BOL'SHAYA SOVETSKAYA ENTSIKLOPEDIA, SECOND EDITION, VOL XXXIX, MOSCOW, 1956, PP 557-654.

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP81-01043R000500030001-8
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: U
• Document Page Count: 360
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: July 16, 2010
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: January 15, 1957
• Content Type: REPORT

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THE NITER STATES OF''UCA
Q1hay'a Sovetskayr Etatik1oped1a Usignd rtic1e
T hrea?~ ptri:It r cycl~p~d~.a cc d
Editio t Vol XXfX, 1956, Moscow,
Pag e; 357- 5
r G pby 3 co2;eiio~.;raphicai u^+e4script for
!V coo is eogi' iphy dew3cr Jtio
194
a3.4AXV.e C:rL6 f dJ rc
yin Political pai^tie
:x The ry'rade unicf movement
x 1?hc? afld did
XI The ?eica1 as3d hlt ittaatio
xk i education
XX I I Natw 31 `end techfl icta 1 $~v ~ o p1 G~? k%k; 'v
4 ~JJ
213
pol1tica3. eccnciriy. and linguistics
41
Literature
23
k?i~e arts and axcMtccture
312
Music
321
Theater rmd cinema
327
~4. circm1cgica1 table of US history
337
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nu UNIT TAT1 * OF A CA
Tki v .;+S its; s~ a~'rt~`., in North .~exic1,~a It b$~rdozp?. t3Csmidda tc the
t nd o L exicao to Ah sour ~i4tiJ t. It is a9 iy ha4>a~ .a + ~ bvS . the isfr .~
~ w9 rd w env
north
OcW m to the East by W ''y f ~i+ 1r. .l M ''S h da f t a b
aril the 1.leacoWiPd 'ii :Ls 2 B'O ` zn p Its t o?uwi.e &Yra i. 7U AJ di~.G u' ic7n s
e population w1 ;Svw5 i5O ;gip 87 'F~h ~ Ca roes din ?1 'ti Pa '4 iC 1"It95O cis ~.ry~., n re d 4'~~ 5i
~9 O CO a G ?a'.r uSw~+ ath4,
1"1:ci iw.. is (3'ceC in to th$.~ West , Th+ 1 @ ~1P? t~ c' i ,; t 7 b iz e;4rr ;f.~
tai ate nu ibt r s ow .: Cep
d~JJJQQ Ry'~t~Riy NNpr^+~,eyp, " 4J1iV t h ~ .y~"` Ja~s~ ~'Y'd /.. ly J?..i ~A~, ).n ~ ~'..
~jBlbcR'r aa*aA -~i~ ~.ajT~~~a!Y`~/ bW o L/*vr/{ "m P"~1~~'y ~YtJ~ o4esi AfaYas di ~Y.~ I~w tVl FVj hwf"es l W V mgci A a P..:J e~. lu"err+$ Wei
district (the c `s e?a n. e`~ i city) d~. ,Svg $; Wr~hi y`ng r^ton, the ' c1
sc,pih o ~~ p she wtL
Us MA D POPULATION ;y aI3i* PND TI
region '''? n d Stytewa
.,J P~~+I ~A ryq _ ~q~ ~ r, a+
sY iw 64aupshi eY~ ~J $4 O gyp'., v~ r "v. p
Vriaoat ddya~ $77;!
2I 0 ar ?''~;,fy ;t
s .~
f:7.t^, i ly >'k
$a n ra~::o:1 a6
~ ~3 k
t. ?) 4
.
I a The Inrdu: trial North
New E 1cUnd 1 72 Y e J A/ G. Y .'
C~irect:k:ut 3129
Middle Atlantic p,Fte 2:l, 20O run,
with a low maximum during the warm period, In the central plains region
precipitation is 500~90O nun, and on the great plains 400 mm and less,
particularly in the summer months. On the cordillera intermountain plateau
precipitation amounts to 200-500 mm (in the desert areas along the lower
reaches of the Colorado River it is less than a 100 mm). In the Pacific
southwest the precipitation is 300-500 exclusively in the cold period.
In they southwest it is up to 1,500 mm with an autumn-winter maximum (on the
Olympic Peninsula and the western slopes of the Cascade Mountains up to
6,000? mm, the maximum precipitation in the US). The height of the snow
cover is also largest on the Pacific range slopes (in the Sierra Nevadas
up to 10-11 an) and in the northwest of the country up to 2 in. In the
north of the central plains it usually does not exceed 60a430 cm and sharply
diminishes ir, the great plains region and the intermountain plateau. On
the lowland of the Gulf of Mexico coast, on the Florida peninsula, and in
the valleys and the foot of the Pacific mountains there is practically
no snow cover.
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BASIC CLIMATIC INDEXES OF THE US
Average Monthly Temperature A~mua1 precipitation
The dace and Its Location in the Country
(in im)
o:tronte northwest)
t
d coast
,
t S
oun
e (C'~4ge
P
l
Seatt
~
San Francisco (central pacific coast)
Lois Angeles (southwest Pacific coast)
r4~sn0 (cslifornia Yalley)
Thaa (Mojave Desert)
Modena (Great Basin)
Bismarck (north of Great Plains)
srillo south of Great Plains)
north of Central Plains)
Chicago south shore of Lade Michigan, no
St. Louis (at the MlssissippiaMa,ssQUri confluence, middle part
of Central Plains)
s (:~sissippi Diver mouth Gulf of Mexico coast)
New 4rl~tn
t1and (Atlantic coast, extreme northeast)
Por
sW York (Atlantic cyst, central part)
N
+9.7
+12.3
+7.7
X12.2
+14.0
-20.9
?27.4
+32.5
- 3 ? 3.
+21.7
-13.2
+21.I
-3.7
+213.1
+1
2.
0
~27.4
? 5
.2
X19.7
-0
.
+22.8
.
Charleston (Atlantic coast, south) -x9.7 L26.9
Miami (Atlantic coast southeast F1orxda) ~19.7 ?27.3
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January July
[3]
r39
 Rivers
The main interocean watershed in the US is in the Rocky Mountain
region which contains r everal hydrographic junctures. Thus about 2/3
of the US territory, specifically the plains and Appalachian mountains,
belong; to the Atlantic basin, and the major part o the cordillera west
to the pacific bash. The Interior watershed region is within the lane
basin. The density of the hydrographlc network is extremely uneven.
It is very great in the districts o2 great precipitation, particularly its
the east and southwest, and insignificant in the southern part of he
inter iountat cordillera bolt. Certain intermountain plateau districts
have practically no surface water trearns.
The Atlantic plains in tns Us are drained by short but deep livers
flowing frori the Appalachians (Connecticut, Hudson, Susgltehanna, Potomac,
James, Santee, and Savannah rivers, etc). The river's are for the most
pars fed by mains, and in the north by snow and rain, These rivers form the
"watershed line" at the piedmont recess, and are used for the production
jai; electric power. The central and great plains areas are drained chiefly
by the very complex Missouri'-Mississippi system. The basic drainage is
provided by the deep left Mississippi tributaries, particularly the Ohio
River, which are fed mostly by rains and reach a high flood level in the
spring. The lame tributaries on the right, the Missouri and Yellowstone,
Platte and Kansas, Arkansas and Canadian rivers, and Red River and the
Rio Grande which empties directly into the Gulf of Mexico originate in
the Rocky Mountains and flow across the and Great Plains. They have
little water duxIng most of the year but overrun their banks during the
spring thaw and summer thmrdershos,exs. In the west of the country the
rivers are of a mountain type. The largest of them, the Columbia wit's the
Sna1Ae River and the Colorado, originate in the Rocky Mountains. They are
fed chiefly by ice and melted snow, and their water level rises sharply
24 ~-
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in May asad Jui=e., Tb river& contaix, the or-t ; igr~ificart power
rescar?ves in the Ua, particularly t1 Colwnbia River which i fed a1: o by
rain3 during the cold part otb y'eur (the wuter 1wve1 t"o+p oeurs in
the autumn) 4 she Ccior'ado Riwfowiaa acrosz the arid Colorado
plateau, locos i ore water tb.r'o ?h evaporation than it gets ro under-
ground drainag:o The and r'egioa~ of the Great si and the southwcsterr~
ded'z exav s :ort water strc .ras which term...nate lay. landlocked lowlands.
largest of these i the Humboldt. Their water level is subject to extreme
f1uctuatioR Many of them dry up or maintain ar.~ episodic flow. Many
si2ort rivers flow frog the western : ringer of the cor fora ranges into
the Pacific. she water= 1 v l cX he Pacific northv~ t rivex's is quite
constant, with a d~ minishing 1o rs of tea for occurring only in the fali The
rivers of the southwest ai't deep is the winter axed spring period and are
practically dry at the end o c the summer. The major US navigable rivers
are the Missouri-Mississ:1Ppi system, the. Hudson, he Atlantic lowland rivers
to the foot of the piedmont plateau, the Coiunbia and the Sacramento
The lakes in the US are located chiefly in the northern districts
oa' the country, that is, the district of the Great Ickes system (Superiors
Huron, Michigan, Erie , and Ontario) more than half afore surface belongs to
ti. US (and the rest to Canada) 0 Tarese lakes are of a teeton?c"glacier
origin. In the northe parts of th Appalachians aziid in the cordilleras
tc'e are ny morainic. 1aacea and tarns a The Florida peninsula abounds
Witu cave-iakes while is ;oon-type lakes are numerous on the coastal low-'
lands of tAAT? east and south. A conaiderable number of relic salt lakes
are #ouail in the low parts of the Great Basin (the largest of then is the
Great Salt Lake in Utah) s
Soils
Us soils are divided into meridionai zones in accordance with
M 2.5 ~.
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topographic, climatic, and other natural peculiarities. Only 1n the
east is the tonality 1wt1tudiona1 : The northwest US and the Great
Lakes region are covered with podzol oil on moraine deposits. Furtber
to he south, approxiately up to 36o N lat and~Co W long, the
texrain is covered with brawn soil of deciduous forests and change; to
moist yellow and red subtropical soil with vast lowland 41urshes .ire the
southeast and up to 97o ;;r lone. `i southernmost part of Plor, ida and the
central part of the lowland along the Gulf of e 1co coast are covered
With the swampy soii of mango overgrowth and ~rarshes. Wedged into the
north, of theA ississippi valley is a broad strip o2 alluvial soil.
Etending to the west of 320 V long northward and 7? W long southward are
first mee1dona1 (from east to west) black-smii type prairies covering a
vast area on the left banks of he "Ussissippi Wisconsin, and 11l ois,
and there real black soil (hetwcer 9dy99o 7 iorLg :n the north arid 99-lO3
in the south) and, finally, chestnut-brown soil in the west of the Great
Plains and toward the north of the Colorado Plateau. Observable on the
cordiliera ranges is a complexity of mour3tainous soils with an altitudional
tonality and a predominance of mountain forest brown soil in the southern
chain of the Rocky mountains and the pacific ranges. Mountain meadow
soils are most prominent on the Cascades and to Sierra Nevadas, as well
as on the highest Rocky Mountain ranges in Colorado. The soil in the
Eocky Mountain "parks" (mountain region hollows), in the moister districts
of the Colorado Plateau and in the California Valley is chestnut brown,
and in the loess of the Columbia Plateau it is chestnut-brown and black.
Predominant in the rest of the interior plateau are various types of desert-
steppe soils with sizable sections of sandy and ssliferous soils and
chloride-sulphate solonchaks in the Great Iasin. The southwestern deserts
are covered with desert-type sandy and rocky soils.
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Vegetation
The US vegetation zones extend chiefly in a meridional direction.
The natural vegetation in the moister eastern parts of the country as
well as the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific maunta:Ln ranges i of the
forest-steppe and steppe type, acid the vegatation in the interior table
land of the cordillera is predominantly of the semidesert and desert kind:
As of nevi (195G more than 40% of Uri forests have been cut down and the
steppes are used for agricultureor have been destroyed by overgrazing.
The coniferous forests have been pretty well preserved in the northern
part of the Appalachians where they consist principally of black spruce
and balsam fir trees. Considerably less well preserved are the mixed
forests which previously covered a vast territory in the Great Lakes
region and in the central part of the Appalachian. They have now been
reduced to small groves of yellow birCh, beech, sugar maple, elm, and
small white and black pine forests including, hemlock and white cedar
(western thuja). The lower belt of the southern Appalachians is covered
with broad leaved forests consisting chiefly of chestnut trees, oaks,
(chestnut, yellow, and others), and hickory trees, Also there is a
variety of endemic vegetation (for exmaple, tulip trees and white acacia).
Above 800-'1200 m there is a mixed and coniferous forest belt. The area
above 1,500-1,300 m is covered with alder tree overgrowths, rhododendrons,
mountain b,ay trees, and o?eal fields. Prominent between the Ohio and
Mississippi rivers and to the west of the Mississippi are hickory forests
with an admixture of elm, plane trees, and maple, and to the east of the
Appalachians on the piedricnt plateau are oak tree forests with an admixture
of pine. The forests have been almost completely destroyed in the valleys
and on the plains to the west and the east of the mountains.
Evergreen subtropical forests with an abundance of lianas and epiphytes are
characteristic of the Atlantic lowland, to the south of 34? N lat, and the
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 pastern part of the Gulf of Mexico coast lowland (up to 95 w long) as
well as the Florida peninsula. Typifying oi~e oi' noose #oC'4seitiJ arc si a1i
woods of long,"needle and shortneed1e pines. Growing ou the clay soils are
forests of evergreen oaks, liquid bar, itagno1iura, and low palm trees. In
the marshy sections of the Mississippi banks and flood areas are forests
of swamp cypress. Tropical vegetation (paims, icus, husk melon treys
and others) is found in southernrtiost Florida. parts of the coast1ii e
are fringed with mangroves.
Prior to to arrival of the Europeans, the western part or tii
central plains alas covered with ,vast-steppe. Forest cutting and
frequent fires led, to a predominance of prernial tall grass vegetation
(beard grass, feather grass, and Indian grass) and mixed grasses, or the
so~called prairie grass. In the Great plains the prairies gave way to
short grass steppes characteristic of which are cluster grass, blue, and
bison grass. The vegetation in the southern part of the goat Plains is
of a savannah type. Here anti there in he arid steppe one conics across
short trees, oaks, juniper, legurninous bushes, and quite a few cactus
plants.
Due to diversity of topographic and climatic conditions, the vegetation
of the nountainoi~s west is highly variegated. Its basic characteristic is
he contrast between the forest-covered mountain ranges and the treeless
tablelands, and the gradual north-to~south change from water-requiring
vegetation to plants requiring less moisture.
The rocky mountain ranges are covered with coniferous forests, and
the vegetation in the inteountain depressions is of the steppe type.
Characteristic of the, ranges of the moist northern and central parts of
the Rocky Mountains are dense coniferous forests of white piney western
deciduous trees, "Engelman" fir with an admixture of red cedar, yellow,
and black pine. predominating the more and southern part of the Rocky
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Mountains are yellow pine and white spruce trees. Bush-type oaks and
juniper grow on the southern slopes.
The northernmost part of the intermountain plateau belt is covered
with forest-type vegetation, particularly ye1lopine and spruce. Ad?
joining the eastern part of the Co1unnbianr plateau are dry grass steppes
which are prevalent also in the southeast of the Colorado Plateau.
Wornwwood, goosefoot, a~x1 halop1iyt-g1'ovsing EJmidoserts (also growing,
greasewood trees) are predominant in the southwest of the Columbian
plateau, throughout the Great Basin and in the Northwest of the Colorado
Plateau. In the southern part of the intermountain plateau belt (to
a
the south of 37 N tat) most of the area is covered with a creosote semi-
desert (creosote shrubbery, cactus, agave, yucca, ocatillo, mesquite, etc),
The sparsest vegetation is to be found in the extreme southwest of he
belt, the Mojave and particularly the Gila Desert. The semideserts
gradually give way to savannahs in the southeastern part of the belt
Most of the pacific belt mountain ranges are covered with Iiigh
trunk coniferous forests. prominent within them, in the moist northwest,
are Douglas fir, red cedar and western hemlock. These forests give way
to alpine meadows on the Cascade mountain peaks. The coastal mountain
forests down to San Francisco Bay consist of evergreen sequoia. Sub-
tropical, coniferous, and mixed forests are characteristic of the
southwest. The western slopes of the Sierra Nevada mcutains, at a
1,200-2,000 m elevation, are covered with forests of sugar and yellow
pine, white and red spruce, rock rose cedar, and occasional sequoia
trees up to 150 m high, 15 in in diameter, and about 5,000 years old.
Higher, at a 2,800"3,000 m elevation, the forests consist mainly of
spruce and cedar. The south coast mountain chains are covered with the
above coniferous plants (except sequoias), tanning and mountain oaks,
chestnut and bay trees, with an admixture of certain leaf-shedding trees.
Evergreen oakand tough-leafed shrubbery (chaparral) overgrowths are
abundant In the lower Sierra Nevada belt and on the mountain ranges of
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the extreme southwest. The native California Valley vegetation
(diverse-grass steppe) has not been preserved.
The Animal World
Zoogeographically, the US territory ii part of 2 subregions of
the aion-Arctic region, namely the southern (and larger) part of the US
belongs to the Sonora subregion, and the northern part to the Canadian.
The Ca adia>>i s~ bregiort faun is of the taiga type and is similar to the
fauna of the corresponding natural zone of trope and Asia. The principal
representatives of the animal world in this part of the US are the wapiti
deer, I erican moose, pwna, lynx, black bear, r ccoor3, otter, American
mink, marten, elk, wolf, red fox, Canadian beaver, cMpmunk, squirrel,
muskrat, and Canadian pcrcupiiie. In addition to some of the above types,
the mountain goat, mountain sheep, and grizzly bear are also found in the
mountainous districts. The Sonora subregion is different in that it has
a number of endemic types md species. The prevalence of animals in this
subregion corresponds to the merdional e~ tensiori of the geographic zones
th this part of the US. Peculiar to the forest zone of the east U are
the Virginia deer, the '?baribal" bear, red lynx, raccoon, common skunk,
grey fox, various types of squirrels and moles, and the common oppossum.
Typical bird: of that zone are the wild turkey, carolina duck, the ring
tail, and in the south also, the vulture, and American types of pelicans
and flamingos. Huiunings birds flock there during the nesting period.
There is quite a variety of reptiles with largo specimens among them, such
as the fresh water tortoise and, in the south, the alligator. The types
of amphibians are very numerous. The most unique of them are the amphium,
siren, and the giant bull frog. There is a considerable variety of fresh
(amia), and the flat-nose. Bisons, horned antelopes, long-eared deer,
water fish. Of interest among them are the ancient relics, namely armored pike,
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coyotes, American badger, prairie foxes, various types of prairie doge,
gophers, and kangaroo rats roam over the steppe and seiiidesert zone. Stray-
ing into the state of Texas from Mexico are the jaguar and one type of
armadi11o. Peculiar to that zone among the birds are the field grouse
and the barn owl . Where are numerous other types of reptiles, particular--
4y in tA3e south of the country. Arno sg them aar rattlesnakes and venomous
lizards. Quite unique is the faurxa of to mountain forest in southwest US,
including certain tropical types ("aosukhaP`). Only within this zone are
mountain beavers and wool-tailed moles prevalent. Also found are the
grizzly bear and the puma. Among the birds arc the Calizornia and Turkey
vul tares.
III. POPULATION
In size of population (1i5,25O,OOO in l55), the US occupies the
fourth place in the world after the Chinese Peoples9 Republic, India, and the
'USSR. Over a long period or" time the US population was rapidly increasing.
Prior to World War I of 1314-191 the US population growth was greatly
affected by immigration in addition to its natural accretion. The develop
merit of capitalism in the European countries doomed millions of city and
country workers to unemployment and poverty and forced them to seek a way
out in migrating across the ocean where untapped natural resources were
still available. Immigration into America began in the aoventeenth century
and increased to a considerable extent in the second half of the nine-
teenth and the beginning of the twentieth century. Predominant in the
stream of emigrants during the first period were people from the British
isles. In the second quarter of the nineteenth century there was an influx
of immigrants from Central Europe and the Scandinavian countries, and at
the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century from
eastern and southern European countries. Immigration from Asiatic
countries (Japan, China, tape Philippines, etc), mostly to the west coast
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states, was on a much smaller scale than from Europe due to the laws
passed late ii the iinetoer~th and early ji the twentieth century for-
bidding so-called colored irmigrants to take up permanent residence
in the US. curing the period of 1821-1860, about 5 million immigrants
entered the US. In 1?361'1900 their number reached 14 million, and in 1900?
1914 it was 13.5 million people. Helping to settle the unoccupied lands,
and constituting a reserve labor force for industry, the immigrants played
a large part not only in the formation of he population but also in the
entire process of developing the capitalist economy in the US. With that
in mind, Engels wrote in l82: "Thus the steam of immigrants, shipped
by Europe annually to America, racrely contributes to the development of
the capitalist economy, with all its ccrosequen :es, to its extreme limits
which sooner or later will maize a colossal crisis there inevitable.
Immigration will then cease and possibly even reverse its course `s (E. Marx
and F. Engels, Soch. [Colleeted Works] Vol 15, page 612). Indeed, with
the onset of a general crisis of capitalism, when the economic develop-
ia~ent tempos in the major country of capitalism were sharply curtailed,
producing a chronic multimillion?Tu1an army of unemployed, immigration into
the US was greatly diminished and in soma; years (as in 1931-1935, for
example) emigration exceeded immigration. Entry to the US was restricted
by immigration laws adopted after World War I.
The period of the general crisis of capitalism in the US is characterized
by slower tempos of population growth as a result of both less immigration
and a diminution of natural accretion. The average annual population
increase in 1371-1933 was 31% and in 1913-1949 it was L2%. The average
annual natural population growth showed some gain in the first years after
World Wwr II. The diminution of the natural increase in population has
brought about a comparative decrease of the young population on the one
hand and an increase of older people on the other. In 1900, people up to
15 years of age in the US accounted for 34.4' of the total population,
in 1930 for 29.4%, and in 1950 for 26.9%. The US population census of 1950
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 showed an excess of women over men (98.7 raen for 100 women).
The national composition of the US population is heterogenous.;
North American nation was formed in the proes~a of capitalist development
in the US as a result o1 a rai axing of various European nations whose emi-
grants gradually settled the country. The descendants of European settiers
account for the majority of US population (135 s 2l5, 000 in 1950). The
ind1genous American populat ion, the Indians (q, v. ), belong anthropo:t.oi ciiy
to the American r-ce (see races), a special branch of he mongoloid races.
There were about one million indians on the present US territory prior to
y t colonIzation by Europ ani. Several centuries later the indigenous US
population was reduced by aimcst 1/ (455, 500 in. I50), Most of the
Indians (over 300, 000) were settled in r esrva wions (q. v), chiefly in
western US. The Negroes (q> v.), descendants of Ricans brought to
America in the seventeenth-njneteeth centuries a& slaves for work on
plantations, numbered 15,042,000 (in 1950). Living in the US are also
such national minorities as a exicans (4-5 million), Chinese (II7,60O)
a
Japanese, Puerto Ricans, etc. The Negro population is concentrated for
to most part in the former slave-holding South. The majority of the
Mexicans live in the rural areas of southwest US which formerly belonged
to Mexico. The descendants of the Chinese workers, imported through the
Pacific coast ports, live in the towns and mining settlements of California.
There are "Swiss" communities in Wisconsin, "Dutch" Villages in Michigan,
settlements of Norwegian descendants in Wisconsin, North Dakota, etc.
The large US cities have their Russian, Italian, Irish, and other sections.
The state language of the US is English which is spoken by the
majority of the population including the Negroes. Some of the national
groups are bilingual (Mexicans etc). The Indian population speaks a variety
of languages which are classified under the general name of Indian languages
of America (q. v.). Some of them are of a polysyndeton construction.
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The majority of religious groups h thr: U3 populationi be1orig to
various protestant denomi,attonw nd socts (over 250 orgAaiiuatjee~1S ).
The protestaut population is predominant in the south and in the small
towx~c and rural co.; nun?ties of the north nd c ost Catholicism is
practicGd by people of ltiii,m and 11,ah docent, ~md Mexicans and
1ntans. Judaism is prectic~ d chie ly in to large cities of the eastera
states (among Jewsome Negroes, atc).
The distribution of population in the principal areas of the
country is characterized by the Collowig figuraso
1900 1030 1950
Principal Areas in millions in millions. %
industrial noath 47.4 73? x . c57
Former slave-holding south
Colonized west 401 ll.013.0
Total 7h O l228 150.7 100.0
The average population ctensi ty is about 20 people per sq km. The
highest density is in the nvrtheaat (114 ire the middle Atlantic states,
54 in New England), where it is more than 200 people per sq km a soma
states. The lowest population der39.'rty is in the west (particularly
in.tho mountain states, 2.2)9 despite the considerable population in-
crease in that aroar particularly California which accounted for over
half of the west's population (10.0 million) in 1950.
Characteristic of the 00 was the large-?scale population movement
over the country, mostly in search of work. That process affected tens
of millions of people, particularly the rural population of the north-
western part of the central statesp the southwestern and southeastern
parts of the central states. As a result of that process, the population
of North Dakota, Mississippi, Arka?sas, and Oklahoma sustained a decrease
in 1950 as compared to 1940. The changes in the distribution of the Negro
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population were chiefly due to the mass ru;iraation of Negro farmers in the
9a early in the twentieth century. Outside of the south, the Negroes
live for the most part in large cities (in New York, Chicago, etc), where
part of them are housed in the extremely overcrowded quarters of Negro
ghettos.
south and their employment in the industries of the north. The number
of Negroes in the former slaveholding south in 1950 was 68% as against
Sixty-four %:.of the country population live in citim (1950). The
city population is particularly large in the northeastern states. In
the middle Atlantic states it is 50.5%, in New England 66.2%, ant' in
the Pacific states Z5.0. The lowest numbers are in the northwestern
center (North Dakota 26.6%, South Dakota 33.2%, in the southeastern
of a considerable part of sutall agricultural units. The vise of the
of not only the development of industry and trade but also d the ruination
growth and large percentage of the city population in the US are a result
:enter ('ississippi 6 .?a
and in the southwestern center (Arkansas
33.9%). It should be borne in mind that not all the population referred
to as rural is engaged inriculture. More than half of it is ao~called
nonfarming population. The size of the actual farming population de-
creased from 30.2 million in 1930 to 23.1 million in 1950 (15.3% of
the total population).
There were 106 cities in the US in 1950 with over 100,400 population,
accounting for 29.4% of the country's total population, with 11.5% of it
living in 5 cities of one million population each. New York (7,592,000
people), Chicago (3,621,000), Philadelphia (2,072,000), Los Angeles (1;970000),
Detroit (1,948,000), Washington's population is 802,000. Actually the
population concentration in the big cities is still higher as each of
those cities has been expanded by numerous suburbs.
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Characteristic of the US, as of the other capitalist countries,
is the steadily tncreasing class-stratification of society. The wage
earners account for about 80% of the gainfully occupied population of
the US, and tho farmers for 9.5%. Fart labor is used only by the capitalist
top layer of the farmers. The overwhelr~ing majority of farmers are either
using hired labor temporarily and on a lirited scale or do not use it at
all. It 1950, almost 2/5 of all the US fanners were forced to suppleitert
their income by outside work. According to American statistics, the
industrial and financial enterprises and their administrative personnel
account for 3-9% of the gainfully occupied population. Private property
owners, including capitalist farmers exploiting hired labor, account for
no more than 100 of the gainfully occupied population.
According to the 15O census, 53.2% of all US farilies had an incor~e
below the minimum wage as defined by official Mtatistics. The militariza'
tion of the economy and increasing armaments led to higher taxes, higher
prices of consumer goods and a deterioration of the working people's
living conditions. Compared to l9271937, the direct taxes in the 1953-
1954 fiscal year were tcroased almost 12 tunes. According to official
figures, living costs in 1953 were double those of 1939. According to
the figures of the electrical workers trade union, they increased 3 tunes.
Wages are lagging behind the cost of living. Unemployment is a chronic
phenomenon in the US. even during the economic prosperity of 1955 there
were about 3 million fully unemployed in the country, in addition to the
almost 9 million partly unemployed.
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In production activities
Agriculture, lumber, and fishing 10n624 25.8 8s4961 18 7O0; 12.
Miniz~g 1,090 2.6 934 2.1 929 I.
industry 568 2 ~ . ~.= 1 ~,476 25.9
Processing industry ) ; 10 8
32,809 31.1
2 . 8
s
Construction 075 4 344Q
BSISTttltiiTt'i0N OF CaA3PITtLLY OCCiJp'ir" PiDPtJLaTiSN IN 3`N i13
1920 1340 1950
1,000'$ 2$2 % 19fl0F!?S 3ffF ;;g 1,000s 1Ti qo
Total gainfully occ~tipieri population 4I,236 100.0 44,588 100.0 56,239 I00.O
Transportation c?mmuncat..on and other public services ~ ~ 3, 062 7 4 3 b 108 O . 9 4 368 7 . 8
3
Total 27r585 S6.9 25 161 56.3 30,338 53.9
3
In nonproductive activities:
Federal and municipal governrnents* 738 1.8 1o406 3.1 2,489 44
~',546 ~. , s ~ 10,548 18.3
Trade f~~
4,226 iOP2
inktg and insurance 1,472 3.3 1,916 3.4
r3$sa$1t1a8r personal services, etc 8687 2 1..1 9303 20.8 10,968 19.5
s c
~
Total 13,651 33.1 i9a72s 44.0 25,921 46Total 13,
of t"'"f ii in government federal and munici?? al government s, wa 3, 65 ~', 0OO in 1940 and
~yy~~ ~Qta! qq number ~ear,0 & ~ 'rr~eQit services ~n~~iAd_~t '?'Li~.~1
5,496,000 in 1950
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Note. The table does not incluoe the US armed forces. Their number of
1953, according to offic.ia1 fture, way 3, 555, OOn.
There is a noticeable increase in people engaged in nonproductive
ac tivities in he US and a correspondin ; decr a e in those eng od ft
production. This is due to the expa~sxcn o the banking, track, and
administrative rn cIaiuery and its service personnel as well as to he
increase of the armed forces.
Iv. Eco NOMIC G iJ" GF Pi I C DESC 1 `1 N
Gneral Characteristics o# the 3conomy
The uJ3 12 the major country of modern capitaii;iu. Highly developed
economically, the U3 iu also a country of sharp social contrasts where
the bulk of the national resources is concentrated in the hands of monopoly
groups end where the contradictions of the capitalist system are felt par-
ticularly strongly.
About 1/2 of the industrial production of the capitalist countries
is concentrated in the U8. America's share cif it grew from 41% in 1937
to 53% in 1943, but was somewhat diminished in subsequent years. The US
accounts for 1/3 of the oil production and steel smelting, over 1/3 o? the
coal production, 1/3 of the railroad network and merchant marine tonnage
of the capitalist countries. The US holds first place wnong the capitalist
countries in regard to merchandixe and capital expert,
he l`u rgence o the US
tts the ma,:)r country of capitalism is one
of the manifestations of the law of uneven development of capitalism . In
1860, the U held third place in the world (after Britain and Prance) in
volume of industrial production. After the Civil War of 1861-65, which
paved the way for the development of capitalism in the US., production
tempos were accelerated. The contributing factors that made US economic
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1U
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developmeEGt ester than in the other capitalist countries in that period
were freedom from feudalistic fetters (including the south where some
forme of slavery still survived), the avai1a7i1ity of vast unsettled
lands, large scale settlements of immigrant masses encouraged by economic
consideration, the expansion of the domestic xarket (as a result of he
new settlements), the tatiliatiord of european capital, and the reinforce-
vents of the labor force by i mmigranta. An i mpartant part was played by
the favorable geographical location (access to oceans and the weakness
of the neighboring countries), favorable natural conditions, rich natural
resources (minerals, hydroenergya etc), and their relatively convenient
distribution in the countrys and the fact that over a long period of tte
there had been no fightinge and the country therefore did not suffer any
war-connected destructive consequences. At the same time the US profited
from trading with the warring countries, thereby strengthening its economic
positir.r~. By 1890 the US held first place in the world in volume of
indutriai production, having outstripped Britain, France, and Germany.
The growth of industry at the end of the nineteenth century and the
beginning of the twentieth century was accompanied by a concentration of
production and the formation of monopoly unions of the capitalists.
Already in 1909, according to the figures cited by V. I. ienin in his
"Imperialism as the Highest Stage of Capitalism," the largest US enter-a
prises, of a million dollars or more, accounted for 1.1% of the total
enterprises, employed 30.5% of the labor force, and produced 43.5? of the
gross industrial output (see V. I. Lenin, 3o h. Fourth Edition, Vol 22, page
135). With the entry of capitalism into the monopolistic stage of develop
ment at the end of the nineteenth century, the US became a classical
country of trusts$ a country" of dominant finance capital. The US monopor
lists conducted a policy of enslaving the countries of Latin America, and of
economic penetration of China and the other countries of Asia. The investments
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 of ,ierican monopolies abroad in 1900 amounted to about 500 million
dollars. By the beginning of the World War I of 19141915 they in'
creased 5-"fold. US long team indebtedness to other countries however
was still considerably greater than its long tee capital investments
abroad. World War I contributed to the colossal enrichment of the
American monopolists and to the strengthening of their position. 'the
demand of the warring powers for arm&ients war materials, and foodstuffs
contributed to the considerablo growth of US production. Exports were
increased 3-fold. By the end of the war the European countries' indebted-
moss to the US exceeded 10 billion dollars. Aftor many years as a debtor the
Us became a creditor.
The general crisis of capitalism, begun during World Wear I, par-
titularly as a result of the division of the world into capitalist and
socialist systems, weakened the entire system of capitalism and exerted
a profound influence on the US. The US economic development tempos were
slowed down. Below capacity work of enterprises and permanent mass unemployw
meat have assumed vast proportions. Even in the years of partial s tabaliza-
Lion of capitalism only 80% of the productive capacity of the US processing
industry was utilized. Subsequently in 1930-1934 the utilization of
production machinery was sharply diminished having been reduced to 60%
and lower!
In the comparatively short period of time between the first and
second world wars the US economy was shaken 3 times by economic crises
(in 1920-21, 1929-33, and 1937-35). The 1929.33 crisis, embracing all
she c pi talia. t 6i~iliil tr 56~, i*1f is tF o US and hit that country the hardest.
The volume of industrial production in the US during those yews was cut
in half. Considerable reductions were made in agriculture, transportation,
trade, and banking activities. The capitalists shifted the burden of the
crisis onto the working people. According to official figures, the number of
. 40 i
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fully unemployed in the country in 1932 was 13.2 million in addition
to many semiunemployed din February 1932 they amounted to 11 million).
In agriculture, the crisis brought about mass ruination of farmers.
Tens of thousands of farms were sold at auction for failure to pay debts.
The number of workers' strikes grew in proportion to the deepening crisis.
The 1929 1933 crisis provided evidence that under conditions of a general
crisis of capitalism the cyclical economic crises of overproduction
became more lasting and destructive. The crisis gave way in 1933 to a
depression of a special kind. From the second half of 1937 U3 economy
again found itself in the grip of a crisis. The volume of industrial
production by the middle of 1938 was reduced by 1/3 as compared to the
surnmer of 1937. Industrial production subsequently went up due to world
War 11 of 1939
rone ~a w.rw vas .+.ww v
on
na~r -~J~~ of b+dSC. ag
of
those lauds under the
Homestead Law (1562, see Homestead Act) freed agriculture of absolute
runt and contributed to the relatively rapid development of production
forces on the basis of capitalist relations. At the same time the
4 ~{^e17a~'~,p.at of of ~ the ES AY4"f'77~l?
enWip
share of the gricult ,Lurai output wi,t. aa a rr well as the as the output
ecotony was steadily going doYfn. A more or lass considerable increase
in agricultural production, and in industrial production, was ccimmon
during the war years. The tverage annual increaso in 1920.1939 was 0,79%,
in 1940-1945 3.6%- a d in 1946-1949 9.35%. Accounting for 13.5, of the
country's total population, the farmers get about % (5.1% in 1554) of
the national income.
(See Table 9 on Page 71)
According to the figures in Table 9, 55.5% of the total nuriber
of farms in 190 had only 10.1% of the total land area, but the farms of
over 200 ha accounted for 53.4% of the total land including the 426%
which went to farms of over 400 ha each. About 30%a of the overall
agricultural output come from 1/3 of the farms. Over 50% of the
agricultural output comes from 9% of the farms while 61% of them
produce only 12% of the total agricultural output. At the same time
the large farms, making up only 5% of the total number, account for about
40% of agricultural production while 2% of the very largest fart produce
twice as much as the 3.3 million small and medium farms tin 1949). Be4
tween 1940 and 1950 the number of farms was reduced by more than 700,000.
It was reduced by another 600,000 in 1950-1954, according to preliminary
figures
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 Farm Sizes
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TABI.J~ 9
LAND DZSTR;[E1Til31t ACCORDING TO %'.2 SIZES
Number of Fasrsa:, 'hand Area
134 1950 1940 15350
Number % of Nw iber % of 1X00 '
(1n 1,000) total (ark 1,000) total ha total ha total
Up to 40 ha
up to 3.6 ha
20-90 ha
Over 40 ha
2O2-4O4 ha
Over 4043 ha
3v578 587 3,()i0 55.3 53D 36$ 13.5 4750 10.1
507 8.3 485 9.0 1,080 0.2 983 0.2
1 780 23.2 1477 27.4 19222 4.5 15 D 918 3.4
rs.
1,291 21.2 1,048 19.4 37,764 8.3 30605
2 519 41.3 2:372 4'L2 371,234 8.5 421,837 39.9
D
164 2943 184 3.4 45,295 10.4 50-92 10.3
104 1.6 121 2.2 14 D33? 34.3 200,11 42.6
Total 6,097 100 59382 100 42 D 30O 100 469343 100
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Ag iculture in the US is ntechainized to a hj h degree. The use
of corpItcateC~ agricultural riach1nery has become widespread in the '404s
: t4~rv_ Between 1940 and 1945 the number of tractal's
was increased by 54 . 5%, and betweeil 1945 and 1950 by 49%.
In 1950
there were 3, 5O9a 0OO tractors, 714,000 cornbinesA 456, OOO corgi picking
machineand 2, 2O, , 0()C) trucks to agricu1cur e , The 1955 maehiaAery in-
c1ud d 437;)O OOO tractors, 9UO,OOO combines, and GOOD000 core pickiiag
machines, I~Iost o1 the U3 tractors arc of t nc~ei- F ype. end onXy t
sr li number ure on catOzPi 11,a ' tracks (about 4% in 1954). The use of
a ricu1turai r~achinery is more widespread in tho no3Athern states (where
GS n G% Oa the farms had tractors in 1950) and much 1t so in the south rn
s totes where 2 . i% of the fans have tractors , Asa equipped of all are
the areas growing core end wheat for commercta1 purposes which are
do~inated by large farms or so-called "grain factories. ~t Thus in the
northwestern states 7i.8% of the farms have tractors, 2,4% are equipped
with combines, and 24.2% use corn
Mechanization is reducing the amount of labor per unit of pro-
duction (that is, one ha of planted land or one head of cattle) and
per unit of output (one centner of gain, meat, miIk o etc). The amount
of labor used per one ha of gain-sown area was reduced to almost 1/2
in 20 years. According to he figures of the U3 Department of AgricUlture~
the labor used per one centner of wheat in 1959-1953 was one hour as against
the 2.8 hours in 1930-1934. Labor consumption per one ha of corn in
1950-1953 was 32 hours as against the 63 hours in 1940-1944.
The increase cf agricultural equipment, accoipahied by a decrease
in labor consumption per output unit, the improvement of the work on the
land and the increasing use of fertilize? have produced higher yields
..[. n.~? 4I%
ee~t~m
LJIJ&
tip have adversely affected the situation of the stall
farmers and tenant farmers who are crowded off the land by large farms
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(which own 75% of the tractors, 90% of the combines, and 70% of the
cotton picking chinos ) .
t1. _ - # veaws nee .. va.fwsnt I , Y ~ %i1 rs4: +.?LZd.] e1S1l9t~ .w
~wJ,'; ..f.43LIti.LLh J_7ptSd.t&I...Ila Ci.i 4ss:/ vveraivaJ
being rapidly reduced from 30.E nill:lon people in 1940 to 24.8 minion
people in 19o~2. The greatest 1es of rniing population i recorded in
the southern states which showed a co.siderable increase 1r the number
of cotton p1c ding machines and particuiar 1y tractor bet:~een 1930 and
1950.
ristg cost of production and the falling prices" of farmers' produced
that the Aiuricn fanners are s*squeezed between 2 millstones, the
on he state of the union (January 1956), president D. Eisenhower stated
outside of their farms 100 days a year. In his message to Congress
2, 481, 000 in 1950 (38.3%), with ? , 255, X300 farriers doing additional work
forced to hire themselves out jumped from 1,747,000 iii 1940 (28.%) to
labor of the farm laborers and s Bali farmers. 'he ruiner of farmers
with tm~to~date machinery. The capitalist leaders are exploiting the
The s n.ai1 farmer is unabie to coi pwte with to large far u equipped
Tat fa~i3ig w .s :. wydnarspread t Yi 4S agrcu1 tune
'~'f3L1 4 J.2S.6 iiiLA~ ..? .7 sr ~c;am a. ax w++,~ ,F.ky$' ...... w>....
1950 figures, 26.8% of the farmers were tenant farmers and 1,3% were
only part owners. The number of tenant farmers is gradually decreasing
as a result of their complete ruination and their joining the rams of
the proletariat. Of all tenant farmers 52% were crowded of the land
between 1935 and 1952. Between 100;000 and 150,000 tenant farmers are
rained annually. The indebtedness of the small and medium farmers is
on the im grease. The total indebtedness of the tamers was 7.6 billion
dollars in 1946 and 18.5 billion dollars at the beginning of 1955. About
1/3 of the farmer are mortgaged. Many farmers work on land which they
own only nominally. The banks are actually dominating a considerable
par W lira iaLU1 mild t z if an increasing share of their ncore.
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Survivals of slavery still exist in US agriculture. Share
cropping is widespread. It has assumed a particularly enslaving character
in the southern states with a large Negro popuIation. Part of the
share croppers not only rent the land but are also conpelied to rent
the landlords' equipment, seeds, ii.ventory, acid living quarter: from
him. The nuirber of sharecroppers in the south has been considerably
decreased. In 1y3v 19;iO alone that decrease amounted to 54.6 n of their
total.number. Government subsidies and bonuses paid for reducing the
cultivated area make it possible for the large farms to intensUy
production on smaller areas. As a result the sharecroppers are
crowded off the land. A similar result is achieved by the increasing
use of agricultural anachinery which reduces the consumption of labor per
unit of cultivated area.
The deepening agrarian crisis in recent years has been manifested
by an accumulation of large quantities of unsold agricultural products,
falling farm income, growing indebtedness, and the accellerated ruin of
small and medium farms. The government Commodity Credit Corporation,
designed to m,rnta7n a high retail price level in the interests of the
big capitalists as well as for purposes of foreign trade expansion, is
buying up agricultural :.products. It usually gets rid of them by dumping
them on foreign markets c*r by destroying them.
Of tho b million farm laborers 500,000 to one million have no
permanent employment. In the spring they look for work in the vegetable
fields and berry farm of the south, and in the summer in the corn arid
wheat fields of the middle western states. In the fall they pick potatoes
in the north and then make their way south again to pick cotton and citrus
fruit and cut sugar cane. A considerable number of the migrant laborers are
used also in the fields and in the orchards of the west, particularly in
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California. The migrant laborers consist of US citizens who were
crowded off the land, mostly Negroes, as we11 as of seasonal laborers
from Mexico, Puerto Rico, and other nearby countries. They are sub-
; ected to the most cruel exploitation for miserable pay. Almost 1/3 of
the agricultural proletariat are women. Among the seasonal laborers
arc many adolescents. The pay received by Agricultural workers does
not exceed 40% of the earning of industrial workers.
Animal hus aauury is a leading part of agrtul tune.
produced 54.9% of the commercial output of agriculture. The animal
husbandry industry is particularly extensive in the north (58.5% o2
the agricultural commercial output against 35.7% in the south), where
the production of fodder is concentrated. Of chief importance is
cattle raising, 94.7 million head in 1954 (73.3% of the value of all
cattle), including 24.7 million head of milk cows. Over 50% of the
cattle is concentrated in the north. Prevalent in the western states
where the climate is dry (the mountain states, the southwest, and the
northwest) is the grazing of beef cattle part of which is sold to be
fed in the corn growing eastern states. A considerable part of the
herds in the northeast and the lake area consists of dairy cattle
(over 6 of dairy cows are in the north). Dairy cattle raising is
poorly developed in the south and in the west. The average annual
milk yield per cow is from 240 to 250 lit. Pig raising is also an
important industry (45.2 million head in 1954). About 73% of the pigs
are concentrated in the north, 24% in the south, and only 3% In
The pig raising industry is distributed chiefly according to the corn
raising districts which are also used for feeding cattle. Sheep and
goat raising (30.9 million head in 1954) is widespread in the mountainous
west (about 41% of the total number) and in the western parts of the
north and south. Meat production in 1954 amounted to 11.5 min ion t
and animal fats to 0,66 million t. Poultry raising also pays an important
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part. Over GO % of the total poultry are found in the iorther~ states.
Poultry raising is also widespread in Ca1ifora~ia.
The total area of arable land in the US is estimated at 469
million ha. The sown area arc ounts to 1th5 million ha, pasture lurid
to 196 miliion ha i~aciudirAg 40 million ha under cultivation. Another
55 million ha covered with woods and underbrush are also used for
grazing purposes. A considerable part of the US land area is affected
by erosion in varying degrees,
The importance of the animal iejdustry has affected the very
structure of agriculture. Over half of the cultivated area is planted
to corn and other fodder cultures. In 1955, the area planted to corn
alone was 40.2% of the cultivated land while 57.3% of the area was used
for grain culture. The US holds a leading place 1n the world in the
production of corn. It accounts for approximately 55-60% of the worlds
corn output (without the USSR. About 85% of the area under cultiva-
tion is planted with highly yielding hybrid seeds. The yield of corn
has been raised considerably in the past 10-15 years.
TABLE 10
CORN YIELDS
Centners per ha Years Centners per ha
1931-35 (average) 14,4 1945-50 (aver- 23.2
aye)
1941-45 (average) 20.8 1954 23,0
1936-40 (average) 16,4 1953 24,9
In 1955 corn yields went up to 27 centners per ha.
Wheat yields during the mentioned period fluctuated between 8.9
centners per ha in 1331-1935 and 12 centners per ha in 1954.
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CULTIVATED J1ftEAi AND GPtiQSSS HARVEST OF SIC CzRAYIv CULTURES
1944-1953 average 1954
Cultures Cultivated area Crops in Cultivated area Crops in
in millimeters millimeters in miilin!eters xii11imeters
ha ha hn ha
Corn
X64.3
78.3
22.4
75.3
Wheat
''a'J.4
~,
3114
21.7
26.5
Rye
0.7
0.5
0.7
9.6
Cats
16.0
19.2
17.0
22.4
Barley
4.2
j.8
.2
8.1
Rice
0.7
l.8
0.9
2.7
5aY bean
4.9
6.5
6.8
9.0
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According to official figures, the 1955 area planted to 3 grain
cultures amounted to 85.5 million ?la, and the crops therefrom to 146
million t, 133c1ud1ng 81 million t o~ corn.
Certain regions of the country go in #Or specialized agriculture,
depending on the natural and economic conditions. Corn is raised in
almost all states cast of the cordi.11era3 but it is widespread within
the bolt extending from South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas eastward to
Ohio. Iowa and Illinois are the leading states in size of corn-planted
area and harvest volume. This is also a large center of wheat, oats,
and seed grass as well as pig raising and feeding d livestock which is
shipped there in large quantities from other areas. North of the corn
belt lies an area of seed grass and dairy cattle raising.
Extending to the south of the corn belt is a nixed strip of corn
and winter wheat. The large summer wheat area covers North Dakota,
South Dakota, and the northeastern part of Montana. The hard winter
wheat area embraces Kansas and Oklahoma. There are considerable wheat-
sown areas also on the Columbian Plateau.
TABLE 12
Tff1 AREA UI DER TECHNICAL CULT'S AND THEIR YIELDS
1934-38 average 1953
Sown area in
Crops in
Sown area in Crops in
millimeters
ha
millimeters
t
millimeters millimeters
ha t
Cotton
11.5
2:755
9.96
3,531
Tobacco
0.6
594
0.7
928
Flax (for seeds)
O*D
209
1.8
.:
944
Sugar beets
4.3
8,140
0.3
10,910
Sugar cane
0.1
5,100
0.1
7, 17
,. 78
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The cotton belt covers practically all the southern states.
The most important cotton growing area is the Mississippi delta and
central Texas, large quantities of cotton are grown also on the
irrigated fields o the western states. Sugar cane is produced on the
Gulf of Me7gico coast. in the northeast Arid the east the cotton belt
borders on a large tobacco growing area (Kentucky, Tennessee, Z3or th
Carolina, anti ir,i ia) o 1a a i grow for the most part in the
rainy north (primarily in Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota),
Vegetable growtg is developed mostly aloc,ag the Atianti.c seacoast.
sui:ar beets cotton, and other crops are grown on the irrigated ?and
of the mountain states, but he most important agr icu1tural branch in
that area is sheep raising. Fiorito and California are important
centers of citrus fruit, grape, and fruit growing. Ninety % of the
country's grape crop, half of the peaches and pears are groan in
California, The US holds one of the first places in the world in the
production of citrus fruits. The orange acrd tangerine crops amounted
to 4 mi l1 ion t in 1953 and lemons to 448 ; OOO t.
The US exports cotton, tobacco, wheat, corn, meat, and dairy
products. It imports large quantities of wool, coffee, sugar, vegetable
oi.l, etc. The relatively limited vo1L:TM;e of national consumption caused
by the limited purchasing power and demand of the broad masses of work?
ing people, combined With the difficulties of marketing agricultural
products on foreign markets and the irateresiied competition with other
capitalist producers, brought about an overproduction t n US agriculture.
Mate monopoly capitalism has embarked upon a course of forcible
reduction of plowing and restriction of agricultural produoton which is
a grapbic manifestation of the decay of American capitalism. Thus the
wheatsown a*'ea in 1954 was reduced by Zl% compared to 1953. Reductions
in the planting of wheat, rice, cotton, and tobacco were made in I950.
-.79-.
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A considerable reduction of planting is planned for 1956. The
relative overproduction is intensified also by the fact that the monopo-
lies artificially maintain high retail prices on agricultural products.
Transportation and Communication
The US has a weld. developed railroad system, a dense network of
automobile roads, and oil and gas pipelines. There are extensive lit-
land waterways. Well developed also is sea and air transportation.
Characteristic of US transportation is the desperate competition among
the monopolies controlling various type: of
transportation First in
a >
point of freight haulage are the railroads which account for about 5
freight volume. The Great Lakes handle 8% of the freight volume, the
other inland waterways 6%. The pipolines about 16% and trucks about 19%.
The railroad freight volume in 1955 was 934 billion t-km, and the auto-
mobile roads 302 billion t-km.
The US holds first place in the world in total railroad mileage
(356,000 kin in 1952) but 7 s considerably behilid other countries in the
density of the railroad network,. There are 4.6 km of railroad for every
100 sq km of territory in the US. The American railroads are controlled
by a few monopolies. Six of the lamest companies, namely Pennsylvania
ilroad, New York Central Railroad, Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe, Union
Pacific Co:tpany, South Pacific and Baltimore, and Ohio Railroad company,
hold a total of 11 billion dollars worth of assets (about half of the
value of all US railroads).
The railroad lines of different companies, competing in the same
areas, frequently run parallel to each other over long distances. Thts
leads to below-capacity operation and inadequate utilization of the
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rolling stock. About 85% of the railroad lines are single-track lines.
The railroad network has not been increased since World War 1, and after
1929 it began to decrease (the highest level was 419,004 km). This was
larger due to the competition from other types of transportation,
particularly trucking and pipelines. After World War 11 railroad steam
engines began to be rapidly replaced by the more economical motor engines.
The diesel locomotive became the most important tractive foree. By early
1954 the freight car pool consisted of about 1.8 million cars. The
electrified railroad lines account for less than 2% of the total trackage.
The density of the railroad network in the northeast and the areas
adjoining the Great Lakes system averages 10-12 km per 190 sq km of terri-
tory which exceeds 4.5 times the density of the railroad network in the
west where it constitutes less than 2 km per 100 a km in the mountain
states and approximately 3 km per 100 sq km in the pacific states. Of
prune importance in the US railroad system are the trunk lines crossing
the country from east to west and connecting the largo cities of the
Atlantic coast (iew York, Philadelphia, etc with the Pacific coast
(Seattle, Portland, San Francisco, and Los Angeles).
The total length of automobile roads in 1951 was 4,8 million
kin, including 2.75 million kn of improved roads (gravel, oil roads,
asphalt, and mnacadam). The 1954 passenger car total amounted to 48
million units, trucks and buses to 9.6 million units. About 60% of
the automobiles are concentrated in the industrial north. Leading in
the number of cars in the south is Texas, and in the west is California
The automobile in the JS is the strongest competitor of the railroads,
especially in passenger transportation as well as in freight hauling
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over short distances (and after World War ii over considerable distances).
The total interurban bus lines is 575,000 fun and city lines 45,000 km.
Many automobile roads cross the country from east to west and from north
to south. The east-west highways of the Great Lakes area are connected with
the coastal areas of the Gulf of Mexico. On the Atlantic and pacific
coasts the automobile highways connect all the large ports and industrial
centers.
pe JV~~x~~ in 1954 was w?...0,.-00
The total L414Ci:1 length of n the pI~ 54 was 269,.. km. The
SLIK'+
pipelines connect the large oil extraction centers with the oil refining
amd consumption centers as well as with the ports of embarkation, The
ports of the north where the oil is shipped and refined are connected
with the areas of oil products consumption. The pipeline network in the
chief ail extraction area, the southwestern states, is particularly dense.
Runntg from there are pipelines to the oil refining centers of the
northeast and the Great Lakes area as well as to the embarkation ports
of the Gulf of Mexico. In the west a dense network of pipelines is cores
the Los Angeles area. Closely linked with the oil pipelines
are natural gas pipelines. The pipelines are utilized by the oil monopo-
lies as one of the weapons in the struggle for oil markets.
Inland Waterway Transportation
Between 60% and 70% of the water-borne freight is shipped via
the Great Lakes system which became a continuous water route from Duluth
on Lake Superior to the source of the St. Laurence river, following the
construction of the Sault St. Marie and Welland ship canals. The waterway
is navigable along its entire length and connects with the Mississippi,
Ohio, Hudson, and, and St. Laurence rivers and, through them, with the
Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. Ruge quantities of iron ore,
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lumber, grain, and moat are ahipped from west to east on the lake
waterway system, while coal and industrial products are hauled in the
opposite direction. The total length of US navigable rivers is about
50,000 km. The largest waterway in the country is the Mississippi
River. Its navigable part together with its tributaries account for
50% of all US inland waterways. The transportation possibilities of
the Mississippi, just like those of the other American rivers, are
inadequately utilized due to the competition among the monopolies which
own different types of transportation. The basic types of :ieight
hauled on the Mississippi River are oil (particularly in the lower
reaches), grain, cotton, coal (particularly along its left tributaries),
metal, and metal products. The rivers of the Atlantic and Mexican
coasts are mostly interconnected by the coastal canal consisting of
a number of separate canal: which rura parallel to the seacoast. The
560-km long Erie Canal connects the Great Lake system, through the
Hudson, with the port of I4ew York. Amongk the Pacific coast rivers, the
Columbia is an important navigable waterway. The 1952 freight turn-
over on US rivers amounted to 84 billion t-km (including 5) billion
t-'km on the Mississippi and its tributaries), and on the Great Lakes
system to 167 billion t-km.
Maritime Transportation
The 1955 tonnage of the US merchant marine (including the reserve
fleet) was 26.4 million registered gross t. The huge government
invc~etments into shipbuilding during World War II brought its tonnage
up 41 ml cm. In 1946 more than half of the merchant ships of all
capitalist countries were under the -"ierican flag. A considerable part
ing under foreign flags (Panama, Liberia, and Honduras) for the purpose of
evading tax payments and saving on the wages of seamen. The US registered
of the ships was sold after war, and another part was reregistered and is sail-
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fleet accounted for 22% of the foreign trade cargoes in 1939 and 50%
in 1950. Despite US monopoly resistance, the other capitalist countries
restored their merchant fleets and reinforced them by additional ship-
building. The US, however, still owns about 1/2 of the capitalist
world's merchant fleet (1952). The US tanker fleet was about 4.5
million t an 1953, that is, about 20?22%a of the tanker fleet of the
capitalist world, but fax snmller? than Great gltain's fleet. However,
many tankers sailing under different flags actually belong to US monopolies.
Of great importance for east-west connections in the US as well
as for international trade is the Panama Ca.7al (q, v.). The distance
between New York and San Francisco through the PanaCanal is 2.5 times
shorter than through the Strait of Magellan, and between New Orleans and
San Francisco 2.9 tires shorter. The Panama Canal shortened the distance`
between the US Atlantic coast and Australia, east Asia, the Pacific islands,
and Japan, and facilitated US expansion into the Central and South American
countries and the Far East. Pursuing expansion purposes in the Near
and Middle East, the US oil monopolies area making much use also cf the
Suez Canal (q, v.)0
'tile US has a large number of ports. The bulk of the ship traffic
and freight turnover is handled by a relatively small number of large
ports. The largest ports on the Atlantic coast are New York, Philadelphia,
Boston, faltinnore, and a group of ports at the Hampton Roads bay. On
the Gulf of Mexico coast are Houston, New Orleans, Mobile, and S3eaumont-
Port Arthur, and on the pacif is coat, San Francisco, Las Angeles, Port
land, and Seattle. The largest of them is New York which holds first
place the country's foreign trade freight handling.
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Air Transportation
Air transportation has been considerably developed, particularly
in the field of passenger carrying. Air transportation links the large
cities and connects also with larga traffic canters of other countries
both on the American and other inn, Passenger air travel in 1953
amounted to 29.2 billion passenger km, that is, only about 1.7 times less
than on the railroads. Freight shipments by air ae not large. Compare
to the prewar period, the number o airports was increased approzir tely
35 times.
Communications
in addition to post and telegraph services, telephone comunica4
Lion is widespread in the US. The number of telephones in the country a~
of 1 January 1954, was 50.4 million. Telephone communication is controlled
mostly by the American Telephone and Telegraph Co. (through its sub'
sidiary, the Bell Telephone System). !"al some of the northeastern states
there are up to 40 telephones for every 100 people (Connecticut has 41,
and New York 38), and in the far west up to SO and more (in California,
32). in the southern states? O2] th& Oth'? h fd? there are slightly over
10 telephones for every 100 residents (Mississippi, 11; Arkansas, 12).
Lame scale use is made also of wireless communication, radio telephony,
and radio telegraphy. Radio relay lines (q, v. ) are used eactensively in
radio communication.
The first commercial broadcasting station in the US was opened
in 1930. Broadcasting in the US has now become an important branch of
the economy which is monopolized. by the following 4 companies; the American
Broadcasting company, the National Broadcasting company, the Columbia
Broadcasting System, and the Mutual Broadcasting System. In 1954, there
were 3f4?3 radio stations and 356 television stations in the US.in 1950,
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 40.4 million apartments rad radios and 5 rniilion had television sets
(television sets were available in l2% of the apartmerrtA,iac1uding
15.7' in the cities and 2.7% in the rural areas).
The growth of radio and television is deteriiried by the
of oi3ctr?orl RNs and the r"adia tec :ic~U industry which is also e rent
u i1itary importance (production o radio, rerz~e e co:t troi machine 11, etc).
The output of radio receivers (inciudtg car{ r?'adios) was 17 mi11~,oi ire
i954. The companies CCntr 1.i11 Val LOUS type's Of Coo lU1t1cat?OfS air
engaged h a desperate stru~;gie an or~g the e1ve .
Foi'ei r u Econonu c Tien Foreign Trades Trade Balance, and Capital Export
Du*iiig th cra of ~peri aiiiiithus US rose to one of the highest
places in the capitalist world in point of foreign ta'ade. Supplying
to vtarring countries daring orld War I with war and other materials, the
U effected an increasw in the physical volume of its exports by 1919
amouiitizig to 4 above tho 1913 level, and an increase in imports by 23%.
' stop up its &1es of agricultural and idnstr?iallproducts and to extend
the sphcre of capital investu1ent, the US adopted a law in 1934 of bi-
lateral trade agreegats with foreign countries "on a reciprocal basis.
Such agreements were concluded with a arumber of countries, including
~3ritain and Canada, which reduced the duties on certain Aiaerican goods
and cancelled part of the preferential custom duties established by the
Ottawa Conference of the itish E>pire in 1932.
U9 monopolies took advantage of the defeat of Germany and Japan
in World War II and the economic weakening of Britain and prance to
acquire many markets where ,frican goods had met keen competition be-
fore. The 1941-1945 shipments of armaments and other materials to the
allies through lend-lease (q. v. ), the past war temporary `.'aid" programs
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and the Marshall Plan (see Marshall Plan), and since the auturn of
1951 also the Mutual Security program, were used by the U3 mociopolies
for purposes of foreign economic expansion. The same purposes are
served by the international Monetary Fund (q. v.) and the International
Bank for recomstructioi and development which are strongly dependent
on erican imperialism.
M idea of the Us export acid i iport volume . ay bgained from
REIGN TRADE (in riiillicm dollars)
1929 1944 1950 1953 1954
Exports 5249 14,259 10,275
Imports 4,399 3,929 8,352
Trade balance .4841 - 10,330 +1,423
From 1936-1933 through 1944, the value of US exports increased 4.7
times, and its physical vo1umc 29 tines.
In 1947, the share of the total export of the capitalist
countries amounted to 32.% due to the fact that certain countries
temporarily dropped out of the world's foreign trade while others be
came weaker. But in 1950 the growing competition of other capitalist.
countries reduced it to 21.9% and ire 1954 to 19.6%. in 1947 the export
volume rose to 275% and Imports to 103% as compared with 1936-'1938 period,
and in 1954 the figures were 254%? on exports and 146% on imports. In
1952 the value of U3 exports amounted to 5.9% of the country's entire
output. However, exports play a larger part in regard to a number of goods.
Thus the export of wheat in 1952 was 46.3? of the crop, race 51.9%,
cotton 36.6%, tobacco 25.1%, machine tools 11% of the total output, rolling
mill machines 34%, trucks 13%, and tractors 22%.
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The structure of US foreign trade is characterized by a pre-
dominance of manui'actureS in exports, and industrial raw materials
and foodstuffs in imports.
TABLE 14
THE STRUCTU OF US FOREIGN TAE (in % of total)
Export
Import
1935-35
1952
1954
1936M33
1952
Raw materials and
semimanufactures
40.6
24.1
24.5
51.3
51.2
Foodstuffs
19.5
13.9
10.0
29.3
29.3
1anufactureS
45.9
62.0
65.2
19.4
19.5
1954
46.1
32.4
21.
The largest export items are industrial equipment, automobiles,
chemical products, ferrous metals, textile manufactures, cotton; coal,
wheat, and wheat flour. war materials have also become prominent export
items (19% in 1954). Between 1952 and 1954 certain export items revealed
a sizable reduction. The US share of the total ferrous metal experts
from the capitalist countries in 1947 was 90, in 1952 it was 22% and
in 1953 only 18%. However, thanks to the large scale armament ship-
ments, the US share of the world's capitalist exports is now about 1/5.
import of manufactures is restricted by a high tariff
system as well as by special restrictive quotas. At the same time,
US industry absorbs increasing quantities of raw materiala from the
capitalist world, particularly from the colonial and dependent countries
(for example, uranium from the Belgian Congo and the Union of South
Africa; nickel from Canada; tin from Bolivia, Malaya, and Indonesia;
Ghromites from the Philippines, Turkey, Southern Rhodesia and the
Union of South Africa; bauxite from Surinam; natural rubber from
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Indonesia and Malaya, etc). The US is buying up enormous quantities
,4, t
W/_ ?0 tiwiW
snateri a1s to stockpile strategic supplies. The total expend
tares for such supplies exceeded 5 billion: do11ars by the e11 of 1953:
The basic import items are coffee sugar, rubberp wool, oil, mined,
and manufactured minerals, aaoniorroua aid rare metals and paper.
Us trade with ;anada and the Latin .rican countries has been
consi,dorabiy expanded. In 1936-1938, 1/3 of US expo?ts went to the
western hemisphere countries, and in 1954 it was more than 285. imports
from those countries to the U rose from 37? of its total in I93&193$
to 58% in 1954. The expansion of i1aports from the western hen isphe
countries is largely detorxined by the larger importations of raw
materials. Thus Latin erica exported to the US in 1949 100% of its
nitrate, 85.5% of the copper, 70% of the oily and 61.8% of the oil
products. US exports to the countries of the British Empire have been
greatly expanded. The value of the exports to Canada in 1952 was
increased 6.5 times compared to 1936-1938, and in 1954 it accounted for
22.6' of the country's total export. US expansion in the colonial and
dependent countries of Asia and Africa has been intensified. As a result
of the forced exports of mineral and vegetable raw materials from those
countries, the value of US exports from the African countries in 1952-
1954 was 9 times as high as in 19361938, U exports to the countries
of Asia is about the same as before World War II, whereas those countries
share of US imports Was cut in half (from 299% in 1936"1938 to 14.4% in
l954), This is due to the termination of trade with China as well to
the reduced purchasing of silk from Japan, and to the reduced consumption
of imported natural rubber following the development of synthetic rubber
production in the US. This is accompanied by increasing oil imports
from the Near and Middle East and the intensified penetration into those
countries by American monopolies whi$ are trying to crowd the British
monopolies out of there.
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 Countries
1936.1938 Without "special Total export, including
average category? goods* "special category" roods*
Capitalist countries of Europe
40.4
2&7
33.8
taadda
15.5
22.6
19.7
Latin American countries
~
18.3
27.5
28.4
Countries of Asia (not including
the
USSR and
the other socialist camp countries
~
16.8
15.7
17.7
African countries
4.3
4.6
3.8
Australis and Oceania
3 1
2.0
1. e6
*The "special category" includes shipments of arms and other war rnaterials,. Use was made of the figures appearing in the
survey onomicheskoya Polozhenie italistichesMiihhs ~. tr: n v 1
Fk 904 godta 1'ha Economic Situation of the Capitalist Countries
in 1954], 1955, Moscow, pale 278.
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TABLE 15
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRiBDTION OF US F.XJPCDRTS (in ?l, of total)
154 1954
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TABLE 16
DIsTRxBFr"raoI1 of us IMPORTS (in % of total)
Countnies
Capi 1.aiA PI H co1r9ntri Yis 'row EurOpe
Ca J.ad
Countries o? Asia (nog, includtg
he USSR. and thW other oc1aLit
camp Co'un t.:i ies
A ric a countries
Au tra1i.. nd ;cear
w. ass
1936-133S
(average)
G'd ?JI u .J t `. n .,..
Eyes tern uro c c D t i1U yS to hold first p i ac?W f as American exports .
T'kia g advan rage of the ocono Sic leak i s (f tie other capitai st pow' 's
in the first post wear years, the US ttensified its expansion In the
countries of wes terurop The US share of their .imports in 1952 wa r
5% t agw~i=? t t.e ? z.Gve . ta1y ` purchases h the US a courted
fez' 21% o:f her tot ~i irzmort (Ii % in 1927) 9 those o the '?1 ?ia .riou iruGrt
thing possible, and do everythtg possibly and impossible for the shameless
with the planters of the south for the purpose of suppressing the movement
of the working class, the farmers, and the Negro people. The agrarian
problem in the south retained unsolved, Carrying out a policy of compro>
misc with the southern planters, the bourgeoisie tr,.ed to restore every-s
Betraying its wartime allies, the bourgeoisie of the north made a deal
;.aYe owu ;o ,R3* aci(i, Aiivwu c
wring R. Hayes' presidency, the dictatorship in to south was aboUshedL,
and foul oppression of the Negroes" (Lenin, V. I. Sochinenia, Fourth
Editlofln Volutes 22, page la).
The land parcels seized by the Negroes were taken back from them
almost everywhere. Intimidation, violence, lynching, and bloody
programs were used to deprive the Negroes of most apt their rights. The
disfranchisement oa he Negroes was sanctioned by a number of racial laws
which were subsequently adopted in the southern states. There was also
racial discrimination against Mexicans and immigrants from Asiatic
countries. Interned in their reservations, the Indians were never granted
even formal rights.
The inflation begun during the Civil War, speculation, and rising
prices served to depress the living standard of the workers and small
farmers. The differentiation of the farmers became intense and their
dependence an the bane increased. Most of the farmers who acquired land
under the Homestead At were soon ruined. Their land was taken away by
auctioneers and banks. The bourgeoisie shifted the payments of the
enormous national debt (over 2.8 b:illion dollars) onto the shoulders
of the working people, The intensification of the class struggle was
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manifested in a growing worker-fa~nex movement. A national union,
demanding an 8 hour workday, was founded in 1865. AA national labor
union (which existed to the beginning of the 187O') was organized
in 1866 under the leadership of Sylvis (q. v,), Back in the 1854's
the Colmnunist Club of New York was organized. Sections of the First
International came into existence in the US in 1567. The farmers Grange
organization (the "Patrons of Husbandry") was created in 1367, xn
1868 a labor party was. organized, as was a Negro workers organization.
Labor pressure in a nuresber of states prevented the passage of anti-
strike bills. The labor movement in the US however had to cope with
difficult conditions. The great turnover in the labor force prevented
the formation of permanent proletarian cadres. The bourgeoisie managed
to weaken the labor movement by bribing labor leaders organizing company
unions, inciting American workers against Negroes and immigrants and
fanning national animosity among immigrant workers from different
countries.
The U5 at the End of the Nineteenth Century -- The Growth of Pre-Monopoly
Capitalism Into Imperialism
In the period following the Civil War and the Reconstruction of
the south the US became a highly devsloped industrial capitalist country.
The US held fourth place in the world in point of industrial output
volume In 1860, a ;d f ir-s t place in 1894. This was facilitated by they
abolition of the slave system, the enormous post war expansion of the.
domestic market, the rich natural resources, the large scale use of new
machinery, mass immigration to the US from various countries, and by the,
influx of capital from Europe, The concentration of capital accelerated,
Large cW poratlons and millionaires (Vanderbiit, Carnegie, Rockefeller,
Morgan, etc) began to. expand their activities. Standard oil was organized
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in 1870, extending its control to more than 90% of the US oil industry
by 1879. Other large monopolies came into being in various branches
of the national economy. The National Association of Manufacturers (q, v.),
the largest organization of American monopolists, was created in 1895
The activities of the capitalist monopolies (particularly in railroad
construction) were accompanied by squandering state lands and funds and
monstrous speculation and corruption which served to make the economic
crises particularly acute. All the forces of reaction united for the
struggle against the spreading movement of workers and farmers. The
Republican and the Democratic parties, both of which had become parties
of the rich bourgeoisie, were drawn closer to each other. The Republican
party was in power practically all the time (the A. Johnson government,
1865.1869; U. Grant, 1869-1877; R. Hayes, 1877-1881; J. Garfield, 1881;
Ch. Arthur, 1881-3888; B. Harrison, 1889-1893). The Democratic party
managed to win the presidential elections only twice (the Grover Cleveland
governments in 18851889 and in 1893-1897.)
Custom duties were raised, and a law introducing the gold standard
was passed in the interests of the rich bourgeoisie. The best government"
owned lands were turned over to speculators, to railroads, and other
companies. The northern railroad companies alone received about 44 million
acres of land. The go vernrnentts financial policy, high tariffs and rising
prices on industrial goods and the plundering of land by the rich bourgeoisie
put the farmers in a difficult position, making them increasingly dependent
on the banks. All this served to heighten the farmers' discontent and
stimulate the farmers' movement.
The farmers Greenback Party (q. v.) came into being in the 1870's.
Uniting with the workers organizations in 1878, the Greenbackers party ca \~
to be known as "The National Labor Party of Gr ' b :" This party
demanded that the paper currency in circulation be left intact (which,
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in the erroneous opinion of the farmexs, was to bring about higher
prices of agricultural products). They also demanded restrictions on
capitalist corporations, the introduction of a progressive income tax,
a lower tariff, and the ttroduction of an 8-'hour workday. The Green-
backers polled over a million votes in the 1878 congressional election,
but their party soon fell apart through lack of consistent revolutionary
leadership. To weaken the #araaers' movement, Conga'ess made certain con-
cessions leaving intact the paper currency in circulation, over the
.President's veto. The economic crisis and the depression that followed
it (1873.1878) greatly harmed the conditions of the working class The
a'lunber of unemployed in 1377 rose to almost 3 milliof. Workers' wages
were redalced by 40-50%, Strikes and demonstrations by unemployed workers
took place all over America. To Intimidate the workers, the authorities
retaliated against the leaders through the courts. Thus after the
Pennsylvania minors' strike (1874-1575), many of the strike leaders were
sentenced to death or to long term imprisonment on trumped-up charges.
A big railroad strike was put down by troops in 1877. The Socialist
Labor Party (SLP, at first called the Labor Party) emerged in 1876 as a
result of a combination of several socialist groups. An active part
in the organization of the party was played by F. A. Sorge (q, v.), a
German Marxist, student and compar_io:, Of K. Marx and F. Engels, who
lived in the US. Weakened by sectarianism however the SLS never became
a mass party. The growth of the party and its influence on the masses
were impaired by the social heterogeneity of its composition, itm division
into separate national groups as well as its lack of attention to trade
union work. The Knights of Labor (q. v.), organised back in 1869, bo..
came the legal maws trade union organization in 1878. The American
Federatthn of Labor (q. v.) (AFL), built on the craft basis, took shape
in 1881. The ATL, whose leadership was seised by S. Gores and other
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trade union leaders implementing an opportunistic policy and justly
nicknamed "the labor lieutenants of the capitalist class,'" evelved
into a reformist organization.
The class struggle grew more acute in connection with the economic
crisis of the eighties. Labor, labor-farmer, and farmer parties were
organized in certain states. The enbancement of the revolutionary labor
movement was manifested by a series oi' large scale class activities.
A big miners' strike took place in Pennsylvania in 1885, and an impressive
railroad strike in 1886. A wave of strikes and demonstrations swept the
country on 1 May 1866. The demonstrators. demanded the introduction of
an 8-hour workday. In Chicago, where the strike almost reached the scope
of general strike, a workers' demonstration was attacked by the police.
A bomb thrown by provocateurs into a meeting in Chicago on 4 May, for
the purpose of inciting antilabor repressions, killed 4 workers and I
policemen False evidence offered by the provocateurs led to the execution
of 4 oargaizers of the meeting and the long term imprisonment of many of
its participants. The struggle of the US workers for an 8-hour workday
was supported by the international labor movement. The First Congress
of the Second International, held in Paris in 1889, proclaimed 1 May as
the day of international solidarity of the proletariat and the struggle
of the workers in the whole world for an 8-hour workday. A number of
antidemocratic measures, designed to intensify the repressions against
the mass movement of the people, were introduced by the big capitalists
and rich landowners. States began to revise their constitutions with a
view to strengthening the executiee power. The National ward was re-
organized, and parts of it were subordinated to the Federal general
staff, The bourgeoisie sowed racial and national dissention. Negro
workers. and intigrants were subjected to the most cruel exploitation
and discrimination. At the same time the American bourgeoisie was
bribing the labor aristocracy and trade union bureaucracy.
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The American working claw had no militant revolutionary party.
Despite the few positive elements of its activities, the Socialist Labor
Party did not correct its mistakes of a sectarian nature and therefore
failed to become a mass party. While exposing the opportunists, the
party deader D. de Leon used the wrong sectarian rip t hods himsc1f. . The
Socialist Labor Party did not extend its activities to the reformist
trade unions. De Leon defended the reactionaryiheory of "uniqueness
of American capitalism." The SLP's mistakes made it easier for the re-
formists to carry out a policy designed to split the socialist movement.
F. Engels sharply criticized the sectarian nature of the American
socialists pointing out that Marxism was just a dogma to them, not a
guide to action.
The government maintained a policy of sevore repressions against
workers' and farmers' organizations. The movement against the trusts
led to the adoption of the Sherman Act (q, v.) which was declared as an "anti-
trust" law. That law however was utilized for the persecution of trade
unions and for fighting strikes. The monopolist associations on the
other hand actually benefited by the law. The number of monopolies was
rapidly increasing. Many farmers were ruined and 280 of the total number
of farms were mortgaged to the banks. The farmers' Populist party (q. v.),
supported by many labor organization, was created in 1892. The party's
program was directed against the banks and capitalist corporations. The
populists polled over a million votes at the 1832 presidential elections.
But in the 1996 elections the Democratic Party made use of the most
populist slogans with a view to undermining their further successes. A
socialist professional and labor alliance was organized by de Leon in 1895.
Two tendencies, revolution*ry and reformist, came into sharp con-
flict in the labor movement. Miners staged frequent strikes in the
beginning of the 1890's, a big strike of metal workers broke out in 1892
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In Homestead (Pennsylvania), and a railroad worker strike in 1894
occurred at the Pullman Car Company's plants in the Chicago suburbs
(see Pullman strike). The Pullman strike was led by the American Union
of Railroad Workers headed by E. Uebs (q. v.). Both the Homestead and
Pullman strikes were put down by the government by armed force.
The US Carried out an expansionist foreign policy. The American
bourgeoisie strove to dislodge English capital from Latin America and use
the Latin American countries as a source of raw materials and a market
for US monopolies. To this end, the US called a conference of the Latin
American states in Washington in 1389 under the pretext of Pan Arrlmselves. to a token participation in the Korean War. The war in
Korea was fought mostly by the American armed forces. The US reaction-
ary circles would not be reconciled with the failure of their puns
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in China following the victory of the Chinese people's revolu-
tion (in 1949) and the rout of Chiang Kai-shek's troops, In
dune 1950 the American navy broke into the Chinese territorial
waters at Taiwan, and lrter the American armed forces actually
occupied Taiwan.
--
The Truman government proclaimed a "state of emergency? in
the country in December 1950 in connection with the war iu Korea.
The numerical strength of the American armed forces was consider-
ably increased. The American monopolies used the war in Korea
for making enormous profits. The capitalists' profits jumped from
27.1 billion dollars in 1949 to 42.9 billion in 1951. The monopo-
lies were again granted tax reductions with a view to expanding m
military production. This also brought about a 16 billion dollar
increase in taxes collected from the population only a year and
a half after the outbreak of the war in Korea.
The war in Korea stimulated a temporary expansion of
industrial production. This was facilitated also by large scale
shipments of American arms to other countries on the basis of the
so-called Mutual Security Act passed by the American congress in
1951. Under that act also was the appropriation of 100 million
dollars for financing subversive activities against the countries
of the democratic camp.
The military draft (about one million people in 1951
alone) and the expansion of war production could not prevent the
growing unemployment brought about by the curtailment of civilian
production. There were at least 3 million fully unemployed workers
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in the US in 1952 despite the increasing war production. There
was also a large number of partially unemployed. The net income
of the American farmers in 1955 was 35% below their average annual
income in the 1946-1948 period.
A number of antidexnocratic laws were passed it the US it
the postwar period. Supplementing the antilabor TaftMHart].ey Law
of 1947 was the 1950 Mccarren-Woad Law directed against the
communist Party and all democratic organizations. That law provided
for a number of restrictive and repressive measures against the
Communist Party as well as against people suspected of associating
with, or being sympathetic to, communists. The McCarren-Walter
Act on immigration and naturalization passed in 1952 was directed
against progressive personalities, particularly the progressive
elements among the immigrants.
The policy of segregation and racial discrimination against
Negroes was continued. A number of court trials of Negroes were
held. Thus at the Martinsville trial of 1949, r Negroes were
falsely accused of raping a white woman, sentenced to death, and
were executed in February 1951.
American progressive forces, primarily the working class,
rose to the defense of their rights. In 1950 there were 4,845
strikes involving a total of 2.81 million people. In 1951, 2.22
million people participated in 4,737 strikes. And in 1952 the
number of strikes rose to 5,117 and the number of people involved
3.54 million. The peace congress of eduoatoa was held in New
York in March 1949. By 1 November 1954, 2 million Americans signed
the Stockholm appeal to ban atomic weapons. A movement under the
slogan "Hands Off Korea:" got underway in the US during the Korean war,
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clew organizations of peace partisans came into being, including
the Peaco P rtisans Infornat1on Center (created in 1950), The
Naticnal Committee o! the American Trade Union Peace Conference,
the "American Crusaders for Peace," etc. corn g out in defense of
peace were a number of farmers ? organizations (the farmers'
congresses in Iowa in 1951, in Pennsylvania, New Yor, etc). Five
thousand delegates attended the National Peace Congress held in
Chicago in the summer of 1951. The congress elected a national
committee to guide the peace movement. The Negro people took
an active part in the struggle for peace. The American Quakers
also came out in defense of peace. The peace movement in the US
however was still weaker than in many other countries.
In 1951 the US severed the existing American-Soviet trade
relations by an unilateral act. This was followed by Congress
passing the so-called Battle Act designed to make all countries
receiving American aid break their trade relations with the USSR,
tie` Chinese People's Republic, and the European countries of the
people's democracy.
When signing the separate peace treaty with Japan in Sep?
tember 1951 (see San Francisco Conference of 1951) the US also
concluded a military treaty with Japan (a so-called security treaty),
according to which the US obtained the right to keep its armed
forces in or near Japan for an indefinite period of time. An
US-Philippine "mutual defense" treaty was signed as early as
August 19514 In September 1953 the US concluded an agreement
with Spain on the establishment of American military buses on
Spanish territory. An American-Japanese agreement "on aid and
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mutual defense" was concluded In March 1954. The penetration
of i ericsn monopolies Irto the colonies and "spheres of in-
fiuex~ce" of the west Europeaxa countrico assumed larger proportions.
To penetrate into the colonial and dependent countries, the
American monopolies are making wide use of the agreements signed
in accordance with the so-called Truman's point-four program
program proclaimed in 1949. Us interference in the affairs of
the Latin American countries was stepped up in the postwar
period. In 2952 the American reactionary circles helped engineer
a military coup d'etat in Cuba.
Us expansionist policy led to greater contradictions among
the imperialist countries, particularly between the US and
England. The Anglo-M'erican struggle for influence in the
Britisb colonies and dominions became intensified. The US main-
twins its military bases and troops in Canada. In September 1951
the US concluded a "mutua1 defense" treaty with Australia and
New Zealand (without the participation of England). American
capital is gaining a firmer footing in French, Belgian, and
"portaguese colonial possessions. A more intensive penetratioo
intd?the countries of Southeast Asia has been noted in the postwar
years.
The US is encroaching on England's remaining positions
in Latin America. The American monopolies took advantage of the
International Oil Consortium of 1954 to seise the major part of
the Iranian oil that previously belonged to British capital. The
contradictions between the US and the other capitalist countries 1
became still more pronounced in view of the growing competition: on
the part of West Germany and Japan (in Latin America and other areas).
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At the 1953 presidt~ntial elections, the progressive
party nominated V. Hollinen as its candidate for the p e 1dency .
He was supported by the Communist party and the other American
progressive organizations. Stevenson was nominated by the Demo-
cratic party, and the Republican Party nominated General D.
Eisenhower who was supported by the majority of the largest American
monopolies. Eisenhower, who promised during the election campaign
to put an end to the war in Korea, was elected president. The
representatives of the biggest monopolies occupied the most im-
portant government posts. In 1953-1954, the $ig zy-'third Congress
passed a number of laws transferring to the monopolies a considerable
number of enterprises built on government funds. Under the Tide-
lands Law (signed in May 1953), the oil deposits of 4 coastal
states were turned over to those states which meant in effect the
transfer of those oil deposits to the big oil companies. The
excess profits taxes were abolished.
The American troops in Korea suffered defeats. The Korean
people's army and the Chinese people's volunteers halted the
offensive launched by the troops of the United States and the
other countries participating in the Korean war, inflicting heavy
losses on them. World public opinion demanded an end to the war
in Korea.
In July 1953 the Us agreed to conclude a truce in Korea.
But in Octobex 1953 the US signed a so-called mutual defense
treaty with South Korea providing for the maintenance of American
armed force in South Korea. The state of emergency proclaimed by
the Truman government was not lifted in the US despite the cessation
of military activities.
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In February 1953 13 prominent leaders of the Communist
Party were sentenced to various terms of imprisonment. In August
1954 the President signed the so-called 1954 law approved by
Congress on the control of communist activities, known also as
the Uzzmphrey-Butler or the Brownell~Sutler.law . This law is
in effect designed to ban the activities of the Communist Party
and is against the trade unions. The Progressive Party and
many other progressive organizations (totalizg over 250) were
placed on a list of "subversives." There are still instances
of retaliations against Negroes. The murder of a?Negro boy, E
Till, by racists in Mississippi, the subsequent exoneration of
the murderers (in 1955), as well as other acts of violence pre-
cipitated by raciats:gave:r se to a protest movement in the
country. The movement is leaded by the NAACP which is heavily
t
supported by trade unions. Many trade unions organized meetings
? demanding an end to racial discrimination and repressions
against Negroes.
At the congressional elections in 1954 the Republican
Party suffered a defeat. The Democratic Party gained a majority
of seats (though an insignificant one) i ,Congress.
In the middle of 1953 production in the US took a downward
course which lasted until the autumn ^f 1954. The index of in-
dustrial production betweeai July 1953 and March-April 1954 showed
a 10% drop. By the end of 1954 the number of totally unemployed
was 3.23 million even according to official figures. There was
spurt of production at the end of 1954, with war production account
ing for 25% of the entire output of American industry.
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The strike movement after World War II is characterized
by the following figures; There was a total of 43,700 strikes
in the US between 1945 and 1954, involving 27.3 million people,
as compared with the 20,000 strikes affecting 9 million people
during the period of 1930-1939. In 1953 there were 5,091 strikes
involving 2.4 million people, according to final figures, pre-
liminary figures showed 3,463 strikes affecting 1.53 million
workers in 1954, In the Detroit strikes of electrical workers
and radio mechanics in 1954 the police made use of their clubs
and tear gas bombs. Strikes broke out in the automobile, steel,
and iiining industries in 1955. The workers of General Motors,
Chrysler Corporation, Ford Motor Corporation, United States Steel
Corporation, etc were on strike. The total number of strikes
in 1955, aceordiiig to
l.i MAI
preliminary figures'
'va c 4 ?fln and the
number of workers involved 2.75 million According to official
figures, there were about 3 million totally unemployed and 9
million partially employed in the US in 1955.
The joint congress of the American Federation of Labor
and the Congress of Industrial organization,held in 1955 as a
result of their merger, created a single trade union organization
known as the AFL-CIO. The leadership of that organization reined
in the hands of right wing trade union officials.
A conference of foreign minister of the 4 powers, (q. v.)
called on the initiative of the Soviet Union, was held in Berlin
in January.erebruary 1954. The US rejected the USSR's proposal
designed to solve the German problem in a democratic spirit and
opposed the Soviet Union's proposal to create a European system
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of collective security. But the Berlin conference reached an
agreement to call a foreign ministers conference at Geneva of
the following 5 great powers; the USSR, US, France, Great Britain,
and the Chinese People's Republic. The Geneva conference of
foreign ministers (q, v.) successfully solved the problem of
restoring peace in Indochina. Although the position taken by
certain delegations, first of all by the US delegation, prevented
an agreement on a final peaceful settlement in Korea, the Geneva
Conference played a positive part and contributed to the reduction
of international tension.
However, soon after the end of the Geneva Conference in
1954, another conference was held in Manila in September of the
same year on the initiative of the US, England, and France.
This conference resulted in the signing of a treaty on the
?defense of Southeast Asia" and the creation of an aggressive
military bloc in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, the so-called
SEATO (see Agreement in Manila). In December 1954 the US con-
cluded a "mutual security" treaty with the Chiang ai>shek clique
under the terms of which the actual United States occupation of
Taiwan and islands was extended for an indefinite period of time.
In January 1955 Congress granted the President the power to use
Arican
a;#U % for cgs against the Chinese Pe'ople's Republic in
the event of an armed conflict in the Taiwan Strait area.
In June 1954 the American reactionary circles, making use
of mercenary troops, organized an armed intervention in Guatemala
whose government had begun to implement agrarian reforms and an
independent policy. This intervention resulted in the overthrow of
the legitimate government of Guatemala. The expansion of the US
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monopolies spurred a growing resistance of the masses of the people
as well as resentment on the part of the Latin American national
bourgeoisie. The struggle in Latin America for the nationalization
of the natural resources, plundered by the North American monop-
olies, is assuming greater proportions. Despite US resistance the
pan American Conference held in Caracas in 1954 adopted resolutions
on agrarian reforms and other measures directed primarily against
is expansion in Latin America.
Acting jointly with England in October 1954 the US succeeded
in concluding the Paris military agreements designed primarily to
speed up the revival of German militarism and the inclusion of
the Federal Republic of Germany in the Western Powers' military
hi ir
treaty of friendship, trade, and navigation was signed
between the US and the Federal Republic in October 1954. The
Federal Republic joined the West European Union and was admitted
as a member of the North Atlantic Union. In December 1954 the
Council of the North Atlantic Bloc adopted a decision to prepare
for an atomic war.
The "cold war" and armament race stimulated the growing
resistance of the people of the whole world. The desire to reduce
tension in international relations became stronger among large
sections of the American people.
Appeals to the American government to enter into negotiations
with the USSR have been made, since the beginning of 1955, by
church organizations, pacifist groups, trade union, farmers; and
youth organizations, teachers' organizations, Negro, women's and
other organizations, as well as by individual Americans. Favoring
negotiations were also certain representatives of US business and
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and political circles. The president of the National Steel
d
Corporation, R. Weir, stated in May 1955 that "if the threat of
war is eliminated, it will be possible to turn Russian-American
hostility into a peaceful competition between 2 entirely different
political and social systems" (quoted from the St. Louis post
Dispatch of 25 May 1955). In July 1955, 29 Democratic congress-
men came out in favor of negotiations between the great powers.
A similar message was addressed to president Eisenhower at the
sale time by 10 Republican and Democratic congressmen. Prompted
by the spreading peace movement in all countries, including the
U", the United States participated in a number of international
0
actions (in 1955) which contributed to the reduction of inter-
national tension.
Following the establishment of a basis for the solution
of the Austrian problem, as a result of the negotiations between
the USSR and Austrian government delegations, the US, among
other powers, signed the state treaty on the restoration of an
independent, democratic Austria in May 1955.
A US government delegation; headed by President Eisenhower,
took part in the conference of the heads of government of the
4 powers, the USSR, US, England, and France, at Geneva in July 1955.
That conference had a beneficial effect on the reduction of tension
in international relations (see Conference of 4 Heads of Government
at Geneva in 1955). American public opinion was favorable toward
the visit of Soviet delegations in 1955 and the trips of American
delegations to the USSR. The ?Geneva spirit," and the desire for
a further reduction of international tension were supported by large
sections of the American people. Taking a stand in favor of negotiations
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among states and the cessation of the "cold war" were the following
conferences held in the wake of the Geneva 4-power conference;
the conference of the independent trade union of the electrical
and radio industry workers, the annual AFL conference of Illinois,
the AFL trade union congress of California, the AFL garment workers,
do electrical workers, etc. The National Farmers Union, the CIO
executive committee, the national Council of Christian Churches,
and other organizations also came out in support of negotiations.
But at the same time influential US circles continued a policy directed
against international cooperation. The effort to induce the Near
and Middle East countries to join the Anglo-American controlled
military blocs, particularly the Baghdad Pact, directed against
the Soviet Union and the other peace-loving countries, begun in
1954, was continued even...after the Geneva Conference of the
4 heads of government.
At the 4-power foreign ministers conference held at Geneva
between 27 October and 16 November 1955, the US, England, and
France took a position which hampered the conclusion of an agree-
ment on a number of very important international problems. The con-
Terence however helped to focus popular attention on the most vital
international problems and elucidate both the difficulties and
possibilities in the way of a successful solution of international`
problems (see 4-power Foreign Ministers Conference at Geneva in
1955).
After the conference, certain influential US circles were
still striving to implement a policy "from positions of strength,"
to continue the "cold war," At the same time a number of prominent
statesmen favor peaceful cooperation between the Fast and West,
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Thus in February 1956, about 100 prominent American scientists,
chureh political and trade unions leaders called upon the
members of Congress to "accept the challenge of peaceful competi-
tion' and eliminate the obstacles on the wary to the development
of trade and exchange of delegations between capitalist and
socialist countries.
The broad masses of the American people who, like the
G'
peoples of the other countries, strive for a stable peace and a
reduction of international tension, are displaying increasing
activity in favor of the peaceful coexistence of countries with
different socioeconomic systems.
13 IBLIt RAPHY
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Marx, K., The American Problem in England, `Marx, K. and Engels,
F., Sochineniya (Works], Vol 12, Part 2, Moscow, 1934; Marx, K.,
"The Civil War in North America," ibid.; Marx, K., "The Civil
War in the United States, ibid.; Marx, K., "America -- Fremont's
Suspension and Crime," ibid; Marx, K., "American Affairs," ibid.;
Mars, K., "Apropos a Critique of the Situation in Ameriica," Ibid.;
"?Abol i ti on1St Demonstrations in America," ibid. ; Marx, K.,
"On the Situation in America," Ibid. ; Marx, K., ""The Removal of Macr-
clellan," ibid.; Marx, K., "English Neutrality -- on the Situa-
tion in the Southern States," ibid.' Marx,
General International Brotherhood of Workers on the Split in the US
of the United States," ibid.; Marx, K., "The Resolutions of the
Johnson," ibid.; Marx, K., "An Appeal to the National Labor Union
"The Appeal of the International Brotherhood of Workers to president
"To
the President
the United States Abraham Lincoln," ibid., Vol 13, Part 1, Moscow, 1936;
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Federation Adopted at the Conferences o: 5 and 12 March 1872," ibid,,
o Vol. 13, pert 2, Moscow, 1940; Marx, K. and Engels, F., "The US
3udget and the Christian-German Budget,`: Marx, K. and Engels, F.,
n 1 P]1.1 4A 9dwa+ . .t. T nri4 9IOt.s.slr~ Q' (1.
Sochineniya, Vol 1 , page sal- roc, lva4vsu' arw.sa ..~a...., avvw r
and Engels, F., "The Civil War in America," ibid., Vol 12, part 2,
Moscow, 1934; Marx, K. and Engels, F., ",The Situation on the Amer..
ican War Theater," ibid. ; Marx, K. and Engels, F., Izbranni ye
Pisma [Selected Works], Moscow, 1953 (see subject index); Engels,
F : ,T a: SS?fs of the American War, t Marx, K. and Engels, F.,
Sochineniya Vol 12, Part 2, Moscow, 1934; Engels, F., "On the
Concentration of Capital in the United States," ibid., Vol 15,
Moscow, 1935; Engels, F., "Protectionism and Freedom of Trade,''
ibid., Vol 15, Part 1, Moscow, 1937 (pages 314=317
un e?[+c
323-325);
Engels, F., The Situation of the Working Class in England, A
Foreword to the American Edition," Marx, K. and Engels, F., Ob Anglii
[On England], Moscow, 1952; Engels, F., "Introduction (to Karl
Marx's work, 'The Civil War in France`)," Marx, K. and Engels, F.,
Sochineniya, Vol 1, Moscow, 1952 (page 443); Marx, K. and Engels,
F., Letters to Americans, 1848-1895, New York, 1953;
Lenin, V. I., Sochineniya, fourth edition, Vol 8, "Marx on the
.---r-: Leau __ . __2 aa,ol lnfivtfe[nfVvmen.., rt Vol l "Foreword to the Russian
~Nts[[ae R~i~i.FS
?1It1e
Translation of the Hook Pis'ITIa I. F. Bekkera, I. Dltsgena, F.
Engel'sa, K. Marksa, i dr, k F. A. Zorge i dr [letters from I. F.
Bekker, I. Ditsgen, F. Engels, K. Marx, and Others to F. A. Sorge
and Others];" Vol 13, Agrarnaya Programma Sotsial-Demokratii V Pervoi
Rueskoi Revolutsii, [The Agrarian Program of Social Democracy in
the First Russian Revolution of 1905-1907]; Vol 15, Ooryuehiy
Material V Mirovoi Politike [Fuel in World Politics]; Vol 18,
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"Achievement of American Workers,t' '"Results and Sigbiificance of
the Presidential Elections in America," ?Russians and Negroes,t'
"Scientific' Sweat Shop System"; Vol 19, "Capitalism and Taxes,"
"Capitalism and the Immigration of Workers;" Vol 20, "4,000 Rubles
a Year and a 6-Hour Workday," "The Taylor System," "The Enslavement
of Man by Machine;" Vol 22, "New Data on the Laws of Development
of Capitalism in Agriculture. First Issue. Capitalism in US
Agriculture," "Imperialism as he Highest Stage of Capitalise;'"
Vol 23, "A Caricature on Marxism and 'Imperialist Econonnisrn,"
pages 32, 34--35, "Imperialism and the Split of Socialism,'"
geois and Socialist Pacifism," "Statistics and Sociology;" Vol 24,
"War and Revolution," pages 306 and 381; Vol 25, "The Threatening
Catastrophe and How to Cope with It," pages 308-309, '"The State
and Devolution," pagw 3Q7; Vol 27, "Foreign Policy Report at the
Joint Conference of the All-Union Central Executive and the Moscow
Soviet Of 14 May 1918," pages 331-332; Vol 28, Pismo k Amerikanskim
Rabochlm, Perviy Kongress Kommunisticheskego Internatsionala 2-6
Marta, 1919 goda -- Texisy i Dokiad o Burjuaznoi i Diktature Proletariata
4 Marta, stranitsy 438-439 [A letter to the American Workers, The
First Congress of the Communist international of 2-6 March: 1919 --
Theses and a Report on Bourgeois Democracy and the Dictatorship
of the Proletariat, 4 March, pages 438-439; Vol 29 0 Gosudarstve
[On the State], "A Lecture at the Sverdlov University on 11 July
1919, pages 447.450," "Answers to an American Journalist's
Questions;" Vol 30, "Report to the All-Union Congress of Communist
Organizations of the Peoples of the East, 22 November 1919," "Replies
to Questions by an American Correspondent of he New York Evening
Journal;" Vol 31, "'Leftism', and Infantile Disease of Coamaunism,"
pages 71, 78-79, 80, "Speech at a Meeting of the Aktiv of the
Moscow Organization of the Russian Communist Party (bolsheviks) On
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6 December 1920;" Ibid,'"After the U3 Elections,'" Kommunist No 6,
1954; Ibid.: Userdie ne po Razumu [Zeal Without Intelligence];
V Amerike (In America]
Stalin, J. V., Sochineniya, Vol 3 Protiv Federalizma; Amerikanskiye
Milliardery (Against Federalism; American Billionaires),
Vol 10 Reseda s Pervoi Amerikanskoi Rabochei Delegatsiei 9
Sep:tiabrya 1937 goda [A Talk with the First Mirican
Workers' Delegation on 9 September 19273
Dennis, E., Articles and Speeches (1947-1951), translated from
English, Moscow, 1952
Foster, L, "The Decline of American Capitalism," translated from
English, Moscow, 1951; Ibid.; "An Outline of American Political
History," translated from English, Moscow, 1953; ibid.: "The
Negro People in American History," translated from English,
Moscow, 1955; Ibid.; "American Trade Unionism, Principles
and Organization. Strategy and Tactics,New York, 1947;
Ibid.: "The History of the Communist Party of the United
States," New York, 1952
Documentary Materials
American State Papers, Vols 1-38, Washington, 1832-1864; Annals of
Congress Debates and Proceedings... compiled by J. Gales,
Vol 1-42 (1789-1824), Washington, 1834 -- United States.
Congress. The Congressional Globe, containing debates and
proceedings, Washington, 1833-1873; United States. Congress.
Congressional Record, Vol 1-86, Washington, 1873 (publica-
tion continuing)
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A Compi1at1ov~ rsf Messages and Paper of the preld_er~ts; i789-1897;
Vol 1-10, edited by Y. I). Richardson, Washington, 1896-1899
Treaties, Conventions; International Aets, Protocols, and Agreements
Between the United states and Other Powers, Vols 1-4,
Washington, 1910--1938
Treaties, and other International Acts, of the United States of
America, edited by H. Miller, Vols 1-68, Washington, 1931.1945
Documents of American Ristory, edited by H. Coffer, fourth edi-
tion, New York, 1948
Documentary History of American Industrial Society, edited by J. R.
Commons, . o., Vols 1-10, Cleveland, 1910
Hamiltou, A. , Madison, Cl. , day, J. , The Federalist of the New
Constitution Paper, New York, 1945
United States Department of State. Papers Relating to the Foreign
Relations of the United States, 1861-1938, Washington; 1862`
1955 (publication continuing)
The Debate of the American Revolution, 1761-1783, edited by M. Beloff,
London, 1949
Paine, 1 . p The Complete Writings, o1v 1-2, New York,
a., a
Jefferson, T.; The Writings, edited by A. A. Lipseo!flb and A. R.
Bergh, Vole 1-20, Washington, 1903-1904
Franklin, B., The Complete Works, Vols 1-10, New York-London,
1887- 2 888
Washington, G,, The Writings, Vol 1-39, Washington, (1939-1994)
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Lincoln, A. The Writings, Vol 1-18, New Work-London, 1905-1906
Douglass, Fr,, Life and Writings, by Ph. S. FOner, Vols 1-4,
New York, 1950-1955
Delis, N. V., Speeches with a Critical Introduction, New York
(1928)
Colonel House's Papers, translated from English, Vols 1-4,
Moscow, 19J7-1944
A Documentary History of the Negro People in the United States,
edited by II. Aptheker, New York, 1951
General Works and Monographs
Yefimov, A., r~ Istorii Kapitalizma v SShA [On the history
of Capitalism in the USA], Moscow, 1954; ibid.: Ocherki
Istorii SShA. of Otkrytiya Armeriki do Okonchaniya
Grazhdanskoi Voiny [Essays on us History, From the Dis-
covery of America to the End of the Civil War]; Moscow, 1955
Zaslavskiy, D. 0,, Ocherki Istorii Severo-Amorikanskikh Soyedinennykh
Shtatov XVIII i XIX Vekov [An Outline of US History of the
Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries], Moscow, 1931
Harral-Monferra, Ot Monro do Ruzvelta [From Monroe to Roosevelt],
1823-1905, Moscow-Leningrad, 1925
8ogar, T. L. Ekonomicheskaya Istoriya Soyedinennykh Shtatov [Economic
History of the United States] Moscow, 1927
Perlo, V., "American Imperialism," translated from English, Moscow,
1951
Rochester, A., '`American Capitalism," translated from English, 1607-
1800, Moscow, 1950
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Simons, A. L, KlassOVaya Bor'ba V Amerike [The Class struggle
in ,erica }
so and edition, Leningrad, 1925
Andrews, V., uTi'e History of the United States After the War
of the States," 1861-1862, translated from English, St,
Petersburg, 1905
Harvard Guide to American History, Cambridge (Massachusetts),
Vols 1-10, Boston, 1834-1875
Faulkner, H. U., "American Economic History,u New York-London,
(1926)
Hildreth, a, "The History of the United States of Ainerica,ft
Vols 1-6, NEW York, 1850
Kirkland, E. C., "A History of A erican Economic Life," New York,
1932
Adams, IL, History of the United States of America," Vols l-9,
New York, 1931
McMaster, J. B., ?A History of the People of the United States
from the Revolution to the Civil War,`! Vals 1-8, New
York-London, 1917-1921
Beard, Cis., "Contemporary American History," 1877-1913, New York,
1914
Channing, E., "A History of the United States," Yola 1-6 and (7),
New York, 1927-1932
"The American Nation. A History from Original Sources," edited
by A. U. ;iart~ Vole 1-28, New Tork-London, 19Q4?a935)
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Lewis, E. R., "A History of American Political Thought from the
civil War to to
History of American Foreign
Policy," 1776-1940, New York, 1941
Lippincott, 1., "Economic Development of the United States," third
Parkes, H. D. , The United States of America, A History," New York,
RTiodos, J. F., "History of the United States from the Compromise of
1850 to the End of the Roosevelt Administration," new edition,
Vols 1-9, New York, 1928
Simons, A. L, "Social Forces in American History," New York, 1926
Schlesinger, A. M., "Political and Social Growth of the American
People,? 1865-1940, third edition, New York, 1941
Rochester, A., ?The Populist Movement in the United States," New York,
Malkin, M. N., Crahdanskaya Voina v SShA i Tsarskaya Rossiya
[The Civil War in the US and Tsarist Russia], edited and
with an introduction by E. V. Tarle, Moscow-Leningrad, 1939
Dobrov, A., Dal'nevostochnaya Politika SShA v Period Russko-Yaponskoy
Voiny [Us Far Eastern Policy During the Russo-Japanese War],
Moscow, 1952
Romanov, D. A., Qcherki Diplomaticheskoi Istorii Russko-Yaponskoy
Voiny [An Outline of the Diplomatic History of the Russo-,Japanese
War] 1895-1807, second edition, Moscow-Leningrad, 1955
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Zubok, L. I., Inperialistacheskaya Voina SShA v Stranakh Karaibskogo
Baaseina (US Imperialist Wars in the Caribbeans], 1900-1939,
Moscow--Leningrad, 1948
Derezkin, A. V., SSbA M Aktivniy Organizator i Uchastnik Voyennoi
Interventioi Protiv Sovetskoy Rossii [The US, An Active
Organizer and Participant of he Military Intervention Against
Soviet Russia], second edition, Moscow, 1952
Sevostyanov, G. N., Aktivnaya Rol' SShA v Obrazovinii Ochaga Voiny
na Dalnen Vostoke (1931.1933) (The Active Part of the US
In Creating a Hotbed of War in the Far East, Moscow, 1953
Lemin,
I. L, Anglo-Amerikanskie Protivorechia Posle Vtoroi
Mirovoi Voiny (Anglo-American Contradictions after the Second
World War], Moscow, 1955
A Russian translation Of F. Sorge's "The Labor Movement in the US,"
St. Petersburg, 1907
Himba, E., Istoriya Amerikanskogo Rabochego Kiassa [A History
of the American Working Class], Moscow, 1930
Foner, F., Istoriya Rabochego Dvizhenia v SSha of Kolonialnykh
Vremen do 80 godov XIX Veka (A History of the US Labor
Movement from Colonial Times to the Eighties of the
Nineteenth Century], Moscow, 1949
Kuchinskiy, U., Istoriya Usloviy Truda V SShA. 6 1789 po 1947 god
[A History of Labor Conditions in the US from 1789 through
1947], Moscow 1948
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Iein, C . , Iz Istoriibastovochnogo 1 vishenia V SShA EFrom
the Hiatory of the Strike Movement in the HS)0 Moscow,
1950
Rochester, A., Pochemu Bedny Farmer? Agrarfiy griais v Soyedinennykh
Shtatakh Ameriki [Why Are the Farmers Poor? The Agrarian
Crisis in the US], )oscow, 1949
Drape', D. v., Istoriya Severo~Amerikanskoy MashdoUsobnoy Voiny
(The History Of the North American War of States]. The
Nature and Life of Anerica and Its Attitude Towards the
Origin of the War," St. Petersburg, 1871
Meyers, C., Istoriya rikanskikh MilliarderOV [The History of
the American Billionaires), Vols 1-2, Moscow, 1924-1927
Kimpen, A., ImperialistichBSkaya Politika wevero-Amerikanakikk~
Soyedinennykh Shtatov (The Imperialist Policy of the
United States of North America), Mosaow, 1925
Nearing, S. and Freeman B, Dollar Diplomacy, London, 1926
Sayres, M, and Kahn, A., The Secret War Against Maerica, Moscow,
1947; Kahn, A. ?The Betrayal of the Country,e "The Plot
Against the people," second edition, Moscow, 1951
Allen, De, Atomic Imperialism, Moscow, 1952
Mayer, G. D., Neisbexhna ii Gibel' Anieriki? [is America's Downfall
inevitable?], Moscow, 1950
"phe D'S Progressive Forces in the Struggle for Peace and Democracy,
Sbornik MaterialoY pod Redaktaiei i so Vstupitelnoi Statiei
N1 Vasilieva (A Collection of Materials Bdited, and with an
Introductory Article by N. Vasiliyevl. Moscow, 1953
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Marion, D., The Trial in Foley Square, Moscow, 1950
Jiiywood, G., The Emancipation of Negroes, Moscow, 1956
.Liu Ta-Nian, lstoriya Mterikanskoi Agressii V C1taya (The
History of American Aggression in China], ? oseow, 1953
Nataryan, B., Amerikariskaya Ten'Nad Indiel (The American Shadow
Over irwiia 3 , Pioscow, 1953
Apteker, H., Lauroaty Imperializma (Prize Winners of Imperialismj,
Moscow, 1955
Andrews, Ch., "The Colonial Period of American History,
Vols 1-4, New Haven-London, 1939-1948
Raroy, J., The First American Revolution, New York, (1937)
Rippy, F Rivalry of the United States and Cream Sritain over
Latin America (1898-1839), Baltimore, 1929
Whitman, A., Labor parties, 1827-1934, New York, 1943
Schlesinger, A. L, The Age of Jackson, (reprint), Boston, 1946
Schluter, H., Lincoln, Labor, and Slavery, New York 1914
Allen, J. S., Reconstruction. The Battle for Democracy (1865-
1876), New York, 1937
Milton, J. F., Conflict. The American Civil W-r, New York, (1941)
0
O'Neal, ?J., The Workers in American History, fourth edition,
(New York), 1923.
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Obermann, E., Joseph Weydemeyer; Pioneer of American Socialism,
New York, 1947
Todes, Ch. , William H. Sylvis and the National Labor Union, New
York, 1942
Hicks, 3. D., The Populist Revolt. A. History of the Farmers'
Alliance and the Peoples Party, Minnoap 1is, 1981
Hisseltte, W. B., History of the South, (1507-1935), New York,
1936
Clark, D. B., The West in American History, New York, 1937
Turner, F. J., The Frontier in American History, New York, (1931)
Du Bois, W. B. B., Black Folk. Then and Now, An Essay on the
History and Sociology of the Negro Race, New York, 1939; ibid.,
sack Reconstruction, An Essay on the History of the Part
Which Black Folk Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct
Democracy in America (1350-1880), New York, (1935)
Aptheker, H . , Essays on the History of the American Nero, New York,
(1945); ibid., American Nero Slave Revolts, New York, (1944);
ibid., The Labor Movement in the South during Slavery; New
York, 1954
Rochester, A., Rulers of America, A Study of Financial Capital,
New York, 1935
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VI, GOVERNMENT STRUCTURE
The US is a bourgeois public. The existing US Con-
stitutioxi was adopted in 1787 and put into force ino1789. It
was subsequently supplemented by 22 amendments. An amendment
to the Constitution is adapted by a 2/3 vote of both chambers
of Congress, and must be ratified by the legislatures or conventions
cf 3/4 of he states. According to the Constltuticm the US is a
federation consisting of 48 states. The Constitution placed a
liffiited number of questions under the jurisdiction of the federal
government, including foreign relations, questions of war and peace,
foreign trade and interstate commerce, naturalization laws, the
mint, post office, etc. In reality however the federal govern-
ment's field of activity covers any problem of political economy,
labor legislation, etc. Retaining its federative structure, the
US is actually a unitary state. The highest federal legislative
body is the Congress which consists of 2 chambers, the House of
Representatives (435 members) and the Senate (96 Senators, 2 from
each state). The Senate is the second chamber and has a higher
age qualification for its members (minimum age for representa-
tives is 25 yearn and for senators SG years), a longer term
of office (2 and 6 years, respectively), and requires longer
residence in the state (7 and 9 years, respectively). One third
of the Senate is elected every 2 years. The right to vote is
granted to every US citizen (including women since 1840) 21 years
old (18 years in Georgia) with specified lengths of residence
in each state and election&adistrict (ranging from 6 months to 2
years in different states). Citizens failing to register lose the
right xo participate in the elections. Msny states have additional
restrictive requirements which keep considerable numbers of working
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 people out of the elections (22 states require a literacy test,
6 states have a poll tax; deprived of voting rights also are
people living on public relief funds, etc). All these require-
tnents keep a considerable number of people out of the elections.
Almost 4, of the voters who did not participate in the 1952
elections had been disqualified ''because" they had failed to pay
the poll tax, violated the resideice requirements, or failed to
register. Elections to both chambers of Congress are direct. The
system of representation is based on the majority rule (q. v.). Under
the constitution, both chambers of Congress enjoy equal rights i r~ the
legislative field. The Senate however has a number of additional
and quite important rights. It ratifies tternational treaties
(by a 2!3 majority), and approves presidential appointees to cabinet
posts, ambassadors, Judges, and numerous other officials of the
federal apparatus. The right to declare war belongs to Congress.
An important part is played by the standing committees (19 committees
in the House acid 1 in the Senate; there are also joint house-
Senate committees), which have the power to conduct various in-vestigations with a view to gathering information.
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The d1tecutve power is held by the president. The presi-
Mnvww r ... power is _ _ .. r ,.
dent must be American-born, not younger than 35 years and must
dent
have resided in the states not less than 14 years. The president
is elected for a 4-year term under a 2-stage election system.
According to.an amendment to the constitution adopted in 3851,
he can be reelected for another 4-year term if before his first
election to the presidency he had not discharged the duties
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of president for over 2 years due to his election as vice presi-
dent. The voters of each state select a number of electors, equal
to the number of the representatives and senators from that par-
ticular state, who in turn elect the president. The voters as a
rule are actually able to make their choice between only 2
candidates nominated several months before the elections at the
national conventions of the 2 major bourgeois parties by voting
for the list of electors made up in each state by one or the
other party. These electors are obligated to vote for the official
candidate of their party. Since in each state the list of electors,
which are elected by a majority vote without any reference to the
minority vote, is considered as a single unit, the number of
electors of each party does not necessarily correspond to the
number of votes cast throughout the country for the particular
candidate of a party. Thus in 1952, the 34 million votes cast
a
for the republican candidate were represented by 442 electors,
while the 27 million democratic votes were represented by only
89 electors. In the event that neither of the candidates gets
an absolute majority of the electors' votes, the House of
Representatives elects a president from among the 3 candidates
with the largest number of votes. In that case each state repre-
sentation has only one vote. The same system of election is
used also in the case of the vice president who acts for the
president, in the event of the latter's demise, until the next
? elections, in case the president is impeached (q. v.) by Congress,
or resigns or proves incapable of discharging his duties. The HS
vice president presides over the Senate sessions. The president's
powers are very broad. He appoints and dismisses cabinet members
who are responsible to him alone, as well as chairmen and members
of numerous federal committees, commissions, and boards. The Senate's
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right to approve such appointments is in the vast majority of
cases only a formal one. The president is the commander in chief
of all the armed forces and can in effect take military action
without a formal declaration of war by Congress (as, for example,
in Korea in 1950-1953). He can enter into agreements with
foreign stater which, unlike treaties, do. `not require Senate
approval. Though rQt formally vested with legislative power,
the president exerts enormous influence on congressional legis-
lative activities. He has the right of veto, A bill passed by
Congress may be returned to it for reconsideration within 10 days.
To override a presidential veto during a second consideration of
a bill, Congress has to get a 2/3 majority in both chambers. Such
a majority cannot as a rule be mustered, and the president's veto
becomes final. In case the president does not return a bill to
,
Congress within 10 days, it is considered vetoed ("pocket?veto)
The president may call Congress into special session, issue
directives, and send messages to Congress. recommending to adoption
of certain legislative measures on any question, etc. The presi-
dent carries out legislative initiative on a large scale through
his messages and the introduction of bills by individual members
of congress. Another strong weapon in the hands of the president
is the "patronage" right, that is the appointment of federal
officials in Washington and elsewhere,which enables him to exert
influence on the members of Congress. The US government, the
cabinet, includes the following ministries or departments: the
Department of State (whose major function is foreign affairs, and
it is beaded by the Secretary of State), the Defense Department, the
Treasury, Post Office, Justice Department, the Departments of Agricul-
ture, Interior, Commerce, and the Health, l ducation, and Welfare
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 Department. The departments of the Army, Navy, and Airforce
are subordinated to the Defense Department, and their heads
are not included in the cabinet. The cabinet usually considers
the questions submitted by the president. The latter has a right
0
to make any decision regardless of the opinions of his cabinet
members and even without consulting them beforehand, Thus the
US cabinet is in effect an advisory body under the president.
Judiciary power in the US is vested in the federal
Supreme Court, federal courts, district courts, and courts of
appeals, and certain special courts. All the judges and presiding
judges are appointed by the president with the approval of the
Senate. The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and S
associate justices. In the US these is judicial control over
constitutional matters which means that the Supreme Court may
rule that any federal or state law is unconstitutional and
thereby make it invalid.
The Dill of Rights (the first 10 amendments to the
constitution adopted in 1791) and certain other constitutional
amendments adopted later formally consolidate a number of bourgeois
democratic rights and freedoms including freedom of speech, of the
press, personal freedom, etc. In reality however these freedoms
declared by the constitution are curtailed by federal and state
legislation, as for example, the McCarran "internal security"
raw (1960) which requires the registration of leaders and members
of progressive organizations, prohibits their employment in defense
enterprises, and may have them interned in concentration camps
by administrative decree should the President declare a state of
emergency. In a number of states Negro segxliplgation (q, v,) is
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enforced through legislation which deprives the Negroes of
political and civil rights. Intermarriage between Negroes and
whites is forbidden under penalty. There is no federal law
prohibiting the lynching of Negros. The McCarran-Walter Act
(1952) practically reduces the noncitizens in America (about
3 million persons) to a rightiess state and compels them to
register annually with the Department of Justice.
The structure of the state governments is determined by
their constitutions. All states have their elected legislatures
(an unicameral legislature in Nebrasks, and 2 chambers in the
other 47 states). In many states the membership of the legislature
is not proportional to the population. Executive power is vested
in the governor who is elected for varying terms (from 2 to 4
years). The secretaries (of different titles), heads of cormittees
and boards, and members of the state courts of various levels are
either appointed by the governor or (more frequently) elected by
the people or legislative organs. Local government is controlled
by state legislation. In the overwhelming majority of the states,
the administrative territorial unit is the county which is headed
by an elected board. In certain small townships of the north-
western states, local power is exercised by a general meeting and
the officials elected by it. The following administrative.systems
are used in the cities: (1) the mayor and council system under
which the "legislative" organ is a unicameral, or occasionally bi-
cameral, council, and the executive organ is represented by the
mayor who is elected by the population; a variation of this
system is the '?strong mayor'system under which the mayor is vested
with particularly broad powers; (2) the committee system under
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which the city is ruin by in elected committee (a small body of
5 people) whose members distribute the various administrative
functions among themselves; (3) the council and city manager
system under whici the city administrative machinery is headed
by a manager appointed, and romovable, by the municipal council.
In reality state and local administration is in the hands of the
political party in power whose machir~ory is in full control of
referendum procedures, legislative initiative, and recall of
elected officials (provided for by the constitutions of certain
states and a number of city charters).
The US colonial possessions (officially referred to as
"territories") are administered by governors appointed by the
president with the approval of the Senate. The Hawaiian and
Virgin islands have their local elected organs (with limited rights)
whose decisions can be vetoed by the governor or US federal organs.
Us colonial domination has in effect been retained in the "volun-
tarily reunited state of Puerto Rico." In other so-called
"unorganized" territories (the Panama Canal Zone, Guam, American
Samoa, etc) there are no local elective organs. The trusteeship
territories, which are actually part of the American colonial
empire, are administered on a sianilar basis.
VII. THE ARMED FORCES
The president is the commander in chief of the armed
forces and exercises his leadership over them through the National
Security Council, the War Mobilization Board, and the Defense Depart-
mant. The National Security Council also has an influence on foreign
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and military policy as well as on every aspect of the work of the
various ministries connected with military measures. The central
intelligence agency is subordinated to the National Security Council.
The War Mobilization Board is in charge of all the work connected
with the mobilization of the economy for military preparations and
the conduct of ware The Department of Defense is in direct charge
of the armed forces. Subordinated to the secretary of defense are
the secretaries of the army, air force, and navy. The highest organ
of the Defense Department is the strategy board which is in charge
of planning and military organisation. The secretary of defense is
in charge of the general organization and administrative economic
aspect of the armed forces which functions he discharges through
his assistants. The operational strategic aspect of the armed
forces he administers through the joint chiefs of staff. The latter
consists of a chairman and 3 members (chiefs of army, air force and
navy staffs) and is responsible to the secretary of defense as
well as to the president. Subordinated to the joint chiefs of
staff are the following joint committees; strategic planning,
intelligence, stateside planning, research and development, etc.
The working organ of the chiefs of staff is the joint staff which
consists of the following 3 departments; strategic planning,.
intelligence, and stateside planning.
The land forces consist of a regular army and a reserve.
The peacetime regular army, numbering 1.1 million as of Z January.
l96 (its 1y94O strength was 263,000 men), is designed for service
in overseas territories, border guard duty at home, and serves
as a basis for mass mobilization. During World War II of 1939-1945
the 'U5 augmented its land army to 6 million mere. The land forces
reserve consists of the national guard and army reserve. In point
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of training the reserves are divided into first, second, and
third categories. Under the new plan adopted by Congress in
the summer of 1955, the first category army reserves are to be
increased to 1.68 million by 1960. The basic army tactical
units are infantry, armored, and parachute divisions. An
Anfantry division (about 17,500 men) consists of 3 infantry
regiments, a tank battalion, a reconnaissance company, 3
batteries of 105 rrni howitzers, one battery of 155 mm howitzers,
a self-propelled antiaircraft battalion, engineering and medical
battalions, and a number of service companies. An armored dlvi-
lion consists of 4 tank battalions, 4 battalions of motorized
infantry, a reconnaissance battalion, artillery, engineering, and
other units and formations. A parachute division is organized
the same way as an infantry division but has an additional company
in charge of parachute arrangements. In time of war, the land
troops are combined into army corps, field armies, and army groups
which are temporary formations. In World War II a corps con-
silted of 3-6 divisions, a field army of 2-4 corps, and an army
group of 2-4 armies.
.The airforce consists of a regular and reserve air force.
The regular air force includes fighting and service air formations
and units. In January 1956 the regular air force had about 9,300
planes organized into 127 air wings (a wing is equivalent to a
regiment), not counting the reserve and service supply planes.
By the end of World War II the U3 air force had 250 wings and a
pees^rnel of 2.8 million men. The air force reserves consist of
the national guard air force and an air force reserve grouped
into 3 categories according to the. degree of training. The basic
tactical and administrative unit of the airforce is the air wing
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consisting of a staff and staff squadron, a fighter plane group,
and 3 service groups (for repairs, supplies, airfield and medical
services). An air force group consists of 3 squadrons (a squadron
has 344' units) and a group staff. The groups are divided into
bombing units (30-48 planes), fighter units (75 planes), reconnaissance
units (30-'54 planes), airborne units (36.48 planes) and transporta-
tion units. Airforce wings can be formed into divisions, armies,
and air force command. Air force armies and commands may be
strategic, tactical, air-borne, and transportation, The basic types
of planes with which the US air force is equipped are: 8-36 bombers
with conventional motors, and 8-52, 8.47, and 8-57 jet bombers;
F-84, F-86, P'-89, FM94, and F-100 jot fighter planes (as of l955)
Special attention in the US is focused on the development of the
strategic air force.
The naval forces consist of the navy, naval air arm, and
the marines. Organizationally the navy is divided into 2
strategic fleets, the Atlantic and Pacific fleets, which in turn
assign task forces for operations in various sea areas. Sy the
beginning of 1956 the active naval forces had at their disposal
1,066 ships including battleships, the 60,000-t superheavy plane
carrier (3 more similar plane carriers were under construction;
it is planned to build 10-12 superheavy plane carriers), 22
heavy plane carriers, 12 light plane carriers, 18 cruisers, 250
destroyers, 120 submarines, 75 patrol ships, 50 subchasers, 140
minesweepers, 375 landing craft, as well as 350 auxiliary craft
and base floating facilities. The reserve fleet number 1,280 ships
of all types including 250 fighting ships. The active naval air
arm had about 13,000 planes combined into 17 aviation groups
of the carrier-based airforce, 8 land-based air force wings, 15
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squadrons of the . ntiaubmarine defense, and a number of other
mixed and awclliary squadrons. The marine corps numbered about 202,000
men organized into 3 marine divisions and 3 air force wings.
The development of mass destruction weapons (thermonuclear,
atomic, bacteriological, and chemical) prompted the US armed forces
to undertake the development of new organizational methods and
tactics that would be most adaptable to fighting a war with such
weapons.
Recruitment of privates and sergeants for the armed forces
is done through compulsory military service and on an enlistment
basis. Under the law of "universal military training and military
service," all males of 13.5 years of age are subject to the draft.
Both draftees and enlisted personnel between the ages of 13.5 and
25 must serve 2 years in the regular forces and 4 years in the
reserve. The following military ranks have been established for
army and air force officers; second lieutenant, first lieutenant,
captain, major, lieutenant-colonel, colonel, brigade general, major
general, lieutenant general, general, and army general; in the
navy: ensign, lieutenant (junior grade), lieutenant, lieutenant-
commander, commander, captain, ;commodore, rear admiral, vice
admiral, admiral and fleet admiral.
Uy the beginning of 1955, more than 32% of the armed forces
personnel were stationed on foreign territories. The US keeps
various military advisors and instructors in 49 countries. Acting
under pressure from the US, many capitalist countries of Europe,
north Africa, and Asia are engaging in a variety of undertakings
?
of military nature, including the construction and improvement of
0
air and naval bases, airfields and ports, and the fortification of
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borderlines. The major attention is focused on the construction
of air bases, particularly around the USSR and the countries of
the people's democracy.
VIII. POLITICAL PARTIES
In the US (1i1~e in Britain and certain other capitalist
countries) there is a 2-party system under which 2 bourgeois
parties alternate in power. The 2 major bourgeois parties in the
US, the republican and democratic, are the parties of American
monopoly capital which determines their policy. The vital in-
terests of the working class and all the workers of the US are
expressed by only one party, the Commmunist Party of the United
States.
The Communist Party of the United States is the vanguard
detachment of the US working class. It is struggling for the
vital interests and rights of the working class and all working
people of the US, and for a stable peace among nations. It was
founded by the Constituent Assembly that took puce between 1 and
5 September 1919 during the upswing of the US labor movement under
the influence of the Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia.
Immediately upon its foundation the Communist party took charge
of a number of large strikes, particularly the metal workers'
strike, and demanded an end to antiaSoviet intervention. The
Communist Party of the US grew stronger in the struggle against
the Trotskyites and right-wingers who defended the reactionary
theory of the "uniqueness of ,American capitalism." flaying ex-
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proceeded to consolidate its ranks. It was in charge of many
instances of mass action by tin izemployed workers during the
world economic crisis of 1929-193u.
During World War II of 1939-1945, the US Communist Party
took a strong stand in favor of international cooperation in the
struggle against the bloc of fascist aggressors. In those years
the Communist Party had to fight against Browder and his followers
who had made their way to leadership. That group succeeded in
disbanding the party in May. 1944, and creating in its place a non-
partisan communist political association. However, acting on the
demand of its rank-and-file members headed by W. Foster and F. Dennis,
the special congress of July 194; restored the US Communist Party
as a political party of the American working class. The congress
adopted a new party statute and elected a national committee. W.
Foster was elected chairman of the national committee. In 1946
the national committee plenum elected E. Dennis secretary-general.
Browder was expelled from"the party. In the postwar period, the
US Communist Party has been struggling against the monopolies'
encroachment on the workers' living standard, against racial
discrimination, and for the democratic rights of the American
people. The American communists have been consistent in their
demand?for a ban on atomic weapons. Following America's
crude intervention in the Xorean civil war (1950), the national
committee of the Communist Party published a statement demanding
that the government immediately withdraw the American ships and
planes from the Far East and see to it that not a single gun or
a single plane be sent to Korea, Taiwan, and Indochina. The
Fifteenth Congress of the US Communist Party, held in December
1950, devoted its major attention to the organization of the American
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people's struggle for peace and against the infringement of the
vital rights of the working people by the American monopolists.
The congress decisions laid particular stress on the fact that
the aim of the US Communist party is the establishment of an
effective people's front. The resolution passed by the Fifteenth
Congress stated that the Communist party must step up its work
among the Negro people and extend the fight against racial discrimina-
tion in every walk of life since the creation of a united front
is impossible without it.
In 1949 11 leaders of the US Communist party were sentenced
by the court to long-term imprisonment. This was followed by
another series of court trials which resulted in the jailing of
many Communist Party officials. The law adopted in August 1954
was in effect designed to ban the Communist Party. But despite
the persecutions the Communist Party is continuing its brave
struggle. In August 1954 the national conference of the Communist
Party adopted a party program which emphasizes the basic t*sk of
bringing about the unity of the American people, working class,
farmers, small businessmen, and the Negro people, under the
leadership of the working class.
The American Communist party is built on the principle of
democratic centralism. Its basic nuclei are the primary party
organizations which are organized on the production-territorial
principle. The national party congress, convened every 2 years,
is the highest organ of the party. The congress elects a national
committee which is the leading party.organ$ between congresses,
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The national committee is headed by a chairman and a secretary
general, (see also the article, Communist Party, US).
The Progressive Party is a political party formed in
1948 and uniting mostly representatives of the progressive in-
telligentsia, certain sections of the petty bourgeoisie, and
farmers. The party's declared program is for peace and the
democratic rights of the American people. in the 1948
presidential elections the Progressive Party's candidate polled
about 1.2 million votes, The party played a substantial part
in organizing the protest movement against US Interference in
the Korean civil war. It took gan active part in the signature
collection campaign under the Stockholm appeal for a ban on atomic
weapons. From the very beginning of its existence however the
party has been unable to enlist any significant support of the
people which reflected its weakness.
In 1949-1950 the party went through a grave internal
crisis. Sharp differences of opinion on matters of principle
affecting party policy arose in its national committee. When
the 1952 elections rolled around the party was organized in only
2 states, New York and California. The party's presidential
nominee received an insignificant number of votes. ``-ere was
a further decrease in the party's activities after the 1952
campaign, followed by some revival of activity during the 1954
congressional election. The party wound up in financial straits.
It was placed on the Attorney General's list of subversive
organizations, and many of its branches went out of existence.
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The Democratic Party is one of the 2 parties of American
monopoly capital. It was founded in 1828. In its initial period
the party included part of the planters, certain groups of the
bourgeoisie connected with the southern slave-holders, and a
considerable part of the farmers. The class structure of the
party anon underwent a radical change. As the slave economy
developed in the country, the party became the party of rich
slave-owning planters and the part of the rich hourgcoisio
connected with .them. The party became the protagorfist of the
unlimited expansion of slavery at home and a policy of political
expansion abroad. The party leadership prepared for and carried
out the annexation of Texas (in 1845) and organized the aggressive
war against Mexico in 1848-l848. The farmers, who favored
restrictions on slavery and opposed the reactionary policy of the
slave-owners, gradually left the party. Through demagogy, bribes
and terror, the party of slave-owners managed to win the presidential
elections of 1844, 1852, and 1856. As a result of the growing
contradictions between the northern bourgeoisie and the southern
planters and the intensified struggle for land between the farmers
and slave-owners, the party was split and that was one of the
causes of its defeat at the 1884 presidential elections. The
southern slave-holders, belonging to the Democratic Party, staged
a rebellion and formed a slave nation known as "The Confederate
States of America" (in 1861).
Soon after the American Civil war of 1861-1885 (q. v . )
the difference between the democratic and republican parties (the
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Republican Party was founded in 1854) rapidly began to diminish.
The Republican Party, just like the Democratic Party, became one
of the 2 bourgeois parties of the US. In the post Civil War period
the Democratic Party was most of the time in opposition to the
Republic Party in power but criticized only the inesseiztial points
of its program. "That struggle was of no importance to the people
at large. The people were cheated and their attention distracted
from their vital intersts by showy and meaningless duels of the
2 bourgeois parties" (Lenin, V. I., Sochineniya, fourth:.edition,
Vol 18, page 374)? The 2-party system was one of the major weapons
.
employed by the bourgeoisie to prevent the creation of a third,
truly national mass party. The Democratic Party, just like the
Republican party, became the executor of the policy of the financial
oligarchy in the epoch of imperialism. The DS entered World War
l in 1917 under the democratic President W. Wilson (1913-1921).
Acting jointly frith the other imperialist powers in 1918-l920, the
US participated in the military intervention against Soviet Russia.
During the 1929-1933 economic depression and expanding
labor-farmer movement, the Democratic Party leadership took ad-
vantage of the people's discontent with the rpublicaw;policies
and achieved a victory in the 1932 elections. The presidency was
won by the Democratic Party candidate F. Roosevelt (q, v.) who
was reflected in 1936, 1940, and
1944.
In World War fr the US
joined the anti-Hitler coalition which was a fighting union of
freedom-loving peoples against the fascist aggressors. After World
War II, the government of the Democratic Party's President H. Truman
(1945-19x3), implementing a so'called bipartisan foreign policy,
renounced the policy of international cooperation. The Democratic
Party suffered a defeat at the 1952 presidential elections. A
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conniderable part t~f the voters thereby expressed their lack of
confidence i.n the patty which proceeded to militarize the country
and persecute the progressive organizations after World War II.
The structure of the party i.s adapted to the conditions
of election and parliamentary struggle. National conventions where
the presidential and vice-presidential candidates are nominated are
held before the elections. In charge of the current business be-
tween the conventions is the national party committee headed by a
chairman. The party publicizes its election program during the
election campaign. The party has no permanent members. Members
are recruited during the election campaign by functionaries
(activists). The functionaries are organized into clubs which
engage in organizational and propaganda work during the elections.
An important role in the party is played by political bosses who
maintain close connections with the leading politicians of the
Democratic Party, The biggest monopolies subsidize and determine
its policy.
The Republican Party is one of the 2 parties of American
monopoly capital. It was founded in 1854 by the northern bourgeoisie
and farmers who strove to keep the slaveowners out of power. The
left, radical-democratic wing of the party was represented by
Free Boilers (q? v.). The right, moderately-liberal wing of the
party consisted of the bourgeoisie which favored restrictions on
slavery but could not bring themselves to insist on its abolition.
In the 1860 presidential elections, the Republican Party, which
nominated Abraham Lincoln (q. v,), gained a victory over the
Democratic Party. During the Civil War the right wing of the party
held a vacillating position in regard to slavery in the south, Acting
under pressure from the working class, farmers, and the left wing of
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the party (radical republicans), hq government passed the Homo-stead Act (q, v.) and proclaied the emancipation of the Negro
slaves which belonged to he rebel planters
After the Civil War the Republican party became the party
of big capital carrying out a bourgeois dictatorship. Using
demagogic methods and bribes, the Republican party managed to
score frequent election victories (a considerable number of people
in the north and in the west usually voted Republican) and remained
in power over a long period of time (1865-1885, i359-i893, 18971913,
1921-1933, and since 1953) . in the period of imperialism the
Republican Party became a party of monopoly capital. Under republican
president McKinley the US unleashed an imperialist war against
Spain (in 1593) in the interests of Ise monopolies. An expansionist
policy was carried out also by the republican administrations of
T. Roosevelt and W. Taft. They carried out numerous interventions
in the countries of Latin America. In 1900-'I9OI, the US participated
in the suppeossion of the national antiimperialist rebellion in
China, and in 1943 seized the Panama Canal Zone. Republican Party
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