ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF HERALD OF ANTIAIRCRAFT DEFENSE, NO. 10, 1963

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP80T00246A072600060001-9
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 57
• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: November 8, 2013
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: April 13, 1964
• Content Type: REPORT

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/
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY_
This material contains information affecting the National Defense of the United States w
18, U.S.C. Secs. 793 and 794, the transmission or revelation of which in any manner to
S-E-C-R-E-T
NO FOREIGN DISSEM
COUNTRY USSR
REPORT
SUBJECT English Translation of Herald of DATE DISTR. //April 1964
Antiaircraft Defense, No. 10, 1963
NO. PAGES
DATE OF
INFO.
PLACE &
DATE ACQ.
REFERENCES
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THIS IS UNEVALUATED
INFORMATION.
SOURCE GRADINGS ARE DEFINITIVE.
APPRAISAL?OF CONTENT IS TENTATIVE.
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An English translation of Issue No. 10, October 1963, of the
50X1-HUM
Soviet publication Vestnik Protivovozdushnoy Oborony Llleralc.
of Antiaircraft Defense/, published by t.- u ublishin
ouse of the Ministr of Defense, Moscow
2. In some cases, the articles were translated in their entirety;
in nther oases they were summarized.
Distribution. of Attachment ..for Retention:
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STATE I DIA I ARMY .1 NAVY I AIR NSA LNX NIC Hat
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I SAC
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Herald of Antiaircraft Defense
No 10, October 1963
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Vestnik Protivovozdushnoy Oboronyl No 10) October 1963
Editorial
N. V. PETUKHOV
V. F. SEMENYUK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
-- Onward with the KomSomol
Party-Political Work and Military Education
-- Raise the Level of Ideological Work
-- Initiators of Worthy Projects
-- The District Is Proud of Them
Combat Training
-- A:Model Material Basis for Training
-- When a Situation Is Complicated
N. D. ANTONOV
V. A. PONOMARENKO
M. M. BOLTSHAKOV
YU. A. FADEYEV
A. S. MIKHAYLOV
Yu. P. GAMIN
A. A. LOGVINENKO and.
V. A. MERKUSHEV
V. A. SAICHAROV
G. V. ASTRAKHANTSEV an
V. I. POLIVIN
A. G. MIKIMUSBEV
Page
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1
2
2
14.
-- Methodological Training for Squadron
Commanders 14.
-- The Effect of Meteorological Conditions
on Radar Operation
5
-- Radar Detection of Low Flying Targets 9
-- Measuring Angles of Crest Clearance of
'Radars
-- Time Registering and Time Storage
Equipment
Equipment and Its Use
15
21
-- Reliable Radioelectronic Equipment Opera-
tion in Winter Conditions 30
Maintaining Airfieldz in Excellent Condi-
tion During Winter 30
-- An Important Element in the Training of
Military Engineers 30
a
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E. A. SIEBSHER
V. P. YAGODIN
I. S. KRASILINIKOV and
I. N. MAKARYCHEV
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-- Why Does Oil Consumption in an Engine
Increase?
Page
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31
-- Prospective Developments in Short-Wave
Radio Communications 35
Nuc3,ear and Plasma-Jet Engines
Rocket Defense
G. S. SAFRONOV and -- Target Tracking and Missile Guidance
V. I. KUZNETSOV Radars
From the History of FVO Troops
V. M. MIKBAYIOV -- True Sons of Their Native Land
A. D. ZHARIKOV -- Defending the Fatherland
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39
46-
52
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Their Deeds Match Their Words (Page 2)
Abstract:
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Honors Komsomol members of PVO Strany Troops in recognition of the 45th
anniversary of the Komsomol and notes that the Military Council of PVC) Stray
Troops has approved their initiative exemplified by Komsomol members of the
Baku PVO District,where 45 percent of the Komsomol personnel are outstanding
in combat and political training. The commander in chief of PVO Stray Troops
has awarded many valuable gifts and honor certificates to a large group of
Komsomol workers.
(A captioned photograph by R. IVANOV shows Pvt Vo STEPANOV, radar operator
1st class and secretary of a Komsomol bureau, checking the work of Pvts V. BLI-
NOV and A. SIDOROV. All members of the radar crew headed by STEPANOV are rated
specialists.)
OnWard With the Komsomol (Pages 3-6)
Abstract:
Editorial written in honor of the 45th anniversary of the Komsomol, dis-
cusses military Komsomol activities and accomplishments and states that the
Order of the Red Banner, the Order of the Labor Red Banner, and three Orders
of Lenin have been awarded to the Komsomol for services to the motherlAnd.
PARTY-POLITICAL WORK AND MILITARY EDUCATION .
Raise the Level of the Ideological Work by Lt Gen Avn N. V. PETUKHOV (Pages 7-12)
Abstract:
Discusses achievements of party;political work in the Moscow PVO District
as a result of the June Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, noting
that servicemen were inspired by the decisions of the Plenum causing an upsurge
in meetings of party organizations, Komsomol organizations and personnel con-
ferences. Areas for improvement of the quality of ideological, educational, and
political work are discussed.
A Chronicle of Komsomol Life Page 9
Abstract:
Eaunierates accomplishments of Komsomol organizations-Of various military
units.
(A captioned
1 CHEV talking with
photograph by A. KL1MOV an page 11 shows St Lt Ye. FIL1MONY-
students of a political study group which FIL1MO1YCHEV heads.)
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Initiators of Worthy Projects -- by Capt V. F. 9146E0fUK (Pages 13-15)
Abstract:
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Discusses various competitions) contests, pledges, etc. undertaken by
Komsomol members in preparation for the 45th anniversary of the Komsomol.
(A captioned photograph by V. INYUTIN of Pfc Irek MDREAMETSHIN appears
on page 13 and a captioned -photograph by I. Rybin of PVt Timrish SAPAROV
appears on page 15.)
The District is Proud of Them -- by correspondents of the Moscow PVO District
newspaper, Na Boyevom Posta (Pages 16-22)
Text:
In the Moscow PVO District, as in all units of our troops, the training
year is coming to an end. In comparison with previous years, this year was
more fruitful. Led by the historic decisions of the 22nd Party Congress and
the June Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU; aviators, rocketeers,
radar operators, signalmen, and servicemen of other specialties raised their
combat skills to new levels while putting them into practice this year. Sev-
eral of these servicemen are discussed in the materials published below.
Things Are Going Well (Pages 16-17)
Abstract:
States that the squadron of rocket carrying interceptors commanded by
Maj TIKHONOV is capable of intercepting air targets in all weather conditions,
day or night, and at law altitudes and in the stratosphere.
The COmmanderis Concern (Pages 17-18)
Abstract
Praises Capt TELEPNEVI commander of an air defense rocket unit who suc-
ceeded in mnking all of his subordinates rated specialists. The district com-
mander in chief twice awarded TELEPNEV\valuable gifts and on 22 February 1963,
Capt TELEPNEV was awarded the medal "For Combat Services" by decree of the Pre-
sidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.
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A Lesson for a Higher Rating (Page 18)
Abstract:
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Praises the professional skill of Tech-Sr Lt POLETKINI commander of a
radar crew, and his subordinates for their ability to detect targets at great
distances. All members of the crew are rated specialists.
In an Outstanding Platoon (Page 19)
Abstract:
Praises the outstanding commlnications platoon commanded by It KIRICHENKO
of which all members are rated specialists. Pvts 7TITTK0V and MOLOTKOV were
cited for voluntarily crosstraining on the ST-35 teletypewriter.
Aviation Equipment Expert (Page 20)
- Abstract:.
Extols the professional skill of Tech-Sr Lt Arkadiy Yegorovich SHCHEGLOVI
an aviation specialist who always maintains aircraft in excellent condition.
Pull Interchangeability (Page 21)
Abstract:
States that the air defense rocket podrazdeleniye commanded by Sr Lt
STEPANOV has achieved full interchangeability of specialists and notes that
during an examination they succeeded in destroying air targets in the strato-
sphere with the first rockets and with high precision.
A Leader of Youth (Page 22)
Abstrabt
Comments on the political work of Lt Aleksgy KOVTUNENKOI a leader of a
primary Komsomol organization.
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COIGAT TRAINING 50X1
AModel Material Basis for Training -- by Col Gen Avn N. D ANTONOV (Pages
23427) /
Abstract:
Discusses the importance of special stands, models, diagrams, placards,
and trainers to aid in training personnel to operate and repair equipment, es-
pecially since modern equipment is so complex that training supervisors can no
longer always give visual demonstrations with actual equipment. Examples are
given of haw various arms of PVC) Strany Troops use specialized training mate-
rial.
(A captioned photograph by K. FEDULOV on page 27 shows Capt V. CHUMAK,
flight commander, and pilots V. PEREVOZCHIKOV, G. GLADKIY, and V. FETISOV
learning how to iand aircraft at unfamiliar airfields by using what appears
to be a flight course simlating crab on a table.)
When a Situation Is Complicated -- by Capt Med Serv V. A. PONOMARENKO (Pages
03255)7
Abstract:
States that emergency situations in flight are most often caused by pilot
inefficiency, perhaps due to emotional unbalance, inadequate memory, poorly
developed shills in instrument flying, or poor coordination of movements, and
attempts to answer psychological questions which can aid a pilot when in dan-
gerous situations. Technical know-how and flying skill are discussed as the
most important qualities providing a safe outcome of difficult situations.
Methodological Training for Squadron Commanders-- by Lt Col M. M. BOWSHAKOV
(Pages 31-3)4.)
Abstract:
Discusses aspects of methods training for squadron commanders, including
commanders' -check flights, methods classes, methods councils, and the organiza-
tion of flights and critiques. The article maintains that the higher a squad-
ron commander's methodological training, the better are the results of his work
with pilots.
(A captioned photograph by I. RYBIN on page 32 shows Maj N. GALKIN, Pilot
1st Class. The caption states that the squadron which GAMIN commands is the
most outstanding in its unit.)
(Capt I. YE1M0SH1N, pilot first class, is identified as an outstanding
interceptor-pilot in a captioned photograph by I. RYBIN on page 33.)
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This Was a Special Case -- by Maj S. I. ELIMENKO. Page 34)
Abstract:
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Describes an incident in which the generator failed on an aircraft piloted
by Capt KUTS, pilotfirst class, during a night intercept mission. By operat-
ing his radio only every two minutes, KUTS succeeded in prolonging the battery
power until he had landed safely.
The Effect of Meteorolo ical Conditions on Radar
Yu. A. FADEYEV Pages 35-37
Text:
eration -- by Engr-Capt
Weather conditions in the lower layers of the atmosphere have a signifi-
cant influence on the propagation of radio waves emitted by a radar. This in-
fluence is seen in the form of atmospheric refraction, attenuation of propa-
gated energy, and in the scattering and reflection of electromagnetic waves
by atmospheric inhomogeneities. The latter cause substantial changes in the
images formed on radar screens and complicate the observation of useful echoes
from aerial objects:
For a better understanding of the processes ocauring in the propagation
of radio waves in atmospheric inhomogeneities it should be useful to become
more familiar with these phenomena.
It is known that atmospheric refraction is caused by the passage of radio
waves through media with different densities. The latter are characterized by
refractive indices which determine the dielectric constants of the layers. The
refractive index is the ratio of the speed of propagation of radio waves in a
vacuum to their speed of proliagation in the atmosphere. The atmosphere, espe-
cially in the lower layers, is not homogeneous. Therefore, the speed of propa-
gation of radio waves changes in different layers which causes a change in the
refractive index and a distortion of the trajectory of the radio waves, that is,
atmospheric refraction.
The nature of attenuation of radio waves in droplet formations of the at-
mosphere (clouds, fog, rain) is caused by absorption and scattering of the
energy of an electromagnetic field. The action of the electric field of an
electromagnetic wave causes a lAixing" of electrical charges in the droplet
formations. The oscillating charges are the centers for the creation of second-
ary radiation. Thfts, part of the energy of the radio waves is converted to,
scattered radiation. This results in dielectric losses, that is, a partial ab-
sorption of electromagnetic energy takes place. With small drop sizes (fog and
some types of clouds) and long radio waves from 0.5 to 10 am, attenuation caused
by absorption of electromagnetic energy is rather great. With large drop sizes
(cumulonimbus clouds) and radio waves 10 am and longer, attenuation is deter-
mined mainly by scattering of electromagnetic energy.
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Of greatest interest in the case of radar is the phenomenon occuring
at the moment the radio waves reach the boundaries of droplet formations.
Here the radio waves undergo scattering and reflection. Part of the reflected
electromagnetic energy passes to the antennas and receiver of the radar an50X1
partially iliuminqes the screen of the indicator. Through practice and the-
oretical calculations it has been established that the magnitude of the scat-
tered energy depends on the duration of the pulse emitted by the radar. This
is explained by the fact that the echoes (signals) from the droplet formations
are formed not at some sharply defined boundary such as, for example, an air-
craft, but in the space limited by the directivity pattern of the antenna and
at a distance approximately corresponding to the value of the product of the
speed of radio wave propagation times the duration of the radiated pulse.
With high radiation power a reflected signal of sufficient intensity is
received from an accumulation of water drops or snowflakes falling in the form
of precipitation. Cloud and fog droplets, due to their small size, provide no
reflections until immediately before precipitation.when the size of the drop-
lets increases. Thus, clouds which are not producing rain and fog are usually
not detected by radar. Shower clouds, cumulonimbus clouds, and nimbostratus
clouds are more effectively detected.
? The droplets in cumulonimbus clouds are large. Therefore, reflections
from the cloud will be strong and its outline will be sharply defined. The
duration of the pulses reflected from this type of cloud exceed the duration
of the pulses emitted by the station. This increase in the duration of re-
flected pulses occurs as a result of time and phase shifts when the preceding
pulses reflected from the rear boundary of the cloud "overtake" the subsequent
pulses reflected from the front boundary of the cloud. Clouds having sharply
defined boundaries on the screen of a radar indicator denote a storm and are
dangerous for aircraft flights.
Due to the small droplet size in nimbostratus clouds, the water content
per unit of volume is considerably less than in cumulonimbus clouds. There-
fore, reflections from such a cloud will be less powerful and will be weak-
ened around the periphery so that the boundaries of the cloud will be indis-
tinct and blurred.
Reflections from rain and rain clouds occupy a large area on radar screens
and hinder the normal work of the operators. Therefore, in order to solve the
problem_of detection and tracking of targets, it is necessary to know how
echoes are produced in a reflecting background and what measures must be taken
in order to observe a target against a background of meteorological interfer-
ence.
Good radar observation of a target will be achieved at short ranges with
a sufficiently effective scattering cross-section of the target and with small
cloud intensity. With heavy precipitation, at great distances, and with a
small effective cross-section of scattering, loss of the target may occur.
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While the target and the drop formations are located at distances exceeding
the resolution of the radar, they are seen separately on thP radar screens
as two objects. AS these distances decrease, the target will be obqPrved
against a bakgrou4d of meteorolpgicial noise. 50X1
In order to evaluate the radar observability of a target against a back-
ground of meteorological noise, it is convenient to use the "contrast trans-
mission characteristic" which relates the contrast.at the input of the radar
receiver to the contrast of these signals at the output of the receiver.
? For plan position indicators it is advantageous to use optical contrast
of signal brightness. According to the laws of optics, two brightnesses, of
which one is greater than the other, are visually distinguishable if the ratio
of their brightnesses to the greater exceeds a certain value "K" which is
called the visual brightness difference threshold. If this ratio is less than
"K;" the brightnesses appear equal and it is impossible to separate the target*
from the background of noise.
Thus, the conditions for observing a target against a background of mete-
orological noise depends on the amount of contratt of the signals or on the
threshold of visual brightness difference.
The methods of operation of radar operators are different depending upon
the type of radar used. However, certain general rules exist which provide
the greatest effectiveness in the use of radar technique for observing tar-
gets against a background of meteorological noise.
The radar operator in his work can improve the target image against a
noisy background by decreasing the power of the radar, decreasing the gain of
the receivers, adjusting the sweep brightness on a plan position indicator, '
and by switching in special noiseproof circuits.
By decrdasing the radiated power on a plan position indicator screen,
the reflections from clouds will disappear and only high-intensity reflec-
tions will remain, but it should be remembered that reflections from the
target will also worsen. Therefore, when the range to the target is great
and the scattering cross-section of the target is small, this mode of opera-
tion cannot be used.
The best mode of operation for the detection and tracking of targets
under conditions of meteorological noise is a reduction in the gain of the
receiver. This may be accomplished mAnually as well as by switching in spe-
cial circuits which improve the c6ntrast at the output of the radar receiver
by reducing receiver gain only daring the recpption of pulses reflected from
droplet formations. However, even in this case, the target may be lost if
the scattering cross-section of the target is small.
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Practice has shown that brightness adjustmpnt must be used carefully,
keeping in mind that with increased brightness the sweep trace itself will
create noise which when added to meteorolggical interference will increas5oxi
the visual bFightnfss difference threshold even when proper contrast is pres-
ent at the receiver input.
Increasing the duration of pulses reflected from droplet formations makes
it possible to use special circuits which select useful signals on the basis
of their duration. In this case, the screen of the plan position indicator
will receive only part of the energy reflected from the clouds in the period
of time equal to the duration of the radiated pulse. However, even in this
case, there is attenuation of the usefUl signal.
A, knowledge of the basic processes occuring in the propagation of radio
waves in atmospheric inhomogeneities will assist the operator in determining
the nature of cloud images on the screen of radar indicators, in correctly
evaluating meteorological conditions, and in determining the presence of
storm clouds. The skillful utilization of all methods of reducing the effects
of meteorological interference will facilitate the detection and continuous
tracking of targets under the most intense meteorological conditions.
(A photograph of a small, simple teaching machine developed by St Lt
POLTAVETS and PVts ARISENKO and ZLENKO appears, on page 37. A, brief article
accompanying the photograph discusses achievements in teaching machine de-
velopment.)
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Radar Detection of Low Flying Targets -- by Engr-Lt Cola. S. MINEAYLOV
(Pages 38-41)'--
Text: / 50X1
Practice has shown that radar detection of targets flying at aver-
age altitudes presents no special difficulties. Sufficiently great
radar operation range a significant degree of overlapping of scanning
zones by adjacent radar units provides for timely detection and contin-
uous tracking of airborne targets at these altitudes. Radar detection
of low-flying targets is consAerably more complex and is conditional
upon a number of peculiarities. A description of these peculiarities
and how they are taken into consideration by radar units in radar detec-
tion is the subject of this article.
One of the factors influencing the results of combat action against,
low-flying targets is the small detection range of radars. This-range
depends both on the altitude of the aircraft as well as on the very shape
of the zone of detection. As may be seen from figure 1, the lower the
altitude of the target the smaller the range of its detection. Since
radars have a small range of detection for low-flying targets, the time .
alloted for finding a target in the zone of detection of one station
will be brief. In addition, this time will depend on the speed of the
target (the time will be very small at high speeds). If, for example,
the range of detection of a radar is 60 km and the speed of the target
is 900 km/hour, the maximum time which the target will spend in the zone
of detection of one radar is approximately 8 minutes (when the direction
of flight is through the point at which the radar is located). With
target speeds greater than 900 km/hour, the time alloted for detection of
the target in the zone of the station will be less, comprising, at detec-
tion ranges of 6o km, the following: at speeds of 1,200 km/hour -- 6
minutes; at speeds of 1,500 km/hour -- 5 5 minutes, etc.
DI
Figure 1. Radar Zone of Detection
in the Vertical Plane
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Obviously a.time of 6 to 8 minutes is very small. With a radar
antenna scan rate of 6 rpm, a maximum of 36 displays will be made in 6
minutes if each rotation of the antenna successfully proirides a display
With a smaller scanning rate the number of displays of each target with'0X1
one radar /Will lie even less. Therefore, in determining the operation of
the radar, it i& necessary to use those methods which will provide for
the timely detection of low-flying targets and their continuous tracking.
It is fully obvious that the constant maintenance of equipment in excell-
ent condition and a high level of technical training of the combat radar
crews are of utmost importance. In preparing meteriel for combat as well
as in the conduct of routine work on equipment, more attention should be
devoted to checking the basic parameters of the radar which influence the
range of detection of aerial targets such as the pulse power of the trans-
mitter, the sensitivity of the receiver, etc.
The use of radar plotting data is recommended for early detection of
low-flying targets. In this waythe operator, by observing a certain
sector of his screen, can detect the target at a considerably earlier
moment. -
Figure 2. Zone of Reflections From
Ground Objects on a Radar Screen
D -- range of detection of the radar
d -- mean radius of reflections from ground objects
Ground-clutter return also has a great effect on the detection of
low-flying targets. Figure 2 shows that ground clutter occupies a signi-
ficant part of the radar detection zone at low altitudes. Consequently,
part of the course of a low-flying target passes through this clutter
zone. For example, if a target is detected at a range of 60 km, the ?
direction of its flight passes through the position of the many sta-
tion, and the screen of the station contains ground clutter withina
radius of 25 km, the target will be observed without interference only
over small sections of the flight course A-6 and. B-r which are each
35 km in length. Therefore, a target moving at a speed of 900 km/hour:
will be observed outside of the clutter zone on the radar screen for a
period of less than 5 minutes (two sections at 2.35 minutes per section
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with a break of 3.3 minutes). At a target speed of 1,200 km our
the time will be even less, or three minutes (two sections at
minutes per section with a break of 2.5 minutes).
50X1
As waS seen from this example, the amount of useful information
from the radar Station concerning low-flying targets is reduced due to
the effect of ground-clutter return which, in turn, considerably compli-
cates radar detection of low-flying.targets.
1.75
Ground-clutter return in hilly terrain has an especially great
influence on the operation of radar. The zone of reflections may be
equal to and even greater than the zone of detection at low altitudes.
Therefore, the detection of low-flying targets and their tracking may
be carried out in a background clutter over the entire flight course.
It is known that superrefraction phenomena are possible in coastal
regions. In this case the detection range of low-flying targets is
sharply increased. This is beneficial, but it must not be forgotten
that the clutter zone also increases sharply in this situation and com-
plicates the operation of the station.
' 06nocme ?
metia ? t Shadow region
Angle of crest
clearance
-
Figure 3. Zone of Detection of a Radar in
the Vertical Plane With Consideration for Crest Clearance
Angles of crest clearance of ground objects also have a great effect
on the range of detecting low-flying targets (figure 3). Ground objects,
which form positive angles of crest clearance are a screen for the propa-
gation of electromagnetic energy. Consequently, as behind every screen,'
there is created hehind the ground obstacle a shadow region in which tar-.:.
gets are not detected by radar. Some mathematical calculations are given
below to show the effect of angles of crest clearance on the range of
detecting targets flying at different altitudes.
The angle of creast clearance (00-is a function of the range of
detection and the flight altitude
?
OC - arcsin
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where OC the angle of crest clearance in degrees;
H the flight altitude of the target in kilometers;
50X1
Ale -4 the radius of the earth, equal to6,370Ikilometers;
D radar detection range in kilometers for the given angle.
0
or
+ D2Resin0K 2ReH LI 0,
D = -
2Resincr (2Resina)2
+ 2ReH =
2 2
r. -Resin* + Ai(Resin-)2 * 2116H
By substituting different angles of crest clearance and flight
altitudes we can obtain the detection ranges corresponding to them.
Results of the calculations are given in the table
Table 1 I
Angle of crest Flight altitude (m)
clearance (00 100 300 500 1,000 2,000 3,000 5,000 10,000
' 151 18 10. 57 89 135 170 227 330
30, 11 28 42 71 . 114 ' 149 204 306 .
10 ? 6 16 '- 26 48 85 116 167 264
29 ? 2.5 8' 14 28 54 74 118 202
The maximum range of target detection at low altitudes is deter-
mined by the visual range which is determined for the formula:
Dv = 3.57(VE: +41i)0
' -
where Dv -- the maximum visual range;
ha -- the height of the radar antenna;
(2)
?
H -- the flight altitude of the aircraft;
3.57 -- a constant,
without considering the effect of fraction (for normal, refraction the
constant would equal 4.12). 0
12
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The visual range for different flight altitudes and a radar antenna
height ha:. 5 peters may be computed and the information entered in a
table as follows:
i
-(
light altitude
Dv
100
300,
500
Ii0002,000
3,000
Without considering
refraction (km)
Considering normal
refraction (km)
44
50
70
81
86 :
101 '
126 .,16.9
139 193
, 200
237
(
5?)Cible 2 t
I
5,000 10,000.
262 368
300 1421
By comparing the data in tables 1 and 2 and figure 3, one notices
how great is the effect of angles of crest clearance on target detection
range. Further, even small angles of crest clearance lead to a sharp
reduction in detection range. Their effect is particularly great on the
range of detecting low-flying targets, is less for flights at average
altitudes, and is negligible for flights at high altitudes.
In view of the fact that radio waves are subject to the phenomenon
of diffraction (bending around objects), the range of detecting low-
flying targets in this case would be somewhat greater than given in
table 1. The influence of angles of crest clearance in hilly terrain
may sometimes be of great importance. For example, a rise of 200 meters
located at a distance of 12 km from the radar station will create an
angle of crest clearance of 10.
From the above it can be seen that ground clutter and angles of
crest clearance exhibit a real influence on radar detection of low-
flying targets. Careful selection of a position while taking into
account the effect of ground obstacles on combat raaar operation, a
substantial knowledge of the layout and the nature of possible-reflec-
tions, the correct formation of detection zones, and competent opera-
tion of the radar equipment will greatly facilitate the successful
detectionanacontinuous tracking of targets at low altitudes.
Another factor which should be considered in radar detection of
low-flying targets is that the zones-of deteation for adjacent radar
units at low altitudes do not always overlap along the entire flight
course. Therefore, the radar at one of the units is sometimes the
only source of radar display information. The situation may also arise
when the overlapping of detection zones by several radar units is very
important. In this case, the information from one unit is supplemented
and verified by the others and the gaps which may exist in tracking
a target are filled. Overlapping will be greater at average altitudes
(H3, H4 -- figure 4) and less at lower altitudes (H2).
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'
Figure 4. Structure of the Vertical Plane Radar
Field of Several Adjacent Units
Consideration of the unscanned sectors in a radar field is impor-
tant in radar scanning for low-altitude targets. The possibility of
continuous target tracking by adjacent radar units is determined by
the presence of a solid radar field at a given altitude. The minimum
altitude above which exists a solid radar field for a given grouping
of radar units is called the lower limit:of the radar field (Blower -
figure 4). For flight course altitudes less than kower there may
exist unscsnued sectors (Hi) in which the target will not be detected
by the radar units. The target will be observed at this altitude in
short sectors of its course by the radar station of only MB unit.
For this reason, the responsibility of each unit in tracking low-flying
targets also increases.
The radar guidance of fighter aircraft operating at low altitudes
involves many difficulties and has certain characteristics. There are
cases when it is impossible to privide simultaneous observation of a
target and guidance of fighter aircraft toward it on one radar screen
due to the small detection ranges of the stations at these altitudes.
The demands for producing data with increased accuracy and less
discreteness originate from the peculiarities of the operation of
fighter aircraft at these altitudes and is characterized by, first,
a decrease in range and duration of the flight of fighter interceptors
and, second, by the small range of radio communications between the '
fighter interceptors and, second, by the small range of radio communi-
cations between the fighter aviation command post (or observation post)
and the aircraft sent to intercept the targets. The radio communica-
tion range is limited to the visual range which is determined from
formula (2). Taking normal refraction into account, the formula
becomes:
1 Dv = 1.12(4i
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where Hi. is the flight altittide of the fighter alter interceptor
Without considering the height of the antenna at the radio station
(hg : 0), the visual ranges are given in table 3.. 50X1
? Table -T
Hf -(r4
Dv
Without considering
refraction
Considering normal
refraction
100 .,?,200
35.7,, 50 ,
41 58
300.
.400
500
1,000
62
71
79
112
71
. 82
91
130 !
As seen from the formula, in order to increase the visual range, it
is necessary to place the receiving and transmitting antennas of the
radio station at the highest possible points and to use tall masts. It
should also be remembered that in hilly or broken terrain the visual range
is significantly reduced as a result of the effect of angles of crest
clearance caused by ground objects.
In conclusion, we should note that flight at low altitudes requires
a great deal of concentration by the pilot since his proximity to the
ground significantly hampers any maneuver with the aircraft in both the
vertical and horizontal planes. Piloting the aircraft at low altitudes
over a terrain with a varying profile is especially complicated.
The actions of the fighter pilot at low altitudes are also hampered:
by the fact that it is considerably more difficult to search for an
aerial target against a background of ground obstacles and, if the target
is detected, it is difficult to continuously observe (track) it.
These are some of the peculiarities of radar detection of low-flying
targets and the guidance of fighter aircraft.
Measuring Angles of Crest Clearance of Radars -- by Engr-Lt Col Yu. P.
GALKIN (Pages 42-44)
Text:
Radar stations of PVO Strany Troops have high tactical and technical
performance capabilities and are able to quickly detect and reliably
track aerial targets. However, these units can perform these tasks only
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with the strict fulfillment of certain requirements. One of these is
the proper selection and equippping of a position with particular care
paid to providiiag the necessary angles of creast clearace for the sta-50X1
tion.
As is known, the angle of crest clearance influences the accuracy
of forming the directivity pattern and, consequently, the accuracy of
determining coordinates. At the same time, the angles of crest clear-
ance of a radar also have a significant influence on the range of
detecting targets, particularly those targets moving at low altitudes.
It follows from figure 1 that if refraction is not taken into considera-
tion, an aircraft flying at 3,000 meters may be detected at a range of
85.7 kilometers with an angle of crest clearance equal to two degrees.
Increasing the angle of crest clearance by one degree reduces the detec-
tion slant range to 57.7 kilometers and an angle of four degrees will
reduce the detection range to 42.8 kilometers.
Angles of crest clearance are determined at the present time by
measuring with an ordinary artillery aiming circle. The aiming circle
must be placed in immediate proximity to the receiver-transmitter cabin
of the unit at a height of 130-150 cm from the surface on which the
cabin rests.
However, practice has shown that the recommended method is not
suitable in the majority of cases. The reason for this is that the
receiver-transmitter cabin is usually located at a position within an
earth wall whose height may reach several meters. Hence, with the
eyepiece of the aiming circle placed at an elevation of two degrees,
the line of sight hits the earth wall and measurement of the .true
angle of crest clearance of the radar is impossible.
How should the angle of crest clearance be measured in this
situation? Here, we may use a method of bringing the aimtrig circle
out from behind the earth wall to a certain point B (figure 2). But,
as we see from the figure, the angle of crest clearance measured from
this point will never equal the true angle, that is, from point B we
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will measure sotelother angle which we will call the reduced angle of
crest clearance. It order to establish its relationship:to the true
angle, let us examine the two right triangles ACE and BCE. For con-
venience we will denote the distance between point! A and. B (the base
of the aiAing circle) as f and the distance to the objects determining
the angle of cr6pt clearance of the station as b. We will call the
angles formed by the triangles at points A and B as 0( and,$ respec-
'Then, from triangle ACE:
or,
b*f
CE tgoc (b+f)
On the other hand, from triangle BCE:
to
CE bigp.
Equating the right sides of these equations we have:
tgpr. tgo(-s?
tgiS. tga
From this formula it follows that the reduced angle /3 depends
on the base of the aiming circle and the distance to the objects which
determine the angle of crest clearance. Both of these distances may
be measured easily at the site. Therefore, it is easy to find the
reduced angle which will give us the true sngle of crest clearance.
By substituting the values for b, f, anithe required angle of crest --
clearance 0C in the above formula, we may determine an entire series
of reduced angles. The results of such calculations are given in the
table. For purposes of these calculations the angle was taken as two
degrees.
50X1
Let us assume that the aiming circle has been brought out to a
point 25 meters from the cabin and the distance to the object determin-
ing the angle of crest clearance is 125 meters. From the table we find
that the reduced angle of crest clearance, that is, the angle measured
from the chosen point, should not exceed 2024' or 040 divisions on the
scale. This gives us the true angle of crest clearance of the station.
Using the data in the table, we were able to build curves showing
the relationship between the reduced angle of crest clearance and the
vaLues "b" .and "f." Such a table is shown in figure 3. The table per-
mits us to easily determine A not only for fixed values of "b", but
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' for intermediate values as well. For this, it is necessary to draw a .
vertical line from the point corresponding to the measured distance "b"
to the point of intersection with the curve of the required base "f" 50X1
and then tp rea44the value of the reduced angle of crevyclearance from
"A" axis. For xample, for a distance to the disturbing object of 131
m and an aiming circle base of 30 ml the value of the neasured angle
should not exceed 20281.
1lDist. to obi.
in meters
(value b)
r -
Value of reduced angle of crest clearance
for f = 15 m
for f = 20 m
for f = 25 m
for f = 30 m
in in div.
deg.i on* s cale
. .
in
deg_.
in div.
op. scale
in
.deg.
in div.
on scale
in
deg.
in div.
on scale
I. ?
25
50
75
100 ,?
125 ?
150
175
? 200.
1, 225
' 250
275 300.
3' 12'
2? 36'
2? 24'
2? 18'
2? 15
2? 12'
2' 09
2? .09
2? 08
2? 07
2? 06
2? 06
0-53,5
0-43,4
0-40,0
0-38,4
0-37,6
0-36,8
0-35,9
0-35,9
0-35,6
0-35,3
0-35,2
0-35,2
3? 36'
2? 48'
2?a2'
2? 24'
2? 16'
2? 15'
,2? 12'
2? 12'
2? 111
2? 10'
2" 09'
2? 08'
? 0-46,8
20-42,3 ,
0-40,0
0-37,8
, 0-37,6 .
. 0-36,8
? . 0-36,8 '?
C-36,4' k
0-36,0
0-35,9
0;35,8
4? 00'
3' 00'
2? 40'
2? 30'
2? 24'
2? 21'
2? 15'
2? 15'
2? 13'
2? 12'
2? 11'
2? 10'
0-67
0-50
0-45
0-42
0-40
0-39
0-37,5
0-37,5 ?
?0-37
0-36,8
0-36,4 .e
0-36
4? 23'
3? 12'
2?.48'
2'36'
2? 29'
2? 24'
2? 18'
2' 18'
2? i ti'
2? 15'
2? 13'
2? 12'
0-73,2
0-53.2
0-46,8
0-43,4
041,4
040,0
0-38A
0-38,4
0-37,8
0-37,4
0-37,0
0-36;8
In a number of cases when a broad area must be taken into account
in order to plrOvide the necessary angle of crest clearance for the
station, the cabin is elevated on a reinforced concrete, wood, or earth
platform. In this case, it will be possible to use the existing method.
With the aiming circle placed next to the cabin on the platform, one
can easily measure the angles of crest clearance without interference
from the surrounding earth wall which is now below theaine of sight.
However, if the platform has a height of 0.5 to 1.5 in, it will again be
necessary to move the aiming circle beyond the earth wall. In this case,
however, a correction which takes into account the height of the cabin
must be inserted in the formula for determining the reduced angle of
crest clearance.
In order to determine the value of this correction, let us examine
figure 4. Now Point A, from which measurements should be taken accord-
iag.to existing rules, is not only removed from point B by the distance
f, but is also raised by height h. Therefore from triangle ACE,
where H is the height of the objects measured from the level of the
aiming circle eyepiece.
% ?
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Fp.
30'
20'
10'
4.
50'
40'
30'
20'
10'
3'
50'
40
30'
1
20*
2. ?
? 0 25
50 ,75 100
??-? - ? ?
125 ? 150 175 goo 225 .250 275 300 6,1!
Figure 3
Solving this equation we find H- that f)tgott-h.1
of H may be determined from triangle BCDI.
tgi3 = E; or H = b?tgp.
50X1
The value '
Equating the right sides of the euations and converting the new equation,
we have the required formula:
1 tg/3 tgoc
_
This formula differs from the previously derived formula only by
the second addend. which also determines the value of the correction for
the difference between the levels of the cabin and the aiming circle..
Consequently, the reduced angle of crest clearance for the case where '
the cabin is elevated may Te successfully determined by using the data
in the same table or grapIn'and introducing the correction for the value
Ii.
19
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Figure
50X1
Row should the measurement of reduced angles of crest clearance
be made in practice at the radar unit position? For this purpose,
three or four points should be chosen beforehand outside the earth
wall where the aiming circle will be set up. For convenience in using
the table or graph) it is desirable that all the points be the same
distance from the cabin. Then) the aiming circle is set up at each
point in turn. The highest obstacles in the chosen sector which will
determine the angle of crest clearance for the station should? be located
by preliminary sighting. Then, the distance to the obstacles is mea-
sured. It should be noted that the farther away are the obstacles from
the aiming circle, the less accuracy will be required in measuring the
distance.
.Rhowing the values "b" and "f," it is easy to find the reduced
angle of crest clearance from the table or graph and, after setting
this value on the scale of the aiming circle, to again point the eye-
piece at the obstacle, If the latter is below the horizontal crosshair
of the aiming circle, the angle of creat t clearance for the station will
.be leas than 2?.
Measurements are taken at the other points in a similar manner. It
is sufficient to select the points and determine the distances from them,
to the cabin and the obstacles only one time. After this, the previously
derived data should be used in checking the angles of crest clearance.
It should be kept in mind that the tables and graphs given above
are based on an angle of crest clearance for the radar station equal to
2?. If technical conditions demand that the angle be different, it will
be necessary to make calculations according to one of the proposed
formulas.
This method of measuring the angles of crA clearance of stations
by moving the aiming circle outside the earth wall has been checked in
practice. Experience has shown that, with good organization of work,
personnel can perform all preliminary ima4ui-ementsinon6 hour and angles
of crest clearance can be determined in 5-10 minutes.
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tt
?
Time Registering and Time Storage Equipment *7 by A. A. LOGVINENKO
and V. A. XUSHEV (Pages 45-48) 50X1
Text:
It has been shown in practice that the accuracy of determining co-
ordinates of different objects by visual tracking depends on the accuracy'
of the determination of the observation time. Since this problem is of /
particular practical interest, let us consider detailed methods of recording
times accurately with, the use of several chronometric devices.
" 'Standard devices for the recording and storage of time include the 2?
printing chronograph, the marine chronometer, the wide-band radio receiver
that affords reliable reception of signals from time-service stations,
the IP-M pulser, the stopwatch, etc.
Figure 1 shows the switching arrangement of time service equipment.
The second signals are received by radio, amplified by the pulser, and
printed on the chronograph tape. The chronograph motor is fed through a
quartz oscillator. . The signals of the recording chronometer can also be
put on the chronograph tape. In order to prevent burning of the contacts
ov the chronometer, it is hooked.up to the chronograph input through relay
RP-7. If the voltage of the loop fluctuate more than 10 percent, all
the apparatus should be fed through a voltage stabilizer. At the sane
time, there should be no more than 4-5 amperes of current.passing through
the chronometer contacts.
A chronograph is a highly accurate instrument for recording time
intervals. The moment of any printed impression can be determined in a
universal system only if the chronograph indications are locked on to
world time. This locking-on is accomplished by means of accurate time
signals broadcast by radio stations on fixed schedules.' ?
?
?.`
' J..
I. ?
!? 21'
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Chrono-
graph
RP-7 relay
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to the
TZK
Output (optical
, instrument)
N4, "
. XpoNo-
, aPact)
00 03
0
"1( ?
0
8 puiserR E. .
I-1 Wave
LJ 1 /
100 cps
Quartz
Oscillator Lit
Bonma
c3
00 0
100
Kscrogestau
zeNepa mop
PR-7
XpoNo-
memp
Cmadunu3amop
NanppmeNuR
Chrono-
meter
Voltage
Stabilizer
?
Figure 1. Switching Arrangement of Time-Serive Equipment
It is well known that all mechanical clocks have their particular
movements, the accuracy of which is characterized by their constancy. The
running of clocks, either slow or fast, is also a characteristic of the
recording chronograph. The operation of a chronograph (for a given chrograph-
oscillator unit) is satisfactorily stable, but with respect to absolute
values it may be off as much as 0.05 seconds per hour. Variations occur
primarily during the first hours of operation when the operating regime of
the quartz oscillator has not yet become fully stabilized. This stabiliza-
tion period differs for each quartz oscillator and can amount to as much
as two hours even when the temperature variation in the compartment in
which the instrument is located is not great'. Therefore, before the
chronograph is used for the storing of time, the stabilization period and
the error must be determined. This work can be done most accurately by
recording accurate time signals broadcast by radio stations on the chrono-
graph with the use of the pulser.
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The chronograph indications are locked on world time every 10 minutes
for two or three hours. On the basis of the obtained data, a graph is
plotted, with the abscissa indicating locked-on times in the scE50X1
1 mm 1 minute and the ordinate indicating the chronograph readings in
the scale 1 mm - 0.001 seconds, the tenths and hundredths of a second being
averaged out. The graph is used (Fig 2) to determine the time of unstable
operation of the quartz oscillator, i.e., the time required for it to warm
up, which is indicated by the projection of curve AB along the axis of the
abscissa. On the illustrated graph this time is equal to one hour" An
analogous determination is made of the chronograph error in the stable
regime (projection of the straight line 'CD on the axis of the ordinate),
which in our case is equal to 0.026 seconds per hour.
The chronograph error can be determined without making use of the
continuous accurate time signals. All that is necessary is to determine
the chronograph error three or four times according to the signals of one
of the time-service stations. ? The time of unstable operation of the quartz
oscillator can be determined by recording the second signals of highly
accurate timepieces (for example, a marine chronometer) operated con-
tinuously and uninterruptedly for two to four hours.
The same method may be used to estimate the accuracy of the signals,
"six dots," with reference to the accurate time signals. In this case the
chronograph indications are locked on the accurate time signals and the
"six dots" signals, and the results are plotted on a graph. If the. accurate
time signal curve and the "six dots" curve coincide, they have identical
accuracy. The difference in the ordinates of these curves gives the value
of the lag (or lead) of the "six dots" signals from broadcasting stations
in relation to the signals of the accurate time service.
The accuracy with which moments of time can be fixed on a chronograph
depends on the operation of a high-speed relay and impact-type electromagnet.
The spread of the recordings on a chronograph should not exceed 0.005
seconds. Operating experience with printing chronographs has shown that /
their accuracy is most frequently impaired by a burning of the contacts of
the high-speed relay or its maladjustment. For this reason, the accuracy
of the printing mechanism must be tested periodically. To do this, print
10 second marks on the chronograph tape and check their accuracy. If the
spread exceeds 0.005 seconds, the relay contacts are shielded and the
spring tension is adjusted. Then repeat the printing of the 10 seconds
marks and again test their accuracy. Repeat this procedure until the
mean square error of 10 printings does not exceed plus or minus 0.002
seconds.
The chronometer is the chief time storer. The quality of an observa-
tion of a fast-moving object is determined by the accuracy of determination
of the right. ascention al the declination 1 and time T (in a horizontal
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system, the accuracy of determination of the azimuth A, altitude h, and
time T). The chronometer correction is determined according to the
50X1
formula: ,
U = T - T
o khr,
where To is the average instant of arrival of the rythmic signals and
is the average value of the corrected instants.
khr
The best method of determining observation times. accurately for moving
objects is to use a digital-recording chronograph, although at times it
is necessary to determine observation times even without a recording
chronograph. In such a case, the accuracy of.the time fixing depends
largely on the accuracy of determination of the chronometer error and
correction. The most accurate method of determining the chronometer .
correction is that based on the use of the recording (printing) chronograph.
Fig 2. Graph for Studying the Chronograph Error
After the chronograph error has been determined by the reception of
the accurate time signals, the output of the contact-chronometer is connected
to the output of the printing chronograph (see Fig 1) and second pulses are
printed on the chronograph tape as the chronometer contacts close each
second. One of the teeth on the small gear wheel that closes the chrono-
meter contacts is filed off. Thus at the moment of the passage of this.
gear wheel part, the mechanism does not operate and a two-second interval
is left on the tape. The position of the ,filed-off tooth is arbitrary in
relation to the second hand of the chronometer, but it will be constant
over the entire operation of the chronometer.
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Let us assume that the filed-off tooth of the chronometer will cor-
respond to the 17th second. When a chronometer is hooked up tc "-
50X1
.chronograph for 15 seconds, the instants of contact 28.735, 29,,jd,
31.735, and 32.735 will be printed on the chronograph tape. The second
interval shows that the first printing actually corresponded to 15 seconds
and that the third printing corresponded to 18 seconds. Then the chrono-
meter.correction with respect to the chronograph entries amounts to
29.735 - 16.000 sec = 13.735 sec, i.e., the chronometer lags behind the
chronograph.by 13.735 seconds.
The detailed determination of the chronometer correction is done
systematically.
The operation of the chronometer can also be ascertained on the basis
of these Observations.
Here we use the formala
CA):
U2 - uI
T
where Ui and Uo are chronometer corrections for the first and second locking-
on of times an AT is the interval of time between these determinations.
The operation of the chronometer is very stable; for this reason it
is, in practice, easy to determine the precise correction at any time of
day or night.
It should be kept in mind that in those cases where the accurate
time signals are heard very faintly and the pulser does not function,
the chronograph correction can be obtained by means of the chronometer
(reverse switching). If the chronograph or pulser is out of order, the
chronometer correction can be determined by the reception of the rhythmic
signals transmitted for 1-6 minutes almost every hour by the telegraph
service. This is done as follows.
???
During 60 seconds of mean time, when the chronometer ticks 120 times,
61 dots are transmitted producing a particular venier whereby each ?
minute one rhythmic signal precisely coincides in time with the tick of ,
the chronometer as it tolls a full second. All that has to be done is
to remember the number of this signal and record the chronometer indication
so that the chronometer error can be computed. A reduction factor is
taken from special tables and added algebraically to the chronometer
indication. In the course of five series of signals, five coincidences
will be detected. There will be just as many coincidences on the half-
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second ticks of the chronometer. Thus, for every transmission (re-
ception) it is possible to compute the chronometer error ten times.
An example, of the determination is given below.
g-1
ow
? $.4
a)
tn
4-4
0 a
z to
I ta0
0 $4
k
0 la)
+)
WG)
C.) g?
0
0
N-1
00
4-)
r0 C.)
(I) CtI
tZ
.P
W 0
'p0
a.)
-P 0
0 04-)
0000
0.1-4 W
ntl 0
0
0
5 1818 01'1' 088.0 2m 258.08 11003'11338.08
33.09
39.5 ? 0 53.61 I ? 33.11
02 09.0 1 24.10 33.10 1
6
II
137/
Ill
!Ni
133/
1
0309.0 024.10 I
' 39.5 ' 006.39
?3
3310
. 0408.0 034.92 1
39.5 '106.39 ?
33.08
33.11
18 03 33.10 i
If the rhythmic time signals are to be received, it is recommended
that a special record be set up as indicated.
50X1
When the rhythmic signals are received for the average chronometer,
there is no need to use all five series. Only 4-6 coincidences or two-
three series will suffice if the signal is loud and clear. It should be
noted that an inexperienced observer will allow much greater deviation in
the coincident seconds, but will in any case quite accurately determine
tenths of a second, which are necessary for operating with the stopwatch-
chronometer system.
. Both the chronometer correction and the chronograph correction can
be determined by means of the "six dots" signals that are transmitted
by the broadcasting stations as a background to telephone transmission.
"or
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??????
In this case, it is convenient to take advantage of the stopwatch, which
should be started in time with the sixth dot and stopped on any tick of
the chropbmeter and then read off. Let us consider an example. The 50X1
stopwatch is .started at 22h0Om 00s0 and stopped at 0m308 according to
the chronometer. The stopwatch reads 011326.45, which means that 26.4
seconds passed after the sixth dot. The chronometer is corrected on
the basis of this value (chronometer reading was 22h00m30.08; stopwatch
read 0m26.4s; the chronometer error was therefore -3.68 and the chrono-
meter correction accordingly is 11.- 3.6 seconds).
The stopwatch can be used with an analogous method to determine the
correction of the printing chronograph. However, a more reliable method
has proved to be the printing of each of the six dots, as they are heard,
by pressing down on the "print'. button. In this case, the accuracy of
the determination is within 0.5 second and the error of the intermediate
member, of the stopwatch, is eliminated.
The recordings of time made by the digital printing chronograph are
the simplest, most reliable, and most accurate means of determining the
time for the passage of an object through a fixed point. The operation
is extremely 'simple: a key or switch connected to the chronograph is
closed at the time when the coordinates of an object are to be determined
by one method or another. The decoded printing on the chronograph tape is
adjusted in accordance with the chronograph correction and coded for
telegraph.
A time determination by this method of observation is accompanied by
Inevitable errors, the most serious of which are the error due to the
reaction of the Observer (human error) and the lag of the recording device.
The error of response of a high-speed relay and the error in the deter-
mination of the running of the chronograph in our case, i.e., in the
case of an accuracy of time determination within plus-minus 0.1 second,
do not exceed plus-minus .01 second and are therefore not taken into -
account, whereas the human error of the observer must be taken into
account fully. A somewhat more accurate fixing of time is provided by
the microswitch, the response of which is accompanied by a sharp click.
However, the position of the object at the actual instant of the time
fix will be determined with less reliability. When the time is fixed
at the moment of the intersection of the grid crosshair by the object
using the "ear-eye" method, it may be found that the object has not yet
reached the crosshair or has already passed it:.
The maiwshortcoming of an Observation of a. fast-moving object is
the absence of a reliable check on the determination of the instant of
Observation. We still do not have a rule whereby we can compare two
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or more observations and separate the most reliable ones. For this reason,
only a repeated time fix for a Single passage of an object affords the50xi
possibility of, comparing observations and estimating their accuracy.
The passage of an observed object through the cross hair of the grid
of a telescope can also be fixed in time by means of a stopwatch, this
method poses no particular difficulties. However, the accuracy of the
final determination of the time of observation by this method requires
close attention.
At the instant the object crosses the cross hair of the grid, the
observer presses the stopwatch switch. Already, we can encounter two
sources of error: that inherent in the reaction of the observer and that
inherent in the operation of the stopwatch switch. After the entry of the
necessary recording, the stopwatch is checked either with the chronometer
or with the chronograph. First of all, it can be pointed out that the
error in the locking-on of the time of observation to the indications of
the chronometer will be greater than in the locking-on to the chronograph
since it will be necessary to check the stopwatch against a particular
second on the chronometer after counting off the required number of
seconds. With the chronograph check, however, the comparison can be
made at any time. Here, however, the error inherent in the response of
the button that activates the relay must be added to the error inherent
in the mechanism that stops the stopwatch. For this reason, the accuracy
of the final determination of the time of observation with a stopwatch
can be considered about the same, whether it is checked against the
chronometer or against the chronograph.
If we consider each component of the error of time determination as
equal to 0.1 second, the total error will be twice, as great. The errors
in the determination of the running of the stopwatch and its unreliability
additionally distort the result by a value which is not accounted for and
is therefore disregarded. Thus, the total value of the error of the time
of observation amounts to not less than plus-minus 0.2 seconds.
It can be seen that the use of the stopwatch-chronometer system, like
the single time fix with the chronograph, ib not very accurate and espe-
cially does not afford the possibility of estimating the quality of
observations, or, more precisely, does not afford the possibility of
estimating the accuracy of the fixing of the time of observation. This
is the reason why the repeated time fixes with the required digital-
recording, or similar, chronograph and grid crosshairs are used, which
afford the possibility of repeated time fixes.'
It is well known that the use of the method of repeated time fixes
is possible with the digital chronograph and special grid crosshairs and
is applicable only in the case of a stationary optical device (TZK).
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In practice, observations frequently are made simultaneously with 50X1
the passage of two or more objects. Here, the main difficulty lies in
the recognition of the chronograph printings that refer to the individual
objects./ There are several methods of getting around this difficulty. '
First, the Observers can be assigned to different objects. At the moment
his object passes, the observer calls out his number which is transmitted
to an operator who records its time of occurrence in relation to the
others. Subsequent processing of the chronograph tape is done in the
usual order as with a group of observations of a single object. In the
case of simultaneous observation of several Objects by the same observers
(second method), each object has its own number. Then, at the moment of.
passage, the observer announces his number and the number of the object
which he is fixing at that particular moment. In this operation, the
operator records all the reports forwarded to him and then divides the
recordings according to object.
Another method is to check the printing of the chronograph by means of
a stopwatch. In this method, one of the objects is fixed by all Observers
in the usual order and at the time of passage of a second object, the
observer also starts his stopwatch and then checks it against the chrono-
meter or the chronograph. Thus, two independent determinations of the
moment of passage are obtained for one of the objects. Coincident moments
of time will relate to one object and the remaining moments of time will
refer to the other. The simultaneous fixing of the motion of an object
with chronograph and stopwatch can also be used in the observation of a
single object. This affords the possibility of an accurate determination.
of the seg.ience of intersection and excludes coarse errors without the 9
participation of the operator.
Questions of Interest to Officers -- by Engr-Lt Col M. G. INNIS (page 149)
Abstract:
States that modern commanders need to have wide knowledge in physics /
and mathematics and suggests that instructors be specially trained in
these fields to provide better school training of officers.
Necessary Training Aids-- by Engr-Capt N. V. SMETANIN (page 49)
Abstract:
Suggests that a central organization for dissemination of technical
. literature be established in PV0 Strany Troops. .
.? .
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ECUIPICNT AND ITS USE
Reliable Radioelectronic Equipment Operation in Winter Conditions --
'by Engr-Col V. A. SAEBAROV (pages 50-53)
Abstract:
50X1
Concerns difficulties encountered in operating and maintaining radar
and cybernetics equipment in winter conditions and advises methods for
better equipment operation.
(A captioned. AotograiAl by V. INYUTIN on page 53 shows r'.1/Sgt
A. ISKHANOV soldering electronic equipment)..
Maintaining Airfields in Excellent Condition During Winter -- by
.Col G. V. ASTRAKHANTSEV and Engr-Col V. I. POLIVIN (pages 54-56)
Abstract:
Discusses the work performed by personnel of airfield maintenance
services to maintain airfields in excellent operating condition during
.the winter months.
(A captioned photograph on page 55 by P.;GORDIYENKO shows Tech-Sr -
Lt A. SAVITSK1Y discussing equipment preflighting with aviators).
An Important Element in the Training of Military Engineers by
Engr-Capt A. G. MIKENUSHEV (pages 57-58)
Abstract:
Concerns work carried on in laboratories
technical groups in higher military training
(A captioned photograph on: page 58 shows
with electronic equipment).
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and by extracurricular
institutions.
Engr-Capt A. BRYLEV working.
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Wly Does Oil Consumption in an Engine Increase -- by Engr-Lt Col
.E. A. SHERSBER (pages 59-60)
Text: / 50X1
The following occurred in one of the aviation units. During the
period of preparing an aircraft for flight when other operations were being
conducted, a check was made on the oil fueling of the A14-5 engine. The
oil level in the tank showed full. At the end of the flight, however, the
tank showed no oil. Where could it have gone? During a postflight inspec-
tion, there was no evidence of an impairment of the tightness of the seal
of the engine oil system and the filler neck of the tank was tightly closed.
Such a condition put the aviation specialists on the alert since engine
operation without oil can lead to a jamming of the transmission rotor
and put the engine out of commission entirely.
An analysis of the occurrence showed that the oil began to eject from
the breather tube into the atmosphere 16-20 seconds after the engine was
brought up to full rpm. When the rpm were held constant, there was a
spontaneous increase of pressure in all the cavities of the oil system.
The pressure increased from 0.26 to 0.78 kilograms per square centimeter
in the oil tank and from 0.8 to 1.0 kilograms per square centimeter in
the cavity of the after bearing. In addition, the oil pressure increased
0.3 - 0.4 kilograms per square centimeter over the pressure value at
take-off.
The processing of oscillographs on which the "pressurization" phenomenot
was recorded showed that the initial pressure increased abruptly in the
accessory housing and then, after 1-11/2 seconds, increased also in the '
oil tank and other cavities of the oil system. When the "pressurization"
occurred, the level of the oil in the tank dropped approximately two
liters. During this time, in the oil breather tube, there was an intense
flow of foamy oil coming from the cavities of the middle and after bearings
and up to the breather. As a result, the ejection of oil through the
breather pipe was associated with a spontaneous increase of pressure in
all main lines and cavities of the oil system.
Why did this spontaneous increase of oil pressure take place? The
most probable reasons may be stated as follows: The ingestion of air from
the compressor or of gases through the labyrinth seals inside the oil
cavities; the unbalance of the input and output of oil in the cavity of
the middle and after bearings;. the increase of pressure in the oil system
associated with the operation'of the centrifugal breather.
! ; ." ? i
7, ? "
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? '
. ?
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\
50X1
A compariSon of the parameters of the investigated engine for the time
Just before the ejection of oil began with the parameters of other engines
in Which no ejection of oil occurred showed that the values for various
operating' regimes were approximately the same. It should be pointed out
that, in engines that had shown earlier ejections of oil, the adjustment
of all the labyrinth seals to minimum clearances did not correct the
defect.
In order to find out what influence on the oil system produced the
increase of pressure in the cavity of the middle and after bearings, one
normally operating engine was specially assembled without packing rings
on the tubine shaft. Under take-Off conditions there was an increase of
pressure of 0.25 kilogram per square centimeter and the pressure reached
a value of 1.0 kilograms per square centimeter. However, this did not
lead to a sharp increase of pressure in the oil tank or in the accessory
housing and did not cause an ejection of oil. At the same time, reducing
the output of the air supplied to the labyrinth seal of the front bearing
0
through the outside tube by throttling it completely with the throttle
plates, did not remove the defect from the engine in which the oil was
ejected through the breather. A check on the tightness of the seal in
the oil cavity of the after compressor housing revealed no defects, such
as cracks, which might lead to an abrupt "pressurization" of the oil
cavities of the bearings.
Thus, the experiments conducted afforded the basis for the conclusion
that the spontaneous increase of pressure in the oil system of the engine,
the so-called "pressurization", accompanied by the ejection of oil into
the atmosphere was not the result of an inrush or ingestion of compressed
air pr gases Inside tbe oil system.
The determination of the relationship of input to output of oil in the
cavity of the middle and after bearings of the rotor showed that the oil
level in the bearing cavity did not change, but remained at the level of the
top of the scavenge pipe when the engine was revved up to an overs peed of
approximately 800 rpm.
From a comparison of the gap tolerances in the oil labyrinth seals
and in parts of the oil pumps and breather, of the outputs of the oil-
pressure pump and the oil-scavenger pump; of the seepage of the rotor-
journal oil nozzles and the seepage through the front engine housing in
the engine that ejected the oil with the same data for engines in which L
this faulty effect was not evident; no deviation from normal nor any
pattern which would characterize the engine that used up the oil could ?
be established. Consequently, the second reason for the defective operation
was also invalid.
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A.,
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50X1
Xn order to determine the influence of the centrifugal breather on
the operation of the oil system, it was put out of operation by removing
.its drive gear. Then, there was no "pressurization" of the oil tank,
accessory/housing, and other parts of the oil system. On the basis of
this, it was concluded that the changes in the operation of the oil system
of the engine and
to radiator
from accessory housing
it; twpaieu averoma
y4fran the breather
cgrzusetouga. tube
/
?
It
przeuamop
At.
? le
:
from front bearing
Supply of Oil to the Front of the Compressor Housing
oil scavenger pumps 4. forward sediment trap
2. spring ?5. liner.
3: centrifugal breather
the associated conseggences came from the centrifugal breather itself.
This was also confirmed by the fact that when the output from the breather
was briefly obstructed while the engine was operating normally the "pressuri-
zation" phenomenon resulted, whereby the pressure of the oil increased in
all the cavities of the oil system.
Thus, plugging up the breather artifically produced a simulated
phenonomen which was produced spontaneously in the engine ehich ejected
the oil. It became evident that, for a number of reasons, the centrigugal
breather was fed an amount of oil that it could not "digist", that is, it
could not separate the air and discharge it through the pressure-relief .
opening: This means that there was a hydraulic occlusion in the breather
which led to increased pressure in the oil system and the ejection of-oil
into the atmosphere through the air vent pipe.
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Inspections of glass liners inserted in the scavenger tubes and 50X1
breather tube showed that a compressed oil emulsion moved at high speed
along thi pipes leading from the front, middle, and after bearings, and
also along the breather pipe. It was evident that a rather large amount
of oil flowed to the leading edge of the front housing via the breather
pipe since after the engine was shut off this area was more than half full
of oil. Even when the oil was being ejected strongly into the atmospheres,
no oil collected in the forward sediment trap which remained almost empty
the entire time.., Oil can reach the sediment trap only after it has moved
inside the liner, since the greater part of the oil is sucked into the input
openings of the breather and does not go immediately to the drain into
the front sediment trap. This might explain the overfilling of the
breather with oil and the small amount of oil in the front sediment trap
as well. Such a condition is caused by the absence of openings in the
lower extension of the inside cavity of the front housing of the compressor
(see illustration).
It was thus established that the increased consumption of oil resulting
from the ejection of oil through the breather was due to an insufficient
passage, capacity of the breather, causing a hydraulic occlusion of the
breati4r when the amount of oil supplied to it was increased somewhat.
At the same time, the excess supply of oil to the breather input can be
explained by a number of causes, including the excess of oil supplied
to the front housing from the cavity containing the middle and after
bearings. Complete control of such a condition is extremely difficult
to attain.
When engines are being tested on the ground or operated in flight, the
times specified in the instructions for continuous operation at maximum
rpm should not be exceeded. The number of checks on the consumption of
oil should also be increased. Since the excessive consumption of oil is
accompanied by an increase in oil pressure, the pressure should be checked
immediately after the engine develops a particular speed and immediately
after its period of operation at this speed, keeping in mind that the oil
pressure increases 0.3-0.4 kilograms per square centimeter when hydraulic
occlusion develops in the breather. In case of doubt, it is well to use
the special stopper on the oil tank filler neck. This stopper has a screw-
in type connector with attached manometer for meaeuring the oil pressure 1/
in the tank. At take-off rpm, a spontaneous pressure increase of 0.25- /
0.35 kilograms per square centimeter brings the pressure in the tank up
to about 0.7 - 0.8 kilograms per square centimeter.
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? Prospective Developments in Short-Wave Radio Communications -- by
tngr-Gol V. k. IALTUDIN (pages 61-6))
50X1
Abstract:
Based on the foreign press, discusses the importance of short-wave
radio communications, its history of development, and current research ,
being carried on to improve it, primarily phase modulation. Foreign press
sources cited include: Wireless World, April 1960; Journal of British
Institute of Radio Engineers, No 12, 1960; Proceedings IRE, Australia,
October 1960; Proceeding IRE, V..1071 31, part B, 1960; Communication and
Electronics, January 1956; Point to Point Telecommunications, No 3, 1960;
and Missiles and Rockets, No 10, 1960.
Earth and Space Communications (page 65) ?
Abstract:
Based on an article in Space Aeronautics, No 6, 1962; discusses
advantages and disadvantages of certain radio frevencies for earth space
communications.
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INNOVATIONS AND INVENTIONS
Attachment to a Coil-Winding Bench -- by Engr-Maj V. T. ZAVIDEYEVI (pages
66-67) /
Text:
50X1
The various attachments and instruments used to detect short-circuited
windings in audio-frequency transformers and coils, as a rule, provide
such a detection after the part has already been fully assembled, thus
requiring the complete disassembly of the transformer or coil to eliminate
the short and remove or repair the damaged conductor. This is a laborious
operation.
Figure 1
The coil-winding bench attachment described below affords the
possibility of detecting a shorted winding directly during the conductor-
winding operation. The electrical circuit shown in Figure 1 is installed
under the base of the winding bench, and the main axle is altered as shown
in Figure 2. A small special lamp signals the presence of the shorted
winding. '
The electrical circuit consists of the power supply circuit incor-
porating a 6Ts5S tube, an oscillator circuit with a 6S5 tube and an.
amplifier with a 6Zh4 tube. If the size and weight of the attachment
have to be reduced, a rectifier circuit with DGTs-27 (or D7Zh) germanium
diodes can be used. This alteration eliminates the necessity of using
a power transformer.
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50X1
All the parts of the circuit except for the tank coil Lk and the
signal lamp Ls are mounted under the base of the bench. The tank coil
(2) is cdfated and hermetically sealed to the main axle of the bench
(1 in Fig 2). PEL (FEV) .25-mm wire is used to wind a coil consisting
of two section, AV and AB. Section AB has approximately 500 turns, and
section AV approximately 1,000 turns. .
In order to provide a reliable contact between the rotating tank coil
and the fixed electrodes of the 6S5 oscillator tube, a slip-ring (5)
is attached to the axle between the tank coil (2) and the handwheel (7).
The slip-ring (5) consists of two copper rings slipped tightly over the
cylinder which is made of textolite, ebonite or organic glass. Each of
the rings of the slip-ring is directly coupled to points A, B and V of
the tank coil Lk by means of jumper wires. The brushes (6) which slide
on the rings of the slip-ring, remove the voltage to the circuit.
The main (driving) axle of the winding bench has three parts. Section
(1) is a separate unit made up of sheets of electrical ,-teel 110-120
millimeters long. On the right end of this laminated section, the tank
coil (2) is slipped on and hermetically sealed. Part (3) is made of
nonmagnetic material and connects part (1) to the general steel axle,
where on the center between the two bearings (4), the slip-ring (5) is
slipped on and hermetically sealed. The dimensions of all the parts of
this drive axle are quite arbitrary and depend only on the design of
the winding bench.
The form of the coil to be wound is slipped on and temporarily
attached to the unwound core of the tank coil (1). The appearance of '
a short-circuited winding as the coil is wound produces a change in the
over-all inductance of the circuit. -
irsm- pry
=
A..
,
Pac. 2: : ? . op, zi
; I
Fig 2
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As a result, the cathode current of the 6Z114 tube increases and relay R
responds to close the circuit of the signal lamp Ls.
50X1
The vensitivity of the attachment can be regulated by changing the
value of resistor R3 which. is accessible from outside for the sake of
convenience.
The thus remodeled winding bench affords the possibility of detecting,
during the winding process, a single shorted winding 0.1 millimeter in
diameter when the average diameter of the loop is 100 millimeters. To
get more sensitive response from the attachment when the coil has windings
0.1 millimeters in diameter and less, it is best to replace the signal
lamp with a needle indicating instrument such as a voltmeter. If this is
done, the relay R in the cathode circuit of the 6Z114 tube is replaced by
an 800-ohm resistor R with a 0.25 watt output, to which a voltmeter/is
connected in parallel. The use of the voltmeter assures a reliable signal
ling of not only a shorted out winding, but even of reduced insulation on
a conductor.
Quicker Thermometer Readings -- by Lt Col Med Serv S. A. TAMAZYAN
(page 67)
Abstract:
Describes the construction and operation of a device used to
prewarm thermometers used to give preflight medical examinations to
pilots.
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Auglasujiv_Eldapamt_us..jetEi..ati -- by Engr-Maj an
Engr-Sr Lt I. N. MAKARYCHEV (Pages 68-71)
Text:
During the past decade rocket engineering has made a tremendous
stride forward in development. Flights of aircraft over great distances
and at very high speed became possible through the development of
powerful jet engines. However, the limitations of the operating
parameters (specific impulse, combustion period, useful load, specific
weight) of a jet engine utilizing the chemical energy of a fuel restrict
the range of flight.
Extensive scientific research work is being done abroad on
development of powerful jet engines that will sustain operation for a
long period of time in space craft and ballistic rockets, surface-to-air
guided rockets, and anti-missile, antisatellite and antiheavy-aircraft
missiles.
Most promising from the power engineering standpoint, accorditg toEr
foreign experts, are the nuclear and plasma-jet engines. They will !'
supe or to chemical fuel engines because of their higher specific ,
impu e (800 sec at present with a possibility of increasing to 10,000
sec i?he future) and a much smaller fuel weight carried aboard the
spacelicraft.
Uhlike chemical fuel jet engines, these engines have an energy
source separate from the thrust producing substance. In both types ,
engines, the thrust is generated by the efflux of a mass. However, 0
the nuclear of plasma-jet engines, the quantity of effluent mass' is 4uch
smaller for the same rated power because the thrust generating substarte
can be accelerated to much greater velocities. Besides) in such jet
engines, the thrust generating substance can be accelerated and its rate
of efflux can be varied.
50X1
In nuclear and plasma-jet engines, the thrust generating effluent
substance is a plasma produced, by the ionization of atoms. This process
takes place at a very high temperature where the fusion of light nuclei
or the fission'of heavy nuclei begins. The plasma can be producedf'by
heating atoms to a very high temperature with an electric arc, by
compression, with solar or nuclear energy or a high-voltage electrical
discharge. Plasma can also be produced by the action of electromagnetic
high-frequency induction or by a bombardment of atoms with particles at
low pressure, i.e., electron emission from a hot cathode or radiation
from a radioactive isotope.
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Plasma is an ionized, highly heated gaseous substance with atoms.
separated into ions and electrons. A plasma is rarely fully ionized;
usually it contains some neutral atoms. A plasma consisting of positive 34.50)(1
and negatively charged particles as well as neutral atoms is, as a whole
jelectricallyineutral, but under certain conditions it may acquire the
I properties of a conductor. This later property is utilized in order to
obtain a high velocity of efflux of the gaseous plasma products from the
nozzle of a plasma-jet engine.
Plasma-jet engines are divided into electrostatic, electromagnetic
and electrothermionic types. In the first type of engine, the positively
and negatively charged particles are accelerated by an electrostatic
field. Depending on the nature of the thrust generating substance, these
engines are again divided into ionic and colloidal types. In the ionic
engines, the positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons are
accelerated. The ionization of the thrust generating substance (cesium
or rubidium vapors) is produced through contact With a heated surface of
a metal such as tungsten or platinum. The cesium and rubidium atoms have
a low ionization potential, but heated tungsten and platinum have a high
ionizing capability. Besides, ionization may occur as a result of a
'bombardment of the atoms of the thrust generating substance by electrons.
In colloidal plasma-jet engines, the particles are larger than the ions,
but they ao not exceed one micron in diameter.
Z 3
0 .
0
00
6 tri.4
00
00
0.
Fig. 1.
1. anode
2. grid
3. accelerating electrodes
4. stream of ions
5. filament (cathode)
6. ion chamber
7. lines of force of magnetic field
8. distributor
4.!
0
Schematic Diagram of an Ion Plasma-Jet Engine
9. entrance for thrust-generating
substance
10. magnetic lines of force
p V potential difference at the
n.
filament
Vi = potential difference at the
ion chamber
Vi'- potential at ion chamber
Vui,- potential atIthe accelerating
electrodes
t
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In the plasma-jet engine shown in Fig 1, mercury vapors are used as 50X1
the thrust generating substance. An ionization of these vapors occurs as
they enter the opening 9 as the result of bombardment with fast electrons
(20-100 v) emitted from filament 5. Heater grid 2, distributor 8 and the
negative end of the filament are at the same potential. Therefore there
is no movement of electrons along the axis of the ionization chamber.
Parallel to the chamber axis is a magnetic field 10 which prevents the
penetration of fast electrons into the chamber walls before they have
collided with the particles of the thrust generating substance. Part
of the ions formed as a result of such collisions pass through grid 2
of the ion chamber, are accelerated by electrodes 3, and form a beam 4.
The flux of ions ejected from ion chamber 6 created a thrust.
The diameter of this engine is 10 centimeters. For an efficiency
of 0.27, the specific impulse is 4,500 kg/sec/kg and for an efficiency
of 0.33, the specific impulse is 5,500 kg sec/kg. In improved engines,
the efficiency can be raised to 0.52 - 0.69 for the sane specific impulse.
A plasma-jet engine with 19 ion jets has been built abroad. Cesium
vapor is used as the thrust generating substance. The maximum thrust
of each jet is 15.5 mg and the specific impulse is 6,600 kg sec/kg.
Tungsten is used as an ionizer. The engine thrust is regulated by varying
the amount of thrust generating substance admitted to the ion chamber and
the potential of the electrostatic field. During such a regulation there
is obviously, also a change of engine efficiency. (See Missiles and
Rockets, No 19, 1960).
In plasma-jet engines or, as they are also called, magnetohydrodynamic
engines, the plasma produced by an electric arc or induction heating is
accelerated by a magnetic field. These engines are divided into pulse-
jet and continuous-jet engines. Figure 2 shows, a continuous, action plasma-
jet engine which operates on the principle of interaction between a high-
frequency electric field and a uniform magnetic field.. As a result of
such interaction, the plasma is rotated and accelerated in the direction
of the magnetic nozzle which, in turn, transforms the spiral motion into. .
a rectilinear motion. The operation of such an engine is given below.
With the aid of a special device 3, the thrust generating substance (plasma)
is introduced into the nozzle. Under the action of a high-frequency
electric radiator 1 and winding 2, the ions and electrons of,the'plasma
are accelerated. -The ejection velocity reaches several kilometers per second.
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50X1
Fig 2. Schematic Diagram of a Continuous-Action Plasma-Jet Engine
1. high-frequency horn type radiator
2. winding for producing a uniform magnetic field.
3. introduction of the thrust-generating substance (plasma)
4. uniform magnetic field
5. high-frequency-electric field
In the engine (pulse-jet with traveling magnetic field) shown in
Figure 31 the plasma is accelerated by means of a magnetic "piston" formed
by successive discharges of a series of capacitors through induction coils
located along the engine. The engine operates as follows. The plasma is
introduced into the nozzle by a'special device,. A series of capacitors
with induction coils 3 form a traveling magnetic field, the so-called
magnetic "piston" (Li.), inside the nozzle. Under the effect of this field,
the ions and electrons of the plasma are "twisted" and ejected with high
velocity. t4lAccording to reports in the foreign press, velocities up to
38 kilometers per second for plasma ejection were obtained in these
experiments; .
1
Fig. 3 Pulse-Jet Engine
1. inlet of the thrust-generating substance (plasma)
2. induced electric currents
3. a series of capacitors with induction coils
4. magnetic "piston"
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A foreign firm has designed such an engine for use in satellites and50X1
space craft. In the opinion of the foreign experts, it will control the
trajectory of satellites and other space ships and control their movement
under conditions of weightlessness. Solar cells will be used as a source
of energy to charge the regular batteries which, in turn, will charge the
capacitors located along the nozzle. The capacitor discharges, following
in a sequence of 2-10 per second, will act as a magnetic "piston,"
will push backward small jets of highly heated ionized gaseous nitrogen.
As a result, the thrust will reach a value of 45 g. Such a thrust, in the
opinion of the experts, will be sufficient for an effective flight of a
craft in space. A small nitrogen tank will: be sufficient for operating
such an engine fore period of two years. (Popular Science, Dec 1961;
Aviation Week, No 13, 1960) According to reports in the foreign press,
a more powerful magnetohydrodynamic plasma engine has been designed at
the Laboratory for the Investigation of the Technical Problems of
Intercontinental Flights USA. Hydrogen, deuterium, and lithium are used
as thrust generating substances.
In nuclear jet engines, a large quantity of energy is liberated in
the course of the nuclear reaction. The thrust generating substance,
generally a light gas, passes through the reactor core, is heated to a
very high temperature and partially ionized, and then ejected from the
nozzle at high velocity to produce a thrust. A schematic diagram of such
an engine is shown in Figure 4. The thrust generating substance (7),
hydrogen with a high-ionization capacity, is pumped inttl,the outer jacket
of the nozzle (1) where it is heated by cooling the nozzle. The heated
hydrogen is admitted to the reactor (2) which consists of uranium rods
and a graphite moderator. A controlled nuclear reaction takes place
in the reactor core (3) to generate a considerable quantity of energy for
a long period of time. As the hydrogen moves along the reactor core, it
becomes heated and ionized. The highly ionized and heated hydrogen (plasma)
passes from the high-pressure chamber at high velocity into the nozzle and
then is ejected from the nozzle, thus generating the thrust.
The electrothermic jet engines operate in the following manner.
Plasma produced by electric arc discharges or with a laser is fed to the
nozzle and ejected from it at high speed, thus generating a thrust.
A power source is needed to ensure the operation of plasma-jet
engines. Solar cells, chemical batteries, radioisotope batteries, and
nuclear reactors are suggested as possible sources.
In 1960, US industry began ?producing solar cells with efficiencies
of 0.12 - 0.15 and in 1962, the production of power, installations with
solar ray collectors was initiated (Popular Science, Dec 1961). It was
reported that the use of collectors increased the capacity and reduced
the weight by 20%. Film type solar cells with high specific power capacity
are also being developed in the United States. Such cells are to be.
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installed on the outside of aircraft.. The US Air Force and Atomic Energy
Commission consider possible the development of nuclear engines with :
capacities of 300 - 1,000 kw for use in satellites and space craft, and 50X1
the use of te electricity of the moon as a power source. (Missiles and
Rockets, No 4, 1962)..
N ,
"e//.111411 EggzIEE-s:
-
Fig 4. Schematic Diagram of a Nuclear-Jet Engine
1. nozzle 5. radioactive shielding
2. reactor 6. pump
3. core of the reactor 7. thrust generating substance
4. high-pressure chamber
? 3 .6 7 -
imu/iNuo 1\24.1,1,1-,LJ,L44-44t3
/tumuli
?
j'-r1 rrIrri-1-4 '
Fig 5. Schematic Diagram of a Thermionic Energy Converter
1. Cathode (tungsten tube)
2. anode (molybdenum tube)
3. interelectrode space with cesium vapors
1i. Uu ?
5. heat dissipating ribs
6. external electric circuit'
7. electric energy consumer
According to American experts, the most reliable power generating
unit is one employing a thermionic conversiOn of energy. As can be
seen from Figure 5, such a converter consists of a tungsten tube cathode
(1) inserted into a molybdenum tube anode (2). The 0.25-millimeter
interelectrode space (3) ia filled with cesium vapors for the purpose of
neutralizing the space charge. The outer surface of the anode has ribs -
(5) to dissipate heat. Liquid lithium heated in the heat exchanger of
the reactor to a temperature of 1,176 - 1,243 degrees centigrade is ?
circulated through the internal tube by a centrifugal pump..-,. The heated
cathode emits electrons which are admitted to the anode, then. through an
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external circuit (6) to the electric energy consumer (7), and then back 50X1
to the anode.
This converter underwent a test that lasted 20 hours at a pressure
of 10-5mm Hi. An output power of 74 watts was obtained. According to
the US press, a nuclear power generating unit on the navigational satellite.,:
"Transit 4A" has been in operation for more than a year and has generated
23,56 kwhr of electrical energy during this time. The power generating
capacity of this unit (2.7 watts) has not deteriorated during this period /
(Missiles and Rockets, No 6, 1962).
In the opinion of foreign military experts, nuclear and plasma-jet
engines will be fully capable of maintaining in a desired orbit artificial
earth satellites and other craft designed for global military reconnaissance,
transmission of data on a military situation to installations for anti-
rocket and antispace defense, as well as for the interception and destruction
of ballistic rockets and other flying devices. It is believed that space
ships will have a multistage power generating installation. The existing
reactive engines with chemical fuel will be used in the first stages of
space craft. The schematic diagram of such a craft is shown in Figure 6.
The development of new types, of jet engines shows that the aggressive
circles in the United States continue to conduct extensive research on the
creation of new offensive weapons.'H
. cmy. 'retie
2 cmyneme
Fig. 6. . Schematic Diagram of Space Craft
1. payload
2. tank with hydrogen or other
light gas
3. %turbocompressOr
4. nuclear reactor
5. radioactive radiationshielding ,
6. nozzles of the liquid-fuel jet
engine and nuclear powered jet
engine
7. instrument compartment
8. fuel and oxidant supply system
9. fuel tanks
10. oxidant tanks
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ROCKET DEFENSE 50X1
Target Tracking and Missile Guidance Radars -- by Engr -Col G.S. SAFRONOV,
Candidate of/Technical Sciences, and Engr-Capt V. I. KUZNETSOV (Pages 72-74)
Text:
(According to foreign press materials)
It is common knowledge that the Nike Zeus antimissile complex
developed in the United States uses four radars: an acquisition radar, a
discrimination radar, a target tracking radar, and a missile guidance radar.
The complex also includes a computer that processes the guidance commands
for the missile up to target intercept. Figure,1 shows the functional
relationships between the radars and other sections of the Nike Zeus
complex. Figure 2 shows the nature of the problems handled by the radars
and the distribution of functions among the radars up to the time of
target intercept.
The acquisition radar must have a range of some 2,000 - 2,500
kilometers in orddr to provide a scanning of a given sector of space in.a
period of time measured in seconds and to direct the target tracking
radar to the selected target with great accuracy. . The discrimination
radar will have approximately the same range and high resolution. It must
analyze the signals reflected from each of the targets entering into its
scanning zone.
The missile tracking radar plays a special role in the Nike Zeus
complex. Although its effective range is much shorter than that of the
acquisition radar, it can measure the coordinates of the target with
extreme accuracy. Its errors in the measurement of target coordinates
must not exceed a few meters with respect to range nor a few tenths of a
minute of arc with respect to coordinate angles. Such an extreme precision
of coordinate measurement is necessitated by the fact, that the lethal range
of the antimissile missile is comparatively small. If, for example, we
assume that the maximum admissible miss distance in guiding the missile
to intercept is 50 meters, the mean square linear error in guiding the
missile to intercept, if the kill probability is to be reliable, must not
exceed 10 meters and the systematic error must not exceed 20 meters. The
error components here are the error in the measurement of the target
coordinates, the error in the measurement of the missile coordinates, and
the instrumental errors of the computer. If we break down the errors
among the components of the system where they originate, the admissible
mean square error and systematic linear error of target coordinate
measurement for the missile will be, respectively:
el m
Mae
10----- ? 20
- Ilk; 6 meters, el 7 meters.
818 3
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4.
11 preparation eparation
1 comnand ?
launching
command
Missile
Battery
Intercept
Computer
. precise coordinates .
50X1
Missile-Track
Radar
and
Command Set
Acquisition
Computer
of target
data on each
acquisition
Target-Track
Radar
target in group
Discrimination
Radar
Acquisition
Radar
acquired target coordinat's
Fig. 1. Functional Connections- of Radars in -Nike Zeus 'Complex
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6-1-00090009ZZOV917Z00108dCll-V10
!point of
:intercept
instant of
missile. launch447
command
guiding
missile to
? oint of in-
tercept; pre-
cise measurement
/ of target coordi-
nates
preparation
of
missile
for
launch
warhead,discrim-
ination radar;
correction of
trajectory in
.accordance vith
target tradking
radar data
- -
detection of target by missile tracking radar
correction of missile trajectory
-
point of
detection by
acquisition radar
radar measurement of
target coordinates;
processing of acquis-
ition data by com-
puter
Fig 2. Functional Distribution of Nike. Zeus Components
1-led LI! Peq!sseloaCI
6-1-00090009ZZOV917Z00108dCll-V10 80/1-1-/?1,0Z 3S3l3l -10j penoiddv Ado ? Pez!T!ueS
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s,
Since the guidance of the missile begins when the target is located 50X1,
at a distance (L) of 600-800 kilometers from the point of intercept, then)
for an accurate processing of guidance cogmandslthe admissible mean -
square and sy/ptematic errors for the measurement: la the angular coordinates
of the target are determined by. tie equation: :
- -A
ACD el - 7 = 0.9:,.,10 -5 radians or 0.3 minute.
/ L 5
8 ? 10'
As reported in a foreign publication, a guaranteed, well tined
interception of a ballistic missile warhead necessitates a target tracking.
radar range of 1,000 - 1,200 kilometers, 1..6!., the target tracking radar -
must have not only high accuracy, but also a long range capability. The
target tracking radar for the Nike. Zeus system is. a monopulse radar that
determines the direction to the target by comparing the target signals
picked up simultaneously by two pairs of primary radiating elements.
Figure 3 shows a simplified diagram of a monopulse radar capable of
measuring one of the coordinate angles.
source
of
signal
receiving
antenna
indicator
equisignal
transmitting
antenna
Fig 3. Simplified Diagram of a Monopulse Radar
n???????????W
' Tracking a target in space necessitates measuring the angles of
arrival of its signals in two mutually perpendicular planes. The mono-
pulse radar is specially designed for measuring the angular coordinates
of each pulse reflected from the target, which means special receiver and
antennas. The typical antenna system of monopulse radars consists of a
parabolic reflector with four primary radiators positioned in the vicinity
of the neutral-point. When the radiator drifts to the side of the focus
by a small distance x) the amplitude diagram deviates from the equisignal
direction by at angle equal to Zix/F where F is the focal distance. A
pair of radiators drifting symmetrically from the' focus (neutral point)? :
' ?
t
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produces symmetrically overlapping directivity amplitude diagrams which
afford a basis for determining the precise angular coordinates if the
equisignal direction is oriented on the target.
The parabolic antenna of the target tracking radar of the Nike-Zeus
system is 7.6 meters in diameter and is enclosed in a radiotransparent
redone 12 meters in diameter, which eliminates the wind load on the antenna
and thereby increases the accuracy of the measurement of the coordinates.
If we assume that the target tracking radar operates in a waveband
somewhere around 10 centimeters, then, with such a reflector diameter, the. .
antenna system will form a directivity diagram with a beam width at half- ?
power . 1
50X1
00.5 rfNa
70 = 70 10
,
where D is the diameter of the antenna reflector,. ?
With such a narrow directivity pattern, the target tracking radar
is not capable of rapidly scanning a given sector' of space nor of seeking
out a target and therefore requires assistance in target acquisition.
A
The antenna has an amplification factor of 35,000.
.confirmed if we. compute it according to the formula
G u K4 4 SI
where K is the antenna cross-section utilization factor equal to 0.6 and
S is the geometric cross section of the antenna aperture. If the radar
is to detect targets with small effective reflection surfaces at ranges
of 1,000 - 1,200 kilometers, the target tracking radar.must:have a high-
powered transmitter. Thus, with an effective reflection surface of the
target o u 0.1 m2 and a receiver noise factor equal to two, the energy of
the emitted pulse should by 50.400 joules. This would be sufficient to
form pulses of long duration in the transmitter of the target. tracking radar.
This can be
High resolution is obtained by the method of pulse compression
("chirp" method). If, for example, we assume-:thatthe pulse compression
factor in the target tracking radar is equal to 30, a resolution of about
50 meters can be guaranteed.for a pulse length of 10 microseconds. In
this case, in order to guarantee.a pulse energy, of 50-100 joules, the
pulse power of the transmitter should be about 5-10 megawatts which is
completely attainable in practice. As an, example, We point out that the /-
experimental transmitter of the antimissile system devised at the
Cornell Aviation Laboratory has an output power .of 50 megawatts (Missiles
and Rockets, June 1958)
The missile guidance radar-is based on the guidance radar for the
Nike Hercules surface-to-air missile and is analogous to the target
tracking radar in principle of operation. The special feature of this.
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radar is the fact that it does not pick up signals reflected from the 50X1
target, but signals from the responder in the missile. These signals are ,
much stronger than the receiver noise, thus affording the possibility of /
an accurate peasurement of the coordinates of the missile even when the
latter is at maximum range from the radar. Early in 1961, a project was
suggested for increasing the range and altitude of the Nike Zeus missile.
Plans were also made to employ it against satellites orbiting at altitudes .
up to 1,900 kilometers. In this connection, it can be expected that the
missile guidance radar will be modernized to guarantee the indicated
ranges.
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. FROM THE HISTORY OF PVO TROOPS
True Sons of Their Native Land -- by V. M. MIKBAYLOV (Pages 75.77)
Abstract:
50X1
Relates a military history of the Komsomol from the years of the
Civil War through World War II. (A captioned photograph dated 1942 of
Capt D. OSKALENKO, fighter pilot, appears on page 75 and a captioned
photograph dated 1941 of Jr Lt V. SAMODUROV, flight commander; Sgt K.
IEVSTRATOVI pilot; and Jr Lt V. TALALIKHIN, squadron commander and ESU,
appears on page 76.)
Komsomol Flight -- (Page 78)
Abstract:
Discusses a World War II combat sortie flown by It N. ZABELIN's
flight. Lt A. LIPILIN and Jr Lt I. CHULKOV are identified as the other
- members of the Komsomol flight. (A photograph of the three pilots
accompanies the article.)
Defending the Fatherland -- by Col A. D. ZHARIKOV (Pages 79-80)
Abstract:
Describes an exploit performed by Aleksey RYAZANOV, twice HSU,
during the World War II aerial defense of Moscow and notes that he
participated in battles over Kuban', the Bryanskf forests, the Baltic
Sea, and East Prussia and that he fought in the battle of Berlin.
RYAZANOV is a graduate of two military academies and successfully
passes on his experience to young pilots. (A photograph of Aleksey
KonstantinOvich RYAZANOV appears with the article.)
Subscription Continues for the journal, Herald of Antiaircraft Defense,
for 1964 /liege *80)
Text:
The journal is intended for officers and generals of PVO Troops.
Its primary sections are: Party-Political Work and Military Education,
Combat Training, Equipment and Its Use, Rocket Defense,, Cybernetics and
Automation, and From the History of PVO Troops...
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The most important questions of Soviet military development based 50X1
on decisions of the 22nd Party Congress and the new Party Program are
discussed in the journal; progressive methods of commanders and
political worers, party and Komsomol organizations, engineering and
technical personnel of chasti and podrazdeleniya, and military educational
institutions on the problems of training and political and military
educational problems are publicized; sketches on outstanding officers,
and articles to aid those studying equipment and weapons are printed;
and consultations are given on problems Of developing and improving
training materials.
The journal acquaints the reader with the state. and development of
means of air and space attack and air, defense in foreign. countries.
Materials from the history of PV0 Straw Troops are regularly
published in the journal. Appearing in the Reviews and Bibliography
section are reviews of books on rocket, aviation, radio and radar
equipment.
Herald of Antiaircraft Defense is published once a month..
-Subscription prices are: for 1 year --.3 rubles, for 6 months -- 1 ruble
50 kopecks, for 3 months -- 75 kopecks.
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