capabilities
of fighters.
The essence of this concept, it seems to us, is bound up with the result of carry-
ing out a specific mission, the outcome of which is conditioned by various factors ?
the utilization of the aircraft's characteristics, the pilot's morale and. training ?
constituting, as a whole, the combat potential. We believe that by the combat capa-
bilities of fighters is rightly meant only that anticipated result which can be attained
by carrying out a mission in its entirety more precisely, the losses which can be
inflicted, on the enemy in the air.
The quantity representing the combat capabilities of an individual aircraft or of
a group of fighters must answer the following questions: What is the magnitude of
the mission which they are capable of carrying out? Or what results can be ex-
pected from the operations of a single aircraft or a group of them in a definite com-
bat situation? Therefore, for example, the combat capabilities of a certain fighter
unit in repulsing an enemy bomber raid. will be. represented by the number of bombers
which it is capable of repulsing in a given situation.
Generally the carrying out of any combat mission will, in the last analysis, be
conditioned by the fighters' capabilities of inflicting such losses against the air ene-
my as will force him to give up his intentions.
For the exact determination of the combat capabilities of fighters, all the factors
on which they depend must be taken into consideration. Unfortunately, up to the
present there is no such method and apparently it is extremely difficult to work one
out.
Anticipated., results of aerial combat, determined, by a comparison of only the
probability of a hit, or of the fighter and enemy aircraft rounds per second, are not
borne out by reality. This is not accidental. As is well known, aerial combat is
basically a combination of maneuvering and. firing. Therefore, its result is deter-
mined. mainly by the firing and maneuvering characteristics of aircraft. But in
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Declassified in Part- Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002400050009-7
16 V.Ya.Kudryashov, P. G. Nikitin
determining the result of a fighter's action against the enemy by a comparison of
rounds per second or of the possibilities of mutual destruction, only the aircraft's
firing capabilities are taken into consideration. But a fighter plane is a unique car-
rier of the arms mounted on it. Therefore, its capabilities of destroying aerial
targets depend on how favorable the conditions created. for the use of these arms are.
All this can be corroborated by means of an example. Let us suppose that the
attacking side has jet aircraft at its disposal with a combat ceiling of 15 km and. a
maximum flight speed of 1200 km/hr. For the purpose of offering countermeasures,
the side defending itself has fighters with rate of fire per second considerably ex-
ceeding the rate of fire? per second from the weapons of the enemy aircraft, but is
inferior to them in flight and. tactical characteristics (combat ceiling 12 km, maxi-
mum speed 1000 km/hr). The question arises: Will the fighters of the defending side
be able to repulse the enemy air raid with the enemy operating at altitudes of 14-15
km or at lower altitudes, but at maximum speed.?
In the first case, without a doubt, the fighters of the defending side will not be
able to repulse the enemy, regardless of their great firing capabilities. In the
second, the execution of the mission Will be limited., since the fighters will not be
able to use their weapons effectively. In fact, even if they are vectored to an ad-
vantageous position for attacking the enemy aircraft, to a range of 1000 m in the
rear hemisphere, in order to fire, it will be necessary for them to sight first. If
only 3 seconds are spent on this, then by the moment of opening fire, taking into ac-
count the time of flight of the missiles, the target will have moved approximately
240-250 m away. Taking into account the initial range, this constitutes approximate-
ly. 1200 m, i. e., the target will have alread.y left the zone of effective fire of the
fighters with more powerful artillery weapons. Practically speaking, it is very
unlikely that they will hit it.
In determining a fighter'a capabilities of hitting a target, it is impossible not to
take into consideration as well the existing aerial situation and. the pilot's morale
and combat qualities. Consequently, the probability of a hit and a fighter's fire
superiority over enemy aircraft still do not entirely characterize the fighter' s capa-
bilities of destroying aerial targets. This means that these data are not the only
and final criterion for determining the anticipated result.
in order to find, a criterion for determining the fighters' capabilities of destroying
aerial targets, let us analyze aerial combat as a physical phenomenon. From this
point of view it is possible to present it as a clash of two opposing forces. It is
well known that in principle the greater force wins. This means that in aerial com-
bat as well the one who is stronger, who has or attains superiority in the course of
battle, Wins.
It may be objected that in actual combat a weak enemy sometimes defeats a strong
opponent. Such cases are very rare. But even if they are encountered., then, in
the last analysis, it is, nevertheless, the result of a manifestation of greater force.
Besides this, it is not possible to consider the forces clashing in aerial combat
as ssomething homogeneous. They are an intricate complex of such component part $
as the characteristics of the aircraft and of the weapons, the pilot's physical condi-
tion and morale, and. his skill.
The objective factors conditioning the attainment of superiority by a fighter over
the enemy in aerial combat are, above all, the aircraft's flight and tactical. character-
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
The Combat Capabilities of Fighters 17
istics: maximum speed., rate of climb, service ceiling, braking time and time of
acceleration to maximum speed., and. maneuverability in the horizontal and vertical
planes.
Obviously, the higher these fighter qualities are in comparison with those of the
enemy, the greater the superiority over him will be and the easier it will be for the
fighter to be able to overcome the enemy's countermeasures, to implement subjective
factors more completely, and, as a result of all this, to use his weapons more suc-
cessfully.
Therefore, we may assert that a fighter's superiority over an enemy aircraft in
aerial combat determines the capability and degree of utilization of the power of the ?
weapons mounted on it, i. e., it conditions the d.egree to which its firing capabilities
may be realized.. These capabilities, under given firing conditions, are determined
by the ballistic prediction along with consideration of the nature of the target, of fir-
ing and sighting conditions, of the effectiveness of the ammunition and. of the level*
of the pilots' training; and they are expressed by the probability of a hit. If the
probabilities of a hit (W) and. the degree of the fighter's superiority over the enemy
(C) are known, then the fighter's capability of destroying aerial targets (B) can. be
found. by the equation B = CW.
Thus, to determine a fighter's capability of destroying aerial targets it is neces-
sary to know the probability of a hit (firing capabilities) and the degree of superiority
of his flight and tactical characteristics over those of the target under attack.
In order to establish a method for determining the degree of a fighter's superiori-
ty in aerial combat, let us return to the analysis of the essence of aerial combat.
The superiority of one oppositely directed, force over another is equal to the dif-
ference of these forces. And. the surplus of greater force will characterize the
degree of manifestation of its ascendancy over the lesser force. That part of the
greater force which is equal to the lesser will be neutralized.
Considering aerial combat as a clash of oppositely directed. forces, it is not dif-
ficult to establish that these forces are determined by the characteristics of the air-
craft and. pilots. The general result of a manifestation of superiority is an algebraic
sum of the relations of the performance margins of a certain flight and. tactical char-
acteristic of a fighter to the corresponding characteristic of an opposing aircraft.
For example, an air battle is taking place between two fighters possessing the
following characteristics: F1 has a speed. of 1100 km/hr, a maximum angular speed
of 9?/sec, and, a maximum vertical speed. of 60 m/sec; F2 has a speed of 1000 km/hr,
a maximum angular speed of 100/sec, and. a maximum vertical speed. of 60 al/sec.
The fighters met under identical tactical conditions.
Let us determine the degree of superiority of one of them over the other:
a comparison of these characteristics one can see that the speed of fighter F1 is
greater than the speed of fighter F2 by 100 km/hr and that fighter F2 surpasses
fighter Fi in angular speed. by 1?/sec. Making use of the explanation cited. above,
let us find, the degree of superiority C. Solving the problem with regardto aircraft
F1 we get:
From
1100- 1000 _ 10 - 9 60 - 60 _ 1
1000 9 60 90
If we solve the problem with respect to fighter F2 , we get the same quantity, but
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18 V Ya. Kudr a shay P. G. Nikitin
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of the opposite sign. The value of the degree of superiority shows that, in a tactical
air battle, overall superiority will be on the side of fighter F. This can guarantee
him the possibility of realizing his fire power in aerial combat with fighter F1 to
.1190 of its maximum value.
? But if the first fighter does not enter into tactical aerial combat and avoids tacti-
cal errors, then fighter F2, even with the above-mentioned. degree of superiority,
will not attain victory, since fighter F1, possessing the superiority in speed, can
prevent fighter F2 from approaching the range of effective fire. This means that
in aerial combat fighters must competenly utilize those aircraft characteristics in
which they surpass the enemy aircraft.
It should be noted that the degree of a fighter's superiority over a target under
attack may considerably exceed. unity, as, for example, in combat with transport
plane's. It would. seem that in such cases fighter capabilities of hitting aerial tar-
gets can be very great. However, this is not the case. A fighter's superiority
over a target does not increase his fire power but only d.etermines the degree of its
utilization, by virtue of which the fighter's capabilities of hitting aerial targets can-
not be numerically greater than the probability of a hit under the given firing condi-
tions. A degree of fighter superiority greater than unity over a target under attack
means that the fighter's firing capabilities may be used. to their full extent.
Consequently, in those cases where the degree of a fighter's superiority over a
target under attack exceed.s unity, the fighter s capability of hitting aerial targets
will be numerically equal to the probability of hitting these targets under the given
firing conditions.
But if the degree of superiority is equal to zero, i. e., if the enemy plane's (fight-
ers, for example) d.o not have at their disposal the necessary superiority and cannot
create it in the course of combat, they .will not attain victory. In fact, when C is
equal to zero, even with a great value of W, the possibility of a hit will be equal to
zero, since 0 ? W = 0.
The same picture i.s obtained, in an inverse correlation of superiority and. of the
probability of a hit. The latter gives U.S the right to conclud.e that a fighter has at
his disposal the greatest capability of destroying aerial targets when he has high
firing characteristics and a degree of superiority not less than unity.
Experience shows that in order to obtain success in present-day fighter combat,
'superiority must be created. early, before establishing direct contact with the target.
This is .explained. by the fact that enemy planes can observe each other at considerable
distances. .When it is possible to control the closing in of fighters on an aerial tar-
get, they, without a doubt, will endeavor to attain superiority before entering into
combat.
Thus, we have established that the criterion of the combat capabilities of fighters
is their ability to inflict defeat on the enemy, which in turn depends on the probabili-
ty of hitting the aerial target and. on. the degree of superiority of the fighter 's flight
and tactical characteristics over those of the enemy aircraft.
'Knowing one fighter's capabilities, it is easy to find the anticipated result of4c-
tion against the enemy for any group of.fighters carrying out a specific combat mis-
sion. If the general composition of a group of fighters is designated. by Nf , and
the relation of the number of active fighters to the general composition of the group
by the letter K, then the anticipated result of the action of this group against .the
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The Combat Capabilities of Fighters 19
enemy (N) will be:
N = BKNf or N = CWKNf
where N is the number of destroyed. enemy aircraft.
From the possible result of the action of a group of_fighters against enemy air-
craft in a given situation (N), and from the losses which it is necessary to inflict
upon the enemy in ord.er to force him to give up carrying out his combat mission
(Pn in %), it is possible to determine the combat capability of a given group of fight-
ers in repulsing a bomber raid..
It will be expressed by the ratio N %.
Pn
It should be noted. that it is rather difficult to establish exactly the number (in
percentages) of enemy aircraft which it is necessary to destroy in. order to attain
the above-mentioned, objective, for the latter depends on the specific aerial situation
and the morale and. combat qualities of the flight personnel. Not excluded, is the fact
that the repulsion of a group of enemy aircraft will take place after it loses 25-30%
of its general composition, as often happened. during the years of WWII and the Great
Patriotic War. In general there can be no guarantee that under definite conditions
the enemy will not make great sacrifices, if only to reach his objective. As regards
the repulsion of pilotless facilities for aerial attack or of individual aircraft at night
and. in the daytime under adverse weather conditions, here it is generally senseless
to compute any sort of percentage of destruction, since all targets must be destroyed..
Thus, the combat capabilities of fighters, like the ability to carry out a specific
combat mission of repulsing enemy aircraft raids, will be expressed. by the function
CWICNf with Pn % as the losses necessary for repulsing the enemy. Knowing the
Pn
composition of a group of enemy aircraft, the number of active friendly fighters and.
the capabilities of one fighter, and. the losses which it is necessary to inflict upon the
enemy, it is possible to determine the number of fighters necessary for carrying out
a specific combat mission Nf. , n = Ne' Pn , where N fin is the number of fighters
CWK
necessary for carrying out .a combat mission, and. where Ne is the composition of the
enemy group.
Let us determine the combat capabilities of a fighter element in repulsing a bomber
raid, if the capability of each of them in the destruction of aircraft of a given type cor-
respond.s to a value equal, for example, to 0.9. Let us take the number of active
fighters in the element as equal to three, i. e. , out of four fighters three fire direct-
ly at the target. Let us assume that in order to repulse the raid it is necessary to
destroy 50% of the bombers.
On the basis of the aforementioned, formula we get combat capabilities of the
element 0. 9 ? 0. 56 ? 0. 75 ? 4 = 3. This means that the fighter element under the
0.5
given conditions is able to repulse a group of bombers composed of three aircraft.
Consequently, if one takes the mean values of such quantities as the number of
attacks, the amount of bursts per attack, the range and. angle-off of fire, the per-
centage of aircraft destruction necessary to disrupt the enemy's combat mission for
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VOIA,1
a definite group composition of friendly fighters and. enemy aircraft, then it is possible
to determine the mean Values of their combat capabilities in carrying out specific mis-
sions. These data may be taken as tactical norms for planning the combat operations
of fighters. At the same time, of course, the morale, combat qualities and experience
of the flight personnel should. not be neglected..
Thus, the proposed method. for determining the combat capabilities of fighters per-
mits taking into consideration, besides firing capabilities, such an important factor
as the correlation of aircraft flight and tactical characteristics, and consequently, per-
mits a more exact determination of the anticipated. result of fighter operations.
16, NUM Allraii
THE MORAL MAKE'-UP OF THE SOVIET PILOT
V.I. Lenin, the founder of the Communist Party, the Soviet State, and its Armed.
Forces, taught that in every war victory depends to a large d.egree on the moral
staunchness of the troops. Under modern conditions, at a time when the imperialis-
tic aggressors are preparing intensively for war with the use of atomic weapons and.
other means of mass destruction, the role of the moral factor has increased, even
more. Tile Minister of Defense, Marshal of the Soviet Union G. K. Zhukov, while
delivering a speech at the All-Army Conference. of Outstanding Men, said emphatical-
ly: "No matter what powerful weapons armies possess, the decisive role in achieving
victory over the enemy belongs to the people who have high moral and, combat.quali-
ties, and. who know how to apply the entire strength of weapons and. equipment."
And. who is to implant such qualities in the men? First of all, the officer person-
nel. The body of officers is the skeleton of the army, which holds together the
troops as one disciplined military organism.
In the Air Force every pilot, while being an air fighter, is at the same time a
commander. He is responsible for the training and education, of the personnel of the
crew, sub-unit, or unit. Successful solution of all the problems depends -on his poli-
tical maturity, his military and technical culture, and, his ability for organization.
That is why our officers above all must themselves possess high moral and. combat
qualities. Such qualities are implanted. in them by the Communist Party and. the
Soviet Government, which are constantly concerned, with strengthening our valiant
Armed Forces and their most important component ? military aviation.
The Soviet officer has devoted, his life to the glorious military prof.ession, which
is respected. in or country and which demands from him definite moral and combat
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22 I. I. Sushin
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qualities. Their aggregate is what we call the moral make-up of a Soviet officer.
Such qualities as a high ideology, a deep devotion to the cause of Communism, an
ardent love for their socialist Motherland and a burning hatred for its enemies, a
Communist attitude toward labor and its results ? socialist property, collectivism,
b.umanitarianism, and strict observance of the . rules of a socialist community ? are
Inherent in the Soviet people who have been brought up in a Communist spirit by our
Patti. These remarkable moral qualities, typical of Soviet man, are being d.evelop-
ed in him on the basis of a progressive social and. state system with its new social-
istic relations among people.
The noble moral qualities inculcated by the Party in the Soviet people are embodied.
in hill measure in its faithful sons ? the officers of the Armed. Forces.
Selfless devotion to his socialist Motherland and unquenchable hatred for its ene-
mies are the main features of the moral make-up of the Soviet officer.
Our officer is an ardent patriot. He is proud to be entrusted. with the defense of
the most just social and state system in the world., and. of the great cause Of building
Communism. It is exactly this Soviet patriotism which was the powerful source of
the mass heroism displayed. by the personnel of our Army, Air Force, and Navy in
the difficult years of the Great Patriotic War.
This feeling drove N. F. Gastello to direct his burning bomber at a column of ene-
my tanks; it gave strength to A. P. Mares'yev, to L. G. Belousov, and. Z.A. Sorokin
to return to the ranks of combat pilots even after they had. lost their legs; it inspired.
M. P. Devyatayev and his comrades to continue their courageous struggle with the
enemy under the hard. conditions of captivity and. to accomplish their bold flight home
on an aircraft captured from the Hitle rites.
The many thousands, many millions of heroes who bravely defended, their native
land in times of severe trial in. the last war showed, the greatest devotion to their
Fatherland..
It is typical of officers in capitalistic armies that the choice of military service,
for the overwhelming majority, is dictated not by patriotism at all but by career and,
business interests. Brought up in the spirit of bourgeois morality they place materi-
al interests above everything. American flyer Donald. S. Searman, whose plane was
brought down in the Korean war, frankly declared: "I became a pilot because it pays
well. "
Such indifference toward one' a native land. is typical of the American Armed. Forc-
es ? not only in individual cases. In connection with this, an article published, in.
the American magazine "Liberty" under the curious title "Aren't Americans Cowards?"
is very characteristic. The author of the article, William Bradford. Huie, analyz-
ing the facts which showed. how the Americans avoided military service and. fighting
at the front during WWII, informs us that 10% of all the commissioned, officers of the
U. S. Army were court-marshalled during the war for avoiding participation in battle,
and. that 4000 commissioned officers dodged. combat by inflicting injuries on them-
selves. In conclusion, Huie writes: "If you sum up the total of all 'psychos',
'cowards', 'parasites' and. those who 'do not care', then, according to the most cauti-
ous calculations, you will have to admit that at least four million physically healthy
Americans of military age turned out to be either incapable or unwilling to fight for
their native country during WWII."
The Soviet soldier is ready to give his life for his Motherland.. While in wartime
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The Moral Make-up of the Soviet Pilot 23
the Soviet officer's patriotism has shown itself in a selfless struggle against the
enemy, in peacetime his patriotism is seen in his concern for strengthening the com-
bat preparedness of his sub-unit and. his unit, in preparing Outstanding Men in. com-
bat and. political training, in persistent striving to attain the honorable title of Out-
standing Man.
The Soviet patriot combines an.ardent love for his Motherland with an unquench-
able hatred. for its enemies. Is it-not a legitimate hatred that arises in each one of
us when we see how brazenly the American imperialists and their accomplices act
against the Soviet Union and against all peace-loving countries? Can there be any-.
thing but indignation when we see them openly appropriating hundreds of millions
of dollars for "secret war" against the countries of the socialist camp, organizing
espionage, diversions, and. even armed provocations? But our hatred. for the Pre-
datory imperialists has nothing in common with the animal hatred cultivated in the
bourgeois armies. There they try to waken beastly instincts in men and officers,
making ravishers and. killers of them and. preaching to them their racial superiority
over other nations. An ideology of racial hatred toward men is alien to us. We
are internationalists. We do not and. cannot have hatred toward other nations,. but
we do hate those who oppress and. exploit the workers, those who are enemies of
freedom and. progress, and those who cherish a delirious hope of establishing their
supremacy over the whole world..
Hatred. toward enemies is not an abstract emotion. During times of military
stress it demands from the Soviet officer the achievement of victory over the enemy
even at the cost of his life. During the past war our pilots,too, fought against their
enemies to the d.eath.
On 22 June 1941, Komsomol member,Flight Commander Junior Lt. L. G. Butelin
took off for a combat mission. He attacked. Hitlerite troops and waged. aerial com-
bat until his ammunition gave out. On his return he met a Fascist Ju-88 bomber
near our airfield,. Leonid. Butelin boldly rushed, to the attack and rammed the ene-
my aircraft with the propeller of his fighting machine. This took place at 0515.
Butelin died a hero's Oath but destroyed the Fascist pirate. Thus, at the very be-
ginning of the Great Patriotic War an air ramming was accomplished. On. the same
day around. 1000, yet another Soviet-pilot; Peter Ryabtsev, executed a ramming near
Brest.
Only exceptionally courageous pilots are capable of such exploits,. pilots who- .
deeply realize their personal responsibility for the cause of their Motherland's pro-
tection and who hate their enemies mortally.
In time of peace the soldiers' hatred. for the enemies shows itself in a high revo-
lutionary vigilance.
What does it mean for an officer to be vigilant?
It means to fulfill unflinchingly all the demand.s of the oath and the regulations
on keeping State and. military secrets, to observe strictly the procedure established.
for keeping documents. - It means being scrupulous in the choice of acquaintances ?
and of places for relaxation and entertainment, not talking too muchwhen at work
and even less when not at work, But the most important thing is to organize the
life of a =it or outfit so as to achieve a high degree of constant combat readiness.
The way to achieve this is to maintain strict order and. iron discipline.
Discipline is the basis of the combat readiness and. fighting efficiency of troops
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in Peacetime, it is the mother of victory in wartime: Discipline is one of the most
necessary moral and. combat qualities .of an officer. GUards Capt. G. P. Maslovskiy,
a 'Communist and a hero of the Great Patriotic War, stated. this remarkably .in a let-
ter to his son just' before he died: "...Well, my dear son,we won't see each other
anymore. An hour ago, I received. from the d.ivision commander an assignment from
which I. shall not return alive. Don't be afraid. of this, my lad, and don't lose heart.
Be as proud. as. your daddy is in going to his death, because not everyone is permitted
to die for Es Motherland...
"Lenin's glorious city ? the cradle of the Revolution is in danger. Its future
welfare depends on the fulfilment of my mission. For the sake of this great good
I shall carry out my mission to my last breath, to the last drop of my blood.. I have
no intention of refusing such a mission; on the contrary, I am burning with the de-
sire to accomplish it as soon as possible.
"...What is the power that helps to accomplish such a heroic deed.?" ? asks
Maslovskiy. And he answers:
"Military discipline and obedience to the Party. It is true what they say: there
is only one step from discipline to heroism. Keep this in your mind., son, once and
for all...I am telling you about everything in detail, because I want you to know what
kind of a person your father was, what he gave his life for and. how. When you grow
up, you will understand., you will care for your Motherland.. It is good., it is very
good. to cherish one's Motherland! ? .. "
A pilot needs strict discipline not only during war or flying. Discipline is in-
dispensable everywhere.
Lack of discipline is a sign of a person's weak will. He who has a strong will
always controls his actions wisely. A strong-willed. officer is notable not only for
his high discipline but also for his presence of mind, in a difficult situation. It is
when exposed to danger that he shows audacity, courage, and. valor.
Courage is the ability to overcome fear, to subordinate fear to sense of duty; it
is a willingness to give, if necessary, one's life for one's Motherland. V. I. Lenin
used. tO say that courage 'and. daring, the .absence of fear in battle, and. willingness
to fight together with?one's people against the enemy must constitute the basic quali-
ties of the Soviet people.
Coward.s do not conquer. We despise cowards. Coward.ice is akin to panic,
and panic inevitably leads to defeat. But courage increases a man's strength ten-
fold. Hundred.s and thousand.s of courageous men, brave champions of the Soviet
skies, are nurtured in our Air Force. The name of pilot A. K. Gorovets ? a Corn- ,
munist and. Hero .of the Soviet Union? occupies an honorable placeamong those of
legendary heroes who are the pride of the Soviet people. All by himself he engaged.
in combat against a group of enemy aircraft and. managed. to destroy nine German
bombers!
A pilot can be a hero in peacetime too! Here is one of many excellent examples
of serving one's country well. Col. F. F. Opad.chiy has been working in the Air Force
for 27 years, of these more than 20 as a test pilot. His willpower, courage, and.
skill helped him more than once to acquit himself with honor in the most difficult
situation. Quite recently pilot Opadchiy was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet
Union for his courage and resourcefulness shown in testing new planes.
The soldier is an armed. defender of his Motherland.. Consequently, he is regard.-
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'26 I. I. Sushin
ed first of all as an expert in military affairs. In aviation, the success of the battle
depends on the- skill and. initiative of the pilot, who at the same time is a soldier. As
is kn.own, a pilot's skill is mad.e up of an irreproachable knowledge of aviation equip-
ment and. the ability to use it under any conditions. It is not necessary to prove that
superficial knowledge or careless application of the rules for use of equipment can-
not be tolerated. Aircraft equipment is a mighty force, but only in the hand.s of a
skillful soldier.
The enormous advantage of the Soviet army over bourgeois armied lies in the fact
that its personnel is brought up in the spirit of socialist collectivism. In military
circles this manifests itself in combat friendship and. camaraderie among the
troops. These remarkable qualities of the personnel of our army, a new type of
army, are based on the moral and political unity of Soviet society and. on the inde-
structible friendship among the peoples of the Soviet country.
What does it mean for our soldier to be a true comrade and friend? The answer
to this question is given in the Regulations of the Internal Service, which demand
that every service manilas sist his comrades by word and. deed., restrain them from
untoward actions, and help them out in times of crisis without regard. for personal
safety."
Mutual help and support in combat:these are the main signs of true friendship.
Soviet officers have risked, their lives to save their comrades who were facing dif-
ficulties. Many such feats could. be mentioned.
Pilot and Communist Capt. I. G. Shkondin recently showed an exciting example of
faithfulness to military camaraderie. During a flight mission a fire broke out on a
heavy bomber. It was impossible to extinguish it. The navigator was severely
burned and lost consciousness.
The commander ordered the crew to bail out. An incoming burst of air dispersed
the smoke. Shkondin noticed. that, the navigator had not left the plane and. was not
able to do so. What was there to do? Save himself and abandon his comrade? No,
Communists do not act this way. Capt. Shkondin made up his mind, to land. the burn-
ing plane on a field. Soldiers who happened to be near-43y came running to the site
of the emergency landing and quickly put out the fire. The comracte's life was saved.
Another indication of troop camaraderie is devotion to Communist principles. A
true friend, will not be indifferent to the errors and shortcomings of his comrade but
will try to restrain him from any untoward actions which disgrace the honor of the
outfit or unit, will help him correct shortcomings in his .studies and. behavior. He
will not be afraid to tell his friend candidly of his faults and., if this does not help,
he will criticize him sharply in public.
Socialist collectivism with its principle, "man is friend to man," is not to be
separated. from socialist humanism. Humanism,. e., love of mankind., is one of
the typical traits of the Soviet officer's moral make-up. This noble quality shows
itself in respect for people, in tactfulness to subordinates, and. in concern for them.
How often our men and officers lovingly call their strict and. demanding but never-
theless just ? superior "father"! With such a commander they will go through
thick and thin.
A superior 's respect for and humane treatment of his subordinates inspire the
soldier to fulfill his duties even better. It was not without reason that M. I. Kalinin
said in one of his speeches before a- military audience: "If you have the opportunity
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The Moral Make -u' of the Soviet Pilot 27
to be a superior, ,then be not only a superior but also a friend to your subordinates."
The superior is the friend, of his subordinates! This is possible only in the army
of a socialist state. He0 who violates this principle in. his relations to his subordi-
nates, who is rud.e and insults their civil dignity, undermines his authority as a -corn-
mand.er of the Soviet Armed. Forces.
Very important moral qualities of the Soviet officer are ,also his truthfulness and.
honesty. Any d.eception on the part of the commander or of companions-in-arrns
even in peacetime, to say nothing about wartime, causes serious damage to the in-
terests of the cause.
Think, for, instance, about the relations between the pilot and the technician, or
between the pilot and. the mechanic. Is it not clear that the safety of the flight and.
sometimes even the crew's lives depend. very much on the technician's or mechanic's
honesty? Consequently, relations of mutual. trustbetween them are necessary.
And what happens if a pilot begins to act against his conscience before his com-
mander? For instance, a pilot makes a mistake, even though to him it Seems a
most insignificant one in the technique of piloting, but holds it back in his report to
the commander about his operations in the air. It is clear that this error will not
be corrected; but,repeated. many times,it can become a harmful habit and. may lead.
to a serious accident. Under conditions of war the pilot's untruthfulness can lead.
to the sacrifice of innocent victims.
More often than not, a soldier's untruthfulness can be explained, by a feeling of
false shame, by anunwillingness to place himself in an =favorable light before his
commander and. his comrades. But who can say about himself that he has never
been wrong? V.I. Lenin said that the intelligent person i not the one who makes
no mistakes. There are not and. can not be such people. Only he is intelligent who,
having mad.e a mistake, bravely admits it and. is able to set it right.
The description of the moral make-up of the Soviet soldier will not be complete
if nothing is said about his behavior in everyday life. , With a healthy mode of living,
normal family relations, and. well-brought-up. children, a man feels cheerful; has ?
more energy, and works successfully. Without this a man is restless and. nervous,
all of which is reflected. in his service activity.
Some officers still think that their behavior in. everyday life is their private affair.
It is not hard. to understand. how wrong and harmful such ideas are.
The main and decisive role in indoctrinating officers,with high moral and 'combat
qualities belongs to the commander. The Party and the government have made him
wholly responsible for the combat readiness of the unit and, the, outfit, for the training.
and. indoctrination of the personnel. It is in the process of training and. indoctrina-
tion that the moral and combat qualities indispensable to the aviator are formed.. The
more a commander relies in his work upon the political apparatus, upon the Party
and. Komsomol organizations, the greater his success as a military leader and educa-
tor.
At. one time M. I. Kalinin pointed, out that the indoctrination of people, especially
of military people, is a complicated, and. delicate affair. There is no prescription
or pattern for it. Required. of commanders is a consideration. of the specific pecu-
liarities of the situation and the problems to be solved, a tactful approach to the
men,' an. ability to utilize all means and. forms of indoctrination. -
Let us take the Organization of the work of indoctrinating officer s under Air
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I. I. Su shin
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Force Commander A. 1. Sokolov. The commanders and political workers subordi-
nated. to him do their work not formally but with all their heart. First of all the of-
ficers go through the process of combat training. During flights the commanders
do not tolerate any leniency or conventionality but try to create a setup very close
to a combat situation.
To Increase the sense of responsibility for carrying out official duties and to
inculcate a conscientious attitude toward., work, all forms and. means of Party and
political work are used: lectures, group and individual discussions, meetings,
theoretical discussions, the press, visual propaganda, and mass-cultural projects.
in the work of the ideological and political indoctrination ofthe officers, the
leader personnel takes an active part. Thus, to assist officers studying Marxist-
Leninitt doctrine on war and the army, comrade A. I. Sokolov delivered a lecture
on the subject: "The role of V.I. Lenin in the creation of the Soviet Armed. Forces";
officer D. I. Lyapinkov delivered a lecture on "Soviet military science and. its advan-
tages over bourgeois military science," etc. Our leader officers do not avoid con-
tact with their subordinates in off-duty hours. This brings them closer to the mass
of officers, and gives the officers an opportunity to speak freely about everything
that worries them and. to get advice from their older comrades who have more ex-
perience in aviation and. in everyday life. Unfortunately, one cannot say that all our
commanders have already appreciated the importance and. the necessity of contact
with their subordinates in off-duty hours.
The experience of the commander and. political workers in working with the young
officers deserves attention. Recently the command., together with the most active
members of the Party, organized a check on and a study of the work with. young of-
ficers. It turned out that here and. there little work had. been done with the young
people, that they had not always been helped in integrating themselves into the ranks
of combat pilots fast enough, the proper concern had not been given them in arrang-
ing their everyday life. The results of the check were discussed with the leader of-
ficer personnel, and. measures were taken to correct the shortcomings revealed. The
young officers were inspired with hope, their mood became better, and discipline im-
proved.
In the Soviet Armed. Forces great and. honarable tasks are 'entrusted to Party orga-
nizations. Their first and. foremost duty is: indoctrinating Communists in the
spirit of the ideas of Marxism-Leninism, of irreconcilability with shortcomings;
ensuring that Party members and candidates set a personal example in combat train-
ing and discipline, in. observance of the military oath and in carrying out the require-
ments of military regulations and orders; comprehensive strengthening of one-man
control and. authority of the commanders. But the role of Army and Party organi-
zations is not limited to this alone. They are obliged, to guid.e the Komsomol organi-
zations constantly, to take care of the political and military training of the members
of VLKS,M [All-Union Leninist Young Communist League] . At the same time, as the
"Instructions to the CPSU Organizations in the Soviet Army and. Navy" emphasize, they
have to know all the needs and temperaments of all the personnel, to try to understand.
all aspects of life in the unit, to assist the commander and. his political deputy in solv-
ing the ,problems of political and military training of the personnel, and to popularize
the experience of outstanding officers, sergeants, and. men.
To instill high. moral and combat qualities in the officers means first and, foremost
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The Moral Make-up of the Soviet Pilot 29
'VEINS
to raise their ideological-theoretical level. A person's behavior d.epend.s after all
on his convictions. The high ideals of the Soviet officer, his profound, conviction
of the righteousness and. invincibility of the Party's great cause ? Communism ---
these are what determine the noble traits of his moral make-up.
These Communist convictions of the officer manifest themselves in his ability
to evaluate the phenomena and. events of social life, the activities and. actions of the
people around. him and. of himself, from the standpoint of the Party. Such ability is
developed by studying Marxism-Leninism.
Studying Marxism-Leninism thoroughly, our officers not only enrich themselves
ideologically but also master the true scientific method., which permits them to do -
their practical work Successfully. It is impossible to master Soviet military, science
to perfection without mastering Marxist-Leninist theory, and. without this one can-
not become a valuable military specialist.
While explaining daily the wise policy of the Communist Party to all officers and.
men and. showing them the progress in building Communism achieved. in 40 years
of Soviet rule under the leadership of the Party, the commanders, political workers,
and. Party and Komsomol organizations develop in them a pride in their mighty' so-
cialist Motherland and increase their sense of personal responsibility for defending
its state interests.
The constant combat readiness of Soviet officers serves as the basic criterion
for the conscientious performance of their official duties. It is necessary to in-
crease their military knowledge continuously, to strive for perfect mastery of the
newest combat equipment, of all way.s and. method.s of conducting modern warfare and
methods of training subordinates.
The leading principle in the training and indoctrination of officer cadres, as of all
the men, is to teach the troops everything that is necessary during a war.
The heroic history of our Armed. Forces offers very rich material for the train-
ing and. indoctrination of our officer cadres. Lectures and. discussions about the
combat traditions of the Soviet Army, of One's own unit or group, meetings of the
young officers with the unit's veterans, with participants, in the Great Patriotic War,
with Heroes of the Soviet Union, and. with' Heroes of Socialist Labor all these and.
many other things are an effective form of patriotic indoctrination of the soldiers.
All the time, more and more new names are being added to the annals of the Soviet
Air Force; these are the names of people whose loyal service to their socialist
Motherland have earned nationwid.e recognition.
These are the names of outstanding test pilots: Yu.A.Antipov, S. M. Antonov,
D. V. Gaponenko, V. G. Ivanov, N. A. Korovin, N. I. Korovushkin, V. S. Kotlov, L. M.
Kuvshinov, V. G. Romanyuk, A. V. Sarigin, and. A. K. Starikov.
The life at of these famous pilots who have tested. hundr ed.s of aircraft are
worthy examples for young aviators. It is from the veterans that the young people
have to learn selflessness in fulfilling their military duty, heroism and. endurance,
Bel- control and resourcefulness, precise skill, and. readiness to overcome the 'most
difficult obstacles on the way to the goal assigned..
Comprehensive improvement in the work of commanders, political organs, Party
and. Komsomol organizations in ideological political and. military training of the of-
ficer personnel is the key to the further progress of combat readiness.
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?.?,.?.?..
Hero of the Soviet Union
Col. Gen. of the Air Force
S. A. Krasovskiy
In the photo: Military Navigator First Class Capt. A. Vorontsov (first on the left)
conducting a class with navigators.
Photo Yu. SkuratOV
FORTY YEARS IN THE RANKS
News about the victory of the October Socialist Revo-
lution spreading quickly all over the country reached. the
front. The news was received joyfully by S.A. Krasovskiy,
a young Belorussian peasant dressed in a soldier's great-
coat-. Even after the February Revolution he had felt and.
understood that the Bolshevik slogans were nearest and.
dearest to him. Now he, immediately took the proletariat's
side and. took an. active part in the struggle for strengthen-
ing the Soviet regime. He was electedl. chairman of the
soldier's' committee of the 25th Corps iair detachment. Soon
Stepan Akimovich joined the ranks of the Red Guards and,
with weapon in hand.,participated in the battles against ,the
German invaders who were trying to smother the young
Soviet republic.
After February 1918 S.A. Krasovskiy, in different
air detachments of the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army,
participated in battles on the Eastern front, at Astra-
khan' and Tsaritsyn, and in the Caucasus; he headed.
Communist groups in the struggle with the counter-
revolutionary rebellions of the kulaks. As an active
and fighting member of the Communist Party (he was
accepted. in its ranks in August 1918) in 1920 S.A.
Krasovskiy was appointed military commissar of the
detachment and later commissar of the Field HQ of
the Air Force of the Eleventh Army on the Caucasian
front.
After the Civil War Stepan Akimovich improved.
his military knowledge, completed. the higher academ-
ic courses for the improvement of Air Force command.
cadres, and. later graduated. from the operations de-
partment of the VVA [Air Force Academy]. He held.
a series of command. posts -- from squad.ron corn-
mand.er to commander of an Air Force district. S. A.
Krasovskiy applied, all his knowledge and energy to
the training and indoctrination of the personnel and.
strove resolutely for its high combat readiness.
Then the Great Patriotic War started.. General S. A. Krasovskiy was one of those
who went through both the bitterness of failure in the first year of the Hitlerite in-
vasion and. the joy of victory over the Fascist barbarians, In the fall of 1941, as
Air Force commander of the 56th Army, he organized combat activities of the air
units at Rostov. Stalingrad., Voronezh, the Kursk bulge,Kiyev, L'vov, the Oder
River, Berlin, Prague ? these are the places where the pilots of the Air Force
fought under the command of Gen. Krasovskiy, one of the most talented. Air Force
commanders, destroying the enemy's aviation in the air and. delivering powerful
blows at his ground forces. Their contribution to the crushing of Hitlerite Germany
was highly valued. The personnel of this Army received more than 35 commendations
from the Supreme Commander-in-Chief for their participation in the liberation of
cities and. large settlements and for surrounding and. eliminating large forces' of the
enemy. Many units and. formations were decorated., scores of pilots were honored.
with the lofty title of "Hero of the Soviet Union", and. thousands received. ord.ers and.
The awarding to Col. Gen. S. A. Krasovskiy of the title of "Hero of the Soviet Union",
medals.
three Orders of Lenin, three Orders of the Red. Banner, orders of Suvorov, Second.
Class and. of Bogdan Khmelnitskiy First Class, and. of the Red. Star is a recognition
of his valor and. military talent. S.A. Krasovskiy also received the Czechoslovak
ord.er of the "White Lion" and. the Polish cross "Grunwald. First Class.'
Col. Gen. of the Air Force Stepan Akimovich Krasovskiy is 60 years old.. All
his rich experience accumulated. in forty years of service in the Soviet Army and.
Air Force, in battles against the enemies of our Motherland, he now gives to the train-
ing and indoctrination of aviation cadres.
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READYING FIGHTERS FOR NIGHT OPERATIONS
Military Pilot First Class, Col. Y e. V. Sukhorukov
1. Landing of a Fighter Aircraft
It is far from being always possible
at Night With the Aid of a Landing Light under combat conditions to bring in an
aircraft at night, hilly utilizing airfield
lighting equipment, since an illuminated. airfield. will be visible from a distance of
dozens of kilometers on a cloudless night. Landing on an airfield. whose landing-
area floodlights are in operation, with the runway brightly lit, with its approach
lights and. light beacon on, is of course much easier than landing on a blacked-out
-
airfield.
The aircraft landing light enables the pilot to be independent of ground sources of
light. In this lies the tremendous advantage of landing with the aid of a landing light.
We can borrow an example from our transport aviation. It is common knowledge
that such landings have received, widespread acceptance there. On training and.
scheduled flights, on flights entailing landing at other airfields, the flying personnel
of transport aircraft, as a rule, makes landings solely with the aid. of a landing light,
without the landing-area floodlights switched on.
Transport aircraft are equipped with a more powerful lighting system and. the
landing technique itself is easier than it is in the case of a jet fighter aircraft. How-
ever, the experience of best fighter pilots with night training proves convincingly
that, even though landing on an unilluminated runway can be successfully mastered,
it can only be done in those outfits where the pilots undergo regular training, instead
of confining themselves to. using the landing light solely for additional illumination
during taxiing and for designating their position in the air. Therefore pilots and of-
ficers who try to introduce this method into everyday practice must be encouraged
in every way. The training must have a systematic, organized and methodically
well-thought out character.
Organization and operation of flights with the aid of a landing light does not re-
quire any additional expenditure of time or money. The training of the flying per-
sonnel in landing on a runway unillurninated by floodlights proceeds in the usual or-
der, from the simple to the difficult. Flights are preceded. by brief training on the
ground.. Techniques of making the approach and. landing computation and., particu-
larly, of landing on a blacked-out runway are studied in the classroom. During
preliminary training, the flying personnel work out the sequence of operating the
aircraft cabin equipment, become acquainted with the problems peculiar to course
plotting, the approach and. landing computation, and with special situations in flight.
Training in the air begins with flying in a circular pattern in a two-place aircraft
accompanied, by an instructor. At first the regular runway lighting is used., and
later the brightness of the airfield lights is reduced. until they are completely extin-
guished.. From personal experience I can say that flying in a circular pattern at
night is somewhat more difficult than it is during the day. The ground. is not visible,
F hters for Ni ht 0 erations 33
it is difficult to estimate the distance to light check points, and. it is often necessary
to fly the aircraft by instruments alone. Flying in a circular pattern and Making a
landing approach on a completely blacked-out airfield. is even more complicated. The
pilot cannot make use of light check points to plot his course. A landing approach
can be performed. more easily by instruments, making use of the landing system. To
cut the time required. and. to make an accurate directional approach to the runway, it
is better to approach it by making two 1800 turns. In doing this the pilot ignores
light points in the vicinity of the airfield; he orientS himself entirely by the readings
of the radio and magnetic compass, maintaining his position in space by the artificial
horizon, the variometer, the speed. and. altitude'indicators. The methods of approach
are the same as those in usual instrument flight. Once the aircraft is 'on the landing
course, however, and, later, after it approaches the homing radio station., certain
peculiarities are encountered.
The fact is that in approaching the outer homing radio station the pilot already
sees the approach lights and, later, the runway lights. Maintaining the heading
under such conditions presents no difficulty. It is more complicated, to estimate the
distance to these lights and to make the necessary calculations for let-down from an
altitude of 200-300 meters over the outer homing radio station.
The aircraft approaches the inner homing radio station at an altitude 'of 80-100
meters with a constant gliding speed. The point where rounding out commences,
located at 400-500 meters from the runway, must be approached by the aircraft at an
altitud.e of 7-8 meters. Being well acquainted, with the altitude of these control points
and their distance from the aircraft's touchdown position, the pilot makes a landing
computation as if he were descending from step to step. If the pilot observes such
a sequence, his computations will always be correct. The only correction he would
have to make every time would be that for wind.
Such a sequence of operations is due to the' fact that the distances between the
homing radio station, the initial rounding-out point, and. the point of touchdown permit
a corresponding decrease of flight speed.. Altitudes at which the stations are passed
and at Which the initial rounding out is made enables the aircraft to descend in a grad-
ual glide with small vertical velocities at given engine. rpm. Since rounding out be-
gins at a definite distance from the runway, the aircraft touches down at a designated
spot.
The procedure described above of computing the landing is the same both for day
and night, when rounding out is planned and begun in. the zone of obstruction lights or
in the beam of the first floodlight.
However, the approach and computation for landing with a landing ,light are per-
formed in a different manner. This is due first of all to the fact that it is harder for
the pilot to keep track of the point of initiating the round-. out,' even though it is located.
on the level of the obstruction lights which are quite visible from the air. The area
on which the aircraft must be landed. is not illuminated; hence a certain tenseness on
the part of the pilot.
I usually carry out landing with a landing light in the following sequence. Having
passed. the inner homing radio station at an altitud.e,of 50-60 m, I switch on the light
and while continuing the descent I begin to distinguish the illuminated spot =the ,
ground, which becomes brighter as the aircraft approaches the ground.. If the land.-
ing light is switched on too early the beam will not reach the ground and the surface
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34 Ye. V. Sukhorukov
will not be visible, while the light itself wears out consid.erably faster. In switching
on the light later, the vision of the pilot has no time to adapt itself to following the
illuminated, surface of the earth and. he may not have enough time to prepare for land.-
ing.
After the landing light is switched on, the glance is transferred in the direction
of the beam to the ground.. As the descent progresses, the illuminated, spot becomes
brighter, the ground. is easier to discern. Now it must be 'determined, whether the
time has come to start rounding out. A glance at the altimeter will not give a pre-
cise answer, but rather will distract attention and. can lead. to an error. Consisten-
cy in computations, gained previously by the pilot, is of great importance. With
correct computations the aircraft must approach the line of obstruction lights at an
altitude of 7-10 meters. From this altitud.e the ground. can, already be quite clearly
seen and. the altitud.e is estimated. visually. But the ground is perceived, differently
depending on whether the night is. dark or light. On a dark night the ray of light is
brighter, the surface stands out better, and. is visible from a greater altitud.e, on a
bright night, on the other hand, the beam is scattered., the ground is illuminated, less
brightly, and. it may be hard.er to jud.ge accurately the altitud.e of the initial round.-out.
Sometimes even when flying two or three nights in a row, difficulties are experienced.
in landing because one night differs so much from another. This is where experience
and. good. training ? which d.epend. on the regularity of night flying und.er different
conditions ? corn e in handy.
In making a landing with flood, lights', the pilot sees a white strip of uniformly il-
luminated ground. The glance travels along it and. the sensations at this stage of
landing are about the same as they are in the daytime. There is virtually no dark-
ness in the field. of vision. A different picture is presented. in landing with a landing
light. Its beam, picking out a limited, area from the surrounding darkness, provides
sufficient illumination for perceiving the surface, and. it is possible to make a correct
estimate of the aircraft's true altitud.e above the ground.. But the illuminated, spot
moves with the aircraft, skims along the surface of the earth, and this in some meas-
ure distracts the attention and makes the landing more difficult. The duration of the
process of the aircraft's rounding out and. floating above the ground., up to the moment
of touchd.own,is short. As speed. is decreased. and the aircraft smoothly approaches
the ground., one must look constantly in the direction of the beam. However, because
of the increase in the aircraft's angle of ,attack, in the process of rounding out this
beam rises, the illuminated spot on the ground. and., consequently, the direction of
the glance, advance, and. this creates one of the difficulties.
After landing and. the commencement of steady taxiing on the main and the front
wheels, the landing light must be switched. off in order to prevent premature dis-
charge of the batteries. In general it must be remembered that landing illumination
should be used. while the engine is running, thus ensuring that the generator is cut in.
In taxiing with landing illumination pilots sometimes forget about this.. Instead, of
taxiing with a definite speed. with corresponding engine rpm, they first speed up the
aircraft by revving the engine, then later continue taxiing with rpm cut off. The
landing light in such cases is fed. by the energy of the batteries and. rapidly dis-
charges them.
The main thing required. for successful landing with a landing light is to learn to
judge the rounding-out altitude accurately. Errors committed. in this case as a rule
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Readying Fighters for Night Operations 35
make the situation more difficult further on. Indeed., the aircraft d.escend.s rapidly,
the attention of the pilot is divid.ed, between checking the correctness of his computa-
tion and. the correct time for leveling out the aircraft. The ground. is less clearly
visible than during an approach to an area illuminated, by floodlights, and. definitely
worse than it is during the day. Most often under these conditions pilots begin
rounding out prematurely. An experienced, pilot will notice this but sometimes
the landing ends with a rough touchdown.
In rounding out the aircraft at an altitude of less than 7 m, touchdown sometimes
occurs at too high a speed. simultaneously on the main and. the front wheels.
In training flights, to facilitate the directional approach after the aircraft passes
the outer homing radio station, the lights on the runway can b.e blinked, a few times
or switched. on for a short time. The approach is also considerably facilitated, by
temporarily switching on several lights, making up a light line, and, d.enoting the
width of the runway. In the area where the round-out is started., light points must
be installed, of such brilliance as to permit the pilot to observe them from an altitude
of 100 meters over the inner homing radio station. These lights are switched. on
when necessary, after the aircraft passes the outer homing radio station. In prin-
ciple, it is possible to make the landing computation and. to determine the place and
altitude for starting the round.-out by these light points.
Pilots with experience in night flying master without special difficulties the ap-
proach to and. landing on a blacked.-out runway with illumination provided, only by
the aircraft's landing light. Flights with the lights completely off on the airfield.
and. on the approaches to it require great experience and continuous practice. With
correct organization and. training methods, with a gradual transition from the simple
to the complicated., the flying personnel will successfully master flying at night un-
d.er normal and. adverse weather conditions.
Now a few remarks addressed. to our designers. It is well known how important
the location of the landing light on the aircraft is. However, it is located. now on dif-
ferent types and even different aeries of aircraft of the same type in a different way:
in the nose, under the left wing, and. on the left sid.e of the fuselage. , -There are -
stationary landing lights as well as those which are extended. when. switched. on., Such
variety is hardly dictated. by any special requirements. It is desirable that the land-
ing light on fighter aircraft of all types be in one place. It wouldn.'t be bad if the
instruments, knobs, and. toggle switches in the aircraft cockpit were always located,
in the same place. Pilots in the process of getting acquainted, with equipment fly
different aircraft, and. are compelled, every time to get used. to a new location of in-
struments in the cockpit. Naturally it creates additional difficulties in night flying.?
The direction of the landing-light beam in all cases and. on all aircraft must be the
same, since the pilot is always looking at the ground. in the forward direction and. at
a definite angle to the direction of landing. The beam of the landing light must W.u-
minate the ground. during round-out for a distance of 20-40 m ahead of the aircraft.
If the ground. is illuminated, closer to the aircraft or further from it, errors. are un-
avoidable. Cases are known when the location of the landing light was so unfortunate
that the beam illuminated, only the air above the ground. or created. only a small illu-
minated. spot on the ground, and. that too far ahead. of the aircraft.
It must be noted, that the installation of a landing light so far has not created the
best conditions under which the pilot could. make a landing with those modern aircraft
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Ye. V. Sukhorukov
whose descent in a glide path takes place with the front of the fuselage raised. to a
high position.
2. Flying in a Pair ands in
an Element on a Bright Night
I would. also like to express my opinion on
what seems to me an important question.
Flying fighter aircraft on a bright night is a
rather, complicated, form of flight training. Usually
the pilot, before undertaking night flying, is put through a long and. hard training
course. At first he gains practical habits in flying an aircraft on instruments in a
closed cockpit and. Under adverse weather conditions by day and, later, by night.
I must at this point explain that I speak of flights of a fighter pair or element on-
ly on a bright night; since on a dark night, when visibility and search are rather
difficult and the target can actually only be located by aircraft equipped. with radar
devices, the aircraft are flown on instruments. On a dark night the pilot d.oesn't
see well. He can spot another aircraft only when the latter is distinguished. by air
navigation lights. The silhouette, the shadow, and the contrail are completely un-
noticeable under these conditions. Furtherm.ore, one cannot divert one's attention
for long from the instruments for the purpose of visual observation and. target search.
Flights of a fighter pair or element on a bright night are quite feasible. They
are difficult, it's true; but they give the pilots good. training under difficult condi-
tions and. can have rather extensive combat application.
Recently I had an occasion to become acquainted, with the organization of flight
training in unit X. They fly on prescribed route, at night in pairs only. Flying
is necessarily done over water and over terrain unmarked. by checkpoints far from
populated. areas. Under such conditions the commanders quite justifiably think that
flying in pairs is less dangerous since the pilots can help each other when the neces-
sity arises. The availability of two radio compasses considerably improves orienta-
tion, instills confidence in. the pilots, and. insures reliable navigation.
Besides, it should be clear to everyone that the combat application of fighter
groups at night is also of practical importance. In taking off in groups, it is possi-
ble to concentrate a large number of aircraft in night patrol zones. Further em-
ployment of groups' will give a considerable advantage in comparison with operations
by single fighters.
If aerial combat at day and at night are compared., it is easy to notice how much
more difficult the conditions of night combat are. In the day the enemy is spotted.
at a -greater distance, can be seen well, and. can be attacked until completely destroy-
ed.. There are enough forces present to effect total destruction of the target, since
it is attacked by at least a pair of fighters.
The picture is different at night. The target is spotted. not at a great distance,
the visibility is poor, the attack maneuver is limited,. The combat is itself brief:
most often only one attack is made. When the target maneuvers ? or when. the pi-
lot interrupts observation? it is easily lost.
Thus the target can be hit with certainty only by a successive introduction into
the combat of several fighters. In introducing the fighters one by one into the com-
bat the action against the enemy will be extended. over a considerable time, and.
vectoring to the target must be effected anew every time. If, on the other hand., a
pair or an element of fighters is vectored to the target, a greater effect may be
achieved. Upon spotting the target, the pilots attack it in succession; then each one
a
4
4
ti
ers for Ni ht
0 erations 37
returns to his base or to his patrol zone by himself.
On a bright night the following variant of the combat employment of fighters is
possible when the leader is an aircraft equipped with a radar sight. After the group
is vectored, to the target and, closes with it, the actions of the leader (group leader)
facilitate spotting the enemy.
Great possibilities are offered by the inclusion. in the makeup of a group of fight-
ers of aircraft which carry flare bombs. After the group is vectored to the target
by ground. radar, or better yet, upon the target's detection by fighters, the carriers
of SAB [illuminating aerial bombs] illuminate the target, while the others attack it
one by one.
Sometimes, especially at low altitudes, an aircraft can find itself in a zone of
weak reception of ground. radio stations. Control is disrupted.. In such a case it
is also advantageous to send out a fighter pair. Before the onset of unreliable com-
munications they fly together, then one of them climbs and repeats the commands as
a relay station for the ground. radio station in vectoring the fighter to the target.
From the above discussion, it can be seen that combat employment of fighter
groups on a bright night has great possibilities and. can lead. to real successes in a
sp ecific situation.
What are the ways and methods of practical training of flying personnel for such
flights? I will refer to the experience of the same unit X. Pilots who have ex-
perience in independent night flying are trained, in night flying in. a pair or in an
element. Training begins with flying in a pair in which the leader is followed by
a two-place aircraft. The instructor demonstrates techniques of closure, of format-
ing on the leader, of keeping the given distances and. intervals. The pilot masters
the control of the aircraft under conditions of horizontal flight, climbing, descent,
and. executing turns.
Later the training is continued, in a combat aircraft. At first the instructor is
the leader and. the trainee is the wingman. They take off singly. It is best to take
up formation on a straight leg before the first turn at an altitude of 600-700 m. This
is simpler and safer than taking up formation on a leg between the second and the third
turns, because the wingman does not execute turns and. is not distracted by the neces-
sity of searching for the leader.
At first it seems very difficult to fly the plane so as to keep the leader in the field
of vision and, to formate on him. During first flights, the pilots make mistakes. In
trying to close in on the leader as fast as possible they accelerate the aircraft and.
experience difficulties in taking up formation. The leaders also act incorrectly
when they make the first turn early (at an altitude of 200-300 meters), without giving
the wingman a chance to take up his position in formation in a normal way. Upon
seeing the leader turn, the wingman also begins to turn while still at a lower altitude,
and cuts across the flight route. The attention of the pilot is directed. at the leader
in order not to lose him from view. At low altitudes such actions are dangerous,
even for very experienced pilots.
? All flying is done with air navigation lights switched. on. On some aircraft the
brightness of the air navigation lights can be regulated.. Depending on the visibility
and. night conditions the pilots select the most convenient intensity (on a bright night
they use the greatest brightness, on a dark night the least).
Illumination of the cockpit is also of great importance. Flying in pair or element
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38 Ye. V. Sukhorukov
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when the cockpit is brightly lit is generally impossible since the space beyond. it is
very hard. to see through. The best way is to observe the leader when the wingman's
cockpit is completely dark. But this is not permissible since the pilot must clearly
see the instruments. Therefore the most acceptable alternative is to fly with the
instrument lighting bulbs Switched. to minimum brightness.
Other light interference is observed in flight for instance, light reflections on
the glass ofthe cockpit canopy. The pilot's scanning of the space outsid.e and. ob-
serving the lead plane is adversely affected. by signal lamps and. illumination of the
instrument dials.
The training should be conducted. on a bright night when the horizon is clearly
visible. ? This facilitates navigation of the aircraft by the wingman, since in addi-
tion to the horizon and. the air navigation lights he also sees the silhouette of the
lead. plane against the background. of the sky.
It is hard. to judge the distance to a point of light at night. Therefore, in first
flights, distance and interval are kept somewhat greater (80-100 meters). This
facilitates formation; and. any deviations in keeping distances to the lead plane do
not imperil the safety of the flight. In addition to observing the leader, the pilot
can observe the horizon and. the instruments to aid him in keeping distance. Col-
lision is precluded since the distance between the aircraft is sufficiently great.
In the first stage of training, as is shown by experience, the most difficult thing
is formating on the leader. Taking up formation should. not be done with great ex-
cess speed; one should. not be precisly on the tail of the leader, or deviate any dist-
ance to the side. Closure in this case takes more time, but there is sufficient
time for its execution before the first turn at an altitud.e of 600-700 m. The leader
climbs with prescribed. forward, and vertical speeds, gives command.s to commence
the turn, and, carries out the turn with a 20-30? bank. Taking up formation is
facilitated if the wingman knows the speed. and. flight course of the leader. Such in-
formation is obtained on the ground or is requested, from the leader by radio.
The training usually begins with working out flights in the right bearing. The
wingman, located, to the rear and. on the right keeps somewhat below, which makes
it easier for him to see the leader against the background. of the lighter sky. Fly-
ing with the wingman above is not possible, since the leader is not as easily visible
and is easily lost.
Conditions for flight on a moonlit night are best, since the aircraft are easily
visible information.
The pilot practices in. keeping prescribed, distances and intervals even before the
commencement of flights. Aircraft are positioned. on the ground at prescribed
distances. Pilots climb into cockpits and memorize how the aircraft look in rela-
tion to each other. They must remember what position and. dimensions the aircraft
has on the glass of the cockpit canopy. Sometimes the position is outlined, by
colored lines. By keeping the lead. plane within the borders of these lines, distance
and interval are easily maintained.
The training takes place not only in the day but also in darkness. The pilot mem-
orizes distances, gets used to orientation by air navigation lights. It is recommend.-
ed that the training be repeated. and be always given after a lapse in formation flying.
In later flights it is better to take off in pairs. For pilots who take off in pairs
by day and. who regularly fly by night this presents no additional difficulties. Distance
Read. in F hters for Ni ht 0 erationS 39
and. interval are more easily kept when they are equal to 2-3 times the length of the
fuselage and. the span of the aircraft.
The leader maintains accurate heading on the takeoff run, beginning the run with-
out sudden release of brakes at high engine rpm. Takeoff in pairs iii contrast to
taking off singly, should. be somewhat prolonged.. This makes it easier for the wing-
man to keep his position during the run. After lift-off, 'while climbing, the leader
keeps a prescribed flight regime and. flies the aircraft on instruments. The wing-
man both flies the aircraft and. keeps his distance by observing the leader.
In practice it is more convenient to maintain formation when the distance is some-
what greater and. the interval somewhat smaller. The wingman. in such a case, in
addition to the air navigation lights, also sees the glow of the lead plane's exhaust
nozzle. Formating on and. taking up his position are the hardest points for the wing-
man to master. In our opinion, existing recommendations on the procedures for
formating on the leader are not the best. They recommend that the wingmen, start-
ing from afar, approach from the direction of their bearing to a prescribed. dista.nce
and then, by a smooth closure, establish the required interval. In this connection,
the wingman must move sideways in the direction of the lead plane ? which is not
without its dangers even in the daytime.
Considerably easier and. safer is the procedure of closing in almost on the leader's
tail, being somewhat below him and. to the side.
If the interval is increased, excessively, it is better to continue the flight in the
established. position. If it must be decreased, however, the' aircraft must pull back
somewhat, shorten the interval, come up to the required. distance, and. then, by mov-
ing outward, take up the required. interval. Engine revolutions must be controlled
smoothly without a sharp increase or decrease of thrust.
Closure or change of formation should under no circumstances be attempted. when
the leader is executing a turn. Closure and. formating on are only executed. on the
straight leg during a climb or in horizontal flight.
Sometimes it is necessary to continue the flight with extinguished air navigation
lights. These are the most difficult conditions. It goes without saying that such a
flight on a dark night is actually impossible in an aircraft without special equipment.
On a bright night, by observing the lead plane, the wingman can continue flying in
formation. His approach in the direction of the target and. his spotting of the target
depend. on the actions of the leader.
On the flight route or in the patrol zone orientation is mainly effected by the leader.
He resets the radio compass to the frequency of the turning point or the paint of desti-
nation, and, keeps track of the light check points on the ground.. The wingman carries
out the entire flight with the radio compass set to the frequency of the' airfield. from
which he took off, keeps track of the aircraft's position by instruments, and carries
out overall orientation.
Night flights of an element can be made in close pairs. Distances between these
must be great enough to enable the leader of the pair to observe the air and. to. ma-'
neuver. Breakup of the group for landing is carried out in the same way as it is
during the day, over the flight line, but without any sharp peeloff. Approaches and.
landings are mad.e only singly in all cases. Despite considerable difficulties, night
flying under adverse weather conditions is not impossible. After takeoff the pair
penetrates the cloud, base in tight formation and. flies on the flight route. Intercep-
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40
Ye. V. Sukhorukov
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1.11?11111111111110111111\
tiOn is done on a bright or moonlit night after the aircraft is vectored to the target
area by ground. radar in order that the search and. closing in on the target be carried.
on behind, the cloud, cover until the target is spotted. visually.
Penetrating the cloud, cover in a pair is complicated, but no more difficult than it
?
is in the daytime. The fact is that in the .daytime, in flying in,tight formation, the
pilot sees the lead. plane, and this makes his flying easier. If the wingman falls
back of the leader or moves off to one side, he rapidly loses him. Then the wing-
man peels off and. continues penetrating the cloud, cover independently, flying on in-
struments alone. Transition to instrument observation presents certain difficulties
and cannot be mastered by all pilots right away.
At night, the wingman does not see the configuration of the lead. plane, but orients
himself as to his p(0,sition in space only by the leader's air navigation lights. This
is entirely sufficient for safe aircraft piloting.
Indisputably, mastery of the technique of flying in a pair and in an element on a
bright night is necessary for fighter pilots. The endurance, fearlessness, and.
initiative which are inculcated, in the flight personnel are well worth the intensive
effort expended in the period. of training.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
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'1
SOME SPECIAL FEATURES OF AIR NAVIGATION IN NIGHT FLYENti
Military Navigator First Class, Guards Lt. Col. N. P. Nepomnyashchiy
One of the navigators of our group was assigned. the mission of bombing a non-
illuminated, target. The approach to the bomb run had to be mad,e not by homing
radio station but by corner reflectors. The navigator, by means of the PSBN-m,
course-line computing sight], picked up the rad.ar blips, brought the aircraft onto
the bomb run, sighted., and. released the bomb which fell.. .far from the target.
What had happened.? Is it possible that the navigator's errors in his computations
were so large? No. The reason was altogether different. The primary cause of
the gross error in bombing was inaccuracy in piloting. The pilot had, deviated. some-
what from the required. course, and. the navigator did not notice it because he had. not
studied. the area of the target sufficiently. The target blips had. actually not been
picked. up (the target had. passed. by on the side, beyond. the effective range of the ra-
dar sight), and. similar blips of objects lying in the flight path of the aircraft had.
been mistaken for the target. The navigator's main error was that he had used.
only the PSBN for navigation on the last leg of the flight route before the target and.
had neglected. other facilities. In this connection, it is not irrelevant to repeat the
first and most fundamental rule: air navigation under any conditions, and particular-
ly at night, should be effected by the combined. use (actively) of the compass and. the
watch, utilizing electronic facilities as well as navigational computing instruments.
In night flying the navigator must work under conditions of artificial lighting in
the cabin, which is very difficult. Therefore all his actions must be more accurate
and more deliberate. Sometimes certain instrument controls must be operated. by
touch, "blindly". For an experienced, navigator this is no problem. But the inex-
perienced. must gradually develop habits in operating the instruments under condi-
tions of artificial lighting in the cabin in order to operate in night flying just as ac-
curately and. confidently as in daytime flying.
When a flight is mad.e in daytime, the navigator, even in bad. weather, can usually
check the map with the locality, through "windows" in the clouds, for example. At
night, especially on dark nights, in the absence of any light check points (which is
typical of combat conditions), such a possibility is excluded. This means that all
attention must be concentrated. on utilization of instrument and. electronic navigation-
al facilities, using them, as already mentioned, in combination.
During twilight flights, because of the so-called. "night effect", it is very difficult
to use the radio compass and. ground. direction finders operating on short wave. This
effect is sometimes so strong that, for example, the radio compass begins function-
ing late at a distance from the radio station 3-4 times less than is usually the case.
Sometimes even through the crackling and. noise in the earphones the call signs of the
radio station can be heard. quite well, but the needle of the ARK [automatic radio
compass] does not give the required. reading. In consideration of this circumstance,
our navigators, during a period. when "night effect" is present, select for navigation
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46
N. P. Nepomnyashchiy
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
the earth's surface behind the conventional symbols on the flight chart.
The same thing can also be said. of preparation for flight .utilizing a panoramic
radar station. Before going out on the flight the navigator studies the route and.
the system of check points, and. evaluates the objects shown on the map from the
viewpoint of their use as radar check points. It must notbe forgotten, for example,
that highways and railroads may serve as excellent linear check points in visual
orientation, whereas the images, not only of these objects but even of much larger
.area checkpoints, cannot be seen on the IKO sCope., This means that they should
not be relied..on for night flying. The same thing can be said, of small rivers, the
majority of which cannot be seen on the scope. Of the many check points on the
map, the navigator should. know how to select the most important and. most reliable
ones, of which it can be said. with the greatest probability that they can be clearly
seen on the scope.
Certain limits should. be set for the use of the PSBN in drawing up the navigator's
flight plan. The possibilities of the sight must not be overestimated as regard.s
the range of check-point visibility and. the clarity of check-point reproduction on the
scope. For this purpose, the visibility boundaries of this or that check point may
be marked. out on the map by a circle, the radius of which corresponds to the pre-
sumed. range of perception of the check point.
In. order to confirm the possibility of utilizing the proposed. radar check points
in flight and. of discovering other check points not marked. on the map, a radar re-
connaissance is mad.e of the flight route.. The pictures of the PSBN scope obtained
in such a flight, mounted. on positive film with some interpretative inscriptions and.
legends, make it considerably easier for the navigator to recognize a terrain on the
scope and. are reliable material in. training the crew for a flight using the PSBN for
navigation.
The heading on the PSBN scope is established, on the basis of the determined drift
angles, the angle of approach, and the compass bearing. The course angle is de-
termined with the azimuth stabilization switched off. At such time either the auto-
matic pilot is on, or the pilot hold.s the course precisely for 1-2 minutes. For mark-
ing off the course angle, the mean sighting line is superimposed on the check point
image, and the value of the KU [angle of approach] to the check point is read. off the
scale.
The distance to the check points is determined, by the range marks or by means of
a calibrated band. (for a distance not exceeding 30 km). In using the range marks,
It is recommended that the distance on the PSBN scope be measured without any con-
tinuous delay in the scanning, and. the range scale should. be selected. so that the
check point to which the distance is being determined, is approximately in the middle
of the scope (half the radius of the TKO ['PPI tube face] ).
For accurate measurement of distance with the SRP [computer] the "10-60"
scale is set in and., after the appropriate knob is rotated., the range marker aligned.
with the check point, while the ND [ slant range] to the check point is read. on the
slant range scale of the SRP.
In determining the distance to check points, it must be remembered. that if it is
greater than three times the flight altitude, the ND is assumed to be equal to the
horizontal range. If the distance is less than three times the altitude, the slant
range must definitely be converted. to horizontal range, since the former will be
a
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Some S ecial Features of Air Navigation in Night Flying 47
considerably different from and. greater than the latter.
The position of the aircraft can. be found. by means of the PSBN by several meth-
ods: by a check point under the aircraft or in its vicinity; by two bearings of two,
check points; by two distances to two check points; by the distance and. bearing to
one check point. The latter method. has found. widespread application in practice
among Air Force units as the simplest and. most convenient method, requiring no
additional computations.
The drift angle is also computed. by several methods. However, the radar check
point by which the US is determined. should. meet the following requirement: that in
moving across the scope it does not change its configuration and. does not disappear
from the field. of vision of the sight. To this end., "reliable" check points are
selected,: a bridge, a characteristic bend. in a river, lake, or shoreline. If an in-
habited. place or some point in a hilly terrain is selected. as the check point, the
outline of such a check point may change drastically as the aircraft moves, or it
may disappear entirely, and it will be difficult to follow it across the scope.
Each. of the methods of determining the drift angle by means of the PSBN requires
a particular sequence in operating the sight, has its own positive features, and. its
own shortcomings. All this is known to the navigator per sormel. Only some speci-
fic conclusions mad,e by our navigators on the basis of numerous night flights are in
order. Let us assume that the drift angle is determined, by the movement of the
radar check point on the scope near the line of flight. If the check point is of small
size and produces a bright pip on the scope, the movement of 4ft. 1417
41-Irtnrfet on the 42,,f1110
can be followed by the afterglow it leaves behind, as it skips across the scope.
If on the scope there are no check points near the line of flight or the course line,
but there are such check points to the right or left of the aircraft, then the US is
determined, by taking two bearings of one check point.
Finally, the US can be found, by two measurements of the slant range to a check
point situated. near the course line. Our navigators frequently use the following
variant of this method. If the check point is observed, in front at a small KU %=:-. 5-6?,
then the navigator should. without any additional turn of the aircraft read. the KUi at
the moment the check point is. at ND =40-30 km. After the check point' gets to half
the distance, 20-15 km for example, the navigator reads the KU2 and. calculates the
US by the formula: US = 2KUi - KU.
And. how do things stand. with computation of the ground speed.?
It is known that to determine W it is necessary to know the time during which the
aircraft covers, some segment of the path from the check point. The navigator's
mode of operation is selected. accord.ing to the position of the radar check point re-
lative to the line of flight.
The ground. speed. can be calculated. by the time two identified. check points pass
under the aircraft. This method. is simple, but the check points identified. on the
scope d.o not always appear under the aircraft.
If the ground. speed is measured. by the time of passing one check point, identifi-
cation of the check point is not obligatory. Speed. is determined, by the time the Check
point passes through two range marks. To reduce error it is necessary to increase.
the flight base to 30-40 km, to know the US, to pick a check point along the line of
flight, and. to compute S by means of the marker of the timing signal and. not by the
range marks.
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N. P Nepomnyashchiy
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/10/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002400050009-7
Very convenient is the method. of determining ground. speed. when the radar check
point is located, to the sid.e of the line of flight. This makes it possible to find. the
W and. the US at the ?same time. The accuracy of this method. is high enough, and
in addition side radar check points are encountered much more frequently in flight
than are check points along the line of flight or along the aircraft's course line.
These are some of the special features of air navigation in night flying and. meth-
od.s of determining navigational elements.
??????....m..???????????????????????? ?
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy A'proved for Rel
milmomomomapi**1010mcwarassz
A DIFFICULT EXAMINATION
G.uard.s Maj. A N. Kiselev
This was a hard., but long-awaited, day for Capt. Pavel Petrovich Dlyakov,one for
which he had been preparing for a long time. More exactly it was a night, a flying
night.
He, as squadron.. commander, was in for a night flight under adverse weather con-
ditions in order to confirm his right to become a military pilot first class. He was
being checked. out by the piloting technique inspector who had. arrived at the unit.
Several months of strenuous work preced.ed. this flight. And although everything
indicated that it would. go well, still D'yakov was as nervous as he had. been some time
ago before his most crucial examination. He considered that in the final analysis
the forthcoming flight would. not only sum up the work of perfecting his personal fly-
ing skills, hut also resolve a fundamental question on which, it seemed. to him, d.e-
pend.ed. his further activity as squadron commander.
Even before his appointment to the unit D'yakov had. to perform for some time the
functions of political deputy to the squadron commander, and, later he was transferred
to the post of squadron commander. He coped. quite well with his work and received
a number of commendations from the command.
But when he reported to the same duty in a new unit the situation became rather
unique. Really, what is to be d.one if in the squadron of which you are appointed.
commander, your future deputy, the flight commanders, and. even the senior pilots
have a first class rating while you have only a second. class? And. even your ex-
perience. as squadron command.er is not very great. Are you morally entitled to
assume such a responsibility? Will you .be able to cope with it? Would it not be
better to perform ,first the duty of deputy rather, than that of coMmander, to adapt
yourself, to test your capabilities?
Not only D'yakov had doubts but, quite naturally, the unit commander too, since
he wanted to entrust the squadron to safe hands.
Finally the senior officer approved. Capt. D'yakov as squadron commander. That
is when D'yakov promised himself that he would d.o everything to justify this confi-
d.ence, to catch up with the best trained, pilots of the squadron, and to obtain in the,
shortest time the rank of military pilot first class.
What had. happened. since then?
From the very first days in the new outfit Capt.D'yakov had. much and serious
work to d.o. Besides his desire to raise himself to the level of pilot first class he
had, to get fully into shape in the shortest possible time after an interruption in fly-
ing. Indeed, the flight training of an Air Force unit commander is closely tied. up
with his activity as commander and. in the end. determines the success of all the work.
What was the actual situation in the squadron at first? The scheduled. dates for
checking out the piloting technique of the flying personnel were approaching. Usual-
ly this is d.one by the commander himself. But D'yakov was not entitled. to check
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0 A.N.Kiselev
out the pilots since after the interruption he had. not yet been allowed to d.o this type
of flying. This meant that the checking of the piloting technique had. to be assigned
to the deputy. Or there is the matter of analyzing the scheduled. exercise. The corn-
mand.er himself did. not carry out this task; he only watched the operations of his sub-
'ordinates from the starting line. Again the flight would. be analyzed, chiefly by his
deputy, Capt. N. I. Mityashin, and. by the best-trained, flight commanders ? most
often by S. Z. Bukchin.
Officers Mityashin and Bukchin were experienced pilots. They Und.er stood. well
the difficulties with which their commander was confronted. and, they tried, to encourage
him, to ,help him in any way they could. without at the same time stressing their super
iority in the individual elements of flight training. It was clear that such a situation
could not continue long. D'yakov realized, this well; besides, he was not used. to work-
ing in such a way.
That is why he himself wished. to fly as soon as possible, to master the flying pro-
gram, to stand. on the same level as the best pilots of the outfit. The unit command.-
er fully understood. his d.e sire but nevertheless he could. not allow the quality of flight
training to suffer in the slightest degree as the result of haste. His remarks follow-
ing each sortie for a check of piloting technique seemed. to stress that Capt. D'yakov
ought not to hurry.
The unit commander was exacting. The very first check-out flight into the zone
by day under normal weather conditions showed. that even the least omission in the
air did. not pass unnoticed.. The pilot carried, out the assignment. But the command.-
er merely mentioned. in passing the positive aspects of the flight, remarking that in
the zone D'yakov piloted, calmly and with confidence. He put the main stress on the
defects, drawing D' yakov's attention to the fact that the vertical figures were not
being made clearly enough ("cleanly" .as the commander put it) and. that, in subse-
quent solo flights, he would. have to polish up his piloting technique.
The officer went up again and again, carrying out the scheduled. exercises and
working, on the elimination of the defects which had. been pointed, out to him.
Spring came and went before the following entry appeared. in Ca.pt. D'yakov' s flight
,log after a scheduled check-out flight into the zone for advanced flying practice: "Pi-
loting energetic, competent, confident. Has mastered. methods of teaching. I per-
mit instruction flights by day under normal weather conditions."
It was only later that the officer understood and. really appreciated, the genuine
care which the unit commander was taking Of him. Knowing that there was some -
one in the squadron to rely on, the unit commander was in no hurry. He wanted.
D 'yakov to act with dead certainty after he got into the instructor's seat in the air-
craft, to act as a real mentor and skillful teacher of his subordinates.
Affairs in the outfit were taking their normal course. P. P. D'yakov was firmly
getting into the routine of his multiple duties. A commander's exactingnes s, the
experience of a political worker, the ability to approach people, to direct their ener-
gy toward, solving the most important tasks ? all this gave him real authority. But
the main thing was that he was persistently mastering the flight program.
D 'yakov stubbornly went on perfecting himself in group flying teamwork, in carry-
ing on air combat, in firing at air and. ground. targets, in flying at night and. under ad-
verse weather conditions. Soon he was allowed, to fly as an instructor by day under
minimum weather conditions for that airfield and. later on also by night.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
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v
A Difficult Examination 51
A large group of pilots arriving from military school reported. to the unit. The
command., deciding to whom it might entrust their training and education as well as ?
their integration into the unit, chose the outfit commanded by Capt. D'yakov. In this
choice by far not the least of the considerations were the personal qualities of the
officer and. the fact that this squadron was firmly established as one of the topnotch
outfits. The ranks of its best men were constantly being augmented by new Outstand-
ing Men in combat and. political training.
Despite the fact that some of the best-trained, pilots. had. been called to other units,
the remaining officers were fully prepared. for coping with the new task. Capt. Mi-
tyashin, the commander's deputy, rendered true assistance to his squadron ,command-
er . In the two flights commanded by officers S. Z. Bukchin and. N. V. Kuznetsov all.
the pilots, technicians and. mechanics were Outstanding Men.
Among the best officers of the outfit who by rights should be mentioned are N. P..
Limonov, N. L. Ustavich, A. S. Shurygin, G. I. Kurotopov, G. I. Plotnikov, V. A. Smol'-
yakov, A. A. Shavrin and. many others on whom the commander could. fully rely. Most
of the junior Air Force specialists have be-
come Outstanding Men in combat and. political
training, as, for example, senior aircraft
mechanics N. A. Aref lyev and. L. A. R eznik,
and private first class A. I. Mamadaliyev and.
M. M. Landa.
Owing to the selfless efforts of the fly-
ing personnel, the flight training plans are
always carried, out successfully. Intensive
training in the air goes off without any flying
accidents. The technical personnel ensures
reliable and. unfailing operation of equipment.
Military discipline is at a high level. Offi-
cers, sergeants, and privates work as a team
at raising the level of political knowledge.
The experienced hand of the commander is
felt everywhere; he acts as a skillful organ-
izer and, thoughtful tutor of his subordinates.
The confidence of the command, which
entrusted to thernthe integration into the unit
of young pilots, is a wo/rthy evaluation of the
work of the squadron personnel and its corn-
Capt. P P. D 'yakov before flight. mander. ,But at the same time it placed a
special responsibility upon the entire team.
Ha:Ving consulted. his d.eputy and. flight commanders and having evaluated the actual
possibilities, D'yakov decided to carry out the task as soon as possible. Even dur-
ing the first months of the young men's presence in the squadron much was done .in
this line.
Ground. training went off exceptionally well. The young officers learned all that
was included, in the program: the flying area, instructions concerning carrying out
the flights and. navigational duties. They concluded their technical training. At the
appointed, time all passed their examinations and.'soon they .started. flying., It is
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52 A. N. Kis elev
enough to say that the young pilots logged. 6 - 7 times more hours in a few months,
than in the course of the entire previous .year.
A typical feature of Capt. D' yakov' s work is his faith in youth. But his faith is
combined with the strictest exactingness and. unremitting control.
From the very first days of service the young officers felt that in the outfit
everything was subjected. to a definitely fixed. order and. no deviation from it would
go unnoticed.. Once flying was scheduled. for a Monday. In the squadron one rule
is punctually observed: on the eve of flying the flight personnel must always get a
?
normal rest. The commander strictly enforces this rule. So it was this time also.
At 1100 hours the commander dropped in on the young pilots in the barracks. Two
of them ? Lieutenants K.I.Shust' and. B. I. Sirota ? were still absent. And although
afterwards they asserted. that they were only a few minutes late, Capt. D'yakov d.id.
not alter his decision: both pilots were not permitted. to fly. Thus, from the very
first moments of their stay in the squadron young officers get used. to following a
fixed. order in everything.
Another case was also the source of serious conclusions drawn by all the young
pilots. Lt.N.I.Ippolitovmastered the flying program quite quickly. Despite the
fact that the young pilots in the squad.ron are assigned. approximately the same a-
mount of flying time, he was one of the first to take up the concluding flying exercises
in individual training.
This slight advantage over the rest of his comrades turned. Ippolitov's head. a little.
The legitimate wish to go on being in the forefront almost brought directly opposite
results. The lieutenant took off to the zone to carry out an ordinary flight maneuver
at an altitude of 9000 m. He tried to carry out the mission as well as possible and
got carried away.
The flight control officer warned, him over the radio tha.t,the time being up, it was
time to return to the airfield.. The pilot replied, that he had. understood. the command,.
But looking around he .suddenly could. not determine which way to go.
If he had admitted this immediately and reported it to the command post, all would,
have been corrected very easily. Yet pride prevailed, together with a false feeling
of shame before his comrades for his oversight. Ippolitov decided ,to conceal that
he was not 'sure where the airfield was located and. did. not know what course to take.
For this reason the situation immediately became complicated..
When,five minutes later, the flight controller inquired, about the position of the
plane, Ippolitov replied that he was approaching the second turn. Actually he was
flying' on a course away from the airfield. He had lost his bearings.
The unit commander, who was in the air at this time, helped. the pilot to alter his
course, to fly towards his airfield and. to land. But there was hardly any fuel left
in the tanks of Ippolitov' a plane. Flying had. to be stopped immediately and. this case
had. to be analyzed. with the flying personnel. A punishment was inflicted. on the cul-
prit.
As an exacting and. tactful commander, Capt.Diyakov was convinced. that Ippolitov
himself as well as all the officers, realized, to what end. insincerity and. lack of truth-
fulness may lead, and that from this they had. learned a lesson. Nevertheless, he
ordered that once more a thorough Check be made of how well Lt. Ippolitov knew the
Navigation Regulations, the flying area and the instructions on regaining one's bear-
ings. After this he personnally flew with the pilot on a check-out flight for practical
?
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?
?
A Difficult Examination 53
regaining of bearings. The pilot handled. the mission well and. the commander again
allowed him to undertake independent flights, thus showing him that he trusted the
pilot and. thought that he would not make a similar mistake again.
This is how the weekdays of intense creative work pass in officer D'yakov's out-
fit. And. after many difficulties had. been overcome, after merited. recognition and.
true authority had come and. after he virtually rose to the level of military pilot
first class in his personal training, Capt.D'yakov no less than before, and perhaps
more, wished. to have the formal right to bear this honorable title. That is why he
was so nervous on that flying night with-which this narrative started..
However, the test which seemed. so difficult to the pilot, went off without any com-
plications. D'yakov's training did. not arouse any doubts and. the piloting technique
inspector who checked. his flying skill was quite satisfied. with the flight. He' did. not
make any remarks and gave the evaluation: "excellent".
Only just a few days passed. and. the next night flight became a most serious ,test
of Capt. D'yakov's maturity and. skill.
This time flights were assigned. according to the group commander's plan. As
is usual under such conditions, he personally led the preflight briefing exercises.
The peculiarity of this briefing was that in the course of it the officers' preparedness
to carry out the forthcoming mission was not checked. in all its details, but it also
served, as a model assignment, as an example, which had. to be followed, by each of
the commanders participating in the flights. That is why the entire assignment was
discussed. in such detail. The headquarters had. prepared all the diagrams and. vis-
ual aids rtprpQaary for the use of the officers.
The group commander suggested. that Capt. D'yakov tell about the object of the
flight mission. Next they started. discussing the actions of the pilots in special
cases of flight. It might even seem that the commander was asking too much ab.out
how one ought to act, should. the engine stop in the air or should. a fire break out, or
how to substitute the readings of some instruments for those of others. After all,
these were experienced, pilots who had, gathered for the flying and not novices.
But it might seem so only to a detached onlooker. He who knows flying and he
who has to do with aviation equipment must be ready at any moment and In. any situa-
tion to rapidly find. the correct solution in the most unexpected. and. complex circum-
stances. That is why the pilots discussed. each problem so thoroughly, again and.
again repeating the rules in the flying regulations and instructions.
Night came. Flying started.. At first D 'yakov took off on a combat trainer with
a check pilot. Then came the. solo flight. The plane was in the air. The power-
ful engine worked rhythmically, lifting the machine rapidly. Suddenly a violent
shock shook the plane and. broke the usual climbing tempo. A glance at the instru-
ment ? altitude 4000 m. The cabin quickly filled, with smoke.
"What has happened.?" flashed. through his mind., but even before the thoughtwith
movements trained, to the point of automatism,the pilot was already trying to open
the cockpit canopy. At the moment that was the main thing. D'yakov reported on
whrt had happened. by radio and. took measures'.
The fuel valve has already been shut off ancl the engine stopped.. Again a glance
at the instruments and. the plane was pulled up to level flight. Mere seconds had
passed. and. 2000 m of altitud.e were already lost. The pilot made a decision:
"I will land on the airfield.:"
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002400050009-7
Declassified in Part-Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/31: CIA-RDP81-01043R002400050009-7
54 A. N. Kiselev
The flight controller replied by radio that all the measures had been taken to en-
sure landing. All the pilots present at the flight line realized, perfectly well what
it means to land. a fighter plane' with a stalled. engine at night. Orders had been given,
everything was ready.
D'yakov's plane approached. the airfield, but it was coming in on a course opposite
the flight line, Which meant that the floodlights were useless. It was also clear
that a repeat approach in order to correct the landing computation was also impossi-
ble. There was still one more means to facilitate landing at D'yakov's disposal ?
the landing light. At an altitude of 100-150 m he switched, it on, let down the flaps
and. landed.
People approached the plane, ,but the pilot had already extricated himself from the
safetybelt , got out of the cabin, walked. around. the plane and., convinced. that the
machine was intact, went to meet them.
He passed the difficult examination with flying colors.
The chief of staff was reading an order from the Air Force Commander in Chief
concerning him who, to the glory of his unit, whose battle standard was decorated.
with orders for the exploits of its members during the Great Patriotic War, had.
added one more courageous feat worthy of this glory in the days of peacetime train-
ing. This deed. was made possible because Capt. D'yakov, a Soviet pilot. and. com-
mander, combines the moral and combat qualities of a citizen of the USSR with unim-
peachable flying skill.
The brief, laconic sentences of the military order told of all this:
"Compliments and. a valuable gift are awarded. to Capt. D'yakov, P.P. , for self-
lessness and a high d.egree of flying skill d.emOnstrated in a complex situation, and.
for .saving a combat plane."
The day which had. begun so solemnly in the regiment closed, with a festive party
in the club, where the unit commander read. the Decree of the Presidium. of the Su-
preme Council of the USSR on the award. of orders and. medals and. handed. the .decora-
tions to the soldiers of the regiment. Capt.D'yakov was awarded. the Order of the
Red. Banner for irreprioachable service of many years standing.
Finally one more pleasant surprise was reserved, by the commander for his sub-
ordinates. At the festive meeting he read. a telegram and. congratulated Capt. D'ya.-
kov, two of his flight commanders, A.V.Kokhanov, M. I. Poluektov, and. other of-
ficers on their promotion to a first class -rating.
Now in Capt. D'yakovi s squadron, which is truly knitted. and. firmly welded. together,
the entire flying personnel bears the honorable rating of military pilot first class,
except for those who recently joined. it after flying school. A fighting squadron!
Great tasks confront it. The personnel, headed. by their commander, fights with
renewed strength for their successful solution.
????????11460.0?????????????????=???.??????????411111110
Declassified
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4,\
\
'AV
y
9/
A
EQUIPMENT AND INSTALLATIONS
AND THEIR
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
CLIMBING IN INTERCEPTION
Docent, Candidate of Technical Sciences,
Engineer Lt. Col. A. M. Tarasenkov
\ ? ? 9::
????
In flying interception, altitud.e must be gained, in such a manner as to remove the
line of interception as far as possible from the object d.efend.ed.. For this purpose,
a combat or augmented operation Of the engine is utilized.. In order to cut the time,
it is recommended that altitude be gained, at a speed. along a trajectory that corres-
ponds to the greatest possible rate of climb. This speed is determined as follows.
The vertical component of the flight speed. Vy should. be plotted on a graph as the
function of the. speed. along the trajectory V at a prescribed altitude.
For each altitud.e it is possible to establish an appropriate speed along the trajec-
tory corresponding to maximum rate of climb; it increases with altitude. However,
for convenience in remembering the parameters of the flight it is accepted. practice
to give a constant true speed. along the trajectory. Let us assume that it is 750 km/
hr. Because of the sloping course of V along V, climbing at a constant speed, along
the trajectory does not lead. to any significant reduction of the rate of climb as coin-
pared. to the maximum.
In the interception of high-altitud.e targets it is not always advantageous to gain
altitud.e at the highest rate of climb, i. e. , in a minimum of time. In a number of
cases, to move the line of interception away from the objective, for example, in a
plane of the MIG type, altitud.e is gained, at a speed, considerably greater than 750 km/
hr. What causes this and. how is the climbing speed. required in interception to-be
determined.?
in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/31 : CIA-RDP8i-ninaqpnnoAnnngrv-v-,r,
56
A. M. Tara senkov
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002400050009-7
The flight trajectory in interception generally includes a sloping and a horizontal
portion (Fig. 1). After the altitude has been reached at the highest rate of climb, it
may be necessary to fly horizontally for a longer or shorter period, to meet the tar-
get. If several planes take off. simultaneously for interception, that one will be
closest to the target that gained altitude at the highest speed and had the shortest ?
horizontal portion of. the trajectory. This is due to the fact that an increase in speed
along the trajectory increases the climbing time relatively little, but the aircraft
nevertheless travels a considerably longer path.
Figure 1 shows the relative. positions of
H two planes that climbed to an altitude of 10,000
m with rpm n = 11,560 the first at a speed of
.49 700 km/hr, the second at 1000 km/hr. By the
time the second plane has gained altitude, the
first has succeeded in traveling some distance
along the horizontal; nevertheless the second
plane was 30 km ahead of the first. The greater
the speed along the trajectory, the greater the
gain in the path traveled.
nfl With changes in climbing speed, the line of
i0 50
interception will also change. The method of
gaining altitude will have the greatest effect on
the position of the line in interception by pursuit.
In this case, a gain in the path AL km will lead to a shift in the line of interception
by a value:
Fig. 1. Climb trajectory.
LLijne L
= , km,
Ya
Art
where Va and Vt are the speed of the aircraft and the target, respectively.
When the ratio Va = 1, 1, a lag behind the target of, for example, 10 km will
vt
require an additional pursuit of 100 km.
Figure 2 shows the gain in the line of interception LLiine of a target flying at an
altitude of 10, 000 m when the climbing speed is 1000 km/hr instead of 700 km/hr.
The dotted line indicates the shift in the line when the speed ratio is Va = 1.2; the
Direction
of target flight
40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 AL1. KM
Pig. 2. Shift in the line of interception due
to an increase in average flying speed.
Vt
?
Clirnbin in Int erce tion 57
solid line when it is Va = 1.1. The points on the diagram allow us to determine
111411111????
Vt
the gain in the line obtained, in different interception courses. It follows from the
diagram that the nearer the interception course is to pursuit, the more important it
.is to gain altitude at a high speed.. For example, with Va =Li and with a takeoff
Vt
to meet the target, the shift in the line will be only. 15 km; with an interception course
perpendicular to the course of the target it will be about 60 km; and. with a takeoff for
pursuit it will be 300 km.
Is it necessary in all cases to increase the average climbing speed.? It is not.
This should be done only when the fighter manages to get to the altitude of the target
at a high speed. if the target is spotted late, then with a takeoff to meet the target
the fighter may slip by underneath it; the same thing can also happen in takeoff for
pursuit.
Vi ? ta
1.41*
11111111111110---?
Climb with turn
Va=750 km/hr
71
Takeoff to meet
Va 750 km/hr.'
Takeoff for pursuit
Ira 750 km/hr
Fig. 3. Zones of the position of the target relative
to the fighter's takeoff point.
Relative to the fighter's point of takeoff there are three zones of target position--
A,. B, and C, as shown in Figure 3. If the target at the moment of the fighter's take-
off is in zone A, i. e., left of point 1, then altitude must be gained at high speed to
meet the target. Point 1 shows the position of the target when, in climbing in mini-
mum time, the fighter which is flying to meet it reaches the required altitude at
point 2 at the beginning of his turn. For every position of the target at the time of
fighter takeoff left of point 1, the speed along the climb trajectory can be selected
so that the fighter will reach the given altitude at the point for beginning his turn. The
farther the target is from point 1, the greater must be the speed. of the fighter, and
the farther from the objective will be the interception.
If, at the moment of the fighter's takeoff, the target is in zone B between points
1 and 3 ? then altitude must be gained at the highest possible rate of climb along a
curvilinear trajectory (in plane view). At the beginning of the climb, the flight is
mad.e to meet the target. At the end. of the climb the pilot must guide the aircraft
to the attack line, I. e., turn it at an angle of /80?.
Finally, if at the moment the fighter takes off, the target is in zone C ? to the
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release g 50-Yr 2013/10/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002400050009-7
Declassified in Part- Sanitized Copy Approved for Release ? 50-Yr 2013/10/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002400050009-7
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58
A M Tarasenkov
right of point 4 then altitude must be gained at a speed. increasing proportionately
with the distance to the target. Let U.S determine the speed. of climb, as su.ming that
in flying to the target the fighter has a minimum horizontal section of the trajectory.
We will thereby also find, the flight regime that will put the line of interception as
far as possible from the objective. Let us assume that from the time it is spotted.
the target moves in a. straight line and. uniformly. In the process of the ground, con-
troller's preliminary calculations on the plotting board, it is necessary to determine
the course and speed for interception.
Let us take a case where the target is flying toward. the takeoff airfield.. We
determine the fighter's course independently of its speed. We will then find a speed
such that the fighter has a minimum horizontal section of the trajectory, and. at the
same time, such that the given altitud,e is reached. at the point of beginning his turn
or at firing distance. To avoid, slipping past the target underneath, it can be re-
commended that the target's flight altitude be assumed in the calculations as 0. 3-0. 5
km higher than it is.
Let us suppose that the target is spotted in good. time and. it is required. that the
line of its interception be kept at a distance. Then. the speed. for interception can
be found by superimposing two graphs drawn on tracing paper (Fig. 4) on the plotting
board. in a definite way. Figures 4a and 4b show the paths followed, in gaining dif-
ferent altitudes, beginning with 5 km, at different speed,s with combat (Fig. 4a) and
augmented (Fig. 4b) operation of the engine. Each ray drawn from point T corres-
ponds to a specific flight altitude. The dotted lines depict the segments of the track
traveled at any given speed. along the trajectory. The solid, curves correspond. to
uniform time intervals from the moment of takeoff. Figure 4c shows the path trav-
eled by the target as a function of the speed. and. time of flight. Each rectilinear
ray correspond.s to a definite flight speed. The curves plotted, on the graph are
shown by equal time markings.
It is desirable to construct the graphs on tracing paper to the scale of the map.
Then graph I (Fig. 4a or 4b) is placed on the plotting board so that point T coincides
with the ITN [ initial vectoring point] (the takeoff airfield.). The ray, marked. by
the altitude equal to the altitude at which the target is flying, is pointed, along the
course of the target. Graph II (Fig. 4c) is superimposed on the plotting board. in
such a way that the ray marking the speed equal to the speed, of the target is pointed
along the target's course. The designation of the target cn the map should. coincide
with the time mark on the graph corresponding to the sum of the turning time and
the passive time: tt + tpass, as shown in Figure 5.
It is now easy to find, the computed point of beginning the turn and the speed. re-
quired to attain altitude. For this, we find, on the target flight line the point at
which the lines of equal time intervals on both graphs converge. In our case, the
lines of the 7-minute intervals converged. This will be the projection of the point
of beginning the turn on the target path line. By interpolation between the dotted,
lines we determine the flight speed. corresponding to the point found.. In the exam-
ple given in Figure 5 it is 910 km/hr. It may happen that the lines of equal time
intervals do not converge at all; then two lines with the closest time intervals
should be found, and the desired. point should. be taken in the center of the distance
between them.
If the target is spotted far from the airfield. or has a low flying speed, then even
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approvedf Rel
?
?
?
59
A
H
= 11560 rpm
0 6 7015 X15 X 8540 45 110/CM
1.,1 I t
0 5 10 15 10 25 X 35 40 45 SOlut
iiimlaibhigAimaiwahmikagumwakmd
12
Fig. 4. Auxiliary charts for making preliminary ground-control computations.
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/1
60
A. M. Tarasenkov
Declassified in Part- Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @50-Yr 2013/10/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002400050009-7
Takeoff
airfield
T(ITN)
H
3 ,54 ft,i'm
CZ)
t
\ tett
43/4 CA
C)
Fig. 5. Diagram for determining speed in climbing.
the lines of the greatest time intervals may not converge (the graphs will"diverge").
This will mean that it is necessary to gain.,4titude at the highest speed, 1000 km/hr
for example, and then fly horizontally to meet the target. If the target is spotted
late, it may be found that even the lines with the smallest time intervals will not con-
verge (graphs I and. II "overlap" each other). This means that the target is in. zone
B (Fig. 3) and altitude must be gained, at the highest rate of climb with simultaneous
turn.
However, sharp turns are not advantageous in this case, since they increase
greatly the drag of the aircraft, thus slowing the climb. The turn should be made
as gently as possible; then the required altitud.e will be attained, more quickly. Sharp
turns are, however, disadvantageous. We shall prove this by an example. Suppose
the aircraft is climbing to an altitude of AH. 2000 m by two methods: (a) a climb to
= 1000 m, a sharp turn of 1800, and a further climb to All= 2000 in; (b) a climb
to A H 2000 m with a simultaneous sloping turn of 180?. The time of the maneuver
will be 40 seconds less in the second case
than in the first.
If, the target is spotted late and inter-
ception is possible only by pursuit --- which
is entirely possible under combat condi-
tions -- the procedure for using the graphs
is just the same. But graph I must be
turned, so that the ray corresponding to the
target flight altitude is directed., not to meet
Course
for interception /
vat pas t t
the target, but to catch up with it. Obvious-
ly, no turn Will then be made and when graph
1.1 is superimposed. on the plotting board on.-
ly the passive time should. be considered.
in the computation.
vt We have discussed the case of ,a tar-
Fig. 6. Diagram for determining get flying toward the fighter's takeoff air-
course and, speed in interception. field. (ITN) or close to it. In this case it
can be assumed that the fighter will first
fly directly to meet or to pursue the target. If the presumed path of the target d.e-
,
-
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release
?
Climbin. in Interce tion 61
viates considerably from the takeoff airfield, then the problem is more complicated
and it is necessary to determine the required course of the fighter in. gaining altitude
as well as its speed. The speed and the course of the fighter will then be interre-
lated. and can be determined only jointly. We shall show the method of solving this
more general and more complex problem.
It is expedient that the fighter's course and. speed. be selected so that the horizon-
tal section of the trajectory is at a minimum. It may be required, for example,
that the fighter reach the given altitude at the point of beginrirg his turn, 1. e., eli-
minate any straight horizontal section. We determine the speed and. course for
interception by the following method,.
We lay out on the map the presumed flight heading of the target. From point B'
where the target is spotted, we lay off a segment B'B equal to the path of the target
(Fig. 6). B'B = Vt(tpass+tt), Relative to point B we draw the trajectory of the turn
required to get to the target with a given angle-off and draw a tangent to it from the
initial point of vectoring T (the takeoff airfield). Line TK will show the relative
trajectory of the fighter's closing in on the target from the moment of takeoff to the
point of beginning the turn K. With sufficient accuracy for practical purposes, line
TB can be drawn instead of TK and considered as the relative trajectory of closure.
Thus, we arbitrarily make the point of the beginning of the turn coincide with the
position of the target.
We find the true course for interception and.
the required speed of the fighter by solving the
interception triangle. From point T parallel
to the line of the target path we lay off on a cer-
tain scale the vector of target speed. Vt. From
the end of this vector we draw a line parallel to
TB, i, e., one showing the direction of the re-
lative speed. of closure.
We take a series of fighter speeds Val, Va2s
and Va3 and lay them off from point T on the
scale adopted in such a way that the end.s touch
Course
the line of relative speeds of closure as shown
for
in Figure 6. interception
We obtain interception triangles correspond-
ing to the fighter speeds selected. A specific
course will correspond. to each speed Va. Now
it is necessary to find the speed and course that
will satisfy the condition imposed? to reach
the target altitude at the point of beginning the
turn.
On the extensions of fighter speed vectors Fig. 7. Use of a parallelogram for
V
ap Va2s Va3 we lay off in scale the distances determining course and speed for
traveled by the fighter in climbing to the given interception.
altitude at different speeds. These distances
can be obtained. directly from the graphs in. Figures 4a or 4b. The portions TE1,
TEE, and TE3 show the path traveled, by the fighter in climbing to the given altitude
at speed.s Val, 1a2, and Va3. Connecting these points we obtain line EiE2E3,which
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62 A. M. Tara senkov
shows the position of the fighter in climbing to the target altitude at different speeds
and on different courses. The point E where this line intersects the line of target
flight shows the actual course for interception heading TE. . At the point where
TE intersects the line of heading relative to the speed of closure we find, the end. of
the vector of the speed. required. in the climb.
This method can be simplified considerably by using the simple device shown in
Figure 7: In form' it is a hinged parallelogram ABCD, whose apex A can be fixed
at a given position on the vectoring plotting board. Side AD is extended.; links AB
and DC serve as guides for moving the rod. mm, which always holds a position paral-
lel to line AD. A scale of target speeds should. be marked. off on side DC. or AB so
that rod. mm moves 'away from side AD for a distance corresponding to the target
speed in the scale we have arbitrarily adopted. Fixed at the apex A is a hinged.
scale nn marked. off in. fighter speed.s according to the scale adopted. Such a device
makes. it possible to determine the relationship between the fighter speed and. the
true course for interception, i. e., to. solve the interception triangle.
This device can be used as follows. The parallelogram is laid. on the vectoring
plot so that apex A coincides with point T (ITN). Side AD is pointed along line TB'
(or TK if a turn trajectory has been constructed.); sid.e AB is pointed along the target
flight speed; and rod mm is set by means of the scale in a position corresponding to
the taiget speed. Then we assign to scale nn a number of positions, each of which
is related to a certain fighter speed. We read. the speed on the scale of fighter
speeds at the intersection of rods. mm and. nn. Having the target's flight altitude,
we find, the distance TE and mark it off in the appropriate direction. Thus we ob-
tain a number of points El, Ez, E3..., and. at the intersection of the line connecting
them with the line of target flight we find the required point E. Segment TE shows
the true course for interception, while scale nn set on this course makes it possible
to find the ,speed. of the fighter in gaining altitude. It is convenient to make all parts
of the parallelogram out of some transparent material ? celluloid, for example.
The temperature of the ambient air affects the rate of climb of jet aircraft. If,
for example, the temperature is increased by 10? over the standard surface tem-
perature of 15? C, the maximum vertical speed will be reduced. by approximately
10%. A, proportionate reduction in temperature increases the rate of climb.
A substantial deviation from the standard temperature must be taken into account
in the recommended preliminary ground-controller's calculations for interception.
If it deviates uniformly from the standard at all altitudes, then in interception at
altitudes around. 10, 000.m the following correction must be made in. the calculations
in the target flight altitude as determined by radar. For every 10?rise in tempera-
ture over the standard., the 'calculated target flight altitud.e must be increased, by
1000 m, otherwise the fighter will not have attained the required. altitude when he
closes in on the target. For every 10? drop in the temperature of the ambient air
below the standard, the calculated target flight altitude must be reduced. by 1000 m.
Otherwise, the fighter will have to fly horizontally along the do sur e trajectory' for
quite some time, and this is disadvantageous.
The above operations in determining the speed and course of the fighter in inter-
ception must b.e performed in the time interval between the moment the d.ata on. the
target (position, altitude, course, apeed)are received and. the time the fighter take.s
off, i. e., in the passive time. To do this in such a short time is quite difficult.
Climb in in Inter ce tion 63
Therefore, computations for the most probable speeds and altitudes of target flight
should. be prepared. in advance and. prepared. graphs such as the one shown in Figure
8 should. be used. directly in the vectoring.
The spotting line.is shown by an arc of a given. radius. The graph should. be lo-
cated. on the vectoring plot so that the pointer indicating the direction of target flight
coincides with its actual course. Then for several points on the spotting line marked.
off by the method.s outlined, above (see Figs. 5 and. 6) we find point E ? the arrival
at the target flight altitude and the beginning of the turn? and. also the climbing' speed.
The direction of TE will show the true course for interception, while the vector Va
will show the speed of the fighter to scal
as follows. It is placed on the vector-
ing plot in such a way that point T coin-
cides with the ITN and. the pointer for
the target flight heading coincides with
the target course. The position of the
target is located, on the spotting line and
a line is drawn for its anticipated course
to the. intersection with the line of arriv-
al at the target flight altitude. ,Here the
point E for the beginning of the turn. is
found.. The direction TE will show the
course the fighter must take for inter-
ception, and. the required. speed in gain-
ing altitud.e is determined, on. the polar
diagram of speeds.
In constructing Figure 8, the follow-
ing were used. as initial data: target flight
altitude ? 8 km; true target speed. ?
600 kmihr; range at which target is de-
tected by ground. radar ? 170 km; sum of the passive and turning time 4 minutes.
As can be seen from the drawing, a change in the target direction of from 0 to 45?
changes the required. fighter course by 90?, and. the speed. required to attain the alti-
tude will change correspondingly from 800 to 1000 km/hr. It is quite understand-
able that for attacking a slow-moving target at a high climbing speed. the fighter will
have to be braked. energetically on the turn and. while closing in.
Thus, it becomes evident how important is the proper selection of the fighter
flight regime in climbing for moving the line of interception. away from the objective-.
Use of the methods discussed. makes it possible to find. the required. climb regime by
means of preliminary ground. controller calculations on the vectoring plot. The neces-
sary command. for the course and. speed. of the fighter should be transmitted to the
pilot before takeoff or immediately thereafter. Further vectoring must be effected
with the aid of the IKO [PPI].
We have not attempted. in this article to give instructions in interception but have
merely tried to show how, important it is to choose correctly the climbing regime in
interception. These recommendations can be used for solving the problem of inter-
cepting aerial targets.
e. The graph depicted in Figure 8 is used
Direction of
target flight__
Line of
arrival at
410
44
target altitude
af?
= ED 900 950 1000 Konfiir
Fig. 8. Graph fored.etermining course
and. speed for interception.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002400050009-7
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release @ 50-Yr 2013/10/31 : CIA-RDP81-01043R002400050009-7
NEW AIR LINERS
On the 40th anniversary of Great October, the
Soviet people will receive one more notable gift
the new "Rossiya" aircraft designed by A. N. Tupolev.
This is an aerial giant that can carry 170-180 passen-
gers. With a speed of 900 km/hr, it will traverse
enormous expanses without landing.
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