FOUR ARTICLES CONCERNING SOME FEATURES OF THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF RUMANIA

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP81-01043R001200160002-5
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 261
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: September 24, 2012
• Sequence Number: 2
• Publication Date: August 12, 1957
• Content Type: REPORT

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STAT
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FOUR ARTICLES CONCERNING SOME FEATURES
OF THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF RUMANIA
01.001.01.11......1.1.???????????????????????????????????????????????=1?11.0.0110101NO.00/ 1110100.11.010.01.100. 41111.111.110.010.10011.
?Geografia Fiziea
jPhysical Geographyl
19551 Bucharest,
Pages 84-302
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Climate
by Stefan Stoenescu
Hydrography of the RPR
by Alexandru Savu
Soils of the RPR
by Nicola() Florea
Vegetation
by Raul Calineseu
Fauna
by Raul Calineseu
STAT
Stefan Stoenescu
Alexandru Su,
Nicolae Florea
Raul Colinescu
Pages
1
63
162
190
222
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FOUR ARTICLES commuNG SOME FEATURES OF TUE
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF RUMANIA
[Pages 84-1391
CLIMATE
Genetic Factors
Stefan Stoenescu
The physical properties of the air and weather are not
uniformly distributed over the country, which fact results in
continual changes in 'weather.
The radiative processes which are th
most important, are
based upon solar energy-reaching the earth in the form of direct
solar radiations and diffused light.
In the peripheral area of Rumania in the course of a year
the energy of these direct and diffused radiations exceeds 125,000
cal in the somthern part of the Danubian Plain and Dobrogea, fall-
ing below 1050000 cal in the north and below 100,000 cal on the high
mountain peaks, where frequent clouds are formed (Figure 1).
In sunny weather, in the noon hours, during the summer
solstice, direct solar rays have fallen with an intensity of over one
cal/sq cm/min (maximum intensity = 1.43 cal/sq cm/min at Bucharest).
The maximum absolute values increase Lathe high mountain area due to
al transparency (160 cal/sq cm/min).
Diffused radiation generally has a greatly reduced intensity
(hundredths of a calorie). This goes up (to a few tenths of a
calorie) only in the noon hours when the rays pass through light and
relatively transparent stratiform clouds.
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The energy of falling solar rays is absorbed and transformed
into heat at a rate varying with the nature and albedo of the various
parts of the territory (the albedo of the natural surfaces of the
ground varies between 10 and 28% in spring and greatly increases in
winter when the ground Is covered with snow).
The surface of the Rumanian Plain absorbs about 100,000 cal/
sq cm per year, and the northern part of the country under 900,000
cal, Part of this energy is given out continuously by the active surface,
The annual free heat resulting from the various energy exchanges
in the form of radiation or the radiative total0 is about 60 000 cal/
sq cm in the southern partyof Rumania and about 55,000 in the north.
This energy is unequally distributed, going into the ground or
the air, or being consumed in the process of evaporation of water,
melting snow,etc.
In the positive phases of the radiative and caloric total the
surface of the dry ground heats up intensively.
The maximum temperatures of the surface of earth not covered
a.
byvegetation reaches 60 to 65 to 70 in summer on the Danubian Plain.
At night in the absence of solar radiation, the active surface
cools and the temperature drops. Ground surface temperatures in
summer on the plain for uncovered dry ground rise over 300! in 24 hours.
In winter energy exchanges are less.
Water plays an important part because during changes of
phase it absorbs and releases enormous quantities of heat and gives
rise to a series of very important meteorological phenomena. Water.
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vapors in the atmosphere absorb infrared radiations in the solar
spectrum directly as well as those given out by the active surface.
Clouds reflect and diffuse the solar rays during the day. They
give out infrared radiations. From the clouds fall liquid and solid
precipitations which also medify the temperature of the active sur-
face. The presence of water and the intensity of the cycle and the
transformation of water in the various parts of the country also
influence meteorological processes.
On the surface of the plain over 500 lit/ sq in of water fall
annually. It evaporates, sinks in, or runs off. In mountain areas
the amount of water entering into the cycle is over 1,000 lit/sq in.
Over water basins continuous evaporation takes up annually 200-750 lit
of water per sq in (in the various parts of Rumania).
Nonpe. odic weather changes are caused by air movements.
Regionally the frequency and intensity of intrusions of cold or warm,
wet or dry air, the thermal circulation of breezes, convection currents,
and shifting of fronts produce great changes in meteorological conditions.
The circulation of air over Rumania is determined by the un-
even development and shifting of the main baric systems including
the dynamic subtropical anticyclone of the North Atlantic, the North
Atlantic cyclones, the Eurasian thermal winter cyclone, the
Scandinavia-Oreenland anticyclone, and the winter cyclones of the
diterranean Sea.
All these radiation, hydroviteorological, and dynamic
phenomena and processes occur quite independently and in direct
connection with the various physical and geographical conditions
of the active surface. This surface forms the basis and the frame-
work for the development of the most important processes.
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tramamormorsiosigir
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A continuous reciprocal exchange of energy and matter goes
on between this surface and the air masses (absorbtion and emis-
sion of heat, kinetic exchange of energy, phase transformations of
water, etc).
The relief formations, especially the Carpathian range,
blocks and diverts the shifting of air masses. The mountains af-
fect the system of clouds and precipitations. Their frequency and
volume increase with altitude. Adiabatic shifts of air temperature
with upward movement are very important for the climate of mountain
areas, Thus the intrusions of warm air from the Eurasian winter
anticyclone and the storms they cause are rarely felt in Transyl
vania or on the Tisa Plain. The relief greatly compartmentalizes
climatic conditions.
The influence of the Black Sea basin on meteorological
processes and phenomena is limited because during the warm half
year there is a prevailing circulation of air masses over Rumania
from the western sector. These air masses have brought on an in-
tensive continentalization process and therefore our eastern littoral
is the driest ares in Rumania.
Vegetation through its vital functions activizes the
continental water cycle increases air turbulence, and modifies the
radiative, caloric and hydrologic totals of the ground surface, also
creating an additional, superimposed active surface.
Human activity is having more and more influence upon the
whole complex of these processes and phenomena. Whether it acts
inconsistently and passively or consistently and actively, human
society is constantly transforming the active surface of the earth
and bringing about the origin and conditions of many meteorological
processes and phenomena.
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Distribution and $ stem of AirmselttAca
(The data are from recordings of thermometers and thermo-
graphs installed at a level of 2 feet above the ground in special
aerated shelters.)
The distribution of air temperature can be evaluated on the
basis of data recorded at meteorological stations (only after these
data have been processed and correlated to make them comparable).
Because of the great variations in time of meteorological
conditions, due particularly to the passing nd stopping of various
air masses and fronts over the surface of Rumania, continuous obser-
vations are necessary, over as long a period as possible.
Mean Annual Air Temperature
The higher annual air temperatures are localized in the
plains areas of the southern half and the western part of the RPR
[ Republica Populara Romina -- Rumanian People's Republic] as a
result of the high values of the radiative and caloric total in the
south and the intrusions of colder winter air masses.
Mean annual temperatures of over 11? have been recorded on the
Timis Paiin, along the Danube in a wider zone on the west (40-50 km)
and in a narrower one on the east (15-23 km), and the southeast half
of Dobrogea (the southern reaches of the Black Sea coast),
The annual isotherm of -1-10 C delimits the lower Siret Plain
on the north and lies almost from east to west on the line of con-
tact between the southern Subcarpathians and the Oltenian Hills, with
the.Wallachian Plain on one side and the Ge tic' Plateau on the other.
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In the west, except the lower Samos Plain in the north,
which is colder, on all the rest of the Tisa Plain the mean annual
air temperatures are over IO? C with relatively uniform distributibn.
In general the 10 C isotherm follows a path oriented from
east to west along the latitude of 45? X on the base of the southern
Subcarpathian slopes and from north to south in the zone of western
hil/s forming the flat basin of the 2 great depressions (the Carpatho.-
Balkan and the Pannonian).
The highest mean annual air temperature values were recorded
in the Danube valley at Orsova at 11.8O C and in southwest Dobrogea
at Mangalia at 11.7? C.
The almost uniform distribution of air temperature over the
flat terrain of the plain illustrates the relatively homogenous (in
the horizontal sense) thermic structure of the air masses and the
relatively uniform development over the area of the processes of
transformation of the masses.
In the higher areas of the hills and plateaus of Rumania air
temperature is less uniformly distributed because of the irregular
relief.
,
In the depressions and great river plains the mean annual air
temperature has greater values than in the higher areas.
? The Moldavian plateau is distinguished from the mountain area
by a mean annual air temperature of over 7 C. The Covurlui platform,
the southern slopes of the Birlad Hills, and the plains of the lower
courses of the Siret and the Prut are covered with colder air (mean
annual temperature over 90 C), while the Moldavian Subcarpathians and
the Suceava plateau are covered with warmer air (average under 8 C).
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In the Jijia basin the mean annual temperature is 8.5-9450 Co
In the southern Subcarpathian depressions the air tempera-
ture is higher (8-10?) than in other areas but on the peaks it falls
to 6-7 ?
The air temperatur
is unevenly distributed on the Transyl-
vanian plateaus being lower in the upper portion east of the Tirnava
plateau (7? C) and higher in the sheltered valleys and depressions in
the west (9.5 in the Alba Iulia depression and 10o1o at Deva).
At the bottom of the Maramures depression the mean annual air
temperature exceeds 80
c.
The Carpathian chain is contured at its base by an annual iso
,o -
therm of C and on the various slopes the air temperature falls
about 0.5-0.6o C for every 100 m of altitude. In the southern Car-
pathianss at a height of about 1,950 m, is the annual isotherm of 0?.C,
which in the north of Rumania extends generally down to the 1,800 m
level.
According to certain observations of the Omul Peak Meteorological
Station in the Bucegi massif (at 2,511 in altitude, temperature -29 C),
it can be determined that on the highest peaks of the Meridional
Carpathians (Reteaat and Fagaras mountains) the air has a mean annual
temperature of -30 C and on the 2. peaks of the Rodna massif about
It is established that above the 0? C isotherm forest, vegeta-
tion can grow only sporadically in areas sheltered from the Wind.
The transition from deciduous to coniferous forests does not
show a constant level and many massifs show overlappings and reversals.
In January the air generally has the lowest mean temperatures of the
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entire year. The only exception is high mountain peaks over 2,000
m high, over which the mean annual temperature in February is equal
to or a little lower than that in January.
The isotherms in January have their own characteristic 'dis-
tribution, the result of various complex processes peculiar to the
cold season (Figure 2).
In the southeast corner of Rumania the mean air temperature
a
remains positive (Mangalia +0.2 C), being higher than anywhere else
in Rumanian territory because of the caloric balance peculiar to the
waters of the Black Sea. This effect of heating of the air is felt
the length of the coast and in the eastern half of Dobrogea.
Higher temperatures of -2 C are also recorded for the surface
of the Tisa Plain, which is often covered in winter by air from the
west and southwest heated over the waters of the Atlantic, Mediterranean,
and Adriatic.
? Over the surface of the Rumanian plain the average air tempera-
ture fluctuates from place to place around the value -30 C.
It is not by chance that localized values have been established
in the central zone lower than in the Subcarpathians. This zone con-
stitutes the bottom of a wide depression bordered by the peaks of the
Carpathians and the Balkans, closed toward the west but wide open towards
the east.
Due to the action of the horizontal baric gradient, air from
the Euraslatitcwinter anticyclone or those from the north is driven'
toward the periphery. Because of its density and greater specific
gravity it is displaced and goes to the bottom of the depressions ,and
spreads out in the form of thin, stratiform lenses. Often the low pressure
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et
systems slide along over them without touching the ground. In the
case of high anticyclones clear and cold weather prevails. In the
long winter nights, due to the persistence of phases of predominance
of negative radiative balance, the surface of the plain coo1p4andein-
tensely accentuates the stable sedimentation of cold air (thermic in-
versions).
Only along the plains and marshes of the Danube, where processes
of condensation, sublimation of vapors, and release of heat when the
waters are not frozen take place, does the air temperature rise to any
extent.
In the valley of the middle Siret, through the broad saddle
between the heights of the Suceava Plateau and those of the central
Moldavian plateau, intrusions of cold air from the northwest are in-
evitable, although their progresS en masse to the south is restricted
by the general narrowness of the Siret valley. Consequently in the
lower Roman-Bacau area very cold air strata are often isolated.
The surface of the Transylvanian plateau is covered on the
west by warmer air than in the east.
The mountain slopes come in contact with colder air above.
The level of the -10 C isotherm is located at about 2,000 in in the
Southern Carpathians and at 1,800 mmn the northern part of Rumania
(Rodna Mountains,
re inane, etc) 4
On the highest peaks of the Pagaras Mountains, Mindra and
Retezat, the air temperature in February can be fixed between -11o
and -11.5? C.
The intra-Carpathian and perie,Carpathian depressions are
often covered in winter by intensely cooled air, in contact with
9
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snow and the frozen ground, which slides down the slopes toward the
valley.. This very cold and dense air cannot easily be displaced by
the warmer air of the advective intrusions which slide along above.
The long period of stagnation of the dense and cold air at
the bottom of the depressions is characteristic of the winter system.
In special cases the depressions are also filled with cold air by way
of advection if the passages lie in the direction of the cold masses
(such as the Ciuc depression).
Between the lower levels of the relief, covered with the very
cold air of the thermic inversions and the peaks of the great cold
heights there is on the slopes of the Carpathians and Subcarpathians
a relatively warmer zone, fed by air from the free atmosphere or en-
gulfed in clouds in the stratum of the condensation and sublimation
processes, in which a considerable amount of latent heat is released.
Usually cold masses have limited vertical development (some only a
few hundred m) so that above them relatively warmer air masses cir-
culate. Consequently the areas of precipitation often stay covered
with somewhat warmer air. This peculiarity of the thermic system
of the atmosphere accounts for the fact that the forest vegetation
and 'foliage survives the winter.
To determine the' winter system, a chart can be drawn up of
the frequency of days of mean negative temperatures.
On the Rumanian Plain daily mean temperatures below 00C are
recorded for 60 to 65 winter days. On the Tisa Plain they fall below
33 in the south and exceed 70 in the north. In Central Drobrugea and
in the northern part of the littOral the number of such days is 30-35
and they fall to zero in the southeast corner.
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On the Transylvanian plateau the frequency of such days is
70-.80 as compared with 759O on the Moldavian plateau.
In the high mountain area above the level of 2,000 m, the
annual number of such days exceeds 200 (227 at Omul-Bucegi Peak).
In the internal depressions of the eastern Carpathians over
100 days occur per year with a mean temperature under, 00 C.
Acute frosts caused by intrusions of cold air are more fre-
quent in the eastern half of Rumania than in the sector covered by
vegetation. Their frequency is inconsistent from year to year in
accordance with the development of the various baric systems.
Many winters are relatively moderate from the point of view
of air temperature. Because of the displacements and interactions
of air masses, differentiated as to origin and physical properties,
in wintertime the air temperature system is highly variable. The
intervals of acute frost alternate with freezing.
? Covering of various sections and levels of relief by 'cold or
warm air masses and by frontal systems do not take place simultaneously
and do not last for the same period of time over the whole territory
of Rumania.
Spring starts in the south and southwest.
Because of' their great specific warmth the waters of the Black
Sea basin heat up gradually so that in spring the air on the littoral
is colder than in the south of the Tisa Plain (the mean air tempera-
!)
ture in April is 9.2 at Constanta and 9.4 at Sulina as compared with
11.70,at Orsova and 11.4 at Jimbolia).
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10.
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/
The ground and the air warm up later in the north and in the
mountainous regions of Rumania.
In July the mean air temperature exceeds 2S? in the south, in
a zone 10.-25 km wide along the Danube meadows (Figure 3).
The entire surface of the Dobrogea, the Rumanian Plain, the
southern part of the Getic Plateau, and the Timis Plain is covered
with warm air of an average temperature of 220 C.
The plains of the Apuseni Mountains are contoured by an iso-
therm-of 20? toward the west, including the southwest portion of the
Transylvanian Plateau and the Alba Iulia and Hateg'depressions and
skirting the slopes of the Poiana Ruscai massif and the Banat mountains.
This isotherm passes through the area of the southern and
eastern Subcarpathians and aligns itself to the north along the
Siret Valley. On the peaks of the southern Carpathians over 2,500 m
in height the air temperature averages 5-6? C and at the upper limit
of coniferous forest the air temperature has a mean value of 4100 C.
Although there are scant certain indications for the western
?
and, the eastern Carpathians, a mean drop of air temperature of 0.7 CPI
per 100 m difference in altitude can be determined.
Throughout the year, but particularly in spring,
temperature on the upper slopes and high peaks of the mountains ex-
posed to the wind is on the whole lower than at the same level in a
free atmosphere, since because of the sudden .rise of the air it cools
adiabatically. These processes frequently take place on steep slopes
facing the north or northwest. Correspondingly in a sheltered mountain
area falling air becomes warmed adiabatically. At the foot of high
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mountains the Foehm effect is noted toward the east and southeast
while thawing, spring, and the gradual growth of vegetation are earlier.
Differences in air temperature in summer and winter are not
identi al over all Rumania.
The highest mean annual amplitudes (the differences between the
average temperatures in the warmest and the coldest months) are localized
in. the central area of the plain (over 26?) and on the Moldavian Plateau.
On the Black Sea littoral in the area of the meadows and fen lakes of the
Danube t on the Tisa Plain and in the western part of the Transylvanian
plateau the mean annual amplitude is about 230. It is relatively more
intense in the depressions and drops at high altitudes.
At the level of the southern Carpathian peaks this difference
does not exceed 170 C.
In the coniferous zone the annual thermal amplitude values vary
between 17o and 20 being smaller on the northern forested slopes and
larger on the southern and southwestern unforested ones.
On the Black Sea littoral the annual air temperature system is
more moderate than on the plain, the annual amplitude being 2?-3? C less.
Therefore in the Rumanian Plain area the thermal system is con-
tinental being characterized by occasional air intrusions which are
very cold in winter and very warm during a long summer.
Toward the mountain heights the cold period of the year lasts
progressively longer and the warm period is limited.
On the highest mountains the thermal contrast between summer
and winter is limited and the heating and cooling of the mass of the
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troposphere is later on the heights. At altitudes of 20000 m and
above the air is warmer in August but not in July, as on the plain,
and in wintertime the lowest mean monthly temperature is in February
(not January). This retardation becomes appreciable at 2,000 in and
above and as a result spring is very cold in comparison with fall.
The waters of the Black Sea basin, because of their caloric
system, especially on the plain, also considerably modify the tempera-
ture of the passing air masses. The maximum effect is produced in
winter, when the caloric exchange is activated by the great difference
between the high temperature of the waters as compared with the cold
air massea',
On the Black Sea littoral in winter the air is 3-4? C warmer
than in the central area of the RUmftnian
In spring the waters and to a certain extent the air above them
remain colder while they remain warmer in the fall. In Rumania's
coastal area this distinction in the mean monthly value of the air
temperature in the particular month exceeds 2? C as compared with the
plain. The greatest distinctions are registered in .he extreme south-
weSt corner of the Dobrogete.
Mean Temperatures
Mangalia
Alexandria
Timisoara
(?C) April
'October,
January
July
Amplitudes
9.6
14.2
0.2
22.7
22,9
11.2
12.2
-3.3
22.7
26.0
11.1
14..8
-1.4
22.0
23.4
Extreme Air Temperatures
The lowest air ,temperatures are frequently registered on the
highest peaks of the Carpathians*
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At 2,500 in, minimum sub zero temperatures are obtained even
? in the summer months. The lowest value registered at-Omul Peak was
?-389 (January 1929).
On the plains the minimum absolute temperatures are from -309
to -32?, on the coast -250 to -27?, and in the hills -260 to -29? C.
In the depressions within the Carpathians the lowest values in all
Rumania have been recorded, -38.5? C at Rod (24 January 1942).
The maximum absolute temperatures are 44.5? at Ion Sion on the
Braila Plain (10 August 1951), 42? on the Rumanian Plain, 40? C on the
Tisa Plain and the Moldavian Plateau, 399 on the Transylvanian Plateau,
and 38.59 on the Black Sea coast. On the heights in the area of the
Alpine meadows the greatest air temperature values reach 20-250 C in
clear weather, when there are summer tropical continental air intrusions.
Atmos herb c Pressure and Air Movements,
The pressure exerted upon the surface of Rumania's territory
by the mass of the atmosphere is unequally distributed and constantly
drifting. Under the action of gravity the lower strata support the
? pressure of the upper' ,ones and therefore the greatest pressure is
localized at sea level and in areas of low relief.
The mean annual air pressure values are 1,016 mb (one millibar =
100,000 dynes per sq cm = 4/3 mm lig) in the Danube delta and on the
beaches of the Black Sea coast they drop to 1,015-1,013 nib along the
Len lakes and meadows of the Danube.
n regard to absolute height, up to the 300.m level the sur?
face of the plains supports (per sq cm) an average Pressure of 10014-
995 mb, the vertical baric gradient (102) being 13-15 mb/100 in differ-
enceof level.
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? In hill and plateau areas up to a 600 m altitude the pressure
drops to-950 mb.
The slopes of high relief bear less and less pressure and at
the 20500 in level the rarified air of the high altitudes exerts a
pressure of only 745 mbisq cm. More than one-fourth of the mass of
the atmosphere is below this level.
In time with the action of cosmic, dynamic, thermic, and
? terrestrial dynamic forces0 the whole gas envelope of the planet
is in constant agitation and oscillation.
In winter the Rumanian Plain and the littoral are often
covered with the denser air of the continental anticyclones. In
January the pressure mounts (in mean monthly values) to 1 015-
1,020 mb. On the Visa Plain at the sem altitudes the pressure re-
mains lower since the dense air from the east remains contained in
the low southeast area, its advance being blocked by the Carpathian peaks.
In the warm half of the year, especially under the thermic.con-
vection action of the rising air, a general drop in pressure to 10000-
1,010 nib takes place in the plains so that in the course of the year
the differences of the mean monthly values are 8-10 mb. In the highest
mountain regions, depending on the baric structure, which varies with
the season, and on the troposphere and the various baric systems of
the air mass as well the atmospheric pressure develops in the opposite
way from the way it does on the plain, dropping in winter and rising in
summer.
At 2,500 m the mean monthly pressure drops below 740 nib in
January and February and exceeds 750 nib in July and August.
Fluctuations of the mass of the atmosphere are also caused by
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the attraction exerted simultaneously in different directions by the
masses of the earth and the moon (atmospheric tides, which correspond'
.to the phases of the moon).
Twelve-hour oscillations are produced by the rotation of the
earth. Thus in the 24-hour period the pressure drops in the after-
noon (between 1,500 and 1,900 hours) and rises in the morning (between
0700 and 1200 hours) and in the 12-hour interval 2 other corresponding
oscillations are produced, but they are not as intensive (at 2200 and
0400).
These fluctuations do not exceed 1-1.5 mb/24 hours.
The greatest pressure changes are caused by the development and
displacement of baric systems(local and advective pressure variations),
The main baric systems which influence Rumania's climate do not
have fixed positions but constantly develop, shift, and disappear.
The North Atlantic dynamic subtropical anticyclone occupies more
northerly positions in spring, driving humid and rela4ve1y cool air
from its northern periphery in the form of a northwest, wind. Ocean air
masses pour huge precipitations. on the slopes of the Alps and Carpathians
and heat Up intensively over the fields of Europe. In this process of
transformation (they are continentalized), their temperatures rise while
relative humidity drop14 During the warm half of the year the horizontal
baric gradient is directed from the west toward the east (the pressure
in general drops toward the east).
In winter the entire northern surface of Eurasia takes. on an
infinitesimal quantity of solar energy. Under conditions of negative
radiation balance, the active surface cools intensively, resulting in
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a cooling of the lower strata of the air which increases in density.
The Eurasian winter thermic anticyclone develops unevenly in various
years (with a pressure of 1,025-1 045 mb in the central area). On
its southern periphery the cool and dense air covers the southern
portion of Rumania, as the north wind is also from the east (Crivat).
In its phases of maximum development this system Joins with the
subtropical dynamic anticyclone, formingthe greatewinter continental
anticyclonic chain or ridge which covers all central Europe and the
entire territory of Rumania.
But frequently the 2 anticyclones occupy diagonal positions
(southwest and northwest) distributed over the north Atlantic depres-
sions which develop over the warmer waters of the Mediterranean, These
lows shift toward the east over Rumania, They bring about changes in
weather, due to the passage of systems of warm and cold front clouds,
and shift masses of air between their warm and cold sectors. Similarly
occlusions of the cyclones and intensive precipitations are produced
before the mountains.
In the western posterior sector of the cyclones, in the course
of profound displacements, rapid dislocations and penetrations of cold
and dense air from the Eurasian or northern anticyclone occur. In
this phase the wind strengthens again, the temperature drops quickly,
and frosts and storms wreak havoc. The cold air of the periphery of
t?Lne winter Continental anticyclones spreads toward the southwest,
see
covering the concave features of the relief and the lowest areas.
Similarly the pockets of cold air stay contained in winter at the
bottom? of the Carpatho-Balkan depressions. The warmer and more humid
air from the west covers the Tisa plain, the Transylvanian plateau,
and the peaks of the Carpathians0 beyond which, passing toward the
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east, it loses contact with the land, sliding upward over the higher
surface of cool and dense air strata. The Subcarpathians and the
mountain peaks are covered during this phase by masses of humid air of
a moderate temperature.
The eastern and southern section of Rumania is accordingly ex-
posed in winter to intrusions of cold, dense, and dry. air (continental).
The direction of the northeast wind changes in accordance with the
high relief formations. The wind blows stronger at high altitudes on
the Moldavian plateau in the northeast. On the plains of the Prut
and the Siret the general direction is from the north toward the south
and even from the northwest (in the vicinity of the eastern Subcar-
pathian peaks). In the area of the Carpathian irregularities cold air
from the east is dispersed over the suA.iaee of the plain and the direc-
tion of the northeast wind shifts between north, northeast, and then
east-northeast.
When the air mass exceeds 1,000 m it can also penetrate the
intra-Carpathian depressions through the eastern Carpathian passes
(Nemira wind),
In the Oltenian Subcarpathians and the Mehedinti plateau the
effects of the northeast wind are not noted. [Apparently some lines
the mountain peaks in winter remain above the stratiform clouds that
cover the Rumanian plain and the Moldavian plateau.
In the cold half of the year there are at times intrusions of
arctic: air (from the north). If these masses have a relatively, large
vertical development they can at high altitudes pass beyond the
Carpathian plain and occupy the great Pannonian depression and the
Transylvanian plateau. The coldest and densest air remains contained
in depressions (the air temperature falls to between -200 and -350)
?
.19.
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? 0 ?
(0..?
gra
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and groups of stratiform clouds are formed which are phenomena
peculiar to thermic inversions.
IntrusiOns of humid air from the west northwest, and south-
west (popularly called Auster) give rise to special phenomena in
various parts of Rumania.
On the western ,slopes of, the mountains of the Banat and the
eastern and western Carpathians, the adiabatic cooling of the air
and the condensation of water vapors form masses of relief clouds
from which frequent rains and snows fall. On the high peaks of the
Carpathians the west wind prevails almost all year-long and its mean
velocity exceeds 10 m/sec and even reaches 40 m/sec.
On the eastern mountain slopes the descending wind causes a
compression and adiabatic heating of the air, a drop in its relative
humidity, evaporation of the particles of water and ice in the clouds,
and clear skies. The Foehn effects are localized in the eastern
shelter of the great peaks of the eastern, western, and central Car-
pathians.
In spring and summer, when the trajectories of the cyclonic
fronts occupy northerly positions facing Rumania, their southern
sectOr consists of dry and verY warm air masses of continental air
advancing toward the southwest, south, or southeast. This dry and
warm wind is popularly called 'the poor thing" or "the black winC"
Besides the great displacements of the air masses resulting
from the action of the main baric systems during the entire course
of the year, a series of local air circulation systems develops under
the physical and geographical conditions of the? varioue regions of
Rumania. The most frequent originate in the contrasts of heating
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and cooling of the active surface (breezes from the seashore,
mountains, forests etc).
During the warm half of the year, over those portions of the
terrain that are heated by solar rays, vertically rising currents
of warm air (thermal convection) are developed daily and cumulus
clouds are formed.
With spring anticyclonic systems clear, and dry weather pre-
vails, with drought conditions.
Great instability of climate is characteristic of Rumania
both in winter and summer. During the cold season intrusions of
warmer and humid tropical air alternate with sharp frosts produced
by the Eurasian anticyclone and the masses of arctic air. In spring,
long intervals of drought are interrupted by brief, torrential rains
with hail and electrical discharges. In spring, after a few days of
rapid warming, the weather cools off, with late freezes and 4rost.
This instability of weather peculiar to transitional areas results
in great losses to the economy of Rumania and especially to Rumanian
agriculture. The most extreme climatic conditions are localized in
the plains area, precisely wher they endanger the crops.
Humidit of the Air Clouds and Pre i itation
Water vapors are dispersed in air masses as a result of
evaporation of water (at the surface cd bodies of water, rivers,
and damp ground), sublimations (at the surface of layers of snow and
ice), and transpiration of plants (physiological evaporation). Like
other atmospheric gases water vapors exert a particular pressure which
can be expressed in millibars. This is customarily called vapor
tension. In many cases absolute humidity figures are used (gr H20/CU m
of humid air).
- 21 U.
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The most humid air is localized over the littoral, over
the river meadows, the fen lakess and the deltas and in the
western parts of the Timis and Tur plains.
The mean annual values of the absolute humidity exceed 9 gr
water/cu m air along the shore ofz;the Black Sea and fall below 7 gr
at altitudes of over 2,000 m in the southern Carpathians and on the
peaks of Cullman and Rodna mountains.
In winter the cold air contains less vapors and the mean
absolute humidity drops in January from 4 gr on the littoral to
below 3 gr in hill and mountain areas and even below 2 gr on the
highest peaks (Omul Peak 1.7 gr).
In summertime, besides the intensive evaporation of the
waters of Rumania's territory, large quantities of vapors are also
brought in by humid air masses of oceanic origin (especially in
the western sector). In July (Figure 4) the mean absolute humidity
is 12-13 gr at the base of the air masses which cover the greatest
part of Rumania (the Danube Plain, the Tisa Plains the Transylvanian
and Moldavian Plateaus). Above the river meadows the humidity in
the air increases over 14 gr along the river meadows and fen lakes
of the Danube and 15 gr over the delta and the littoral (Figure 7).
In the high hills area and on the lower portion of the-
rnOuntan
minpAQ
in the area of deciduous forests (beech) the humidity
varies between 12 and 10 gr s dropping to 8 gr in the coniferous
forest area and even below this value above in the alpine pasture area,
22
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4.11?1?111.......11111111?111
V
Times
1. Omul Peak
Predeal
Bucharest
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MAN ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY (GR H20/CU M OF AIR)
January
July
1.4
2.0
8
1.4
2.0
Mean annual
1.7
1.9
1.8
6.1
6.9
6.3.
2.6
3.0
2.8
9.7
10.1
10.4
3.1
3.6
3.4
12.6
14.6,e
- 12.3
7.41
Along -the Black Sea littoral the air is the most humid all year
and especially in summer when water evaporation is intensified. On
clear days the sea air invades the coastal strip in the form of bfbeeaes'.
Sulins
Mangalia
braN ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY (GR)
January July Annual
3.8 15.7 9.3
4.1 15.1; 9.4
In wintertime the northern part of the littoral is often
?.
covered by masses of cold and dry continental air, while in summer
the air becomes intensely humidified over the delta, the fen lakes,
and the sexplanses of water,
Relative Humidity. The real tension of water vapors and abso-
lute humidity can be related to the maximum tension and the maximum
absolute humidity (corresponding to the various air temperatures) and
expressed in percentages in the form of relative humidity, the mean
annual value of which is usually between 7n% and 75% over the plain,
the hills and the Transylvanian and Moldavian plateaus. On the
mountain slopes it increases in the higher altitudes, in the cooler
air reaching 85-90% at altitudes above 29000 m.
In January the plain and the mountains are covered with the
.23
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coldest airs with a very high humidity of 82-90%. Only the southern
and eastern Subcarpathian regions the Getic Piedmonts and the
mountain peaks of northern Moldavia remain covered with warmer air of
?
lower, relative humidity (74-82%).
In July (Figure 5) the relative humidity is very high on the
peaks of the highest mountains of Rumania; which are located above
the condensation level and frequently covered with clouds. In the
rest of Rumania it is lower, 70-75% over the Transylvanian plateau,
62-70% on the Tisa Plain, 55-65% in the southeast sector and above 70%
over the littera
0
While the plain is being covered by dry and warm continental
air masses; if at the same time there is also a prevailing anticyclonic
system with clear weather, the relative humidity of the air can drop
below 30% in sunshine, withering plants and parching the soil. The
same thing happens oftener in the' outheast of Rumania and especially
in the Baragan.
In July and August at 1400 the mean monthly relative humidity
values generally drop even below 45% over the Danube Plain.
Cloud-
Sitatm.ansLal2tribution Cloud masses cause diffusion
diasmonarriermnsmourim
of solar rayss
the surface of
the day affecting the system of radiative balance of
Rumania's land.
The? , degree of cloud overcast (measured in tenths) in mean
annual values is the greatest along the Carpathian ranges on the
slopes of which the ascending displaced air cools adiabatically and,
drops over the plain. On the peaks of the southern Carpathians the
annual mean exceeds 7/10. In the south the annual value is between
5-6/10 and on the littoral and in the southern part of the Danube Plain
it drops below 5/10 (Figure 6).
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Places
Omul Peak
Timisoara
DEGREE OF OVERCAST
Targhl Mures Iasi
Bucharest
Sulina
Winter
7.0
7.1
6.5
7.4
6.7.6.5

Spring
8.1
6.0
5.5
6,2
5.8
4,7
Summer
7.9
4.7
4.5
5.0
4.3
2.5
Autumn
7.1
5.5
5.0
5.8
5.3
4.4
Annual
7.5
5,8
5.4
6.1
JP r
.J
4.5
In winter the whole lower area of the plain and the plateaus
are covered with clouds for a longer period and the degree .of cloud-
ing is 7/10. In the cold season stratiform clouds with slight vertical
development prevail. The high peaks of the Carpathians often stay
above them, imp* rather rarely covered by the cloud masses.
FREQUENCY OF OVERCAST DAYS (nob 7.6/10) IN %
Places Omul Peak Timisoara Targul Mures Iasi Bucharest Sulina
Winter
56.6
57.8
58.5
60.3
50.1
47.9
Summer
T4,4
26.5
23.6
26.2
16.8
7.9
FREQUENCY OF CLEAR DAYS IN %
Places
_Omul Peak
Timisoara
TargUl Mures
Iasi
Bucharest
Winter
19.1
19.5
16.9
1408
22.0
Summer
8.7
43,9
46.3
36,2
42.8
In the first part of the warm half-year, in times of sunlight
on the active surface, ascending thermic convection currents are de-
,
Ye loped and cumulus clouds are formed. Toward the end of summer and
the beginning of fall the weather generally stays clear. The frontal
systems cease to be active and because Of the heating and drying of
the ground and the lower stratum of the air the condensation level is
raised to greater heights. Toward autumn thermic convection drops in
.25.
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Sulina
25.9
70,6
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intensity and carries up more dry air. Therefore the general and
most frequent direction of displacement of air masses is from west
to east. Those on the littoral are met by air which has gone through
a more intense process of heating and drying (continentalization).
From the northwest there are only intrusions of continental air.
Therefore clear weather prevails on the littoral. As a result of the
covering of the sky with various degrees of overcast in the various
parts of the land the duration of solar radiation is greater over the
plain and in the southeast (clearer) sector and less in the mountainous
area.
The S stem and Quantitative Distribution of Precipitation.
Various types of precipitation fall on Rumania at irregular intervals
and give very variable amounts of water because the genetic, formative
processes of clouds and precipitations are very complex and variegated.
Thus, in the warm half of the year intensive and torrential rains from
thermic convection clouds predominate. These are localized in
restricted isolated zones (local showers) and give large amounts of
water in a short time; they start and stop abruptly and are accompanied
by storms and often by electrical phenomena and hail.
In the course of the year intense and torrential rains give
?
70-80% of the total annual amount which falls on the Rumanian Plain
and the Moldavian Plateau,
On the Tisa Plain these rains represent only 6275% of the
total.
In autumn and on until spring, cyclonic systems over Rumania
are displaced from the west along the polar front. Overcasts Of
stratiform clouds and slow rains (drizzles) alternate with abundant
.26.
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rains and an abrupt change of weather upon the passing of a cold
frOnt. In the western part of the cbuntry and on the western
mountain slopes, the frontal processes are more active. Before the
Carpathian peaks occlusions are produced as are relief clouds with
rain and general local snows (upon the passage of fronts and through
adiabatic cooling of ascending humid air). In the southwest corner
of the country, in the western Carpathians and even in the Maramures
Mountains frontal precipitation is very common in autumn and spring.
To these are also added the convective rains at the beginning of spring
which revery abundant.
In winter Rumania iajirregularly and not simultaneously
covered by various advancing air masses. In the eastern sector the
intrusions of cold continental air produce snows accompanied by
storms and sharp frost. Part of the west is often covered by ocean
(Atlantic) and maritime (Mediterranean and Adriatic) humid and not
very cold airy so that winter precipitation falls more often in the
form of drizzles or snows (Figure 8).
In the mountains at altitudes above 2,000 m, since the
temperature is low, the precipitation falls in the form of snow for
most of the year.
On the slopes of the high massifs of the Carpathians precipita-
tion falls in great quantities, generally exceeding 1,200 mm per year.
In depressions and valleys 'surrounded by great heights, smaller ,amounts
of water fall because of adiabatic heating through compression of the
air displaced in falling. This Foehn effect results in evaporation of
the raindrops in the clouds and clearing up. The abrupt drop in volume
of precipitation is evident in all intramountainous depressions of the
eastern Carpathians (less than 700 mm of water a year), 411 the eastern
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ferwavomot,
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shelter of the western Carpathians, and in the deep passes lying
across the trajectories of the air masses (Bistrita valley, the
transverse valleys of the southern Carpathians, the Corns valleys, etc).
On the Tisa Plain the annual amounts of water in precipita-
tion are less in the west (550-600 mm) and greater toward the east,
On the surface of the Poiona
exceeding 700 mm in the piedmont zone.
Rusca massif the annual distribution of water
while in the western Carpathians and in the western corner of the
central Carpathians these values are exceeded.
On the surface of the Transylvanian plateau, the annual
volumes of water increase from west to east to the amount of over
800 mm a year in the rivers flowing 'between the Tirnavas plateau
and the base of the Vulcan chain. In the upper regions of the?
Maramures Mountains* the Rodna and Coltman massif, frequent and
abundant annual precipitation falls, which, upon the average, amounts
to over 1,200-1,400 mm per year.
averages
1,100-1,200 mm,
.Comparable amounts also gall in the important massifs-of the
,central Carpathians. .Because of the relief And due to the prevalence ?
of snows, the quantitative distribution of precipitation is extremely
irregular and very difficult to measure. Under the action of the. wind,
the snow is driven from exposed peaks and slopes and drifts into
sheltered areas. The steep walls stay uncovered in winter And deep,
'layers of snow accumulate in the valleys.
The southwestern sector of Rumania receives-annually,a lesser
amount of water from precipitation.- Less than 500 mm inathe south.
? of the Rumanian plain .and in the east of the Moldavian Plateau and
less than 400 mm in southeast Barganul and in the area along the littoral.
And over the Danube delta. .
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irsollowilmolmowiN
(10101111?111.
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Since in these areas the major part of the water comes from
local convective precipitation the distribution of the annual
water totals has an insular aspect.
In this sector during the warm half year, long intervals
of dryness and heat (two-three months) predominate interrupted
infrequently, by teeming and torrential rains. Drops of less intense
rains, which fall from altostratus clouds ften do not reach the
earth but evaporate in falling through the warm and dry air which
covers the heated surface of the plain in springtime.
During the year precipitation falls on only 60-75 days on
the littoral, on the average, 70-100 on the Rumanian Plain, 80-115
on the Moldavian Plateau, and 110-140 on the Tisa Plain and on the
Transylvanian Plateau.
On the slopes of the Carpathians precipitation is much more
frequent and occurs on 145-180 days per year in the coniferous
forest area and on 180-200 days on the peaks of the highest massifs.
During the year, the smallest amounts of precipitation fall
in the cold months of January and February, and the greatest at the
end of spring and the beginning of summer (June). In the 3 summer
months on the plain, only half the amount of water from rains col-
lects as in the summer season. On the surface
eif
%IN&
the plain, especially
in the eastern part of the country, lack of precipitation in the
winter months is aggravated by the action of storms which deposit snow
on fields not equipped with snow fences.
The greatest volume of water falls in Jane generally, but
the mean volumes of precipitation in this month remain quite small
in the Black Sea littoral area (40-45 mm) compared with the Danubian
.29-
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Plain (05-95 mm), ,the Moldavian Plateau (75-95 mm), and the Transyl-
vanian Plateau, and the Tisa Plain (75-110 mm). The greatest volumes
of water fall in this month on the high mountain peaks (185-200 mm)
under the combined action of various frontal processes, dynamic and
thermic convection, abundant evaporation of water, massive transpira-
tion of forests, etc.
In the southwestern part of the country there is an intensifi-
cation of precipitation in autumn, when lows encounter the Carpathian
relief, the most frequent precipitation generally occurs in May, on an
average of GeZdays on the littoral, 10-12 in the eastern sector, 12-15
in the west and over the Transylvanian Plateau, and 17-21 days on the
highest peaks of the Carpathians.
These mean values are exceeded in some years but at other
times during periods of dryness and drought they are reduced.
During the warm half-year, in the whole hilly area of the
plateaus and the plain, intervals are possible of 30 days' duration
in which no precipitatton falls. On the average the duration of
intervals of dryness is greater in the southeast' amounting to 18-20
day; in the Baragan and Dobrogea. These phases are characteristic of
the anticyclonic system. During the year there are 2 periods in
which anticyclones predominate -- at the end of winter and between
the end of the summer and the beginning of autumn. The summer dry-
ness is more dangerous to vegetation because in these anticyclonic
situations the sky stays clear, the ground heats up intensively by
day, and the air becomes very, warm and dry. Sometimes on the Rumanian
Plain during the warm half year dry intervals can last or 2 or 3?months.
The continental nature of the meteorological processes which go
-30-.
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on over Rumanian territory
t onl dryness and
whose no y
longer dry intervals contrasts with the particular intensity of the
torrential precipitation in the cold half.
is more marked in the eastern sectors
reduced air teiperature, but also the
In the eastern part of
RUmania the 'precipitation system is extremely variable in time and
the quantitative distribution over the area is very uneven.
The western sector and .the high areas have more frequent and
less torrential precipitation.
n wintertime, solid precipitation usually takes the form of
snow.
In winter a snow blanket covers the surface of the plains ir-
regularly (Figure 9).
In the littoral area It snows on the average only 10-15 days
per year, and in southern Dobrogea snow never falls in many winters.
On the Danube Plain snowfalls are often accompanied by rapid
intrusion of cold continental air from the winter, anticyclone. The
north wind blows snow over the fields driving it up against obstacles
and into valleys, so that rarely is an unbroken snow cover to be found
on the terrain. Organization of the territory by planting forest rows
to protect the fields is being conducted especially in the southeastern
sector of the country which is exposed to the north wind
In this sector the accumulated snow in depressions melts
later in the spring, forming ponds and fen lakes.
On the Tisa Plain wind action is lees strong and the snow
cover melts more slowly.
On the slopes of the Subcarpathians and the surface of the
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Transylvanian and Moldavian Plateau snows are more frequent (30-45 'a
year, exceeding 70 in the mountain areas). On the peaks of the
southern Carpathians it snows on the average 100 days a year, and snow
represents up to 75% of the total amount of water precipitated during
the year. Heavy snows fall in some years even in July or August, and
heavy hail falls sometimes lay on th ground for several days.
The snow cover does not last nearly as long on the littoral;
it is entirely sporadic and intermittent on the Rumanian Plain and
the Moldavian Plateau, progressively increasing toward the high
mountain peaks, where it reaches about 200 days a year.
Climatic Zones and Sectors
Atmospheric processes develop in direct relation to the
various physical and geographic peculiarities of the area. Among
these the Carpathian relief is the most important climatic factor.
The ring of high mountains separates the central portion of
the country from the peripheral zone which is particularly exposed
to moving air masses and fronts, so that the western sector is often
covered with humid air masses and frontal systems accompanied by pre-
cipitation of long duration. The eastern sector is exposed to cold
air from winter continental anticyclones from the north and northeast.
? In high areas on the mountain slopes the whole complex is
modified in relation to the structure and vertical development of
the various air masses, the altitude and dynamics of the fronts, the
shifting of the condensation level, etc.
Mountain Climate
Distribution of soil and vegetation, the peculiar water system
and the geomorphologic features are zoned according to altitude so as
to brine out the distribution of the corresponding climatic conditions.
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Climate of
The highest peaks of the Carpathians
above the 1,750 m level in the north and 1,900 in in the south are
covered all year by the cold air of the high atmosphere.
Above these levels annual mean temperatures are negative and in
the warmest month (JulywAugust) the mean values do not exceed 100 C
(5.6? on Omul Peak).
The mean volume of water vapor in the air is only 60-50% of
what it is an the plain, and much less in winter in the continental
air masses.
EISCaUSe
more intensive
of the rarefication of the air solar radiation is much
(Maximum intensity of direct rays reaches approximately
1.6 cal/sq cm/min.
The number of dust partial
in suspension is much less. Due
to the rarefication and great transparency of the air, the effective
radiation of the ground surface is greater.
On the various surfaces of the mountain relief the distribution
of descending solar rays, heating, and the values of the radiation and
caloric balance are very variable. Alongside sunlit surfaces there 're
shaded or sharply inclined areas which stay humid and cold.
Because of the nonuniform f
11 and persistence of snows, the
snow cover of the various sectors may have very uneven values. As a
result the peaks and mountiin areas are characterized by a great
variety f microclimatic conditions. Similarly, a great disparity
between the temp rature of the air and the temperature of the ground
surface
time is
oriented toward' the sun and sheltered from the wind in summer
also characteristic or the temperature of the intensely cooled
snow surface on clear winter ni
htS?
.33.
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The maximum absolute temperatures of the ground surface and
rocks can exceed 400-500 in the sun while the maximum air temperatures
do not exceed 200 250.
As a result of the intense cooling of the ground in the
negative phases of the radiation balance, the cooled air on the slopes
condenses and slides down into the valleys being retained only at
the bottoms of declivities.
On clear summer days the sunlit southern slopes are heated
intensely and the air above them rises toward the peaks in thermic
convection currents (ascending breeze). As a result, the water
vapors born by these currents condense, forming cumulus clouds of
vertical development.
Around every peak and
the beginning of each day on
at noon on the southern ones,
western ones.
massif, thermic convection develops at
the eastern slopes in the morning, then
and later in the afternoon on the
Towards evening as the humid air begins to rise the water
particles in the clouds fall and disappear through evaporation.
During periods of advective displacements of air masses, the
wind velocity is very high on the high peaks and on slopes exposed to
the wind (over 20-40 m/sec).
In sheltered areas there is prevailing calm or intrusions of
irregularly whirling air.
On slopes facing into the wind the air is cooled adiabatically
during intensive dynamic convection. These slopes are usually covered
with clouds, in the sheltered area the air is heated more intensively
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in falling (according to the law of dry adiabatic processes), being
felt at the bottom of the slopes as a warm wind (Foehn).
In this sitUation the sky is clouded and the air becomes very
dry (relative humidity greatly reduced).
The greatly reduced density of the rarefied air up above
(mean pressure under 800 mb) creates special conditions of exchange
of atmospheric gas s with the soil and plant tissue.
A violent wind often blows from the western sectors blowing
snow over the peaks and forming cornices and great drifts on the
sheltered slopes. In these areas there is greater d nger of
avAlanches of frozen snow (without adhesion) in winter or during the
spring thaw.
On the shaded slopes in the north and the shelter d ones in
the east and southeast the snow cover lasts a long time (sometimes
until the end of May).
Because of the intensive radiative cooling of the surface of
the ground, through condensation or sublimation, the water vapors in
-
the air produce dews frost, and abundant rime.
The lower stratum of the air heats up in the immediate
neighborhood of sunlit ground, but when clouds pass the temperature
of the ground drops abruptly (sometimes 30?-40?).
Adiabatic cooling of rising air iults in freezing of the
ground, frost, and snow even in summertime.
These phenomena greatly reduce the brief season of plant
growth in the higher altitudes.
-35-
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The snow cover lasts almost without interruption from October
until May (18 to 200 days) and it sometimes snows even in summer
(85 to 100 days of snow per year).
Clear weather prevails in winter, the high peaks being above
thermic inversions and the stratiform clouds which cover the plain
and the depressions. In these periods, the mountains are engulfed
in air masses, espedially those,over the plain.
The sharpest frosts occur in February. The summer season
is characterised by a general rise in the condensation level to
about 2,500-3,500 m through development of thermic convection on
the sunny slopes, the formation of cumulus clouds, and falling of
heavy rains accompanied by electrical discharges and thermic storms
(in the afternoon).
These cold rains, which are thus transformed into hail, hail
and snow, or snow are fiequent phenomena during the "warm " season.
In this cold and humid climate complex, true pockets of dry
micrpclimate nevertheless appear on the sunny sheltered southern
slopes where xerophilous and heliophilous plant associations grow.
On shaded slopes, frost and r me last until noon on clear
days in spring and autumn.'
In mountain districts, the irregular terrain creates complexes
of extremely diverse juxtaposed microclimatic conditions.
But on the high plateaus snow is more evenly distributed and
the wind blows unobstructed. In calm weather or winter nights cold
air coversthe ground surface forming thermic inversions.
36
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Cold air collects in the valleys in winter, as well as
mist and stratiform clouds. Frost, dew and freezing are frequent
and abundant.
Climate of ItAllellapAreas,. On mountain slopes between
about 800 and 1,800 in grow coniferous, nondeciduous forests.
In winter these areas remain above the masses of cold air
which cover the great depressions and plains of the country, and
in summer, they do not become exceedingly warm. Th temperature
of the air, relatively reduced, has a moderate range between summer
and winter and between night and day. Minimum absolute air tempera-
tures do not drop below 4260 C. Mean annual temperatures are posi-
tive and the mean July temperature varies between 100 and 18? C.
The annual vertical thermic gradient is 0.50o-0.60 /100 in, 0.40o/100
in in winter, and 0.70?/100 m in summer. The amounts of precipitation
water exceeds 1,200 in (1im2) annually on the western slopes, being the
result of adiabatic cooling of humid air in advective displacement
(dynamic processes) or of summer thermic convection. When a cold
front passes occlusions of warm and humid air occur with heavy pre-
cipitations. On the eastern slOpes sheltered from the ?wind, Foehn
effects predominate and these values drop below 1,000 min.
In spring and autumn
aftweA
taiiMOL
often even in winter these slopes
are covered by cloud strata in which heat released by condensation
of vapor raises the temperature of the air by several degrees.
In clear weather the mountain slopes are covered by alternating
circulation of rising breezes of warm air by day and descending
breezes of cold air by night.
The shading of the ground, the existence of thick forests with
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r
ground covered by a thick and damp layer of needless the direct evaporation
of water from the ground and on the needles moistened by precipitations
and the transpiration of forest vegetation create and maintain a
constantly high humidity in the forest atmosphere.
In the upper part of this zone toward the high altitudes there is
. modification where the vegetation begins to modify itself, anatomically
and functionally, to the ecological conditions.
On the northern shaded slopes soil and air temperature have a
much more moderate range. The soil humidity remains much greater,
being excessive. Under the forest roof the lack of light results in a
lack of chlorophyllous vegetation.
The upper limit of the forests is higher on the shaded northern
slopes. On the southern slopes, 41pine pasturage occupies much lower
ground (200-300 m) due to the inteLse insolation and dryness.
In the narrow, deep gorges dug by hydrographic forces there ar
prevailing shade, excessive humidity, accumulation of cold air, and
phenomena resulting from condensation and sublimation of water vapor
-(mist, dew, frost, low-lying clouds, hoar frost).
Climate of Hills and Plateaus
This covers the greater part of the country (between 200 and
SOO m), being encountered on the Transylvanian Plateau in the Sub-
carpathians, the Moldavian Plateau, Horstul Dobrogean the Getic
Plateau, and the western hills.
? The air temperature is moderate, the annual mean varying
between 74)-8? in the north and in the high areas, and 100 in the west
and toward the plain. In July the mean air temperature varies between
19 and 220 c.
-38-
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oymuminow.61100101104.
L,
yge,c4-:: ?
AV"
?
Fdta
1W4
'
? ?
?
?
?
?
?
?
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The daily ranges of air temperature are less than on the plain.
precipitation falls in average amounts of 550 800 mm per year,
more abundant in the north and west and less in the east and south.
Among the more prevalent climatic features of this sector are
cooling, freezing, and late frosts in spring (which cause freezing
and falling of flowers) and early in autumn, as well as deposits of
hoar frost and glaze frost (especially in the valleys) in winter.
The valleys are covered in winter with more humid air and with
mist. In some sectors the cold, dense air occupies only the lower
portions of the relief.
The lowest level of the relief presents peculiar features in the
development and distribution of atmospheric processes and phenomena.
In general the mean annual temperature and the summer temperature
of the air and soil are higher than in the other climatic zones.
The winter phenomena have a short duration and are intermittent,
although in some years heavy frosts, viaent storms and successive
snows alternate with the thawing, rains, and drizzling of humid and mild
weather.
A dry spring with clear weather and a dry wind (anticyclonic
system) often follow a winter with little snow.
Th warm period of th
seasons are sometimes lacking,
from winter to summer and the
cold and heat.
z
year ia very long, transitional
being replaced by an abrupt transition
reverse, or by repeated alternation of
39w
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orwoolimPownwommil
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The heat of summer and intrusions of dry air are associated
with an uneven and unfavorable distribution of precipitation, which
falls either in limited quantities (frontal precipitation) or is un-
evenly distributed in time and over the surface (torrential local
rains at widely spaced intervals)*
The most frequent precipitation falls at the end of spring
and the beginning of summer.
The maximum extreme temperatures are recorded in summer, and
in winter the plain is covered by the coldest and most dense air.
Important differences appear in the distribution of climatic
features in accordance with the general orientation of the country's
relief in relation to the displacement axes of the air masses, the
baric systems, and the fronts in various seasons.
Climatic Sectors
The Carpathian peaks divide the country's territory into 3
great climatic sectors:
A. Central sector': the Tirnavas Plateau with the Transyl-
vanian Plain and the Somesan Plateau.
B. Southeast continental sector: Moldavian Plateau the
Rumanian Plain, and the Dobrogea.
C. Western sector: the Tisa Plain.
Some climatic peculiarities appear in the north and the
southwest of the country.
D. Northern sector
B. Southwest sector.
-40-
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Climate of the Tirnavas Plateau the Trans lvanian Plain
and the Somes Plateau
DUe to frequent intrusions of humid air masses from the west
the whole section enclosed by the Carpathian peaks has a climate
characterized by constantly higher air humidity than in the conti-
nental sector -- the southeast of the country.
lithougb. the amounts of precipitation are not very large,
navertheless droughts are not felt.
? Due to prevailing western circulation the distribution'of
humidity, air temperatures and clouds and precipitation is not
uniform.
/n the shelter of the Western Carpathian peaks (the trans-
verse peak of Mount Bihor and the mass of Mount Gilau) the frequent
roehn effects produce a general air temperature rise in the area of
the Alba Iulia-Turda depressions. The sky is much clearer than on
the rest of the plateau and annual precipitation averages less than
600 mm.
On the eastern 'half of the Tirnavas plateau which is generally
-higher the humid air is cooled as it rises. The relative humidity
is higher in this sector and clouds are more frequently formed in
the north, yielding heavier and denser precipitation.
The annual mean air temperature becomes gradually lower toward
the east (9.5? at Alba Italia, 9.00 at Bratei; 8.40 at Cluj, and 8.70
at TargUl Mures) to 7? at the foot of the eastern Carpathians.
The geomorpholftical disparities of the plateau's surface
result in differences in the distribution of detailed climatic conditions.
4l
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In wintertime during periods of anticyclonic weather colder
air is generally compartmented in the main valleys (in January the
mean air temperature
tures are registered
in valleys (-5.59 at
being from '-40 to -5050). Lower mean tempera
in winter in the depressions near mountains and
lara and ..5.5? at Sighisoara).
,Absolute minimam, temperatures are characteristic of these
depression areas .(-34.2? at Sibiu, -.33.8? at Fagaras, Na32..60 at
Cimpie Turii, -32.8? at Iara).
And in the large valleys of the Tirnavas the Mures, and the
Somes rivers similar phenomena occur in winter in the case of intru-
sions of very cold masses of arctic or continental polar air from
the north or northeast (0?350r'at Medias, -320 at Targul Mures, -32.50
at Cluj, and 320 at Jiban). In these periods, the peaks and rivers
between stay above the strata of dense and cold air, being covered
with somewhat warmer air (by a few degrees).
In summer the ground surface and the air in the valleys and
depressions heat up more intensely. The mean air temperature in
July exceeds 2d)in the Alba lulia depression and at the confluence
of the Great Somes with the Little Somes, dropping below 19.5? in the
east and the higher areas.
In the main valleys and large depressions the air temperature
in summer can exceed 399 C (absolute maximum temperatures recorded:
39.7? at Alba Julia; 39.2? at Bratei; 39? at Targul Mures; 390 at
Cimpia Turzii, 39.49 at Pagaras).
The differences between the absolute extreme values? of possi-
ble air temperatures may exceed 70? in the valleys. On the high points
of the plateau they are somewhat less.
-42-
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Compared with the southern part of the Rumanian Plain, on the
Tirnavas Plateau and the Somes Plain and on the SomesTlateau in
summertime there is no very extrem heating and the duration of the
warm periods of the year is somewhat less.
The average date of the last spring freeze varies between 15
and 20 April in the southwest and the beginning of Mhy in the east.
The date of the first autumn freeze is later in the west (1?-
15 October) and earlier in the east (25-30 September).
The tension of water vapor in the air is also higher in the
southeasterno warmer sector and becomes lower toward the north and
east.
Men Values (mm Hg)
Alba /ulia
U.
12.6
Annual
7.7
Sibiu
3.4
12.7
7.6
Hod
3.1
12.6
7.3
Cimpie Turzii
2.9
12.0
7.2
Cluj
3.1
11.6
7.0
Targul Mutes
3.0
12.4 ,
7..3.
Near water and forests the Or is More humid than on the
hills and open country.
The relative humidity is generally higher than in the
southern part of the country,
Alba Iulia
Bratel
MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY IN %
VII Annual
87 70
to
62 74 78
43
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toimmommimmammalsoilll
? MEAN RELATIVE HUMIDITY IN % (Continued)
?
I
VII
Annual
Sibiu?
90
74
80
Bod
82
71
76
Cluj
89
69
76
Targul Mures
83
72
76
Mist and dew are frequent phenometa in autumn and spring in
the river valleys and in depression areas with stagnant water.
Frontal processes play an important role in cloud formation
during the cold half-year and thermic convection in the warm half-year.
In the entire area the sky is more overcast in the cold season
(more than 6/10) and clearer in summer (less than 5/10). Toward the
end of summer and the beginning of autumn the most prolonged intervals
occur of clear weather and the fewest instances of mist.
In the area where humid air'massos come down from the west,
clearing is more fr quent than on the rest of the plateau.
The quantitative distribution of precipitated water is uniform
in neither time nor space.
? Mean annual totals of water over many years vary 'between 550-
600 mm in the west and 700-800 mm in the east and in the vicinity of
the mountains.
In the course of the year the greatest amounts of water fall
in June and the most ? intensive precipitation occurs in the warm
? interval (May-August).
In 24 hours over 80-90 mm of water may fall especially in
convection rains.
-44-
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Degree of overcast (0-10/10)
Place Number of days with mist I U annual clear
Alba Iulla 48 7.3 4.3 5.7 107
?Bratei 46 6.6 4.2 5.5 99
Sibiu 23 7.2 5.3 6.2 96
Bed 22 6.9 ' 5,0 6.0 93
Cluj 31 7,0 5.1 6.0 85
Targul Mares 68 6.8 4.5 5.6 113
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Annual number of days
cloudy overcast
116
142
137
129
104
165
117
155
120
160
106
146
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In the course of the year precipitation falls on the average
of 95-100 days in the western part of the plateau (Alba ?Iulia de-
pression) and 130-140 days in the eastern part, while between them
the annual number of days with snow is only 17-35.
Totalling the various successive strata of newly
55.45 cm of snow is obtained for the annual average.
1116nsnow,
As contrasted with the northeastern, continental sector of
Rumania on the Transylvanian Plateau snow is not driven by the wind
but slowly melts where it is deposited.
Most frequent air circulation occurs in the west, becoming
more intense along the valleys and on the higher, unforested peaks.
The continental air from the winter Eurasian anticyclone is
generally diverted in front of it, southwest of the Eastern Carpathian
peaks.
Only in time of intrusions of great masses of arctic or
maritime polar air can the entire area he coveredwith cold air.
But in these periods the valleys and depressions are especially
subject to frost.
Warm weather is common in the cold season and in the interval
between the end of summer and the beginning of fall.
In spring, when the cyclonic systems are passing over Rumania
the wind is more frequent and intense.
The thermic whirlwinds of summer are local phenomena covering
quite restricted areas.
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JW4
..."'
.41
1
1
,
tiormirrommoomo.61
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B c"tinental Sect"
This includes the Moldavian Plateau, the Rumanian Plain with the
Subcarpathians and the Getic Plateau, and the Dobrogea.
It represents an extension of the continental climate from north
of the Black Sea.
The area is covered rather frequently in winter by cold and dry
air and summer by warm and dry continentalized air.
S21.2112.121y211921.Plateau. It is exposed in winter to intrusions
of air from the Eurasian continent 1 anticyclone and has an extremely
continental climate*
Due to the advance of cold air especially in the valleys, along
the Siret, the Prut, and the lower portions of the relief,
to supports
more acute conditions in wiuter thaa the high areas of the plateau and
the Subcarpathian hills.
MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURES
Place Jan April Aug Oct Annual
Iasi -3.7 9.7 21.5 10,5 9.6
Birlad -3.8 9.9 21.7 10.8 9.7
Roman -5.2 8.319.8 9.2 8.2
The radiation and caloric balances in summer do not show as great
values as in the southern part of the Rumanian plain, so that the ground
and the air do not heat up extremely. But in winter sharp frosts are more
accentuated than in the south of the country and the Moldavian Subcarpathians.
ADSOLbTE EXTREME TEMPERATURES
Maximum Minimum
Iasi 40.0
-30,0
Roman 37.5
-32.0
In summertime clear skies and dry air prevail. Sometimes in spring
the east wind brings evaporation of water from the soil and transpiration
of plants.
In the Jijia depression the long intervals of summer drought have
forced the inhabitants to build primitive reservoirs.
The conditions of extreme dryness in summer are interrupted by rains
which do not fall often or uniformly and generally on limited areas.
-47-
gplrivormilH
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opkwinnommelowit
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In the winter the north wind blows violently.
The frontal rains of autumn (storms of long duration) make
unpaved roads impassable, impeding transportation.
The first freezes generally set in toward the end of October,
and the last ones of spring hang on until the middle of April.
There are characteristic intervals of thawing in winter, in
which it is even possible to do some agricultural work.
During the cold season, due to thermic intrusions, the
plateau and especially the valleys are often covered with mist and
low lying stratiform clouds.
The mean annual volumes of precipitation exceed 500 mm only
in high areas, the drye t area being in the south (the lower Siret
Plain).
The first snows begin in the middle of November and the last
occur in the middle of March.
b The Climate of the Rumanian Plain. On the surface of the
Rumanian Plain the physical properties of the air and the meteorological
weather conditions have a r latively homogeneous distribution.
Along the valleys of the Danube in the broad (30-60 km) zone
from Turnul Severin to the Braila Plain the highest air temperatures
are generally registered and weather clearer than on the western plain
prevails.
Although from one year to another the cloud cover varies
considerably the mean annual duration of sunlight exceeds 2,100-
20300 hoUrp (2,000-2,600 in various years). In el ar weather, during
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the summer season and the high elevation of the sun over the horizon,
the intensity of insolation is generally greather than one cal/sq cm/min
(maximum value measured in Bucharest is 1043 cal/sq cm/min). During
the long summer days the ground surface and the air are heated intensely
due to the high values of the radiation balance.
In the form of direct and diffused solar rays, the surface of
the plain annually receives an average of over 125,000 cal/sq cm in
the south and under 117,000 cal/sq cm in th vicinity of the Subcar-
pathianse
The absorbtion and transformation of solar energy into
caloric energy is not uniformly distributed over the surface or in
time on th various portions of the plain. In general, their mean
total annual value is 200,000 cal/sq cm (surface covered 10a28%).
Air temperature is higher in the south, exceeding on the
average: 11? annually, 230 in ?July, and -3? in January. However
in the north these values do not fall below 10? annually, below 220
in July, or below .030 in January. On the central portions of the
plain between the Olt and Ialomita valley in winter there are stable
localized thermic inversions (mean temperature below 30). In this
area the mean annual amplitude of air temperature exc eds 250 C.
The daily amplitude of air temperature fluctuations is less
in winter (6.-8?) and greater in summer (12-15?).
In the warm half-.year the weather is mor
stabl and the
moving air masses heat up intensely. The variability of the air
temperature is very great in winter when more frequent intrusions
of maritime polar and tropical air masses alternate with masses of
very cold air impelled by the Eurasian thermic anticyclone.
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The minimum temperatures of arctic and polar continental air
penetrating between the Carpathians and th Balkans and continuing
over the low. surface of the plain are very low, below -200 Co in the
December-February period and even ..300 (forf,example at Bucharest-
Bameasa ,P320 C).
The winter phenomena although of short durations are very
intensive. Storms and frost in January and February 1954 were
localized almost exclusively on the Rumanian Plain.
It is characteristic of the thermal system that periods of
thawing and warming alternate with ones of heavy frost. Abrupt
cooling also occurs in March and often after a warm interval there
follow late cold air intrusions and adv ctive freezes which are
disastrous to cultivation of crops o vines, iv stock, etc.
The long intervals of thawing in winter can be used to per-
form the agricultural tasks peculiar to this season. The late
freezes of spring pose the problem of organizing measures to combat
the damaging effects of this phenomenon.
During the summers in the northeast sector of the Danubian
Plain are registered th highestair temperatures (44.5? at [word
omitted) on the 'Braila Plain).
Clear and warm weather prevails in autumn. The first freezes
caused by advective displacements of cold air masses from the north
occur on various dates, beginning in September and extending to the
end of November. Determination of an average date on a statistical
basis is not practically very useful because of the variability of
the distribution in time of these freezes. The weather prediction
service advises agriculture to take timely measures to avert the ef-
fects of the freeze,
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The precipitation system is characterized by great variability
of the amounts of water and their completely uneven distribution in
time-and space. In the last 50 years, at some points in some years
1 ss than 200 mm of water have fallen (Cimpie Doicesti 132 mm,
Vilcele 160 rem), whereas in rainy years the annual totals exceeded
1.O00 mm (Lehliu 1 084 mm, Slobozia Galbena 1,432 mm). In regard to
mean quantities in recent decades dry years have had a frequency of
over 50%. At greater time intervals in rainy years enormous quantities
of water have fallen which raise the value of the general mean in the
computation. For the greater part of the Rumanian Plain, the maximum
probability is 375.*450 mm of water annually and in the southeast part
f the Baragan 325 mm.
If the mean total potential evaporation is valued at about 750
mm per year, the disequilibrium caused by great negative values of the
hydrologic balance in this sector clearly appears.
In the course of the year in the months of January and parti-
cularly in February, the smallest amounts of precipitated water fall
(average 20.-35 mm per month).
The mean monthly quantities generally increase until June,
when the total is 65-90 mm and drop in the following months toward
winter. On the Oltenian Plain there is at some points a supplementary
increase of quantities of water during autumn caused by frontal
processes taking place during the passage of baric lows over these
districts.
Over the entire plain in the warm half-year thermic convec-,
tion currents and cumulus clouds are formed.from-which fall inten-
sive torrential rains. Volumes of.water ,have been registered
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everywhere over a 24whour period of over 100 mm (at Surdi? Greci
265.90 at Perieti 154 mm? etc). By their origin these, are local
ruins which fall only on limited' areas while the rest of the plain
stays_ very low. Long intervals without any precipitation or quite
insufficient precipitation are characteristic of the plain.?
These intervals are most frequent in winter, during periods
of prevailing anticyclones (especially the turasian thermic and the
Atlantic dynamic subtropical cyclones) and toward the end of summer when in
addition to anticyclonic conditions they take place during excessive
heating of the air and a corresponding drop in relative humidity of
the air masses occurring over the continent. Under these conditions,
the cloud frontal systems are dispersed by the evaporation of the
raindrops.
In the months of August and September, intervals of drought
last on the average of over 20 days in the eastern part of the plain
and over. 17-18 days in the west. Sometimes the dry interval ex-
ceeds 2 or 3 months (in the Baragan: 143 days at Galbenul, 122 days
at Slobozia). Since these intervals of clear weather, with strong
insolation by day, predominantly high temperatures, and desiccation
of the soil and air, coincide with the periods in which plants have
an acute need for water, harvests can be endangered if steps are
not taken to anticipate and combat these negative effects.
'The, most acute drought conditions are found in the extremes
. of the plain, in the Calafat area and on the Barpgan and Braila
plans. From the end of November to the middle of March snow falls
on the-plain-with very limited frequency (12-20 days), and the
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height of all layers of newly fallen snow during the whole winter
hardly averages 30-35 cm in the eastern sector (Baragan) and.
western
ciiloni;the western plain.
The mean annual duration of the Snow cover is 40-55 days,
but the snow cover is not unbroken. Snow on fields not equipped
with snow fences and not planted with windrows is driven by the
wind so that a good deal of the snow collected in pluviometers or
measured at meteorological stations does not remain in situ and
does not enter into the local hydrologic balance. The dearth of
precipitation in winter, the variability, of the dates o/ deposi-
tion, and the duration of the snow cover create difficult winter
conditions for autumn sowers.
(c). The Climate of Dobrogea. In general central Dobrogea
and the Black Sea littoral are the dryest part of Rumnia. The mean
annual quantity of precipitated water is only 370-400 mm and in some
years it drops to 200-250 mm.
A long spring with clear sky is characterized by long periods
of drought, and the thermal convection rains are of the torrential
(continental) type.
In winter, intermittently, the north wind blows with great
violence. During advection of great masses of very cold continental
air, the sea freezes at the shore. Fog banks roll in over the whole
littoral.
However, the meteorological conditions are extremely variable,
especially in winter. In some years, when there are no
from the north
mina positive
intrusions
and northeast, the mean monthly air, temperature re-
(5 to 8? C) and when the north wind blows the mean
monthly values drop to -7 or -80 C.
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Temperature extremes are more pronounced in the central area
and in the eaSt'and more moderate on the seashore.
The absolute low temperatures have not dropped below -
the Black Sea littoral in the last few decades.
?o on
In the warm half-year, the entire seacoast area is covered
by.day with the humid air of the sea breeze. The breeze penetrates
the area in a southeasterly direction cOvering.a strip 15-25 km
wide. Along this course the air is heated and drawn into a rising
ther
o-convective circulation.
In spring the air is colder than in aUtu n and fog is more
frequent.
Throughout the Dobrogea area, in connection with the diversity
of physical and geographical conditions, corresponding local clima-
tic peculiarities appear, in the delta, the Danube fen bogs, the
forested area in the Taita basin Telita, Casimcea, the central Do-
brogean steppes, southeast Dalrogea, and the southwest sector of
Dobrogea with its high platforms alternating with the deep valleys
of the estuaries etc.
Western Sector
,nio? 4.111101M
?
The Climate of the Tisa Plain. The plain 'is covered rather
frequently throughout the year with masses of humid air in the west.
In January the mean air temperature is higher in the south
(-1.2?) and is lower (below. -2?) in the north on the plain [words
Missing] and of Somes-Vara, the air temperature is higher in the
'western part of the Timis plain (22? C). In this area, the mean
temperature in the 3 summer months exceeds 210 C and toward the
-north it drops below 20? (:on the; Somes plain).
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Because of the flat relief, the climatic conditions are dis-
tributed relatively uniformly in a horizontal direction,
? MEAN TEMPERATURES
Jan
Apr
Jul
Oct
Winter
Summer
Annual
Satu Mare
-2.9
9.6
20.0
20.4
-1 3
19.5
9.5
Oracles
-1.9
10.8
21.5
11.2
-0.3
20.5
10.6
?Timisoara
-1.4
11.1
220.11.6
-0.2
21.0
11.0
The maximum air temperature reaches 400 in the western half
and below 37? in the extreme north.
In summer the area is often covered with warm air over the
Hungarian desert.
Throughout the winter, because of thermal inversions, lower
absolute minimum temperatures have been recorded in the low areas
In the west and north of the plain than in the higher piedmont
area in the east.
ABSOLUTE EXTREME TEMPERATURES
Absolute Minimum
Absolute Maximum
-Satu Mare
-29.6
37.2,
Oradea"
-26.2
39.5
Timisoara
-29.2
396
The last freezei of spring may occur between t10 end of
March and the beginn.ng of May (in most yearsIthe,Treezes are re-
corded up to 10-15 April).
In smtumn, the first freezes normally begin in the last days
of October. Intrusions of warm and cold air masses result in os-
cillation of the probable frost dates between the beginning of Octo-
ber and the end of November and interruption of the cold season of
the year by intervals of thawing of variable duration.
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qIIIMPIMMINMPM1111111?11N1
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In the western part of the Timis plain, mist and cloudy
weather are more frequent than in the rest of the plain, es-
pecially in winter, since in the periods of stagnation'of cold
air at the bottom of the Pannonian depression, in the lowest areaso
there is supersaturation and condensation of water vapors.
Average Date Average Average
8 Duration Duration
of of
Interval Interval
First Last Without With
places Freeze Freeze Freeze , Freeze
Oradea 25.X 10.4 199 days 166 days 95 71
Timisbara 28.X 12.4 198 days 167 days 91 76
0.100.....????? p.m....A. v.v.., ............??*????100.
No of
Days
With
Freeze
'?????????e????????apirow?orows
No of
Days
of The*
in
Cold
Period
places
Average Nebulosity
Winter Summer
(0-10/10)
Clear
..N.q....k.let....V.....?????????....eMf*f*...
Winter
Frequency
Cloudy
.....00??????*~IsioNtirmsoes.rniemo~~014.*0
Winter
????10...******
(%) of Days
Overcast.
WWWWW.11000.4.......4...............rumwoomp
Summer Winter
.............6.0.....
Summer
*10.1.0.....1.....*.
Summer
Annual
ro......."--ratth....
____
_-_______
Oradea
6,5
4.5
5.3
16.6
43.6
23.6
35.8
54.6
20.6
Timisoara
7.1
4.7
5.8
19.5
43.9
'22,7
29.6
57,8
26.5
In winter, in the western area, more frequent and larger quan-
tities of precipitated water fall from stratiform clouds than on the
eastern part of the plain. Only in the north and on the slopes of
the western part does the system of cloud formation and precipitation
change toward intensification of these processes.
AVERAGE MOUNTS OF PRECIPITATIONS
? Places
:Tipisoara
Winter
122.4-
Spring
169.2
Summer
199.5
Autumn
148.2
Annual
639.3
Oradea
108.4
167.4
202.4
157.1
635.3
Satu Mare
122.4
164.5
213.6
174.3
674.6
In summer over the western part of the plain, there is a
stronger development of thermal convection and intensive torren-
tial rains.
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SI
I.Maximumamount of rainfall
recorded in 24 hrs (ui)
Number of days with hail
Because of the longer duration of warm periods in this area,
precipitation falls more rarely in winter and the snow cover does
Timisoara Oradea
100.0 55.1
2.3 1.2
not last as long.
Average Number of Days Average Annual Duration
places with Snow of Snow Cover
TimiSoara 20.3 28.5
Oradea 23 0 35.0
The western corner of the Timis plain therefore has a more
extreme climate with great periodic and non-periodic variations
(daily and annual) of the air temperature with a longer annual in-
terval of heat and dryness and a shorter and colder winter.
But the differences between the northern and southern parts
of the Tisa plain are even greater.
The Timis and Cares plains are often covered with masses of
tropical maritime air displaced toward the southwest, SO that '
generally the air above these areas is colder and more humid.
From autumn and on into spring these regions are situated in
the direction of the trajectories of the baric lows which shift to-
ward the east. Upon encountering the western slopes of the mountains
the lows are occluded and the frontal processes intensified.
Fine rains of prolonged duration are frequent in autumn and
winter when the warm fronts pass. In these seasons the cold air in
the north and northwest can only rarely penetrate southward, b
cause of the high Carpathian ridges. The winter is short and spring
early. The humidity of the air, especially in summer, is higher than
in the west of the Timis plain where there are frequent droughts.
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t
In the north the air is colder, the winter lasts longer (some
15 to 20 days) the first freezes come earlier in autumn, and the
spring freezes later than in the south. Precipitation is more abun-
dant, and winter precipitation more frequent, the sky is clearer in
the south both in summer and in winter, and the solar energy system
more active. The radiation andealoric balance of the surface of the
ground also have greater values. A number of subtropical wild plants
have survived in the southern part of the Tisa plain, indicating the
more favorable ecological characteristics of the climate in this
area. Great prospects of development are open to agricultural pro-
duction through use of modern agrotechnical methods. Subtropical
crops, tea and valuable industrial plants will in the future cover
increasingly greater surfaces of this area.
The prevailing wind directions in the western sector are
-
northwest, west, and southwest
from the north are very rare.
. In winter, intrusions of cold air
pn the axis of the main valleys which
Pierce the mountains, rather intensive wind gusts are sometimes felt
as far as the plain.
The Northern Sector'
...1??????????.^..??????
In northern Moldavia and in the Maramures depression winter
is longer and snow falls more days per year, covering the ground
for a
longer time.
The air 'is generally more humid and the sky more often clouded.
In summer the air is cool and humid.
The abundant rains fall at the beginning of summer and at the
end ofautumn. The annual amount of precipitation,exceeds 700-900
Arought is unknown in this area.
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fp..111.1?011,1.111111.111.
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Southwest Sector (Banat -Oltenian)
t.e0000?r???.??..??? we.* ?
The Banat sector is exposed to air masses and frontal systems
which form and move over the Mediterranean and the Adriatic.
In the Banat sector spping and fall frontal rains fall when
lows pass from the west, and in winter there are prevailing masses
of maritime. tropical air in the form of west and southwest wind,
humid, and warm called the Amstrul. In summer this wind is rela-
tively cool and brings humidity.
The northeast Oltenian sector, sheltered by the Cernei moun-
tains, is located in the descending area of the west wind which
blows nearly all year.
In winter the north wind from the eastern sector of the
country is not felt. The sheltering from the wind and the optic
orientation toward the sun create conditions favorable for the
introduction and cultivation of Mediterranean species of plants.
Modification of Climate in the Field of TI.ansformation of
Nature and the Effects of Measures to Transform Nature in
???????
the USSR on the Climate of the Rumanian peoples Republic.
Only within the framework of socialist orientation can human so-
ciety_ conduct in an organized fashion a struggle against the dam-
aging effects of climate and for the most rational possible use of
natural power resources and climatic factors.
The application of the provisions of the overall plan_ for the
transformation of nature creates new conditions for the development
of physical and geographical processes and phenomena essentially
modifying the physical properties of the lower stratum of the atmos-
phere (temperature and humidity, wind structure, and intensity, etc).
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Through use of modern agrotechnology, deeply plowed soil can
absorb and retain almost the entire amount of water from the inten-
sive and torrential rains peculiar to our plains. Through treatment
of the soil and maintenance of the porosity of its upper horizon
the rapid and unproductive loss of the water (as a result of disor-
ganization of ascending capillary circulation) is tmpeded and more
water remains for use by plants.
Rotation with perennial grasses refashions the granular
structure of the soil, which no longer heats up excessively under
the action of solar rays. The new active surface of the soil
transpires much water, humidifying the air above it.
Irrigation of the fields in periods of dryness brings
about by day, through intensive evaporation of water, a drop of
several degrees in the temperature of the lower stratum of the air
and a 20-50% increase in its relative humidity as compared with the
free air above it.
On clear days the moist surface, of the irrigated soil stays
15-25 cooler than the heated surface of dry uncovered ground.
The networks of protective forest belts reduces the normal
wind velocity on the open plain 20-75%.
?
In the belts and areas between them the snow spreads more
evenly in winter and in greater quantity than on the plain, not being
driven by the wind. In this way the duration and the depth of the
freezing of the soil are reduced. Under the insulating snow blanket
the earth.thaws upwards, absorbing water in great quantities that
infiltrates as snow melts slowly.
The plants talus have great water reserves in the soil.
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tIrM111111.11.MMIMINIONI,
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in the warmth:Of clear summer days', when the Air heats up
over the plains forming thermal convection currents, the humid and
Cool air in the forest: Curtains spreads laterally Over the surface
'of the adjacent fields and invd*OrateS the plants. During dry
periods, at noon, the relative humidity of the air in the belts is
10715% greater than over the Open fields.
Large basins to accumulate water and ponds and reservoirs to
catch and retain water are areas of intensive evaporation and huii-
dification of the air. The effects of this are more markedly felt
in dry years and periods of heat.
The application over a wide surface of a whole complex of
measures in the plan for the transformation of nature assures im-
provement of climatic conditions over extensive areas.
The most acute necessity of integral organization of the
land to combat winter storms which drive snow over the fields re-
sulting in acute and prolonged desiccation of the soil and pro-
longed dryness in summer, is felt in the southern and eastern con-
tinental sector of Rumania.
In other humid and cold .sectors, like the depressions among
the Carpathians the excess of water creates conditions unfavorable
to the growth of plants. Through systematic drainage of deforested
-areas and adequate agrotechnical measures, these areas are becoming
productive and the soil is becoming warmer, retaining normal amounts
of water.
In combatting spring and fall freezes by smudge burning, the
effective radiation of the surface ol the earth is reduced 20-60%.
Stable thermal stratification of the cold air favors the spread of
the smoke in horizontal layers over the ground. By these measures the
air is heated 1-4? C which often assures survival of the plants.
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The greatest, most original and revolutionary example of
systematic and planned influence on nature is the application of
the great overall plan of systematic transformation of nature in
the dry forest steppe, steppe, and semi-desert areas of the Soviet
Union.
The reconstruction of the hydrographic network, the creation
Of' large lakes to accumulate water, vast irrigation systems, and
the immense network of forest belts for the protection of the fields,
as well as other measures for the organization of the territory, re-
present the greatest offensive ever made against the negative natural
phenomena.
The importance of all the results of these measures will
lead to planned direction of the development of the main physical
and geographic processes and phenomena connected with the charac-
teristics of the active surface.
Stabilization of sands and soil, general reduction of the
velocity of violent winter blizzards, humidification and cooling of
the lower strata of the air in summer weather, and calming dry and
hot winds will be realize-, progressively.
The continental eastern sector of Rumania exposed in the
past to devastating blizzards, prolonged droughts and dry and hot
winds, will undergo large-scale improvements of climatic conditions
as a result of the planting of forest belts and organisational.
measures, and the extreme continental characteristics will be modi-
fied, markedly. The present great climatic distinctions between the
humid western sector of the country and the dry eastern one will be
diminished the unreliability of harvests will be but an unhappy me-
mory, and the entire surface of the land will be integrated and in-
creasingly productive, assuring whole societies an unlimited abundance
of harvests and raw materials.
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[Pages l39-229)
THE HYDROGRAPHY OF THE RUMANIAN PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC
Alexandru Savu
The variety of the natural conditions of Rumania can be
easily discerned in the general aspect of its hydrography.
Subterranean Waters
Of the total of 635 mm of precipitation falling, on the av-
erage, in Rumania a good part infiltrates the soil and gives rise
to water tables, dionforming to the local petrographic and tectonic
conformation of the various regions. Their depth is quite depen-
dent upon the position of the supporting strata. In the crystal-
line areas of the Carpathians the water table is superficial; in
the limestone areas, however, the depth is greater and the ground
water, often forming real rivers or subterranean lakes, generally
follows the lower level of the fissure. In the Jijia depression
and-the Transylvanian plain with its prevalence of clays, a higher
water table is found than on the Rumanian Plain, where infiltra-
tion is readily accomplished through loess and alluvial soil and
the water table is sometimes 40-50 m deep. This depth depends not
only upon the quantity and frequency of precipitation but also upon
the thickness of th upper permeable stratum, evaporation, vegeta-
tion,,hydrotechnical conditions, etc, and it shows considerable sea-
sonal variations.
Thus the problem of drinking water becomes very difficult of
solution in the Baragan, central and southern Dobrogea, ett, where
more or less due to infiltration through loess, the water is hard
and rich in sulphates. The MIransiylvanian plain, the Moldavian plain,
and some parts of the Subcarpathians also suffer from, salts dissolved
by ground waters from the salty formations through which they flow.
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The water tables in areas of terraces of large rivers and in
alluvial cones are very rich in water and well filtered, favoring
great 9tecentration of human settlements. Such a situation i
encountered in piedmont areas, where the water tables are often
stratified and come under pressure, giving rise to ascending or,
artesian drilled well
In accordance with their origin most of the waters of Ru-
mania are vadose. The percentage of juvenile (magmatic) waters
is Mall. On their way to the Mlrface of the earth's crust, they
meet and mix with vadose waters, raising their temperature and in
their salt concentration.
Springs
In breaking through the surface of the earth, ground waters
give rise to various types of springs: ?descending (the most common
and widespread), ascending and artesian (at the point of contact be-
tween the Subcarpathian and the Rumanian plain, on the Tisa plain,
in the Huedin depression, etc) occlusiaa (in the limestone regions
in the Apuseni mountains, the litehedinti plateau, etc), and geysers
(Bujorel. Calugar, in the Apuseni mountains, etc).
Ordinary and mineral springs are classified according to their
chemical proPe1ti1 while cold springs, with temperatures up to 200 Co
and hot springs, with higher temperatures, are classified by temperatuva. These in turn are divided into 3 groups.
(a) Hypothernal waters with temperature below 360 C: Maw.
gala (21.5? C), TUsnad (20.8? C), Toplita (23.6?-26.7? C), Lobogo
(20? 22.5? C), Lunt= (22.5? O. Calan (27? - 29? C), Moneasa
(200 - 32? C), 6eoagiu (31.9? - 32.9? c), Hobilna, Calacea Siriu etc.
(b) Isothermal waters, with temperature equal to that of the
human body (36 370
) Vata C).
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(c) Hiperthermal waters, with temperature over 37? C: Her-
culane (38? - 50? C), Haile Victoria (48? C) Ba lie I May (41? C).
The greater part of these waters are strongly mineralized so
that their therapeutic value is greater and they are known abroad.
The cold mineral springs are more widespread and variegated
and are found in volcania regions and areas of diapyrism, tectonic
dislocations, etc.
Depending upon the predominant element in their composition,
the mineral watemafall into a whole series of categories:
011gometallic waters weakly mineralized.
2. Carbogaseous waters, rich in free carbonic acid (Porsec,
Buzias, Lipova, etc).
3. Alkaline waters, with predominant sodium bicarbonate in
their chemical composition (Bolioe, Zizin, Casin-Iacobeni, Malnas,
Covasna, Singeorz Bai, Anies, Picsad, and Stoiceni).
Weak chlorine-sodium waters (under 15 g chlorine and so-
dium per liter) are very numerous, widely distributed in areas of
diapyrism (Cojoena., Turda Ocna Mur, Dena Sibiu, Sovata Ocnele
Mari Telega, Slanicul Prahovei, Costiui, Ocna Sugatag, etc).
Some saline waters contain iodine and bromium (tlasta-
Paltatesti, Sarata Monteoru Olanesti, Pazna, Cana Sibiu, etc).
5. Sulphurous waters containing hydrogen sulphate or sul-
phates (Calimanesti-Caciulata, Govora Olanesti, Sacelu, Bughea,
Strunga, Iacobeni, Drab, Leghia, etc).
b. Ferruginous waters, containing 3-10 cg of iron per liter
(BUzias Vatra Dornei Donna Cindreni, Valea Vinului, Vlahita, Li-
peva, etc). The waters at VALHI Dornei also contain arsenic.
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7. Alkaline-thoric waters, weakly mineralized, with a diu-
retie effect (Caciulata, Govera, Clanesti, Covasna, Breb).
8. Sulphate waters, with large quantities (2422 6/1) of
sodium sulDphate and magnesium (Baltatesti, Breazu, Cozla, Olanesti,
Ivanda).
9. Radioactive waters, especially frequent in areas with
massive eruptive sodiums
(Maguri, the drinking water Of Cluj, the
_sweet springs of Valea Jiului, etc). Radioactive waters are often
warm also (Herculane, Geoagiu, Belle I May, Toplita) and mineral
Olanesti, Caciulata, Buzias, Lipova, Singeorz Bait etc).
Because of their therapeutic powers and the fact that they
are situated in an especially picturesque area, with pure air,
the mineral springs have favored the establishment and development
of the numerous spas or health resorts of Rumania.
The springs generate a superficial hydrographic network
to which rains and melting snows contribute through direct drain-
age. Lakes are also fed from the springs, rivers, and direct
precipitation,, which form? part of the hydrographic network.
The Hydrographic Network
General Description
? Except for a few insignificant streams in Dobrogea, all Ru-
- mania s rivers are direct or indirect tributaries of the Danube.
If because of the relief Rumania is called "Carpathian," it can be
regarded as 'Danubian" in hydrography (Simionescu, Tara Noastra
[Our Land)).
In turn the Danube, the collector of Rumanian rivers, flows
into the Black Sea, so that our whole hydrographic network is drained
by this continental maritime basin.
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A general feature is the fact that almost all fluvial arteries
flow from sources in the Carpathians, which they traverse impressive
gorges (01.t, Jiu, Dunare).
The nature and distribution of the hydrographic network in
Rumania are determined by a Whole series of factors.
The most important factors are relief and climate, which em-
body the essential traits; then come tectonics and'geologic struc-
ture, soils, vegetation, and the human factor.
(a) Relief. By its formation, by its division into concen-
tric natural zones (mountain, hill, and plain), and by its general
incline, the relief, determines the direction of water courses, groups
them into basins, and determines in large part their speed and flow
(V. Mihailescu, Rominia).
The central position of the Transylvanian basin surrounded
by the peaks of the Carpathian chain, has given the hydrographic
network a radial form since most of the important rivers flow from
sources on the edges of the basin.
Various factors, taken separately, have contribUted in their
turn to the grouping of water courses ,in the basin. The Jijia de-
pression is an example of this, in which the majority of the waters
are concentrated in the Jijia basin, the central Moldavian plateau
with the Birlad basin, the Hateg,depression with the Strei basin etc.
From the source to the mouth, as they. pass ,throUgh various
morphological features, the rivers change their features as they go
along.
In their upper courses, especially in mountainous areas which
covers most cases in Rumania, the waters flow in deep and narrow gorges,
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down steep slopes that increase the speed of flow. The longitu-
dinal profiles of the rivers are characterized by numerous rapids
and cascades cyclic, or structural. The fall sometimes reach
values up to 200-300 m/km.
The enormous hydraulic power potential of this region was
little appreciated Under the bourgeois landowner regime. The mo-
tive force of the rivers was exploited only locally, in small pea-
sant industries (mills, fulling mills, sawmills, presses, etc).
The electricity problem is of great importance at present, and its
importance will increase enormously, constituting one of the pre-
requisites without which the building of socialism cannot be con-
ceived of in Rumania. The electrification plan of the Rumanian
People's Republic is on a scale to show us in part the importance
of water in the future economy.
In middle course, traversing areas of plateaus or hills,
the rivers have cut wide valleys accompanied by terraces and ex-
tensive river meadows on much less steep slopes and therefore at
reduced rates of flow. The terraces are well suited to settlement,
roads crops,', and lend themselves to irrigation.
In their lower courses, in accordance with the topography
of the plains, where the gradients are reduced to a minimum, the
,river waters are sluggish, continually muddy, splitting up into
numerous -branches; and forming meanders.
This is the situation of large rivers; the small ones can
be classified, according to the relief features they traverse, into
mountain, bill, plateau and plains rivers. The following mountain
rivers may be given as examples: the Cerna, Lotru, Bicaz, Ourghiu,
'Somes Cald, Somes Recce, etc. Among typical hill or plateau rivers:
the Amaradia, Birlad, Taita and Tanta, Hirtabaciu Comlod (tributary
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of the, MureM), etc, and among the plains rivers: the Teleormanean
Calmatui, Cilniste, Mostiste, Bralean Calmatui, etc;
In connection with such varied relief must be considered the
large number, of basins with rivers and, as a result, the relatively
limited surfaces to feed them. Relief closely connected with tec-
tonics plays the most important part in thecrganization of river
basins. Thus the concentration of a hydrographic network in, areas
of depressions or longitudinal orientation on the axis of the syn-
clinal ravines of the Subcarpathians is very characteristic. The
central Moldavian plateau, gently dipping to the southeast, as well
as the Sarmatian formations of which it is composed, has favored the
formation of some parallel watercourses which flow toward the cen-
tral collector (the Birlad) like rivulets on a roof.
According to how the various relief elements are traversed
by hydrographic arteries, the river valleys are either longitudinal
(the Iza, Vise, Cerna, Lotru, Jiu Rominesc Olt in the Ciucuri de-
Pression, Toance Bistrita at its confluence with the Bicaz, Tazlau,
etc) or transverse: the Olt at Turnu Rosu-Cozia, Jiu at Surducg
middle Mures, upper Buzau etc).
(b). Climate. This is the most important factor directly
influencing the hydrographic network, conditioning it particularly
by the precipitation and temperature systems and the Annual, -monthly,
and daily variations of the level ,and the discharge; this illus-
trates the close 'relationship between the amounts of precipitation
falling into, the basin of a river and the 'amount of Water flowing
" ?.
through its thalweg (the coefficient of flow) (V. Mihailescu, Rominia).
Precipitation has .the decisive role, but temperature.
what brings on freezing emd thawing, low or high evaporation, etc,
Contributing considerably to the variations in level and discharge.
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This Can even be said of the influence of winds which can sometimes
contribute to acceleration of surface waters. The prevailing winds
also condition, locally., the asymmetry of shorelines and thus per-
it displacement of watercourses or determine, in part, the exten-
sion and variability of inundation areas (the lalomita and Calmatui
on the Rumanian plain).
In connection with climatic elements, the density of the hy-
drographic net should also be considered, which differs over Rui-
wealth as we shall see further on.
The direct influences of the climate, however, will follow
more fully from the analyses of the variations of level and dis-
charge, where they will be treated more fully.
Besides relief and climate, which play the decisive role,
other factors have only a partial influence upon some of the fea-
tures of the hydrographic network:
(c). The Geologic Structure. The geologic structure, which
is so varied in Rumania and with which the formation of the relief
is-directly connected, impresses certain features upon the water
courses. Crystalline schists, for example due to their conditions
? of disaggregation, infiltration etc, favor a richly ramified net,
is found on the Rodna .Fagaras, and Gilau mountains etc as dis-
tinguished from a limestone area, in which the subterranean network
is more readily organized, at the expense of the surface one. The
Most typical example is found in the Bucegi mountains. Though their
massiveness and climatic conditions are almost identical with those
at Gagaras, the superficial hydrographic network is more disorganized
and less dense. Similar cases can be cited in all limestone areas
of the country. We can say the same thing of a different network of
rivers in areas with predominant impermeable clay formations (the
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*Mile depression, the Rumanian Plain) as
opposed to those with sand
and loess, where heavy infiltration reduces not only the discharge
of the great rivers, but is entirely unsuited to the formation of
permanent arteries. Certain subdivisions of the Rumanian Plain
(Bailesti plain, Caracul plain, the Baragan, etc) are typical in
this respect.
The geologic structure also leaves its mark, to a certain
extent, upon the Level and -discharge variations, which show cer-
tain fluctuations depending upon the permeability of the rocks.
But its influence is even more pronounced on the appearance of val-
leys in longitudinal and transverse profile. The alternation of re-
sistant with readily friable formations causes the majority of slope
fissures in the longitudinal profile, so frequent in mountainous
regions and contact zones between different units, fissures which
explain the cascades and rapids in the waters. The only exceptions
are the cyclicones which result from the evolution of the relief.
The very names of some Carpathian rivers indicate these features:
Bistrita Bistricioara, Bistrai, etc, meaning "rapids" in Slavonic.
The variations displayed n transverse profile from this point
of view are very typical.
The crystalline schists of the Rodna, Fagaras, Paring, Retezat,
Gilau mountains, etc, force the rivers to cur deep and narrow valleys
almost devoid of a major bed, shaded, and unsuited to settlement.
Their narrowness also makes their rise above the low level
mark more pronounced than in areas with less resistant rock. The
same is true in eruptive areas (Tibles, Caliman Harghita) or in
thickly cemented sandstone (Taracau, Oituz mountains, etc).
- Rumanian waters have actively eroded vertically in limestone,
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resulting in imposing gorges and defiles of unuaUal beauty: the
Bicaz gorges in the eastern Carpathians, the gorges al Tatar,
Zanoaga, and Omit on the upper lalomita in Buqegi, the Oltet gorges
of Pelovraci, the gorges cut by the Motru and most of the tribu-
taries on its right on the Mehedinti plateau, the gorges of Aiud
and the Turzia in the Apusoni mountains, etc. The rivers of Do-
brogea have all cut narrow valleys in the loess deposits.
The friable formations (clays, marls, sands, etc) favor the
formation of valleys with large open profiles as in the majority of
the rivers of the hills, plateaus, and plains.
The alternation of rocks differing as to resistance also ex-
plains the epigene valley types: the epigenesis of the Hasdate in
the Turzia gorges (De Martonne) cut in Portland limestone; the epi-
genesis of the Mures at Seimus-Lipova, cut in eruptive; the epi-
genesis of the Lapus through the crystalline massiv of the Prelucai, etc.
(d). Tectonics. They also explain, along with the other
factors noted, some of the peculiarities of the hydrographic chain
of the country.
The rivers are closely, connected, with the 2 deep tectonic de-
pressions, one in the east (the Rumainian Plain) and the other ,in
the west (the Pannonian plain). These 2 were not formed at the same
time and do not have the same evolution ata],
The play of vertical movements resulted in a change of base
level, and this revived the forces of erosion net only in depth,
giving rise to terraces, but also lengthwise,,making young valleys
advance more and more toward the heart of the mountains (Simionescu,
'Tara Noastra). Thus were produced numerous frontal or lateral caps
on a scale to explain some of the impressive incisions cut by the
rivers in the massive chain of the Carpathians (the Olt J u, Danube, etc).
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it is very interesting to follow, from the point of view
of the evolution of the hydrographic network, the line of weak re-
sistance Focsani-Namoloasa-Oalati and especially the area of gradual
stoppage in the northeast of the Rumanian Plain, which has condi-
tioned the formation of a collection point for waters in the region
of the lower Siret.
The majority of the great rivers of Wallachia are channeled
through this area.
This explains the deviation toward the southeast of the Arges
after leaving in turn Teleorman, Dimbovnic, and Glavacioc; the
eastward deviation of the Talomita after leaving its former path
(the Most istea of today); the deviation toward the northeast of
Buzau, after a similar abandonment of its former bed (the Calmatui).
The Rimnic is very characteristic a former tributary of the Buzau,
Which has successively displaced confluence points in the area of
Lakes Jirlau, Amara, and Balta Alba to be then attracted directly
by the area of maximum inundation at the Siret.
Th. Putna River also carries AmTtteT Mote as also the Birlad,
whose curious turn to the southwest cannot, be explained except in
the light of the above mentioned phenomenon. A similar region,
but much less extensive, has been identified on the middle Prut,
in the vicinity of Iasia through which the Jijia and the Bahlui
channel their sluggish waters causing catastrophic inundations at
times.
Water collection points connected with tectonics have also
been identified in other parts of the country. On the Danube, for
example the first area of local stoppage is in the area of Cetate-
Calafat; there is a second at Zimnicea and a third at the mouths of
the Ialomita and the Calamatui; on the ,flu at Filiasi and on the Olt
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northeast of Caracal; on the middle Argos at Pitesti, and on the
lowor Arges in area of Comana-Budesti; and on the Ialomita west
of Urziceni (Ohoorghita Region), etc.
Even more typical is the grouping of the Cris rivers as well
as the inundation area of Bodrog, toward which the Tisa abruptly
bends and the majority of the tributaries in its upper basin flow.
(Both areas are located on Rumanian territory).
The concentration of most of the tributaries in clusters in
these very areas of stoppage also influences the variations of
level for the downward course of rivers in which they normally
flow in a single bed to their mouths (Jiu, Olt, Jalomita).
Thus great increases over the low level mark, accompanied by
inundations, are characteristic when the snows melt or there are
torrential rains up in the mountains, when the lower course can no
longer accommodate the flow under good conditions of so great a
quantity of water received all at once in practically the same place.
This also explains the marshy areas which correspond to the
areas mentioned above. In a reverse direction, the positive tec-
tonic movements, manifested by the wholesale elevation of certain
areas, or by their building, have determined the phenomena of the
-dispersion of the-waters.
Such an instance has-been pointed out at the watershed be-
tween Oilort and Oltet at the Amarodia springs; more typical is
-tile area of bulging on the Cotmean platform, in the area of the
source of the Vedea River, an area from which watercourses run in
radial formation. Similar cases are also encountered on the Cindesti
platform, between Argesel and Dimbovita, in Dealul Mare, between
Siretel and the source of the Bahlui, etc.
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Positive epirogenetic movements create antecedent valleys.
In previous geographic literature rivers in southeast Do-
brogea, are still included in these categories: "The Danube in
Defile" (J. Cvijic), "The Olt in the Southern Carpathians" (N.
Orghidan), "The Somes Mic Near its Springs," "The Bistrita at
Toance," etc.
In many cases the tectonics follow the direction of water-
courses; typical examples of this being the 2 tectonic corridors
in the western part of the southern Carpathians, along which flow
in the opposite direction the 2 rivers Timis Cerna and Bistra-
Farcadin (a tributary of the Strei).
This relief and geologic and tectonic structure has condi-
tioned the formation of a whole series of hydrographic network types:
(P Cotet, Man. Ing. de Mine [Manual of Mining Engineering], chapter
on morphology).
The dendritic network, in the form of a tree, is typical of
regions with a flat structure: (example: Vedea-Teleorman with all
their tributaries).
The rectangular network (tributaries converge with main ri-
vers at right angles, common in crystalline areas). Example: the
tributaries of the Bistrita between Barnarel and Tarcau, the Hideg,
Riu Mare, Bistra, etc.
The radial network, divergent, typical of areas of volcanic
cones (Pietrosul Calimanului, Batrina Fincelul, Harghita etc, or
in areas of bulging).
The convergent network, in areas of local subsidence (Filiasio
Pitesti, etc) which also characterize, however, volcanic craters
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(!zvoarele Negrei, Sarului, in Pietrosul Calimanului, one or two
words illegible] Sechei in Saca crater, etc).
The circular network, disposed around dove-shaped areas
(the streams Simnic, Slat inn, and Zapozi around the hill at Eneiu
south of Tigveni-Arges).
The opposing network, in parallel but opposite systems, very
typical of the northern slope of the ragaras mountains.
? The spiral network, of the type of the Buzac, the Somes be-
tween Dej and Seini, the Tusnad Olt at R. Vilcea [Rivnicu Vilcea],
etc, conditioned by erosion in areas which differ from the tectonic
point of view.
The effect of other factors upon the condition of the hydro-
graphic net is much less and manifests itself in general indirectly.
(e). The Soils. The soils depending upon their structure,
are more or less permeable, influencing to that extent the possi-
bilities of organization of the superficial network, since the flow
is in inverse proportion to the infiltration potential.
(f). The Vegetation Cover. The vegetation cover makes a more
active contribution, through its more varied influences.
? 'Also large quantities of water (sometimes over 50%) are re-
turned to the atmosphere through transpiration. On the other hand,
water on the ground and especially snow are retained longer and fe4d
the river system,
The role of the forests, however, is that of attracting pre-
cipitation, and the rivers will be better organized for it and will
have a more constant discharge. This is confirmed n mountainous
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areas, in the forested areas of the Lapus, the hills of the Tirnava
rivers, etc, where the forest cover has been better preserved.
In all pasture and cultivated land in the country the vege-
tation contributes,
in addition to the other factors, to the deter-
mination of a more weakly organized network.
(g). The Human Factor. Man is the most important transformer
of nature and indirectly affects the hydrographic net, through plow-
ing, tillage, etc which modifies the local microclimate and conse-
quently the hydrographic net, but also directly through canals, irri-
gation, drainage of swamps, levees, etc.
Examples are the Bega Navigation Canal, the levees of the
Timis, the Cris rivers, the Somes, and the lower Prut; drainage of
swamps in the region of the Heed, the irrigation canal on the Bir-
zava, Ialomita, Arges, etc, regularization of the discharge and the
level of artificial lakes etc.
The more or less active contribution of some or all the ana-
lyzed factors shows not only the general nature of the hydrographic
network in Rumania, but also indicates the possibilities of exploit-
ing' them in many projects of community interest (hydroelectric power,
irrigations, drainage, supply lof communities and industrial enter- ,
prises etc).
1. Density of the Hydrographic Network
This is the relationship between the length in km of rivers
and the surface in sq km of the various basins and is bound up with
a,who1e series of factors: massiveness of relief, geologic structure,
distribution of precipitation, distribution of temperatures, evapora-
tion indexes of aridity, soils, vegetation, size and shape of basins,
and the human factor. The density .of the hydrographic network in
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Rumania in type I, II, lU and IV basins is very varied, consisting
Of between 0.10 and 0.90 km of river per sq km of surface.
Mit there are some basins with lower densities (0.01-0.09)
in the steppe areas of Dobrogea, Baragan, and the Tisa plain, just
as there are basins with densities of over 0.90 per km, as in the
case on the northern slope of the Fagaras mountains and the western
slope of the Apuseni mountains.
n general high densities (0.70-0.90) correspond to areas of
massive relief with? compact structure and heavy precipitation (the
Somes Cald, the Cris Repede in the mountains, the Viseu, Lapus, Bis-
trita Ardeleana, Olt, Mures at its source, the oat in the Fagaras
depression, the upper Jiu, etc).
Medium densities (0.40-0.70) are peculiar to hill and pla-
teau areas and low ones (0.10-0.40) to plains, where almost all the
above metiftoned factors have a negative effect upon the density of
the waters. Exceptional areas must be viewed in connection with
the predominance of some of these factors. Examples can be cited
for lower densities in Bucegi (0.50-0.60),the Mehedinti Carse (0.40),
etc due to the possibilities of infiltration in limestone which is
unfavorable to organization of the surface network in good conditions.
Higher densities are also encountered in relation to neighboring areas,
in the region of the Lapus mountains (0.70), the Birlad hills (0.55),
richly forested and favorable to precipitation, or in the lower ba-
sins of the Muret and Somes (0.40) influenced by the network of ca-
nals made by man for irrigation.
- It is important to remember the fact that the areas with maxi-
mum density constitute actual reservoirs of water which can and
should, be used for practical purposes.
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2, System of Flow
This is closely connected with conditions of relief P';
and climate, being influenced to a lesser extent by other ,
factors ouch as geologic structure, soils, vegetation, etc.
The problem of flow should be viewed from the'following
points of view:
A. The Way Rivers Are Fed
B. Variations of Level
C. Variations of Discharge
D. Temporary and Permanent Rivers
A. The Way Rivers are Fed. Rivers are fed not only by
water flowing on the surface of the basin during rains or melting
of snow, but also from water tables when they come to the surface
in the form of springs.
The climatic factors, geomorphologic and hydrologic, de-
termine the intensity of each of the 2 sources.
The climatic factors are nevertheless definitive, as the
Russ,ian expert A. I. Voyeykov said, who considers rivers, pre-
cisely 'a product of climate,"
Type
Considering local conditions, Rumanian rivers come under
6, Group III-a of the Voyeykov's classification, having mixed
'sources, rain and snow, (Pluvio-nival). with a predominance of rain.
The maximum level is registered in spring with the melting of the
snows and the increases brought on by the floods in spring and fall.
Depending on the periodicity of the increases directly con-
nected with climate however, some distinctions, can be made in Ru-
mania, giving the following types of source:
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(a) Pluvio-nival type with weak oceanic influences, charac-
terized by early increases, however, at the beginning of March and
reaching a maximum in April prevailing in the western Part of the
country (the lower Somes, Barcau, the Cris rivers).
(b) The type with Mediterranean influence, with a perliod of
gentle increase in wintertime reaching a maximuM in May, prevailing
in the Banat the, Timis Birzava, Caras, Nora).
(c) The type of source with steppe influences, with late
maximum increases (May, June) and pronounced falling off in August
and September prevailing in the east and south of the country.
(d) The intermediate type characteristic of the internal
basin of Transylvania. The Danube, viewed as whole, has a complex
source system (Type 8 in Voyeykov's system) but in Rumania it is
entirely pluvio-nival.
B. Variations of Level. yariations water levels are a di-
rect result of the climatic system. Other factors also contribute
locally such as the transverse profile of the valleys flow, gra-
dient, etc.
The -continental temperate climate in Rumania impresses par-
ticular characteristics on the water system a fact to be seen in
the annual average of the increases, in the monthly and even daily
variation of levels,- and in the, contrast and irregularity of the
Maximums and minimums (Mihailescu, Rominia).
?
From calculations already made it has been determined that
the levels of water undergo mean increases over the low-level mark
of 25-100 cm.
In considering rivers fed by mountain areas and those with
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'
sources in the hill, plateau, or plains areas some surprising con-
trasts appear:
A good many rivers in the
first category thus presen a
averages in the lower basin below the low-water mark:
Average for Period
Cris Repede at_Oradea -66 1917 - 1942
-41 1927 - 1940
Cris Negru
-48 1917 - 1939
Cris Alb
-28 1923 - 1943
Timis
-161 1936 - 1945
Birsava
-91 1929-- 1938
Ialomita
The others show averages either less or similar to those of
the steppe waters, and that
in their mountain regions.
comparison:
not only in their lower course but also
We cite a few more typical examples for
Rivers with Mountain Springs
Average for Period
Somes At Mira somesulgi Rece (mountain)
31
1927 - 1945
Somes At Satu Mare (plain)
7.
1922 1939
CriS Negru At Vascau (iountain)
57
1932 - 1945
Mures At Alba Dili. (plateau)
8
1932 1945
Mures At Arad (plain)
28
1927 -1945
Siret 'At Cosmesti (plain)
? 59
1931 1943
'StePrie
Rivers
Vedei At dervenia
Alirlad At Tecubi
JiJia At Cirpiti
Bahlui At Iasi
-81-
60
58
31
14
1922 1945
1923 - 1945
1932 - 1940
1922 - 1945
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This state of arrairs, apparently Abnormal, is explained by
2 causes:
(a) The large rivers have very wide valleys in their lower
basins, in which the level over the low-water mark cannot -stay
very high all year long.
(b). The lows-water marks of the steppe waters are confined
with or are very close to the bottom of the valleys, while in the
case of those with mountain springs, the bottom is sometimes several
meters below the low-Water mark (V. Mihailescu, Rominia)!
Yet the fact that the ?mean annual level of the steppe wa-
ters rises more sharply than that of many of the rivers with mouni-
tain sources confirms the extreme nature of Rumania's climate. Al-
though these relatively deep valleys sometimes run almost completely
dry in summer and fall when there are cloudbursts they show such
great increases as to affect the mean annual level.
To describe the water system imgreater detail we must consi-
der, however, the monthly and even daily variations in which their
dePendence upon climate clearly emerges. In general our rivers show
2 periods of increase and. 2 of decrease according to the season.
Thawing of rivers accompanied by thawing of Snows begins in
_March and sets off the great spring rises.
These come earlier in
the west where weak oceanic .climatic influences are felt and later
in the east and north, where the continental climate prevails.
The increases last until May, June, and even into the first
half of July due to the spring rains. The second half of June and
July marks the beginning of the decreases which gradually, gain un-
til August and September. There follows a slight increase in NOVWW.
bet. brought on by autumn rains and reduction of evaporation and 'then
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decreases in winter, with minimum values in December
to the freeze and solid precipitation. In the Banat
times also a third maximum in winter, conditioned by
influences.
and January, due
there is some-
Adriatic climatic
The rises of Rumanian streams are sometimes striking. On the
average they fluctuate between land 2m; in exceptional years, however,
the maximum levels over the low-water mark have been much more pronounced:
Year
Somes at Satu Mare +840 cm 1940
cris Negru at Zerind Mare
Cris Alb at Chisinau Cris
Mares at Arad
Mares at Parcul Rudna
Jiu at Pedari
Olt at Rimnicu Vilcea
Vedea at Cervenia
Ialomita at Cosereni
Siret at Lungeci
Jijia at Cirpiti
Bahlui at Iasi
Ordinarily these maximums
+776 cm 1932
+778 ea 1939
604 cm 1932
879 cm 1926
480 cm 1940
492 cm 1924
470 am 1941
510 cm 1915
577 cm 1929
809 cm 1932
580 cm 1932
are followed by rapid drops, the high
-water level often lasting only .a few days, to below the low-water mark,
which -shows the !continental nature of the climate. This feature is
--ellen more evident if the contrasts between the extremes are considered
the valuertof Which are very high.
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4.
? ?77,-," ????
.?"
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River and place of measurement
Somes at Statue Mare,
Absolute maximum in cm
640 (1940
Absolute minimum in cm
-134 (1946)
Difference in cm
774
Cris Negru at Zerind Mare
776
(1932)
- 67
(1904)
843
Cris Alb at Chisinaul Cris
778
(1939)
- 76
(1932)
864
Mures at ilasanisca
610
(1932)
- 137
(1837)
747
Timis at Clausa
794
(1925)
- 79
(1882)
873
dlu at Filiasi
480
(1923)
-40
(1925)
520
Siret at Racatau
460
(1929)
- 56
(1945)
516
co
Jijia at Cirpiti
809
(1932)
- 1 (1930)
810
Bahlui at Iasi
580
(1932)
- 32 (1947)
612
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The greatest contrasts (Cris Negru 843 cm; Cris Alb -864 cm;
Timis 873 cm; Jijia 810 cm) were recorded in the steppe areas, where
the climatic contrasts are great, and at the same time for relatively
small rivers with rather narrow beds. For large rivers with very wide
valleys, the contrasts are less (Jiu 520 cm-; Siret 516 cm; Olt 492 cm),
although the basins that feed them and their discharge volumes are
much greater to those in the first category, A distinction can be
seen between the rivers of the west and those in the southeast because
of the uneven distribution of precipitation.
In the observations of variations of the level of the Rumanian
streams some typical cases have also been established which depend in
great part on the transverse profile of the valleys.
The stations in defile regions are very tvplCal, from this point
of view, where because of the relatively narrow profile of the respective
valleys, the increases are more pronounced.
Somes1933 Dej 38
(humid year)
Somes 1934 - Dej
(dry year)
Mures 1933 - Alba rulia -22
Mures 1935k;',Alba :Luna 22
(dry year)
Ulmeni (defile) 80
Ulmeni 38
Branisca (defile) 130
Branisca (defile) 68
Satu,Mare 30
Situ Mare -28
-85
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t.;?,
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The flow gradient also plays a quite important part in the varia-
tions of level of the rivers. In mountain areas, where the precipita-
tion is relatively heavy and evaporation relatively limited, the 4later
level should be constant and generally high, all the more so becauie the
valleys are narrows However, due to the steep gradients, however large
the increase would be, the flow is easy and the level returns quickly
to normal.
? The duration and frequency of snow also depends upon the area
of the source basins and on the gradient changes. The Jim and Olt,
with large basins, at the exit of the defiles where the gradients are
low and the valleys still not large, show levels which only very rarely
reach 50 cm above the low-water mark.
The Mures, on the other hand, with smaller tributaries and a very
wide valley; remains all year at +50 cm, while the Somes and the Cris
rivers on the plain drop to below the low-water mark for a period of
6 or 5 months or the whole year.
The Cris Repede at Oradea, in the period from 1917 to 1942 had
the highest average in March and did not exceed -19 even in that month.
Usually, in water level most of the Rumanian rivers show shall,
contrasts between the mountain and plains areas because of the difference
in their physical and geographic conditions: The same cannot be said
if we consider .these phenomena only in the mountain area, where compared
with thelrest of the country a certain uniformity is. established in the
distribution of precipitation and temperature.
less.
Here also ?41et contrast between the maximum and minimum levels is
'86
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The Cris Repede, at Ciucea (in the mountains), for the period.
-between 1924 and 19234sic3 showed an average contrast of 146 cm
compared with 202 at Oradea (on the plain) and the Some at *mos.
(mountain), for the same period, showed a contrast of 160 cm compared
with 399 at Satu Mare (plain).
The above rivers also demonstrate the fact that from source to
mouth the rivers lose considerable amounts of water and that these
losses are much less in the mountains than in the hill and plain regions.
On the map of the mean specific flow of our rivers, drawn up by the
DGH [Directie Generala de Hidrographiei -- Main Administration of
Hydrography] (by the team of'Ciaconu, Wvari, and Lazarescu) it can be
seen that the maximum values (50-40 1/sec per sq correspond to the
mountain massifs with heavy precipitation (Retezat, Paring, Pagaras,
Apuseni); high values (30-20 1 sec per sq km) !to the areas which are
high but poor in precipitation (Eastern Carpathians); the medium values
(10-7 1/sec per sq km) are peculiar generally to the Subcarpathian
areas. Isolines with low values (.2 1/sec per sq km) cover in great
part the Moldavian plateau, the Getic piedmont, and the western piedmont,
but those with minimum values (1-0.5 1/sec per sq km) the Banat plain,
the Mures Corridor9 the Danubian plain, southern Moldavia, and Dobrogea.
The variations in water level, may also be influenced by such other
factors of a secondary nature as:
Natural disturbances caused by a tributary which comes in below.
Artificial disturbance caused by a dam or high hydrotechnical
structures on the river (as the Begs canal).
Silting of the river bed.
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? Blockage of the course by blocks Of ice with abrupt arrival of
spring. Thus the Danube in 1900 registered 754 cm above the low-
water mark at Turnu Magurele and 802 am at Zimnicea, but in 1941 it
was +823 cm at Oltenita, due to chunks of ice in the slow current.
High rises over the low-water mark transform many of the streams
into really great rivers in appearance, and cause extensive inundations,
. especially in the middle and lower basin. Turbid waters carry huge
quantities of fine alluvium in suspension and even gravel up to the
confluence area, to say nothing of the neighboring mountain regions
where boulders of considerable size roll down.
For large rivers, arising from mountain springs, inundations
generally occur with the sudden advents of spring after winters in
which large amounts of snow have fallen. More rarely those with
large source basins (the 011, Siret, Mures etc) also overflow after
ordinary cloudbursts.
In Transylvania and the Banat the p rmanently threatened areas
reach into the Tisa plain floods being caused by the Somes? Crasna,
Barcau, Cris rivers, Mures Timis and Birzava. The Olt sometimes
causes damage in the depressions which it traverses (the Ciucuri
depression, Tara Birsei, Tara Oltului).
Flooding of steppe rivers are
CI+
when there are torrential rains in
frequent and capricious in summer
their source basins.
The Baseu Bahlui, Birlad, Elan, etc are characteristic
and their inundations sometimes last quite long due to the very slight
flow gradionts.
Similar situations but of less intensity and frequency because of
the less extreme climate are seen on the smaller rivers which drain the
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tiOnsvoMminim.....115
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Transylvanian plain (the Chintaului, Borsei, Lunei, Fizesuluih etc).
The waters of Dobrogea, like the typical steppe rivers of Wallachia
and Oltenia, also often destroy crops and even human settlements in
adjacent areas during torrential rains. For prevention and remedy
t{f
of all the disasters caused by floods there are in course of con-
struction or planning a series of measures consisting of .forestation,
clearing channels, transverse dams, drainage of swamps, etc. Recent
? important projects have been carried out along the Prut at Balta
Brailei, along the Danube at the Vales Birladui, on the Ilse plain,
etc.
All these remedial projects have intensiv
ly rehabilitated the
land for the economy of Rumania, but the problem of inundations is
still tar from being definitely resolved.
AS distinguished from periods of increase, in times of low water
the rivers have an entirely different appearance.
The largest ones arising in the mountains (the Olt, 1iu Siret)
disperse their low waters among a series of branches, leaving numerous
pars and islands among them.
The medium ones of the size of the Buzau, Ialomit, Argos, Timis,
Cris, SOMOS# etch with mountain sources, fall to such an extent that
they can be forded on foot almost anywhere.
Among the steppe rivers a few (the Birlad, Jijia, Bahlui, Vedea,
Teleorman, etc) persist with great difficulty and bring to their mouths
insignificant trickftes of water.
"-
A. good many .of the steppe rivers are transformed -into. veritable
:Strings of lakes, i.e. the,,Mbstistet in Wallachia, those located in, the
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gissmomnomm......03
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'nits depression (the Baseu-Sitna, Zeletin, etc), on the Danubian
plain (the Mostistea) and the Transylvanian plain (the Fizesului,
Comlod, Ludusului),
Finally, in dry years many of the small rivers dry up, their
minor beds remaining covered with sand and fin, gravel or hydrophilous
vegetation or with swamps (the waters of the southern,Dobrogea and
4,
the small streams of the Danube plain and the Tisa plain).
To remedy the lack of water in these unstable basins man in-
tervened even in very ancient times by building innumerable reservoirs
of the kind found in the Jijia depression and the Tranyslvanian plain.
Man's work was often easy, consisting merely of strengthening natural
dams caused by landslides on the slopes or the deposits of tributary
torrents. The number of these reservoirs has diminished considerably
today either through natural action or the intervention of man who
drained them to obtain pasturage or arable land. Their restoration is
one
of the main projects of the economy because of their particular
importance to fishing, irrigation; small power plants, hydroelectric
stations, eta.
Variations of Discharge, Discharge depends, greatly on climatic
factors, of which precipitation, temperature and evaporation are
decisive while humidity of the air, lack of humidity, winds, and atmos-
pheric pressure influence it indirectly raising or lowering the degree
of evaporation.
Discharge variations however, are also influenced geologic
structure with its more or less permeable formations, vegetation cover,
density of the hydrographic net work, the effect of the number of lakes
and swamps, the relief, the size andshape of the basin, human activity, etc.
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Due to these factors the discharge of the Rumanian is very variable.
The unstable climate is directly felt in fluctuations in \
discharge which show maximum values for the majority of our rivers
in March and on into May, when precipitation is added, to melting
snows and sharp drops in summer and the winter months. Examples:
Solies at Dej
Mures at Reghin
Timis at Valisoara
Jiu at Podari
Olt at Bujoren
(Rimnicu Vilcea)
Siret at Racatau
113,870 Cu m/sec
9,614 same
29,760 same
4,740 same
15,050 same
1,810 same
161,000 same
6,882 same
229,600 same
35,250 same
on 21 April 1950
on 25 July 1950
on 22 April 1950
'an 28 September 1950
on 16 April 1950
on 26 July 1950
on 7 March 1950
on 15 September 1950
on 6 April 1950
on 13 April 1950
32,000 same on 2 February 1950
.25,.760 same on 16 April 1950
50,400 same on 14 September 1950
25,400 same on 4 February 1950
Along their courses the rivers lose large quantities of water
through evaporation, infiltration, etc to such an extent that the dis-
charge is often lower In the lower basin than in the middle one; this sit-
uation is characteristic of rivers which pass through areas with sharply,
contrasting climate.
period:
In 1928 the following discharges were measured in the same
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lalomi to
Mures
Timis
at Tirgoviste
at Slobozia
at Branisca
at Arad
at Lugoj
at Timiseni (on the plain)
= 8.67 du m/sec
= 7.59 same
= 42.75 same
- 15.70 same
= 12.29 same
= 0.82 same
Thus the striking contrast between Timiseni and Lugoj must also
be considered in the light of the fact that part of the water of the
river has passed through a connecting system, located above Timisoara
in the Bega Canal, to assure navigation,
D. Permanent and Temporary Rivers. The instability of the
Rumanian climate is reflected to a considerable degree in the state
of the hydrographic network. Since most of the rivers have permanent
courses, being fed by the water table, there are many water courses of
an intermittent torrential nature; closely connected with the distribution
of precipitation.
The ithree great relief units of Rumania present different features
from this point of view.
n the mountain area due to heavy. precipitation, steep gradients,
limited infiltration, etc even small water courses have a perianent
character, fed by many springs dependent upon the superficial water table
and with a large discharge.
In these relief units the permanent network has a higher per-
dentage than the intermittent one.
In hill. and plateau areas a good part of the water courses and
especially the small ones have an intermittent torrential character,
fed not only by rains but also by melting snows. While they flows their
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erosion potential is groat and has eroded extensive tracts of land
especially where forests have been destroyed by irrational exploitation
3
in the past. Alluvia carried by torrents have contributed to the
damming of valleys in the Transylvanian plain and the Jigs depression
giving rise to the numerous lakes adapted in the past by man.
However all these alluvia have contributed to filling to the
point of disappearance of most of the lakes which at one time constituted
one of the main local resources. Control of the torrents is a primary
necessity in some areas (the Moldavian plateau, the Transylvanian plaint
the-Vranca depression, the Wallachian Subcarpathians, etc), and from the
point of view of the restoration of economy it forms an important part
of the electrification plan.
Even more characteristic is the distribUt4on of intermittent water-
courses in plains areas with steppe climate, where their percentage is
higher than the permanent ones. The lack of precipitation, very active
evaporation, infiltration, aridity t and other factors ordinarily trans-
form even the larger rivers into veritable swamps (the Desnatuit Calmatui,
Teleormanean0 Mostistea, Calmatui Hralean, etc).
Water-Power Resources and Usefulness of Rivers in the RPR
The discharge and the rate of flow are the main factors which
give priceless value to the Rumanian stream because of their water power
potential. It is estimated that the Rumanian streams have a total
exploitable potential of 565,000 kw, totaling 7,200,000,000 kwh of power
n noripal. years: Assuming complete and idetl,expioitation, this output.
could be raisedto 36 300,000-000 kwh per year. The Sistrita alone,
*mod at -Stella, Will furnish 210.,000 kw, representing a,third of the
.existing total of the thermoelectric and hydroelectric power:plant-04A
the beginning of the electrification plan.
.93.
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The Danube at the Portile de Fier has a potential of 1,500,000
kw, capable of supplying over 80000,000,000 kwh per year.
The Jiu, together with its
total of 83,637 hp, Not only the
reserves, but also the small ones
hydrotechni cal exploitation could
socialism in Rumania.
tributaries, also could provide a
large rivers have such important
in mountain areas, which through
contribute to the achievement of
However the usefulness of Rumanian rivers is much more varied.
The Danube puld the, Dega Canal are navigable. The Mures, Jiu, Olt,
Argosy Ialomita0 Buzau, Siret, and 'Prut could be adapted to this purpose
for considerable distances. The Bistrita, Siret0 Olt, and Mures are
arteries intensively used for flotation, In mountain areas most of
the water courses furnish motive power for small industries of the
peasant type: mills, sawmills, fulling mills, etc. The hydrographic
network supplies population centers and various enterprises with
drinking and industrial water. The irrigated area is being extended
more and more in regions lacking in water, especially for certain kinds
of crops (cotton, rice, vegetable, etc). Multilateral use of the
hydrographic network in Rumania is one of the most important objectives
of the electrification plan and the five-pyear plan.
drog g.../Itions in there RPH
Adjusted to relief, geologic structure, and tectonics, and
directly influenced by climate, the hydrographic network can be grouped
into a series of associations with traits in common which are con-
centrated in the Danube the one river Which crosses the RPR.
0 S.
94
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The Danube
The Danube is the main hydrographic artery of the nation,
collecting, with the exception of a few insignificant streams in
Dobrogea, all the rivers of Rumania.
From its source in the hills of the Black Forest in Germany to
its mouth the Danube follows a course of 2,855 km being the second
longest river in Europe after the Volga (3,688 km).
It rises in a basin covering 817,000 sq km, amounting to nearly
one twelfth of Europe and about three and one half times the area of
the RPR. It receives 120 important tributaries, of which 84 are
navigable. In its navigable part, between Ulm and its mouth widths
vary from 100 to 2800 m and depths from 1 to 75 in.
More than one third its length flows over Rumania and about one
half of its navigable part and 36% of the area of its basin are on
Rumanian territory.
The Danube basin covers approximately 8 of latitude (500 at the
source of the Czech Morava, 42 at the source of the Serbian Morava).
It .is supported on all sides by .the mountains of the Alpine-
Caivathian-Balkan system and it drains directly or through its tributaries,
a series of depressed regions: the Vienna basin, the Croatian basin, the
Hungarian plain, the Transylvanian depression, and the Rumanian Plain.
It waters eight countries (Germany,. Austria, Czechoslovakia,
Hungaryo Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Rumania, and the USSR) and three capitals:
Vienna, Budapest, and Belgrade. It cuts through mountain systems which
it must cross via eight passes:
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I. Tutlingen7Sigmaringen, through Jura Suaba.
Passau-Linz between the Alps and the Bohemian forest.
Grein-Krema, between the same massifs.
Elosterneuburg-Bissamberg (Vienna Pass) between Wienerwald
and the .Hercynian massif.
5. Heimberg-iTheben (Bratislava Pass) between Leith& and the
Little Carpathians.
6. Gran-Vac, (the Budapest Pass) in the volcanic chain in
the RPU [Republica Populara Ungara -- Hungarian People's Republic].
7. Buzia-Turnu Severin between the Carpathians and the
Balkans.
Hirsova-Macin around Hors tul Dobrogean.
The marked differences between the massiveness of the Alps,
attaining 4,810 m at Mt. Blanc and that of the Mercinice range in
the north, which rarely exceeds 10400 in are reflected in the uneven
distribution of the tributaries, which involves the asymmetry of the
upper basin of the Danube. The river receives not only most of its
tributaries from the Alps but also the greatest ones. Asymmetry is
also characteristic of the m ddle and lower basin. Here, the Danube
receives numerous and rich tributaries from the Carpathian area and
much fewer and less important ones from the Dinaric Alps and the Balkans.
The reasons are to be found not only in the difference in massivity
which otherwise would not be reflected at all, but even more in the
regional characteristics of the climate, which present a considerable
variety dependent upon the general circulation of air currents and the
climate barrier role played particularly by the Dinaric Alps and the
Balkans.
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The Evolution of the Course of the Danube. According to geologic
studies on its basin, the Danube was conditioned by a great depression,
compartmented by mountain rings and covered in the Oligocene and later
in the Miocene period by a branch of the Mediterranean. It started from
the present Rhine valley and penetrated, successively, through a series
of gorges in the area north of the Alps, in the Vienna basin, then in
the ;Pannonian basin, and from there, through a small pass it passed into
the Pontic basin and extended into the Caucasus.
The movements at the end of the Miocene brought on a withdrawal
of the seat along with a rise of the continent. The eastern part of
the marine branch, broken at the Mediterranean, was transformed into 2C
basin of brackish water, constituting the old Sarmatian Sea, between
Vienna, The Dardanelles, and Turkestan.
Going down even further it produced the Black Sea, the Caspian
Sea, and Lake Aral, and on the site of the old marine branch was then
formed the course of the Danube. Its present bed is the result of a
? long evolution, an Intens ye process of erosion, transport, and deposit.
PhYsical and Geographic Description of the Danube. Taking account
of the fact that along its 2,855 km the Danube traverses the most uneven
areas of Euxeries with different physical and geographic conditions, rote
fleeted directly in its general condition and especially in its hydrologic
characteristics, we can divide its course into three sectors:
(1) Upper Course (Alpine sector) from source to Bratislava;
(2) Middle Course (Pannonian sector) from Bratislava to Bazias;
(3) Lower Course (Carphatho-Balkan Sector) from pietas to the
mouth..
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1. The Upper Course (Alpine Sector). The Danube rises at
the foot of Kandel peak (l 244, m), on the pastern slope of the Black
Forest massif, at an altitude of 078 m, from two branches: the Brigech'
and the Dreg, which Join at Donauschingen after a in of 48.5 km. The
river flows 900 km to Vienna.
In this sector, the great Alpine system meets the Hercynian
system, represented by the Black Forest, Jura Suaba, Jura Francena, and
the Bohemian Forest.
It receives tributaries almost exclusively from the Alps, and
consequently from the right, so that its character is typically Alpine.
Up to Ulm the only tributary worthy of notice is the Rise.
At Ulm there is a confluence with the Iller, and from there to
Passau it meets the Guenz, Mindel, Lech, Isar and Wnrm, etc. The Inn,
the greatest of the Alpine tributaries, flows into the Danube at
Passau. Between Passau and Bratislava, among the multitude of rivers
flowing down the northern Alpine slopes, the Enna is the most powerful.
The first great tributary on the left is the Altmuehl, which connects
the Danube with the Rhine through the Ludwig Canal and the Regnitz, a
indirect tributary of the Rhine. Along the massif of the Bohemian Forest,
the Danube digs a wide and fertile valley, with the sole exception of
defiles,
The average gradient on the upper course reaches 93 cm/km in the'
west and 60 in the east the average, rate of flow, closely related to
the gradient, varies between 3.5 and 25 m/sec. The Danube first becomes
navigable at Ulm, where a depth l 2 m? in the center can be counted on.
The Czech Morava contributes its waters from the Bohemian quadrilateral
even before the Danube penetrates the Bratislava defile.
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2. The Riddle Course (Pannonian Sector). This section
extends between Bratislava and Bazias over a stretch of 815 km and
has characteristics quite distinct from the upper course.
Once the Danube has left the Bratislava pass, it enters the
Raab depression, which has been very appropriately compared to an
antechamber of the Pannonian plain. The river bed widens abruptly.
The waters deploy and embrace two large island Great Schuett and
Little Schuett. A new grouping of the waters is brought about by
the mountains of Central Hungary, which they traverse through the
defile cut in basalt between Gran and Vac. From Budapest the river
passes into the Pannonian depression properly speaking, which it does
not leave until Bazias. In the middle course the Danube receives
important tributaries arising in the Alps, the Carpathians and the
Dinaric Alps, associated in two groups representing five eighths of
its basin:
(a) Northern group, consisting of the smaller rivers, the Raab
(Alpine), and the vah, Hron and !pal (Carpathian).
(b) The Southern group, more complex and with greater rivers:
the Sava (Alpine), Drava (Alpine-Dinaric), the Serbian Morava (Dinaric),
and Tisa (Carpathian).
The two groups of rivers are situated at the ends of the Pannonian
sector, where there are also considerable Modifications in the river's
variations in level and discharge. For the rest of this section the
Deluge is almost completely without tributaries and feels the continental
climatic influences with dry summers, of the Pannonian depression.
The average gradient is very law (5 cm/km
gish evacuation of the waters, Since the banks
which produces ikslug-
i,
are low (especial the
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left bank) there is a perManent flood danger which has required a
whole series of remedial measures. The rate of flow reaches a mean
value of only 0.9 m/sec and a depth of 1.60 M.
3. The Lower Course (Carpatho-Balkan Sector). This is the
Most important section from the economic point of view, especially for
Rumania, covering the area which the Danube enters at Bazias and
then crosses for about 1,075 km to its mouth.
Draining the area between the Carpathians and the Balkans, the
Danube is characterized by the complexity of its course, resulting
from the contrast between the defile region and the ever widening meadow
ending in a delta.
Professor Antipa brings out the regulating role which the meadow
plays in stabilizing the hydrologic equilibrium of the river. The many
Alpine Carpathian, and Dinaric tributaries which make their contribution
above Bazias cause massive accumulations of water here during the rise
period since it is impeded by the very narrow transverse profile of the
valleys. History mentions the famous "White Sea" in the area of con?
fluence of the Danube with the Tisa and Sava, and the geographic literature
cites innumerable cases of catastrophic floods which often extended far
into the Tisa basin before the latter was canalized. Since there was no
meadow which Antipa aptly calls a "safety valve" of the Danube iuld
which permits a gentle flow to the sea of surplus water, the spring
floods spread extensively over present day Rumania. The storage
capacity of the meadow, estimated by Engineer I. Vidrascu at the ttile of
the high water of 1897 at over 24 billion cu m protects huge area* On
the Danubian plain from inundation (Figure 5). In regard
jOyaracteristics, the Danube can be divided as far as Rumanian territo
is concerned into four different sections:
1.00-
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(a) The Basias-Turnu Severin section
(b) The Turnu-Severin-Calarasi section
(c) The Calarasi-Braila section
(d) The Braila-mouth section
(a) The Bazias-TUrnu Severin Section. This corresponds to the
great defile which the river has cut for itself transversally separating
the Carpathian from the Balkan ring along a course of 144 km. The struggle
of the river with the mountain begins at Bazias and ends definitively
at Turnu-Severin, after which, below Virciorpva it crosses the last
extensions of the Mehedinti plateau.
Between Bazias and Moldava Veche the valley as yet presents no
unusual features, the major bed reaching a width of 5 km and gradient
0.04 m/km. Moreover the river separates into two branches and embraces the
beautiful island of Moldava. Its appearance begins to change at Moldava
Veche. Important features appear which are accentuated below Drencova
and which have required special measures at Groben in the vicinity of
Svinita and Iuti to regulate navigation. The gradient increases, having
an average value of 0623 m/km. At Plavisevita the Cazane section
properly speaking begins. Over a length of four km the river bed narroOrs
sharply to only 152 m in width. However the calm waters leave great
depths as much as 52 m the bottom sometimes being below sea level. It
,is the most picturesque area of the defile with almost vertical rock walls
and whole groves of lilacs which grow wild here, showing influences
of Mediterranean climate.
Three km from Orsova, after the confluence with the Cerna there
is the island of Ada-Kaleh, once an important fortress defending the
Danube defile. Genetically it is actually an island, as the Rumanians
called it in the past formed of gravel and sand, later covered with vegeta-
tion and then peopled by Turks.
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,
It is 1,750 m long normally and attains 2,250 m at low water,
, when the alluvial deposits below the surface at its extremities emerge.
It has an area of about 2 hectares, with an absolute height of 50 m and
a relative height of 2 to 3 m, and it is level with the lower terrace of
4 to 8 meters of the river. Its formation was favored in part by
the sharp bend in the Danube, which generated a somewhat calmer zone
of water, and in part by the large quantities of rocks carried by the
Corns in time of floods only 2-3 km above.
For the next 5 km as far as Virciorova, the Danube flows through
the Portile de fier, the wildest sector and the lone most dangerous to
navigation. The gradient reaches 2.2 mikm, which greatly increases
the rate of flow (5 m/sec), necessitating supplementary traction to
propel boats against the current.
Rocks which at low water reach up to the surface, constituting
a constant danger to ships, have necessitated cutting a long channel
about 2.5 km long? 80 m wide, and 2 m deep, which however is insufficient
for the present needs of Danubian navigation. At yirciorova the river
passes through the defile properly speaking, remaining without a meadow,
however with a narrow valley, as far as Turnu Severin.
(b) The Turnu-Severin-Calarasi Section. At Turnu-Severin, the
Danube enters into its true lower basin, known in geographic literature
as "The Lower Danube." Asymmetrical banks are very characteristic of this
sector. The right bank, cut into the sediments of the Pre-Balkan platform,
is steep and higher than the left bank by about 50-200m, very low, and ,
favorable to the extension of the meadow and the formation of the Danubian
fen lakes.
The meadow properly speaking seems better distinguished at Cetate
and begins to spread widely at Calafat.
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?It
In time of floOds the river is fed with water from the innumerable
fen lakes which accompany the river up to calaras: at Ochiu, Fintina
Banului, 'Lela, Tinoasa, Rastu Coldova, Bistretu, Mesta, Cirna, Nedeia,
Potelu (west of the Olt), Berceu, Suhaia, Calota, Rotunda, Plaminaru,
Maharu Baits Pietrilor, Belts Leta, Topilelel Greece, Boian, Sfrederile,
and Calarasi (east of the Olt),
On the right bank the only meadow areas are between the mouths
of the Ischer and Osma and further downstream from Nicopol to Sistov.
The mean gradient varies from 0.03 to 0.08 mikm, which causes a
decrease in the rate of flow and favors the formation of islands.
The latter extend in a chain over the whole section between Turnu-
Severin and Calarasi, making navigation very difficult. Some of them
are very old, as shown by prehistoric life (simian) or permanent settle-
ments (Ostrovul Corbului and Ostrovul Mare): others are less suitable
for habitation (Ostrov Calnovat Insula Ciobanu, Ostrov Mocanu, Warm,
Longu, Becheru Mare, etc), covered with willow thickets.
Recent investigations made by sounding have eliminated the hypothesis
of a fissure on the line of the Danube, admitting of only a slight ?
inclination of the foundation of the Rumanian Plain toward the Carpathians.
The asymmetry of the valleys is partly explained by the large
number of Carpathian tributaries (75%) as compared with Balkan ones .
(25%), causing continual erosion of the right bank. This has also
resulted in the extension of the Danube terraces, well preserved on the
Rumanian side and almost completely cut away by erosion on the Bulgarian
side. The right bank was settled earlier, being higher and safe from
floods. As late as the time of the Roman occupation, a whole series of
. . ?
camps were built here around which towns were later established and used
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by the Turks to guard the Danube. Along with the development of the,
grain traffic in Rumania, connecting towns were also developed on the
left bank, paired with the old towns on the opposite bank: TUrnu-Severin,
Pladoval Oiurgiu-Ruse (Rusciuc)0 Oltenita-TUrtucaia (rutrakan), CalarasiSilistra, etc.
The problem is posed at present of maximum use of flood areas for
cultivation of rice and cotton, as well as adaption of the fen lakes
for fishing.
(c) Calarasi-Braila Section. The Danube meadow is so wide that
the river cannot hold its waters'on a single path and splits up into, many
branches. Between Calarasi and. Hirsova the river thus flows in two main
branches: the Dunarea Veche and the Borcea which embrace between them a
whole region of lakes, secondary branches, brooks, small waterfalls, and
ponds known as the Belts Ialomitei. East of Calarasi the Danube sends
out a great branch, the Rau, toward the Borcea. The Rau is used for navi-
gation in times of low water. The area between them is 90 km long and 16
km wide at the maximum so that the Baits Ialomitei offers great possi-
bilities of rational exploitation through irrigation farming, pasturage,
fishing, etc.
At Vadul Oii the river again gathers its waters into a single bed
partly because of the Dobrogean spur Of Hirsova, with a resistant formation,
1
and partly because of the heavy alluvia deposited at the mouth of the
Ialomita.
The river then parts again into two branches: the Dunavea Nous composed
of the Cremenea And Vilciu, and the Dunarea Veche, which bears its waters
to the fields of Horstul Dobrogean.
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Between them lies the Baits Brailei (the island of Braila) 60 km
long and 20 km wide. Like the Delta Ialomitei, the Balta Brailei is
characterized by its numerous lakes, pools, small lakes, small water-
falls, ponds, islands, popine, bars, etc. Prom this point of view it
can be regarded as an internal Danube delta, presenting features al-
most identical with a true river delta, At Braila the two branches
join again in a single course which measures, when the waters are at
normal level, 852 in in width and 24 in maximum depth. The Danube valley,
however, mainatains its asymmetrical character brought on by abrupt
contact between the Horstul Dobrogean and the Rumanian plain. The
very low gradient (345 cm/km) results in a very low rate of flow and
sluggish evacuation of waters in the time of the spring rises.
(d) The Braila-tO-Mouth Sector! (Maritime Danube). The river
leads its waters along a single bed which encircles the Hercynian spur
L
at Mein and then turns eastward to the fork, or Centalul Ismailului,
where the Delta begins. The Danube cuts its final defile on this course
separating Horstul Dobrogean from the southern extensions of the Moldavian
plateau. And in this sector, in the very wide meadow, a series of fen
likes and lakes extend: Ratoaiele (at the confluence with the Siret),
Bratesp (at the confluence with the 'nut), JUJU, Ploseai Popins,
Crapina etc on the Dobrogean bank. The gradient is even lower, being
only 0.5 cm/km in places. The Delta will be described in a separate
chapter.
agE222.41.castsaLst..Da...sLabeBasin. The varied condi-
tions ofmelief, climate, geologic structure vegetation, etc, which
characterize the immense area drained by the Danube, are reflected
directly in its hydrologic features, impressing specific traits upon
it.
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Source system: The Danube hos a. complex source system, in keeping
With the areas traversed.
It springs from a source comparable to the oceanic determined by
that type of climate and characteriked by a steady and heavy discharge.
The source is mostly from rains and a slight amount of snow at the
beginning of spring. The amount and consistency of the discharge are on
a scale to explain the penetration by the river of the Jura-Suaba mountain
chain at a distance of only a few dozen kilometers from the source.
AS it enters the Bavarian plateau, the Danube becomes an Alpine
river fed by a preponderance of ice, with a heavy discharge, registering
maximum values in the spring months with the melting of the ice. The
snows and rains play a secondary part in feeding the river.
The Alpine characteristics are more pronounced between the Ulm
and Passau and are determined by the great tributaries on the right (the
filer, Lech, Isar and Inn), with sources 3 500-4 000 m high in the Swiss
and Austrian Alps, rich in ice. The Alpine, climate extends in increasingly
attenuated form to Budapest.
In the ftnnonian depression the Danube system changes again be-
coming continental,with pluvio-nival sources. The infiltration and
-evaporation produce great drops in level and discharge in summer. In
spring, however, the Tisa and Dinaricoand the Carpathian tributaries
(the Sava and the Serbian Morava) bring in great quantities of water
produced by the melting snows and rains characteristic of the local climate.
After leaving the Portila de Fier defile, the the continental character
of the system is accentuated even more -- comparable to the waters of the
RUOSi041 steppes.
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Variations of Level: The source system conditions variations
in level to the greatest extent. But the contributions of the tribu-
taries and to a lesser degree the transverse profile of the valleys
play a particularly important role.
In the source area, where a strongly oceanic system prevails,
the level variations are generally constant all year around. The most
pronounced increases are in winter and spring, from December into April,
and the decreases in September and October.
In the Alpine sector, even at Passau, the great number of
important tributaries on the right of nival-Pglacial origin determine
the maximum increases in spring (June,-August), while the melting [sic]
of the snows and ice determine the decreases in winter (December-February),
when solid precipitation6; no longer has a direct effect. The Alpine
characteristics continue to Budapest but are increasingly attenuated.
Since snow is more important than ice in feeding the river, the increases
come earlier? registering maximum values in May-July.
On thellUngarian.Plein infiltration and evoration are very
pronounced and cause a drop in level in spring; the Carpathian and
Dinaric tributaries however, bring large amounts of water causing this
rise because of increases caused by the melting snows and rains of the
,
local climatic system. Thus at Orsova the maximum increases are in
March May, while the decreases are in August-October.
As distinguished from the 'Alpine sector,,the minimums occur, not
in winter but in autumn and the maximums come in spring instead of
winter.'
These characteristics are more accentuated once the Danube enters the
Pontic basin, where a typical steppe climate prevails which not only
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lowers the value of the minimums even more, but also accelerates
them. Except for periods of rising water, the evacuation is much
delayed by the low gradients. This explains why at Tulcea the
maximum level is reached only in late JUne.
The lower Danube increasingly resembles the water courses of
the Russian steppes More and more as it goes on.
The extreme rises grow less toward the east which also
contributes to the progressive width of the valley, In 1897 the Danube
registered 8.65 in over the low-water mark at Turnu Severin 7.63 m
at Giurgiu, 6.64 in at Galati, and 5.10 m at ?Mice*.
system.
The resemblance to Russian rivers is also true of the freezing
The periods of freezing vary with the severity of the winters.
On the average they last 7-8 weeks. The maximum duration was recorded
in 1879 at 96 days.
In 40 years of observation the Danube was free of ice in only
15 years.
Due to climatic influences thawing proceeds from west to east;
on the lower course ,the blocks of ice are impeded by snow, a very
dangerous situation because of the floods it causes.
The blocks of ice usually begin to move out in February and
less often in March.
Blocks of ice 7 km long and 1 km wide have been measured which
destroy not only meadows, docks and piers but sometimes even the
islandis in their path,
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.6
The discharge increases successively from the source to the
mouth. Its average value ie 800 cu a/sec at Passau, 1,600 at Vienna,
2,300 at Budapest, 5,800 at rtile de Fier, and over 7,200 cu m/sec
at Tulcea.
In the lower basin the discharge varies according to the season
between 2,200 cu m and 20,000 cu m/sec.
Maximum amounts of water are accumulated in spring and the
beginning of summer, due both to the contribution made by the tributaries
received in the Pannonian depression (the Drava, Sava, Morava, and
Tisa) and to the rivers outside the Carpathian and Balkan rings.
The discharge variations follow in general the same curve as
the tributaries on the lower course of the Danube. In spring, however,
they affect more tributaries above Buzias while in summer and autumn it
is those below.
On Rumanian territory during its great floods s the Danube inundates
over 800,000 ha including the Delta Ialomitei and the Delta Brailei ad
the Delta. The width of the flood area extends on the left side of the
river for 5 or 6 km and reaches 12 km at points. The flood area of
Debrogea alone amounts to about 430,000 ha.
The river rises at three times:
(a) In autumn, when the water does not overflow the banks.
(b) When the
4 olio
breaks up and currents are formed and local
flooding takesplace.,
(o) In spring and at the beginning of summer from March to June,
along with the melting of the snows and the May-June rains, when there
are commonly frequent and heavy inundations.
?
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The river water bears large amounts of.alluvia.in suspension,
varying between [figure illegible] tons ([date illegible]) and 154 0000000
tons (1871).
On the average these alluvia exceed 80,0000000 t per year, being
deposited unceasingly, especially in the D1ta0 which brings on the
permanent necessity of dredging the Sulina branch and other parts of the
lower course.
DeSpite all the deficiencies caused by the fluctuations of its
? system, the great quantities of alluvia,: the periods of freezing, the .
.rocks and the rises at?Cazane'and Portile de Fier, and the fact that
it terminates in a delta on an Almost enclosed sea, the Danube is never-
theless a highly important artery of communication .in continental Europe,
forming a veritable diagonal acrosa Europe between the North Sea and the
Black Sea -- especially since its connection with the Rhine via the Ludwig
Canal.
The importance of the Danube in the economic life of the continent
and especially the riparian countries is very great. It is an important
economic axis for the country, especially since it collects a whole network
of rivers which provide convenient highways for all its areas.
Tributaries of the Danube
Depending upon relief and climatic characteristics, Rumania's
hydrographic net falls into several distinct parts.
1. The Western Group.. This includes all rivers of the interior
of ?the Carpathian. area, which floolk in the Danube through the Tisa as
intermediary.
It is in turn divided into, the following basins;
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The Maximum Basin (3,283,76 sq km This groups the /is*
tributaries, on the stretch between Vales Viseului and Tecee Mic on which
the river forms the Soviet frontier. The Viscu, joined with the RuscoVa,
has a source under Priskop, and the Imp joined with the Mara, has a source
under Pietrosul Rodnei. The precipitation system assures a quite rich
permanent discharge and mean annual increases over the law-water mark of
50-100 cm. The mean summer increases -stay between 150-200 cm. No drops
.belqw the low-water mark are recorded (Mlhailescu, Rominia). The
high density (0.70-0.80 R/ sq km) reveals a permanently well-organized
network with numerous tributaries, a natural result of a climatic 'system
rich in precipitation. Though insignificant in appearance, because of
heavy precipitation and irrational cutting of vegetation on the slopes "and
also because of abrupt changes in the gradient the tributaries of the
Tisa sometimes flood the low lying center of the Maramures depression to
say nothing of the fact that torrential erosion, very active, has changed
the deforested areas into unproductive land. In order to correct this situation
the Maramares is one of the areas slated for immediate hydrotechnical
adjustments.
The Tur Basin. Outside the Maramures basin the Ties, receives the
?
Tur-, joined with the 'Films (l294,51 sq km) which traverse the Ofts region.
It presents a great contrast in that the density reaches 84 km/sq km
in the area of the source in the Ouas)4auntains, where precipitation
exceeds 1,000-10100 mm, and drops to only 0 20.in the plains area, dominated
by the much dryer system of the Paoodoian depression. The abrupt transi-
tion from the mountains ,to plains results in an equally abrupt change
in the flow gradient and creates conditions likely to result in flooding.
Basin of the Somes River. Exetnding over 15,826.16 sq/km'
(without the Craina), the Somes drains various physical and geographic
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units presenting complex characteristics. It consists of two branches
with sources in Opposite directions Which converge at Dej; it then
crosses, through epigenesis, the defile at Surduc and enters the
depression of Baia Mare gulf [i.e., prehistoric] to flow into the Tisa after
meandering through the ektensive swamp area of Seed.
? The Somas Mic springs from the waters of Mount Bihor,
through the SomesCald and the Gilau massif through the Somes Rem At
Gilau it receives the Capus, at Cluj the Nadas, and in the interior of
the Transylvanian basin minor tributaries with unstable systems (Valea
Borsei, Piriul Luna, Valea Fizesului).
The Somes Mare, with sources under Inau, collects on its way the
Vales Ilvei, Salauts along which the Salva-Viseu railroad was built,
the Sieu joined with the Bistrita and a series of smaller tributaries.
After leaving the Surduc defile1 it also receives the Agris and
Jamas from the Mountainsp with huge deposits of coal in their basins,
and the Lapus from the Tibles Mountains joined with the Capnic and Sasar,
the latter watering the industrial center of Baia Mare.
The density bears the imprint of the physical and geographic
conditions of the areas which the Somas, in its two branches, successively.
traverses. It is high (0.70-0.80) in mountainous areas (Gilau, Rodnal
caliman Mountains), medium (0.60-0.70) in the high hill area of Cluj or
Distrita, and even registers lower values (0.40-0.50) in certain secondary
basins on the Transylvanian plain where the climatic system approaches
that of the steppes in its characteristics.'
0n the Woes platform the valuesincrease again (0.60.e.0.70), so
that a new, even more pronounced decrease is recorded once the Somes enters
the Tisa plain.
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In the measurements taken in mountain areas (the Samos Clad,
Samos Rece, the Somas NU; Rodna Veche, Nepos, the Sows fare; the
Razoare at the Lapus) drops below low-water mark are not.observed.
But they are acharacteristic for the basin zone which corresponds to
the Transylvanian "plain," with unimportant tributaries, and are
accentuated on the Tisa plain in keeping with the steppe climate of
the Pannonian depression.
On its final stretch, however, the Somas could be adapted to
navigation.
The Craina (2728.75)sq km), joined with the Zalau stream divides
its waters during floods of the Somas and Tisa, feeding the Reed swamps.
It is characterized by the instability in its system and it is
contained in the basin of the Somes Rivers.
Basin of the Cris Rivers (15,834.flag km). This includes the
Barcau, with sources in Plopis, the Cris Repede, the Cris Negru and the
Cris Alb, which join two by two on Hungarian territory and then form a
single course, joining the Tisa in a low swampy area. They all drain
thickly ,populated depressions, former gulfs on the Pannonian Lake which
Penetrates deep into the interior Of the mountain chain.
The Cris Repede has had the most interesting evolution which,
depending on the variations of its basic level at various stages, has
penetrated through regressive erosion into the Huedin depression where
it has its sources today, collecting in turn the Surduc, 'Vegan,- Sebes
Wats,- Colo the left) and the Pete (on the right). All these have an
initial course toward the north, flowing partly into the Simleu gulf and
partly into that of the Alms. The old paths are shown by gravel from
Vladeasa which is found at many 'levels above the ?steep* saddles (northern
Ciucea) marking the course to the Simleu gulf (for documentation: R Ficheux:
"The Bydrographic Net of Northern Bihor").
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At present the Almas is characterised by a very strong regres-
sive-erosion connected with the basic level variations of the Boniest
preparing the diversion of the Cris Repede and Calata and their
drainage toward the Almas gulf again.
All three Cris rivers have similar characteristics with two
distinct divisions:
(a) The mountain division, with steep gradients, narrow val-
leys, rapid flow, high densities, ample and steady discharge
and mean levels over, the law-water mark, due to the large amounts of
precipitation falling in the Apuseni mountains.
(b) The hill and plains division, with wide valleys, very
low gradients and densities, and an unstable system marked by ex-
ceptional rises and sharp drops below the low-water mark in keeping
with,the steppe climate.
The Mures Basin. This is the most important in the western
group, with a total area of 28,188.15 sq km. The Mures along with
the Olt and the Bicaz has its source beneath Hazmasul Mare and flows
about 880 km to its mouth. Through the Giurgeu (Gheorgheni) d
pression it flows sluggishly due to the low gradients. It receives
some small tributaries, having however a rich discharge in keeping
with local climatic conditions. Because of this no drops below the
low-water mark are recorded.
Between TOplita and Deda it flows through its first defile
cut -through the eruptive formations of the Canaan and Gurghiu
massifs for about 40 km.
? In the defile it abruptly changes its character, becoming a
typical mountain .river active in the processes of erosion and
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transport with the longitudinal and transverse profile characteristic
of a young valley fed by unimportant tributaries.
It enters the Transylvanian basin at Deda north of Reghin.
At Beghin it joins the Gurghiu. From there it flows diagonally
across the Transylvanian basin marking the boundary between the Tir-
nava bills and the Transylvanian "plain."
? The steppe climate of the "plain" is immediately felt, not
only in the usual drops below, the low-water mark, but also in the
scant tributaries (the Nireaj, CotIod, and Ludus). Also in keeping
with the climate, the maximum level is reached early (in April).
The tributaries from the Tirnava rivers (the Tirnava Mica
and Tirnava Mare, meeting at Blaj) have a more pronounced stability
and discharge, due to the precipitation system.
During the evolution of its basin the Mures fought a silent
battle with both the tributaries of the Souls and those of the Olt.
According to Ioachim Rodeanu, the Mures emerged victorious from the
struggle with the Olt, receiving the Tirnava Mare which had formerly
flowed southward over the present course of the Visa (tributary of
the Tirnava) and the lower course of the Mein.
From the Apuseni Mountains it received successively the Aries
joined with the Tara, and the Hasdatele rivers, which cut the famous
Turia gorges, the [name illegible, the Galda rivers, the Ampoi with
the Ampoita and the Geoagin.
The rivers with sources in the southern Carpathians make a much
more important contribution: the Sebes, Cugir, and the Strei joined
with the Riu Mare and the Farcadin; from the P0141111 Rusca massif it
receives the waters of the Cerna which waters the great steel town
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of Hunedoara, Fed in great part by snows at great heights (over 2 000
m) these tributaries have a direct effect upon the level variations
of the Mures, which barely registers maximum values for this sector
alba Julia, Simeria Veche) in May when the snows melt in the moun-
tains.
Between Deva and Rodna, for approximately 100 km, the river
e.
cuts its long bed with typical defile sectors at Branisca, Zam,
Soimus Lipova, mostly epigenetic. The narrow transverse profile
causes more pronounced increases over the low-water mark so that
at Branisca the Mures shows the highest values (610 cm in 1932)
of its entire course and has never dropped below the low-water mark.
As soon as the Mures enters the Tisa plain at Lipova, the
steppe climatic influences are accentuated, as shown by the arrival
of maximums in April, the great fluctuations, and the pronounced
drops below the low-water mirk (Arad, Periam Port).
In keeping with the variety of the physical and geographic
conditions of the relief areas it traverses, the density of the
hydrographic net in the basin presents great variations. In the
area of the source of the Mures and the Tirnava rivers, the values
vary between 0.70 and 0.90 they remain between 0.50 and 0.70 in
the higher plateau area and fall below 0.50 on the tributaries on
the -Transylvanian plain. The low-lying tributaries from the Apuseni
Mountains and the southern Carpathians reach values of 0.60-0.70.
while in the plains area the man-made canals maintain a.density of
about 0.40 se km.
With all its great variations in density, level, and discharge,
the Mures transports even at the low-water mark (summer and autumn)
a considerable amount of water (36-45) Cu a), so as to be navigable
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up to Deva and adequate for flotation up to Tirgu Mures. It could be
made .navigable by special arrangements up to Reghin (620 km) for
small craft.
2. Southwestern Group. Among the direct tsici,tributaries
of the Danube there is also Begbei a tributary of the Title, with
characteristics common to this group,
The Beghei, with sources in the Poiana Rusca massif, is an
old course of the Mures (Fichenux, Gh. Pop) abandoned at 310 m when
a lateral shift takes place at Tataresti-Zam, which gives the rivers
Its present features.
Receiving only one important tributary at Beregsau, the Beghei
was dredged in the last century above Timisoara and is navigable
for 40 km on Rumanian territory, but the system of locks is not
entirely adequate.
The direct tributaries of the Danube are: the Timis (7,352,0
sq km), with the Hideg Bistra, Pagenis, and Birzava Cares (1311.34
sq km), Nara (1452.25 sq km2), Sirzasca and Cerna Joined with the
Mehadia (1511.25 sq km).
Weak Mediterranean influences are revealed by the dual periodi-
city of increases (spring and autumn).
The steppe climate of the Banat plain explains the very strong
level and discharge fluctuations (979 cm on the Timis at Parcul-
Rudnai. 1926), which cause heavy inundations as well as pronounced
drops below the lowwater mark.
With fertile soil and a climate favorable to irrigation it
offers the best conditions for cultivation of rice (Partos,'Deta,
Dents, 041110C etc) and other valuable crops.
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3. Southern Group. A whole series of Danube tributaries are
included in the sector between Turnu-Severin and the confluence with
the Siret. The Olt mark i the border between the Oltehian and Wallachian
streams, distinguished from them by certain specific characteristics.
West of the Olt, as also in the Banat group, two spring increases
V '3
11
(April And June) occur and two in autumn (October, November), the
latter being less pronounced. The smallest is in September. This fea-
ture is more prominent on the Jiu. With the exception of the lesser
steppe arteries (the Drincea and the Desnatui) the others (the Jiu
and Olt, south of the Carpathian ring) do not register drops below
the low-water mark, a fact which is explained by the considerable
contribution of the Carpathian tributaries.
From this point of view, a division can be seen at the Olt
between the northern Carpathian sector where quite pronounced drops
are to be seen in summer, and the Subcarpathian sector where even
at the minimum the low-water mark is not reached.
East of the Olt the steppe climatic system is accentuated
and this is felt in the great fluctuations of level as well as in
the scarcity of water in the largest rivers.
Differences of level and discharge are very characteristic of
the Ialomita at Cosereni, where it receives the important contri-
butions of the Prahova and Teleajen, and at Slobosia, in the Baragan,
where it also registers high values and the extremities of the climate
cause huge drops due to losses on the way (evaporation, lack of pre-
cipitation and tributaries, infiltration, etc) (M1haileeau, Rominia).
Except for the depressed area of Petrosani, where high den-
sities (o.7o-o.9p) are found, related to looal conditions of climate,
relief and vegetation, the whole 'network of rivers fed from the
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southern Carpathians.or the area of curvature is marked by a relative-
ly low density (0.50-0.60) in keeping with the climatic differences
(especially precipitation) between the northern and southern slopes
of the Carpathian ring. Densities then drop progressively in the
Subcarpathians and the Getie plateau to only 0.10-0.20 km sq km in
the south0a81; of the Rumanian plain.
? From west to east, the arteries of the southern group are
as follows: the Drincea and Desnatui, both with sources on the Getic
piedmont ? 'typical steppe rivers with courses cut in alluvium. In
the dry season they lose most of their water while they, flood in
the wet season.
They feed the fen lakes on the Danube meadow. (the Drincea
flows into the fen lake at Ochi, and the Desnatui into the one at
Cirna).
The Jiu Basin (100626.85 km (sicl). The Jiu is one of the
raommvom.e.aw**IIIM.WW?
most capricious rivers in the land. After the confluence of the two
opposite branches, (the Rumanian Jiu and the Transylvanian Jiu) in
the Petroseni basin, the river enters the Salbatic defile of the
Sumduc (Lainici) which it does not leave until near Bumbesti after
a stretch of about 30 km. There have been several different hypothe-
ses about the passage of the Jiu through the Vilean Paring chain,
Lehmann assumes a preceding diverting fissure through erosion
but does not succeed in identifying its traces.
Inkey is clearly for erosion attributing the formation of the
Present Jiu to diversion of the upper course of the Strei by a tor-
rent on the Oltean slope with more active erosion. But he has not
dated the diversion.
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Mrasee eliminates the tectonic hypothesis' by a careful study
of the geology of the Surduc, which reveals no trace whatever of a
fissure. But he points out a transyerse syncline of the Lainici,
asiuming also a course anterior to the present one.
)
Murgoci is of the same opinion; he also assumes a preexisting
course along a syncline of the Getic water table.
S t re
De Martonne admits diversion of the Jiu at the expense of the
, accomplished, in his opinion, in the Pliocene.
Burileanu admits an antecedent of the Jiu.
Most Rumanian geographers support the diversion hypothesis.
From Bumbesti onward the Jiu digs itself a wide valley with
In the Tirgu depression the Jiu receives the Susita with
from beneath Vilean peak as well as the Bistrita with the
terraces.
the Jabs
Tismana, which cuts especially beautiful valleyslin the limestones
at the foot of the massif.
At Filiasi there is an area of local stoppage, in which are
clustered the most important of the tributaries of the Jiu: the
Gilotru, with very wide terraces, springing from Paring, and the
Motru, joined with the Cosustea and a series of other tributaries
crossing the limestone plateau of the Mehedinti, with interesting
karst phenomena. The only tributaries from the hill area are the
Amaredia and Rasnicu, with confluence points near Craiova. Down
to the Danube the meadow widens considerably and is often inun-
dated s the bed of the Jiu cannot channel under normal circum-
stances the waters received simultaneously from all the tributaries
group( i in the Craiova-Filiasi area during periods of torrential
rains. With its normal discharge (80 cu misec) the Jiu could be made
navigable for small craft as far as Craiova (80 km).
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Ilte Olt Basin (924 984.35 sq km). The Olt is the most important
. of the southern rivers both in length (over 600 km) and in mean dia-
1
charge (160 cu m sec).
It takes its source from beneath Magmas Mare and drains along
a very sluggish course the Clue depression. It cuts its first defile
at Tusnad, between Pucios and Baraolt. As it enters the broad plain
of the Trei Scaune depression it becomes calm again and receives the
contribution of the Riu Negru with sources in the Clue Mts.
In Tara Birsei, where it keeps its plains character, it also
?
collects the Piatra Craiului from Bucegi, the Ghimbav joined with
the Timis fsiel, then the Birsa and ?Vulcanite.
Twisting northward, it receives the Baraolt and Virghias,
after which it enters the second defile at Rocas (between the Baraolt
Mountains and Persani).
In Tara Oltului it drains another area of extended plain,
receiving the Homorod from the Tirnava plateau and a series of tri-
butaries with unstable systems, and several rivers from Fagara which
are swift, clear, and with permanent discharges, capable of supply-
ing.large amounts of hydroelectric power (the Sines, Sebes, Pesorta,
Sisbata, Arpas, etc).
Before penetrating the southern Carpathian chain. it receives
the Cibin joined with the Hirtibaciu and the Sad.
The three depression centers (Clue, Tara Birsei, Tara
Oltului) represent the wide bottoms of old Pliocene and post Plio-
cene takes drained by a series of successive diversions. The present
course of the Cibin and, in continuation that of the Secas seem to
represent, in some opinions (Iukey, Bela Dula), the old path of the
Olt when it was a tributary of the Mures.
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In the southern Carpathians it traverses the roughest sector
of its course through the Turnu Rosu-Ciineni-Coxia defile for a dis-
tance of about 50 km.
The one great tributary, the Lotru, joined with the Latorita
and the Vales lui Stan (with gold bearing deposits), descends from
Paring and joins it at Golotreni, passing through Voineasa with
its mica mining and through the important forestry center of Brezoi.
. After the confluence, the Olt cuts' through the wildest .part
of its defile .(the Olt bends) between Capa,tina peak :awl the Cozia
massif.
As in the case of the flu, several hypotheses have been ad-
vanced on the impressive penetration of the southern Carpathians
by the Olt.
Eugen Reclus attributes the formation of the Olt to a flow of
waters from the area of the present Lovista depression.
Lehmann admits not Only simple erosion but also some initial
fissure line, as for the Jiu.
Inkey assumes a superficial fracture which would prepare the
way for a later break through and which, in his opinion, was completely
obliterated by subsequent erosion.
He also notes some tectonic disturbance of the two. slopes
which he brings in support of his contention.
Hellmann and Romer see no possible explanation other than the
tectonic one, proposing a sunken area through which the river cut its
present valleY.
Burileanu admits an antecedent valley.
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Murgoci assumes, as for the Jiu, a transverse syncline of the
wator tables from local pressures,
Be Martonue's diversion hypothesis admits a mountain Olt as
e continuation of the Lotru having as tributary the valley of the
Calinesti rivers and a Transylvanian one in continuation of the val-
leys of the Baiasi rivers, flowing either on the site of the Fagaras
depression or into the Mures, on the course of the Cibin-Secas.
The Rob and Cozia peaks formed the watershed between thebe
two rivers.
A tributary of the Calinesti rivers could cut through this
peak, reversing the course of the Transylvanian Olt with a higher
basic level.
For the defile sectors (Turnu Rosu and Cozia) Be Martonne
also admits an epigenetic phenomenon.
At Calimanesti the Olt enters a Subcarpathian area, receiving
on its right the Olanesti, Govoral Bistrita, and Luncavat and on
the left the Topolog rising beneath Negoiu. It then cuts through
the formations of the Getic patOmont and at Slatina it can be re-
garded ass plains river. The river meadow widens extensively:
meandering is accentuated and flooding More frequent. The Oltet
joined with the Corns and Plesca, and then the Teslui are ?the last
important tributaries, the Teslui having a typical steppe character.
At Isoiceni the meadow is so wide and low that the Olt often
changes its course in times of great floods. From Draganesti on it
is accompanied on the left by the parallel course of the Slit', which
is one of its old paths. At present the Olt is suitable for flota-
tion from Turnu-Rosu and could easily be made navigable to Slatina.
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By further arrangement the navigable sector, could be extended
to Feldicara (530 km).
There are a few minor rivers between the Olt and Argos with
typical steppe systems: the Teleormanean Calmatui, which feeds
lakes Suhaia and Vedea (6,135.35 sq km) and the _Cotmeana, the Cina
rivers and Teleorman, which flow for about 30 km on the Danube meadow
parallel to the Danube, flowing into it near Giurgiu after travers-
ing a series of lakes.
The Agres Basin (12,879.45 sq km). The Agres is the first of
the great rivers of the southern group undergoing more pronounced
steppe climatic influences since most of its basin consists of low
relief units (piedmont and plain) in which this climate prevails.
The great fluctuations often cause considerable inundations
both in the area of the Titu-Potlogi separation and in the lower
river basin.
Thanks to the contribution of the Dimbovita. it maintains
a considerably heavy discharge (23 cu m) at Budesti on the plain.
even in. November. The lower meadow lends itself very well to irri-
gation,and cultivation Of rice, ;cotton, vegetables, etc. It is also
the first large river to deviate to the southeast in conformity with
the vertical movements of the Rumanian Plain have successively aban-
doned its old courses (Teleorman, Dimbovnic, Neajlov).
It rises in the glacial lake of Capra (ragas Mountains) and
then flows through a wild defile to enter the Subcarpathian area
where it joins the'Vilsan.-
At Pitesti, n an area of local stoppage it collects a group
of tributaries: the Mu Doamnei, with the Bratia, the Riu Tirgului,
and the Argesel.
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Except for the Dimbovita, the other tributaries (the Neajlov
lvith the Dimbovnic, (3lavacipcv and Ci/nistea on the right and the
Saber on the left, and the Colentina, a tributary of the Dimbovita)
traverse steppe and forest-steppe areas only undergoing the effects
felt in great fluctuations of level, and discharge
The Ialomita Basin (10 822 11 so km), The Ialomita deviates
sharply to the east, abandoning its old course (the Mostistea of
today) in the stoppage area of the lower Siret.
It is characterized by exceptional variations of level and
discharge in the plains area and by the asymmetry of its lower
valley, being conditioned to a great extent by the frequency of the
north wind.
It is suitable and intensively used for irrigation. It can be
made navigable for small craft as far as Ursiceni (200 km).
It rises under the Omul Massif (Bucegi), cutting a series
of three gorges in the mountain area (the Tatar, Zanoaga, and Orza
gorges),
The Moreni hydroelectric power plant was recently put into
operation ,here, one of the great achievements of the people's
democratic regime.
In the high area it receives the Islomicioara, which opens
the way to Sinaia, and upon leaving the piedmont region it receives
the Cricov. Dulce and the Frahova joined with the Doftana, Teleajen,
and Cricov Sena, all with important oil deposits in their basins.
From there to its mouth it has almost no tributaries which
fact helps accentuate its drops in? discharge and level.
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The Mostistes, a veritable.string of lakes' and swamps, a&.
indicated by its name, and the Brailean Calmatui, the former course
of .the Buzau, typical steppe rivers, water the eastern part of the
Rumanian Plain, running almost entirely dry in times of drought,
During large floods the waters of the Buzau often stray over
the old course, one of the' connecting links with the Calmatui, called
the Valea Buzoelului,
4. The Eastern Group. The Siret Basin is the most extensive,
since the total area on Rumanian territory amounts to about 440555
se km. The Siret has at the same time the most typical asymmetrical
basin, receiving most of its tributaries on the right from the eastern
Carpathian ring,
The contribution of water and alluvia brought by the Carpathian
tributaries flow into it toward the east, conditioning the formation
of its asymmetrical valley and the wide arcs at the points of con-
fluence with the Suceava, Moldova, Bistrita, and Trotus.
In forming these arcs the river cuts directly into the forma-
tions of the Moldavian plateau which is 200-300 m higher than the
low meadow.
The width of the meadow 'varies between c7f3 km to Roman, 3-6
km at Bacau, and 15-30 km in the /owerbasin. The exceptional width
at the mouth is due, however, not only to the activity of the river
but also to the Foesani-Namoloasa-Galati stoppage area.
On its course the Siret often narrows its meadow because of
the massifs which it cannot cross and thus forms a series of narrows:
Vf, Cimpului (1.5 km wide) between the Zaranca (522 m) and Bour
(477 m) massifs Dolhasca Lespezi (2 km wide) between the Tararusi
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(470 m) and Dealul Mare (5D3 m) massifs Cleja-necaciuni (2.5 km wide)
between Pietricica (746 m) and Colonesti (568 m),
Directly connected with these narrows there are also gradient
variations (1.2 mtkm) at Racaciuni, compared with 0.85 m/km in the
northern area and 0.23 m'km in the mouth area.
The rate of flow and consequently the evacuation period of
high water varies along with the gradient, which brings on frequent
and very extensive flooding
In the upper basin, as far as the confluence with the Suceava,
the water remains below the low-water mark almost all year long.
The carpathian tributaries contribute directly to the rise in
the Siret's level and discharge. It registers constant increases
and the highest annual mean of all waters of the country: 235 cm
(Mihailescu. Rominia) even at Lespezi.
Below the confluence with the Trotust the steppe climatic influ-
ences are more and more in evidence in quite pronounced drops in dis-
charge.
The large amounts of alluvia pretty well preclude navigation
of the Siret so that it remains only a flotation artery like the
Bistrita and Trotus.
However, it could be made navigable and its regularization
for this purpose in the Galati-Bacau sector is envisagelin the
electrification plan.
The Siret rises beneath ?Amine Lungs (USSR) and flows 535
km to its mouth It enters Rumania near Orasul Siret, whence it
flows in a north-northwest to south-southeast direction in conformity
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with the general in6lines of the Moldavian Sarmatic pinteau:
The first important tributary is the Suceava, with the Putna
and Sucevita, which meets it at Liteni. The Seam: Mic and the Somus
Mare, between Suceava and Moldova, bring in small amounts of water,
having sources only in the Subcarpathian area.
The Moldova rises beneath Obcine Lucinei and receives the
Moldavita at Varna and the Humora at Gura Humorului, all of them
draining beautiful depression-troughs with the appearance of long
fields. The Suha, Risca, and Neamt, on which the Humulestii of the
great Rumanian writer Ion Creanga are located, and the Topolita
bring their waters from Stinisoara peak.
The Moldova joins the Siret at Roman, opening the wny to
Transylvania, via its upper course over the Mestecanis pass and
aiding intensive forest exploitation.
The Bistrita is the most important tributary of the Siret.
It rises beneath Prislop (the Rodnei Massiv) and receives successive-
ly the Cirlibaba, Dosrna with the Tesna, in the basin of the Dorna
rivers, Neagra, Sarului, Barnar, Neagra Brostenilor, Bistricioara,
Bicaz, Tarcaui and Cracau, all typical mountain rivers.
The Bistrita is.used intensively for flotation, along with
most of its tributaries. It has a great hydraulic power potential,
The V. T. Lenin hydroelectric power plant at Stejar alone will
furnish Moldavia with 210,000 kw, end the dammed lake will be able
to irrigate about 300,000 hectares of the dry areas.
It also has an especially picturesque valley, especially in
the Mance sector.
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It de/ivera lumber to the Vad forestry combine, the enter-
prises in Buhusi and Bacau, and the cellulose and paper mill at
totem.
The Trotus, with the Ciobanaa, Ua, Slanic, Oituz, and Casin
on the right the Asau and Tazlau Mare with the Taslau Sarat on
the left, opens the way not only to Transylvania via Ghines-Palanca,
but also to th important coal, oil, and salt deposits which are the
object of some important exploitation projects as well as to the
beautiful Slanic-Moldovei spa. It flows into the Siret south of
Adjud.
The Zabraut and Susita, much smaller streams, remind us of
the heroic resistance of the Russian and Rumanian troops in World
War I
The Putna, with the aabala, drains the beautiful Vranca
depression, their twisting course being explained by a series of
local diversions, Issuing from the area, rich in foothills, of the
Moldavian Subcarpathian curvature, it also receives the Milcov
and Rinma with very unstable systems.
The Putna Seaca a waterless stream as its name indicates,
is merely the former course of a direct tributary of the Siret.
The present lower course for a atretckof 50 km represents
an extinct branch of the Siret recently used by the Putna in one of
its great floods.
Ay-011ieni, the stip of land which separates Itfrom the
Siret is only 100 in wide and will very soon 'provide itwith.an op-
portunity to shift from Its new course (Simioniscu. Tara Noastra).
.01I???11..?????
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The Manic Sarat flows initially toward the southeast past
the town of the same name and turns abruptly to the northeast, at-
tracted by the stoppage area of the lower Siret, abandoning successive-
ly the former pointsof confluence with the Buzau, a tributary of
which is represented by the present Jirlau Amara and Salta Alba
lakes.
Buzau is the Siret' s last tributary on the right. It has a
most tortuous course due to the irregularities of the area of curva-
ture which has caused a series of diversions. In the mountain area it
receives a Whole aeries of Discs rivers: the Bisca Mica, and Bisca
Chiojdului with the Bisca Fara Cale after having previously cut an
antecedent valley in the mountain.
The Slanic, Niscov, and Cilnau are concentrated in the Sub-
carpathians, around the town of Buzau. The river then turns to the
northeast, leaving its old bed (the present Calmatui). It has a
pronounced steppe character and meanders a great deal. By correcting
its course, it could be made navigable as far as Buzau,
On the left the Siret receives a few minor tributaries except
for the Birlad, which with its ramified basin drains the whole cen-
tral Moldavian plateau. It flows initially toward the southeast as
though toward the Prut.
In this area it receives the Sacovat, Stavnic, Racova Vasluet,
and Crasna, the last three concentrated in the marshy area south
of Vaslui. It curves them to the southwest, taking the form of a
huge question mark. a curve which must be attributed to the low
area of the lower Siret.
In this sector it decapitates a series of telbutaries of the
Prut on the left, and on the right it collects parallel streams of
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the rivulet type, as the Simile, Tutova, Zeletin with the Berheci,
and their tributaries.
fi
Under the steppe system the Birlad registers exceptional in-
creases, causing 14rge inundations at flood times and becomes unrecog-
nisable in times of great drought, when it flows as a thin trickle
of dirty water. The density of 'its network varies between O30 and
060.
Finally, the valley of the Ger marks the northern limit of
the Rumanian Plain and it flows into the Siret, at Piscui.
The Prut Basin (23,952.40 sq km in its .entirety).. The Prut.
marks the USSR border for'470,km,from the town of 'Lunca, where it .
enters Rumanian territory, as far as the confluence with the. Danube.
It rises under the Cerna Gora massif (USSR) and flows 882 km
in all.
As far as the town of Radanti, the northernmost point in the
country, it has a very wide meadow, with many abandoned branches,
meanders, marshes. and willow and poplar thickets.
The valley is of the following type, the asymmetry of the' slopes
?
being very typical:
Between Radanti and Stefanesti the valley cut by epigensis
narrows greatly, reaching the maximum 'width of 300m and presenting
beautiful chains of meanders.
In the Tortonian limestone 'mosses at Stefanesti the valley
takes on the appearance of a true gorge (100 m across).
It widens in the Jijia depression to 5,km. Rere it also receives
its most important tributaries, the Baceu and Jijia joined with the
Sitna, Meletin, and Bahlui.
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?
ipawwwwwwrawa"
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? Another narrow, south of Iasi (Poarta Tutrei) is the result
of the more resistant formations of the central Moldavian plateau.
Downstream, the meadow widens progressively, exceeding 10 km
at the mouth. The tributaries are minor: the Prutet, Elan, etc.
The Pro has a typical steppe. character, .receiving only one
mountain tributary (Ceremus), an USSR. territory. The other tributaries
are small plateau streams with very unstable discharges. Because of
this. _although the Prut (882 km) is longer than the Siret, it has
,a smaller source basin (23, 953 sq km) and a man-discharge half
that of the latter cu m).
But because tAs gradient (0.10 - %0) is much less than the
Siret's (0.59 %0) the evacuation of water is very slow and more
favorable to navigation which can be carried on with ease.
The steppe features are even more pronounced in the case of
the rivers of the Jijia depression which sometimes dry up almost
completely, forcing the population to store water in innumerable
ponds (today partly filled in), and sometimes register increases
up to 6-7 m, over the low-water mark causing destructive floods
(1932),
The abundant alluvia which they bring in in suspension are
deposited on the Prut meadow in the form of silt which blocks the
confluences, thus forcing the tributaries to flow parallel with the
main stream for very long distances (66 km for the Jijia).
At present an unremitting effort is being made to exploit
as effectively as possible the (one word illegible' of the flood
plain, which are being transformed by levees into rice field
gardens, etc.
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V. Southeastern GronP(Dohrogesn). The Dobrogean rivers are
.
tributaries partly of the Danube and partly, of the Black Sea, both
groups emptying either directly or through lakes, small and large,
or estuaries.
They' are all small rivers, dug deep in the loess formations
or the tubular sediments of the Dobrogea plateau. The steppe climate
almost dires them up in summer, though they register great increases
during torrential rains, causing inundations due to very low flow
gradients.
The following rivers flow to the Danube via river estuaries
rich in fish: the Girlita, Oltina, Mirleanu, Limpasis, Cochirleni,
Carasu, Roman, Perceneaga, and Cams.
The Telita, Taita, Slava, and Casimcea flow towards the sea,
also via intermediate lakes or estuaries.
Lakes in the sRPR
General Classification, The water network of Rumania is com-
pleted by a series of lakes scattered over the entire territory.
Although there are over 2 560 of them, most of them are of minor
proportions, not over one sq km, so that in total they occupy 1% of
the area of the country.. Only eight of the lakes are more than 50
sq km in area -- Razelm, Sinoe, Potelu, Golovita, Greaca, Calarasi,
Brates, and Smeica.
,The variety of forms of relief, the petrographic constitution
which As so varied, the disturbed geologic and morphologic history,
the climatic shifts the passage of a river the sise of the Danube
across the country, the nearness of 236 km of seashore of the Black
Sea, as well as the intervention of man constitute the main causes
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which explain the great number of lake's, so different in nature, on.
Rumanian soil.
Taking account of the great variety in form, genesis, and
physical and chemical properties of the lakes, a whole series of
classifications can be made.
We shall group them, however, .by the relief units in which
they are located, considering the causes of their formation and,
in the more typical cases, their physical and chemical properties.
According to relief units there are the following types:
1. Mountain lakes
2, Hill and plateau lakes
3. Plains lak
Mountain (Alpine) Lakes. In the geologic past the mountain
lakes were much more extensive not only in number but particularly
in area.
Most of the present intra-Carpathian depressions, of tectonic
origin were formed back in the quaternary period with extensive
lakes which disappeared either through silting up or drainage by
rivers.
The climatic conditions peculiar to those times influenced
the growth of a luxuriant vegetation from which Calle coal deposits
which today constitute the wealth of these depressions. Among
"mountain lakes are the following types:
(a) Glacial Lakes, Among the present lakes, much reduced
In number, the most important categories are the Alpine lakes formed
either in the old glacial periods and consequently by erosion, or
behind morraine barriers accumulated after melting of the ice and
consequently-by damming (barrier).
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? Roth categories (erosion and barrier) are'distributed in mas-
sifs over 2,000 m in Rumania, in which there was a rather large ex-
tension of quaternary glaciation.
? They generally occur in zones 1800-2200 m high, according to
type: those formed by erosion at greater altitudes and those formed
by barriers at leaser altitudes.
They are g nerally round, with clear and cold water and are
called by the natives "goggle eyes."
They are not very large. Bucura in Retexat with its ten ha
being the largest, Their depth is slight: the deepest, Zanoaga,
also in Retezat, is barely 22,5 m.
In the eastern Carpathians the glacial lakes are fewer and
smaller,
The Rodna massiv has 12 lakes. Lala. beneath Ineu, and
Buhaescu, beneath Pietros being the biggest.
However glaciation had a much greater extension in the
southern Carpathians, where glacial lakes also have a wider distri-
bution,
The easternmost among them, Lacul fare Fund in Siriu,
considered of nivel origin.
In Fagaras the lakes are strung out in chains, especially
on the northern slope.
Biles is the picturesque, with a cascade of 60 m and
reaching a depth of over 9 s. The deepest lake in Fagaras is Podragul
'4 16 m.
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Also in the ragaras massif are; Copra, the source of the Argos,
Podragoiul source of the Arpas Mare, Urlea, Criltunul, Buda, Avrigul,
etc.
The Iezerul massif, which had limited glaciation, contains
only one important lake: lezerul.
Glaciation in the Cibin and Sebes mountains was also limited,
where two lakes (Iezerul Mare and Iezeral Mic) are the most repre-
sentative.
Paring now has several lakes (over 30) but most of them are
minor.
We shall mention: Gauri, Gilcescu, (3 ha in area and 10 in
deep), Paseri, Rosiile Iezerul, Slavoiul Muntinul, Urda, etc.
In Retezat, Th. Krautner mentions 40 large and small lakes:
Bucura, at the foot of the Peleaga massif, is 14.2 in deep and about
10 ha in area, the largest in the entire Carpathian chain; Zanoaga,
22.5 in in depth, Taul, the Gement (two lakes side by side),
Negru, Zanoguta, Custura, Peleaga, Vales Rea, etc.
Pme.0
AMV4A,
The glacial lakes in Godeanu and Tarcul are few in number and
small in size. Most of the lakes mentioned were formed in the, old
glaciai periods.
A glacial lake formed by morraine barrier is Girdoman, 1800 m
high in the Codean massif.
(6) Lakes in Volcanic Relief. The only instance of this category
is Lake Sfanta Ana in the crater of an extinct volcano in the Cio-
madul Mara massif. 950 m high, it has a diameter of 650 m and a depth
of 12 m, with a perfectly round shape. There have been similar lakes
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in the craters of our volcanic chain, .but they were drained by the
rivers which penetrated the interior of the chain by regressive
?erosion.
(c) Lakes Formed by Natural Barriers, Lake Rosu (Ghilcos)
was formed around 1850 by the sinking of part of Mt. Suhard into the
bed of the Bicaz, which blocked it and gave rise to and interesting
barrier lake. It is 1,300 in long, with a ramification of 400 m in one
of the secondary tributaries. It is 980 m high in an especially pic-
turesque region and it has given rise to the establishment of a beau-
tiful resort.
(d) Lakes Formed by Artificial Barriers. These are created by
man for various purposes.
Acquisition of the necessary discharge for the transport of
lumber on smaller streams. The famous "Haituri" (eastern Carpathians)
or the "Tauri" (Apuseni Mountains) are in this category. They are
Q1 an intermittent character, the water being received only in periods
when logs must be dispatched.
Acquisition of reservoirs for hydroelectric plants.
Acquisition of reservoirs for industrial centers, irrigation,
raising trout. etc,
2. Hill and Plateau Lakes. These are more numerous than moun-
tain lakes, but less varied in nature, and they are in general a di-
rect or indirect result of human activity. In the category of hill
and plateau lakes are those actually located in the lowest areas of
these natural units.
Their maxims distribution is thus to be found in the Transyl-
vanian plain and the nits depression.
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(0) Ponds or pools ere strung along small streams in steppe
areas. In many cases the barriers are natural, through blockage of
the main course by alluvia brought in by their tributaries or through
eliding of strata on slopes into a river.
Those are more frequent on the Transylvanian plain, which is
foremost anyway from the point of view of landslides. Very many of
the ponds, however, are made by man with artificial dams. Moreover
originally natural barriers have also been perfected by man.
Although the ponds had a wide distribution in the past, they
were greatly diminished in number long ago, either through silting
up or being filled with acquatic vegetation, due to neglect or
draining by man to acquire more arable land,
In the Jijia depression there are innumerable ponds ustad by sur-
rounding towns.
The most important is the pond at Draciani.
Balatau is a typical barrier lake, Bar ler lakes were once
much more p/entiful even on the "Transylvanian plain," most oi this--
m
being at present on the way to extinction. Among existing lakes the'
most important are Tags Geaca Cetina, Zaul de Cimpie. Sintein e; etc,
which have come to be repaired in recent times because of their in-
portance to the national economy.
(b) Lakes Formed in Karst Relief. Although karst phenomena are
quite wide spread in Rumania, the only typical lake is Ponoare on
the Mehedinti plateau formed in one of the many local 'valleys.
(c) Salt Lakes. According to their genesis they fall into two
categories:
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1. Lakes formed in old abandoned salt cones (Telega. 0,0na.
Sibiului, Turda, Cojocna, Ocnele Mari, Ocna Muresuluip Sic (71 m
deep) etc.
2. Lakes formed by natural means through dissolving of salt
massifs and subsequent subsidence of strata of Protective rock from
above (lakes Ursul, Alumis, Negru, Sovada, etc). They are very
numerous but also very small in area and generally sink quite rapidly.
Both types are used therapeutically today, to such an extent
that most of them have given rise to a series of spas in their neighbor-
hoods, some of them very'famous (Sovada, Ocnele Mari, etc). it,is of
interest to note the heliothermic phenomenon characteristic of all
salt lakes, but more productive at Lake Ursul at Sovada, where on
the surface is found
thin layer of fresh water, a few cm under
which the salt water is 16 - 200 C, while at 3-4m it reaches 60? C.
which increases its therapeutic value even more.
3. Plains Lakes. These are the most varied, both in shape and
origin, and at the same time they are the most numerous category and
the most important one from the economic point of view. According
to their genesis they are divided into the following groups (Figure
14):
Depression Lakes. According to some researchers these have a
marine origin, representing the last remains of the Leventine Sea
which occupied the Rumanian plain, but according to others they were
formed in depressions of eolian origin or from loess deposits which
covered Baraganul especially. The second hypothesis is the more
likely.
Their
the leachi
salinity in the latter case is due to the phenomenon of
g of salts from the soil either by rainwater or ground waters
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The most important depression lakes are Ianca, Plopul, Movila
Miresei Iasul Coltea, and Tatarul, located on the eastern part of
the Rumanian Plain.
Valley (Meadow) Lakes. These are strung out along the larger
rivers which have formed them and appear in two forms.
(a) The meadow lakes, the result of inundations or of abandon.
mentof meanders, they also occupy the greater area being grouped
in the larger area on the broad meadow of the Danube and other rivers,
and they form the most important class of lakes in Rumania. Those on
the Danube meadow are called fen lakes.
The fen lakes are expanses of water, generally shallow (1 - 2 m)
without high banks and with a highly variable perimeter dependent upon
the fluctuations of the rivers which feed them. They usually form
behind alluvial hills which serve as natural barriers. They are classed
as meadow lakes because they occur almost exclusively in that morpholog-
ical unit. In a great many cases, occupying old abandoned meanders or
rivers, they often also retain the shape of these meanders and are
called belcinge.
The most typical fen lakes in Rumania are those on the Danube
meadow stretching in a chain from Turnu Severin to the mouth of the
Danube. According to their grouping, shape, and size. the fen lakes
on the Danube meadow can be divided into several sectors
From Turnu Severin to Cetate. Here are found small fen lakes,
isolated or grouped, their distribution being almost confined to the
left bank of the Danube which is maintained at a quite high level.
The most important of these is the fen lake at Ochi, fed by the Drincea,
which comes down from the Mehedinti plateau.
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2, From Cetate to GLurgui, the Danube meadow gradually broadens,
but in Oltenia it is invaded by sand from the dunes. The fen lakes are
ranged in parallel rows, with an elongated shape and sometimes quite
extensive areas: Fintina Banului, Coldovap R-stut Bistretu Nat,
Cirna joined with Nedela, fed by the Desnatul, and then the large
fen lake of Potelu (105 sq km), west of the Olt: east of the Olt:
Berceul. Subai (48 sq km), fed by the Calmatui Teleormanuluip and
Mahan: fed by a ramification of the Vedea.
3. From Giurgiu to Calarasi the Etnube meadow widens further,
reaching 16 km in width. In this sector there are large fen lakes,
of more or less rounded shape, associated with a series of Small:l'en lakes:
Balta Lata, Greaca (92 ,q km), Boian and Calarasi (80 sq km)
4. From Calarasi to Braila are strung a multitude of fen
lakes and small streams, some outside the branehes of the Danube but
the majority are included within these branches in Balta Ialomitei and
A
Balt a Brailei. We mention. Coscovata, at the mouth of the Ialomita,
Lunguletul, Lacul Serban, Orza, Ulmuls etc in Salta Brailei- Blastama-
tiile, Mistreats, etc. in Belts Islomitei.
5 From Braila to the mouth are found a first series of fen
lakes associated along the Danube on the right bank (Jijila. Popina,
Crapina, and Plosca), and a second group of numerous fen lakes and
small streams among the branches of the D-nube on the delta (Fortuna
Gorgova, Matita, Merheiul Mare, Paiul, Lacul Rosu, etc).
The fen lakes on the delta, even in time of low water. occupy
360 000 ha.
In the class of valley lakes can be included Lake Comana on
the Neajlov meadow. and Lakes Maxineni and Namoloasa on the Siret
meadow.
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(10 River es-tusries 4.A747e to be found especitlly in the lower
Dsnube basin from the mouth of the Aixes to. the east, This basin
corresponds, -moreover, to the lowest area, of the plain,
They have developed along the old .abandoned courses or at -the
mouths of small tributarieS blocked by alluvial. deposits of the main
stream. In general they maintain thealongated''and serpentine shape
of the valleys in the bed of which theyare formed, and.. they some7.
times. attain considerable depths (Snagov M). In some cases
human'sOciety ha's' also, contributed to their formation by erecting,
levees.
On the left bank of the Danube are the,more typical Mostistea
and Galatui, west of CAlarasi, as well'aS the extensive Lake' Brates
at the confluence of the Drilube and the Prut. But most of them are
grouped on the right bank, in southwest Dobrogea (Girlita, Oltina,
Mirleanu, Limpezis, Vederoasai Cochirleni, etc).
In this category there are also the estuaries: Costeiu, Nisi-
purii Jirlau, Amara Balta Alba (on the left of the Buzau) appearing
to be old mouths of the .Rimpic, successively displaced; Lake Srata,
'apparently' prMed on an abandoned branch of the Danube, with a very .
high saline content and a therapeutic mud on the bottom Curcubeu,
Jilavele, Fundata, Amara (80 gr of salts per liter), Ezeru, Strachins
(on the.left of the Ialomita), Snagov. Caldarusani (on the right of
the Ialomita), etc,
(c) Lakes with artificial barriers, created by man to retain
water along small watercourses threatened by drought (Baneasa Tei
and Colentine in the vicinity of Bucharest) and a series of lakes
for fish hatcheries on the D nubian plain and the Tisa plain
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Maritime Estunries, Those form ono, of the most important
clnssos of lakes in Rumania. They extend along the shore of the Black
Sea, the largest ones constituting the group of "Orcitat Dobrogean, Lakes"
which are connected with the sea (Razelm, 0olovita, .Smeica, and Sinoe)
and whose total area amounts to 690 dq km. They are connected with
the sea through the very narrow opening of Port Its;
The small ones, the so-called ghiolurim are completely separ-
ated from the sea and are quite a distance apart (Tasaul, Siutghiol,
Mamaia) With waters sweetened by continental sources: Techirghiol,
with a concentration five times higher than the Black Sea, Tatlageac
Ghiol, and Mangalia.
Most of them are former maritime gulfs (the Razelm group) or
old river mouths. blocked by sands and partially or totally isolated
from the sea. The concentration of salts, in all cases higher than
the Black Sea, is due to the excessively warm and dry climate which
prevails in Dobrogea, especially in summertime. Because of the pro-
perties of the water in some estuaries only a limited number o
plant and animal species live there (crustaceans, algae, etc), and
their bottoms are covered with a stratum of fine mud very valuable for
therapy, In addition to their therapeutic importance, the maritime
estuaries are very rich in fish especially those with sweetened
water.
? Razelm ranks foremost, being fed with sweet water through
channels connecting with the Danube (the Dumavat and Dranov), for at
any accent its great salinity threatens its rich fish population
with extinction.
The south rn lakes of this group (Smeica, Since, Tuzla, and
Ciranasuf) constitute veritable catch basins for saline waters in
which often in summer, in times of great drought, salt is even
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deposited on the bottoms, The problem Of rational fishing Ln. all
these are is now a permanent concern in raising the economy even
higher in full development at Dobrogea,
We might also mention a cl ss of lakes of 'multiple origin
and properties o among which the most typical are the lakes Baile I
May and Victoria near Oradea,
Formed-near the Padurea Craiului massift which is mostly
limestone, they might be lakes formed In valleys (Natalia Senchea).
The water of these lakes, with a constant temperature of
over 260 Ct comes from great, warm artesian springs coming from the
?
interior of the earth's crust nnd which are related to local tectonic
phenomena, The concentration of salts in solution increases their
very high therapeutic value.
The economic importance of the lakes is immense: fishing,
tourism, hygiene, irrigation, hydroelectric power reserves, etc.
With the most rational possible exploitation of their varied
resources, they could achieve a general rise in the living standard
of Rumania,
The Black Sett
??????????*.M.????.....0?00.???????*????????or
Surrounded on all sides by the continent; with 's narrow gateway
to the Mediterranean through the Bosporus, the Black Sea is in the
category of closed continental seas,
Since the whole hydrographic network of Rumania, without a
single exception is tributary to the Black Sea, we can assert that
the RPR belongs in entirety to that basin. The overwhelming importance
which that maritime window has in the life of the Rumanian people
requires acquaintance with it, at least in the sector which adjoins
the country,
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GOAOSiS of the Black Sea. Russian and Soviet researchers have
.111?161110....01.1111.10404111.1.11111.1.1.0111.1.1.0..W.M.11101.10.1.0 ..1.46..1.01110.1.10
made the most detailed studies of the genesis, evolution, and pro-
perties of the slack Sea.
Its evolution from the oceanographic pointof view has been
clarified only in the last few decades, After the older works of
Sokolov and Andrusov, some hypothesei were made by Arkhangelskiy and
. and Mirchinik and more recently by Sokolskiy Nikitin, Muratov, etc.
The evolution of the remote past of the Black Sea does not
interest us in detail, since its present form dates barely from the
end of the Quaternary period.
Because of the breaking of the connection between the eastern
? and western Mediterranean, in the Sarmatian period the present basin
of the Black Sea was part of the well known Sarmatian Sea, By the
end of the Pontian period the Black Sea was greatly reduced in area.
collecting water in its tectonic sunken bottom where its area of
maximum depth is still located (Figure la).
It thus became an enclosed lake into which a series of con-
tinental waters flowed. The waters of lake became brackish and the
Pontain fauna developed under optimum conditions being represented
especially. byamilueks.
The-evolution of the Bla k Sea .basin became more complicated
in the Quaternary period.
Relying upon the very rich factual material and the synthesiz-
ing bibliography of the Russians and Soviets, Constantin Bratescu
clarifies this problem in his work Oscilatiile de nivee ale Marti
Negre (Oscillations of the Level of the Black Seal.
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Be reconstructs four periods in ',the Quaternary evolution of the
Black Sea,
I. The Lacustrian period, as a recess of the Caspian Sea,
which was much larger than at present, in the Guenz period, and as
an isolated lake in the interglacial Guenz-Mindel period.
II, The period of the Mediterranean-Caspian sleeve, or the
Mediterranean Gulf, in accordance with the glacial and interglacial
period
III. The isolated lake perio& a situation which the Caspian Sea
and the Sea of Marmora have in common. The straits are now occupied
by rivers. Toward the Black Sea, on the present course of the Bosphorus,
there is a short river (northern Bosphorus) and on the same course the
southern Bosphorus flows toward the Sea of Marmora and joins the pre-
sent Alibei and Kiathane flowing into the gulf of the Golden Horn.
The present shelves become dry for most of their area, with river
valleys cutting into them which now are submerged and which are brought
in evidence of movement of the isobaths.
IV. The period of the present basin, which took this form in
alluvium. The evolution of the straits, especially the Bosphorus,
is very interesting since the latter played an especially important
part in the evolution of the Black Sea. Research on the present mute
of the Dardanelles shows conclusively. on the basis of the continua-
tion of the various sedimentary strata, that up to the Levantine
period there was no strait in this area. Subsidence took place to-
ward the end of the Quaternary period as in Wurm II which deter-
mined the straits. The Bosphorus was formed somewhat later, being
preceded by a division into two rivers flowing in opposite direc-
tions, one to the Black Sea and the other to the Sea of Marmora. (Fig-
ures 17, 18, 19).
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The oscillations of the levels of the Mediterranean and Black
Seas, due to variations in climate in the Quaternary period as well
as the epirogenetic, isotatic, and erogenetic movements, contributed
not only to the formation of these straits but also to the deter-
mination of the general morphologic aspects of the Black Sea basin.
Certainly the melting of the glacial caps was the main cause of the
intrusion of the Mediterranean waters through the Dardanelles and
?Bosporus into the Black Sea.
The level of the Black Sea waters was raised by at least
100 m, supported to a great extent Also by the huge quantity of
karst river water from the north and northwest (the Don, Dnieper,
Dniester and Dnnube).
The lower part of the continent was thus invaded by water.
giving rise to the present shelf. The river valleys were inundated
either completely or only partially: causing them to flood the
secondary ramifications of the basins. Thus many maritime gulfs were
formed along the shore, the largest among them being the site of the
formation of the Danube delta. Then followed a great period of sea
and river alluvial formation, in which we still find it, In the
first 'place the Danube formed its meadows and small streams, damming
its fen lakes and forming its delta. The slight steppe waters, in
the Beragan and Dobrogea with limited discharge, were blocked,
forming many river estuaries in Dobrogea (Girlita..01tina, Mirletnu.
etc): in,the Baragan Clostistea, Gelatui), and in the Black Sea lit-
toral area between the Prut, Dniester and Bug.
The intrusion of Mediterranean waters through the straits
played a definitive part in the present formation of the Black Sea
basin, and in ito new physical and biological features, due to the
following causes:
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The rise in level of the waters, extension of the area.
and increase in depth of the Black Sea:
2, The extension of the shore line through inundation of the
river valleys, so that it subsequently was 'evened by sand deposits,
so that the shore line is now regular!
3 Formation of two opposite currents flowing in 'the Straits
of the Bosphorus!
? 4, Stabilization of a characteristic thermal. zyz.penv
5. Stratification .of waters according to source and degree of
salinity,
Physical and Geographical Description of the Black Sea Situa-
tion. The Black Sea is located in the heart of the Eurasian continen-
tal mosses, in the area where the two meet, belonging to the Soviet
Union The Rumanian People's Republic. the Bulgarian People's
Republic, and Turkey. The locale has the advantage that it is at the
crossroads of three continents (Europe, Asia, and Africa), through
the intermediary of the Mediterranean and having as such a parti-
cular economic and political importance.
Its position in the heart of the continent also has some dim-
advantages, Thus, in the first place it is a continental sea, almost
.?,
isolated and distant from the ocean. The connection with the Mediter-
ranean through the Bosporus and the connections by river routes with
a series of other seas, due to canals built in the USSR and to those
being_built in the people's democratic countries (Danube-Oder) as
well .as to the canals through which the Danube connects with the
Rhine and indirectly with the Rhone have appreciably remedied these
deficiencies,
Another obstacle ii the surrounding terrain, with differing
altitudes. To the east, south and southwest the Black Sea shores are
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lined with high mountain barriers (Caucasus,. Pontic Stranjii Deg,.
and Balkan Mountains) which shut off the warmth of the Mediterranean.
But to the north the broad Russian continental platform, repre-
sented by the Ukrainian plains and continued by a very low shoreline
allows free penetration of air masses from the Siberian highs into
the maritime basin.
Due to these conditions of surrounding relief, the Black Sea
influences the surrounding dry climate very little. and only in some
areas (Crimea, Colchis) but undergoes strong influences from the
extreme continental climate.
Area and Depth. Its location in the middle of extensive and
very irregular continental masses is aggravated by the fact that the
Black Sea has a quite limited area and depth. Along with the Sea of
Azov it occupies an area of 462,565 sq k12, and an arekof 411 540
sq km2 without it.
The formation of its bottom is qudte varied. Bathymetric maps
prepared by Soviet researchers (Sokolskiy ikrd Nikitin, 1923-1926)
have established a mean depth of 1,147 m the maximum depth being
2.246 m off Asia Minor. But the depth varies unevenly from the
Oerifery to the center. While along the coast of the Caucasus and
Asia Minor the depth increases rapidly with only a few km of shelf
to. reach 2000, m after 70 km, along the northern and western coasts
there is a wide shelf which drops gradually to great depths. Off
Odessa, 500 km from the shore, the sea is 200 m deep, and off'Con-
stints... 150 km from the shore, it is already down to 2,000 m (Figure
20).
The water level of the.Black Sea.is not constant.but oscilllates
annually in conformity with the amount of fresh water brought in by the
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great rivers (an 83-cm layer) and the precipitation falling on the
-surface. Periodic changes of level are also registered because of
strong winds; they consist of gently rhythmic motions similar to
the tides and reach only a few cm.
Temperature. Since the Black Sea has a typical continental
basin, the temperature of its surface waters registers the varia-
tions of the surrounding land. It could thus be established, accord-
ing to prolonged observations by the oceanographic station at Sevas-
topol, that the surface layers of the Black Sea are affected by the
thermal fluctuations of the atmosphere down to 50 m in depth on the
high seas and down to about 100 m near the shore (Mihailescu
Rominia).
From 50 to 150 am the temperature remains almost the same,
showing, even toward the bottom, some tendency to warm in spring
and summer.
On the surface the temperature follows the seasons. In spring
it remains between 6? and SP, to go up to 23? in summer: it is un-
changed for 50 m down. Between 50 and 75 m it is, colder than the
? surface. At a depth of 2.000 m, slightly rising, the mean tempera-
ture is around 90. In the corner between the Danube and the Dniester.
where the water is more brackish the sea is sometimes frozen for
three months; in hard winters even .the piers at Constants are frozen
in.
Salinity. The continental influence also affects the compost-
'tion of Black Sea waters. Due to the contribution of fresh waters
brought by the greet rivers (the Danube, Dniester, Bug, Dnieper,
and Don). the relatively low evaporation, and the narrow connection
with'the Mediterranean, the water of the Black Sea has a brackish
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character. But the salinity varies with depth. In the surface layers
it is low, remaining around 17-18% and dropping toward the Soviet and
Rumanian shores to just below 10%. Toward the bottom it gradually
increases to 21% at 200 m and 23-24% at great depths (2,000-2,200 m).
Of the Bosporus, at 60 in depth, it has a maximum of 36.49%, reflect-
ing the salty current from the Mediterranean. We can accordingly
classify Black Sea waters in regard to salinity into the following
stratifications:
-1. A surface layer, brackish, with limited density, with a
thickness of about .25 in.
.2. An intermediate zone between the surface layer And the deep
strata, 25-100 in down, with a medium density and. salinity.
3. A mass about 2,000 in thick, with pronounced density. This
stratification is also a result of the shallowness of the Bosphorus
(48 m average depth, 660 m wide, and 28.5 km long) and it has a
great biological importance, since it does not permit exchanges
between surface and deep, waters because of the high density of
thope, on the bottom.
This explains the most original feature of the Black Sea;
namely, the presence of H28 200 in down near the shore and 150 - 180,
in down offshore.
While H2S is found between 160 and 200 m in quantities of
0.5 cu cm per liter, at great depths, at about 2,000 st the amount
of H2S reaches 7 Cu.cm per liter, almost the sass proportion as oxygen
at the surface.
The amount of oxygen itself drops from 7 Cu cm per liter in
the surface sone to O5 cu cm toward 150 m depths. From 180 m on down
it is completely absent.
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The source of H2S and its increase toward the depths is due
to reduction of the sulphates contained in the organic matter falling
from the surface under the action of bacteria of the genera Microspira
and Bacterium Hydrosulphuricum Ponticum discovered by Isachenko. It
is a process similar to that which goes on, on a small scale in Lake
Techirghiol.
Currents. The peculiar character'of the Black Sas is also due
to the horizontal circulation between its basin and that of the Medi-
%
terranean. After a series of detailed researches it was established
that there are two currents in the Bosphorus: a surface one with
fresher water from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, evacuating
about 152 cu km of water per year, and another deep one from the
Mediterranean to the Black Sea carrying about 173 Cu km a year. This
saline current is diluted as it moves, $o that it drops from 36.67%
at the bottom of the Sea of Marnora to 22.80% at the bottom of the
Black Sea. In general the Black Sea receives from the Mediterranean,
from precipitations and from the rivers which feed Itabout 1,000
Cu km of water a year. of this 152 cu km is evacuated through the
discharge current of the Bosphorus and the remaining 850 cu km
are evacuated by evaporation.
The intensive evaporation causes a loss of a great quantity
of heat to the sea and leads to important temperature variations.
The.horizontal surface currents are formed under. the direct influence
of the prevailing winds (Figure
).
The mostimportant of these currents is the one caused by the
north wind. Coming from the northeast, the north wind penetrates with
ease the low lying shore area between the Crimea and the mouths of
^
the Danube, striking the surface waters of the sea in a southwesterly
direction. To it is added the current of water expelled by the Danube
from its mouth.
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Its direct action is reflected in the fact that the shore
level is much smoother and that, because of this sedimentation,
there is a pronounced difference between the eastern and western
parts of the Black Sea. When it reaches the Bospborustbecause of
the narrows, the current loses only a small amount of water, con-
tinuing on its way toward the Asiatic coast, due to the propulsion
from behind of the waves driven by the north wind. It thus becomes
a cyclonic current, circling the whole Black Sea basin. Because of
the central narrowness of the Black Sea basin, the cyclonal current
forms a double circuit, with one circular current in the eastern
part and the other in the western part.
A circular current can also be traced in the interior of the
Sea of Azov, a circular coastal current in the Gulf of Balchik, and
a current from the Crimea toward the Rumanian coasts.
The deep currents coming through the BosObOrushave a movement
opposite to the surface ones. There are also vertical currents in
the Black Sea, but only in the superficial stratum (200 m), which
aerated in this way tolerate life.
Life in the Black Sea. All life in the Black Sea is restricted
to the upper oxidized layer. Below 200'm, in the central layer devoid
of oxygen, living organisms disappear almost entirely, with the sole
exception of anaerobic bacteria and a few protozoa. Since 85-90% of
the volume of the Black Sea is abiotic, its life is much less developed
than that of the other seas. Due to the great local variations in
milieu, the animal associations are quite varied:
According to origin, the Black Sea fauna can be divided into
three groups:
Relict lacustrian forms from the. old Pontic basin;
Mediterranean forms, which came through the Bosphorus,
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Fluvial forms adapted to the brackish Black Sea milieu.
The flora consists of very numerous green, red, or blue algae,
which do not go below 75 m, and innumerable plant microorganisms:
sulphurous, nitrificant, and luminous bacteria.
The only mammals are dolphins, which are quite numerous, and
only one species of the seal family (Monachus albiventer), which
lives, in the smallest forms, on the fish around Cape Caliacra.
About 200,000 dolphins are caught annually, and according to
Soviet research their number is increasing from 800,000 to 1,,000,000
head. Fish are the most numerous. 150 species are presently known.
Among these 18% represent relict Pontic forms, 60% are Mediterranean,
and 22% are fresh water fish adapted to the brackish environment.
Over 80 species are useful. The dog fish, (Squalus acanthius) is
the most representative among the sharks, reaching 1.5 in in length.
It is extraordinarily rapacious. Very important from the economic
point of view are the ganoids (morun nisetru, pastruga, sipca)
from which cured filet of sturgeon and black caviar are, derived.
They lay, their eggs aloag the rivers and return ,p,o the sea in autumn.
,Also valuable are' Danubian herring, rizeavca gray'mullet,. calcanii
,and limba de mare [flounder ,. blue herring, anchovy, tuna, gingirica,
etc.
Recent SoViet studies, particularly by Vodyanetskiy, Golochenko,
and Zusser have shown that some of these species, considered occasion-
1 migrants (tuna, ,gingirica, etc) stay in the Black Sea all year
and are found in very great quantities, but this was not previously
known.. Besides fish there is also a series of edible lamellibranchia
in the Black Sea, the most important being oysters and mussels, along
with crustaceans, of which the crab is the most representative. But
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compared with other seas, the Black Sea is poor in Animal life. .This,
however, is not a' permanent situation, since in time the surface layer
of water will become cOntinually thinher and since the discharge of
water to the Mediterranean is the greater one.
While initially the biotic layer will shrink, when most of the
Black Sea Waters are of Mediterranean origin, the vertical movement
of-air will be able to reach the bottom., and then the biotic area of
the sea will be considerably increased and populated primarily by
Mediterranean species.
The Rumanian Littoral of the Black Sea. From Gura Chiliei
Varna Veche, the Rumanian shore of the Black Sea extends some 236
km.
In accordance with its general nature and economic importance,
it can be divided into two sectors, Cape Midia being the dividing
point.
The northern sector takes the form of a low shore (10-15 m)
with numerous streams in the sand and elongated fen bogs good for
fishing sturgeon. .
South of the Sf. Goorghe branch, on the site of the old Halmiris
gulf, there are now four large lagoons threatened by low water:
Ratelm, Golovita Zmeica, and Sinoe. The coastal bars have closed
off almost completely' the link with the sea of the old gulf, into
which the Greek ships at one .time sailed as far as the-fortress at
Histria. The only connection with the sea today is through the narrow
opening of Portita, and fresh water comes into the northern lagoons
(Raxelm and Golovita) through channels connecting with the Danube.
Zmeica and Sinoe, however, are?much more saline than the Black Sea.
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At present navigation is very difficult in this sector because
of the coastal bars, and it is possible only parallel to the coast.
The only approach to the mainland is the Sulina branch, where lack
of a route into the interior of the country has forced man to modify
not only the seacoast but also the river branch to make it navigable.
The most important human settlement of this whole stretch is
the _port of Sulina. The other settlements are fishing villages or the
very numerous fishing depots.
The second sector of the shore extends from Cape Midia to yams
Veche. As in the northern sector, here also are plainly old gulfs or
river mouths being barred and completely isolated from the sea, which
process has transformed them into very concentrated salt lakes when
they are not fed by waters flowing from the mainland. The first Sarma-
tian limestone formations appear at Cape Midia, which explain the
presence of the promontory.
From COnstanta to Vama Veche the shore becomes a high and steep
cliff alternating with a wide beach, with loess walls which are sink-
ing and compact Sarmatian strata.
Constanta the chief Rumanian maritime port, is also the most
important settlement on the littoral.
A number of spas have become real towns: north of Constanta is
Mamaia, with its famous beach; to the south there is a chain of spas:
Eforie, Vasile Roaita, Techirghiol on the shore of the lake of the
same name, and Managalia further south. A series of future adaptation
projects will be able to transform the littoral lakes into marvelous
sheltered gulfs for the installation of ports.
The Economic Importance of the Black Sea. For Rumania the
Black Sea is especially important, a "window" creating favorable
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conditions for economic, social, and political development.
Long before our era, the economic and cultural expansion
of the Greeks had already transformed the western littoral of the
Black Sea into a flourishing region. Toads, Histria, and Callatis
versa few of their most important towns, being not only fortresses
but also particularly active centers for the exchange of the agri
cultural products from Dadia (wheat, rye, honey0, fish, etc) for manu-
factured goods brought by the Greek ships (olive oil, fine fabrics,
ceramics, Greek wine, etc). The flourishing state of the Black Sea
littoral is also mentioned in the Roman period, when the old mari-
time fortresses continued their agricultural activity. The Romans
linked all these fortresses by a highway parallel with the seashore
and built defense ramparts in Dobrogea, ruins of which can still be
seen today.
Twist Ovid's place of exile, was sung in his verses.
Later, during the time of the formation of the Rumanian
provinces, our masters made costly efforts to add the Black Seacoast.
-Mircea the Old succeeded in making himself lord "as far as the
Black Sea ."
-Under the Genoese the fortress-Ports carried on an intensive
commerce with the Rumanian provinces.
During all these periods, however, a tendency of the various
temporary masters (Greek Roman, and Turkish) to exploit the natives
is to be seen.
After the rule of Mircia the Old in Wallachia and Stefan the
Great in Moldavia, the sea no longer belonged to us. The domination
of the crescent transformed it into a "Turkish lake," and it remained
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in this state for about 300 years. The only ships that sailed in
this enclosed lake were Turkish.
Navigation ceased completely. The mouths of the Danube silted
up and Constanta, the Tomis of old, became a mere fishing village
of some 60 families.
During this period the Russians fought repeated'wars with
the Turks, whom they defeated, imposing peace terms very favorable
to the-Rumanian provinces.
The peace of Kuchuk-Kainargi (1774) was the first step in re-
viving commerce on the Black Sea, as the Russians and other nations
gained the right to navigation. After 1829 this revival is even more
evident.
The decay of the Ottoman Empire was exploited by English,
French, and other capitalists to extend and consolidate their domina-
tion over the countries of southwest Europe. Constants developed,
especially, after 1858, when the English, in whose interest it was
to get their hands on our cereals as readily as possible, built a
railroad between Cerna Voda and Constanta.
In 1877 Dobrogea was returned to Rumanian rule after the War
of Independence, which we won with the help of the Russian armies,
at whose side we fought against the Turks In 1877 Constanta was
still a primitive port.
?- In 1896 the construction of the present modern port was begun,
which was completed after 1900 and in which elevators and great
storage tanks, for oil and grain were installed; since these were
the most important commodities sought by the capitalists of Western
,Europe.
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Conclusions
1. The hydrographic net of Rumania includes water tablesp
springs, river systems, lakes, and the Rumanian sector of the Black
Sea.
1. The water tables vary in water supply and.depth, depending
upon the amount of precipitation, .evaporation, aridity indexes,
thickness Of the permeable stratum, relief features, vegetation
cover, etc.
? 3. Thesprings.are most varied in form, temperature, and
chemical composition. The, large number of mineral springs is related
in most.cases.to volcanic eruptions, areas of diaPyrism, and tectonic
lines.
4. The country's river system is greatly ramified, the Danube
being the sole collector except a few minor Dobrogea rivers.
As regards river systems, they show the following features:
(a) Adaptation to relief by the general direction of flow,
grouping in basins, general radial formation, parallel formation on
gently inclined plateus, concentration In depression basins, dispersal
on former alluvial fans, etc.
(b) Adaptation to geologic structure by the various character-
istics displayed by the longitudinal and transverse profiles of the
valleys, in accordance with special adjustment to rock erosion.
(c) Adaptation .of the hydrographic net to tectonics, through
concentration of fluvial arteries in areas of subsidence and dis-
persion in areas of bulging of the relief, by Orientation along
lines of subsidence,? etc.
(d) Great variety and density of the hydrographic net in ?
basins of types 3 and 4, according to climate, massiveness of relief,
geologic structure, soils vegetation, the human factor, etc.
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0,?
(e) Pluvionival source for the whole hydrographic net, related
to the climatic system of th
country.
? (f) The level variations
continental climatic influences.
and decreases is characteristic
between extreme levels .are freq
show pronounced fluctuations indicating
Double periodicity of their increases
, and great amplitudes and abrupt shifts
uent.
?(g) Seasonal fluctuation of discharges related to amount and,
frequency of precipitation.
(h) Division into permanent and temporary fluvial organisms,
depending upon climate, gradients, ?geologic structure vegetation,
etc.
(1) Grouping of the net into several associations (west, south-
west, south, southeast, east), depending upon the general features
of the watercourses, conditioned, in their turn, by the differentia-
tion of the physical
and geographical factors.
5. There are over 2,000 lakes
most of them small There are only a
sc km.
on the territory of the RI*,
few exceptional lakes over. 50
6. The great number of lakes is explained by the variety of
elief, disturbed geologic and morphologic past,
the? forms of
matic changes,
the territory,
the passage of a river
they presence of 236 km
the size of the Danube over
of Black Sea littoral, the
intervention of human'eivilization etc.
7. The classification Of lakes is
based upon, ?the relief in
which they occur, their genesis, and their physical and chemical pro-
perties.
8. The hydrographic net of Rumania plays a particularly im-
portant part in its economic, political and social life.
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(Pages 2304551
SOILS OP THE RPR
Inill????ftr1
Florea Nioolae
Before 1900 the study of soils did not constitute a problem
for Rumanian scientists, so that before that date the literature is
devoid of soil studies. But Rumania can pride itself on the fact that
it is The first country 'in the world outside Russia where the new
concepts and new method of the "school of Russian naturalists," cre-
ated by V. V. Dokuchayev at the end of the nineteenth century were
applied. G. Murgoci, the founder of podology in Rumania, adopted
from the beginning the fruitful principles of Russian genetic peology
in soil research.
In Dokuchayev's concep
soil is considered as the upper part
of the lithosphere, resulting from the action of a complex of natural
factors (vegetation, climate, rock, relief, age); it therefore repre-
sents a natural body, which is born, grows, and changes. Consequently,
soil research cannot proceed apart from the terrain in its natural
setting, where consideration can be given to the actual physical and
geographic conditions of its formation and evolution; the basis of
definition and classification of soils is the genetic type of the
soil, characterized by a definite morphological aspect of the pro-
,
file of the soil, which comprises the whole hiato
Of the soil 4 s
development. In connection with soil g ography, Dokuchayev also estab-
lishes a general law of zonality of soils: this is, the distribution
of soils on the earth in .zones which have developed in a correspon,-
dence with zones of climate and vegetation.
G. Muragoci and his collaborators, in.applying this new con-
cept of soil, succeeded in a short time in drawing up a map of the
,soils of Rumania on a scale of 1:2,500,000 which was presented at
the international conference in Budapest in 1909. In 1923, the map
of soil tones was published on a 1:1,500,000 scale.
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In recent years soil science in Rumania has taken on a new
impetus: the plains area in particular has been investigated, where
important problems have arisen,in connection with the socialistic
transformation of agriculture. The new research projects are ori-
1
ented alonvthe lines laid down by V. R. Vil yams, who demonstrated
that soil is formed by the,prevsfiling action of plant formation
and he also develops a doctrine of phases which parallel the latter.
Relating pedology to practice, Villyams has shown that the essential
quality of soil is fertility, and that therefore soil should be.in-
vestigated not' only as a natural phenomenon, but also as a means of
production.
Zonality,of Soils?in the'RPR
Because of oreohydrographic, climatic, and highly varied
botanic conditions in the RPR, most soil zones are to be found in
Rumania despite its relatively small area. This is true both in
horizontal,' 1P1,ains and plateau) and in vertical, mountainous, area.
The soil zones in the plains area of Moldavia and Wallachia are a
continuation of the corresponding zones in the south of the USSR,
? which they closely resemble, so that in the classification of these
soils the Russian peological principles were adopted from the begin-
ning by G. Murgoci, and even the Russian terminology was used.
The following soil zones (vertical and horizontal) appear
in the RPR, proceeding from the highest areas to the plains.
Zone of Alpine meadow soils.
Zone of primary podzolic soils (brown, acid podzols, primary
podzols.
Itethe of secondary podzolic soils (brown podzols and light
gray forest soils or secondary pOdzols;
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Zone of red brown forest soils, brown forest soils, and
gray forest soils
Zone of chernozems, degraded and levigated for forest-steppe
Zone of chernozems, with common chernoiems (properly speaking),
chocolate chernozems, and chestnut chernozems
Zone of light brown steppe soils
The first two zones belong to the vertical zonal group, and
the last four to the horizontal group; the secondary podzol zone
appears in both zonal groups.
:By 1911, G. Murgoci had noted the fact that "between the Danube
and the mountains, for a distance of about 150 km, we find all the
soils of Russia between the Black Sea and the Baltic. Therefore, the
study of soil zones is more interesting and perhaps more promising
in Rumania, where everything is concentrated, but distinct in a small
area, than in other countries, where the zones are on a colossal
scale, so that only certain zones are represented."
The soils pecVliar to each soil zone constitute the so-called
zonftl soils, in whose formation and evolution vegetation and climate
play the principal part, and which are distributed over a wide area
forming continuous bands. However, within a soil zone may be found,
usually in a restricted area, in isolated spots or belts, intrazonal
and azonal soils (or soils with local distribution) whose genesis is
influenced by local conditions (rock, relief,, ground water, or age).
As examples of such soils can be cited: rendzin, saline soils, Alluvial
soils, etc.
The distribution of the soil zones is influenced by the Car-
pathian chain, which proceeds in a long line parallel to them. How-
ever, no direct relationship has been established between soil zones
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and orography or geologic formations; this is to be seen especially
in Moldavia and Wallachia, where the forest soils dispute their domain
with thee chernozems, both on the plateaus and on the plain (G.
Murgoci). Nevertheless, in some local cases relief and the nature of
the soil-forming rocks have had such an influence upon the genesis
and evolution of soils as to give rise to soils, other than the zonal
ones (the case of rendzine, rhumic carbonated soils], sandy soils,
shifting sands, etc). We also note that r cent river valleys and ter-
races,as well%as regions of diversion of rivers, interrupt soil
zones in relatively narrow bands with young soils, while at other
times they determine the advance of some zones above the river ter-
races.
However, it is clear from comparison of the soil zone map
with the vegetation or humidity zone maps of the RPR that there is
a close connection between these zones (N. Cernescu, P. Encuiescu).
We present in the following pages a brief description of the
natural conditions and principal soils in the soil zones which appear
in the RPR, from the mountain areas down to the plains.
Soils of Vertical Zonality. Vertical zonality of soils is character-
istic of mountain massifs where the soil distribution is closely con-
nected with altitude being conditioned by changes of vegetation and
climate in accordance with the altitude. The soils of the vertical
zones are analogous to those of the horizontal zones but not identical;
the former in comparison with the latter generally have a shorter
profile, with the horizontal lines unclear, contain more skeletal
material, and are usually subject to strong erosion.
? We find the following soils in the vertical zonal group:
_Alpine meadow brown soils appear in Alpine barrens and high
mountain barrens and high-mountain meadows, occupying gently inclined
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plateau .areas; they form scattered islands with highly irregular con-
tours, distributed at altitudes of over 1700-2000 m, conglomerate,
pOlygenouts, limestone, etc. The climate in this area is humid and
cold, with violent winds and strong insolation in summer; the period
of vegetation is relatively short. The flora of these soils is in the
association of grasses with Nerdua stricta, Festuca supine, Carex
curvula, etc. Wood vegetation is represented by bilberry bushes,
azaleas; dwarf willows, etc; toward the forested area jnepeni and
ienuperi [junipers] appear
The formation process of the Alpine meadow brown soils is charac-
teri ed by:
Accumulation of humus (acid) as the result of humification of
g tal organic substances (remains of grasses) at low tempera-
tures;
Predominance of processes of physical disaggregation of rocks,
the deterioration consisting of debasing of silicates followed
by their decomposition into silicas, aluminum hydroxides, and
iron without formation of clay.
The profile of the Alpine meadow brown soils is generally thin
(40-70 cm) with indistinctly differentiated horizons and containing
numerous fragments of mother rock. It shows one horizon with humus
(A) of-10-15 cm, brown and sandy, followed by horizon B, 30-60 cm
thick, rust brown; horizon Co of accumulated carbonates, is missing.
lrbs humus content is high, 10-25%, in horizon A, generally
becoming 2-7% in B, sometimes remaining 5-20% They are acid soils
(pH below 5.5) and unsaturated with a base, the degree of saturation
dropping even below 20%
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Alpine meadow brown soils are used for pasture; excessive
pasturing, however, often has negative effects on the physical pro-
perties of these soils, a fact which favors their development Into
peat soils.
In Alpine barrens there often appear, in depressions below
white moss (Sphagnum) vegetation, the peat bogs of high regions and
peat coils, with a very acid reaction. On the other hand, in open
spaces and on sunny plateaus beneath a strongly zerophilous vegeta-
tion, the soils begin to take on the nature of the black soils of
the cold steppes.
Primary mountain podzols are found only in high mountain areas ,
(1,000-1,800 m), with humid and cold climate. Precipitation in these
areas is 900-1400 mm, and the mean annual temperature is 2.9-5.2 Ci
the aridity indexes are over 55. The vegetation is forests of juniper
and spruce (sometimes also fir and beech), with associations of
Vaccinium, Sphagnum, etc. The soil-forming rocks are most varied,
but they are usually massive rocks (eruptive rocks, crystalline
schists, sandstones, conglomerates, etc).
The genesis of the primary podzols is characterized by;
Formation of strongly acid humus, weakly saturated with base,
and its accumulation in subhorizons ?Ai and 81,
Advanced deterioration of minerals, with direct destruction
of the silicates, freezing the silicas (which accumulate
residually in the horizon above (A), iron and aluminum hydroxides
(which accumulate in the next horizon (B) and bases, which are
separated from the profile).
Ao stratum with organic substances in course of decomposition,
2-5 cm thick, dense, looking like peat.
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A1, 545 cm thick, grayish black, without structure, with an
accumulation of humus and silicas.
A2, 8-15 cm or, sometimes thinner, grayish white, without struc-
ture, residual accumulation of silicas.
81, 5-15 cm thick, brown-black rust color, with accumulation
of humus and iron hydroxides.
82 15-80 cm thick, brown with slight rust coloration, without
accumulation of humus.
Horizon C is generally lacking, the carbonation being completely
spread through the whole profile.
Sometimes fragments of parent rock appear throughout the pro-
file.
They are very strongly acid soils (pH = 3,5-4,5) with a very
low degree of saturation dropping even below 10%. The fertility of
th se soils is very low. They are not used in agriculture since
n ither the climate nor the relief permit it. They are generally
covered with forest vegetation or. Alpine meadows. The latter must be
pastured r tionally to prevent soil erosion, which can become a very
serious problem due to the steep gradients.
The secondary mountain -podzols appear in Mountainous regions
and high hills, usually below 1,000 in; they are formed beneath decidu-
ous or mixed forests; These soils, like the mountain podzolic brown
soils, which accompany both primary and secondary podzols, appear
both in the vertical and horizontal zonal groups, so that we shall
describe them with the latter, where they are found with more typical
characteristics.
Soils of Horizontal Zonality.
The distribution of soils in level regions in successive zones
parallel to zones of climate and vegetation constitutes horizontal
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zonality. The soils of horizontal zones display their most typical
characteristics on flat surfaces.
zones:
n Rumania the following soils are found in the horizontal
Secondary podzols or light gray forest soils appear in forest
regions in plateau or low-hill areas, occupying watersheds and gentle,
uneroded slopes. They are found on the Getic plateau, in the Subcar-
pathian hills, in the northwestern half of the Central Moldav4.an
plateau, on the western hills, in the eastern part of the Tirnava
rivers plateau, and 'on the Somes plateau.
The climate of the secondary podzol zone is temperate.e?humid,
with annual precipitation between 630 1035 mm and mean annual tempera-
tures 5.9-10 2? C; the aridity index is 35-55 The characteristic
natural vegetation is deciduous forest (beech, evergreen oak). The
relief is much cut up by the deep valleys separated by hills or
highlands more or less subject to erosion processes. The soil forming
rocks are most varied, but generally poor in calcium carbonate; erup-
tives, crystalline schists, and various sedimentary rocks (sandstones,
clays, sand, gravel, tc).
The genesis of the secondary podzois is characterized by:
Formation of acid humus, readily soluble, after decomposition
upsownwrowePlowiti
of the forest bed (layer of leaves) mainly through fungi.
Very intensive levigation of soils readily and not readily
? soluble duo to abundant precipitation and the action of humic
acids, especially fulvic-acids.
Quite advanced breakdown of mineral material with formation
of clay and partial secondary breakdown of clay into silicas,
which accumulate residually In horizon A, and iron and aluminum
hydroxides, which are transferred and accumulated in horizon B.
Extensive transfer of clay (as well as iron and aluminum hydroxides)
to horizon B.
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Advanced debasing of the colloidal complex in the soil.
The profile of a secondary podzol under, forest vegetation
shows the following horizons and subhorizons:
A01 or bed of 2-5 cm of leaves (not found in cultivated secon-
dary podzols).
Al, horizon, of humus accumulation, 5 20 cm thick, gray,
without structure or with structure of small unstable clods which
readilT disintegrate into a fine dust; shows accumulation o humus
and residual accumulation of silicas.
the, subsoil horizontal, characteristic of these soils,
20-30 cm thick or sometimes thicker, light gray or grayish 'white,
without structure or sometimes somewhat leafy but unstable; does not
present a visible accumulation of humus but may often contain up to
10-15% unou yellow fulvic acid, "- presence of which is not morphological
evidence.
the aluvial horizon, about 80-100 cm thick, reddish
brown, often with gray and rust colored spots, with clear accumu-
lation of clay and iron, aluminum, and manganese hydroxides, compact,
with-a prismatic structure and numerous concretions of iron and man-
ganese oxides.
C, the horizon of accumulation, of carbonates; Yellow may often
be lacking, the carbonates being levigated into ground water.
In the case of the mountain secondary podzolst-the soil pro-
file usually presents thinner horizons, with horizon C lacking.
The chemical properties of the secondary podzols are unfavor-
able to the growth of cultivated plants.
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The humus content is low (1-3%) even in subhorizon Al and
drops rapidly in the profile; they also have a low N content. They
show an acid reaction (pH 4.8.- 5.9) They are not saturated with a
base, the degree of saturation frequently dropping below 70%. Very
poor in nutritive elements. Their physical properties are also
unfavorable; they are not structured, and they are heavy; in horizon
B they have little p rmeability and are poorly a rated. Subhorizon
A2 shows the most positive chemical and biological properties.
The mountain secondary podzols have a more pronounced acidity
and a much lower, degree of saturation, and their physical properties
are even more unfavorable.
The secondary podzols are used for orchards, pastures, or
even for cultivation of crops. But they are the least fertile soils
for agriculture. In the first years, right after the forests are cut,
they yield abundant harvests, then their productivity drops sharply.
To improve their fertility it is necessary to introduce rotation
with perennial grasses to create a granular structure and increase
the humus content, to use organic and mineral fertilizers to enrich
the soil with nutritive elements, treatment with limestone or marl
(corrective); in the case of very acid secondary subsoils to neutral-
ize or alleviate their acidity, gradually deepening of the arable
stratum; etc.
Reddish brown forest soils are found in the subzone of oak
forest, being widely distributed especially in Oltenia (in the transi-
tional area from the plain to the Getic piedmont), and Wallachia (on
the western plain), and then in northern Dobrogea, on the outer Transyl-
vanian plain, and in the transitional area between the Tirsa plain
and the western hills.
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The climate n this area is less humid; annual precipitation
averages 540 700 mm and mean annual temperature 7.8-11.9?C. The
aridity index is 28-36. In Oltenia and western Wallachia the Mediter-
ranean climatic influence is felt, with very mild winters. Natural
vegetation typical of this area is oak forest mixed with other
deciduous species -- hornbeam, elm, linden, ash, and maple (belt
for st) The relief is in general represented by plains or plateaus
disected by streams and therefore well drained; the rocks are mostly
loess or loessoid deposits, diluvial clays, old alluvia and sands.
The formation process of the reddish-brown forest soils is
characterised by:
Limited accumulation of humus in horizon A, due to humifica-
tion of the leaf stratum and the remains of the roots of grasses
and shows an angular granular structure in horizon A.
Advanced levigation of readily and not readily soluble salts.
Deterioration of silicaied mineral material with formation
of clay and liberation of iront.which is deposited on the surface
of the ground in the form of ferrous hydroxides, which after dehy-
dration gives the soil a reddish tinge.
Slight debasing of the colloidal element in the soil.
Slight transfer of clay to horizon B.
The profile of the reddish-brown forest soils shows an A
horizon 30-40 cm thick brown or dark brown with a'reddish tinge,
and an angular granular structure; a B horizon 100-150 cm thick,
reddish brown to rust brown, with a nuciform structure in the upper
part of the horizon and prismatic in the rest, With more clay and
more compactness than horizon A, with small concretions'of ferrous
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and manganese oxides; horizon C follows, yellow, with an accumulation
of calcium carbonate in the form of efflorescences and well consoli-
dated concretions.
The reddi h-brown forest soils contain 2-00 humus; the nitro-
gen content is quite low. They have a weak acid reaction (pH 6-6.5).
The degree of saturation varies between 80-90%. The physical proper-
ties are relatively good due to the granular structure. But through
irrational cultivation they are gradually losing these good qualities,
becoming compact and forming a crust.
These soils have quite good natural fertility. They require
nitric and even phosphate fertilizers. They are used extensively
as agricultural soils and also for orchards and vineyards.
In the transition to the zone of secondary podzols (and even
in the zone of these soils, on rocks rich in calcium carbonate)
brown forest soils appear generally under deciduous forests. They
are distributed especially in Moldavai (in the southeastern part of
the central Moldavian-plateau) and .in Transylvania?Reddish 'brown'
.forest soil's have not been found in Moldavia' nor east of.Mizil in
-Wallachia). The climate .under which forest. brown soils As formed.
is more continental than that for reddish brown forest soil; .the
? mean annual temperature is lower (8 r 9.50C), and the winters are
colder; The profile of the brown forest soils resembles that of the
reddish brown forest soils, distinguished by the brown-dark brawn
color (without reddish tinge) in horizon A. The physical and chemical
characteristics are similar in both. The fertility of these soils
is also quite good.
Brown podzolic soils are also found over a wide area; they
mark the transition between the brown soils and the secondary podzols.
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In brown podsolic soils, horizon A is differentiated into Ai,
brown, and A2, with a gray tinge; sometimes podzolisation appears
morphologically only through powdering of the structural aggregates,
with a fine whitish dust of silicas. They contain less humus and are
not saturated with a base.
Brown podzolic soils pass imperceptibly into secondary pod-
zols with which they are generally associated especially on slopes.
Gray forest soils mark the transition to forest soils and
degraded (levigated) chernozems. They are generally not very wide-
spread in Rumania, occupying narrow belts at transitions between the
forest-steppe and forest areas, especially in the eastern half of the
country under the influence of the continental climate. They have
ben little studied so far.
?Levigated chernozems, generally called degraded chernozems
in Rumania, are distributed in the forest-steppe area; they appear
in the northwest and southeast of the Oltenian plain, in the south-
east of the central and northern part of the Wallachian plain, in
the north of the Covurlui platform, in the southeast of the central
Moldavian plain, on the Tisa plain (a belt with an Arad-orimisoara
axis), and in northern and southern Dobrogea.
In the forest steppe,' the mean annual temperature varies from
9.1-11.40C, and annual precipitation averages between 460-580 mm.
The aridity index varies between 24-29; humidity is quite low but
permits the growth of wood plants. The vegetation characteristic
of this area consists of forests, with sparse trees, weakly developed
in general, of November and downy oak and various shrubs. These
forests contain extensive meadows with grasses. The soil-forming
rocks are loess, clays, eolian marls, or sands, and the relief is
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generally represented by plains, more or less dissected, and terraces;
the ground water is quite deep usually more than 5 m.
The soil-forming process in the forest steppe is character-
ized by: Accumulation of humus in the upper horizon, which also has
a granular structure, more or less angular.
Quite advanced levigation of salts readily and not readily.
soluble.
D terioration of part of the silicated minerals, with new
formation of clay.
soil).
Weak debasing of the colloidal portion (clay and humus in the
From limited to considerable transfer of clay to the intermediary
horizon (B).
The profile of the levigated chernozems shows an A horizon
35-50 cm thick, black-brown or grayish black, with structure running
from weakly granulated to purely angular type; a B horizon from weak-
ly to well expressed, over 40-50 cm thick, chestnut brown, sometimes
with a reddish tinge with a nuciform or even prismatic structure
and more compact than the upper horizon; horizon C -follows, yellow
with whitish spots due to the accumulation of calcium carbonate in
efflorescent form, spots and concretions well consolidated. Sometimes
mole burrows- apPear in the profile, especially in the intermediate
horizon. They have a high humus content (3-7%) and nitrogen content.
The acid reaction is weak to neutral (pH 6.5-7.2). Saturation
85-95%.
The levigated chernozems have, due to their,properties, a high
natural fertility and are chiefly used for cultivated crops, being
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located in an area with a relatively more humid climate: crops on
levigated chernozems are less exposed to drought than the steppe
chernozems. In some cases, nitric and phosphate fertilizers are
necessary on these soils.
The chernozems are found in the steppe area of the RPR, in
the southwest of the Oltenian plain, in the south and east of the
Wallachian plain, on the Moldavian plain (the Jijia and Bahlui
stepOe), in the western part of the country on the Tisa plain, as
also on the Dobogean platform and the south of the Covurlui platform.
These areas have annual mean precipitation varying from 420
to 510 mm. In the seasonal distribution of the precipitation we find
a maximum in May-June, when the rains are usually torrential. The
mean annual temperature is between 9.6-11.40C. The dry winds, quite
frequent, cause high evaporation in summer, drying up the soil.
Aridity is 20-24. The characteristic vegetation consists of associ-
ations of Stipa (feather grass and spikenard) and FOIStUOR (hay),
characteristic of the steppe. Wood vegetation does not appear on
the steppe except on river meadows where forests of white woods
(riverside groves) are to be found. In small depressions on the
steppe more humid than the rest of the plain, shrubs may appear:
Prunus spinosa, Rosacanica, Amydalus rana, Prunus chamaecerasus,
Crataegus etc.
The relief in the chernozem area is that of an extensive
plain, weakly dissected in places. The parent rocks most widespread
are loess, sands from old dunes, marls, clays, and alluvia.
In the chernozem area the soil-formation process shows the
following characteristics:
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Accumulation of humus in the upper horizon particularly from
roots of grassy plants.
Levigation of readily and not readily soluble salts, the
latter accumulating in the lower horizon.
, Limited deterioration of the silicated mineral part with weak
new formation of clay.
Formation of the granular structure which is typical of the
chernozems.
These characteristics of the formation process of chernozems
appear in various parts of the chernozem area with particular inten-
sity. They have been classified into three subtypes of chernozems
in Rumania on a quantitative basis: common chernozem (true chernozem),
chocolate chernozem, and chestnut chernozems, which are distinguished
among themselves by a differ nt development of the soil profile. All
the chernozems, as distinguished from the levigated chernozems, lack
horizon B (with accumulation of clay).
Common chernozems or true chernozems are found in Rumania on
the steppe of the Moldavian plain (Jijia and Bahlui basin); usually
these ,soils are formed on rock's that are richer in clay and calcium
carbonate, (marls or marl clays).
Common chernozem is characterized by the following profile:
horizon A 50-70 cm thick and accordingly well developed and rich in
humus almost black, large granular structure, very stable; the
transitional horizon is 20-30 cm thick, of uneven coloring with
spots of dark color (due to the humus) and horizon Co yellow brown,
with a heavy ageumulation of calcium carbonate. Mole burrows are
rare or lacking because of the argilization of the soil.
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Chocolate chernozems appear in the more or less dry part of
the Rumanian steppes. They have the following morphological features:
an A horizon 40-60 cm thick, quite rich in humus, dark brown or
black brown, with a typical stable granular structure, loose; a transi-
tional subhorizon (A/C) 26-40 m thick, gray-brown, with small clod
structure, friable, sometimes levigated with carbonates; horizon C,
yellow, with whitish spots due to accumulations of calcium carbonate
in efflorescent form, spots or concretions well consolidated. Effer-
vescence appears in the cas of chocolate chernozems towards the
base of the transitional horizon. There are many mole burrows in
these soils, attesting the activity of fauna in the soil, which
often mix material from different soil horizons; sometimes for this
reason effervescence can be found in the upper part of the profile.
Chestnut chernozems are found in the dryer part of the steppe.
They show an A horizon with an accumulation of humus, rather un-
developed (30-45 cm), chestnut brown, with small granular structure,
quite stable; a transitional subhorizon (A C), 25-30 cm thick, gray-
ish brown, unstable small clod structure; horizon C, yellow-brown,
with an accumulation of calcium carbonate in the form of efflores-
?dence and weakly cemented concretions. In the whole profile, but
especially in the lower horizon, there are many mole burrows. The
calcium carbonate is generally leached from the upper part of hori-
zon A, so that efferescence, upon treatment with acid, appears to-
ward the base of horizon A.
The chernozems have, compared with other soils, a high humus
content; it rises from 3-4-5%, in the chestnut chernozems, to 45-
6%'in "the chocolate chernozems, and 6 8% or more in true chernozems.
The. nitrogen content is also appreciable and increases the same way
as the humus. Their reaction is from neutral to weakly alkaline
(pH 7-7.7). The colloidal complex is saturated with a base, calcium
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predominating. The chernozems have good physical properties due
to their stable granular structure; they have good permeability
for air and water, their, water capacity is high and they are easily
warmed.
Of all the soils, the chernozems have the highest natural
fertility, especially the common and chocolate chernozems; they are
used extensively for this reason for cultivation of crops with only
small areas reserved for pasture. But irrational cultivation of these
soils lowers their effective fertility. To maintain the fertility
of these soils primary emphasis should be given to maintenance of
the good physical properties of the soil and especially to creation
and maintenance of a stable structure in the soil, which can be
achieved by grassland crop in rotation. Likewise all measures that
increase the water reserve in the soil (retention of snow on the
ground, reduction of water evaporation by the action of protective
belts, etc) increase the fertility of the chernozems. Fertilizer is
required, espicially in special crops.
The cultivation of cotton can be extended to the chernozem
area.
Light brown steppe soils, formerly called blonksoils,
are distributed in central Dobrogea, and in a narrow belt in the
eastern part of the Rumanian Plain, along the Danube.
n this area, the annual mean precipitation is usually. 320-
420 mm. The seasonal distribution of precipitation is uneven, sho*-
ing a minimum in summer. The rains fall more in the form of cloud-
bursts. The mean annual temperature is 10.4-11.4?C. In this area
strong and dry winds blow which accentuate the dryness. The vegeta-
tion is markedly zerophilous. Grassy plants grow in the form of
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isolated tufts, Artemisia austriacit predominating among them. Woody
plants are not found; shrubs are very common in depressions. The soil-
forming rocks are loess or loessoid deposits and alluvia, the relief
is flat, sometimes with slight 'undulations.
.The soil formation process in the area of dry steppe- light
brown Soils is, characterized byt
Limited accumulation of humus due to poor soil cover of
grassy vegetation and the great intensityof.terobic microbiological
processes, which lead to mineralization of the: organic substances
In the soil.
Complete levigation of readily solubl salts and poor levi-
gation of those not readily soluble (for which reason calcium carbonate
from the surface is found in the soil).
Very limited decomposition of the
4
with or without very scant new formation
mineral parts of the soil
of clay.
The profile of the dry steppe light brown soils is the least
differentiated. It presents an A horizon 20-35 cm thick, light brown
to brown, with a structure formed of unstable and small glomerular
aggregates, loose; there is a transitional horizon A/C, 20.30 cm,
:thiCk, lighter in color, with fine efflorescetces of calcium carbon-
ate; almost without structure, slightly more compact; ,then horizon
C.4 of accumulations of carbonates, yellow-brown, without structure,
with numerous effloresCendes and spots of calcium carbonate and even
small and weakly consolidated limestone concretions.
There are mole burrows throughout the whole profile, traces
of the activity of rodents and soil diggers. Effervescence with hydro-
Ohloric acid appears in Most cases on the surface..
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The dry steppe light brown soils have a low humus content,
usually below 2-3% in horizon Ao and they are also poor in nitrogen.
Their reaction is weakly alkaline (pH 7.5-8.1), and the colloidal
complex of the soil is saturated with a base. They show an unstable
structure, good permeability, and a medium capacity for water.
These are used chiefly for farming and .o i* small, extent for
pasturage. In rainy years they yield rich harvests, which attests
,a relatively good natural fertility; however, most of the time the'
harvests are small because the plants get insufficient Tatter. To
increase the fertility of these soils measures must be taken to
increase the reserves of water in the soil: establishment and main-
tenance of .a stable soil structure, especially through the grass-
land crop rotation, improving in this way the water and air system
of the soil; planting a system of protective forest belts which con-
tribute to the even distribution of snow on the fields in winter and
decrease evaporation of water in the sun in summer. Where possible
irrigation is recommended to supplement the water supply. Nitric and
phosphate fertilizers are particularly necessary.
Intrasonal
and Azonal (with Local Distribution) Soils
In the following we describe only the most, important of these
soils, Which appear in restricted areas in association with zonal
soils; their genesis is determined by local soil-formation conditions.
Soils of skeletal nature (rich in skeletal material) appear
in areas with uneven relief, both in the zone of primary podzols
and that of secondary podzols, on steep slopes and massive slightly
disaggregated rocks. The skeletal podzols are more widespread even
than the typical podsols in these zones-. These soils are character-
ized by a very thin profile, poor differentiation of the horizons,
ahd high content of coarse fragments of parent rock; they are subject
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to continuous erosion. In the high part of the mountains there are
also skeletal-peat soils with a very thin profile (10-30 cm) show-
ing a horizon with acid humus and peat material mixed with coarse
rock fragments.
Rendzins, or humic-carbonated soils. These are chernozems
with an accumulation of humus which appear in podzol zones and
brown forest soil zones on rocks rich in calcium-limestone, dolo-
mite, marls, and gypsums. They appear in extensive areas on the
limestones in the Almas and Seminic mountains; in limited areas,
they appear throughout the mountain and hill regions where limestone,
dolomites, and gypsums ar to be found. Their profile is very simi-
lar to that of the chernozems; generally they are more argillaceous
and show fragments of limestone in the profil which in general is
quite thin. The presence of calcium in the soil, and accordingly in
solution, constitutes an obstacle to the development of the pod-
zolization process, determining on the other hand the accumulation
of humus in the soil (3-10%). They show a neutral or weakly alkaline
reaction. The natural fertility of these soils is much better than
that of the podzols or of the brown soils with which they appear.
Red soils are formed on limestone with impurities rich in
Iron, in the area of subsoil soils in the west of the country, in
climate with a Mediterranean influence. They are found particularly
on material resulting from the disaggregation of titonic limestones
bordering the northwestern part of the Oltenian Subcarpathian de-
pression. These soils show a high content of weakly hydrated iron
sesquioxides (which-give it a deep red color) resulting from deterior-
ation of minerals rich in iron which adulterate the rock and the
residual accumulation of the oxides formed when the calcium carbonate
is dissolved and levigated. They are acid soils suitable for orchards
(nuts, cherry, etc).
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Stony soils are soils of the brown forest type, the reddish
brown type, or levigated chernozem type formed on gravel which is
more or less limestone. They are found on the deltas of rivers or
on terraces (the alluvial fans of Prahova, Putna, Birsa plain, the
Clue depression, the Bistrita terrace, etc). They are in general
sandy soils, rich in gravel (sometimes even on the surface) and
to some depth, between 30 and 100 cm, they show a patch of gravel
cemented with calcium carbonate. They have limited fertility; they
require organic and mineral fertilizers.
Depression soils appear conditioned by the microrelief, in
hollows in the plains areas of the chernozems and reddish brown
forest soil zones (snow and water from rains and snows collect
here). Thus, in the chernozem zone there are chernozems levigated
by depression, with better developed profile, richer in humus, and
more fertil than soil formed on flat relief. In the reddish brown
forest soil zone, in depressions, depression podzols are found, very
rich in concretions of ferrous and manganese oxides, and with an
evident clawing in horizon B; they are soils on which water stag-
nates for a long time in spring and_evenin summer, due to the
impermeability of horizon B, and which have a limited fertility.
Slough and swamp soils are thole formed in wet regions on
mineral substrata in which ground water is found at shallow depths.
They appear under these conditions on river meadows, terraces, or
in depression areas. They are more widespread between Feldioara and
Targu Sacuiesc along the Olt and Riu Negru, Moldavia west of Falticeni,
north and southwest of Satu Mare, and in the Banat northwest and
southwest of Timisoara. They show a horizon of humus accumulation
40-60 cm thick, are b1u-402=abl5ck when wet or dark blue when dry,
most often with rust colored spots orztraces of ferrous hydroxide
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and concretions of ferrous and manganese oxides, then a horizon
of clay of variegated color, spots of blue green alternating with
spots of red or orange; then follows a water-bearing stratum. They
are soils with limited fertility because of the excess 'of water and
poor aeration is well as the presence of some toxic substances aris-
ing in the reducing medium in the soil. They are generally used as
pastures. After these soils are drained and their water system
regulated, they can become useful agricultural soils in a short
time.
Poets of low-lying regions or bog pests are formed in deep
depressions, continuously fed by water from a water-bearing stratum,
in which hydrophilous plants (rush, reed, and cane) grow. They are
more widespread in the Ciuc depression and west of Satu Mare. The
pests of low lying regions have an almost neutral reaction and are
rich in nutritive elements, so that they can be used as fertilizers.
Salines are formed in Rumania in dry climate areas or in dry
periods in summer, (dry steppe, st ppe, forest steppe) when the
?
ground water, usually mineralized', lies ata shallow depth (as far
as the critical depth). They are widespread in the Rumanian plain
north of Ialomita and on the plain in the west of the country (known
as "sicuri") on river meadows, valleys, and deep depressions, in
the form of belts or islands; they occupy huge areas in the Vales
Calmatui.
Only halophilous plants grow on these soils; ordinary crops
do not grow because of the large saline content or the unfavorable
physical and physical-chemical properties. Improvement of saline
soils necessitates drainage of ground water to lower its level
and the application of a series of meliorative agrotechnical and
agrochemical measures.
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Three types of saltne Soils are known in Rumania: solonchaks--
saline soils without structure and high salinity of the surface (over
2-3%) and which are progressively salinized under the influence of
ground water; solonetzes or saline soils with structur formed by
partial desalinization of solonchaks and solods, or sweetened saline
soils, representing a more advanced stage of desalinization.
Solonetzes and solonchaks are usually found together, dis-
tributed as a complex, in which the solonetzes occupy the highest
parts of the relief and the solonchaks the lowest. Solods have been
found on several plateaus with deeper water on the north of the
Rumanian Plain.
In addition to
marine salin s on the
salt-bearing rocks.
these continental saline soils there are also
coast; residual salines may also appear on
Alluvia and alluvial soils represent the most recent pedologica/
formations, found in some soil zones along large and small rivers.
They are poorly evolved soils, with undifferentiated horizons. 1.14eir
natural fertility is highly varied, due to their granOlometric struc-
turev-degree Of cultivation hydrological conditions, and degree of
salinization. They areicused as pastures, meadows, riverside groves,
or as farm land. They are easily irrigated.
Shifting and:stable Elands are found in areas with dunes sub-
ject to wind erosion on the Tecuci plain (on the lower terrace of
the Birlad), south of the Buzau and Calmatui, in southern' Oltenia,
and on the plains of the northwest. To be firmly fixed, they must
be afforested.
Soil Erosion
The soil plays a very important part in the life of human society,
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since only cultivated soil can give man food, fuel, fibers for cloth,
and the other raw materials required by industry. Therefore the soil,
as Marx said, "is an eternal resource of the community, indispensable
to the existence and reproduction of the succession of human genera-
tions."
? The soil thus constitutes the chief means of agricultural
production, and from this point of view -- the agronomic one -- the
most important part of the soil is the upper part of horizon A, that
is, the horizon in which most plant roots grow. But if it is not
rationally cultivated, soil formed over a long period can be quickly
destroyed, under certain Conditions, by external agencies. Water and
wind, in their movement over th surface of the soil, dislodge and
displace soil particles. Under natural conditions of soil formation
the vegetation cover protects the soil, but if the soil is deprived
of natural protective vegetation as in the case of most cultivated
soils, the soil particles are subject to the direct erosive action
of water and wind.
Through cutting forests or plowing up meadows and irrational
soil cultivation or excessive pasturage of fields, man has unleashed
upon lands lying on slopes or those subject to wind action a power-
ful-proCess of erosion by water and wind which leads ultimately to
the destruction of the soil. But the erosion process affects even
more the river meadows and low plains, whose soils can be covered
with unfertile-material transported by water from eroded areas.
The consequences of soil erosion are very grave, since removal of
the fertile layer of the surface of 'the soil enormously reduces its
productivity, affecting the economy of the country not only in the
present, but also in the future, since soil reclamation is a' very
long process.
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Water erosion takes place on slopes areas, usually on those
with a gradient of over 3%, being the more pronounced the steeper the
slope is. It is of two types: surface erosion (when a certain part
of the soil profile is removed over the whole area) and erosion in
depth (when the land is disse6ted by gullies) generally erosion in
depth is associated with landglides, when the geologic substratum
or, the slopes is formed of alternating strata of sand and rock with
strata of clay or even with clay or clay-marl strata alone.
As Comrade Gh. Gheorghiu-Dej points out in the Report on the
Nation's Electrification Plan, "The prevention and repair of erosion
has been totally neglected in the past. About 700,000 ha completely
destroyed and about 2,300 000 ha in course of deterioration are
widespread throughout the country. The continuation of this process,
with a permanent drop in agricultural production, also endangers
proj cts relating to water courses, public highways, human settle-
ments, etc. A series of soil conservation measures are therefore
necessary both on the main watercourses and their tributaries and
measures to reclaim lands which have suffered erosion or are deter 13r-
ating." (Articles and speeches, third edition, p494).
Water erosion is particularly prevalent in mountain and hill
areas. The Somas plateau and the Transylvanian plateau are less
affected by erosion; b tJ*her they are affected there is prevailing
erosion by landslides.
Eolian erosion is found in all the dune areas; we find it
in the dune relief on the Tecuci plain, on the plain south of the
Buzau, and the one north of the Calmatui, in the sands in the south
of southwOst Oltenia, as also in those in the northwest of the country.
To combat erosion, there are a series of soil conservation
measures which can be preventive or fundamental soil reclamation.
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The drive against soil erosion begins with proper organization of
the whole area of a hydrographic basin, a fact which has been realized
in the introduction of the Dokuchayev-Kostychev-Vilsyams system.
Grassland Agriculture System, or the Dokucha ev-Kostychev-Viryams
System
V. R. Viliyams(has shown that the main feature clearly and
qualitatively distinguishing rock soil is fertility. By fertility of
soilqs understood its capacity to provide plants with the condi-
tions necessary ,to their growth: that is, ?to satisfy their vital
needs, among which the most important are water and nutritive sub-
stances.
Karl Marx distinguishes natural or potential soil fertility
from actual or effective fertility. Natural soil fertility is the
result of the soil formation process, uninfluenced by man and there-
fore dependent upon the physical and geographic conditions of soil
formation. Effective fertility is the result of human activity and
depends upon the technical and scientific resources which man has
available to him it depends, that is, upon the progress of the
natural and agricultural sciences. Effective fertility of the soil
is closely related ,to the type or organization of human society,
depending upon the degree of evolution of the latter; it therefore
r -
differs from one social orientation to another. In presocialist
orientations, the agricultural systems used could not assure main-
tenance of soil fertility, the harvests reaped becoming smaller and
smaller and more dependent upon the climatic conditions of the parti-
cular year. Only in the new socialist orientation has advanced agri-
cultural science laid the foundations of a new,agricultural system,
assuring a steady increase of harvests, fertility of soils, and
yield'of stable harvests independent of climatic conditions. This
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system of grassland agriculture, or the Dokuchayev-Kostychev-Vil"yams
system, named for the experts who conceived the measur s, envisages
a system which can be applied only in socialist, collective agriculture,
where the selfish interest of small cultivators has bon eliminated.
This system is a combination of principles, methods, and mea-
sures to organize the production, protection, and rational cultivation
of the soil and assure the development of all branches of agriculture
plant production, animal production, and production of raw materials
for industry.
In the case of soils, this system is concerned particularly
? with reducing the loss of their natural fertility and particularly
the two requirements of fertility -- richness in nutritive elements
and soil structure -- and partly periodic restoration of fertility
lost through harvests, raising it each time to a higher level than
before.
This system, applied on a large scale in the USSR consists of
the following steps:
I. Rational organization of the territory.
2. Creation of protective forest belts.
3. Rotating crops with grasses.
Rational execution of agrotechnical projects.
Rational use of organic and mineral fertilizers.
Use of selected seeds of types adapted to the local natural
Conditions.
Development of irrigation with local waters and construction
of reservoirs.
All steps in the system are of equal importance and should be
applied as a whole, to be as effective as possible. There are, however
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some which should be applied initially, among which are rotation
with grasses in areas which are. not very dry and the protective forest
belts.
The need of this system has also been felt in Rumania along
with the socialist transformation of agriculture, the more so since
the first experiments made in the experimental stations of the
Institute of Agricuttural research and on some state and collective
farms have shown good results. Thus, by human activity, th. soild has
been transformed into a "product of labor."
[Pages 255-284]
VII. VEGETATION AND FAUNA
Raul Calinescu
1. Geographic Distribution of the Chief Forms of Vegetation in
Relation to the Relief.
Orographic factors, conditioned by relief, play an important
part in the distribution of the vegetation cover. Among them are:
altitude, slope gradient, geographic orientation of slopes to which
exposure to the light and heat of the sun is closely related, prevail-
ing winds, rains or droughts, etc.
Altitude also causes variations in other climatic factors.
Thus, from plain to mountain top there is a lowering of temperature
between day and night, more powerful irradiation; intensification of
air movements, a shortening of the vegetation period, etc.
? ,7,3
In relation to the variations of these climatic factors, which
correspond to relief, plants are zoned according to altitude, depend-
ing upon their climatic and edaphic requirements.
And-so, from the mountain peaks to the low plains are ranged
vegetation of the Alpine peaks, forest_vegeta*ion and steppe vegetation.
An analogous shift in the composition and nature of vegetation
is to be observed in the aquatic domain; from the flowing and stationary
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waters of the mountains to those of the Danube delta and the Black
Sea littoral.
(a) Vegetation of the Alpine Peaks
Special conditions for the existence of vegetation prevail al
the Alpine peaks: low temperature, low humidity, maximum irradiation,
very strong winds, and acid soil.
!I
.Because of these special conditions, the forests thin out
progressively toward the top, until they disappear altogether at
about 1,800 m. The trees become increasingly stunted and are reduced
to tatters by the prevailing winds, which rip off their tops and
branches in the direction from which they blow violently. The trees
on the higher levels are replaced by stunted and creeping trees which
form shrubbery, primarily a belt of jnopeni and ienuperi rjunipers1
more or less interspersed with clearings, then a stretch of islands
of stunted woody vegetation, a few cm high, surrounded by grasses
of which the extensive Alpine meadows are formed (barrens or Alpine
barrens),_ According to the general appearance of the vegetation we
distinguish an upper Alpine and lower Alpine zone.
Upper Alpine zone. Alpine meadows. The upper Alpine zone is
represented by barrens and high mountain peaks and consists of
islands, more or jess isolated. with very irregular contour, sur-
? rounded ? by vegetation of the lower Alpine zone whioh sends up numerous
extensions. The zone of Alpine meadows occupies, .t times, extensive
areas throughout the southern Carpathian chain. It is almost entirely
lacking in the eastern Carpathian chain, where it is underdeveloped
even on Ceahlau. But it reappears on the Wilton and Rodna mountains,
on Maramures, Birgau, Tibles, Gutiu, and other mountains. The lower
limit of this zone ends along the Carpathisas from west to east and
north, staying over 2 000 m in the southern Clirpathians and descending
to 1,800 m on Ceahlau and to 1,7001 north of Ceahlau (Caliman, Rodna
mountains).
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The chief characteristic of the Alpine meadow zone is the
complete lack of higher wood vegetation, which has been replaced by
stunted and thick shrubbery: rhododendron, mountain currant, bil-
berry and mountain ash, azaleas, and dwarf willow; higher wood
vegetation is lacking here for the following reasons: the man an-
nual temperature is below 70 C, that is, below the requirement (100),
snow lasts very long in spring and falls early in fall, so that
the vegetation period is short (34 months) and insufficient for
higher woody vegetation; the wind blows strong and almost constantly,
affecting vegetation not only through mechanical action (breaking
off leaves and branches as well as the tops of the trunks, in the
direction from Which it blows) but also physiological action (inten-
sifying transpiration through movement of leaves and causing dis-
equilibrium in absorption, with unfavorable effects upon the trees):
the soil of the Alpine zone, rich in humic acids, due to the low
temperature is prohibitive for higher wood vegetation.
Thus, for example, the daily temperature variationand the
wind have a particular importance, condition the reduction in size
Of the plants and the woody substance, thus giving rise to shrubbery,
which is the usual result of the struggle of vegetation against
wind. And the plants can still fight effectively in the form of
shrubs or in creeping form even against the low temperatures of
the Alpine zone In this way, they not only protect themselves from
the mechanical and physiological action of the wind, but they also
grow in the warmer stratum of air close to the ground.
Another adaptation to the low temperatures is the arrangement
of leaves on the trunks and branches, very close together, so that
they often form rosettes on the surface of the ground or a little
above: other Alpine plants (Silene acaulis, Saxifrage moschata,
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Saxifraga androsacea, Draba carinthiaca, Minuartia sedoides, otc)
grow in dense and short clumps of shoots, forming hemispheres from
which the blossoms and fruits proje6t; the old, dead leaves remain
around the shoots, preserving moisture for weeks on end, absorbing
surface water through capillaries and storing it like a sponge, and
limiting transpiration to the extremities exposed to the Sun and its
light.
The great intensity of the light and the relative dryness of
the air condition the growth of fibres. reduce the surface area of
the leaves lower the number of stomata, bend over the edges of the
leaves, and thicken their flow Of chlorophyll, growth of pellicle,
etc. Because of all these zerophilous adaptations, the need of water,
which is acid here, is diminished, which reduces transpiration, which
on Alpine peaks is accelerated by the relatively dry air and the
movements caused by winds.
The Alpine plants react to the brevity of the vegetation
period of the Alpine milieu by the great speed with which they ful-
fill their growth cycle. Some of them flower even while the snows are
melting, piercing the snow with their stems (example, Soldanella).
The intensive light conditions the formation of some large
blossoms, though they rise only slightly above the leaves as well
as their bright coloring.
Alpine vegetation is represented especially by graminaceous
and other perennial monocotyledons to which are added a considerable
number of dicotyledons. The other plants have bulbs and roots full
of-nutritive substances enabling them to complete their growth cycle
rapidly.
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An acceleration of this cycle is also observed in all Alpine
plants which complete it during the short Alpine summer, since in
August it is almost entirely dry. The subterranean portions are
highly developed. Clumps are common. The thickening of the leaves.
the formation of the pellicl the covering with hairs, though
diminution of the central part of the leaf and twisting of the
leaves are also quite common characteristics of Alpine herbaceous
vegetation.
The Alpine meadows are composed of Gramineae with large
leaves, narrow, good for pasturage as the various'species of Poa;
but those with leaves turned outward, toward the lower side of the
land, as the various species of festuca, nardus, and some thin
sedges (carex), are somewhat more widespread. The dicotyledons
are varied: in June, with white flowers (anemone, Alpine cock's foot
grass), blue, red, and green flowers (dwarf primrose, Alpine violets,
Alpine pinks, Alpine hellebore and May flowers), and later through-
out July and August, yellow and reddish flowers (Alpine poppy
malaoaie, hawkweed, various orchids, pinks, and especially rhodo-
dendron). There are also ,the Alpine forget-me-not. various Saxi-
fragae carnosae, Crassulaceae as false grass and sempervivum,
Compositae with small and hirsute leaves, such as the floare de
colti, and varitous Labiates, such as mountain savory and thyme,
which perfume the Alpine atmosphere.
The areas not growing Gramineae in the upper Alpine zone
are occupied by herbaceous vegetation; a few Saxifragaceae and
Crassulaceae are found on skeletal-peat soils; gentians And Alslnaceae
grown on soil with humus in crevices and rock fissures: around peat
bogs alongside Gramineae and mosses, there are also a few acquatic
plants; and throughout the rocky cliff areas the floare de colti
grows.
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In open areas and on the plateaus (Bucogi, Ceahlau, etc) are
found dry tundras formed by plant groups of a zerophilous nature,
in which lichens predominate. Thus on Bucegi, among others, there
are the Iceland lichen (Cetraria) and the reindeer lichen (Cladonia),
in various species, to which some Gramineae (Deschampsia, tussock
grass) and bilberries are added.
In depressions (such as that between Polite lui Ghidion and
Ocolasul Mare, .on Ceahlau) there are humid tundras composed in great
part of hydrophilous mosses and the white peat moss (Sphagnum), which
form large clumps along with the Polytrichum moss. Among these grow
? some Gramineae(Deschampsia, plains reed) and Ericaceae (mountain
currants, bilberries).
Lower Alpine zone (juniper belt). Below the Alpine meadows
extends the lower Alpine or juniper zone, so-called because this
zone is characterized by shrubbery consisting of jnepeni and ienu-
peri, Ericaceae, and dwarf willows, some of which may be replaced by
Alpine meadows.
The upper limit of the lower Alpine zone is a serpentine line
at which the more developed junipers begin, at an altitude of 2,150-
.1,900 m in the mountains of Oltenia and Wallachia (Fagaras,
going down to 1,750-1, m on
mountains.
Bucegi),
Suceava
The junipers form thick shrubbery, without crooked branches
creeping along the ground, rising to 70-150 m [sic' in the air.
Their trunks, however, may be long, thick. and ramified, but they
are creeping.
Another widespread association is that of the ienuperi, which
form more stunted and thicker shrubbery thairithat of the jnepeni and
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More rare than the preceding, and more often in the valleys,
especially in the low lying part of the subalpine zone, the mountain
alder grows in dense, somewhat higher shrubbery with branches that
creep downhill but are very flexible
Alternating with the jnepeni shrubbery, and often occupying
very large areas, there is stunted Ericaceae or bilberry shrubbery,
formed of a single species or usually more. They sometimes also ex-
tend below but they are usually higup becoming increasingly stunted,
up to the Alpine zone.
Subshrubs forming stunted shrubbery are: rhododendron mountain
1
?-k
The last two usually grow
currant, mountain ash, bilberry and broom.
bogs -- and, along with
in wet, peaty places, as also armnd peat
jnepeni and less often with ienuperi, they are the only ones which
can grow on peaty soil or even approach it, as it is prohibitive to
all higher woody plants.
Here and there stunted shrubs of other Ericaceae (Bruckenthall
and Loiseleuria) which range to the upper Alpine zone.
Herbaceous vegetation of the
ticulaily of Gramineae, but also of
pronounced zerophilism and the same
lower Alpine zone is forme p
various dicotyledons, showing a
features as in the Alpine zone.
The lower limit of the lower Alpine zone is a serpentine line
at which, from a more massive form, it thins out more and more, and
the trees become more and more stunted until they disappear. This,
limit is highly irregular and serrated by numerous extensions in
valleys- sent UP by the forest.
In the mountains of Oltenia and Wallachia, the lower limit is
at about 1,700 m; in the Buzau mountains it ranges between 1,600
1 400 mo as also on Ceahlau, while in the Suceava mountains it even
reaches below 1,400 m.
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The lower limit of the lower Alpine zone coincides with the
upper limit of the forests, which terminate here in various ways
according to the various types.
Types of Forest Termination. As a rule the forest ends to-
p.
ward the Alpine peaks of the Carpathians in resinous forests.
But this formation does not end abruptly; it,thins out pro-
gressively, forming smaller and smaller groups of trees, which be-
come isolated and interspersed. Everywhere is to be seen stunting
and shredding of the firs by the wind as they advance upward. The
isolated trees have a very characteristic appearance; their crowns
are asymmetrical, due to the wind, which rips off the tops and es-
pecially the branches in the direction of the prevailing wind, branches
which do not grow at all on msny trees. Some are bent in the direc-
tion of the wind. Others have dried-up branches in the direct ton of
the wind. The last firs are interspersed with junipers, with the
Stunted form of subshrubs of the size of molehills.
At other times the forest ends at the Alpine limit in beech
for sts in which case these formations stop abruptly without a
transition zone. Only here and there are isolated beeches to be
seen, more stunted and deramified with branches and tops bent and
broken, scattered among junipers or bilberry shrubbery, sometimes
on grassy meadows. Very rarely the beeches form low shrubs up to
2 m in beight in the shelter of rocks or on cliff walls.
Use and Improvement of Alpine Meadows. The Alpine meadows of
the Carpathians have been used from ancient times for pasturing
livestock, especially for flocks of sheep which were brought to the
mountains in spring and taken back to the plains in fall.
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However, these pastures were irrationally used in the past,
without system and without anything that could be regarded as improve-
ment.
From time to time the shepherds set fire to the junipers to
clear and enlarge their pasturage, the ashes contributing to the enr
richment of the soil, but this method is very dangerous because they
may set fire to the forests, and huge forest areas have fallen prey
to fire in this way.
There are several types 0? natural pasture in the USSR, esti-
mated t hundreds of millions of hectares. Accordingly the importance
of these pastures for raising animals and increasing their productivity
is especially great, and the rational use of green fodder on natural
pastures constitutes a great and important state problem in the USSR.
If the pastures are irrationally used and at the wrong time
with insufficient measures for their\improvement, the grass becomes
stunted and the pastures become covered with mounds and shrubs and
prohibitive plants and their productive capacity drops.
? The following measures have been taken for the improvement of
Alpine pastures in the USSR: 1 Clearing pastures of shrubbery and
spiny shrub, and poisonous (hellebore, etc) .plants; 2. Clearing pas-
? tures of rocks and debris; 3. Removal of mole hills and anthills;
4. Study of local grasses and their associations with a view to dis-
seminating the best varieties; 5 Rational, controlled pasturage.
Following the example of the Soviet Union, Rumania is working
on ?the improvement of Alpine pastures in the Carpathians. A team
composed of members of the Institute of Agricultural Research of
the RPR and the Institute of Experimental Research on Forestry, work-
ing under the direction of the Academy of Sciences of the RPR is
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proceeding to apply the Soviet methods of improvement to the Alpine
pastures (Bucegi, Ploesti Region, Lucina, Suceava Region, then in the
Maramures and western Carpathian mountains).
(b) Forests
Forests are the most extensive plant formations in the RPR.,
The forest sires begins with the lower limit of the lower Alpine
plain of the Carpathians and ends on the plain, iticluding mountains,
at varying heights, according to latitude and exposure from 1,800-
1,900 m to 1,500 m, hills, plateaus, and higher and less arid plains.
The types of Rumanian forests are zoned in relation to alti-
tude according to their climatic, edaphic, and climatic requirements,
constituting several vegetation zones: the zone of resinous (Coni-
ferous) forests, of beech forests and hill belts, and of oak forests
and plains halts. The transition from forest to steppe is made by
forest-steppe oak forests. Along the valleys extend forests or
riverside groves of whitewood.
These zones show us where the respective plant formations can
grow and where they previously existed. In former tii11013 RUMWAS was
covered even on the plains with secular forests (the "Vlasia Forest,"
etc) interrupted here and there by glades. But as the population
grew and their need of construction wood and fuel increased as well
as their'need.of more farm land, the forests continually lost ground
to the axe and the saw, until they reached their present fragmentary
state, in patches, the more so since the political regimes which came
? in succession after that paid no attention either to the rehabilita-
? tion of cut forests or to the reforestation of lands damaged by
deforestation.
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What happened to the Vlasia Forest also happened, on a larger
and more intensive scale, to the Ardeal plain between Somes and Mures,
where once were extensive oak forests and where now are forest-steppe
formations, due exclusively to the destructive activity of man over
the years.
Resinous forests. The coniferous forests cover the higher
altitudes of Rumania, from 600m up to about 1,800 in. Great coniferous
forests grow especially in the eastern Carpathians.
? The upper ?limit, of the coniferous for sts'varies in the eastern
Carpathians between.1,400 and 1,500 in, and in the south of the country,
between 1,650 and 1,1300 in. However, .the exposure of the land causes
landslides on,the southern and northern slopes of the southern Car-
pathians. For this reason the limit of the coniferous forests is much
lower on the northern slope, which is more shaded and cooler than on
the southern one, which is warmer. Another cause of variation in the
? upper limit of the coniferous forest is the isolation of the mountain
massifs, which has as a direct consequence a permanent exposure to
winds from all directions, which results in a considerable lowering
of the upper limit of these forests.
?The coniferous zone is quite well characterized by its perpetu-
ally green forests, dark and humid, in which agreat monotony and a deep
calm prevail. The prevailing types, in these forests are fir and white
fir, in whose shade nothing can grow but one deciduous species. There-
fore the subforest as well as the herbaceous vegetation on the coni-
ferous forest soil are very limited and almost nonexistent, except
for ferns, fungi, and a few other shade plants.
While the white fir of central European-Mediterranean origin
seeks warmth and a soil of feldspar rock, readily disintegrated, which
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is why we find it on sunlit ridges and in the lower part of the
resinous zone, partly mixed with beech, the fir, a northern Species,
thriving on cold and indifferent to soil, has a much wider area of
distribution, being able to grow well on shaded ridges and in the
upper part of coniferous forests, where it forms pure blocs.
Besides fir and white fir, in these forests also grow pine,
asp cially in the eastern Carpathians, sporadic yew, larch toward
the upper limit of the forests, where it can even form pure blocs --
with zimbru approaching and among the junip
rs, black pine on the
limestone soils on the Mehedinti plateau, etc.
Beech forests. The zone of beech forests occupies an area
larger than that of the coniferous forests, extending to the moun-
tain foothills on thA, hill and plateau areas. The upper limit of
beech forests varies between 1,420 m (the Banat) and 1,270 m (Marw-
mures), being in general 1,360 mmn the southern Carpathians and
1,320 m in the eastern Carpathians, and on Mt Bihor, 1,320 m.
This limit is higher on mountains without firs, on which
beech forests can reach 1,500 m.
The lowerlimit varies between 600 - 300 m, depending upon
relief, exposure, and shelter. Often they go down to 200-150 m
in groves or as isolated examples on northern slopes or along narrow
valleys, reaching an altitude as low as 60 m in the southern Banat
(Orsova and Moldava Neu).
In places, the beech is often found in insular distribution,
here and there outside its continuous area.
The prevailing type of beech forest, which is pure, is the
common beech (Fagus Sylvatica).
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Besides the common beech, there are three other types in
Rumania: the Balkan beech (Fagus sylvatica var. moesiaca), the
eastern beech Magus orientalis), and the Tauric or Crimean beech
(Fagua tauriea).
The Balkan beech is distributed especially toward the lower
limit of the beech zone, where it often forms pure groves, i.e.
in the Banat, on Mt Domugled and at Maru Caransebes raion; in Ol-
tenia, in the Bucovat forest near Craiova, at Polovraci, Horezu raion;
in Wallachia, on Mt. Cozie, at Mihaesti, Muscel raion, and in the
Niscov valley, in Buzau raion, and in Ardea, in the valley of the
Galda, and in the Trascau mountains.
The eastern beech, growing sporadically throughout the common
beech forests in the souther part of the Banat (Svinita, Plavisevita,
Dubova, Ogradena, and through Almas raion, Timisoara Region).
The Crimean beech also grows sporadically throughout the
forests along with th common beech in the south, i.e. in the Banat
(Saska Montana, in the Nora valley, Oravita raion, Svinita, Bale
Herculare, Almas raion, Tarcu mountains), in Wallachia (Cozia,
Corbi mountains, Rimnicu Vilcea raion, Contesti, Racari raion,
Mt Ciucas, the Nlsov-Buzau valley), in Dobrogea (Luncavita), in
Valea Fagilor, Macin raion.
Besides the common beech, which is the prevailing type of
beech, there are also in these groves mountain plane trees, moun-
tain ash, etc to which are added toward the lower limit, evergreen
oak (Quercus sessiliflora, Quercus petraca), and other Quercineae.
In the beech forests of the Banat and Oltenia there are some
Mediterranean types as: sfineac, black ash, sumac good chestnut,
wild walnut, wild lilac, Turkish hazel, simbovina, and fig.
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The subforest and herbaceous vegetation of the beech forests
is scant because of the shade produced by the dense crowns of the
beeches, under which only ferns can grow well. In the glades, how-
ever, the richest meadows in the Carpathians grow, formed of various
grasses such as Deschampsia, etc, Mayflowers, cock's foot grass,
vinarita, hare sorrel, Telekia, etc.
Various edible fungi grow in the humid soil of the beech
forests: chanterelle white mushroom, cockscomb, morel, ear fungus,
brown mushroom, iutisori, etc, or poisonous ones, such as the Amanita
muscaria (red with white siots).
Oak Forests and Plains Belts. The oak forest zone forms an
irregular belt on the periphery of the hills and on the plain, as
on the edge of the Ardeal plateau, occupying not Only on the exterir
but also on the interior of the Carpathian ring, areas located at
altitudes between 150 400 m.
The external limit of the oak zone is irregular, and this
irregularity is explained by the variation of local conditions,
favorable or unfavorable, which have resulted in its greater or
lesser extension onto the plain
ciiTop.sftsw.
usavioxas
the wide river valleys, espec-
ially when they are very close together, as for example west of
Bucharest, where along the cluster of waters which constitute the
Argos basin the forest has advanced almost to the Danube (the
"Vlasia Forest").
On the other hand the forest has advanced less in areas in
which such valleys are less frequent, narrower, and unconnected
with the hill areas. It has progressed very little or not at all
In areas in which valleys are lacking or are very rare or dry, or
the atmospheric precipitation is weak and the w*ter table is very
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deep, as on the Baragan. The forest is also lacking in some areas
in which the chemical properties of the soil, for example an abundance
of' mineral salts is unfavorable to the growth of the forest. This is
the case on the Moldavian plain (Jijia-Bahlui depression) and sporadi-
cally on the Tisa plain and the Ardeal plain.
As regards the composition of forests in this zone, the fact
must be emphasized that they are rarely pure formations of oak or
Quercineae (Quorcineae groves) but mostly mixed with other deciduous
trees, in which Quercineae may prevail or may be outnumbered (belt
forests).
The Quercineae which occur here are: Quercus sessiliflora
and Quercus petraca., Quercus pedunculata or Quercus robur, Quercus
cenferta or Quercus frainetto, Quercus corns, and Quercus pubescets.
To these are added other deciduous species: elm, hornbeam,
plane tree, maple, field maple, box elder, ash, trembling poplar,
bitter cherry, red or odorous linden, white linden, mountain ash,
service tree, forest pear and apple, etc.
Since light penetrates deciduous forests better, it conditions
the growth, under favorable circumstances, of the other strata of
vegetation, especially the strata .of shrubbery and grasses.
Among the shrubs growing hero are: hazel, hawthorn corn and
singer [cornell, pistacia, snowball tree dirmax, liricktimber, elder,
dogwood, barberry, etc. The creepers and climbers are: ivy, brony,
wild or domestic grape, hops, etc. The branches of some trees are
often parasitized by white mistletoe and oak mistletoe.
On forest soils grow: yellow saffron (in sunlit places),
snowdrops, sweet violet, primroses, cinquefoil (Potentilla), violet,
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lily of the valley, fruit of the earth, marigold, red root, pastite,
vinarita, bare 's shadow, strawberry (in sunlit places); some para-
sites such as jasmine, etc, some fungi such as boletus, etc, and on
the bark of trees spunk and lichens.
The following groves grow in the oak zone:
(a) Quercineae groves: mixed forests of pedunculate oak and
gray oak; oak groves; oak and mountain-oak groves; forests of mixed
oak and gray oak, evergreen oak groves; depression oak groves; mixed
forests of oak and gray oak in depressions etc.
(b) Belt forests: the belt proper, the oak-grove belt; the
belt with the oak.
The belt proper is characterized by the presence of the pe-
dunculate oak with hornbeam, white linden, ash, field maple, box
elder, field plane tree, odorous linden, and forest apple and pear.
In such a grove, the pedunculate oak occurs in a proportion of 2/10
of the other species. The oak belt is characterized by the presence
of oak which is found in proportions equal or less than that of the
pedunculate oak, while the oak belt is, on the other hand, character-
izedthe absolute predominance of the oak, to which are added only
few of the belt elements, and the pedunculate oak is either entirely
lacking or is scattered.
Foreit-steppe oak forests occur in the forest-steppe zone
ma?rking the transition from the forest domain to that of the steppe.
These forests occupy, at the edge of the steppe proper, limited
areas, being composed of trees such as the gray oak and the Virgilian
oak as well as the oak and mountain oak, the wild pear and apple, the
elm, box elder, etc. Among these trees the following shrubs grow:
hawthorn, verigar, vonicar, sweet briar, cornel, sloe, etc.
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The forest-steppe oak forests have a characteristic appearance
due to the unfavorable climatic Conditions: the trees are in general
more stunted, lower, and punier than those of the forest area proper.
The feebleness of the trees is to be seen in the trunks, which are
usually crooked, with thick bark supporting, at a low height, a crown
with thick, crooked branches, with numerous dried-up patches, and
almost entirely covered with lichens. All the trees have trunks
creeping at the base, a characteristic due to wind action on the
trunks in the early stages of growth. The proximity of the steppe
is reflected in the forest-steppe arborescent vegetation of the oak
forests by the great number of 'insects which attack the trees (oak,
elm, etc), producing numerous galls through their attack.
Another characteristic of the oak forests in the forest-steppe
area is the lack (illegible] in the seed, this type of reproduction
being replaced here particularly by sprouts.
In Dobrogea, the forest-steppe oak forests also contain some
Mediterranean elements, as sumac, paiur simbovina, jujube, sfineac,
etc.
/
In the wide glades of these oak forest steppe herbaceous plants
grow, as: spikenard, .barboasa Deschampsia, 'spring ruscuta, dittany?
wild peony, etc.
Situation of the Forests in the Past. Provisions and Achieve-
ments of the Five-Year Plan. In the bourgeois-landowner Rumania the
forests suffered more than in any other European country. The devasta-
tion of the forests in Rumania was already in full swing in the time
of the Turks before the Organic Regulations. The Turks had a true
monopoly on the cereals, cattle, and lumber of the Rumanian provinces.
The pace of this devastation was accelerated after this monopoly
was formed, when Rumanian cereals began to be sold at prices very
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advantageous to the capitalists on western markets. Then began a
vast deforestation in order to intensify agriculture and increase
the production of cereal grains,
areas,
plain
Pasturage also greatly contributed to the loss of forested
causing a loss of 500,000 ha of forest, especially on the
in only 65 years (1850-1915).
Fires have also played their part in
forests, particularly in dry years: in 1894
eats burned over an area of about 5,620 ha,
vately awned forests.
the destruction of the
alone 62 national for-
to say nothing of pri-
An enormous waste of timber was perpetrated in 1790 in the
Rumanian provinces to pave the streets of the more important towns
(Bucharest, ,Iasi, Craiova, etc) with oak beams which had to contin-
ually be replaced. Such streets were called "forests"
"Podul Mogosoaiei" in Bucharest. now Calea
(for example,
Victoriei. and "Capul
Podului," now Pieta Victoriei, where "Podul Mogosoaiei" end on the
outskirts of the town).
The forests, especially on the plain, also suffered fromLif.
the numerous imperialistic wars which were so often fought on Rumanian
territory. Sites of marches of troops and their camps and of, mi.kitary
administration are recognizable long afterward from destroyed forests,
either from deliberate arson or from inordinate cutting of trees to
obtain the wood which they needed here or for their own countries.
During the German occupation in World War
the devastation
amounted to a paroxysm. At that time many forests were cut down not
only to obtain wood" for construction and fuel, but also for the
bark needed in tanning or to make charcoal; the walnut trees were
In' great part destroyed to make rifle stocks, and the ash trees to
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make airplanes, cars, spokes for wheels etc. The small. forests
. which existed in the former judet of Ialomita 'era cut and burnt
at, the time to. run machines and mills. Since even the pastures
had been ploughed up, the peasants were then permitted to pasture
their cattle in the forests,, even in young groves only three to fo#r-
_years old, in view of the fact that the meadoWsllad.been reuisitioned.
After the agrarian reform of 1918, the small patches of forest
fell into the hands of exploiters, through the ignorantspeasantry of
the time, and. were cut down at once or were destroyed by. pasturing
and random cutting.
The capitalistic exploitation of the forests was also intensi-
fied in World War II, and the events of the German occupation of 1916-
1918 were repeated with variations by the Fascist German-Rumanian
"collaborators" during World War II.
To cope with this alarming situation, the people's democratic
regime had to take urgent and effective remedial measures.
These measures were put into active form in the Five-Year Plan,
which provides for important silviculture projects:
Forestation of 390 000 ha;
Consolidation of 7 000 ha of slopes.
Forestation of 40,000 ha of deteriorated land.
Forestation Of 36,000 had in regions with potential hydroelectric
power.
Establishment of nurseries over an area of 5,500 ha with a pro-
duction of at least 20200,000 saplings.
A fund of 6,8000000 lei has been provided to carry out these
and related tasks.
Compared with all that was done in this field in the 14 year
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period before 1944, the Fi've-Year Plan projects involve a volume of
work hitherto unprecedented in the history of Romanian 'silviculture;
the-largest area plantedin the past was about 48,000 ha in 1938, and
the total area Planted in these 14 years (1930-1944) was about 400,000
ha, equal to that provided for in the state plan for five months alone.
The forestation plan was fulfilled 122% in 1951 exceeding the
1950 achievement by 44,4%. The area planted in 1951 is greater than
that planted in ten years under the bourgeois-landowner regime.
Projects to improve land through forestation and to correct
and prevent torrents have been carried out in basins with hydroelectric
potential, in the valleys of the Bistrita, Ialomita. JiuF Arges,
Buzau, Rimnic, Putna, Trotus, and Ampoi rivers, and also in the
Vales Chinezii (Brates), the valley of the Covurlui, on the littoral,
and along the Danube between Bazias and Orsova.
(c) Steppe Vegetation
The steppe is a grassy formation characterized by
indigenous higher woody vegetation, which is replaced by
thick, stunted shrubs growing in hollows or valley.
a lack of
thorns or
The steppe occupies a remarkably large part of the Rumanian
plains,
Thus on the low Danubian plain it forma an irregular and
dense belt, interrupted by forest-steppe extensions', which begins
in ihe'southwestern part of the country (Turnu Severin *raion) and
accompanies the Da.nube meadow down to Giurgiu; between Giurgiu and
Oltenita it disappears almost completely because of the forest exten-
sions in thia part of the country, to reappear in,eastern Wallachia
whore it occupies the largest area in the entire country (the Baragan
plain, the Braila plain, the Buzau plain, 'that of Rimnicu Sarat, and
southern Moldavia).
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Smaller steppes are found in northeastern Moldavia (the
Jijia-Bahlui steppe) and in western Transylvania (the Tisa plain
from Timisoara-Arad west).
On the extensive plain of the steppe are to be seen, here
and there, mounds made by man in historic times; hollows which are
soil receptacles, fixed and moving sands near streams (fluvial
dunes) or along the sea (maritime dunes, and continental and mari-
time salt marshes).
Higher arborescent vegetation does not exist on the steppe
for the following reasons: the mean annual precipitation is low and
usually below 500 mm, while arborescent vegetation requires over
c500 mm for normal development the temperature shows extreme seasonal
variations, being unfavorable and even prohibitive not only with
exaggerated maximums in summer but also minimums in winter: the
wind blows almost all the time, destroying the equilibrium between
absorption and transpiration; the humidity of the atmosphere is
low: the steppe soils are rich in soluble salts which are prohibitive
to arborescent vegetation and lie at shallow depths; the water
table is very deep and cannot be easily reached by tree roots. In
general, the physical and geographical conditions and especially
the climatic conditions on the steppes of the RPR are arid; in fact
the map shows aridity indexes only on the steppes in the RPR. The
aridity index is between 15 and 24 -- that is the territories in
southern Dobrogea and on the sea littoral; in the eastern part of
the Baragan they are 15 -20, and on thereat of the steppes 20 - 24.
The only woody vegetation that can adapt itself to these
ecological conditions through various Xerophilous adaptation con-
? sists of stunted and monotonous subshrubbery thickets, with or without
thprns, such as sloe dwarf almond, dwarf cherry, dwarf sweet briar,
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bramble, blackberry, genista, etc; and in Dobrogea: paiur, wild
Jasmine, wood bush, horsetail or Ephedra, etc.
These shrubs used to be much more widespread on the steppes,
especially along the paths and boundaries that separated the old
estates, and also along the cart roads, highways, railroads, etc,
forming places of refuge and reproduction for rodents and insects
unfavorable to agriculture.
Therefore the removal of the boundaries isessential to the
protection of the crops.
Steppe vegetation proper which can live under the conditions
of aridity on the Rumanian steppes is herbaceous Xerophiious vegeta-
tion.
From this point of view we distinguish two formations: steppe
with dicotyledons (areas with aridity index of 20-24) and steppe
with Gramineae and wormwood (areas with aridity index of 15-20).
The steppe with dicotyledons has a general distribution in
Rumania, a small part of the center of Dobrogea and a narrow belt
in eastern Wallachia, along the Danube, where it is replaced by
steppe with Gramineae and wormwood.
The first has a flora formed of somewhat higher plants belong-
ing to such species as: raspberry, sowfennel, etc, umbelliferae;
oregano sage, scorogoi (Labiate); snake's-head, miruta, etc
(Boragineae); stone lentil, green bean, clover, yellow sweet clover,
alfalfa, thorny harrow, bean tree, benista (Leguminosae); chiurlanii,
ate.
The second has a flora consisting of lower and xerophilous
plants, belonging to such Gramineae species as: darnel, spikenard,
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bulb pea, oat, mouse barley; Iridaceae, such as the dwarf iris, and
various dicotyledons such as: Euphorbia, thistles, steppe wormwood,
etc.
On the sand dunes, especially the maritime dunes, a psammo-
philous, arenaceous, or sandy vegetation grows, consisting of dog-
grass, rushrass (Iuncus), some species of sedge, wild'barley, field
reed; sand cabbage (Crembe), horsetail (Ephedra), and even steppe
peony (on the dunes at Techirghiol).
A characteristic haloRhilous vegetation grows in the salt
beds, composed of glssswort (Salicornia) broom (Kachia), and marsh
rosemary; and on the wet and salt sand of the sea, Cakiles, etc.
Improvement measures for the steppes through application of
the DKV (Dokuchayev, Kostychev, Vil'yams1 agricultural system. In
the process of constructing socialism, one of the main tasks is
increasing production. Agricultural production is affected by numerous
factors, particularly soil moisture.
The DKV system is intended to control the physical and geo-
graphic factors of the soil, especially the water, and to obtain
increasingly larger harvests. It is a uniform system of methods and
measures to overcome natural adversities and increase agricultural
productivity. This system was initiated by Dokuchayev and Kostychev
and-later developed by ViVyams.
On the basis of the previous researches of his two predecessors
and on his own researches, Viltyams announced a series of new methods,
to give agriculture an opportunitylo protect production from the effects
of unfavorable climatic conditions, to assure a continual increase
in soil fertility, to obtain abundant and. stable harvests, and to
create a substantial forage basis for raising animals.
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The DIV system was introduced gradually on the Soviet kolk-
bozos, beginning in 1935, and was made obligatory by legislation for
all steppe and forest steppe areas of the USSR in 1948.
The basis of the system is rotation with herbaceous perennials,
the ground being planted with graminaceous and leguminous peren-
nials sown in rotations of 1-3 years to rehabilitate the structure
of the soil.
The maintenance of the soil structure and its fertility is ac-
complished by special projeces: mulching stubble, fall ploughing,
and processing before seeding.
To combat weeds fundamentally the system recommends the use
of black fields (tilling stubble in summer and plowing in fall with
a plough with a colter, which turns up a furrow in two steps, then
in spring the processing of the field to remove weeds begins.)
Soil fertility is raised by rational enrichment in stages,
depending upon the requirements of each type of vegetation.
In the dry steppe areas, soil fertility and stability of
crops are directly conditioned by the amount of water the plants get
from rains and !WW1 atmospheric humidity, and evaporation.
Where ? precipitation is inadequate and poorly distributed,
where the wind drifts the snow and does not let it cover the crops,
or where it increases the dryness of the atmosphere and damages
harvests, the measures indicated above are insufficient to assure
steady production.
To render production independent of these unfavorable cli-
matic conditions, Vil'yams Announced the total use of all local water
resources, to irrigate the 4:,)ps and to create a system of protective
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forest belts on the fields.
Finally, organization or .systematization of agricultural
territory is a prerequisite of planned agriculture.
mines the way the land is
the valleys for pastures,
and industrial plants are
The relief deter-A
used: the slopes for vineyards and orchards,
meadows, and vegetable gardens; cereals
grown on the plains and only in emergen-
cies on slopes. The organization of the territory must also deter-
.,
place for rotation of crops, forage etc, the placciment
mine the exact
of protective
forest belts, etc.
Advancing along the path opened by Soviet science, the ICAR
fInstitut de Cercetari Agronomice Romin -- Rumanian Institute of
Agricultural Research] has begun experiments at its experimental
stations on new methods of raising the soil fertility and increas-
ing production, and on extending their practical application. The
Introduction of the DKV system in agrotechnology and the Michurin
concept in agrobiology have shown favorable results, both at ICAR
stations and certain collective and state farms. Through irrigation
state farms have achieved higher yields, for example, 1,300 kg of
cotton per ha. Protective forest belts were planted along the Vnlea
Carasu and near all ICAR stations, in collaboration with the ICES
? (Institut de Cercetari Economice-Sociale -- Institute of Economic
and Social Research), which prepared a large-scale plan to set up
these belts in all the steppe districts, and has even drawn up a map
for this purpose.
(d) Aquatic Vegetation -- River-meadow Vegetation. The Rumanian
meadows and the shores of their fen lakes are covered with forests
of,white woods, moi, or riverside groves, composed of willow groves,
broom groves, poplar groves, buck-born groves, and alder groves, and
in the white woods forests of river-meadow forests.
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The development ?and extent of these forests increases toward
the plain, along with the widening of the valleys and the development
of the river meadows on the plain. While in the mountain valleys and
narrows, covered with gravel and rocks at the bottom, whit wood
forests grow it groves composed especially of white buckthorn (Hippo-
phae) and tamarisk (Myricaria). In the hill area the valleys begin
to harbor great riverside groves of black and gray alder. On the
plain, as the valleys widen even more and the alluvia become finer,
the river meadows bear groves of broom, willow, and poplar, and on
the alluvial sands, tamarisk (Tamarix).
Outside of the white wood forests, we also find on the meadows
of the greater rivers, especially on their lower courses, meadow
forests composed of several hardwood species such as oak, elm, wild
apple and pear, hazel, ash corn and singer, etc, on which climbers
grow: wild grape, bryony, hop, etc.
The connection between the development of white wood forests
and those of the valley bottoms can be especially well observed on
the Danube meadow. In the defiles where the meadows are narrow or
even lacking altogether, the riverside groves are also lacking or
occur only on islands (Ogradena, Adacale, etc). Below Calafat, where
the meadow begins to widen continuously, the white wood forests
become increasingly abundant and more extensive, down to the huge
Ialomitei and Brailei fen lakes, where they reach their maximum
development, to reappear on the bars in the Danube Delta, espeeially
?
at Letea and Caraorman, where the white wood forests are mixed with
hardwood species, forming a special type of forest rich in salt-
marsh plants.
The Letea forest, situated on a triangular bar between the
Chilia and Sulina branches, is composed of white poplar, ash, black
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poplar, wild pear, apple, white willow, broom, evergreen oak, elm,
mountain oak, black alder, and forest linden, associated with such
bushes as hazel hawthorn, sloe, red broom, sweet briar, black alder,
verigar, barberry, dogwood, vonicar, corn and singer, snowball tree,
tamarisk, white buckthorn, and among the climbers: wild grape, Peri-
ploca, and ivy. Among these species, the most common and abundant
is the-white poplar, after which comes the ash populating the elonga-
ted and parallel depressions among the coastal bars, forming forests
called 'hasmacuri."
The lianas, that twine on trees and then hong down from the
branches like drapery, give these forests a quite special appearance,
especially in autumn, because of the variegated color of the leaves --
cherry red to dark red grape leaves, golden yelloi periploca leaves,
yellow brown bryony leaves, dark green ivy leaves, etc.
Vegetation of swamps and fen lakes. From the Alpine peaks of
the Carpathians to the Danube delta; the swamps have an aquatic vege-
tation corresponding to the ecologic zone in which they are located.
Thus the mountain swamps offer conditions favorable to the
development of white moss or peat moss (Sphagnum); such aquatic vege-
tation formations are called peat moss patches.
Somewhat lower, the vegetation consists of various species of
mountain sedge (Carex), for which reason their respective vegetation
formations are called caricate or rogoziste.
Here and there on the plain swamp vegetation is composed of
reeds (Phragmites), and so it is called phragmitetum or the reed
bank.
Through decomposition of the remains of this vegetation a wort
of organic mud (sapropel) is. formed, which is deposited on the bottom
of the swamp where it mixes with the mineral Mui.
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When there is much undecomposed organic residue in sapropel,
a peat-forming process takes place, which transforms it into peat.
The swamp is then called .a peat bog.
C..:
Many of the peat muds are used for therapeutic baths at
Colacel (along Vatra Dornei) Borsec, Stobor, Geoagiu, Bails I May
and Victoria, the Petea Someseni river, and Malnas.
Most of the peat bogs are situated in the Barghita-Puturos
Mountains, on the Ouas plateau, Maramures, in the Buzau-Br
tcu
Mountains, in the Dorna-Tesna basin, in the Sebes Mountains, in the
southern Carpathians, and in the Apuseni Mountains. They are found
particularly at the upper limit of the beech forests, the highest
at 1,900 m.
Often the peat has had a local, very limited use.
Through the plan for electrification and the multilateral
use of streams, peat has begun to be used on a large scale as fuel
in thermal electric power plants.
As the inundation zonesd the rivers broaden, the fen lakes
of these areas become ever larger and the aquatic vegetation more
and more developed'.
This vegetation forma zonal belts of varying composition in
concentric bands in relation to the depth of the fen lake. These
zonal belts, from the edge to the center and the depth of the fen
lake, are zones of sedge, reeds., rushes, water lilies, broscarita,
club -Moss, duckweed, and water lentil -- and growing on the bottol
a the fen lake, a submerged field of Chars.
The external
form the reed bank.
belt of vegetation formed by reeds and rushes
This reed bank extends toward the center of the
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fen lake, the bare rhizomes on the outside being light, which makes
them float'. From a matting of rhizomes from the reed bank, ?to which
the root tassels also contribute in nodes as well as the various
remains of vegetation and even mud which fill the gaps in the tex-
ture, a thick vegetation cover of .90 - 1.50 m is formed which
floats on the surface of the fen lake to some distance from the
shore. This floating vegetation cover is called plaur or plavie.
It forms on all f
n lakes, for example, on those around Capitala
(Cernica, 'Rasarea, Snagovc, Calddorusani, etc) but they haveiparticy-
larly better development on the Danube delta.
Economic Importance of th Reed Bank. Because of the ?,norwous
area which they occupy on the Danube delta the reed banks have a
special importance. In fact, out of the total area of the delta of
430.000 ha, the reed banks occupy 267,000 hectares of which 72,000
ha is floating vegetation and the vegetation conditions are so
favorable that reeds can grow six m high. The most common use of the
reed banks has been limited for some time to use as construction
materials and thatch, fences, fishing weirs and seines and especi-
ally fuel in villages on the fen lake shores and particularly in
the delta. At greater distances only small quantities of reeds are
sent for ceilings, etc.
But the reeds are a very valuable raw material for the manu-
facture of cellulose, paper, and'cellulose fiber, and, at Tulcea the
people's democratic regime, has established a stufit factory, that
is a factory for insulating panels made from the reeds for use in
the construction industry.
2. Geographic origin of plants in the RPR
(a) Floral Elements
In Rumania grow about 3,400 species of flowers and ferns. Of
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these only very few are indigenous, surviving here from ancient
times (some as crypte4ams) and especially some as Tertiary relicts
(chestnut, walnut, simbovina, eastern hornbeam, Turkish hazel, lotus,
Ephedra, etc). Most of them came from neighboring areas or further
away in the course of time and in relation to the paaeogeographic
shifts which took place in succession over the geologic ages,
The most numerous elements in Rumania's flora (62%) are
species originating in Central Europe (central-European elements).
In this category are the commoner trees of the hills and plains:
willow, poplar, hornbeam, hazel, birch, beech, evergreen oak oak,
elm, hawthorn, plains maple, cornel, ash, snowba31 tme and dirmox,
then the trees and shrubs of the mountains: white fir, yew, moun-
tain elm, maple, plane tree, bilberry, jnepeni, ienuperi, etc.
There are much fewer species originating in the artic areas
of Eurasia (artic elements) They populated the mountains of central
Europe and the Carpathians during the glacial periods and afterward,
and they have stayed contained on mountains and on Alpine peaks
where they have survived as glacial relicts. These are: fir and
zimbru (originating on the taiga, azalea, dwarf willow, and argintica
and then the various swamp plants -- cotton grass, dwarf birch,
ruginarea (Andromeda) Ligularia.
Few also are the species originating in the Alps, which also
penetrated the Carpathians in the glacial period (Alpine elements).
They are: Alpine guRp-porumbelului Alpine pink, rock cress (Arabia),
various saxifragae, dwarf cock's foot grass. Alpine angelica,
Alpine forget-me-not, Alpine veronica, Alpine foxglove, Alpine
hawkweed, etc.
A few, plants came from the Balkan peninsula, populating the
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Carpathian chain as well as the Balkans (Carpatho-Balkan elements).
They are: priboi, spring saffron, mountain currant (Bruckenthalia),
rhododendron, etc.
Mediterranean elements are richly represented in the flora
of Rumania. They come from the Mediterranean subregion and populate
the warmer parts of the country (the Banat, Oltenia, Dobrogea, etc)
They are: sfineac or carpinita, mountain or black ash, Turkish
cherry, simbovina, thistles, wild lilac, black or palasian pine,
trilobate maple, Turkish hazel, wild jasmine, paiur, jujube, plesni
toarea, Periploca, Smilax, etc. These Mediterranean elements popu-
lated Rumanian areas in postglacial times, being superimposed upon
some survivors of the end of the Tertiary period (Tertiary relicts)
such as: lotus, yew, ivy, flueratoarea, hops, benista, etc.
Many plants populated the plains in the interglacial and post-
glacial periods from the Asiatic Pontocentral steppes (Asiatic cen-
tral Pontic subregion). They are: wild barley, steppe peony, snake's-
head, Persian convolvulus, spikenard, darnel, ruscuta de primavara,
Lantricical aster, etc. Some reached the low Danube plain (Pontic
elements), others the Moldavian steppes (Sarmatic elements) and?
others penetrated the low Danube plain at the Tisa plain (Pannonian
elements),
Some plants penetrated Rumania, about 10%, and took on new
characteristics In keeping with the physibal and geographiconditions
of these areas, giving rise to new specie and subspecies. For ex-
ample in the Retezat massif, of six different species of hawkweed
or Hieracium (subarctic, central Asiatic-west Pontic, west Pontic-
Mediterranean, central European. and EUrasiatic-north European
elements) 12 species and 42 endemic subspecies arose, as well as new
varieties and forms.
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All these new elements (about 340 species), which arose in
one of the areas in Rumania p are called endemic Dlcian elements
(Dimitrie Greceanup 1898). They are: a species of milfoil
Schurii) closely related to a similar species in the Alps
oxyloba) -- or a species of opaita (Melandrium
(Aohillea
(Achillea
zawadzki), related to
the Balkan opaita (Melandrium auriculatum), etc.
The endemic Dacian elements constitute the Dacian flora (D
Grecespu) and characterize the Dacian floral province (Tr. Savulescu)
in the Carpathian framework, where they are more abundant and where
they grow along with other floral elements.
(b) Phytogeographic Zoning.
According to floral relationships, Rumania.can be divided into
seven floral provinces, characterized by their geologic Out, their
present climatic conditions, and in connection with these their flora
and vegetation distinct from neighboring provinces and endemic or
characteristic species, as well as certain vegetation assoeiations
lacking in the other provinces.
These phytogeographic provinces are as follows:
1. The Dacian province, comprising the hills, plateaus, and
mountains, 200 1650 m; the vegetation of this province is forest
zoned by altitude in regard to species. The beech is its character-
istic element, but it contains many Dacian endemisms; to the north
it is enriched by central European elements.
2. The Dacian-Alpine province, comprising mountain tops 1,650
In or more in height, consisting of many islands irregular in area;
the vegetation of this province is connedted with Alpine vegetation
and has many points in common with the "Ups; from 2,000 in up it is
particularly clearly distinguished.
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3. The Pontic province comprises tho whole low Danube plain.
constituting a tentacular extension of the Pontic steppes from the
southern part of European USSR
4, The Sarmatian province comprises two small portions of
Moldavia and .a certain part of the northwest (Jijia-Bahlui steppe)
of it, constituting an extension of Ukrainian flora and being a mixture
of steppe and forest flora in which the beech is lacking.
. The Pannonian province consists of the Pannonian plain,
also extending into Rumania as far as the western foothills of the
Apuseni mountains; it has a steppe vegetation with many Pannonian
elements.
6. The Banat-Oltenian province comprises part of Oltenia,
the Banat, and southern Ardeal (in the Hunedoara region) and re-
flects the conditions of a submediterranean climate, with a flora
composed of many southern elements (Illyrian, Mediterranean).
7. The Dobrogean province comprises Dobrogea and reflects
not only submediterranean climatic conditions with many Mediterranean
elements, especially in the southern part of the province, but also
steppe climatic conditions with many Pontic elements.
1Pages-284-3021
VIII. FAUNA
Raul Calinescu
Geographic Distribution of Terrestrial Fauna in Relation to Relief
We have seen that vegetation is zoned by altitude in relation
to relief and variations in climatic conditions.
A similar zoning is also to be observed in the case of fauna,
conditioned not only by relief and climate but also by vegetation.
We distinguish an Alpine fauna, a forest fauna of mountains
and lower altitudes), a steppe fauna, etc.
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(a) The Fauna of the Alpine Peaks
The Alpine peaks are the domain of the black goat. This ante-
lope of the mountains lives only on the highest and teepest peaks
of the Carpathians in glacial hollows on Paring, Retezat, Mt. Lotru?
Fagaras, Piatra Craiului, and Bucegi,
Among birds of prey only the eagles venture to fly over the
Alpine peaks, coming from the forests below. A pur Alpine eagle
is the bearded eagle or lammergeier, which nests only on Rezetat,
along the subalpine precipices.
Other birds which have penetrated the forest area here are
the Alpine finch, the Alpine fisa, the rock thrush, the Alpine
brumarita, and the mountain lark; among the reptiles the common
viper, black viper, and the mountain lizard; among the batrachians
the blue triton, muchiat triton (Triton montandoni), and the brown
frog (Rana temporaria),
? The terrestrial mollusks which live in the Alpine barren
have a smaller foot than the forest forms: their number is small
because climatic conditions are unfavorable; the Alpine snails are
limited chiefly to areas where there are more sheltered and warmer
places in the inclement seasons and where they seek shelter from
the ?drainsHbailStOZflSH and snows and where in summer they
find shade and humidity.
Many species of butterflies, which live in the forest zones
also come up to the mountain tops in the juniper zone or Alpine
meadow proper. These are Aporia crataegi (up to 2,000'm).Tines
granella (up to 2,100 m), etc.
Other species of butterfly live exclusively on the Alpine
peaks, in typical forms or local varieties, such as Erebia lappona
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(a glacial relict, up to 211(30 m), Evetria turionama, var. mughiana
(up to 2,263 0, etc, There are also special forms of Coleoptera,
Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, etc, on
the Alpine peaks.
(b) Forest fauna
This type of terrestrial fauna is the richest and most varied
in Rumania, from the smallest insects to the largest birds and mam-
mals.
There are numerous forest insects, some of Vlach are harmful,
as certain butterflies (Porthetria dispar, Tortrix viridana, etc.)
whose caterpillars feed on the leaves of certain trees and strip
them,
Besides butterflies there are Geometridae, ash beetles, May
beetles, cetoni, stag-beetles, Curculionidae, woodborers, forest
bugs, earwigs, plant lice, etc, all harmful insects that swarm on
the forest soil, in the bark of trees, and in their crowns. There
are also various other xylophagous pests which are very harmful
and cause great losses,
Under this head come the losses caused by hyphids (Bostrichidae)
or bark beetles in various years, but especially in the' years 1918-
1926 and 1947-1948 in the fir forests of the Eastern Carpathians.
Xylophagous insects, harmful to forests, also include some Ceramby-
cidae (.woodborers) which attack ,either conifers (fir borIrs) or
deciduous trees (oak borers).
In the forests of the plains there are such birds as the common
jay, orioles and the various songbirds, mostly migratory gold-
finches, finches, the linnet, the siskin, the woodlark, common and
caudate tomtits the green robin, nightingales, the flycatcher,
cojoaica, scortar, etc.
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?
Typical forest birds are: thrushes, blackbirds, green and spotted
woodpeckers, the cuckoo, wild pigeons, turtle doves etc.
In the mountain forests are the heathcock. birch cock (only
At the sources of the Bistrita), hazel hen, rock partridge (only
in the region of Cazane), mountain jay, scissor-tail, mountain
cojoaical etc.
Among the birds of prey, there Care eagles. vultures, falcons,
hawks, the wood owl, the wood eagle-owl, the great awl etc.
During their passage in spring and fall, snipe and marsh plover
sojourn in the humid forests.
In some forest-steppe oak forests there are colonies of pheasants,
raised in artificial hatcheries called fazaneri.
Mammals are well represented in the forest area. Some species
are eurytopic: the wolf, the fox, badgers, hares, etc. The others
are stenotopic and peculiar to the forest, Among the predators are:
the bear and lynx (only in the mountains), marten and beic (especially
in beech forests) and wildcat (in all types of forest); among the herbi-
vores are the deer which runs wild in coniferous and beech forests,
especially in the eastern Carpathians, and are raised here and there
(in the Banat); the roe buck, both in coniferous and deciduous
forests, especially of the plains -- partly raised, for example
around Timisoara and Bucharest; the wild boar common from the,fir
forests to the flood area and on the Danube delta around the floating
vegetation; the cerblopatar and wild sheep are notl only raised in
Rumania but are also found in the forests on the Banat plain (Sariota,
Bata, Bulci in Timisoara Region) and the Crisana plain (Socodor, Arad
Region, Bale) Oradea Region), and the latter at Bale, Oradea Region,
and in Hunedoara Region. The rodents are represented by squirrels,
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word illegible', and wood mice, which sometimes cause great losses to
nurseries and. forest plantings.
(c) Steppe Fauna.
Among the mammals, the most characteristic steppe animal is
the popinau, which constitutes the basic food of the steppe polecat
and the spotted polecat, both species characteristic of the Dobro-
gean steppe,
? The field mice, which multiply large numbers in some years,
are-very harmful to agriculture. This happens.specially after win-
ters with heavy snow, preceded by long and warm autumns, with rich
food resources which constitute optimum conditions for the growth
of these rodents.
Other harmful steppe rodents are: the marmot, the gopher,
the small lemming (in Dobrogea), etc.
The most characteristic bird is the bustard, an indigenous
species in Rumania rare because of rapacious hunting, especially
in winter, when the cold freezes its wing feathers so that it can .no
longer fly. More rare than the bustard is the spurcaciu, or small
bustard, migratory to Rumania. Other steppe birds are: quail (mi-
gratory in summer), partridge (indigenous), meadow land rail, various
?
species of spipe, and especially the long-footed snipe, which dash
about the steppe at night piercing the calm nights with their
melodious cries. Large and small cranes are to be seen on the
steppe during their spring and autumn passage. Much more rare is
the gray steppe hen, which makes irregular migrations from central
Asia. Flights of common and purple starlings circle about the cherry
trees, lighting upon them now and then. More rearely a locustar i
mien, especially on the Dobrogrean steppe. The singing birds are repre-
sented by bundings, prairies woodlarks, and field woodlarks. Th
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steppe atmosphere is thick with bee-eaters
swarms, especially near any kind of water,
, which fly in great
calling sadly, and
blue rollers perch here and there on the telegraph poles and wires,
brightening the monotony of the uniform expanses of the plains.
There are many predatory birds on the steppes: the gray and black
bald eagles, the steppe falcon, etc, and the steppe goshawks and
steppe owlets feeding on the various steppe rodents which they
eeatleh in great numbers, being very useful to agriculture in this
way.
- The species of steppe lizards are veriedl the most character-
istic are the Eremias, and then the steppe snakes (Elaphis, Zamenis.
Eryx, etc), and the tong snails, glistening white in color (Zebrina))
congregate on warm summer days like so many white tufts or grapes ,on
low, gray bushes of steppe wormwood, especially on the Dobrogean
steppe. On the sands or psammophilous plants of the dunes live great
quantities of Helicella, which have a good resistance to the high
temperatures of the sands in the summer heat.
The insects are numerous and varied, with a predominance of
Orthoptera -- that is, locusts, crickets. and calugarita, the last
especially on the Dobrogean steppe.
On the Oltenian steppe there are paunchy crickets, of the
Mediterranean type (Dynsrchus); throughout the valleys of the plain,
termites dwell in the dired or half-d.ried roote of. the vine stocks.
A characteristic Myriapod of the Dobrogean steppe is the centi-
pede; on the Dobrogean littoral there are spiders of the Mediterranean
type, Argiope lobate, which spin their webs among the dicotyledonous
plants of the steppes.
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2. The Geographic Origin of Terrestrial Animals in the RPR
(a) Fluna Elements
???~11?0011.0,101110?????100110001111.m....*????...
As in the case of flora, the Rumanian fauna are based uPon
animal species of the European and Siberian subregions in gen ral
and of the central European region in particular: deer and roebuck,
red and black squirrel, pirsii, dwarf mice, hares, wild boar, com-
mon lilieci, the mole, hedgehog, wolf, red fox, lynx, wildcat, otter,
badgers, marten, pietrar, mink, weasel, ermine, common polecat; some
sedentary birds: alunar, jay, finch, robin, oxeye, kinglet, owlet,
screech-owl, great owl, heathcock, cocos de mesteacan (rare) hazel
hen, finch, grosbeak, crested lark, thrushes, blackbirds, linnet,
magpie, raven,, and bustard; mollusks, among the most common of which
are river mussel, fen lake mussel. fen lake snails (Planorbis,
Lymnaca, Paludina, etc ).
Much fewer are the artic, circumpolar, and Alpin species which
came to Rumania during the glacial periods (glacial relicts).
Some small glacial relicts of artic origin have survived in
the Carpathian recesses, and especially in the eastern Carpathians:
Rotiferae, Dinocharis, etc (In the mossbanks at Poiana Stampii); Hydro-
charians, L bertia, etc
(Mihodrea swamp) some Cellembolee (Morulina,
etc); Planarians (Planaria alpine);? Crustaceans (Niphargus puteanus)*
butter flies (Erebia lappona); and Coleoptera (Nebria, etc).
Although sedentary artic birds are rather sparsely represented
in Rumania/ for example by the black woodpecker originating on the
taiga, the migratory species appear much more thickly during severe
winters -- siskin, winter finch, matasar caudated wood owl white
duck, tufted duck, great duck sonant duck, sword duck, swalloW
duck, winter tufted duck, polar duck. swan, Siberian lark, etc.
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Circumpolar elemonts in Rumania are ciocirlia cu moate
(Otocorys nlpostris), notatita (Phaleropus Hyperboreus), etc.
Alpine elements are: Alpine chitcan and various snails of the
Clausilidae, Vestiginine, and Pupillidae families. Some species came
into Rumania from the Balkan peninsula (Balkan elements). They are
green lizard, Crimean lizard (Lacerta taurica), horned viper,,Eryx
snake, Jackal, spotted polecat, small lemming (Mesocricretus newtoni),
etc.
The others have their origin in the Mediterranean subregion
in general (Mediterranean elements) -- Italian weasel, Italian
squirrel, bearded, bald, and gray eagles, rock partridge, continental
tortoise, and especially the Iberian tortoise. Among insets: Calugarita,
paunchy cricket, termite, scorpion, centipede lobate spider (Argiope
lobate). bulim (Zebrine Varnensis), etc.
Other species had their origin in the steppes of the Asiatic
central Pontic subregion, and especially in the Pontic province of
this subregion (Pontic elements). These are marmot, steppe polecat,
common starling, steppe eagle, great black eagle, and bustard; and
reptiles like the desert lizard (Eremias arguta deserti) in the sands
of the Danube delte, and various species of locusts and insects.
We mention D cian elements, those endemic species or subspecies
which exist in Rumania only in certain small geographic areas, and
which do not have a general distribution. For example, the gopher
of the Balkan peninsula (Spalax monticola) gave rise in Dobrogea to
a loCal form (subspecies transylvanicus); a Caucasian species, pene-
trating the low Danubian plain, gave rise to an endemic species
Spalax istricus.
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The physical and geographic conditions in Rumania had a modify-
ing effect upon many species from outside. This was true in the case
of the horned viper (Vipera ammodytes) from the Balkan peninsula,
which penetrated Dobrogea and gave rise to a local form (subspecies)
montandoni) also the Iberian tortoise (Testudo ibera)which produced
a new form on the delta in Dobrogea (dobrogicus), the bittern (Bom-
binator ignaceus) also produced a new form (danubialis) on the
Rumanian Plain, etc. A large number of endemic elements are being
formed from spedies of snails in Ramania.
All these endemic animal species constitute the Dacian fauna
and characterize the Dacian fauna province.
(b) Zoogeographic Zoning.
According to fauna relationships, Rumania can be divided, as
in the case of flora, into seven fauna provinces characterized by
geologic past, present climatic conditions, and in relation to the
latter, fauna, as distinguished from neighboring provinces, and
characteristic or endemic species, such as certain animal associations
lacking in the other provinces.
These zoo-geographic provinces, as in the case of flora, are
as follows:
1 Dacian province, characterized by a forest fauna, formed
of central European elements (squirrel, deer, roe, bear, lynx,
wildcat, marten, heathcock, hazel hen, common viper, mountain lizard,
etc), as well as numerous Dacian endemic elements (Miorotus ulpius,
Pitymis dacius, Vitrea transylvanica, etc).
2. Dacian-Alpine province, characterized by Alpine meadow
fauna and junipers, consisting of glacial relicts originating in the
arctic tundra or the Alps, to which was added many endemisms peculiar
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to our, Alpine peaks, showing phylogenetic connections either with
the polar tundra or the Alps, such as the dwarf mouse (Microtus
ulpius), a Variant form of the species Microtus nivalis of the
Alps.
3. Pontic province is characterized by a Pontic steppe fauna
(with many Pontic elements such as the steppe polecat), to which are
added some endemisms Peculiar to the plains (Spalx istricus, etc).
4. Sarmatian province presents a mixture of steppe and forest
fauna, originating in part from the north of the Ukrainian SSR,
still insufficiently studied.
5. Pannonian provitsce, characterized by a Pannonian steppe
fauna with many Pannonian elements (Spalax hungaricus, etc), and
some Pontic elements (steppe polecat, bustard, etc).
6. Banat-Oltenian province, rich in Mediterranean elements,
in great part without modification such as the tortoise, commony
horned viper, scorpion (with a curved island in the Subcarpathians),
the snail Campylea trizona, etc, and others which are modifimo (mol-
lusks such as Acmebanatica, Helix, Pomatia banatica% etc).
Dobrogian province, with many east Balkan and east Mediter-
ranean elements unmodified or modified, in Dobrogea such as:
Iberian tortoise, Dobrogean horned viper, (Viper ammodytes
mon-
tandoni), buid, Eryx jaculus turcicus, the snail Zebrine varnensis,
etc.
3. Aquatic Fauna
a. Fauna of the River Meadows and Riverside Groves
1.111.0.111,..fr10?????
The animals' that live in the river meadows and. groves along-
side flowing and stationery bodies of waters of the RPR are related
in their mode of existence to the preceding ones. They spend their
.lives on the soil of the riverside groves or on the floating vegetation,
or in the tree branches seeking food, especially on the edges of the
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In the river meadows and riverside groves there are wolves
and foxes, wild boars hares, and occasional roebucks. on the banks
of the streams otters and minks live, feeding on fish.
Among the branches crowns, and hollows of the trees and on
the soil of the riverside groves live various fen lake birds, es-
pecially daytime predators like the osprey, the white bold eacle,
the whitetailed eage, etc also feeding on fish, as well as many
oormorants and various species of stork, berze, etc, feeding on
fen lake animals.
(b) Fauna of Flowing Waters
According to their physical, geographical, and hydrological
characteristics, the Rumanian streams are those which flow from the
mountains (example, the Cerna), from the hills (example, the Cot-
meana), and from the plains (example, Cslmatui), the great streams
that arise in the Carpathians and flow into the Danube present along
their courses the hydrographic conditions of the faces of the moun-
tains, hills, and plains.
In mountain streams-and rivers, with clear and cold water
(under U10), with slight temperature differences between winter and
summer (7 - 8?), rapid flow; and rich in oxygen to the point of
saturations (6 -1 cmP) the Salmonidae live, psychrostenothermal ant
oxyphilous fish; 'i,e the trout lives in the uppermost part of the
mountain waters, in association with several small tone word
such as the boistemn, bullhead, and, more rarely, the loach, and
lower down the grayling and the salmon (rare).
The Salmonidae are carnivoroUs and very voracious fish, feed-
ing on animal food consisting of the smaller fauna of mountain waters,
(larvae and nymphae of Ephemera, Plecoptera, and Diptera, some Hydro-
charians, free nematodes, small crustaceans, many Daphnia and cyclops
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nphemerae which skim the surface of the water, etc) or even boisteni,
which are herbivorous fish, all of which feed on plankton. The lat-
ter is composed of microscopic algae and diatoms that cover the rocks
at the bottom of these waters like a soft moss, called the 7bioderma."
In hill rivers, where the gradient is lower, the rate of flow
of the waters slackens, the water is clear and increasingly warm,
and the temperature variations are greater (a difference of 18-190
between winter and summer), so that the surface may freeze in winter.
The amount of oxygen dissolved in the water is still quite great (5
cu cm), the water level is more stable, and reversals of flow are
more rate. Aquatic vegetation becomes increasingly abundant.
The characteristic fish is the barbel, which lives in associa-
tion with the gudgeon especially along the osiers and trees fallen
in the water, the bream, beldita, roach, loach, eel, pietrar, and ,
hadina.
In the higher region, the passage to the upper zone of the gray-
ling is made by the loach, and to the lower zone by the burbot. In
spring the bream ascends this xivers to deposit its eggs and descends
to the valley in autumn. Often the salmon, and especially the gray-
ling, descend to the hill sZream area, and the pike goes upstream to
deposit its eggs.
In the plains rivers, the gradient being very low, the flow
of the water is greatly. retarded Much-fine alluvium is carried in
suspension, making the water turbid. The effect of the seasons is
very strong. In summer, in the animals' active season the water is
warm (20 -25?C), and consequently oxygen is low. In winker the sur-
faces of these streams are frozen, although their water is very
eurythermic and shows great variations in temperature at the surface
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(20 - 220 C) -- while at the bottom it remains constant (4 - 5? C).
On the banks there is a swampy aquatic vegetation, offering herbi-
vorous aquatic animals and adequate supply of food. Fermenting in
the warm season, it also contributes to lowering the oxygen content.
During the spring floods the water level rises and backs
up to a considerable extent, covering the major bed and driving
the various aquatic fauna into the flood zone and through the streams
into the fen lakes.
In these waters are the Cyprinidae, enrythermic and herbivorous
fish, which in order to live need calm and warm water in summer (at
least -L100 C) and vegetation food from the clay and sand bottoms and
from the back waters onto the flood area and into the fen lakes.
The characteristic fish is the carp, which lives in the up-
per part of the plains streams in association with the whitefish,
and in the lower part, in lakes full of abundant aquatic vegetation,
with crucian carp, perch, and pike, and on the muddy bottoms, rich
In larvae, viermisori, and molluscs, with the eel, tench, and sheat-
fish.
(c) Danube Fauna
The Danube and the fen lakes in its flood area form an or-
ganic whole by virtue of the complementary conditions of life they
offer, organisms.
The gradient of the river is'low (Over a distance of l000
km it drops 70 m) and the flow is sluggish. The water is very turbid
(1,225 kg per Cu m of water). The discharge is subject to great
periddic increases (rising from 2,000 cu ,m /sec to 35,000 cu 'm in
spring) making the water level rise considerably (6 - 8 m over the
low water mark) and'causing the water to overflow the banks onto the
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flood area. As the waters recede, the aquatic organisms transported
by the floods remain either in the large and permanent fen lakes of
the river, or on the flood area around them, or in the shallow pools
which dry up in summer or freeze solid in winter.
Most of the fish in the Danube and its fen lakes also exist
in the lower tributaries, i.e. carp, crucian carp, whitefish, bream,
pike perch, eel ruff, perch, tench, sheatfish (up to 300 kg), bleak,
avat, roach, rosioara, gudgeon,i)ike, and sometimes the barbel.
Besides these fresh water fish representatives of two families
of mil-sine fish come up the Danube to lay their eggs: the Clupeidae
and Acipenseridae (Sturioni). Thus, for example, in spring the
Clupideae come up the Danube in the form of' the mackerel and rizeafca,
which abound in the maritime Danube, often advancing as far as
Giurgiu and even as far as the Iron Gate, but without going up the
tributaries; the mackerel and sardeluta, the former also going int6
the Belts Brailei and the latter advancing to around Cslarasi, and
both lacking in the Danube tributaries; and the gingirica, common
on the delta in spring.
The Acipenseridae also enter the Danube in spring -- the
viza which goes into the mouths of the tributaries but not in their
fen lakes; the sturgeon, which does not occur in the fen lakes of
the Danube and enters mouths of tributaries only rarely; the sip,
rare in the Danube and totally lacking in the tributaries: the
white sturgeon, only in the fresh waters of the sea off the mouth of
the Danube. An exclusively fluvial Acipenserida is the sterlet,
characteristic of the Danube. In the Danube fen lakes, the dominant
and characteristic fish is the pike perch since the Clupeidae and
Sturioni, more numerous in the maritime Danube, are characteristic
of that part of the river.
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01111111?111111MINIMMIlly4.
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(d) Fauna of Standing Waters
The fen lakes in the flood area of the Danube are closely
connected with the life of the river. The surplus water from the
Danube flows in here during the spring floods. This water flows
back into the river when the Danube begins to fall, being at the
same time the most secure refuge of many species of river animals
while the Danube water is very full of alluvia. These fen lakes are
also places of reproduction and growth of the young of most Danube
animals and especially the fish. With their clear water, shallow
bottoms rich in food, abundant vegetation, and large areas of open
water easily warmed by the sun, the Danube fen lakes offer optimum
conditions not only for hatching eggs but also for the growth of
larvae and fry. The abundance of fish in the Danube is due precisely
to the fen lakes in the flood area in which they hatch feed, and
grow, the Danube being only a reservoir to which they return in
autumn to winter in deep water and to escape the danger of the
freezing in the fen lakes.
The animals that remain in the pools and fen lakes in the
floor area of the Danube are subject to climatic variations and have
various means of defending themselves against drought (Anhydrobiosis)
or freezes. Most of them have various means of resistance. Some
species can hibernate for some time' such as the crucian carp and
the eel. which bury themselves in the mud of the fen lakes when
the water begins to dry up, or in the mud of quite dry, pools, at
the bottoms of which they can live in great numbers. Digging to a
depth of 30 cm in the dry bottoms, there can be found at this depth
in the moist mud eels, tench, crucian carp, fen snails fen mussels,
leeches, etc, all creatures which multiply in moisture and live in
mud and can by reducing their vital activity to a minimum last very
well in a latent state until the next flood.
-236
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The permanent fen lakes of the Danube flood area have an
abundant and varied fauna.
The floating vegetation offers shelter and food to many aqua-
tic animals, and especially fen lake birds, which take refuge here,
feed, and hatch their eggs in peace (storks, spoonbills, ibises,
wild ducks and geese, white and red wild ducks, swans and pelicans,
coots, land rails, gray fen hens, etc,'
In the reeds on the edges of the fen lakes live water snakes,
fen tortoises, tritons, and fen bitterns; some species of fish lay
their eggs here, such as the pike, and foxes, wolves and wild boars
live here. which are also to be found further out on the floating
vegetation.
The floating vegetation interferes with the uniform heating
of the fen lakes and, consequently adequate oxygenation of the water,
thus creating conditions unfavorable to fish life under the floating
vegetation.
1Mma submerged vegetation, under the surface of the water,
forms abundant aquatic pasturage, in which the fen animals take
refuge duringsummer droughts. Many fish deposit their eggs in this
pasture, as the perch does in the brush, and the whitefish among
the frogs. On the bottom live dragonfly larvae, while the adults of
these insects perch attractively upon the above-water stems of
hygrophilous plants, like the blue dragonfly: among the roots on the
bottom live Phryganeidae, defended by the protective roots; fen
snaila (Planorbis, Limapea) climb on the stems of the reeds from
the bottom to the surface of the fen lakes; on submerged plants
and the part of the reeds below water live the adhesive Bryzoans and
fresh water sponges; here swim fish, frogs, tritons, leeches, free
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groloorroloworrok
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nematodes, and various fen insects; and in the brush, as also among
the remains of vegetation fallen in the fen lakes are planari, leeches,
and small crustaceans such as Asellus and, Gpmmarus. Also among the
submerged plants and on the bottom live fen snails, while mussels re-
main in the mud. The larvae of many aquatic insects also live on
the muddy bottoms (dragonflies, Ephemerae, mosquitos, etc). Crayfish
live on the edg s of the fen lakes, in holes and under roots. The
zooplankton in the middle of the fen lakes is formed of various
protozoa, rotiferae, and especially microscopic crustaceans and
hydracharians,
? The fish in the fen lakes of the flood area of the Danube
are the same as in the Danube except for the Clupeidae and Acipenseri-
dae, outside of a few species which also enter the fen lakes.
interior fen lakes are those in the interior of the country
connected with the flood areas of the Danube tributaries or the steppe
fen lakes and are more or less saline.
The former, regardless of whether they are river estuaries
or not, or whether they are sluggishly flowing waters, these fen
lakes (examples Colentina Pasarea, etc) have the same fauna as
the lakes on the flood plain of the Danube, more limited and char-
acterized by lack of fish of the Clapeidae and Accipenseridae.
Since they are waters with a muddy substratum, mud fish predomi-
nate such as the eel, tench, and sheatfish, which live in association
with the perch, ruff, rosioara, roach, ide, etc.
As for the saline steppe fen lakes, their fauna varies with
the degree of salinity, being more saline the more saline the water
igt In ouch fen lakes fish are generally lacking, the fauna being
represented by species of small saline animals, including the small
stenohaline crustacean Artemia saline.
-23$
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(e) The Littoral Lakes (Waritime)
The littoral lakes have a fauna composed of three classes of
elements: fresh water elements, capable of supporting a certain amount
of salinity marine elements, those that exist in the shore area of
the sea but very enryhaline: and Sarmatian relicts, survivors of
Tertiary marine fauna which populate the Aral-Caspian basin (Aralo-
Ponto-Caspian).
All three categories of elements composing the fauna of the
littoral lakes can be found in association in these lakes in the
transitional area between the marine and fresh water. The lower the
saline content of the water is, the more prevalent the Sarmatian
relicts are, and conversely, the higher the saline content the more
prevalent the recent marine forms are and when it is equal to or
higher than that of the sea only purely marine species live there.
At the boundary between fresh waters and slightly brackish
waters live fresh-water elements like fen and river mussels, as well
as the leptodactylous crab. Where there is low salinity live Bryozoans
Len snails, fen sponges, and fish like the -roach, common pike perch,
striped pike Perch. and even sturgeons.
The marine elements, of recent Mediterranean origin: which
occur in both slightly saline and highly saline waters are some marine
crustaceans, including the balan and the shrimp; some marine mollusks,
as the Cardium etc, worms like the Nereis, fish like the aterina,
gray mullet, hornback, etc.
Sarmatian relicts are the Cordylophore polyp, the Dreisensia
mussel, Thatimantias medusa, Limnocardiidae (Monodacna, Adacna) molluscs,
some sedentary polychaetae (Hypania, Hypaniola, Parhypania, etc, and
some fish (Benthophilus bullhead, lophobranchiate Syngmathus or ac de
mare, etc.
-239
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While the various fauna elements prevail in the various littoral
lakes according to their degree of salinity, there are cases in which
a variation of fauna occurs within the same lake according to varying
salinity. Thus, in Lake Razelm, the salinity increases from north to
south, so that fresh water elements predominate in the north, brackish
water types prevail in the middle, especially Sarmatian relicts, and
further south, in Lake Since, there are prevalent marine elements,
and Lake Caranasuf (salinity 35.4%) and especially Lake Duingi (salin-
ity 58.7%) there is a supersaturated water fauna (Cardium, Gammarcus,
Crangon, Nereis, etc), which die in dry years in the high salinity,
being replaced by Arteula and Chironomus larvae.
In Lake Techirghiol the salinity is so high (70%) that no
higher fauna can exist in it today, fAsh and mollusks being replaced
by high saline fauna consisting of some protozoa, small species of
worms, turbellaria, rotiferae, and anaelida, a few species of small
crustaceans such as Artemia, Cypris, Gammarus, etc some Diptera
larvae as Ephydra, Erystalis, Cheironomus, and Stratiomys, devoid
of any economic significance.
(f) The problem of Restocking Rumanian Waters
Many of the Rumanian bodies of water were depopulated of fish
during the bourgeois landowner regime, due to the following causes:
chemical pollution which brought various harmful substances in the
stream beds from industrial wastes (sawdust from sawmills, coal dust
from washing coal, chemicals, and especially acids, etc), intensive
and irrational fishing without regard to season and by prohibited
methods (misled burdock, dynamite, trotline, lime, etc), deforesta-
tion of valley slopes, etc.
. Those streams in which the fish were for the most part exter-
minated by the above-mentioned methods can be restocked in two ways:
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naturally, by halting fishing for a given period, or artificially with
fertilized eggs or fry from hatcheries.
The Rumanian people's democratic regime has made great progress
in this field, both in establishing salmon hatcheries and restocking
the mountain streams and in restocking the other bodies of water of
the RPR with fish of great economic value. For example. at Enisala
(Constants region) a pike perch) culture station has been established,
from which many fen lakes have been stocked and restocked with pike
perch: Uslina (in the Danube delta), Morughiol and Jirlau (Galati
region), Obilesti, Sindrilita Mare, Sticleanu and Greaca (Bucurestic
region) as ?well as some hatching ponds at Nucet (Ploesti region),
Cefa (Oradea region), Cil and Ineu Orad region) stations, and ponds,
as for example those on the ath of Lenin" collective farm in the
town of Livedea (Bucuresti region) and the Gh. Doja collective farm
in the town of Ville Dejului (Cluj region).
Pisciculture stations have also been established, where varid-
ties of selected carp (Galiti and Lusite types) are grown. From this
station various rivers and fen lakes have been stocked: Jirlau
(Galati region), Sindrilita Mare, Boneass, Floreasca, Baranga and
Balariea (Bucuresti region), Ziduri (Ploesti region), Oltina (Con-
stanta region); the Mures, Olt, Cibin, and Bega.
On,the initiative of the people's councils many ponds have
been built as! at Sulita-Dracsani and Sarata (Suceava region). in
Sipote and Trifesti communes (Iasi region) and Tunari (Bucuresti
region).
When as many pisciculture stations as possible have been
created and our waters stocked with fish, Rumania will become one
of the most important producers of fresh-water fish, since the physical,
geographical, and hydrobiologieal conditions in our waters are very
favorable to the development of this important production branch.
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tipommingsamoris
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[Pages 84-138]
07
Figure 1. Mean annual intensity of total solar radiation (direct and
diffused) in cal/cm2.
Figure 2. Isotherms for January
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Figure 3. Isotherms for July
C).
Figure 4. Mean absolute humidity in JulTg H 0/m3 of humid.air).
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0,....????????""
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a=.?
.1
....am?????????????.???????????
Figure 50 Mean relative humidity in July at 1400 hours
fo) ?
*IVA,
1.
-; Arad
Vim%
? ?
- t ;,,,
Figure 6. 6. Degree of overcast.
Figure 7. Mean annual duration of sunshine In hours).
Mean annual values lo/10.
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/09/24: CIA-RDP81-01043R001200160002-5
*Pt" 4,1,.? ?
, ?
4.?
;.
Figure ai.stribution of mean annual quantities of precipitation (mm or H20
2-
ITE ?
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/09/24: CIA-RDP81-01043R001200160002-5
Figure 9.
Mean annuql duration of the snow cover in days -1940).
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[Pages 139-229]
Pr/maw
Ilfm001t-7:- ?
0,A11! it 411,-;
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440 -
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7'-_ar ?
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ap of the density of
the hydrographic network .
of the -RPR. in basins of
types III and IV.
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linmoommomemmanrili
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Hydrographic basin of the Danube di' -i.urcaneanu). Scale: limit of bas;.n.
kr???Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/09/24: CIA-RDP81-01043R001200160002-5
Figure
110,1?440.1
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fIPA S SAV. r
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Cartodiagram of the Danube River system (diagrams
of the mean
levels above the low-water Mark) (after A. Penck and E. de Mar-
tonne). [Within figure]: limit of the basin.
?.249
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c.n
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U.
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/09/24: CIA-RDP81-01043R001200160002-5
I_CaLirovi,1,?-8;"
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/09/24: CIA-RDP81-01043R001200160002-5
ws. pi al
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oases
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LEG.ENDA
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,
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Figure 8.
I-004*-k Vedea ceffi, &yr:v.4/4s/-
, ml! &awe *Mors,.
??????Cumpfilla apekrihireVeko6a
Avow
Morphological relationships at the meeting of the Olt and Mures
basins (after J. Rodeanu). Legend: Watershed between the Olt
,and Mures.basins,. Old watershed separating the Tirnava from
the Mures basins; Watershed between the two Tirnava Rivers.
La Pig4N 4;14 C/r1,
&?aliti
fifaul
M "I AS V
Figure 9. Mean monthly variation for July in the period 1924-1928. There
are two increases in spring and autumn as well as the minimum
in September (after V. Mihailescu). [within figure] at Podari
?
(along Craiova); at'Targul Jiu; low-water mark.
_251 -
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WEINION.M.10?111?114
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?
?
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stramorr
, Z
Awrit..434
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.
Figure 10. Evolution of the hydrographic
network and the frontal di-
version of the Jiu (after G.
Vilsan).
Figure 11. Legend: Old
watershed.
Figure '12. Glacial lakes in the Retezat massif (after Th..Krautner).. [within
figure] ?glacial cirques.
-252
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0,*????????
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Figure 13.
Chains of ponds alonc,
rivers in the Jijia
depression of the Mol-
davian plateau (after
I. Rick).
411.??????????......*1
Figure 15, The Black Sea basin
in Sarmatian milieu
(after M. V. Muratov).
Figure 14. Salt and bitter lakes
(left of the Danube).
-253 -
Figure 16. The Black Sea lpairi
in the upper Pontian
(after. A. G.'Ebettin).
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arpoloolo*****111
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/09/24: CIA-RDP81-01043R001200160002-5
_
.0=
Figur
17. Hydrographic network in .the Bosporus
area in the Lacustrihe period before
the passage was cut- by the watershed.
The watershed separating the Black
, Sea basin from Lake MarmOra. (after.
C. Bratescu).
Figure 18. Hydrographic network in the Bosporus area in Wurm 11.
The shelf is furrowed by river valleys which are now
submerged. The watershed at the passage between Istbu1
and Scutari. The future seashores in Alluvium. Approxi?
mate shoreline of the Sea of Marrora in Iiturm I. The
probable diversion of the river from the Golden 'Horn to
Marmora at the end of Wu= 11 (after C. Bratescu).
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41.110.1.1.1.1111.10111.1.1?14
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Figure 19.
?
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.. 9....01.......?. . . . .,
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411104(
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7-1,k ?
evriscm
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/A NT.(41
Aur
A
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-Z.V IWO
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=r7=j3itaiel;
PROMIIMOVONINIWP1,
The Bosporus and the hydrographic network at present
Bratescu).
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ttkI
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Nikola.iewb
UDESA
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2000
,..............m.m.1111. ............??4*
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,...............will............... .
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............. -.... ..............-............. .........7,
7.76" 10 ?
rAg.
AlARA4A
?
Figure 20. .Balck Sea depths.
? 255 ?
.tiosmswo.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/09/24: CIA-RDP81-01043R001200160002-5
44
Iiihm????????e?mmatal
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/09/24: CIA-RDP81-01043R001200160002-5
Figure 21. The Black Sea. [within figure-I currents.
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/09/24: CIA-RDP81-01043R001200160002-5
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/09/24: CIA-RDP81-01043R001200160002-5
[Pages 230-255]
?
hife..6.4?ittellAys; Oi_pftratA440,/
erg 04,;(21.
"4.4.
TUB A.orwei."4":Lied
Itt.ittILLATE6WC.01/0..t4e4,417it_awAt
id? .0?4)4?444 ?rrer-????ee e
5"" . . 4 rt2..:!1.440tovoir
Gm"-rr-4. iNimArr,. 6.410.4,
4.. :at?.
7.
04 4.11.41~. ????#,Ai Anr
t= (WV...". ? 0.1?4c. I41 ?.
0 IT a .tr......t.t?....titt.rrt.Z.'"?" ?
AuerA JVt7R1ZPX.
th/ortroGi d., 447.44, olervrArrie
several 44ei aathier'oert
ce,,mpe
Jr I', ..440 tre,e,
14::"J=fWe'Vil
/1 r.t
is [---7.) Aar abs
[1: v.r e," ?? ? ?
f ?
[2.1:11 Zator.fb it
4 nAl
1 rv re.. ? ;., 1 ey. tz
l4L
Soil Map of the RPR accor. ding to data in the literature, especially that of
the Geological Committee. Scale: 1:215001000.
Soils of high hill and mountain areas (Vertical zonality): 1, Brown soils of
alpine meadows, juniper forests, and peat bogs of high regions (on high mountain
barrens); 21 Mountain primary subsoils and mountain podzolic brown soils
(coniferous forests); 31 Mountain secondary subsoils and mountain podzolic
brown soils (deciduous and mixed forests).
Soils of low hill and plain areas (horizontal zonality): 4, Secondary subsoils
and podzolic brown soils (deciduous broadleaved forests); 5, Forest brown
soils, reddish-brown soils of forests and gray soils of forests, often podzolic
(deciduous broadleaved forests); 61 Degraded chernozems (levigated) (forest-
steppe); 7, Common dhernozems rich in humus (formed on [several words il-
legible]; 8, Chocolate chernozems (humid steppe with Nord illegible];
9, Chestnut chernozems (steppe with feather'grass and Deschampsia); 10, Steppe
light brown soils (light chestnut chernozems) (steppe with wormwood).
Intrazonal and azonal soils (local distribution): 11, Rendzins; 12, Red soils;
13, Shifting or stable eolian sands; 114, Skeletal, soils (rich in skeletal
material); 15, Low area peat bogs; 161 lake and swamp soils; 17, Saline
soils (solonetzes and solonchaks), continental and marine; 18, River meadow
soils (alluvial soils and alluvia in flood areas); 191 Floating vegetation.
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/09/24: CIA-RDP81-01043R001200160002-5
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/09/24: CIA-RDP81-01043R001200160002-5
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Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/09/24: CIA-RDP81-01043R001200160002-5
JIATA AA UAW 4e.p R .
10,111 arZiewarg,
Cep". J7ets.F.rwi"
--;?Crr-rtie zie nirel t.k.er.40. _
.1 ? --(J.:wild 4..AatiriZer
3 au cereivz
v Cevii A( "Z
5 L._.] 417,10,-A-007.1:
6 E- 3 zfr-sffi
[v_a 1:10r,reire are r_iimizmi-
f Di-opis
q' .A772-0..rJr>e
10 A .1zet_r,e_d---rTi
ii x:11.Plic,r.r,r/e
12. ", Prr,:teev-a CZ/ GO-r2P
13 ?
14 ? (-Tires:, iacve ?
2trlearc..0 fortisetra-
1.>""
1. E,,s-fie
Nap of the Fauna of the RFR after Raul CalinesCu. 11 Black goat; 2, 11800-m line, average limit of alpine peaks; 31 deer;-
4, domestic deer; 5, roebuck; 61 bear; 71:hare [word illegible]; 8, bustard; 9, phesant; 11, pelican; 121 horned
viper; 131 termites; 14, centipede; 151 continental tortoise.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2012/09/24: CIA-RDP81-01043R001200160002-5