ATOMIC WEAPONS AND ACTIONS UNDER CONDITIONS OF THEIR EMPLOYMENT

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• Collection: General CIA Records
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• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 69
• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: February 13, 2013
• Sequence Number: 6
• Publication Date: September 27, 1955
• Content Type: REPORT

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USSR
This material contains information affecting the National Defense of the United States within the meaning of the Espionage Laws, Title
18, U.S.C. Secs. 793 and 794, the transmission or revelation of which in any manner to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
Atomi:4 Weapons and Actions
under Conditions d-f..Tboir
Etploym 11t,
195?
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
REPORT NO.
DATE DISTR.
NO. OF PAGES
REQUIREMENT NO.
REFERENCES
27 Se ptemi er 1955
67
RD
SOURCE EVALUATIONS ARE DEFINITIVE. APPRAISAL OF'CONTENT IS TENTATIVE.
SOURCE: A usually reliable source
A+raissl of Content: Doczatexitary.
1. Attached. is a c'apy of a. trr ts7ation of a S r'viet Arm nati a.l, Atomic Weapons.
and Actions under _ Condit.ions.o Their. Employment, < : published by the Military
Printing Office, Ministry, of De ..0se of the USSR, and sent to press on 11
August 19514 It carried p x1 li atiox NO, ?14/`557 and censorship No. G-02037.
This translations i- being c' isae'miiyated in. t1. interest..of speed and, al-
though not contain . all the language refi ements of tyre original Russian
text, closely follows the text..
Photostatic copies of the figure's to accompany the text of the translation
will be disseminated as Cs 35586a as soon ":as -they can be .prdd.uced.
ARM' V
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20AIR EVI 30 FBI AEC X JCS 2 ?SI E, x
(Note: Washington distribution indicad by "X"; Field distribution by
O N REPORT
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4TOWC WFA NS
P-crions
under co ditiofS
of their a Jo e!4
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MINISTRY OF DEFENSE OF THE USSR
ATOMIC WEAPONS
AND ACTIONS
UNDER CONDITIONS
OF THEIR EMPLOYMENT
MILITARY PUBLICATION
OF THE MINISTRY OF DEFENSE OF THE -USSR
MOSCOw.195k
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jn the original Russian text of this document, page 2. was a blank page
between.the.cover page and the Introduction)
he original. document contains a total of 96 explanatory figures which
are referred to throughout the text but which will be disseminated as
soon as reproduction can be completed.
Generally, parentheses in the following translation represent parentheses
in the original text. -They are used to define by example the type of item
referred to, or for transliterated Russian. terms. which were not translated
because.,of obscurity of meaning..
Brackets appearing under a figure contain an explanation as to content of.
the figure: Brackets are also used in cases where the translator felt it
necessary to clarify the meaning of a term.
In'other respects.., too, the format of the translation follows closely
the format of the original Russian text, except for pagination; refrey_-certain
technical terminology may not, entirely agree with U.S. terminology.
It should be noted that the Soviet Army nomenclature as applied to tactical
units. is peculiar in that a number of different terms. are used for 11unit",
depending on the size and relative dependence of the unit. Two of the
terms most frequently used in this text in connection with units are:
Podrazdeleniye is used in the Soviet Army to refer to a sub-unit of
a chart'. It is a unit which cannbt be fully identified numerically
except by reference to a larger unit of which it is a component, e.g.,
battalions, companies, and platoons of a rifle regiment, etc: In
this translation, the term podrazdeleniyehas been translated as a
sub=unit, or small unit..
b. Ploshchadka as used in this,:'-document refers to a section, comprised
of a small detachment with specialist personnel assigned for the pur-
pose of servicing tactical as well as service units. Personnel. comprising
the ploshchadka referred to herein would have had training in the effect
of 'chemicals and atomic substances on personnel, animals., weapons, equip-
.ment,and installations, and processing for decontamination as well.;
The Table of Contents is given at the end of the translation, as it appears
in the original Russian text
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Introduction
The discovery of methods for the production, of atomic energy in our
country is the greatest achievement of Soviet :science: The Soviet Govern-
meant has a great interest. in seeing to it that atomic energy is directed
toward an increase in the growth of productive forces, toward an increase
of:'national wealth, and toward the further 'improvement of the material and
cultural level of the worker's.
The creation in the Soviet Union of the fir:st,industrial atomic power
station in the' world is an indication of a. great victory for Soviet science
and. technology, with respect to the peaceful utilization of atomic energy.
Imperialist states sere in' atomic` energy nothing more than the means for
aggression against other. nations, primarily the peoples of the Soviet Union.
In recognition of this facts the Communist Party and the Soviet Government
have taken steps to provide the Soviet Army with the weapons necessary
for
dealing an enemy a crushing blip..
Atomic weapon's are more powerful than ordinary weapons, but there are
reliable means of defense against even atomic weapons.. The outcome of a war
cannot be determined by atomic weapons along. The outcome of a war will, in
the final analysis, be determined by people, strong in spirit, who are armed
by superior technology and who have mastered its use..
*The troops of the Soviet Army are successfully learning to master the
use of the war material entrusted to them, and they are becoming experts. in
their field. The task now before us is to acquaint ourselves with the mili-
tary-characteristics of atomic weapons and to, study their use.
The successful combat training of the Soviet Army for atomic warfare re-
quires the efforts not only of the officers but of the large body of sergeants.
This manual is intended as an aid to sergeants. It contains more com
pletedata .on atomic weapons and operations in atomic warfare than does the
Handbook for Soldiers and Sergeants
The first part of this manual deals with the structure of.matter and with
atomic energy, a knowledge of'which it 'necessary for a proper understanding
of the function of atomic weapons. It also includes a description of the de-
structive-effects of atomic weapons..
Part II deals with specific measures for defense against atomic. weapons.
Part III contains a description of- the peculiar.ities:~ of combat in atomic
warfare, primarily for small units (podrazdeleniye). In addition,, it deals
with action to be taken in, response to an atomic alert and also, during and
after in case' of an atomic explosion. Part III also presents the additional
duties of sergeants in atomic warfare:
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PART I
Brief Data, din, Atomic Weapons
I. 'THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER AND THE PHYSICAL-BASIS OF ATOMIC WEAPONS
The Structure :of Matter
All the objects that surround us are composed of extremely small part.i-
Iles called atoms.
An,atom is the smallest particle in a chemical element (of ordinary
matter)? Each of the 100 chemical ;elements known to us (hydrogens- helium
lithium, uranium, and others) is composed only of one type of atom. The
types of atoms are differentiated by their dimensions, their weight, and
their structure.
For- a long time, scientists thought that the atom was indivisible:. The
very word "atom" means "indivisible"' in Greek. However.,, later scientific de`
velopment.s.revealed that the atom is a complex particle and is composed of a
'nucle'us, which is surrounded by electrons
Figure I
chemical elements, helium)
/hows the structure of an atom of one .of the
The nucleus of an. atom has a positive electric charge, while the
electrons carry ne'gative charges The total of all the electrons of an
atom is equal to the positive charge of the nucleus, and the entire atom
is, therefore, electrically neutral:
T}.ie atoms in various -elements have various numbers of electrons, from
one (in the. hydrogen atom) to 100 (in the tsenturiya atom).
The electrons, circling around the, nucleus, form an electronic shell
around the atom. This shell is composed of one or more layersy which are
at strictly determined distances' from the nucleus Each layer contains a
.set number ,of electrons
Figure 2 shows the structure of the atoms Of sodium and aluminim,., The
electron shells of these atoms consist. of three layers- In the first layer
of each atom there are two electrons, and in the second there are eight?.
The third layer of the sodium atom contains one electronf whereas the ala-
min'um atom has three electrons in this layer- The figure with the plus
sign (+) indicates the size of the positive electric charge of the nucleus.
of the atom.
Figure 2
ftructure of the atoms of sodium and aluminum
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When two .atoms. interact (eg..,when. they collide.), one or more electrons
in the outer layers of the electronic shell may be expelled-. If even one
electron is expelled from the shell, the atom assumes a positive electric
.charge, Such an atom is called a positive ibn:.
The electrons that have been expelled then attach themselves to. other
atoms: An. atom that has acquired an additional electron is called a nega-
tive ion. (figure 3)*
The process of ion formation is called ionization. Some- of the physical
properties of matter are altered as a result of ionization. For instance,
ionized air becomes a conductor of electricity.. In live organisms, ioniza-
tion leads to disruption of the vital activity of the cells.
F
Normal and ionized atoms of the element.lithiumj
a) A lithium atom in its normal state (the number of positive charges is
equal to the number of negative charges),, b) A positive lithium ion, it
has one positive charge more than it has negative charges (one' of the
electrons has been expelled from the shell) c) A negative lithium ion;
there' is one negative charge more than there are positive charges (acquisi-
tive of one extra electron):
The Structure of the Atomic Nucleus
The' ;atomic nucleus occupies an insignificantly small part of an atom.
If -one pictures an atom as a sphere 100 meters in diameter--t the nucleus will
be the size of a pellet about one millimeter in diameter
The nuclei of all atoms are composed of protons and neutrons. Figure 1
shows,, as an example, the structure of the lithium atom and its nucleus.. As
can be seen in the drawing, the nucleus of the lithium atom is composed of
three protons and four neutrons.
Figure 4
Lithium at= 7
A proton is a particle with a positive electric charge.- The 'weight of
a proton is about 2,00.0 times greater than that of an electron, but the size
of its charge is equal to that. of an electron. A neutron is a particle with-
out an electric charge.. The weight of a neutron is approximately equal to
the weight of a proton.
In comparing the weights of electrons with the weights of. protons and
neutrons, it becomes evident that almost the entire matter is concentrated
in the nucleus.
The nuclei of the atoms of all chemical elements contain.:aa:.strictly
determined number of protons, if the number of protons in the nucleus is
altered, all of the chemical and physical properties of the atom are
altered, i. e., the resulting atom becomes an atom of another chemical
elemente In an atom that has not been ionized, the number of protons is
exactly equal to the number of electrons (see figure 4),
S :E-C-R-E,-T
NOFORN/CQNTINUED CONTROL
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Most chemical elements contain a mixture of atoms] which have the same
number ofprotons in the nucleus but a diverse number of neutrons. Such
diversitie's in the atoms of one. and. the same chemical element are called
isotopes.
For instance; the nuclei of most hydrogen atoms consist of one proton.
However-y- there is a kind of hydrogen (it. is rarely encountered in nature)
the atoms of which have nuclei with one proton and one neutron. This kind
of hydrogen Is called deuterium.. The union of two. deuterium atoms with one
oxygen atom produces heavy water. It is even possible to produce hydrogen
with nuclei of atoms which have one proton and two neutrons Such hydrogen
is called tritium.
Thusg- hydrogen has three isotopes (figure 5): Deuterium and tritium
ea;n be used as the charge for a hydrogen bomb.
Some elements have a larger number of isotopes,; Uranium. for example,
has eleven isotopes, two of them, Uranium 233 and Uranium 235,1- can be used
as the charge for an atomic bomb
All isotopes of 'a given element have the same chemical pr:operties,: but
they differ in their weight.
Since 'all protons have a positive electric charge (i.e., they have
.similar charges ) and since objects with like charges, as is knowp:.?repel
each other,. one would expect a nucleus with more than one proton to fly apart.
However, this does not occuro On the contrary, the nuclei of atoms are usually
very stable, and it is extremely difficult to.split them. The stability of
nuclei is a result of the fact that, in addition to the electrical forces of
repulsion among the prot_ons,. there is a strong cohesive force among all the
particles. which make up the nucleus. These forces operate only within ex-
tremely short distances. They are strong enough to. counteract the electrical
forces of repulsion,
Figure 5
CAtoms of hydrogen isotopes-.7
Nuclear stability varies from one chemical 'element to another. as well
as in the isotopes of a single chemical element, The less stable nuclei of
some chemical elements sometimes convert spontaneously into more stable
nuclei of atoms of other chemical elements without outside influence.
3-. Radioactivity, Nuclear Reactions,, and Atomic Energy
The conversion of less stable atomic nuclei into more stable nuclei is
accompanied by an emission of radioactive radiation:
Substances that are capable of radioactive radiation are called radio-
active,, and the very phenomenon of radiation emission is called radioactivity.
Radium, uranium, and thorium are natural radioactive elements, while the
isotopes of carbon, sodium,, and phosphorus are artificially produced radio-
active elements.
1 The figure 235 means that. there are 235 protons and..reutrons in the
atomic nucleus of uranium (92 protons and 143 neutrons)>
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Natural radioactivity was first discovered in uranium salt in 1896;
later it was discovered in radium. Artifically produced radioactivity was
, there are several hundred artificially
discovered in l9.y At present
produced radioactive isotopes, but at that time only fifteen natural radio.
:active elements were known.
Atomic radiation is invisible It has a number of interesting and
important characteristics. For example, atomic radiation is capable of
producing ion.ization.,
The ionization Capabilities. of the atcimic radiation of some elements,
such as radium, are very great.., This makes it possible to detect minute
quantities :of radium: If a few milligrams of radium were distributed
equally among all the inhabitants of the earth, it would still be possible
to detect radium ine'ach person
'The radiation from radium produces various chs ges in the substances
near it. For instance, optical glass assumes various colors, while the
surface of a diamond is converted into graphite., Radium rays separate.
wager into its component parts, hydrogen and oxygenx-
Figure 6
/he division of the radiation. from radium
into alpha, beta, and gamma rays,.
Radium produces various kinds of radiation.. If a narrows beam of rays
from radium. passes between the poles of a strong magnet, the' beam divides
into three beams, one which goes to the left the second straight ahead.,
and the third to the 'right (figure 6),,
Those rays that go straight ahead are named gamma rays.. The magnetic
fi ld .does not influence them. Those rays that are sharply deflected by
the, magnetic field. in the direction in which negatively charged particles
are deflected are called beta rajs* 'Those rays that go in the .opposite
direction are called alpha rays:?
The disintegration of other radioactive substance does not necessarily
produce all three types of ray:
Nor let us examine the nature of' these raysi
Alpha rays are a stream of positively charged particles. Each of these
particles is. composed of two protons and two neutrons,. it is nothing
other than the nucleus of the helium atom.
The speed of alpha particles varies between 10?40 and 20~Q00 kilometers
a second. At this speed, it would take less than one minute to reach the
moon from .here.. While traveling, the alpha particles collide a great number
of times with the atoms in the surrounding media, so that their speed is
quickly reduced, Even in the air, the movement of alpha particles is reduced
so rapidly that it is impossible for them to travel more, than nine centi-
meters. At the end of its path', the alpha particle, having annexed. free
electrons, is converted into helium,.
2. Alpha, beta; and gams are the first three letters -of the Greek alphabet
(4, 8, r ).
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When alpha particle-9 are released, the nucleus of the atom is diininI' shed
by two protons and two neutrons,, i.e., it becomes the nucleus of an atom of
another chemical: element. For instance, when the radium atom releases alpha
particle's; it is . eblivertedd into an atom of the gas radon (figure '7)
Fig
disintegration of the nucleus of a radium
atom as a result of the release
of an alpha particle
(alpha disirateBration)j
Beta rays are a stream of negatively charged particles, electrons, which
are released by the nuclei of atoms when neutrons are changed into protons Lcic'.
When the nucleus of an atom releases beta particles., the number of
protons in the nucleus is increased, and the number of neutrons is reduced
by one. As a result of this process, another chemical element is formed.
For example, when the radioactive isotope of gold releases a beta particle,
it is converted into mercury (figure 8)::
Figure 8
/Disintegrationof the nucleus of a radioactive
gold atom with the release of a beta
particle (beta disintegration)j
The .speed of beta particles varies greatly; some of them travel at
almost the speed of light (300,000 kilometers per second). The fastest
beta particles` do not travel farther than 1.5 kilometers through the air.:
Gana rays,, like X-rays are electro-magnetic radiatiion. They travel
at the speed of light.
These three types of rays are absorbed in various ways by matter (air,
earth,,. metal, wood, etc.). If the? lead box in which the radium is located
is covered with an aluminum plate 02 millimeters thick, there will be no
alpha particles in the issuing beam, because they will be completely held
back by the aluminum sheet (figure 9),a Alpha particles are also. completely
absorbed by clothing. In order to hold. back the beta rays, the box would
have to be covered with a sheet of aluminum three millimeters thick: To
achieve almost complete,absorption.of the gamma rays, one would need an
aluminum layer 100 to 120 centimeters, thick:.
Every radioactive substance (whether natural or artificially produced)
disintegrates at a set speed: Some radioactive substances disintegrate
very fast (in a split second), while others disintegrate very slowly ( in
millions of years), The speed of radioactive disintegration cannot be
increased or reduced by any meansz
The energy imprisoned iii the nucleus is released during the disinte-
gration of radioactive substances. 'T'his energy is called nuclear or atomic
energy. It is carried into space by radioactive radiation.
Fire9
Absorption of alpha, beta, and gam= rays by .aluminimrj
t
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Natural radioactive disintegrat:on takes place gradually, and the amount
of atomic energy released in a. given period of time is, therefore, comparatively
small. For example, the amount of atomic energy released by one gram of
radium in one hour is only enough to. heat 100 grams -ofwater 1.36 degrees
(centigrade
In 1939, a special type of nuclear conversion was discovered, the
division of the nuclei of several heavy elements (uranium, plutonium).
It was learned that, under bombardment by neutrons of .a certain speed,
the atomic nuclei of heavy elements (uranium. plutonium) undergo a nuclear
reaction: The nuclei of uranium andplutnnuim atoms split into fragments
(splinters) which are radioactive nuclei of the atoms of Other, lighter ele-
ments (figure 10).
F.1gure.10
/Fission of a heavy nucleus;resultin in two
smaller nuclei (fragments)
The fission of an atomic nucleus may release an enormous amount of
energy in a brief period of time. The fission of all the nuclei in one gram
of uranium is accompanied by t}ie release of enough energy to heat 100 tons of
water to the boiling point.
The fission of each nucleus of a uranium or plutonium atom is accompanied
by the release of two or three. neutrons, which, under certain conditions, can
bring about the fission of the nuclei of other atoms. This leads to a self-
generated (chain) nuclear reaction (figure ii).
Figure l1
/ he development of a, nuclear chain reaction, with two or
three neutrons effecting the fission of succeeding nuclei.?
The fission Of uranium or plutonium nuclei is now being used, for
example, to produce energy for atomic-powered electric stations.
A self-generated nuclear reaction may be of an explosive nature.
Such a reaction is called an atomic explosion. In this case, an enormous
amount of atomic energy is released in a very short period of time. For
instance, the fission of all the atomic nuclei in one kilogram of 'uranium
235 releases, in a millionth of a secondt an amount of energy approximately
equal to that produced by the explosion of 20,000 tons of TNT. Nuclear
reaction of an explosive nature furnishes the source of energy for atomic
bombs.
II. TYPES OF ATOMIC WEAPONS
Weapons with a destructive power based on the tilization-of atomic
(intraruclear) energy are called at.oniic weapons,.
There are two types of atomic weapons: Atomic weapons that produce
explosions, and combat radioactive sub.stances(BRV .: boyevyye radioaktiv-
nyye veshcheStva)
8 -E
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The explosive type of atomic weapon is, based on the utilization of
atomic energy,: instantaneously released by a chain nuclear reaction of an
explosive nature. This type of weapon is intended for the annihilation of
personnel, the destruction of fortifications, and the destruction or damag-
ing of war material. The explosive atomic weapon is generally known in the
form of the atom bomb. This type of weapon can also be ulitized in the form
of artillery shells, torpedoes,4r'ockets, and guided missiles.
The destructive effect of atomic bombs, torpedoes, missiles, etc., is
the samea The only possible difference lies in the force of the explosion.
Combat radioactive substance (BRV) is the name given to substances
specially prepared for use in combat and containing radioactive atoms. The
destructive effect of these :substances. is based on the harmful effect exer-.
cised by radioactive radiation on live organisms. These substances can be
used, .in.an attack against personnel, to contaminate an area, various ob=
jects,,'and the airy
1. Explosive Atcmic, Weapons
Structure of the Atomic Bomb
The basic component parts of the atomic bomb' and of other explosive
atomic weapons are the atomic charge,, the detonator, and the casing (the
hull of the bommb)
Uranium 235 or, plutonium 239 are used as charges in atomic bombs. It
is.not possible to produce an atomic explosion with an arbitrary amount of
uranium or plutonium, A certain minimum quantity of uranium or plutonium
is needed to produce an explosion; this amount is called the critical mass.
The magnitude of.the critical mass of' the charge depends on its (the charge)
form, the material of the casing, and the construction of the atomic bomb.
The' amount of the atomic charge, should not be equal to' or higher than the
critical mass, because a chain nuclear reaction might occur (ie., an atomic
explosion might take place) under the influence of chance neutrons, which
are always present in the air.. For this reason, up to the time that. an
atomic charge is used as. an explosive, it must be divided into several
parts, each of which is smaller than the critical mass.
The sketch of the structure of an atomic bomb (figure 12) shows the
atomic charge divided into two parts.
Figure 12
/D-iagram of atomic bomb with its charge divided into two parts.
A shows the bomb before the explosion,
B shows the two .atomic charges drawing together]
In order to bring about an atomic explosion; the two sections of the
charge. must be brought together rapidly. The completeness of the chain
nuclear reaction and, consequently, the force of the explosion depend on
the speed with which the two parts are brought together
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Figure 13 show's an atom bomb with its charge, divided into three parts..
In this bomb, the parts of the charge are united by the expl'os ion of the
cumulative charges of conventional explosive material As they approach
each other along the cylindrical channel from which the air has been expelled,,
the moving parts of the atomic charge pick up source's of neutrons along their
path., The sources of neutrons positively guarantee that the bomb will explode
at a given moment, and they serve to increase the number of nuclei of atoms
in the uranium (or plutonium) that will, fission.
The :neutron deflector plays a large part in the development of a nuclear
chain reaction. The deflector returns to the area of 'the nuclear reaction
neutrons that escape the limits of the chaxgee The bomb casing hinders the
dispersal of the atomic charge,, which makes possible a more complete nuclear
reaction and,- consequently, increases the force of the atomic-explosion: The
casing also deflects the neutrons into the area of the reaction.
Figure 13
fiagram of an atom bomb with its charge divided into'three.sections.
A shows the bomb before the explosion-.,
shows the bomb as the sections of atomic charge approach each -other.?
The premature -d.ispersalof the atomic charge at the time of the explosion
is also prevented by the pressure that results from the explosion of the con=
ventional explosive material in the spherical layer:
Despite the fact that the casing of atomic bomb is made of the. kind of
material that will provide it, with adequate stabilityt'part of the. material
of the atomic charge escapes the chain reaction and flies apart with the
casing.
Types of Atomic, Explosions
An atomic explosion can take place in the air,: on the surface of the
ground, or .below the surface of the ground (or 'water). We, therefore,
distinguish between air, surfac.e,and. underground (or underwater) explosions
An explosion in the air is one that takes place at a height of.several
hundred meters above the ground-(or water). The point on the,ground above
which the atomic ;explosion takes place is called the 'ep'icenter (figure 14) .
Figure l4
Lipicenter of atomic explosion,]
A surface explosion is one that takes place on the surface of the
ground or just a little above the ground,
An underground (underwater) explosion is an atomic explosion that
occurs -under the ground (or water)-.
e * r. tb_ -m, rn
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F.i 15
types of atomic explosions
External App?earances. of. an Atomic Explos ion
An atomic blast in the air produces a blinding flash (figure 16), which
lights up the sky and the ground below for a distance of tens of kilometers..
'The flash is followed by a ball of fire,.
The ball of fire grows rapidly and cools; its light becomes less intense-
and after a while it disappears..
Figure 16
The flash from an atomic blast in the air]
The time lapse between the first appearance of the ball of fire and its
extinction is only a few seconds
Following the extinction Of the ball of firer there appears a swirling
cloud that grows rapidly in size and climbs upward. It is followed, from
the ground, by a column of dust; which gives the cloud from an atomic blast
the shape of a mushroom (figure.17). The cloud attains a height of ten kilo-
meters ;or more; In time, the cloud loses the mushroom shape and disperses.
Figure 17
cThe mushroom-:shaped cloud of anatomic blast
In.ad.dition to the column of .dusty the blast also raises clouds of dust
from the ground (figure 17), which remain in the air from ten to thirty
minutes.
When an atomic,explosion.,takes place on the surface of the earthy in-
stead of a ball of fire, a.. fiery hemisphere is formed,* The cloud following
a surface explosion also has the shape of a mushroom:
The outward appearance of an underwater blast depends on the depth at
which the. explosion takes place and on the depth of the water.
If the explosion occurs not very far below the surface of the water, a
column of water rises to a height of more than a kilometer from the surface.
A cloud forms at the top of this column and grows rapidly, attaining a di-
amet:er of several kilometers (figure 18).
Several seconds after the the underwater explosion, the water begins to
fall out of the column,: When this happens, a wave:. composed of small drops
(spray) forms at the base :of the Column.
An underwater explosion is also accompanied by the appearance -of ordinary
waves on the surface of the water. Close to the site of the blast, these
waves may attain a height of from 20 to 30 .meters. The waves become smaller
in proportion to their distance from the explosion.
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If the underwater blast occurs in shallow watery the blast makes a large
crater in the floor. In this case, a considerable amount of earth as well as
water is lifted into the air.,
An atomic blast is accompanied by a very loud and piercing noise,. which
scan be heard for tens of kilometers..
FigurO 18
/utwa:rd appearance of an underwater atomic explosion.7
Destructive Effect
of an Atomic Blast
Asa result of the release of an enormous amount of energy by the atomic
explosion, the temperature in the center of the blast rises to millions of
degrees It is this extremely high temperature that leads to the formation
of the ball,of fire, which is the source of the strong flash of light
(svetovoye izlucheniye).
The heated gases that compose the ball of fire spread rapidly,. pushing
away the. surrounding air and compressing it This is the cause of the shock
wave.
A blast. of an atomic bomb is accompanied by invisible radioactive rays,
which are called penetrative radiation.
In addition, in the area of the explosion and along the path traveled
by the atomic cloud, there is a fall-out of radioactive substances that pro-
duces radioactive contamination of the air and of the area
In the area surrounding the site of the blast, contamination may also
result from the, fact that,, under the action of the stream 'of .neutrons from
the blast, some of the non-,radioactive:substances that compose the top layer
of soil may become radioactive:
The shock wave, the flash of light, penetrative radiation, and radio-
active contamination of the area are the destructive factors of an atomic
blast.
Shock Wave
The shock wave is the principal destructive force of an atomic blast.
.It consists of highly compressed ai.r, which spreads out in all directions,
at high speed, from the center of the blast: The compression is transferred
rapidly from one layer of air to another:.
When the shock wave reaches a given point in the.air, for instance Point
A (figure 19), the temperature and the pressure at this point rise instantly,
and the air begins to move in the: direction in which the shock 'gave is spread-
ing, In the succeeding moments,.when the front of the shock wave (its front
edge) passes this point,, its pressure there gradually subsides andeventually
becomes equal to atomspheric pressure..
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Later on,. the pre'ssur'e drops to below that of the atmosphere (rarefac-
tion sets in) When. this happens, the air at Point A begins to move in the
opposite direction from which the shock wave is spreading..
The 'Mov'ement .of the air ceases as soon as the action of the reduced
pressure at Point A comes to an e'nd
Thus. the shock wave is composed of a pressure zone (the zone in which
the pressure is greater than in the atmosphere)-and of a zone of rarefaction
(the zone in which the pressure is, lower than that of the atomosphere)
The air pressure. at the front of the shock wave near the center of the
atomic blast goes up to many thousands of atmospheres.
The pressure at the outer limits of. the shock wave drops rapidly and
continuously, in proportion: to the distance from the center of the blast:
The speed of the spread of the shock wave depends on the pressure at
the front of the shock wave. Near the center of the blast, the spi.)ed at
which the shock wave spreads is several times greater than the speed at
which sound travels through the air;3 However, as the distance from the site
of the blast increases, the, speed at which the wave spreads drops rapidly.
The shock wave travels 1,000 meters in two seconds, 2,000 meters in five
seconds, and 3,000 meters in eight seconds (figure 20). During this time,
a person who had seen the flash.could seek cover, thus reducing the proba-
bility of being struck by the shock wave and, perhaps, escaping it. alto-
gether.
Figure .9
iagram showing the action bf the shock,-wave of an atomic blast.
A - The front of the shock wave has not reached point a; the pressure
at this point is normal. B - The. front of the shock wave has reached point
a; the pressure has risen sharply. C - The front of the shock wave has
passed point a; a tree standing at this. point bends-in the direction in which
the shock wave is spreading; the pressure at point a has dropped somewhat.
D - The pressure at point a is normal.; the tree has straightened up. E -
Point a is within the zone of rarefaction, where air pressure is below that,
of the atmosphere; the air has started to move in the opposite- direction,
and the tree bends with it. F .- The shock wave has passed point a; air
pressure is normal:]
The shock wave is capable of killing people and of destroying or damaging
buildings, war material, and property. Destruction and damage may be brought
about as either a direct or an indirect result of the action of the shock
wave. Indirect action consists of destruction and damage caused by flying
debris and fragments from buildings and by flying stones; clumps of earth, etc.
Figure 20
peed of spread of the shock wave]
oun -ravels' through the air at a rate of 340 'meters -per second.
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The shock wave can also use destruction in enclosed premises, which
it reaches through Cracks and other openings
The degree of injury to pers and of damage to buildings and war
material depends primarily on the aistante from the center of the blast; the
greater the distance from the center of the blast, the less is the destructive
effect of the shock wave. The extent of -injury to persons and of damage to
military equipment also depends on their location when they are struck by the
shock wave, on the type' of locality:, and.on the availability of shelter: The
presen ce.of protective structures reduces the radius ,of the area of destruction
by 150 to 300 percents The armor. on combat vehicles also reduces the radius
of destruction. Ground features and rugged terrain lessen the destructive
effects of the shock wave.
In populated places, the shock wave' may cause conflagrations as the re-
sult of damage to stoves and to power and gas lines, The fires, in turn, may
cause injury to people and damage or destruction to military equipment and
property.
When an explosion takes place underground,- a shock wave is formed under--
ground; if it is underwater, the shock wave is formed in the water.. In these
cases, part of the energy goes to form a shock wave in the air as Well.
The Flash of Light
The flash of light. brought about by an atomic blast lasts only several
seconds.
The injurious effect of the flash .decreases in proportion to the distance
from the site of the explosion, as a consequence of the dispersal of energy
over a larger area and of the absorption and diffusion of the light. The
absorption of light is especially great in a fog, rainfall, or snowfall.
The light rays do not pass through opaque material, Therefore,, any
.shield (a wall, a closed building, armor;-; canvas, a dense forest)wj11
furnish shade and protection from the direct :effects of the light and prevent
burns (figure 21).
Figure 21
/The shade thrown by the hill., the ravine, the house,
or the tree serve as protection from being
burned by the flash of light
In the case of underwater and underground explosions, the danger from
the flash of light is negligible.
In an atomic explosion that takes place on the surface, the effect of
the light flash is less over long distances than it is in an.air explosion,
because about half the energy from the light flash is.expended in the fusion
of the earth near the :site of the explosion;
Despite the shortness of its duration, the. light flash can cause burns
on exposed portions of the bodies (face, neck,: hands) of unprotected persons.
Sometimes it causes temporary blindness.
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The injurious effect, of the light flash to the eyes is considerably
greater at night than it is in the daytime.
The burns caused by the light flash from an atomic blast are in no way
different from ordinary burns caused by fire 'or boiling water. There are
first, second, and third degree burns;...
In a first degree burn, the skin. is reddened and there is swelling: In
a second degree burn, bliste'rs appear on the skin. A third degree burn is
characterized by sores,
The degree of the burn depends on the length of exposure to the flash
and on the distance from the blast. Persons in an open area can be injured
by the flash .of light, even if they are at a distance where the effects of
penetrative 'radiation and-.of shock wave are slight.,
The degree of injury to an organism from the flash of light depends not
only on the severity of the burns., but also on the'size of the area of
exposed skin.
Ordinary clothing provides considerable protection and may completely
prevent burns.
The color of the clothing, the thickness of the material, and its tight-
ness have some influence on the severity of the` burns suffered on covered
portions of the body. A person dressed.in loosely fitting clothes of a light
shade will receive fewer burns on the covered portions of his body than a
person dressed in tightly fitting clothes of a dark color.
Under the effect of the light flash, the' surfaces of various objects
may become charred, or they may melt or burst into flames. The flash may
set fire to uncovered war material, paint, canvas-, and tents; it may burn
.or char uncovered wooden parts of weapons, military equipment, and buildings..
Close to the center of the blast, metal may become molten.
The flash may cause fires in populated places, in forests, and in the
steppes.
Penetrative Radiation
Penetrative radiation consists of a stream of gamma rays and neutrons,
which are released by the atomic explosion.
The primary source of gamma rays during an atomic explosion is the radio-
active fragments produced by the fission of the nuclei of the uranium atoms.,
which are present in the area of the explosion and in the radioactive cloud.
The effect of the gamma,rays decreases rapidly Faith time, In general,
gamma rays are not active for more than ten or fifteen ,seconds.
Gamma rays and neutrons are capable of penetrating materials of con-
s iderabl:e thickness..
When a gamma ray passes through a substance, its force is diminished in
proportion to the density of the material;. In the airy. ,for example, gamma
rays travel many hundreds of meters, but they cannot move more than a few
centimeters through lead,
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A stream of gamma rays is cut in half when it passes through a layer of
earth 14- cm thick, a layer of wood 25 cm- thick, or a7 armor. plate 2.8 cm
thick (figure 22)
The source of :neutrons in an atomic explosion is the fissioned nuclei:
During an ekplosion, the stream of neutrons is active for a fraction of a
second and travels hundreds of meters through the air.
A beam of neutrons is weakened when it passes through various substances
in the same way that the gamma rays are weakened. The strength of a beam of
neutrons is most effectively rediueed by substances containing light elements
such as hydrogen, carbon, and others. The force of a neutron beam is ef-
ficiently reduced by damp earth, wood, concrete, asphalt, and water.
Non-radioactive substances in the earth (particularly in swampy, sandy,
saline, or clayey ground)'bec'ome radioactive under the effect, of neutrons.
This is also true of some metals. Such radioactive substances lose their
radioactivity within.a few hours
The' effect. of penetrative radiation, is negligible in the case of under-
water and underground explosions This is because, in an underwater and
'underground explosion,. alpiost the entire stream of gamma rays and of neutrons
is absorbed by the 'medium surro'unding the blast (water or earth)
Penetrative radiation has an injurious effect on the organisms of humans
and animalsa The radiation may produce a disorder known as radiation sick-
Radiation sickness develops graduallya The course of the disease varies
between.-one individual and another and depends on the individual organism:.
The severity of the radiation sickness depends for the most part.on the
amount of radiation to which the organism was exposed. The amount of radia-
tion is measured in.roentge'ns A dose of radiation of between 100 and 200
roentgens may cause only slight illness A dose of over 200 roentgens is
more serious. In this case, the illness will be characterized by headache,
a rise in temperature, and gastric disturbances.
Figure 22
/Reduction of the dose of penetrative
radiation by protective layers]
The dose of radiation that a person may receive as the result of an
atomic explosion depends primarily on his distance from the site of the blast;'
it also depends on what protection he has.a There is a sharp decrease in the
amount of radiation (gamma rays and neutrons) as the distance from the ex-
plosion increases.
Persons who are in a shelter at the time of the. explosion. will receive
a smaller dose of radiation than persons who are out in the open and are at
the same distance from the blast. Trenches, the roofs and 'walls of defensive
c'onstruction,,as.well as armor of tanks and self-propelled artillery guns greatly
reduce the :effect of.penetrative radiation.
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Penetrative radiation has no harmful `effe.ct.on some`things5 including
!combat 'equipment; Ho ever, the glass. of optical, instruments (binoculars,
panoramic sights,., periscopes, et al,) tins dark when it is exposed to a
considerable dose- of radiati'on.. Photographic material, such as film and
paper, is damaged by the light if it is exposed to as small a dose as two or
three roentgens.
Radioactive Contamination of Ground and Air in an Atom c Explos ion
The air and the terrain in the path of an atomic explosion and along the
path of the atomic cloud, as well as equipment, personnel, and animals. not
under shelter, may be contaminated by radioactive substances.
The radioactive substances that contaminate the terrain following an
atomic blast are composed of products of the fission of the nuclei of
uranium (plutonium) atoms; of artificially produced radioactive substances
formed at. the time of the explosion from non-radioactive substanced found in
the composition of the bomb casing; of artificially produced radioactive
substances from the soil and other mateials; and of parts of the atomic
charge that escaped the reaction at the time of the explosion.
The degree to which a locality is contaminated at the time of an atomic
blast and the size of the contaminated area depend on the type of explosion
(air, surface, underground), on the size of the charge in the bomb, and on
meteorological conditions and the character of the terrain and soil.
If the explosion takes place in the air, most of the radioactive products
rise with the cloud, and the area is not badly contaminated.
Near the epicenter of the explosion, contamination is the result primarily
of radioactivity in the soil, which is produced by the action of the neutrons.
Since the radioactive substances in the soil lose their radioactivity
comparatively fast; serious contamination is present only for the first few
hours after the blast.
When-the atomic explosion takers place on the surface of the ground,, a
large part of the radioactive products is mixed with the soil and scattered
by the shock wave. Small particles of soil are carried up into the radio=
active cloud by the rising air currents-. As the cloud.rises, some. of the
radioactive products of the blast settle on the larger dust particles and
dross and fall out .onto the ground near the site of the explosion; thus
contributing to the radioactive contamination. in the area of the explosion.
The fall-out of radioactive substances, together with particles of soil
and dust, also continues along the path traveled by the cloud. This leads to
the formation of a radioactive trail. Along most, of this trail, the contami
nation is not severe; it is only at the points nearest the site of the blast
that parts of the trail may be severely contaminated.
Rain and snowfall contribute to the rapid fall-out of radioactive sub-
stances from the cloud. It may happen that the area nearest to the point of
the explosion will become much more acutely contaminated, while the contami-
nation of the air is greatly reduced,,
A heavy :snowfall following the explosion may bring about some decrease
in the intensity of the radioactive radiation, if a. sufficiently protective
layer of snow covers the radioactive substances that. have fallen on the area.
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Radioactive. particles are more readily retained on rough or wet surfaces.
Surfaces of objects turned toward. the direction of the blast become more
.severely contaminated than surfaces which. are facing in the other direction.
If a structure has cracks, doors, or other' openings in it? the surfaces of
objects in the interior can become c.ontaminate:d*
The direction and the force of the with have a considerable influence on
the degree of contamination of various parts of a locality and of the .surfaces
of -Objects therein:
The contamination of the air is worse in areas where there is little
vegetation. because of the dust that is blown ups
When as atomic explosion occ'ur's underwater, a. large .stratocumulus cloud,
which releases radioactive rain, is formed.. A large part of the radioactive
substances that are formed in-an underwater blast is retained in the water,
which brings about extreme contamination of the water,
If an explosion takes place close to shore. the shore .. may become cbn-
taminated by radioactive substances, as a result of both the radioactive
rain and the radioactive water thrown onto the shore..
People and animals may receive injuries if radioactive substances come
into contact with their skin or the mucous membrane of the -eyes,, nose, or,
mouth within the organism', or if they are exposed to a beam of beta; particles
or, particularly, gamma rays#.
If radioactive particle's which have fallen onto the skin or'which have
come into contact with the mucous membranes of the eyes, noses or mouth are
not removed in time., they may cause sores and inflamaation.
When large doses of radiation are received or when radioactive substances
have been. taken internally, radiation sickness may result.
Radioactive subsstandes are not injurious to combat equipment ; However',
in order to avoid injury to personnel by contact with contaminated equipment"...
equipment must be freed from radioactive substances by mechanical means.
Various chemicals can. be used for this purpose,. a weak solution of acids,:
alkali,'alcohol, benzine, etc
One of the peculiarities of radioactive substances is that they may be
free of any particular odor, color, or other external characteristic that
identifies many toxic substances used in .combat. Radioactive contamination.
is revealed by special instruments called dosimeters (dozimetricheskiye
pribory,).
'The degree of radioactive c'ontaxination 'of an area is characterized by
the strength of the dosage of gamma and beta radiation :on the' surface .of the
ground; it is measured in roentgens per hour.
The' radioactive products of'9n atomic blast fall from the cloud over a
large area. However,, the radioactive contamination of the larger part of
most of this area does not present a serious hazard to ground forces.
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The length -of time during which it is safe for personnel to remain in a
contaminated ar'e'a without injury to their health depends on the degree of
radioactivity present.
Tine radioactive contamination of as area diminishes continually, because
the radioactive substances disintegrate, because these substances are blown
away from the surface of the soil by the wind and washed away by the rain,
and because they pet rate into the soil*
Combat Radioactive Substances (BRV)
Specially prepared radioactive substances, called combat radioactive
substances (RRV)., can be used in liquid or powder form or as smoke for the
purpose of contaminating the terrain, the air', water, produces weapons, war
material, -etc. Radioactive substances may also be mixed with poisonous
sub:stAnces
The injurious?effect of combat radioactive substances does not differ
fr= the injurious effect of the radioactive substances released from the
blast of an atomic boinbe
The contamination. of the terrain and of the air with radioactive sub-
stances can be brought about by using guided missiles :(reaktivnyye snaryady),
rockets, aerial bombs, artillery shells, and mines charged with these sub.-
.stances..
I. GENERAL REMARKS
The possibility o:f carrying out atomic strikes by the enemy makes it
necessary to adopt special measures for the disruption. of an atomic attack
and to organize antiatomic defense.
The destruction of atomic weapons and the disruption of an atomic attack
by the enemy are effected :according to plans worked out. by the supreme command,
Aviation, artillery, and other means are brought into use for this purpose-.
GJra of the principal: means used in atomi'c? attack is airplanes (atomic
bomb carriers); therefore, the entire system of antiaircraft defense plays an
at in warding off atomic strikes by the -enemy,
important .
A strict observance of camouflage, a skillful use of the cover of night
for combat and marches;v and also skillful use of bad (flying) weather are
important for azcceesful combat operations, in atomic warfare.
Antiatomio defennse is one of the mast important, types, of combat pro`-
tection of troops::. These defenses are organized and established by order of
the senior officers, but every .commander must independently take all anti-
atomic defense measures within his province, regardless of the situation.
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Antiatomic defense measures are executed iininte:rruptedly not only during
all types of combat, but also when the troops are well in the rear e Their
'purpose is to protect the troops. from the` .direct effect of atomic 'Weapons and
to maintain their combat preparedness
Antiatomicdefense includes.
g danger of an atomic attack by the enemy;
Warning to the troops:of the
Engine-er, organization of the ground with. respect to antiatom c defense;
Continual radiation reconnaissance and the observance of precautionary
measures against injury by radioactive..substancez;
The exeeutiot of measures to eradicate the' consequences of an atomic
attack.
'The purpose of a `warning to the troops is to enable them to take steps
in time to ward off, and defend themselves against, the destructive effects
of atomic weapons. Personnel are warned by a predetermined signal tram
mitted by radio and tale Shore and quickly passed on by aural.or visual .signals-.
The purpose of the engineer preparation of the ground in antiatomic de-
fense is. to reduce sharply, or, to eliminate completely,, the effect on persgneif,
equipment, and, combat materiel of the destructive factors of an atomic ex-
plosion, shock wave, penetrative radiation, light flash, and radioactive
contatimination.-
Radiation reconnaissance must reveal in time the presence of radioactive
substances which have dropped on the area following an atomic explosion.or
which have been employed directly by the enemy, determine the degree of radia-
tion, mark off the contaminated areasy seek. out detours around those areas,
and warn the troops promptly to take precautionary measures against radio-
active substances.
Dosimeters are used to protect personnel from exposure in excess of the
safe dosage.
The purpose of eradicating the consequences of an atomic attack is to
restore rapidly combat preparedness of the troops. This .eradication includes
such measures as life saving, extinguishing .of fires, reconstruction of ruined
or damaged defense works and communication lines, medical treatment for men
and animals, and decontamination of. clothing, equipment, weapons, combat
materiel, and rations.
II. DEFENSIVE WORKS
In. atomic warfare, as in. conventional warfare' trenches .and communi-
cation trenches are the basic part of engineer ground organization In an
atomic attack by the enemy, they ensure significant reduction in. losses
resulting from the shock wave, the light flash,- and penetrative radiation.
Large numbers of recesses, slits, refuges, and overhead covers for the
protection of personnel and equipment must be built in the trenches and
communication trenches.
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Sections of 'both types' of trench are provided with overhead cover in
order to increase their protective efficiency: Rifle squads usually build
ont covered section ten to twelve meter's 1611g
.At the first opportunity, both types of trenchep are excavated to a
depth of 1.5 meters;. covered sections' of trench and points where reces`ses',
blinds., and refuge's are located are made up to 1.:8 meters deepp. 'he trenches
must be laid out to that there are no sharp angles at the breaks, because-,
otherwise, they are easily destroyed by the shock wave. in the area of the
breaks,
Trenches without parapets or rear traverses do not provide adequate
protect ions
The trenches and couil'ication trenches built in, soft ground.. must .have
revetted slopes to provide. them with greater resistance to the shock wave:
The covered sections of the trenches and the -entrancees to the 'cover also have
revetted slopes. Figure 23 shows a. section of trench ?e quipped for antiatomc
defense.
Figure 23
section of trench equipped for ' ntiatomi.c defenseJ
Brush~aoad or cane mats 24), poles, boards, slabs, etc are
widely used for the. revetment of slopes. The most stable .of these materials
are mats made of brushwood. or caries
If the revetment of the slopes _is. to be made of poles and boards, the
distance between, the uprights is one meter; the length of the guy wires is
two and a half to three meters. The uprights :should. be ten to tvelve centi-
meters in diameter, and they must be driven at least fifty centimeters into
the ground-. The anchor pickets for the guys must be made of poles six to
eight centimeters in diameter,l and they must be driven in to a depth of at
least fifty centimeters.
Figure 24
'T.
LT
c'onstruction of revetments from brushwood or cane.?
Cross bars made of two poles (skhvatks.)anc a beam (a piece of a '.pole);:
placed in,such a manner' as to .push against the uprights, can'be used in place
of guy wirers:. If the trench is .1.,8 meters deep or-amore, the: uprights of the
revetment must be secured both with poles (~khvatkg)and with guy wires,
especially if the trench has been dug in soft ground. If it is impossible
to drive the stakes into the ground or if the ground is .soft$ the bottom ends
of the uprights :are reinforced by horizontal distance bars
If the revetments are made of inflammable material, they must be covered
with earth or clay in order to protect them from fire; in winter, they can be
painted with whitewash. If long sections of .the trench are revetted, fire-
breaks, one to two meters -aide, must be made at intervals of 40 to 50 meters,
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v v
X23_
Fight 25
Covere& section? of trench with covering and revetment J
Logs with a ,4iameter of 16 to 20 centimeters are used to cover trenches.
The 'ends' of the timbers are' not placed on. the ledgers, but, directly on the
ground- The timbers must project at least fifty cent.imeters.. The revet
ment of the covered sections of the trenches must leave a space from ten to
fifteen centimeters wide at the top; In the absence of logs for the cover-
ing, poles, boards, and brushwood fas..cines may be used.. A layer of earth
4G to 50 centimeters.deep is placed over the cover In order to render the
-cover-more resistant to the shock wave wind to prevent it from standing out
in the surroundings, it is made as level as possible with the ground. A
section of trench with cover and revetment is shown in figure 2'5..
In the winter, it is advisable to build arched covers of snow or ice
(figure 26 ) over the tre'nc'hes .
F6
LArched trench cover made of fascines and snow
'The platforms for machine guns and grenade throwers (figure 27) are
built as under ordinary cir'cumstan:ces.. Recesses:., covered with strong
shields, must be built near these platforms.
Observation.'pits (figure 28), unlike the usual type., are constructed
with a covered entrance,'and the hole is, provided with a removable ,shield..
Blinds below the breastwork (figure 29) and recesses. (figure 30) are
constructed. with flat or ribbed shields, ferroconcrete hoops, and what-
ever materials are at hand... Accesses to the blinds, or recesses, are equip -
PA with strong shields or doors. 'Trenches adjoining the blinds are covered
for a distance of from four to six meters on both sides of the access to the
entrance. No less than, eighty 'centimeters of earth must. cover the blinds
and the recesses.
Blinds below the breastwork are placed at a 90-degree angle. ti their
entrance, or they are turned to face away from the axis of the entrance, so
that persons will not be inured by wreckage from the protective doors or
shields if,- the latter should bt damaged by the' shriek wave.
Slit trenches are revetted.-,, and. they are usually covered, The entrances
to slit trenches are covered with strong shields.
Figure, -27-
latrorm for machine gun, :or grenade thrower 'vith a niche .7
Figure 28
fbserverts foxhole?
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Sub-breastwork b .ind:d
F
OU-re
0
ZOub-breastwork recess-7 Protective Works for Fire Wapons
Protective works for fire weapons' (pits for machine gams, grenade`
lainwhers, mortars, guns, tank pits) are usually open structures..
Shelters with strong. ly built entrances ar-e` erected to protect personnel
and fire weapons in these works:.
Trench side's, particularly in soft graund,, are face& with brushwood..,-
poles, .etc.
Machine guns pits are equipped with blinds for the' protection of the
machine' gun crew'.
Recesses:novered with strong e v`ers are built for machine guns and
ammunition in the front slope of the pit..
In` pits with a broad field of fire, two r'e'cesses may be built, one for
the ammunition and one for the machine gun Both recesses are covered with
solidly made shields;.
Gun pits may be- dug so that the field of fire is marrow; broad, ar
circular., In pits for 57 :mm, 85=, and 100 mm gunsthere must be built a
platform for firing, one or two blinds for the gun crew, a shelter for the
guu ramps for dra ' the
to the firing :area and for removing it from
tggg gun
its shelte'r',,. and recesses for the ammunition (figure 31).
Pits for gun's of higher calibr-e are dunk farther into the gr;ound
( figure 32)
The framework of blinds used to cover gun, crews is made of standard
:shields,, logs, or materials at hand. Entrances to the blinds are equipped
with doors':
The` framework for gun covers is made of frares placed tightly against
each otheer, and the entrance to the shelter is covered with a solidly built
shield.
In order to reduce the size of the shelter,, for the purpose of reducing
the amount. of work and the amount of material used* gun shelters can-be built
in such a manner that the front. part of the plate and barrel protrude beyond
the shelter;. A trench is dug in the ramp for the spades, The shield that
covers the entrance to the shelter is held up .against the framework of the
shelter by a timber that ,is in turn, held "by metal lugs. In order to facili-
tate the removal of the gun to the firing, space, tracks made of boards or logs
are laid along the ramp.
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Mortar pits are sunk farther into the ground., The shelter for the
mortar is built into the front slope of th pit. The entrance to the shelter`
is c.ov red with a solid shield,. The blind for the crew and the recesses for
the ammunition are built into the sides Of the trenches contiguous to the pit;
The conmi=ication trenches are covered in sections 'near recesses and entrances
to blinds,
i r e 1
flit for 57 nun or 85 nun gun with shelter and blind]
When tanks and. self-propelled arrt.illeryy mounts are in position, pits
are dug for them with a firing platform, shelter for the tanks, and blinds
for the crew (figure 33)=
In intermediate position areas and in concentration areas,zhelte`rs are
built for the tanks and blinds for the crews (figure 34). A blind furnishes
better protection for the crewfrom.penetrative radiation than does tank
armor..,
A blind should have a cover made of logs, covered with a layer of earth
at least one meter thick; the entrance to the blind is equipped with :a` solid
protective door.
Closed strueture:e for firing and observation provide better protection
against atomic `weapons than do. 'p its. Their value lies in. the fact that the
covering lessens the effect of the shock wave and of penetrative` radiation
and provides complete protection against the light flash. Closed structures
may be equipped with ventilation and filter systems for protection-against
radioactive aubstanees..
The most vulnerable places in closed. defensive field works are the
entrances, gun ports, and ventilation ports.. All openings in defensive
'structures must be provided with doors,, shields, or other covers,,for pro
tection from the effect of the cheek wave, The communication trench con-
tiguous to the structure is covered with logs 16 to. 20 cm in diameter under
a layer of earth 40 to 50 cm thick; the slope's of these sections of cOm-
munication trenches are revetted:. The entrance to the structure is equipped
with a protective door made of boards from five to seven, centimeters thick..
Figure .32
flit for 122 mm and 152 mm howitzers for
firing from position of cover?
flit with shelter for ,tedium'-.tanks and self-propelled
artillery mounts (SAU), with blind for the crew 7
Ff,gure 34
fhelter for tank or self-propelled artillery
mount (Sku) with blind for the cre j
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Figure. _35:.
fDTUgdUt of light construction; accomodates ten persons)
[The following are the identifying parts to Figure 35
1 Apparatus to protect flue from shock "av'e
2... Sheet steels 2 mm thick::
3 Shock absorption chamber (v.olnogas itelriaya kamera).
4 Hermetic valve:
5 Sand.
6.. Sand box (this is installed in cle:y)
7. Sheet steel, I mm think.
84 Hermetic partition.
9 Lininga two layers of heavy paper.
10. Segmented board.
11 Plank.
12: Heavy protective door:..
13 Heavy protective.do.or.
l]4.a Stove..
'15 Not - leis than 150 cm.
i6 Clay, 5 cm.
17 Hermetic partitions.
18. Air filter and ventil4tion. apparatus
Fgure..36
shelter for portable communications apparatus,
A - Recess B Sub-breastwork b- lind.J
In closed structures for observation purposes, apertures and ports are
equipped with doors or removable shields; periscopes are provided to ensure
observation during atomic attack:
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'The' entrance to. the structure is also equipped with a protective door,.
Dugouts are the most ;satisfactory sheltera for persbnnei, since they
provide protection from the effects of at oinic weapons,
Each dugout is provided with at least two entrances one of which is
kept for emergency use and is built to resemble a mine shaft. The main
entrance is' equipped `with.or:e or two air locks tambur )'
The outer door of the air locks is.a protective door, while the others
are, protective and hermetical, Ihe. they are built in such a manner as to
be airtight when closed. The construction. of the` air locks must be as solid
as that of the framework of the shelter.
In order to prevent the shock wave from penetrating into the dugout,
airtight apertures are equipped with anti-explosive valves or with gravel
shock absorbers (yolnogasiteli), which automatically close the aperture
when the shock wave first hits,* In the absence? of such valves or shock
absorbers, apertures for .smoke and other outlets are covered manually with
hermetic .doors.
Communications equipment (portable radio sets, telephones) is kept in
blinds or special shelters (figure' 36). If time is lacking, slit trenches
with recesses for personnel and material are built. Communications cables
are laid at a depth of 20 to 25 cm.
3, Shelters for 'Transport E9, .
uipment,, Eq 4pme'nt, Rations, and. Horses.
Ditches figure 37) with ramps leading into them are built as shelters
for automobiles and tractors,. they are dug in such ,a manner as to be one=
half meter deeper than the height of the, Vehicle,
In soft ground, these shelters are revetted.
Blinds are built for the drivers near the automobiles and tractors.
Fi .37
/-Shelter' for motor vehicles,
- in flat ground; b - in inclined ground
Technical equipment is placed,, in its packing, in. ditches up to 1..5
meters deep and 1.5 to 2 meters 'wide; the ditches are covered with a light
covering or canvas
Ammunition is placed in ravines, depressions, or specially dug shelters,
at a distance from the storage places of other types of material. The ddis-
tan ce`between the shelters must be greater than. under' ordinary conditions,
and the quantity of ammunition in eachshelter mast be less
Fuels and lubricants are kept in ditches, 'one to 1*5 meters deep and 1,.8
toy meters vide , with ramps leading into them (figure 38). Trench-like
shelters can be built one meter deep; in this case; the barrels containing
the fuels and lubricants are covered with a layer of earth five to ten cent i-
meters deep.
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It is advisable to bury large' containers of fuel at a depth of no less
than one to 1.5 meters. In order to obtain fuel from, such largo tanks, it
is necessary to build a shaft over the hatch of these tanks.
Ater for fuels and lubricants j
A dugout of light construction (figure 4+0) is built in the front slope
Of trenches for the storage of rations and clothing.
It is advisable. to store field rations and forage in ditchers, up to
1.5 meters deep, covered with flooring at the bottom and revetments at the
side, Slit trenches .are provided with light covers or canvas.. If there' is
a considerable amount .of ground water,. the rations are stored in bundles on
planking laid Above ground (figure )). In populated areas, rations are
stored in masonry buildings (warehouses, dwellings, cellars)
Fi39
ftora:ge' of large fuel tankJ
Horses are sheltered in ditches tip to two meters deep with ramps lead-
ing dawn into themb
Figur38
F figure 40.
storage dugout for rations and clothing j
sat ions
Figure' 4.1
stored inbundlesJ
k.Y. Camouflage of Defensive Works
Camouflage assumes a role of particular importance under conditions in
which atomic weapons ark- used,
The existing,.standard camouflage covers ('tabelnyye maski )can be destroyed.
by the shock wave, or they may be set on fire by the light flash. In order
to. increase, the resistance of standard covers to the effects of the' shock wave
of an atomic blast, the covers be reinforced with additional inner and
outer braces: The bracesare, moue' effective if the cover is-attached to the
ground.
The camouflage coverts offer better resistance to the effects of the
light. flash if they are made Of metal screens with metal filings woven into
them or of weather proof ,(atmosferousrto rehivaya), paper or cloth, which have
~ ~i 1 ?; ?
been made fireproof ogne'7ashchitnyy sostav)
Standard camouflage equipment made of cotton mesh or cloth is made more
resistant to the effects of the light flash if it is impregnated or painted
in order to make it fire-resistants
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Camouf .age made of materials at. hand (mats made of =cane, brushwivod
strawy etc, can be made more resistant to fire if it is soaked in or spread
with watery clay.
III,. BONAL PROTECTION EQUIPMENT:usED IN CHEMICAL WARFARE
Personal protection equipment:used__in..chemical warfare is. used in av.O.id-
Lng contamination. from radioactive , s bstantes e
Personal protective equipment is used to protect:.one from the.:effects
of the light flash as well as from the effects of radioactive substances.
Gas masks provide adequate protection against the entry of radioactive
substances into the respiratory passages
The rules for the use of the gas mask as protection against radioactive
substances are the same as those used for protection against chemical agents
"oyevyye otravlyayushcbiye veshchestva)i.
The:protective cape is used to protect skin and, clothing from radioactive
substances.
The cape-matting '(nakidka-podstil)- is usedto protect clothing from
contamination when passing through contaminated_ areas.
The protective stockings are worn for decontamination.work:and also
when entering a contaminated areal
The protective gloves are worn. as protection for the hands, especially
when handling contaminated weapons (equipment)while carrying out decontami-
nation work,
Figure 42
Matt in.g made from materials at hand:
A from straw B - from brushwoog
The protective, overalls or protective suit can be used whenever it is
necessary to work in a contaminated area.
In the absence of standard individual means of antia:tomic defense,, one
makes use of materials at hand for protective covering against radioactive
substances.
Among the materials at hand.which may be used to protect the respiratory
passages are towels, handker.shiefs, cotton-, or gauze. One must fold the towel,
handkerchief, or gauze into several layers, wet it in. water, wear it as a. mask
over the nose and mouth;. and breathe through it.a,
Mats made from, materials on hand s` g,.,.straw on brushwood, can be used
to protect clothing from contamination by radioactive.sub-stances (figure 42).
They are used as bedding in a contaminated area and in passing through a
contaminated area not more than 500 in deep:,
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Shoes may be protected from radioactive substances by using sacking
('meshkovina), worn-out cotton protective wrapping ('nakidka (figure 43),
or shoe wraps ('chuni)(figure 44). They are used in the same way as when
passing through an area contaminated with -~chem3a1 agents.
Figure 43
How to wrap legs with strips from. protective wrapping.7
Figure 144.
LShoe wraps]
Horses may be prote'cted from contamination by radioactive substances by
use of gas masks and protective goggles designed for horses, as well as by
the use of cloaks and leggings.
1. Organization of Radiological Reconnaissance
Radiological reconnaissance is undertaken in order to make it possible
to take prompt measures to protect personnel from contamination by radio-
active substances.
All units (chasti.) and small units ('podrazdeleniya), including those in
the rear, are permanently, and in all circumstances, engaged in this recon-
naissance.
It is the responsibility of all commanders and leaders of .all grades up
to and including company (battery) level, to organize radiological recon-
naissance.
Radiological reconnaissance is carried out by organic ,(shtatnyye')
chemical small units; if there are no--such small units, it is carried out by
sections, teams, or crews specially trained in chemical defense ;(khimizirovan-
nyye) .
Chemical and radiological reconnaissance are usually carried out together,
but, depending on the circumstances, they may be performed separately.
Radiological reconnaissance (like chemical reconnaissance) is performed
by patrols, observation posts, and separate chemical and dosimeter specialists
(khimiki-dozimetristy.).
At the time. of reconnaissance, warning signs are used-to mark the limits
of contaminated zones, detours around them, and routes through them (figure
'45)
An area is considered to be contaminated if the intcens'ity.of:radiation
exceeds 0.1 roentgen per hour; it is considered severely contaminated if the
intensity is' higher than 5 roentgens per hour; and it is considered dangerously
contaminated if the radiation exceeds 100 roentgens per hour.
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The results of the reconnaissance are reported to the commanders of the
small units or to the persons who organized the reconnaissance; these persons
determine the necessary measures to be taken for protection againstcontamir
nation from radioactive substances;
2_. Conduct of Radiological Reconnaissance
Chemical Observation Posts
For the purpose of carrying out radiological observation, chemical
observation posts are set up in the area where their small units are sta-
tioned.or in action. These. observation posts are equipped both with instru-
ments for chemical reconnaissance and with dosimeters.
A post is manned by two or three men, one of whom,..:is put in command..
Figure .45
Meaning of warning siikns placed in areas contaminated
by radioactive'substancesj
The chemical observation post conducts radiological reconnaissance with
dosimeters at regular and irregular intervals. Periodic surveys are made of
the assigned area within a radius. of 600 meter's.; The post also maintains un-
interrupted observation of the direction of travel of the atomic cloud pro-
duced by the blast.
Irregular readings of the instruments are taken after an:-enern -:plaheshas
flown past, after an air attack or an artillery barrage, during the laying
of a smoke screen by the enemy, and when the atomic cloud is moving toward
the location of the small unit.
Radiological observation is. carried out on.the post by observers on a regular
schedule. Surveys of the area, following an air or artillery attack, are per-
formed by a non-scheduled ('svobodnyy),'6bsebrver. The observer in command
('starshiy nablyudatel) keeps under observation the direction of movement of
the cloud produced by the atomic blast4
The observer in command enters all data On radiological observation of
the post in the 'observation log (zhurnal nablyudeniya}'? An example of such
entries is given blow.
LOG OF CHEMICAL OBSERVATION POST NO. 5
Site of
Time
Area .of
Subject .of
When and
observa-
~of
cebservam.
observation
to whom
tion (co-
-observa
tion
reported
Ordinates)
tion
Elevation
1200
100 meters
Bombing near the
Commanding
"Kruglaya"
this. side'-
"Uzkaya" ravine,,
officer,
of Orient-
Detection Of
2nd Rifle
ation ::
contamination of
Company,
Point No.2
".Uzkaya"ravine and
at. 12:15
"Zelenyy"shrubs d:is-
covered. Intensity of
radiation at 0.2 roentgen
er hour'
p
.
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The observer in c'vmmand reports the detection of radioactive contami-
nation to;his commanding officer, at whose order he gives the chemical alarm
signal.
When
efennsive> in areas of concentration, after the occupation
of the
of the When on tdeparture d defensive
iskhodnoye polozheniA, for the attack, and after
the disposition ..{of troopsi) in place, the chemical observation posts. are set
up in areas advantageous for observations which, as a rule,, are near theobser-
vation posts of the c mnnanfor.s of small units
During attack-and during troop movement, chemical observation posts are
.moved along with the observation posts of the commanders; this ensures the
detection of radioactive contamination and the measuring of the intensity of
radiation along the line of march: The function of the chemical observation
posts is the same during deployment as it is in defense:
When troops are transported by train, the chemical observation posts are
set up at the head of the echelon.U, In this case,, the observer takes a periodic
reading of the dosimeter; if he detects radioactive contamination,.: he reports
to the chief of the eaheelon..
Dosimeter Patrols
Dosimeter patrpts are dispatched to survey the area of troop activity or
adjacent areasy in 'rder to detect radioactive contamination, to make a recon-
naissance of detected contaminated areas (determining the intensity. of,-radiation
and marking the borders of the contaminated area), and to make a preliminary
survey of the .s itee of the atomic blast.
A patrol is composed of from three to five men, one of whom is in command.
Radiological reconnaissance of roads' and lines of march may be carried
out in a motor vehicle (armored ?carrier, tank) or on foot. While on the march,
one of the dosimeter operators takes a reading at intervals of from.150 to 200
meters
If radioactive contamination of the area is discovered; a brief halt is
made. The men of the patrol put on individual :protective clothing
and get out of the vehicle, At the order Of the patrol 'commander, they
measure the intensity of the radiation and. mark off the outer limit of the
contaminated. area of the road -(or line of march) which has a radiation in-
tensity of 0.1 roentgen per hour. Warning signs are put up on the shoulders
of the read at points where they can be seen most -easily.:
The commander of the patrol reports any- detection of radioactive con-
termination to his commanding officer,
After marking off the outer limit of the contaminated zone, the patrol.
again, gets into the vehicle (armored car, tank) and continues along the road
through the are. of contaminations, measuring the intensity of radiation every
100 to 150 meters, This is done' by stopping the car and measuring the radia-
tion from the &ar. The dosimeter is held in the hand at a height of one meter
from the ground:
When the patrol reaches an area in which the intensity of radiation is
five roentgerApier hour, the 'men come to a halt and mark off the border of the
zone of severe contamination.
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The patrol makes a detour around any area with a radiation intensity
of over 100-roentgens per hour, having first marked off its border with the
required warning signs,
Patrols are usually Sent. t in tanks for the reconnaissance of an area
with a radiation intensity of over 100 roentgens per hour..
In passing through a contaminated area, a vehicle (armored carrier, tank)
also becomes contaminated by..rradioactive substances It is?, therefore, im-
possible to determine the rear boundary of a contaminated zone by taking
measurements from the 'vehicle Having driven through a zone of severe con-
tamination, it is necessary to measure the intensity of radiation at a dis-
tance of ten to fifteen meters from the vehicle:. When the patrol has reached
the rear boundary of the contaminated section of road. (line of march) with a
radiation intensity of O..l roentgen per hour, the patrol marks it off; the
patrol commander reports on this to the officer who sent out the patrol.
Before setting out on reconnaissance for the purpose of detecting radio-
active contamination. the patrol commander marks on a map or a sketch several
routes to be followed which will provide coverage of the -entire area.
Patrols in vehicles (armored carrier,, tank) follow these routes and...
with roentgen meters? check for radioactive contamination.
The 'procedure for reconnaissance in areas known to be contaminated is
determined by combat conditions,, the. nature of the terrain, and-the presence
of friendly troops in the area to be surveyed:
When the area to be reconnoitered is occpied by troops,. the first place
in which the patrols measure the intensity of radiation is the area where
the troops are located, .. lb accomplish this) the ,patrol .proceeds: by .vehirle
(armored carrier, tank), or on foot if the combat situation or the terrain
does not permit the use of a motor vehicle, the patrol moves in the direction
of the unit (small unit.) cbmmanderYs observation pointy measuring the in-
tensity of radiation along the way (figure 46)
The patrol commander receives orders from the unit (small unit) commander
concerning the areas to be surveyed. The patrol commander may send instrument
men there, or he and the entire patrol.,with an, armored carrier or tank,- may
go to each of the areas in turn. When the survey has been completed, the
patrol commander reports to, the commanding officer of the unit (small unit)
on the intensity of radiation in the areas surveyed.
Figure 46
foutes taken. by dosimeter patrol in surveying
an. area occupied by troops]
An area not occupied by troops may also be patrolled-either on foot or
in a vehicle
When a patrol detects a contaminated area, while surveying in a vehicle
(armored carrier, ta'ok), it moves along its outer limit, indicating it with
warning signs. If there is no lateral boundary to the contaminated area in
the strip of land to be surveyed,- the patrol" cuts across the contaminated
area,, measuring the intensity of radiation every 100 to 150 meters. When
the trol reaches the rear boundary of the contaminated area, the men mark
it.
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When the patrol is on foot. it proceeds as.fllovs (figure l+7):
Dosimeter operator Now Z_ goes across thy` contaminated zone., following
the main direction to be taken by the patrols He measures the intensity of
the radiation and marks the front and. rear boundaries of the contaminated area.
Dosimeter operators -Now 2 and'No: 3 move out to the right and the left
of the main direction.. They stay on the boundary line of the contaminated
area and mark it off; if the lateral boundary of the contaminated area is not
located within the zone assigned to the patrol for survey,$ dosimeter' operator
No, 2 or-No* 3 (in the sketch it Is dosimeter oPerator No. 2) crosses the
(contaminated) area. along the edge of the strip which is being surveyed and
measures the intensity, of radiation; when he reaches the rear boundary of the
contaminated areas he marks it, following the main direction taken by the
patrol,
The patrol commander follows behind dosimeter operator No. 1, directs
the operations of the dosimeter operators, and takes control readings of the
radiation intensity.
At the assembly point, the dosimeter operators: report to the patrol
commander on the results of the survey.
When the, patrol proceeds on. foot and. under e`remy fire, the dosimeter
operators go in pair's along the routes assigned to them, keepinglunder cover
and moving ahead in short runs or, crawling from one cover to the next. When
they have located the boundary of the contaminated area and determined the
intensity of radiation in the area, they proceed to the assembly pointy
where they report the results of the reconnaissance to the patrol commander*
The` patrol commander accompanies one of the pair going in the main direction
of the survey and directs the. operations -of the dosimeter operators,
Figs, 47.
f Diagram of operations of a dosimeter patrol when surveying
a contaminated area not occupied by troops)
When :seeking a safe saute through the portion. of the contaminated area
assigned to him# the patrol commander designates several. routes at a distance
of 200 to 300 meters apart, The patrol proceeds along each of these routes
in turn in a vehicle (armored.carriery tank) and measures the radiation inten--
sit_y every 100 to 150 meters If it is impossible to take a vehicle (armored
carrier,, tank) through the area,- the' patrol spreads"?ot along the front
boundary of the contaminated area. and the dosimeter operators then cross the
area on, foot keeping a distance of from 200 to 300 meters between one another
(figure 48). At the assembly. point, the patrol commander records on a
sketch intensity of radiation along the path taken by each operatorii He
ascertains which is the most passable and the shortest and chooses the .safest.
and most. convenient of them.
Figure 48
/iagram of operations of .dosimeter patrol in search
of safe route through contaminatedd, area. ]
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Radiation reconnaissance of large ar_e'as: and of long roads or lines of
march can also be made by plane The intensity 'of radiation is measured
inside the plane,. which flies at, a height of ko0 meters or less.
Functions of a Dosimeter Operator Attached toa Reconnaissance
Unit.,~ a Security Detachment, or Detachpontg,pf Traffic Control
It is the task of dosimeter operators 'who are part of a reconnaissance
or a security ('okhraneniye), small unit or of a detachment of' traffic
control (otryad obespecheniya dvizheniya_7 to detect in time the presence of
contaminated zones in the direction (in the area) In which the security or
reconnaissance unit operates: The dosimeter operators must designate these
zones and determine the intensity of radiation in them. They also seek
safe routes through the contaminated zones and detect spots with a high de-
gree of radiation.
A dosimeter operator assigned to a reconnaissance or security small
unit. or to a detachment of traffic control usually proceeds at the head of.
? the column of the small unit., near the commanding officer: He takes an. in-
strument reading every 5a to 100 meterb* when on the march.
When the dosimeter operator discovers radioactive contamination., he re-
ports this to the commander of the small units: at whose order he then measures
the radiation intensity and puts up warning signs.:
When it is necessary to find a detours the dosimeter operator checks
on the presence of radioactive contamination along the routes indicated by
the unit commander.
If the reconnaissance or se-curity small unit or the detachment of traffic
control is motorized., the dosimeter operator determines the presence of
radioactive contamination without. leaving the vehicle. If he discovers
contamination, a short halt is made to enable him to determine the intensity
of radiation and to put up a warning sign..
3. Dosimeter 'Tnswe-ejIon
Dosimeter control (d.ozimetricheskiy Xon e;) is one of the measures
taken to protect troops- from, injury caused by radioactive substances. It is"
subdivided into inspection..of radiatioh.exposure k(kontrol radioaktivriogo
oblucheniya,7 and inspection of radioactive contamination ((kontrol radio--
aktivnogo zarazheniya).
Inspection of radiation exposure consists of measuring the dosage re-
ceived by personnel operating in a contaminated zone following an atomic ex-
plosion, after the use of combat,.radioactixe.; substances, or while decon-
taminating weapons,. equipment., or materiel.
Inspection of radiation exposure .of troops operating in a contaminated
area is subdivided into group inspection and individual inspection.
Group inspection of exposure is performed by.dosimeter operators. The
dosimeter operator sets up his instrument at the point in the unites location
where the intensity of radiation is at the highest; he takes readings and
makes periodic reports to the commanding officer on the dosage received by
personnel,
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These same dosimeter operators have the task of ascertaining the inten-
sity of radiation in areas of troop activity and of taking measures to protect
them from radioactive sub.stancesa
Small ionization chambers, fromthe sets for individual inspection, are
used in individual inspection for exposure..
The data obtained in measuring the dosage of radiation is -entered in the
'exposure record,
Inspection of radioactive contamination (kontrol radi,oakt.ivnogo
zarazheniya) of personnel, animals a. weapons t- technical equipment, material
and rations is performed when combat duties have been fulfilled and the troops
have left the contaminated area, and also during the course of complete
sanitary processing and decontamination.
Dosimeter posts... through which the troops must pass.- are set up for the
purpose ,of inspecting radioactive contamixation of troops upon their departure
from a contaminated area. The dosimeter operators at these posts measure the
degree of contamination from radioactive substances of all personnel,: weapons
and equipment.
If it is learned in. the course of the inspection that the'degree of con-
hmination exceeds the safety norms, personnel are put through sanitary pro-
cessing, and the animals receive treatment fr.oin a veterinarian.. Weapons,
technical equipment, and rations are decontaminated,
Dosimeter control during complete sanitary processing and decontami-
nation is performed by dosimeter operators in inspection and clearing posts
(kontrolno-raspredelitelnyye punkty) and by dosimeter operators at medical
and decontamination sections,
4. Dosimeters (Dozimetriche'Skiye Pribory)
The basic instruments used in radiological reconnaissance and in dosL-
meter control are roentgen meters,rrentgenometry), radiometers (radiometry),
and dosimeters (dozitietr..y )..
The roentgen meter is intended for use in measuring the intensity of
radiation in contaminated areas.
The basic parts of the roentgen meter are the ionization chamber:, a
direct current amplifier? an electric meter (microampere meter), and batteries
(istochniii pitaniya)o The operation of the roentgen meter is based on the
following principle... When beta.and gamma rays enter the ionization chamber,
an ionized current is produced in the chamber"gs circuit, this current is
boosted and then measured by the mi;croampere..metbr.
Figure 4+9
Roentgen meter DP 1-9
The reading of the microampere meter is in proportion to the strength
of the current that is formed in the ionization chamber; it is, therefore,
also proportional to the intensity of the radiation.,
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The roentgen meter makes it possible to measure an intensity :of 'radia-
tion of up to 107 roentgens per hour and to ascertain the boundaries of a
contaminated zone and the portions ;of It that are severely and dangerously
,contaminated.
During reconnaissance. of a contaminated locality,: the roentgen meter DP
1-A is worn against the chesty and the operato'r' watches the indicator con-
tinuously (figure 50) The' carrying position f the roentgen meter is shown
in fig8res 51 and 524
Figure 50
Position of the roentgen meter DP 1-A when in use?
Figure .51
position of the roentgen meter
for long-distance carrying]
Figure 52
ffosition of the roentgen meter when
being carried short distances]
The radiometer is used to determine the degree of radioactive contami-
nation on various surfaces, such as the surfaces of food, water, air, cloth-
ing, and skim when the-Object.-or person has left the contaminated area.
The contamination 'of various. obects is..
measured by the amount of decomposition (raspad) of radioactive substances
which takes place in one minute within one square centimeter of surface.
Figure 53 shows a radiometer of the type DP i1A'. This instrument
makes it possible to measure the contamination of objects up to 600,000
decompositions per minute in ;one square centimeter.
Figure 53
fadiometer DP 11-A7
The radiometer DP ll-A is used primarily to check contamination of
persons, weapons, technical equipment, and supplies at decontamination stations
(obmyvoebno-dezaktivat,sionnyye punkt~). -:It ?e.lso-enables tine to measure:.-small
intensities of gamma radiation (up to 03 roentgens per hour), which makes
it possible to use radiometer DP 11-A in radiation reconnaissance of an area
by plane
The fundamental parts of the' radiometer are: e>. meter, an electrical im-
pulse amplifier,- an, impulse converter (preobrazovatel impulsov), an electric
meter, and batteriesa
The. radiometer works on the following principle. When the beta parti-
cles and the gamma; rays act on the meters 'electrical impulses arise in the
meters circuit.. They are first boosted and then transmitted to the im-
pulse converter, where they are converted into direct current. The magni-
tude of this current, proportional to the amount of beta particles and gamma
rays acting on the meter, is measured by a microampere meter.
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Fidecih
?osition.of radiometer DP ll-A when in usel
The two parts of radiometer DP 11-A -the sounding rod and the gauge
panel- are connected by a flexible cable. The instrument is equipped with
headphones for sound detection.
When in uses the instrument box is worn on the chest) while the sounding
rod is held in the hand (figure 51+)e For detection of contamination, the
sounding rod is brought to a distance of one or two centimeters from the sur-
face suspected of being contaminated, and: signals are listened for on the
headphones* An uninterrupted crackling on the headphones means' that the
surface is contaminated.. The degree of contamination of the .surface is re
c ordded on a dial..
The dosimeter is' use& for measuring the total dosage of radiation re-7
ceived by personnel while in a contaminated area
A dosimeter called a komplekt individualnogo kontrolya is used in in
divid.ual inspection. It consists of 200 separate ionization ion chambers and of
a charge-gauging panel(zaryadno-izmeriteln 'y pult) which measures electri-
cal charges The ionization chambers are small and Brill fit in the pocket
of a tunic.
Each soldier and NCO is issued an ionization chamber of the type DP 21-
A before 'entering a contaminated area or an area subject to atomic attack.
Upon departure from the contaminated area.. the chamber is turned in in :order
to measure the extent of the dosage with the aid of the charge-gauging
panel.
An ionization chamber and the .charge-gauging panel are shown in figure
55.
,Ionization chambers measure' dosages from zero to 50 roentgens:
Figure 55.
fSet DP 21-
(A - Charge-gauging panel for measuring electrical charges.
B Ionization chamber used in individual control of -ex-
posure to radiation.)
V. SANITARY (VETERINARY) PROCESSING AND DECONTAMINATION.
1> Organization of Sanitary (Veterinary) Processing and Decontamination
Sanitary processing for troops (veterinary treatment for animals) and
the decontamination of weapons, technical equipment,- clothingy and supplies
have as their aim the prevention of injury to personnel from radioactive
substances:,.
The removal 'of radioactive substances from, the skin and the mucous
membranes of the eyes,: nosey and mouth of people Is called sanitary proces-
sing (sanitarnaya.obrabotka) and in case of animals - veterinary processing
(vet-erinarnaya obr& otka).
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The removal of radioactive substances from weapons, combat materiel,
equipment, defensive works,: the area, and also from water and food is called
decontamination (dezaktivatsiya).
Sanitary and veterinary processing, and also decontamination,are usually
carried out only in. such cases in which the contamination exceeds the norms
,of safety Sometimes, when it is impossible to determine the actual degree
of contamination, sanitary processing and decontamination are performed as a
preventive measure v In such cases sanitary and veterinary processing, and
also decontamination,are never carried out at the expense of the combat
object ive:,
Depending on tile.eombat situe.tion, sanitary and veterinary processing
and. decontamination may be fulfilled either partially or completely, and the
procedure is therefore divided into
partial and complete processing
Partial sanitary (veterinary) processing and also partial decontam.i-
nation are conducted in the immediate contaminated area or near it.. In
partial sanitary proces.sing,radioactive.substances are removed from the
exposed parts of the body; in partial decontamination, from the whole area
of the contaminated objects with which personnel :come into contact. First
comes sanitary processing, followed by decontamination. After the decontam-
t.
ination , partial sanitary processing is repeated.
Complete sanitary (veterinary) processing and complete decontamination
are performed only in uncontaminated areas,'and, as a rule, either after the
fulfillment of the combat mission or during a lull in the hostilities on
order of the senior officer.
In complete sanitary (veterinary) pr"ocessin.g,radioactive substances are
removed from the entire body .of the person (animal).
In complete decontamination, radioactive substances are removed from all
surfaces of weapons, technical equipment,- clothing, supplies, and other
-objects, Partial dismantling :of'weapons and technical equipment, for the
purpose of removing radioactive substances from inaccessible place's, is
permitted in complete decontamination
Dosage inspection (dozimetricheskiy kontrol) to determine the degree of
contamination of pers.onnelf:animals, clothing.,. weapons, technical equipment,
and supplies is performed both before and after complete sanitary (veterinary)
processing and complete decontamination..
Sanitary (vet:erinary) processing and decontamination, are considered com-
pleted when all radioactive substances have been removed from the bodies of
personnel_, animals, and from contaminated objects, or when the degree of con-
tamination has dropped to a safe level.
Decontamination stations are established.at unit positions for the ex-
ecution of complete sanitary processing of personnel, for veterinary proces-
sing of animals, and for the decontamination of weapons, technical equip-
ment, clothing,,- and supplies? The composition of these stations is as
follows
- A section (ploshchadka) for the' decontamination of weapons and techii-
cal equipment.
A section (ploshchadka) for the decontamination of clothing and equip-
me'nt
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A. section (plosheha'dka) for sanitary processing.
A section (ploshehadka) for veterinary processing (this section is
set up when. theme are animals :3n.? need of processing)
Units which must 'undergo complete sanitary processing and decontamina-
ti6n concentrate in waiting .areas (rayony ozhidaniya) (figure 56), These
wain g areas are in sheltered places
at. a distance of fr-om-one-half to one
kilometer from the -decontamination 1station (obmyvochno-dezaktivatsionnyy punkt):
The units may perform partial sanitaryprocess ling and partial decontami-
nation in the raaiting area, if this was not done earlier,
From, the waiting area the unita.in turn, proceed to the inspection and
clearing station (kontrolxio=-raspredelite:lnyy punkt)* At this station they
undergo dosage inspection Depending on the results of the inspection, the
units are sent to the decontamination st.tion (if the degree of contamina-
tion exceeds the safe norms) or the assembly area (rayon sbora) (If '.the
degree of contamination.is less or within the allowable limit of the safe
norms)
Figure .56
Ziagram showing traits processing through the
decontamination station]
A unit which has been ordered to the decontamination station reports,
together with weapons and technical. equipment,, to the contaminated half of
the section for decontamination of weapons and technical equipment, where
the unit personnel are assigned work positions, attire themselves, in pro-
tective clothing, and proceed with the decontamination of their weapons and
technical equipment, under the supervision of the decontamination special-
ists (khim.iki-&ezaktivatory) in the sections.,
Having decontaminated their weapons and technical equipment,,. they pro-
ceed to the deontaminatedhalf of the section for dosage inspection
(dozimetricheskiy kontrol). If the contamination of weapons and technical
equipment still exceeds the safe norms, decontamination must be repeated..
Following the decontamination of weapons and technical equipment, the
unit personnel report to the section for the decontamination of clothing
and -equipment,, where they remove their protective clothing and undergo dosage
inspection and leave behind outer clothing and equipment to be de'contami-
nated. (After decontamination, the clothing and equipment re subjected to
dosage inspection and.are-taken by a special carrier (podnoschik) to the
dressing room at the section for sanitary processing.) The decontamination
of clothing and equipment is carried out by specially selected teams:.
From the section. for the decontamination of clothing and equipment, the
unit personnel proceed to the section for sanitary processing (to the dress-
ing room of the unit):
Upon completion of the sanitary?proce:ssing7 the unit personnel proceed
to the decontaminated half of the section for the decontamination of
weapons and technical equipment, where they clean and oil the decontaminated
weapons and technical equipment and then report to the assembly area
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if there is a large accumulation of weapons and technical equipment at
the decontaminated hall of the section,,,, the cleaning and oiling may be done
at the assembly area.
If the contam:Lnat on of the` personnel is ten times greater than the per-
missiblenorm, the men proceed immediately to the sanitary processing sectionif
omitting the other sections.
Sanitary Prpoessing',
Procedure for Partial Sanitary Processing
In partial sanitary processing the exposed parts of the body (face.,$ neck,.-
'hands) a`re' washed and the mouth is rinsed with clean (uncontaminated) water
(figure 57). If there is a lack of water, the exposed parts of the body are
wiped off with. a rag,- towel-1 orr handkerchief moistened with water, (figure 58)
Ifith processing takes place in a contaminated area, they must not
take off protective clothing. Therefore, radioactive substances are removed
only from the unprotected parts of the body, and `(thi. is-418-dalily "dons .twice >
Partial.sanitary processing is performed before and after decontamination
of the position, weapons) technical equipment, and defenses b
Figure' 57
cashing the exposed parts of the body
with uncontaminated wat:erj
.In such cases where personnel have been in a contaminated area without
means of protection, the exposed parts of the body should be wa:she'd or wiped
off; after which protective clothing is put:on and the position and-weapons
are decontaminated,,, After then decontamination of the position and the weapons,
it is again necessary to wash or wipe off the exposed parts of the body with
damp rags.
Water from a source located in a contaminated area may be used only
after a decontamination inspection of the source and on the approval of the
medical inspector If there is`no'water nearby or if the avialable water
is not to be used., the exposed parts of the body are wiped off with rags
dampened with water from a flask.
Figure 58
/Wiping off exposed parts of the body)
,If there is no clean water, a wad may be dampened with the liquid that
comes in the gas-casualty first-aid kit (figure 59) In an emergency; the
'expose'd parts of the body are wiped off with a dry wad. or cloth.
In using the liquid from the gas,-casualty first-aid.kit, care must be
taken in wiping the liquid from the face so that it does..not, drop into the
eyes, mouth,. and nose..
-T-
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Figure 59
Pr?ocedure for partial sanitary processing,
'with the use of liquid in the
gas-casualty first-aid kitJ
To clean parts which have been eontaminattd with radioact ive substances,
the wiping is done in one direction only (.n back and forth); it follows
as well to change the contaminated wad ,for.,: a clean oneo
If the circumstances permit,, partial sanitary processing should be per-
formed outside contaminated areas by the following procedure:
Remove the protective cape* shake off the dust from the clothing,.and
remove the protective stockings (In shaking off.dust,. it is necessary to
take account of the direction of the wind, in order to avoid getting dust on
oneself and others .)
Remove the gas mask and protective gloves,. after this wash the hands,.
and wash the exposed parts of the body two or three tames, paying, particular
attention to ,clean ngof: the head and the removal of dirt from under the
fingernails; if there is 'a lack of water; wipe off the exposed parts of the
body two or three times with cloths' (towels, handkerchiefs, or other clean..
material) dampened with clean (uncontaminateed) water?
- Blow the nose and -carefully wash with, uncontaminated water,. and rinse
the mouth.
In the case of wounds, burns, and other injuries, first aid is given,
followed by partial sanitary proces.siig.
Procedure for Complete Sanitary Processing
Complete sanitary processing is done in the sanitary processing section
of the decontamination station.;
Figure 60
/Washing under .a sh'owe'r during complete
sanitary processing procedure.?
Sanitary processing may take place out of doors, under a roof,: or in
tents. During cold weather, warm mud huts or heated tents are erected for
complete sanitary processing.
in the larger populated areas; complete sanitary processing can be
performed in the public baths;
The section for sanitary processing has a disrobing room., shower,: and
dressing room.
In the disrobing room, personnel turn in papers and valuables for safe-
keeping.. After that they take ;off clothing and underwear and undergo dosage
inspection, During the dosage inspection, each person has: pointed out to him
the parts of the body to which he must pay particular attention during wash-
ing.
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Ff61
lashing with water from pans
In the disrobing room persons .with. skin; breaks
(abr,sions. scratches) receive temporary bandages for the injured parts
The shower section is set up with shower apparatus (figure 60).
In the' shower section, personnel receive soap and bast rags and are
assigned in pairs to showers The washing is supervised by a sanitation.
instructor. Each man going thzough the sanitary processing washes his hands
carefully with soap and removes the' dirt from unifier his. fingernails; he washes
his head, face,-and neck once or twice, paying speci:al attention in the
washing of the ears, areas covered by hair and also the washing of the
eyes, and rinsing himself.
Hot water should be used for washing. In such canes where the washing
section is not adequately equipped with showers and for sanitary processing
in small sub-sections not near a decontamination. station, the water can be
heated in cooking pots, cans", metal barrels? or other metal containers. At
least one bucket of water must be heated for each person.;
In the absence of a shoraer, installation.. bu kets, pans, bowls, or other
vessels are used for washing (figure 61) ; Two men may not use the same vessel
at thee same time for washing. Regardless of the sectionrts equipment for
sanitary processing, washing is done standing -up. Bathing under a shower re-
quires ten minutes per person. while washing from a bowl takes fifteen to
twenty minutes
Figure -62
roc.edure for sanitary processing in the :summer-
After departure from the, showers personnel, undergo dosage inspection.
If the degree of contamination proves to be less than the permissible norm,
personnel proceed to the dressing room. If it is higher,. they return to the
showers fora second washing..
Fib
fanitary processing of a 'rininded man
In the dreading room, personnel put on their decontaminated
clothing or exchange pool clothing,. uniftrm,. and equipment., Bandages that
were placed on injuries before the men went to the showers are replaced by
fresh ones, arid, if needed., other medical assistance is given
Personnel go from the de contaminant ion station to the assembly area .
In the suer, sanitary processing (partial or complete) may take place
in a river, lake (figure 62) or other water resercli?.t with running water.
Representatives of the chemical and medical service choose the location. for
sanitary processing, The place for sanitary processing is set off for un-
dressing; and designation is ode'-cf., a place for entry and exit from. the water and
a : section for dressing. For the complete decontamination of clothing and
equipment,: the place set up is near, the area .for undressing, taking into
account the direction of the wind
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Sanitary prones;siig in a `rive or lake' is conducted, under' the` supeirvision
of the sub-section commander;, A guard system for personnel,: supplies.# and
combat equipment. is set-up.
'The wounded and si&. u itergo sanitary processing in aid stations.
(medit.s inskiye punkty) and military hospitals (figure 63)
3= becontamiration.
I?e contamiryat ion :of Small Arms
(Carbines.), Rifles .$u bma .chic .e Guia's y
Heavy and .Light Machine Guns)
The decontamination of carbines`, rifles,, aui machine guns, and light
or heavy machine guns is carried but by personnel to when the weapons are
charged.
In e'ompl-ete, or partial do.cantamiMtibn3
weapon is cleaned.
the entire .surface of the
In partial tarn tion,while protective clothing is worn, four to
six wads made of rags (tow) are prepared,, The weapon is then placed in a
vertical or, inclined. position, and is carefully wiped off with the rags or
patch e,s which have been. thoroughly wet with water (g .s"oline, kerosene) 617
with the. gas=de?. ntamir ti i liquid;
The gas-decontamination. liquid, from the individual gas-casualty first-
aid kit is used: only with the permission of the platoon leader.
The" ''teapon must be wiped.:off from top to bottom; a clean surface of rag
is exposed "with each working stroke, when the cloth is ao:iled, it is dis-
carded : The, wiping is repeated two or three times: An unclean rag must not
be immersed in the liquid used in decontamination,
Lands and grooves in the Vea.pon are wiped off with a damp cloth wrapped:
around the sharp point of a wooden stick:
Clean (uncontaminated) snow may be used. in the winter' for partial de-
contamination of carbine's (rifles, submachine g =s, machine guns)
Partial dectOnta' i;nation Of heavy machine guns or high :calibre machine
guns is performed by a crew under the direction ,of the' unit commander
following partial decontamination of the ,emplacement b
Radioeetir snbstasrces are removed. from .a machine gun with rags or
patches of cloth (tow) or with a br h 5uneh , tuft? (ki:sst) thoroughly wet with water
or S t3 c No .. 2 (the can with the black top in the machine-gun-and mortar
decontamin tion (degazatsionnyy) kit.
Particular attention should be paid to those parts of the machine' gun
which are handled during firing of the gun (figure 64+).
Complete decontamination of small arms Is carried out at the decon-
tamination stat ion y? in the same such order as for partial decontamination.
One other method for cleaning the. Weapons' is,1tY at :in :which all :contaminated wea-
pons are set up in aims racks (figtir'e. 65) or in specially designated. places
and are, then sprayed by a hose with water from the portable` tank imed in
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.chemical decontamination (in the wintery the portable decontamination tank
is filled' with asoline or -kerosene) 6. If there is a vehicular refueling
station (ARS) -vtomobilnaya.razi vochnaya stantsiya or a pouter-drrven
decontamination apparatus (ADM) -r;vtodega atsionnaya mashie at the c e'
contamination center, the weapons are scrubbed under a stream of water,, with
brushes which are in the equipment kit of the mobile decontamination -center.
'T he parts of the weapons coated with oil are wiped,off with gasoline or
kerosene,:orif these are not available, with dry rags..
Figure. 64
'"The parts of a machine gun which must be decontaminated first]
agum 65
f6omplete d e dnta iin:at.ion of .anal
Used soiled materials (rags, patches,- cloths:); used in decontamination
are put in a prepared ditch., ~..and,.after completion of decontamination, are
covered with earth;,,
If there is no water (gasoline or kerosene) for decontamination :of
weapons-they are wiped off three or four times with dry clean rags or tow.
For decontamination in an uncontaminated area, broom., small fagots of twigs,
hay or grass may be used to brush off the weapons,.
Following decontamination, the weapons are wiped dry with rags or tow.
.Decontamination of Guns (Mortars)
Partial .decontam.inatior of guns (mortars) may be performed by a crew
(unit) right at the firing position (within the contaminated area) or after
departure from the contaminated area.
Assignment of duties among the members of the gun crew is accomplished
before decontamination,
Figure 66
arts of gun which must be decontaminated first.7
The crew, with the aid of broom. or twigs, brush off the guns and after rds
with tow (rags or patches) or brush from the artillery chemical-deco-ntamina-
tion kite, decontaminate the sight, the panoramic sight, the elevating and
traversing mechanism, and also the breech block mechanism (figure 66); then
they decontaminate the other parts of the guns The wads or irzsh are soaked
in water (kerosene, gasoline) or with Solution No& 2 (the. can with the black
top);
In partial decontamination,, the panoramic sight is not removed from the
In the partial decontamination of mortars., it is necessary to decontaminate
the sighting mechanism, the levers of the elevating and traversing mechanism,
the horizontal leveling mechanism, and the breech.
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I.1 Vii] 1: decontamination t of weapons. (mortsrs) s c rrie.d optL at;f the,. ontami-
nation: center ,, Thec:ent2'er stLrf ace of:, the. :_.weaporila;s~~cax?ef illy::wash~dc offv under a
afro g jet 'ialf< warter:.,f"rom :a powF r-~dr. srei~_ decpzita nation. apparatus (razl vochnoy
stant:siy9. motopumpa), or it may be scrubbed with water and solution by means
of a brush (figure 67). Before decontamination the optical device: and the en-
trenching tools are removed from the gun. For convenience of work and better
run-off of unclean water," the barrel is pointed upward. For the accomplish-
.ment of decontamination the jet of water from the running jet and the falling
spray should form an angle of 30 to 50 degrees with the washed surface.
Figure 67
/Full decontamination of gun., using power-driven
decontamination appartus (ADM). at
decontamination center_7
The oiled parts of the gun are cleaned by hand (they are rubbed with
rags soaked, in gasoline or kerosene),- the .gun being partially dismantled if
n'e ces nary
In order to prevent contaminated water from -entering the barrelf it is
covered with a muzzle cap before full decontamination of the gun (.or mortar)..
Decontamination of the prime mover, hand arms, optical devices, and ammuni-
tion is accomplished at the same time or after the decontamination of the
Sighting mechanisms and optical.devices(pa.noramic sights, range finders,
telescopic sights, compasses telescopes. binoculars) are decontaminated at
specially equipped stations (rabochiye mesta).at the section. First the dust
is removed from the surface of the instruments; then the entire surface of
the instruments and the glass of the lenses. and eyepiecesete carefully wiped
three or four times with a Soft cloth dampened in alcohol. The instrument
case and cover are thoroughly shaken out and wiped off inside and outside
with a damp rag. Following decontamination, all instruments and their.parts,
as well as their cases and covers, are wiped dry with a soft dry cloth and
subjected to dosage inspection.-
Decontaminstion of Ammunition
Partial decontamination of ammunition at the ring position is performed
simultaneously with the decontamination of the gun (mortar). The ammunition
is wiped off with a rag soaked in kerosene. In full ' slecontsiniias.t:ion'= at a
,_' de aon-
tamination center, the ammunition is wiped off with a rag (tow) soaked in
gasoline (kerosene) or in water containing atolu'.ent, it is also sprayed
with water from a fire hose or scrubbed with brushes.
Following decontamination, the ammunition is wiped dry; if necessary,
greased; and put away in dry packing.
If the ammunition is in a hermetically sealed container,. the outside of
the case is sprayed with watery or wiped off with a rag soaked in. water.
Decontamination.of Tank ,Lelf-wPropelled.Artillery Mounts,
Armored Carriers and Motor Vehicles
Partial decontamination of tanks, self-propelled artillery mounts,
armored carriers, and motor vehicles is performed, as a rule, afer depart-
ure from the contaminated area.
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Tanks and self'-propelled artillery mounts are decontaminated by their
crews, while armored carriers and motor vehiUles, by their drivers and
those personnel single(i out for assistance.,
in partial decontamination of tanks, self-propelled artillery mounts#.
armored carriers, end motor vehicles,, first of ally wipe off with a rag those
parts on the turret and hull of the tank (self-propelled artillery mount)
which are handled by the crew. After- which decontaminate
In the tank (self-propelled artillery mount); The interior surface
of the, gun compartment and of the driving compartment and also the weapon,
equipment, instruments,and operating levers located in these compartments
(figure 68), wiping them with rags soaked in Mater (diesel oil, gasoline-,
kerosene) .
- In a motor vehicle: The cabin inter'ior~ the steering wheel. the gear
shifty and the seat..
Figwre 68
CThe parts of a tank which are subject to
'
decontamination. f irst
In the'tase of an armored carrier, wipe the interior of the body
in the passenger comp artment.(desantnoye otdeleniye) and the armament.
Prior to full dec:ontamfna.tion, ammunition and instruments are removed
from tanks, self propelled artillery mounts,,: and armored carriers; and from
the motor vehicles, freight which is found on the vehicle.
The turret hatch and the driver's batch (lyuka mekbanika-voditelya) are
tightly closed,. and -the escape hatch and the inspection hatches in the hull
floor are opened. The" louvers are covered with canvass matting, or handy
materials; the shits in the cover for the 'sight and the machine gun are
closed with rags or with Wooden plugs.
After this,th-e tank is sprayed with water from the vehicular refueling
station.- (vehicular decontamination machine, water pump)
In cold weather, the outer surface is rubbed down with diesel oil,
kerosene, or gasoline-,
The decontamination of a tank (figure. 69) is carried out from top to
bottom wind from front to bank,
When the outside has been decontaminated, the interior surfaces are
carefully wiped with rags (toy) soaked in water or kerosene (gasoline,
diesel oil).r Soiled rags are thrown out through the escape hatch. After
cofplet.ion of the dept ntamination. the tank -.s ;wiped with dry rags ahd
separate parts are greased.
Figure 69
fC_omple`te decontamination of tank. at decontamination,
center, using power-driven decontamination
apparatus]
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Tractors and specialized vehicles are decontaminated in a similar manner.
Decontamination if Air planes,..
Partial; decontamination of planes is performed in place by
iiping,'ith rags soaked in water (gasoline), the cabin interior surfaces,
and the: instruments`, also' the propellers,: the cowling of the motors, and
the cockpit enclosure. In partial decontamination., the armament :is:: not re-
moved from the plane.
Before full decontamination of the. airplane, the cockpit enclosure,. the
cowls of the engines, the bomb-bay door'1 the hatches., and the louvers are
tightly closed; the manifold,: rocket projector (raketnitsa), etc., are covered
with rags or with plugs.
Decontamination of the airplane begins with the processing of the exterior
surfaces of the plane, starting, at the top).,, in order to insure a good run-off
of decontaminated water, carrying with it the radioactive substances;.,
Decontamination of aommunicatinns Equipment
On order Of the leader of the.communications sub-section, partial de-
contamination of communications equipment is carried out in place,. by means
of wiping.off the exposed surfaces with damp rags or sweeping them off with
, while: not inte'rfer.ingg- with commun.icat ions.
brushes or, tufts
Full decontamination is carried out on order of the unit commander b
ing served.
If theradio.equipment became subjected tocontamination on the march,
only the outer surfaces if the metal carrying cases and the carrying straps
are decontaminated..:
If the radio equipment became .subjected to contamination while in
using position, then it is necessary to. decontaminate the instrument panel,
the battery cable, the antenna, the counterweight (protivoves), the
microtelephone, and the' external surfaces of the carrying cases.
Following decontamination,. all parts' of the portable radio equipment,
are wiped dry.
Closed radio trucks are decontaminated in the same way as are other
trucks. Attention is first given to decontamination of the exterior sur-
faces.of the rear wall" of the body :.where: thex~entry4oor~,iS,_:iocated aaa?also to
the' front?.Y?all :ofcthe:::bodycwhere.:,thee-aztitenna. s;mounte.d If .;a ecessary,_ the body in-
terior .and the apparatus in it are wiped off with :damp rags
The field. cable' is decontaminated by 'dragging it through a bath of de-
contamination solution (water) obtained from the rp it r ozokerirovaniye
5rr Tibor: instrument or equipment, ozokerite ozo:cerite; a wax-like
mineral used in making candle:s. etc J or through a layer of dry earth.
The cable must be dried. off after passing th9r qgb. the bath.
Field cables and pole wire equipment (shestovoye imushchestvo) already
laid are. not given special treatment..
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Decontamination of Clothing,. Equipment, and
Individual Protective Clothing
Partial de'ccntamination of clothing, equipment, and igdivictaal_protective :clothing
(individualnyye' sredstva protivokhimicheskoy zashchity) is performed by
personnel in combat positions and usually follows the partial, decontamination
of weapon's and war Materiel. It may be carried out either in a contaminated
area or ;after departure from it,
Figure 70
fne method of partial decontamination shaking
out of outer clothing)
Partial decontamination consists of shaking out or brushing off. radio-
active dust. from the.outer clothing, equipment., and footwear (figures 70
and 7i)- 11 1, equipment and footwear are rubbed off with tufts of
hay or grass.
In warm' weather, the rinsing of clothing may be done in specially
designated parts of a clean body of water (figure '72);
In the winter, clothing, equipment, and footwear can be . decontaminated
with clean (uncontaminated.) snow.
F gwi. 71
method of partial decontamination - brushing.
off equipment and clothingwith
tufts of hay or grass"
FiE 72
fecontamination.of clothing in body of water
outside the contaminated area]
Ifa protective cape was worn over the uniformonly the unprotected
parts of, the uniform and equipment are shaken out and. swept off.
Personnel must help one another in decontamination, at the same time
avoiding the scattering of dust on each other.
Complete deopont"ination of clothing, equipment, and the individual
protective clothing is carried out at decontamination centers.
.. EE
F 73
feting artitiies of clothing in the process
of full :decontamiinationj
Clothing subject to decontamination. (tunics, trousers,, overcoats,< fur-
lined overcoats) are hung on lines or cross beams and thoroughly beaten from
ten to fifteen minutes (figure 73).o The felt and cord parts of horse equip-.
.went receive, the same treatment.,. Grease spots on the clothing are rubbed
with wads of t?ow soaked in gasoline.
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Ins ete decbntami2afltzox the leather articles of the protective
'clothing are washed off with a washing solution composition or with water.
Footwear and protective stockings (leather parts of horse equipment)
for decontamination are hutg -on stakes and rubbed with rags soaked in water
or they may be washed with the help of a brush and a washing solution.
Equipment and gap masks are decontaminated, wiping them with rags soaked
in water or in a. composition of 'washing solution Care must be taken that
water does not get inside the gas . mask.. .
Fire 74
fomple'te decontamination Of footgear and equipment
Decontamination of Field Shelter, DitchesCommunications
Trenches, and. Firing Positions
In the decontamination of open ;defensive' works (field .shelter, ditches..
commtumicat.ions trenebep) without revetments, a layer of -earth up to three
centimeters thick is removed from the berms,., sides, traverses,. and bottom.
The earth may be removed from the parapet when the camouflage condition per-
mits; if doing this is not possible.+ the surface of the parapet is brushed,
off :
In trenches.* the layer of earth is removed first from the berms and
then from the nipper part of the revetment to the lower;
The dislodged earth is' shoveled into buckets,. boxes, and sacks, and
either is carried away to a distance of several tens of meters from the de-
fensive works or is buried. Then,to d.econtamtiniate, a layer of earth three
centimeters thick is removed from the bottom of the trench (field shelter,
communication trench)*
In the winter, defensive works are decontaminated by the removal of a
layer of snow four to six centimeters thick; the snow must be removed in
such a. way that it will not disturb the camouflage of the position (field
shelter). In the absence of snow,: the surfaces of the defenses,-- trenches,
communications trenches it be swept
Field shelters, trenches, and communications trenches with revetments,.
and covered entrances to buildings and to rooms. are decontaminated by wiping
with wet brooms; brushesv or rags; each surface must be gone over twice.
Dust and trash are collected in a bucket (sack,, box) and are carried away to
specially designated places.
A team consisting of two men is put in charge of the .decontamination of
each.section of trench.- One of the men removes (or sweeps) the contaminated
layer of earth from all surfaces subject to decontamination and shovels it
into a sack (bucket or box'), while the tither carries away the contaminated.
earth to a. refuse point'
Each team is a:ssigned.a..section about ten to fifteen meters long.
On ?completion of the work or while in the process of completion,, samples
of the earth in the de'con_taminated sections are. taken, and the degree of
radioactivity is measured in an uncontaminated area. This makes it possible
to judge the effectiveness of the decontamination'
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Camouflage requirements must be taken Into account in decontamination*
During deecontamination, cei7.i:nge and walls of rooms are rubbed down with wet
brooms and. the floors are washed;
In rooms with asphalt Or cement floors and drains, the' ceilings. and walls
are decontaminated b washing them down with a spray of water from. a fire
y
-extinguisher (brandspoyt)
Wass and. f ,;oors spattered with grease must be thoroughly scrubbed with
stiff 1;ir brushes (or with metal bristles) before being sprayed.
2e2tntami:nat ion of h#100 and Forage
All types of rations and forage which have been contaminated with radio.;
active substances higher than the ,safe. norm are subject to decontamination
or disposal
Portable supplies of rations contaminated by `radioactive substances in.
excess of the safe norm are destroyed. An exception consists of canned
goods sand other products in hermetically sealed containers After-
decontami-nation of the containers., such products are fit for consumption._
Food supplies which have been kept in.storage are taken to uncontamina-
te& areas to be decontaminated
Food supplies and forage which aen not be decontsan.inated.are lot. issued
as subsistencedi Before decontamination all food products and forage, undergo
dosage inspection; in order to 'assort them .according to the degree of con-
taminat ion.
Depending on the. type of food supply (forage), its packing, and the degree
at contaminat icon; the decontamination. is treated. in ono of the following ways :
The food (forage) is removed from contaminated into a noncontaminated
packing container.
- The contaminated layer of food is disposed of,
The contaminated foods are washed off with the spray of water from a
fire' extinguisher (brandspoyt).
The packing containers are washed'in warm or s' py water washing
solutiCn,. and. wiped with a cloth:
Loose food supplies and forage (grain, groats, flour)? bran, salt,. sugar)
which come In. sacks are poured off into clean packing containers. The sacks
are put on a wooden racks: with their sewn ends upward, and then are sprinkled
with water (figure 75) The bags are then opened, and the upper edges are
turned down (figure' 76) The contents are transferred to a clean sack with
a scoop (small shovel )
Figure, 5
fdpraying sacks .of loose foodstuffs with the aid of a
portable decontamination apparatus)
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Figure .76
rTurning.down the upper edge of the sack)
F 7
rIc`ontamination of barreiJ
If the food item has both an inner and an outer wrapping,-the.outer
wrapping is removed, and the inside wrapper is measured for radiation. If
the inner wrapping also shows" contamination beyond the safe norm, the food
is, transferred to an uncontaminated packing container. Care must be taken
to prevent the clean container from coming into contact with the. contami:- .
hated container.
In the dece ntaminat ion off products (solid. fats, macaroni, f ish)corned b=eef) packed in boxes or casks, the packing containers are decon
taminated.first. The packing containers >.re hosed down with water from a.
fire extinguisher (branclspoyt) (figure 77) and scrubbed with. brushes (with
rags). Containers,, boxes, and cats may also be decontaminated by being
rubbed off two Or. three times with a rag (figure 78) soaked in water (soapy
water, washing solution)Then the packing containers are inspected for
radiation, and., if necessary, they are decontaminated once more. If, fol-
lowing the second decontamination process the degree of contamination is
still above the safe izorm, the contents are transferred to clean containers
and subjected to dosage inspection.
Solid fats (butter, kommbizhir) are. decontaminated (after' determination
1. I of the degree of their cant ion) by the removal of the contaminated
outer layer, contiguous to the can," with a kiife, a thin steel wire, or a
metal scraper.
Fresh vegetables (pcatatoesj cabbage, carrots, beets) are decontaminated
by frequent . washix gs in water. Cabbage is washed, after removal of all of
the outer, contaminated leavers. Potatoes may undergo additional decontami-
nation in the. potato cleaning M chine (kartofelechistka) ..
F4.. 78
rDe dxitamination of canned goods)
Fresh meat and fish is washed off with water (figure 79) the con-
Laminated parts being cut :off if need be
Contaminated field kitchens, thermos bottles, cooking utensils, and
dishes, as well as bakery equipment and stock, are decontaminated by scrub-
bang carefully in hot soapy water and drying with rags .
F79
f5econtar;ination of meat)
S :E-C- - . .
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De c~ntamiriat ion ;of Water Supply
In, the decontamiiaatibb ;of wells and, springs that have been -contaminated
by radioactive substane si the water is pumped out ;of the well several times.
and the bottom is cleaned.. Each time, before the water is pumped out., the rim
and the shaft are carefully gashed off,. in- the case of a spring, a layer of
-earth five to ten centimeters thick is removed. :Before and after the decon
ta'stination of a well ,or spring, the .degree, of contamination of the water and
of the shaft walls is ascertained: At the same time the surrounding Area,,
within a radius of fifteen to twenty meters, must Also be decontaminated The
contaminated silt (.sand, gravel) taken from the well is buried at some dis-
tance from the Yell; the eontauiinatet water is disposed of in a place from
which it can not find its way back. into. the decontaminated well.
The engineers decontaminate the 'water by filtering and distilling it.
?SafetMeasures.in Decontamination Work
All persons engaged in the decontamination of technical equipment, wea-
pons, clothing,' and the area must wear protective clothing.
The choice of clothing 'which 'fit be worn in a given instance is deter-
mined by the officer in. -charge of the decontamination 'work. He takes into
account. the type of project to be deconta -ainated, its degree .of contamination,
the methods to be used in deconta3i nation, and the amount and type of pro-
tective clothing available.
Protective clothing is removed when it becomes damaged -or when the job
is finished, and only with the perinis$ion of the officer in -.charge
Reservoirs and ditchers leading into theem,are dug for the drainage of
'rater from the decontaminatitn sites. In the process of the work it is.
necessary to make sure, that water reservoirs are not overflowed and that
all wiping materials are buried in pits, When the decontamination process
is finished, the reservoirs and pits are filled in.
Precautions to be taken by personnel-
- Spray and dust from contaminated objects must be kept off skin and
clothing;
Avoid contect between ccontaminated objects. and-exposed parts of the
body and clothing;
Do not sitstand... or' kneel, unless unavoidable,.
'Do not eat, drink, or smoke;
Do not. throw away ctvntaminated itiaterial b' t. dispose of it only in
specially dug pits;
- Do not touch exposed parts of the bony -with contaminated hands (or
protective gloves). '
4. Veterinary Processing
Partial veterinary proee:ssing may be performed. either In a contaminated
-area or after departure from the area,
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In partial veterinary processing, first clean off, the contaminated dust
with tufts of grass or hay, whiskbrooms, or brushes from the entire body of
the animal and its equipme'nt. (figure 80') . The gas masks the goggles, -and',the
areas near the mask and goggles are then wiped with a rag soaked In uncontami-
nated water..,
F:figure 8a
frartial veterinary processing of a horsey
in the contaminated area)
When.animals are processed in a contami'nate'd area, their harnesses.,
saddles, packs, and protective outfits Are not removed. The mask and goggles
andequipment may be removed if the area is not :contaminated.
Following partial veterinary processing,- the~ equipment (harness,- saddle,
pack) is decontaminated.
During partial veterinary processing, care must be taken that dust fall-
ing from the animal does not fall on personnel or other animals.
Full veterinary processing is performed At the decontamination center,
where there is a. section (ploshchadka) equipped for veterinary processing, or
at a veterinary station (ploshebadka veterinarnoy obrabotki) which may have
been set up near a veterinary hospital. A veterinary section consists of a
decontaminated half and a contaminated half
'There are% rickets (for tying up the horses) and racks (for the decon-
tamination of -equipment) in. the contaminated half of the section, Showers
are also to be found here (in the absence of showers, the-animals are washed
off with water from a. fire extinguisher (brandspoyt)).
The site for the contaminated half of the section must be dry, and if
possible sandy. To prevent the water from collecting in poolsy 'drainage
ditches are dug.
There is another picket line at, the decontaminated half 'of the section;
here the processed horses acid other animals are dried Off and receive neces=
sary medical treatment. :Mar, ver, on the decontaminated side of the section
there are hangers and. racks on which decontaminated equipment may be hung
to dry.
Figure 81
full veterinary. processing of a horse
at the veterinary section of.a
decontamination center ?
The procedure for complete veterinary processing is as follows:
- The animal is tied on a short reign to a picket;
- The animal is thoroughly vas1eci with water and green soap (figure 81);
ordinary brushes or special. shover brushes (figure 82) may be used. Special
care is given to the mane, the tail; the logs, and to those parts of the body
with which the harness e's into contact;
Figure 82
/Shower _.br zs
-T
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The an.imale eyes; nostrils:, and-mouth cavity Eire rinsed.
-The horse is-then led to. the decontaminated half of the section,: where
it undergoes' dosage inspectio`n;:` If the instrument reading shows that the con-
tamination. on the aanimal remains above the safe :norms the horse is returned
to the contaminated half for repeated process ing
If the repeated procea'sing does not lead. to a loweting of..the.degree of
contamination to the safe norm for such animals, the horse is placed under
special veterinary observation.
In warm weather, veterinary processing can be done by bathing and clean=
ing the animals with brushes in a rive', lake., or other body of water.
In cold weather- the animals are wiped dry after being washed, and then
they are covered with horse blankets and
'walked?
Wounded,: contused,..... and ailing horse's 'undergo full veterinary process-
ing at a veterinary aid station "(peredovoy veterinarnyy punkt) or at a veterin-
ary hospital.
VI. OTHER MEASURES TO ERADICATE THE CONSEQUENCES OF ATOMIC ATTACK
Among the possible consequences- of an atomic explosion on an. area are
fires., destruction of buildings and defensive works, and rockslides (obstacles)
on the roads There may be the wounded among the obstacles or in the damaged
buildings.
Emergency help and life saving Emergency-help and life-saving groups
are -organized for the removal of debris blocking the egress of persons trapped
in ruined buildings, for giving first aid to the wounded, and for the removal
of injured personnel fom the contaminated area.
'This work .,is usually performed by special units (p?drazdeleniya) c.om-
p0sed.of sappers, dosimeter :operators, and medical personnel.
If the extent of the damage. is small and the number of wounded is not
great, the emergency-help and life-saving members of the units carry out
their work without outside help.
First aid for the wounded. following an atomic attack: in. addition to
wounds, abrasions, and contusions,, a person extricated from a landslide or
ruined building may have fractures or internal injuries., which are not
apparent from any break in the skin Such a victim must therefore be
treated with special care 'hen first aid is administered:,
If earth has fallen into the victim's mouth; eyes, or ears, it must be
removed with a piece .of gauze ,or handkerchief burns and other surface
wounds must be bandaged, even if they are dirty.
In giving first ac to a comrade', one must wash (`wipe :off) the exposed
parts of his body and put a .gas mask on 'him (figure 83).
Curt irig gas mask 'on a wciunded man in. a contaminated area]
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If the IIbthes of the ? b nded msn :are: burning,, a_,:shelter.balf rape
lashch-patatka) (bvercoat) must be (p thrown over him acid pressed down firmly
against his body (figure 8 ). When the flszues have been extinguished, the
burned clothing must b carefully removed:, Clothing that sticks to the body
must not be torn off. Blist'ers' that have formed on the skin must not be
of iied.
As soon :as p ssiblo: the burned. surfaces of the .bod:y must be bandaged;
the bandages in the first-aid packet may be used. for this. If the clothing
heal, stuck to the body, the ba Sd :ge,. i i t .b . place. on top of it.
The following rules must be o1 sertreri in giving first aid to the wounded:
Do not touch a wound 'with Y hands and dt .not tagsh it with water, in
order to prevent radioactive substances fro getting into . it.
- Do not rerove foreign'bodies that have entered the wound (fragments.,
etc.)
It is very important to know hoer to. apply bandage properly. A
properly applied bandage provides necessary protection from radioactive
substances
Figure 84
ffutting out burning clothing with a shelter
half cape (plashch-palatka)J
The bandages in the individual first*jt.4- paeket'.:(individuaIiayy perevyazochnyy
paket) are used. If the first-aid packet has been damaged, the bandages in
it may not be used_
Severe bleeding, which produces 4 great danger to life, must be stopped
as soon as possible, without waiting for the wounded roan to be removed from
the contaminated area
If the victim has open fractures -a tourniquet must not be applied. The
wound must be bandaged
If the victim is unconsciouss.,he must be placed on a stretcher in such,
a position that his feet are higher than his head, and he must be carried out
of the contaminated area. if the victim is not breathing, artificial respi-
ration must be given.
Putting out fires. Fires that .hinder the fiulf illment of the combat
mission and fires that constitute a danger to personnel; ammunition, and fuel
must be put out first
Brush fires and, b eing r evetments., trenches, and ditches may be ex
t nguished by beating the f`Ise's with `stet b-ravens ,or branehe.s
Small segment's of the defers eve rarke (shields, doors, port covers) may
be extinguished by throwing them down into the trench or pit and covering
them with, earth.
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A fire. in a tank; a'elf-pr,,O"lied eartillery mount or in a. plane is put
:out, with fire extinguishers. A gas mask must be worn when putting out a fire-
ins ide 'a tank, or plane,
A portable decant ninat.ionapparatus (rant"sevyy degazatsionnyy pribor),
a pump (~notopo) f- or a fuel tank (, 'livoc}n~~ stantsiya) may all be
'avt` a
used for extinguishing a fire.:
Forest fires' may be centered in the tree tops: or near the gtound.
If it is near the ground,, the fire can be put out by beating the flames
with freshly cut branches from deciduous trees and by throwing earth on the
flames:. If the wind, is strong and, the fire is spreading rapidly; fire breaks
can be cut; they must be up to tour meters wide and. cleared. of bushes and
vegetation,
In fighting a fire centered in the tree tops, it is necessary to isolate'
the burning sections of forest by cutting fire breaks in the path of the fire,
the width of the fire break must be 1 1/2 to 2 .times as great as the height
of the trees
Reconstruction of defensive works and roads. The destroyed defensive
works are reconstructed by trOaps with the help of engineer units Immediate.
attention is given to the recrizstruction of giro emplacements and shelters
for personnel; and afterward communications trenches, .shelters for equip-
ment, etc,, are taken care 'of.
The reconstruction of roads may include the decontamination of certain
stretches, the arrangement of detours, and. the reconstruction of bridges
and stream crossings
PART.: III
Peculiarities if Combat Operations in Atomic Warfare
Basically, the operations of small units in at:cimicwarfare are governed
by existing regulations,.
However, the use of atomic. weapons with a large effective radius does
introduce certain special characteristics to the organization and conduct
of combat operations,
1. Offensive Combat
Engineer equipment fnr defense against atomic attack in the departure
area assumes a role. of special importance in offensive combat.; In addition
to the defensive works that were `built during the defensive phase, it. Is
necessary to construct shelters for combat technical personnel and equipment
in the,departure area, Both support forces and attack forces may be assigned
to the construction of these shelters.
In the preparatory period before the attack, continuous observation and
reconnaissance must, be maintained. for any indication that the enemy is pre-
paring to break up our attack..
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During t)2 1s period,' the location the Btrbngest centers 'of defense,
which will be. the subject of atomic attack, arid the location of the front
lines must be ascertained
Troops ,re under the greatest.thr t 'of an enemy attack with atomic
weapons when they are in the jump-off position. Camouflage is,'_therefore,
of :extreme importance at this time:. Any weakness in the camouflage may re=
veal to the enemy our preparations for attack and make it easier for him to carry
an atomic attack against our troop concntratidns.a
An atomic, .attack may be fol1 wed by an. attack. with infantry and tanks
aimed at breaking up our attack;.- For this reason, when small units are in
the jump-off position everything must be held in readiness for the repulsion
Of an enemy attack with infantry :and tanks.
An attack following an atomic blow must be carried out swiftly, and. it
requires a strong fighting spirit on the part of the troops. Reasoned initi-
ative and determination must be displayed 'by doigmanders and leaders of all
grradest including aquad leads (gun, tank) It must always be remembered
that swift attack and relentless pursuit of the enemy are the best guarantee
that he will be unable to make 'effective use of his atomic weapons. The
maintenance of uninterrupted close contact in combat with the enemy is a
necessary requirement for attack. under atomic warfare conditions.
Individual fire weapon., (machine guns, anti tank guns, defiladed tanks,
et al.) will remain intact when the ene yxs defenses. have been subjected to
atomic attack; Small attacking units must thrust through the' gaps, attack
the flanks and rear of the s'ur`viving centers 'Of enemy resistance, and des-
troy them with the help of neighboring small units.
Areas of radioactive contamination with a. low level of radioactivity
must be negotiated with :a rapid forward thrust When possible, seriously
contaminated areas should be Avoided., In order to avoid a mix-up among the
units, orders and instructions for by.p"ing a contaminated stretch are
issued by the senior commander (vyshest:oyashehy nschalriik) present:
An enemy attack with atomic weapons during the course of our: attack
may not serve' as grounds for
cessation of combat; When a. unit has been
subjected to the effects of an atomic explosion, order must be restored
rapidly, and the troops must proceed with determination to the fulfillment
of the combat misaIOnr
Small units in rear echelons must be prepared at all times to replace
units in the assault .echelon tbat have suffered severe losses as the result
of atomic attack, and they must proceed swiftly to exploit their success un-
til the fulfillment ..of the combat mission.
2. Defen.sive..Combat.
An additional requirement for defenses in atomic warfare is that they
must 'also be antiatom:ic defenses.
Organization of the, ground. by engineer -work must provide, protection for
personnel,::equipment,;and;weapons not only fa-cm artillery shells and conven-
tional bombs but also from atomic weapons::
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The use of atomic 'weapons by defensive troops increases the effective-
enemy attack,.
Hess. Of the defense, beaause it facilitates the repulsion of' an
An atomic blow may bt. Idea.lt against attacking `enemy forces either at the jump-
off position or in batt1e.W.
The role of ll units assumes a greatly increased importance in defensive
combat. Following anatomic attack by the: enemy, these units mist be able to
continue fighting without being In communication with: adjacent. units or higher
coed. Each squad x: tank, or gun 'eret t fully fulfill its combat mission.
T1 succes's of the. counterattack organized by higher command and the annihila-
tion of enemy forces will depend on the- stamina of these small units,
Sub-units that have not been subjected to atomic attack must render
assistaned to. adjacent nits which have fallen under atomic attack,- either
with supporting fire or` if
necessary, by 6 unterattack,
Trcap vebients and Dis os tLM 'oaf elrtecT,~rod s
During troop move bents, the trppps are in the greatest danger of atomic
attack when they. are in narrow pazses, on b idge$ at loading and unloading,
points, passing through thickly populated a :"eas at railroad junctions; and
when they are crowded together at halts, rest areas;, or areas of concentra-
For this. reason, ev rything possibly is done to. prevent the concentration
of troops during troop movements at points'soloject to atomic attack. Of great
importance are the following; Dispersion of troops in narrow ,passes,. at halts,
in waiting areas, and at assembly -points,, utilization of existing natural cover
and camouflage; striot. observat$.on of camouflage measuaes .skillful choice of
march routes
As a rule, troops march only at. night . Strict camouflage discipline is
,enforced on the march an? during halts,ii
Radioactivity reconnaissance by troops is performed systematically along
all march routes 4
'The places chosan for halts and rests must provide cover for the troops.
Natural Over is utilized in areas where troops are disposed for a halt;.
the simplest kind ,of shelters (.slit trenches) are constructed and, if time
permits,... are improved
Reserves of t.er.and other decontamination materials are kept in each
car of the troop gain (voinskir eshelon), for use in partial sanitary pro-
cessing and decontamination.
If the. troops, are bang trainp rtea by rail., the troop trains (voinskby_e
eshelony) elo not stop at contaminated stations. Personnel must protect them
.selves, in such a case, against radioactive contamination, i.e., put on gas
masks; close the 'w ad.ovb doors, and
4: Action in case: of Atomic Ale
_._
The atomic alert is given by the aircraft warning service (VNos) when
there is immediate danger Of atomic attack.
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The ,signAl: for the atomic alert is. `e;stablished by the senior officer
in the eomman (starshiy nacha;lnik)= The' signal may be visual or oral., it
must be known' t;m all persozsnel. bf the wn t ;
i'be signal must be brought to the attention of all pexsrnnela All
commanders,: including squad leaders (g i tank) must take certain that their
personnel have received the signal.
under any combat situation, when the sigr i. for as atomic alert is givens
protective clothing must be held. in readiness (nagotove )..
Action to be taken. by personnel when the sill for an atomic alert is
given is aetermined by the small. unit commander and, will depend on the
;stoat i
If the unit is not engaged in combat at the time the alert is soundedp
all personnel must take measures to protect themselves from injury. Weapons,,
tanks, self p'r:opelled artillery mounts, and motor vehicles are placed under
cover. Covers are put on the guns (e:ither stand$xd gun c'overs or improvised
ones) When the alert is sounded, personxel take to .overhead cover, recesses,
or ,shelters.-, In order to; prevent fires,, the fires in the stoves in shelters
(dugouts) must be put out.,: kerosene lamps must be extinguished, aiid flues and
air vents must be covered. The doors to the shelter must be tightly closed:
When the signal for an atomic -alert is given, if there are no prepared
shelters, personnel must make use of natural shelter and available objects,.
A halt is not called if the signal for an atomic alert is given when
troops are on- a march. Gas masks, and shelter half capes are put on, Drivers
stay in their places in the columns
Obs`e'rvers watch the.vehicles, ahead and watch for signals from the unit
commanders
When the :signal for anatomic alert is given, all ports in tanks and
self-propelled artillery mounts are closed,
In a troop trains all windows and doors are closed when the signal for
an atomic alert is given.. Protective clothing is held in readiness.
5 Action During and After an .Atomic Blast
During an atomic explosion, regardless of other circumstances, all
personnel must take measures for protection from the destructive effects of
the atomic blast. The duration of this period is usually a few minutes.
Only a few seconds intervene between the flash of the atomic blast and
the arrival of the shock wave (the time depends on the distance from the site
of the explosion) HHVever, the interval is long erg ugh to permit one to
take cover a few steps away. When the flash is seen, personnel must immedi-
ately take cover in a prepared shelter (overhead cover recess) or in a
natural shelter, such as a pit, a ditch (figure 85), a shell hole (figure 86),
or "behind a hill (figure 87), stone wall (figure 88), embankment,.,etc<
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If there, is no shelter nearby, it is necessary to lie. prone on the.
ground with the facie,; down. The bands mast b ;kept under the body. This
position sill minimize the effect of the shock Wave and. protect the exposed
pants of the body from being burned by the flash;; _ The dyes must be kept
closed? 'This prevents temporary blindness. The best position fora person
in an a pc sed place i 3 ig an atomic explosion is shown in figure' 89.
Figure 85?
position of man in ditch during atomic explosion]
The ;game action Is tak is :Wan open trench -Or ;ditch, It provides. pica=
tecti?)n from the shtick wave tilt rddiation
F 86
ff-ositio-h bf person in a shell hole during an atomic explosion]
Fig $7
ff ds it ion of a person behind a hill during at atomic 'expios ion]
Personnel inside a tank must close the ports and louvers when they see
the flesh from an atcpmi:c blast
One can take cover behind a tank or a solf-propelled artillery amount
When the flash is ;seen (figure 9.0)
Following the explosion protective clothing must. 'be put on, in case the
area should be contaminated..
Usually an enemy attack may be.expected following an atomic explosion.
Therefore; immediately af ter the~explosion, preparations to repulse attacks
must be made and continuous observation maintained. for signs of the euemy~
Fi 8
/Position of person behind shine wall: during atomic explosion]
IFU#e~ 89.
fe st advantageous position in open 'terrain
during an atomic 'Oxplosion
90
CTaking 'cover behind a tank during an atom -0 explosion
Procedure in Ct ntamnated. Areas
In many cases, the situation will demand that combat operations be
carried out in an, area. ccontamnat'ed with radioactive substance's For the
prevention of injury from radioactive substance:s.,the following rules must be
observed*
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In crossing a contaminated area,. protective clothing; shelter half
cape, cotton overalls, ~=etc , , must b?e worn..
Personnel in motor vehicles must close the windows and louvers and
protect the weapons from dust (figures 91 and 92) In passing thiiough a
contaminated area in a tank or self-propelled artillery mount (figure 93),
all ports must be closed; the ventilator in the gun compartment must be
turned off; and, if possible, the louvers should be closed.
In crossing a contaminated stretch ;of area on foot (figure 914 )., move
quic'kly.
If the movement is. being made under enemy fire, personnel' must cover
the ground in shortdashes, and when dropping to. the ground keep under them
their cape-bedcloths (nakidka-podstil), ,shelter half cape, or some improvised
means of protection (figure 95)
When entrenching in a contaminated area.,, the top layer of earth must be
removed and carefully dumped on a downwindaide,being careful not to get
dust on oneself or a comrade; when the pit has been dug, a breastwork of
uncontaminated earth is built (figure 96)4
One should not lie down or sit down in.a contaminated -area`-or handle
exposed objects,. unless it is absolutely unavoidable.
One should not drink, smoke, or eat, because, in this.w,ay,- radioactive
substances might enter the body..
Figur
91.
Traversing a contaminated area in an armored carrier.
F igure 92
fTraver.sing a contaminated area in a truck)
Figure. 93.
/Traversing a contaminated area :on a tank,?
Figure , 94+.
/T ravers'ing contaminated area on foot)
Figure. 95
/ra:versing contaminated area under enemy fire)
Figure .96
entrenching in contaminated area,,,, using bedcloth (podstil)
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-63.
Duties of NC:O's:, When Atomic. Weapons. are Employed in Combat
General. Duties
In combat under atomic warfare conditions).- a sergeant must give special
attention to the maintenance of high morale and political enthusiasm among
his men and of the maintenance of combat preparedness. In offensive combat,
the unit commander must maintain.among his men an offensive .spirit and a de-
termination to destroy the enemy,. but in defensive combat. he must secure
stamina and doggedness.
An NCO must:
Know the combat characteristio.s of atomic weapons and the conduct of
combat operations in atomic warfare.
- Know how to lead the-men of his unit in a contaminated area.
- Know the methods and means for defense against the destructive effects
of atomic weapons.
- Be skillful in organizing the construction of defensive works. and in
making use during combat of natural protection. offered by the terrain.
Check frequently on the combat readiness of the protective equipment.
- Always protect the weapons and equipment in his unit and the portable
food supplies and water from contamination by radioactive substances.
Be thoroughly acquainted in-and instruct his men in the .signals for
atomic and chemical alerts and the procedure to be followed when the signals
are given.
Be able to organize teams for giving assistance to the founded, for
fire fighting,., for reconstruction of defensive works, and for partial sanitary
(veterinary) processing and decontamination.
Continue to widen his knowledge and-experience in an_tlatomic defense
and to broaden the knowledge and experience :of his men.
Squad leaders (gun, tank) and their assistants must:
- See that their subordinates observe the rules governing actions in an
area contaminated with radioactive substances;
- Maintain a supply of materials for use in partial sanitary processing
of personnels partial veterinary processing of animals, and partial decontami-
nation of weapons and equipment.
- Take measures to prevent firers in trucks and tractors, which could re=
sult from the light flash; check on the presence and condition of fire ex
tinguishers...and, see to it that no inflammable materials (greasy rags, rags
soaked in gasoline, etc.) are kept inside the trucks; see to the removal of
dry branches, brushwood, boards, and hay from the neighborhood of the unit
position, when the unit is situated in a forest or a populated area.
S-E-C R-E-T
NOFORN/CONTINUED CONTROL/-R9"==:A...=-- Tn'
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- Arrange for the proper storage of ammunition (shells, mines) at firing
positions..
- Execute the platoon isader's orders in the performance of sanitary
processing and decontamination.
The first sergeant (starshina) in a company (battery) must:
Provide' his sub-unit in good time with the materials used in sanitary
(veter'inary) proce's.sing and decontamination.
- Check on the proper storage of the emergency rations (NZ.) in his
charge, to protect them from, radioactive contamination.
- Organize, on order of the company (battery) commande.r,the sanitary
processing and decontamination work for the company (battery),
- See that company supplies (spare underclothing,- footwear) are properly
stored for protection from radioactive coritamination,.
Organize the digging of ditches for trucks (prime movers), and take
measures to protect the trucks from theeffects of the flash.
- Keep a record of the personnel s exposure to radiation.
The company (battery) instructor in sanitation must:
Know the injurious effects of atomic weapons.
Be able to give first aid to the wounded in' a contaminated area.
- Be able to organize teams of stretcher bearers among unit personnel
for the purpose of searching for and assembling the wounded and carrying them
out of the zone of the atomic blast.
- See to it that personnel are always supplied with individual first"
aid packets,and gas-casualty first.-aid kits..
- Insure timely training of unit personnel with first-aid packets.
- Enforce the observance 'of safety regulations pertaining to the use
of food:and water in combat. operations in atomic warfare
- Know how to take a sampling Of food or water for determination of its
radioactive contamination.
- Enforce the observance of safety regulations in sanitary processing
and decontamination..
Instruct the personnel of the. sub~unit in. the methods of self-help and
mutual assistance under atomic attack and in carrying out the safety regula-
tions governing conduct in a contaminated area.
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Introciuct iron
CONTENTS
Page
3
PART I
Brief, Data. Cn Atc nic. Weapons:
I. THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER AND THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF ATOMIC WEAPONS 4
1. The Structuire of Matter
The Structure Of the Atomic Nucleus 5
3 Radioactivity; Nuclear Reaction, and Atomic.Ene'rgy 6
II. TYPES OF ATOMIC WEAPONS 9
1. Explosive_ Atomic. Weapons. 10
Construction -of the Atomic. Bomb
Types :of ,Atomic Explosions 11
External Characteristics of an Atomic Explosion 12
Destructive Effects of an Atomic Blast 13
The Shock Wave
The Light Flash
Penetrative Radiation
Radioactive Contamination of Ground and Air in an
Atomic Explosion
2. Combat Radioactive Substances (BRV)
Measures for Anti-Atomic Defense.
I. GENERAL REMARKS
II. DEFENSIVE WORKS
I Fire Trenches and Communication Trenches
2, Protective Works for Fire Weapons
Shelters for Transport Equipment, Supplies, Rations,. and
Horses
4A Camouflage of Defensive Works
15
16
18
20
27
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=66
Page.
III.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 'USED IN CHEMICAL WARFARE
29
IV.
RADIOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE
1. Organization of Radiological Reconnaissance
30
2. Conduct of Radioing.cal Reconnaissance
Chemical Observation Posts
Radiation Patrols
31
Functions of a.Dosimeter Operator Attached to a Re'conna.is-
sance Unit., a Security Detachment or Detachments for
Traffic Security
3. Dosage Inspection
35
4: Dosimeters
36
V. SANITARY (VETERINARY) PROCESSING AND DECONTAMINATION
38
1,
Organization for Sanitary (Veterinary) Processing and
Decottaminatidn
Sanitary Processing
Partial .Sanitary Processing
Complete Sanitary Processing
42
3.
Decontamination
Decontamination of Small Arms (Carbines, Rifles'.,
Guns, Heavy and Light Machine Guns)
44
Decontamination of Guns and Mortars
45
Decontamination of Ammunition.
Decontamination of Tanks, Self-Propelled Artillery Mounts,.
Armored Carriers.: and Trucks
46
Decontamination of Airp]anes.
Decontamination of Communications Equipment
Decontamination of Clothing,,. Bqjtxipment, and Protective
48
Clothing
Decontamination of Field Shelters- Ditches, Communications
4+9
Trenches, and Firing Positionri s
50
Decontaminations of Rations and Forage
51
Decontamination of Water Supply
53
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Safety Measures in Decontamination Work 53
)4 Veterinary Frocess-ing
VI,,. OTHER MEASURES TO ERADICATE THE'CONSEQNCES OF ATOMIC.ATTACK 55
PART III
Peculiarities .o '.Combat Operations in .Atomic Warfare.
1;, Offensive Combat
2. Defensive Combat
3. Troop Movements and, Disposition of Halted Troops
4, Action in Case of Atomic Alert
5.. Action During and After an Atomic Blast
Procedure in Cpntaminated.Area
7. Duties of NCOts When Atomic Weapons are- Employed in
Combat
General Duties
57.
58
59
6o
63
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