TADZHIK SSR

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP81-01043R002300220002-6
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 173
• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: September 11, 2013
• Sequence Number: 2
• Publication Date: June 24, 1958
• Content Type: REPORT

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STAT
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Tadshikslcaya SSR
p9radshik SS;Iff
55, Moscow
Pages 1-228
TADISIX SSR
TAUS 07 COMMITS
Introduction
1. Natural Conditions and ROSWAreWil
Belief
Mineral*
Climate
Rivers and Lakes
4
Soil
I. I. Narsikulow and
84. N. PiesaateeY
Vegetation.
The An11 World
2. From the Ristory of the Tadzhik People
3. Population end. Cu.'tare
4. Baonosty
Aviculture
InAlu.stry
Transportatioa
5. The Regions of Tadzhikistan.
The Western Part of the !orgasm Valley
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The Zeravehan Valley
The Glaser Valley
Southwestern Taashiki et=
Southeastern Tadshikistan
Central Todshilti et=
Western. Pamir
P.sstern Ponir
6. Bibliography
109
114
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13?
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1
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TADZHIK SSR
Intrpfluctiu
The Tadzhik Soviet Socialist Republic is situated in the southeast
of Soviet Central Aldan It covers an area of 142,600 sq km and has a
population of 1.8 million, predominantly Tadzhik.
Tadzhikistan is one of the highest-altitude revablics of the Soviet
Union. Included withia its borders is the vast Pamir highland averaging
about 4,000 .m above sea level. Zxteading from Zest to West across the
1 entire territory of the republic are powerful mountain ranges, the Tien
Shan and Pamiro-Alal mouatain spurs. Parts of the deserts and semi-
deserts of the great Turanian, Plain are wedged into the republic's
1
territory on the West where they gradually rise to the foothills. It
1
is in that area, along the broad and well irrigated mountain valleys
that the major part of the repablic's population is concentrated.
Prior to the Great October Socialist Revolution, the territory of
modern Tadzhikistan had been divided into a northern and southern part
by a state border running along the Gissar mountain range. Northern
Tadzhikistan was part of the Turkestan governors-generalship and beleaged
to Russia. It had several coal aad oil extracting industrial enterprises,
and cotton, fruit* and vine growing was developing on a rather small
scale. The southern part was subordinated to the vassal of the Russian
empire, the Bokharan khanate, and was in effect its colony. There was
practically no cotton grown there, and agriculture was restricted mostly
to grain growing. About 80 of the arable lend belonged to the emir him,
self, his officials and large landewners while the &Wakens worked those
lands -under conditions of seeiserfden. There were no modern roads and
no large industry. There were no secular schools. The entire population
was practically illiterate (one literate person for every 200 people).
Sines the establishment of the Soviet government, Tadzhikistan has
traveled far along the road of large-scale economic and cultural coa-
1 structiou.
modern road. network was built in the republic. Arailroad was
built extending into the Gilmer valley in the southern part of the coun-
try. Hundreds of kilometers of automobile highways were laid across
previously inaccessible highland districts.
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A socialist mechanised agricultural system has been established.
Tadzhikistan, a cotton-growing country, has long bold first place in the
Soviet Union in cotton crop capacity and second place in overall catkme
production. The smahmax part of Tadihikistaa, situated in the dry sub..
tropical belt, produces such highly valuable subtropical and tropical
cultures as long-fiber cotton geraniun, lemons, and many others. The
Vakhsh practically rehabilitated from scratchamder the Soviet
Government, is the largest center of long-fiber typos of cotton In the
country. There is extensive vine and fruit growing, particularly apri-
cots, on irrigated fields. Walmats, almonds, and peanuts are grown at
varioms levels on mountain. slopes. Large areas of the mometain slopes
requiring= irrigation are planted to grain, bean and oloogenaas cul-
tures, wheat, barley, *curly" flax flen-kairyashg, sesame, and. others.
Rverywhere in Tadzhikistan the collective and state farms take good
advantage of the highland summer pastures and valley winter pastures for
their pasture cattle. Revs they raise one of the largest breeds of
mutton-tallow eheep in the world, the Gilmer sheep. Karakul sheep breed-
ing Is well developed in the oemidesert districts. Silkworm breeding
is an important part of agriculture.
The country's subsoil is rich in a variety of minerals. Amenable
on a commercial scale are coal, oil, polymetals, wolfram, arsenic, anti-
mony, bismuth, tin, celestine, fluorspar, ozocerite (mineral wax), table
salt, and a variety of banding materials. Up to 60 different minerals,
found in over 300 deposits are successfully mined and used on a large
scale.
The power potential of the ceuntry4s mountain rivers, which account
for more than half of such water resources in Central Asia, is very greet.
The agricultural and mining raw materials represent a reliable raw-
material base for Tadshaistan's loading industries. The following in-
dustries were built: cotton-processing? oil-producing, fruit canning,
wine making, flour milling, meat, silk, textile tanning, etc. The
republic's heavy industry is rising to a osaspieuons level. This is
manifested primarily in the production of coal, oil, polymetals, and
rare metals as well as in the production of building materials. Large
mechanical-engiumpring plants are under construction.
The party and the governeent have outlined vast possibilities for
the further expansion of the national economy of the Tadzhik SSR in the
Sixth Five-Tear Plan.
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Growing with the expanding economy is the culture and. material well-
being of the population. One-third of the republics a state budget is
spent anonally for national education. The schools are attended by all
children of school ago. More than 30 colleges and special middle
schools were opened. Six colleges were opened. in Stalin:11mi. The
republic has an Academy of Sciences. The Sixth Five-Tear Plan has
appropriated for the construction of sChools, hospitals, theatres,
houses of culture, libraries, and. stadiums in the Sixth Five-Tear Plan.
A television station and planetarium will be built.
1. IfATURAL CONDITIONS AID MISOURGES
The Tadzhik SSR to situated in the southeastern part of Soviet
Central Asia between latitudes 36?401 and 410051 N.
The republic is on the same latitude as southern Spain, Turkey,
and the northern half of the island of Honshu (Japan).
Tadzhikistan borders on 2 foreign countries, the Chinese Peoples s
Republic in the east and. Afghanistan in the South. The narrow strip of
the HAfg)3an Corridor .R which is 15 to 66 km wide., separates the Soviet
Panir from India and Pakistan.
The territory of the republic, extendiag 680 km from tfest to Vast,
narrows down toward the middle part to 100 km and. has an elongated ledge
in the nartbatest. Tadskikittans s borderliaes are my sinuous. They
were established over a period. of years. The eastern border with China
was fixed, along the Sarykols skiy mountain range in 1894. The southern
border, running along the ?emir, Pyandsh, and Amu-Darya rivers, was
established. in 1895. The western and northern borders., separating
Ta.dzhikistan from trzbedistan and Kirgizia, were fixed in 1925 so that
the areas inhabited nrimaril3r by Tadzhiks were included in the then
autonomous Tadzhik republic. The extreme northwestern ledge (the former
Khodsheaskiy okrug and now part of Leninabad Oblast), with a predominant
Tadshik population, was added. to the Tadshik SSR vadch was formed in
1929.
Tadzhikistan is situated at the junction of the central Asiatic
deserts and the vast central Asiatic uplands. The gradual topographic
chance from the former to the latter tlattaiertilvek* 4 tgi MAAir wartieeoe
natural condition*.
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211421.
Tadzhikistan is mainly a mountain country. Sixty-two at its
territory (according to the explication of the land la 1952) consists of
mountain ranges, cliffs, rocky places, glaciers, etc, which cannot be
utilized, for economic rposes. The irrigated valleys. In which almost
the entire population of the republic is concentrated e aecovat for only
TA of the entire territory.
Mountain ranges aro the prevailing forms of relief. They belong to
2 grandiose mountain !systems, Tien Shan in the north and Pamir in the
south, and practically cover the entire territory of the republic. Most
of then extend from West to Bast. Their height is reduced at the ap-
proeches to the western borders where they spread out fanwise maser&
with the surrounding plains beyond the borders of the republic.
Between the separating ranges of western Tadihikistan are broad
habitable and economically useful valleys, some of Which are 300 m
above sea level. Is easterly direction the mountains become higher and
closer, some of than forming majestic mountain-peak concentrations
foamy* u114,5. Some of the mountain ranges reach an average height of
,000-6,000w,whi3e certain peaks rise 1,500-2,000 m Above that. The high-
est point in the Soviet Uldell is the Stalin Peak of the Academy of
Scian-
cc. Mountain Range; it is 7,495 a above ems level.
The enormous range of heights and the highly diversified relief of
the country account for the umaseally variegated landscape. Most con-
spicuous are the differences between the following 3 group: of areas:
intermountain depressions, uneven elevations, sad the flat upland of
Last Pamir.
Anong the vast low-depression areas in the republic aro; the western
part of the ?orgasm Valley between the Itraminskiy and TarkestsnrktY
ranges in the North, amd the so-called South-ladshik Depression, forming
a triangle between the Gissarikiy mad Ilarvasskiy TINUPs ia the Southwest.
The latter is made up of a number of valleys Gissar, Takhih, Their-
nigenikeya, Xywylsoyskara, etc -- which are separated. by low mountain
chains and. hills.
The landscapes of the lergaaa valley and the valleys of the South
Tadzhik Depression have madh in common. Their altitude is relatively
low (300-800 s), their surface is flat, and their areas large. They
are irrigated by large rivers. ?roe an econonical point of view they
are the most important valleys in the republic. They are densely popu-
latedandvell cultivated. The dominant features there are *culture
landscapes! or eases.
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Me bottoms of the valleys usually slant steeply upwards, turning
into foothill pleiu.s. Tho latter differ in width, height, elope, and.
diversity of relief, their only comon fast-aro being that they are zones
extending into notustain areas.
Some of the foothill plains are very large; the plain on the northern
slope of the Turkestan. Range, for example, extends 50-60 las from the edge
of the valley to the foot of the range, then rioes vertically from 400 to
1,900 m? These plains are usually intersected by small. rivers, which
fors mall valleys, and temporary streests that form ravines. Low moun-
tain chains rise in some places, and their slopes are covered with forests
(of which there are few in Tadshikistes), The inhabited points are scat-
tered in the form of oases along the mall river volleys. Most of the
dry watereheds are covered with pastureland; where there is more moisture
the land is used. for plaughi23g.
The foothill pleans gradually rise to becone mountainous areas
which cover the northern, central, and southeastern parts of Tadzhikistan,
Rising to various heights, they are characterized by a very broken relief.
To the north of the Fergana Valley there is a smell tsaustalzumrea con-
sisting of 2 low mountain remiss, the Xuraninskiy Range and the Mogolten.
Range; the average altitude of the former is no more than 2,000 et, and
the latter no more than 1,000 a above sea level. These are the most
ancient and the most eroded. mountain ranges in Tadzhikistan, an.d. they
are very rich in mineral resources.
Located. between the Fergana Valley and the South-Tadzhik Depression
is the central TadiIdk mountain area. Converging in the Match mountain
concentration are the Turkestan and. Zeravithen rases extending from the
West and. the Alay Range frost the Nast (most of the latter 'belongs to
Xirgizia), Batending from the Zeravehen Range in a southerly direction
are the Oisaar aM Krategisskiy ranges. Their height declines from 5,000
m and. over, in the Match mountain-conematration area, to 3,000 m and
below at the western borders of the repo:Clio. The largest glacier in the
area, the Zerairshan Glacier, taeasaring 25 km in length, is located. in
the Match area between the Turks stem. and. Zermates ranges.
Rising to the South of Central Tadzhikistan and liorth of the South-
Tadzhik Depression is the Pamiro-Dervasskaya la-plena. area, which is covered
with the following bugs interconneeted Pettr Pervyy, Darvazakiy? Vanchskiy,
and Tazgaesteitiy nag's. Abutting against the mountain v.04, of the
Academy of Sciences Range at the eastern end., these mountains fotsa one
of the most grandiose mountain massifs in Central Asia. The average
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height of the Academy of Science,: range is 6,000 is, with some of its
peaks rising to 7,000 a and. more. (Stalin Peak is 7,495 m high, Tevgezily
Xorshenevskly Peak 7,105 so, Molotov Peak 6,852 m, and Gar= Peak 6,535 m).
The glsciation process on this mountain massif is among the most inten-
sive in the world.. The Veda/wink* Glacier, one of the largest v17-
type glaciers in the world is located there (it is 71 kat long and. covers
an area of 907 sq ka). Tarther Yorth, eeparated fros it by the deep
Muksu River Velley, is the 2aalayskly Range with Lenin Peak (7,134 in);
separated by the Bartow River Valley in the South are the parallel
ranges of Western Thai?: Rushanskiy, Shagaenskiy, Shakhdarinski.y. and.
Vakhaaskiy.
The landscapes of the moimtain areas, though changing in different
localities, are on the whole quite different fron those of the low valleys
and foothills. The high rouges alternate with narrow and deep inter-
mountain valleys which, as a rale, become open and wider toward the west.
Tur'buleat rivers, hug* taluses? and precipitous cliffs, *ich make these
valleys uninhabitable for stusy kilometers, and terraces with their nar-
row alluvial fans irrigated by slope streaus combine to form the general
picture of the major and secondary valleys of the meauktain areas.
The wall Inhabited points of the skouetain valleys are located
mostly on the terraces and alluvial fans iihere seall-scale irrigated,
planting and fruit gardiceing are possible. The lower slopes of the val-
leys, well moistened by precipitation, are used for irrigationless plant-
ing, and. the upper parts are, as a rule, used as summer pastures.
In point of surface structure, the east Pamir upland represents a
special type of mountain area. Rilly conditions prevail up there,
despite the high altitude, which is at least 3,600 a above sea level.
Inordinately bread va3.1sy*, intersected.* slew-flowing striates, flat
basin* with saucer-shaped lakes and relatively low ranges with rounded
peaks and flat Asp*, severed with crushed rock are the most conspicuous
forms of that *old, high-altittute desert. The territory of eastern
Pamir is sparsely populated aud is used. imstly for griming ptasposes.
The appearance of the soder* relief of sTadshikistan, the composition
and. distribution of its niaerals, and its seismic 4:auditions are determined
by the geological past of the country. The *ajar features of its various
sections had, been formed. at different geo3-egAcal periods, free the Cale-
donian. (Lower Paleoseis) to the Alpine period of mountatin-formation. The
earlier the souatain ranges were formed, the more complicated, was their
lifs:. they were deskaioyed, covered by the sea, and rose spin in that
next moulatain-forming period.
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The contemporary mountain relief of Tadzhikistan was created by the
Alpine mountain-forsting movemer,ts, but that formation process WI ? different
diff-srent places. The etattitst manifestations of plication processes
occ-irred in the northern part of the republic, in the Kuranin.skiy and
liogoltau mountain ranges. In the Upper Paleozoic era, these movements
covered central. Tadzhikistan. The tectonic movements varied acoerding
to the physical condition of the various parts of the earth= s crust.
The sections eomposed of hard, rock were broken up into fault-blocks which
were shifting at various speeds in a vertical direction; the areas con
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stating of softer minerals were crumpled into folds. Finally, entire
areas with a flattened. topography slowly and graduallY rose to a higher
surface. That probably accounts for the plateau-like shape of the central
part of the Itast Pamir Upland.
With few exceptions, the country' s mountain areas are rade up of
paleozoic minerals of various ages, measuring many thousands of meters
in thickness. For a long period, of time, these minerals continued to
rise and, disintegrate and their debris were carried by the rivers to
lover altitudes where they formed huge strata. In the late ].pine
Period, the mineral deposits accumlated in the depressions were armpit&
into folds and raised to an enormous height (Peter Perryy Range, the
northern slope of the Zaelnyskly Range, and. the southwestern part of
Darvasskly Range), or they formed. the comparatively low mountain chain:),
with which the South-Tadzhik Depression and. the Fergana Valley are studded.
Recurrent volcanic activities, resulting in the formation of crys-
talline rock nassifs and effusive rock covers, took place during the
Paleozoic Period in what is now Tadzhikistan. Connected with the vol-
canic rock is the formation of most of the mineral deposits which are
found in the Paleozoic rooks. Ore deposits are very seldon found in
the residues of the nesszoic and. tertiary periods which contain spotty
nonmetallic and fuel minerals.
Seismically unstable zones, noted. for their frequent earthquakes,
are found between the ancient and more recent mountain systems, particu-
larly within South Tadithi]dstan and Pamir. Ome of the most active earth-
quake zones extends from Nast to West on the Earatag,l'armabad--Obi-Os.rm?
Tadzhikabad. line along the contact line between the Paleozoic structures
of central Tadzhikistan and the Kesocenozoic deposits of the South-
Tadzhik Depression. Found in those zones are outlets of the deep hot-
water, and frequently radioe.ctive, springs of Xhodzhi-Ohigare, Members
(near Stalinabad), Obi-Care and a number of springs in the Pamir. These
facts testify to the youthful age of the relief and. the continuing mounr-
tain-building processes.
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Befoya the revolution, the mineral deposits in what is nov Tadshildstan
had not been thoroughly studied. There were several types of minerals,
but systematic exploitation was restricted to coal and oil masa*. Up to
50 different kinds of minerals have bee* discovered. under the Soviet
regime, and 20 of them are being extracted.; the mineral reserves of 300
different deposit places have already been estimated.
The minerals found in the republic consists of poly:riot:as, rare
metals, and. nonmetallic minerals. The sine and, lead. reserves in Tadshi-
Iciztan coopers favorably with many of the largest loch deposits in the
Soviet Union. The list of rare metals found. in the republic includes
strontium, antimony, wolfram, arsenic, bismuth, tin, mercury, miolyb-
deans, cadmium, etc. The nometallic mineral; comprise a similar
variety: fluorspar, asbestos, mica, mounta3.n crystal, optical fluorite,
talc, barite. lapis lazuli, and. igany others.
Almost all the known mineral ores are concentrated. in 3 mountain
areas: in the north of the republic. in Central Tadshidistan, and. in
the mountain ranges of the Pa:mir-Darvasskiy Mountain System:.
Conspicuous from the viewpoint of the variety and. quantity ef mineral
ores is the northern mining area (Kuraminsidy and. Nog?item rang). Here
the most important minerals are poly:seta's (zinc and. lead) as well as
rare metals (bismuth, arsenic, and wolfram:). Many of the ZurEetinspw .
range deposits are complex in nature; their ore contains not mi. bat
several different metals (for example, load, zinc, silver, and cadmium)
requirisg complicated technologicai methods for their extraction. Me
Kuraminsky Mountain Range, just like the Central Ural, is not high, and.
its deposits are found. below 2,000 a of absolute height Prole*lataaya
vysotag, in the *Igoltau Range at loss than 1,000 a. %Eat is why the
Arabs considered. Xaramazar (the southwestern part of Inraminsidy Range)
the center of the silver and. lead inaastry. The Russians became *war*
of its riches in the second half of the nineteenth osmitarjr, but mo use
was made of them at that time. ieremazarliss now become one of the
largest mining industry areas.
Rext in isportmao? is the central mining area (Oisser, Zaravshan?
and Turketstaa Ba*Ve). Yound in that area were deposits of rare metals,
coal, and nonmetallic minerals. The most important among them are the
largo antimany deposits of Rshithikrat in the Oisear Range. There are
also wolfram, arsenic, tin, mercury, etc. Meek interest was aroused.
by the discovery of vast deposits of high-quality crystals of optical
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fluorite, a highly valuable raw material for the optical industry,
within the natural boundaries of Xuli-Xelua (Zeravshan Range). Au
these deposits are ooaosatrated within a vast mountain massif at a high
altituLle (in some places above 3,000 a) which makes access to them quite
difficult. The iliskobekly fluorspar deposits,- found at a comparatively
low altitude (1.650 m)? near Stalinebad, are some of the -rare exceptions.
The development of that rich einiag area calls for the construction of a
railroad line in its central part. Mere are several altersate plans
for such a railroad line; the most feasible project would be a Samarksni-
Takfan railroad. iia.).
Still more incoavenient is the location of the third mining area,
the Paniro-Darsavekeya. Optical oarts? mica, asbestos and. talc deposits
were found. in the Vanoheldy, Darvasskiy, and Sbakhdarinskiy ranges. Lying
at an altitude of 3,800 - 4,700 a above sea level, these deposits are
axons the highest in the world. Gold. deposits are found. also in. the Pamir
and on the eastern fringes of the South.Tadskik Depression.
Connected with the rocks of the Mesozoic and the Tertiary Period. is
the formation of fuel (oil, coal and. shale oil) and nommetallic minerals
(salt, 13uilding materials, etc.). Most of them are located in lower-
altitude areas and. under favorable economic conditions. In some places
the deposits had. been raised. to considerable altitudes by Alpine tec-
tonic movements, as in the case of the Bavatskii coal deposits, the
largest in Central Asia.
Among the minerals of that group already discovered aad prospected
are coal, lignite coal, gas, oseoerite (mineral wax), table salt, phos-
phoritess. shale oi3., peat, and numerous construction materials.
The coal was formed. in the Jurassic Period when a were and humid
climate prevailed. in. Central Asia and the shores of the sea gulfs and.
lagoons were coVered, with dense forests of palm trees, giant ferns, and
equisetums.
Goal is found, in. many parts of the couatry, bat the major deposit*
are cortoentre,ted in the valleys of the Zeravshan River and its tributaries.
tghty peroeat of the several Milieu tons of the geological coal reserves
are concentrated. in the Ravatakeye deposits in the Tagsib River Valley
user Takfon, at an altitude of 1,500 to 2,500 a. /mother large deposit
is the Iehtat-74atrameko7e located in the *MO mountain area and almost
at the sum altitude. The coal fouad in these deposits is among the best
in Tadzhikistauk with a very high thermal efficiency (7.5 - 8,5 thousand.
calories). Most of the coal found is Ravat can be converted. into coke
for aetallurgical purposes. Bu.t these deposits have not yet been
exploited the to the lack of railroad. facilities.
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4eS.
In the North, the Shurib is an important coal basin. It is situated
at a low altitude aad is easily accessible (it is connected. with the
Fergana railroad by broadgage rail tracks). the Sharab lignite, whidh
has a high thermal officiemay(4.5ao to 5,500 calories) is being mined;
it is used throughout Tadzhikistan.
On the southern Slope of the Gissar Mountain Range are the Zidtaik
coal deposits containing good quality coal (with a thermal efficiency
up to 7,000 calories) bat those deposits are not exploited. because of
the high altitude am& the lack of reliable roads leading up to thee.
The other coal deposits are small and of strictly local significance.
Oil &vomits originating from Paleogenic residues were found in the
northern part of the reil4alic (the XXX and Wetealad oil fields) as well
as ia the south, in the Takhsh River Valley (lisql-Tueshuk). Geological
structures indicating possible oil reserves were found lathe same areas,
and they will be prospected within the next few years.
Mined near the KIK oilfields is osocerite (mineral wax) which is a
paraffin-base oil derivative. It permeates the Shell rock and sandstone
strata to a great depth.
The salt deposits were formed under the conditions of the dry con-
tinental climate prevailing in the middle Mesozoic and Tertiary periods.
The salt reserves in the republic are fabulously great. The two bald
mountains near tulyeb? Ithedthasartiz and. Zhodsbarasin, each about 1,000 m
high or more? consist almost entirely of pare rock salt. The salt reserves
of those mountains above the serface alone is estimated at vproximately
70 billion tons. But they have not been touched yet. Salt deposits are
available aloe in other parts of the couatry, closer to the industrial
centers (Xaayabkurgan? for example) where they are being exploited.
Phosphorites, sulfur, and oil shale are fouad in a number of places
in, the South-Tadshik Depression, but their reserves are not very large.
Among the other types of raw materials belonging to the MOWil0A0i
group and available in quantity are the following construction materia/s:
gypsum, limestone, glass sand Lctekorniy peso/err, fire clay, marble,
granite, an abundance of loess, gravel, etc. aistruction conbines and
plants are operating in the country On the basis of these raw material*.
The mineral water 'purees of Tadzhikistan. are found along the tec-
tonic crags; the water is mostly hot, which it due to the dying volcanic
activity of the Tertiary and. quarter3sary periods. The 2 femme hot water
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.01"4"... -????????.,
sources in southern Tadshikistan are Ihodshi-Obigara, Worth of Stalinated
(radioactive, with a water temperature between 420 and SIP), and Obi-Oars.
Nast of that city, (bydrosalfuric? with a water temperature 'between 350
and.' 4e). SanataTia titre built near both springs.
Pamir is famous for its numerous thermal springs (temperatures
between 380 awl 850). Those springs are litcated in poorly-exploited
areas, at absolute altitudes between 2.000 and 4.500 m, and are used in
a primitive manner 'by the incoming population.
A group of cold nineral-water 'springs was found. in the Ihodshi-
Sangkitok community ea the southern slope of the Caesar Mountain Range
at an altitude of more than 3,000 m. Only ORO of those springs, located
near the Ansobskiy Pass automobile road, is being used.
Among the highly valuable minerals are the medicinal muds. Very
popular among the sufferers frost rheumatic and skin diseases is the
?kooks* Mud-and-Salt Lake, Northeast of losainelad; special sanatorium
for stul cures was built there liecoming famous also are the
salt springs springs at Ihodtdmamessist Mountain near Nulyab, teach are still used
in a primitive way.
The various ore and nonmetallic mineral riches are scattered all
over the cotmtry, foraing 5 more or loss ontlinad territorial complexes:
1. Naramasarskiy polynetals, rare setae, fluorspar. etc;
2. Tadzhikska-Yerganskiy ? lignite, oil, ow:writs, rook oat, and.
construction materials;
3. Zeravshanske-Gissarskiy rare metals, coal, firs clay, fluor-
spar, thermal and nineral webers;
4. South-Tadshik -- coal, oil shale, peat, rock salt, phosphorites,
construction materials, and thermal waters;
5. Peniro-Darvasskaiy ? optical quarts, asbestos, shale, rare metals,
wad thermal meters.
There are possilxtlities in these areas for the development of different
branabas of the mining industries as well as industrial couple-tee.
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91kmatt
The climate of the Tadzhik SSR, as of any other country, is deter-
mined by the general systen of circulation in the atmosphere and, to a
large extent, by the relief. Tadzhikistan is located in the southern-
most latitudes of the USSR, within the higher preset:re belt of the
northern hemisphere. Precipitation is almost never formed within, that
belt, anti the moisture coning from the oceans and seas is very limited
due to the long distances. (High air pressure does not facilitate the
formation of precipitation, as the air vapors coning down from the cold
upper layers of the atmosphere to the lower and -warmer layers expand
and. move away from the devpoint). The intensive solar heat to which the
earth*s surface is subjected in the sumer months produces suck evapora-
tion which is not compensated for by precipitation; that creates condi-
tions for the formation of intracontinental deserts in the dry belt.
(The tarakum? ZysyLiam, Takla-)(akan? Gobi, and other deserts extend
along the high air presatume belt across all of addle and Central Asia).
That is Wry the dry belt has left its imprint on the entire natural
appearaaso? and. climate of the republic, which may be characterized. as
highly continental.
At the same time, the Tadzhik territory is affected by outside air
ouxrents, mostly from the Northwest, utich, while bringing humidity from
the West, also facilitate the penetration of cold. air masses from the
North.
Almost all the precipitation in Tadzhikistan comes from the direction
of the Atlantic Ocean, the Sediterranean, and the Black Sea. It is
brought in by cyclones in wintertime. In the stanmer, the weather in
most of the country is dry, and there are no rains. Alt even in winter-
time the hueidity is very limited as the air masses moved in by cyclones
have to travel long distances before reaching Tadzhikistan, and most of
the moisture it lost on the way.
In addition to cyclones, Central Asia is periodically penetrated
also by northern and. northeastern air masses originating in the Arctic,
mostly dLtring the cold season, of the year when a powerful anticyclone
movement is built up over eastern Siberia and, breach off to the West.
These penetrations produce considerable though temporary cold spells
in wintertime as well as early autuma an4 spring frosts.
The climatic differences within the territory of the republic are
determined by local conditions: altitude, exposure of the mountain-
range s3.opes, and partly by the location of the various districts in
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the South or North of the country. Such differences are particularly
pronounced between the lower valleys (iecluding the foothill valleys)
and mountain arcao and the Beet remirlUnland. The fallowing fignres
present a general characteristic of the climatic features:
Localities Altitude Temperature range of Preeip-
above sea extreme itation
level (a) January July temperatures (es)
(degrees)
Ayvadik
340
2.6
32.2
65.2
140
rhodshi-Obigarn
1,807
-30.
22.1
52.7
1,389
Nergab
3,640
-17.7
13.6
78.0
73
The lower zone (Ayvadth) is very warm and arid, the mountainous
(Ihodshi-Obigare) zone is temperate and considerably humid, and /het
kamir is a cold, dry, and sharply continental area.
The lower zone contains broad valleys, foothill plains, and in parts
also low mountains. Its upper border runs at an approximate altitude of
1,000-1,200s. Prom the standpoint of climatic and vegetation, it is
primarily a dry ribtropioal zone, which can produce themost valuable
southern cultures under irrigatiam.
The summers there are very hot, not less so than in Cairo (Bgypt):
the mean, temperature in July dims not exceed. 280, and in some places 320.
The duration of the freeness period. is 6 to ?months, and. Laval--
Sheltered valleys up to 8 mosithe. The total temperature for the period.,
when the average daily temperature i* not below 180, amounts to 4,0000
and the southernmost valleys 5,000?. (Cotton seeds usually begin to
sprout under such daily tempers/me, and this figure is therefore taken
as the beginning and the end of the vegetation period in the subtropics)
That is Omit the temperature required by thin-fiber cotton, jute, sugar
cane, and citrus fruit. The high Isomer temperatures are accompanied by
a:higher degree of air dryness and en almost total lea: of Virifl for many
months. The annual precipitation is less than 200 ma but increases to
400-600 me with rising altitude, so that in the upper part of the zone
it is possible to engage in agriculture without the benefit of irrigation.
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The winter in the lower valleys is humi4 and. yam The average
january temperature is oonewhat above 0?, and. the daily temperature is
usually considerably hidier. Such conditions do not facilitate the forma-
tion of a pitisurgeut =v. cover en the ground atd are therefore favorable
for the develops/Ant of
4 rasa husbandry, inasmuch as most of the cattle
spend the winter grazing in the lower valleys.
Xxisting along with the positive clinatie features of the lover
zone are also certain negative features which tend to complicate the
development of a etzbtropical type of agriculture.
Cold spells in the winter occasionally reach -240 to -28?, and they
happen to pemetrate the lowest subtropical valleys at a time when the
zaountain slopes are not affected by such spells. This phenomenon is
called. temperature inversion and the reason for it is that the cold air
masses coming from the North drift into the lower valleys and do not
rise very high from there. (A typical example of temperature inversion
was recorded. on 13 January, 1949, in South Tadzhikistan: the morning
temperature in Stalinabad was -24*? at the .ansobskly Mountain Pass -8?,
and at an altitude of 1,700 m above Stalinabad lacessively low
temperatures have an unfavorable effect on valuable perennial cultures.
Late frost fret/us:03.y occurs in the spring and early frost in autumn.
The late spring frosts are especially destructive after the warm weather
has sit in and. the plants have began to grow and even blossom.
Peculiar also are the winds in this zone.
Very common are the teems, the dry and warm winds blowing from
the mounta4ins down into the valleys, particularly in the cold season of
the year. They rapidly warn the air, melt the snow, and. bring about a
premature growth of tho vegetation which later usually suffers from
the cold. During the foible season the weather is as warm in December
as it is in summer.
The Garmsils a hot wind, blowing ghostly in the lower valleys
bordering on deserts, is a normal occurrence during the warm season of
the year. The garment raises the temperatures to 450 - 470 in the
shade. The extreme high temperature is accompanied IV extreme dryness
(the relative humidity drops to 10% sat even 5% from the average of 40%).
Under these conditions, the plants frequently lose their capacity to
maintain a no real evaporation of moisture and dry up from the excessive
loss of moisture.
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Some of the winds are of local significance. The Afganets, which blows
from the South. is a familiar 'phenomenon in the valleys of the Southwest,
and the Pergenets, a western wind, blows through the "gates" from the
direction of the Turanian deserts. These winds are very strong, they
carry huge masses of dust, and frequently cause mechanical damages to
fruit gardsus and young crops.
The climatic conditions of the mountain areas axe markedly different
from those of the subtropics. The sumer* there are cooler and the frost-
free periods shorter. The winter temperature is more nniforn, without
sudden changes to warmer periods or to cold slaps. The snow cover is
stable and, in loose hi*); valleys, TUT thick-
The aountaiz valleys, extending from West to East and sheltered
from the cold northeien winds by high mountain ranges, are con.sidarably
warmer than they would otherwise be at a similar altitude. Thus, in the
Zeravehaa valley, at az altitude of 1,522 m (Ayni), the rammer temperature
is 24.40 and the Waiter temperature -2.3.1, while in the Oust River Talley,
at a 2,080 a altitude (Xitorog), the temperatures are, respectively, 220
and -7.10. These are eloeed-in valleys. Plants requiring warm weather
can grow there at unusual altitudes; rice, no to 1,800 m; sesame and
clover ffkleveshchinan up to 2,000 s; end. water melon and cantaloupe,
um to 2,400 a. Fruit tress grow at very high altitudes; mulberry and
apricot trees grow at altitudes lihich in the Alps are usually covered.
with permanent spew and ice.
ificroconditions are more important in the high-altitude areas than
on the plains. Yer example, it is importaat that the collective farm*
know whether to use the sunny or the shay slope for pleating, gardering,
hay procurement, Dad cattle grazing. Wheat does not alwate ripen on tbe
shady elopes, as they de mot get sufficient sunshine; 'bat the latter
usually produce sore grass, better hay, and pastures than the miry
slopes. That is why production is frequently distributed uneouslly on
opposite slopes of one and the same valley.
Precipitation in the motoitain areas is considerably better than on
the plain*. The precipitation brought in by the cyclamate is intercepted
by the mountains as by screens. As the air rise* and. condensation im-
proves, the humidity rises up to 2,500 - 3,000 a and, then drops again.
But even the mountain areas do not get an *quill a:omit of precipi-
tation. The slopes of the outside mountain ranges lying in the way of
the cyclonic air mass movements get more moisture, This is particularly
true of the mountainous part of South Tadshikistatt located. between the
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Giesler and Darvazskly ranges and representing a large corner open to the
Southwest. Art annual procipitatioe of 600 Vinto 4000 i is natal in
that area, and in some of its parts it goes up to 2,0(X) sm. Less moisture
is received. by the northern elopes of the Turkestan Range (up to 400 mis)
and. the half-sheltered valleys of the Zeravshan River asin (200-300 ma).
Little pracipitation .reachaz the farat.,4, v.alleye of western Pamir (less
than 200 sus), /Alieb are closed in by the inmate-ins.
The relatively well-aoistened large part of the mountain area and.
the precipitation occurring in the first half of the summer (inclu.ding
June) are of great ?canonic importance. The lynd where the annual pre-
cipitation is over 400 ma is under agricultural cultivation that requires
no irrigation. The most moistened part of the south is covered by forests,
and the upper bolt of the mountains by alpine and ihtbalpine meadows,
which are excellent sumer pastures.
The climate of the hi fea Pamir upland. is very severe. The average
January temperature in Murgab is -17.76, and. at lake Kara,luli
(the lowest temperature in Tadzhikistan). The minima temperature is
-50e (at lake rars,411111). The summers are short. In Russell the frost-
free period. lasts 2 months on the average, and at Lake Xara-Lilt it is
practically nonexistent. During the simmer days, however, the lower
layers of air get quite warm, and the sumer weather is warmer than
could be expected. at such an altitude. The average July temperatalx.
in Murgab is 13.60, and the highest temperature is 310. This makes it
possible in SOUS places to raise certain cultures which have very short
'vegetative periods and. are resistant to frost.
Zastern Pamir is exceptionally dry. Almost all of the air humidity
is intercepted by the AcrAway of Sciences Range, the Darvasskiy Raage,
and. others, through which the already dry air masses flow to the Pamir.
The annual precipitation in Murgab is 73 max and at Lake rara-rult 62 sm.
The major part of the territory is not covered. with meow MANI ia winter-
time. As a whole, eastern Pamir is a vast highland. desert with year-
round. pastures.
Rivers and Leket
Tadzhikistan is covered with a dense network of rivers representing
the upper sections and. tributaries of the Amw-Derya, Syr-Darya, sad the
Zerayshen. The rivers, as a rule, have an abundance of water, but only
part of it is used. for irrigation purposes in the repablie. (In the ease
of the Vakhsh river, for example, only 6% of its average monthly flew is
used. for irrigating the Veldt& Valley fields). Most of the latter flows
to Usbiai,:istan and. Turkaitaia, whore it is used. for irrigation, or reaches
the Aral Sea through the large rivers.
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The -1,...zars.cteriatic feature of moat the rivers is their steep drop.
The rivers usually flow from altitudes of more than 1,800 - 3,000 a down
to the plains, which are located. at altitudes of 300 - 1,500 n. They
originate in the mountains as turbulent streams flowing along a common
bed. among craggy vibble terraces or along corridors with precipitous
rocky walls.
Full-flowiag and sheer-dropping, these rivers contain an linfantoUs
reserve of power. The Tadzhik SSR has about 1/2 of the potential hydro-
electric power of Central Asia. The total capacity of the Tadzhik rivers,
at the prevailing annual rate of water flow, amounts to 26.000000 kw.
The deep canyons, resting on hard rock in a number of places, are suitable
for the construction of large water reservoirs and power plants.
The Tadzhik rivers vary as to their sources, behavior, and. economic
importance. Host of them originate in mixed. glacier-snow sources. They
originate in the glacier. and snow which are constantly accumulated in
the high mountains. The Igamir-Darvas heights are almost entirely covered
with glaciers. The major tributaries of the Amu-Darya originate there.
There are Remy glaciers and snow masses also in the central mountain
massif. The Zeravsh.en and some of the Syr-Darya' s left-side tributaries
originate there.
The rivers fed. by the glaciers and. *now have a high waterline in
summertime when the glaciers and. snow begin to thaw. The largest increase
in the water volume occurs in the period frost Jima to August and, the high-
water mark, reached. in July, coincides with the tine when the irrigation
of cotton and. other cultures requires the naximum amount of water. There
is little water in those rivers in the fall, winter, and spring.
The rivers which are not connected with glaciers and. permanent snow
(there are few of them in Tadzhikistan) are small and. carry little water.
They originate in the- low mountains and are fed by the winter accumulation
of snow and by rains. The turbulent overflows occurring between March and.
May are followed by sharp drops in ths water level during the summer
months. The economic laportemas of these rivers is quite litsited,. They
are found in the lorth, in the Ura-Tyube area, as well as in the Caesar
and Kyzyleuyskiy valleys.
This type of rivers is characterised. as the "salt" type. A "sell"
is a liquid-mud-stone mass moving rapidly down the river bed to a broad
valley and spreading out beyond the river bed. A sell usually occurs
after a strong downpour in the mountains and sometimes causes enormous
damages and hardships to the population. Of some importance are the
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spri-fed rivers flowing at the foothill? of the Eursminskiy and.
Turkestan ranges, in the mountains between the Gissar and Ve.Vasli valleys
and in the Bishkent Valley; they usually irrigate several dozen, and some-
times even several hundred, hectares of crops each.
Thenay- -Turkestan. Mountain Chain on one side and the Gissar Mountain
Bang* on the other divide the country's river network into 3 systems: the
Etyr-rfaiya in the North, the Zeravshan in the center, and the Aza-Darya
in the South. Ilastern Pamir also has 2 betsine filled. with lakes and a
small part of the river Markansu, which flows into China.
The ,Syr-Darya outs across the length of the Verona Vtlliry. Prior
to the construction of the Big 'Fergana Canal, that river had been used
very little for irrigation imposes. At present, the Big Fergana, the
North Pomona, and the VerkkmedaVversinskii canals and. a number of
pumping installations are used to supply 50 ea a of water per second
fro* that river for irrigation purposes in summertime. When the Kayrak.
ken water reservoir is' completed., the emount of Syr-Darya water used for
irrigation will be increased. many times. A major part of the cultivated
land in the valley is now irrigated by the Syr-Darye. tributaries flowing
doss the Turkestan and 'uremia** mountain ranges. Ths largest among
the left tributaries are the Isfara, the Xhodshabakyrgan, and the Akesx.
Compared. with the Syr-Derya, they are small rivers: their total annual
draiaage amounts to 900 million. cut mt -whereas that of the Syr-Darya is
15 billion cu. m. These rivers are fed by- glaciers and snow and are
almost entirely used for irrigation perposes during their midismimer
hit?
water level period. ?lowing town the Turkestan, Nano, in
addition to the above-mentionit rivers, thins ere several other small
rivers that are fed. by snow or soil water and are used. to irrigate such
large oases as Shekhristan gat Ura-Tyubia. The water of thee* rivers is
almost entirely used for irrigation purposes, but, since the amount is
insufficient, a waiting-line has been established for its nos.
Originating in the turaninekly mountains are small spring-fit streams
which, are used for irrigation on an. area 'between, the mountains and. about
20.30 kat for the Syr-Darya. Springs ars found. also on the plain. along
the river's right bank, such as the Sieger, which irrigates several tun-
dra& hectares of crops.
The upper part of the next large river, the Zeravsheet (Katcba),
crosses about ZOO km ef Tadmhik territory. It originates in the Zeravehan
Glacier atop the Match Mountain System and flows along a deep and narrow
valley between the Turkestan and Zeravehen ranges. On the left side it
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is joined. by 3 large tributaries: the FamilaHrlytt, with its ova tributary;
the Tagnab; the ltshtutdariyu; and the kagianderiya. They flow down the
Gissar Range and. divide the Zieravehan Range into several massifs by narrow
canyons. The Zoravahen Range is also the target of over 100 other smell
streams.
In the Tadzhik mountains, the Zerayshan oollects much of its water.
Part of this it releases to the Penzhinkent oasis of Tadzhikistan, but
most of it flows to the Samarkand and Bokhara oases in Uzbekistan; there
the river is used. almost entirely far irrigation sad. does not reach the
AzeL-Darya, whose tributary it used to be.
The Zeravshan end its 3 major tributaries flow in deep canyons, which
make it difficult to divert the flow by a gravity process. The agricul-
tural lauds are irrigated by small-stream tributaries when much of the
water on the elevated land, and open spaces has already be used up.
The Zeravshan and its tributaries have 111101UOUS reserves of hydro-
eleatrie power. Some places in the deep canyons among the precipitous
cliffs are excellently suited for water reservoirs. The production of
electric power in the Zeravshan Basin would be expedient in view of the
variety of minerals available there and. the central location from which
power could be transmitted. to other areas of the country.
The southernmost river in Te.dahikistan? the upper part of the !a-
Darya, collects 3/4 of the =face drainage in the republic. The 2
major rivers comprising theAlalti.?Derya are the trakhat and. Pyandsh. The
latter, formed by the confluence of the Pamir and Vaidseutdary* rivers,
flows along the USSR-Afghanistan. border. , It makes a gigantle curve and
leaves the mountain area in the Moscow administrative rayon. In West
Pamir, the Pyandzh is joined by 4 largo tributaries on its right bank:
the Gunt (with its tributary, the Shakhdara), the Barton& the Ts.sguli and.
the Vench. Between the Vanch and Yakhsh rivers the Pyandsh is joined by
several other small but economically important tribataries. The gafirnigan
tribataxy empties into the Amu-Darya in Tadzhikistan territory at a point
below the Vakhsh.
The mountainous portions of the ?yard& and the Zeraveham, are not
Used for irrigation as they flow through narrow, deep valleys. Their
water becomes usable for irrigation purposes only within the klyabskly
Plain. The upper tributaries of the Pyandsh are fed by glaciers and,
=ow, become flooded in summer time, and leave their beds. This makes
some of the valley impassable during that pariod. The hiez, terraces are
irrigated not by the major rivers, but by their tributary streams. Those
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steeply dropping rivers develop enormous power. (According to approxi-
mate estimates, the average annual power capacity of the Pywndlh River
and its major tributariee amounts to over 11 million kw.). The Bartang.
?unto and famir rivers originate in the lakes.
The second largest river comprising the Amu-Darya is the Velchsh
(which means ocavagen in Tadzhik). It ?originates inXirgisla and flows
along the broad .z.layValle7 .ere It is celled Kiel-len; the next large
portion of the river, between the tributaries Mukeu and. Obikhingsu?
flows within the Tadzhik: borders and is called Sarkhobos, and the
entire lower portion. Is called. the Vakheh. The total length of the
three portions is about 650 km. (In the Alay Vslley the Vakheh washes
away red chalky clay substances and sandstone which sake the water appear
red, and that is why the largisians call their portion of the river
ifysyleu, and the Tadahiks call theirs Surkhob. Translated, both of these
terms mean "red water)
The Vakhsh collects about 3/4 of the entire water drainage in the
republic. Om* of its tributaries. the Muksu, gets its water from the
Pedchenko Glacier, and the other, the Obikhingou, is fed. by the Garso
Glacier, which accounts for the glacier habits of the Vakheh River. The
fluctuation range of the Vakhih water discharge is enormous: in the
summer it is 1.500 to 2.900 =spur second, and, in the winter 150 to
250 =A.
Just like the other large rivers, the Vakheh and. its large tabu,.
taxies flow in very deep valleys and their watercannot be used to
irrigate the fields; the letterer* irrigated only by small secondary
rivers. Only when it leaves the mountains, not far from the Pyandih
River, does the Vakhsh become the only source of irrigation for the
broad Vakheh Valley.
As a power and irrigation source. the Vakhah is an. Important river
in the republic. The deep canyons and rocky soil found along the course
of the Vakhsh and its tributaries are suitable for the construction of
reservoirs and powerful hydroelectric plants. The middle portion of the
river could. be used as & suitable place for hydroelectric installations,
particularly the slfarekikeyaretlye" Drurairskly Loaf' with its canyon-type
banks. Unlike the Pamir rivers, the Takhsh cuts across southwest Tadzhi-
kistan. which is better awe:Copia economically than the Pamir. Two large
hydroelectric pleats, Perepadnare (on a canal) and 0010,Wat are aimed,'
under construction along the lower course of the Vekhih.
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The Kafirnigaa River, flowing west of the Vakhih, has a discharge
rate of less than 1/6 that of the Vaktih. It originates on the southern
slope of the Gilmer Hountain Range, crosses the eastern part of the Oissar
Valley, and continues in. southwesterly direction until it empties into
the Ana-Darya. its tritatariou, the Pashaabe and the 'Manske, together
with the Karateg (one of the Inrkhadaeya tributaries) irrigate the major
part of the Oissar Valley. But they no longer have *ancient water to
meet the agricultural Waeands in that rich valley, and the plelui ng for
improved. water supply will inevitably include the Kafirnigau. The lower
Lafireigan will have to meet an increased demand. for water, particularly
in the Beshkent Valley, where it is planned. to irrigate large tracts of
new land.
Among the other rivers, mention should be made of the Irzyleu and
its tributary the Takhsa? Vhich irrigate southeast Tadzhikistan. These
small rivers originate in the low mountains, are fed. by snow and rain
and reach their highest water level in the first half of the summer. In
the *scowl half they become very shallow, their water turning brackish
in some places. That area has no adequate mmaely of irrigation water.
There are comparatively few lakes in Tadzhikistan, and they vary in
regard to origin, nature, ath potential economic value.
Several lakes of tectonic-glacier origin are found in the large
closed-in depressions of East Pamir. The largest of them, the rare-Mal,
covers an area of 364 sq km and is located at 3,914 a above sea level;
its shores are still covered with thick larers of geological (tertiary)
ice, and, there is apparently ake life in it. Two smaller likes of that
type, Lake Shorkull and Lake Renekule, located ia a different depression,
are rich in salt and. fish.
There are also Lakes of glaciermoratnic origin, sad one of them* Lek*
Zorkull, is in the Pamir River Valley.. Rock-filled lakesffzevellars
ozerag are found in 2 valleys along the border between East and West
?emir. The largest of them, Lake Saresskoye? cane into being in, 1911 in
the Margot River Taller it vas deemed up by the slides from a huge mous-
tain. That lake, over 60 km long and. 500 * deep at the 'dammed part, could.
provide constant water pressure for a. hydroelectric plant of one million
kw capacity. Another lake of that type bat of prehistoric origin is
Lake Tashilikalt in the Gast Aver Valley. Located at the upper reaches
of the flandsh river tributaries, all these lakes play an important part
in the water system and. abound in fish.
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Located in the Gissar Mountain Range, at an absolute altitude of
2,176 a, is the picturesque Lake Isbuinderioali. As a natural water
reservoir of the landarya (Zeravshans s triba.tary) river system with an
,c4nreal discharge of about 600 aillion an a of weAer at the overflow point,
it 01331 provide power for a large hydroelectric plant or a croup of thee
at its cascades. There are similar but smaller lakes withia the Magiand.art
(Zeravshants tributary) river system and. in other parts of antral
Tadshikistan.
Small salt-andAnd lakes are found. mostly on the foothill plains,
and there are small molest lakes frozera-staritre abounding in fish
and planktonic fowl are in the lower valleys of the large rivers.
Soil
The soil in, Tadshikistaa, just like the climatic conditions with
vh.ich it is closely allied, is characterised by a high degree of diversity.
As in the case of the mountainous relief, the major differeraoes in the soil
structure can be clearly traced by the elevation zones, or belts, which
frequently chase over short distances. The territory of the Tadzhik SSR
may be divided, into the following major soil tones: (I) gray desert soil
(aerosol) (the were's* seas consists of 2 belts, the desert and desert-
steppe belt). (2) mouatein-stepps and. forest-steppe soil, (3) subalpine
mountaiu-aes.dow and "midair-stoop* soil, (4) Alpine mountals-meadow and.
meadow-steppe soil, and (5) high mountain desert and desert-steppe soil.
The gray desert soil, most typical of central Asia, is the most
important econonically. It covers the entire lower part of the country.
bat zone includes more than 1.4 million ha of arable land which, accord-
ing to estimates by soil experts, accounts for about 110% of all the arable
land in the republic. The gray desert soil is formet ia a dry hot cliaate
under.a cover of spring grass, which grows for a short ties and dries up
rapidly. depositing an insignificant amount of organic residue in the
soil. This soil cantatas_ little hams. The same 'morels derives from
the gray color of the topsoil. A cress section of the country's relief
shows that this type of soil is far from ualfore as far as its properties
are conoerned. There are 3 types of grey desert soil: light, ordinary,
and dark.
The light soil, which is of varying mechanical consistemay, covers
only the lower valleys up to 600 a above sea leivel; the Fergana. Vakh.sh,
Zafirnigen, Kirovabad, and other valleys. Such *oil is no longer seen in
the Gismo Valley, which is at an altitude of 700 a. The light eyerosem
is almost devoid. of any humus layer (less than 11, buns). It has no
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definite structure, is somewhat dusty, and has a high lime cadent. But
despite that, it is very fertile. That fertility depends on the high
tesiperators of the vegetation period. Asa the microergamises convert
the organic matter into minerals Which are accessible to plants. Thin
high fertility, bowlines., is not an exclusive natural feature of the soil;
it is brought about also by &number of agriculture' measurest irriga-
tion, grassland. 4.top rotation (which., is inportaat for soil structure)
and fertilisation. Light 'mazes soil is the gold. reserve of the re-
public; it produces the long.-fiber varieties of cotton, jute, and the
other southern cultures native to the country. That is why much atten,
tion is devoted to the discovery of new suitable lands in the lower part
of the syerosem belt. Such potential land is now available in the lower
valleys in the form of swamps, salt menthes, large and umirrigated high-
desert terraces, as well as other lands containing gypsum and gravel
Which can now be exploited thanks to modern scientific and technological
methods.
Ixteading above the light wyerosem soil is the ordinary syerosen
in the Zeravibaa? assert and Taman valleys and in still higher places.
On the foothill plates of the northern elope of the Turkestan Bang* that
soil rises to an altitude of 1,000 a. Covering the moisture slopes, which
get an annual precipitation of over 300 an, that soil is richer in. humus
(up to 2.5%) and has abetter structure than the light 'porous. ULM,
the latter, the ordinary syerosen is seldom salines inessuchiss the mil-
soil water of the higher altitudes is fairly deep. The land covered
with ordinary we:boson is used for both irrigated and. =irrigated agri-
cultural crops. The require4 humidity level. is 'unstable bat the avails,-
Malty of vast tracts of land suitable for large-scale mechanised agri-
cultural operations makes agriculture profitable.
Still higher up is the dark eve:noses soil. It rises up to 1,500
above son level on the northern elope of the Turkestan housasin Rouge,
and. even up to 1,800.a in the warn southern valleys. The annual pre.
cipitationat that altitude is between 400 sad 600 an, Ala tends to
increase theltemnis content (up to 3.5%) and improve the structure of
the soil. The dark ammo soil belt Is suitable for agriculture with-
out irrigation. True, it is semeehat less suitable for the use of
machinery in view of the rugged terraia. It is possible to find additional
land for agricultural production in the dark Amount soil belt.
The grerosen mane is followed by a some of mounteimp-steppe and forest-
steppe soil. lathe dry Berth, this sone is covered with de* grays dry-
steppe *oil, it the more humid South the *oil is carbonate brown, and
still higher it is of the ordinary brown mountain-forest type. The enamel
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precipitation up there is 1,500 - 1,800 mm. The soil of that zone has a
good structure, contains nmch humus (up to 6% in the ordinary brownmonn-
tain-forest type) and is sufficiently fertile without artificial irriga-
tion. The land of this zone has therefore been intensively ploughed lap,
particularly in places once covered by forests, In preparation for =-
irrigated aericalture. The destruction of the forests has brought soil
erosion on the steep slopes. The important problem in the zone is
reforestation and the planting of fruit gardens even if some of the crop-
lands have to be reduced for that purpose. The reserve ploughland has
already been used up.
The subalpine and alpine zones cover the highest parts of the moun-
tains. Those zones include Large areas in the upper parts of the huge
Alay, Pith. Perm, and Darvasikiy ranges and also parts of the
West Pamir ranges. These are cool zones with excess moisture. The
carbonates in those zones have, as a rule, been limiviated (they do not
boil under the surface hydrochloric acid) and have a higher humus con-
tent. Thayer* covered with tumor pastures.
Pound in the subalpine zones are plots of unirrigated land where
barley grows at altitudes up to 3,200 n. Pb. less lixiviated varieties
of mountain-meadow and steppe land are used. for ordinary crops.
The colder alpine zone is exclusively grazing territory withmoun-
tain-neadow type soil; the peat-formation in that wail is due to the in-
adequate mineralization of the residues of the once lush vegetation there.
The subalpine and alpine zones can be used not only for crazing
cattle in summer but also for its upkeep all year round, especially-with
the sapport of nearby agricultural sources.
The vast zone of high-altitude desert steppe and desert soil covers
1/3 of the repdblies territory. I includes the entire Bast Pamir up-
land. and the mouatain-rangs tops of central Tadshikistan. This zone is
characterised by little annual precipitation (below 100 mm) and low
temperatures. Xmch of that wail is made unusable by each extraneous
elements as glaciers, snow banks, moraine, end accumulations of rock
tallus. The soil is, as a rule, filled with detritus and not very
productive.
Host of the Bast Pamir wail is desert-type carbonaceous soil vial&
contaias little humus; it resembles the light syerozem soil of the lower
valleys, but differs frost it in its biological properties and economic
importance. The broad floodlands of the Bast ?emir rivers, with their
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soil water close to the surface, are covered with peaty-meadow coil
which is frequently saline ai4 produces fairly good grass. This is
the better pastureland. of East Pamir. Aviculture on that land. is made
very difficult tz, to cold weather, low preciaitation, and insufficient
water.
Vegetation
Tadzhikistan's location in the subtropical zone, within the botanical-
geographical area of the Ancient Nediterraneen, and its complex mountain
which makes for sharply dissimilar soil and climatic conditions,
account for the great variety of its vegetation. There are 4,500 species
of phanerograns and sporophytes alone.
The high-altitude sonality is strikingly revealed in the grandiose
vertical profile of Pamir-Alsy, between, the absolute altitude of 300 and.
400 a in the South and. North of the republie end between 6,000 and 7,000
in the eastern areas and. Pamir. There the soil end botanical belts
chhlige in accordance with the height and. location of the mountain ranges,
and in accordance with the precipitation and falling temperatures. The
deserts and steppe-Ifte semisavannaba yield. to peculiar deciduous forests
which, in turn, yield. to moisture-requiring maple and. valnnt forests or
to evergreen narcherair which, still further, is followed. by thistle-
covered. steppes and meadows end. alpine wasteland extending to the plain-
field area (nivalInaya oblast), Wedged into the Pzusir, which is shut
off from humid air currents, between the alpine and plaimfield areas
are the vast subalpine deserts, which rise to an altitude of 3,600 to
4,200 m.
Despite the diversity of vagetatien in Tadzhikistan, just as in the
neighboring Iran and. Afghanistan., the predominaat vegetation features
are, on the one hand., ephemeral groups of semisevannehs which come to
life in the spring ani, on the other drought-resisting grasses and under-
brush which determine the surface of *tomes, deserts, tragacanths and.
wild. thyme districts. Only about - 40 of the republic's area is
covered. with tress and. shrubbery, hat even these, like the grass vegeta-
tion, are dominated by drought-resisting plants. The contemporary cor-
relations between arboreal ami herbaoeous vegetation as well as between
mesophytic (moisture requiring) and xerophilous (drought-resisting)
plants were conditioned. not only by the direct influence of arid con-
ditions but also by the age-old activities of man who used to destroy
arboreal vegetation on vast areas of the land..
The common feature of the arboreal vegetation, particularly the
drought-resisting type, is its thinly scattered vowtb.. The vast spaces
are dotted. with scattered single trees or equally scattered. groups of
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trees fcllowed by treeless areas. This type of forest structure is due
not may to the influence of man, but also to its own biological charac-
teristics. In dry. weather, when most of the precipitation, occurs in the
winter and :spring, most types of trees develop a vast surface root
:system which is ideal for intercepting the outface water and the most
fertile particles of soil by its numerous root ramifications. This
accounts for the scattered. growth of the trees, the lumimosity of the air
among them and, consequezttly, also an abundence of fruit and AU t UM?
grOVOS. The above-mentioned characteristics of the root system also
serve to make tbe forests an important element in the prevention of soil
erosion. The forests in Tadzhikistan are not enmereus, but they are
highly diversified, consisting of about 200 different species of trees
and brushwood. The latter are highly* diversified from an ecological
point of view, and are found in almost all high-altitude belts. Even
at altitudes above 3.000 a and. up to 3,500 :a, as in the case of the
Gissar amdTurkestan mountain ranges, one still comes across creeping
club moss, clusters of Gissar dog rose plants and. honeysuckle, While the
Lashgar barberry is found in the Petit at an altitude of 4,000 m.
The drought-resisting arboreal and brashwood-type plants, particularly
jangel, shiblyak, and archovnik, represent a sparse vegetation typical of
the landscape of largo open spaces. The jangals, or sandy forests grow-
ing on ancient alluvial sands, consist of short black and white halexylen,
cherkez, kaadyea, and sane? acacia. The ihortlived vegetation crowing
there in the spring mostly sedge) represents excellent fodder for
astrakhan sheep; the summer vegetation consists of a perennial type of
feather grass and dantonia, adapted to growing on sand. The jangals grow
in the lowest parts of northern and southern Tadzhikistan. Their total
area is very small.
The shiblyak or, as it is often referred to, Ilthia xerophytic forestal'
1$ found on carbonaceous brown soil between the Kerosine:kir Range in the
North and. the low mountain plateaus of South Tadzhikistan. It forms a
special forest belt at an altitude between 700 and 1,700 a (and up to
2,000 a), but in sew places it has been almost completely destroyed; the
remaining scattered pistachio and Bokhara almond trees are mute witnesses
of a lush vegetation in the past. In addition to the mentioned species,
the ihiblyak includes also small-leaf maple, haekberey (iron tree) Judas
tress, sumac. unibi (or chilon), pomegranate, fig trees, oderihi-derevo."
etc. The largest pistachio forests remain in South Tadzhikistan, where
they cover a total area of 208,000 ha. The grass cover of the shiblyik
forests consists of a, variety' of annual and perennial vegetation. The
uncontrolled grazing of Sheep and goats has an adverse effect on the
self-reproduction of the pistachio trees, which are the most valuable
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among the nut trees. Pistachio trees are predominant in the South
Tadzhik botanico-geographical area, while the sumac and chilon are con-
spicuous in the Gissar-Darvazskiy area. Natural concentrations of fig,
pomegranate, and. Judas trees still remain in tht. southwestern part of
the republic and at the western antl southern elopes of the Dervazekly
Mountain Range. These warmest areas of Tadvt4t-leten are outstanding
natural gardens of wild rowing subtropical plants.
The most common type of drought-resisting trees are the archeiniks
(savin trees). They consist of juniper trees which,. together with the
steppes, form vast vegetation belts; they account for about 50% of the
forest area. They may be clasoified? on the one hand, as warm-weather
low-mountain forests consisting of Zevershan savin trees, now mostly
destroyed., and, on the other, as frost-resisting "u.ryuk" and "saur"
savin trees, growing in separate or mixed. forests at altitudes ranging
from 2,000 to 3,0004,600 m. The major concentration of these forests
is found in North Tadzhikistan? particularly in the Turkestan Mountain
Range, but they are found. also in the Surseinekiy (mostly "kara" savin
trees), Zeravshan, and. Gissar (on its northern slopes) mountain ranges.
In South Tadzhikistan. the "kara" salvia trees are followed by pistachios
at a 1,600-1,700 m altitude; they grow also on the low mountain ranges
of the South Tadzhik depression. In Bast To.d.zhikistan the savin forests
are less extensive and frequently consist of scattered. trees extending
eastward. to West Pamir. Certain types of archevnik (savin trees) as
the uryuk, for example, are found. all the -way to the alpine belt, where
they form a stratified pillow structure on the su.rfsese up to 70-100 mm in
height and. menage to last several hundred years. The savin trees, which
are valuable not only as hies-caloric fuel but also as construction lum-
ber, were cut down everywhere. That is why, in most cases, they now
e.ppear as thinly scattered forests. They have been preserved along the
secluded canyons of the northern slopes of the Turkestan Mountain Range
where they grow in dense forests 16-20* high and 80-100 cm in. diameter.
The destruction of the Gavin trees made their natural self-reproduction
almost impossible; growing in their place are less valuable herbaceous
plants, and in some places soil erosion processes have been observed..
savin trees are excellent for holding the topsoil and for regulating
the drainage, and the snow-tkewing process. Their destruction impairs
the 'Alter supply of the republic including the cotton-growing areas and
facilitates the development of suid-and stens-carrying streams.
The mosophytic arboreal vegetation, despite its scarcity, is hig;b13--
valuable economically. In the first place, it grows in the shape of
broad-leaf, moisture-and-light-requiring forests in the central mountainous
areas at altitudes of from 1,000-1,100 a to 1,800-2,600 m on brown soil,
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forming a deciduous forest belt. It is more prevalent, however, in the
Gisser-Darvazskiy area where precipitation is heavy. Dominating the
lower part of that belt are greek: walnut tress (ohormaks it Tadzhik)
which extend to an altitude of 1,800.2000 la. The dense and thin
forests of these trees cover the third largest area in the republic,
after the pistadhios and saving (about 29,000 ha.). The existing
small nut groves or scattered trees are, as a rule, found. alone river
banks and on eorthern slopes and represent the remnants of the vanished
thick:forests. But large and dense nut forests consisting of tall trees
still exist in some places, as in the North of Numinabad, for example.
The nut tree usually grows in close proximity to Turkestan maple, apple,
and plum trees, and sometimes poplars, and it accompanied. by various
kinds of shrubbery, such as honeyseckle and igray, and, occasionally also
by Semenev spindle trees. The trees are frequently intertwined with wild
grapevines. The vegetation cover of the nut forest ground is lash and
highly variegated and contains may shads-enduring plants. Commonly
occurring in the nut forest areas is the exoohord, which often sppears
as a separate overgrowth, sticky-leaf frvyasolistiyg almond trees, etc.,
as well as scattered trees and groves of another remarkable plant, the
chinar. In Tadihikistan the vat tree is one of the most valuable plants.
Which yields welI-known fruit and excellent lumber. Some of the wild,-
growing varieties of thews nuts have a thin shell and contain up to 70$-
70 oil, Which is even higher than the oil content of the cultivated. nut
trees. MuCh work is now being done in the republic to expand the area
of such nut trees. The annual nut crop anaunts to about 100-200 tons but
it could. be considerably tocreassd by a letter organization of nut gather-
ing and improved naintenance of the nut trees. Among the other components
of the deciduous forests are maple, apple, ash, and elm trees, etc.
conspicuous place it the general landscape is had by the tugsys
which consist chiefly of Tursag poplars, heterphylleus wild olive trees
(jigta)? and tamarisks stidit grow it the lower reaches of the Vakheb.?
Lafirsigsm4 rItylst and Syr-Darya rivers. These tress usually grow in
proximity to the overgrowths of original savanneid *pee of plants
consisting of gigantic grass species, kamys or wo4Viemardgrass, wild
sugar cane frat 2 to 5 la hie*, kiyak or laperat? licorice, etc. Most of
the tugsys have already been destroyed. Bet aside from its decorative
11,5015, when grafted on cultivated olive trees, it could produce a valuable
and tasty fruit and serve as a source of valuable resit for the textile
industry. Growing primarily in the desert zone, the tussle serve as
natural protective belts for the adjacent cotton fields.
Growing in small groves high in the mountains, in the savin belts,
and. along the upper borderline of the deciduous forests and brushwood,
are moisture-reqeiring and frost-proof birch and poplar-willow-type tress
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which are nourished by surfacing soil water and by the river valleys.
Particularly large birch plantations are found in the eastern districts*
such as those at the upper reaches of the Obikhingaa River, along the
Oarmo River, and partly also in the river valleys of Neat Pamir viler*
they are cut down and replaced by oblepikha overgrowths.
The predominant features of the Tadzhik landscape are determiaed
not by arboreal but by herbaceous vegetation and -undergrowth. The
latter account for 50% to 60% of the entire area of the re blic? not
if
counting the "ntaW 0 niy areas an Athe abandoned lands roeovlysi
zemlig covered with cliffs and nueerous slides. The her ceous vege-
tation and. undergrowths fora a natural fodder base for the animal hus-
bandry industry'. This fodder-type vegetation is favorable for grazing
cattle since the duration of its growth varies with the altitudes and
calendar periods.
Among the major drought-resisting pastures are deserts and steppes,
while the secondary pastures consist of tragacanthe and. wild thyme fields.
The deserts, consisting of low undergrowth of twitted wormwood and stal-
wort, are for the most part concentrated in North Tadzhikistan, Where
they cover vast areas between the Xnraminakty range and the Syr-Darya
Liver, partially extending to its left bank. Small concentrations of
these deserts are found also in South Tadzhikistan. These low-altitude
deserts, extending: up to 800-1,000 m are used as winter and, to some
extent, spring pastures. Righland deserts aro found in some parts of
Pamir, at altitudes ranging from 3,0004,600 a to 4,000-4,200 n, Where
the annual precipitation does not exceed 60-100 as. Their major types
of vegetation are the seeinadergrowth species of tereiken, wormwood,
pillow-shaped kurtkoimik, tanacetum? etc, which are used also as winter
and spring fodder reserves. The vegetation in the deserts is extremely
sparse, and the fodder yield correspondingly low -- from 0.5 to 2 coma
tners per hectare.
The Tadzhik steppes are concentrated in the subalpine areas, at
altitudes ranging from 2000-3000 to 3,400-3,900 sa on the northern
slopes of the Turkestan, Zeravihan, Gissar and Dervasikiy mountain
ranges as well as on Petr Perm Range and to W3MO extent in Nest Pamir.
The turf grass cover of the steppes consists of fescue grass, meadow
grass, koeleria, and different types of feather grass (particularly the
feathery Kirgiz, Caucasian, and Turkestaa types) and the 011ga white
meadow grass with anadeixtare of Leman, wormwood. Some of the east
Pamir steppes have eparticularly desert-like appearance with their
sparse grass cover and droaght-resisting mall wormwood varieties, --
both. the eastern types and those growing on pebble soil. Invest Pamir
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and in some parts of the Darvasskiy mad Pot? Pervyy snowttain ranges the
steppes are "choked" with prickly grass varieties. The turf-grass steppes
are the major and. best highland. pastures in the summer, but their fodder
reserves are not great in view of the fact that the tragacanth (thistle
grass) plants are not eaten by cattle. These pastures are used. for 2-3
months.
Found in some places, especially in West Pamir-Alser, are steppes
whose meadow-type or thistle vegetation cover car.eists of Turkestan
.adonis, catnip r1eotovnik2.7. oryseae, tarragon feather graes, meadow
grass, Zoravshan milkwort. etc. Though highly mroductive of fodder (up
to 10-15 centners per hectare). these steppes, just like the subalpine
heteroherbaceeue steppes, contain an insignificant fodder reserve.
The tragacanth (thistle grass) consists of pillow-shaped estareettes,
trage_canth astragalus. kustovnik (acanthaceas lemon). prickly Xuziniya, otc.,
which grow mostly in the subaplin.e area of the western half of the republic.
Just like the low-altitudes thyme fields, they consist of high undergrowths
(kerovskiy, sage, and otostegiya), some of which contain volatile oils
prefironosyg but are not valuable as fodder.
The most valuable pastures and hayfields are those covered with
mesophytic vegetation ? grass-covered swamps, meadows and, to some
extent, semisavannahs. Their devolopasen.t is determined, by the high
altitude and. fairly heavy precipitation or by the near-surface soil water,
and is restricted, to the humid period. of the year.
The semisavannahs (or subtropical steppes) cover not less than 10-15%
of the republic' territory. Their vegetation is highly variegated, but
dominated by perennial ester-bearing plants.
The low-grass semisavannahs are found. primarily in South T.adzhikistan,
in the light averages zone. These are the important major spring and, win-
ter pastures of the republic. Situated. on ancient river terraces and
hilly adyrs, they are covered with a variety of short-lived. plants (ennual
brose grass, trischetinnik, goat's eye, barley grass, rogoglaeik, etc.)
with a predominance of short perennial sedge and 'bulbous or viviparous
meadow grass, which 'begin to sprout in December or January. -when
precipitation begins. The short-lived vegetation grows very rapidly in
tSarch and. early April. At that time the vegetation cover resembles the
surface of a meadow and. is characterized by thick and light-green growths;
its colors ranging from yellow goose) onion and white merensiera to red.
tulip, poppy and reneriya or yellow crowfoot and 'violet malcolmi-am. The
low-grass cover of the semisavannahe provides excellent fodder for all
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types of cattle, particularly cheep and goats. With the onset of dry
and hot weather, at the end of March or in the first half of April, the
shortlived plants dry out and are replaced. by scattered drought-resisting
plants, such as annual stelworts or haloxyloas (in rocky places; and
wormwood, particularly in Xorth Tadzhikistan). This. dasert-type vegeta-
tion, which in auaaer covers the same territory that produces meaopIrtic
vegetation.
in spring, is used for winter grazing of sheep and goats.
The leuaaTass semitavannahs found at altitudes of 700-900 m is
South Tadzhikistan and containing admixtures of large semiepheserolds?
are followed by pistachio or stiblyak woods. Is the western part of
Pamir-Alay and on the northern slopes of the Turkestan Mountain Range,
where such woods were destroyed, at altitudes ranging from 900-1,000 m
to 1,800-2,000 a, have now been covered with mach grass, awl the mere
humid areas with bulbous barley grass. The semi-savannahs, producing
large crops of tall graas (from 30 to 60 oentners per hectare), are
generally used as winter or temporary pastures.
The tall-grass semi-savannahs consist of large umbrella-shaped
yugans, camomile or ferule, giant elecampene? or adz, etc, which grow
in mountainous areas and frequently also at the juncture of broad-leaf
forests and brushwood up to an altitude of 2,5004,000 a (as on the
southern slopes of the Gissar Range, for example). Beginning in, April-
Hay, their growth starts later with the rising altitade, and is com-
pleted in July-Aagust, long before the onset of the cold weather. The
tall-grass semisavannahs are classified as temporary summer pastures.
The Tagam leaves skin-turning When fresh, make good fodder when mowed
dry; that fodder is stored in large quantities for feeding cattle in
wintertime.
The major assophilous summer pastures are followed, by wastelands
and meadows. The cryophiloas wastelands, often called Alpine meadows,
are faand alaost exclusively in the Pamir upland areas at altitudes of
3,400-3,500 a and in its western areas at altitudes of 4,000-4,100 m.
They usually appear in small scattered areas among rocks and rock waste
(talluses). Small tracts of them are found also in the eastern districts
and in Pamir. The wastelands Erpustoshig resemble steppes rather than
meadows, and, with the exception of the Irspring" period (end of jun* and
beginning of July), are not knows for their bright colors. The vegeta-
tion there is Inal-adapted to the severe climate, particularly to low
temperatures. This is manifested by the shortness of the grass cover,
which frequently consists of turf grasses or soft and flat pillow-like
undergrowth and a variety of other grasses. Typical of the turf-like
wastelands also are various groups of kobrealya (Persian, Pamiroaner
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dwarf types), rupture worts, short meadow grate, and. oryzees growing
in undergrowth and. aeniscrub vegetation, including bulbous ostrolodka,
astragalus. cinquefoil (snow fan-leaf types, etc), prolomniks, crowfoot
(red. cup. black eclat Alai and Turkestan types, etc). primrose, sib-
baldiya, etc. The kobresiya wastelands. 'which aro cmcne the best
bi-
land. pastures for boii all and largo lireatcet (Yaks), are most wide-
spread in Pamir where they cover vast areas but are seldom found, in the
western part of the republic. The latter territory is doninated by
wastelands covered. with ostrolocika and. rupture wort. Small wastelands
covered- with large varieties of grass are found throughout the Tadzhik
highlands, but mostly on the southern pebbly mountain slopes where the
bustidity is higher and the soil better. There the multicolored. and.
bright grass cover is formed. by svercia, Kashmir lagotie beautiful
white wind, flowers, globe flowers, snow primrose, prolomnik, ate. On
the southern pebbly slopes it is covered, with scattered 'hit tall over-
growths of Glaser buckwheat flour, Kara-Ban whit* meadow grass, beach
grass, etc. Despite their low fodder yield, these waotelands are
valuable as cattle-fattening pastures since their fodder is rich in
carbohydrates and. albumin. They are generally used. in August and
September.
The meadows of Tadzhikistan are mostly concentrated in the sub-
alpine zone, above 2.500-3,000 m, but are on the whole of secondary
importance. Only in rare cases are they extensive enough to fern a
separate land belt; among such extensive meadows are the characteristic
subalpine meadows covered, -with various grasses e.nsi. whose structure is
somewhat similar to that of the oteppes. Growing alongside the typical
essophilous plants, such as miscellaneous orchard grasses, Zeravehan fox-
tail Turkestan and. Angrenskiy brone crass, anakerelis types of
regneria, Bokhara meadow grass, toron, Alpine buckwheet. Thous= liga-
lariun and, in some places, Zersarshan milkwort, are certain elements of
the tragacanth and steppe vegetation. Pound occasionally along the
upper borderline of the broad-leaf forests and brush-woo& are highly
valuable meadows covered. with Gissar vetch, Popov fenugreek, miscel-
laneous orchard grass. Totalling, and blue lucerne which alternate with
clusters of beautiful endemic mulinak-vetchling. Wideopread also are
intrasonal meadows resting on the moist soil of river and. lake vallcys
(as in Iskanderkulo, for example). The basic components of the tall
grass cover of these !meadows are a mixture of sedge and miscellaneous
dicotyledonous grasses. In only a few places is the meadow vegetation
used. for hey.
Lying close to the meadows are bamboo marshes sazobolota"T, which
are found "both along the foothills and on the uplanas where threat]. has
a. high moisture content, but they are not widespread.'Among them are
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ow's.% . ???????-?ti
the low-altitude grass swamps covered with high cane, reed. grass, reed.
and. sedge, etc., which are of little soonomic value,bat are used for
winter pasture (as for example, in the 3yr-Darya River Valley, along the
Vattsh alter, etc.): as well as high-altitude swamps. The lattzr arc
found at altitudes of between 3,000 and 4.000 st and. higimm and are
favorite summer grazing land for all. types of cattle. Their vegetation
cover consists of miscellaneous cryophilous (frostproof) sedge (black,
round, small, and malodorous), blismus, narrow-leaf loobresiya and. other
grasses (bristly !oxtail crass, hair grass, Alpine timothy, etc). Many
of the bamboo marshes are found in East Pamir where they are frequently
accompanied by Alpine waoteland. The meadows and bamboo marshes form
part of the summer pastureland which is used. over a period. of 3-4 months.
Despite the large variety of herbaceous vegetation and the valuable
fodder it contains (especially in the low-altitude spring pastures and.
high-altitude mummer pastures), the fodder crops vary a great deal from
year to year; this and the relative meagerness of me sophilous plants and.
the abundance of inedible plants (as in the case of the subalpine meadows)
does not always insure a stable green-fodder supply for the cattle. A
rational system of cattle grazing, pasture control, a thorough and.
systematic utilization of pastureland, improvement and. irrigation of
desert land, planting of the best local typos of grasses (already sus-
comet:4.1y begun by sone kolkhozes and scientific institutions), the fight
against weeds, and the implementation of timely hay-mowing all these are
some of the measures required., but still inadequately carried out, in
Tadzhikistan.
Vast stretches of the republic, not counting the snow banks and.
glaciers, lie at altitudes of 4,000-5,000 m, and sometimes lower, are
covered, with rock and rock waste, and are deprived of any vegetation.
Located up there are a few types of the above-mentiomot wasteland. as
well as certain cryophytes. These so-called preglacial plants are wide-
spread. in the area of permanent snow and. glaciers. This is a high-
altitude silent ndeserton its rocky surface- is determined by the in-
tensive physical disintegration process and. downward slides of the dis-
place& surface formations facilitated by the melting snow. it is very
seldom that one can see some plants sheltered. among the stones at alti-
tudes up to 5,500 a. Further down, however, the cliffs are covered, with
a lower-typo vegetation, mostly blue-green algae, which is highly viable
under the intensive daytime solar irradiation during the short summer.
Under these extreme Conditions of life, the algae, heterotrophic fungi,
actinomycetes and. bacteria destroy the rocky soil and. form a so-called.
primary fixes-grain clover Lcalkossag, which in tam produces various
types of moss and Mellor vegetation.
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The main feature of the Tadihik animal world is its extreme qualita-
tive diversity. This is to some extent accouate& for by the southern
location and complex topography az veil as by the fact that Tadshikistanse
fauna includes also spools:ens originating in several different zoo-
geographical territories. This couatry was reached by the following
Indo-African and Indo-Malayan specimens: the porcupine, Yews' flytrap,
the Indian starling, the Indian oriole, the cobra, the monitor (largest
of the lizard family), Danayda and Ithrisipp buttefflies? arcilyasis
sobria? and other insects. Other forms of life came from the Southeast:
the Eimalayan striped WW1% the Himalayan mountain bright tails
gorikhvostkaL the siVria oak:wee (dUbonos) and the Rimalayan apnea
from the sane direction were Tibetan forms of life: lone-ear
pischakha, mountain turkeys, sickle beaks freerpoklyavg and the Tibetan
sage grouse. lixotic for Tadzhikistan, these new forms lend a peculiar
aspect to its fauna, which consists basically of animals from the North,
the Aral-Caspian deserts and the Mediterranean.
We shall review the Tadihik animal population according to the
altitude belts, beginnieg with the lowlands, -which cover a small part of
the entire territory. Most of the agriculture is concentrated in the
lowlands, ami the animals living there are therefore worthy of special
attention. It was not very long ago that herds of small antelopes
(Dzbeyrans) consisting of several dozen head each, were grazing an the
plains in the Southwest of the republic. Large numbers of the ibex
and Afghan wild sheep (anal) were roaming the low-altitude areas.
Some Bokhara deer still remain in the tugais; they aro now protected in
the animal preserve called. Tiger Valley, lei& derives its name from the
Taran tiger, the largest wild beast of Tadihikistan. still OSIM in some
parts of the country. Riskin, the leopard still inhabits the high
deserts. The striped hyena and jackal are frequently seen. in the low-
lands. Another common inhabitant is the porcupine. Oatstanding among
the birds are those which have almost been exterminated in the cultivated
sone: the Tadshik pheasant, the decorative flamingo, the Indian
the Indian or Afghan starling (mama) and the Indian swallow as well at
the Venus' flytrap, which is found in the wooded mountain gorges. The
desert abounds in a large variety of reptiles, Including such poisonous
snakes as the cobra, the sand efa? the armor-jaw and curse and the none-
poisonous racer snake and miniature steppe constrictor; the lizards are
represented by agamas, gecko and monitors. Thera is also the tortoise.
In addition to the Above-mentioned exotic animals, there are many other,
less interesting, inhabitants of the ulains, each as the large groups of
rodents combining Indian and Indo-African (nezokia and sand dwellers)
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and Central Asiatic species (jerboas and house mice). The wild boars,
already driven from the cultivated zone, used to be numeroas here.
Found in large numbers everywhere are the badger, the wolf, the fox, and
the Tolai hare. These, incidentally, penetrate very high into the moun-
tains. There are very many birds of a nerthara origin from emus,
sparrows, and snail insectivore to wild water fowl. There is considerable
animation as the birds fly. past. Flocks of cranes, wild geese, ducks,
woodcocks, and various small birds fly over the rivers, lakes, and
deserts. Flying past also are bustards, which spend part of the winter
there. Common among the fish in the relatively calm waters of the val-
leys are shoat-nth, flatnose (lopatonos), sum, barbel, and zherekh.
There are about 40 species of fish in Tadzhikistan, 46 typos of reptiles
over 350 varieties of birds, and more than 70 types of mammals inhabiting
the plains and mountains.
The animal population of the mountains is essentially different from
its lowland counterpart. There are few reptiles here, and their variety
is limited; of the poisonous snakes, only the gyurzal and less frequently
the armor-jaw, reach high elevations. The Indian and ludo-African forms
of life are not common here; one of them, the Indian oriole, reaches
highest into the mountains. The mountain fauna consists in the main of
northern elements with an admixture of Himalayan and Tibetan elements.
Of the hoofed animals, the Siberian eapricorne are still the most numer-
ou43 in the mountains. Living in the osme area is the snow panther. The
long-tail marmot and red npishchuldie inhabit the same altitudes. Living
in the same area, ana even at higher altitudes, is the Himalayan %lee.
The savin oakaose is common in the upper forest zone. The sickle beaks
freerpoklynvg are, found along the river Shallows. The area between
these and the lower mountain belts is inhabited by the brown, bear and, to
a much lesser extent, the lynx. The ermine is found within a wide att.
tail range. The otter is also found at high altitudes, along vict-
flowing rivers. Martens maybe seen occasionally. The forest dormouse
and Turkestan rat, WhiCh occasionally infiltrate bunan habitation along
with the house mouse, are typical nUt-forest dwellers. Of the mouse-
type rodents, the polevak and gray hamster rise high into the mountains.
The ggas birds in the mountains consist of rare water fowl, slars? quails
and mostly the Tien Shan kaki/kip Which replaces the Xyzylikum keklik
at higher altitudes; the latter is not found beyond the limits of the
southwest lowland and low mountains. There is a auserems group of forest
birds including reels, tomtits, thrush, hoopoe, and woodpeckers which
live in the plains. The alpine jackdaw is strictly a high-mountain bird.
Among the large birds of prey living in the mountains there is the golden
eagle, the black 4griffemn, which lives an carrion, and ordinary and.
bearded. vultures. They are found also in the plains. Treat and ("marinka")
are caught in the rapid. mountain streams and small rivers.
to-7.11
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The unique fauna of East Pamir deserves spacial attention. The
number of the species, limited by the severe climate, is not large.
That is why there are whole groups of animals which are not found. there,
as for example reptiles and some of the birds requiring arboreal vegeta-
tion for nesting, purposes. There are no Insectivore or stameals, and.
the weber of rodents, especially :mall ones, is limited. Numerous
among the larger animals are the Thlai haze and long-tall mar=t. There
is the Pamir pishchukha which is replaced. by a different type in the
western part of the republic. The ?richer is the only lag. mammal common
in Pamir. Among the others are the Siberian capric.orn fkozerogg? snow
panther, wolf, and fox. Bears are Very rare. The typical *birds there
are: the horn lark, alpine jackdaw, vyarka, red duck, Binalevet ular.
the Indian or mountata goose, which is not found in the other parts of
the republic, the Tibet= ular, and the Tibetan sage grouse. On the
whole, there are zany more types of birds in Pamir, particularly those
flying over it.
Some of Tadzhikistan' s animals have a certain economic value. The
tiger* snow panther, leopard, and. ibex ars usually caught for the zoos.
The fur-bearing animal industry still is not well organised in 1ad-0141d s-
ten, nor does one take advaatege of the natural hunting seasons which are
determined by weather conditions. The fur-bearing marmot, the most nu-
merous type of all, is not used to the best economic advantage. The
mina used mostly for commercial Intrposes is the fox and, to a con-
siderable extent also, the marten; the furs of the reed eat Lificamysheviy
kotwr and. jackal are of poor quality. till&ardual breeding is a pronising
ingistry. The first step in this direction was the successful experiment
made by the zoologists in the aoclimatisatioa and restricted open-space
breeding of nutria (of the otter family) la 164P-1953; the animals biers
then turned over to the Zagotshivsyryo (Association for the Procurement
of Pura and Paltry) which has been producing commercial fur since that
time. Of the destructive mammals, we should. mention the rodeats, gophers,
jackals, and wolves which, while destroying agricultural products and
other animals, are also carriers of diseases affecting Moan beings and
domestic animals. The most destruotive of the birds are the sparrows --
Spanish and. domestic which cause damages to the grain crops. The
scare-crow method is the way one used against then. te.t that requires
much labor and entails a corresponding lass of crops. Destructive also
are the pine-finches which exterminate the lees, and. the marsh hen-
harrier, which preys on the meets of the water fowl. Nest of the birds,
however, are useful ia that they destroy harmful rodents, weeds, and
particularly insects which thrive in kat climates. Thieful also are the
birds of prey which live on nice, cicadas, and locusts. The largest of
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them, living on carrion, are useful from a sanitary point of view. Game
birds and. hoofed. Animals desert* the unstinted attention of the hunting
community and. the commission on wild life preservation, as this very
valuable game is threatened. by extermination at the hands of poachers.
Thaaa --az; ra3vera-1 'Iaanslaaad type:: of vertebrate animals in Tadzhikistan.,
but the number of invertibrates runs into many thousands. We shall mention
only some of the most important groups.
There is a largo variety of worms in Tadzhikistan; as a rule, the
most numerous of thee are those capable of becoming parasites in bum
beings and agricultural animals.
Outstanding in the spider family is the scorpion, which lives in
houses and other buildings as well as under stones and sometimes under
the bark of trees. The poisonous karakurt as well ae the tarantula are
very common spider specimens. Cowen in the desert parts of the valleys
and the central mountain belt are large spider-like Solpugida, or rfalangig
Which are nonpoisonous but frequently frighten people Who are atnawirre of
that fact.
There are maw dozens of tick species in Tzar-Mil stem. Many of
these spider-shaped. ticks are harmful to latmau. beings, domestic animals,
and. plants and. they are also disease carriers. Groat damage to agri-
culture is caused by moll spider-web ticks particularly by those living
on fruit and berries. Responsible for serious damages to the cotton
fields is the so-called. cotton weevil which, incidentally, damages also
all sorts of agricultural products including many types of trees and.
brushwood. About a dose& types of the /zone and argosid ticks (of
which there are 30 different kinds) are carriers of diseases dangerous
to hulk= beings (tick and. relapsing typhoid and. I.XIII* fever) and. agri-
cultural animals (Remceperidia).
The number of insect species is larger than the combined. total of
animal and, plant species: there are more than 10,000 of them. The
common termite, which is wide-spread in the tropics, is also found in
some Tadailik valleys, but they cause no damage to buildings. Among the
tropical insects are the palochnik, tree pilgrim' Pldreveszaiy logomolg,
empuaa, and. certain crickets. Also the locust. inother serious agri-
cultural pest is the Moroccan Mare lecast.
Many types of Diptera are carriers of diseases dangerous to human
beings and. animals. The Aaopholes mosquitoes, 'mach more 1112MOrcias here
than in the central belt of the TISSE, are known as carriers of the
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malaria disease. The ordinary mosquitoes which, like the Anopheles type,
abound. in the desert areas of the republic and the mountains, are car-
riers of mosquito fever, or pappatachl, and the pcndinakiy tticor. Mies
are carriers of various serious diseases everywhere. Thus the Tadzhik
market fly is a carrier of inftlatious conjunctivitis. Certain types of
flies (the Wo'fart fly and. others) produce serious infections in liumen
beings and animals' by depositing their larvae in the mucuoul membrane
of the p,ii? se, eyes, and. ears or in open wounds; the larvae then pentrates
deeper into the tissue.
There are about 200 types of aphids in Tadzhikistan; WM. of them
(mostly the cotton, melon, and black lucerne aphids) cause great damages
to the cotton fields. The fruits are seriously d.amaged by the blood.
and peach aphids. Belonging to the semicolepterous family or bugs (of
which there are more than 700 types in Tadzhikistan), is the large
black bug living in the northern areas of the republic (the ledchenko
type); its bite is unbearably painful.
The Hyswooptera comprise one of the largest families. The most
numerous of them are the stinging and. parasitic Hymenoptera which are
confined to the high altitude areas. Among the larger stinging types
is the eastern hornet, which is harmful to bee-keeping and viticulture,
as well as the nscolivan. Bumble bees are found, only in the mountains.
Certain parasitic Bymenoptera are highly instrumental in. preventing the
increase of such agricultural pests as the Turkestan 'brown-tail moth,
the mountain ring bombyx, eta. Many agricultural products, trees, and.
shrub vegetation are seriously damaged by different types of beetles.
The =irrigated. -crops in the valleys and foothills of Tadzhikistan are
seriously damaged by the, larva: of various cockchafers, narticularly
the humid-land ribogarnie cockchafer. The city and. village trees
are adversely affected. by the city long-horned beetle whose large
larvae bor. wide passages through tree stems.
There are at least 2,000 species of Lepidoptera, or hntterflies, in
Tadzhikistan. There are 600 of them in the comparatively mall Vakhih
River Valley alone. The types found in the tugai forest include the
large tropical ephemeral butterfly. danayda Ihrisipp, and the gigantic
Indian cutworm type, arctlyasis "'brie (or the Lendyr brashozik). just
like the vegetation of the valley tugais, the butterflies are unique
ani oriel ffsamobytnag. Unique also are the Lepidoptera of the sand
desert. in the South of the Vakhsh Valley. Typical of the sandy areas
is the Shrub pest called calligonnhkftdzbazgung, the caligonumixnabyx.
as well as the medium and small call gonua cutworms, the anthracite
pigeon and a variety of snout moths. The Vakheb. Valley abounds in
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cutworm and. snout moth species. The butterfly varieties are coleiderably
richer in the mountains than. in the desert zone. Among them is the large
fruit pest called. peacock-eye Shenka. Among the ephemeral butterflies
found. in the higher altitudes are the beautiful apollons, wallow worts,
some anaemic types of Bpinephelidae, erebtuas, and many cutworms and
snout aotha. T.he cotton cutworm and. Nitaradrina" are very dangerous
pests in the lower altitudes and. the apple-tree moth the acantaLs 71.1V
bom'brx,, the Turkestan brown-tail moth and the Tadzhik hooded moth are
mountain area pests. Over 150 types of lepidopterous tree and. &rot
pests are found in. the Xondara River Gorge of the Gissar Mountain Range
alone.
2. ?ROM MIA RIV9FtT 05` TIM TADZHIK PZ0P151
The most ancient states of the Tadzhiks, ancestors (the Baktrians and.
Sogdiaas) who inhabited. the Pamir. the An-Darya mountain districts of
Tadzhikistan and the Zeravshan and. rashkadarya valleys were Baktria and.
Sogd. in the sixth to the fourth centuries BC, Baktria and Sogd. had. been
part of the Akhessenide state created. by- the Persians.
The Baktraisa aM Sogdian' were farmers, lived in. oases, and. engaged
also in handicraft and trade. The predoninant economic system was the
ancestral village community with large patriarchal families, but slave
ownership also existed.. The working population suffered from arbitrary
rule and. the numerous taxes levied by the Akheasaides. Which resulted in
frequent uprisings in the coluttry. Weakene& by internal straggle and
continu.ed wars of conquest, the Akhemsnide power fell under the pressure
of Greco-Macedonian troops in 334-330 BC, though the Central Asian popu-
lation continued their bitter resistance to the comqvarore.
Approximately between 140 and 130 IC, the Greco-Macedonian power
in Central Asia was completely overthrown by the ponelation of the agri-
cultural districts of Warta and Sega and the Xasseget nomadic tribes.
The Tokharistan state, formed. in Bektria, as well as see and. other Cen-
tral Asian areas, waltsequently became 'Dart of the vast rashes, kingdom.
The geographic positioa of the new independent state, located between
the Near last and China. was very favorable. The Chinese cams there in
search of allies against the Runs, and established trade and cultural
relations with the Tokbars. Rateable across Tokharistan were ssilk
routes" (several *silk routes* ren across Central Asia from South to
North; the Pamir, Alay-rarategiask, ?organs., and. Semirechtmak; the
southern routes had. bees the busiest at an earlier time, and the north-
ern later on); silk was bought in the markets of the Tarim River Va114ty
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and taken to the countries of the Greco-Roman West. Tokharisten imported.
glass manufactures (thin multicolored glass and, crystal glass) from Rome
end the Byzantium; precious stones, decorative articles, etc from Cen-
tral Asia, and spices, cotton, and. woolen materials fro* India. HaTibg
their trading posts all along the route between Central Asia and China,
the Sogdiaa serchaata acted, as the principal middlemen in the trade
'with China.
Slavery existed among the peoples of Central Asia along with the
village community type of government. The Chinese fouad great economic
and. cultural achievements there, particularly the -production of lucerne,
grapes, cotton, and. excellent horses, i?bich had, been unknown in China.
Raying learned. the methods of producing lucerne, grapes, and. cotton,
they in turn contributed to the develcrpment of silk production and the gun-
smith trade in Central Asia.
In the fifth centary, Baktria, Sogd, and other areas of Central Asia
were conquered by the Rphthalites, or white Hans, and in the sixth cen-
tury by the Turks. The backward. nomadic tribes come under the strong
cultural influences of the Sogdian'. The ilLarkic population settled on
the land. (mostly on the poorest parts of it) and. inter-mixed with the
local population.
That period. was characterized by the deterioration of the slave
system and. the development of a new one -- the feudal system. Surther
advances in the economic and. cultural life took place in the sixth and
seventh centuries. Rey strides were made in the handicraft industry
and. trade. The production of batter glass shifted to Central Asia from
where it was copied by China. The production of minerals ? iron and cop-
per, silver and gold, 'azurite and ruby ? was begun in a. number of places.
The prefendal cities with their baadicraft industries underwent a chaage.
Large-scale irrigation work was introduced, and the "Iyarizn type of
irrigation (water brought in from outside) was practiced in arid, places.
gdian was the principal state and popular language which spread east-
ward to China. A rich literature was produced. in that language, but it
was later destroyed by the Arabs.
The development of feudal relations led to the formation of a. large
number of ladependent and sentindependent local principalities. Such a
seepontatioa of the country ne.de it difficult for the inhabitants of Cen-
tral Asia to unify and repel the new foreign conquerors -- the Arabs.
The Arab conquest of Central Asia in the seventh and. eighth centuries
was a heavy blow to the high culture of Sogd, Toltharistan, and its other
districts. The rich Sogdian and. Baktrian culture was to a considerable
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extent destroyed. The Sogdian literary language began to yield to Arabic.
Islam became the predomiaant religion, replacing the former creeds and
cults. The population had. to pay a number of different taxes to the Arabs,
and was subjected to forced labor in the construction of buildings, brid,
gee, fortress walls, in digging canals, etc. The population of Tokharistan
:Lad Sega were engaced in constant struggles not only against Arab domina-
tion,, bat also against the local aristocracy. There were powerftl and
long-lasting uprieings, sac& as the pant revolt headed by a tradesman.
Nesbit the Hakim (Makanna) %Ali& lasted many years (775-783) and thriat-
*nod to deprive the Arabs of all their conquests in Central Asia. It took
a great deal of effort an the part of the Arabs to suppress that revolt.
Those uprisings served to show that the caliphate woad be unable to keep
Central Asia in subjection by armed force alone. This led the Arabs to
include the local aristocracy in the administration of the country at
aboat 750. But even that failed to strengthen the caliphate. On the
contrary* the inclusion of the local aristocracy in the government and its
growing role in the administration paved the way for the liberation. of Cen-
tral Asia from Arab domination.
It was under the local Samanid dynasty (874-999) that the actual
liberation of Tadzhikistan and the whole of Central Asia took place. Tak-
ing advantage of the people's struggle for independence* the Samanid* were
the first* after the Arab conquest, to unify the disorganised country into
a local state* almost independent of the Bagdad. Caliphate. In the heyday
of its development, that state extended from the Central Asian deserts to
the Persian Gulf and from the Indian border to the Bagdad area.
The Samanids established a uniform system of state administration, with
a centralized state apparatus. For over 100 years that state was not sub-
jected to foreign:attacks, and that facilitated the development of agri-
culture* cities, handicraft, industry, and. trade. The life of the city
wean? longer concentrated in the ruler's fortress but in the open trade
and handicraft quarters. The production of textiles, pottery, and metals
underwent further development as did, in some places, gun. production. All
the previously knawnsineral deposits were intensively exnlcited. Well
developed also was not only foreign but also domestic trade, particularly
with the steppe nomads. The circulation of trade and finance capital
extended also to the feudal lords. The latter strove to lay their bands
on as much of the irrigated land as possible, divide it into small plots,
and rent it out. Made landless, the peasant became a share cropper.
It was during that period that the Twist:ilk nation aseumed its final
form. Its spoken language became the state and scieatific-literary lan-
guage. The Samanid period was one of the most important periods in the
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development of Tadzhik: literatare as that epoch produced a =Ober of
brilliant personalities. First among them were the brilliant founder of
Tadshikpoetry, Rudaka, and the greatest poet of that period, Firdouei,
the creator of the world-famous epic "shakhname".
The scientific achievements were no less great than those in artistic
literature. There was a large number of scientists in every field of
knowledge at that time. Among the outstanding on;; vaa the world famous
soieatist-encyclopedie4 of tte middle ge &bU ibn-Sino (Avicenna).
The class antagonism, the struggle between the feadal lords, and the
central government, the constant intrigues between the representatives of
the court and the officials of various departments, and the friction be-
tween the rulers of Samanid origin and. their military chieftains of Turkic
origin combined to Shake the Samanid state which, unable to withstand the
pressure from outside, fell ander the blows of the Karakhanides in 999,
and the Gasnevides in the South (South of the Amu-Darya).
The unification of Khorasan, Tokharistan, Northern India, Iran, and
part of what is modern Tadzhikistan around a single center again Created
certain prerequisites for the development of science and literature.
Poets and scientists, including one of the greatest scientists of the
middle age, the famous traveler Biruni, lived in the court of the Gaznevide
Sultan Itakhmuil.
That period was marked by an intensive feudal decentralization of the
land. The practice of extending land grants, or ikta, to distinguished
military chieftains became widespread. The big hereditary landowners, the
dekhkans, were replaced by a new social group, the iktador-landowners.
The latter proceeded to raise the taxes and increase the demands on the
peasants, which made the conditions of the agricultaral population con-
siderably more difficult.
That period was marked also by the mass settlement on the land by
the Turks. They crowded the native population off the better land. and soon
thereafter Turkic-speskingsmtionalities predominated the plains; dif-
ferent Turkic-speaking nations were formed indifferent areast Uzbeks
between the Syr-Dary* and Amu-Darya rivers, Tarkmenians in the Trans-
caspian steppes, etc.
The creative works of such outstanding representatives of Tadzhik
literature as Nosiri-Xhisrou. and Omar Ihayyam were originated by the and.
of that period.
In 1220-1222 Central Asia was conquered by the Mongols, who brought
grievous times to the Tadxhiks? Uzbeks, Tarkmeniane, and other nations in-
habiting that country. A number of the cities were reduced. to rubble by
fires and. looting, their population was exterminated, and agriculture
reduced to a state of extreme decay.
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The Mongolian conquest placed Central Asia in the possession of
one of Genghis ZhanIs sons. Chagatai, who famed ant almost his entire
appanage to a rich Moslem merchant, Maimed. !slava**. The local aris-
tocracy rapidly developed into a bulwark of the Mongolian conquerors.
ThsrsonvItian princes leaned special documents or npaitze to the rich
landowners and merchants empowering than to keep the population in a
state of senivassalage. The isuyurga70, a differtantwrsioa of tha abava-
mentiomed "ikt," became the principal form of owaerchip in Central Asia.
The unbearable oppression by the Mongolian conquerors and local
artistocracy gave rise to national uprisings. The greatest of these was
the one led. by a tradesman, Mahlon& Tarabi, liekhara in 1236. That
uprising was directed not only against Mongolia& oppression, but also
against the local feudal. aristocracy.
The greatest Tadihik poet of that period (eighth century) was Saadi
Shirazi? whose maks became an integral part of Persian. literature.
The 1460s saw the emergence of the Serially, one of the Mongolian
tribes in Central Asia which had been brought there by Timar. In 1370
he seized. power in Ytaveramiakhr (interriver area) and. following 2 wars
of conquest, created a huge power with Sauarkand as ite center. Resuming
his military campaigns, which were to last 35 years, Timar strove to
attain world domination. And while destroying other cultured couatries.
this invader tried to improve the Central Asiatic areas. Be devoted much
attention, to the constructioa of palaces, mosqmes, and memeoiemas. Under
Timor Samarium& became one of the most beautiful cities of that time.
The Central Asiatic agricultural oases, destroyed and. neglected during
the period of the Mongol conquests, were restored. Irrigation work was
begun, as was the development of Agriculture. 10,811 the economic and.
political measures taken by Tiumr were designed primarily to boost the
income of his treasury and to serve the interests of the aristocracy.
The oppression of the masses continued as before.
The economic development and the growth of the cities had their
effect also aa the cultural life of the country. Great advances were
made in astronowy, mathematics, history, literature, smote, and. in the
art of miniature painting and calligraphy in Contra). Asia under Timor
and his successors. Majoring world fame at that time were the poets
Kamol nuishandi and Abderrekbaoa Debut, the Uzbek genius Aiiihee Ravon
the astronomer Ulugbed? etc.
Interdynasty struggle and the interference of the steppe nomads
began to shake the Timor *spire. The international situation was also
undergoing a change. Capitalist industry began to develop in %rope, sea
lanes were opened. all ever the globe, and the major role in world. trade
gradual/7 shifted to Western Murops.
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???"'""1.
At he 'Weaning of the sixteenth century, a considerable part of
Central Asia was again wahjected to conquest, this time by the Uaboks
under Muhammad Sheibani-khan. Internecine feadal strife reached its
culmination, point in the Shisylani state, and the country broke up into
separate, independent, and mutually hostile principalities; Sahara,
Khiva and, later, reamed, as well as the mailer mountain-area possessions
of Shakhrierabs, Gissar, Baan- etc.
Concentrating the land in their hands, the rulers of these princi-
palities strove to copy the system, luxury, and regal splendor of the khan
courts. To that end, they subjected the working people to inhuman exploi-
tation and burdened the...with various taxes and obligations.
By the end of the nineteenth century, the Tadzhik nation was dis-
united. The districts inhabited by Tadihiks (as well as by other Central
Asiatic nations) were divided among different khanates and states. The
majority of the Central Asiatic Tadzhiks lived in the Bokhara and lokani
khanates (in the Pergana Valley and Zeravihan Oasis), in eons cities of
the 'hive khanate, in the semiindepandent upland principalities of con-
temporary Tadzhikistan (Karategin, Darras, 'ban, Shugnan, stc), and
in the northern districts of contemporary Afghanistan and India, and in
Khorasan..
Thus the period between the fifteenth and nineteenth centuries was
characterized by intensified feudal decentralization and endlest inter-
nacine wars (particularly after the seventeenth century) which ruined
the settled population and led to the destruction of the material values
created by the people and paved the way for economic stagnation.
Trade relations between the Russian state and the Central Asiatic
khanates had been established back under Tsar Ivan IV. The commodity
exchange volume was small, but the variety of goods fairly large. The
trade continued later on, and by the end of the eighteenth century cotton
fiber was for the first time included in the shipments of goods from
Central Asia.
Bokhara and Kokand became vassals of Tsarist Russia in 1868 and Ihiva
in. 1873. A governor-general with headquarters in. Tashkent was appointed
in 1867 to administer the Central Asiatic territories annexed to Bessie.
Tsarist troops helped theRair of 3okbara to take over the independent
principalities of eastern Bokhara.
The peoples of Central Asia, including the Tadahiks, now found them-
selves under the deal oppression of TearismL and their own feudal lords.
prom an objective point of view, however, the annexation of Central Asia
Toe.
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to Russia was of progressive importance. It put an end to the inter-
necine feudal strife and. constant wars which had. been a heavy burden on
the working people. The Tadzhik*, as well as the other peoples of Cen-
tral Asia, were given an opportunity to join the advanced cultural and
revolutionary struggle of the Russian people.
l'ollong its annemtion to Puesia. Central Acta vaz drawn into
the world. commodity market. Russia used. it as a raw material base for
her industry, particularly as a source of cotton and Astrakhan fur, and
as a market for her own goods, mostly textile nanufactures. Capitalism
began to sprout in Central Asia. Cotton-processing plants and. oil skills
were built, and oil and coal extraction was begun in the nondzhent Okrug
(northern Tadzhikistan.). A class of local proletarians, though not =?
serous b.an to emerge.
The construction of railroads in Central Asia began in 1870. The
first railroad. line extended eastward. from Krasmovodsk; in 1897 it reached.
Asdishan and. in 1899 it was extended to Tashkent; the Orenburg railroad
line reached Tashkent in 1905. Navigation was begun on the Ana-Darya
river.
To obtain better raw materials, commercial capital had. to pay more
attention to certain branches of agriculture. Higher-yielding cotton
cultures (with an opening boll) and better potatoes and oats were intro-
duced, and fruit orchards were improved.
Bat the Ruasian capitalists did. not build, a large industry there.
Nor were their capitalist-type plantations successful. The labor of the
landless share cropper was much cheaper than hired labor. The profits
derived by the capitalists were so high that they did not find it neces-
sary to spend. money on irrigation improvements or machinery. They con-
fined. their activities to making downeayments and purchasing cotton and
other raw materials; the local bourgeoisie usually acted as middleman
between the colonizers and the cotton producers. The kishlak (central
asiatic village) underwent an. tutprecedented process of economic polariza-
tion. Growing rich, at one end, was the bat who was buying up and, more
frequently, taking away the land. of the ruined farmers; coning to the
foreground, at the other end, was a class of landless sharecroppers and.
farm hands working for the bai for a pittance.
Such was the case particularly in the Ihodzhent district, which was
part of the Turkestan governorship-general. Still more oppressive were
the conditions of the people of the Bokhara kbanate where the Emir held
unlimited, power in local affa3.rs. Rained by the war with Rassia, re-
parations payments and. incessant internal disorders, the working
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population was also deprive& of all civil rights. The khanates wore
divided. into weeks" (*blasts) and. cities, the "beks" into amlyaks (cola-
ties), the latter into "kents" (townships), and the townships into
kismaka (villages). Heading each administrative melt was an official
teaoa glove)" working for the emir, received no salary from the treasury
but lived. entirely on the requisitions taken from the perielatiar.. isinder
the custom prevailing in. the Bokhara khanate, the emir would. distribate
land, including kishlaks, among his favorite officials, and the people
of those kiehleks wo-old, be obliged. to work for the meters of such land
as serfs. The Tadzhik working people were without exception illiterate,
and. the influence of the clergy on the masses was exceptionally great.
The women had. no rights at all. Slavery, though formally aboliehed
under the agreement with Russia, actually continued to exist.
An the above-mentioned, conditions were a great deal harder in
eastern Bokha.ra (now South Tadzhikistan) thich the Bokhara rulers con-
sidered as their colony. The steadily riaing taxes and. various demands
on the population gave rise to frequent uprisings in ditch the Tadzhik
took an active part along with the other peoples of Central Asia. In.
1885 a Tadzhik revolt flare& up in the Boloduzhen "bed" under the leader-
ship of a peasant named. Voce. Another one broke out in the same place
in 1886 and, also in 1887-1888. An uprising took place in the Kalif
"bed" in 1900, in the Denau. "bed" in 1901, and. in the Ku.rgan-Tubin "bed"
in 1902.
But even. in those hard. times (the second half of the nineteenth
century) there were progressive personalities among the Tadzhika, as the
edUcated. and. talented, writer Ahmad. Donieh, for elample. At the beginning
of the twentieth century, the Reset= revolution inspired the activities
of a number of other leading writers of Central Asia, including the
founder of Tad.thik soviet literature, Sadriddin Ayni.
The Russian revolution of 1905-1907 exerted a strong influence on
the development of the revolutionary movement in Central Asia. In 1907-
1914 there was an increase in the number of bolsherik organizations en-
gaged in revolutionary. work there.
The mobilization of the local population by the tsarist government
for labor duty in the rear in connection with the prolonged imperialist
war, culminated, in an uprising almost throughout Central Asia in 1916.
The Tadzhiks took an active part in 00 uprising in thodzheut, Kostakoz.
Ura-Tube, and Pendzhikent. names =inertly a spontaneous peasant up-
rising, poorly organized, and led ter inexperienced people. The tkoops of
the tsar and the emir succeeded in suppressing it. However, it served to
revolutionize the masses and le.ter played. an important part in. the na-
tional liberation movement.
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The result of the overthrow of the autocracy in February 1917 WS
the establishment of soviets of workers' deputies in a number of Turkes-
tan cities as well as in the city of New Bokhara (Kagan). The Turkestan
governorship-general was abolished at the ea of March 1917, But the
February bourgeois-democratic tilvolutiou, did net materiatty chunee. the
life of the Central Asiatic peoples. The former Turkestan governorship-.
Patera was replaced. by a committee of the provisional government, which
preserved the old. colonial regime and. did not even attesip. t to abolish
national. oppression. In Bokhara? the emir managed to maintain his de-
spotic regime until 1920.
The victory of the arse& uprising of the .Pussian proletariat in
October 1917 triggered the struggle for soviet power also in Central
Asia, In. Novaaber 1917 the soviets emerged triusrphant in Tashkent and
lat?er in almost all of Turkestan, including the northern districts of
Tadzhikistan. The Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was
established. in April 1918, as part of the P.TPSR.
The government of the emir-dominated Bokhe.ra adopted a hostile
attitude toward Soviet Turkestan from the very first clay of its existence,.
aroported by the feudal aristocracy, the Moslem clergy,. and. the local
bourgeoisie, the emir began to prepare for a struggle against the Soviet
Goverment. In his preparations he also leaned on the support of the
basmatch bands, the Bassi= White Guards, and foreign imperialists.
The entre s struggle against soviet Turkestan was further facilitated.
by the complicated and. difficult conditions of the soviet government
in Central Asia.
A general staff of the Tu.rkastan front was organized. in August 1919,
under the command of N. V. Franss for the purpose of washing the counter-
revolution as rapidly as possible.
Important political, cultural, and economic measures designe& to
strengthen the young republic were iastitated at the same time. The
first Central Asiatic state university was opened in Tashkent during the
height of the struggle against the toeir. It was at that time also that
the Government of the RsrsR appropriated. 50 million rabies for the
restoration of the cotton irrigation system in huicestan.
The major counterrevolutionary forces in Transcaspia and Semirachys
wire liquidated is 1920. Bat the civil wax was not over, as basmatch
supported by the lair of Bokhara, were still active in a number
of Uzbed. and Tadzhik districts, particularly in Fergatne-
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But the successes of the Soviet Government in the Turkestan ASSR
and. the activities of the underground organisations of the Bokhara
Communist Party, established in the summer of 1918, revolutioaised the
workers of the 33okhara khanate. In a umber of places (Charishou,
Bokhara City) ant/glair uprisings broke out by the sad of August 1920.
Acting on the request of the rebels, Bed Army units of the Turkestan
front came to their aid. and, after a sekies a battle* lasting 4 days,
the city of Bokhara was captured. by the rebels. The emir fled.
In September 1920, the first All-Bokbaran national kurnItaay
(congress) proclaimed the establishment of a Bokbaran People's Soviet
Republic and. elected a governamt. The region was proclaimed. not a
socialist, but a people's soviet republic since its economic and. political
conditions were not yet ready for the establishment of socialist relations.
This was accompanied by the institution of revolutionary measures in. the
interest of the broad. masses of the working population. Freed= of speech,
press, assembly, and trade unions was guaranteed. to the citizens of the
republic; the cherch was separated frost the state; all the land was de-
aerea, state property and used. for allocating land. parcels to the land-
less and. land-poor dekhkans.
Tbe strengthening and. development of the Bokharan People's Soviet
Republic took place against the background of a desperate class struggle,
Dethroned. by the revolution, the emir fled. to Du.shambe and there, sup-
ported. by the bais, clergy, and other counterrevolutionary elemeats, or-
ganizad an army of several thousand and. launched an offensive. The
government of the Bokharan People's Soviet Republic, too week 'to defeat
the forces of the counterrevolution, appealed to the RSI'SR for help.
Acting on orders from the latter, the Turkestan front commend dispatched.
the Gissar Expeditionary Detachment, which engaged the emir bands in
battle in Yebruary 1921. Overcoming enormous difficulties, the detach-
ment routed. the enies troops and captured Dushanbe, rulyab, end Gars
in lobruary and March of 1921. But as soon as the major units of the
aissar Expedition left eastern Bokhara, large beamate:h bands began to
commit outrages in the Boliduzban, Zarategin, and Dams districts.
Smell Bed. Army units, after repulsing numerous basmatch a.ttaoks end
suffering from & shortage of ammunition and food, were compelled. to
withdraw to Dash/mobs and later to the Termes-Shirabad-Bepoun line. A
considerable portion of eastern Bokhara fell into the hands of the
basmatchs under Use contend. of Saver-pasha. Enver proceeded to restore
the prerevolutionary order, ruining and exterminating the working dekhken
people in the process. The existence of the basmatchs in eastern Bother&
made it in-possible to establish a soviet government through elections.
The provisional soviet government in eastern Bokhara was an extraordinary
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dictatorial commission of the A11-33okhara Central Executive Committee,
with its local revolutionary committees, for the affairs of eastern
Bokhara. The infiltration of hostile elements in the Bokharest People's
Soviet Republic and the Bokbaran Communist Party made the struggle
against the avowedly counterrevolutionary forces more difficult. A
purge of the Bokbaran people' o government was carried out intiay 1922.
A specially-organized. group of Bokikaran troops vent into action against
Saver,. which resulted in the rout of his bands iz the summer of 1922.
Enver himself was killed. The other large bandit units we ir,~iiiasholl by
the middle of 1925 and a crucial blow was thus dealt to the basmatch
movement.
Organizing the struggle against the basmatchs, the party and govern-
ment also made a major effort to restore the national economy and enlist
the large-scale participation of the broad masses of dekhkans in the
building of socialins. Heasures were also introduced which were designed
to improve the material welfare of the working people of the Bokharan
Noslel s Soviet Republic. Those meastrres included the exemption of the
dekhkans from agricultural taxes, the extension of credits to farms
ruined by the war, increased imports of industrial goods, etc. In 1924
the Soviet Government allocated. over 20 thousand. poods of seeds for use
by the poor farmers. The construction of a network of schools, various
courses, and. other educational and. cultural institutions got under taty.
In 1925 the state of emergency was discontlxreed and the Bokharan
People's Soviet Republic transformed. into a socialist republic. A
decision was adopted. to divide Central Asia on a national-territorial
basis, and the result was the formation of the tribed and. TUrir:Menian
Soviet Socialist Republics and. Tadzhik ASSit as part of Uzbekistan..
The most important political and economic measure implemented in
the northern part of the republic was the land-end-water reform under
which the working dokhekans received land and water while the expUiting
bate and usurers were deprived, of all privileges. This was accompanied
by the liquidation of the remnants of the old. *air government apparatus
(the amlakdar, or tax-collection, institute, and trial by officials) and
a declaration was adopted on the emancipation of women, the introduction
of the universal education of workers, etc. The large-scale economic and
political effort initiated in the repablic led to steadily growing
political activity and awareness on the part of the working dekhk,ans
and. to the emergence of national cadres.
49
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The successes achieved by the Tadzhik people in the field of socialist
construction created the necessary prerequisites for transforming the
Tadzhik ABM into a Tadzhik Soviet Socialist Republic in 1929. The re-
public included. lhodshent Okrug, formerly part of the Uzbek SSR, but
not within the Tadzhik ASSR. The capital of the republic. Dushanbe, was
renamed Stalinabad.
Under the five-year plans. Tadzhikistan. has growa tato P. pm.r.parcne
socialist republic %lithe high culture and well-developed economy. The
aChisvozlentt of the TadslAk $SR in the development of its economy and
culture are discussed in the subsequent chapters of the book.
PCAILATIOR AT =TURK
According to the 1929 census, the population of Tadzhik SSR amounted
to 1,484,400 people. Its present population is 1.8 million (according to
the 1956 estimate). The average population density is 12.T persons per
square kilometer which is higher Una in Kirgizia. (9.5) and Turkeenia
(2.9), but lower than in. Uzbekistan (18).
A mountainous country with an tatereected topography and large
areas =Imitable for hums* life and OCOOMMIC development, Tadzhikistan
is characterized by a very 'sums& distribution of the population. The
bulk of the population is concentrated in the ware valleys:. in the
western part of the Fergana T.Usy, in the Gissar, Yekitsh, and iafirnigan
valleys as well as those of southeast Tadzhikistan. The average popu-
lation density it the majority of the valleys Is 30-60 persons per square
kilometer, and in sous districts the figare goes up to 100 am& scre.
the mountain districts the population is found along the narrow valleys,
while the watershed. areas are practically uninhabited; their population
density is therefore considerably wiener. The -population density of
most of the central Tadzhik districts, where the topography is pre-
dominantly of the medium highland type, is 10-30 /Arenas per soar*
kilometer, and in the western Pamir highlaads only 2/3 persons. The
population of the severe upload of eastern Pamir is still sparser, 0.2
persons per square mile, despite its relatively level surface.
Between 1926 and 1939, the population of the republic increased by
another 50. But its growth was very towel' in different areas. There
was a more rapid increase in the population of the valleys where wiz
culture and industry are highly developed. The basic and most profitable
branch of agriculture there is cotton growing, which attracted large
numbers of new settlers from the mountains. In a. number of administra-
tive districts, as in the Yakhsh valley for example, there was a 2-3
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;RI
fold. and, even 10-fold increase in the population during that period.
Some of the districts, on the other hand, were settled. for the first
time. In the mountainous parts of the republic, where agriculture con-
sists mainly of grain-farming and. cattle-raising, the population growth
was slower than in. the cotton-growing areas, whereas the population of
the central and. northern districts of southeast Tadzhikistan actually
decreased. in view of the exodus toward the lower areas.
A considerable part of the -population has been moving to the cities,
whose growth is accelerated not only by the local population, but
also by people coming to r.Earlzhikistan from various parts of the Soviet
Union. The city population grows at a faster rate than the population
as a whole. Two hundred and fifty thousand. people were living in cities
in 1939, which at that time amounted to almost 10 of the reraublicls
population. One third of Tadshikistanis present population is now living
in. cities and workers' settlements. The old cities, like Leninabad, Ura-
Tube, Kanibadam, felyab, and Penityb4irent, were greatly expanded under the
soviet government, and. many new ones came into being. There are more
than 40 cities and city-type settlements in the repu.blic at present.
One of the new cities, Stalinabad, has a population of 191,000.
The growth of the cities is indicative of the rapid d,evelopment of
industry and the increasing working class and intelligentsia. The number
of workers employed. in the heavy industry alone has increased several
dosen times during the five-year plans. About 1/3 of the industrial
cadres is made up of local national workers, including women.
The Taillike, the indigenous inhabitants of the country speaking
modern Tadzhik, constitute en absolute majority of the republic's popula-
tion. A few small groups of Tadshiks living in heretofore inaccessible
mountain valleys have partly retained their ancient languages and dia-
lects. Among them are the Pamir Tadshilcs Vakhamtey, Ishkashintsy,
Shugnano-Rushantsy, and Tazgalemtsy whose language is said to stem
from the Saxon language, as well as the Tagnobtme who live in the
Tagnob River Valley (between. the Maser and. Zeravehan mountain ranges);
the latter retained. the dialects of the Sogdian language spoken by some
of the modern Tad.sshiks' ancestors prior to the conquest of Central Asia
by the Arabs, i.e., before the eighth to the tenth centuries.
The Tadzhik* live everywhere in the country but they are in the
absolute majority mostly in the mountainous areas of the republic. The
reason for that is that during the period of political adversity and, the
conquest of the country by the Tarko-Hongol nomads the native population
was driven into the mountains by the neweemers where they were forced to
live under severe natural conditions. The Tadshtks are also in the
majority in all the cities of the republic.
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OferS,
Under the Soviet Government* the settling of the Tadzhik? underwent
considerable changes. Thousands of new settlers, mostly from the moun-
tain districts, but also from the densely populated oases of the plains,
came to the southern valley districts where virgin 831d. formerly irrigated.
but abandoned. lands are now under exploitation and. new irrigation facili-
ties under construction. Most of these settlers arc mauntain tradshiks
now returning to the land once ithaliitael by their ancestors.
There are 2 types of settlement land in Tadzhikistan:4 the ulalee
and, the mountains. Predominant in the densely populated valleys is the
oasis-type large settlement (kishlak), usually extending along a small
river or large aryk (irrigation ditch). Some of the largest of those
kishlaks numbered several thousand inhabitants in 1939, such as the
following in Loninabad. ablest: Kostakoz 10.953 people, Ispisar 8.420,
Nan 6.947, Chorku. 6.364, Un.dehi ,61,100. Vorukh 5.401, etc. (Some of
those large settlements have now become cities or city-type settlements;
for example Chkelovabad. (formerly Iostakoz) and Sovetabad (formerly
Ispisar). Large kishl.elcs, though smaller in size and fewer in number
than in the north, may be 1111011 also in the Gissar. Bakhsh, and. other val-
leys of southern Tadzhikistan. The kiehlaks are surrounded by large
tracts of cultivated. fields and orchards.
A different type of kishlak is found. in the narrow mountain valleys.
There is little lane suitable for cultivation there, and, the scattered
plots of land. are often very far from this settlement and from each other.
The mountain kish3.aks are usually small; 10 to 15 households. The houses
are frequently built on steep mountain slopes, almost on top of each other,
so that the roof of each house, barn, or storage building is used as a.
platform by the house above it. When there is no house below to be Used
for such purpose, the flat ground. in front of it is made into an artificial
terrace of stone and. earth. An exception in this respect are the larger
kiablaks, consisting of 100 households and. more, usually found on the
large alluvial fans in the mountains or on the river terraces of the
large valleys. Such are some of the kishlaks of the Obi3r.hingou. and &Lek-
hob River Valleys in Central. Tadzhikistan, in the Yakhsa liver Valley, and
la other places.
Before the revolution the Tadahike houses were the same as those of
other settled. nations of Central Asia, with some differences between the
valley and. mountain houses. Most of the hewers in the northern part of
the republic were frame houses reinforced with dry clay or raw brick, and.
in the south the adobe-type house predominated. The mountain kiablak
inhabitants built their thick house walls with large chunks of shapeless
rock mortared with clay. The roofs of their houses as a rule consisted
of beams covered with many boards and. poles which, in turn, were covered.
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0.?"""li
with layers of earth of 'varying thicknesses depending on the exeunt of
precipitation. Gable reed roofs were built in some parte of the southern
districts. The type of heating used before the revolution in southern
Tadzhikistan and in almost all the mountain districts W49 "chisneyless
heating" /Furnoye otopleniym7? the heating system used in northern
TadthikiiVaa was primitive Fireplace or "sandal" (a large stool -shaped.
object covered with a blanket; the people sat around the stool under the
edges of the blanket warming themselves in the heat ma:eructed by the live
coals placed in a hole under the stool).
The planning and construction of kishlaks have undergone great changes
under the Soviet Government. They axe particularly conspicuous in the new
kishlaks with their straight broad streets lined with trees. Sovkhoz, MT8,
and frequently also kelkhoe centers are acquiring the features of city,
typo settlements consisting of houses with glans windows, schools, tower
plants, shops, mediae" stations, etc. In the old kishlaks themselves, even
in the most isolated ores, windows are being built In the walls, the chim-
neyloss heating system is replaced by stoves, and furniture and other fac-
tory-made household goods are making their appearance in the houses.
As in the past, the bulk of the Tadihik population is engaged in agri-
culture:, land cultivation and animal husbandry. The Tadzhike have been
farmers since ancient times. The traces of large irrigation structures
and kyariz (underground canals for bringing the subsoil water to the our-
face) as well as suspended visyachiyei mountain tamale dug on almost
vertical canyon walls attestto the hi agricultural level of their
ancestors. It is not accidental that the modern Tadshiks are the best
Irrigation experts in Central Asia.
All sorts of handicraft trades and *sell industries have been wide-
spread among the Tadihiks since the remote past. The beautiful carved-
wood monuments of the tenth to the twelfth centuries* remnants of highly
artistic patterns on cloth found in the excavations of the Mug Castle,
the last stronghold of Tadzhik resistance to the invading Arabs in the
Zeravshan Valley, numerous finds of ornamented ceramics of different
eras, remarkable paintings of ancient Pendihlkont? etc., still attest to
this. The cities had their special quarters of weavers, ceramic workers,
coppersmiths, blacksmiths, wood carvers* etc. Handicraft trades were
widespread also in the rural commuaity. The Tadzhik woolen used primitive
stationary looms to wasym napless woolen and cotton cloths with or with-
out patterns. The men, worked on foot-operated looms, some of them quite
complicated, with 4-8 pedals, produoing cotton, wool and silk:for clothes.
Narthenware was made everywhere. In the villages, the Tadzhik women*
working without the benefit of a compass, prodaced a large variety of
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clay pottery by hand with highly symmetrical ornaments on them. The
ancient trades, particularly the artistic trades, are now being revived
despite the abundance of industrial goods. Artois for the production of
ruga? patterned materials, felting, and other articles have been organized.
Old morausents are being Skillfully restored and new structures decorated
by fenous Tadzhik artists.
The next largest population.voup are the Uzbeks, %to nit mostly tm
the broad lower valleys of the North and South of the republic. Some of
than live also in the cities. Were the revolutioa, the South Tadihik
Uzbeks led a seninomadic type of life. They wore made up of nameroms
tribes which differed from one another not only in name, but also in
certain linguistic and ethnogrephic charactoristios. Some of those tribes
(Karluk, Turk, Ala others) had apparently cone there la ancient tines,
while others (Laker, Natagen, Mureen, etc) have lived there since the
sixteenth century.
In the past, the major occupation of the Uzbeks living in South
Tadzhikistan was animal husbandry and uairrigatedZbogarnoyeg agricul-
ture. The Uzbeks raised. & (Kuser breed. of sheep, key goats and horses,
and. small herds of cattle to be used as draft animals in aviculture. The
Uabed. women were famous for their production of felting, beautiful striped.
and patterned cloths, sacks aad khurdz)mms (bags made of netting). Sur-
vivale of patriarchal social relations, supported. in the interests of the
exploiting tribal rulers, prevailed in the social life of the Uzbekz until
recent times. These Sat* Uzbeke are now living in kolkhes settlements
and engaging in agriculture (cotton growing) and animal husbandry.
The Uzbeks living in Northern Tadzhikistan have not been much dif-
ferent from the Tadzhiks of the plains, in point of culture and. occupation,
either before the revolution or at present. Some of them moved. to South
Tadzhikistan under the Soviet Oevernmeat.
Also living in Tadihikistan are sone Kirgisians, razakhe, Arabs,
Tarkmenians, gypsies, and other nationalities.
The Kirrizians inhabit the Dshirgatallskiy Rayon and. eastern Pamir
(ikurgab district of the MOuntala-Badakhshan. Autonomous Okrug). As in
the past, the Kiresians engage in pasturable animal husbandry raising
mostly fat-tailed sheep and yaks. The largiziaai from the Dzbirgatell-
akiy Baron have engaged in agricultural work, and animal industry since
ancient times. In. the past they used to roan for pastures with their
cattle, spending their simmers in thick-felt yurtas; in wintertime they
would move into large boas.* protected from the cold by flat earthen
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roofs. At present the Kirgiz people are settled on the land, and only
a mull part of the population (the shepherds) follow the collective
farm cattle to the summer and winter pastures. Veit making, carpet
weaving, and knitting woolen stockings in, various patterns are popular
occupations among the Kirgizians.
Living primarily in the cities, workers' settlements, and MS, and
partly also in collective and state farmse is a large number of Russians
and. Ukrainians. Almost all of them settled in the republic under the
Soviet Government, with the exception of some who had lived in the northern
districts before. It should be pointed out that the Daztiaas, Ukrainians,
and other nationalities who moved to Tadihikistan from the central areas
of the Soviet Union have played an exceptionally important part in en-
hancing the culture and expanding the economy of the republic.
Great are the achievements of the Tadzhik peoples tn the development
of their culture, which is national in form and socialist in oontent. This
can be seen in every field of culture and particularly in public education.
Universal compulsory education, including sovenyear schools in the
villages and 10-year schools in the cities, was introduced under the
Soviet Government. There are about 2,600 public schools in the country,
attended by approximately 340,000 children.-- roughly 1/5 of the population.
A native intelligentsia -- specialists in every field of the national
economy, science, and culture -- is rapidly coming to the fore in the
republic. There are dozens of institutions of higher learning: the
State Medical Institute imeni Abuali ibn-Sino, the agricultural and
pedagogical institutes, etc. The Tadzhik State University with 5 facul-
ties was opened in the capital of the republic in 1948. These schools
are conoentrated in Stalistahed, Iteninabad? and Inlyab. Specialists of
average qualifications:* trained in more than 30 special schools,
technicums? and general schools in various cities and settlements of the
republic. The number of college students, special sad middle-school
students, Including correspondence-course students, is about 28,000.
Soientific-research work was began in the republic in the very first
years of its existence. That work has been developing under the following
scientific institutions: the Committee for Tadihik Studies - 1930, the
Tadzhik:Base of the Academy of Sciences USSR . 1932, the Tadzhik: Use of
the Academy of Science* USSR:- 1944 and finally, the Academy of Sciences
Tadehik SSR 1951. The latter comprises 24 solextific-research institu-
tions, including 8 institates which are engaged in the study Of the natural
resources and the history of the Tadshik people and the most important
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problems relating to the deVeIopmeint of the economy and culture of the
republic. The academy has a staff of over 700 workers including 120
Ma's and masters of science. Also in operation in the republic are
nonacademic scientific centers engaged in the study of agriculture, in-
dustry, public health, and. public education. Working under the Ministry
of Agriculture are scientific-research institutes of animal husbandry,
agriculture, and subtropical truit and vegetables, with numerous scien-
tific-experimental bases.
Tadzhik literature ana art have riten to a high level within a short
period of time.
Tadzhik literature, especially poetry, has a history that is more
thes a thousand years old. But it iv only now that all the people, not
only certain individuals, are able to read the works of such outstanding
writers and thinkers as Rudaki, Firdausi? NOsiri-Xhierou, Saadi, 'Manz,
Dzhami, Kama Ihundshandi, etc. The development of modern Tadzhik litera-
ture is facilitated by the poetic traditions of the resat classics and the
direct influence of the loading Passim writers. The remarkable books by
the founders of Soviet Tadzhik literature, Sadriadin Ayni and the poet
Abulkosim Lakhati, enjoy wide populati#. Accessible to the average
reader now are the works of Soviet writers of the younger generation: M.
Tursunzade, M. Mirshakar, S. Ulugzade, J. /kraxi, B. Bakhissade, R.
Dzhaiii, ana maw others. Suffice it to say that more than 50 new works
by Tadzhik writers will be sabmitted for discussion during the Ten Days
of Tadzhik Literature and. Art to be observed. in Moscow in April 1957.
Theatre shows, songs, dances, and national instrument playing per-
formed. by itinerant artists or ordinary amateurs have always been popular
among the people. Bat the greater theatrical art -- national opera,
ballet, the drama, ana the comedy -- were not developed until our time.
The peoples of Tadzhikistan hare now joined the world culture: they now
see plays by Shakespeare, Ostrovskiy, and Corkin and listen to music by
Tchaikovskin Borodin, Verdi, and Bizet in their own theatres.
There are 7 large dramatic and musical theatres in the republic, in-
cluding the Academic Theatre of rrsma and the theatre of opera and ballet
as well as the State Philharmonic, which includes about SOO ereative
workers.
There are about 830 libraries in Tadihtkistan with a total stock of
3.5 million books and magazines, and over 1,050 houses of culture and
clubs.
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Cinemas and radios can now be found in the remotest districts!-of
the republic, Three hundred. and, twenty motion-picture installations
are in operation. There is also a national motion picture studio of
art and, news films. Paintings, drawings, soulpture, and. the new archi-
tectural installations show a further development of the fine arts.
The new socialist culture is beconing integrated. in the daily life
of the people and, in their mutual relations. People of various nation-
alities live and -work- together as friendly families in kolkhozes, workers'
settlements, and. cities. There it a conztant cultural esob.anga ameee
them; this is in part facilitated also by intermarriages, which were
almost impossible in the past.
Although the influence of Russian culture on the Tadzhik peoples is
very strong -- the Uropeen clothes worn by the city people* the construc-
tion of Buroptan4ype homes in the villages, the appearance of faotory-
made furniture, utensils, radio sets, etc in the homes of collective
farmers -- the original features of the culture these peoples have not
only been retained, but are being further developed.
Tadspikistan is equally concerned about the cultural development
of the Tadzhiks and the citizens of the other nationalities. The Children
are taught in their native tongue.. Many middle schools and colleges have
their Tadzhik, Russian, and 'Uzbek 0.aups. The republic's newspapers and
magazines are published in the Tadshik, Russian and limb* languages. The
Tadzhik state publishing house publishes political, artistic, and. popular
games literature and textbooks in Tadzhik, Russian, and Uzbek.
The formation of a native working class, collective-feast peasantry
and new intelligentsia, the development of national cultare in the best
traditions, and the creative friendship with the Russian and other peoples
of the USSR? such are the beeic results of the social and cultural
transformation of the Tadzhik* who are consolidated into a united social-
ist nation.
XCONONT
The restoration and development of the national economy of Tadihikis-
tan under the Soviet government was begun 6-8 years later than in the
other areas of Central Asia and carried out under very difficult condi-
tions. The destruction left in the wake of the Civil War was particularly
great. (The deterioration of the economy in Tadzhikistan, not including
the Khodshent Okrag, may be characterised by the following figarest com-
pared to 1914* the gross production of the national economy in 1924 was
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44%, the irrigated area under crops 21%, an& the area planted to cotton
5%)? Even before the struggle against the counterrevolutionaly forces was
over, the Communist Party and the Soviet Goverment undertook the job of
restoring aed developing the national economy of the former peripheries
of Raseia in accordance with the Leninist principles of a nationality
policy which called for the full political culto.ral, and economic equality
of all the peoples of the Soviet 'Union. Inasmuch as the former peripheriee
of Russia had. been far behind the central area: in. economic and cultural
development, they required effective and. prolonged assistance. The Govern-
ment of the USSR did. everything it could :for the youeg republic; it
appropriated. large sums of money and. sent machinery, specialists, and.
workers who shared their scientific and production experience with the
local workers. Until 1.936 the expenditures of the Tadehilc budget was
Rade up largely of subsidies granted by the government of the union.
(In sous years these subsidies accounted. for 90% of the budgetary expen-
ditures of the Tadzhik SSR). Since the rate of development of the na-
tional peripheries was still very low in comparison eith the central areas,
the Oonamnist Party and the government provided for a more ri.d tempo of
economic and cultural development in the First Five-Tear Plan. The needs
and requirements of these areas were equated with those of the entire
Soviet Union. Large capital invest:I:eats 'were made in the national economy
of the republic; the latter were desigeed to facilitate its planned and.
all-round develop:dent. During the first Five-Tear Plan and the years
preceding it, most of the funds were invested in agriculture, particularly
in the restoration eed farther development of irrigation. The various
branches of agriculture in prerevolutionary Tadzhikistan had. not been in
keeping with the natural. possibilities of the country. Grain cultures
had. been raised even on irrigated. land.. The cotton-growing aria had
been comparatively mall and concentrated primarily in the lierth. A
similar situation prevailed. also in the case of the other branahes of
agriculture -- orchards, viticulture, and silk prodemeaon ? which had
been developed in isolated. districts. Under the Soviet Government, wide-
spread changes were made in the structure, quality, and distribution of
agricultural branches. Cotton became the basic crop of the irrigated.
land in the lower valleys. Grain sowing was shifted to the mountainous
areas where no irrigation was required. 'lost of the cotton is now raised.
in southern Taezhikistan where there was practically no cotton planted
before. This part of the republic is now among the leading producers of
thin-fiber cotton in the Soviet Maim. The Tadzhik SSE produces about
40% of the cotton in the Soviet Union). Cpaatitative and qualitative
changes were made also In animal basbandry. Astrakheat sheep raising
became widespread in the southern valleys. A new breed of highly
productive goats was developed. The teeed of local sheep, cattle, and
horses is being improved..
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The development of the economy of the backward peripheries included
also the development of their electric power, industry, transportation,
and mining.
Much attention was paid to the deyelepment of the republiess induetry.
The foundation for an industry was laid during the first 3 live-Tear Plans
(1928-1940). The rate of development of Tadihik industry in those years
was Tarr high. (Compared with 1913, the total industrial output in
1985 was increased 38 times inKirgizia, 17 times in Turkmenia. 14 times
in Uzbekistan, and 24 times in Tadzhikistan.
About 30 different branches of industry Imre built in Tadvlikistan.
Important from an all-union point of view are the cotton-processing, silk
and cotton producing, and mining industries; the clothing, flomr-Talling,
bread-baking, fuel-producing, metal-processing, building material in-
dastries, etc are now largely capable of meeting the demands of the
republic. Thus the Tadzhik 531 is developing mostly the industries for
which there is an adequate supply of local raw materials. Supplying the
other areas of the Soviet Union with cotton, Cloth, canned goods, wine,
and. ore concentrates. Tadzhikistan in tarn gets fuel, fertilizer, menu-
featured metal, lumber. machinery, and other industrial and. agricultural
commodities.
The following Tadihik industries will receive close attention under
the Sixth Pive Year Plan; expansion of the irrigated. areas -- particularly
those to be planted. to cotton -- and improvement of the cotton yield;
expansion of the fodder base and the animal husbandry and the development
of the power and other industries, particularly the light and food
industries.
Special attention is being focused on the major agricultural crops
cotton- The production of cotton in 1960 will amount to 700,000 t.
New irrigation ditches are being dug:and dams built in various
parts of the republic, and the largest water reservoir in Central Asia.
the Iayra-Kum, /sunder construction.
'Under consideration also is the expansion of the other branches of
agriculture, particularly animal basbondry. The favorable natural con-
ditions will be utilized for the development of fine-wool and semifine-
wool sheep as well as the fodder sources. One of the measures designed
to secure sufficient fodder far the domestic animals will be the irriga-
tion of Over 2 million hectares of pastureland. during the five-year
plan.
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Si-pending rapidly is the power industry. Large hydroelectric power
plants will be built on the Azra-Darya River, on the Vakb.sh Canal, anti
the Vokhsh River. A larger thermoelectric power plant will be commis-
eioned in GU'Inaba&
The output of the industry 1411 be increased 1.4 times and. even more
in some of the branches of the industry. The production or olectric
power, for exempla, will be increased 4-fold, and cement 13-fold. The
light and. food. industries will be reinforced by a few powerful enter-
prises. The textilecora-Aro umier construction in litalinabad, for
example, will produce over 30 million meters of cloth annually, and the
oil-and-fats combine 1411 process over 130 million tons of seeds, i.e.,
approximately as much as is now being processed by all the oil mills of
the republic.
The problem that needs solving in Tadshikistan as in the other
republics of the Soviet Union, involves the creation of an abundance of
goods for the population and raw materials for the industry.
Aszicu.lture
Before the revolution, the northern and. southern parts of Tadzhikistan,
though differing from each other in their economic development, were back-
ward and primarily agrarian areas. Their socioeconomic inequality was
very veat, especially in eastern Bokhara where over 90% of all the
irrigated lands belonged. to the trear,-,....-7, the charch, and the est? (55.0
of the eastern Bokhara lands belonged to the treasury, 24.2% to the church.
and. 12.1% to the emir). Only a small portion of the land was privately
owned, mostly by the bats and, the emir' s officials. The overwhelming
majority of the dekhkans owned tiny plots of lend. and were compelled, to
work on government, church, and. bat land for a small share of the crop.
Many dekkkans were deprived of their personal land to cover their indebt-
edness, as a resat, they become tarn hands.
But Tadzhikistan bas been an al.?;rietatlusal country since ancient times.
Despite all the difficulties and. adversities. the Tadshiks developed may"
remarkable types of plants and. breed.'" of animals adaptable to the natural
condition.* of this mountainous country. Suffice it to melte s011e of the
rare types of apricots and grapes, the Gissisr sheep, the largest in the
world, and. the very light mountain bores. The farmer developed a hie'
skill in the cultivation of the small plots of land and the construction
of irrigation ditches in the high-mountain sz-cas., lut his labor was
indentured, and his agricultural inplements and his irrigation and
raising methods methods remained primitive and substantially unchanged since the
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hoary past. Ploughing was done with a. wooden plough, harrowing with a
bundle of dry branches attached to a log of wood, grain gathering with a
toothless sickle, grain threshing by the hoofs of animals walking over
it, and all the earth and. construction work was done with a hoe.
The Great October Socialist Revolution changirod trio politick and
socioeconomic situatiou lu the country. The land-and-water reform in-
troduced in 1924 made the dekhkans the complete mastw's of their land.
and. water resources. Pat agriculture was still technically backward..
It took an enormous effort to reconstruct agriculture on a socialist
basis.
Two hundred thour.And tiny individual farms were merged into 3,000
collective farms between 1920 and 1937. The :heavy industry built by that
time in the Soviet Union provided a 'variety of machinery for Tad.shikistant s
agriculture. The NTS end the state farms became the vehicles of tech-
nolocr and. organizers of socialist agricultural -production. (There are
71 NTS in the Tadzhik SSR). The major work processes in the field have
been mechanized. In 1950 the small collective farms began to merge
into larger ones; in 1955, there were 400 large collective farms.
After World War II, electricity became available for daily use in
the villages and for agricultural production. More than 100 village
power plants were in operation in 1955. A large number of collective
farms are also using electric power from the rayon
Science also came to the aid. of agriculture: dozens of iastitutes,
experimental stations and. fields, nurseries, botanical gardens, and.
experimental animal-breeding farms are now in the service of every branch
of agriculture.
Irrigation gets particular attention in view of the dry climate. The
primitive methods of prerevolutionary irrigation were based on utilizing
the small swift-flowing rivers* Little use wag made of the large rivers
requiring complicated installations, anti considerable stretches of usable
land therefore remained. desert-like. Characteristic of the soviet period
vas the utilization of the large rivers and. the irrigation and cultivation
of the previously untouched vast dezert-like land. areas.
Large irrigation installations had loon built in Central Asia before
the Great Patriotic War. Among them are the Large Vergana and. Northern
Jorge= canals 'which made it possible to irrigate time of thousands of
land. plots in Uzbekistan and the northern. part of Tadzhikistan. The
Vakhsh Valley is now irristrtal for the first time with the aid of a
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large irrigation ditch and water-retaining dam. The newly-built Largo
Gissar Canal has already irrigated many new lands and improved the irriga-
tion of the old ones. Similar projects were completed. in other parts
of the republic. They were 'built as national construction projects,
with the parki.eipatiou or the broad massee of oollective farmers. Mee*
people performed real miracles of labor heroism. For example, the 270 km,
long Large Fergana Canal was built in only 50 days.
Tadzhik agriculture is highly diversified and includes cotton raising,
fruit growing, viticulture, stock breeding, silk production, and the pro-
duction of grain, oleogenoms, vegetable, and citrus cultures. These cul-
tures are of varying commercial values. The kolkhozse producing the bulk
of the commercial agricultural products get the largest Dart of their
income from cotton raising. The Tadzhik kolkhozes get a considerable
income also from the other branches of agriculture which rate high in the
national economy: animal husbandry, silk production, vegetable and fruit
growing, and the prodnction of citrus cultures, geraniums, and tobacco.
The economic activities of the population in different districts
vary with the prevailing natural conditions. In the lower valleys. cotton
is the major crop. Grain production, animal husbandry, silk production,
fruit growing, and. viticulture play an important part GA the mountain
elopes and in the melt -altitude velleye. These ineuetrtAA Also extend
to the high-altitude valleys, but there they yield in importance to
animal husbandry. In Bast Pamir, animal hasbandry is the sole occupa-
tion of the rural population.
The Tadzhik collective farmers are becoming wealthier from year to
year. The income of the cotton-growing kolkhoses is particularly high.
The average income of a cotton-growing kolkhoz is now about 8.5 million
rubles. Some collective farm families make a considerable income. The
income of the kolkhozes and sovkhozes net producing cotton or other
valuable technical cultures is considerably lower. That iDAMSO has been
increasing since 1953 when the state =Debasing prices of animal products,
potatoes, vegetable, and other agricultaral produce were raised. The
best way to improve the welfare of the waiting; people was to resettle
Dart of the land-poor upland collective farms in the cotton-growing
By cultivating the new stretches of virgin land, the rssettlers
have become wealthy within a short period of time. Many tens of thousands
of small farms have thus been resettled in the postrevolutionary period.
Many more farms will be moved from the uplands to the lower valleys in
view of the cultivation of new lands there.
The mountains and uneven topography restrict the use of the land for
crops, aAimal hasbandry, and other branches of agriculture. Two thirds
of the land are unusable. There are about 4.8 million hectares of land
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suitable for agricultural purposes, but only 1.3 million hectares of
that land is adaptable for ploughing. The total crop area of the
republic is now 800 thousand. hectares which is about twice as watch
as in 1913. Thus the ploughable lend of the republic is to a large
extent already in use. Herein lies the diffcreatee between mountainous
Tadzhikistan and flatland Uzbekistan, particularly Turkmenia, where
only a small part of the entire area is suitable for ploughing purpoees.
Radical changes have been made in the structure of the crop fields.
In 1913, grain cultures accounted for 89% and illdu s trl al cultures for 8%
of the entire crop area; in 1953, the corresponding figures were 5'7%
and 35%. The major industrial culture now is cotton.
In Tadzhikistan, as in the other republics of Central Asia, crops
are raised on both irrigated and unirrigated ribegarniyeg lands. The
former account for approximately 1/3 of the satire crop area. Most of
the irrigated land is in the valleys where precipitation is low and. the
climate is warm. These lands are used. for the most valuable cultures:
cotton, jute, volatile oil plants, as well as vegetables, rice, and.
fodder cultures. Most of the unirrigated. land. is on mounted slopes
where the humidity is high, hat the growing season is short. The
unirrigated. land. is used. primarily for grain (wheat and barley), bean
and. oil-bearing culturee (f1=, sesaae, aud safflower). The unirrigated
land area is twice as large the irrigated, but the importance of the
agriculture under irrigation is immeasurably greater.
The leading item of Tadzhik agriculture is cotton. Compared with
1913, the area planted to cotton has been increased more than 5-fold, and.
the total cotton crop 13-fold.
The bulk of the raw cotton is produced. by the collective farms. In
the South the state farm* plaiz an important part in cotton production.
Some of the collective farms not only grow industrial cotton, but a3. so
produce superior types of seeda for the eollective farms. There are 5
large cotton-growing state farms in operation at present.
The 2 kinds of aotton produced. tnTadshikistan are medium-fiber
and. thin-fiber cotton. The production of the latter was started in the
republic in 1929 and. it now accounts for 1/3 of the entire cotton crop.
It is distinguished for its high quality. The fiber cl this kind, of
cotton is about 1 times longer, stronger, thinner, and. silkier than the
medium-fiber cotton and is used for the production of cloth for high-
vality *lathing and. ether industrial materials. 3u.t this cotton requires
a warner climate and is therefore planted. in the lower and. warmer Yalisys.
The medium-fiber cotton is planted up to an altitude of 1,000 a while the
thin-fiber cotton area does not exceed. 500 m above sea level.
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Pour-fifths of the cotton growing area is in southern Tadzhikistan.
Almost all the thin-fiber cotton is concentrated in the Vakhsh, rsfirnigan,
and Kirovabad valleys, where the sun total of the temperature for the
period with a daily average of below 150 is between 4.0000 .and 5,0000.
The soviet seed-selection experts are developing original types of
cotton adaptable to the continental conditions of Central Asia. Raving
undergone eolitant improvement, the quality of: these grades of cotton is
now higher than that produced elsewhere in the world.
The selection of various cotton grades is designed to increase their
yield, and their fiber length, achieve early ripeness, make then disease-
resistant, and make their growth sufficiently compact for machine-harvest-
ing, etc. Bngaged in the development of new grades of cotton is the
Tadzhik Zonal Cotton. Bzporimental Station in the Vakhsh Valle/yes well
as a wide network of cotton grads-testing and selective seed-growing
farms. Various grades of cotton in Tadzhikistan have been completely
replaced. by superior grades in the past 25 years. Most of the medium-
fiber cotton grades produced in the republic are 126-P, 123-P and. 108-F,
and the most popular among the thin-fiber grades are 504.3, 2363-B and
5904-1 (developed by Turkmenian scientists). New grades have already
been developed to replace these, as for example the new thin-fiber cotton
5010-11 or 5-6017. The latter has a nuMber of good qaelitiest it ripens
early, has mininam brandhing, is resistant td certain di:eases (gannotis
and fesariosis) and, what is particularly important, it requires no chemi-
cal processing for the removal of its leaves, as it shedo them by the end
of the crowing season.
Practically all the labor processes connected with cotton growing
are mechanized. The currant problem is that of mechanizing the most
labor-consuning operation of picking raw cotton. Cotton picking machines
which raise the production output and make the work of the cotton farmers
caster are now in operation on, the fields of the rep-ehlic.
The leading cotton workers in Tadzhikistan are constantly improving
the technique of cotton growing and finding new methods of raising the
cotton yield. They developed a method to reduce the spaces between rows
on ootton fields, which led to an. increase in the quantity of cotton
plants per hectare and a considerable increase in the yield. By narrowing
the distances between rows from ?0 ea to 60 cm, it became possible to raise
the cotton yield by several sealners per hectare. A farther narrowing
down to 45 cm, produced a considerable additional increase in the yield.
The narrow interval method is now used exclusively in cotton planting as
is the progressive square-cluster method. Used. besides the 2 mentioned
methods is the additional surface feeding of the plants and more rational
irrigation method, etc.
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...?""ne
All these measures made Tadzhikistan second in the Soviet Union as
regards the total volume of the cotton crop, and first in cotton yields.
The yields derived from one hectare in the republic in 3.954 amounted to
28.1 centners of medium-fiber cotton and 23.4 centners of thin-fiber
cotton.
Great problems connected with the improvement of cotton growing in
Tadzhikistan were outlined by the Council of Van/store USER and the Cen-
tral. Committee CPSU in a spacia.I decision published. on 6 June 1954. By
1960 the average cotton yield is to be raised to 32.7 contners per hectare:
medium-fiber cotton to 34.8 and thin-fiber cotton to ZO centners per hec-
tare. Various measures for the successfui solution of these problems have
already been developed; foremost among them is the expansion of the land
under irrigation, already mentioned. before, and. the further mechanization
of production.
Among the other southern industrial cultures raised in increasing
quantities on irrigated land, are various types of volatile oil-bearing
plants and tobacco. Tadzhikistan is an important center of volatile
oil plants in the USSR (geranium, the kazanlyk rose, etc). Geraniums
had been raised here even before the Great Patriotic war, but now hundreds
of hectares are planted to that culture. Volatile-oil-plant growing is
concentrated in the Gilmer and Vakhsh valleys where the oil is extracted
from those cultures in special plants.
The ti?atirzairin of the tropical bast fiber plant, jute, was started
in the republic several years ago. The ju.te fibcr is naed for making
ship rope, canvas, sugar sacks, and other products which do not absorb
moisture. Jute is raised, on the irrigated fields of the warmest valleys
in South Tadzhikistan. It covers comparatively small areas and is raised
in the collective and state farms of the Kirovabad and Moscow REarons.
The great possibilities of raising vegetable and melon cultures in
Tadshikistan. are well known: in the warm lower valleys one can raise 2
crops of potatoes and. vegetables a year. These cultures came in for a
great deal of attention. In 1940 the total area planted to these cultures
was 4 times as largo as in 1913. it this branch of agriculture later
began to lag behind the growing demands of the population and industry.
In 1952 the total potato, vegetable, and melon area was even smaller than
the prewar area, and the yield. lower. Ilu.t vegetable production has been
getting more attention since 1953. The party and. the government charged
the agricultural workers with the task of producing potatoes and. vegetables
in sufficient quantities to wet the demand of the population and the
processing industry as well as the demand of the animal industry for pota-
toes. gew potato-vegetable zones have been established, hot house combines
are under construction, and special vegetable-growing brigades are working
around the cities, Industrial centers, and. canning plants.
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-P4...
Crop planting on unirrigated land. is an important part of the work
of the rural population. Five hundred thousand hectares of grain, bean
and olive varieties are watered by precipitation alone. The unirrigated.
crop area begins at a 600-800 m altitude and. eitends lip to 3,400 a above
sea level. Vast tracts of such land are concentrated on the relatively
flat northern slopes of the Turkestan sountain range, in the (Asses
Valley area; Etna on the southeastern hilly plains. The annual precipi-
tation of 400 ma is sufficient to maintain stable crops. The major
portion of the =Irrigated cultures consists of grain, particularly
wheat, Second place is held by barley, thi-filby cleagenone matures, and.
fourth by beans.
In the mountains of Tadzhikistan ordivary, or "soft," grades of
wheat are grown isktioh are drought-restatant, crumble-proof, and have a
high albumin content. But the grain itself is small and the yield con-
parativel,y low. A dialler situation obtains also in the case of the
other local unirrigated cultures ? grains, beans, olives, and lucerne.
This prompted the government to reorganize the whole seed-raising business.
A wide network of state seed-selection and seed. development stations was
opelled for that purpose, including a number of rayon seed fares and. seed-
testing plots. After several years of bard. work, the selection specialists
succeeded in developing s. Ember of pod. grades of cultures requiring no
irrigation. Well-known are the outstanding achievements of the selection
expert I. G. Stikhobrus, who managed within a short time to develop high-
yielding grades of ialteat, barley, lentils. Ottoiliallis and other matures
which are now grown on a large scale by the collective and. state farms
of the republic. The yield. of the new cultures he developed. (nSurkbah
5688" winter wheat, 0lEhodshrau-18" barley, etc) is 1$%-20* higher than.
that of the grades they replaced. And. now a,lnest the entire unirrigated
ploughland is pleated with high-grad. seeds. Mother important agricultural
practice, hitherto practically wiknown in the Barbara khanate, is the plant-
ing of winter crops on unirrigated. land. Most of the wheat and part of the
barley are now plaited in autumn and produces a crop times as large
as the summer crop.
The mast popular of the oleaginous cultures is the oil-bearing or
curly flax frlyea-kudryashg (*icier.'" in Tadzhik). Crowded. off the
lower valleys by the expanding cotton plantations, this flax is now groat.
in all the mountain districts. Comparatively wall areas are pleated to
the very valuable oleaginous cultures, sesame and safflower. BOOM* is
raised. in all the warner low-mountain areas but safflower only in Xorth
Tadzhikistan.
Tractors are used towitork most of the =irrigated. cropland, and the
grain is harvested. with combines. Draft Aelmals are used only in high-
altitude districts Where the crops are scattered in snail plots or on
steep slopes, and the harvesting is done sennalln,
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Horticulture and viticulture ba.ve always been profitable branches
of agriculture in the republic. Tadzhik canned. and dried fruit dried.
apricots, okuryages, currants, as well as various grades: of wine -- are
famous throughout the Soviet Unioa and. abroad.. There are more than 20,000
ha of orchaird.s and. 8,000 ha of vineyards in the republic.
Apricots are the major fruit used by the local canning inbastry;. and
dried apricots are used for exports. The most unpretentious of all fruit
eater's. the apricot tree, grows almost everywhere in Tadzhikistan except
in Faast ramir. Bat most of he aaricct crAlAts, are concentrated in the
Fergana and. Zeravshan valleys. The other fruit varieties grown in the
renublic include peaches, apples, pears, plums, cherries, Tames. wine
berries, and. native plums.
Grapes have been grown in Central Asia since times immemorial. Horti-
culturists have been selecting and. developing the best grades of grapes,
particularly of the raisin variety, and achieving remarkable results.
33u.t the vineye.rds are not evenly distributed over the republic; about
half of then are concentrated. in the Ura-Tubinskiy Administrative Heron.
The Gissar Valley is becoming an important viticultural district.
A large number of orchards and vineyards were planted. after the
October Revolution Seven new fruit-and-grape state farms were established
in the southern part of the country for the purpose of supplying the
expanding canning and wine-making industries and the population with
grape* and fruit. Fruit nurseries opened in many parte of the country
are su.pplying the collective farm orchards with planting materials. The
kolkhozes and sovkhozes have begun to grow lemons and oranges in special
trenches. Rat the progress made in this branch of agriculture is still
inadequate. The population's desani for fresh fruit and, grapes, and. the
canning and, wiue-asking industries' requirements of raw materials have
not yet been fully rest.
Animal husbandry is a well developed. and profitable 'breach of avi-
culture in Tadzhikistan. In 1956 there were 3.6 million head of cattle
of all types in the republic. Four-fifths of that amber consisted of
sheep and goats, and. the rest were cattle, horses, donkeys, and. camels.
Three-fourths of all the animals are concentrated on collective farms.
Bach kolkhos has its own cattle liel poultry fame; mew kolkhoses have all*
pig-raising farms. Much attention has been focused on the problem of
increasing the herds, particularly in the postwar years, and such increases
have indeed. been very rapid (in 1952 the )colkhoz herds were 4.5 times as
large as in 1939). One-fourth of all the cattle arrx IA the animal-raising
state farms and, in the personal possession of tolkhozniks.
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Borticultyre and viticulture have always been profitable branches
of agriculture in the republic. Tadzhik canned and dried. fruit -- dried
apricots, okuryage, currants, as well as various grades of wine -a are
famousIhrughout the Soviet Union and abroad. There are more than 20,000
ha of orchards and 8,000 ha of vineyards in the republic.
Apricots are the major fruit used. by the local cantle* indaetre, and
dried apricots are used for exports. The uost unpretentious of all fruit
cultures, the apricot tree, grows almost everywhere in Tadahikistaa except
in Mast Pamir. Bmt most of the apricot orchards are coetentrated in the
Fergana and Zeravshan valleys. The other fruit varieties grown in the
republic include peaches, apples, pears, plums, cherries, quinces, wine
berries, and native plums.
Grapes have bem grown in Central Asia since times 'memorial. Horti-
culturists have been selecting and developing the best grades of grapes,
particularly of the raisin variety, and achieving remarkable results.
But the vineyards are not evenly distributed over the republic; about
half of then are concentrated in the Ura-Tabinskiy Administrative Rayon.
The Gissar Valley is becoming an important viticultural district.
A large number of orchards and vineyards were planted after the
October Revolution Seven new freit-and-grape state farms were established
In the southern part of the country for the purpose of supplying the
expanding canning aad wine-making industries and the population with
grapes and fruit. Yrult2-ars:ries opmed in many parts of the country
are suppladaer the collective farm orchards with planting materials. The
kolkhozes and sovkhozes have begun to grow lemons and oranges in special
trenches. But the progress made in this braze& of agriculture is still
inadequate. The population's demand for fresh fruit and wept*, and the
canning and wine-making industries requirements of raw materials have
not yet been fully met.
Animal husbandry is a well developed and profitable 'branch of agri-
culture in Tadshikistaa. In 1955 there were 3.6 million head of cattle
of all types in the republic. rour-fifths of that namber consisted of
heep and goats, and. the rest were cattle, horses, donkey*, and. camels.
Three-fourths of all the animals are concentrated on collective fares.
Bach kolkhes has its own cattle and poultry farms; gamy kolkhoses have also
pig-raising farms. Much attention has been focused on the problem of
increasing the herds, particularly ia the posteexytare, and such increases
have indeed been very rapid (in 1952 the kolkhos herds were 4.5 times as
large as in, 1939). One-fourth of all the cattleara in the animal-raising
state farms and in the personal possession of belkhozniks.
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The historical and natural conditions obtaining in the different
parts of the republic tended to proem,* different breeds of domestic
animals. Some of the districts raise highly valuable breeds of such
animals. Vaa raveous aszar eargrp var. developed nevera1 centuries ago
In the southern districts, vbsre rich winter pastures &TO abundant and
exeellent suarner pastures axe available nearby. The Caesar sheep is the
most nroductive breed, in the world as regard.s of meat aba. fat. The
average live vete% of a Giesler ran is 100 kg, and of a ewe 80 kg. The
tail of the average Oisse.r ram weighs 15-20 kg, while that of the larger
breed. of Giesler rams ney reach 40 kg. This breed. is the nost common
among the herds.
Mother local breed of sheep. the Darvas, was developed. in the moun-
tainous areas of central and eastern Tadxhiki.stan, which in the past were
isolated from the winter pastures by natural sad political borders. These
are among the smallest sheep in the world. The71ive weight of a Darra%
sheep is about 30 kg, aad its yield, of comparatively coarse wool is only
about 500-700 ga.
Valuable astrakhan sheep ars raised in the seeidesert southwest
districts of the repablic.. Astrakhan fur production is an important item
in the republice s economy.
Most of the goat herds, particularly in the mountainous districts,
are of a local general breed. Nit the mutter et Angora goat cross-breeds
has been increasing Sine* 1936.
The republic is justifiably proud of its Lokay horses, This breed
was developed. from the Mongolian hors. bat its present qualities have been
acquired under the difficult conditions *1 aiantainoue to-yograpkv. It is
mainly a pack and saddle hornet. trader saddle, it is kaown for its fast
trot, the Hdahurga." It can travel vith a 6-7 rood pack up to 80-100
ku a dray on steep siountaia paths.
The laralleir bree& of horses is raised in North Tadshikietan. The
Narabayr breed. was developed, on the plains; it is heavier than the isokay
breed. and is used. mostly as a. draft horse.
Yaks are raised in the open spaces of last Pamir at altitudes of
about 4,000 At above sea level; the yak is the only transportation animal
capable of working at inch altitudes, and it produces milk with a very
high fat content.
The upkeep of the animals, particularly sheep and. goats, consists in
the utilisation of available pestures and, the use of cameo fodder in the
winter. There are about 3 million hectares of natural pastures in Tai )10r1 S-
tan, but the area under hey and planted grass is less than 150,000 ha.
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Fran the seasonal point of view, the paiturslands In the republic
are divided into 3 kinds: summer, winter and spriweruhmmilpsstares.
The summer :pastures, abounding in fodder, are located in the high-moun-
tain districts and. are accessible 3-4 months out of the yes?. The winter
paztures are fewer in nakber and the fodder there is rather meager; most
of them are concentrated in the valley-and,foothill zone and are used
5-6 months during the year. There are few sprieg-euttaan pastures, and
they are used as intermediate grazing laud.
The seasons for driving the eattle to different pestures vary with
the different parts of the country.
In South Tadzhikistan the cattle spend the winter in the pastures
of the lower valley's and feothills? and the summer on the cloves of the
Glaser Petr Pervyr, and other zit:mantel:: ranges.
Following is the schedule of large-seale cattle shifts to different
vastures during the year.
By the end of November, laaadreds of thousands of head of cattle,
mostly sheep, are concentrated, on the winter pastures of South Tadzhikis-
tan. This is not only local cattle; 'keep are also driven here frost
Central Tadzhikistan (formerly Oars Oblast) hundreds of kilometers away,
from the Crieser Talley, and even from the Zeravehen Talley. The grass
here is rather meager, but the absence of snow makes it iasily-
In the coldest months the eaime3.4 are also provided with hay which has
been prepared in the spring. The new grass begins to grow in Februetry.
And that is also the laabitig and sheep-shearing season. The herds are
then gradually driven northward, and. by May the winter pastures are
completely abandoned. The mountain pastures are reached by the sheep in
June. They are fattened on the subalpine and alpine grasses and their
tails increase in size; the lambs bora In the spring multiply their weight
8 to 10 times in the summer. At the end of September, when the cold sea-
son begins, the flocks of sheep are driven back to the winter pastures.
The kolkhozes of Sarth Tadzhikistan, vhere seasonal pastures are fewt.
drive most of their flocks to the neighboring republics of Kirgizia,
Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan,. Large pastarelands were set aside for the
kolkhozes in the Iyzylkum desert where near of the North Tadzhik cattle
herds spend the whole year.
The kolkhozes of western Pamir, where pastures are very ecarce?
drive part of their cattle to Fast Pamir for the summer period, but keep
them on their ot lattAin wintertime as there is little snow there in
the winter. Nuch of the West and Nast Pamir cattle is kept all year round.
in the Alay valley (Iirgi.zia).
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Animal husbandry gets a great deal of attention in the repehlic.
Muth work is being done to increase the herds and raise their productiv-
ity. There are 11 animal-breeding state farms in the republic; swots them
are sheep-breeding farms specializing in Gissar and Astrakhan breeds,
cattle raising fortis wriaro tho local lov-aprodactive cattle it "Ming im-
proved, and state farms where yaks ant horses are raised.. State farms
were opened in 'various districts for the development of pedigree cattle,
and pedigree animal departments were opened also in the collective fangs.
Fine;?and medium-wool breeds of sheep have been developed in recent
years by crossbreeding the mountain merino with the Marvaz sheep. The
crossbred sheep weighs twice as much as the Dervaz sheep and its mgh-
grads wool is 5-6 times as valuable. Kamy of the mountaiskolkhoses
are now beginning to breed their own profitable fine-and medium-wool
sheep.
Farther efforts to improve the breed of Glaser sheep have been made
H since 1947; the large epeoimens of OW69 already developed weigh up to
120-130 kg, and rams up to 150-160 kg.
Raised on a, large scale in southwestern Tadzhikistan is the Astrakhan
sheep, of which there had been very few before the revelation; thorax.*
now raised on 4 large state fares.
Several male Ahdiora goats were brought to northern TadwkIktetan in
1936, and An:gora crossbreeds can now be found in every district. The
high..grade wool yield of the hybrid sheep is several times that of the
local breed of goats.
One of the most complicated problems is to raise the productivity
of large horned cattle. The enrage live weight of a local cow is 200
kg, but her annual production of milk, which has a:high fat content, is
only 300-500 1. This low productivity is due to iagafficient fodder and
to the fact that many mows are kept on the pastureland and get very little
hey in wintertime. Placing, the cows in stalls, MI- or part-time
lead to a sharp increase in their milk:production. In ease of theTovk
hoses (Germ, Stalinabad, and Kuybyshev) amd progressive kolkheses where
the cows are kept in stalls, full- or part-time, their annual 'milk pro-
duction has gone up to 1,500-2,000]. per *ow. An improvesemt in the
breed of long horned cattle aloe Unds to raise its productivity: the
cow* wired by the *Weitz* buil are li-2 time. heavier and their milk
output 5 to 6 times greater.
33ut it is inpossille to improve cattle productivity without improving
the fodder base and mechanizing the cattle breeding industry as a whole.
lb* government hat been appropiriating: large Sands, alIocating an&
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machinery, and. mobilizing scientific and technical forces with a view to
solving that problem. The mechanization of the stock-breeding industry
is facilitated by the MTS, which are equipped with the necessary machinery
for hay mowing and baling, fodder stinging, well digging, electric sheep-
shearing anti cow milking, etc. Electric shearing facilities are now used
for ilvet of the sheep in the republic.
Much bork is now being done to improve the natural pastures and hay-
fields; many kalkhores and sotchotes are irrigating their winter pastures
which were little used. previously this to thc lack of 'mter; some of the
winter pastureland is planted to grass and. grain cultures; experiments
on pastureland rotation (alternating between the use and improvement of
such lands) are being conducted. in southern Tadzhikistan. /al these
portant measures are designed to solve the fodder problem (since it is
precisely the winter pastures that limit the qualitative and quantita-
tive improvement of the herds), and. they mast therefore be considerably
improved.
Particular attention should. be focused on the dairy cattle, for
which the winter pasture and the usual emoted et Med. fodder in the win-
ter months are insufficient. This cattle requires a large variety of
succulent fodder: concentrates, silo, hay, planted. grasses, and edible
roots. There are Imlay possibilities in the republic for prodnkling such
fodder matures, pertioularly corn which yields 400-500 sentsers of cobs
or 35-40 centners of grain per hectare of irrigated land.
Silkworm breeding is another important brand' ofairriv--cature.
recent years Tadshikistan has been producing up to 2,000 t of cocoons
anomaly, which is more than ait times as much as in the prerevolutionary
period.. An the cocoons are used. by the local silk industry.
Silkworm breeding is more advanced in the lower vallerys, particularly
in the western part of the Fergana Talley, an old silkworm district* which
produces more than half of all the cocoons. That district, however, has
been yielding in importance to southern Tadzhikistan, where silkworm
breeding3 especially ir.? the m.,---mtain areas, is becoming one of the most
profitable branches of agriculture.
Silkworm breeding calls for such it and skill. It involves the
following basic processes: the revival of the grain* (silkworm eggs),
feeding the caterpillars umtil they reach the stage at which they begiu
to weave their cocoons, starving the immured caterpillars to death and.,
finally, drying the cocoons. The other processes ? ,anwis.ding the cocoons,
spinning the thread and weaving ? are performed by the indu.stry.
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t I
1-
For a number of centuries the methods used for +silkworm bre-Oleg
were very primitive; the grains purchased. by the agriculturists vere
handled under domestic conditions; the caterpillars were- fed in the house
and the cocoons dried. in the sun. All. that was changed under the Soviet
system. Plants desieeed to raise cocoon grains were built in Xhodshent
in 1919 and in Stelinabed in 1932; state incubator house's for reviving
the grain* and. a large =ober of cocoon-drying installatioas were opened
in many places. Considerable success was achieved by the grads-testing
stations which developed a more productive hybrid grains.
Progress in the development of silkworm breeding depends largely on
the food base. In the prerevolutionary period., the only mulberry tripe
cultivated in Tadzhikistan was the tal-stes: type. The laaborry trees
growing on the fields and linin.a the hisleinsys were a familiar feature of
the landscape. The bush-like prim stowsia5 mulberry tree, introduced ?oader
the Soviet Government, produces leaves on the second or third year after
it is planted. Nulberry-tree nurseries were organized for supplying the
kolkhozes with seedlings.
These measures have made it possible to get a larger number of
cocoons out of the grains pod.
(The grain pod weighs only a few dozen. grans while the cocoons obtained.
from it igsizh iv tab mylifkrIll &melt kilt:semis. The average ou.tunt of caftans
per vains pod in Tadzhikistan has been fluctuatieg, bat the overall trend.
has bean toward an increase: 23.4 kg-in 1913, 16.9 kg in 3.932, 28.3 kg in
1938, 31.1 kg in 1940, 38.7 kg in 1942, 43.8 kg in, 1953, seri 39.1 kg in
3.955. lly using scientific sothodi? the most ekillfUl khekhes sericulterists
get as much as 100-120 kg of cocoons per grains pad.)
t despite all the achievements of agriculture, the favorable natural
conditions of the republic, the technical equipment of egricultere, the
achieresteats of science, end the outstanding productive skill of the popu-
lation are still poorly utilized.. Some branches of Tadshik egricultere
are developisg slowly. Lagging 'behind are Vali production, vegetable avaa
potato growing, fruit growing and viticulture, and particularly some
branches of animal basbeadry. The main problen now is to step un the
overall preiaction of grain for knew consumption and. fodder -purposes.
This may be achieved by laipeading the areas pleated to these cultures and
ineree.sing their yield. Corn mat become oas of the major fodder items
as it is possible to raise, 2 corn crops a year on irrigated land.
There is usually a big aortas& of potatoes, which the Tadzhik cities
have to import from: the central districts of the USSR. The experisaces
of many rears have silo= that there are favorable conditions for potato
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graving even in the siountainous districts of the republic. Thus in the
Surkhob River Valley near Stalinabad, for exam-pla? potato raising could
be developed into an important branch of agriculture.
The old. orchards and -'rineryards co/won:trate/1 en. the -etch
especially in the northern districts of the country, require a great deal
of improvement; commercial orchards and vineyards should be planted around
Stalina.bad, Kurgan-To.be? and other cities of the southern districts as
soon as postale.
The republic's animal husbandry is faced with the important task of
doubling and tripling the output of meat, milk, and other animal products
during the Sixth Yive-rsar Plan. This problem could be realized if the
fodder resources were considerably increased. Since the natural pastures
are the major source of fodder, they should get the most attention. The
grazing lands should be watered. The winter pastures should be planted
to erase and, vain cultures to provide better fodder and. hay.
One of the major targets in the development of the cattle-raising
industry is higher cattle productivity, especially higher milk production.
The time has come to adopt the tried and tested system of feeding the
dairy cattle in stalls in wintertime and in part-time stalls in the sum-
and.??0 impastrre their breast at the same time. Tim methods or raising
fine-wool sheep and fur-bearing goats should be improved by cross-breeding
the Darras sheep with the rams of the local mountain breed and the local
goats with male Angora goats.
Silkworm breeding is also legging far behind the demands of the
expanding silk industry in the republic. It has beams. urgent to improve
the system of caterpillar-feeding, to introduce acoelerated methods of
such feeding, to plant more stelberr, trees, and take other measures.
The collective and, state farms of Tadzhikistan have all the possibili-
ties for d_eveloping, a diversified economy to include highly profitable
branches of agriculture in addition.- to cotton raising.
laidaidxs,
Central Asia has been famous for its comparatively high level of
economic and cultural development since the most ancient times, particularly
by the end. of the first thousand years Al) (in the era of the Samanid state).
A considerable portion of the popala41on WWI at that time settled on the
Land, and comparatively large cities, handicraft and trade centers* existed
everywhere. Many of those cities are still in *Astaire*: Leninabad
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(formerly IhodshenA), Ura-Tubb, Samarkand, lhiva, etc. There was a well-
developed and highly diversified handleraft industry: the artisans
prodnced a variety of household and. luxury goods; mining was also an
important pert of the handicraft industry.
That the peaceful economic developmeat of that region ins inter-
ruptod, by the frev.ant invasions of Central Asia by various coactuerors.
This resulted in the destruction of the irrigatioa systems and cities
and the plunderiag and lootieg of the pope3.ation. The internecine
struggles led to similar results.
The annexation of Central Asia to Russia in the second half of the
nineteenth ceatury changed the economic life of the region, particularly
in Tadzhikistan's Lenisabad Oblast, which was then under the Governor-
General of %Acosta*. The soononic development was YAW deterained by
the colonial policy" of tearime; major attention was focused on the
branches of the *meow latch were of interest to the merchants, , in-
dastrialists, and bankers. Pro/mess vas made is cotton growing., horti-
culture, silk-worm breediss, and industry ceenected mostly with the proc-
essing of agricultural raw materials. A nalber of small cotton-process-
ing plaids, a silk-weaving all, a glass making pleat. and. several urini-
tire oil mills were isailt at the mad of the past and the beginning of the
prssent century' in the city of Ihodshent and. its outskirts. Coal veining
and oil. extraction were startet on a small scale on the Shnrab coal
fields and the Soll-Bakho oil, fields.
The inclusion of Central Asia's economy, as well. as the economy of
the northern part of what is now Tadshikisteut, into the sphere of
iii-
fluenon of the mare advanced *cows" of Russia created, close economic
relations between Central Asia and the mother conatary. This was greatly
facilitated. by the construction of a railroad line comneeting Cantrell
Asia with Central Russia. The region was gradually dram into trade
relations with the outside staket. There was an increase in tb.? exports
of raw cotton to the cotton industry teat-era of /lassie. lxportea also
were large quantities of dry fruit, cocoon, and silk products. Ship-
ments going in the opposite direction consisted ef increasing quantities
of Russian manufactures: cotton goods, rubber footwear, metal products,
and other mass-consumption goods.
33ut neither expending industrial uroduction, nor increased imports
of industrial meaufactures were sufficient to meet the domed* of the
region for industrial goods. The local handicraft industry was therefore
the major source capable of meeting that demand. That latter oonsisted
of a number of branches such as oil millisg, confectionery' asking, flour
milling, and soap making as well as cotton, wool, and silk production.
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Among the other well-developed branches of the cottage Industry were iron
productions cast iron melting? blaaksmithing and guasmithlog, carpentry,
pottery, and brio k making. There was a large nnOber of leathers foot-
wear, clothes-asking and other shops everywhere. The paimaipal centers
of the handicraft industry inprerevolationary Tadihikistaawere in the
cities coannnitiee of Ibodzhent, Cra-TdOe, Kanibadam, Peolhikent,
Kulyabs Gissar, Dashaebe, Keratags laxgaz,labes Germ, itrad some meastiaities
of Panir. Xhodthent, Ura-be, and Oistar bad amore advanced handicraft
industry than the othor centers, Its aatpat was desieeed both for the
home market and for export. There were over 300 he:mac:oaf% Industry
enterprises in Xhodibent in 1911 with a total annual output of almost
400,000 rubles.
Larger industrial enterprises in Tadzhikistan were considerably
fewer in, number. In 1913 there were only 6 suah enterprises in the
northers districts of Tadzhikistan, which were then part, of Russia; 4
cotton processing plants and 2 fuel-naking enterprises with, a total pro-
daetioe of 855,000 rabies and. eeploying a little over 200 workers. In
*aster* lokbara (now Swath TadZhikistan) there were no large indastriel
enterprises at all.
lavorable conditions for the oriosnization of heavy industry and the
transition from handicraft production to modern mechanized enterprises
Tailehtiriatfin were created. after the victory of the Soviet eystma.
The restoration of agriculture, ruined during tbe Civil Wars was accem,.
panied by the constraction of a new industry. An electric power plant,
a flour mill, a ootton-Trocessing plants an oil mill, &Ada seal-making
plant bad been built in Dushaebe by the end of 1926. Fiftema cooperatively
large industrial enterprises with a total production emanating to 6.3
million rubles were already in operation in 1926. The total 'umber of
workers employed was 420.
The growth of the heavy industry was accompanied by a restoration
ana reorganization of the cottage industry on a cooperative basis. At
the end of 1928 there were am:mai cooperative industrial arteIs prodaciag
building materials, agricultural implements, and various consumer goods.
The indastry built ia those years was not very large, but bearing
in mind the fact that it had been built from scratch on readiest land,
where building materiels had to be brought An by peek animals and lumber
had to be dragged in, its achievements become more conspicuous.
The Tadshik West'sy was expanding at a rapid tempo during the
prewar five-Tsar plans, That was determined, by the policy ofthe
Communist Party, desigeed to inftstrialize the 'backward avarice districts
of which Tadzhikistan was one.
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Bight3r three- nillion rubles, most of it taken from the all-union
budget, were invested. in industry during the First Five-Tear Plan when
the republic' a domestic income was still insignificant. More than 10
different branches of indn.stry, supplied by the abundant reserve of
local raw materials, grew up -within a. few years. The leading industries
were cotton-processing, fruit canning, flour milling, as well as metal
processing (mostly for repair purposes in connection with the e2panding
mechanization of agriculture, irrigation, and road. construction). In
1933 these $ industries aecoaatod for almost 70% of the value of the
entire industrial output. As a result of the implementation of the First
Five-Tear Plan, industry began to play an important part in the national
economy of the republic. Built daring those years were each large enter-
prises as the Lenimebad Silk Combine and the leached/1m and. Leninabad
fruit-canning combine*. A total of about 100 large enterprises went into
operation in the repe.blic. The 1933 output of the entire industry amounted
to 66 million rubles (reckoned in 1926-1927 prices).
Alnost 200 million rubles were invested in industry during the
Second Five Tear Plan. The industries built during the period were ex-
panded and new ones added. New mines and enriching plants, including the
rantory Polymetal Plant, were built near the rich Karmasar mineral deposits.
A power industry came into being. The Vezorb Hydroelectric Plant, the
first in the republic, went into operation. The newly commissioned. enter-
prises were larger and better. mechanised. Many factories and. plants were
under construction in sauth Tce_whtktottan. particularly in Stall:ma:bad. The
iwlastrial output went up to 228 million rubles (measured in 1926-1927
prices) in 1938, and the number of large industry enterprises to 220.
Close to 330 million rubles were invests& in industry daring the
Third Five-Tear Plan. The outbreak of the Great Patriotic War prevented
the implementation of the planned program, but despite that, the total
volume of Tadshikistan's industrial output in less than 4 years of the
Third Fire-Tear Plan was increased by more than. 1 times. Several dozen
large new mechanized enterprises went into operation; among them were the
Stalinabad Meat-Packing Plant, the Stalinebad Cement Factory and the
nechanised mines of the Shurab coal basin with an annual production capac-
ity of 500,000 t of coal.
A total of 600 million =blots was invested in industry during the
prewar five-year plans, the investments in industry grew at a more rapid
pace than those in agriculture, even though agricultural development was
also very rapid.
The enterprises underwent constant improvement: the capacity of the
power installations, machines, apparatus, and mechanical transportation
was steadily growing. The use of electric power (per worker) during that
period was increased almost 5 fold.
611????????
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This resulted in the creation of a meltibreuch industry in Tadzhikis-
tan during the five-year plans, producing hundreds of different types of
maw-factures (as against 10-15 in 1928) both for consumption and. produc-
tion purposes. During that period. the number of industrial enterprises
was increased. 18 times and. the number of industrial workers over 50
times.
During the Great Patriotic War, most of the enterprises were con-
verted to war production, but industrial construction in Tadzhikistan was
not interrupted. In addition to many others, the following new enter-
prises were built in Stalinabal: the first combine of cotton plants and.
the first large metal processing plant, the "Traktorodetal% the con-
struction of the most powerful electric power plant in the republic, the
Ilislu3.evarsob State Power Plant vas begun. A =mbar of large industrial
enterprises went into operation in the northern and southern districts
of the republic.
Immediately after the enl of the destructive war, Tadshiki St=
launched a large-scale program of restoration and further development
of the national economy. The republic' a industry we.s developing at a
fast rate in the First Postwar Five-Tear Plan, as may be seen from the
dynamics of its overall industrial output in that period (increase
of the preceding year):
946 1251 1948.. 1942i 95C)
28 20 13 10
In 1947 the industrial level was already somewhat higher than, before
the war, and in. 1950 the prover level was exceeded. by 50%. The Kenibadam
Foundry and Maahiae* Plant. the Take!, Combine of fluorspar plants, the
Vaklisb. Combine of building material plants, and. the Sisluseversob State
Power Plant went into operation.
The industry of the repablic miccessfully completed. its Fifth Five-
Tear Plan. The following new indnetrial enterprises were built during
that period: the conoostration pleat of the 'assay Polymetal Gonbine,
the cotton processing plants in Shaartus and. Ordshonikidzebed, the meat
packing plant in Taloesha.r the brewery in Svetabad, the siechanized bread-
baking plant in Leninsbad, and. 7 brick factories and. a canning plant in
the Oheptura settlement. etc.
Much was done in the rifth Y-ive Tear Plan to increase Tadzhikistan'
power industry. The rara-run, or 'friendship of People" Tlydreelectric
Plant on the Amu-Delya river, the largest in Central Asia, will begin
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producing power for North Tadzhikistan as well as neighboring Usbeicistsn
at the end of 1956. The Perepadmwra State Electric Power Plant on the
Vakhsh Canal to be commissioned in 1957. will produce almost as mach
power as is now being; produced by all the hydroelectric plants IR the
republic. In 1955. Tadshikistan's industrial outpmt volume exceeded
the prewar level (1940) 2.8 timee. Daring the period ender the Soviet
Comment, the Tadzhik industrial output has been increased several
dosen times. A large contingent of quelified industrial and engineering-
technical workers, uubering tens of thousands of people, has been organ-
ized.
There are great prospects for the further development of the republic's
industry in the Sixth rive-Tear Plan, to be leplemeuted according to the
decisions adopted by the Twentieth Congress of the arsu. The total volume
of industrial production will be increased 1.4 times as compared with the
1955 level. Dozens of large highly-mechanized. enterprises will go into
operation, among then the second part of the Stalinabad Textile Hill
Combine. the Stalinebed Oil and. at Combine, the Kanibadem 011 Eztraa-
tion. Plant, and a new cement plant.
The structure of the industry was determined, by the ineXhaustible
mineral riches, the necessity of processing the agricultural and other
raw materials in the republic, and the demand for 'various sminanufactures
in the republic and other areas of the country (as, for example, corp.
centrates for the mining (ndustry).
There are about 30 different industries in Tadzhikistan, most of
thee created during the prewar and postwar five-year plans. The luau*.
trial structure is undergoing constant change in view of the addition
of new enterprises au& the changing development tempos of the OXIStine
ones. One of the characteristic features of Tadzhikistan'* industrial
expansion is the increasing relative importance of heavy industry. The
share of the heavy industrial enterprises in the total seaway is still
not very large, but the. er..t4rprisas are expanding at a rapidrats and
playing an increasingly important part in the satire *commie complex.
Structurally, the industry nay be classified as follows (in 10- of
the total industrial outpat prices of 1952);
Heavy industry (metal processing, Risings fuel production,
am& building material production) 13
Light industry (cotton*processing. silk, Clothing,
leather.. footwear) 63
load industry (canning, wine production, flour milling,
sad breed-Imuldng) 24
78
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Prominent in heavy industry production are metal-processing, aiming
(nonferrous metallurgy), and fuel end. building materials prodaetion.
Before the revolution, metal was processed by handicraft method*
only. nousehold articles, agricultural implements, and tools used. in
carpentry, woodworking, shoe-making, etc wars prodaced by numerous bleak.
smiths, coppersmiths, locknmiths and timemiths. After the establishment
of the Soviet Government, these artisans became the first workers of
the repair shops opened in the cities and settlements of Tadzhikistan.
As industry, agriculture, ana transportation continue to expand, these
shops became highly specialized., some of them being transformed into
large mechanical repair plants which also produced parts for machines.
Special plants were built also for the production of equipment for the
oil and textile industries. The largest of them are in Stalinabad and.
Kanibadam. All of them are engaged in the processing of imported metal.
Before the revolution, fuel production, last like cotton processing
was classified as heavy industry even though it differed little from the
handicraft industry in size or in technical equipment. It consisted of
the following 2 enterprises: the Shurab Coal Mine and the oil field at
the Sell-Rokho settlement. Them 2 enterprises emnloyed a total of
107 workers.
A large mechanize& coal combine, Shurabaugols, was built near the
5hurab coal fields under the Soviet Government, and the Isfarin Coal
Hine of the local industry was ',vended into a huge enterprise. About
600,000 t of lignite were mined in that basin in 1955. The location of
the Shurab Coal Basin makes it easy to export a considerable part of its
coal to various districts of the neighboring republics, While there is
a shortage of this coal in southern Tadzhikistan. Only a small part of
the republic's coal deposits, mostly lignite, have been exploited so far.
The large deposits of Axel and coking coal at Eavat (the largest coal
basin in Central Asia), Ishtuta, and Mae are still not exploited in
view of their inaccessibility.
The KIM Mechanized Oil Rxtraction Plant and an oil-refining pleat
were built in Sel'Bokho, and a new oil field. Nefteabad, went into ex-
ploitation nearby. Under the Soviet Government, oil produetion in
Tadzhikistan was increased, 1.7 times. Seveateen thousand tons of oil
were produced in the republic in 1955. There are great possibilities
for the further development of the Tadzhik oil industry in *View of
the discovery of new oil deposits in the southern distriatu of the
republic.
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The enterprises for the production of building materials were
first organized. within the industrial cooperative ureters. 3lat large
state plants were built during the l'irst Five-Year Plan, and. that in-
dustry now has a number of cement, trick, lime, alabaster, and tile
plants as well as stone, gravel, and sand quarries. Construction
materials aro produce. In every district of the republic, but the
largest enterprises are concentrated in the Gilmer, Vergs,n,a, and
Vakh.sb. valleys. Some of the largest brick making 'plants produce sev-
eral dozen million bricks annaally each. The variety of raw materials
available for that industry and. the growing demand for banding materials
which are still in short sapply are indicative of a promising future
for that industry. There is an abundance of raw materials for the pro-
duction of brick, lime, alabaster and. construction masonry practically
everywhere. The available raw materials sake it possible considerably
to increase the capacity of the Stalinabad Cement Plant with its slate
department and. to baild new cement plants in other places. Cement pro-
duction will be increased 13 times over during the Sixth rive-Tear Plan.
The Staixtabad comsat plant alone will triple its productive capacity
in 1957.
Most of the industrial enterprises come under the light and. food
industries, which account for more than 4/5 of all industrial production.
Those 2 leading industries comprise approximately 20 different branches
of production.
The light industry enterprises are the most advanced, and. they
produce more than 60% of the entire industrial output. They include raw
cotton processing, cotton and silk mills, knit good.s factories, clothing
and leather footwear factories, etc.
The cotton-prooessing industry is one of the oldest in. Tadshilistaa.
Cotton was grown there before the revolution and. processed in tiny cotton
mills which operated 4-5 months a year. Their total 1913 profbaction was
630 t of cotton fiber. Meier the Soviet Government, the cotton-processing
industry has been developing along with cotton growing. Cotton production
is now the largest industry, malt accounts for one-tbird of the entire
industrial output interns of value, though its relative outpat is falling
behind that of other Industries. There are 15 cotton-processing plants
evenly distributed over the cotton-growing valleys of the republic. These
modern plants are eqmipped with powerful hydraulic presses, power in-
stallations and highly efficient all-metal brushing devices. The basic
production processes are mechanized and electrified. In 1955 the combine
output of all of the republic's cottos?processing plants was more than
140,000 t of cotton fiber which was more than 200 times as much as the
??-?-?*>
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prerevolutionary output. This industry is in for a further rapid.
darrelopment in view of the planned expansion of the cotton-growing area
within the next 5-6 years. New cotton-processing plants will therefore
be built in. the Fergana, Gissar, and. Vakhek valley*, and the 02iatillg
ilants expanded.
In the prerevolutionary period, the cotton and. silk industries con-
sisted. of only artisans* shops selling all sorts of cloth ? mostly of
the national variety ? to local customers. In the very first years
after the revolution, the artisan weavers were organized into industrial
artels and later, during the First Five-Tear Plan, large silk mill*
were built and the above-mentioned experienced. artisans cane to work in
them. The Laminated Silk Combine was the largest such enterprise in the
country; other silk mills were built in Sta'Inaba and. Leninabad.. The
silk industry now prodaces annually about 20 million meters of eilk and
semisilk materials, not only for the population of the republic, but also
for export.
Just like the silk industry, the cotton industry did not begin to
expand until the five-year plans. The largest enterprise of this in-
dustry is the Sta3.inabad, Cotton Contbizte which is now in the second
stage of its expansion. That combine now produces More than 38 million
meters of cloth per year. When the second stage of its expansion is
completed, its capacity 411 be doubled. Tadzhikistan's output of cotton
cloth in 1955 was 40.9 million tasters.
The textile industry is a consummate industry, more than. any other
in Tadzhikistan: cocoons are nnweautd, silk thread is spun, and printed
cloth produced in the silk industry while cotton is processed, spun., and
woven in the cotton industry. There is a difference in the raw material
supplies for these 2 industries. The silk industry has already outgrown
its raw saterial base, and mach additional effort is therefore required
for the further development of silk production in the republic so that
it can emelt tbm demands of industry. The cotton industry, on the other
band, uses only a small portion of the fiber produced in Tadzhikistaz
as this country specialized in cotton production.
Mang the other light-indiudry enterprises built in the republic are
large and highly st,thanised. clothing, knit-goods, and leather-and-foot-
wear-factories and plants. It is planned to build. teveral more enter-
prises for the processing of raw cotton, the production of clothing,
leather and footwear, and a. large plant for producing cotton wool. Some
of the clothing and leather manufacture's is *Appel/ to other parts of
the Soviet Union.
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The second largest industry by production volume is the food industry.
It consists of canning- and. dry-fruit-producing enterprises, wine-making
enterprises, oil mills, flour mills, bread bakeries, meat packing houses,
breweries, tobacco enterprises. etc. This industry now accounts for
almost 1/4 of the entire industrial output. It as a diversified and
rapidly growing raw material base: fruit and grapes, grain cultures and
cotton seed.s, vegetables, and. anima products.
The CProiing industry comprises 8 plants, including such large enter-
prises as the Leninabad. and Xanibadan Trutt Canning Combine and Sta
Meat Canning Combine. This industry produces aarnally about 40 million
standard-size cans of desserts, preserves, jam, meat, moat and beans,
and vegetables. Moot of these goods are shipped. to various parts of the
Soviet Union, including the Par East and the Extreme North.
The wine-making industry is, in a literal sense, a new industry,
as old metals* and religious prejudices prevented, the local population
from producing wise for sale before the October Revolution. The wine
industry now coatprises 5 plants prancing various kinds of grape wine.
There are great possibilities for the further expansion of this industry,
particularly in the south -- in the Glister and. Vakhsh valleys -- where
a new raw material base is belug organized for it.
The oil manufacturing industry parallels the cotton processing in-
dustry, at its basic raw material consists of cotton seed, a by-product
of the initial. cotton processing. Before the revolution, that industry
consisted of the prinitive t4dshuvass - type oil mills producing 2-3 kg
of oil a day. There are 7 oil pressing plants in operation now; they
are located. next to the cotton-processing plants so that the cotton seeds
can be utilized on the spot. But the capacity of the existing plants is
Insufficient for processing all the seeds produced by the cotton plants,
so that a considerable part of those seeds have to be shipped to other
plants, and. even to the neighboring republics, which is economically
unprofitable. That situation, is now being remedied. A hug* oil ex-
tracting plant, one of the largest in Central Asia, will soon go into
operation near the city of Kw:Abadan. (A chemical extraction method is
used whereby the oil is drawn out of the seed. with the aid. of benzene
status; -, As a result less than 0.4% of oil is left in the cottonseed.
cake, while the oil-pressing method causes a loss of 3.0.) Out of the
planning stage and. under construction now is a large oil- and-fat-
producing combine in Sta.linahad? which will process &twat as such cotton
seed. as is now being processed, by all the existing plants in the republic.
Oil plants will be built also in the remote a,r?as of South Tadzhikistan
from where it is particularly difficult and expensive to nova the cotton
seeds.
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A number of enterprises designed to meet various inportant demands
of the population, such as broad and pastry, meat and dairy and other
enterprises, account for a largo ontput of the flood industry output.
Small enterprises of that type, working on. local raw materials, are
amenable in. almost all the rayon cuter., and the large emterprises
are in. the cities. Among them aro such large enterprises as the flour-
11 combine in Ordlheisikiclieabade, the medhealsed breed-baking plants
in Stalinabad and Sovetabad, etc. Under construction is a meatqmakteg
combine in Sovetabad as well as dairy, meat, and confectionery enter-
in various districts of the country.
In addition to the *boys-mentioned all-union and union-republic
enterprises, the local cooperative industry is of some importance to the
republic's economf.
The local state industry is a asall-scale duplication of the largo
all-Ainiaa and union-republic industry. It comprises a variety of metal*
processing* woodworking, fuel* textile* clothing* and building-material
enterprises and other branches of the light and food industries. Among
the largest local industrial enterprises are the deal mime at Isfara
and the Hetalloshirpo.trob (consumer metal) plant, the woodworking plant,
and the knitgoods factory in. Stalinabed. The construction of a large
furniture factory is nearing completion in the same city.
The cooperative industry played an important part in the creation of
a large industry. And now the state industry, in tun, Is helping the
cooperative Industry with raw materials, fuel, sad ovipment. The
cooperative industry now embraces 20 differmat branches producing the
following consumer goods: textiles, clothing, footwear, furniture,
building materials, metal products, foodstuffs, etc.
Bat the local cooperative industry is still not making adequate
use of the abundant and diverse local resources and the by-products of
the state industry; it is still far from seeting the growing demand of
the population for building materials, foodstuffs, clothing, objetb:Wart,
and other goods.
The proper territorial distribution of the industry is very important
for the development of the productive forces of the republic. Before the
revolution, the entire large industry was coacentrated in the ?organs,
Valley. The construction of sway mew industries under the Soviet Govern-
ment has changed the industrial distribution pattern. The industry was
extended to the strictly agrarian districts of the South. Despite its
rapid development. the Tadshik: part of the ?organs. Valley produced. only
1/3 of the republic's industrial omtput in 1940. During the same year,
the Glaser Valley industry produced 44 and the Baldtah Valley 16% of
the industrial output.
,????????
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..????????,,
Besides the distribution of industry, the nature of the industrial
production in the districts is an important indicator of their is-
dustrialization.. The Tadzhik industry is closely tied to its local raw
material bases. The type of macb raw materials is therefor. still a
determining factor in the industrial development of a particular district.
Thr example, almost all the enterprises of the mining industry are
concentrated. in northern Tadzhikistan, where all the known major ore
deposits are located. There, too are the lead-zinc combine, rare-metal
mines, the largest coal mines, end the only oil-extraeting industry in
the republic. The age-old, horticulture and. Niriticulture facilitated
the creation of rapidly expanding canning and. wine-making industries.
The Laninabad. and Kanibadan canning combines and the Ura-Tube and.
Savotabad breweries are among the largest enterprises of their respective
industries. The Mae district has elvers been an important center of
silkworm breeding, and that facilitated the creation of a large silk in-
dustry. The Leninabad Silk Combine is the largest in trial enterprise
in Tadzhikistan. Most of the nonferrous and rare metals are mined in
that district, and. all the crude oil is extracted there. Also con-
centrated. in this area is 90% of the production of silk cloth and. 60%-
70% of the output of the fruit-canning and. Ane-making industries.
The Gissar Valley, particularly the city of Stalinahad, has now
become the outstanding industrial area. It alone produces over 1/4 of
the entire industrial output of the republic. Tha.t city is characterized
by a large variety of industries. Indicative of this is the abundance
and variety of raw materials brought into it from practically every dis-
trict of south Tadzhikistan. It is the center of such large republican
enterprises as the cotton and. meat-packing combines, a brevery, a leather
factory, cement factory, metal-processing plants, and. some of the largest
hydroelectric power plants. The Stalimbed industry accounts for more
than 60% of all the cotton. cloth produced in the republic. 80%-90% of
the leather goods, 100% of the cement. etc.
Industrial expansion is going on also in the Bakheh and. other valleys
of South Tadzhikistan. The industry there is designed primarily for
processing local agricultural raw materials -- raw cotton, cotton seed,
grain, and volatile oil cultures. The foundation was laid also for a
Vakhsh Valley industry of building nateriala and metal processing.
But the republic is still a long way from utilizing all the possi-
bilities for the systematic development of a balanced. and. diversified
industry. Still lagging behind are power production, the building
materials industry, oil manufacturing, as well as the fuel, chemical
and. certain other industries.
,11==011,1,
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The huge reserves of water power available throughout the land
present great possibilities for the construction of hydroelectric power
plants. The construction of the Kairak-lrum State Power Plant on the
Syr-Darya River is now nearing completion; the Perepadneye. State Power
Plant is under construction on the Vakhsh Canal, and, the construction
of the Colorzayz.: State Power Plant was started on the Yekkab. River.
But hyd.roelectric plants !hoed be built in other parts of the repo-olio
as well.
A large variety of raw materials for the production of building
materials is available everywhere: fire cle.y1 high quality quartz sand,
pebble, gypsum" lime, and marble. The Stalinabed cement Plant is the
only one in Tadzhikistan, and its output is far too low to be able to
meet time growing dermand of the republic's national economy. An auto.
Natically controlled, plant for the production of ferroconcrete components
is WV nadir construction in Stalinalad. But stick plants are still lack-
ing in the lieninabad Oblast. There is a constant shortage of bricks and
tiles, even though the construction of 'tett brick and. tile plants presents
no serious problem in view of the abundance of raw materials in. various
districts. The reaullic imports window glass and. marble products as it
has no such industries at home.
Bari coal deposits were found in a number of places in Tadzhikistan
but coal is still imported from faraway places. The production of 'mineral
fertiliser is not well developed in Tadzhikistan despite the great demand
for it. The deposits of Raratag phosphorites in the Glaser Valley, and.
other .types of raw materials could be used for the production of mineral
fertilizer so urgently needed in. aviculture.
Special enterprises for the production of mixed fodder are urgently
needed. for the development of the dairy-cattle industry. There are no
such enterprises at present in Tadzhikistae.
The tarther expansion of industry in. Tadzhikistan is contingent upon
both the oonstruction of new highly-mechanized plants and factories and
the reconstraction ef a number of old enterprises which should be equipped
with now machinery mad the latest production technology.
ttillingiteddin
Before the Great October Socialist Revolution, easter* Bokbara was
a rodless country. Evan wheeled carriages were a rare phenomenon. there.
The mountain paths could accomodate no more than a pack animal and its
rider. The *at,' log bridges extending across the swiftly flowing rivers
and. the movringi* stadia to the precipitous walls of the mountain gorges
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were not even safe for an beings to cross. (An caring is an artificial
cornice attached to the well of a mountain gorge and designed to fill the
gap
in a broken, mountain path. It is built from logs and dry branches
and covered with stones and clay). Some of the districts in the country,
particularly in. the mountainous area, were oat off frost the outside world,
isolated. from each other, and their population lived under conditions of
seminatoral economy. The railroad line between Ursatyev and Andizhan
(Yemen& Valley), 'built in 1897, crossed only the smell northern pari of
what is now Tadzhik territory. All the districts of the southern part
of the country were hundreds of miles away from the nearest railroad sta.
tion. Road construction was therefore one of the most urgent econonic
problems to be tackled by the Soviet Governnent.
The construction of the Ternez-Dashambe railroad line was begun in
1926 and completed in 1929. Ay-ear later it was extended to the eastern
end of the Gissar Valley (Ordshonikidseabad). The total length of the
Termez-Ordshonikidselbad line is now about 250 km, That linked South
Tadzhikistan to the railroad network of the Soviet Union. Railroads
have been under construction also in northern Tadzhikistan. A 42 km
railroad lino was built in 1938 from Neltnikovo Station throuellefteabad
to the Sharab Coal Yield, and a 12 km lino was bailt during the war be-
tween Loninabad Station and Leninabad proper (where buses had. been the
only means of communication).
Railroad transportation plays an exceptionally important part in
the establishment of direct aommunications between Tadzhikistan and the
central areas of the Soviet Union. Only the railroad made it possible
to send large shipments of eqaipment, raw materials, fool, aad other
materials to meet the requirements of the rapidly developing economic
and cultural construction, and to enable the Tadzhik *COMP, to specialise
in various types of industrial and agricultural production. The develop-
ment of the Tadihik economy as an integral part of the economy of the USSR
would have been impossible without railroad transportation. The construc-
tion of an industry, an irrigation system, civil and other types of con-
*traction, first of all required the importation of balding materials,
equipment, raw materials, and feel. Working under favorable climatic
conditions sad with huge reserves of material resources at their dis-
posal, a number of branches of industry and agriculture were able to
expand far beyved the actual needs of the republic. The republic
specialized in certain typos of industrial and agricultural production,
not only in the economic interests of Tadzhikistan alone, but of the USSR
as a Whole. Direct railroad communication brought the republic into close
contact with many areas of the Soviet Union. This made it possible to
import equipment, materials, and consumer pods and to export industrial
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.04.1"???-.
an agricultural, products. The total amount of freight hauled on the
broad-gage railroads in 1.940 was 2.600,000 t, which includes about
1,750,000 t shipped from the republic. Thousands of freight trains
were required to Ship that freight.
The total length of the 'oroad.-gauge railroads in the republic
amounts to several hundred kilometers. But these roads have not yet
been organized into a-eingle railroua network, They run into North and
South Tadzhikistan as separate spur-tracks. Moreover, all further con-
struction of broad-gauge railroad lines has been temporarily halted
due to the difficult mountainous topography.
But the construction of narrow-gauge railroads, which is less
hampered by the mountainous terrain, is proceeding space. Two narrow.-
gauge railroad lines were built in 1931-1935. The southern or Vakhsh
line connects the city of Kargan-Tdbe with the Blzhniy Pyandih quays.
Its original, modest task was to serve the Vakhsh irrigation construc-
tion. By that time, regular navigation had been established on the
Pyandih, and the shipments consigaed to the Vakhsh construction project
were sent from Termez to the Nizhnly ryandzh quays where they were re-
shipped by narrow-gauge railroad to the center of the Vakhsh Valley.
That line eventually began to handle a greater volune of Shipments.
Tho second narrow-gauge lime connects Stalinabad. with the Bullbistan
quarries 20 kn northeast of that city. Its purpose is to deliver raw
materials to the building material plants.
The construction of the Stalinabad-Riargan-Tube line, connecting
the Vakhsh and Gissar valleys, was completed in 1941. This established
a. railroad connection between the rich Valdish Valley and the capital of
the republic and with the railroad network of the Soviet Union. Shipped
by that road to the Vakhsh Valley are machines, fertiliser, gasoline,
fuel, building materials1 foodstuffs, and. consumer goods; the shipments
going in the opposite direction consist of cotton fiber, seeds, oil,
vegetables, fruit, and other agricultural raw materials. A total of
750,000 t of freight was shipped on that line, in both directions, in
1950. Tea-ton flat cars are now used with a view to increasing the
traffic capacity of that road.
The narrow-gaage railroad lines account for a considerable share of
freight shipments within the republic. In the first postwar years these
narrow-gm:go lines handled almost 2/3 of all the freight hauled by every
means of transportation not counting the broad-gauge lines. But the rapid
development of truck transportation has recently reduced their Share of
the freight to 1/6 of the total.
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VOS.
The construction of rarrow-gauge railroads in Tadzhikistan contizezes.
Und.er construction now is the important Kurgen-Tube-rulyab lint which will
provide cheap transportation for cotton, grain, and other freights shipped.
from the economically well-developed southeastern area.
Automobile roads were built in Tadzhikistan simultaneously with the
railroads, but at a faster rate, and. they covered more territory. The
prefmiential development or track tranaportatica In Taashikisten,
particularly in its mountainous districts, was determined by definite
economic and. technical considerations. From an economic point of view,
truck transportation is more efficient and cheaper in the mountainous
districts where there is no large-scale industry, and freight and
passenger movement is limited. That kind of transportation is even
adequate for supplying the mountain population with the scarce industrial
goods and foodstuffs. The technical reasons are still more obvious. The
roads in the Tadzhik mountains run across high mountain peaks (up to
4,000-5.000 a absolute altitude) and along mountain gorges surrounded
by almost vertical walls hundreds of meters high, and even where it is
possible to build a highway it is often difficult, expensive, and even
impossible to build a railroad line.
The first highways connecting Stainabad and. Xurgan-Tube. Sarai-
Xosar (now Xirovobad). and Kulyab, built in 1925-1927, were comparatively
primitive. Their total length was less than 400 km. The construction of
better and longer highways was begun in the First Five-Isar Plan period.
One of the longest highways (732 km) built in 1931-1933 runs between Osh
and. Xhorog. This is one of the highest-altitude highways in the world.
It Crosses several mountain ranges, including the Aley and Zaaley; its
average altitude is 3,800 a but it rises to 4,655 m at the mountain
passes. This road brought the mountain Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast
closer to the economic and. cultural life of' the country; in the past,
that oblast had. been almost completely isolated from the outside world.
But the Osh-lhorog highway was not convenient for communication
between the mountain Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast and the other Tadzhik
districts. To get to Stalinabad. from there& it was necessary to travel
by car to Osh and then for 2 more days by railroad. in a round-about
war through Boldtaxa (Kagan Station). The big Pamir highways, extending
over some 556 km, opened, the way to the West. They connected Stalinabad
with the Xhorog and. reduced. the previous traveling distance to almost
1/4. That road runs across the mountainous districts of Central Tadzhikis-
tan and provides a moat stimulus for the farther- development of the
economy and mature of those districts.
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Communication between South and North Tadzhikistan was not completed
until the railroad line was built. It takes about 2 days to travel it
from beginning to end. The newly built Stalinabad-Ura Tabe-Leninabad
highway was opened to traffic in 1935. Another direct communication was
established between the southern and northern parts of the republic, the
raad between them having been reduced to 1/4 of the previous distance.
That 300 km highway crosses many hitherto isolated and almost inacces-
sible mountain districts.
The construction of the Stalinabad-Kurgan Tube-Dshilikull lino was
co=pletad in 1937. It had boon used even before the StalinabadaKargan
Tube narrow gauge line was built, and its importance as the only road
leading to the Vakhsh Valley had been particularly great. It is still
one of the most travelled automobile highways, even now that the rail-
road has been completed.
An excellent road between Stalinabad and Obi -Garm. eventually to
become the western extension of the big Pamir highway, was built in the
same year.
Of much importance for South Tadzhikistaz is the Stalinabad-Kargan
TabeaKirovabad-Kulyab-Stalinabad highway loop.
More than 9,000 km of automobile roads, including over 1.000 km of
hard-surfaced roads, have been Lilt in Tadzhikistan under the Soviet
Goverment.
Transportation facilities have been improved along with the roads.
The first car arrived in Dashambe in 1925. In 1930 there were only about
320 vehicles in the republic, whore new thousands of passenger cars,
trucks, and bums are travelling on the Tadzhik roads.
All the vehicles are concentrated primarilyIin WelKinistay of
Automobile Transportation and Highways. Large vehicle pools are operated
also by other ministries. The number of vehicles belonging to MTS, and
state and collective farms has been rapidly increasing in recant years.
Freight hauling is the major function of auto transportation. It
accounts for more than 8017 of the freight shipments within the republic
and for most tlf.:the passenger transportation. There are no streetcars
in any of the Tadzhik cities, and buses are therefore the only means of
city transportation. (A trolley bus has been operating in Stalinabad
since 1955). That transportation loused also for interurban and inter-
rayon passenger traffic. There is regular bus transportation between
Stalinabad and the nearby towns and rayon centers of Ordzhonikidzeabad,
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Koktash, Maser, Regar, Varzob? Takob. etc. Bus transportation has been
established also between Leninabad and Kurgan-Tube and their neighboring
rayon centers. Regular bus service over distances of 100 km and more were
started also between the following:cities; Stalinabad-Kargan Tube, Stalin-
abad-Kulyab, Stalinabad-Garm, Pendzhikent-Samarkand, and Leninabad- Samar-
kand. Also operating on many roads are passenger-car and truck taxis.
Giva aviation in Tadzhikistan had in a way preceded railroad and
automobile transportation as the only convenient means of transportation
under roadlees conditione. Civil aviation is now playing a very important
part in the national economy. Stalinabad is connected by airlines with
Loninabad, Kulyab, Novabad, Khorog, and many rayon centers. The planes
carry passengers, mail, and freight.
Pack-animal transportation is still of some importance in view of
the broken topography. The total length of the pack-animal paths is
about 5,000 km. It is difficult to determine the volume of freight
carried by pack-animals inasmuch as these animals are used primarily in
the eallective farms.
fi THE REG;ONS OF TADZRIKISTAN
Tadzhikistan's administrative subdivisions are made up of Leninabad
Oblast, liountain-dakhshan Autonomous Oblast, and a large group of adminis-
trative rayons which are directly subordinate to the government of the
republic. (By the beginning of 1956, there were 49 administrative rayons
In the republic, 5 of them in Leninabad Oblast, 6 in Mountain-Badakhshan
Autonomous Oblast, and 31 under government jurisdiction).
The economic differences within the above-mentioned ?blasts and the
rayons subordinated to the government of the republic on the one hand,
and the economic ties among the various administrative rayons gravitating
toward. certain *canonic centers on the other, make it expedient to review
the republic within the framework of the following 8 economic regions.
In the northern part of the republic, within the limits of Leninabad
Oblast, there are 2 economic regions -- the western (Tadzhik) part of the
Fergana Valley and the Zeravshan Valley.
Located in the first region is a member of well developed branches
of agriculture and industry. The leading branches .of agriculture are
cotton growing, horticulture, viticulture, and silkworm raising, while
the major industrial activities consist of the processing of agricultural
raw materials and minerals; there are favorable prospects for further
industrial expansion.
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Separated from the northern and southern parts of the country by a
]age mountain range, the Zeravshan Valley is a =Rion of comparative/7
small-scale grain and fruit growing and stock breeding; it has prospects
for the establishment of an industry for processing minerals.
In the southern, part of Tadzhikistan, the administrative rayons under
republic jarisdiction are divided into 4 economic regions: the Cissar
Valley. Bouthveat Tedshikistan; $oatIleast Tadallikistan, And Cetrsil
Tadzhikistan.
The Gissar Valley is the leading region in the production of medium..
fiber cotton and the development of various induetries, mostly the light
and food industries.
Southwest TadzhiUstan, which includes several subtropical valleys,
is the major and practically the only region in the republic producing
thin-fiber cotton. There are excellent possibilities there for the ex-
paneion of cotton growing and the cultivation of other southern cultures.
Southeast Tadzhikistan (formerly Killyab Oblast) is a region of
diverse climatic conditions; grain growing and stock breading play an
Important part there in addition to cotton growing.
Characteristic of Central Tadzhikistan (formerly-Germ Oblast), all
of which is located in the mountainous part of the republic, is grain
productiononunirrigated land, animal and silkworm breeding.
Finally, occupying the easternmost part of Tadzhikistan is the small
Mountain-Badakhshen Autonomous Oblast, which is divided into the following
2 economic regions: West Pamir which is populated by Tadihiks and has
well-developed agriculture and animal husbandry, and East Pamir, populated
by Kirgizians, whose may occupation is stock breeding.
asatedif nazet jaLiktitriggaiLlajain
That region consists of the western part of the Fergana Valley
belonging to Tadzhikistan and. the adjacent foothill plains and mountain
slopes, and it carers the northern half of Leninabad Oblast, which is
separated from the southern half (Eiravahan Valley) by high Turkestan
Mountain Range. That region, measuring 12,000 sq km was inhabited by
over 400.000 people in 1939.
The region is hemmed in by 2 mountain ranges, the high Turkestan
range in the South and the low KnraminMountains In. the North. Located
between those 2 ranges, at an altitude of 200-500 m above sea level. is
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the Ayr Darya aver Valley, which is wide at the eastern border and
narrows down toward the West. Rising on both sides of the valley are
sloping foothill plains, Which account for the major portion of the
regionls territory-.
The northern, or right-bank, plain is a comparatively narrow strip
of land, 15 to 30 km wide; extending 'between the river and the foothills
of the Kuramin Mountains. Purther up are the waterless and treeless
slopes of these mountains, -which contain the richest deposits of non-
ferrous and rare metals. Since no sizable rivers flow down those slopes,
the right-bank plain has always been 'waterless and sparsely populated.
The dry and pebble-covered. plain, grown over with wormwood, has been used,
for autumn and winter cattle grazing. It was the Soviet Government which
started the irrigation of large portions of that land with Syr-Darya
water.
The left-bank foothill plain is more complicated. In the western
part of the region it extends 60 km towards the Tarkestanttountain Range
and rises to an altitude of 1,500 m above sea level. Its central part
is limited by the Belesegrk Mountains to a narrow strip of 1-2 be ex-
tending along the Syr-Darya river. It grows wider again in the eastern
part and covers the hilly spurs of the Belesenyk Mountain Range, which
are rich in coal and oil.
The left-bank plain is well irrigated by the rivers flowing down
the Turkestan Mountains. The most important of them are the Isfara,
Ehodzhisbakyrgan. Isfana, and Aksu. Reaching the valley through their
alluvial fans, they spread fanwise into numerous irrigation reservoirs.
It is around these "irrigation fans" frveyery orosheniyag that the
major part of the population has been, concentrated for many years.
The climatic, soil, and vegetative conditions are different in the
different parts of the region. Gradually replacing one another between
the plains and mountain slopes and peaks in the following order are desert,
semidesert, forest-steppe, subalpine and alpine belts. The widest among
them are the desert and forest-steppe belts.
The desert belt includes the Syr-Darya River bottom land, the
entire right-lank plain and part of the left-lank plain up to an altitude
of about 800 in above sea level. There is very little precipitation there,
about 125-150 mm (Leninabad, Isfara), and it occurs only In the winter-
spring months; the summer and autumn months are dry and clear. Only
irrigated agriculture is possible with such low precipitation. Oases are
foand only near streams and springs. The 6 month growing season, with
its cumulative total temperature of at least 4,000?, is favorable for
cotton raising and the cultivation of southern fruit cultures (see foot-
note on page 14). Large cotton-growing fields are concentrated there.
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Further up the climate becomes more humid and cooler. The desert
belt is replaced by a very narrow sesidenert strip which turns into a
forest-steppe belt. The upper part of the left-hank plain and the slopes
of the Kuramin, Mountains above an altitude of 1,000 m are already in the
forest-steppe climate mans. There is about 3 times as much precipitation
on these eiopes as in (ahont 400 =t Itra-vabe) and agri-
culture is possible without artificial irrigation. Grain end oil-bearing
plants sake up most of the crops. Special mention should be made of
vineyards. The latter do not grow so well in the valleys as on com-
paratively cool slopes where the average annual temperature is more even;
it is there that most of them are concentrated.
Land plots covered with green and succulent grasses during the =masa
are found in the upper sections of the Turkestan and the Kuraminmountain
ranges. There io no permanent population there, and the land is used for
summer grasing.
The best parts of this region, which was an. integral part of the
rich Fergana Valley and Shares its history, have been thickly populated
since ancient times. The trade routes between China and the countries
of Idurope and. the Near East rum across the Fergana Valley. In this
valley there were large cities with a trading and artisan population, grow-
ing agriculture and animal husbandry, and some industry engaged in process-
ing valuable minerals.
At the time Central Asia was annexed to Russia, its feudal zyntem
was in the throes of a "more crisis. The incessant were among the
khtuaates disrupted all trade connections and ruined the artisans while
the irrigation installations and agriculture were neglected amd ore-
processing was all but discontinued.
The inclusion of the Fergana Valley in the Russian territory in the
second half of the past century, the construction of a railroad line and
small enterprises for the primary processing of agricultural raw materials,
the mining of certain types of minerals and, what is more important, the
organization of commercial cotton growing contributet to some extent to
the developmemt of the productive forces of that region. The Russian
capitalists strove to mike Central Asia their reliable raw material base
and supplier of cotton for the Moscow. Ivanovo. Lode and other textile
mills. The Fergana Valley with its warm climate, its fertile and wen-
irrigated land, and numerous tut impoverished peasantry became the major
base for the production of white gold. In 1907, for ea:sages it produced
7 of all commercial cottoot and fiber exported. from Turkestan. Railroad
lines were built between Krasnovodek and Tashkent and later between Tashkent
and Orenburg for the purpose of establishing closer connections between
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the mother country and its colony. The first railroad to the Fergana
Valley was built in 1897 and. provided a strong stimulant for the develop-
ment of cotton. growing. Cotton became the major agricultural product of
the western part of the Fergana Valley. American types of cotton were
introduced, in the 1880s, and since then they have been increasingly
replacing the low-yield. Asiatic cotton Lrgu.salrr from year to year. The
first cotton-processing plants had. been built in. the Xhod.shent and Ural-
ihinsk couniies even befora ale tail:road was built:
..?????
The development of the commercial type of agriculture was accompanied
by an intensified exploitation and. impoverization of the dekbkans (peasants),
the major producers of cotton. Burdened. with debts and cheated by usurers
and bats, the &Waken was forced. to sell his tiny plot of land at a bar-
gain price and work as a sharecropper on the bail a land for a very small
part of the crop. The loss of land. by the dekhkans reached unusual pro-
portions. In 1908, for example, about 70% of the peasant families of
lhoclehent County had, no land. of their own.
Cotton was not the only agricultural product, even though it accounted
for the major part of the revenues. The construction of the railroad. also
stimulated the development of horticulture and, to some extent, also of
viticulture and. silkworm breeding. Apricot orchards were concentrated in
the Syr-Darya Belt, replacing the vineyards which had suffered. from re-
curring frost. The latter were moved mostly to the foothill plains.
Khodzhent County alone produced almost 1/4 of all the dried fruit exported
from Turkestan before the revolution; it was famous for its dried apricots
and. currants.
The industrial activities of Central Asia Vaderworat certain changes
after its annexation to Russia. Russian and foreign industrialists built
several very simple enterprises in. Ehodshent County, designed for the
primary processing of agricultural raw material and for mining minerals.
The most important of them were the cotton-processing plants in Khodahent,
the coal-mining enterprises of Shurab, and. the oil and osocerite (mineral
wax) producing enterprises in Sell-Bokho. The ancient handicraft industry
which produced. local consumer goods continued. to function in the towns
and kishlaks though it was greatly undermined by imported goods.
But neither the agriculture nor the large industry of Central Asia
could possibly develop on anything resembling a large scale under tearism?
The production of raw materials as a whole was insignificant. For example,
all the cotton plants located within the region under discussion produced
a total of 630.000 t of cotton and. filler in 1913. Agricultural technique
was primitive and the yields were low. Although water became scarcer as
the cotton fields were expanded, -very little was done to improve the
irrigation system. The mineral resources were used. in a limited. but
ruthless manner.
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The favorable oonationo of this region ? the dry climate and long
hot summers, exceptionally rich mineral deposits, good. transportation
facilities, and. a thick population experienced in specialized aviculture
and handicraft production ? were fully utilized, only under the Soviet
Government.
In the overall economy of the republic, the western part of the
Fsrgana Valley stands out as A region of intensive agriculture, devoted.
primarily to cotton growing, and. a large industry for processing agri-
cultural raw materials and mining minerals.
Its agriculture is highly diversified.. The collective farms of the
region engage in cotton growing, stock breeding, silkworm-breeding, viti-
culture, and in the produation of su,ch cultures as grain, oil-bearing
plants, melons, etc. Fran and grape growing and silkworm breeding are
done on a largo scale throughout Tadzhikistan.
The specialization of agriculture is. essentially dmtermire3d by the
differences in the natural collations. Disregarding details, one can
distinguish 2 types of agriculture determined by the particular location,
the valley and the foothill type. The valley kolkho.see plant their crops
mostly on. irrigated land, while the foothill collective farms use =-
irrigated land. There is also a difference between the types of their
crops. Cotton is raised on a large scale on the irrigated, valley lands.
Also, concentrated in the valleye are fruit orchards. The =irrigated
land. of the foothill kolkhozes is ulanted to grain and oil-bearing
cultures (flax, safflower, and sesame). Growing in the same belt are
numerous large vineyards.
The area under crops in this region amounted to 190.000 ha in 1955;
3/4 of that area is planted to grain, beans, and. oil-bearing cultures.
But important as all the mentioned branches of agriculture may be,
cotton vowing is still the major occupation of the rural population.
The cotton-growing area is serviced. by 13 of the region's 15 MTS.
About 1/2 of all the collective farmers' workdays are used. for the pro-
duction of raw cotton. Finally, cotton is the major commercial product,
as can. be seen from the incomes derived. by collective farms from the
various branches of agriculture in 1953, for example (in
terms);
Cotton growing
71.8
Animal husbandry
6.4
Horticulture and. viticulture
6.0
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Silkworm breeding
5.2
Grain and oil-bearing cultures
3.4
Vegetable gardening
2.0
Others
5.2
TOTAL
100.0
Connected. primarily with the expansion of cotton growing are all
the land. melioration projects carried. out in the preimtr period. and, on
a much larger scale, at present.
More than 39,000 ha of land were planted. to cotton in 1955; in 1954
the average crop in Lenina.bad *blast wet 28.1 militarise of the Soviet
varieties of raw cotton per hectare (Fra, January I* 1955).
With the expansion of the cotton-growing area, the chronic water
shortages which dates back to the prerevolutionary period, became still
more acute. This stimalated the construction of 2 gigantic irrigation
canals, the Large Fergana and. the North Fergana. 3oth canals were built
in 1940 by tens of thousands of collective tarsiers from the Uzbek anti
TadOik republics.
The Large Fergana Canal is 270 km long. It originates in, the Naryn
River, one of the 2 rivers (the other is Karadarya) making up the Syr-
Darya River, and carries its water across the entire Fergana Valley. It
extends also over 3.00 km in norther: Tadzhikistan along the left bank
of the Syr-Dazia River, leiter* it improved the water pply for the old
irrigated. areas and provides additional irrigation for several thousand.
hectares of fallow land. The North Fergana Canal extends about 30 km
into the Tadzhik SSR? irrigating several thousand. hectares of little-
cultivated. land along the right bank of the river.
The renewed extension of the cotton industry after the great Patriotic
Ware prompted the republic to -undertake the construction of powerful water
pumping stations using the electric power of the Farithadges Plant (The
Farkhadges is a powerful hydroelectric station on the Syr-Darya River in
the Usbek SSR, built in 1942). Two Undshin water-pumping installations*
irrigating 3,000 ha of collective farm land, were completed.* and. the Naas
Water Pumping Station is now uacier construction. The collective farms
are also building their ova sisal pump houses on the banks of the Syr-
Darya and the canals.
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Large-scale land improvement projects are now underway on both
banks of the rr-Darya River. More than 45,000 ha of new land. are to
be made cultivable between 1954 an 1960 in the western part of the
Fergana Valley alone. The vast stretches of land, on the right bank of
the Syr-Darya -- the Samgar? Yam, and. Delsversin steppes viii to
Irritad. for the first time. A dam an& hydroelectric station are
under construction on the Syr-Darya itiver. Thm-aanals to be tA,,ndord
to both banks from the inirak-Yum water reservoir now under construction
will provide 1f-flowing ffsamotechnoyeg irrigation, and the powerful
hydroelectric plant will supply electric power to the numerous punning
stations. The large Dal'versin Steppe will be irrigated by the exist-
ing Farkhad. Water Reservoir and with the aid of the Parkhad Rydro-
electric Power Plant.
The newly irrigated land. will be used mostly for cotton growing.
This has already prompted the shifting of a large number of kolkhoses
to the new land, mostly from the mountain districts, and. the construction
of new collective farms, MT, cotton-processing plants, oil mills, and.
villages. The foundation has already been laid. in the Daliverrin Steppe
for the construction of a center of the future rayon.
Among the other important branches of agriculture tit that region
are horticulture and. viticulture. More than 1/2 of all the orchards
and. vineyards of the republic are concentrated. there. The fruit orchards
are concentrated in the Leninabad, Ifintbadaia, and Isfara oases, and about
9/10 of then produce anricote. The fruit grown in those orchards had.
gained world fame for their quality and taste even before the revolution.
Their sugar content is about 11-2 times as high as that of the guropean
and. American varieties. The local selection experts have preserved. other
valuable features of the fruit treest resistance of the fruit to vizi
(which is very important in the Fergana Valley, where the winds are very
strong, particularly near the ?Dedshent Ge.tes4), tb.e high yield and.
longevity of the trees. Before the revolution there was no canning in-
dustry in the region, and only dried. fruit was exported. Much of the
fruit is still raised for drying purposes, but a considerable part of
the crops is used for supplying raw materials to the 4 canning plants
built near the fruit-growing area.
As has already been mentioned, the major vineyards are concentrated.
in the foothill sone, mostly in the supper part of the left-bank plain.
About 1/2 of the republic's vineyards are found in the Ura-Tube Adninistra-
titre Rayon alone. The local inhabitants have developed excellent new
kinds of grapes, especially of the kish-aish (seedless) variety:. the
Ilra-Tube grapes were famous far beyond the berders of Central Asia
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even before the revolution. But before the revelation, only the dry
product* the kish-mish raisins, was available to the consumer. While
grapes are still used for the production of raisins, part of the crop
is also used for the production of TAM= and another part is exported
rreeh.. Tharo arc 3 :dad diet4llea4es in the region.
Earticulture and viticulture are profitable industries, and imam,
collective farms they are leading branches of production. In 1952, for
example, the orchards and vineyards of the Vra,Tabe Rayon accounted for
59% of the collective farms' income. The goverment offers the collective
and state fares all sorts of aid in the development of these trenches of
agriculture. The 2 fruit-and-grape state farms organised in the rayon --
Avebikalach and IsfarsAyakan.-- are to be developed, into model progressive
farms. Nstablished also were 2 fruit nurseries and a base Where the selec-
tion experts study the various types of fruit and grapes and turn the best
varieties over to the collective farm orchards. But the orchards and
vineyards are still unable to most the growing demand of the canning and
wine-asking industries of the region. What is required is not only an
expansion of the plantation area, but also a considerable change in the
types of plants; the orchards should consist mostly of apricot trees, wad
the vineyards must produce grapes with a higher acid content, i.e., not
exclusively for wine-making purposes. (The apricots in the entire region
riven almost at the same time and the canning plants are therefore supplied
with raw materials for a short time only. The development of differaat
varieties of the fruit that ripen_ at different tines would facilitate
more normal operations of the canning industry.)
According to income, animal hastandry ranks next to horticulture
and viticulture. There were over 700,000 head of all types of cattle
in the region in 1955. A large portion of the available herds consists
of goats and. sheep.
There are differences also in the quality. and the breed of certain
types of domestic anise's. The sheep, the nmerioally largest part of
the cattle herds, are mostly of the large fat-tail breed; there are no
Darras sheep, and the Astrin. sheep are few in amber. The collective
farms of the western part of the Fergana Valley, particularly of its
flatland sections* have been pioneerieg in the development of A new
breed of goats* a cross-breed of the Angora and. a local at which pro-
duces a. larger amouat of smmifine wool. The breed now makes up a con-
siderable part of the local herds* and. it is now being developed also
in the other regions of the repablic. Credited. with superior qualities
is the local breed of rarabyr horses, Which are widely used in the
economy, especially in transportation.. The state stud farm in Ura-Tabe
is now engaged in the further improvement of that breed of horses.
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401...???
The maintenance of the cattle herds is largely dependant on the
utilization of the natural pastures at hone and. in the other regions.
The sheep and goats are kept on the grazing land prastically all year
rotuul 0.31d. provided. with additional fodder over a period of 30-40 days,
while the long-horned cattle is kept in oheds up to 3 mouths a year.
Some collective farms sake it a practice to keep their dairy cattle
in sLade for longer petiodr. of t. The natural fadlea 4aeserves
the western part of the Fergana valley are not as great as those of the
South Tadzhik mons. The pasture lents account for leas than 20% of
the region's territory, 1.*.? for only 220,000 ha. The summer pastures
are conparativeiy small fields in the upper part of the Kuramin Mountain
Range and on the northern slopes of the Turkestan, linage, and the winter
pastures* though covering a larger area along the right bank of the
river, offer a imager fodder sapply. The region's kolkhozes have there-
fore been allocated additional pastures for use at different seasons in
the neighboring republics of Kirezia, Uzbekistan, and. Kazakhstan. The MTS
offer Muck assistmee to the collective farms. The collective farms
throughout the region, and beyond. it, have been improving the maintenance
of their cattle on the pastureland. Dry areas are irrigated* fodder
cultures are planted, on some of the pasture lands, fodder reserves are
stocked every year, winter housing is built for the cattle, and comnttni-
cation facilities are improved. The Kyzyl-Itus pasture lands, the farthest
removedi from the region, now have their own radio station.
But the exceptional possibilitiee for the further development of the
cattle-raising industry, inherent in a highly developed a4griculturo and.
industry, are still inadequately utilized. It is possible, among other
things, to raise highly profitable dairy cattle by the use of grain fodder
cataract corn, plen.ted grasses and. by-products of the food industry; the
products of such dairy cattle are urgently needed by the numerous city
and village population of the region.
Continuing their ancient ? conostic treditions, this population still
engages in large-scao silkworm breeding. By far the largest part of
all the lberry trees of the republic are concentrated in this region,
end at least haf of all the cocoons are produced here.
Silkworm breeding was practiced here on a large scale before too,
but the technique used. vas very poor. Cocoon production was a sideline
for the cotton growers, mostly of the women, and. was concentrated. in
small primitive fillets. Most of the cocoons were exported to Russia or
abroad., and. some of them were processed by the local artisans into na-
tional varieties of cloth,
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The maintenance of the cattle herds is largely dependent on the
utilization of the natural pastures at home and in the other regions.
The sheep and goats are kept on the grazing land practically all year
round. and provided with additional fodder over a period of 30-40 days,
while the lone.horeed cattle is kept in Sheds vp to3 months a. year.
Some collective farms make it a practice to keep their dairy cattle
for levetowo. peeled.. of Thenatnl 4Podaels rer In
the western part of the Fergana valley are not as great as those of the
South Tadzhik zeroes. The pasture lands account for loss than 20% of
the region's territory. 1.111.? for only 220.000 ha. The summer pastures
are comparatively small fields In the upper part of the Kurenin Mountain
Range and OR the northern slopes of the Turkestan Range, and the winter
pastures, though covering a larger area along the riot bank of the
river, offer a meager fodder =ply. The regionts kolkhozes have there-
fore been allocate& additional pastures forum!, at different seasons in
the neighboring republics of Kirgizia, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan. The MTS
offer each sesistemoe to the collective farms. This collective ferns
throughout the region, and beyond it, have been improving the maintenance
of their cattle on the pasturelanii. Dry areas are irrigated, fodder
cultures are planted on some of the pasture lands, fodder reserves are
stocked, every year, winter haueing in built for the cattle, and communi-
cation facilities are improved. The tyzyl-Kum pasture lands, the farthest
removed from the region, now have their own radio station.
But the exceptional possibilities for the further development of the
cattle-raising industry, inherent in a hiekly developed agriculture and
industry, are still Inadequately utilized. It is possible, among:other
things? to raise highly profitable dairy cattle by the use of grain fodder
cultures, corn, planted, grasses and by-products of the food industry; the
products of oldh dairy cattle are urgently needed by the numerous city
and village population of the region.
Continuing their ancient econanic traditions, the population still
engages in largo -scale silkworm breeding. By far the largest part of
all the mulberry tress of the rep:MU are concemArated in this region,
and at least half of all the cocoons are vroduced here.
Silkworm breeding -10S practiced here on a, large scale before too,
but the technique used Ante very poor. Cocoon productien was a sideline
for the cotton growers, mostly of the women, and was concentrated in
small primitive 4rme. Kest of the cocoons were exported to Bastin, or
abroad., and. scum tif them were prooecemi by the local artisans into na-
tional varieties of cloth,
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The large silk industry, built up after the re/volution and desigeed
to work on local raw 'materials, has changed the entire silkworm-breeding
industry. Cocoons are now produced by large collective farms which get
permanent large-scale assistance fron the government. The application
of the latest technological methods to silkworm breeding bas produced a
thorough going change in the whole complicated process of oocoon produc-
tion. tho gra::: (butterfly la...ras) is now processed only in fmecial
graine plants; it is revived in special incubators, not in little sacks
in the house as was the case in old ?2cedzhent; the primitive methods of
sun-drying and. processing of the cocoons have been replaced by the latest
facilities for killing the cocoons by steam and drying them in the shade.
An important achievement in the field of silkworm breeding is the develop-
ment of a 3batif hybrid. (sad ovaperior) grains and. new methods of accelerated
feeding, which have considerably increased the yields of the cocoons.
In 1913 the COZOCMG produced in each chamber Z wkorobkag in Ihodshent
County mounted to 23.4 kg. but after the Great Pe. iotic ar the average
cocoon yield was increased 1..2 times. The cocoons produced in the region
are no longer exported. but are all processed. at the large silk enterprises
in lieninabad.
The development of the industry in the region was closely tied to the
production of local raw materiels, to the existing prerevolutionary enter-
prises, to the availability of local cadres, such as weavers for example,
and. fivally, to tho population's needs for various industrial menufactures.
The first years of the Soviet Government saw the restoration of the
old cotton mill in Khodzhent, coal mining in Ehurab, and. oil-extraction
in Sall-llokho; the construction of a smell fruit-canning -plant in Koetakoz,
a flour mill in Ura Tube, etc. The first grains plant in the history
capable of producing large quantities of high qoality grains vent into
operation in 1919 in Thedehent. Among the large enterprises of that time
was the Kbodzhent silk-winding mill ?Crasser Tkach re& Weavey.T. As nay
ba judged by the plaoe maws, the first industrial enterprises bad.
already been fairly evenly distributed in the region, according to the
availability and diversity of its raw "tutorial resources. 3at those
were still small enterprises of a senihasseticauft type using old equip-
ment. some of it of foreiga maks.
In the 3 prewar five-year plans, industrial processing was extended.
to include practically every type of agricultural raw materiel. generous
geological expeditions have discovered new deposits of highly valuable
minerals which are now being exploited. Kew cotton-processing and. fruit-
canning plants and wine 'distilleries have been built in the past 10-12
years. liquipped with the latest Soviet-made machinery, these plants
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are capable of producing larger quantities of higher-quality goods. For
example, the canned apricots produced by the Latinabad Combine in 1957
were awarded. the first prize at the international Bxhibition. in Paris.
It was at that time also that highly complex enterprises, &mimed.
for a complete cycle of operation, first cane into being. Among then
is the Loninabad Silk Mill Combine, one of the largest in the USSR, which
went into partial p..."-a=16-.2a-tien in 1952.
The newly constructed. building material plants are capable of meet-
ing the tomand for *Wilding materials in the region.
The fue1 base of the region was completely reconstructed.. A. new
oil field., Neftee.bad, vas opened. on the bank of the Isfara River and is
now under exploitation; the old. SeliRokho oil fields. renamed Mit were
mechanized and. expanded, and. a new mechanized coal mine went into opera-
tion in Sbure.b.
The valuable minerals discovered in Taramazar (polymetals and. rare
netals) stimulated the organization of a powerful mining industry center
in the region.
Of the many factories and plants built in this region in. the postwar
period, mention should be nada of the Kaniba.dan Foundry Machine Plant,
which laid the foundation for the dirrelopment of a nae.hine-building in-
dustry in northern Tadzhikistan, and. the lanibeezt Oil Fixtracting Plant.
This region accounts for about 40% of Tadshikistens s industrial out-
put. The most advanced industries here are canning, silk production, and
polynetal processing. These branches of industry., at well as wine produc-
tion and. oil and. coal extraction produce from 70% to 100% of the output
of the related industries in the republic.
Looking at the distribution of these industries in the region, one
cannot fail to notice the close proximity between nest of the enterprises
and. their raw material sources. The mining and primary processing of
minerals are concentrated in Kermess.? (Unsay, Adrainan, Taken, and
Chorukh-Dairon) and in the eastern part of the 301seenyk Mountain Range
(Shurab, Tin, and Refteabad.). The cotton-processing, oil producing, and
canning plants ars found in the lower cotton-orchard. oases (Leniarabad,
Soyetabad, Proletarsk, Tardbadiue. Mel*nikevo? end Isfara). One currant-
canning plant and 2 wine distilleries (in addition to the Sovetabad Dis-
tillery) are located in the largest vineyard. area of the republic (Um-
Tube).
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The enterprises to which good. transportation facilities and. an.
industrious population are more important than the proximity of raw
material sources are concentrated in the old. thickly populated Z01101 of
the region (Leninabad, ranine,dam, and 'afore). Among them are the
silk combine,, the silk weaving and spinning mill, the fountity-mtchine
p10.2at. Ra..1. met of the 10101 1*-rim.-1 eliterp-i.4zes catertm t- the
population's needs.
The population's demands are met to some extent also by the cottage
industry, which produces a large variety of goods. Itaistaining to some
extent its prerevolutionary tradition of craftsmaaship, that isOmstry is
still located in its original centers of Leninabad? Xanibadam, 'start.
Ura-be, Ashte, etc.
The development of the region's economy is accompanied, by a con-
siderable increase it its population. It grow from 217,600 to 410,200
i.e., almost 100% ia only 13 years (from. 1926 to 1939).
Rapidly increasing also is the city population. In 1939, 27.5%
of the region's population lived in cities and city-type settlements.
There were only 3 cities and. 9 settlements In the region at that time
as against the- 6 cities sad 11 city-type settlements in existence now.
A new and )nuserous working class has come into being here. Suffice
it to :say that the Leninabad silk combine alone employs several dozen
times as many workers than the total number of workers available in
North Tadzhikistan in the prerevolutionary period..
Speaking of the economic and cultural development of the region,
mention should. be mad. am of the economic characteristics of its
various parts. The bulk of the region's population lives in the well-
irrigated belt on the left 'beak of the Syr-Darr& River, which includes
also the broader part of the Isfara River Valley to the Bast of the
Relesezkyk mountain range. Located in that belt are almost all the cotton-
orchard-mulberry oases aad cities of the region with the exemption of tira-
Tuba. Railroads are found. in that belt slaw & trunk line crawling it
from West to Bast and a spartreak connecting it with Obesely an& the Isfara
Oasis. The prospects for irrigating the mentioaed part of the region de-
pend on the reconstruction of the 9yr-Darya? its left tribetaries and
the Large Fergana Canal.
*..":1 There are still essential differences between the eastern and. western
parts of the. region, mostly in regard to industrial development.
Brtending in the western part is the largo Leninabad Oasis comprising
2/5s of all the irrigated land area of the region. It is irrigated pri-
marily by the mountain rivers -- Ihodshabskyrgan, tetanal and. 1ksu ?
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1'
*Zs
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party also by tprings an& the Large Fergana. Canal, which carries its
water to Khodzhabakyrgan; that canal gets its eater by seam of a =A-
ber of pumping station*, the largest of which, lIdehin Station, gets it
directly from the Syr-Darya. River. The Larva Fergaaa. Canal is being
expanded, and new pe.Oping stations designed to irrigate additional largo
areas of that oasis are under construction.
speoialiged branches of agriaaltame are cotton &-owieg, stock
breeding, horticulture, and tailkworm breeding. In view of the lack of
valuable minerals, most of ties industry is designed to process local
agricultural raw materials; the inportance of that industry, however,
extends beyond. the limits of the oasis.
Among the leading indnatrial and. cultural centers is the city of
Sovetabad (near the Lesinalad Bailroad. Station) and the city-type settle-
ments of Proletarsk, Chkelovskiy, and Nan. In these settlements there is
a canal vle plant* a wine distillery, a brewery, a cotton-processing plant,
and a brick factory, as well as central electromechanical shops. Lenin'-
bad, the oblast capital, is the largest industrial and cultural city.
Leninabad is located at the very entrance to the Fergana Valley in
a comparatively narrow passageway 'between the 14ogoltau Mountains in the
north and. the Turkestan mountain spurs in the south. That place has
been known for many years as the olthodzhant Oates.
Blocking the entrance to the rich Fergana Valley from the vast Taxan
steppes, Ehodzhent has lived. through a turbulent history. It was built
in ancient times. Alexander of Macedonia captured and destroyed it
during his crusades (in 329-326 BO) and. built & new fortress, Alexandria
(Alexandria Bskhata), in the same place or next to it. Several centuries
later, in. 711 AD, an Arab warlord Xuteyba marched. on Fergana. captured
Ihodshent (at that tine known. as Xhudsitaad), and plundered. it. Five
centuries later. in 1220, the city fell under the blows of the Mongolian
Legions, who not only destroyed it but also exterminated its population.
In certain periods of history Thodshent was a large handicraft in-
dastrial and. political center. Tor example, this was the case at the
tarn of the second nillennium when the city had. a largo rausber of arti-
sans' and. tradesmen's quarters. he Karemesar minas, containing silver,
copper, and lead deposits, were under intensive exploitation at that tine.
The ore was processed in the city. Important trails routes ran through
rhodthent, but the Mongol invasion hampered its development. The next
period. of the city's prosperity was between the fourteenth and. fifteenth
centuries when new artisans' and tradesmen's centers sprang isp in the city.
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At the beginning of the nineteenth century rhodthent became part of the
Nokand khanate which was organized at that time in the Fergana
The Bokhare, awl Nokan& khanates were always at war, and. nod:Unto the
key to the Fergana Valley, freqaently changed hands and suffered destrac-
tgoa, In MS it was annexed to Russia.
As part of Rassia,t s possessions. Rhoda/mint systematically increased.
its population.. Thus its population grew from about 18,000 in 1972 to
about 35.000 in 1903 and to about 40,000 in the prerevolutionary period..
The Russian industrialists built several handicraft enterprises in the
city for the primary processing of raw materials; cotton mills, fruit
processing plants, leather factories., and brick factories. These enter-
prises employed about 200 workers. The city remained, as a large artisan
and handicraft industry center of a large agricultural region. A large
part of its population, engaged. in fruit growing, silkworm breeding, sag
cotton, raising. Cotton fiber, dried fruit, and. raw silk:were the major
commodities exported, from the city and its surrounding rayons. The
cultural level of the city was very loaq In 1910 it had one single-grade
parish school and a Russian-native school, both of them attended by a
total of 70 students.
The reaid, economic and. cultural developsient of Xhodzhent did not
start until after the October Socialist Revolution. In 1929, the Nhod-
silent Okra& theretofore part of Uzbekistan, was reunited with the newly
formed. Tadzhik SSR.
As the largest city in northern Tadzhikistan, Ibodahent case in for
special attention. Its geographical situation was exceptionally favorable.
The city is located in. the center of a vast siik.cotten-fruit growing
oasis which serves to determine the direction of its economic development.
Paala*g alongside it is a railroad trunk line. A miming industry is ander
development in the Kuroda mantels district North of Iledehmet; South, of
it, in the mapper pert of the left-leik plebs, it a large area of unirri-
gated crop lands and vineyards. There are good automobile highways con-
necting the city with these rayons. Ihodshent it ACM undergoing rapid
6CODOMIC and cultural development.
The streets were replanned, paved, and lined with trees in the
thirties. A pontoon bridge was tilt across the Syr-Darya, a new city
water-supply system was put into operation, and bus cammunicatioa was
inaugurated between the city and the railroad station 12 km away.
In 1936 Ihedzheat was rammed. Lesinabad, and the Xhodahentskly
Rayon changed. to Leainibedekly Rayon.
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4
Numeraue enterprises want into operation in Leninabad anti its
outskirts before the great Patriotic War. They wore dteigned to fit
into the pattern of agricultural produotion of the surrounding area and
to neat the internal demands of the city and the outlying districts.
Over 1/4 of all the large oblast enterprises are now concentrated
In leninabad, and. they play almost as great= econamio part in northern
Tadshilastanas does Stalinabad in southern Tadzhikistan.
In addition to its economic importance. Lenindbad is also developing
into one of the largest cnitural staters of the young republic, just
like Stalindbad, it is a center for trainiag qua/ified cadres for the
rapidly developing agriculture, industry, trade, culture, and public
health service. It has tha largest teachers college in the republic.
Agricultural specialists are trained in the agricultural technic= and
the school for mechanization specialists. A, mining techaticum, the first
in Tadzhikistan, was opened to train workers for the mining industry.
There is also a cooperative trade technic= and a medical school. The
sdhool formate. which was opened almost a quarter of a century ago,
played an important part in the training of national musicians for the
entire republic. The theatre of musical drestit imeni A. S. Pushkin,
ha, been functioning in Leninabad since 1932. On its stage appear the
republicis national and honored art workers whom it has traited. The
city also has an interesting regional museum, a hones of culture a
house of pioneers, sdhoola, libraries, cinemas,. and clubs, and it pub-
lishes its own newspapers. Such are the principal results of the ao
years of cultural construction of one of the most ancient cities in the
world, now wider Soviet rule. Li:mine:bad is the mmunullargost cultural
center of the republic next to Stalinabed4
The city extends from West to East along the Syr-Darya for over 4km.
Im the vest, the city blocks abut against the bank of the river, which
makes a sharp turn there; in the south, flanked by the city buildings on
one aide and the =irrigated. pebble-surfaced Digmey elevation on the
other, is a wide belt of orchards and fields. City buildings are now
under constractloa in this former suburb. There is much space for the
further expansion of the city in the Southeast in the direction of the
young city of SovetAbad (faraaar Ispisar). It is a 12 ka stretch of
foraer wasteland, which is now crossed by a railroad spartradk and it
the center of intensive construction mostly industrial enterprise
construction.
The city Is built on a thick stratum of pebbles deposited by both
tht, Syr-Daxyt4 which is receding to the North, and the Ihedindblityrgan
River, which leaves its alluvial fans on tkie terraces. Sow* parts of
the pebble stratum are 4-5 a thick. The city, territory inclines toward
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the Syr-Darya from 380 to 320 a of absolute altitude, and that has a
certain effect on its water supply. The upper part of the city is well
suptlied with water fro w the adjacent Ihodshabakyrgan. River, while its
lower part has little water. It is available in the irrigation ditches
only wham the orcharde artli watered. The main source of water sunply
there is the water fed through the ducts originating in the Syr-Darya
River above Lenindbad. Wherever water-supply pipes have not been
installed, use is made of the local mkhauxe (ponds) containing fairly
good ground water.
The beautification of the city with trees and shrubbery is closely
connected with the nature of the water supply. A beautiful green land-
scape covered. with gardens and parks can be seen from the upper part of
the city, which rises up on an alluvial fan. Growing between those trees
are melon cultures, cotton, and lucerne. This peripheral lawl is now
under housing construction. The verdure in the lower part of the city
is still meager due to the lack of water. Trees and shrubbery are rare
even along the principal avenues of the city which can in no way be
compared to the green streets of Stalinabad..
Leninabad is different from Stalinabad in yet another respect.
Unlike Stalinabad, which was built under the Soviet Government on barren
land, Leninabad has grown from an old tem of artisans and tradesman with
its narrow, zigzagging, and dusty streets, adobe buts, ponds, and market
places and cemeteries in the center of the city, eta. But these old
features are rapidly disappearing; the city is now cries-crossed by
straight and wide asphalted streets and squares and is filled with an
increasing nuMber of new tall and beautiful buildings -- enterprises,
schools, institutions, theatres, stores, and multistoried apartment build-
tugs. A large well-planned park of culture and rest was built near the
old citadel on. the Syr-Darya River bank. Madera workers settlements
sprang up in the city's outskirts. Thus the settlement around the silk
combine, for example, consists mostly of 2-storr houses, has wide tree-
lined streets paved sidewalks and a park. It also has a claw a hotel,
a polyclinic, a hospital, schools, and children's institutions.
To the East of the Leninabad Oasis there are 2 other large oases,
the Kaaibadam and the 'shwa:. The "salad= covers the left bank of the
Syr45r3ra River, and the Isfera the wider part of the Isfsra River Valley.
They are separated by the hill-spurs of the Belesenik Motuttain Raw but
comprise a single area irrigeted by the Ida= River. when the Kairak-Kum
Water Reservoir is made available for irrigating part of the Kannada*
Oasis, additional water will be available in the Isfara River for irri-
gating new areas of the Isfara Oasis.
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The agriculture of these 2 oases is not mach different from that of
the Leninabad. ?este, except for horticulture, which gets a little more
attention in Isfara. is real difference,. however, is that these 2
oases contain. coal ard oil deposits along their peripheries; that is why-
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their industries which process local agricultural raw materials, are
paralleled by a growing mining industry.
The Ranibadem Oasis industry is concentrating in the rapidly growing
city of raalbada:a. The teity 1m* good communications, situated as it is
near the junction of the railroad. spurtraek to Shurab. An attistuit vraag..
considerably smaller than Illodsbant before the revolution, ran/bade* is
now a large ininstriel Isolator with its canning, cotton-processing, oil
manufacturing, faandry-machine plants, and a large cotton-spinning mill.
In ICanibe.dam, as in Leninabad, the industrial enterprises are located
along the city's outskirts. Neel enterprise has its own workers settle-
ment with modern hone's, tree-lined. streets, power plants, schools, and
various institutions.
The industry of the Isfara Oasis is also concentrated in a single
center, in the city of Isfara. The Isfara. Oasis is one of the largest
fruit-growing aroa.s in all of Tadzhikistan. Indeed, the broad valley,
extending 20 km to the Nast of the Isfara River and. irrigated. by it,
looks like one big apricot orchard..
The city of Isfara was built on both sides of the swiftly flowing
Islam River and near the railroad spu.rtrack running from Kanibadam to
Shurab. It was a large ancient orchard-village transformed into a city
which is now expanding into a large industrial center. Its canning plants,
building and binding material plants, and. distilleries mostly use local
raw materials. Surrounded by mountains, buried in gardens. ma. irri-
gated. by a mountain river ? all of which asks the sumser temperature
milder the city of Isfara is one of the most attractive and healthful
spots of Central Asia. Sanatoriums, rest hones, and pioneer comps could.
be established is that city and. in its outlying picturesque mountain gorges.
There are growing coal azwi oil industries outside the territorial
limits of the oases.
Mural), the coal bin of the republic, lies in the dry mountains
Southwest of Isfara. The poorly equipped prerevolutionary mines and the
impoverished mining popalation, out off from the rest of the world, have
been transformed into a large center with a highly mechanised coal-mining
in.dustry, modern transportation, and a well-built town under rayon juris-
diction with schools and. cultural institutions.
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North of Sharab, in similarly dry mountains, are the KIM oil
fields. The entire oil-extraction process there is mechanized; automatic
derricks draw the oil out of the wells and feed it into pipes, thus making
huean labor practically unnecessary. Two kilmeters from the um settle-
ment there is an ozocerite (mineral wax) mine and a plant which processes
that mineral.
East of there, on the Isfara River bank and the railroad spurtrackt
is Nefteabad, the second oil industry of the republic. There, too, oil
extraction is mechanized. The Befteabad settlement is well supplied with
water and buried in apricot gardens.
An entirely different landscape and, to some extent, different eco-
nomic characteristics are observable in the right-bank area; it consists
of the large sandy Kairak-Kum Massif, a broad detritus-covered plain
crisscrossed by the dry Akchop, Ube'', and Supetau hill chains with
the steep, rocky, and treeless slopes of the ftramin Mountains towering
above all of than. Kishlaks (native villages) clustered around fresh-.
water springs on the pebble-covered flatland are scattered over a dis-
tance of teas of kilometers. The largest oasis in in the eastern part
of the right-bank plain along the North Porgana Canal. Large irrigated
fields and kishlaks, including the rayon center Asht, are found near the
foot of the Kuramin Mountain Bange at the entrances to the mountain
gorges and on the little rivers, which usually dry up as sooa as they
flow out of those gorges. Cotton, fruit, and grapes are graviton the
irrigated fields. Cattle is also raised there, mostly the angora breed
of goats. Becomes they can get aong on less than the other animals,
these goats thrive under the local conditions.
As has already been pointed out, the greatest riches to be found. in
the right-benivarea minerals -- are concentrated in Xareaazar. The
Akehop and other low-mountain ranges contain salt deposits, lad& are
now exploited at the northeastern and. of the Supetau Reseep In the little
town of Karakee. Met far from there is the smell Oksukoa salt-and,ma&
lake and a famous mud-care resort.
The irrigation projeets now under construction on the Syr-Darya
River will open vast opportunities for the development of agriculture
and industry is that part of the region. The irrigation of the Sanger&
and Deliverzin steppes, the Xholstabidgmbiputlibissifi, and the land along
the North Yergana Camel will add another 30,000 ha of arable land in the
next few years. Contingent on that is the present construction of cotton,
processing and fruit-camning plants, a railroad line to the italiversin
Steppe, machine-tractor stations, and new towns, as well as a considerable
increase in the population.
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The western part of the left-bank foothill plain is distinguished
by its characteristic natural and economic features. Sloping high above
sea level -- and therefore also cooler and more moistened by atmospheric
precipitation -- this unirrigated area is planted primarily to grain and
oil-bearing caltures and accounts for almost 1/6 of the whole area in
the republic producing these cultures. Also coneentrated there are the
largest vineyards in Tadzhikistan.
In the comers' part of this plain, 48 km from the railroad and far
from the Leninabad oasis cities, is the expanding city of Ura-Tube, an
industrial and cultural center. Among its enterprises, Which use the
abundant local raw materials, are a flour mill, a large wine distillery
which produces the widest assortment of wines in Tadzhikistan, and a
currant-canning plant. There are also some local industrial enterprises.
The city has a boarding echool, a 3year agricultural school, and a
umber of cultural institutions. Another wine distillery was built not
far from Ur-Tube, in the Ganchi Kishlak. Large quantities of agricultural
raw materials -- grain, fresh grapes and frait, cocoons, and Onitlini prod-
ucts are also shipped fro* here to the Leninabad Oasis plants and to
the Ursatyevskaya Railroad Station for export purposes.
The upper part of the plain, including the city of 'Ura-Tube is
characterized by excellent climatic conditions. The summers are not
hot and the air is clear, and the good water and abundance of grapes
make this a favorite rest-cure spot. A hoepital for the treatment of lung
patients with mare's milk is open every summer near the Shakhristan rayon
center.
A good but winding automobile highway nine up the slope of the Turkes-
tan 14ountain Range, through the Shakhristan Pass (3,351 re) and down into
the Zeremahan Valley.
1,1 afgazt
The high-altitude Zeravshan Valley extends almost 300 km from West
to East within the republic. Its area of 12,600 sq ka was populated by
about 103,000 people in 1939,
This region is bordered by the Turkestan Mountain Range in the 'Borth
and the Gissar Mountains in the South. Running between these 2 ranges,
and parallel to them, is a third range, the Zeravihan. The 3 mountain
ranges are very high, 4,000 and higher in the east and about 3,000 in
in the west. The Tarkeetan and Gisler ranee are divides, i.e., is
they are not crossed by rivers, whereas a number of gorges eat up the
Zeravshan into separate ridges.
?Frim??????..
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us????????,
Plowied between the Turkestan and. Mores-shaft mountain ranges, the
large Ural's:hen River is joise& by 3 large tributaries and about 100
streams. Its largo tributaries -. the randarya, the Xahtutdarya? and
the Magiandarlya.-- originate in the Giesler Mountains, flow into the
Zeraviban River, and cut across the Zieravshae Mountain Range through
deep canyons.
The Zeravahan Valley is the largest and most densely populate& area
in this region. Broad as its western end and narrowing down toward. the
Bast, it rises in this direction, from 900 to 2,500 a above sea level.
Working its way (isomer into the botton of the valley, the Zara/sham has
Left a number of terraces, the oldest of Which is about 600 a above the
river's present water level. The terraces found. on both banks of the
river contain kishlaks, plowed fields, and. orchards. Some of the test-
preserved. parts of the terraces are 1.5 km vide. These contaia the
largest villages and highways, but in 031114 places the valley becomes
narrow and. the terraces diseppear. There therkishlaks and orchards
aro found on terraced slopes and the roads wind through the rocks or
are strung across artificialli leveled places. West of lahtutdarya the
valley becomes wider and gradually turns into a flat steppe through
which the Zeravshan River flows between low banks aad branches off into
several channels. The terraces are followed by small foothill plains
extending up the mountains, which are somewhat lower there.
One part of the population lives in the nountain gorges formed by
the large Zeravahan tributaries, and another part in the gorges and
valleys formed by those tributaries' own tributaries. The most populated
of these is the high-altitude valley along the upper reaches of the
Yagnob River (a teibatary of the randarta River) which flows between
the Zeravshan and Gissar mountain ranges at an altitude of 3,000 m
above sea level.
It is difficult to describe the climatic characteristics of the
ZeravShan Valley in view of its mosaic structure. On the whole, it is
characterized by a gradual change from the hot climate of the lower
plains to the cold climate of the high altitudes. The climate of the
lower western part of the valley is of the semidesert type, with a. long
growing sateen and a ware summer (the average July temperature is above
260). The air becomes cooler with increasing altitude. In the central
part of the valley, at 1.500 above *ea level, the average July tem-
perature is 24?, and. in the easter"' part, Which is 2,500 m above sea
level, the temperature it 150. There is little precipitation at the
bottom of the valley (160-330 an per year), but more on the mountain
elope;. Moat of the moisture is concentrated in the narrowest and
highest eastern part of the valley containing the huge Zeravihaa Glacier,
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which is 25 km long and is the source of the Matcha River (this is the
name of the upeer section of Zeravs)an). Shielded from the cold northern
winds by the high Turkestan mountain range, this valley is warm even
at comparatively high altitudes. Thus =thorn grades of tobacco, Tice,
and crapes are raisea in the western part of the valley; fruit, particularly
=prieets; grew in the central part, and grain, vegetables and an extra
large and high-yielding grade of potatoes in the stern part.
More rigorous climatic conditions obtain in the high-altitude
lateral valleys, eepeciaIly in the Tegnob Valley. The axborial vegeta.
tion Up there is sparse, end grain is the major agricultural product
raised.
The Zeravshan Valley haa been inhabited by Tadzhiks since ancient
times. The various conquerors of the past were more interested in the
large oases on the plains than in this region, in 'view of its inaeeessibil-
ity and it therefore remained isolated. from the rest of the world. The
survivals of the past socioeconomic orders, customs, language, and culture
are more widespread there than in other places. The inhabitants of the
TagnOb River Valley, for example, still use certain expressions of the
Sogdian language, Which went out of use in the valley a thousand years ago.
Before Central Asia was annexed to Russia, the Zeravehan Valley con-
sisted of 4 bakdoms and, was part of the Bokhexakhanate? Economical,'
it was an exceptionally backward region with a poor population and a
seminatural economy. The situation was further aggravated by the fact
that the autocratic beks were frequently at war with each Other, plunder-
ing and. oppressimg the population.
The annexation to Russia in 1870 and. the free communication with
Russian Turkestan stimulated the development of commercial agriculture
in the valley, especially horticulture. The lace' dried apricots became
famous for their quality and. were marketable in the cities of central
Asia.
The multiferiwas *meanie development of this high-eltitaas region
began after the October Revolution. 121.1934 Shoveller was (tressed by
an automobile read connect/1,417040e and Stalinabad and. running through
2 mountain passes, each over 3,000 a in altitude. In the Penak Mountain
Gorge, that road replaces the old winding footpaths along the edge of
the precipice and the rickety improvised crossings ('ovrisgi"). The
second, automobile road runs parallel to the Zerevshesi Elver, across the
entire valley, between Pendshikent and Matcha.
The new roads made it possible to 'undertake the exploitation of the
minerals found. at theretofore inaccessible altitudes. Rare metals are
now mined there. The most important of the nonmetallic minerals are ths
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hard-coal doposits in the valleys of the Zeravehan tributaries: the
3'andarya (with the Tagnob), the Kshtutdarya, and. the Nagiandarya. The
Ravat (ien-Yegnob) deposits, the largest reserve of high-quality coal,
is located war the autoinobile highway, but the processing of that coal
requires the construction of a rail line there.
The predominant type of economy in the valley is agriculture, its
leading branches being 'shoep breeding =I the of of .P.Pain awl ?Am-
gonous cultures. These breaches are the principal sources of income for
the collective farms. There were over 60.000 ha of land ander cultiva-
tion in the entire region in 1955; 84 of that land was planted to grata
and bean cultures, mostly wheat and barley, and. 10A to bleagsnous cultures,
mostly curly flax el. en-kadryael. There are about 300.000 head of all
types of cattle in the region wi a predeninenee (over 80%) of the local
breed. of sheep and. goats. The cattle population here is greater than in
the other districts of Tadzhikistan.
The nature of the economic activities in the afferent districts of
the region is detarmined by the differences in the natural conditions.
In the lewer part of the valley, for example, tobacco growing, vitiold-
Ursa horticulture, and silkworm breeding are being developed. in addl.-
tion to the above-mentioned branches of agriculture.
Sconomica3.1y, the most develops& and promising part of the region is
the wide and warm western part of the valley. It contataa 706 of* sil Vac
crop land in the region and all the vineyards and tobacco and. rice fields.
The wide terraces of the Zeravshan River, connecting with the rising foot-
hill plains, can be cultivated by agricultural machinery. /OS are in
operation in Pendshikeat and Gusar.
Rare and there one finds considerable land. massifs that can be
irrigated by the tributaries of the Zeravshas. River. This the vast
Nargidar Steppe end the Dashtimoli Plateau are located between its left
tributaries and the Isktutdarys sad. Xagiandarya livers. The decision
adopted by the Council of Ministers USSR and the Contra Committee (SU
on the development of cotton growing in the 'Tadzhik 311 in 1954-1960 calls
for the irrigation of over 3,000 he of the Xargidar steppe as the first
step in that direction. (The coastruction connected with the irrigation
of the first part of the )Iargidar Steppe is now under way. The total
land to be irrigated in the ltardigar Steppe and the adjacent Dashtimoli
Platesa, partly with the aid. of nactinery and partly by diverting some
of the ishtutdarya rater, will emceed 6,000 ha.) Part of that land All
be used. for planting early varieties of cotton.
???????",
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An. industry for processing agricultural raw materials is so far
available only in this part of the region; a wine distillery ands rice-
polishing plant are in operation in Pendshikent. An industrial combine
and industrial artela are catering to the needs of the population.
Pendzhikent is the largest inhabited point of the Zeravahan Valley;
it bad 9,000 inhabitants iK 1939 and in 1953 it was reorganized into a
town under direct rayon jurisdiction. This town has a pedagogical school.
A Sogdian-Tadshik archeological expedition has been at work in Peolzhikent
for several years, excavating and studying the buildings of ancient Pend-
shikent. The expedition's findings serve to shed additional light on the
culture of the Sogdians, the ancestors of the Tadzhik people.
Horticulture, mostly apricot growing, is wideepread in the narrow
central part of the valley. High-quality home-dried Apricots are shipped
from there to the Samarkand. Railroad.
There is little land in this part of the valley. Scattered sections
of the usable land are cultivated with draft animals and manually. The
irrigated land sections containing crops, orchards, and kishlaks are
located on the terraces and alluvial fans on the bottom of the Tally".
But these land sections are not irrigated by the Zeravshan River, which
flows by swiftly in deep gorges, but by the numerous creaks and streams
flowing down the steep mountains slopes and forming waterfalls in some
places. The collective farmers make good use of that water by skill-
fully diverting it to the terraces so that in most cases it does not even
reach the Zeravshan River. ?he irrigation ditches are often dug high in
the gorge, several kilometers from the terrace; the water flows through
the ditches along steep slopes and through wooden troughs laid across
ravines or attached to precipitous cliffs until it reaches the terrace
where it is used for the crops or orchards. Sven the pebble-covered
terraces can le cultivated when water is diverted to them; and although
the large stones are cleared from the ground, it appears as if the fruit
trees are growing out of the pebble, not from the soil.
Different use is made of the mountain elopes forming the valley:
scatters& across them are small parcels of land planted to grain and oil-
bearing cultures, which are kept moist IT precipitation. /tom tine to
time the inhabitants come up there for short periods to do field work.
Stock breeding and. grain production are the principal economic activ-
Wes in. the eastern part of the valley and other high places where the
climate is cooler.
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The further economic development of the Zeravahan Valley is connected.
with the construction of a connecting railroad line and the utilization
of the largest coal deposits of Central Asia and the enormous power poten-
tial of its rivers. In the lower part of the valley, further development
will be facilitated by the expansion of the irrigate& land. for the raising
of indastrial crop*. ?
The Glaser Valley
The Gissar Valley and its adjoining mountain slopes embrace the north-
western group of administrative rayons that are under the jurisdiction of
the republic. In the north this economic region is bounded by the Gissar
mountain peaks, in the West it borders an the UXbek SSR, and in the South
and East on a group of other rayons under the jurisdiction of the republic.
That area of about 11,300 sq km was inhabited by approximately 380,000
people in 1939.
The Gissar Valley is a vast intermountain depression near the southern
end of the Gissar Mountain Range at 700-1.000 m above sea level. It is 70
km long, up to 20 km vide at its central part, and 2 to 3 km wide at the
ends. In the West, beyond a mail watershed, it becomes the Surkhandarya
Valley, the upper section of which belongs to Tadzhikistan. The total
length of both valleys within Tadzhik territory is 110-115 km. In the
North the Gissar Valley is blocked by the high Gissar Mountain Range.
Which shields it from the cold norther* winds, aad in the South by a small
mountain chain which offers partial mrotection, from the dry southern winds.
Only the wide and 011011 entrance in the West makes the valley maoessible
to the warm and comparatively humid winds. The long and flat slope of the
Gissar Mountain Range rises above the valley in the shape of a row of
gigantic steps broken up by deep, well irrigated and densely populated
mountain. gorges. The southern edge of the valley, on the other hand, is
steep, waterless, less broken up, and almost uninhabited.
The Gissar Valley is irrigated by the Kafirnigan River, and the
upper part of the Surkhan Valley by the Karate& River. On their right
side, both rivers are joined by a number of tributaries flowing down the
Gilmer Mountain Range. The tafirnigen River's large tributaries in the
valley are Varsob and. Manske., both of them of glacier and. snow origin
and therefore well-suited for cotton-field irrigation.
The climate in the Gissar Valley is of the dry-steppe continental
type, characterized by long and hot summers with little precipitation,
and short, comparatively cold, and humid winters. The average July ten-
perature in Stalinabad (al 822 m absolute altitude) le 28?. SInamer temper-
atures sometimes exceed 400 in the shade, but the *vesting. are cool even
after hot days. The average January temperatare is close to 00 but may
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40S.
occasionally go go down to 20-25? below. The average annual precipitation
is 600 ma and most of it occurs during the winter-spring period. In
the summer and Gatuma there not a single rain drop XV fall on the hot
aM dry land for several months in a row. Wherever the land is not
artificially irrigated, all the grasairs dry up, and only the shrubbery
remains. Growing well on the irrigated. lend, on the other band, are
each earath-loving cultures as cotton, rice, tobacco, geranium. the
Kazanlyk Rose, grapes, figs, pomegranates. etc. The stotattain slopes
retain the humidity of the prevailing, southwestern air currents, and. in
some of the places there is a great deal of precipitation. In Xhodzhi-
Obigara, for example (at 1.700 m absolute altitude), the precipitation
is close to 1.400 me. That is why the following cultures can and do
grow well without irrigation in a wide belt at about 1,200 to 2,000 is
above sea level: grain cultures, broad-leaf forests of ash trees, naple,
poplars, hackberry, hawthorn, and. a variety of fruit trees, particularly
Greek walnuts. There in still mach precipitation above the forest belt,
but insufficient warmth for the trees, and. the only vegetation there are
subalpine and. alpine grass varieties. The summer pastures in the Oissar
Mountains are among the best in the republic.
Before the October Revolution. southern Tadzhikistan was the remotest
and most backward part of the Bokhara kieeeete. It had. no industry, local
demands were met by the cottage industry and the little cotton that was
raised was consumed locally. The major occupation of the valley population
were grain growing and stock breeding. Most of the arable land was con-
centrated in the bands of the emir. the Church, and a small rich clique
of people. The dekhkan (peasant) lived in semistarvation as he worked on.
rented land, usually for 1/4 of the crop. Agri=Iteare was deteriorating.
The crop lands continued to shrink (by more than lfr times between 1909
nM 1214), irrigation installations deteriorated, and large stretches of
land, turned into marshes.
The region was ruined still further by the civil war, which lasted.
several years in eastern Bokha.ra. By 1924 the total arable land was
reduced. to only 1/5 of the 1917 area, and. the population was reduced to
1/2. The large bazaar and artisan kishlake (native villages) ware de-
populated.
The victory of the Soviet Government was followed by the restoration
end development of the national economy in every district of southern
Tadzhikistan, but the volume and rates of development varied with the
different districts. The economy of the Gissar VaUy, with its favorable
geographic location, underwent a particularly speedy development. A, low
ansi open valley in the extreme West, it serves as a wide gate which con-
nects all of southern Tadzhikistan with the railroad network of the Union.
The railroad. that connected Stalinabad and. Torsos in 1929 provided. a power-
ful stimulant for the development of industry and agriculture in the Gilmer
Valley and, consequently, also in the other districts.
???????""h
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Agriculture grow rapidly and. its production trend underwent a change:
grain growing for consumption purposes gave way to commercial grain produc-
tion, with technical cultures playing an important part in the process.
whsn. the national-territorial boundaries were fixed. (in 1924), total
arable land. of the Gissar Valley amounted. to 16,000 ha of whicb. gully 2,500
ha had been planted. to cotton. The total cultivable area has now been
increased. to 197,000 ba and. the area planted. to cotton to 38,000 ha. ale
Glaser Valley is leading in the prodnction of raw cotton, its output
amounting to about 1/3 of all the cotton picked in the republic.. The
rapid intensification of agriculture was facilitated by a rapid. increase
in both the population (in 1939 the density of the rural population in the
cotton growing districts ranged. from 26 to 76 people per aver* mile) and
the 11110111101111 funds invested by the Soviet Government in the development
of cotton growing. The Large Gissar Canal was built as soon as the
expending cotton fields brought about a water shortage in some parts of
the valley. Measu.r3.ng 49 km in length, this canal diverts MO ae of the
water of the Dushambe River to the Saratag ItS.ver, irrigating several
thousand hectares of land. between them. There are 15 MTS in operation
in the valley (1/4 of all the HTS in the republic) and 3 cotton-processing
plants. An important part in the development of cotton growing in the
valley is playet by the Hagar Cotton-Seed. Testing Station, the kolkhoz
seed-selection fields, and. the Stalinabad Sovkhoz, a large artd.
wfl-
equipped state farm. These engage in improving the prevailing varieties
of cotton in the valley and developing new ones and. devising new agro-
technical measures for cotton growing and grass planting. In 1955,
the Gissar Valley kolkhozes obtained. an average of 34.4 eentners of
Soviet-grads raw cotton per hectare. Cotton growing now accounts for
GO to 90% of all the financial income of the kolkhosis in the cotton-
growing ?woos of the valley.
The Gissar Volley has become one of the regions producing volatile
oil cultures. Hundreds of hectares of irrigated land. in its vestern part
are planted. to geraniums. The Nfironos Stat. Pant and WI experimental
station for oil-bearing cultures were opened. in Pakhtaabad. Sxperinents
are being conducted with ouch valuable volatile oil cultures as lavender,
basil, lemon euca3.yptus, lemon wormwood., etc, in adAition to geranium,
which is the principal culture. The green mass of geranium is processed
into oil at the Pakhtaabad Geranium Plant.
Potatoes, vegetables and melon cultures play an important part in
the food supply for the population of the towns and villages, particularly
Stelinabad. This branch of agriculture has been lagging behind for a very
long time. But it is now getting more attention.. Large field.% have been
planted to potatoes and vegetables, and hot houses are under construction.
However, there is still a. shortage of raw materials for the vegetable
conning industry and. succulent fodder for the dairy cattle.
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094.:
But the rapid expansion of irrigated agricultural land, which is
planted mostly to technical cultures, did not reduce the importanee of
grain and oil-bearing cultures, which have merely been shifted from the
irrigated land to the newly cultivated =irrigated. areas. The Glaser
Valley with its surrounding foothill plains and mountain slopes is one of
the "'bread grain" districts producing 1/4 of the total grain crap of the
regalia. It produces primarily wheat, barley, and oil-bearing flax
(sigle). Most of the crop land is found in the hill belt (adyr) where
the flat hill slopes are largely ploughed. up. The modern machinery of
the !MS is used on that land.
Before the revolution, horticulture and viticulture in the Gissar
Valley were of no commercial value despite the exceptionally favorable
natural conditions for those cultures in the valley. First-grade frmit-
and grape state farms have now been built in the central part of the
valley. The grape growers of the Shedkrinsa State Pare, for example, for
a number of years have been raising the richest grape crops in the republic,
and. were therefore granted the privilege to participate in the All-Union
Agricultural Bxhibition for the third. time. Working jointly with the
collective farms, they have kept the Gissar Valley wine distillery and
fruit-canning plant, the only ones of their kind, in southern Tadzhikistan
so far, supplied. with ray materials. But in the development of horti-
culture and viticulture, this region as a whole is still far behind the
western part of the Fergana Valley, inasmuch as it only accounts for
131-15% of all the orchards amd vineyards of the republic.
As regards profit, animal husbandry is second only to cotton growing.
In 1955, there were about 700,000 head of all types of cattle in the val-
ley. The Gissar Valley is situated between the vast winter pastures of
the southern part of the republic and the rich summer pastures of the
southern slopes of the Glaser mountain range. The proper utilization of
these pastures facilited the development of the famous Gissar breed of
sheep. The old routes of shifting the cattle between pastures are still
in use, tut the grazing; conditions have been considerably improved. The
Gilmer breed of sheep predominates the flocks. About half of the Glaser
sheep of the republic are concentrated in this valley. Also found in
this region, are most of the Lokay breed of horses; this breed is under-
going further improvement at the Koktaih State Stables. The Gissar Valley
with its well-developed vegetable and grain growing economy and food
industry is also very suitable for hog breeding aad dairy cattle raising.
The productivity of the cows and the total income derived from cattle
raising have been sharply increased in the commercial dairy farms (some of
them mechanized), organised by mane of the suburban kolkhoses.
The abundance of agricultural raw materials made the industrial
development of the Gissar Valley possible. Bnterprises engaging in cotton
processing, flour milling, meat packieg, silk winding, and leather making
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were built one after another. At the same time, the available mineral
raw materials stimulated the construction of plants for the production
of building materials required by the economy. Construction was progres-
sing at a very rapid. pace. Two-to-thr? new enterprises wire commissioned
every year. In the first 2 five-year plans now plants and. factories were
built only in Stalinabad. The Ordshonikitizeabad Flour Milling Combine
was the only large enterprise built outside of the capital. Such a con-
centration ot production in one place was largely due to the fact that
the Glaser Valley, unlike Khodzhent and. Healed** in the North, had no
reserve of artisans and. qualified orator:on. or is it as rich In
minerals as are the Isfare. and Jraramazar rayons. The Gissar Valley
primarily produced. agricultural raw materials, and Stalimatad alone seas
able to absorb and process all of it.
Substantial changes in the structure and. distribution of the industry
were introduced in the third., and. especially the fourth, five-year -plan.
Good. transportation connections had. by that time already been established.
between the Gissar Valley and the other regions of Tadzhikistan. In
addition to the railroad trunk line to the eastern part of the valley
(Ordshonikidseabad.), good. roads were built from Stalinabad in all direc-
tions. An asphalt-covered. highway, 110 km long, was extended into the
Vaithsh Valley, and. a narrow-gouge railroad line was built parallel to
it. An automobile highway was built northward. to the Tar sob Mountain
Gorge and, through it, into the Zeravshan and leergana Valleys. The big
Pamir Highway was built across the Xarategin, Darvaz, and Bedakhshan
mountain district, which previously had. been almost inaccessible. Heavy
automobile traffic was ineaguratad between the Gissar Valley and. south-
eastern Tadzhikistan (formerly Kulyal Oblast).
The growing stocks of raw materials, produced. locally and. brought in
from other districts, stimulated the construction of industrial enter-
prises also in other parts of the volley. The majority of factories and
plants, however, are still concentrated in Stalinabad, which therefore
reboots the principal industrial specialization of a large economic
region. Stalinabad is also the largest political an& cultural center of
Tadzhikistan..
Stalinabad is located. in the eastern part of the Gisse.r Valley where
the Varzob River flews out of the mountains and forms its alluvial fan.
(The lower part of the Varzob River at Stalisalad. and. below is called the
Dtsehambinka). It is one of the rouse cities of the Soviet Union. Three
kishleks existed in the recent past where Stalinabad. is now; one of them,
Dushanbe, consisted. of several dozen clay hats and seised tents and. the
other 2 were still smaller. In 1924 Du.shambe became the center of the
Tadzhik ASSR, and. in 1925 it was proclaimed. a city even though it was
not yet a city. The construction of a city had. only begun. The first
,K0.?????
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industrial combine, employing 14 workers, started, operations in Dushanbe
in 1926. The first train arrived in Dnshambe in the autumn of 1929 and
stopped in the open steppe. It was still difficult to judge the out-
lines of the future city by the work going on at that tine. frames of
new buildings and construction projects were springing up sinultaneously
in the East, South, and North Dushanbe mons. In 1929 Duehambe was
renamed Stalinabad. Thus the foundation for the republico $ capital we
laid in an empty field, but in the center of the future roads of the
still backward agrarian district.
Many newcomers from every part of the Soviet Union at that tins
became permanent residents of the young capital. The Stalindbad popula-
tion grew by leaps and bounds. The city had 5,600 people in 1926; 16,000
in 1928; 24,000 in 1930; and 82,600 in 1939. It now has 191,000 residents
(as of the beginning of 1956). The swift growth of the city and its
urgent need for out side specialists account for the multinational charac-
ter of its population. In 1939 Russians made up the bulk of the popmla-
tion (57A), followed by Tadzhiks (12.1%), and Uzbeks (9%), and also by
Tatars, Kazakh:a Iirgizians, etc. With the training of national madras,
the relative number of Tadzhiks has now been considerably increased.
Stalinabados industry was originally connected with agricultural
production. A cotton processinglAant, a flour mill, a meat making
combine, a silk mill, and a tannery had been built in the first 10 years
of the cityls existence. But the rapid growth of the city population, the
increase in the number of workers, employees, and students created a de-
nand for manufactured products designed to meet the daily needs of the
population, and such enterprises as a lemonade plant, clothing and shoe
factories, a mechanized broad-baking plant, a brewery, etc, came into
existence one atter another. The searah for building raw materials
around the expanding capital proved successful. Brick, alabaster, asphalt-
concrete, and cement plants were built North of the city where fire clay,
lime, and marl had been discovered.
Later, in the second and third five-year plans, it became possible
to build, more complicated enterprises vitich used seminenefeatures as
their raw zatterials. A silk-weaving mill was built before ths war and
a large textile combine, the largest cotton producing conbine in Tadzhik-
istan, during the war. It was no coincidence that the combine was built
in the southern part of the country-, in the Glaser Valley, vhich is a
leading cotton growing area and the concentration point for the cotton
fiber of all the southern plants. (Cotton fiber is shipped to the Gissar
Valley fro* 6 cotton processing plants in southern Tadshikistan, stiai of
it to be transshipped by rail and some for use by the textile combine,)
Situated at the juncture of the road whore that raw Material, inevitably
concentratea, Stalimbed was picked as the site for the combine. The
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Stalinabad. combine is second. only to the Leninabad Silk Cosibine as regards
the nn.nber of employees. A well-built textile workers settlement with
large houses and. cottages, CilleMaa and polyclinics, schools and libraries
sprang up around. the combine at the southern fringe of Stalinabad. Another
part of the textile combine is now under construction, and. its capacity
will be double that of the existing combine.
The growing industry needed. more power and the city needed electric
lighting. The shortage of local fuel and the high cost of imported fuel
led to the only other large source of energy for the city. the Varzob
River. The problem of supplying Stalinabad with electric power at that
stage of its development was solved. with the construction of the 7.500
kw Upper Varzob State Power Plant in 1937.
The capital continued to grow, demanding more electric power. The
Lower Varzob State Paver Plant, built in, 1949, had. twice the capacity
of the first plant and. was capable of producing electric power for new
enterpriees. Three hydroelectric plants (the third, a email one, built
at the lowest cascade) were built to function as a single automatically-
controlled. power system. But although many of the enterprises now have
their own thermoelectric power plants, there is still a shortage of
electric power in. Stalinabad, particularly in winter tthen the drainage of
the Varzob River is sharply reduced.. That shortage will be eliminated.
when tho large Perepadnaya Hydroelectric Plant, now under construction on
the Vakheh Canal, is completed. In the sumer its power will be used. far
the mechanical irrigation of the Vakhsh Valley, and in the winter for the
Stalinabad power network.
Stalinabad is the largest industrial center of the republic. In. 1955
it accounted for about 28% of the entire industrial output of Tadzhikistan;
the light and. food industries are among the leading ones, accounting for
about 80 of the city's industrial output.
Stalinabad is a large consumer of various local foodstuffs, and. this
affects the structure of agricultural production in the adjaceat territories.
Vegetables, potatoes, fruit, and grapes are important staples of the city
population's diet. These cultures ripes at different seasons of the year,
in view of the diversity of natural conditions in southern Tadzhikistan,
and the fruit-and-vegetable season therefore lasts about 3/4 of the year.
Besidee, certain cultures grow best in certain districts. Ttsze, most of
the potatoes shipped into the city cm* from the eastern mountainous
areas where the sulonsrs are cooler and the quality and yield. of the
potatoes are hig)wir. Cantaloupes and water melons, on the other hand,
grow well in the lover, hot va3.1sys where there is an Emcees of irrige,-
tion water.
??????"la
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Stalinabad is not only the largest industrial center, it is also the
center of political, scientific, and cultural life in Tadzhikistan. The
qualified cadres required by the republic itself are trained in that
city. In 1925 Dushanbe had only 3 elemeatery schools. Modern Stalinabad
has about 30 elementary and middle schools atteaded by more than 20.000
children. The first Tadzhik state university was opened there in 1949.
The oity alga- has a aedizal, an agric-altwel, a polytechnical, and 2
pedagogical institutes aad 6 specialized middle schools. Teachers, doc-
tors, agronomists, geologists, and other specialists educated in the
schools of the capital are now working in. every part of the republic.
Also located in Stalinabad is the Academy of Sciences Tadzhik SSE, Watch
works in close contact with the wide network of scientific institutions
of the republic. An important part in the cultural development of the
republic is played. by the large printing machine combine; millions of
periodicals and. books, published in 3 lawages, come off those printing
presses annaally. Unions of soviet writers, composers, artists and
architects, latch unite large creative collectives, work in the capitalp
Stalinabad has 3 theatres ? the Roll shoy Theatre and. 2 dramatic theatres
a state philharmonic orchestra, a circus, several cinemas, parks et cul-
ture and rest, a water-sports stadium, and. other stadiums.
Stair:abed is situated in a, climatically favorable spot of the Gissar
Valley, at the upper part of the alluvial fan of the Ve.rzob River which
is far enough from the swastpy button land of the rafirnigan River. The
wide and. flat terraces of the Dashambinka River are suitable for large-
scale construction. The microstructure of the city's territory is favor-
able also in that it is not menaced by a shortage of water, as the earmer
drainage of the Varzob River amounts to 100 cu a per second.. Its poten-
tial hydroelectric power is about 80,000 kw, which would. justify the
construction of a number of hydroelectric pleats on the cascades. The
third and highest terrace over the Dc.ehembinks. River, about 30 a high,
is almost entirely under construction. The city has expanded to the
South and West, occupying the other terraces. Construction has recently
been started. on the right hank of the river. Among the projects already
completed are Komsomol Lake with the water-sports stadiun, another large
stadium, a concrete plant, and the Sovetskiy Settlement inhabited, by
the builders of Stalinabad. The Large Gissar Canal originates there.
Stalinabad is a young city, and. its construction is being carried
out according to a definite plan. Its buildings are not tall, all of
then being surrounded by trees and skrabbery. The predominance of low
buildings is determined, by seismic conditions.
A a's_mracter.istic feature of Stalinabad are the various settlements
built within the city limits at different tines, such as the Sovetskiy,
Severely, Kirovskiy, Zavodskoy, Ilinicheskiy, and. other settlements.
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The well-distributed settlements retain their importance as districts
of a big city; the unplanned and random construction of the past has given
way to the construction of beautiful buildings, well-planned. gardens, and
parks.
Stalinabad. is one of the greenest cities of Central Asia. The
locale occupied by the city slants down, In 2 directions: toward and.
parallel to the river, along an inclined, alluvial fan. This makes it
(saw to irrigate the city territory by large irrigation ditches which
get their water from the Varsob River and, distribute it, by the gravity
method, to the streets, gardens, and. plant nurseries. Many of the city's
streets resemble avenues, their sidewalks run between lines of trees
under a dome of foliage. The tress consist of maple, poplar, catalpa,
white acacia, plane trees, and willows. There are still very few con-
iferous trees to decorate the streets when the other tress shed. their
leaves. A shrub-like white cedar plant has been planted for some time in
Stalinabad; it blends with the flower beds around. the houses and is an,
excellent, decorative plant. The botanical garden in the northern part
of the city has 400 species of arborial and shrubbery plants and, about
ZOO different types of grass-like plants indigenous to various regions
of the world.. In addition to the botanical garden, the city also main-
tains 2 plant nurseries and 3 city gardens containing a larger variety
of plants than those growing on the city streets and. boulevards. The
botanical garden and the plant nurseries are already used as a rich
source for the improvement of the city's "green architecture."
The line of buildings extending frost the northern to the southern
fringes of the city is almost 10 km long. The city is narrowed down
toward. the North by the eastern hills approaching the river, and. it
tapers off to the North of the botanical garden.
StalistA'bad is excellently planned: its streets running from North
to South and. from West to last, ar-* wide and straight and they intersect
at right angles. The streets running in a meridional direction point
to the Gisser Mountain Range and are well aired, by the prevailing winds
coming from the North. The major boulevards lead to the 4 possible
approaches to the city.
The meridional ulitsa Lenin, which divides the city into 2 parts,
is also the city'* main artery inasmuch as all the outgoing and incoming
roads cross it or run into it. It extends across the entire city, first
in a north-westerly and, then in a northerly direction. It is crossed
by wide streets at right angles. In its appearance, lints& lamina is
typical of Stalinabad and the other new cities of Central Asia. It is
a boulevard. consisting of a =giber of avenues divided. by irrigation
ditches. This street is dotted, with squ.arer, parks, and the largest
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10.S.
public buildings in the city. At the southern end of the street,
not inr from the railroad. station, is the cinema Vat= (Metherland)
Cinema, built in the oriental style. Further down are the austere-
looking buildings of the state university and the Presidium of the
Tadzhik Academy of Sciences. Towering over Moscow Sqaare, which is
decorated with fountains, a pool, and flowerheds, is the building of
The TedShik Academic Theatre of Opera and Ballet._ Not far fru) the
opera theatres is an attractive 2 story bundles with semigebled win-
dows containing the busts of Eassian and Tadzhik classical writers.
This building, one of the most beautiful in the city, regards architec-
ture and interior decoration (built by architect S. L. Anisimov), houses
the Public Library of the Republic latent Firdonsi. This "palace of beaks"
contains about one minion volumes including thermion/ books and manus-
cripts of oriental writers. Next, on Soviet Spare, is the largest build-
ing in the city, the house of government. Further North, the streets
run along the Park of Culture and Rest imolai Lenin. Not far from there
are the Regional Museum of Natural History and the State Museum of Fine
Arts. Further on, in the Frunze Park section, are the following theatres:
The Tadzhik Academic Theatre of the Drama. the Green (Summer) Theatre,
and the recently-built House of Culture. A school town containing most
of Stalinabadls colleges and specialise schools is located at the very
worth end of the street. Prominent among the school buildings are the
large and well-lighted buildings of the medical and pedagogical insti-
tutes. A trolley-bus line runs along the entire length of ulitsa Lenina,
from the railroad station to the northern settlement.
Located in the Gilmer Valley now. besides Stalinabad, is the rayon
city of Roger and several city-type settlements. Almost all of them have
one or 2 industrial enterprises.
Regar is is the western part of the Giese? Valley. Its distance
from Stalinahad (60 kn) and location in the heart of the cotton country
have determined the direction of its industrial development. The most
modern cotton processing plant in the republic was built there as far
back as 1938. Later on an oil manufacturing plant was added.
The city-typo settlement of Ordzhonididzsabad (formerly Tangi,Bazar),
23 km Bast of Stalinabad, is located at the terminal point of the railroad
in the Ginger Valley. Converging at this point are automobile highways
from the southern Tadzhik grain areas, and one of the first and largest
flour milling combines of the republic is located. there. The settlement
is surrounded by cotton fields and it has the third largest cotton -
processing plant of the Glaser Valley.
The largo city-type settlement of Tekob was built in the Takob
Mountain gorge, 46 km North of Stalindbad, on the rich fluorspar deposits.
(Fluorspar is a mineral, calcium fluorine (cAr2). It is used in metallurgy
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40S.
as a flux for lowering the 'temperature of metal welting (Marten process,
alumiwa smelting); in the chemical industry for obtaining hydrofluoric
acid. and, for the impregaation of railway cross ties; it is also used.
in ceramice for the production of enamel as well as in glass and. optical
glass production). Mines and a concentration plant were built in Takob.
Other industrial enterprises were built also in other places of
the Gissar Valley: & hydroelectric station in the Varzob rayon center,
a fruit casas-ing plant in Catepture; a geranium processing plant in Pak-
htaated, a brick-and-tile plant in Gi stare, etc.
All the mentioned centers are undergoing; expansion and improvement.
New helloes, schools, chinless, hotels, power pleats, and water-supply
systems are under construction; coMbines, stores and restaurants,
designed to cater to the daily needs of the people are being opened;
the streets are being paved with asphalt and lined with trees, and con-
munitation with other centers and Stalinabad is being established.
This constellation of new centers near Stalinabad shares some of
this citys s productive as well as cultural and. educational functions.
?or example, a number of the republican schools are now located in these
centers, net in Stalinaba.d; the school for training physical education
teachers for middle schools is in Ordzhonikidzeabad; the 3-year republic
school for training educators ia in Inktash, and. the school for mechani-
zation workers in agriculture is in Cheptara.
Opening into the wide Oissar Valley from the North is a number of
mountain gorges at 11000 to 2,500 la above sea level.. These gorges extend.
tens of kilometers up the slope and. in some places reach the watershed
range. They are all inhabited. Unlike the Gissar Valley colleetive
farms, the mountain kolkhozes specialize in agriculture on =irrigated
land. (grain and oil-bearing cultares) and animal husbandry; they also
engage in silkworm breeding and horticulture. There is very little
irrigated, land. up there, and. every little patch of it -- planted to
lucerne, vegetables, or fruit -- is therefore carefully cultivated. The
economy of the mountain kolkhozes is considerably poorer than that of
the valley kolkhozes, and the collective farms, which have to operate
under particularly difficult natural conditions* have been moving to the
cotton districts.
The Varzob Gorge is the most densely populated ausd economically
important. Tbe Stalinahed Ure. The automobile :highway runs across it.
The Upper Varzob State Power Plant was built where the gorge emerges
from the mountains. The Takob Combine is situated in one of its side
gorges. Another gorge, rbodshl-Obigarm at 1,700 a above sea
level, contains hot mineral-water springs. A health resort was built
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there. At the highest part of the gorge are the Zirmin Coal Deposits.
Gold. springs of mineral water of the Na.raan type are found in a number
of places on the Gissar Mountain Range; the most powerful of them, the
Maodzhi-Sangkhok. are 3,020 a above sea level. Some of the springs are
partially utilized to meet the demands of the Staline.bad population.
The ealltera fringa of the Gletar Valley (Yavzibluialdi Rayon) occupies
the lower part of the mountains and has a flatter topography then the
Gissar mountain slopes. There is very little irrigated land. there. The
large flat stretches of iudrrigated lead are cultivated largely by machine.
The major aspects of agriculture are grain growing and animal breeding.
(The collective tarsal financial income from grain and oil-bearing cal-
tura accounts for 45%-60% of their total income, and their income from
animal breeding for 20-40%.)
The Gilmer Valley has good. transportation connections with the valleys
of southwestern Tadahikiston, particularly with the Vakhsh Valley.
louthveitern Tadyhikistan
This region covers the aouthwestern part of Tadzhik SSR; it borders
on the Gisear Valley in the fforth, on southeastern Tadshikistan in the
Bast, on Afgfrmiatetanilxv.the South, and. on the Uzbek SSR in the West. It
includes several wide valleys which fan out in different directions. )a-
ample, are the Vakhsh, Kafirnigan, and. Kirovabad Ve:I.lays. -which are sepa-
rated by low and. arid mountain chains. The territory of the region (its
valleys and. watersheds) as a whole declines from North to South. The
Vakhsh. and Kafirnigen Rivers flow in the same direction. In the South
the region is bounded. by the river Pyandzh and, past the confluence of
the Pyandsh and. the Vakhsh, by the Amu-Darya. The region occupies an
area of 10.100 sq kin. The population is concentrated mostly in the 3
above-mentioned valleys, which contained 148,200 people in 1939.
Before the revolution, the region was part of the Bokhara khanate.
Only the Kafir.nigan and Pyandsh (Kirovabad) valleys were inhabited.; the
Vakhsh Valley, the largest of then all, remained. practically uninhabited..
A great effort has been wade under the Soviet Government to irrigate
the desert land and reclaim the marshy territory in these valleys for
the lyarpose of planting then to cotton and other technical cultures.
One-hundred thousand hectares of land were under cultivation in the region
in 1955, including 60,000 ha. of cotton fields. Over 40% of the republic's
cotton crops and. almost all the thin-fiber cotton varieties are raised.
In this region. Substantial quantities of oil-beariaz aultares, jute,
and other subtropical and tropical cultures are raised in the southern
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valleys in addition to cotton. There is very little grain grown in the
region, as it cannot be raised. on =irrigated land. in this dry area, and.
the irrigated. land is therefore used to raise more valuable cultures.
The low-yield desert-steppe pasturelands of the region are best
suited for sheep-raising, particularly asttiakiumm sheep, which are less
discriminating in regard to fodder. Most of the 700,000 head of cattle
available in the region. in 1955 consisted of sheep and goats. Sixty
percent of all the astrakhan aheep of the Tadahik SSR axe concentrated
in this region. Three of the repUblicts 4 state sheep farms can be
found in the open plains of the region.
The industry of the region specializes primarily in processing local
agricultural raw materials: raw cotton, cotton seed, grain and. oil-bearing
cultures; building materials are produced from local raw materials.
Every valley included in this region differs from the others in
its natural and economic conditions, bat their similarities are greater
than their differences.
The Vakhsh Valley, the largest and. economically most advanced, is
located. in the center of the region. It is situated, at the lower course
of the Vakhsh River, which joins the lay:andsh to forst the Mu-Darya River
Extending over 100 km in a meridional direction, the valley is up to 25
km wide in its northern part, narrows down to 7-10 kw toward the middle,
and becomes wider again in the southern part. Its flat part alone, which
is accessible to irrigation, covers more than 1.500 sq km. The valley
is surrounded by low mountains from 3 sides; from the West the mountable
decline fairly steeply toward the Vakksh River, in the north their slopes
are flat, and on the Afghanistan side there are no mountains; the altitude
of the valley is 350 to 460 a above sea level.
The Vakhah Valley is one of the warmest districts in the Soviet
Union. The average winter temperature is 10-30. and the average summer
temperature is very high, about 300. The hot, dry, and sunny summer
makes the valley warmer than Egypt in eammertime. This makes it possible
to raise warmth-loving subtropical sad even tropical catares In the
valley. At the same time, the valley climate is very mach of the con-
tinental type. Although there is an meow in adatertime, the temperature
goes down to 23?-25?. The heat-loving: perennial cultures. (citrus fruit
and olives) cannot therefore be left to grow in unprotected soil; even
pomegranates, figs, and. grapes have to be protected with additional soil
above the ground. in wintertime. The amount of Fmnsga precipitation le
less than 300mm and in some places not more than 150 mm. Normally-, there
is not a drop of rain for a 4 month period during the summer. Only arti-
ficial irrigation can make agriculture possible under these prevailing
desert condition*.
??-?--"Th
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Mazy years ago, this fertile valley attracted. a large population.
Dry remnants of ancient canals and ruins of old, fortresses and large
villages are still found on the third, and widest, terrace. Later on,
however, the valley was all but abandoned. Before World War I there
were only 2,200 households in the valley, occupied. mostly by semi-
nomadic 'Uzbeks and Teske:entails. They had. about 35,000 head of cattle,
mostly goate and shoop. Astra1r42:n sheep were raised by the Turiheaniens
of the 2 southern villages. Dzhilikult and Eare-Turkmen. The exhausted
land was simply abandoned. "This year the crops are planted in one
place, and next ysar in another; the lend is rich, end there is only a
handful of people here" (A. A. Semenov). Much grain was planted but
my little cotton. There was no industry. A small amount of raw cot-
ton, was shipped to Terms which had. the only cotton processing plant in
eastern Bokhara.
In the first years of the existence of the Soviet Government, the
valley was almost depopulated by the incessant Bashmachi attacks. Even
as late as 1926 (the year of the first census of the population), when
part of the population had returned to their homes, the entire valley
including the territory North of the Vakhsh River had, a population of
11.500 people. The region was thus very sparsely populated at the tine
its economic development began.
The following 3 problems bad to be urgently solved before the valley
could be exploited: building reads, irrigating the desert, and. populating
the desert.
Not until after the construction of the Terms-Staunched railroad.
line was it possible to tackle the problem of reclaiming the deserts of
southwestern Tedehikisten; first of all the Vakheh Valley, which had
been cut off from the outside world. by mountains and the lack of roads.
1932, a good highway. 110 km long, was built between Stanumbed. and,
Jrargan-Tube, and a bridge was built across the Vakhth River. A narrow-
gauge line extending along the valley from the beginning of the canal
to the Tower Pyandzh quay Oh the Amu-Darya River was built at the same
time. It was designed, first, to haul freight along the carol under
construction and, later, to transport cotton.
The existing canals were capable of irrigating only a =al portion
of the land. Much of the land in that area became swampy anti seneseuzed
as a result of centuries of exploitation of the canal* and the poor
irrigation methods. But east of the valley there wire broad plateaus
(upper terraces) with fertile sieroxem (grey desert) soil which had never
been, irrigated.. It required complicated engineering installations to gat
the water up there. That is how the Lane Vakhsh Canal, one of the lar-
gest construction projects of the first part of the Second Tive-Year Plano
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was conceived. and built in 1933. A whole river, draining at the rate
of 100 cu a of water per second, was shifted. toward. the valley. terraces.
A dam with 7 sluice-gates passing the river water into a deep depression,
the upper part of the canal, was built on the left bank of the Vakhsh
River not far from where it leaves the mountains. The canal extends
tens of kilometers to the South and breaches off into numerous sleeves
en the way. Some of those branches supply water to the previously
irrigated fields, mostly on the third terrace, and others to the newly
irrigated. land. on the fourth and fifth terraces (plateaus) Which could
not be irrigated by the gravity method before.
Large-scale irrigation work is underway in the Vakhsh Valley even
now. More than 20,000 ha of new land will be irrigated there during the
Sixth Five-Year Plan. The high fourth and fifth terraces ? comprising
the Akgazin, tirtabos? Kafyr, and Eumsyngir massifs -- will be prepared.
for cultivation. To many of the sections the water will be supplied
by pumping stations. The largo Persnadnaya hydroelectric power plant
La under construction on the Akgasin branch of the Vakhch Canal. Another
and. still more powerful hydroelectric power plant, the Golovnaya, is
tinder construction on the Vakkeh. River itself. In the summer the power
of the Perepadaaya State Power Plant will be used for irrigating the land
by machinery and, for facilitating the vertical drainage on the old. irri-
gated land and. other need.s of the Vakhah Valley. In the winter the water
will flow to Stalinabad along the conduits already built.
The new area planted to cotton required. not only a good deal of the
labor involved. in cotton crowing but also a great deal of construction
and. maintenance of roads, bridges, canals, and reservoirs. Such work
could be carried out only by a permanently settled population, which
the region lacked. Only the mass migration from the mountainous districts,
which ha4 been going on for many years, could. supply the economy of the
valley with the necessary labor force.
The settlement of the valley began back in the Second Five-Tear Plan.
Entire collective farms with their equipment and cattle moved doun the
valley. New inhabited. points spritn7, up one after another, mow city-type
settlements came into being (Vakhshatroy, the Tower Pyandsh nay, and the
aro? State rays) and the following new ray**, and rayon centers were
formed; Kaganovichabad, Nolotovelad, and Oktyabrsk; the city of Kz3.rgan-
Tube grew into a large industrial center.
The entire- population of the Valrhs.h Valley is concentrated in the
flatland. part of it, which is the only suitable place for artificial
irriaation. The valley population in 1939 was 125,000 according to the
census.
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Rut despite the large-scale movement of kolkhoznike to the Vakhsh
Valley, there was still a large area of unused lend. and. plenty of waters
and. the problems involved in the expansion of cotton growing were still
urgent. That prompted the establishment of the first cotton-raising
state farms in the valley. There were 5 of them at first, and only 2
enlarged seekhozos r-oe. the Kmebyehav and, Kirov sovkhozes which
produce tons of thousands of tons of cotton annually.
In 1955, 45.000 ha were planted to cotton in the Vakhsh Valley.
80% of that cotton consisted of thin-fiber varieties. It takes a synt
total of about 4,0000 temperature and. an average daily temperature of
not less than 15? to raise these grades of cotton within the existing
growing season. The Vakhsh and the other southern valleys can meet such
requirements: in Kurgan-Tube the total temperature for the season is 4,6100
and. in Mikoyanabad 5.0020 (based. on the 5-year average from 1942 through
1946). Experiments with thin-fiber cotton began as early as 1927, bu.t
for a umber of years its yield vas very low; one to 4 centners per hoe-
tare. Large-scale experimental. work on new high-yield grades of cotton
is being done by the experimental cotton-lucerne station established. in
the Vek.hsh valley in 1930. In 1955 the Vakhsh Valley kolkhoses picked.
an average of 22 centners of thin-fiber cotton grades per hectare, and.
some of the collective farms, brigades, and. field. teams picked. as much
as 40-70 centners per hectare.
Important among the other subtropical cultures is the geranium oil-
bearing plant raised, in the southern part of the Valchsh. Valley. Its
green pulp is processed at the Molotovatad. Geranium factory. New cultures,
such as lemons, tangerines, and oranges, have made their appearance in
the kolkhoz and kolkhosniks, gardens in the past 5-6 years. Proper
agrotechnical measures and maintenance could make these cultures profit-
able. Very useful work with subtropical and tropical cultures is being
done by the zonal station of the All-Union Scientific-Research Institute
of Dry Subtropics opened in the center of the Vakhah. Valley in 1935. The
varieties of geranium, Jute, and. lemons developed on the institute's
experimental fields are adaptable to local natural conditions and are now
being raised by the collective and state farms in different regions of
the republic. That station is still experimenting on many different
native and. imported cultures.
Horticulture and viticulture have for a long time receive& inadequate
attention in the Yakhth Valley. The first sovkhos fruit nursery was opened
neer Kurgan-Tube in 1939. It raised hundred., of thousands of seedling
plants of seed and stone 'bearing fruit, subtropical cultures, and root-
stocks for grape Tines and distributed. then among the collective farms.
Every kolkhos in the Vakhsh Talley now has its own fruit orchard. and vine-
yard. But the achievements made in this respect are still very modest,
and the Vakhsh Valley is still incapable of producing enough raw materials
to keep a more or less large fruit-canning plant or wine distillery in
operation.
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The broad valleys of southern Tadzhikistan are quite suitable for
raising animals, especially astrakhan sheep. Tho total cattle pepnlation
of the Vakhah Valley is now 14-15 times as large as in the prersvoln-
tionary period. Occupying large areas in the valley, the state farms
play an important part in the development of sheep breeding. About 1/3
of all the sheep and goats are concentrated In these sovkhozes. The
/akka-Din, Kabadian? and Kafirnigan state farms specialize in astrakhan
sheep breediag, and the Kuirbysha7 Sovkbez in fat-tailed sheep. The
valley sheep are kept out In the pastures all year round, and that makes
it profitable to raise this particular breed. The winter-spring snow-
free grazing lands are used also for cattle from other Tadihik regions.
Efforts are now being made to improve the fodder yield and irrigation of
those grazing lands.
The development of industry in the Vakhsh Valley began early in the
First Five-Year Flan with the construction of a cotton processing plant
at EUrgan-Tube, which lies at the northern exit from the valley. It Is
now the largest cotton processing plant in the republic, and it produces
up to 27,000 t of cotton fiber annually. The cotton seeds were used as
raw material for another large enterprise, an oil mill (built in 1932),
and the byproducts of that mill were used up by its soap-making department.
A large rolling mill vent into operation at about the same time, and a
mechanical engineering plant was commisuioned in 1937. A large combine
for the production of building materials is under construction now.
The ancient city of Kurgan-Tabs? destroyed and depopulated during
the Masmachi invasions, has grown tremendously. It had about 11,000
inhabitants in 1939, including 700 workers engaged in specie/ indastrial
training.
The increase in the cotton harvest and the expansion of connections
with other regions create& a demand for new cottos, processing plantsand
better communications. Another large cotton processing plant was built
in the village of Uyala North of the Vakhsh Valley, on the road between
Kurgpn-Tube and StaIinabad. Another cotton processing plant is now under
construction in the central part of the valley, in Eagmnovichabad.
4 narrow-gauge railroad line, running; parallel VA the highway, was
built between Kargan-Tube and Stalinabed before the Great Patriotic War.
It now carries the 'talk of the freight in both directions. Grain, cotton
fiber, and other raw materiels and seeimannfactures are shipped from
southeastern Tadzhikistan to KurganTube, Stalindbad? and the wide-gauge
railroad line.
Kargaft-Tubs4s importance as A4 industrial center wan further enhanced
by the construction, of a coebine for the production of building materials
and. the reconstruction of the mechanical repair plant. Moth of these enter-
prises are designed to meet the needs of the entire Vokhih Valley.
0????????
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Kurgan-Tube is also a scientific emd cultural center. A soil meliora-
tion station of the Academy of Sciences Tadzhik SSR has been at work there
since 1936. It hales the collective and. state farms in their cultivation
of the Vakb.sh Valley, particularly in their fight against alkalized soil.
The city has a pedagogical school, a school for agricultural mechaniza-
tion, and. a number of other schools and. cultural institutions. The
city itself is undergoing iutprovamant.
The Vaklash Valley is changing its appearance. ?rota a desert it has
developed into an oasis and is now intersected by highways and railroad
lines. This was followed. by the creation of industrial centers, stations,
and. beautiful collective and state fatm houses. The new villages with
their white and. cheorful little houses, frequently hidden in the shad.
of the tall castor plants are typical of the settlements of the modern
Vekb.sh Valley.
The Kafirnigan Valley lies West of the Vakhsh Valley and. is separated.
from it by a chain of low mountains. Its oases extend along a narrow
strip of load on both sides of the Kafirnigan River and are irrigated, by
the irrigation ditches faryff branching out from the river. The valley
had. a population of 24,000 people in 1939.
The general economy of this valley is similar to that of the Vakhsh
Valley, but is considerably behind. in the volume of production. Just as
in the Valchsh Valley, cotton growing is the principal occupation of the
vopulation. Nino tenths of the cotton planted. are of the thin-fiber
variety. The raw cotton picked. in the valley is processed. at the large
and well-equipped. plant located, in the Mikoyanabad urban settlement,
which has also an oil mill.
A narrow-gauge railroad. and. highway connect the valley, at the Kzyl-
Kale point, with the difficult dirt road that runs along the left bank
of the Yakbsb. Itiver. Another road, the Amu-Darya waterway, links the
Ayeadzh quay to Teresa.
The Sixth Five-Year Plan calls for large-seals irrigation construc-
tion designed to cover 20,000 ha of new lends, mostly in the waterless
right-bank area (the Moshkent Valley), which is separated. from the
Kafirnigan Valley by low hills.
The Kirovabari (Pyandzh) Valley lies Southeast of the Vakhsh Valley
and. is also separated from it by low elevations. This oasis, -which is
no to 40 km long and. about 8-9 km wide, extends along the right bank of
the Pyandsh. River and is irrigated by the main aortal, which gets its
water from that river. In 1939, the valley population was 10,000 people.
???????40
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or
There
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There is much less crop land and cattle than in the Vekhsh Valley.
The production of thin-fiber varieties and. jute constitute the me,jor
branches of agriculture. jute is an annual plant of Indian origin, and
it yields a longer and stronger industrial fiber than any other bast
culture. Its cultivation hero began in 1950, and it is now planted on
a considerable area. A jute growing state farm was opened in the
Kirovabad Valley.
A cotton-processing plant, an oil mill, and a jute-processing plant
are in operation in the city of Kirovabad. The Kirovabad and. Vekheh
Valleys are connected by a dirt road. Part of the freight is bipped
via the Pyand.zh River through the Taizabadkal wharf.
Southeastern Tadzhikistee
This region lies between the Pyandsh, Vakhett, and Obikhingov rivers
and is bounded by Central Tadshikistan in the Southeast, Northeast
Tad.shikistan in the West, and Afghanistan in the Southeast. It occupies
an area of 12,000 sq ke and ass populated by 210,600 people in 1939. The
average population density here is almost twice as higb, act the average
for the republic.
The relief of this region is very (Implicated.. Its northern and
eastern parts are covered with mountain ranges whose spurs branch off in
southern and southwesters directions forting mountain and hill chains.
This area drops fro* an altitude of 3,000 a and over in the Northeast
(the Darraz and Passivism mountain ranges) to 400 a in the Southwest
(the Pyandsh River valley). A hill-chain type of relief is typical of
the major part of this region up to about 1,500-1,600 a above sea level.
The Pyandeh River flows only along the boundary of southeastern
Tadzhikistan, so that the region itself is irrigated, by its tributaries,
which are small rivers. The most significant alsong them is the Kyzylsu.
with its tributaries the Takhsu and the Tayrsu. Narrow in the mountain
areas, the valleys of these wean rivers became much wider in the hill-
studded plain. Time the Takhev. River Valley is 8-10 kis wide in the Rulyab
City Rayon, and the valley of the Kyzyleu. River, not far from its con-
fluence with the Pyandeb. River, is at least 15 ka wide. The lower parts
of the valleys are *wavy and covered with 'eaglets. Large tugei areas
are found at the confluence of the lrysylsu and Peandsh rivers. Ruch
water is carried by the small rivers only during the spring thaw and the
rain, season. They hold very little water during the summer. For example,
the drainage of the Kyzylsu River during its spring high-water mark period.
ie up to 350 cu ft per second, and only 10-15 cu ft in July-August. The
Tayrsu River is almost completely dry at its 'lower reaches dalrinsr the
=mar. That is why irrigated. agriculture within this region is rather
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limited despite the broad valleys and the largo stretches of land. The
utilization of the Pyandzh River and the clearing of the tug:1i vegetation
offer greater possibilities for agricultural development in the southern
part of the region.
The various parts of the region are characterized by different
climatic conditions. The climate in the lower southwestern parts is
very dry, and the annual precipitation there is less than 300 mm. As in
the Vakhsh Valley, the summers are hot and the winters marm. The irrigated
land can produce the best warmth-loving cultures of the Soviet South: thin,
fiber grades of cotton, jute, and southern varieties of fruit. This is
one of the few spots in. Tadzhikistan where figs and pomegranates are not
affected by frost and do not have to be -protected by earth mounds in
wintertime. There is more moisture in the northeastern part of the region.
Ths precipitation there, about 500-750 mm annually, makes it possible to
cultivate plants without artificial irrigation, and all the gently sloping
divides produce agricultural crops without irrigation. The herbage,
consisting mostly of cereals and a variety of other herbs, grows well
under the prevailing conditions. A considerable number of the republic's
winter pastures is concentrated in southeastern Tadzhikistan.
Pistachio trees, producing a highly nourishing oil-containing fruit,
grow on the hills and low-mountain chains. In the more humid valleys ana
depressions grow greek walnuts, mulberry trees, grapes, apricots, and.
other fruit trees. Gotten, rice, and other cultures are raised on the
irrigated land.
The major forests are found in the high-altitude belt. Incidentally,
there are no forests here in the real sense of the word, only groups
of trees or scattered thickets in the form of parks. The predominant
species of trees are &reek walnuts, Turkestan maple, saddle trees, and
dog rose. The large wintertime accumulation of snow in the mountainous
belt brings about turbulent floods along the small rivers in the spring.
Among the important minerals found in the region is rock salt, which
is concentrated near Kulyab in 2 gigantic salt pots, Khodthasartiz and.
Xhodzhaaumin. Small deposits of hard. coal, lead, and gold have also been
found. Building materials are available in a number of places.
The population is concentrated mostly in the valleys. Gradually
retreating to the mountains, the Tadzhik* have settled in the central
and. upper parts of the valley since ancient times, and the lomer parts
remained sparsely populated. The Tadzhik peasants avoided the broad
open valleys, which were unprotected against invasions by nomads.
Agricultural work there was made difficult by the floods, the tendency
of the land to become swampy, and the rapid growth of the tugai vegetation.
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The prerevolutionary population of the lower parte of the broad valleys
was not numerous but multinational and nomadic in character; it consisted
of Uzbeks, Tarkmenians? Eirgizians, Khazars (descendants of the Mongols)
Afghans, Gypsies, and others. The broad and almost waterless plateaus
Csuch. as tho Dtagerian Plateau, for example) were practically unpopulated
and were used as seasonal pastures. Bat the narrow mountain valleys were
also unsuitable for large-scale settlement in view of the lack of cultivable
land and water. There are no glaciers or snow banks in the upper reaches
of the small rivers, and the precipitation penetrating the mellow soil is
only enough to feed small springs capable of supplying water to 2-10
households each. That is why the mountainous valleys of southeastern
Tadzhikistan have more tiny settlements than even the highest-altitude
districts of the republic. Seeking dhelter in the narrow valleys, the
Tadihiks suffered from a shortage of land. But agriculture and, to some
extent, stock breeding continued to be their major occupation.
The old independent southeastern principalities were annexed to the
Bokharakbanate in 1870. The territory of that region was divided into
2 bekdom, Kulyab and Boliduzhan. The latter were administered by 2 of
the emir's vice regents or beks, who rode roughshod over the people. Those
beks were-frequently changed, and each one of them tried to derive the
maximum personal advantage during his tenure in office. One of the most
famous dekhkan uprisings against the emir and his bilks, in 1885 (the Voce
Rebellion), provides eloquent testimony to the plunder end oppression
exercised by the beats and their retainers.
This region suffered from Baihmachi violence more than any other
place. The Soviet Government was established there later than in the
other regions, and its progress was slower. Economic dovelopaent was
based on the favorable natural conditions of the region and its compara-
tively dense population. Grata cultivation on =irrigated land assumed
greater proportions as did the planting of valuable technical cultures
on irrigated. land. Stock breeding -- especially of sheep and goats -- was
also expanded. The present industry consists of cotton-processing, oil-
manufacturing, and jate-procsesing plants.
About 170,000 la of land are under cultivation in the region. About
2/3 of that land is planted to grain mitoses and the rest to oil-bearing
cultures, cotton, jute, etc.
Southeastern Tadzhikistan is the leading grain-producing region of
the republic; it produces 1/5 of the overall grain crop. Wheat ranks
first in that crop awl barley second. This region exports grain and sup-
plies broad grain to the population of the neighboring cotton-growing
valleys. The other vultures raise& here include oleagenous flax (algir/)a
sesame, millet seed, bean cultures (kidney beans, lentils, and peas) tnd
lucerne.
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46;????
The distribution of agriculture in the re
illan Is in some measure
determined by the natural characteristics of its various parts. The
higher and comparatively moist Darts of the region are most suitable
for unire.gated agriculture. Considerable stretches of land aro now
being ploughed. up and planted there. Prom the narrow mountain valleys,
where the Tadihik dekhkaa once cultivated hig small plot of ground with
a wooden plow or hoe, agriculture has now been extended to the vide inter-
river areas where the large collective-farm fields are worked by tractors,
combizaa, and other mathinery. The collective farms of the unirrigated
sane eet 7a.a80% of their finanoial inmome from gratn and oil-bearing
cultures and animal breeding. The grain-producing koikhosas alone are
served. by several MTS.
The irrigated agricultural land is concentrated in the lower valleys
of the region. This area is about 1/10 the size of the unirrigated land
but it is considerably more profitable. The leading crop there is cotton;
it accounts for almost 905( of the kelkhozesi financial income. All the
cotton-growing collective farms are served. by MTS. Only 10,000 dessiatines
had been planted to cotton of the local Asiatic variety (gam) in south-
eastern Tadzhikistan before World War I. The cotton was not processed
locally, but shipped to the Termez Cotton, Processing Plant, the only one
in that vast area. The freight was shipped by peek animals 120-150 km
to the Payzabadkal Wharf and. from there by keyuks down the Pyandzh River
to Tomes. More than 25,000 ha of land are now planted to cotton, and
all of it is processed locally. Most of the cotton grades produced are
still of the medium-fiber variety, but it is also poseible to rat so thin-
fiber cotton.
There are good prospects for the development of agriculture on the
irrigated land of the southern and warmest part of the region. The lower
part of the Kyzylsu. River Valley and Pyandzh River Valley form a single
vast lowland area macb of which is covered with tugai vegetation. Judging
by the remnants of an old irrigation network, this lowland wee once used
for agriculture, but later abandoned* There was nothing to prevent the
Fyandih River from flooding the lowland ftd eventually turaing it into
swampland. All this moist massif came to be known as 9titen-Tugain or
strong reed. The exploitation of MitenaTugai began under the Soviet
Government. The concrete den built on the Main Chubek Canal before the
war prevents the Pyandsh River from flooding the lowland. Bat the real
fight against the tugai vegetation has only started. The Sixth rive-Tear
Plan calls for the irrigation of up to 30,000 ha of land (partly by the
gravity method. and partly by machinery) with the water from the Pyandah
River. Powerful machines have already been chipped there. The gigantic
reeds (tugai) are broke* up and flattened. by S-80 dleael tractors. As
avaan as it has been dried, it is burned ead the land is then fertilized
and ploughed by tractors. The reclaimed lands of the Parkharekiy Rayon
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and the newly-formed Moscow administrative Rayon are being settled by
Tadzhiks from the mountain districts, and new kolkhozes are under con-
struction by the settlers. Cotton Is becoming the leading crop of these
collective farms. A cotton-growing state farm, Miten-Tangai, was opened
in 1950 on the theretofore swamey lowland. Pomegranate-and fig-orchards
are now planted by the collective farms. A new village, Moskovskty, and
a MTS were *Wilt where the tugai used to be.
There are vast pasturelaads in the region, particularly winter pastures.
Hundreds of thousands of heed of cattle, mostly sheep, are driven to these
pastures for the winter season from southeastern and central Tadzhikistan --
from the Vakhsh and Gissar Valleys and even from the Zeravshan Valley.
The winters are short and warm in the middle and lower parts of the region,
and there is practically no snow. Some of the short-lived vegetation comes
back to life with the beginning of the rainy season in October-November,
and spring comes at the end of January or the beginning of February. But
for a month or 2 in the wintertime there is usually a shortage of green
grass on the field, and the cattle have to be fed previously prepared
hay. Numerous brigades of kolkhoz hay mowers are thoref ore sent early
in the summer to various sections of the region to prepare haystacks,
build sheep pans, and prepare the pastures for winter grazing.
The machines used in those sections are tractors with mowing attach-
ments, selfpropelled hay mowers, ploughs with wide salters, hay stackers,
automatic baling nachines, etc. The equipment is provided by the MTS.
A cattle breeding center with a veterenary hospital, power plant, water
reservoir, houses, and cultural buildings was built in the Lymar section
(Dangariaskiy F4yon) which lies at the junction of the transit cattle
routes. New underground water sources are found in the waterless but
fodder-rich pasturelands, and machinery is being installed for pumping
the water through pipes to the watering places. Xlectric sheep shearing
is now practiced in a number of collective farms and in all the state
farms.
The stockbreeding industry of the region is undergoing expansion.
It now has over 600,000 head of all trpes of cattle, Throe fourths of
that number consist of cheep and goats. The native breed of the region
is the Gissar sheep. The Astrakhan sheep were introduced under the
Soviet Government, and they can now be found on every collective and
state farm. Part of the sheep and goats are concentrated in the large
state farms. The Gissar State Farm, the only one in the USSR engaging
in the development of highly productive Gissar sheep, was transferred
here from the Vakhsh Valley. This sovkhoz distributes hundreds of
pedigree rams annually to the various collective and state farms of the
republic. Tho Dangar Astrakhan Sheep Breeding; Sovkhoz, opened on the
Dangarian Plateau, has several tens of thousands of sheep. This movkhoz
has started the production of high-grade karakul fur in recent years.
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410.4%.
The industry of the region is almost entirely connected with the
processing of local agricultural raw materials. Cotton processing
plants and oil mills were built in Parkhar and Kulyab as far back as
1928 and. 1930. Operationally, these are the most "full-cycle" fig1abin-
niye5 plants of their kind in the republic. The considerable increase
in the cotton crop provided, for by the Sixth Five-Tear Plan calls for
the expansion of the existing cotton-processing plants and oil mills
and the construction of now ones.
The cotton is shipped by track to Sta3.inabad. and Faizabadkal in
the form of cleaned and. pressed. fiber. The Kulyab-Kurgan Tabs narrow-
gauge railroad, now under construction, will soon accelerate the ship-
ment of this freight to Sta-linabad and. reduce the shipping costs.
As has already been pointed. out, it was the Soviet government which
began the exploitation of many of the region' a flatland districts. They
have now become industrial centers and sources of agricultural mechani-
zation ? MTS, state farms, and scientific stock-breeding establishments.
The most promising area in regard to the development of agriculture
and industry is the southern part of the region located in the triangle
between Kulyab, Parkhar, and Moskovskiy Village. The inexhaustible
reserves of salt found in 2 gigantic deposits, the rich gas sources, and.
medicinal said in this part of the region will speed up the development
of a chemical industry and. health resorts. This area also has a =amber
of industrial centers, such as the Parkhar city-type settlement with its
cotton processing plant and oil mill, Moskovskiy village with its jute
plant. and Kulyab with its industrial and cultural institutions.
Kulyab lien in the broad. and. picturesque Takhsa River Valley. It was
inhabited. by 8,400 people in 1939. The town has a cotton-processing plant
and. an oil aill and a amber of small enterprises of the local and coopera-
tive industries. It also has a pedagogical institute, a musical and.
dramatic theatre, and a number of other cultural institutions. A water-
supply system was installed in the town, and. its streets were paved. with
asphalt and. planted with trees and shrubbery. This is the modern Kulyab
as compared with its old. dusty *clay" predecessor which had. been used. as
a residence for the bake of the prerevolutionary eastern Bok.hara. Im-
proved. dirt roads now radiate from Kulyab in all directions.
Renita_Temalti
This region covers the central part of the Tadzhik SR. It bas an
area of 20,300 sq km. Its 1939 population was 183,000 people.
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Orogrephically, this region, consists of a system of valleys divided
by high zaountain ranges extending from West to Rest. Flowieg between
those ranges in the same direction are the deep rivers Surkhob (a seg-
ment of the Vakhsh River), Otdkhingam (the left tributary of the Vekhsh),
and Prandsh. The latter irrigates part of the territory in the South.
The principal economic aetivitiee of the peoele of this region are
connected with the river yellers.
The valleys of the Surkhob and Obikhingou rivers are expose& to
the western winds, and the abundant precipitation (700-900 em) on their
slopes facilitate the production of stable crops without irrigation and
a comparatively good natural herbage. The upper parts of these valleys
boast the best mummer pastures in the republic (up to 500,000 ha) which
are important also for other Tadzhik regions. Protected by high moun-
tain ranges from the cold winds in the retth-,, these valleys are rela-
tively ware despite their high elevation. The frostless period lasts
more than 200 days, and the total temperature of the growing season is
38000 (with a daily temperature above 100). That temperature is suf-
ficient for growing corn, grapes, and even rice, but it is not good enough
for growing cotton. It is considerably cooler in the eastern part of the
Surkhob River Valley astral]. 841 in the Obiklongam River Valley, but even
these places are suitable for grain production. The Pyandzh Elver Valley
is the warmest of them all; it is lower and farther South, figs and pome-
granates grow well there, and grape vines do not need any special -pro-
tection.
In the past, the difficult access to the mountain region made it
easier for its principalities to preserve a certain measere of indepen-
dence. The Surkhob River Valley was part of the Karategin principality,
and the Pyandzh and Obilizingau valleys were under the Darras principality,
all of which were =led by local princes. Their isolation vas to some
extent responsible for their economic backwardness. Theirs was a semi-
natural economy.
In 1876-1877, when those remote mountain principalities were annexed
to the Bokhara khanate and become its provinces, or bekdons? their economic
ties with the other regions were someehat expanded. Local bazaars came
into being, outside merchants brought their wares for sale, and a large
part of the male population went to the Fergena Valley every year for
seasonal work (about 20,000-25,000 of them at the end of the nineteenth
century). But the *mations of the dekhkans deterioreted in view of
the increasing taxes levied by tha emir and his beks.
The only road. between karategin and the Fergana Valley ren throne)
high mountain passes. The Surkhob and Obikhingam river valleys were
connected with the ameba. Valley by a narrow pack-animal path Which ran
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alone: the edges of sheer precipices. That path was closed during the
long winter months, leaving the valleys completely cut off from the out-
tide world. The road to the Pyandzh river valley ran through still
another high mountain pass in the Darras Mountain Range.
Transportation was primitive, freight being carried by pack animals
and on the backs of human beings. Thus the goods sent across the
Karategin and Darvaz mountains by the Kokand merchants were gaveled by
donkeys, but more frequently by mounteitter peetire,. Little 11118 wee
mado even of the eimple Asiatic bullock cart, the freight being hauled.
by a peculiar contraption called a "chigina" or "ground scraper," which
was used in winter and comer.
The economy of the valley consisted of agriculture -- mostly grain
production -- and stock breeding of low-productivity. The laud was
tilled with a wooden plough, and the grain was threshed by having the
animas walk on it.
The age-old political isolation of the principalities prevented their
population from driving their cattle to the winter pastures of southern
Tadzhikistan. After a comparatively Short emmeer of grazing in the sub-
spline meadows, the cattle were kept in the kishlaks over the long winter
months on an undernamrishing diet of straw. That tree of care was respon-
sible for the development of the local breed of small cattle and. sheep.
The average weight of a local sheep is less than 1/2 of the western
Tadzhik Gissar Sheep. The socalled Darvaz sheep (gadik) is the smallest
breed of sheep.
The Soviet Government in garm was not established until 1923, but
the Bashmachi gangs continued to roan through the area even long after
that and disrupted the socialist construction in its initial stages.
The reconstruction of the economy in the densely populate& mountain
districts proved to be quite complicated.
There was s Shortage of suitable land in the mountains. In 1939
there was an average of about 0.1 ha of irrigated, land and 0.5 ha of
=irrigated land. per capita population. The corresponding per capita
shares of land in the Pyandsh River Valley were still smaller -- 0.07
and 0.2 ha. A further increase in popalatiomwould have decreased those
shares, since the total area of arable lane was very limited. One of
the first problems, therefore, was the systematic resettling of the
mountaineers in the lower broad valleys where the arable land was abun-
dant and the population sparse. That problem hss in the main been solved.
Tens of thousands of households were saved from the Surkhob and Obikhingou
river valleys and have now become wealthy cotton growers in. the Vakhsh,
Kafirnigen, Kirovabad, and other valleys in the southern part of the
country.
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3
The first automobile highway. connecting Stalinabad and Gars, was
built in the western part of the Surkhob River Valley in 1932. A large
suspension_ bridge was built across the swiftly-flowing Surkbob River at
the point of its confluence with the Obikhingou River. The Pamir Highway
connecting Stalimabad with Khorog was initially completed in 1940, and
the road to Garm became a branch of that highway. The construction of
the following roads within the Surkhob River Valley was continued.:
Garm-Dzhirgatall to the eastern end of the valley, Garm-Hovslad to the
new city. Novabad-Shinglidh to the vast grain area, and the Novabad-
Pamir highway, the shortest road the West which bypasses Corm. Two
short automobile roads were under construction also in other valleys.
Despite the enormous difficulties of road constraction in these
mountains -- where the road builders have to be suspended from roves
between the precipitous cliffs -- sadh roads are now laid in Short
periods of time, thanks to modern techniques and mass heroism. Thms
it took only 3i months to build the big Pamir Highway, which is 556 km
long and crosses some of the greatest mountain ranges and. gorges.
There are no more "ovringi" along the edges of precipices, to which
the wayfarer held on "like a tear drop to the end of an eyelash" (from
Radii's poem carved on one of the roadside rocks in the abmatabad Mann,
tains). Grain, potatoes, animal products, and cocoons are now Shipped
westward by truck. Going in the opposite direction are industrial menu-
factures, gasoline, motor mars, and foodstuffs. Short automobile roads
now extend to the lateral gorges, toward Use highway, connecting it with
the mountain kishlaks and opening a way to the valley ffor grain, coal,
cocoons, and other raw materials.
The economy of the region is still predominantly agrarian. and the
major occupations are agriculture, stook breeding, and silkworm cultiva-
tion.
The total area under cultivation in the region is about 70,000 ha,
b.idh is considerably less then before the Great Patriotic War, as many
families left the region. The unirrigated land accounts for 60%-90% of
the crops. Grain cultures, primarily wheat end. barley, predominate-.
Prominent among the other cultures is curly flax.
The cattle herds, numbering about 200,000 head, consist mostly of
sheep and goats. In view of the exceptionally low productivity of the
native breed of oattle, inherited from the past, great efforts are now
being made to improve the breed through cross-breeding.
Silkworm breeding is one of the new and rapidly growing industries.
In recent years Central Tadzhikistan has been producing 14-15% of all
the cocoons produced by the republic.
?...."???
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The largest and economically the most important part of the region
is the Surkhob River Valley where 2/3 of the region's population (in
1939) and a major part of its cattle and croplands are conoentrated.
The name aarkbeb refers to the central segment of the Vakhah River
between its left tributaries, Muksu and. Obikhingeu. The Surkhob avar
Valley extends over 150 km from Zest to West, separating the Zerseduma
and Alay mountain range in the North from the Petr Pervyy Range in the
South. The valley bottom drops from 2,000 m absolute altitude in the
Bast to 1,000 m in the West, The major mountain ranges surrounding the
valley are 1,5004,500 m above the valley bottom; the mountain slopes
of Petr Perm Range are comparatively short and. steep, while those of
the Alay-Zeravehan mountains are long and flat. During the flood season
the Surkhob extends beyond its bank up to a kilometer or more, branches
off into numerous sleeves, and flows on comparatively quietly. It is
possible to ford it at some places while at others it flows swiftly along
a single narrow riverbed.
In 1939 the Surkhob River Valley was populated by more than 118,000
people. The majority of them were Tadzhiks. The eastern (Dzhirgatall )
district is inhabited by Kirgizians, who account for about 1% of the
valley population. Kirgiz nomads first appeared in this region in the
sixteenth century and. settled. along the AUT. They occupied. the larger
part of the Surkhob River Valley, but were gradually crowded back by the
Tadzhiks, and by the nineteenth century were confined to the easternraost
part of the valley.
Agriculture and stock breeding constitute the major occupation of
the population, and silkworm cultivation is widespread also in the western
part of the valley. While they led. a nomadic life before the revolution,
the Kirgizians have new also become agricultural workers. Host of the
agricultural land is =irrigated. The unirrigated land under cultivation
is found, as a rule, oa the vell-ve.tered. and. frequently steep slopes of
the valley, and the irrigated fields are on the bottom of the valley, on
the terraces, and. in the alluvial fans. Besides grain, the crops raised.
on the irrigated land include lucerne, potatoes, curly flax, skillet seed,
beans, and. corn. Before 1930 the mountain Tad&iks did net know such
about potato growing, but potatoes are now grown on largo areas and produce
abundant crops, some of which are even skipped to the lower valleys. The
agricultural techniques used in the mountains were primitive. The most
primitive hand-makie agricultural implements were used for years. Now the
treater has wade its appearance im the moUntabas. An NTS, was opened as
far back as 1948 on one of the 'broad terraces on the left bank of the
Surkhob River near Tad.shikabad (formerly Kalorplyabiob). The tractors,
combines, threshers, and other machines of that Mn can now be seen
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throughout the valley, cultivating thousands of hectares of land. Horse-
drawn ploughs and harrows are used in some small sectors and on steep
clops that are inaccessible to the tractor. But there still is a large
number of isolated and inaccessible places where dr4ft anivrale have to
be used instead of tractors.
next in importance in the economy of the Surkhob River Talley is
stock breeding, which now gets a great tleal of attention. In the past,
the mountain Tadzhik* were able to use summer pastures only. They had
no access to winter pastures. Under the Soviet Government the rich sub-
alzine meadows (the Lyekhsh, %pa:alt, and. other sections) were Vitas
aftifilable not only for the cattle of the local collective farms, but
also for the cattle driven bore from southern Tadzhikistan. The Surkhob
Valley kolkhozes, in turn, were given the opportunity to drive a con-
siderable part of their cattle to the winter pastures of southern Tad-
zhikistan. This has also served to imarove the feeding of the cattle
left in the sheds back in the valley. The Glaser breed of sheep, well
adapted to year-round life in the various open pastures, is rapidly re-
placing the little-productive Dams sheep. Besides, the cross-breeding
of the Darvaz sheep with the mountain ram produ.cea a new breed. of mountain
sheep which is twice the size of the Dareaz sheep and yields 4 times as
much wool. Nxperiments designed. to improve the productivity of cows
have been under way for a long time. The Germ State Farm for Pedigreed
cattle has been functioning in the Surkhob River Valley since 1938. Later,
a government cattle breeding farm was opened. in Tadzhikabad. These 2 farms
have been cross-breeding the local mixed breed of cows with the "Shvits"
breed and, timing their offspring over to the collective farms. The
average milk yield of the new breed of collective farm cattle is now
double that of the native cattle. The annual milk yield of every grain-
fed cow of the Garm State Farm is more than 1,500 1.
Silkworm cultivation represents the commercial branch of agriculture.
Some of the collective farms derive most of their financial income from
the sale of cocoons. The Gars Mulberry Tree Nursery has stimulated the
increased planting of those trees. gat/re groves of such trees can be
seen in some places. The cocoon drier is now in common use in many
kishleks.
Horticulture and viticulture are still not well developed despite
the favorable natural conditions for such cultivation in the valley ?
particularly for horticulture. The pears and apples produced in some of
the kishlaks are in no way inferior to the beet Leninabad varieties. But
apricots are still predominant among the fruit. Most of the vineyards
are concentrated in the Garmelciy Rayon.
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The valley industry is still young and not very large. Salt,
granite, lime, and pottery clay are produced in some places for local
consumption; the production of rugs is being organised.
Electricity has been introduced in a number of kishlaks in recent
years. Collective-farm hydroelectric statioes are being 'built along the
swift mountain streams. Larger 11;0,v:electric power plents are in opera-
tion in Novabad and Germ. Electric power is used not only for lighting
purposes but hulling mills and electric flour mills have been built in
some places, and email industrial enterprises are now operated by
electric power.
The Tadthiks live in the kishlaks of the large western part of the
valley in clay houses surounded. by vegetable gardens and orchards.
Against the gray background of the mountains, the Tadzhik villages look
like Large green specks, and it is even difficult to discern the houses
behind the lush vegetation of fruit and decorative treee.
On the flat terraces and alluvial fans the Tadthiks frequently build
their houses on the nearest mountain slope, regardless of its steepness,
with a view to saving valuable irrigated land. Bat there, too, the houses
are hidden in the ihade of over-hanging nut and apricot trees, mulberries,
poplars, and plane trees.
lverywhere in the valley, on both sides of the Surkheb River, near
the water or the mountain slopes, one can see kishlaks eurrounded by
orchards. Even the slopes of the narrow lateral valleys are covered with
the verdure surrounding the kishlaks as far up as the eye can see. Some
of the lateral valleys are habitable for many kilometers: 45 km in the
Sorbog River Valley, 25 km in the Tasman River Talley, etc.
The kishlaks and cultivated fields get their water from small streams
and springs. In some places irrigation ditches zigzag along the edges
of dizzy precipices for several kilometers to deliver water to small
flat plots of land. During the past years the collective farms have been
building large irrigation canals.
The young city of Ravabad and the rayon centers of Konsomolabad,
-Germ. and Tadthikabad are the large inhabited places of the Surkhob
Valley. They are being improved and expanded by the construction of
schools, hospitals, hotels, and modern houtes for workers and employees.
A pedagogical school has Also been opened in Germ.
.14112 eastern part of the valley is inhabited by Kirgisiane, Like
the Tadzhiks, they engage in agriculture and stock:breeding. The Kirgiz
villages are less verdant than those of the Tadshiks. The Kirgitians
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Rel.\
irrigated. several hundred hectares of land, in the lower and broader
part of the Obizanku River Valley (a tributary of tho Suzirhob River).
That land is now cultivated, by the tractors and agricultural machines
of the Tadzhikabad MTS. Grain is shipped westward by truck as well as
on sal' (barges made of inflated ox hides held together by a light
wooden frame; they can carry up to one ton of freight) down the Surichob
River* which requires a great deal of courage and ingenuity. The Kir-
gisians have been known for many years as skillful carpet weavers. A
small carpet factory. Ksyl Partizan, was opened in Dzbirgatall.
The other parts of central Tadzhikistan ? the Obi-Gare Administra-
tive Rayon and. the Obikhingou and Pyandzy River Valleys ? are very
similar to the Sarkhob River Valley from an economic point of view,
their population and. production is lower than that of Surkbol.
The Obi-Ge.ra Administrative Rayon. lies in the western part of
central Tadzhikistan. Wedged in between the Narategin and Vakhsh mountain
ranges, it serves as a natural gateway to the Gissar Valley for the whole
of eastern Tadzhikistan. This rayon has MTS and the cultivation of
unirrigated land. (grain production) is well developed here. The rayon
is known for its hot mineral coring and sanatoritut at Obi-Garm. The
rayon is connected. with Stalinabad by a good. highway 100 km long.
The Obikhingou. River Valley lies between the Petr Pervyy and Darvaz
mountain ranges, and. it is higher (1,500-2.500 a) and cooler than the
Surkhob River Valley. It is comparatively narrow and. its mountain sides
steep. As a result, it liae considerably less cultivable land and pastures.
The leading agricultural branches in the valley are grain production
on unirrigated land and. stock breeding. Along the Obikhingett runs the
Great Pamir Highway, which goes up the Darvaz mountains.
The Pyandeh River Valley (Nalay-lrhwasidy Administrative Rayon) is
on the south side of the large Dams Mountain Range. It is warner than
the other Central Tadzhik valleys, but there is very little land suitable
for agriculture or stock breeding on the steep mountain slopes. Sub-
tropical cultures can be grown in the narrow strip of land extending along
the Pyandsch. River. Grain production, stock breeding, and silkworm cultiva-
tion are the loading branches of agriculture there.
We eter4 Pamir
The 18lowitain-Badakkehan Autonomous Oblast covers the eastern part
of the Tadzhik SSR. This area (61.100 eq kit), covering 43% of the republic's
territory, was inhabited by 3.$% of its population (63,000 people) in 1939.
The ablest consists of Western and. /astern Pamir, 2 'very dissimilar parts
from an economic and. climatic point of view. Nor is the population of the
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2 Pamirs similar. Western. Pamir is inhabited by Tadzhiks and eastern
Pamir by Kirgizians. The former engage primarily in agriculture and
stock breeding, whereas the latter limit themselves to stock breeding.
Western Pamir is a high-altitude district with a broken relief, whereas
eastern Pamir is one of the highest flat mountain plateaus in the world.
FiewiT$a qpietly along the eastern Pamir uplands, the rivers cut a
number of gorges in the western zauntain ranges, rasblvla aown into the
Pyandzh River in precipitous and swift streams. The most populated
valleys of western Pamir are at 1,700-2,800 u aboTo sea level, the dis-
tances between the valley bottoms and watershed peaks ranging up to
3,000 m and more. Open to the West, this part of the Pamir is warmer
than its eastern part (the average temperature in July is 22? and in
January -7.6?, and the frostfree period lasts 212 days) and is suitable
for tillage and horticulture; viticulture is possible in the lower
places. There is little precipitation in this region (200-260 mm per
year), and every type of agriculture requires artificial irrigation.
The mentioned climatic data apply to the city of Khorog, which lies in
the Pyandsh aver Valley at 2.080 m absolute altitude. The air is cooler
in the higher valleys. In the estuary parts of the valley, for example*
the snow stays on the ground less than a month, whereas in the higher
parts it lasts up to 6 months. Vineyards, mulberry, walnut, apricot,
and apple trees gradually disappear with increasing; altitude. Grain
cultures, particularly barley, grow as far up as 3,100 m above sea
level. Lying above the cultivated land are mountain meadows covered
with green and succulent herbage.
??????0
Pamir used to be the most inaccessible region of Central Asia. It
was not until after the Soviet Government had been established that its
territory was cries-crossed by hundreds of kilometers of automobile
roads. The first automobile highway (Osh-Khorog) was built in 1934, and
the second (Stalinabad-Khoroe was completed in 1940. Stalinabad and
Khorog are also connected by regular Air transportation. Automobile high-
ways were built out of Ihorog to *very rayon center during and after the
Great Patriotic War. Machinery, commodities, and 'various products were
shipped to Pamir, and its local raw materials found a market in the
neighboring regions.
About 90% of the population of the Mountain-Iiadakhshan Autonomous
Oblast live in western Pamir. It consists almost exclusively of Tadihiks,
Their major occupation is the cultivation of irrigated land and, to a
lesser extent, stock breeding. A small part of the local population is
engaged in mineral processing. Silkworm breeding and horticulture are
being developed.
e.??????...
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4044%.
The economic activities of western Pamir are confined to the deep
narrow valleys of the Prandzh River and its tributaries- the Yana,
Yazgalem, Bartang, and Gunt, as well as the latter's tributary the
Shakhdara. The Bartang and. Tazgalem River valleys are particularly
narrow. Alternating with the wider places are narrow and almost impass-
able-gorges with noisy; turbulent streams rushing through then. The
Vanch and Pyandzh River valleys are more spacious, some of the* measuring
up to 4 km in width. large namber of side streams, utilivad mostly
for irrigation purposes, run into the major rivers. The klahleks,
irri-
gated. croplands, and. orchards are located on the terraces, locally known
as daShtas and the alluvial fans. The canyon walls along tie' side
streams are usually too steep to be habitable. Tiny plots of =irrigated.
land under cultivation are found. here and there on the steep mountain-
sides. All the mountainsides are crossed by numerous horizontal paths
worn by the animals. These precipitous paths lead to the canyons where
cropland or pastures can be seen again. The total area. under cultiva-
tion in western. Pamir is 11,000 ha (in 1955), i.e., more than twice as
leaches before the Great Patriotic War. Almost all the crops are plhnted
on the irrigated land Which is scattered in small sections on the ter-
races and alluvial fans which are watered by the irrigation ditches
leading from the side streams. The cultivable land of prerevolutionary
western, Pamir, as the old swing goes, was measured by skull-caps. There
was some truth in it, since the average share of ereapland per capita
population amounted. to 0.1 ha. But agriculture is the lifeblood of every
Tadzhik mountaineer. Considerable areas of new cultivable land have been
reclaimed under the 4oviet Government, and the per capita share of land
has now been increased 0.25 be.
The collective farm lands are still caltivated by simple agricultural
implements. But there are quite a few fields where small tractors could
be used to advantage. (V. N. Ivanov, a soil expert who has studied agri-
cultural conditions in western Pamir for a long time, claims that tractors
could be used on 45% of the entire cultivable area of this region.)
Wheat, peas, and barley are the primcipal cultures grown on 3/4 of
the cultivable area The Pamir farmers frequently plant barley and peas
together, and sometimes rye and peas, since this combined. planting was
found to increase the crops l to 2 times, which is very important in
the case of a land Shortage.
The expaneion of the cultivable land area, the improvement of agri-
cultural technive, and the introduction of new high-yield cultures (such
as the uSurkhaku grade of wheat, for example) made it possible to etep
up the production of grain, the major consumer item of the Pamir people.
Since the grain cultures are planted on irrigated land, their crops are
considerably greater than in the other regions of the republic. But
western. Pamir is still incapable of meeting its own grain requirements in
view of the land shortage.
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The potato is a new culture in this region, unknown before 1935.
It is yielding greater crops in the comparatively cool upland.s of western
Pamir than in any other place in Tadzhikistan.
Vegetables and melon cultures are raised in increasing quantities
near lihorog and. the rayon centers; the conditions are excellent for the
production of watermelons, cantaloupes, and. squash. The latter in
jj particular are very large, especially the apood" grade.
ii
Warm and hot water springs that could. be utilized. for heating the
hothouses are found. in mare?e places in western Pamir. The first such hot-
house to be heated. by a warm sulfur spring was built in 1954 near Ishkas-
him in the Pyandsh River Valley. The hot houses produce fresh cucumbers,
tomatoes, radishes, and other vegetables even in the middle of the winter.
The following varieties of fruit grow well in western Pamir: apricots,
poaches, quinces, plums, cherries, apples, pears, Oreek walnuts, mulberries,
and. many others. The Pamir Tadzhiks have been gardeners since ancient
times; they developed the best grades of plants, especially the fruit-
bearing mulberry tree. Apricots and. mulberries are important items of
the Tadzhik's diet. The mulberries are dried, crushed, and made into a
very tasty paste (tut-pykht) which can be preserved for a long time.
After the revolution, horticulture lAnderwent further expansion in
Pamir. A botanical garden and, an ablaut fruit hothouse were opened in
norog. The botanical garden of the Academy of Sciences Tadzhik SSR
is 2,320 m above sea level. Experiments are conducted. here on the develop-
ment and. improvement of fruit and berry varieties that can be grown at
high altitudes, and. large quantities of seedlings are distributed to the
kolkhozes and. kolkhozniks' orchards in western Pamir. The workers of the
botanical garden demonstrated the possibility of growing grapes at high
altitudes, and a number of kolkhoses and. kolkhosniks have already planted
such grapes in their orchards.
Animal husbandry is another important branch of agriculture in western
Pamir. There are more than 200,000 head. of cattle in the region, with
sheep and. goats accounting for 9/10 of the total. (In western Pasar, the
goats account for 59% of all the small cattle, wherees in the other economic
regions of the republic their numbers range from 11% to 37% (1952)). The
predominance of goats is exp1ate/1 by their ability to make better use
of the rocky pastures on the steep mountainsides than the other animals,
and by the fact that they are capable of replacing cows to semi extent.
There is very little pastureland and cultivable land. in western Pamir,
and the high mountains and the lack of roads made communication with the
other regions difficult.. The cattle was sheltered in the narrow steep-
awned. valleys, spending the winters and. summers in the poor pastures
near the kishlaks. Only during bad weather would they get an additional
psager ration of straw, and sometimes hay. These conditions led, to the
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development of a small and. little productive typo of cattle in western
Pamir; most of the sheep were of the Darvaz breed.. Under the Soviet
Government the road was opened. for the western Pamir cattle to 'eastern
Pamir and further to the Itlay valley (Kirgizia). The opportunity was
thus created. for the development of the large Gissar and Kirgiz breeds
of sheep and for the improvement of the De.rvaz sheep by creee-breeding
with larger sheep. In winter, part of the cattle is kept on the snow-
free pastures of eastern Pamir and another part is driven to the iday
Valley for year-round grazing. This has served. to improve the fodder
supply for the cattle kept in sheds through the winter period.
Silkworm cultivation was started. by the western Pamir collective
farms only a few years ago. I-bilberry trees are now being planted by an
increasing number of collective farms, which est their seedlings from
the mulberry nurseries and the Xhorog Botanical Garden. To many collective
farms silkworm breeding has now become one of the most important sources
of income.
The extraction of mineral raw materials is a new branch of western
Pamir's economy. Valuable mineral deposits were found. in the valley
slopes, usually at high altitudes. Examples are; mountain crystal (with
some of the largest crystals in the world), mica, asbestos, and precious
stones. Mountain crystal is mined in several places. Several hundred
western Pamir inhabitants work in that industry during the summer season.
The local handicraft industry plays a definite part in the people's
economic activities. Firewood, lime, brick, cloth, clothing, headgear
and a number of other household items are produced by the industrial
combines of the rayon. Homemade articles are still in production. Wooden
shoes with 3 cleats for walking in the mountains, and soup spoons with
perpendicular handles are produced in the Vona. Valle'', and ornate woolen
stockings Vhich became popular also in other places of western Pamir, are
Rade in the Yasgulem Valley. The smelting of metal in primitive furnaces
and. the production of metal abbots for local needs have been practiced
in the Vanch Valley since ancient time's.
thorog, the capital of the autonomous oblast, is situated on the
high terraces of a deep valley along the Gant River bank, not far from
its confluence with the Pyandsh River. The city extends for more than a
kilometer along the river bank. Its main street is "b?-leng avenue lined
with tapered poplars. It has a park of culture and rest, a lake, and. a
stadium. The orchards consist of apricot, peach, walnut, mulberry,
cherry, and other trees and shrubbery. In addition, ea' v.ra are vegetable
gardens, melon plantations, and. barley, wheat, and, lucerne fields, all
of which stake the city very attractive. Iherog has its own hydroelectric
power plant on the Guat River, which produces electric power also for
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the neighboring collective farms. A city waiter-supply system is under
construction. The city also has a polyclinic, &hospital, an 'ablest
musical and dramatic theatre, a pedagogical school, a medical and agri-
cultural school, ana it publishes 2 Meet newspapers.
'Undergoing iMpTovoment are the razion centers of lia-ach,
Roshtkala, and Ishkashim, at well as a number of kishleks.
The improvement of western Pamien economy involves the full utilisa-
tion of its diverse but favorable natural conditions: the expansion of
the oldest branches of agriculture, grain production and animal breeding,
and the further developaent of new branches such as silkworm cultivation,
and fruit and vegetable growing. The latter 2 branches could produce
enough raw materials for a mall canning enterprise in Khorog.
Eastern Pamir
Eastern Pamir is the largest region of Tadzhikistan, covering an
area of 38.000 sq km or almost 27% of the republic's territory. From an
administrative point of view. eastern Pamir is the Murgibskiy Rayon of
the Mountaizaadakhahan Autonomous oblast.
Eastern Pamir is very high above sea level, and, oven the lowest parts
of its valleys do not extend below 3,600 m. The upland is not very much
dissected despite the high altitude. Its surface is a system of broad
flat valleys and depressions alternating with comparatively low moactain
chains. The Pamir upland is surrouaded on all sides by very high mountain
chains which prevent the inflow of humid air and reduce precipitation
(60-70mm). The high absolute altitude. the Arctic-like climate (the
annual frostfree season lasts 6 veeks) and insignificant precipitation
combined to produce the peculiar vegetative landscape of eastern, Pamir,
the high-altitude desert. There are no trees up there, only occasional
shrubbery may be found growing along river banks and between cliffs;
the herbage is very meager. But the eastern Pamir pastures have an
advantage over the other high-altitude pasturelands: they can be used
also in winter time as there very little snow falls in most of the region.
Eastern Pamir is inhabited. by Kirgisians, who raise sheep, goats,
and yaks. United into collective farms, they spend the winter in per-
manent dwellings and mow with their cattle along the mountain valleys
in summertime. mere is a typical itinerary of one of the eaatern Pamir
collective farms. The Molotov Kolkhoz is located near Murgab. The
kolkhoes simmer pasture is in the wide valley of the 'Jostle:hely. Pehart
River, at the foothills of the Muskol Mountain Range. A number of short
canyons open into the valley. Their stream beds only contain water in
the second half of the day when the snow feeding those streams begins to
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,ee;';????
mat. The vegetation is very sparse. Various typos of wormwood, feather
grass, and, other desert plants grow on pebble soil, and the herbage is
so meager as to make the valley surface appear completely bars in some
places. The canyon slopes, watered, by the daily melting snow, look more
verdant. Green alpine grass plots can be seen here and there near the
atacams ranting along the bottom of the canyons. Zile collective farmers
come with their cattle to the Pshart Valley by the middle of May and
break up into groups containing 5-10 herds each. Each group then occupies
one or 2 canyons, depending on the number of cattle. The Kirkisians live
in felt yourtas (nomad tents). In sumer camp they lay in reserves of
dry cheese, butter, and cream. In that camp, too, they shear their
sheep, goa.ts, and. yaks. The cattle grows fat in Lugust and. September.
By the middle of October, i.e., 4 months later. the Kirgizians move back
to the Aksu River Valley near Murgab to speztd the winter, having traveled
a distance of only 25-30 km. The Aksu River Valley is covered with
hilly meadows, with a low but thick and snowfres vegetation. The cattle
are kept on those pastures through the winter. On very cola days the
sheep are fed additional hay which has been prepared beforehand. in the
valley. The collective farmers here live in warm clay huts.
Most of the eastern Pamir cattle consist of sheep and goats. The
Kirgisien breed. of broadtail sheep are not inferior to the Gisser sheep.
There are no small Darvas sheep in these flocks. There are very few
horses, donkeys, and camels in this region, since they cannot reproduce
at such altitudes. But there is an abundance of yaks here. This is one
of the largest domestic animals, some of which attain a weight of 800 kg.
The yak has powerful lungs, strong muscles, a thick hide, and. thick
wool and is quite adapted to life on high-altitude plateaus. The yak
supplies meat, milk, wool, and. hides for the population, and is indis-
pensable as a draft animal. A yak-breeding state farm, the only one of
its kind in the Soviet Union, was opened in 1945 on the shore of the
mountain lake of Buluakalt for the purpose of developing and improving
the breed. of this valuable animal.
The nature/ pasturee of Eastern Pamir are now being irrigated, but
as yet only on a small scale.
The biological station of the Academy of Sciences Tadlaik SSE,
located in the Ohechkta sector not far fronitargab at an altitude of
3.860 a above sea level, is now making & study of the eastern Panir fodder
balms and developing new measures designed to improve the pastureland.
'Machines came to the aid of the animal breeders. MS was built in
Pamir in 1951.
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melt. The vegetation is very sparse. Various types of wormwood, feather
grass, and, other desert plants grow on pebble soil, and the herbage is
so meager as to nuke the valley surface appear completely bars in some
places. The canyon slopes, watered by the daily melting snow, look more
-verdant. Green alpine grass plots can be seen hers and there near the
strezae miming thaa bottaaa 4af the cahvora.s. calm:Viva faamarr.
come with their cattle to the Pshart Valley by the middle of May and
break Iv into groups containing 5-10 herds each. Each group then occupies
one or 2 4a4,fona, depialag or. the number of cattle-. Tha larkizians liva
in felt yourtas (nomad tents). In summer camp they lay in reserves of
dry cheese, butter, and cream. In that camp, too, they shear their
sheep, goats, and. yaks. The cattle grows fat in Lugust and September.
By the middle of October, i.e., 4 months later, the Kirgisians move back
to the Aksu River Valley near Plurgab to spend the winter, having traveled
a distance of only 25-33 kis. The Aksu River Valley is covered with
hilly meadows, with & low but thick and snowfraw vegetation. The cattle
are kept on those pastures through the winter. On very cold days the
sheep are fed additional hay which has been prepared beforehand. in the
valley. The collective farmers here live in warm clay huts.
Most of the eastern Pamir cattle consist of sheep and goats. The
Kirgiaian breed of broadtail sheep are not inferior to the Clever sheep.
There are no small Darya% sheep in those flocks. There are very few
horses, donkeys, and camels in this region, since they cannot reproduce
at such altitudes. But there is an abundance of yaks here. This is one
of the largest domestic animals, some of which attain a weight of 800 kg.
The yak has powerful lungs, strong muscles, a thick hide, and thick
wool and is quite adapted to life on high-altitude plateaus. The yak
supplies meat, milk, wool, and, hides for the population, and is indis-
pensable as a draft animal. A yak-breeding state farm, the only ono of
its kind, in the Soviet Union, was opened in 1945 on the shore of the
mountain lake of Bulu.nloal? for the purpose of developing and, improving
the breed of this 'valuable animal.
The natural pastures of Eastern Pamir are now being irrigated, but
as yet only on a small scale.
The biological station of the Academy' of &cisme* Tadzhik BSA,
located in the Ghecbkta sector mot far from Murgab at an altitude of
3,860 a above sea level, is now making & study of the eastern Pamir fodder
base and developing new measure; designed to improve the pastureland.
Nachiaes W.M6 to the. aid of the animal breeders. "TS r-a b-41t
Pamir in 1951.
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In recent years, a considerable part of eastern Pamir cattle has
been driven to the pasture-rich Alay Valley, which lies at an altitude
of 3,000 m above sea level. The cattle is kept on that grazing land
all year round. The horse-breeding farm, opened in the Alay Valley in
1949, is working on the development of a Lokay breed of horses. A
village of animal-breeding kolkhozes of eastern and western Pamir grew
up near the bank of the Sarragel River. Using the machinery of the,
Mexgab leS the collective farms in-ir in reserves of h..7 and natrarza
grasses and plant fodder cultures on the irrigated land.
Rare metals, coal, peat, and. salt (mar Lake Rangkult ) were dis-
covered. in eastern Pamir, and. some of them as being processed. These
deposits are among the highest in the world. There is some fishing in
a few of the lakes (Bulunkuli, Tashilikalt, etc), but not much. An
auxiliary occupation of the collective farmers is hunting.
Muvgab. on the East Pamir Highway, serves as an administrative and
cultural center of eastern Pamir. This highway connects Khorog and Osh
(leargana Valley) and carries a fair amount of traffic in the mummer.
Along this highwter gasoline, machines, equipment, fertilizer, seeds,
lumber, industrial commodities, and foodstuffs are transported to western
and eastern Pamir.
There are great possibilities for further expanding the animal-
breeding and. mining industries in eastern Pamir.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AMMOV, S. G. and Brigis. O. I., The Sheepbreeding Industry of
Tadzhikistan, 1930, MOSCOW
Andreyev, M. S., "On the Modern Tadzhik Language," Sbornik Materialov
pa Istorii Tadzhikov i Tadzliikistana LE Collection of Materials on the
History of the Tadzhiks and Tadzhikistag. 1945,Stalinabad
Bartord, V. V., On the History of Irrigation in Turkestan, 1914,
St. Petersburg
Bartoltd, V. V., "The Tadzhiks", collection; Tadzhikistan, 1925,
Tashkent
Bort), G. P. and lienakov. I. F., The Best Grades of Grain, Bean. and
011-11earing Cultures and Grasses for the Tadzhik SSR, 1952, Stalinabad
Bugayev, V? The Climate of Central Asia and Kazakhstan, 1946, Taihkent
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Vasilyev. P. A, and Kosheleva? A. 1., The Administrative-Territorial
Division of Tadzhikistan, (Historica/ Outline), 1948, Stalinabad
Viktorovild7, C. P., "Horticultare and Wild-Growing Fruit Trees
and the Prospects of "Utilizing Thee", collection; Problems of Tadzhikistan,
Vol II, 1934, Moscow-Leningrad
Vinogradov, V. S., Pav1ovsk4, Ye. N. and, Flerov, K. Ko, The Animal
Life of Tadzhikistan and its Importance for Man, 1940, Moscow-Leningrad
Gafurovs B. G., The History of the Tadzhik People, Vol 1, Third
edition, 1956, Moscow
Colltz, I. S., "Northern Tadihikistan," Udheneyye sapieki Stalina-
badakogo gosudarstvennogo pedagegicheskogo institute ES-cientific Notes
of the Stalinabad State Pedagogical Institatff, Vol 3, 1948
Goncharov, N. F., The Vegetation of Tadihikiatan? 1936, Moscow-Lenin,
grad
Oarvich. L. M., Dieo, N. A., et al., Unirrigated Land Cultivation in
Central Asia, 1930, Taihkent
Dasmatov, D., The Truck Transportation workers in the Straggle for
, a Further Expansion of the Tadzhik Econow and. Culture, 1951, Stalinabad
Collection: Stock Breeding in Tadzhikistan, 1943, Stalinabed
Zaortkcya, V. V. and Aleksandrov, K. A,, The Indastrial Institutions
of the Turkestan Kray, 1915, Pragae
Zapryagayeva? V. I., "On the Sparseness of Arborial and Shrubbery
Vegetation on the Southern Slope of the GisearMouatain Range,"-Priroda
gaturg? No 8, 1948
Zapryagereva, V. 1., The Experience of Fruit and Forest Plnating on
the Unirrigated Land of Mountainous Tadzhikistan, 1952, Stalinabad
Ivanov,, A. I., The Birds of Tadzhikistan, 1940, Moscow-Leningrad
Ivanov, V. N., The Soil Conditions of Pamir and Methods of Agricul-
tural Development, 1948, Stalinabed
News of the TatIshik Branch, Academy of Sciences USSP4 No 9 (Animal
Husbandry), 1945, Stalinabad
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Keihkarov, D. N., "The Animal Kingdom of Tadzhikistan," Tadihikistan,
1925, Tashkent
tirillov, I. F., Grape Growing in the Tadzhik SSR and the Agra-
technical Measures Involved In It, 1952, Stalinkbad
Xislyakov, N. A., An Outline of the History of tarategin, Second
edition, 1954, Stdlinatad
Kial.Tako7, H. A., Outlirig' of tho History of Xaratogiu, coSaud aditieu,
1954. Stalinabad
Konarov, V. L.. "The Vegetative Zones of Tadzhikistan," collection:
Problems of Tadzhikistan, Vol II, 1934, Moscow-Leningrad
torthenevikiy, N. L., A PhysicogeograPhical Outline of Central Asia
1925, Tashkent
Hadzhi, A. Z., On the History of Yeudal thodzhent," Materials on
the History of the Tadzhik* and Tadzhikistan, 1945, Stalinabad
Heavily, A. V., The Development of Socialist Industry in the Tadzhik
SSR Over A 25-.Tear Period, 1964, Stalinibad
Mallitikiy, N. Go, A Study Aid for the Geography of Tadihikistan,
Fart I, 1929, Tashkent-Stalinehed
Mallitskiy, N. 0., A Study Aid for the Grogra*r of Tadzhikistan,
Part II, 1930, tod*hent Okrug. Taihkent-Stalinabad
Massaliskin Y. I., The Turkestan tray, Vol XIX, 1918, St. Petersburg
Masson, M. I., Iron the History of Tadzhikistan's Mining Iadustry,
1934, Leningrad
Colleatios: Materials on the History of the Tadzhik* and Tadzhikistan,
1946, Stalinabad
Collection: Materials on the History of the Tad*hik People Under the
Soviet Governments 1954, Stalinabed
"The National Bconcey of the =Rt." Statistical Handbook, 1955, Moscow
Nersorov? V. V., Oil-Bstring OUlture on the UairrigateAtaentl af Tadzhik-
istan, 1951, Stalinkbad
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1'
LI
Nikollskiy? G. V., The Fish of Tadzhikistan. 1938, Moscow-Llningrad
Ovehinnikov. P. 111.. ?Botanical Investigations of Tadihikistan,0 Works
of the Tadzhik Branch of the Academy of Science USSR, Vol 27, 1951
Ovchinnikov, P. X., "The Basic Trends in Species Formation of the
Central Asiatic Vegetation In Connection With the Origin of Species."
Works of the Academy of Science Tadzhik SSR, 1955
Popov, M. G., An Outline of the Vegetation of Tadzhikistan. 1925,
Taihkent
Soil Investigations in Tadzhikistan, 1950, Stalinahad
Rosanov, A. N., The Soil Resources of Tadzhikistan, 1950, Stalinahad
Horticulture and Viticultare in Usbekistan. N. X. Taroshevich, editor,
1927, Tashkent
Semenov, A. A., "On the Hihnography of the Tadzhiks," Tadzhikistan
1925 Stalinabad
Sovetkina, M. M., The Pastures and Hayfields of Central Asia, 1938,
Tashkent
Soviet Tadshikistan (An Outline of the Bcomomio Geography), 1950,
Stalinabad
Stanyukovich, K. V., The Vegetative Cover of Pattern Pamir, 1949,
Moscow
Collection: Tadzhikistan, 1925, Tashkent
Twenty Tears of the Tadihik SSR, 1949, Stalinabad
Twenty-Five Tears of the Tadthik SSR, 1955, Stalinabeti
Tanarevskiy, V. A., "The Division, of Tadshikistan Into Rayons Aftor
the Revolution," (A. Hiutorical Outline), Scientific Notes of the Stalin-
abed State Pedagogleal Institute," Vol 3, 1948
Tradov, K. A. and Degtyare, V. I, Cocoon Production in Central Asia,
1942, Tashkent
Collectiord Cotton, Growing in Tadzhikistan, 1926, Tashkent
4
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Schultz, V. L., The Rivers of Central Asia, 1949, Moscow
Tufersv, V. I., Cotton Growing in Turkestan, 1925, Lenrad
Takubcialci7, A. V., "Thz Poudal Socioty of Cautr;-.1 Asia audIt
irade eith astern Europe," Collected Materials on the History of Uzbekis-
tan, Tadzhikistan, and Turkmenistan, 1933
FIGUR% CAPTIONS
gigure top page 8 of originalj The Giese? Mountain Range. View from
the South. ff'hat27
ffigare bottom pass 8 of originalj The Yakima River. Lrhot27
jyrigure page 9 of originaff Cotton fields in the Valchsh Valley. ffitotg
/Figur* page 10 of original Hypsometric map at Tailzhildstan: Profile
of relief in a; glaciers and permanent smow beaks.
glair* page 11 of originalj Orographic diagram of Tadzhikistan: Moun-
tain ranges higher than 3,000 pa Mountain ranges lower than
3,000 )
figure top Page 20 of originaff Average temperature for Janmary,
gigure bottom page 20 of originag Average temperature for July.
,gigure page 21 of originag Annual precipitation. LiSis scale ranges
from 100 ma or less to 800-1.000 ma or *Ong
figure page 29 of originalj The river network.
Litz:re top page 33 of originalj Lake Iain-rult. Parsaasat too on the
eastern *bore. Litfot'7.
iyigure batten page 33 of grigisag Lake Sarss. ghot27
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gigurs pegs 36 of originalj The Soil of Tadzhikistan (according to
A. U. Bosonov):
? I ?
? 11ii It
light sierozem Boil of the desert belt
oe4nary etft4I of the deert-es,ppo 'bolt
dark sierostan toil of the desert-steppe belt
dark-gray soil of the mountains and brown,
dry steppe soil
brown forest-steppe soil from the mountains
meadow and meadow-steppe wail of the subalpine belt
meadow and meadow-steppe toil of the alpine belt
high-altitude brown steppe soil
1; high-altitude desert soil of eastern Pamir and the
peat-meadow soil of its valleys
nonsoil formations
gigure page 41 of origtoog The Vegetation of Tadzhikistan (according
to P.1ff. Ovchimnikuv, K. V. Staokovioh, et al.):
wormwood amd wormwood halophytic deserts, desertlike
semisavamobs and lowland bogs
01 mem/savannahs covered with high vegetation and a-uau
lyaks fraipseats.
forests, scattered trees, and, shrubbery (pistachio
tress in southern. Tadzhikistan
W(ic
$ I
? it ? ,
ordinary, cryephileas and desert stippOS and worwood,
cowered steppellke deserts.
wabelpine diverse-herbage meadows, eryophilous waste-
land and thistles (the latter do not grow in eastern
Pamir)
bib-altitude wormwood-covered deserts
111Bcliffs, tali, glaciers, and sparse vegetation of the
high plateaus
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grigure pegs 70 of originag The formation of the territory of the
Tadzhik SSR:
1 Turksstaa Governorship-General
'fr
4
1 7
11 4
G 0 si, crt'e'VN
EM Territory of the Tadzhik SO
N 4
gigare top page 75 of origin4r The Ansob kisbilak in the Tagmob River
Yaumr. glotg
ffigure bottom page 75 of originag The Hatchet kishlsk in the Zeravshan
Valley. BlhotIT
ffigure page ?? of originf A corner of the bazaar in Kanfbadam. The
sale of rugs. ghat?
ffigure page 81 of originag A house of culture in a collective form.
L76t.417
ffigure page 87 of originag Tree 21anting on the southern slope of the
'a sear Hountain Range. fihote-
gigure page 89 of origtaag A Dam on the Vakhsh Canal LPhoto7
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giggre page 91 of origtsaff Major 'Branches of Agriculture in the
Tadzhik SFR
4.0?1?????????????????????????1
/ ? !?
: ????
1=1
r7)7
cotton growing
production of grain and oil-bearing cultures
sheep-breeding for meat and wool and astrakhan far
production purposes
sheep-breeding for meat and wool production. purposes
Well developed districts:
o4) horticulture and. silk- oil-bearing
worn cultivation 1-(t7-----:-// cultures
it
" viticulture 057-) jute
41
Ct tobacco and rice
principal land. massifs not used for
------- agricultural purposes
ffigure page 93 of originag The cultivable land of the Tadzhik SSR:
irrigated, land including the cotton area
irrigated land not including the cotton area
cultivated =irrigated land,
L1Figure page 95 of orlginag Hauling cotton to the cotton processing
plant. Llkot27
ffigur* top Pag? 96 of original/ Mechanised stacking of cotton. Lrhot.j
fitigure bottom page 96 of original./ A cotton-processing plant in Huron-
Tube. rihot27
2.7igur? top page 97 ef originalj A kolkhos hydroelectric plant in the
Gilmer Valley. /No to7
gigure "b6 *twit page 97 of oriersag A. children's crecbe
Gissar Valley collective farms. LiThot27
- 158 -
ift 49011114ft Ag +UMI,
1
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glgare page 100 of or n7 Grapopioking on the Shakhrinem State
Yarn. ghote
iTigure page 101 a origi-aag avatar *keep os,autumapastures. LThot7
gigure page 103 of originslj The pastures of the Tadshik SSR:
R'Nx1
- -
- - -
autumn-winter-spring pastures of the plains foot-
hills, and western Paair
mountain and high-altitude summer pastures
year-round pastures of Zastir* Pamir, Alm. Valley,
and Zycyl-Ium
pastures outside the repullie
unsuitable land
inure top page 104 of eriging Cattle routes to the summer pastures.
figure botton page 104 of originag Cattle routers to the winter and
year-round pastures.
gigue. page 106 of origiaig Cattle being driven to mountain pastures.
Lire page 109 of origi47 Drying oesoons in the shade. Lhoir
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gigure page 125 of originag The dietribution of industry in the
Tad*.ik SSR:
Minerals
coal polymetals
111 hard. coa an& A asbestos
lignite 0 antimony
al table salt X arsenic
CI fluorspar Pm bismuth
x mountain
crystal
is) other rare taetals
Industries
42/ cotton processing
a textile
o other light industry
QZ.) food.
410 mining
?,siet.sil processing
E.) building materials
The industrial structure is
shown 10 branches without
any quantitative index.
gigure top page 130 of origtmag
mountains. Lhoti7
ffigum bottom page 130 of original
River in the Gissar Valley.
Industrial centers
.-Most important: STALINABAD
(,-considerable: egar
Hydro-
electric
power
plants
Power Plants
(*.existing
(*ander construction
(Othermal, under con,
struction
' broad-gauge railroads
narrow-gauge railroads
prircipal auAo highways
- other auto highways
An old-fashioned bridge in the Tacishik
gigure to page 135 of originqr
of the Tadzhik SSR:
A bridge across the Winds=
t.2.7
Administrative-territorial division
rayons wider republican jtulediction
Leninabad oblast
tit Xomatain,Badahhihan, Autonomous oblast
state boundaries
boundaries of union republics
oblast boundaries
rayon boundaries
???.? ?????? ?
?????? A... 1. MOP. alio
amm. ? wow
- 160 -
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?
ffigure bottom page 135 of original7 Economic regions of the Tadzhik SSR:
Wet Pergana Valley
Zeravehan Valley
Gisear
Valley
Central
Tadzhik:1 sten
Southeast
Tadzhik Easters(
Pamir
Southwest
Tadshik Western
Pamir
Lfigure ;age 137 of originag Western part of the Fergana Valley;
SSR boundaries
Leninabad. cities
&meal city-type settlements
Yantak other inhabited points
railroads
prisoipal hijkways
I 1 i
1 iijatton canals
valley bottom awl lowland. plains
foothill plains
medbut end high mountains
- 161 -
?????li
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ffigure page 144 of original./ The newly-irrigated, lands and. those to
be irrigated in the western part of the Verona Valley.
I?
? ?
V".
wavi-V irrigatio=
machine irrigation
oftimala
_ dams
gigure page 165 of original...7 A strset in old Thodshent. 118"
gigure page 156 sf originag A settlement of the Leninabad Silk Combine
ghot27
ffigure pan 158 of original?' A weaving mill of the Leminabad Silk Combine.
fh".2./
gigare page 164 of originag zeravehan Valley land sdheduied for
irrigations
gravity irrigation
machine irrigation
flig4re page 166 of originag The Gissar valley:
Begar attics
Gissar city-type settlessnts
Varsob other inhabited points
______ railroads
bighwars
irrigation easels
I
the valley 'bottom
feothill plains and, low mountains
medium end high aossateize
162 -
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.-744
ffigure page 170 of origInagGissar Talley land sdheduled for irrigation:
gravity irrigation
machine irrigation
m2dating easels
glgure page 176 of originsIT One of the hydroelectric stations of the
Iamb cascades. .4rhoti7
gAgure page 176 of origU47 Structure of the StalinaUTI industry as
measured in commodity value (in %):
Branches:
1.1'2221 licht Industry
cotton processing 1$%
cotton fabrics 12.4
sewing industry 14.3%
other light industries 13.*
f Dot industrY
bread. baking
10.0
other food industries
13.4
3.KR Betel vrocossinm industry:
1.0
4.02 Wildincimmterials induatry
5. 1Ti:.!1 other branches of industry:
iftgure page 176 of ortglame General liew of Stalinabad. In the fore-
ground the Nouse of Government and Lenin street. i7hote7
ffigure top let page 177 of originag the State Pallic Library imolai
lirdousi. LTioti7
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gigure bottoa left page 177 of origins,17 Performed* hy neaten!' art
group in Stalinahad. ghee_
glgure top right page 177 of origina1:7' stalinahads
. city netts
..4_,(22) part of the city covered with buildings
a? 0*,0 orchard*, nurseries, and parks
6./7. 6
Uroad-gonge railroad tracks
narrow gauge railroad tracks
auto highways
w a ????1????6
prigure /mg* 178 of original:7 The Large Gissar Ganal, rishotff
Angora page 180 of origins); UlitsaLenina in Stalinshad. ffhotil
Lligur* page 184 of originag The Vskhsh Valley
.&st acg tce: citr
Zurgan-Tube
Vakhshstroy
Urals
ogauVr.".....TtleCT,
valley hottest
foothill plains
low and medium paountains
state lasawlaries
cities
city-type settlements
other ishahitod places
railroads
highmirs
irrigation canals
iylgur* page 187 of origleag Southwest Tadshik lauds scheduled for
irrigation;
gravity irrigation
madam' irrigation
dans
tunnels
existing canals
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Lfigure page 190 of originig
.Ti1lev. piotsir
Brigure page 194 of originag
RSSA
???????? "MOM
Kulyab
Parkhar
Kangurt
Lemons grown,in tress in the Vakhsh
Southeastern Tadshikistau
low broad ',alloys
foothill plains
sodium and high mountain*
boundaries of (music regions
state bousdaries
cities
city-typo eottlemeate
other inhabited places
highways
gigure page 199 of originag Southeast Tadihik lands scheduled for
irrigation
gravity irrigation
machine irrigation
dams
figure page 206 of originaalier A commercial dairy farm on the Gars Sovkhos.
Lphotg
gigure to page 208 of origi:fg la the Surkhob river volley. Novabad
is in background. ghat?
/Figure bottom page 208 of originig Tadshike from the Tagnob
Lhota7
Efigure top pm, 209 of originag A Iirgis woman from the Dshirgatallskiy
Rayon. L'? t27
glgure bottom. page 209 of oriel. A typical eastern Paair labascalm?
On the Osh-Ithoreg Highway. til
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ffigare page 212 of originag A Pamir Tadzhik woman. ffhot27
At: --
.1! tl.'.14 p=rap'
212 or-ifs/P/47
ffigure page 215 of original7
ffigure page 21? of originag
/Figure page 218 of originag
fligure page 219 of originaff
ffigure page 220 of originag
Pamir. ghotoT
ffigure page 221 of original7
Tho 0.1an...Khrxr.r.
A street in Khorog. ffhot27
Pioneers.
iroa
=Greg.
LA &NI ,17.1
A Kirgiz Yourta in Eastern Pamir. ffhot27
A summer grazing camp in Eastern Pamir.
A farm in the Alicirar Valley of Eastorn
Yaks in Eastern Pamir ffhotg
fiigtu?e page 222 of originag A biological station of the Academy of
Sciences Tadshik SSE in Eastern Pamir. fihot27
ffigure page 223 of origint417 Murgab. Motor
figure page 224 of originag The ri'adzhik SSE:
???????? raos? I ??????????
?????? ?????? ?????? ?????
8 1 ? ?
state boun.daries
union republic boundaries
*blast and autonomous oblast boundaries
cities
city?type settlements
0 rural inhabited places
Stalina.bad capital of union republic
Itexiinabsd-_,-- ()blast amd autononous *blast ?enters
Kulysb rayon centers
Koktash other inhabited. places
(continued on next page)
? 166 ?
??????^16
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4e-
.7495
?
?
broad-gnu/0 railroads
narrow-gaugs railroads
principal auto bighwa7s
other autemobila highways
major irrigation canals
gaarves
loonntain passes
altitubs in meters
permanent snow beaks and glaciers
wAsuINGTONe D. C.
SECOND FLOOR
1636 CONNECTICUT AVE., N. W.
DUPONT 7.4240
.107-
???????-?
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