LETTER TO THE HONORABLE MICHIRE FUJIYAMA FROM ALLEN W. DULLES

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP80R01731R000200100011-1
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 286
• Document Creation Date: December 14, 2016
• Document Release Date: March 25, 2003
• Sequence Number: 11
• Publication Date: November 19, 1959
• Content Type: LETTER

25X1
25X1
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IExec.1
/ / '-' 93 /-
It im via Watt st
besther mg &gal sillereasto 76.7
shout him el re lid.
With Maass& regards
Distribution;
Orig. - Addressee
1 Det
I Me. FE Division
i4 v/basic
SIGNED
At W. Dulles
Direstor
e 823
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1
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CONTEMPORARY
JAPAN
Repiew of Far Eastern Affairs
VOL. XXVI
1959
PUBLISHED BY
NO. 1 AUG.
FOREIGN AFFAIRS ASSOCIATION OF JAPAN
TOKYO
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Founded in 1902 for the
financing of Japanese
industry in its incipient
stage, the Bank has been
closely identified with the
subsequent development of
Japanese industry. Along
with its principal business
of industrial financing in-
cluding corporate trust
service, the Bank furnishes
complete service in inter-
national banking through
a world-wide network of
correspondents.
N
THE
1 DUSTRIAL
BANK
OF JAPAN,LTD.
(NIPPON KOGYO GINKO)
HEAD OFFICE: Marunouchi, Tokyo
BRANCHES: Osaka, Kobe, Nagoya and other
principal cities throughout Japan
New York Office:
30 Broad SE. New York 4, N.Y.
Approved For Release 2003104102:
The sure course for your Eastern trade
FOUNDED IN 1880
We don't believe that there are any tricky or perilous waters left in
international trade these clays especially where the Japanese market
is concerned.
But we've been in business a long time as Japan's largest commercial
bank, and our accumulated experience assures every transaction of
smooth sailing. That much we guarantee.
THE FUJI BANK, LTD.
Head Office: 6, 1-chome, Ohtemachi, chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan
188 Offices throughout Japan
OVERSEAS OFFICES
London Branch: Salisbury House, Finsbury Circus, London. E. C. 2
Phone: NATional 0601",0604
New York Agency: Room No. 1427-34, 42 Broadway, New York, N.Y.
Phone: YV H. -3-701a 744'la
j
N/Olk:e Ae re! ?17Bir a7b3oluRr n?e
00:PIFItifikiii/FrigeganecAliOce3/7.04Ur OZoOd0:1:001cOult:1::
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World-Wide Banking Services
HEAD OFFICE: OSAKA, JAPAN
138 Branches In Key Cities
throughout Japan
OVERSEAS OFFICES
New York Agency
London Branch
'Karachi
Representative Office
The Sumitomo Bank (California)
Head Office: San Francisco
Branches: Los Angeles,
Sacramento
CaSa Bancarla Brazcot Ltda.
Head Office: Sim Paulo
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A Bank To Consult
On All Business
With Japan
rotRU JIB MI 11/ PP IUD Ua?
THE MITSUI BANK LTD.
HEAD OFFICE: NIHONDASHI. TOKYO. JAPAN
Overseas Branches
NEW YORK AGENCY
RONDON BRANCH
BANGKOK BRANCH
BOMBAY BRANCH
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LETus
BE
"ur BANK
IN
JAPAN
THE NIPPON KANGYO BANK
HEAD OFFICE: HIBIYA TOKYO
121 BRANCHES THROUGHOUT JAPAN
OVERSEA BRANCH: TAIPEI
REPRESENTATIVE OFFICES: LONDON, NEW YORK.
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(Aut orized Foreign Exchange Bank)
N K, Lid.
Head Office: Osaka Japan
New York Representative Office
AUTHORIZED CAPITAL 61, Broadway, New York 6, N. Y., U. S. A.
Y10,000,000,000 London Representative Office
CAPITAL (PAID-UP) 13/14, King Street, London, E. C. 2, England
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$INCE
OLd building ofthe time
establishment in 1873
THE DPI 1C14
I BANK, LTD.
AUTHORIZED FOREIGN EXCHANGE BANK
HEAD OFFICE: Marunouchi, Tokyo
NEW YORK AGENCY: 37, Wall St., New York 5, N.Y., U.S.A.
Chicago Representative: 38, South Dlearborn St., Chicago 3, Ill., U.S.A.
London Representative: 1, Royal Ex hange Avenue, London, E.C. 3, England
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MARINE & FIRE
RANCE CO., LTD.
THE OLDEST & LARGEST
NON-LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY
?
IN JAPAN
trifor
PAID UP CAPITAL
VARIOUS RESERVES
Y 4,000,000,000
Y19,658,514,713
(ESTABLISI1ED 1879)
HEAD OFFICE : Tokio Kaijo Bldg.
6, Marunouchi 1-chome, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
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?
NISSAN FIRE & MA
INSURANCE COMPANY. LIIVII
N
!_gu.141
.!ce twin. lraosportatmo., Ammonite, i'ersJIL::1
fole10. Soon!? Avtatinci.
ii
? ,4).,',E.A
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sscuRITY"
Fire . pnarine ? Transport .
Automobile . Personal Acci-
dent . Theft & Burglary .
Race Horse . Forestry . Ex-
port Credit . Bond ? Avia-
tion . Wind-Storm & Flood .
Glass and Their Reinsurances
CIIIYODA
FIRE & MARINE
ISERANCI
IIEAD OFFICE:
Chiyoda Kan, 2, 2-chome, Kyobashi, Chuo-ku, Tokyo
Tel: [phone]
Cable Address: CIIIYOFIRE
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Fl
'3,
.1
4, .., '?...i
;.;
YASUE
-11E & MARINE INSUR
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iv
President: TAKEJIRO WATANABE
Custody and Management of Real Estate
Planning and Supervision
of Construction Works
Owner of the Following Buildings :
Ohternachi Building ? New Ohtemachi Building
Marunouchi Building ? New Marunouch Building
Tokyo Building ? Mitsubishi Shoji Building, etc.
8th Fl., Marunouchi Bldg., 2-1, 2-chome, Marunouchi, Tokyo
Tel. Wadakura (20) 1 2 6 1
--;:-
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11
!!
it
11
UI
11
11
11
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rticulars please apply to:
-NIPPON YUSEN KAISHA
Branches & OP- tficeril:?
20-1 2-chome Marunouchi Otar , Tokyc",Yk c, is agoYa,
i-
thi'Yoda-ku Tokyo Osaka, Kobe, Moji.
Cable: YUSEN TOKYO London, New York, San raricisco.
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IINO
Tanker & C
The Lar
Regular Cargo Liner Se
Japan/New York
* Japan/India, Pakista
(* the above under
Line)
Japan/Hongkong &
Japan/Korea
World-Wide Tanker &
Tramp Ser
rgo :
est Owner in Japan!
vices:
& Persian Gulf
he name of J.I.P.
Bangkok
ices
President: KENSUKE MATANO
IINO KAI N KAISHA, LTD.
Head Office: Maru ouchi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
Overseas Offices: New York, San Francisco, London, Bangkok, Taipei
Cable Address: "I I N 0 TOKYO"
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0.
n
Wafrid ?elate
Relzdalt S taice
'
",??^? ..... . . . ,
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tsui Line
3-S DELIVERY-SPEED, SERVICE, SAFETY
MODERN FLEET OF 720, 000 TONS D. W.
Fast and Reliable Regular Freight Services
World-Wide Tramp Services
MITSUI STEAMSHIP CO., LTD.
HEAD, OFFICE: 1, 2-chome, Muromachi, Nihonbashi, Chuo-ku, Tokyo
TEL: (24)-0161, 7981 Cable Address: "MITSUILINE TOKYO"
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ors'
ll prirogrq i II r i l II:
41111NAIVIIAINSrH I111 A ilIN Ell
F ilisimAnimiliiii m Edo mr n iliin '
YA ASHITA STEAMSHIP C E 1..TM
11 1111111111111111111111111111 1
111111 11 1
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??????????????.?1
WIN
ata.n14',*1
FAST MODERN CARGOLINERS
REGULAR SERVICES
BETWEEN JAPAN
and
* U.S.A. and CANADA vie PANAMA?Fortnightly
* U.S.A. and CANADA?WESTBOUND, ROUND THE GLOBE?Fortnightly
* HONGKONG, VIET NAM, THAILAND, MALAYA and ITALY?Fortnightly
* THAILAND-3 Soilings per month.
* INDIA. PAKISTAN, IRAN, IRAQ and KUWEIT?Monthly
* WEST AFRICA?Monthly
* INDONESIA?Fortnightly
MAERSK LINE
'OKI 0 . YOKOHAMA . SHIMIZU . NAGOYA . OSAKA . KOBE
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NISSAN LINE
1SSAN KISEN KAISHA LTD.
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SHIPBUILDING St
22, 000 DWT Cargo
Industrial
w-Olnemachi Bldg., No. 4, 2-chome1OhtemItchi,
Oifii-ku, Tokyo -
rw, : = HIKO
'LI- ?
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Ishi Heavy-Industries. Rear an zed, Ltd.
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..SHIPBUILDING
a
ENG4FLRNG CO., LTD.
xperience and technics
ynamic power going through the world
apan for
Diesel Engins
E. W. Gas-turbines
Head Office : Mitsui Main Building, Nihonbash , Tokyo. London Agent : Mitsui & Co., Ltd. London
Cables : MITUIZOSEN TOKYO 2nd Floor Bucklersbury House, 83 Cannon Street,
Tamano, Okayama, Prefecture, apan. London E. C. 4 Cables: MITSUI LONDON
MITUIZOSEN TAlk,4,6NO \'?-% yok Co., Inc.
YVest Street, New York 6, .N. Y.
Cables: MITUIZOSEN NEWYOU
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,74474'it
4"4,` 10,ti..4111
,
:,4404tC,
7..3;
'
^
ion id i fag nisi% itePcottirt ump
1. 4 o. fig? url tog ot Min tr faiit
ir-441. ? e kold.
FRAGA DOCK CO.. LTD.
If tEJ14L i
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
The Foremost Shipbuilder in Japan
Established in i908 ? Capital: Y 4,000,000,000 ? Pres: S Mutsuoka
? Designers and Builders of all classes of Oil Tankers, Passenger and Cargo
Vessels.
? Manufacturers of Harima-Sulzer Diesel Engines (marine and stationary).
.Boilers and other machinery.
THE HARIMA SHIPBUILDING & ENGINEERING
CO., LTD.
Head Office:
Main Works:
N ? w York Office:
Kobe Office:
No. 2, t-chome, Otemachi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Cable Address: HARIZO TOKYO
5292 Aioi, Aioi City, 1-1yogo Prefecture, Japan
Cable Address: HARIMAZOSEN A101
74 Trinity Place, New York 6, N.Y.,. U.S.A.
Sanncimiya Denden Bldg., 64, Naniwa-cho, Ikuta-ku Kobe
Cable Address: HARIZO KOBE
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WERS
AIRERS
,ERS
v-c,AWASAKI DOCK YARD
TD
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eN11111/
?
General Merchants, Importers & Exporters
Main Lines: Papers, Paper Products, Printed M?it...erS
& Pulps, Textiles, Footstuffs, Fertilizers,?Chem.cdo;
Metals, Building Materials, Machinery, Cement,
Lumber, Fuels, Sundries, etc.
MITSUI St CO., LTD.
(Mitsui Bussan
Kaisha, Ltd.)
Cable Address; "MITSUI TOKYO"
Codes Used : Bentley's Complete, 8, 2nd Ed , Acme
A, B, C 6th
Head Office : 2, 1-chorne, Shiba Tornuracho,
ku, Tokyo, Japan.
(P.O. Box 822 Tokyo Central)
Overseas vrrtces & Atfiliaica Companies:
New York, Son Francisco, Los Angeles, Seattle, Portland, Chicago, New ?Howls,
Dallas, Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Mexicali, Mexico City, Solvodor, Habana,
Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Scntlogo, Lima, Bogota, London, Hamburg,
Duesseldorf, Paris, Istanbul, Cairo, Johannesburg, Teheran, Baghdod, Beirut, Karachi,
Bombay, New Delhi, Colcutta, Colombo, Rangoon, Singopore, Bangkok, Saigon,
Phnom-Penh, Diakorto, MOCCI,(1,, Manila, Bataan, Melbourne, Sydney, Wellington,
Numea, Hongkong, Faipei, Naha
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!41PQ; TERS
Zeta
Principal Lines :
Machines and Machinery of all des(rip
tions, Nuclear Reactor, Nuclear
Utilization Equipments, Steel,
Metals, Fertilizers, Foods and
Provisions. I fides, Wool, Raw
Materials, Chemicals, 8.tc
zzz,0,7,
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GENERAL BUSSAN
KAISHA, LTD.
Importers,, Refiners and Distributors
of Petroleum Products
President: SACHIO NAKAO
Head Office: 1:? 2:-chome, Ginza-Higashi, Chuo-ku, Tokyo
Osaka Office. I, Soze-cho, Kita-ku, Osaka
Branches:
Sapporo, Sendai, Tokyo, Nagoya, Kobe, Hiroshima,
Takamatsu, Moji, !Fukuoka, Nagasaki, etc.
Terminals :
Otaru, Muroran, Hachinoe, Miyako, Shiogama,
Tokyo, Tsurumi, Nagoya, Talcaoka,
Sakurajima (0:>aka), Maizurui Shikama, Ujina,
Okayama, Kokura, Fukuoka, Chao, etc.
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J(
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YAMAICHI SECURITIES CO., LTD. ,9
ESTABLISHED 1897
President: K. Koike
Capitalization 1,000,000,000
Underwriters,
brokers
in
BONDS & STOCKS
and dealers
HEAD OFFICE:
1/ 3 Kabutocho I -chome, Nihonbashi, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Information in English are available
.....,/
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Al
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ftR, 4 4.01i4t6,1411041",,,/tAntAVAlli*ten
apan T mos
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TERNATIONAL AIR EDITION AL RMAILEDI
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language Tops with the news'
THE
ASAHI
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NEWS
was all very simmy. lie innnic.
and Cl trange to J
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I meant an( Perspective icls j ,;; 44
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coudloclneexaplain't th
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EST
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tv*vammfieliPIOMPV4:1411111111fifiltlii-...ftlitirAE,...1.01,4'
444 --,,,,,,,,,44:0111001411VIV-::-
E MAIN CHI NEWSPA 'ERS
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
THE YOMIURI
Japan's best English language daily
News and photo coverage of Japan in depth
Full news reports from the world
EXCLUSIVE, authoritative background stories on
international events and economic trends from THE
ECONOMIST of London, U.S. NEWS & WORLD
REPORT, LONDON DAILY MAIL and THE t4EW YORK
HERALD TRIBUNE
Only THE YOMIURI carries Walter Lippmann, Joseph
Alsop and other famous Herald Tribune columnists
Comprehensive and accurate business section
Full sports coverage
Published daily by
YOMILIRI SHIMBUN
1, 3-chome Ginza Nishi Chuo-ku, Tokyo
Editorial Advertising Circulation
56-2423, 6863 56-1111 56-1111
56-1111 Ext. 102, 104 Ext. 228, 229 Ext. 120
Subscription: Y300 a month, Y330 by mail
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.fNATONA
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141.11
AA A 4Yr 43 11)) 1[
\-V
The British Monthly Journal on Asian Affairs
This illustrated monthly magazine
is now generally recognized as the
leading organ for the discussion
of all relations between East and West.
Independent and non-party, EASTERN
WORLD deals with the political,
economic and cultural problems of
the East, and is read all over the
world. It is the most important source
of information for all who take an
intelligent interest in Asia's relations
with the West.
Subscription: ?C 1 yearly (12 issues, post-free)
EASTERN WORLD is an ideal advertising medium for the
marketing of Asian goods. Write for rates and for any other
information you may :require to:
EASTERN WORLD, LTD., 45, Dorset Street,
London, W.I. England.
Cables: rxmco, London.
.01.--millogiraborgi???000-A41.1.--vimewtiir-41?7..
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- ANP
;
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MAIN PRODUCTS:
Newsprint,, Groundwood Printing,
Woodfree Printing, Writing,
Bleached Kraft Wrappings, etc.
OJI P.A.PER
?
?
CO.ITD.
?
?
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?
HEAD OFFICE: Ginza, Tokyo.
?
MILLS: Tomakomai, Hokkaido.
Kasugai, Aichi Prefecture.
? ?????? ????? ? ,* s" ???????,s"." ??? ??? ??? ? ? ? ?? ?^?^? ? ? ??? ? ...... ? ? ,? ? .? ? ?
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C.17leYr? Pairtelt
AV. Co,, Lid
['resident: SAICHIRO KANEKO
Cable Address:
"JUAPA"
Capital Y 2,300,000,000 ( Fully Paid-up
MAIN PRODUCTS:
Newsprint, Woodfree and Groundwood Printir
Writing, Drawing, Machine-coated, Cigarette,
Glassine, M. G. Woodfree, M. G. Unbleached.
Typewriting, India, Blue Match and other
fine papers.
HEAD OFFICE:
GINZA HIGASHI 3-CHOME, CHUO-KI T, E:Y0
7 MILLS LOCATED AT:
KUSIHRO ( Hokkaido ) , FUSHIKI Toyama ), .115,11) Tok yo),
MIYAKOHMA (Osaka), KOKURA, YATAUSHI
and SAKAMOTO (Kyushu,
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MITSUBISHI
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Cable Address: HISISEISI TOKYO
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Best Brands for Best
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"Tetoron- is the trade name of
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NYLON
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Cable: TOYORAYON OSAKA
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Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan
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Cable Add.: " MARUHOTE" Tokyo
Near Tokyo Central Station
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* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *,* * * * * *
MASAICHI NAGATA PRESENTS
in
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Cray instinct?
SOrrowful love, or hatred?
? Under the fluorescent lamp, he laid
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Beautifully crafted silk and paper
fans trimmings of fine laces,
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directly.
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
Vol. XXVI No. 1 August 1959
?'CONTENTS
The Late Mr. John Foster Dulles
and Japan Aiichiro Fujiyanza
International Understanding?
An Individual Responsibility. ? ?
John D. Rockefeller 5
Japan's Share in Economic Co-operation. .Hayato Ikeda.... 14
Agricultural Development in Asia Yoshiji Togari.... 33
Elections and Cabinet Reshuffle Fumio Ikematsu.... 50
Organized Labor in Present-day Japan
(Part II) lwao Ayusawa. . 66
Japan's Foreign Relations (Part XII) ...Kosaku Tamura.... 82
Study on Religious Juridical
Persons Law (Part III) William P. Woodard.... 96
Sensu?Japahese Folding Fan Florence Wells... .116
Japan's Periodicals?Extracts:
Hideo Wada: Trend in Local Autonomy Katsumi
Matsumoto: Crisis for the House of Councillors--
Kenzo Takayanagi: Tug-of-War over Article IX of the
Constitution 131
Book Reviews:
Irene B. Taeuber: The Population of Japan Paul
W. Schroeder: Axis Alliance and Japanese American
Relations Charles E. Tuttle Company: Japan: Theme
and Variation? A Collection of Poems by Americans -
Paul Reps: Zen Flesh, Zen Bones Saburo Ienaga:
History of Japan Yojuro Yasudo: Munakata Norine
C. Reece: ?The Cultured Pearl, Jewel of Japan--
Ichitaro Kondo: Painting, 6th-14th Centuries 146
Chronicle of Current Events:
January 1 ? June 30, 1959 160
Documentary Material:
Trade and Payments Agreement between Japan and the
United Arab Republic Signed at Cairo, November 8,
1958?Treaty of Commerce and Navigation between Japan
and the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia Signed
at Belgrade, February 28, 1959?Convention between Japan
and the Kingdom of Denmark for the Avoidance of Double
Taxation and the Prevention of Fiscal Evasion with Res-
pect to Taxes on Income Signed at Copenhagen, March
10, 1959?Accord de Reparations entre le fapon et la
Republique du Viet-Nam Signe a Saigon, le 30 Mai, 1959. . . 167
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NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
AIICHIRO FUJIYAMA, Minister
of Foreign Affairs, formerly served
as President of the Tokyo Chamber
of Commerce (1951-57) and concur-
rently President of the Japan Cham-
ber of Commerce and Industry. As
President of the Federation of the
UNESCO Associations of Japan, he
headed the Japanese delegation to
the 6th General Congress of UN-
ESCO in Paris in 1951. He was
Chief Japanese delegate at the sign-
ing of the Japan-Indonesia Peace
Treaty at Djakarta in 1958.
JOHN D. ROCKEFELLER III,
Chairman of the hoard of the Rocke-
feller Foundation, Chairman of the
board of the Population Council,
President of the Lincoln Center for
the Performing Arts, etc. is grand-
son of the founder of the Standard
Oil Company. He has devoted his
career to numerous philanthropic
enterprises, especially in the field of
international understanding. After
serving with the Dulles Peace Mis-
sion to Japan, and with the U.S.
delegation to the San Francisco
Peace Conference in 1951, he has
taken active interest in Asia. He is
currently President of the Japan
Society in New York, President of
the Asia Society, President of the
Council on Economic and Cultural
Affairs, etc.
HAYATO IKEDA, Minister of In-
ternational Trade and Industry,
formerly served as Minister of Fin-
ance and Minister of International
Trade and Industry in the third
Yoshida Cabinet, Minister of Inter-
national Trade and Industry in the
fourth Yoshida Cabinet, Minister of
Finance in the Ishibashi Cabinet and
the first Kishi Cabinet, and State
Minister in the second Kishi Cabi-
net. He also served as Chairman
of the Policy Board and Secretary
General successively of the Liberal-
Democratic Party.
YOSHIJI TOGARI, D. Sc., Profes-
sor of Agricultural Science at the
University of Tokyo since 1949, is
specialized in crop science; he serv-
ed formerly as Chief of the Agro-
nomical Section of the National In-
stitute of Agricultural Science.
FU1V110 IKEMATSU, Chairman of
the Editorial Committee of the
Mainichi Shimbun since 1955, served
as Director of th Political Depart-
ment ?'1945-46), n nmber of the Edi-
torial Committee (1946-51) and its
Vice-Chairman (1951-55), of the
same newspaper.
IWAO AYUSK VA, 13. Sc., M.A.,
Ph. D., LL. D., E rofessor of Labor
at International Christian Univer-
sity since 1951. fermerly served as
Senior Staff Mem her of ILO in Ge-
neva (1923-34), Director of Tokyo
Office of ILO (19-39), Member and
Executive Direct4T of the Central
Labor Relations Board (1946-49),
Advisor to UNES( '0 Office in Tokyo
(1950-51), Visiting Professor of Eco-
nomics at Columbia University
(1955-56), etc. H) is the author of
International Lahti Legislation and
many other books ,n labor problems.
KOSAKU TAM7RA, LL. D., Pro-
fessor of Chuo University, took
service at the ,Voreign Office in
1907 and filled various posts at
Antung, Mukden London, Prague
and finally at ( dnton as consul
general. He is t1,-- author of Shzna
Gaisai S'hiron (A T Iistory of China's
Foreign Debts), Sockzn Shina Gaikoshi
(Recent Diplom tic History of
China), The Gene F of the Pacific War,
and textbooks on international law.
WILLIAM P. ?)/VOODARD, M.A.
was in charge of he Research Unit
in Religions and 4 'ultural Resources
Division, Civil Int irmation and Edu-
cation Section, SCAP (1946-52).
He represented the Division in con-
sultations with th - Ministry of Edu-
cation in regard )o the drafting of
the Religious Juri lical Persons Law.
He is Director of the International
Institute for the ...t,tudy of Religions,
a non-sectarian, non-profit organiza-
tion which assist , foreign scholars
interested in Japanese religions and
publishes bulletin and reports. He
has been resident in Japan since
1921 with the exception of the war
years and, exceut for the years
1942-56, has been a missionary of
the American Beard of Commis-
sioners for Forethi Missions.
FLORENCE WELLS, Professor
of English at Jis ,en Women's Uni-
versity since 1924, with the excep-
tion of the war !pears. is interested
in research on Japanese culture, and
has written artic1,-s and stories for
American and locel publications.
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Where to Get "Contemporary Japan"
and Other Publications by
The Foreign Affairs Association of Japan:
The Japan Year Book
Pamphlets in Japanese binding: Japan, the Land of Fans?Yoshida
Hiroshi: Print Maker.? Artistic Designing and Hand-Dyeing?
Nurimono (Lacquer-ware)? The Special Foods of Tokyo ? The
Art of Flower Arrangement?Japanese Angler?Japanese Ceramics
? Notes on Bonsai? A Treasure Boat of Japanese Tales? Paul
Jacoulet : Wood-block Artist-- Kabuki: Japanese Drama? Kokai
Nikki: Diary of the First Japanese Embassy to U.S.A.
Inquiries and orders may be placed at:
ORIENTALIA, INC.
F. W. FAXON COMPANY, INC.
CHARLES E. TUTTLE CO.
PERKINS ORIENTAL BOOKS
B. F. STEVENS & BROWN, LTD.
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ARTHUR PROBSTHAIN
ORIENTAL BOOKSELLER
DOCUMENTATION POLITIQUE
INTERNATIONALE
JOHAN GRUNDT TANUM
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Boston 15, Mass., U.S. A.
Takashimaya Department Store,
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Rutland, Vermont, U. S. A.
No. 72, Teramae-cho, Shishigadani,
Sakyo-ku, Kyoto
1603 Hope Street, South Pasadena,
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New Ruskin House, 28-30 Russell St.,
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Hamburg 36, Poststrasse 11, Germany
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Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
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THE FOREIGN AFFAIRS ASSOCIATION
OF JAPAN
(Founded 1931)
BOARD OF EDITORIAL ADVISERS
Shoji Iizawa, former Managing Director of the Newspapers
Association of Japan
Mock Joya, former Managing Editor of the Nippon Times
Yoshitaro Kusuyama, former Member of the Hou -;e of Repre-
sentatives
Masuo Kato, Director, Osaka Office of the Kyodo News Agency
Kenzo Takayanagi, formerly Professor of Tokic University
Jiro Tsuji, D. Sc., Vice-President, Institute for Physical and
Chemical Research
Seiji Hishida, Doctorate of International Law
Florence Wells, Professor of Jissen Women's Colleg
Helen M. Uno
Editor
All contribution and correspondence should be adt ressed to the
Editor, THE FOREIGN AFFAIRS ASSOCIATION OF JAPAN.
Contributions should be accompanied by a stamped envelupe for return
if not suitable for use.
Neither the acceptance of and payment for an ar' icle, nor the
sending of a proof, can be regarded as a guarantee of publication.
The articles in CONTEMPORARY JAPAN do not represent any
consensus of opinions; nor should the view expressed in them be taken
as those of CONTEMPORARY JAPAN or THE FOREK NI AFFAIRS
ASSOCIATION OF JAPAN.
Matter appearing in Contemporary Japan may noz be reprinted
without the permission of the Foreign Affairs Associa z ion of Japan.
A Single Copy: In Japan... 46O; Elsewhere. ..$2.O(
Annual Subscription: In Japan... 1,800 ; Elsewhere.. ,.17.00
Edited and Published by
Helen M. Uno,
The Foreign Affairs Association of Japan,
Togyo Kaikan, No. 7, 1-chome,
Yurakucho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
Tel.: Tokyo (28) 3351-9
Cable Add.. FORAFF, Tokyo
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
Vol. XXVI
1 9 5 9
No. 1 Aug.
THE LATE MR. JOHN FOSTER
DULLES AND JAPAN
By AIICHIRO FUJIYAMA
WITH THE RECENT PASSING OF JOHN FOSTER
Dulles, the late United States Secretary of
State, not only the United States but the
world lost a stalwart champion of freedom and demo-
cratic ideals. We in Japan especially feel his loss
keenly, for we have indeed lost a true and under-
standing friend whose zeal and energy made possible
our country's return to the family of nations following
the last war.
As the architect of the Treaty of Peace with
Japan, he displayed to the fullest his prowess as an
able and astute negotiator. Upon his appointment
by President Truman in May, 1950, as Special
Representative of the President, with the rank of
Ambassador, to negotiate the Japanese Peace Treaty,
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re John Foster
7-1
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
he devoted a year of concentrated effo ct towards
adjusting the differing views among the various
nations, especially those in Asia. He cann? to Japan
on three different occasions during this Toeriod and
made several trips to the capitals of Southeast Asia.
It was on one of his visits to Japan that I had the
privilege of meeting him for the first time. The effi-
cient and methodical manner in which he i!arried out
his mission left a deep impression on me.
Mr. Dulles' concept of a "peace of reccnciliation"
finally bore fruit with the signing of the P?. ace Treaty
in San Francisco on September 8, 1951, by forty-nine
nations. It was acclaimed as Mr. Dulle?;' "master
handiwork." With the coming into force of the treaty
on April 28, 1952, normal relations between Japan
and the United States, as well as other na-ions, were
resumed.
Mr. Dulles' role in international affairs, especially
in relations with Japan, did not begin with his work
on the Japanese Peace Treaty. In 1919, he was a
young but brilliant counsellor to the Amo ican Com-
mission to Negotiate Peace at the Versailles Con-
ference, in which Japan took part as one of the
Allied Nations. It was then that he gaintil valuable
experience in the conduct of international conferences
and problems related to post-war settlemen
It was not mere chance that rocketed Mr. Dulles
into prominence in the field of internatior al affairs.
His family background and enviroment weye ideal to
prepare him for the task that lay ahead. His grand-
father, John Watson Foster, who served as Secretary
of State from 1892 to 1893 in the Administration of
President Harrison, is said to have gr omed his
grandson for a career in the conduct of im emotional
2
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THE LATE MR. JOHN FOSTER DULLES
affairs. I might mention that this eminent grand-
father later became an adviser to the Chinese
Government under Li Huang-chang and attended
?the signing of the Treaty of Shimonoseki ending
the Sino-Japanese War in 1895 in that capacity.
His uncle, Robert Lansing, was Secretary of State
in the Wilson Administration and signed the so-called
Ishii-Lansing Agreement of November 2, 1917, con-
cerning Japan's special interests in China.
Thus, Mr. Dulles was destined to follow in their
footsteps and became Secretary of State immediately
following the inauguration of President Eisenhower
in January, 1953, thus assuming leadership in the
conduct of American foreign policy. His first task
in placing Japanese-American relations, in particular
trade relations, on a stable and friendly basis was
the signing of the Treaty. of Friendship, Commerce
and Navigation on April 2, 1953, thereby restoring
treaty relations between the two countries, which had
been disrupted since January, 1940.
Japan also owes much to Mr. Dulles for his
initiative and constant support in making possible
Japan's admission, by a unanimous vote, to the
United Nations in December, 1956, and later, in
October, 1957, her election to a seat on the United
Nations Security Council as a non-permanent member.
Through personal contacts with Mr. Shigeru
Yoshida, then Prime Minister, in November 1954,
and Prime Minister Kishi in June, 1957, when they
visited the United States, Mr. Dulles laid the ground-
work for a new era in Japanese-American relations
based on co-operation and partnership.
As Foreign Minister, I also had the opportunity
of meeting with Mr. Dulles when I visited Washington
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
in September, 1957. We discussed variou problems
of mutual interest. At that time, I was most im-
pressed by his deep grasp of the problems (onfronting
Japan, in particular his understanding )f Japan's
vital concern in foreign trade and the position of
her economy as a basic factor in the stabi ity of the
Far East. Exactly a year later, in 195, we met
again and had a very fruitful exchange of views
on the situation in the Taiwan Straits and other
international questions. On this occasion, Mr. Dulles
agreed wholeheartedly to conduct talks in Tokyo on
the revision of the Security Treaty through diplo-
matic channels in order to make necessary adjust-
ments to the treaty in accordance with new develop-
ments in the situation and the aspirations of the
Japanese people. He stressed that, by so doing,
Japan's security would be insured and thc relations
between the two countries would be placed on a basis
of stability and mutual trust.
At the official funeral services for Mr. Dulles on
May 27, this year, which I attended on behalf of the
Japanese Government, it was brought home to me in
sharp relief that a great statesman had pas sed away.
He may have been looked upon by many as a con-
troversial figure, as a man lacking in flexibility. But
even his most bitter critics are unanimous in acknowl-
edging that he was a man of principle whose unstinting
devotion to the high ideals he championed cc namanded
admiration and respect. This, I believe, is a high
tribute to his greatness. No one can dem, that he
served his country at great personal sacrifice and
that he worked untiringly for peace and freedom. His
name will go down in history as one who da red when
others wavered.
4
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INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTANDING-
AN INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITY
By JOHN D. ROCKEFELLER III
THE IMPORTANCE OF INTERNATIONAL UNDERSTAND-
ing has been strongly and repeatedly impressed
upon me in recent years. Since 1946, I have
been fortunate to have traveled widely, especially in
Asia where I have visited almost every country. My
travels leave me with two main observations. One
I find most heartening; the other unfortunate, even
tragic.
The first is the gratifying realization that a solid
basis for understanding between East and West does
exist. It is to be found in the mutual aspirations
and the strong kinship of ideals that the people of
Asia share with the people of the West. It is to be
found beneath our surface differences of language and
dress, custom and belief, even race and religion. It
is to be found in the recognition of the common
humanity of all men, in the knowledge that at heart
all men share a wide range of mutual hopes, fears,
and desires.
People in all parts of the world believe in the
dignity of the individual. Men desire justice, and
wish to live under a rule of law that dispenses-
justice equally among individuals and nations. They ,
are striving to attain equality and believe in their
right to choose their own form of government. War
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
is universally feared and dreaded, and pet pie long for
peace, a peace that will allow them to evelop their
lives and their nations in a safe, oderiy, and
productive manner. And all over the w.rld man is
seeking to improve the lot of himse f and his
family?to achieve a better and fuller life.
Upon this broad common ground of shared as-
piration, I have found that the peoples r- f East and
West are being drawn together. I found that many
nations in their struggle to gain indepei dence drew
hope and inspiration from America?from its history
and its heritage of freedom. I have four tl that they
have looked to America for sympathetic understand-
ing and help during these difficult transil ional years
because of a feeling of kinship and comm in purpose.
A friend who over the years has traveler: widely in
South America once told me that in rm ny humble
homes there he would see a photograph a Franklin
D. Roosevelt, who was then our Presio tent, in a
revered place alongside the religious syrd tol. When
my friend indicated that, as an Americ;,n, he felt
honored by such a tribute, one farme explained
that he and his people felt Mr. Roosev4 It "cared"
that America "cared" about them and heir prob-
lems. My travels tell me that people b 1ieve that
America, as a friend and partner, still "ares."
And yet?and this is the second, and a dis-
tressing, observation of my trips?I cannc - help but
sense today a feeling of doubt and disa pointment
among some people as to whether Ame7ica really
does understand and appreciate their aspir ttions and
hopes for peace, freedom and a better life
I find that many people fail to under stand why
my country places so great an emphasis u )on arma-
6
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RESPONSIBILITY FOR INT. UNDERSTANDING
ments and security pacts, why we appear more
interested in holding back communism than in helping
the people in their efforts to attain a better life. I
find that many won der why our economic aid pro-
grams are directed so purposefully to countries where
the threat of communism seems strongest. And I find
that many are puzzled by the seeming contradiction
of American foreign policy that appears at one time
to oppose colonialism and at another time to defend it.
It is true that my country is putting heavy
emphasis upon its armed strength, true that one
objective of our economic aid program is to check
communism, and true that some of our policies appear
contradictory. The doubt about America that these
actions cause comes from a lack of understanding of
the difficult postwar role of responsibility into which
the United States has been cast. We, the Americans,
are the principal source of strength if the defense of
the free world becomes necessary. We believe that
the forces which oppose us respect only strength.
Therefore, we are convinced that we must maintain
our strength, not because we believe in rule by force,
but so that we may gain time to work positively for
a lasting peace and a better world. American re-
sources for ?foreign assistance being limited, there
appears to many of our people a special urgency
about assistance programs to help in the restraint
of communism. Our global responsibility gives us
obligations to both our traditional friends and allies
in Europe and to our new friends in Africa and
Asia. This duality of interest sometimes makes our
policies seem contradictory to those who have not
shared our problems of the past fifteen years.
Misunderstanding of the reasons behind America's
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
attitudes and actions becomes serious when it causes
other peoples to doubt if America still "a res" about
them and about their problems. They may rest
assured that the American people do care --and care
deeply. The same high ideals that have lifted and
inspired freedom-loving people in other countries
remain alive in the hearts of the American people?as
strong, as real, as vital as they were 183 years ago
when the United States of America declared its own
independence.
The depth of the present tragedy of misunder-
standing is the extent to which it retard .4 progress
toward fulfilling the mutual aspirations of The world's
peoples. For the villains in this tragedy. we must
look beyond governments and propagandi As. Mis-
understandings are like weeds. They ne,d not be
sown, they spring up and flourish merely for want
of someone willing to root them out. And, so in
seeking the villains, we must look to ourselves, to all
and each of us who by our daily actions, or lack of
action, allow misunderstanding to spread and flourish.
It is we, the individual citizens who comprise
our democratic societies, who must undertake the
task?or, rather create the opportunity?o building
a true and lasting understanding among the nations
of East and West. And yet how easy it is for us
as individuals to evade this responsibility! We can
readily say that the problems are too gre tt or too
complex, the end results beyond our compet( nce. But
we must remember it is the accumulation of our
individual daily actions that counts. So eten these
actions have an influence that reaches out fir beyond
our immediate environment. It is what we do as
parents, as voters, as businessmen, as workers in
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RESPONSIBILITY FOR INT. UNDERSTANDING
civic and social organizations, as holders of public
office, that in the last analysis determines our na-
tional policies. The higher the position of leadership
we hold in our democratic institutions, the greater
becomes our responsibility to act so as to further
our democratic ideals, and to present them properly
to an ever-watching world.
Today, as never before, free society is on trial
in the eyes of the world. The momentous question to
many is whether a free democratic society can fulfill
the aspirations of its people. The jury is comprised
of hundreds of millions of people throughout the
world who have newly come, or are coming, to inde-
pendence. Their decision, one of the most important
and far-reaching that men have ever been called upon
to make, will be based on their observation of our
actions, of our individual actions.
So important is international understanding that
there are few other fields where we can discharge
our personal responsibility to greater effect. The
pertinent question today is how we ?as individuals
can play a positive role in building this understand-
ing. There are, of course, countless ways, but I
would suggest three.
? First, we must remember that the basis of all
understanding is knowledge. So let us both, the
peoples of East and West, increase our individual
and collective efforts to learn more about each other.
We must be well-informed about each other's culture
and pattern of life, accomplishments and problems,
needs and aspirations. Otherwise, we are certain to
make many mistakes in our relationships with each
other, and thus sow the seeds of new misunderstand-
ing. Our divergent; backgrounds, history, geography,
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
resources, religions, and customs may make our views
of such things as democracy, communism, or even
individual freedom seem strange to one arlother. In
many respects we citizens of East and West regard
each other as virtual strangers. But we are strangers
only because we are unacquainted, and unacquainted
only because it is but recently that we have really
begun to know one another.
With respect to America, I think the obvious
unbalance between what we know of Europe and
what we know of Asia indicates how great an edu-
cational task lies before us. For example, many of
our young people learn about the civilizations of
Europe; but few indeed are acquainted with the
great civilizations of the East. French, Sixinish, and
German are taught in almost every high school; but
an American would be hard-pressed to find a school,
other than a large college or university, where his
children could learn Japanese, Chinese, aid Hindi.
Japan is to be commended for the greater degree to
which the minds of her young people are directed.
towards Western culture and language. America
would do well indeed to put an equal emohasis on
the East.
Understanding, by its definition, means knowl-
edge. And knowledge can be neither gained nor given
by decree, no more than understanding can. It can
only be produced by our earnest individual efforts.
Second, we must bear in mind that learning
about each other is no more important than our
personal and national need to learn from NI ch other.
Our civilizations both East and West, are rich in art
and culture, religion and philosophy, litera ure and
science. If we but direct ourselves to these resources,
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RESPONSIBILITY FOR INT. UNDERSTANDING
we can enrich our individual lives, as well as those
of our children.
Even greater than these personal rewards are
the incalculable benefits that await mankind if the
combined knowledge and talents of East and West
can be applied to the enormous challenges of our age.
The problem and potential of population growth, the
momentum of whole new continents towards economic
development, the adventure of space exploration, the
discovery of new sources of energy and new cures for
disease, all these offer problems as well as promise.
To avail ourselves fully of the opportunities they
present, we must apply to them the total intellectual,
scientific, cultural, and spiritual resources of all our
peoples. We must give freely of our learning and
our culture, to the betterment of life in both East
and West.
Here again we should not be daunted by the size
and complexity of the task before us. It is for us
to make a beginning. For example, we can encourage
our governments and businesses to give greater
support to mutual cultural relations; we can make
a most effective approach to greater understanding
if we can create more opportunities to see, hear, and
enjoy each other's artistic and cultural achievements.
Language, race, and distance are no obstacles to the
appreciation of art. The arts, because they speak
of man's innermost feelings and hopes, have meaning
for all men. They, better than any other medium,
express the common humanity of us all?the firm
basis upon which understanding must rest.
? The twin efforts of learning about and learning
from each other call for conscious and continuing
individual effort. Nonetheless, the effort is vastly
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
rewarding, and basically essential to mat rstanding.
Third, we must bring to our relationship with
one another an honest frankness?the L ankness of
friends that permits no misunderstandin 2,-. Let us
speak and act with unreserved sincerity admitting
fault where fault exists and explaining it As straight-
forwardly as we can. Let us ask candid I luestions so
we can better know each other's point of view. Let
us, in short, speak and act frankly and ope)Ily together
as equal citizens of the world community.
True and lasting friendship, we must remember,
does not require a complete identification if thought.
It does demand that our views be honestly held and
frankly expressed. It should be expected and even
welcomed, that true friendship may at t Imes cause
us to speak out in opposition to one another's view.
It is the true friend who is quick to f ffer frank
advice, even if he knows this will offend his friend.
The true friend cares more about the weL are of the
other than about surface civilities. The true friend
is not afraid of dispute, because he kno vs dispute
will pass but friendship will endure. 1 his is the
kind of friendship based on understanding which
the peoples of East and West must work to achieve.
It is a friendship best described by a homekt American
saying: "A friend is a fellow who know i$i all about
you?and likes you anyway."
So I offer these three approaches for building a
better understanding between East and West?first,
gain a greater knowledge of each othe i; second,
mutually profit by each other's cultural ar d intellec-
tual heritage, and third, achieve in all our re ationships
an honest frankness, the frankness of frien ls.
The momentous time in which we live a iids to our
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RESPONSIBILITY FOR INT. UNDERSTANDING
individual responsibility for understanding. History
and this shrinking world have united the destinies of
Asia and America. We stand together at a fateful
crossroads, facing perils and opportunities almost
beyond imagination. We need each other for inspi-
ration, for strength, for friendship.
With understanding, all else becomes possible.
Understanding will allow us to resolve the difficulties
that are bound to arise even between friends. And
understanding will allow us to realize to the max-
imum the opportunities we shall have to fulfill the
dreams and ideals of our people. Then, let under-
standing be the aim of our mission, so that together
we can build the world of peace and promise to
which both East and West aspire.
Gist of the speech delivered by Mr. John D. Rockefeller 3rd
at the meeting of the America-Japan Society, Tokyo, March 9, 1959.
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JAPAN'S SHARE IN ECONOMIC
CO-OPERATION
By HAYATO IKEDA
ECONONTIC CO-OPERATION, A NEW FEATURE IN
international economic relations, .11,s come to
play an exceedingly important role Ln interna-
tional economy, as it purports specifically to promote
a mutually beneficial economic relation b,-tween ad-
vanced industrial countries and the count ries which
have not yet been fully industrialized.
Moreover, it is of vital importance, with a view
in particular to promoting mutual wcfare and
friendly relations, to offer whole-hearted c,)-operation
to the neighboring Asian countries, who,??,-till young
in their national history of independence, are today
striving earnestly in their epochal endeavcr to build
up their economy.
In order to meet this requirement, Japan, during
the last few years, has adopted some positive
measures for expediting economic co-opet ation. In
this connection, a marked advance was witnessed in
1958, when successful induction was made of foreign
development programs, and budgetary app 1)priations
for economic co-operation were considerably increased.
This was a matter for congratulation, as it enabled
Japan to undertake, during the same year, the
establishment of yen credit with India, as well as
the conclusion of agreements on economic co-opera-
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JAPAN'S SHARE IN ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
tion with the United Arab Republic, economic and
technical co-operation with Laos and Cambodia, co-
operation with the Philippines in its enterprise of
Marikina dam construction, and so forth. Now, by
making brief, analytical survey of the present condi-
tions of economic co-operation in diverse fields of
investments, loans, technical and financial co-operation,
the present writer will venture here to envisage future
prospects of such economic co-operation.
SOME PHASES OF ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
1. Investments
Foreign investment, when inducted into an under-
developed country in a manner adaptable to its eco-
nomic development, will contribute largely to the
development and utilization of natural resources, as
well as to the progress of industrialization and
multiple economic development in that country. With
an advanced country which makes such investment,
it serves to open way for the effective use of accu-
mulated capital, and to secure the import of vital
natural resources. Japan's postwar foreign invest-
ments, of which the first instance was undertaken for?
Okinawa in 1951, have, ever since then, increased
almost annually, reaching in aggregated total 229
instances, with the sum amounting to $61,503,000
before January 1, 1959. Of these instances, 149
covering $14,630,000 represent private investments
made to trading corporations in various countries,
with the United States leading. The investments in
production industry, which totalled $3,000,000 in 1954
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
and 1955 respectively, rose to $8,726,00 in 1956,
rising with a yet sharper upward curve to $15,-
542,000 in 1957 and to $15,221,000 in 1958. The
favorable trend in Japan's foreign investments con-
tinued throughout 1956, a boom year with a notable
expansion in export; and despite a recession in
domestic economy in 1957, the same tretd continued
through that year and well into 1958. The continued
favorable trend might be ascribable to the fact that,
since foreign investment contracts require much the
longer time for negotiations, those which materialized
in 1957 included a large number of the contracts of
which negotiations had been started in ,,956. It is,
however, more largely attributable to the fundamental
reason that foreign investment is conducted with a
view to overall economic development, and on the basis
of such requisites of permanent nature as the ex-
pansion of export trade, the stability iti importing
vital natural resources, and so on.
When classified by region and by the type of
industry, the larger portion of investments made in
North America goes to the mammoth project of de-
veloping Alaskan pulp industry; the Central and
South American investments number 30 with the sum
amounting in total to $32,661,000, followed by the
43 instances of investment made in Southeast Asia
with $4,432,000. A marked predominance allowed to
the Central and South American investments over
those in Southeast Asia can be explained by the fact
that, in Central and South America, foi eign invest-
ment encounters hardly any restrictions, but is met
with favorable conditions provided under the United
Nations' industrial development progral ; whereas,
most of the Southeast Asian countries have not yet
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JAPAN'S SHARE IN ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
adopted the proper legislation for the induction of
foreign investments, or even sufficiently effective meas-
ures to provide for remitting profit shares, refunding
the capital, or paying the necessary guarantee. And
they do not, under the regulations currently in force,
permit Japanese investors to hold a majority of
shares. Furthermore, these Southeast Asian countries,
independent only since the termination of World War
II, are still definitely under the influence of the general
tendency, antagonistic toward foreign investment and
strongly colored with nationalism. The Central and
South American countries, having achieved independ-
ence as early as in 1820, are all of them in favor
of and fully prepared to receive foreign investments.
2. Loans
Loans are granted in the form of funds or the
equipment necessary for industrial development; and
usually a refund consists of products of the industry
thus developed, such as, for example, ores, lumber,
etc. Loans granted to enterprises in various coun-
tries amount in total to $50,658,000, covering 53
instances, including $28,984,000 to North America,
$5,118,000 to Central and South America, and $16,-
236,000 to South Asia. Of the loans granted to
North America, the development of Alaskan pulp
industry has claimed $28,605,000; and the Central
and South American loans include 5 instances in
textile industry amounting to $1,080,000, 2 instances
in mining industry amounting to $1,347,000, and 19
instances (15 in Brazil, 1 in Argentina, 1 in Peru
and 2 in Urgay), with $2,648,000, granted through
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the Japan Emigration Promotion Compan to various
emigration enterprises. In Southeast Ash, loans are
granted with priority accorded to the Philippines,
where the undertaking of joint enterprises is not
permitted. For funds and equipment supplied to
develop an industry, the products thereof are imported
to Japan at reduced import rates. Major Japanese
investors in this connection are Kinoshita Company
in iron mining; Mitsui Mining and Smelt ng Co. and
Mitsubishi Metal Mining Co. both in coper mining;
and Marubeni-Iida Co. in lauan industry development;
the total sum invested amounting to $7,460,000.
Besides this, $6,924,000 are invested in the develop-
ment of mining in Goa and Malaya. Particularly,
in the case of loans to Goa, which was the first
instance among Japan's postwar overseas enterprises,
a remarkably close co-operation has been maintained
between Japan's Kokan Mining Co. and Goa's Chow-
gule Co.
3. Technical Assistance
As of January 1, 1959, the instances f technical
assistance rendered by Japan totalled 11E,, including
90 for Southeast Asia still on a low ted l nical level.
India and Formosa together have receivi d most of
such assistance: India, on account of its five year plan
currently in progress with the goal set at industrial
leadership in Southeast Asia; and Formo,a, because
of its eager aspiration to achieve self sufficiency in
view, particularly, of national defense. In fact,
however, both India and Formosa possess industrial
capital worthy of receiving such technical assistance
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JAPAN'S SHARE IN ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
as Japan can offer.
Central and South America have so far received
technical assistance only in 16 instances, due to the
fact that most of the countries in that region, having
assimilated American or West-German advanced tech-
nology, now maintain a considerably high technical
level. Furthermore, there are many joint enter-
prises established in that region, with Japan holding
the larger portion of shares. Those enterprises are
more or less closely affiliated with some of the major
Japanese enterprises at home, so that technical assist-
ance need not follow its ordinary procedure.
When classified by the type of industry, the
instances of technical assistance are grouped in 21 for
fishery, 17 for machine industry, 15 for mining,
textile, and electric industry.
4. Capital Co-operation
The year 1958 witnessed a long stride taken in
capital co-operation. In this connection, special men-
tion must be made of the yen credit accorded to India,
agreements concluded on economic and technical co-
operation with Laos and Cambodia, an accord reached
on economic co-operation with the United Arab Re-
public, and so forth.
(1) Yen Credit for India.
India is one of the most important markets for
Japan's export of industrial commodities. Therefore,
the adoption of a special financial plan for India has
been under consideration since the middle of 1957,
partly in order to assist in the achievement of its
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five-year plan, and partly to expedite Japan's export
to that country. Following Prime Minister Kishi's
visit to India and Indian Prime Ministt r Nehru's
visit to Japan in May and October respectively in
1957, the plan finally materialized into an agree-
ment reached by Japan and India in February, 1958,
providing that the former accord a yen credit of
Y18,000,000,000 to the latter over a period of three
years. The establishment of yen credit?a precedent,
indeed, of epochal significance ? has opened a new
field for Japan's economic co-operation with South-
east Asian countries.
Available commodities under this in credit
agreement are equipment for railways, power gen-
eration and transmission, dam construction, and the
mining and processing of coal and iron ore; vessels;
harbor equipment; industrial machinery (including
plants for manufacturing rayon, pulp, chemical fer-
tilizer, caustic soda, etc.) ; machine tools; and other
commodities agreed upon by the Governments of the
two countries. The recipients designated are the
Government of India, its state-controlled enterprises,
state governments and private enterprises. In case
the recipient is the Indian Government, no guarantee
is required on the security. When it is either a
national enterprise, or a state government, a guar-
antee must be supplied by the Indian Ge,-ernment;
and when a private enterprise, a joint guarantee is
required of the State Trading Corporation and the
Indian Government. The rate of interest is deter-
mined case by case on the same level as that charged
by the World Bank.
Considerable delay was caused in determining
the pertinent proceedings, due to the discovery made
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JAPAN'S SHARE IN ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
some time after of the facts (1) that the state
government, under the internal law of India, could
not be party to a foreign credit contract, and (2)
that the State Trading Corporation, as it was, could
not be instrumental in offering a guarantee.
The designation of items was also delayed by
the adjustment required on the part of India. Sub-
sequently, negotiations were reopened in October,
1958, as a result of which the two countries have
approved as an expediency (1) that in case a state
government or a private enterprise wishes to obtain
yen credit, the Indian Government receives such
credit, and transfers it to the original applicant; and
(2) that the credit should be made applicable to such
items as power generating plants (Y6,000,000,000),
vessels (Y5,000,000,000), coal washing plant (Y2,-
400,000,000), telephone equipment including cables
(Y2,800,000,000), steel products (Y1,800,000,000), etc.
Besides the yen credit, Japan at the first meet-
ing of the creditor countries agreed to furnish India
with an additional credit grant of $10,000,000. The
items determined under this credit agreement include
power generation equipment, transformers, textile
machinery, rubber machinery for manufacturing con-
veyor belts, viscose, tire-cord plants, rayon plants,
etc., priority being accorded to items for which the
Indian Government has already issued import licenses.
Up to now, the yen credit utilized has amounted
to only Y2,160,000,000 and the additional credit to
Y1,700,000,000.
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(2) Economic and Technical Co-ope Alan with
Laos and Cambodia.
Since Laos and Cambodia waived their claim for
war indemnity payment, Japan, by way oj returning
their friendly gesture, has decided to offe 1. economic
and technical co-operation, free of any ob igation, to
these countries. The negotiations in this connection,
initiated at the end of 1958, were brought to a satis-
factory conclusion this year, providing for a grant of
Y1,000,000,000 for Laos to be used in c )-operation
with that country in constructing water- vorks and
bridges in the capital of Vientiane; and a Y1,500,-
000,000 grant for Cambodia for estab ishing an
agricultural training center ( with farm ng imple-
ments and a travelling clinic), a catth breeding
center, and so forth. The agreements, v hich were
reached early this year, provide for the following
proceedings much in the same way as 1 eparations
payment: the Japanese Government will sa iction and
issue export licenses on contracts conclude( with the
Government of Laos or Cambodia; the pa ,Inent for
such contracts will be made by the Japa nese Gov-
ernment, out of the Reparations Paymei It Special
Account in the national budget, to Japan ,se enter-
prisers through the banks designated by ti c Govern-
ment of Laos or Cambodia.
(3) Economic Co-operation with UAR Egyptian
Region) .
The agreement on economic co-operati In, which
was concluded and signed by Japan's M nister of
International Trade and Industry Taka.,,aki and
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JAPAN'S SHARE IN ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
UAR's Minister of Industry Sidky on the occasion
of the latter's visit to Tokyo in September, 1958, set
?the first precedent in Japan's economic co-operation
with the countries in the Near East. Under this
agreement, Japan will export to UAR $30,000,000
worth of cotton weaving machinery, can-manufactur-
ing and canning plants, sugar plants, etc., on terms
of payment far more advantageous to the payee than
those of deferred payment. With the addition of a
$17,000,000 credit set for the import of diesel cars,
the credit ammints in total to $50,000,000. In connec-
tion with this agreement, mention must be made of
the following: (a) its conclusion required only one
month, whereas the settlement of deferred payment
in individual cases usually requires at least six
months; (b) the payment terms within the credit
line are more tole:rant than those set for deferred
payment; and (c) the Japanese Government took
interest in individual contracts, and rendered invalu-
able service in bringing them successfully to an early
conclusion.
(4) Yen Credit for Paraguay.
Along with the negotiations currently in pro-
gress for increasing the number of Japanese
emigrants, mostly farmers, to Paraguay, negotia-
tions for the establishment of yen credit for that
country have been settled. Japan agreed to render
a credit in term of yen to furnish Paraguay with 13
river vessels, amounting in value to Y1,350,000,000;
this is a worthy project Of economic co-operation,
serving, at the same time, as a measure most ap-
propriate to the emigration promotion policy. In this
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
conjunction, an emigration agreement was signed on
June 23, 1959 between Paraguay and Japan, providing
for the emigration of 85,000 Japanese over a period
of 30 years.
Furthermore, the technical co-operation agree-
ment recently signed with Iran, providin- for the
promotion of technical exchange between that coun-
try and Japan, has opened a way for th, dispatch
of Japanese experts to the Near East, and for
receiving, in return, a group of technicians from
that region.
More recently, on the occasion of President
Garcia's visit to this country in Deceml,er, 1958,
Japan agreed to accord economic co-operation to
the Philippines in the latter's projects of construct-
ing Marikina Dam and telecommunication ystem in
Manila, on the terms of deferred payment, such as
are provided for under the reparations payment
agreement concluded with that country.
5. Technical Co-operation
Japan's technical co-operation has so tar been
carried out by means of receiving technica; trainees
from overseas, dispatching experts abroad, and es-
tablishing technical training centers in various
foreign countries. Both the reception of foreign
trainees and the dispatch of Japanese experts are
executed on either government or private basis.
Regionally speaking, technical co-operation is accorded
mostly to Southeast Asia, in conformity with the
provision made in the Columbo Plan. The establish-
ment of technical training centers oversea,, a co-
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JAPAN'S SHARE IN ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
operative measure favored by many advanced countries,
was undertaken by Japan only so recently as 1958.
(1) Receiving Foreign Technical Trainees.
Foreign technical trainees are received by the
Japanese Government through the following four
routes: - namely, the Colombo Plan, the United
Nations' programs, the International Cooperation
Administration (ICA), or at the request made by
the government of each respective country.
The number of foreign trainees received by
Japan increased from 38 in 1957 to 88 in 1958.
When classified by the route through which they
were received, the increase in those two years was
from 11 to 22 under the Colombo Plan, 1 to 6 under
the United Nations' programs, 17 to 31 through the
ICA, and 9 to 29 at government request. The in-
crease is ascribable partly to the high, all-round
appreciation of the technical co-operation in this
specific field and partly to the increase in the
budgetary appropriations which made it possible
during the period of 1957 - 58 to improve and expand
hitherto unsatisfactory training facilities.
When catalogued by the kind of industry, 4070
of these foreign trainees were engaged in agriculture
and fishery, 19% in iron and steel industry, and the
remaining 41% in various other industries.
As to the expenses incurred in this connection,
the Japanese Government pays all the expense cover-
ing the sojourn, travel, and training of the trainees
received under the Colombo Plan; but in the case of
trainees received under the other three plans, the
expense incurred by their sojourn and travel is paid
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
by either the United Nations, the ICA, or the gov-
ernment of each respective country, while Japan is
responsible for only their training expense.
To make an overall survey of the trai mes who
came to Japan through various private routes is
almost impossible; however, their number is esti-
mated to be 73 in 1954, 96 in 1955, 118 in 1956,
70 in 1957, and 20 during the first six n onths of
1958, their aggregate total for the past f2ve years
being estimated as 377. They were mostly sent to
Japan by their respective governments in connection
with the import of various plants. In futur,, Japan
should provide more systematic and better-planned
means to encourage the coming of technical trainees
from abroad.
(2) Dispatch of Japanese Experts.
The Japanese experts dispatched abroad in 1957
and 1958 were 25 and 12 under the Japan se Gov-
ernment's sponsorship; 21 and 11 under the Colombo
Plan; one each at the request of the foreign govern-
ment; and one in 1957 only, under the United 'Cations'
program.
These experts were dispatched abroad moitly for
the purpose of imparting skilled knowledge n home
industry, such as doll making, toy manuft, cturing,
bamboo crafts, pottery, and so on; or to offe highly
advanced technical knowledge, such as is required
in research work in mining. The decrease in the
number of dispatches was caused mainly by the re-
quirements being almost always for exp, rts in
possession of highly advanced technological knowledge,
or of skilled experience, so that it was by nu means
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JAPAN'S SHARE IN ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
an easy task for Japan to make selection of proper
men in the respective fields of industry.
Through private channels, however, as many as
2,389 experts were dispatched overseas during a five-
and-one-half-year period from 1954 to June, 1958. Of
these, 71% was accounted for by experts in mining
and manufacturing industry, who accompanied the
export of various plants, and took charge of the
installation, operation and management of equipment.
Meanwhile, the aspirants for overseas dispatch
who registered at the Economic Co-operation Center
of the Japan Chamber of Commerce and Industry in-
creased to 700 within a short period of 10 months
after the inauguration of the Center in May, 1958.
Of these registered experts, 10 have already been
dispatched to India, Pakistan and Brazil. The
services of this organization should be improved in
such a manner as to increase the number of
registered experts, as well as of the contracts
successfully concluded, and, at the same time, to
stream-line its liaison work with competent govern-
ment offices.
(3) Technical Training Centers.
A new method of according technical co-opera-
tion through the establishment of a training center,
complete with equipment and expert instructors, has
of late become a common practice among advanced
countries. Japan, having decided in April, 1958, to
establish a technical training center in Howrah area,
West Bengal, dispatched an inspection group to the
area and entered into negotiations immediately with
India. As a result, an agreement was concluded with
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India on the establishment of a technicJ training
center in the said area for developing ir- n foundry
and electrometer manufacture, with JawAn furnish-
ing necessary equipment valued at Y30,0140,000 and
dispatching expert instructors. West Ge many has
already achieved a marked success in tit s field of
technical co-operation through establishi] g, jointly
with the Indian Government, a technicl I training
center in Okhla area, New Delhi, with equipment
worth 6,000,000 rupies and 12 experts dispatched
from its own country. Since India lacks in experi-
enced competent technicians, this type of c -operation
will contribute greatly to the developme it of her
industry, and incidentally to the achievem4nt of her
five-year plan. Not only that but also the recipients
of training at such an institution will eventually
become a mainstay among the experts and echnicians
of that country; then their judgement f unded on
intimate knowledge of Japanese machin( ry, it is
hoped, will assist in promoting Japan's ex )ort trade
to some extent. Thus, viewed from the tandpoint
of trade promotion, Japan has decided tr establish
a similar kind of training center in Mal ya, to be
followed by the establishment of similar i'tstitutions
in Thailand, Pakistan, Ceylon, Iran and so m.
JAPAN'S POLICY FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPE1 'ATION
1. In the face of the current mountin 4: enthusi-
asm for world-wide economic co-operation, as described
briefly in the foregoing, the most imminent question
today will be how to prepare a practicable plan for
utilizing a possible Y5,000,000,000 South( ast Asia
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JAPAN'S SHARE IN ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
development fund. In 1957, Japan proposed an
international establishment of such a fund, but the
plan has not yet materialized. Meantime, Japan, by
way at once of reasserting her proposal, and making
an investment in international co-operation (equivalent
in value to, and transferable, later on, to the South-
east Asia development fund upon its establishment),
has set up a fund of Y5,000,000,000 and deposited it
in the Export-Import Bank of Japan at the end of
October, 1958. It is, therefore, not at all inopportune
to begin a study now to ascertain the manner in
which such a development fund can be utilized most
effectively in economic co-operation with Southeast
Asia. First and foremost in importance is the de-
velopment of unexplored natural resources in this
region, such as iron ore, petroleum, non-ferrous
metal ores, etc. This kind of natural resource
development will not only contribute greatly to the
economic development of producing countries, but it
will also secure for Japan a stabilized import of vital
raw materials at favorably low rates. Thus, the
utilization of funds in this line must be considered
the best and most advantageous.
2. Since most of the Southeast Asian countries
are suffering from a shortage in foreign currency
holding, Japan should render as much co-operation
as possible by according yen cridit, or some other
means of furnishing credit. An ?exhaustive cate-
gorical study should be made in this conjunction
on ?the prevalent economic condition abroad, viewing
it by market as well as by country. She may, then,
be able to distribute credit with priority offered to
the best advantage to the countries she considers
most important. By so doing, she will be able to
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
contribute to the economic development of other
countries, and, at the same time, to promote the
stabilization of her own economy.
3. With a view to encouraging the dispatch of
Japanese experts abroad, measures should be taken
by the Government to advance their traN olling ex-
penses, to supplement the proceedings followed under
the Colombo Plan with a more efficient system, to
improve the function currently assignee to the
Economic Co-operation Center of the Japan Chamber
of Commerce and Industry, to ensure the living of
the dispatched experts after their return from
abroad, and so forth. In fact, the experts dispatched
to Pakistan have lately submitted requests in respect
particularly to the last measure quoted abovf-, namely,
the establishment of a co-operative system for them,
the application of a health insurance systen to their
families during their absence, and so on.
A new pattern in technical training will be the
establishment overseas of a pilot firm of nall-and-
medium scale industry workers. As is done at a
technical training center, instructions will be given
to the overseas trainees by expert member -; of this
group at the firm. Their manufactured products
will be sold in the market and after th?, expense
for its establishment is covered by the proceeds from
their production, the pilot firm, with necessary equip-
ment and all, will be released for public sale.
Moreover, the profit accruing from the enterprise and
sale of one pilot firm will make it possibl, to open
another of a different type, or of the same type in
some other area.
4. In view of the fact that a majority of the
trainees from abroad are desirous of acquiring
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JAPAN'S SHARE IN ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION
knowledge and skill mostly connected with small-
and-medium scale industry, it will be advisable to
establish an overall center covering all the types of
small-and-medium scale enterprises, so that the
trainees may receive training there in a manner
more efficient and systematic than when they are
trained at individual. enterprises.
5. Ties with neighboring Asian countries must
be strengthened, in line particularly with the world-
wide trend in favor of the establishment of economic
blocs. Such ties, when based on an indefatigable
study of commodity circulation and multiple trade
settlement, will, beyond doubt, assist in forming an
Asian Common Market in the very near future.
6. There are in Japan today some twenty
consultative organizations for promoting economic
co-operation with other countries, viz. the Japan
Consulting Institute, the Association for International
Technical Co-operation, the Overseas Construction
Association of Japan, the International Engineering
Consultants Association, etc. However, these organi-
zations exist independently, having neither connection
nor contact among them. Such a situation naturally
calls for the establishment of a liaison committee of
their own, or of a central organization, to keep them
in close contact with one another, and eventually to
promote efficiency in their work of co-operation.
7. Although a number of inquiries have already
been received regarding the possibility of establishing
joint enterprises of small-and-medium scale industry
abroad, cases are yet but few where this kind of plan
is successfully carried out. The failure to meet such
requirements abroad may be attributed partly to
the inadequate system currently in existence, and
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partly to the insufficient work done in the line of
public relations. It is generally recomn eded that
function of this nature should be assigned to the
Economic Co-operation Center of the Japat. Chamber
of Commerce and Industry; as this organ lzation, as
mentioned previously, conducts research on such
enterprises of small-and-medium scale industry as
are desirous of dispatch overseas, and tales charge
of their registration, assistance and public relations,
etc.
When all these diverse plans for economic co-
operation are developed steadily in close connection
with one another, economic co-operation will eventually
serve as a mighty link of epochal importance in future
international relations the relations based on mutual
welfare and prosperity.
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AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
IN ASIA
By YOSHIJI TOGARI
OF THE SEVEN REGIONS OF THE WORLD, NAMELY
Europe, North and Central America, South
America, Asia, Africa, Oceania and USSR,
Asia forms the largest agricultural bloc in the
nominal sense that it possesses the most extensive
farming area, with almost one-half of its population
engaged in agriculture. Nevertheless, when its agri-
cultural production is computed in terms of per-unit
yields, Asia, together with Africa, ranks the lowest
in the world's list of agricultural productivity, except
in the production of yams, sweet potatoes, or soybeans.
This low agricultural productivity in Asia is
attributed largely to the fact that the larger part of
its area was left uncultivated for a long time, while
the people on it continued to live in an impoverished
state under the colonial policy of the Western Powers.
It is true that liberal investments and advanced
technique, when coupled with cheap labor, succeeded
in boosting some specific crops, such as rubber, sugar
cane, coconut, tea and so forth. However, these enter-
prises were carried out with the exclusive aim set
at expanding the trade of the ruling nations, but
never for the purpose of promoting the agricultural
industry for the welfare of the native population.
To be more explicit, the British colonial policy en-
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
couraged the production of tea in Ceylon, rice in
Burma, cotton and jute in India, and rubber in
Malaya, with a view to stimulating British trade in
this region through inter-exchange of such agricultural
commodities. The result is that none of these coun-
tries, upon acquiring their long-cherished independence,
has actually become independent, in so far as agri-
cultural production is concerned. Moreover, under
the colonial policy, priority was accorded to the
cultivation of such agricultural products as were
deemed of high commercial value, with the result that
the production of the foodstuffs necessary for the
population was left in complete negligence. For such
reasons, many countries in Asia have not yet attained
self-sufficiency in their food production; they are
still, today, heavily dependent on import.; of food-
stuffs from outside. (Tables I and II)
TABLE I. THE WORLD'S CULTIVATED AREA
BY MAJOR CROPS
(Unit: 1,000,000 hectare)
C. & N. South
World
Europe America America
Asia
Africa
Oceania USSR
Grains
681.5
72.8
102.0
25.9
303.8
48.3
5.4
123.3
Pulses
42.4
5.3
2.8
3.2
28.3
2.9
1.3
Oil seeds
99.1
2.6
20.4
6.5
53.5
9.1
1.1
6.9
Recreation
crops*
7.3
2.6
1.2
0.2
1.6
0.2
1.5
Textile
crops
39.0
1.3
7.3
3.6
19.4
3.1
4.0
Potatoes
30.0
9.3
1.1
1.2
6.4
2.8
9.2
Note: *marks figures for 1953; no figures for later date are available.
Source: Yearbook of Food & Agricultural Statistics, 1957, FAO.
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AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ASIA
TABLE II. THE WORLD'S CROP YIELDS
(Unit: 100 kg. per hectare)
Rice
(Paddy)
Wheat
Barley
Maize
Millet
Soy-
been
Potatoes
Sweet
Pota-
toes
World
18.6
11.6
13.6
17.2
6.8
11.7
143.5
90.5
Europe
42.3
15.8
21.5
15.5
9.4
163.0
121.4
N. & C.
America
25.4
14.5
16.1
24.7
13.5
14.4
178.2
45.8
S. America
17.9
11.9
11.9
12.4,
9.0
8.6
56.7
85.2
Asia
18.5
8.6
11.1
11.8
6.5
10.2
70.2
102.8
Africa
14.6
8.2
7.0
9.8
75.1
73.5
Oceania
29.1
11.8
13.2
17.6
13.7
- 116.9
USSR
21.5
9.3
9.6
10.7
5.4 86.0
Note: Figures for USSR are for 1934-38.
Source: ?Yearbook of Food & Agricultural Statistics, 1957, FAO.
1. Need for Agricultural Development and
Production Increase
In fact, those countries are even yet exceedingly
young in their national history, having achieved in-
dependence only after the end of World War II. In
the initial stage of their liberation and independence,
they invariably set their aspirations high on planning
for industrialization. Now that the first heat of their
sanguine expectation has somewhat cooled off, they
are awakened to the unassailable reality that such
industrialization as they have aspired to could never
be achieved, unless a solid, extensive foundation be
prepared through the effective modernization of their
agricultural industry, which is the foremost in im-
portance of all the primary industries. Now, in full
realization of this fact, they have come to show
greater concern over agricultural development.
As it has been already mentioned, most of the
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countries in Southeast Asia and in the Near East
are, in spite of the fact that they are primarily
agricultural countries, markedly behind in agricultural
technique and methods. It is but natural they
should turn to Japan, their neighboring country, for
guidance and precedents, knowing that the latter has
achieved a remarkable advance in both the technique
and methods of her agricultural industry within the
short space of time since the Meiji era. On the
other hand, those countries are good customers for
Japan's foreign trade, as they import from Japan
several times more than they export to this country.
A large number of their nationals have been visiting
Japan annually since the end of the Iasi war for
the purpose of study and inspection. There is some-
thing more in this than the mere attraction of
Japan's advanced industrial condition?possibly the
feeling, so to speak, of neighbory reliance maintained
by them. If so, let Japan meet their reliance by
offering them whole-hearted co-operation, be it in the
agricultural or any other field of industry.
Most of these Asian countries have been receiving
large amounts of financial aid from advanced coun-
tries; and due to that fact, they may interpret
Japan's offer of co-operation in terms of financial,
or material aid. In this connection, Japan, being
still in the course of postwar rehabilitation, may not
be free to meet their expectation, although she wishes
to offer the best help available within her own
capacity. On the other hand, Japan can, and feels
entirely free to, offer her technical co-operation to
an unlimited extent. Fortunately, these countries
and Japan have much in common, in so far as the
scale in agricultural industry is concerned. (Table III)
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TABLE III. AREA CULTIVATED BY FARMING
HOUSEHOLD IN ASIAN COUNTRIES
India Less than 2 ha.-67%; more than 10 ha.-4.5%
Pakistan West? Pakistan 2 3 ha.; East Pakistan 1 ha.
Iran 1-2 ha.
Afganistan 2-4 ha.
Ethiopia 5-10 ha.
Ceylon 0.5 ha.
Burma Land-owner farmer 3 ha.-68%; resident land-
owner 7 ha.-7%; non-resident land-owner 14
ha.--25%
Indonesia Less than 0.5 ha.-70%; 0.5-1.0 ha.-25%
1-2 ha.--3%; 2,-5 ha.-1.5%; more than
5 ha.-0.5%.
Cambodia Less than 1 ha.-48%; ha.-19%; 2-3 ha.
?11%; ha.-6%; 4-5 ha.--3%; 5-10
ha.-4%; more than 10 ha.-110
Japan 0.8 ha.
Note: Figures are estimates by the author.
Already, a large number of Japanese experts have
been dispatched to these countries to render valuable
assistance in agricultural development. There is yet
much room left for improvement, if co-operation of
this kind is to be rendered more effectively, and to
the better advantage of recipient nations. With that
in view, the Japanese agricultural mission, headed by
Roving Ambassador Seiichi Tobata, the then Professor
of the University of Tokyo, was dispatched at the end
of 1958 to conduct a survey of the agricultural condi-
tions in the major countries in Southeast Asia and
the Near East. The present writer, who was a mem-
ber of that mission, will now proceed to outline the
nature of the co-operation which Japan can offer to
advance the agricultural development in this region,
making reference, in particular, to the results obtained
by the recent survey mission.
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2. Rice Cultivation
Rice is the most important of all the staple
foodstuffs required by the Asian popull, tion. The
history of rice cultivation can be traced far back to
a time some 4,000 years ago. The cudivation of
rice originated in some land between South China
and Bengal; thence it made its way we-tward into
Europe and America, and eastward into China and
Japan. Today, high-yielding rice cultivai ton is seen
in some European countries, namely Italy, France,
Spain and Portugal; whereas rice cultivation is still
limited to a primitive scale in most of the Asian
countries, with the exception of Japan, Korea and
Formosa.
Varieties of rice plants are numerou ; they are
characterized by different hereditary constituents
suited to divergent environmental requirmnents. In
other words, rice plants, when transplanted to a new
area, lose some of their hereditary consti uents, and,
with the surviving hereditary elements, transmute
themselves into a new kind of species, one most adapt-
able to the new environment. The differentiation of
species has naturally promoted the propagation of
rice cultivation; and artificial imprax ?ment and
selection of species further expedite the propagation.
Thus, there are today tens of thousands of different
varieties of rice in the world.
The numerous species of rice can he classified
broadly into two, the Japonica and the Indica
types. The differentiation into these tw( types took
place when rice cultivation spread north ward. The
Japonica type of rice plant comes on th, ear under
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the climatic condition of high temperature and
shorter day-length. When this type of rice variety
is cultivated in low latitude areas, it will head
before its vegetative growth is completed, and, as
a consequence, no satisfactory harvest can be ex-
pected. Most of the Indica varieties are not susceptible
to climatic conditions, so that they come into ear
in a proper course of time, even under different
climatic conditions.
The Indica type of rice variety, when compared
with the Japonica type, has higher absorptivity, since
it has long been cultivated in the areas where little
or no fertilizer is applied. When manured, this
type will absorb too much fertilizer, and will fall
prostrate, or become more susceptible to insect
demages. In most of the Asian countries, where
the application of fertilizer has not yet become
practicable, the Indica varieties are, for the time
being, better suited for cultivation.
A potent reason for low agricultural productivity
in Asia, among many others, is the fact that cultiva-
tion is carried out with no application of fertilizer.
For yielding 20 bushels of unhulled rice per one acre,
the land requires 15 kg. of nitrogen. Since natural
nitrogen contained in the soil is not enough to get good
yield, its shortage must be compensated for with
fertilizer. However, minute care must be taken in
applying fertilizer when growing Indica varieties, for
these varieties absorb ammonium sulphate just as
quickly as nitrogen; the application of 100 lb. of
ammonium sulphate per acre (equal to one-third of
its average application for the Japonica type) will
cause them to fall prostrate. The application of fer-
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tilizer, therefore, requires as much study and attention
as the selection of rice species.
. Japanese Methods and Technique- for
Rice Cultivation,
In fertilizing the Asian lands, Japan can offer
assistance of great value, for instance, th cough ex-
porting fertilizer to other Asian countries, and
co-operating with them in the project of constructing
fertilizer plants. The only set-backs in th Is connec-
tion are that Japanese fertilizer is just at present
more highly priced than that produced by other
advanced countries, and that Japan has not yet
surpassed Western countries in the tee qnique of
fertilizer production. Nevertheless, there is always
a vast field of activity open for Japan's fertilizer
industry and for its experts as well as echnicians
to take part in the great project of fert lizing the
land of Asia.
Furthermore, Japan leads the work: in rice-
growing technique and methods. Her supe-iority has
resulted from far-reaching land survey an .t untiring
fertilizer application tests. She can, there3 ore, assist
and co-operate with other Asia nations in these fields.
Frist of all, in order to increase their rice produc-
tion, the cultivation of Japanese paddy-rice :s strongly
recommended. The Japanese paddy-rice varieties,
though not suitable to all the Asian countries,
can meet most of the vital requirements; 4E1), with its
superior properties, it will contribute largely to the
expansion of agricultural production in A Ia. (Table
IV)
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TABLE IV. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
BY ASIAN COUNTRIES
(With Japan's production taken as 100)
Rice
Wheat
Barley
Maize
Othef
Grains
Peas &
Beans
India
32
34
34
35
?
Pakistan
34
39
26
54
29
Iran
37
44
42
89
Iraq
38
28
38
38
79
Afganistan
36
50
34
?
Egypt
129
111
92
107
230
128
Ethiopia
---
?
75
Ceylon
33
?
35
38
Palma
38
14
?
50
20
Thailand
33
71
Indonesia
40
54
Malaya
50
63
Cambodia
28
?
35
Source: Yearbook of Food & Agricultural Statistics, 1957, FAO:
In order to impart the notable properties of
Japanese paddy-rice to other Asian varieties, the
Japonica and the Indica varieties must be crossed.
The hybridization is not simple, but not impossible.
In fact, the United Nations' Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO) has sponsored a project of this
nature at a laboratory. in India. Since the world's
recognition has been accorded to Japan for her
indefatigable effort to improve rice species by means
of repeated crossing and selection, her experience, as
well as technical knowledge in this line, will be
indispensable in the project of increasing rice produc-
tion of other Asian countries.
The application of fertilizer and the selection of
rice varieties are both basic requisites, but not all
the requisites, for rice cultivation. Equally important
are the technical measures needed to fight against
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pests and diseases ruinous to rice crops. Japanese
farmers spray parathion against rice-borers, and
ceresan lime dust against rice blast. The practice
of using insecticides requires some technical knowl-
edge of various agricultural chemicals; their misap-
plication will cause irreparable damage to agricultural
crops. For that, the farmers in Asian countries are
advised to resort to the safer methods of enlisting
the aid of natural enemies to exterminate noxious
insects and diseases of rice plants. Again, on this
specific subject, Japan has made an assiduous study
for years past; and whatsoever knowledge, technique
and methods she has acquired are at the service of
rice cultivators in other Asian countries.
A sort of physiological disease, known by the name
of "mentic," has been plaguing the growth of rice
plants for some time in Malaya, Indonesia, Ceylon
and some other Southeast Asian countries. The
mentic, like the similar disease of akioch: (under-
nourishment) or root-rot in Japan, is caused by the
shortage of oxygen in the soil. In this case, the
application of ammonium sulphate, containing sul-
phuric acid, will aggravate the condition. Japan's
study of these diseases is far-reaching and advanced,
with counter-measures most effectively worked out.
As the first of the counter-measures, irrigation works
are suggested; but, as make-shift measures, the ap-
plication of fertilizer containing no sulphuric acid,
such as nitro-lime or ammonium chloride. or the
building of ridges, or the draining of the fields, will
greatly reduce the extent of damage "caused by these
diseases. Japan's advanced knowledge and methods
in this connection will be unquestionably useful in
reducing the rice-plant diseases in all the areas of
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Asia.
As the application of fertilizer stimulates the
growth of weeds, the methods of weeding constitute
another important factor in rice cultivation. Of the
three different methods of weeding practised largely
by Japanese farmers, viz. hand-weeding, the use of
weeders, and the application of weed-killers, the
second method, the use of weeders, is recommendable,
for some practical knowledge is needed in applying
agricultural chemicals for the purpose. Now, the use
of weeders requires check-rowing. This is the method
of growing rice plants, which the Japanese farmers
have adopted from ancient times. Check-rowing is
almost necessary for the uniform ?growth of rice
plants. The use of modern agricultural implements.
has of late necessitated the widening of distance
between the rows, and the placing of rice plants
closer to each other. In this way, the roots of rice
plants are free to spread between the rows, and can
absorb fertilizer better and longer. This type of
check-rowing, if adopted, will prove to be definitely
advantageous in unfertile land or in land where fer-
tilizer has been sparingly used, as is the case with
most of the Southeast Asian countries.
Japanese rice-cultivating ability is often criticized
as being nothing but dense planting and exorbitant
application of fertilizer. This criticism, although it
has some truth in it, does not do justice to Japanese
farming, which involves divergent advanced techniques
indispensable for fighting lodging, insect damage,
rank weeds, the root-rot disease, akiochi and so forth.
In addition, Japanese farmers use every possible
discretion in adapting rice-planting to environmental
conditions. They do not always adhere to dense
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planting; when land, seeds, and so on, can meet all
the requirements for a vigorous plant growth, they
adopt sparse planting. When there exist scme factors
arresting the growth of plants, they carry out dense
planting. In cold areas, they adopt methods to
stimulate the growth of young seedling,;, whereas
they devise means to slow down the growth of
seedlings in warm areas. In some spuific areas
which are exposed to frequent typhoon damage, early-
maturing, medium-maturing and late-maturing rice
varieties are combined, or planting p, aiods are
adjusted, so as to minimize the possibl damage.
They take especial care in aPplying the fertilizer best
suited to the land. In warm areas, they use mainly
coarse organic fertilizer, such as compost and
barnyard manure, granular or compound fertilizers.
When planting seedlings in cold areas, they even make
an effort to raise the temperature of water in paddies
by means of changing the position of irrigation
water gates, or using water warmed ti, rough ex-
tending the length of an irrigation water-way. Such
techniques as these, fully developed and tested by
Japanese farmers may be used to most excellent
advantage in the rice cultivation of any other country
in Southeast Asia and the Near East.
4. Land Readjustment
However beneficial technology may be, the land
is the basic factor in rice cultivation. That the land
must be kept in the best condition is the primary
requisite for agricultural industry. In this respect,
the readjustment of land and roads, and the improve-
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ment of irrigation facilities are equally important.
It is encouraging to learn that the United Nations'
FAO and the ICA (International Cooperation Admin-
istration) attach priority to this kind of project, as
well as to the construction of dams. Japan cannot
assist financially in this matter, but is able to offer
her valuable technical co-operation and assistance in
abundance. Land readjustment has made remarkable
progress in Japan through many years in the past;
and yet it is far from satisfactory today. Therefore,
Asian countries are advised to persevere in this en-
deavor until the goal is finally reached.
In . regard to upland farming, Japan has no
specific technique, other than careful selection of
varieties and application of suitable fertilizer.
Geologic diversification in Asia may not permit
farmers in other Asian countries always to adopt
the Japanese fertilizing technique, yet much room is
left for them to study and experiment in this. In
places where cattle raising is carried on, the barnyard
manure, or compost, is used mostly for cash crops,
such as cotton, jute, vegetables, fruits, and so on.
Now, if the application of a mixture of barnyard
manure and chemical fertilizer is adopted, it will
undoubtedly increase production in upland farming.
Another important requisite for upland farming
is preservation of the soil; methods must be ?studied
to prevent erosion, and contour or terrace farming
may become necessary. Importance may be attached
also to the cultivation of forage crops, which are
useful in enriching land, as well as in improving
cattle raising.
? In vegetable cultivation, of which Japan is justly
proud, her highly advanced technique and methods,
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such as adopted of nucleus seed-increasin2;, will be
of great help to farmers in Asian courtries. In
sericulture, tobacco cultivation and tea production,
as well as in the manufacture of agricultural imple-
ments, Japanese technique will undoubtedly contribute
to the increased production in these sphere ; of Asian
agriculture.
5. Agricultural Education
The majority of peasants in Asia are inured to
Poverty. Under-nourished and weak, they are too
enervated to work with zeal. In order to increase
agricultural productivity, they must, first of all, eat
more and work harder.
-Unlike Japanese farmers who are granted gov-
ernment subsidies for their enterprises, stch as the
construction of irrigation works, or land readjustment,
the farmers in other Asian countries must carry out
their enterprises without government aid. Should
sufficient government protection be provided, they
would settle down in peace and enjoy their work.
Meantime, some supervisory organ might be
established with government fund to encourage the
induction of advanced agricultural techn Eque from
abroad, and to carry out the more syitematized
application of such imported technique and methods.
Meantime, the intellectual faculties of tho farmers
may be improved through the propagation of agricul-
tural education throughout Asia.
If Asian countries consider it n ssary to
develop themselves as agricultural states, 1. hey must,
at least for some time to come, attacl- primary
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AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN ASIA
importance to the education of their farming popula-
tion. Indubitably, European or American agricultural
education can teach Asians much; however, since
Japan and other Asian countries have much in
common, especially in respect to the size of their
capital and the land available, Japanese agricultural
education is considered more adaptable to other Asian
nations. Where production needs must be raised in
limited areas by means of intensive cultivation and
the most effective use of land, the Japanese agricul-
tural technique serves the purpose almost to perfection.
Conclusion
Agricultural colleges and research institutes have
been founded in most of the Asian countries. With
the adoption of advanced technique in their experi-
mental cultivation they have succeeded in raising the
crops 2 - 3 times :higher than the average crops
harvested by ordinary farming households. In rice
cultivation, the application of chemical fertilizer, as
well as the check-rowing, is widely practised in a
manner very similar to the Japanese way of farming.
Despite such a development, production by the average
farming households still remains low.
Judged from the study made on the recent
inspection tour of the prevalent conditions in 13
Asian countries, the present writer attributes this
unfavorable development to the poor follow-up of the
extension of useful technique and methods among
farmers in general. In other words, most of
these countries have an almost perfect system set up
for extension, except that proper activity and zeal
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
are lacking in the actual extension work. This
defect, however, can be amended, when the experts
and research workers are made to realize tJ ie greater
importance of such technique and methods as are
certain to be practicable among average farmers, and
when the extension workers become sufficiently
trained to convince the farmers of the a iciency of
the new mode of farming.
Taking such facts into consideration. Japan's
technical co-operation should be conducted with em-
phasis laid upon assistance in the training of those
extension workers. For that specific purpose, the
best measure to be suggested will be a dispatch of
a group of Japanese experts in the different fields
of seed selection, cultivation, soil and fertilizer, pre-
vention of insect and disease damage, use of farming
implements, etc., to the training centers in various
Asian countries, so that these experts mai instruct
extension workers both in knowledge and . In experi-
mentation of advanced technique and methods. The
grouping of experts to be dispatched may depend on
the conditions prevalent in the recipient countries.
For instance, in Ehtiopia and Afghanistan, the focal
point of instruction must be placed on experimental
training, whereas in Pakistan, actual training is more
needed than experiment. Later on, this course of
training may be expanded to cover seed improvement,
irrigation, sericulture, cattle raising, and so forth.
Meanwhile, government officials and e \tperts of
Burma, Thailand and Indonesia may be invited to
inspect Japan's modern farming, and an exchange of
agricultural experts and technicians may be organized
between this country and Egypt, as well as India.
It is urgently necessary to maintain close co-ordina-
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tion by all such means among some countries of
considerably advanced agricultural conditions in order
to increase mutual interest in augmented agricultural
production in Asia.
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ELECTIONS AND CABINET
RESHUFFLE
By FUMIO IKEMATSU
THE PRESENT YEAR, 1959, IS MARKED IN JAPAN AS
the year of elections. The unified loct- 1 elections
were held throughout this country on April 23
and 30, followed by the election on June 2, for one
half of the members of the House of Councillors.
The unified local elections consisted of ele-tions for
20 prefectural governors, members of preft ctural as-
semblies, heads and assembly members of cities,
towns and villages, selecting in all some 48, )00 public
officials for local legislative posts. The tern i of office
for the members of the House of Councii lors is 6
years, one half of the total number of its members
being elected every three years periodically. Returned
to the House in the recent election were 127 mem-
bers, 52 from the national constituency and 75 from
the local constituencies.
Both the local elections and the electio ,1 for the
House of Councillors being the first of ti eir kinds
since the two-party politics went into practice, the
focal point of interest lhy in ascertaining how the
adoption of the new political system would la reflected
in the elections, and to what extent the Social
Democratic Party, under the new system, would
succeed in narrowing the margin between itself and
the Liberal-Democratic Party. The outcon, e of the
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elections, however, revealed the fact that the power
of the two major political parties infiltrated all the
elections so extensively that it even gave rise to the
fear lest the autonomous nature of local administra-
tion, as well as the specific character of the House
of Councillors, should be imperilled by the upheavals
of political contention. Then, contrary to the general
pre-election speculation, the Socialists' advance was
arrested, to the extent that they barely secured one-
third of the seats in the House of Councillors,
allowing thus the Liberal-Democratic Party to win
the security of a majority. Likewise, the Socialists'
defeat was made evident in the results of the guber-
natorial and local elections. As a consequence, the
Kishi Cabinet, though falling out of favor in public
opinion, came to enjoy its security, won not on its
own merit but through the regression suffered by
the opposition party.
1. Local Elections.
Of the local elections, the focal point of public
interest lay in the gubernatorial elections in Tokyo,
Osaka, Fukuoka and Hokkaido, where the Socialists
were believed to have been ensconced in well fortified
grounds. There, the Socialists were routed from
their seats, with the exception of a lone victory in
Fukuoka won by Taichi Uzaki, Socialist candidate,
over the former Liberal-Democratic governor reportedly
involved in political scandals. In Tokyo, Independent
Ryutaro Azuma, physician by profession, President
of the Amateur Athletic Association and Japanese
representative of the IOC, with the full support of
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the Liberal-Democratic Party won 1,820,A0 votes,
defeating Socialist sponsored Hachiro Ari- a, former
Foreign Minister, by a notable margin or 170,000;
while, Gisen Sato, formerly State Minister and Direc-
tor of the Defense Agency in the Liberal-Democratic
Cabinet, won the election in Osaka, defeating
Tadayoshi Obata, Social Democratic candidate by a
narrow margin of 23,000. The gubernatorial post
of Hokkaido, held by the Socialists for the past nine
years running, was won for the first time since
the end of the last war by a Liberal-Democratic
candidate, King? Machimura.
The political alignment of newly elected 20
prefectural governors is 4 Liberal-Democrats, 8 con-
servatives, 1 Social Democrat, 2 progressives and 5
independents. When they are added to the 26
governors who had remained in their posts, the
political alignment among them shows 32 conserva-
tives versus 6 socialists with 8 independents. (Table I)
TABLE I. GUBERNATORIAL ELECTION
April 23, 1959
Elected
Pre Election
St ength
Liberal-Democrats
4
3
Social Democrats
1
2
Communists
0
Minor Parties
1
0
Independents
14
15
Total
20
20
Note: The total number of gubernatorial governors is 6, of which
26 remained in posts at the time of the election.
The 14 independents and 1 minor party member in the table
above include 8 conservatives, 2 progressives and 5 others.
Source: Election results in this article are those released t or publica-
tion by Election Administration Section, Autonomy kgency.
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Ordinarily, local election campaigns are conducted
with the focal point set on the welfare of local
communities, and in conformity with the basic
principles of local autonomy, so that the candidates
do not wish, in most cases, to make public their
affiliation, if any, with political parties. In the
recent elections, however, the headquarters of both
the Liberal-Democratic Party and the Social Demo-
cratic Party played active parts with such enthusiasm
as has never been witnessed before. The Liberal-
Democratic leaders, headed by Prime Minister Kishi,
were all out in the front line, while the Social
Democratic Party mobilized all its members under
the leadership of its Chairman, Mosaburo Suzuki.
The final tabulation of the elections for pre-
fectural assemblies registers an increase of Liberal-
Democrats from 1,200 to 1,597, of the Social
Democrats from 426 to 565, and Communists from
10 to 12. In sharp contrast to this increase among
the politically affiliated assembly members, the number
of both the independents and the members of minor
parties decreased noticeably from 977 to 582. This
decrease in the number of non-partizan representatives
evinces the fact that the practice of two-party politics
has made its way even among local communities.
Apprehension is expressed on the current tendency
lest the vigorous political struggle, thus reflected in
local communal life, should finally interfere with the
proceedings of local administration, such as the
construction of school buildings, the repair work of
river banks, and so on. (Table II)
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TABLE II. PREFECTURAL ASSEMBLY ELEC [ION
April 23, 1959
Elected
Pre Election
S 'ength
Liberal-Democrats
1,593
1 200
Social Democrats
561
126
Communists
12
10
Minor Parties
71
120
Independents
419
157
Total
2,656
2 613
Note: The 419 independents are estimated to include 279 conserva-
tives, 84 progressives and 68 others. The pre-ele, tion number
of independents (857) included 542 conservatives, 142 progres-
sives and 173 others.
That the Liberal-Democratic influence, let alone
its strong hold over farming, forestry arid fishing
villages, came to assert itself even in large cities
and mining areas was made manifest in the line-up
of recently elected heads and assembly members of
cities, towns and villages. The influence of the
Social Democratic Party has hitherto been likened
to an "inverted pyramid," mainly for its having an
insecure narrow foothold among local communities,
in spite of its significant occupation of on ,-third of
the seats in both Houses. However, through the
recent mayoralty election, the tapering base of that
inverted pyramid, it seems, was somewhat broad-
ened, as the number of socialist and progressive
mayors increased from 21 to 39, over against an
insignificant increase from 126 to 127 gained by the
conservatives. A similar tendency for the increased
Social Democratic influence had been othlerved in
the prefectural assembly election in some pi efectures,
of which a good example was presented in Fukuoka,
where the socialist candidates won a notable victory
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ELECTIONS AND CABINET RESHUFFLE
over their conservative rivals. Nevertheless, the
percentages of votes won in the prefectural assembly
election were 65.1% for the conservatives and
29.2 for the socialists. As for the election for
city assemblies, the total number of elected members
approximates 10,000 including 1,300 Liberal-Demo-
crats, 1,000 Social Democrats, 169 Communists, and
some 8,000 independents, of which an overwhelm-
ing majority are avowed conservatives. Again,
the marked advance achieved by both the Liberal-
Democratic and the Social Democratic members,
above the predicted 600 and 500 respectively,
indicates the widely penetrating influence of the two
major political parties among local communities.
( Tables III and IV)
TABLE III. MAYORALTY ELECTION
April 30, 1959
Elected
Pre-Election
Strength
Liberal-Democrats
21
21
Social Democrats
16
5
Communists
0
0
Minor Parties
0
0
Independents
138
147
Total
175
173
Note: 138 independents include 16 supported by the Liberal-Demo-
cratic Party, 14 4 the Social Democratic Party, 5 by both
Parties, 90 non-affiliated conservatives, 8 progressives and 5
others.
TABLE IV. CITY ASSEMBLY ELECTION
April 30, 1959
Elected
Liberal-Democrats
1,885
Social Democrats
1,197
Communists
208
Minor Parties
74
Independents
8,112
Total
11,476
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
2. Election for the House of Councillors.
The election for the House of Counci lors took
place almost a month after the local elect ons. The
voting percentages in the local elections wure unpre-
cedentedly high, with 79.5 % achieved in the guber-
natorial election on April 23. In the election for the
House of Councillors, however, it fell to 58.8 % ;
this unexpected fall by 20 % in voting percentage
within less than one month?a problemat cal issue
in itself?could possibly be attributed to the fact
that the public, keen as they were on th( familiar
ground of local elections, failed to show f iterest in
the election that followed at a month's int( rval. Or,
it might be ascribable partly to the fact that the
election coincided with the busy season an: ong agri-
cultural communities, and partly to the fact that the
platforms of the two contesting political pa-- ties were
by no means clearly presented to the public. Or, it
was more likely that this fall in voting percentage
was caused by the doubt which the public e ,Aertained
about the system of the House of Counci hors, and
also by the complicated proceedings of election
involved.* Anyhow, of the total number ( f eligible
voters, estimated at 53,520,000, more than 132,000,000
*At the time of local elections held on April 23, th number of
eligible voters was 49,762,112 (including 23,824,356 men aid 25,937,756
women) ; those who went to the polls numbered 39,551,8(r, (19,161,328
men and 20,390,477 women), registering the average vo tin ; percentage
at 79.48%. In the election for the House of Councillors held on June 2,
the voting percentage was 58.74%, with 31,436,851 (16,1 22,117 men
and 15,414,734 women) voting out of the total number of c ligible voters
registered as 53,516,487 (25,610,986 men and 27,905,5)1 women).
Source: Election Administration Section, Autonomy ?gency.
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failed to go to the polls, in spite of the fact that
vigorous encouragement activities had been launched
by the competent authorities.
A few words may be necessary to explain the
doubt with which the general public regards the
House of? Councillors. The House was nominally
established as a supervisory organ in the national
legislative structure. Nevertheless, the members re-
turned to the House through the elections in the
past have been mostly die representatives of trade
unions of nation-wide influence, or those elected with
the support from either bureaucratic or industrial
organizations of national importance, with the result
that the House of Councillors has now assumed the
.coloring of, so, to speak, an assembly of vocational
representatives. For that reason, the confrontation
of interests there has grown more and more conspicu-
ous, followed by a political struggle more violent than
that seen in the House of Representatives. In the
initial stage of its founding, the House of Councillors
was expected to have its members elected from among
men of learning and experience with unassailable na-
tional reputation. As it is, the House seems to have
lost the power to carry out its original function
to "check and balance" the legislative procedure.
However, any reform in the system of the House
of Councillors requires constitutional revision, and
such constitutional revision is hardly possible under
the current political situation. Furthermore, the elec-
tional procedure currently in force to select just one
candidate out of 120 or more in the national con-
stituency is not at all a duty to be fulfilled easily
by the average voter. This, in all probability, con-
stituted the direct cause for the exceedingly low
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voting percentage registered in the reck nt election
for the House of Councillors.
In summary, the results of the elect on for the
House of Councillors indicated a decisive victory for
the Liberal-Democratic Party, disclosing the Social
Democrats' regression as being far worse than it was
ever imagined. In the local constituencies where the
conservative influence was predominant, the Liberal-
Democrats won 49 out of the total 75 returns, while
the Social Democrats managed to secure oily 21; the
members of the uncompromising Ryokufuka decreased
to 2, and the independents to 3. Most notable in
this connection was the complete defeat suffered by
the Socialist candidates in Tokyo, where a female
member of the Sokagaku-kai, a non-politic I religious
organization, won the largest number of votes, fol-
lowed closely by Fusae Ichikawa, veteran 4uffragist;
and the two Liberal-Democrats took the remaining
third and fourth posts, while the thl ee Social
Democrats topped the list of unsuccessful candidates.
In the national constituency even, where the
Socialists ordinarily held fairer prospects, the total
number of 52 members elected included 2 ), Liberal-
Democrats, 17 Social Democrats, 4 Ryokuhlkai mem-
bers, 1 Communist, 1 minor party member and 7 inde-
pendents. When their strength is computhd by the
number of votes won, the Liberal-Democrat 4 and the
conservatives held the higher ranks in the 344, Masa-
bumi Yoneda, former Vice-Minister of Co] truction,
heading the list with 940,000 votes; where:: the top
vote-winner among the Socialist candidatA 4', ranked
only tenth in the same list. (Tables V and VI)
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TABLE V. ELECTION FOR HOUSE OF COUNCILLORS
June 2, 1959
Constituencies
National Local
Total
New
Strength
Pre-Elec-
tion
Strength
Liberal-Democrats
22
49
71
132
127
Social Democrats
17
21
38
85
78
Ryokufukai
4
2
6
11
20
Communists
1
0
1
3
2
Minor Parties
1
0
1
1
0
Independents
7
3
10
18
13
Total
52
75
127
250
240*
. *Including 10 Vacancies.
TABLE VI. VOTES WON IN THE ELECTION FOR
THE HOUSE OF COUNCILLORS
June 2, 1959
Number of
Votes
Percent-
age
Percentage in
1956 Election
Liberal-Democrats
12,119,711
41.20
39.7
Social Democrats
7,794,900
26.50
29.9
Ryokufukai
2,381,997
8.09
10.1
Communists
551,823
1.88
2.1
Minor Parties
753,246
2.56
2.1
Independents
5,817,938
19.77
15.5
Total
29,419,615
100.00
100.0
When the newly elected members are added to
the members retaining posts, the Liberal-Democratic
members, with an increase of 5 over the pre-election
strength, total 132, representing a stabilized majority
in the House, whereas the number of the Social
Democratic members, increased by 7, is 85, holding
the one-third barely capable of preventing the motion
for the constitutional revision, far short of the mark
of 100 forecast confidently by the Socialist Democratic
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Party itself before the election.
Over against the increase of Liberal- Democratic
and Social Democratic members in the Hot, se, mainly
on the strength of two-party politics, the independents
and the Ryokufukai members decreased in number
considerably ( even when those elected for vacancies
are taken into calculation) . These electi on results
indicate that the campaigns carried out by the central
and regional offices of the two major political parties
left no room for non-partizan candidates. Since the
recent election for the House of Count illors was
regarded, in a way, as significant as an interim
election, the failure on the part of the Lib, ral-Demo-
eratic Party to secure a majority wou1d, in all
probability, expose the Kishi Cabinet to i rebuttal
from the anti-Kishi faction, as well as to severe
public criticism, and thereby create political insta-
bility of no small concern. So vitally important was
the last election that the Government and its party
devoted their utmost efforts to the carnpair n, taking
great discretion in every possible way; for instance,
in adjusting the candidates' assignment, they went
so far as to refuse official recognition to the former
cabinet members. They mobilized some 161) organi-
zations to counter the labor front of it e Social
Democratic Party.
There is no question that the Liberal-Dornocratic
Party scored a vital point in its choice of election
strategy. The Socialist regression was largcly attrib-
utable to the fact that the majority of the nation
has lost confidence in the character and polioy of the
Social Democratic Party. Shortly before tin election,
the Party's Secretary General, Inejiro Asant, Ina, then
visiting Peiping, stated in a joint commun ique that
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"American imperialism" was "a common enemy"
to Japan and Communist China. This statement
awakened a doubt amongst the public lest the Social
Democratic Party, though flying its old banner of
neutrality, might not be seeking rapprochement with
the Communist bloc.
Regarding the controversial issue of revision of
the Japan-U.S. Security Treaty, the Social Democratic
Party assumes a foolhardy attitude, insisting on its
complete abolition, while the general opinion today
is inclined to acknowledge such justifiable revision as
is necessary to render this treaty, concluded under
the Occupation, more adaptable to the current condi-
tion of the country. Moreover, the Party fails to
offer any convincing answer to the question of
national defense which will arise following the aboli-
tion of the treaty.
The unanimous opinion of the public is that the
victory won recently by the Liberal-Democratic Party
is not a victory in the true sense of the word, but
an outcome incidental to the weakening in the Socialist
camp, and that the Party, taking that fact into
consideration, should refrain from resorting to any
dictatorial actions. The fact is evident in the unex-
pected emergence into prominence of the Sokagaku-kai,
a religious body adhering to the Nichiren sect, which
succeeded in returning 6 candidates in the recent
election. Now, the representatives of this organization,
including those elected previously, number 9 in total
in the House of Councillors. Another noteworthy fact
is that Masanobu Tsuji, who had been expelled from
the Liberal-Democratic Party for throwing a threat
of impeachment at Prime Minister Kishi in the Diet,
and who had given up his membership in the House
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of Representatives on his own volition, wo) the third
place with 680,000 votes in the national constituency
in the recent election. All these and many other
similar facts point to the public distrust in politics.
In short, the overall results of the election for
the House of Councillors brought about little change
in the balance of power alignment between the two
major political parties, even though it produced
adverse effects on the third power. Nevertheless,
it is obvious that the House has come to assume a
stronger political coloring, in addition to being sub-
ordinated to various pressure groups. With he marked
decline in neutral power, the House may fall a prey
to a worse political struggle than ever st ,n in the
House of Representatives. The public, apprehensive
of such an unfortunate possibility, expects the Liberal-
Democratic Party to exercise discretion in rocognizing
and respecting the true nature of the missio, assigned
to the House of Councillors.
3. Cabinet Reshuffle
Immediately following the local election and the
election for the House of Councillors, where the
Liberal-Democratic Party won a decisivr victory,
Prime Minister Kishi carried out a completo reshuffle
of his Cabinet, involving the replacement of the entire
Cabinet members, with the exception of the Prime
Minister himself, and two Ministers, Foreigri Minister
Fujiyama and Finance Minister Sato, the former for
the reason that the negotiations for revising the
U.S.-Japan Security Treaty was not yet completed,
and the latter for pursuing the same line of finance
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Policy. As almost all the members in the Cabinet
were replaced, this reorganization was more like the
birth of a new Cabinet rather than a reshuffle in
the ordinary sense of the term.
As a preliminary step for this reshuffle, the
Prime Minister planned a line-up of the three most
influencial members of his party, namely, Hayato
Ikeda as Secretary General, Ichiro Kono as Chairman
of the Executive Committee, and Eisaku Sato as Chair-
man of the Political Affairs Investigation Committee,
of the Liberal Democratic Party. The Prime Minister
failed in this endeavor, however, since these three
are avowed rivals for the next premiership. There-
Upon, he tried another plan, and succeeded, with
assistance from Finance Minister Sato, his brother,
in _inviting Hayato Ikeda, leader of the anti-Kishi
faction, to take the post of Minister of International
Trade and Industry in his new Cabinet.
Now that the Prime Minister has worked out a
successful coalition with antagonistic Ikeda, he
has to forego a close alliance with Ichiro Kono, his
henchman. and influential leader of the Kishi, or the
so-called main, faction in the Liberal-Democratic Party.
The change introduced into the line-up of the
Cabinet members is significant in that it represents
a change in the character of the Cabinet, as well
as in the power distribution maintained within the
Liberal-Democratic Party. As both Ikeda and Sato
cut prominent figures in the Yoshida Cabinet once,
the new Kishi Cabinet is often criticised as the
sixth Yoshida Cabinet.
The leadership in the Liberal-Democratic Party
is held by the aforementioned Ikeda, Kono, Sato and
Miki. Not that there are no senior members in the
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Party, but that these four men each considers himself
pretender for presidency of the Party in succession
to Kishi. Now, as a result of the recent reshuffle,
both Kono and Miki drifted away from the main
current in the Party. The obvious chang- brought
into the alignment of factions within the Party,
however, does not necessarily signify any waning in
Prime Minister Kishi's leadership.
As explained by the Prime Minister in his speech
delivered before the 32nd extraordinary session of
the Diet in June, no major change is em isaged in
Japan's basic foreign policy, since both Foreign Min-
ister Fujiyama and Finance Minister Sato remained
in posts unaffected by the recent reshuffle. However,
as Ikeda, new member of the Cabinet, at--;erts the
importance of discretion to be exercised in working
out the revision of the U.S.-Japan Securit Treaty,
his influence will undoubtedly cause some delay in
both the signing and the ratification of such revision.
He is of the opinion that the nation should be
fully informed of the necessity for such revision,
before its signing takes place.
The basic policy of the new Cabinet as outlined
by the Prime Minister includes the aforei ientioned
revision of the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty, the adop-
tion of more positive economic measures, and the
revision of the Election Law. Assuming that the
current favorable economic trend will con inue its
development at the present rate, the nationt I income
ten years hence will be doubled. In order tc promote
this possible economic development with the goal set
at the doubled national income, the adoption of some
positive economic measures become a requisite for
removing possible obstacles from the path of economic
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development. This policy, though domestic by nature,
must be put into execution through increased foreign
trade and industry.
The revision of the Election Law, long discussed,
involves a large number of problems, such as the
exhorbitant election funds, the over-vigorous election
campaigns, etc.
Prime Minister Kishi left Tokyo on July 11 for
a month's tour in Europe and Central and South
America. Meantime, little change is expected to take
place in the political field until next spring, when the
ratification of the revision of the U.S.-Japan Security
Treaty will be deliberated in the Diet, with strong
opposition put up by the entire Socialist front led by
the Social Democratic Party.
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By IWAO AYUSAWA
IV. THE PEACE OF SAN FRANCISCO
UNDER FIRE
?Continued from Vol. XXV No. 4 of Co aemporary japan
IN THE PRECEDING SECTION OF THIS ARTICLE,' )
brief mention was made of a strong opposition
raised during 1952 by the SocialLA Party and
the organized workers of Japan against the peace
about to be concluded at San Francisco. Seven years
have passed since then, but as yet the force of that
opposition seems in no sense to have diminished.
Efforts to amend the more disputable parts of the
peace scheme were begun already in 1953 by the then
Foreign Minister, late Shigemitsu. It would seem
that the efforts continued by Mr. Fujiyama, Foreign
Minister in the Kishi Cabinet, are bearing fruit with
conclusion of a revised Security Treaty in the course
of the present year (1959). Furious opposition,
however, is raging throughout the islands of Japan
at present. General strikes are being scheduled by
the trade unions and for the moment it would seem
that the exact outcome of the controversy is unfore-
seeable. What really accounts for tht tenacity of
(7) Conternporay Japan Vol. XXV, No. 4 pp, 564-582.
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the opposition?
As the principal party involved or interested in
the peace structure of San Francisco is the United
States naturally, anyon.e criticizing or raising opposi-
tion to it is apt to be branded as "anti-American"
or "pro-communist," or even as "communist" indis-
criminately. This is unfortunate if the Western world
(or the United States) is wishing either that the
Japanese people would become loyal defenders of de-
mocracy, or that Japan would rearm and thereby turn
into an effective partner in a military alliance. At
this stage of our inquiry, the following statement of
a Western scholar, who has spent long years of his
life in Japan and made a penetrating study of the
impact of the United States' policies on Japan in
the postwar peripd, deserves careful attention. "We
should not forget," he says,
"that no matter how feasible it would be to make Japan our
military ally, it probably could not be done without seriously
endangering Japanese democracy. In view of Japan's strong
militaristic tradition and the record of recent history in which
the Japanese army played the leading role in scuttling the young
and still very imperfect democratic institutions of prewar Japan,
it would be too much to hope that Japan could be both a military
and an ideological ally. As the former, she might render the
United States valuable aid, if war were to come in the next few
years; but she would unquestionably render us a greater disservice
by driving the rest of Asia away from us and presumably into
the other camp. As an ideological ally, she could be of inestimable
value in strengthening the cause of democracy throughout Asia." (8)
Here is a choice. Which of the two alternatives
does the Western world, particularly the United
(8) Edwin 0. Reischauer: The United States and Japan, Har-
vard University Press, P. 43.
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States, propose to take? This is a pe rtinent ques-
tion which requires a forthright answer from anyone
who seeks honestly to discover the reason for the
tenacity of opposition of Japanese w pi-kers' trade
unions to the peace structure of San Ft ancisco.
Prima facie, there should be no reason why any
Japanese should object to conclusion of peace if the
sole effect of it were to restore to Japan a status of
independence or to ensure peace and secqrity for the
Japanese nation. But, as a matter of fact, opposi-
tion arose first with the discovery that the peace to
be concluded at San Francisco consisted not of a sin-
gle peace treaty, but of two treaties, one a peace
treaty and the other a mutual security pact. After
a glance over the text of the two treaties, suspicion
arose in the minds of the leaders of the trade union
and socialist movements, that the security pact was
in the nature of a military alliance into which Japan
under the Peace Constitution of 1946 con Id not enter.
Moreover, the fear grew in the minds of those leaders
that in the proposed peace scheme of San Francisco,
after signature of the two treaties, the status of Japan
would not be one of complete independence or equality
with the United States. By entering into a military
alliance with the United States, Japan, they feared,
might only antagonize the great neighbors on the
Asian Continent who are under the communist regime.
Instead of promising more peace and security for
Japan, the security pact, they feared, might only
heighten the chances of Japan's involvement in future
wars in the Far East.
On account of these fears or suspicions, during
the month of March, 1951, already the Socialist Party
voiced its objection to the proposed peace, followed by
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Sohyo which adopted at its second annual convention
of 1951 a declaration denouncing the proposed peace.
Major national federations of workers' unions cover-
ing the basic industries of Japan adopted individually,
one after another, resolutions opposing the peace of
San Francisco. Despite these objections, however, the
two treaties were duly signed on September 8, 1951,
ratified on September 18, 1951, and entered into effect
on April 28, 1952.
Main criticisms that have been raised against the
Security Treaty may be summarized roughly under
three or four heads. The first and chief criticism was
that this imposes a military alliance which the Peace
Constitution of 1946 would disallow Japan to enter.(91
Irretrievable wrong can be committed by anyone in
a position of authority, if in a hurry an attempt is
made by him merely to silence those people who, dread-
ing genuinely the resurgence of militarism or military
spirit in Japan, oppose measures which are liable to
lead to rearmament of the nation. The second criti-
cism is that the Security Treaty is a unilateral or
unequal treaty. Under the provisions of Article 1 of
the Treaty, the United State's can, but is nowhere re-
quired to use her troops stationed in Japan to defend
Japan whereas Japan is placing her territory at their
disposal with the right to set up military, air and
naval bases of the U.S. troops. Whether or not to
use the U.S. troops for the defense of Japan in an
(9) Whether foreign (United States) troops can be stationed
in the territory of Japan without infringing the Constitution is cur-
rently under dispute. The matter came to a head in December, 1938,
as the Tokyo District Court acquitted the men who had been arrested
for trespassing a military base of the U.S. Force, declaring that the
special penal law making such trespassing a crime was invalid, being
unconstitutional in itself. The matter is now before the Supreme Court.
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emergency is optional to the United States. Thirdly,
under the same article, the bombers of the U.S. Air
Force might fly from their bases in Japan for attack-
ing a third power without the knowledge of Japan.
That would inevitably invite the enemy planes to bomb-
ard Japan, which obviously is a risk too big for Japan
to take. Under such a treaty, Japan is placed under
more danger than if she had not concluded such a
treaty. Fourthly, the critics point out that under
Article 2, the United. States has the prior rights re-
garding the disposition of its troops, -rime of bases,
etc. in Japan, and Japan is disallowed from accord-
ing the same rights to any other country without the
consent of the United States, thereby placing Japan
virtually in a position subservient to the United
States. Another criticism somewhat sin, liar to this
one is addressed to Article 4 by the critics. Under
the provisions of this article, Japan can be kept under
the disadvantages of the treaty indefinitely, because
the consent of the United States is required for
abrogation of the treaty. (10)
V. SOHYO'S RISE TO POWER
In their classic and monumental work on trade
unionism written sixty five years ago, Sidney and
Beatrice Webb, in describing the growing strength
of workers' unions, were already using the expres-
(10) Recognizing the various defects in the existing treaty, For-
eign Minister Fujiyama after several months of negotintion with the
United States, succeeded in revising the treaty on a ntunber of crucial
points. Nevertheless, the position either of the SocialiA Party or of
Sohyo in their opposition to the treaty has remained unchanged. They
are urging a total abrogation of the treaty.
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sion(n) "state within state." During World War I,
the identical expression in French "l'etat dans l'etat"
was being used in France with reference to the syndi-
calist unionism. More recently, after World War II,
we hear in Germany 'of the use of the German phrase
"Stoat fiber Staat" with reference to the German trade
union federation DGB (Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund).
In the case of Germany, this might already have been
true in the prewar days before Hitler. In any case,
ascendency to power of the organized labor forces,
whether one likes it or not, would seem to be a uni-
versal phenomenon.
Japan is only a late arrival, relatively speaking,
on the scene of modern industrialism. With the as- ?
cendency to power of Sohyo, however, the time has
come, or is drawing near, when its tremendous strength
has to be reckoned with in its true proportions, al-
though it may be premature to look upon this as a
"state within state." In any case, because of the
increasing role which Sohyo has begun to play in the
industrial and economic relations in the years follow-
ing the Korean war, due space has to be given to a
description of this organization of trade unions.
The history of Japan is no less ironical than that
of Europe. As already mentioned, Sohyo was in a
sense the godchild or offspring of the American Oc-
cupation. It started with the kindly blessings of the
officers of GHQ. The irony lies in that it was this
same Sohyo which, in a year after its birth, seemed
to turn round and lead national movements opposing
the peace scheme of San Francisco. Some one describ-
(11) Sidney and Beatrice Webb: History of Trade Unionism,
Revised ed. 1920; Preface p. ix (Preface written in 1894).
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ing the unexpected turn of events aptly used the old
Japanese expression: "Instead of a lovely chicken,
when hatched, it turned out to be an ugly duck."
It may be recalled that Sohyo (an abbreviation
of the long official title Nippon Rodo K miai Soh yogi
Kai or General Council of Japanese Trade Unions)
was first inaugurated less than a month after the out-
break of the Korean war, on July 11, 1950, comprizing
29 unions with the total membership fig-, Ire of 2,760,-
000. They were the unions which had Leen active in
the movement (called Mindo, as explainei in the pre-
vious section of this article) for democratization of
trade unions since the movement started in February
1948. There were two outstanding Wool leaders who
were responsible for the formation of Sohyo, as a
culmination of the industrial democratization move-
ment. One was Minoru Takano, leader of the left
wing of Sodomei and the other, Matsuta Hosoya, for-
merly General Secretary of Sanbetsv. or Congress of
Industrial Unions, and the central figure of the Mindo
group movement. Frictions within Mind had retard-
ed the progress of the movement till th summer of
1949, when the split occurred, as alrew ly explained,
in the World Federation of Trade Uniohs (WFTU).
When the new world organization, free of Communist
influence, called International Confedera Lion of Free
Trade Unions (ICFTU) came into beim); as the re-
sult of that split, the time ripened at law A number
of the trade unions which had been aching to free
themselves of Communist infiltration ar d had with-
drawn from Zenro Ren (explained in the previous
section) now took steps to affiliate with the newly
formed ICFTU and also to participate in a movement
to bring about some sort of unity among Japanese
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trade unions under the sponsorship of the Federation
of Private Railway Workers Unions which had hitherto
remained neutral. All of this meant the paving of the
way for the appearance of Sohyo on the scene.
The outbreak of the war in Korea had its imme-
diate repercussion in Japan, first on the Occupation
authorities and second on the trade unions. There
was every reason now why the Occupation authorities
should look with favor upon the industrial democrati-
? zation movement. They were interested in giving their
moral help and spiritual guidance for the formation
of a national federation of democratic unions free
from communist influences. They were interested in
the affiliation of Japanese workers' unions with ICFTU.
That was why the order for dissolution descended on
Zenro Ren, which was the organization aiming to draw
Japanese unions into the communist dominated WFTU.
Quite naturally, the Occupation authorities would be
interested further in seeing the working class in Japan
give their support to the war in Korea, for them
a war in defense of democracy.
? In these circumstances, apparently nobody was
more disappointed or surprised than the Occupation
authorities to see the working class in Japan
led by Sohyo rise against the? peace scheme of San
Francisco. During the spring of 1951, both the So-
cialist Party of Japan and Sohyo adopted the so-called
Four Peace Princip1es,(12) in the form of a slogan
or slogans. The four principles advocated were:
1. "An overall peace" ?to include not only the United
States and the Western democracies, but the Soviet
? (12) At first they were Three Peace Principles, but the Fourth
was added shortly after. ?
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Union, the Peoples Republic of China am the coun-
tries under Communist regime.
2. "Absolute neutrality"?not to take sides -vith either
one or the other of the conflicting ideoloies.
3. "No military base in Japan"?not to allow any
military base of any country in Japan.
4. "No rearmament"?not to rearm Jai an, under
whatever name, in violation of the Feace Con-
stitution.
Although these principles were adoptt d both by
the Socialist Party and at the Conventica of Sohyo
(March 1951) by a large majority and with great
enthusiasm, the adoption was not carried vut without
controversy. The realistically minded m n did not
agree with the idealists. Some were not interested
in the lofty, yet unrealistic policies. some were
"patriotic" and regarded more the nation a interests
than the humanitarian. For these vario.ts reasons,
the adoption of these slogans supplied t le occasion
for the split of both the Socialist Party and Sohyo.
Those who opposed these slogans, being re dists ready
to support rearmament or even war, cc astituted a
small minority of the right within So ?y0. They
eventually withdrew from Sohyo and fortned in Sep-
tember, 1951, Minroken (Minshu Rodo Irtelo ,Kenkyu
Kai or Democratic Labor Movement Sti,dy Group)
which in February of the following year turned into
Minroren (Minshu Shugi Rodo Undo Re raku Kyogi
Kai or Coordinating Committee for Democratic Labor
Movement). It is this group which lat-r in 1954
organized Zenro, a national labor federatit n as a rival
of Sohyo, but this has always been a sn4,11 minority.
In other words, the main stream of orgt,nized labor,
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r? epresented by Sohyo since the Korean war, has been
preponderant. Emergence, therefore, of Sohyo as a
dominant force and its behavior in Japan's political
or economic scene need to be studied more closely.
As regards the Socialist Party, the peace of San
Francisco and the adoption of the Four Principles did
give rise to a fatal cleavage in the party, dividing
it into the right and left wings, but it did not actually
split the party. We need only to point out that it
is the left wing which has taken a rather idealistic
stand and always held the majority of the member-
ship.
? VI. INDEPENDENCE OF JAPAN ? ITS
IMMEDIATE POLITICAL EFFECTS
Life is strangely replete with paradoxes. Through-
out Asia and Africa, the nations which were under
the rule of Western colonial empires until recently
are discovering that life is in no sense easier or less
arduous after they gained independence and freedom
than before. Japanese workers might well be con-
sidered older or more mature with longer experience
of political freedom and industrialism than most Asian
or African brothers, but this truth of the paradox
was brought home to them forcibly only by the ex-
periences gained in the years following the independ-
ence which came during the Korean war. The lot
of the Japanese workers in the years immediately
following independence seemed to be? particularly a
hard one, because of the war in Korea. The experi-
ences of that stage will now be reviewed briefly, from
several different angles: political, economic and
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industrial. This will enable us to give a int re or less
fair appraisal of the reactions, or behavit r, of the
organized workers of Japan in the difficult years of
trial, the years 1951-1953.
Politically, first. The peace was concluded with
the signature of the two treaties, the Pea+.e Treaty
and the Mutual Security Treaty, on Nov( tuber 28,
1951, which came into effect on April 28, 1952, half
a year after. This, as already mentioned, led to the
split of the Socialist Party into the right and left
wings, as it did in the ranks of labor as well. Super-
ficially, the peace treaty signed by fifty nations served
to establish peace on a firmer basis than ever. The
peace-offensive of the Soviet Union was ga ;fling mo-
mentum so that it seemed on the surface as if any
chance of a major war was removed farther and
farther. However, in reality, the outlook was not so
bright. For, in application of the provisions of the
Security Treaty, military, naval and air buses, over
490 in number, of the United States forces were being
set up in the four islands of Japan. Tais often
involved expropriation of the farmlands of the
peasants who had inherited them from their fore-
fathers. That meant hardship unbearable to those
peasants in many cases, so that it led to bitter feel-
ings and tenacious opposition, though ineffective, of
the peasants who would refuse to leave th-ir lands.
They would sit down in protest on their farmlands
at the very hour when the troops enter and per-
haps gun shooting practice would commence. Their
remonstrances would be aided by excited stu, tents and
youths who oppose rearmament of Japan. Demonstra-
tions were staged, accompanied unfortunately by inci-
dents of violence or bloodshed at times. One might
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presume, not without reason, that in these demonstra-
tions, some communists were involved. In any case,'
however, recurrence of these incidents, accompanied
by arrests of dozens of young people put the foreign
troops in a bad light.
In the meantime, in order partly to cope with
any contingencies, the Japanese government was
steadily engaged in strengthening the defense poten-
tials. What was called at the outset "Police Reserve
Corps" out of shyness or modesty came to be called
"Self Defense Force," being equipped, now more open-
ly, with, the instruments of warfare including the
missiles 'of the latest design. One witnessed the pro-
gress of a process wholesale, which none would hesi-
tate to call "rearmament" anywhere except in Japan.
This was furiously contested by the Socialists and
trade union leaders under Sohyo at every stage of
its progress.
On the other hand, however, it must be recorded
that the governm ent was not failing in its effort to
elaborate legislative measures to restrain the subver-
sive and other activities of the Communists, as well
as other elements which might obstruct the prosecu-
tion of the government's program toward general se-
curity and public peace. Reference has already been
made to the Ordinance for ,Restriction of Organiza-
tions (Dantai-to Kisei Rei) promulgated in April,
1949, which was unpopular, being one of the so-called
"Potsdam Orders." (13) The reactionary program of
Gyaku KOsu (or reverse course) of the government
is supposed to have reached its climax in 1952 when,
amidst an uproar of protests, the law, unfortunately
(13) Contemporary Japan Vol. XXV, No. 4 pp. 577-578.
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most unpopular, called generally by abbreviation Ha-
bo Ho (Hakai Katsudo Boshi Ho or Destructive
Activities Prevention Act) was promulgated on June
21 of that year (1952). The most unpop&ar law in
prewar Japan was Chian Iji Ho (Public Peace Pre-
servation Act of 1925). The present law was known
as the "postwar version" of the same law, -nacted by
the government after Japan's independence, making
clear its anti-Communist stand. The avowed inten-
tion of this law was clear and unmistakaVe, but the
fear in the minds of the people was its abuse, if used
to curtail even normal activities of a trade union and
to infringe on basic human rights.
The opposition to this legislation wa unprece-
dented in its dimensions. Protest demonstn tions were
carried out on a national scale. On acccunt of its
relevance to trade unions, this will be tak? n up more
in detail in the next section of this article. We should
only mention here that despite the furor which it
raised, the law was finally enacted; but the govern-
ment, before the promulgation of the law, had to
make a public pronouncement to the effect that: (1)
the law will not unduly infringe on people's rights
or liberty and (2) it will not restrict prop r activities
of trade unions. Because of the importan 1 nature of
the legislation, the gist of the law is given below. (14)
In 1952, the year after Japan gained independent
(14) The law created Koan Chosa Cho, a new or :an for investi-
gation of "destructive activities." The committee set up n this bureau,
called Committee of Investigation for Public Peace, ill engage in
investigations and when it presumes that a certain or ;Inization is a
body engaged in destructive activities, the gatherings of :hat body may
be prohibited, its activities may be stopped, discontinua.:ce of publica-
tion of its organ may be ordered. Activities of its of ficers or of its
constituent members may be stopped. Even dissolution of the organi-
-Continued on the llowing page.
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status, with the coming into force of the treaties of
peace and of mutual security, the government went
ahead ?in August to dissolve the Diet in order to
ensure the support of the nation in carrying out the
obligations incumbent on Japan under those treaties.
As already mentioned, both the Socialist Party and
Sohyo were split on the issue of the Peace of San
Francisco. The general election in October, 1952, was
a test of the extent to which the nation supported
the government in shouldering the responsibilities un-
der the new peace scheme, including among others
a program of rearmament of Japan. The conserva-
tive Liberal-Democratic government wished, as it was
patent from all circumstantial evidences, to secure a
clear two-third majority in both Houses of the Diet
in order eventually to amend the Constitution and
enable the rearmament of Japan, not trespassing on
but within the orbit of the Constitution. On the other
? hand, for Sohyo and all organized workers under ifs
leadership which opposed the peace scheme of San
Francisco, the general election was a test of the soli-
darity of the progressive elements in the population
of Japan. It was, therefore, a joyous surprise for
them to see the unexpected advance of the Socialist
Party in the Diet in the general election of 1952.
In the previous general election of 1949, the Socialist
Party had gained only 48 seats. This time, despite
zation may be ordered. By "destructive activities" the law means: (1)
civil war; preparation, plotting or aiding of civil war; inviting or incit-
ing of aid to be given to foreign invasion; printing, distributing, publicly
displaying, communicating or broadcasting of literature or pictures which
urge the justification or necessity of invasion; and (2) rioting, arson, use
of explosives, disturbing or overturning of trains or tramcars, man slaugh-
ter, robbery, disturbance of performance of police duties; preparation,
plotting, inciting or abetting of the above mentioned acts.
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the split of the previous year, the Party gained a
total of 111 seats ( Left wing 54, Right wing 57 ) . (1-5)
Another incident, or event, which must be noted
in the few years immediately following the independ-
ence under the heading of politics, or law, was the
law, severely criticized as another law of Gycku KOsu,
known generally by the misleadingly abbrevit ted name
Suto Kisei Ho ( or Strike Restriction Law) p ?omulgat-
ed in August 1953. The real official titl, of this
legislation is an inordinately long one whicl_ may be
literally translated as a "Law concerning the Regu-
lation of the Methods of Dispute-acts in Cod. Mining
and Electrical Industries." This legislatioL, rushed
through the Diet amidst an uproar of prot i?sts, was
passed by way of punishment, and reminds one of the
British Trade Disputes and Trade Union Ac of 1927
which was passed as a punitive measure after the
general strike of 1926. Previous to this I( gislation,
there were waves of long drawn strikes in both coal
mining and in electrical industries. In vie w of the
experiences of those strikes, the law prohi )ited the
withdrawal, as a dispute-act, of the men stationed
at posts in coal mines for safety reasons. It also
prohibited that the men let the water run ( if at the
source ( dam ) or that they cut off electric current as
a dispute-act. Was this legislation an infi ingernent
of the constitutional right to strike or not? The ques-
tion gave rise to much legalistic controversy among
(15) In the general elections of the following years, ix April 1953
and February 1955, the Socialist Party continued to gain more seats,
till they rose to 155 in the House of Representatives and 69 i the House
of Councillors. The left wing leaders of the Socialist P rty and of
Soh yo interpret such gains as an evidence of the support of the nation,
opposing both rearmament and the Peace of San Francisc, .
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the scholars and trade union leaders in the country.
On account of the vociferous protests, the government
yielded temporarily to the pressure and the law con-
sequently went into effect only for the term of three
years. (16)
To an outsider at a distance or to students of
labor reading about the experience of these years in
Japan some decades hence, laws of this sort would
surely seem fantastic or absurd. Why laws of this
nature came to be enacted in Japan must be explained
by reviewing the behavior of the organized workers
in the economic and industrial, as well as in the polit-
ical, context of this period. That will be done in the
ensuing sections of this article.
?To be continued
English texts of the major labor laws will be
given in the next issue.
(16) In 1956, upon expiry of the 3 year term, however, the Diet
decided not to terminate, but to retain this law for an indefinite period.
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payment of a fixed penalty in case of violation of
the Regulation, cases to be tried in tht Consular
Courts and damages, not fines, to be paid to Japan.
On February 20, 1878, John Hartley, a British
subject, was brought before the British Com-ular Court
in Yokohama, on a charge made by tilt Japanese
authorities that he had smuggled twenty pounds of
opium into the port in the December preceding,
importation of which had been prohibited by all the
treaties as well as by Japanese laws. The Court
adjudged him not guilty, on the ground that "medicinal
opium" was allowed under the Tariff Cor vention of
1866. Storms of protest arose, not only Irom Japa-
nese, but also from the foreign community. Another
action was lodged against Hartley for smuggling
sixteen pounds (12 catties) of opium, and this time
the British Court found him guilty and punished him
with a fine at the rate of $15 per catty.
In 1879, the report of cholera in Amoy, China,
caused the Japanese authorities to declare a quarantine
on all vessels from that port in accordanc- with the
Quarantine Regulation enacted in 1873. A German
ship entered Yokohama and when the port authorities
tried to apply the quarantine regulation to it, a German
warship appeared and removed it from quarantine.
The spreading of cholera in Japan was believed by
many Japanese and foreigners to be due to this denial
of the right of the Japanese to impose necessary
quarantine upon the ships of certain Power,. Former
American President Grant, who was in Japan at that
time on his world trip, did not hesitate to say that
Japan would have been justified in sinking the German
ship.
It was possible that these unequal, unilateral
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treaties might be revised in 1872, by virtue of the
provision of the 1858 treaties. The American treaty
had the following clause:
"After the 4th of July, 1872, (143) upon the desire of either the
American or the Japanese Government, and on one year's notice
given by either party, this Treaty, and such portions of the Treaty of
Kanagawa as remained unrevoked by this Treaty, together with
the regulations of trade hereunto annexed, or those that may be
hereafter introduced, shall be subject to revision by commissioners
appointed on both sides for this purpose, who will be empowered
to decide on, and insert therein, such amendments as experience
shall prove to be desirable."
The revision was permissible, and yet it must
depend upon the agreement of all the parties, and
this agreement was not easy to secure.
What was the belief of the Western Powers at
that time on this question? In July, 1864, Earl Grey
brought forward, in the House of Lords, twelve
resolutions on Japan, which questioned, among other
things, the expediency and justice of consulor juris-
diction. But Lord John Russel replied that Japanese
laws were most sanguinary, that in some cases all
the relatives of a criminal could be put to death for
his offense. Russel seemed to think wrongly that the
- unwritten code of honor of the samurai which de-
manded suicide by disembowelment was legal penalty
which could be inflicted on criminals. He proceeded
to ask: "Is it desirable that we should abandon a
plan which has now been acted upon for three
centuries, in accordance with which, when we enter
oriental nations, we carry with us our own tribunals
(143) July 1 in the. Dutch Treaty. August 15 in the French
Treaty.
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and our own notions of justice."
The Iwakura Mission (1871-73)
The first suggestion of revision was made in a
private memorandum submitted by Terajt ma Mune-
non, Minister for Foreign Affairs, to Sir Harry
Parkes, British Minister to Japan, in April, 1871.
The following significant paragraph was fc und in the
memorandum.
"The Treaties are made entirely for foreigners corn ag to Japan
and the only stipulation for Japanese going abroad is that a diplo-
matic agent may reside in the capital. In these things the same
power ought to be inherent in both; and after the quest,on has been
examined, equal and concurrent powers should be the phraseology
of the Treaties." (144)
The Japanese Government resolved to deal directly
and singly with the home government of the Treaty
Powers and it therefore sent abroad a special mission,
known as the Iwakura Mission headed by Prince
Iwakura. The mission was a large, powerful one,
containing no less than fifty members among whom
were the ablest of the new leaders of el apan, such
as Kido, Okubo, and Ito, and officials attached to it
from every department of the public service.
Their objects were most plainly set forth in
the letter of credence which they presented to the
President of the United States upon their arrival in
Washington.
(144) Jones, F. C.: Extraterritoriality in Japan, p 79.
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"We expect and intend to reform and improve the Treaties
so as to stand upon a similar footing with the most enlightened
nations, and to attain the full development of public rights and
interests. The civilization and institutions of Japan are so different
from those of other countries that we can not expect to reach the
desired end at once. It is our purpose to select, from the various
institutions prevailing among enlightened nations, such as are best
suited to our present condition, and adopt them, in gradual reforms
and amendments of our policy and customs so as to be on an equality
with them." (145)
The Iwakura Mission left Japan in December,
1871, arriving in Washington on February 29, 1872,
and was received by President Grant on March 4.
Warm hospitality awaited them everywhere, and they
were heartily welcomed.
At the first conference with Secretary Fish on
March 11, Prince Iwakura presented a memorandum
containing a summary of the most important changes
which Japan desired to effect, among which were:
(1) abolition of extraterritoriality upon the enact-
ment of a national code based upon the laws of the
Western Powers; (2) tariff autonomy; and (3) pro-
hibition of landing organized military forces without
permission of Japan. These desires were the fruits
of the bitter experience which Japan had been
compelled to taste during the past two decades of
her enforced intercourse with the Western Powers.
At the second conference, two days later, Secre-
tary Fish presented the American counter proposals
which entirely ignored the all important questions of
tariff autonomy and the abolition of extraterritoriality
and were largely concerned with the further amplifi-
cation of existing treaty rights of foreigners in
(145) Ibid., p. 80.
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Japan.
After further exchange of views in two extended
conferences, Prince Iwakura presented at the fifth
conference on March 27, the Japanese draft of treaty
which received the scrutinizing study of the State
Department; and at the sixth conference on June 1,
the American draft of a treaty in twenty-four articles
and of accompanying regulations in five artdcles were
presented to the Japanese Mission. The American
plan contained no reference to the abolition of extra-
territoriality, but it contained the conditicnal most-
favored-nation clause in respect of trade, commerce,
and navigation. The Japanese amendments to the
American draft were made on July 1O, and the
seventh conference was scheduled for July 22.
In the meantime, Prince Iwakura, perck-iving the
possibility of concluding a new treaty with the
United States, hurriedly sent Okubo and Ito back to
Japan to acquaint the Tokyo Government with the
progress of negotiations so far attained in Washington
and to get full power to conclude the trcaty. But
their effort was in vain. The Japanese Government
preferred to conclude treaties at a cont rence in
Europe attended by the representatives of all Treaty
Powers rather than to proceed with them one by
one. The two messengers reluctantly proceeded to
America again and rejoined the Mission on July 22,
the day on which the last conference was scheduled
in expectation of their return to Washington. The
Japanese proposal for a conference was rejected by
the United States, which insisted that it had "always
declined to be a party to a Congress or Conference
for the conclusion of any treaty of corn tnerce or
amity." Thus the negotiations for the revision of the
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American Treaty was abruptly terminated, and the
Mission left for England.
In his Annual Message to Congress of December
2, 1872, President Grant stated:
"Our Treaty relations with Japan remain unchanged. An im-
posing embassy from that interesting and progressive nation visited
this country during the year that is passing, but being unprovided
with powers for the signing of a convention in this country, no
conclusion in that direction was reached. It is hoped, however,
that the interchange of opinions which took place during their stay
in this country has led to a mutual appreciation of the interests
which may be promoted when the revision of the existing treaty
shall be undertaken." (146)
In the summer of 1872, the Iwakura Mission
arrived in England. Sir Harry Parkes was recalled
from his post at Tokyo to act as guide to them during
their tour .of England and earned their gratitude for
the help he gave them. But they were unsuccessful
in procuring the revision of the Treaties.
On January 18, 1873, Earl Granville, Foreign
Secretary, wrote the following instructions to Parkes:
"Form your own direct intercourse with the Ambassadors during
their stay in England and also from having been present at the
interview which I had with their Excellencies you will have learned
how little they had to offer in explanation of the objects of their
mission and the views and wishes of their Government; and how
little, in the uncertainty in which I was left in these respects, I was
able to convey to them regarding the policy and intentions of Her
Majesty's Government in regard to intercourse with Japan . . . .
"Her Majesty's Government desires to maintain the most friend-
ly relations with Japan, but is not prepared, out of deference to the
(146) Richardson, J P.: Messages and Papers of the Presidents,
VII, p. 191.
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wishes of its Government, to expose the maintenance A them to
risk by complying with their suggestions that the small flritish force
still maintained in Japan, should, at the present time . . be with-
drawn, or by renouncing the security for British life ar a property
which the extraterritorial jurisdiction now enjoyed by Gat Britain
in Japan is calculated to secure to British subjects." ( 47)
Leaving England, the Iwakura Mission visited
France, Belgium, Holland, Russia, Prussia, Denmark,
Sweden, Italy, Austro-Hungary, and Switzerland. But
their activities were devoted to observntion and
studies, and no progress was made in the direction
of treaty revision. They returned to Japa a in Sep-
tember, 1873.
Though the Iwakura Mission failed in their
attempt to revise the unequal treaties, their sojourn,
extending nearly two years in America an I Europe,
was of great importance in other ways. The fifty
members, many of whom were men of exceptional
ability, obtained a close view of Western civilization
which bore fruit on their return and mad i the mis-
sion an epoch-making event in the history i d modern
Japan. Especially did they realize the far-reaching
legislative and judicial measures that would have to
be undertaken before the Power would listen to the
plea of Japan for the abolition of extraterritoriality,
and they devoted themselves to this task with un-
flagging zeal. It is very important to notice the
great impetus which the ardent desire to get rid of
consular jurisdiction gave to the reconst uction of
the political, administrative and judicial organization
of Japan. Every recommendation made by tho Iwakura
Mission, every step taken on that recommedation
(147) Jones: op. cit., pp. 81-82.
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was influenced by the burning desire to secure the
abolition of the extraterritoriality system.
In 1873, some Italian merchants in Japan, for
the. purpose of buying silkworm eggs, were much
hampered by the restrictions on inland travel imposed
on foreigners, and the Italian Government actually
negotiated a revised treaty which had given partial
judicial autonomy to Japan in return for freedom
of movement for Italians within Japan. But, the rest
of the Treaty Powers vigorously protested and the
proposed agreement was dropped.
Terajima Munenori (1873-79)
On October 28, 1873, Terajima Munenori, Min-
ister to England, succeeded Soejima Taneomi as
Minister for Foreign Affairs, and during the next
six years he devoted his efforts to the task of the
revision of unequal treaties. Terajima's first experi-
ence in treaty revision was related to the pending
question of travel in the interior inherited from his
predecessor. Encouraged by the ill-fated Italian treaty
of 1873, the foreign representatives renewed their joint
attempt to secure the right of travel in the interior of
Japan beyond the limits of open ports. Terajima took
the attitude that Japan would be willing to admit trade
and travel throughout the Empire if the Treaty
Powers would surrender their extraterritorial juris-
diction.
While perceiving that the Powers were far from
ready to give up their extraterritorial jurisdiction,
Terajima saw a possibility of recovering tariff au-
tonomy if the two questions were separated. Of the
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two evils, he thought the abolition, or at least revision,
of the conventional tariff more urgent oecause of
the strained finances and probably the eas er because
of the deficiencies in the Japanese judicial system as
compared with the Western Powers. (148)
In 1875, therefore, Terajima verbally proposed
to the Treaty Powers that the exist ng treaty
restrictions upon the rightful autonomy (y Japan to
impose reasonable duties upon foreign imports should
be removed, on the condition that Japan would agree
to abolish all export duties and to open new ports.
Informal conversations followed throughout 1875 and
1876 between Terajima and foreign repsentatives.
The proposal was rejected by all Europe -in Powers,
especially by Great Britain whose spokesmf,n in Japan
was Sir Harry Parkes. Terajima, howeve,', found in
John A. Bingham, American Minister to Japan, an
ardent supporter. Bingham considered tl Terajima
proposal "so reasonable, so just, and so niuch in the
interest of Japan and in no sense hurtful to the
rights of any one of the Treaty Powers," and urged
the State Department that the United Stp tes "should
be the first to say that this proposition is ac-
cepted.,,(149)
On June 8, 1876, Terajima propo ,ed to the
Washington Government through Minister Yoshida to
begin negotiations, but Secretary of Stat- Fish was
(148) Richardson: op. cit., p. 288.
In his annual message of December 7, 1874, Presk k-nt Grant pro-
claimed: "It is hoped that negotiations between the Government of
Japan and the Treaty Powers, looking to the further opening of the
Empire and to the removal of various restrictions upon t, ade and travel,
may soon produce the results desired, which can not f til to inure to
the benefit of all nations."
(149) Akagi, R. H.: Japan's Foreign Relations, 1). 91.
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opposed to separate negotiations and insisted upon
the "cooperative policy" with European Powers. Min-
ister Yoshida went so far as to suggest that a new
treaty should be concluded to take effect conditionally
when all the Treaty Powers gave assent.
In March, 1877, with the inauguration of Presi-
dent Hayes, William Evarts succeeded Hamilton Fish
as Secretary of State. Secretary Evarts, in accepting
Minister Bingham's view, decided in favor of separate
negotiations and informed the Japanese Government
to that effect. Unfortunately, the Satsuma rebellion
which broke out in January, 1877, diverted the atten-
tion of the Tokyo Government to the suppression of
the revolt. The Washington negotiation started in
the middle of January, 1878, and it proceeded so
smoothly that an agreement for the cancellation, so
far as the United States was concerned, of the Tariff
Convention of 1866 ?was speedily reached by the end
of June, and a new Convention was signed on July
25, 1878. The Japanese Government, in turn, agreed
to open Shimonoseki and one other port to citizens
and vessels of the United States for residence and
trade, and also to remove the export duty on goods
shipped to America. As to the extraterritorial right,
no concessions were secured by Japan, since the new
Convention kept intact "the first three sentences
which are comprised in the first paragraph of Article
VI of the treaty of 1858," which stipulated that
"Americans committing offences against Japanese
shall be tried in American consular courts, and the
guilty, shall be punished according to American law."
Furthermore, the coming into force of the new con-
vention was made contingent upon the conclusion of
a similar treaty with "all the other Treaty Powers"
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which numbered sixteen at the time.
In his annual message of December 2, 1878,
President Hayes stated:
"The Japanese Government has been desirous of a revision of
such parts of its treaties with foreign powers as relate to commerce,
and, it is understood, has addressed to eaeh of the trt ay powers
a request to open negotiations with that in view. The LT,tited States
Government has been inclined to regard the matter favorably.
Whatever restrictions upon trade with Japan are four, injurious
to that people can not but affect injuriously nations h ding com-
mercial intercourse with them. Japan, after a long period of
seclusion, has within the past few years made rapid st ides in the
path of enlightenment and progress, and,, not unreasona:iy, is look-
ing forward to the time when her relations with the nations of
Europe and America shall be assimilated to those whici) they hold
with each other. A treaty looking to this end has heen made,
which will be submitted for the consideration of the Set) ate." (150)
The success of the new American-Jap; mese Con-
vention now entirely depended upon the outcome of
the negotiations with other Treaty Powe rs, among
which Great Britain had the most influer, tial voice.
Indignant Parkes wrote on January 5, 1S79: "The
object of the Americans is, of course, transparent?
they wish to lead the Japanese to bt lieve that
they are willing to meet their wishes, and, if
unable to do so, it is because other nations, notably
England and Parkes won't enable them to do so."
American Minister Bingham transmitted to the State
Department a confidential statement hanced to him
at the Japanese Foreign Office of a cony ,rsation at
the British Foreign Office between Sir Julitn Paunce-
fote and Mr. Stuart Lane, of the Japanee Legation
(150) Richardson: op. cit., p. 496.
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in London, in relation to the Convention of July 25,
1878. Sir Julian spoke of it as "contrary to all
usage" for the United States to act secretly and
independently in such a matter.
Acting upon the advice of Mr. Smith, American
councillor of the Japanese Foreign Office, the Japanese
Government attempted to deal separately with the
various other Powers, but their negotiations fell
through in London, Paris, and St. Petersburg. Thus
the new American-Japanese Convention of 1878,
though approved by. the Senate and the ratifications
were duly exchanged, became a dead letter and with
it the Terajima plan for the revision of treaties.
Thus, in the first decade of the long struggle,
the Japanese Government suffered defeat on both
fronts, judicial and tariff privileges of the Treaty
Powers remaining intact. But the Japanese were only
biding their time to deliver a fresh and more deter-
mined onslaught.
?To be continued
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STUDY ON RELIGIOUS JURIDICAL
PERSONS LAW
By WILLIAM P. WOODARD
V
?Continued from Vol. XXV No. 4 of Come
Authentication
AUTHENTICATION (NINSHO) IS CERT In CATION OF
the regulations by a competent auth irity. Au-
thentication means that an applican is eligible
for incorporation as a religious juridical p rson, that
the required procedures have been duly obi- erved, and
that the regulations are properly drawn ul . Authen-
tication does not in any sense constitute government
"recognition" (ninka) in the sense of appr, ,val. It is
the regulations and not the organizatior that are
authenticated. Since all amendments to the regulations
also have to be authenticated, and since t be authen-
tication process in connection with establishment,
amendments, merger and voluntary dis:-;olution is
essentially the same, it is well that those concerned
thoroughly understand the procedures descri ried below.
Having drawn up the regulations ant given the
appropriate public notice, including a gist of the
regulations, at least one month in advance ( Art. 12-3),
an applicant for incorporation must then submit to the
competent authority a written application, two copies
horary, Japan
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of the proposed regulations, letters of acceptance from
both the person who is to be the official representative
and from' a majority of the persons who are to be
officers, and documents certifying (1) that the applicant
is a religious organization within the meaning of
Article 2, (2) that the required public notice has been
given, and (3) that the person presenting the applica-
tion is authorized to do so. (Art. 13).
An application for incorporation is a request for
authentication of the regulations, that is, the articles
of incorporation. (Art. 12-1) This is the first legal
step necessary in order to incorporate; the second is
registration.
Authentication is a relatively simple process for
local organizations which are a part of already
established denominations and sects; but it can become
a rather complicated process, if the applicant is a new
organization and the competent authority objects to or
has doubts about whether or not it should become a
religious juridical person. It should be noted, however,
that the main purpose of the complicated process in
the Law is not to embarrass the applicant, but to
prevent capricious action by the competent authorities
in refusing to permit incorporation without sound
reasons and without carefully examining the documents
and the qualifications of applicants.
These protective provisions reflect the feeling of
anxiety at the time that, following a period of relative
license under the Religious Corporations Ordinance,
reaction would set in and some religious organizations
might find themselves discriminated against in their
efforts to become incorporated. A secondary purpose
was to provide adequate safeguards within the frame-
work of the Law, because of the inability or reluctance
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of religious organization to become involved in ex-
pensive and time-consuming litigation with the com-
petent authorities in order to overcome any alleged
unfairness.
Procedures by Competent Authorities
0. .
Receipt Upon receiving an apphca:.ion with
the required accompanying documents, the competent
authority must at once send the applicaru a dated
receipt. This requirement is intended to wvent any
undue administrative delay in processing applications.
The Law sets a time-limit of three months, beginning
with the date of receipt of the application, within
which incorporation must be permitted or denied.
(Art. 14-1, 4) The necessity for this pro\ tsion was
demonstrated soon after the Law became effective.
An applicant complained to RCR that, although appli-
cation papers had been submitted, the Minister of
Education had not acknowledged their rec( ipt. The
case was a delicate one, which the official -, did not
want to handle, but RCR intervened and a receipt
was finally sent. Otherwise the applicati on might
have remained at the Ministry for months unac-
knowledged. Failure of the Ministry to promptly
acknowledge receipt of an application is a violation
of the Law. Any correction of document F must be
requested subsequent and not prior to acl= nowledge-
ment of receipt of an application.
Criteria There are three criteria by which a
competent authority decides whether to authenticate
regulations. (Art. 14-1)
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These are:
1. Is the applicant a religious organization within the meaning
of Article II, which defines eligibility?
2. Are the regulations in conformity with the provisions of this
Law and other laws and orders?
3. Have the establishment procedures relative to public notice
been observed?
Public Hearing If the answers to the above
questions are not in the affirmative, the competent
authority must arrange for a hearing and listen to
the opinions of the applicant and any advisors who
may accompany him. However, when deemed neces-
sary, the competent 'authority may limit the number
of such advisors to three. (Articles 14-2 and 82)
This provision for a hearing was intended to make
sure that religious leaders could always have legal
counsel or an associate when calling on officials who
in the past had so often given advise in private.
Limitation of the number was agreed to because of
the necessity of preventing mass demonstrations.
Minister of Education as Competent Authority
When the competent authority is the Minister of Edu-
cation, if after a hearing he does not decide to act
favorably, the matter must be referred to the
Religious Juridical Persons Council for examination
(Article 14-3) and on ?the basis of the Council's
recommendation the Minister must either authen-
ticate the regulations or decline to do so. RCR was
assured that in such cases the recommendation of
the Council is mandatory even though it is not so
stated in the Law.
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Prefectural Governor as Competent luthority
When the competent authority is a prefectural gov-
ernor, he must in the first instance decide, without
reference to the Religious Juridical Persons Council,
whether or not to authenticate the regulati(,ns. This
procedures was adopted because it was beli. ved that
prefectural officials, being closer to the local situation,
would act with care and would be reluctanr to take
any action which the Council might revers i in case
an applicant requested a re-examination. Further-
more, it was felt that the Council shouht not be
burdened with minor cases that could b, settled
satisfactorily on a local basis.
Notice to Applicant The final decision_ on au-
thentication in any case must be made within a
period of not more than three months from the date
of receiving an application. When the decision is to
authenticate, a letter of authentication and a copy of
the authenticated regulations must be sent to the appli-
cant; otherwise a letter must be sent stflting the
reasons why authentication is denied. (Arti, le 14-4)
Re-examination
When authentication has been denied, an appli-
cant may within two months request a re-examination
of the application by submitting a written request
to the competent authority stating the reasons why
reconsideration is believed justified. (Articte 16-1)
Receipt of such a request must be at once acknowl-
edged. (Article 16-2) However, if the request for
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re-examination is received after the two-month period
has elapsed or, if procedural or other defects, if any,
have not been corrected within an appropriate time,
the request shall be dismissed and the applicant so
notified by letter stating the reasons, within a period
not to exceed three months from the date of receiving
the application. (Article 16-1 (1), 5) Otherwise,
within a period not to exceed six months plus the
time allowed for the correction of any procedural
or other defects, the competent authority must either
send the applicant a letter of authentication and a
copy of the authenticated regulations or a letter
stating the reasons why he cannot authenticate them.
(Article 16-6, 7)
In reaching his decision the competent authority
must review the case, provide an opportunity for
the correction of any defects, hold a hearing, if
necessary, and if he does not decide to authenticate,
place the case before the Religious Juridical Persons
Council. In reaching its decision the Council follows
the same general procedures as the competent author-
ity. (Article 16-2 to 4)
Administrative Appeal
When the Minister of Education as the competent
authority, after referring an application to the Re-
ligious Juridical Persons Council, has twice declined
to authenticate the regulations, there is no alternative
open to the applicant except recourse to courts of
law. In the past it was generally agreed that ad-
ministrative decisions were binding and, therefore, the
courts were reluctant to accept cases involving religion.
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To obviate the possibility of this practice tontinuing,
Article 87 provides that "no provision of this Law
shall be construed as interfering with thi right to
bring action before a court against disposition made
by the Minister of Education or a prefectural gov-
ernor under this Law qualifying it as illegal."
However, in cases where a prefectura governor
as the competent authority has declined to authen-
ticate regulations after referring the m Ater only
once to the Religious Juridical Persons Council, an
applicant may within one month from the cInte authen-
tication has been denied, make an adn inistrative
appeal to the Minister of Education in accordance
with the Administrative Appeal Law (Lair No. 105,
1890). In such a case, if the appeal is received
after the expiration of one month or tin applicant
has failed to correct any defects as requested, the
appeal may be denied forthwith. OthervOse, before
making his decision the Minister must, refer the
appeal to the Religious Juridical Persons Council
which in turn, if authentication is not approved,
must also provide a hearing for the appellant. Since
only one sound reason is necessary in denying authen-
tication, if the Council recognizes the validity of all
the appellant's objections, the prefectura governor
concerned must, in the manner already described,
authenticate the regulations without delay (Article
17) (Other matters related to the appeal procedure
are prescribed in the Administrative Appeal Law.)
Official Pressure Forbidden
"The competent authority in making his decision
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concerning authentication . . . shall not require the
applicant to include in the regulations" matters not
specified in the Law. (Article 14-5) This protective
item was deemed necessary because of the penchant
of government officials in pre-war years to adopt
departmental regulations which included matters not
authorized in laws and ordinances.
Registration
"A religious juridical person comes into existence
by effecting registration of establishment at the place
where its main office is located." (Article 15)
VI
The regulations (articles of incorporation) having
been duly authenticated and registered an organiza-
tion is fully incorporated. It holds the property
registered in connection with incorporation and the
responsible officers can conduct any necessary business
in accordance with its regulations (Article 18-4), or
in the absence of specific regulations by a majority
vote. (Article 19) [n regard to the conduct of busi-
ness, the Law regulates only a few matters. These
are: registration, records, amendments, merger, and
dissolution. It also provides penalties.
Acts Null and Void
The penalties attached to failure to carry out
the provisions of the Law are stated in Chapter X
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of the Law. It should be noted, however, ,hat "acts
perpetrated in violation of the provisions" for giving
public notice in "regard to immovable prope ty, which
is a precinct-building or precinct . . . , or treasures
mentioned in the inventory . . ." are null and void.
However, "such invalidity cannot be set against"
persons or third parties who act in good faith in
any transaction. In other words, anyone who buys
property in good faith, without knowing that in
making the sale the responsible officers concerned did
not observe the regulations, cannot be de orived of
such property, but the responsible officers cl n be held
responsible for making good any loss incurred due to
such a violation. (Article 24)
Records
No annual or other reports are requiri relative
to the business conducted; but an inventory of all
property must be made at the time of establishment
and within three months after the close of rach fiscal
year. Records must be kept of all actions taken and
business transacted, and certain documents must
always be kept in the corporation's office aid be open
for inspection on request by the properly constituted
authorities. These documents are: the xticles of
incorporation, letters of authentication, -I, list of
officers, the inventory, financial statements, documents
pertaining to the responsible officers and the pro-
ceedings of other organs, if any, prescribed in the
regulations, records of handling business, and any
documents related to social welfare or otner enter-
prises conducted under Article 6. The records, it
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must be noted, do not relate to religious activities
or religious affairs, but only to matters with which
the Law itself is directly concerned; that is, property.
It is important, therefore, that the general religious
records and the records of the corporation be kept
separate.
. Amendment, Merger, and Dissolution
The basic procedures to be followed in case a
religious juridical person decides either to amend
its regulations, to merge with some other religious
juridical person, or to voluntarily dissolve are essen-
tially the same: (1)- the provisions in the regulations
of the religious juridical person concerned and in
the Law relative to amendment, merger or dissolution
must be observed, (2) the proposed changes in the
regulations must be authenticated by the competent
authority, (Articles 26, 33 & 44-1) and in some cases
(3) registered before they are legally effective. The
detailed procedures for these actions are prescribed
separately in Chapter IV (amendments) Chapter V
(merger), Chapter VI (dissolution). These chapters
in the Law are not easily understood because instead
of repeating the prescribed procedures each time,
cross-references are made to the provisions of previous
articles which in each case are amended to apply to
the case in point. However, since a merger in which
one religious juridical person continues to exist, and
voluntary dissolution are handled as amendments to
the regulations, the three actions can be discussed
together and thus eliminate unnecessary repetition.
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Amendments
To amend regulations, which do not involve the
cancellation or establishment of a den,)minational
affiliation, the only procedural requirement is to
observe the relevant provisions of the regulations of
the religious juridical person concerned.
Amendments Cancelling Denominational A6iliation
However, when a religious juridical persn intends
to amend its regulations in order to cancer or estab-
lish a denominational affiliation, a pubic notice,
including a gist of the proposed change, must be
given "to believers and other interested purties" at
least two months before applying for authentication.
In case a new denominational affiliation is to be
established, permission to affiliate must la, received
from the denomination concerned. If th present
affiliation is being cancelled, simultaneou, with a
public notice the denomination concerned must be
notified, but denominational approval of the proposed
cancellation is not necessary, even though such ap-
proval is required by the regulations of the religious
juridical person concerned. However, in case the
deniamination concerned deems the religious juridical
person concerned has failed to observe other required
procedures, it may report this to the MI lister of
Education. (Article 26-4) These unusual provisions
relative to denominational affiliation are discussed in
full later in the section entitled "Denom national
Affiliation and Secession," so no further mf tion of
them will be made here.
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Merger
"Two or more religious juridical persons may
merge to form one juridical person." (Article 32) A
merger may take one of two forms: either one of
the merging bodies continues to exist and the others
dissolve, or a new religious juridical person is estab-
lished and all other merging bodies dissolve.
The procedures for merger are relatively simple.
If one of two or more merging bodies is to continue
to exist, and its regulations must be amended in
order to consummate the merger, the matter is
handled entirely as an amendment of its regulations;
that is, its regulations relative to amendment must
be observed and a public notice containing a gist of
the draft agreement must be given to the believers
of religious organizations concerned and other inter-
ested parties. If no amendment of the regulations
is necessary, then a transfer of any property by the
bodies intending to dissolve by merger (Article 35-1),
and registration of the fact of dissolution (Article 57)
is all that appears to be required.
If a new religious juridical person is to be
established, then the persons appointed by each of
merging bodies shall jointly draw up regulations in
accordance with the provisions of Paragraphs 1,
Article 12; and as prescribed in Paragraph 3 of the
same article, give public notice including a gist of
the proposed regulations to believers and interested
parties. (Article 35-2, 3)
In addition to the above, within two weeks of
giving public notice, each party must draw up an
inventory of their respective properties, including
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financial statements regarding enterpri ,es, if any,
carried on under Article 6, and notify ny creditors
publicly and individually, inviting them to present,
within a period of not less than two rt onths, their
objections, if any, to the proposed merger. In case
any creditors object, the amounts involved must be
paid or satisfactory security provided. (Article 34)
In drafting the articles relative to merger, be-
cause they did not readily distinguish between the
religious organization and its legal corpon te capacity,
religious leaders objected to the suggestion that the
several legal bodies involved should dissolxe and then
simultaneously merge. To do so, they felt, would
break the historic continuity of their religious organi-
zations. Consequently, the expression "dis4olution by
merger" was adopted in order to make it clear that
there was historical continuity.
Dissolution,
A religious juridical person may dis, olve itself
at will at any time, but it must dissolve in certain
cases, namely, the occurrence of a cause pr: scribed in
the regulations, in case of merger when religious
juridical person does not continue to exist, bank-
ruptcy, withdrawal of authentication as precribed in
Paragraph 1 of Article 80, a court order in accord-
ance with the provisions of Paragraph 1 Article 81
and, in the case of a denomination, if all its local
religious juridical persons go out of exist mce.
In case of voluntary dissolution, a religious
juridical person must give public notice to the
believers and other interested parties, invit ng them
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to .present their opinions, if any, concerning dissolu-
tion within a stated period of not less that two
months from the date of the public notice. Then,
if any opinions are expressed, the question of dis-
solution shall be reconsidered in the light of these
opinions, but there is no obligations to do more
than? consider them. (Article 44-2, 3)
Application for Authentication in case of Amendment,
Merger, or Dissolution
Amendments, a merger which involves a change
in the existing regulations or the establishment of
a new religious juridical person, and dissolution, do
not become effective until the relevant authentication
has been received from the competent authority. To
secure authentication an applicant must submit a
written application, two copies of the proposed action,
and documents certifying that (1) the prescribed
procedures have been duly observed, (2) all required
public and direct notices have been given and, where
relevant, and (3) permission to affiliate has been
received from the denomination concerned. In case a
new religious juridical person is being established, a
document must also be submitted certifying that the
applicant is a religious organization as defined in
Article 2. (Articles 27, 38 & 45)
Authentication, Re-examination and Administrative
Appeals related to Amendment, Merger, or Dissolution.
The procedures to be followed by the competent
authorities in cases involving amendment (Articles 28
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& 29) merger (Articles 39 Sz 40) or dissoluti,on
(Articles 46 & 47) are to all intents and purposes
identical with those described above for authentica-
tion, (Article 14) re-examination (Artiole 16) and
administrative appeal (Article 17).
An application for authentication of an amend-
ment or the regulations of a new religious jurdical
person established in connection with a merger shall
be submitted "under the joint signatures of the
respective religious juridical persons in tending to
merge." If the competent authorities of the parties
concerned are different, the application shall be
presented to the competent authority of the religious
juridical person which continues to exist or of the
one that is to be established. (Art. 38-2)
Liquidators
When a religious juridical person ha:, dissolved
itself, except in case of merger or bankruptcy, unless
otherwise provided in the regulations, the official
representative or his substitute shall become the liqui-
dator. In the case of dissolution by merger the
property is presumably transferred to the religious
juridical person which continues to exist. Dissolution
because of bankruptcy is handled in accordance with
the relevant provisions of the Civil Code and the Law
of Procedures for Non-contentious Matters (Law No.
14, 1898). (Art. 51) In a case of dissolution because
authentication is withdrawn in accordance with the
provisions of Paragraph 1 of Article 80, or because
dissolution has been ordered in accordance with the
provisions of Paragraph 1 of Article 81, the court
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appoints the liquidator. (Art. 49-2)
All officers or their substitutes, except the
liquidator, in case he is an officer or substitute,
retire from office upon dissolution. (Art. 49-4, 5)
The provisions of Article 22 relative to minors, in-
competents, quasi-incompetents, and persons under
sentence of imprisonment, not being eligible to
become officers apply also to liquidators. (Art. 49-3)
Disposition of Property
Residual property, except in case of merger or
bankruptcy, is to be disposed of in accordance with
the provisions of the regulations of the religious
juridical persons concerned, and, in case there are no
such provisions, to other religious organizations or to
public welfare works. Any property not so disposed
of reverts to the national treasury. (Art. 50) This
has already been discussed in Chapter IV under
"Dissolution and Residual Property" and no further
comment is required here.
Date of Effect
Amendments (Art. 30) and voluntary dissolution
(Art. 48) become effective upon receipt of a letter of
authentication. Merger becomes effective by registra-
tion in accordance with the provisions of Article 57.
(Art. 41)
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VII
Denominational Affiliation and Secesst,a
No subject received greater consideration by RCR
in connection with drafting the Law than did denomi-
national affiliation and secession, yet the Law would
be better, not to say simpler, if thiS subject were
not dealt with either directly or indirectly. Denomi-
national affiliation is a religious matter between local
religious organizations and their denominational head-
quarters. It has its basis in a common faith and
a common way of doing things. Incorporation
concerns the holding and management of property
and the transaction of business affairs. If a denomi-
nation has legal claims on the proper y of an in-
corporated local religious organization, its interests
can be adequately protected by law; but the moral
or spiritual claims, which arise front a common
spiritual heritage, rest on a different foundation and
have no place in the laws of a society which recog-
nizes religious freedom and separation of "church"
and state.
Nevertheless, because of the situatinn prevailing
at the time the Law was drafted, there was no way
of avoiding the subject. Consequently, tin effort was
made to deal with it in such a way as to be satis-
factory to both the local and denominational organiza-
tion, and at the same time not go too far afield from
the law's primary purpose. In doing this, as already
explained above, a terminology was adopted which
avoided any religious implications. Tht,s denomina-
tional affiliation is referred to as a "comprehending"
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or a "comprehended" relationship. But? in the ex-
planation which follows, the simpler and more easily
understood common expressions are employed.
In the opinion of the Special Projects Officer, the
Religious Corp-orations Ordinance had caused a great
deal of unnecessary and undesireable disintegration in
the religious world, particularly Buddhist; and it was
his hope that the new law would correct some of the
Ordinance's weaknesses and perhaps produce a greater
degree of stability in the religious world than had
existed in recent years. It was not possible, however,
to rectify the damage already done without violating
the very principles which it was RCR's mission to
establish. The only thing possible was to compromise
somewhat and make the best of the situation.
In order to prevent willful or capricious secession
by local priests or cliques without the knowledge of
their denominational authorities or the knowledge and
approval of the local constituencies concerned, the Law
requires not only that a public notice be given, but
that ?the denomination concerned must be notified
directly at least two months before an application is
presented for authentication of an amendment can-
celling a denominational affiliation. (Art. 26-2, 3)
This period was regarded as sufficient to enable
denominational officials to visit any constitutency and
assist the members or adherents, if any, who opposed
the proposed secession and possibly secure an injunc-
tion against further action. Secession .and a change
in affiliation by temples had been frequent in past
centuries so there could be no basic objection to
secession in principle. Buddhist sectarian leaders had
been very emphatic in saying that they objected
because secessions should not be carried out without
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CONTEMPORARY JAPA
the knowledge and consent of the la'al supporters.
Consequently, it was felt that the pr wision in the
Law for a public notice and a notice -;o the denomi-
nation concerned met one of their r( quirements in
respect to the proposed law.
In addition to this, however, the Law provides
that in case any local responsible olficers do not
observe the regulations in respect tu amendments
related to the cancellation of denominational affilia-
tion, such misconduct may be brought tt, the attention
of the competent authority concerned. (Art. 26-4)
Moreover, since any objections would mo,t likely result
in the subject being referred to the R, ligious Jurid-
ical Persons Council, denominational officials normally
would have an additional opportunity to present
their case against the legality of a prop ,sed secession.
Another means of slowing down the secession
trend at the time the Law was being drafted was
the very strange provision in the second sentence of
the first paragraph of Article 26, alr ,ady referred
to above. This states in substance the r in the case
of a proposed secession a religious ju idical person
does not have to secure the approval ef its denomi-
national headquarters even though it regulations
stipulate that such approval is requin d. In other
words, any provision in the regulad ,ns requiring
denominational approval is legally invz lid. On the
surface this provision would seem to b intended to
help or promote, rather than discourage -;ecession; but
such was not the case. RCR believed wit a good reason
that if the proposed Law in any mann( r whatsoever
was thought to freeze the denomination:d status quo,
there would be a great wave of secessit us before its
enforcement. It was certain that practically every
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RELIGIOUS JURIDICAL PERSONS LAW
denomination would insist on its respective local
affiliated bodies inserting in their regulations provi-
sions requiring denominational approval in case
secession was contemplated; and it was equally
certain that such insistence would stimulate a certain
amount of secession. To avoid this, Paragraph 1 of
Article 26 makes all such requirements legally invalid,
while at the same time leaving the local organizations
concerned with a moral obligation to consult with
denominational leaders and secure their consent before
taking any action.
In this manner RCR endeavored to do what it
could to stabilize the denominational status quo; but
there was also an obligation to protect the interests
of the local organizations as well. The need for this
was made plain at a conference at Utsunomiya where
the then current draft was criticized adversely because
it was contended that sectarian headquarters could
always prevent secession by the simple process of
removing or disciplining any clergy or laymen pro-
moting secession. To cover this contingency a second
unusual provision ( Art. 78) was added, which states
in substance that in the event a secession is being
considered by a local temple, for example, the denomi-
nation concerned cannot for this reason and in order
to prevent secession exercise its authority to remove
or discipline the officers of the religious juridical person
concerned for a period of two years.
As indicated above, RCR was not at all statisfied
with these provisions and believed that the Law would
be better if they were not in it. But because of the
situation which prevailed at the time something had
to be done, and thus secession was handled. A revision
of the Law should eliminate all such provisions.
?To be concluded
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SENSU JAPANESE FOLDING FAN
By FLORENCE WELLS
THE ALL-EMBRACING JAPANESE WORD FOR FAN
is ogi, derived from aogu (to cause it breeze) ;
and it is written with the Chinese ideograph
sham ( ei ), composed of two wings und( r a door,
suggestive of the leaves of a door which s wing back
and forth. Both hi-ogi slat-fans and pai er-covered
folding fans were early sent to China as gifts and
tribute, and there they were called sham and later
shan-tsu. The addition of tsu was merel - for the
sake of euphony, a common practice in C tina; and
this custom came into Japan when Chine ,e, scribes
were employed in the Heian Court, as is se( a in such
words as isu (chair). In Inryo-ken Jitsuro ,.a (Daily
Record of Inryo-ken) it is stated that the 100 shan,
or ogi, sent as tribute to China in the 7f year of
Eikyo era, i.e. 1436, were shan-tsu, or, as p .onounced
in Japanese, sensu (gi g-). Granted that the ideo-
graph tsu, or su, is used merely for its sound, it
has, nevertheless, the commonly accepted m ,aning of
offspring or child. And though it may b said to
be based on a pun, it is undeniable that t le paper-
covered folding fan now commonly called s( ?,szt is in
reality the offspring of the hi-ogi of earl icr days.
This is shown in the study of its transitb 41.
The use of the name sensu did no become
general until the 17th and 18th centuries, when it
seems to have been used to designate fans Iv hich had
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SENSU?JAPANESE FOLDING FAN
paper face and back, and not the fans with paper on
one side only. In Buke Gense Juroku (Record of Mili-
tary Regulations) we find "On April 23rd of 1646
a sensu and ceremonial costume were sent by the
Empress Dowager to Tokugawa Ietsuna [who became
the 4th Tokugawa Shogun in 1651] for his gempuku
(the ceremony of Coming-of-Age). In Tosei Musuko-
katagi (Present-day Youth's Character), written in
1716, the fan with paper faces front and back is
called sensu. Also in Tosei Fuzoku-tsv, (Guide to
Present-day Customs), written in 1774, we find the
description of a sensu scented with cloves, as part
of a young dandy's costume. "Their sensu are the
clove-scented kirei (pretty) ogi (fans)."
Other early writings in which the fan is called
sensu are several. Shizu-no-odamaki (Humble Spool
of Thread), in 1802, tells of itinerant makers of
sensu who call at people's houses. Kyujutsu-sanyo
(Account of Ancient Practices), mentions sending
sensu as gifts in special wooden boxes, the style de-
pending upon the distance of the recipient. Kyutsu-
hisho (Book of Archery), explains how to exorcise
evil from a maternity-room by shooting a singing-
arrow at a sensu used as a target. Ise Sangu Meisho-
zue (About Noted Places in Ise), says that at a
certain poetry contest a sensu took the place of
a desk and a hollowed-out stone held the ink.
Oyudono-ki (Book of the Bath), describes the fans
presented at the Boy's Festival on May 5th as
sensu. Jozan-kidan (Anecdote of Jozan), tells about
the economical Lord Karasumaru Mitsuhiro, who
used a three-fan sensu-bako (fan-box) for many
years as a writing table. Shuko-kai Shi (Magazine
of the Society of Antique Collections), 1905, contains
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
an article in which sensu is used to desigr ate a fan
made by the fianc?f Taira-no-Atsumori in the 12th
century; but here it is probable that the author uses
sensu in accord with the usage of his own day. So
it has come about that little by little the word sensu
has been used more and more; until now it is the
accepted word for the paper-covered folding fan.
Much of the respect accorded to the earlier
hi-ogi has been inherited by the sensu, which, because
of its lighter structure and less expensive production,
has entered more widely into the lives of ordinary
people. Finally, there seemed to be a fan for every
type of person, a fan suitable for each and every
occasion and activity. The party host or hostess, the
sportsman, artist, poet, musician, actor, tea-master,
bride and groom, house-builder, soldier, and even the
business man, had his or her fan. Naturally, the fan
was adjusted and transformed to meet each new use;
and, in the early days, each new kind WES given a
special name, depending on its style, its construction,
or its use. Consequently, in the ten centuries which
have elapsed since its invention in the Heian Court of
Japan, a bewildering variety of names have been
used to designate the fan which we now call sensu.
At first, the folding fan had but five sticks and
the rather stiff paper was pasted on one side only.
Evidently its appearance was suggestiv( of skin
wrinkled over one's bones; so it began to be called
kawa-ori (skin folded, or pleated). In Toka-shio
(Collection of Peach Blossom Pollen) it says, "The
use of kawa-ori with ceremonial robes is permis-
sible; indeed, nowadays there are many who use it
in winter as well as in summer." In Genji Mono-
gatari (Tales of Genji), 1020, we find thi; passage:
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SENSU?JAPANESE FOLDING FAN
"He wondered what she thought of him; and unable
to control his emotion he seized her skirt. Where-
upon she hid her face with her beautifully painted
kawa-ori." Before long, people were calling the
sticks of the fan its bones. Then someone noticed
the resemblance of the fan to a bat's wing, and
jokingly dubbed it kawahori (a bat).
A well-known fan anecdote, probably fictitious,
is told of Taira-no-Ason Kiyomori, who died in 1181.
He was a proud, hard man, who tried ?to crush all
who opposed him. But the itinerant priest, Saigyo
Hoshi, cared not a whit and spoke his mind freely.
Even when summoned by the tyrant he was not at
all cowed. He taunted Kiyomori and reminded him
that in his youth he had been nicknamed Koheita,
meaning arrogant, or as children say "Smarty."
Kiyomori, overcome with confusion, hid his face
behind his fan. Unfortunately, his aristocratic nose
protruded from between the ribs of his fan, evidently
a five-rib kawa-ori. Whereupon he was given a new
name, Hana-hiraita. This caused much amusement
because of its double meaning: "a flower has bloomed"
and "a nose opens out."
?For a long time it was the custom for the
Emperor to present fans to his subjects. In the an-
cient book Nenehu-gyoji (Annual Register of Imperial
Affairs) there is a description of the yearly fan
presentation ceremony on April 1st in the Heian
period. As this was known as the first day of
summer, the fans presented at that time were called
natsu-ogi, (summer fans). At the beginning of the
ceremony the Emperor was escorted to his seat behind
a screen. From there he witnessed the distribution
of the sake allowance to the palace officials and
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
listened to their reports. After this, a first at-
tendant or a Court lady brought a willow box
containing paper-covered folding fans and set it at
one side of the screen. Then a second attendant
received the fans one by one and carried each
to the knight who would receive it. The knight
accepted it with both hands and bowed worshipfully
as he took it. During the period of civil wars, this
custom lapsed; but it was revived for a while during
the last quarter of the 16th century, when sensu
were given out on May 5th.
For a number of years there was still another
formal presentation of fans to Court nobles and
retainers. This took place in July, possibly at the
time of the Tanabata festival. These fans were of
the bombori type, named for the bombori lampshades
or lanterns and made of the same excellent white
paper. Court people were "above the clouds" and
the face of such a fan was sprinkled with gold-dust
to represent clouds, while the back had paintings of
flowers and grasses of summer and autumn. The
bombori fan had ten ribs; and the center, or parent-
ribs, as they were called, were curved in at the tips,
giving the closed fan a slightly bulbous appearance.
This characteristic has become the hallmark of the
truly Japanese fans today; and poets say that, as
parents protect their children, so the outer sticks
protect the inner ones. The name bombori as applied
to the fan was temporary.
The name suehiro, according to Nakamura Kiyoe
in his article "Beauty in Japanese Fans," was first
used for the Chinese type of fan. This is likely, for
that fan was papered front and back; and so, when
it was folded it was so thick that the outer end of
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From left to right
1. Splitting the bamboo ribs. 2. Polishing the ribs.
3. Assembling the ribs. Inserting the rivet.
5. Shaving the ribs. 6. Painting the fan-paper.
7. Pleating the fan-paper. 8. Inserting the ribs in the pleats.
9. Adjusting the parent-ribs to the assembled fan's frame,
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Threc Ltnd h?ns ribh(ni fans
(,1 I he en riv pet iocl
1'1,1
ior'sI an
H
l''',111ti (Mid\
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SENSU?JAPANESE FOLDING FAN
the shut fan appeared wider than the handle end.
But it was not long before someone noticed that
suehiro (widening at the end) was a more apt
description of the fan when open; for the fan starts
from nothing at the rivet and spreads out wide at
the end, which suggests the idea of an expanding
future. In other words, it wishes the recipient ever-
widening prosperity. Because of this sentiment, it
became common practice to present a fan as a gift,
or to include it with a gift.
However, the custom of giving a fan as a fare-
well present goes back nearly a thousand years, long
before suehiro was ever thought of. In Genji Mono-
gatari (Tales of Genji) someone remarks that a
comb and a fan make a perfect gift at parting; and
the Kogetsu-sho (Lake-Moon Book) explains that the
teeth of a comb lead trouble away at all points; and
ogi can be written aogi, meaning "to meet." There
is also a mid-sixteenth-century story concerning Oda
Nobunaga's departure for the Capital, when Imakoji
Michizo gave him two fans (counted ni-hon) to
celebrate his going. People marveled at such a
trifling gift; but Imakoji said to Oda, "Ni-hon (two
fans), Nihon (Japan) has come into your hand;
moreover, these suehiro will bring you ever-widening
good fortune."
The Noh drama, which can be mentioned only
briefly here, has its own special fans. Based as the
Noh was on the ancient art of rhythmic posturing
and performed originally as a religious, patrician
entertainment, to the accompaniment of drum-beating
and flute-playing, it is not surprising that fans were
found to be useful adjuncts to the blending of poetry,
music and dancing. As musicians to the Kasuga
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
Shrine, Kwanami (1333-84) and his son Seami
(1363-1444) believed that there should be no mim-
icry; rather, the desired effect should be at*. ained by
restrained suggestion. Each motion and every position
of the fan came to have a meaning; also, the type of
fan would give the observer a clue to the character
of the actor holding it.
There are said to be fifteen special P:oh fans,
each with its name and individual implication. As
for shape, the two most common are naka-hirogari-ogi
(wide-spread middle) and shizume-ogi (pinched in).
The naka-hirogari-ogi, according to Miyawaki Shimbei,
is only another name for a suehiro fan. And the
shizume-ogi, sometimes called otoko-ogi (mak fan), is
described in Nakamura Kiyoe's fan article, where he
says that when folded the side view appears narrower
at top, for the two outside ribs are made to bend
inward at the end, similar in shape to the present-day
sensu, and that they appeared in the Muromaclii period.
However, it is in decoration rather than structure
that the Noh fans differ. For instance, the okina-ogi
(old man's fan) has 15 ribs of green bamboo, with
a painting on the face of pine and plum and bamboo,
cranes and turtles, on a gold-dust background, and
a painting of various treasures on the halt. The
kami-ogi (god-fan), indicating a divine beirtg, has a
design of phoenix and paulownia. The ,4ura-ogi
(fan of Hades) is a warrior's fan with black ribs
and, if for Genji, a sun seen rising over a high
wave; or, if for Heike, a sun above a pine tree.
The jo-ogi (sage's fan), used in certafil sacred
dramas, has a white face on which are painted the
seven sages in a bamboo grove. The worabe-ogi
(child's fan) has black ribs and a painting of a fan
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SENSU?JAPANESE FOLDING FAN
floating on the water, against either a red or a gold-
dust background. The yamabushi-ogi, identifying an
itinerant Buddhist priest, may have any bold design,
such as wild waves or an eagle on a rock. The
hannya-mochi-ogi is the fan for the female demon;
it has black ribs and resembles the shu,ra-ogi in
design. The rojo-ogi (old woman's fan) has black
ribs and a modest design without red, on a gold-dust
background. The bin-ogi is so-called because it is
used by women, who must tie back their bin (locks
of hair) when performing in the Noh drama. These
are but a few of the fans used by Noh actors; and
no doubt there have been some changes in the tradi-
tional fan decorations here described, since these
were set down by Miyawa,ki Shimbei more than
forty years ago.
Another fan which attained considerable pro-
minence was the chukei, which seems to have been
invented by some fan-maker in the Muromachi
period (1335-1603). Its style is unique among
paper-covered fans, The frame is of bamboo, and
the ribs go straight as far as the middle; there they
are permanently warped in such a way that the
outer end of the fan flares, giving it a half-
open appearance. Hepburn's Dictionary, 1887, defines
chakei: "A kind of fan carried by priests or nobles,
also attached to presents sent by the bride's parents
to the son-in-law." In Wakan Sansai Zukai (Book
of the Three Wisdoms of Heaven, Earth and Man
in China and Japan) it is written that the ch,ukei,
decorated with pictures in black-and-white, was used
by Buddhist priests and doctors. This use is still
seen in the kyogen farce in the Noh drama. Also,
in Teijo Zakki (Teijo's Notes) we read that at a
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
certain Court ceremony held on May 5th Chukei
fans were given to all the attendant,, including
those serving the Court ladies. Only abo-lt a quarter
of a century ago, in the funeral pit ?cession of
Admiral Togo, could be seen his son, carrying a
chukei, held like a scepter.
Among the amusements enjoyed by the people
of the Court in the simple, ancient days was watch-
ing the performance of Manzai, given by strolling
dancers on January 4th. It is said that this dance
was originated by one Koizumi Bungo, an attendant
of an astrologer, in late Heian period. He and his
descendants performed the Manzai dace in the
Palace garden. In very much later days the dancers
strolled about the country, giving their performance
for ordinary folk. The name Manzai is derived from
the word banzai, which means ten thousad years and
is used as the equivalent of the American "Hurrah!"
Fans were used prominently by the Manzai
dancers, not only to fan away evil ar,(1 beckon in
good, but also in countless humorous ways to accen-
tuate the fun of their performance. Ali ong the fans
which they are known to have used i: the chukei,
decorated with pictures of crane, turtle, pine, bamboo
and plum as symbols of health an I long life.
Apparently, they were cheaply made, for use only
in the dance; and they were spoken cri as gara-ogi
(frail and gaudy). On the other hand, they were
known as Manzai-ogi (fans of ten thousand years)
because of their use in this dance. A'ter finishing
a performance, they usually received a gift of good
fans, often chukei.
Still another type of fan is the mai-ogi (dance
fan), produced for the special use of dancers. It
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Mai-ogi---Dance Fan
Sumiko Hanayagi, a young Japanese dancer, on making
her debut at Kabuki Theater in March, 1959, inheriting the
professional name of her illustrious grandmother, was pre-
sented with a congratulatory poem by the famous poet,
Haruo Sato. This poem was reproduced on fans, distributed
among her friends on that memorable occasion.
The poem on the fan means:
Beautiful, young, illustrious!
Lovely of feature and style,
In tune with the Japanese dance,
Our charming lady, dance on,
Dance on, forever!
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is thought by some to have been used by shira-byoshi
(professional dancers) as early as the 17th century.
It is now used chiefly by professionals and geisha
in their dances, and in some of the Kabuki dances.
It has a characteristic which sets it apart from all
other fans. On the inside of the outer or parent
ribs, near the rivet, is embedded a small rectangular
piece of lead. The purpose of this is to give the
fan the required balance when the dancer is twirling
and tossing it. Such a fan has ten ribs and is
beautifully decorated. There are, of course, other
fans used in dancing which do not have the weight.
In most countries where the fan is still in use,
it is almost exclusively the toy of women; but in
Japan from the beginning it has been a man's
possession. Until the adoption of Western dress
some fifty years ago, the fan was an essential part
of a man's costume, even when he dressed himself
in armor and went to war. Even now it is still
seen protruding from the breast-pocket of his foreign-
style coat in summer. It is true that in Europe
during the 18th and 19th centuries the fan reached
a high degree of popularity with fine gentlemen there;
but it is quite certain that the use of the fan by
warriors as an essential part of their uniform is
unique to Japan. Musha-ogi is the general name for
warrior's fans.
Whereas the uchiwa, or flat fan derived from
the Chinese mask, served both as a shield and as a
weapon, the sensu, originally of light construction,
was carried at first merely as a symbol of rank.
In this connection, the sensu as a warrior's fan is
first mentioned in the book Honcho Gasan, (Collection
of JaPanese Pictures), where there is a description
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
of the fan of Yoshi-iye, a Minato general who helped
in the defeat of the Taira elan near the end of the
12th century. It says: "Both faces are coated with
mica-flakes; one side is painted red, with the sun in
gold; the other side is white, with the moor in silver.
The diameter of both sun and moon is four inches.
The bamboo ribs are 1',2.2" in length I, nd 12 in
number. The rivet is made of bone anti threaded
through with scarlet cord."
The Japanese warrior of that early day would
no more think of going to war without hi -; fan than
an English gentleman would think of appearing at
the opera without his necktie. His fan was thrust
into his belt at the right side of his armor; the
sword, at the left. Its decoration was usually
limited to sun, moon, or stars, with perhaps the
ideograph for Great Sun or Great Moon. It was
possible to tell at a glance the rank of the officer
by looking at the color of the cord and tassel which
decorated the fan.
Strict rules of etiquette governed the use of fans
by day and by night. Also, lesser officers must carry
their fans only half-open in the presence of a general.
However, in time of victory fans migh , be opened
wide. In the book Gempei Seiszti-ki (Re and Fall
of Genji and Heike Families) , circa 1200, it is
related that at the end of a victorious battle:
"Matataro of Ashikaga clan rode up tilt west bank,
straining in his stirrups. . Pressing dose to the
main gate of the Byodoin, he leaned on his bow.
Then, crying out in a loud voice, he opened wide
his scarlet fan."
Fans were a common gift from samurai to
their superiors, or were received by samurai as a
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SENSU?JAPANESE FOLDING FAN
token of a superior's special appreciation of merit.
When the son of a general became twelve years old,
he was given an adult fan, at an impressive cere-
mony. Also, the prize given to the winner of a
contest was quite likely to be a fan.
There were many old-time military sports, such
as yabusame, in: which the fan played a part. When
these archery contests were held, every archer wore
his fan thrust into his belt. According to the
Gembun Yabusame-ki, a book on archery written
about the middle of the 18th century, an archery
contest was held "on March 19th, the first day of
the Ox, the third year of Gembun (1736-41), in the
grounds of the Hachiman shrine at Koshosan. There
were 16 archers ready on horseback. When the first
target was held up, followed by the second and third,
the first archer plucked an arrow from his quiver,
fitted it to his bow, then opened his suehiro fan
and arranged his headgear. Starting his horse at
a gallop, he tossed his fan behind him. Then he
raised his bow and let fly an arrow at the target."
In Dai-teki Taihai-ki (Record of Great Archery
Ceremonies) it is stated that the proper attire for
this sport in the Kakitsu era (1429-44) included "a
sword in a bound sheath, a paper-faced fan and
handkerchief paper as usual."
One of the earliest stories, probably apocryphal,
in which a soldier's fan becomes a weapon has been
perpetuated in a play for the Kabuki stage. It
concerns Minamoto Yoshitsune, who was instrumental
in bringing about the victory over the Taira clan
in the last quarter of the 12th century. .Meeting
the gigantic militant monk, Benkei, on a bridge, he
accepted the giant's challenge to a halberd contest.
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taking leave of his geisha friend, he received a fan
from her. Toying with the fan, he exclaimed in
verse, Mononofu-no, oto atarashiki, og; /canal The
meaning, "Behold the fresh new far, the breezy
sound of it!" suggests the new life he will be leading
in the midst of battle.
One of the oldest poems connected with the
warrior's fan, written in the early Karnakura period
(1182-1334), is recorded in Gempei Seisui-ki. It
says: "It is dangerous to have the sun on a paper
fan, when so small a thing as a 'mosquito's eye' is
needed." The 'mosquito's eye,' of course, is the
rivet; and the implication is that too great an
ambition is likely to result in disaster, if through
lack of co-ordination there is no unity. This may
refer to the then-recent defeat of the Taira, when
young Nasu-no Yoichi avoided shooting the sun on
their fan, but shot out the rivet instead.
Warfare today is not what it wal- in the days
of knighthood. One can not imagine the men in
khaki carrying fans, even iron fans. Nor would
the best of battle-fans be of any conceivable use now.
Nevertheless, we cannot help a sigh of regret that
the warriors' fans and all the other old, picturesque
fans are now relegated to auction rooms, storehouses
and museums.
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TREND IN LOCAL AUTONOMY
The recent local elections (held on April 23 and 25) recall to
our minds afresh the classic saying of Alexis de Tocqueville: "C'est
pourtant dans la commune que reside la force des peuples libres. Les
institutions communales sont a la liberte cc que les ecoles primaires
sont a la Science." It is a well understood fact that local autonomy
constitutes the very foundation in the communal life of a nation.
Now, in Japan, it is some years ago that apprehension was expressed
about local autonomy reaching "crossroads" or "turning point." This
tendency, much feared at first, and growing recently more serious, is
apt to be overlooked today, just as are the symptoms of a chronic
malady. And, just like most chronic illnesses, it has now grown be-
yond an easy cure.
Of the recent trend in local autonomy, a study should be made
from three standpoints. First, it should be re-examined in its rela-
tionship with the central government. In this conjunction, we may as
well admit that the stronger becomes the central administrative power,
the weaker does local autonomy grow, and vice versa. To be more
explicit, the increasing power of control by the state will prove to be
oppressive towards local autonomy; whereas self-restraint exercised on
the part of state power will safeguard the welfare of local autonomy.
Secondly, the activities on the part of local autonomy can be broadly
divided into two kinds: actions and counter-actions, representing "sub-
ordination" and "resistance." The possibility of confrontation between
the central and local governments is rightly conceived in Chapter VIII
(Local Government) of the new Constitution. The signing of the,
Japanese Peace Treaty in 1951 served as a turning point for the
postwar growth of local autonomous power; since then it began to
recede in the direction of subordination to state authority.
Thirdly, the new Constitution, by making a specific provision
(Chapter VIII) for local autonomy?an unprecedented instance under
the old Meiji Constitution----offers recognition to our obligation to
protect local autonomy. Accordingly, any activity tending to cause
regression in local self-government may be correctly judged as violating
the constitutional provision. From those three essential viewpoints, let
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us now observe the recent trend in different fields f local self-gov-
ernment.
1. Regarding the existing administrative structur of local auton-
omous government, much doubt has been expressed ately of its dual
character; namely the existence of to-do-fu-ken (prefer 'tires) above shi-
cho-son (cities, towns and villages), both being loc.,I public entities
as defined in Articles 92 and 93 of the Constitution. This dual char-
acter, indubitably, constitutes a major cause for ineffi, ency and waste,
for which local self-government is frequently rebuked As a measure
for improvement, the Research Commission on Le al Government,
in view of continued expansion of cities and towns, iroposed in 1957
the abolition of to-do-fu-ken (prefectures) and the :stablishment in
their stead of 9 new regions, governable by regional t ffices, its branch
and sub-branch offices. The reform measure, however may entail the
danger of weakening the power of local public ent -ies, particularly
when the regional government offices, with their gov rnors appointed
by the central government, become more closely corrected with the
central administrative power. Moreover, with the fro ,ible strengthen-
ing of police authority under such reform, local self- overnment may
completely lose its rwson d'?e, such as is asserted trader the Con-
stitution.
2. A continued increase has been witnessed of ire in the budg-
etary appropriations for subsidy grants and equalizatior funds for local
self-government. Such budgetary appropriations, II( wever, are not
always beneficial to local public entities. (1) Becau _r of them, the
local public entities are left wide open for interferenc by the central
government. (2) The complicated procedures in thir connection are
liable to strengthen a tie between the personnel of the Jcal government
and specific offices of the central government. (3) The kinds and
amount of such subsidies and funds are determined ur laterally by the
central government, with the result that they frequer ly create inad-
vertent problems in local finance, an inadequate ap aopriation very
often causing heavy expenditure in the local budget Furthermore,
in case of retrenchment in the national budget, th, effect will be
directly felt in the execution of important projects by t e local govern-
ment in the fields of social welfare, education, constru, ion, etc.
3. In short, local finance, as well as administrati n, tends to be,
subordinated to direct or indirect control by the cent al government,
due mainly to the financial instability of individual loco public entities.
During the few years prior to the promulgation of tY Law for the
Promotion of Reconstruction of Local Finance (Law N, 195) in 1955,
the number of local public entities (prefectures, cities, towns and vil-
lages) suffering deficits in their budgets increased thre, -fold from 764
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to 2,281, with the deficits increasing six-fold from Y10,200,000,000 to
Y64,900,000,000. The law, having as its objective, the elimination of
such deficits in local finance, proposes administrative reform, personnel
readjustment, curtailment in enterprise, the promotion of tax collection,
etc. under the supervision of the Autonomy Agency. Of those various
reform measures, a strong voice has been raised by local communities
in protest particularly against personnel readjustment, the merger of
towns and villages, the delayed reconstruction work in case of natural
calamity damage, the lowered administrative level, the increase in local
tax, and so forth.
As a result of the merger effected among towns and villages, their
number decreased, during the three year period of 1955 - 57, from 9,895
to 3,653, inclusive of 2,300 newborn towns (towns, from 1,970
to 1,894; and villages,. 7,640 to 1,216) ; whereas the number of cities
increased from 285 to 543 during the same period. The average city
has also expanded in area from 34.89 sq. km. to 90.00 sq. km., and in
population from 5,398 to 11,471. The tangible results achieved in this
project do not necessarily signify that the merger has always been wel-
comed by local communities. As the merger is usually conducted upon
recommendation from the central administrative authorities, there have
been several cases where local residents have put up a strong protest.
A merger of this kind must be effected through the voluntary efforts
of local communities concerned.
The recent local elections, first of their kind under the two-po-
litical-party system, has invited severe criticism from the general public,
particularly in regard to the fact that election campaigns were conducted
under the strong influence of the two major political parties. The focal
point of elections lay not in the welfare of local communities, nor in
the democratization of local public entities, but in the continued struggle
between the two major parties over such political issues as the revision
of the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty, the trade with Communist China,
etc. The Liberal-Democratic campaigners drew the inference that local
finance under a Socialist governor would hardly be expected to main-
tain smooth contact with the central administration; while the Social
Democratic members exhorted that the elections should be the means
to overthrow the Kishi Government. Both political parties were wrong
in employing the local elections as a means either to intimidate the
people, or to attack government power. Both of them erred in dis-
regarding the basic principle of local autonomy, as provided in the
Constitution. Nor are the Independents to be trusted as what they
profess to be, for they cannot be expected, under present political
onditions, to undertake activities without political affiliation.
4. Prospects for local autonomy are particularly gloomy; as its
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police and educational systems?the two main pillars of ocal govern-
ment?are shaken almost off their very foundation. The o :ginal Police
Law (Law No. 196) of 1947 provided for the establishmer of a police
force as democratic authority to protect the right and fir( cdorn of in-
dividuals, in view particularly, of "promoting the true na tire of local
autonomy." Since the revision of that law in 1954, the police force
has come to assume a stronger nationalistic coloring, log ug much of
its local autonomous character.
A similar change has occurred in the educational fiel I., where the
Law for the Establishment of Educational Committees (1948) was
rescinded in 1956 by the Law for the Local Educational Administra-
tion. The public election of educational committees (7 members in
a prefecture, and 5 in a city, town, or village) under he old law,
was replaced by the nomination of such committee meta hers by the
central authorities, as provided for in the new law. The 4rowing ten-
dency to strengthen the centralization of educational powe culminated
recently in the adoption of a school teachers' efficiency Ating system
under Article 40 of the Local Public Service Law of 19 7. It must
be remembered that the adoption of this system was enfo ced in com-
plete disregard of the provision for "efficiency rating" (Article 10
Paragraph 2) made in the Regulations for the Natior 11 Personnel
Authority of 1952. The protest put up by Nikkyoso (Jai an Teachers
Union) in this connection, or the mass protestation ma ieuvered re-
cently by trade unions and various social and cultural )rganizations
against the proposed revision of the Police Duties Law, is but a reflec-
tion of the continued resistance on the part of local admin oration.
Peaceful as the general aspect of local autonomy ma seem today
under the stabilized conservative leadership, its prospects Ire none too
bright or promising. The resistance on the part of local communities
will find its expression in diverse forms of activities aim ng to coun-
teract the development in the centralization of power. In far as such
resistance is allowed to find an open way to free expres ion, there is
no need for apprehension. Once forced into complete s ibordination,
it may explode with ruinous effect. So, in this connection indifference
may be regarded just as blamable as irresponsibility.
?By Hideo Wada,* Keizai Hyoron ugust, 1959
*Hideo Wada is Professor of Administrative La v at Meiji
-University.
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CRISIS FOR THE HOUSE OF COUNCILLORS
Incidental to the election held on? June 2, this year, the hitherto
much-discussed topic of "crisis in the House of Councillors" was brought
to the fore, as the press gave voice to the general opinion and concern
regarding this subject. The present writer proposes here to analyze
the nature of this crisis by making a summary review of the development
and changes that have taken place in the character of the House itself
during the past twelve years.
1. Establishment of the Bicameral System.
Under the new Diet system provided in the new Constitution, the
House of Councillors superseded the old House of Peers on May 20,
1947.
It was in the Japanese Draft Constitution ? known as the Matsu-
moto Draft ? prepared by the Japanese Committee, headed by Dr. Joji
Matsumoto, and submitted to GHQ, SCAP, that the proposal was origi-
nally made for the establishment of a bicameral system, calling for
the replacement of the House of Peers with the new House of Coun-
cillors, with its membership either elected by the people, or appointed
by the Emperor. It should be noted that the Government, in that
initial stage of drafting the Constitution, favored the selection of the
membership for the House by means of the Emperor's appointment.
The bicameral system was proposed likewise in the drafts prepared
and submitted by the Liberal, Progressive and Social Democratic
Parties, as well as by Kempo-kenkyu-kai (the Institute for the
Study of the Constitution), with the sole exception of the Communist
Party. Narahashi, the Cabinet's Secretary General and Spokesman for
the Government, urged the necessity for such a system, especially in
the absence of the Emperor system, the Privy Council, the House of
Peers, the Army and Navy, etc. Thereupon, GHQ, though doubtful
of its necessity in a country which was not federated, gave consent on
condition that the members of the House of Councillors should be
elected through a plebiscite; and that they should neither be vocational
representatives, nor members by appointment.
Now, in order to strengthen its functionary power to prevent any
possible transgression by the House of Representatives, it was set free
of possible dissolution, accorded both the national and the local con-
stituencies for the election of its members, and so forth. The estab-
lishment of a national constituency was then considered the best means
to achieve the basic objective of acquiring for its membership 'nation-.
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ally well-known and truly worthy men of learning and exper lence; with
the future 'possibility for including among them such men is are well-
seasoned in vocational knowledge and experience.' (From the speech
delivered by State Minister Omura, upon submitting a ow election
bill to the 91st plenary session of the Diet, 1947.)
Despite such and other structural differences accorded 1 the House
of Councillors, the superiority in actual legislative power ws s vested in
the House of Representatives in connection with, for exam/ le, the de-
cision on budgetary bills, the passage of bills, the ratification of treaties,
the nomination of the Prime Minister, and so on.
How could the House of Councillors, thus placed in a ubordinate
position, perform its duty to "check and balance" the pro eedings of
the House of Representatives? This lameness in Japan's bicameral
system has resulted from a series of contradictions admit n 1 into the
system since its institution; and because of those contrad -tions, the
people have come to entertain doubt as to the indispensah,lity of the
House of Councillors.
2. Changes in the Membership of the House of Couneilt ,;.
Under the Law for the Establishment of the House of ( ouncillors,
the first election was held on April 20, 1947. Candidates numbered
331 for 150 members to be elected in local constituencies, ad 246 for
100 in the national constituency.
As the public had not yet familiarized with the existe ce of the
House of Councillors, the voting percentage was consiclerabl low with
60.93% in the national constituency and 61.12% in the (real con-
stituencies. The 250 successful returns to the House includg .1 Ill In-
dependents and 13 minor party members (constituting 49,13% of the
total seats of the House) , 47 Socialists and 4 Communists (2C 1%), and
38 Liberals, 28 Democrats and 9 National Cooperatives (tr ;-ether ac-
counting for 30%).
By the time of the second election held in June, 1950, he group,
named Ryokufukai by Yuzo Yamamoto, had become the lea ling party
in the House with membership of 91. For 125 eligible ses ts (50 in
the national constituency, and 75 in the local constituenci ,) and 7
vacancies (6 in the national and 1 in the local constituen y), there
were 563 candidates. Out of this election. the Liberals e rerged as
the leading party, occupying 76 seats in the House (includh .; 52 new
returns) ; the Socialists foimed the second party with 61 sets (inclu-
sive of 36 new members) , and the Ryokufukai, now with on 50 seats
(including 9 new members), became the third party.
A turning point was finally reached in its fourth electio I in July,
1956, held for the first time under the newly established two-party
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political system. Previous to the election, the two major conservative
parties were merged in November, 1955, in order mainly to secure a
more stabilized political power, which would enable them .to settle the
pending problems of rearmament and constitutional revision. By way
of counteracting the Conservatives' move for a merger, rather than be-
cause of a voluntary urge for unification, the Leftist and Rightist fac-
tions of the Social Democratic Party had carried out a merger one
month earlier, in October, the same year.
Thus, it was plain enough that the mergers effected by both
Conservatives and Socialists were inspired by anything but the true
purpose of political stabilization.
The election results (1956) showed the returns to the House
of 61 Liberal-Democrats, 49 Socialists, 5 Ryokufukai members, 2 Com-
munists, 9 Independents and 1 minor party member. The Social Dem-
ocratic Party, by occupying 80 seats in total, succeeded in securing more
than one-third of the total seats in the House, and thus eliminated
the possibility of constitutional revision.
The same tendency continued in this election, manifesting itself in
three tangible forms: (1) a remarkable advance attained by the can-
didates with support from bureaucrats and trade unions; the bureaucrat-
supported members took 68 seats with 26 new seats added to 42 won
in the third election, while Sohyo-supported candidates claimed 32
among 49 seats won by the Socialists, (2) a complete defeat suffered by
candidates in the field of culture and learning, and (3) the decline of
the Ryokufukai as a stabilizing neutral power, as its membership de-
creased from its initial 91 to 31 through the fourth election, and further
to a bare 20 through subsequent secession of its members to join the
conservative camp.
3. Decline of the Ryokufukai.
The history of the House of Councillors in the past twelve years
can be roughly divided into two periods: the first period, covering eight
years from the first session of the Diet (May, 1947) to the 23rd session
(November, 1955), witnessed the House of Councillors in the role of
an opposition party; and the second period, from the 24th Diet session
to the present day, has seen its deterioration under the weight of two-
party politics.
In the initial period of its establishment, the House of Councillors
performed its function of "check and blance" with indubitable effi-
ciency: it successfully shelved reactionary bills submitted by the Yoshida
Cabinet at the 5th ordinary session of the Diet (February--May, 1949),
and at the 7th extraordinary session (December, 1949--May, 1950) ;
and, again it succeedtd in killing the Government-proposed loc'al tax-
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ation bill by prolonging deliberation.
The first crisis visited the House of Councillors and, iicidentally,
the Ryokufukai, when the Bill for the Prevention of Subver ive Activi-
ties. was submitted to the House, immediately following its passage by
the House of Representatives in 1952. The Government an I the Con-
servatives mobilized every possible means to enforce its pass tge. Over
against this Conservative drive, the Leftists in the Social Democratic
Party put up a stiff opposition, while the Rightists were ,nclined to
favor the amendment to the bill in compromise with the }(vokufukai.
Now, the members of the Ryokufukai, which actually held he casting
vote in the matter, were divided into two groups; tit majority
were won over by the Government and its party, and the remaining
few sided with the opposition. As a result, the bill was pas ed by 132
votes against 79; and the attitude of the Ryokufukai mv led severe
criticism from the public.
Following the 24th Diet session in 1955, the confrontal ion of the
two major political parties grew bad to worse in the Ht use. The
political line-up in the House at that time was 118 Liberal.oemocrats,
68 Socialists, 47 Ryokufukai members and 13 Independen with 3
vacancies. Since then, the House has become scenes of viole.t political
struggle over such important legislation as that concerning he reform
in education or police authority, all of which have a vital beal ing on the
democratic development of the Japanese nation. A clash tikes place
each time when the Government and its party endeavors o enforce
the passage of a bill on the strength of a majority, and the Jpposition
Social Democratic Party members resort to violent acts of fihihuster.
1. Reform of the House of Councillors.
Such is the true picture of the House of Councillors, row facing
the crossroads of its destiny. As it is, the House, quoting fr im public
criticism, is no better than a "carbon copy" of the House nf Repre-
sentatives. The proposed reform of the House includes the following
three features.
(1) The system of the national constituency calls for a rt -examina-
tion. First of all, it is not at all an easy task for the voter-, to select
one candidate out of 120 or more. Secondly, it is almost Lrnpossible
for candidates to carry out a nation-wide campaign with the !egitimate
allowance for campaign expense fixed at Y2,700,000. The Lumber of
candidates in the national constituency decreased from 230 a; the time
of the third election in 1953, to 150 at the time of the fo u-th elec-
tion in 1956, and further to 123 in the recent fifth electior in June,
1959. On the contrary, the competition in the national constituency
has grown so keen that the minimum number of votes won by successful
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candidates in the last election was approximately 350,000, which is far
greater than 68,000 won in the first election in 1947.
As one reform measure, the abolition of the national constituency
has been advocated strongly since 1957 by the Liberal-Democratic Party.
Its abolition may serve to rejuvenate the House; but its replacement, as
suggested by some, with a reactionary system of selecting its membership
by appointment will not be in conformity with the constitutional pro-
vision for the democratic growth of the Diet. It is also suggested that
the system of indirect, cr plural voting be adopted. Election results
in the past indicate a considerable increase in the Progressive influence
in the national constituency. In view of this, all the suggestions for
the abolition of the national constituency should be subjected to a care-
ful re-examination, lest the over-ardent intentions on the part of the
Conservatives should interfere with the general policy for democratiza-
tion. In this connection, we should always remember the basic prin-
ciple: "Popular vote is the best recommendation for candidates."
(2) The "restoration of good sense" was the catch phrase used
by the press at the time of the recent election for the House of
Councillors. With "good sense" restored, the House will make volun-
tary efforts to drive out the influence of political parties. Both the
Liberal-Democratic Party and the Social Democratic Party alike claim
justification for the predominance of political influence in the House.
In so far as these political parties rely on "the strength of a majority"
or "forcible means," and mobilize their members in the House for
the single purpose of achieving their political domination, there will
be little hope for reforming the House of Councillors. Lately, there
has been an increasing tendency between the two political parties to
resort to negotiations and compromises, in fear lest they should be
branded with the obnoxious title of "power politics." Now, such
negotiations and compromises, may paralyze the vital functioning of the
system of two-party politics; they may, it is feared, serve in the end
to create hotbeds for the revival of fascism.
(3) Lastly, a few words may be necessary concerning reform in
the existing local constituency system. Readjustment should be made
to obviate the proportional discrepancy between the numbers of elected
members and of the voters in these constituencies. According to the
data published by the Autonomy Agency in May, this year, the same
number of four members were elected for the House of Councillors
respectively in Hokkaido with a population of 2,619,000, and in Tokyo,
having a population of 5,633,000, twice as large as that in Hokkaido.
In another instance, two members were elected in Gumma Prefecture
with a population of 770,000, while only one member was elected in
Akita prefecture with a population of 760,000.
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Needless to say, the Conservative influence is stronger ,n the local
constituencies than in the national constituency. In the list election,
the Liberal-Democratic Party returned to the House only members
although it won 39.7% of the votes in the national consi reney, and
the Social Democratic Party returned 21 members with 29.9' ; whereas,
in the local constituencies, the Liberal Democratic Party ;1 eturned 42
members with 48.3%, and the Social Democratic Party, .1.3 members
with 37.6%. The proposed reform for the establishment of smaller
constituencies, when viewed in the light of those and other t -cent data,
seems to lose its much publicized significance. More recotnmendable
in this connection will be a new election system based n a more
proportionate representation of "public opinion."
The much disputed problem of crisis in the House of tlouncillors
urgently calls for various reform measures, such as those sun Tnarized in
the foregoing. Nevertheless, the writer adds in conclusion, .al such re-
form measures should be re-examined carefully, lest they slu ild harbor
any ulterior motive other than the progress of democratizati? .n.
Katsumi Matsumoto,* Chuti K?rn. hily, 1959
TUG-OF-WAR OVER ARTICLE IN
OF THE CONSTITUTION
Public opinion was unduly aroused upon learning the judp, Tnent pro-
nounced for the defendants in the Sunakawa case. The case concerned
the attempt made by the local residents of Sunakawa to bloc.: the land
survey required for the extension of U.S. Tachikawa Air. Bast A series
of clashes took place in October, 1956, between the local residents,
supported by students and trade union members, and the l.a ed survey
group, under protection of an armed police force; it resultec in heavy
scuffling and bloodshed, where, on one occasion, more than BIO persons
were injured. The case was brought to trial before the I Ikyo Dis-
trict Court, and judge Akio Date, on March 30, pronounced i decision
of "not guilty" for 7 defendants in the case, on the grounc that the
existence of alien military forces in japan does not conforn with the
provision in Article 9 of the Constitution. In interpreting krticle 9,
Judge Date assumes that it forbids Japan to arm herself eY, a for the
purpose of self-defense, whereas the procurators in the ease maintain
*Katsumi Matsumoto is member of the staff of the Kv trio News
Agency.
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that she is permitted to possess an armed military force for her na-
tional defense. Now that the procurators have appealed to the Supreme
Court, it will not be long before the public will learn of the final
judgement on the case; and this judgement, as coming from the Su-
preme Court, will, it is hoped, put an end to all arguments over Article
9 of the Constitution.*
In interpreting Article 9 of the Constitution, some people place
an inordinate emphasis on its history?how it came to be drafted; under
what circumstances it was drafted; what was in the mind of those
who drafted it; and so on. One answer to those queries will be that
the basic principle in reading the Constitution is that it should be read
in reference to the present and to the future, but not to the past; as?
the people say, "the dead can no longer rule over the living," it should
be read and interpreted in such a manner as to render it adaptable to
prevalent conditions. Thus, the Constitution of the United States of
America, proclaimed at the end of the 18th century, has remained in
force throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, causing no impediment
in the development and progress of that country. Therefore, the,
historical background, however weighty it may be, should be regard-
ed as a subordinate factor, and treated as such, in the study of the
Constitution.
The reading of various records and documents pertaining to the
drafting of the Constitution, as well as to the postwar Occupation of
Japan, reveals that the very idea embodied in Article 9 was conveyed
to Gen. Douglas MacArthur by the then Prime Minister Kijuro Shi-
dehara on the occasion of their conference at GHQ on January 24,
1946. Prime Minister Shidehara, himself an ardent pacifist, proposed
the inclusion in the new Constitution of Japan's renunciation of war
and war potentials. To this, General MacArthur gave consent, for
he was of the same opinion as the Prime Minister that the inclusion
of the provision to that effect would, at the same time, serve to
eliminate apprehension on the part of neighboring countries, and safe-
guard the Tenn? system. Both Gen. MacArthur and the Prime Min-
ister kept that discussion to themselves; as a result, the general im-
pression was created that the originator of Article 9 was mine other
*The Constitution of Japan:
Chapter II. Renunciation of War
Article 9. Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and
order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation
and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes.
In order to accomplish' the aim of the preceding paragraph, land, sea, and
air forces, as well as other War potential,. will never be maintained. The right'
of belligerency of the state will not be recognized.
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than Gen. MacArthur, the Supreme Commander for the All ed Powers,
himself. Most probably, that general impression was jus what the
Prime Minister was seeking, as he was averse, of course, to Airring up
commotion over the issue so vitally important to the Japan( ,e nation.
As clearly understood from Gen. MacArthur's note has .led to the
Government Section, GHQ, in conjunction with the draft rig of the
Constitution, Prime Minister Shidehara wished to invoke t re ideal of
absolute pacifism by setting forth the provision that Japan thould not
resort to war even in case of self-defense. The officials in tie Govern-
ment Section, GHQ, were rather skeptical about such a bdd expres-
sion being given to idealism; and, accordingly, they maintax led a "tol-
erant attitude" towards this subject, quoting Tatsuo Sato, rne of the
government officials who participated in the drafting of the C )nstitution.
When the Draft Constitution was submitted to deliben-- ion in the
Japanese Diet, two important amendments were made to Art ;le 9 upon
suggestions proposed by Dr. Hitoshi Ashida and other mem )ers of the
House of Representatives. Those amendments were the ,ddition of
the phrase, "Aspiring sincerely to an international peace ba ed on jus-
tice and order," to the opening of the first clause, and the ther addi-
tion of "In order to accomplish the aim of the preceding Jaragraph"
to the beginning of the second clause. Dr. Ashida, later Or explained
that those amendments were made to Article 9, so that it might not
be applied to national defense. The GHQ officials, although they made
no comment, were also cognizant of the fact that the amend. 1 Article 9
would no longer prevent Japan from having armament .r national
defense.
By way of answer to those who assume that Gen. MacArthur
changed his opinion afterwards, the writer, quoting from ti e letter he
received from the General, states that Gen. MacArthur unde ,tood, even
at the time of drafting, that Article 9 would not interfere tk:th Japan's
armed resistance against foreign aggression.
Some may, then, suggest the annulment of Article 9 on the ground
that it has lost its raison d'?e. To them, the author rroposes to
construe General MacArthur's views as follows. "Article 9 is precious
in that it reminds the Japanese of the ineffaceable trap. dy of the
prewar militarism. Also, it is important in that it indicates I all states-
men the way to the peace of the world, even in this r.tomic age.
Moreover, it is an imperishable memorial, symbolizing Prit e Minister
Shidehara's foresight, wisdom and statesmanship. For th. se reasons,
the Japanese should all the more carefully preserve it."
Such views as given above, based on the recognition it once of
ideals and of reality are not creditted exclusively to Gen. MacArthur.
The basic principle of racial equality, embodied in the Cox ititution of
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the United States, has been respected throughout the past century, with-
out any question being raised as to its adaptability, because it is the
ideal which humanity is forever seeking after. Noble ideals are often
embodied in the constitutions of various countries, sometimes, giving
them an air of almost political manifestos. In studying such con-
stitutions, it is necessary, of course, to make, so to speak, a "double-
tracked" interpretation of provisions, recognizing ideal and reality at
the same time. Viewed in this light, it is a mistake to read the Con-
stitution in the same manner as would be adopted in reading the
Commercial Code or the Criminal Code. The best guide for reading
the Constitution is what Judge John Marshall of the U.S. Supreme
Court has once said: "We must not forget that we are reading the
Constitution."
The Japanese government accepted Article 9 with the understand-
ing that disarmament was a part of the Allied Powers' policy. The
then State Minister Kanamori explained before the Diet that Japan
possessed the right to national defense, but could not arm herself under
the second clause of Article 9. Subsequently, the opinion was pro-
pagated throughout the nation that absolute disarmament was the goal
set for peaceful Japan. Since a nation's right to defend herself recog-
nizes armed resistance against foreign aggression, there was a funda-
mental contradiction in State Minister Kanamori's interpretation of
Article 9. When scholars, as well as the public, accepted State Min-
ister Kanamori's theory, and endeavored to form their opinion on that
hypothesis, confusion was let loose in their arguments, not only over
the provisions in question, but also extending over the controversial
issues of Japan's rearmament, the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty, etc.
The inherent tendency among Japanese is to accord inordinate
importance to, and thereby endeavor to justify, an academic theory,
or any opinion commonly shared by scholars (communis opinio doc-
torum,) whereas Americans or Englishmen would accept it only as a
hypothesis without precedents. Sometimes, an academic theory may
be an error committed in common by scholars (communis error doc-
torum). Admitting such a possibility, it becomes necessary to probe
further into the views prevalent in the academic field.
Meantime, the National Police Reserve was reorganized into the
Safety Force, and then into the Self-Defense Force, which is now
not much different from a military force. It was but natural that the
public should criticize this attempt of the Government as a violation
of the constitutional provision. The Government, adhering to the Ka-
narnori theory on the one hand, continues in its endeavor to expand
the national defense force on the other, by utilizing the right to defense
as a strategic spear-head. This bold attempt on the part of the Gov-
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ernment to achieve contrary effects while strictly adhering td its original
Kanamori theory has brought about the general impression hat it has
been abusing the constitutional provision for the purpose of ;Jromoting,
its armament policy.
Thus, the disputes over Article 9 have eventually led to ;the current
controversial issue of constitutional revision. Both pros ard cons of
the argument being based on the hypothesis that armament is forbidden
under Article 9, the advocates for the revision contend the r the Oc-
cupation-imposed Constitution requires amendment, while the opposi-
tion maintain that such a revision will lead to armament and war.
They carry on futile, ideological arguments, forgetting, in the heat of
their controversy, the most imminent problem?the question ,if how to
ensure the security of the nation. Whatever ideological confrontation
there may be, the controversy should be conducted with the docal point
set upon actual, intrinsic problems, leaving room always for justifiable
compromise. Otherwise, it will probably develop into, so i o speak,
a cancer in Japanese politics, or into hotbeds for power poll: ics of the
two extremes.
To summarize the foregoing, there are three ways of reading Ar-
ticle 9. (1) Japan is not permitted to rearm even for he national
defense. (2) Japan is permitted to have limited rearmameri for self-
defense. (3) Japan is permitted to have rearmament for Sdf-defense.
Under (1) and (2), the existence in Japan of U.S. inilitai bases is
in violation of the Constitution, whereas it is permissible Under (3).
In die Sunakawa case the attorneys for defense must have'taken view
(1), while the procurators based their indictments on (3). Now, the
Supreme Court has to make its decision between (1) and (ri
If the Supreme Court pronounces its judgement based (I), the
Government's rearmament policy, even for self-defense, bet otnes un-
constitutional. If the judgement is based on (3), the Social Democratic
Party's claim for disarmament and neutrality will still be justified as
constitutional, since permission for armament under the Cons dtution is
one thing, and the armament policy is definitely anotlier; only, the
Party will no longer be able to use Article 9 as a means -0 attack
the Government. If the Supreme Court decides not to ref 'r to the
reading of Article 9, the question will remain unanswered, lea .-ing that
problematical provision wide open for continued controversial a i!.isurnents.
Once the Supreme Court pronounces its judgement eith( on (1)
or on (3), the Government's disapproval, or the Social r). mocratic
Party's protest, in this connection, will be considered uncons itutional.
It is sincerely hoped that the Supreme Court, in conformity with the
provision made in the Constitution, will spare no effort in I 4rnishing
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a satisfaCtory solution to this problem. The Supreme Court will form
its opinion at the dictum of its best knowledge and conscience, even
taking into careful consideration possible. political all-around implica-
tions. The judgement thus pronounced will be approved and respected
by the nation. That, and that alone, is the only proper way to safe-
guard the Constitution.
?By Kenzo Takayanagi,* Bungei Shunju, August, 1959
*Kenzo Takayanagi, LL. D., formerly Professor of International
Law at the University of Tokyo, is Head of the Commission on the
Constitution.
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THE POPULATION OF JAPAN by Irene B. Tauber.
Published by Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.,
U.S.A., 1958; quarto size, pp. 460, $15.00.
No one knows how many milleniums have passed since God
advised Noah, after the Flood, to "be fruitful and multiply." But,
through the centuries the people of the earth, following thi: directive
literally, have increased by geometric progression; until now, in spite
of wars and countless other disasters, the teeming population of many
a country has become a matter of grave concern. Not onl . does this
trouble the leaders of such a country, it also poses a probl-in for the
whole world family of nations. If the solution of tl-w problems
involved is left entirely to the future, only world-wide disa ter can be
expected. Now as never before we must say, "No man riTeth unto
himself," whether as a person or as a nation.
As a step towards meeting the threat of over-populiaion, indi-
viduals and organizations are devoting time in the intensii., research
and study of demography in the over-crowded countries, gathering
vital and social statistics concerning man's origin, die -elopment,
geographical distribution, physical characteristics, and culture. This
study is not intended as a cure in itself for over-population: rather, its
purpose is to offer a background for an understanding of what has
been done and what can be done in solving this pressing problem.
A leading scholar in this field is Dr. Irene B. Taeuber, he author
of this book, the publication of which by the Princeton University
Press has been made possible by the financial assistance of ti: Milbank
Memorial Fund, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Ford Foundation.
Not only is Dr. Taeuber a research associate of the Office nf Popula-
tion Research at Princeton; she is also co-editor of Popula Lion Index
and Population Literature; she has served as consultant in demography
at the United Nations, the World Health Organization, the Pacific
Science Board of the National Research Council, and thf Research
and Development Board of the Department of Defense she was
formerly president of the Population Association of America; and is
a writer of magazine articles on demography.
Dr. Taeuber, choosing Japan as the subject of this inter,ive study,
points out in her Preface that in this country, which has never been
colonial, some sort of statistics have been kept ever since her early
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cultural contact with China in the T'ang dynasty, more than a thousand
years ago; and that, from the time of her dealing with Europeans
Japan has made use of modern statistical techniques. This has resulted
in an accumulation of data concerning the effects on Japan of her
relations with other countries, particularly with the South Seas and
mainland China. Dr. 'Faeuber feels that a study of Japan's progress
from an agrarian to an industrial society is of value in relation to the
accompanying population changes. Such a study may well help in
understanding the possible population variations which are occurring
or are likely to occur in other oriental countries which are now free
from colonial status, but are nevertheless being pushed into the scientific
age by the impact of Western technology.
For convenience the material is presented here in seven divisions.
PART I takes up The Population in the Premodern Period, dealing
with the Formation and Growth: the Beginnings to the Twelfth
Century; and showing the Changing Population: Late Twelfth to
Mid-Nineteenth Century. PART II shows The Transition, 1852-
1918, tracing the Increase and Redistribution. PART III deals with
The Changing Population, 1920-1955, describing The Bases and the
Patterns, and The Economically Active Population, and The Family.
PART IV takes up the subject of Migration, in relation to Industri-
alization, and the movement to Cities and Metropolitan Areas. PART
V, under Expansion, the author describes the Frontiers of Settlement
and Utilization, and the Imperial Expansion. PART VI: as Natural
Movements the author considers the effects on population of Marriage,
Fertility, The Control of Fertility, Mortality, and Natural Increase.
PART VII discusses Demography in Peace and War, with Problems,
Projections, and Policies; and takes a look at Past and Present.
As an indication of the thoroughness on which this book is based,
consider the fact that t41 Tables, 29 sets of Statistical Figures and 18
Maps are given, in order that an all-round understanding of Japan's
population problems may be grasped by the scholar who consults this
book: Also there are footnotes, abundant and copious, which amplify
the text, explain it, or refer to further sources of information.
As Appendices there are, besides a brief Chronology, a Glossary
of imMense value, and a list of Agencies and Institutions and of
Periodicals consulted. To complete this stupendous piece of work, there
is given a Bibliography of 66_pages.
It is safe to say that the author has assembled here such
voluminous information as has never before been gathered in one
volume; and it is of such variety that the inquirer can surely find in
this book the answer to any question he may wish to ask about Japan's
population.
? Joel Prescott
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AXIS ALLIANCE AND JAPANESE AMERICA?, RE-
LATIONS, 1941, by Paul W. Schroeder. Published by C.,,rnell
University Press, 1958; $4.50.
Each year the American Historical
script which, in its opinion, is worthy of
and it is published under the auspices
Schroeder's The Axis Alliance and
1941, was the 1956 winner of that awar
In order to receive this award,
Association selects ne manu-
receiving the Beveritt;e Award
of the Association. Paul W.
Japanese-American Relations,
d.
a manuscript must combine
scholastic thoroughness with objectivity, and must provide' idditional
understanding of inadequately understood historical trends 1,r events;
the award is not given to manuscripts which have a prejudice o defend
or a product to sell. It is essential that this explanation b born in
mind when reading this book, because the subject is controx rsial and
the reader, depending on his preconceptions, might unjus.[1, accuse
the author of political bias.
Although the title of the book emphasizes the Axis All Alice, the
main thesis of the book is that in 1941, "there was no immee'ate clash
in basic American and Japanese strategic aims bound to lea( the two
nations to war." The author maintains that the Japanese ttack on
Pearl Harbor was an "act of desperation, not madness;" and that
"Japan fought only when she had her back to the wall as a result of
America's diplomatic and economic offensive."
This is not the first book to defend this thesis; but, nlike its
predecessors, this book does not accuse, apologize, nor extol 4 alter the
nations or leaders involved. For example, the author assesses he -back
to the door" theory (that Roosevelt goaded Japan to attack in order
to enter the European war; a theory espoused by Charles BcarL Charles
Tansill, Rear Admiral Theobald, etc.), and he concludes lhat this
theory is "incredible." He also examines the theories th Japan
attacked the United States because of over-confidence or tl Hitler
pushed Japan into war, and concludes that available evidert makes
these theories impossible to accept." Instead, the "author maintains
that war resulted because the United States followed "a sir ere and
uncompromising adherence to moral principles and liberal d Petrines,"
which made it impossible to negotiate a settlement with Japan and made
"inevitable an unnecessary and avoidable war."
Prior to July of 1941, Japan was on the diplomatic fTensive,
confident, militant, and intransigent, while the United States was on
the defensive. Gradually, as a result of the American emb,,, go, the
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positions of the two nations was reversed and the diplomatic advantage
passed to the United States.. From July to November 29th the United
States could have negotiated a modus vie endi which could have avoided
or, at least, postponed war. This did not occur because American
public opinion, following the leadership of Secretary of State Cordell
Hull, was almost unanimous in its opposition to Japan. Japan's con-
quest of Manchuria, her repeated attacks on China, her occupation of
Indochina, were actions contrary to the absolute ideals of international
morality advanced by Hull as American foreign policy. Being an
idealistic policy, it was an inflexible policy; and, because Americans
supported this policy, it made "any change in that policy extremely
difficult, if not impossible, to achieve."
Secretary Hull, by emphasizing moral principles, had surrendered
control of United States diplomacy to the American people. It was
impossible to negotiate with Japan because the United States could
not compromise nor offer concessions, believing that one cannot com-
promise with evil. This meant that peace depended on the willingness
of Japan to accede to American demands. Japan was willing to com
promise, but neither the Japanese nor their leaders would accept total
surrender without a struggle. Thus, when diplomacy became inopera-
tive, war was inevitable. The mistake made by the United States was
one of substituting abstract ideals for a realistic policy.
States, by nature, are not personalities; thus, they cannot be
treated as morally responsible persons. As George Kennan contends,
the right role for moral considerations in foreign affairs is not to
determine policy, but rather to soften and ameliorate actions necessarily
based on the realities of world politics. But Americans (not just a few
leaders) accepted a rigid, idealistic foreign policy and went to war
because they believed that war was preferred "to any compromise or
limitation of the nation's aims."
Obviously, this is an informative and stimulating book which should
be read and its contemporary implications understood by both Ameri-
cans and Japanese. It is not a historical narrative and, consequently,
the average reader may wish that additional historical background had
been included. However, as an analysis of the immediate events prior
to Pearl Harbor it is one of the best books on the subject.
The book is clearly written, concise, and scholarly; it is well
documented and includes a fairly extensive bibliography. The least
rewarding section of the book is the final chapter dealing with the War
Crimes Trials in Tokyo. This chapter is sketchy, disrupts the continuity
of the book, and reads like a partially developed afterthought. With
this exception, the book is well worth reading.
?Leslie R. Bundgaard
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JAPAN: THEME AND VARIATION, A Collection
of Poems by Americans. Published by . Charles E. Tuttle,
Tokyo, 1958; pp. 183, Y900 in Japan, $3.00 elsewhere.
"The curves are pointed and the angles curv, :
The theme and variations follow through.
Where did the roofs and gables learn their sweep?"
In this contest-loving age it would be good to have :nore such
fruit as we find in this collection of "Poems by Americans,- the result
of contest-encouraged comment on things Japanese. Only 252 poems
have been chosen from among the 1700 proffered in the contest of
1957-58; but within this accepted group are titles and styles of great
variety, some expressed in the freest of free verse, some conventionally
American, some patterned after Japanese poetic forms, and all evi-
dencing such an interest in Japan as could never have becn foreseen,
with or without the impulse to poetry, as recently as ten years ago.
Not all of the writers are connected with the Military Fori-s, but no
doubt the attraction felt by great numbers of Japan's present-day allies
is responsible for much of this sincere response.
There are those who, having lived in Japan, indulge in nostalgia:
"You who have come from far away,
From the land of my past days,
You who know all its wonders and its glories,
Tell me just one thing:
Does the pomegranate tree beside the gate
still blossom in the spring?"
There is the spontaneous outburst of those now living in japan:
"All, all is beauty,
Seen aright;
Who misses the mountain
Sees the bird
And is satisfied."
Some still dream of the Japan of history, art and folklol
"Did you go to look at cherry blossoms
and never even think to count your chert jet?
I shall someday.
Did you have a house all uncluttered?
And let your eyes caress the grain of wood?
I could."
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Emotion restrained and pictorially presented suggests appreciation
of Japanese self-control:
"Just a woman dressed in black
Standing by the railroad track,
As the train goes outward bound;
And her bearing does not say
Who it is that goes away:
One who made her pulses stir,
Or a guest who worried her."
There is seen also the impatience of the outspoken, but inarticulate,
frustrated one:
"Stinking 'little bitch of a hill
they call a mountain in this
imprecise language
what right
have you to hide so
behind this awful mist
and rip and jerk my eyes out .
trying to penetrate
Little humor, and still less religious theme, can be especially noted;
but where such approach is made, it is handled with a restrained, quiet
touch which is well suited to the background values of life in Japan.
All in all, the poems are a worthy bit of inspiration toward furthering
the whole-hearted expression of what could hardly have been expected
as a result of the Occupation and postwar activity. But to all who
know Japan well, there is nothing here beyond the understanding. And
next? Perhaps we may look forward to a similar collection of poems
(in English) by Japanese, with America and the Americans for their
"theme and variations." Equally unexpected values might result from
such a gesture of friendship as is seen in such a contest.
?Virginia Mackenzie
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ZEN FLESH, ZEN BONES, A Collection of Zen I+ 'itings
compiled by Paul Reps. Published by Charles E. Tutt:/ . Co.,
Tokyo, Japan, and Rutland, Vt.? U.S.A. pp. 211, prict Y800
in Japan, $3.00 in U.S.A.
Within the covers of this book Paul Reps has brough together
four ancient manuscripts. Each has previously been publi died sepa-
rately: 101 Zen Stories in 1939 by Rider & Co., London, and by David
McKay Co., Philadelphia; The Gateless Gate in 1934 by John Murray,
Los Angeles; 10 Bulls in 1935 by de Vorss & Co., Los Angeks, and by
Ralph R. Phillips, Oregon; and Centering in 1953 in the Spring Issue
of Gentry Magazine, New York. To have them together wder one
cover will be an advantage to one who is interested in the stn!y of Zen.
The first half of the book consists of the "101 Zer, Stories"
which were collected and published in Japan in the late 13th century.
These stories are anecdotes, sometimes parables, which Tairport to
reveal something which cannot be revealed, namely, the spirit or
essence of Zen. They are clear, yet vague; their vaguene- may be
due in part to the artistic vagueness of the Japanese languagt in which
they were recorded. But this very mistiness has a strong appeal for
a certain type of mind. Whereas it is not too difficult to- 1:rasp the
point of the parables of Jesus, these stories of Zen are intendr'd to give
you food for thought, a cud to chew on, something to mu' over for
a long time.
Thinking of the name of this volume, would it not be better to
call it "Skin, Flesh & Bones of Zen"? The skin is that whv h we see
and which gives us an idea of what lies with in the body of Zen. The
flesh is that which gives shape and substance to the body of Zen. And
the bones, the skeleton, is that which gives pattern and saability to
the body of Zen.
Reading these "101 Zen Stories" is like starting on a.hag of
peanuts; one keeps eating on and on, finding it hard to stop. But as
for the point of any one of these anecdotes, it may be a long time be-
fore its meaning comes clear, if ever. Zen seems to be based on
negation, on emptying oneself of all evil, on the presumption !hat man
is inherently, essentially good, and so there is no need for teaching
about how to fill oneself with goodness.
In the next fifty pages, called "Mu-mon, the Gateless (ate," we.
find forty-nine little stories, each with a poem as an explanatory com-
ment by the monk Mu-mon.
The word Zen itself comes from the Sanskrit, from India through
China, and means meditation. Through self-searching meditation
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comes the emancipation of one's mind. The stories in this Mu-mon-
kan, literally the no-gate barrier, were assembled and recorded by1 the
Chinese monk Eikai, 1183-1260, and are considered one of the classic
texts of Zen Buddhism. Each of these problems is set forth as a barrier
in itself, the barrier being the shell of man's limited mind, or mentality,
which must be broken through in order to admit him to enlighten-
ment, i.e. knowing.
The original writer of this section says that a person who tries to
arrive at an understanding of Zen through the explanation of another
is like a man "who scratches an itching foot from the outside of a
shoe." He likens a "koan," as these parables are called, to a brick
which is used to knock at a gate and is then thrown away, being no
longer useful once the gate is opened. Perhaps modern man would
liken a "koan" to "a nut to crack," the shell being thrown away when
one gets the meat out.
This section is replete with startling similes, metaphors and
idioms, striking enough in themselves to break down a gate, such as
"Like a dumb man who has had a dream; he knows about it, but he
cannot tell it." Whether any of these "koan" stories would provide
fresh illustrations for a public speaker depends, Zen would say, upon
whether or not the said speaker was "enlightened." But there are
rich possibilities here.
The next section of 23 pages is called "10 Bulls." In the 12th
century the Chinese master, Kakuan, drew the pictures and wrote the
verses and captions of this, perhaps first, story-in-pictures, thus ante-
dating the modern funny-strips by eight centuries. But "10 Bulls" is
different from the modern animated cartoon strips in that it is the
conveyance for a spiritual teaching. It depicts the steps taken in the
discovery of oneself and of one's potentialities. The pictures used in
this book are not the originals, but were drawn by Tomikichiro Toku-
riki, a well-known wood-block artist.
Seeking the bull signifies the search for the eternal principle of
life. Finding the hoof-prints of the bull indicates that the seeker has-
gotten on the right path towards understanding the teachings. Hearing
the sound of the bull shows that one's senses have become sensitive to
the teachings. Catching the bull reveals the difficulty of subjugating
such overwhelming knowledge to one's understanding. Taming the
bull reminds one that constant application is necessary if one hopes
to channel his knowledge into true enlightenment. Riding the bull
home suggests that one's mastery of knowledge has been asserted
beyond denial. The bull transcended intimates that the means by
which knowledge has been conquered and assimilated is now no longer
needed. Both bull and self transcended points out that, with complete-
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enlightenment, perfection of understanding is reached; ont does not
need any further enlightenment, for one has it. Reaching Ile source
suggests that going over and over the same ground is no- necessary
after one has "arrived." In the world shows the indiffere tce of the
enlightened one to his physical evironment and the eff et of his
enlightenment upon others.
The material in the last section, "Centering," comes fr, m sources
four or five thousand years ago in India. Centering, or L alance, or
poise, how can it be attained? We find here 112 answ rs to the
question.
On the last page of the book one finds the question -What is
Zen?" followed by a blank space to suggest the answer.
This is a book primarily interesting to those who are a mystic
turn of mind and who would like to be "enlightened." Also it is
likely to prove of interest to students of Comparative Religi .ns.
-Florence Wells
HISTORY OF JAPAN by Saburo lenaga Putrished
by Japan Travel Bureau, 1958; pp. 262, Y600 in Japan, 0.25
elsewhere.
This history is number 15 of the Tourist Library Set- es and is
intended to give the ordinary visitor an introduction to the lostory and
the culture of Japan. That it does this well should be vident to
every reader. There is an abundance of illustration, and th reviewer
found this aspect one of the most appealing phases. What t lacks in
detail because of its shortness, it makes up for by its wealth of photo-
graphs, maps and charts.
The author, Dr. Saburo Ienaga, is an authority in cultut 11 history;
and this book represents an emphasis upon that aspect. Thus, instead of
over-attention being given to the civil wars leading to the est-blishment
of the Shogunate, much stress is placed upon the role of th ordinary
Japanese, who has had to bear the burden of the extreme cet tralization
of authority represented by the Bakufu. As an example:
"The tillers of the soil . . . were placed pretty high tp in the
social scale, next to the samurai. But what was actually resected was
not so much the farmer himself as his produce . . . As a tax every
fanner had to deliver an average of 50% of his harvest. la addition
he had to do manual labor as a form of surtax. Povet v-stricken
farmers sought to lighten their economic burdens now checking
further increase in the family by illegal abortion, and now cawing riots."
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While such information may not come as any surprise to those
familiar with the great agrarian revolts in Europe, it does tend to
balance and to put in perspective the tendency of looking upon feudal
Japan as the time when the tea ceremony, Kabuki and the art of
haiku held full sway.
However, the author shows no tendency to neglect the great cultural
influences. Quite the contrary; for all of the various arts, including
ukiyoe, the wood-block print art, are thoroughly treated.
There is adequate treatment of the great Meiji reforms; and the
reader gets a satisfactory picture of the rise and growth of militarism,
culminating in World War II. The author does not discuss the history
of the war, perhaps because it is of too recent and painful memory.
To this extent, such a volume would have to be supplemented by
other more complete histories. However, it is doubtful if this would be
of any consequence to the audience for which this book was written.
There is a good summary of postwar developments, and a really ex-
cellent chronological table and bibliography complete the book.
One has the final feeling that this is one of the more distinguished
volumes published in this library. The traveller or beginning student
of Japanese history could profitably start his study of Japan with this
volume. Indeed, even the advanced student will find it worth in-
cluding in his own library.
?Orb o L. Derby
MUNAKATA, edited by Yojuro Yasudo, English text
by Oliver Statler. Published by Charles E. Tuttle Co., Tokyo,
1958; pp. 82 with 97 plates, Y450 in Japan, $1.25 elsewhere.
This excellent survey of Munakata's prints, compiled by Yojuro
Yasudo, art critic and poet, with English text by Oliver Statler, well-
known authority on modern Japanese woodblock prints, displays through
its numerous plates the complexity and range of Munakata's work.
Munakata's identification with Zen Buddhism is evident throughout
in the prints reproduced. Plates 11 through 20 arc of the Ten Great
Disciples of Buddha, the Judai Deshi Hanga Saku, which helped
Munakata win his grand prizes at the Sao Paulo Biennale in 1955 and
the Venice Biennale in 1956, and which some critics feel are among
his greatest works. Dramatic in their elongated form, which allows
them to be hung in the traditional Japanese way as kakemono, and
strong in their contrast of black line on white surface in traditional
oriental severity, Munakata says of them, "I first became conscious of
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the full extent of the block. Each of these figures touch( the edge
of the block, top, bottom, and both sides."
Not all of his subjects are the historical Buddhist figures of the
Shaka or the various Bosatsu or saints, though this may be the source
of much of his inspiration. Many are creatures of his oWi imagina-
tion, which Munsterberg refers to when he discusses the voluptuous
earth-goddesses or angels, although perhaps vaguely connected with the
yakski and apsarases of ancient Indian Buddhism." Some of he Muna-
kata prints pictorialize Japanese legends, as in plates 25 through 32,
which tell the story of "the river of trickery" and of the legerpiary water
creatures who live there; it is a delightful series of prints, s4, iich make
use of stylized calligraphy to form part of the design, a technilue shown
in many of the prints reproduced here. Munakata is too p, werful an
artist to reproduce literally from the past; rather, all his subjects are
stamped with his personal conception and imagination; the raditional,
when called upon, is filtered through his particular originalit
Inherent in the artistry of Munakata is the Zen concep of muga,
which is best explained by Langdon Warner: "The princip. of muga
(it is not I that is doing this) opens the gate for the necessl essential
truth to flow in. When the self does not control the dr awini meaning
must." It is this renunciation of self that Munakata reflect when he
describes the power of the wooden board that must be br ,ught into
a working relationship with him, a power that exists outst le of the
artist, and which he emphasizes in his Japanese word for voodblock
pint, hanga, by which he stresses the importance of the basit materials
rather than the artist. Speed is another concept vital to ti :e oriental
artist; and Munakata creates with quick, furious activity, xi aiting the
meaning of his subject and the techniques he has mastered brilliant
fusion, without rational interference.
Munakata was the third son of the twelve children of a -,lacksmith
and was born in Aomori, northern Japan, in 1903. As he wf rked with
his father at the forge, his life was permeated with the religiot concepts
of Shintoism which brought to the forge the spirit of the:woods, the
earth and the sky. Since he won his first international priz, in 1951,
Munakata has signed his prints with the special pine-needle niirk which
his grandfather placed on swords, which his father placed n cutting
tools, and which he himself uses to acknowledge his heritage i devoted
craftsmanship.
With this family background, it is not surprising that qunakata
stands apart from the modern Japanese woodblock artists am. instead,
identifies himself with the folkcraft or mingei tradition. It kas Soetsu
Yanagi, acknowledged leader of this movement in Japan, who rst recog-
nized the genius of Munakata and encouraged hint, uniting lern closely
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with those other artists who presserve the historical folkcraft traditions
in their modern work and who believe in the concepts of Buddhism.
This patronage was invaluable to Munakata: "Mingei gave birth to
me. Yanagi showed me how much stronger a man can be when he
shares his strength with others, and draws on their strength in return.
He taught me that greatness cannot be achieved alone." It was through
Dr. Yanagi that Munakata learned his method of adding watercolor to
the back of the print instead of on top of it, a process used in some of
his more recent work show in this book.
The comments of Munakata which accompany many of the prints
give an excellent insight into his artistic goals; and, by the same token,
afford greater appreciation of his artistic achievements. With the
monster-like creatures in plates 33 and 36, figures caught between the
human state and Buddhahood, which were carved from the unplaned
boards of old apple boxes, he mastered the use of white lines and black
masses. Concerning the powerful "Flower Hunting Mural." the picture
of hunters without arrows because they are hunting flowers and must
hunt with their hearts, lie says that he is striving to go beyond effects:
"I don't want my work to spring from my artist's assertiveness over my
materials. I want it to flow naturally from these materials." The
prints that he considers his best are from a series of 24 which are based
on the poems of the famous novelist Junichiro Tanizaki, and are shown
in plates 75 and 76; fo r in these all the craftsmanship and techniques
he has mastered have been utilized.
There are many stories of the exuberant and energetic personality
of Munakata, and there are some indications of his humor here. In
plate 54, "And to Nurse Sick Children," a print of friendly devils, there
is one figure in the right-hand corner which looks like Munakata when
young, according to -Munakata. In plate 56 there is a tengu, a long-
nosed goblin. "A boastful creature," says Munakata. "Maybe me."
Most of the prints that won for him the international prize at
Locarno in 1951 and the grand prizes at the Sao Paulo Biennale in
1955 and at the Venice Biennale in 1956 are included here. The book
itself is about 7" x 41/2" in size, and the plates only suggest the magnitude
of the actual prints; but, considering that the aim of this book is to
present a comprehensive selection of the achievements of this artist in
an inexpensive edition, it can be said that the aim is most admirably
accomplished. This is one of a series that is planned to cover all the
major figures in the field of Japanese art, which Charles E. Tuttle will
publish in an English edition for Western readers through arrangement
with Kodansha, the original Japanese-language publisher.
?Patricia B. Daly
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
THE CULTURED PEARL, JEWEL OF JAPAN by
Norine C. Reece. Published by Charles E. Tuttle Co., Tokyo
and Vermont, 1938; pp. 107 with 47 illustrations (10 in (0100,
1700 in Japan, $2.50 elsewhere.
This well written book with its excellent illustrations tells all one
could wish to know about the cultured pearl -- the prolonged and
painstaking human efforts involved, the prodigious financial ,avestment
necessary, the many and unrelenting destructive forces ever-present?all
the factors that play upon the production of this jewel.
The most perfect home of the pictada martensii, the pearl oyster,
is lovely Ago Bay, which lies south of Nagoya, off southern I lonshu, in
the Pacific Ocean. We read, "The beautiful skies, the trans] ocent blue
water, and the lovely wooded hillsides all impart their beauty to the
opalescent gems." The author tells us of the ama, the diver oF the pearl
oyster industry, as she searches under-water for oysters and as s tie surfaces
with a gasp, or "sea whistle" as it is called, in her struggle I or breath.
Pictures show her in the white, long-sleeved, high-necked shirt and wrap-
around skirt which ties between the knees, and the towel turOan; all of
which protect her from the sharks, the eels, and the rough, raq ky bottom
of the ocean.
The life-cycle of the pearl is well explained and diagr aned. In
spring, the oyster, which has grown from spat in the past stx months,
is seeded, usually with a piece of the special clam-shell fron the Mis-
sissippi Valley, and is attached to a raft either individually Ly a string
or with other oysters in a wire basket. During the warm months, the
oyster is cleaned several times; then, in winter, the usual time lot- harvest,
a small pearl might be found, that is, if the changes in water tcmperature
have not been too severe, or if the typhoons or tidal wavei have not
been too destructive or if the dire "red tide" has not elim nated the
necessary food and oxygen.
The author, a familiar figure in the Ago Bay area, trils of the
additional years of exposure needed to develop the larger and more
highly-prized pearl. There is more financial investment, more solicitious
care, the moving of rafts southward for a warmer winter and lorthward
in spring, and more hopeful waiting. Only about 40% of r he pearls
are marketable, she tells us, and only 5% to 10% are perfect gems.
To evaluate the pearl, one must know about it, its growth in the
oyster, its handling and sorting in the market, its perfectic a in pro-
portion to size, color and luster, its care as a "lifetime inves-ment and
wonderful heirloom." Norine C. Reece, the author, has livea in Japan
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eleven years and understands the jewel's qualities, so that she can say:
"The very word 'pearl conjures up visions of soft, iridescent beauty,
of exquisite lustrous gems, brought into being for the adornment of
women . . . . " Her knowledge, which can be enjoyed by the initiated
as well as by the novice, she imparts with exactness and appreciation.
?Patricia B. Daly
PAINTING, 6TH-14TH CENTURIES: A Pageant of
Japanese Art, popular edition, edited by Ichitaro Kondo.
Published by Charles E. Tuttle Co., Tokyo and Rutland Vt.,
U.S.A. pp. 167, Y700, $2.95 in U.S.A.
A more expensive edition, of larger format, of volume one of the
Pageant of Japanese Art was published three years ago, being followed
by five other volumes; all of these provide newcomers and art lovers
with an authoritative history covering the various fields of Japanese
art. In this present edition, this delightful study of art has been made
available at a lower price, making possible to more of those who are
interested a firsthand look at the unusual characteristics of Japanese art.
This book contains more than 150 text illustrations, of which 10
are in color and 40 are plates in black-and-white. Although it may
be said that, due to size restrictions in phototype reproduction, the
richness of illustration falls short of one's wish; nevertheless they retain
much of the intricate detail which we associate with Japanese art. In
editing this volume, Ichitaro Kondo, a staff member of Tokyo National
Museum, has succeeded in giving the reader an insight into the vast
richness of art, as well as pointing out the oddities peculiar to the
painting in Japan, such as materials, subject matter, and style.
Dealing with painting from the pre-Buddhist period to the Kama-
kura period (AD. 552-1333), covering the Asuka, Nara and Heian
periods, this book opens a gateway to the realm of Japanese art.
Volumes II and HI, on painting from 14th to 19th centuries and
on architecture and gardens, are now available. Three others, on
sculpture, on ceramics, and on lacquer are in preparation.
?Barbara Bell
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CHRONICLE OF CURRENT EVENTS
959
January 1 The Government an-
nounces its Y1,519,800,000,000 draft
budget for 1959; the budget is
Y107,117,000,00cl larger than that for
1958.
The metric system goes into force,
replacing the traditional system of
shake, ken, and mamma.
January 2 More than 110,000 per-
sons visit the Imperial Plaza to extend
New Year's good wishes to the Emperor
and Empress.
In Havana, the rebel leader, Fidel
Castro, succeeds in proclaiming the
provisional government of the Cuban
Republic with Dr. Manuel Urrutia as
its president.
January 3 Alaska becomes the 49th
state of the United States of America.
The Soviet Union announces the
launching of a new cosmic rocket,
which, after passing the moon, will
become a planet around the sun, 93-
million miles from the earth.
January 5 The Soviet cosmic
rocket, nearing orbit in the solar
system, loses radio communication,
370,960 miles from the earth.
Soviet Deputy Premier Anastas I.
Mikoyan, now touring the United States,
holds talks with U.S. leaders on the
Berlin and other world problems.
January 8 French Premier Gen.
Charles de Gaulle becomes the new
President of France, and appoints
Michel Debrd as his successor to the
premier-ship.
January 9 Japan extends formal
recognition to the new Cuban govern-
ment under President Manuel Urrutia.
January 11 The third Soviet-Japanese
Fishery talks are opened in Tokyo.
January 12 A reshuffle of the Kishi
Cabinet results in the appointment of
four new ministers: Ryozo Hashimoto,
former Welfare Minister, as Education
Minister; Michita Sakata as Welfare
160
Minister; Shigejiro Ino as ;-ate Minister
and Director-General of the Defense
Agency; and Koichi Sel as State
Minister and Director-Ger eral of the
Economic Planning Board
January 15 The Soya Maru, the
Japanese Antarctic expedil ? m ship, re-
ports from the Showa &te on Ongle
Island that two out of th, 15 Sakhalin
dogs abandoned there by he 1958 ex-
pedition are discovered su
January 22 Vice-PresiCent Mihajlo
Svabic of the Servian !tepublic of
Yugoslavia arrives in Tok o to confer
with the Japanese Gov, 'nment and
business leaders.
January 24 The Liber.--Democratic
Party at its annual convex- 'ion re-elects
Prime Minister Nobusuke ';:ishi as its
President by a majority of 320 to 166.
January 26 The 31st ord .lary session
of the Diet is convened.
The parking meter systeti is adopted
along Tokyo's main thorce ghfares.
January 30 Japan flle with the
U.S. Securities and Exchave ge Commis-
sion the registration st cement for
floating $30-million worth If Japanese
dollar bonds on the New lurk market
to help finance the gige utic Mihoro
hydroelectric project. Th... bonds will
comprise long-term 15-yea, bonds and
medium-term 3-, 4-, and 5- year bonds.
January 31 The Soviet Union an-
nounces the completion ce a planned
300,000-man cut in mil ary forces
during 1958.
February 1 Search is abandoned
for the 2,875-ton Danish passenger-
cargo ship, believed to lute run into
icebergs off the coast of C teenland.
February 2 The seven- Ian Draper
Mission, headed by Williat II. Draper,
former U.S. Undersecretary I the Army,
arrives in Tokyo on its toi to inspect
U.S. military aid programs ror the Far
East.
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February 4 the US. Naval 13ase at
Yokosuka is declared open for joint
utilization with Japanese Maritime Self-
Defense Force.
' U.S. Secretary of State John Foster
Dulles arrives in London to seek support
from Western European leaders for a
more "flexible new-look" policy on the
problems of Berlin, Germny and Euro-
pean security.
February 7 Antonio Segni, Sar-
dinian-born Christian Democrat and
former Premier, is nominated the new
Italian Premier by President Giovanni
Gronti.
February 8 Soviet Premier Nikita
Khrushchev and Communist China's
Premier Chou En-lai on a visit to attend
the 21st Congress of the Soviet Com-
munist Party, sign an. "economic co-
operation" agreement, providing for
5,000-million rubles in Soviet aid to
Communist China.
February 10 The Imperial House-
hold Board announces the wedding
ceremony for H.I.II. Crown Prince
Akihito and Miss Michiko Shoda be
held on April 10.
February 13 ROK Minister Yiu Tai
Ha announces the rupture of ROK-
Japanese talks on the repatriation of
Korean residents in Japan. The Inter-
national Committee of the Red Cross
announces its readiness to assist in pro-
moting the talks, providing such re-
patriation "is completely voluntary."
Ryozo Hiranuma, Mayor of Yokohama
since 1951 and noted promotor of
amateur sports, dies at the age of 70.
Following the mass resignation of
the Cuban Cabinet, President Manuel
Urrutia, nominate ? Fidel Castro as the
new Premier.
February 14 U.S. Secretary of State
John Foster Dulles takes a leave of
absence to receive anti-cancer radiation
treatment at Walter Reed IIospital.
February 15 The representatives of
Britain, Greece, Turkey and the two
Cypriot communities meet in London to
end the 47-month old violence and
bloodshed in Cyprus. Archbishop
Makarios arrives by air to join this
round-table conference on the independ-
ence of Cyprus.
February 17 The U.S. Securities and
Exchange Commission signs agreements
with Japan Covering the $30,000,000
bond issue and a $10,000,000 World
Bank loan to Japan.
February 19 Prime Minister Walter
Nash of New Zealand arrives at the
Tokyo International Airport for an
8-day state visit. ,
Cyprus wins independence, following
the 'signing of a five-sided agreement
in London by 13ritian, Greece, Turkey
and the Greek and the Turkish Cypriot
communities.
February 21 British Prime Minister
Harold Macmillan, accompanied by
Foreign Secretary Selwyn Lloyd, sets
out his 10-day visit to the Soviet
Union.
February 23 The Anglo-Soviet talks
begin at the Kremlin between British
Prime Minister Harold Macmillan, now
visiting Moscow, and Soviet Premier
Nikita Khrushchev.
Hakuchikara, a six-year-old chestnut
horse from Japan, wins the $60,400
Washington's Birthday Handicap, defeat-
ing America's favorite, Round Table.
February 25 The General Council
of Trade Unions of Japan (Sohyo)
launches its spring offensive for an
early ratification of the ILO Conven-
tion, with 4-million workers under 56
member unions participating.
February 28 Japan and Yugoslavia
sign in Belgrade a treaty of commerce
and navigation ? the third of such
kind since those with the United States
and Norway following the end of World
War I.
March 1 Scattered disturbances are
continued by rebellious native groups
in 'the Central African Federation.
March 2 Japan and the Philippines
sign a provisional air accord providing
for the scheduled air service between
Manila and Tokyo on the basis of
reciprocity and non-discrimination.
March 3 In a joint communique
issued at the end of the 10-day British-
Soviet summit talks in Moscow, British
Prime Minister Harold Macmillan and
Soviet Premier Nikita Khruschev admit
that they have been "unable to agree"
on the German issue, but have endorsed
"the principle that differences between
nations should be resolved by negotia-
tions and not by force."
March 4 Soviet Premier Nikita
Khrushchev flies to East Germany to
attend the opening of the Leipzig Fair
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where industrial products of 49 Com-
munist and Western nations are
exhibited.
March 5 The U.S. Pioneer IV
"Planet" fired from Cape Canaveral
on March 3, speeds on, passing the
moon at a distance of 37,000 miles,
toward an orbit around the sun.
March 7 Ichiro Hatoyama, formerly
Prime Minister and President of the
Liberal-Democratic Party, dies of heart
attack at the age of 76.
A nine-member goodwill mission of
The Social Democratic Party, headed by
Inejiro Asanuma, Secretary General,
arrives in Peiping.
March 10 Japan and Denmark sign
a taxation treaty in Copenhagen.
Japanese Red Cross delegation at
Geneva appeals to the International
Committee of the Red Cross for assist-
ance in settling the Japan-ROK dispute
over the repatriation of Korean resi-
dents in Japan.
A right-wing revolt in Iraq, led by
Col. Abdel Wahab Shawaf, is overcome
by the government forces.
March 11 The Japanese Red Cross
Society urges the North Korean Red
Cross Society to send its representa-
.tives to Geneva, so that talks over the
repatriation of Korean residents in
Japan may be settled without delay.
A 14-member Japanese iron and steel
mission arrives in New Delhi to discuss
with Indian authorities the develop-
ment of the Balladila mine.
March 12 The Hawaiian statehood
bill receives the final congressional
approval.
March 13 The International Com-
mittee of the Red Cross reaffirms its
strict neutrality in the ROK-Japanese
disputes over the voluntary return home
of Korean residents in Japan.
March 11 Governor Selichiro Yasui
of Tokyo Metropolis tenders his resig-
nation after holding the gubernatorial
post for 13 consecutive years since
May, 1947.
March 17 The International Trade
Conference opens in Yokohama with
the participation of more than 200
persons from 26 nations.
March 18 The first Asian Pro-
ductivity Conference is opened in Tokyo
With the representatives of 15 Asian
nations participating.
The Japan Social Democratic Party
delegation to Communist China winds
up its 10-day talks with leaders of
Communist China, withcmt reaching
any agreement on suspen.trA trade re-
lations. A joint communkne issued by
Inejiro Asanuma, the Part.,-'s Secretary
General and head of the Deiegation, and
Chang lisi-jo, President of the Chinese
Peoples Institute of For men Affairs,
states that trade relation between the
two nations will not be mi: roved unless
the Japanese Government .1 bandons its
"hostile" attitude, its "two China" policy,
and any such measures at deemed ob-
structing the restoration or trade.
March 19 British Prime Minister
Harold Macmillan arrives .11 Washing-
ton for conferences with US. President
Dwight Eisenhower.
U.S. scientists succeed in establishing
the first two-way radar contact with
Venus, covering a space round-trip of
56-million miles.
March 20 Newly appointed British
Ambassador Sir Oscar Mor'and, accom-
panied by Lady Morland arrives in
Tokyo.
March 21 Heavy figh' .ng breaks
out over the Tibetan-Commbnist Chinese
border following the Comnn mist Chinese
summon for the Dalai Larta.
March 22 U.S. Presid nt Dwight
Eisenhower and British Prime Minister
Harold Macmillan, now vir ing Wash-
ington, agree on a summl- conference
to be held in the coming mummer.
The Dalai Lama is ropori ..-rd to have
been placed under house arrest at his
winter palace by the Comm :list Chinese
authorities.
March 23 Australian 1,1knister for
External Affairs Richard G. Casey
arrives in Tokyo for a 10,...ry goodwill
visit.
West German Minister of Atomic
Energy and Water Ecr corny, Dr.
Siegfried Balke, also arriv. r in Tokyo
on a 7-day visit at the invitation of
the Japan Atomic Industrial Forum.
March 25 The NATO's 15-member
Permanent Council approve the notes
on forthcoming conferences which the
United States, Britain, Fran. and West
Germany will send to the Soviet Union.
March 26 The Western Big Three
and the Soviet Union agre to a for-
eign ministers conference from May 11
to discuss a peaceful settlement of the
Berlin issue.
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March 27 The Buddha Jayanti cere-
monies are held in Tokyo with 70
delegates from 13 Asian nations
attending.
March 28 The non-confidence motion
by the Social Democratic Party against
the Kishi Cabinet is rejected by a vote
of 253 to 142 at the plenary session
of the House of Representatives:
Communist China proclaims the
Panchen Lama as the "Chairman" of
the Tibetan nation, replacing the Dalai
Lama, who is reported to have been
"abducted" by the rebels.
March 30 At the Tokyo District
Court, judge Akio Date announces a
decision for the acquittal of 7 defendants
in the Sunakawa case, on the ground
that the existence of the U.S. military
bases in Japan is not in conformity with
the Constitution.
The Soviet Union accepts the Western
Powers' proposal for a foreign ministers'
conference in Geneva beginning on
May 11.
March 31 The budget bill for 1959,
amounting to Y1,419,248,000,000, is passed
by the Diet without amendment.
April 1 The 15th General Assembly
Of the Japan Medical Congress is
opened in Tokyo, with 10,000 Japanese
physicians and 50 guests from abroad
attending.
The International Committee of the
Red Cross (ICRC) in Geneva accepts
Japan's petition for the release of 153
Japanese fishermen detained in South
Korea, and promises assistance.
April 2 All parliamentary proceed-
ings are suspended as a result of the
Social Democratic Party's boycott of
deliberation in protest against the
Liberal-Democratic Party's attempt to
pass the Government-sponsored minimum
wage bill on the strength of a majority.
The Dalai Lama is reported to have
crossed the Tibetan border safely into
India.
April 3 The Liberal-Democratic Party
succeeds in passing the minimum wage
bill with revision, despite the Socialists'
effort to block its passage.
Public prosecutors appeal to the
Supreme Court for reversal of the
recent district court judgement in the
Sunakawa case, ruling that the pre-
Sence of U.S. forces in Japan is in
violation of Article 9 of the aapanese
Constitution.
April 4 The 30th anniversary meet-
ing of the Association of Foreign
Teachers of Japan elects Dr. Burton E.
Martin of Waseda as President of the
organization for 1959-60.
April 5 Ceylonese Transport and
Works Minister Maithripala Senanayake
arrives in Tokyo for a 10-day visit.
Gen. L. L. Lemnitzer, U.S. Army
Vice Chief of Staff and former Far
East Commander, arrives at Atsugi on
an inspection tour of Far East military
Installations.
April 7 The three-day centennial
celebrations of the Nippon Seikokai is
held in Tokyo in commemoration of
the arrival of the first Episcopal
missionaries in Japan in 1859; attend-
ing the ceremonies are 60 distinguished
foreign prelates, clergy and lay leaders,
including the Most Rev. and Rt. Hon.
Archbishop of Canterbury, Geoffrey
Francis Fisher and the Rt. Rev. Arthur
Lichtenberger, Presiding Bishop of the
Protestant Episcopal Church in the
United States, and more than 7,000
Japanese bishops, clergy and laymen.
The Government approves an amnesty
program for 100,000 to come into force
on the occasion of the Crown Prince's
wedding.
West Germany's Chancellor Konrad
Adenauer accepts the Christian Demo-
cratic' Union's nomination for the
presidency.
April 10 H.I.H. the Crown Prince
Akihito's marriage with Miss Michiko
Shoda, the first commoner to come in
line to the Imperial Throne, is cele-
brated amidst nation-wide rejoicing.
April 11 The representatives of the
Soviet Union and Japan agree on the
1959 crab fishing quota limits set at
420,000 and 280,000 cases respectively.
North Korean delegation in Geneva
agrees to hold talks on the Korean
repatriation problem with the repre-
sentatives of the Japan Red Cross
Society in the International Comtnittee
of the Red Cross offices.
April 13 The Japanese Antarctic
expedition ship, Soya Maru, returns to
Tokyo after completing her third cruise
to the Showa Base on Ongle Island:
The Red Cross delegations of Japan
and North Korea in Geneva open ' the
first session of talks on the repatriation
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
of Koreans from Japan to North Korea.
April 14 The world-famous Matsu-
kata art collection, returned by France,
arrives at Yokohama harbor.
April 19 The Dalai Lama makes his
first public appearance at Tezpur,
India, since his narrow escape over
the Tibetan border into India.
April 22 Transportation Minister
Mamoru Nagano resigns. as a result
of the renomination of Shinji Sogo as
President of the Japanese National
Railways.
Japan's six major motion picture
companies decide to go their own
separate ways on the controversial
decision to show TV films in motion
picture theaters.
April 28 Local elections for governors
and prefectural assembly members are
held today with a decisive victory
scored by the Liberal-Democratic Party.
Ryutaro Azuma, President of the Japan
Amateur Athletic Association and Japa-
nese representative of the International
Olympic Committee, is elected the
Governor of Tokyo by defeating former
Foreign Minister and Socialist affiliated
Hachirc Arita.
Christian A. Herter is sworn in as
the new U.S. Secretary of State and
successor to John Foster Dulles.
Sprit 24 Prime Minister Jawaharal
Nehru confers with the Dalai Lama at
Mussoorie.
April 27 At the closing session of
the second National Peoples Congress
in Peiping, Liu Shao-chi, Chairman of
the Standing Committee of the Congress,
is elected as successor to Mao Tse-tung
and the new Chairman of the Peoples
Republic of China. Mao Tse-tung
remains as Chairman of the Com-
munist Party, and Chou En-lal, as
Premier of the State Council for another
four years.
April 30 Elections for city, town and
village heads and assembly members
are held throughout the country; the
results show a marked advance scored
by the radical elements.
May 1 The 30th May Day is celebrat-
ed throughout Japan with 4-million
workers participating.
May 4 The Soviet Union warns the
Japanese Government of the danger of
arming its country with nuclear weap-
ons, and urges it to follow a policy of
164
neutrality_
May 5 The 3rd Tokyo International
Trade Fair, the largest ver held in
Japan, is opened today.
May 8 MRA's 3rd ASiar Assembly is
opened in Otsu with 200 Tiersons from
25 nations attending its sessions.
May 10 With the arriv 11 in Geneva
of the representatives of--.le Big Four,
preliminary talks begin m the Big-
Four foreign ministers cos Terence.
May 12 The East-West 1 areign minis-
ters conference in Genes holds the
first session after delay C? used by the
Russian demand for the admission 01
East Germany at the cant since. Upon
this issue, the Soviet Ur :an and the
three Western Powers ha'-. come to an
agreement that both Ea,: and West
Germany be admitted as it, tivisers." In
the second session in the Eiternoon, the
Soviet Russia makes ann-ter demand
for the admission of Polaric and Czecho-
slovakia as "full and equ. L members;"
the move is rejected by he Western
Three.
May 13 Japan and South 'ietnam sign
in Saigon a reparations pa- ment agree-
ment, amounting in total t 855,600,000
payable in products and tatrvices over
a period of five years.
The Soviet Union and J 'pan sign a
fishery agreement after lai,..i,-protracted
talks started on January 1`,' the agree-
ment sets the Japanese s dmon catch
quota at 85,000 metric tons.
May 14 At the Big-Four -oreign Min-
isters conference in Genev , U.S. Sec-
retary of State Christian Perter offers
a peace "package plan" which pro-
poses a three-stage pear = plan for
German re-unification and VIP establish-
ment of free Berlin as lb- capital, in
exchange for an agreement !-_o a global
reduction in armed forces, t, ?ms inspec-
tion and a security system in Europe
as previously proposed by the Soviet
Premier, Nikita Khrushchev
May 15 H.I.H. Princess Suga, the
youngest daughter of T.M. vie Emperor
and Empress, is betrothed 'a Hisanaga
Shimazu, 25-year-old son 4,r the late
Marquis Hisanori Shimazu, in employ-
ment at the Japan Export-It part Bank.
May 16 Sweden and sa an sign a
new trade agreement in Toity, , providing
for Japan's export to the amount of
$25-million, and import, $1t million.
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CHRONICLE OF CURRENT EVENTS
Ministry of Foreign Affairs publishes
its Blue Paper on Diplomacy (No. 3),
re-asserting Japan's need for strengthen-
ing the joint security arrangement with
the United States, as well as relations
with other nations of the Free World,
-so as to devote her best effort to the
'cause of world peace.
Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev
states that the Soviet Union is not re-
jecting the Western Powers' proposal
? entirely, although the original plan sub-
mitted at the Big-Four foreign minis-
ters conference in Geneva is not accept-
able to the Russians.
Sir Robert Craigie, former British Am-
bassador to Japan, dies at the age of
75 at his residence in Winchester.
May 19 A four-nation whaling con-
ference is convened in Tokyo, with
Britain, the Netherland, Norway and
Japan participating.
May 20 The U.S. Justice Department
completes its historic program for
restoring American citizenship to Amer-
leans of Japanese ancestry who re-
nounced it during the last war.
May 22 The 1959 Tokyo International
Trade Fair closes its successful 16-day
run; more than 1,800,000 Japanese and
5,000 foreign buyers visited the Fair,
and the contracts concluded amounted
in total to Y15-billion.
The Antarctic Whaling Conference
ends with no agreement reached by the
four participr,ting nations.
May 23 More than 600 Japanese and
?foreign Boy Scouts participate in the
two-day International Jamboree at Ha-
kone.
May 24 Former U.S. Secretary of
State John Foster Dunes succumbs at
the age of 71 in Walter Reed Army
Medical Center after three-month battle
for life against cancer, later complicat-
ed by pneumonia. He dedicated his lite
to safeguarding security and welfare
among the nations of the Free World,
having logged more than half-a-million
miles on his goodwill missions to 46
states in East and West hemispheres.
May 25 The Japanese delegates ap-
peal at the International Olympic Com-
mittee Meeting in Munich that Tokyo
be .nominated as the site for the 1964
Olympic Games.
The East-West foreign ministers' con-
ference in Geneva goes into recess to
permit the leading participants _ to at-
tend the funeral of the late John Foster
Dulles, former U.S. Secretary of State.
May 26 The IOC in Munich selects
Tokyo as the site for the 1964 Olympic
Games by casting in favor 34 of the 58
votes in the first ballot. Innsbruck is
selected as the site for Winter Olympics.
Crowds of peOple visit the Washing-
ton Cathedral to pay their last tribute
to the late John Foster Dulles whose
body lies in state in the Bethlehem
Chapel of the Cathedral.
May 27 The funeral services of the
late John Foster Dulles are held in
the Washington Cathedral with the at-
tendance of distinguished representatives
from almost all the nations of the
world, Soviet Russia bell-1g among them,
followed by the burial rites at Gentle
Hill in the Arlington National Cemetry.
May 23 The IOC in Munich expeles
National China from its board on the
ground that it no longer represents
"sports" in the entire country of China.
The move paves the way to the re-
admission of Communist China which
withdrew from the organization in pro-
test against the continued recognition
of Nationalist China.
The U.S.. Army , announces that two
monkeys return alive from a 1,500 mile
space ride in the air-conditioned nose
cone of a Jupiter missile.
May 29 The Big-Four foreign min-
isters return to Geneva, after holding a
historic "flying conclave" for secret dis-
cussions on an interim Berlin settle-
ment.
May 31 Martial Law is declared in
Nicaragua, as President Luis Somoza
discloses secret Communist plot to in-
vade the country and overthrow his
government.
June 1 The Asian Peoples Anti-Com-
munist League (APACL) opens its fifth
-annual conference in Seoul.
Juno 2 The election for the House of
Councillors is held in both the national
and local constituencies. The 272 suc-
cessful returns are:- National Constitu-
ency (52): 22 Liberal-Democrats, 17
Socialists, 4 Ryokufukai members, 1
Communist, 1 Minor Party member, and
7 Independents; Local Constituencies
(75): 49 Liberal-Democrats, 21 Socialists,
2 Ryokufukai members, and 3 Inde-
pendents.
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The appeal by the Tokyo District
Procurators' Office for a reversal of the
lower court's decision on the Sunakawa
Case is accepted by .the Supreme Court.
Singapore is proclaimed an indepen-
dent state, ending its 140 year history as
a British colony. Lee Kuan-yew, leader
of the leftist People's Action Party is
nominated the prospective head of the
first autonomous government; the PAP
won a landslide victory in legislative
assembly elections held on May 30.
June 4 New French Ambassador Jean
Daridan arrives in Tokyo to assume his
post,
June 6 Indonesian President Sukarno
and his suite arrive here on a two-week
state visit. t
West Germany's Chancellor Konrad
Adenauer surprises the Western alliance,
as well as his Christian Democratic
Party, by announcing that he will re-
main Chancellor instead of running for
the symbolic post of President.
June 10 The National Western Art
Museum, housing the Matsukata collec-
tion recently returned by the French
government, is opened at Ueno, Tokyo.
June 11 The Japanese and North
Korean Red Cross representatives in
Geneva come to an agreement on the
repatriation issue.
June 13 The Finance Ministry and
the Bank of Japan suspend the purchase
of export bills on the ROK-Japan open
account, virtually stopping all Japanese
exports to South Korea.
June 15 The 21st convention of the
Japan Teachers Union (Nikkyoso) is
closed, with the moderate group barely
winning over the radicals to control this
420,000-member organization.
June 18 The third Kish' Cabinet is
formed after a prolonged reshuffle; two
hold-overs from the previous govern-
ment are Foreign Minister Fujiyama and
Finance Minister Sato. The new line-
up is: Prime Minister, Nobusuke Kishi;
Deputy Prime Minister, Shuji Masutani;
Ministers respectively of Foreign Affairs,
Aiichiro Fujiyama; Finance, Eisaku
Sato; International Trade and Industry,
Hayato Ikeda; Justice, Hiroya Ino; Edu-
cation, Takechiyo Matsuda; Welfare,
YOshio Watanabe; Agriculture and For-
166
estry, Takeo Fukuda; Transportation,
Wataru Narahashi; Pot Lit Services, Ha-
ruhlko Uetake; Labor, Raizo Matsumoto;
Construction Minister aril State Minister
(Director-General of the Hokkaido
Development Agency) esmcurrently, Isa-
mu Murakami; State Minister (Director-
General of the Defense Agency), Mune-
non i Akagi; State 1Vi1i.:ster (Director-
General of the EcM,omic Planning
Board), Wataro Karma State Minister
(Director-General of tl ,2 Science and
Technology Agency, at, Chairman of
the Atomic Energy Caremission), Yasu-
hiro Nakasone; State Minister (Director-
General of the Aut,,,nomy Agency,
and Chairman of the National Public
Safety Agency), Kan; hiro Ishihara;
Chief Cabinet Secrets y, Etsusaburo
Shiina; Secretary-Genert I of the Prime
Minister's Office, Tokuya,11 Fukuda; and
Director-General of the Thbinet Legisla-
tion Bureau, Shuzo Ha:*- ishi.
June 20 Former Prirt Minister and
Senior Advisor to the Liberal-Democratic
Party Hitoshi Ashida pw-,ios away at the
age of 71.
The Big Four confer, nee in Geneva
takes recess after 40 dl is of deadlock
over the issues of Berlin Settlement and
summit talks.
June 22 The 32nd extraordinary
session of the Diet is 'convened today;
the alignment in both Houses is as
follows. The House of Representatives
(467): Liberal-Demorrai - 291, Social-
ists -165, Communist - 1, independents -2,
and vacancies -8; the i,use of Coun-
cillors (250): Liberal Democrats - 135,
Socialists - 84, Independents - 14, Ryoku-
fukai - 11, Communists -3 No. 17 Lobby
Members' Club - 2, and vacancy -
June 23 The House of Councillors at
its plenary session re-( !cots Tsuruhei
Matsumoto and Taro Hi ii, both mem-
bers of the Liberal-Demo ,ratic Party, as
President and Vice Presic ..int respective-
ly.
June 29 Japan decider to remain in
the International Whaling Convention,
cancelling the notice of withdrawal she
submitted on February 6.
June 30 A six-week Russian exhibi-
tion in New York is op, ned by Soviet
First Deputy Premier Fro, R. Kozlov.
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TRADE,AND PAYMENTS AGREEMENT BETWEEN JAPAN AND
THE UNITED ARAB REPUBLIC (EGYPTIAN REGION)
SIGNED AT CAIRO, NOVEMBER 8, 1958
The Government of Japan and the Government of the United Arab Repub-
lic (Egyptian Region), desiring to strengthen further the economic relations
between the two countries and to enlarge the trade between them, have agreed
as follows:
ARTICLE I
a. Payments in respect of all current transactions between Japan and the
United Arab Republic (Egyptian Region) shall be effected in pounds sterling
and/or in other transferable and convertible currencies to be mutually agreed
upon between the two Governments, in accordance with the laws and regula-
tions concerning trade and foreign exchange which are in force and may come
Into force in the respective countries.
b. The term "current transactions" referred to above shall mean the
transactions covered by Article XIX (I) of the Articles of Agreement of the
International Monetary Fund.
c. Subject to the respective approval of the competent authorities of Japan
and the United Arab Republic (Egyptian Region), payments in respect of other
transactions may also be effected in accordance with the provisions of para-
graph a, Article I.
ARTICLE II
The Government of Japan and the Government of the United Arab Republic
(Egyptian Region) shall make their best efforts to increase the volume of trade
between the two countries and to maintain it at the highest possible level.
For this purpose, lists of goods available for export from each of the two
countries to the other are attached to the present Arrangement. However, the
issuance of import and export licenses for goods set forth on the attached lists
shall be subject to the import and export laws and regulations which are in
effect and may come into effect in the respective countries.
These lists shall not be construed as excluding the exchange of goods other
than those enumerated in them.
ARTICLE III
Both Governments will endeavour to ensure that the goods imported by
Japan from the United Arab Republic (Egyptian Region) or by the United
Arab Republic (Egyptian Region) from Japan will not be re-exported without
the prior approval of the country of origin of the goods.
ARTICLE IV
Representatives of both Governments will meet at any time, upon the
request of either Government, for the purpose of reviewing and facilitating the
flow of trade between the two countries and for other purposes to be agreed
upon be'tween the two Governments.
ARTICLE V
The present Arrangement shall enter into force on November 28, 1958, and
shall remain in force for a period of one year. It shall be automatically
extended for one successive year, unless either Government notifies the other
ninety (90) days prior to the expiration of each period of one year, of its
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
intention to terminate the Arrangement.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the representatives of the two Govertments, duly
authorized for the purpose, have signed this Arrangement.
DONE at Cairo, on November 8, 3958, in duplicate in the Engl sh language.
FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF
JAPAN:
Yutaka Tsuchicla
FOR THE GOVERI, MENT OF
THE UNITED ARJOI REPUBLIC
(EGYPTIAN RI ;ION):
Hassan
LIST "A"
EXPORTS FROM JAPAN TO THE UNITED
ARAB REPUBLIC. (EGYPTIAN REGION)
Agricultural and Aquatic Products
Tea
Fish, preserved, salted, dried or smoked
Meat, Fruit and Vegetables, preserved
Tobacco in leaves
Monosodium Glutamate
Hard Wood and Plywood
Others
Textiles
Yarns, Natural Silk and Floss Silk
Yarn, Artificial Silk (Rayon and Spun Rayon)
Thread of Natural Silk
Silk Fabrics
Artificial Silk Fabrics
Wool Tops, pure or mixed
Yarn of Wool, pure or mixed
Fabrics of Wool, pure or mixed
Tulle, Lace, Embroideries, Ribbons, Velvets and Flushes
Cotton Fabrics
Woven Fabrics of Linen and Flax Textiles
Hosiery
Clothing, ready-made and part
Underclothing, ready-made and part
Neckties
Others
Chemical and Pharmaceutical Products
Titan dioxide, Titanium oxide
Sensitized Photographic Materials
Fertilizers
Drugs and Medicines
Dyestuffs
Celluloid Sheet
Caustic Soda, Bleaching Powder
Paints
Printers' Ink
Iodine
Others
Non-Ferrous Products
Copper and Brass Products
Electric Wires and Cables
Light Metal Rolled Products
Others
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DOCUMENTARY MATERIAL
Ferrous Products
Galvanized Iron Sheet
Bars and Shapes
Plates and Sheets
Hoops-
Tubes and Pipes
Rails
Structural Steel of all types
Others
Machinery and Parts
Railway Rolling Stocks
Ships -
Automobiles and Tractors
Electric Machinery and Apparatus
Portable Radios, including Transistor Radios
Batteries
Internal Combustion Engines
Agricultural Machines and Tools
Textile Machinery
Industrial Machinery
Tools
Communication Apparatus
Medical and Dental Apparatus
Bearings
Cast and Forged Products
Bicycles and Tricycles
Meters of all kinds
Cameras and other Optical Apparatus
Watches and Clocks
Others
Sundry Goods
Pottery and Porcelain Ware
Glass
Stationary
Building Materials
Industrial Ceramics Goods
Daily Necessary Metal Products
Toys
Rubber Products
Leather, Leather Products
-
Celluloid Manufactures, Synthetic Resin Manufactures
Jewelry worn on person
Manufactures of Bamboo and Wood
Musical Instruments, Records, and Sporting Goods
Papers
Others.
LIST "B''
EXEORTS, EROM THE UNITED ARAB
REPUBLIC (EGYP.TIAN REGION) TO JAPAN
Raw Cotton ? Lead Ores
Cotton Waste Zinc Ores
Crude Phosphate Other Metal Ores
Salt Flax
Gypsum Essential Oil
Rice Medicinal Herbs
Petroleum Henna
Manganese ? Others
169:
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CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
PROTOCOL
With reference to the Payments Arrangement between Japa and Egypt
signed on November 28, 1953 and the Trade and Payments Art, ngement be-
tween Japan and the United Arab Republic (Egyptian Region) ;-igned today,
the Government of Japan and the Government of the United A -ab Republic
(Egyptian Region) have agreed as follows:
1. The "Japan Account" (hereinafter called the Account.) esta ,lished under
the provisions of the Payments Arrangement betWeen Japan and_ ,:gypt signed
on November 28, 1953, shall be kept open until November 27, 195 , and closed
on the same day inclusive.
2. Notwithstanding the provision of Article I of the Trade a nd Payments
Arrangement between Japan and the United Arab Republic (Egyr ian Region)
signed today, payments for the following transactions may be effc-ted through
the Account until November 27, 1959:
a) Transactions for which import licenses, permissions for ift nittances or
other similar authorizations have been or will have bef n issued by
either government on or before November 27, 1958, and ,vill still be
valid on the same day.
However, the remittances of down payments and installn ,nts for de-
ferred payment contracts shall not be Made through the Account on
and after November 28, 1958.
b) Additional transactions for settling the estimated over-all net balance
of the Account under paragraph 4 below.
3. Payments for the transactions mentioned in paragraph 2 hove which
will not have been completed on or before November 27, 1959, still be made
in accordance with the provisions of Article I of the Trade al Payments
Arrangement between Japan and the United Arab Republic (Egyp an Region)
signed today, and shall accordingly be renegotiated by the parties to the said
transactions.
4. Both Governments shall, at the earliest practicable time I, (ter Novem-
ber 28, 1958 and whenever necessary thereafter, make an estirtate of the
over-all net balance of the Account as of November 27, 1959, and take neces-
sary measures in order to settle the said estimated balance b means of
additional exports of goods.
5. Both Governments shall confirm by December 31, 1959, to final net
balance of the Account as of November 27, 1959. The net balan, thus con-
firmed shall be paid by the debtor country in pounds sterling ' in United
States of America dollars at payer's option without delay upon :he request
of the creditor country.
6. The Bank of Japan, acting on behalf of the Covernmer of Japan,
and the National Bank of Egypt, acting on behalf of the Gcr-ernment of
the United Arab Republic (Egyptian Region), shall establish by m ,tual agree-
ment the technical procedures necessary for the implementation of The arrange-
ments set forth in this Protocol.
7. The provisions of Article IV of the Payments Arrangem.,nt between
Japan and Egypt signed on November 28, 1953 and the relate? notes ex-
changed on the said day shall be superseded by this Protocol.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the representatives of the two Goverf (lents, duly
authorized for the purpose, have signed this Protocol.
DONE at Cairo, on November 8, 1958, In duplicate in the Ength ii language.
FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF JAPAN: FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF THE
Yutaka Tsuchida UNITED ARAB REP' 'BLIC
(EGYPTIAN REGICN):
Hassan Zaki
(Entered into force, November 28, 1958)
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DOCUMENTARY MATERIAL
TREATY OF COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION BETWEEN JAPAN AND
THE FEDERAL PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF YUGOSLAVIA, SIGNED
AT BELGRADE, FEBRUARY 28, 1959
The Government of Japan and the Government of the Federal People's
Republic of Yugoslavia, being desirous of strengthening the bonds of friend-
ship and mutual collaboration and of promoting the development of economic
relations between the two countries, have resolved to " conclude a Treaty of
Commerce and Navigation, based upon the principles of equity and mutual
benefit, and for that purpose have appointed as their Plenipotentiaries,
The Government of Japan:
Toshikazu Kase, Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of
Japan to the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia,
The Government of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia:
Bogdan Crnobrnja, Ambassador, Assistant Secretary of State for
Foreign Affairs of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia,
Who, having communicated to each other their full powers found to be
in good and due form, have agreed upon the following Articles:
ARTICLE 1
Nationals of either High Contracting Party shall be accorded within the
territories of the other High Contracting Party:
(a) national treatment and most-favoured-nation treatment with respect
to the protection by law of their persons; and
(b) most-favoured-nation treatment with respect to the protection of
their property.
Nationals of either High Contracting Party shall be authorized, on the
basis of national treatment and most-favoured-nation treatment, to defend
their rights before the authorities of the other High Contracting Party and
to appear in court, either to bring an action or to defend themselves, ac-
cording to the laws of such other High Contracting Party.
ARTICLE 2
Nationals of either High Contracting Party shall enjoy, throughout the
territories of the other High Contracting Party, most-favoured-nation treat-
ment with respect to the right of entry, travel, residence and sojourn.
Any advantages, facilities, privileges or favours which are accorded, or
may be accorded later, by either High Contracting Party to nationals of any
third country with respect to acquisition of property and business and other
activities, shall be accorded to nationals of the other High Contracting Party.
However, neither High Contracting Party will be bound to grant to nationals
of the other High Contracting Party more favourable treatment concerning
the acquisition of immovable property and the, rights of engagement in mining
than, those granted by the latter High Contractnig Party to the nationals of
the former High Contracting Party.
Nationals of either High Contracting Party shall not, within the territories
of the other High Contracting Party, be subject to taxes; fees or charges
of any kind other or more burdensotne than those imposed upon nationals
of the most-favoured-nation. However, each High Contracting Party reserves
the right to extend, specific tax advantages on the basis of reciprocity or
to accord special tax advantages by virtue of agreements for the avoidance
of double taxation or the mutual protection of revenue.
ARTICLE 3
Nationals of either High Contracting Party shall be exempted, within the
territories of the other High Contracting Party, from any military service
or service in the National Guard or Militia and from all taxes and military
charges in replacement or such personal services,
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With respect to the above exemption and all forced war-lo ms and any;
military exaction, requisition or compulsory billeting, nationals 01 either High
Contracting Party shall be accorded treatment no less faVourab,-, than that
accorded to nationals of any third country.
ARTICLE 4
Legal persons engaging in commercial, industrial and finane;:ti activities,
including shipping or insurance activities, organized in accordal e with the
laws of either High Contracting Party and having their seat within its
territories, shall be recognized as such within the territories ; 17 the other
High Contracting Party. The capacity of such legal persons shah be assessed
in the light of the national lvislation of such other High Contra ding Party.
Such legal persons shall have the right to be represented th, )ugh agents
within the territories of the other High Contracting Party in ace ;rdance with
the regulations of such other High Contracting Party.
The provisions of Articles 1, 2 and 3 of the present Tre: ty shall be
equally applied to the said legal persons as far as they are nplicable to
legal persons.
ARTICLE 5
Either High Contracting Party shall be authorized to appo nt consular
representatives in the territories of the other High Contractin! Party, in
accordance with the principles of international law and internath nal custom,
and on the basis of reciprocity.
ARTICLE 6
The High Contracting Parties shall accord to each other favOt;rable treat-
ment in all matters regarding trade and navigation between the t countries.
The High Contracting Parties undertake, within the framework of their legis-
lations, to take all appropriate measures necessary for facilitat and en-
couraging the mutual exchange of commodities and services.
ARTICLE 7
Either High Contracting Party shall accord most-favoured-r d ion treat-
ment to products originating in, or consigned to, the territories ; the other
High Contracting Party in all matters concerning customs duties trdi charges
of any kind, the system of collection of such customs duties and charges,
regulations and formalities affecting, or which may affect later, he clearing
of the products through the customs, as well as their transfer art! storage.
ARTICLE 8
Any advantages, facilities, privileges or favours which are corded, or
may be accorded later, by either High Contracting Party, concerni.;tt the mat-
ters referred to in Article 7, to products originating in, or consit.ned to, the
territories of any third country, shall be accorded to products ornzinating in,
or consigned to, the territories of the other High Contracting P ;rty.
ARTICLE 9
Either High Contracting Party shall accord to the products o the other
High Contracting Party most-favoured-nation treatment in all rit.dters with
respect to all internal taxes or other internal charges of any k lit imposed
on or in connection with imported goods, and with respect to all h 'vs, regula-
tions and requirements affecting internal sale, offering for sale purchase,
distribution or use of imported goods within the territories of such High
Contracting Party.
Either High Contracting Party shall accord to the other High 'ontracting
Party most-favoured-nation treatment regarding the interior or tr nsit trans-
portation of products originating in the territories of such other High Con-
tracting Party.
ARTICLE 10
Subject to the internal laws and regulations in force, either High Con-
tracting Party shall accord most-favoured-nation treatment with respect to
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exemption from duties arid charges on the following articles of the other
High Contracting Party which are brought into temporarily, and taken out of
its territories:
i(a) Samples, provided that their value is insignificant and that they are
used for the advertising purpose only;
(b) articles designed for testing or experiment;
(c) articles designed for exhibitions, fairs or competitions;
(d) articles to be repaired or finished; and
(e) wrappings or receptacles used In commerce and designed for the
transportation of commodities.
ARTICLE 11
Neither IIigh Contracting Party shall establish or maintain in its regula-
tions any prohibitions or restrictions on the importation of any product of
the other High Contracting Party, on the exportation of any product to fhe
territories of such other High Contracting Party, or on the transit of any
product en route to or from the territories of such other High Contracting
Party, unless the importation of the like product of, the exportation of the
like product to, or the transit of the like product en route to or from any
third country is similarly prohibited or restricted. Exceptions to this rule
are permitted:
(a) for reasons of essential security interests;
(b) for sanitary reasons or for the protection of useful animals and
plants; and
(c) for the need to safeguard its external financial position or balance
of payments.
Either High Contracting Party undertakes that enterprises owned or con-
trolled by its Government, and monopolies or agencies granted exclusive or
special privileges within its territories, shall make their purchases or sales
Involving either imports or exports solely in accordance with commercial con-
siderations.
ARTICLE 12
The High Contracting Parties undertake, within the framework of their
respective legislations, to take appropriate measures in order to facilitate
land, sea and air traffic as well as postal, telegraphic and telephonic com-
munications between the two countries.
ARTICLE 13
The nationality of vessels of either High Contracting Party shall be rec-
ognized by the other High Contracting Party in virtue of their flags and
according to documents issued by the competent authorities of such High
Contracting Party in accordance with its legislation.
The certificates concerning measurement of vessels including Tonnage Cer-
tificate issued by the competent authorities of either High Contracting Party
shall be recognized by the competent authorities of the other High Contracting
Party as equivalent to the certificates issued by the latter.
Merchant vessels of either High Contracting Party shall enjoy most-favoured-
nation treatment with respect to entry into and exit from all ports, places
and waters of the other High Contracting Party open to foreign trade and
navigation together with their cargoes. Such merchant "vessels and cargoes
shall in all respects be accorded most-favoured-nation treatment within sucth
ports, places and waters.
Merchant vessels of either High Contracting Party shall be accorded by
the other High Contracting Party most-favoured-nation treatment with respect
to commercial operations, including those for carrying all products to or from
the territories of such other-High Contracting Party; products carried in such
merchant vessels shall be accorded most-favoured-nation treatment with respect
to all customs and other formalities.
- The crews of merchant vessels of either High Contracting Party shall be
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accorded within the territories of the other High Contracting Party treament
no less favourable than that accorded to the crews of merchant vessels of
any third country.
Merchant vessels of either High Contracting Party shall, withi ; the terri-
tories of the other High Contracting Party, have the right to proceed from.
one open port to another, either for the purpose of unloading Me whole or
part of their cargoes and passengers brought from abroad or of ,)ading the
whole or part of their cargoes and passengers destined for foreign ountries.
The provisions of the present Article shall not apply to coast4ng trade.
The term "merchant vessel" as used in this Treaty does not include
fishing boats, pleasure yachts and sporting boats.
ARTICLE 14
In case of shipwreck, damage at sea or forced putting in, either High
Contracting Party shall extend to vessels of the other High Contra -ting Party
the same assistance and protection and the same exemptions as are in like
cases accorded to its own vessels. Goods salvaged from such v,,ssels shall
be exempt from all customs duties, unless the goods are entered -for domestic
consumption, in which case the prescribed duties shall be paid.
ARTICLE 15
The most-favoured-nation treatment provisions of the present 'Treaty shall
not apply to advantages accorded by either High Contracting Pay:
(a) to neighbouring states, with a view to facilitating fronth-c traffic;
(b) by virtue of a customs union, of which such High Contra, ting Party
has become or may become a member; or
(c) to products of its national fisheries.
ARTICLE 16
Arbitration awards duly rendered in conformity with the app) ,able laws
of the High Contracting Parties concerning disputes arising MI connection
with the implementation of commercial contracts concluded between nationals
and legal persons referred to in Article 4 of either High Contrtr-ting Party
and those of the other High Contracting Party, shall be put in force, if
arbitration of such disputes has been foreseen in the commercial c3ritract, or
if submission of such disputes to arbitration is agreed to in wr,1 ing either
before or after the dispute has arisen.
The enforcement of an arbitration award can be refused only in the
following cases:
(a) if the arbitration award has not acquired the force of Jimal judg-
ment, in accordance with the laws of the country wire it has
been brought;
(b) if the arbitration award constrains one of the nattier( to commit
an act contrary to the laws in force in the country wtr re the en-
forcement of the award is sought;
(c) if the arbitration award is contrary to the public order or the coun-
try where its enforcement is sought; and
d) if the party against whom it is sought to use the arbittarion award
was not given notice of the arbitration proceedings in stlitkient time
to enable such party to present its case, or if, being wrier a legal
incapacity, such party was not properly represented.
Arbitration awards shall be enforced in accordance with the liws of the
country where their enforcement is sought.
ARTICLE 17
Each High Contracting Party shall accord sympathetic consiceration to,
and shall afford adequate opportunity for consultation regarding, .such rep-
resentations as the other High Contracting Party may make with respect to
any matter affecting the operation of the present Treaty.
Any dispute between the High Contracting Parties as to the interpretation
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or application of the present Treaty, not satisfactorily adjusted through diplo-
Matte channels or by other agreed means of settlement, shall be referred for
decision tO a tribunal of three arbitrators, one to be appointed by each
High Contracting Party arid the third to be agreed upon by the two arbitra-
tors so chosen, provided that such third arbitrator shall not be a national
of either High Contracting Party. Each of the High Contracting Parties shall
appoint an arbitrator within a period of two months from the date of delivery
by either High Contracting Party to the either High Contracting Party of
a. note requesting arbitration of the dispute and the third arbitrator shall
be agreed upon within a further period of one month.
If either of the High Contracting Parties fails to appoint its own arbi-
trator within the period of two months or if the third arbitrator is not
agreed upon within the period indicated, the President of the International
Court of Justice may be requested by either High Contracting Party to appoint
an arbitrator or arbitrators.
The High Contracting Parties undertake to comply with any decision given
by the said tribunal.
ARTICLE 18
The present Treaty shall be registered ?with the Secretariat of the United
Nations.
ARTICLE 19
The present Treaty shall supersede and be substituted for the Treaty of?
Commerce and !Navigation between the Empire of Japan and the- Kingdom of
the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, signed at Vienna on November 16, 1923.
The present Treaty shall be ratified, and the instruments of ratification
shall be exchanged at Tokyo as soon as possible.
The present Treaty shall come into force one month after the day of the
exchange of the instruments of ratification. It shall remain in force until
the expiration of six months from the day on which either High Contracting
Party shall have notified the other High Contracting Party of its intention
to termthate the present Treaty.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the
present Treaty and have affixed thereto their seals.
DONE in duplicate, in the English language, at Belgrade, this twenty-
eighth day of February, one thousand nine hundred and fifty-nine.
FOR JAPAN:
Toshikazu Kase
FOR THE FEDERAL PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC
OF YUGOSLAVIA:
Bogdan Crnobrnja
PROTOCOL
At the time of signing the Treaty of Commerce and Navigation between
Japan and the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, the undersigned Pleni-
potentiaries, duly authorized by their respective Governments, have further
agreed on the following provisions, which shall be considered integral parts
of the said Treaty:
1. The most-favoured-nation treatment provisions of the Treaty shall not
apply with respect to those rights and privileges which are or may
hereafter be accorded by Japan to:
(a) persons who originated in the territories to which all right, title
and claim were renounced by Japan in accordance with the pro-
visions of Article 2 of the Treaty of Peace with Japan signed at
the city of San Francisco on September 8, 1951; or
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(b) the native inhabitants and vessels of, and trade with, any area
set forth in Article 3 of the said Treaty of Peace, as long as the
situation set forth in the second sentence of the e'tid Article
continues with respect to the administration, legislation and juris-
diction over such area.
2. With regard to the provisions of Article 7, of Article 8 and of Article
15 (b) of the present Treaty, it is understood that in ease either
High Contracting Party accords to any country outside a cut urns union
any specific advantage that is similar to that accorded to Hi,. members
of the union, it shall also extend the same advantage to the other
High Contracting Party.
3. It is confirmed that the provisions of most-favoured-nation treatment
of paragraph 1 of Article 2 does not apply to matters elating to
passports and visas and that the High Contracting Parties shall con-
tinue to decide these matters under their internal laws and egulations,
4. It is understood that nothing in the Treaty shall be const tied so as
to grant any right or impose any obligation in respect Of copyright
and industrial property right.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF the respective Plenipotentiaries have -igned this
Protocol and have affixed thereto their seals.
DONE in duplicate, in the English language, at Belgrade, this twenty-
eighth day of February, one thousand nine hundred and fifty-Mr?
FOR JAPAN:
Toshikazu Kase
FOR THE FEDERAL PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC
OF YUGOSLAVIA:
Bogdan Crnobrnja
(Entered into force, July 20, 1959)
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CONVENTION BETWEEN JAPAN AND THE KINGDOM OF DENMARK
FOR THE AVOIDANCE OF DOUBLE TAXATION AND
THE PREVENTION OF FISCAL EVASION WITH
RESPECT TO TAXES ON INCOME, SIGNED
AT COPENHAGEN, MARCH 10, 1959
The Government of Japan and the Royal Government of Denmark,
Desiring to conclude a Convention for the avoidance of double taxation
and the prevention of fiscal evasion with respect to taxes on income,
Have appointed for that purpose as their respective Plenipotentiaries:
? The Government of japan:
Keiichi Tatsuke,
? Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of Japan in Copenhagen;
The Royal Government of Denmark:
Jetts Otto Krag,
Minister for Foreign Affairs;
Who, having communicated to one another their respective full powers,
found in good and due form, have agreed upon the following Articles:
ARTICLE I
1. The taxes which are the subject of the present Convention are:
(a) In Japan:
The income tax and the corporation tax (hereinafter referred to
as "Japanese tax").
(b) In Denmark:
National income taxes and municipal income taxes (hereinafter
referred to as "Danish tax").
2. The present Convention shall also apply to any other tax on income or
profit which has a substantially similar character to those referred to in the
preceding paragraph and which may be imposed in either contracting State
after the date of signature of the present Convention.
ARTICLE II
In the present Convention, unless the context otherwise requires:
(a), The term "Japan", when used in a geographical sense, means all the
territory in which the laws relating to Japanese tax are enforced.
(b) The term "Denmark" means the Kingdom of Denmark, excluding the
Faroe Islands and Greenland.
(c) The terms "one of the contracting States" and "the other contracting
State" mean Japan or Denmark, as the context requires.
(d) The term "tax" means Japanese tax or Danish tax, as the context
requires.
(e) The term "resident of Japan" means any. individual who is resident
In Japan for the purposes of Japanese tax and not resident in Den-
mark for the purposes of Danish tax and the term -resident of
Denmark" means any individual who is resident in Denmark for, the
purposes of Danish tax and not resident in Japan for the purposes
of Japanese tax.
(f) The terms "resident of one of the contracting States" and "resident
of the other contracting State' mean a resident of Japan or a resident
of Denmark, as the context requires.
(g) The term "Japanese corporation" means any corporation or other
association having juridical personality or any association without
juridical personality which has its head (or principal) office in Japan
and the term "Danish corporation" means any body corporate man-
aged and controlled in Denmark and which is not a Japanese cor-
poration.
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(h) The terms "corporation of one of the contracting States" and "cor-
poration of the other contracting State" mean a Japanese eorporation
or a Danish corporation, as the context requires.
(i) The term "Japanese enterprise" means an industrial or vommercial
enterprise or undertaking carried on by a resident or cm uoration of
Japan and the term "Danish enterprise" means an industral or com-
mercial enterprise or undertaking carried on by a resist: at or cor-
poration of Denmark.
(j) The terms "enterprise of one of the contracting States" and "enter-
prise of the other contracting State" mean a Japanese enterprise
or a Danish enterprise, as the context requires.
(k) The term "permanent establishment" when used with resdect to an
enterprise of one of the contracting States, means an oft. e, branch,
factory, warehouse or other fixed place of business, bth does not
include an agency unless the agent has, and habitually exercises,
a general authority to negotiate and conclude contracts on behalf
of the enterprise or has a stock of merchandise from which he
regularly fills orders on Its behalf. It may include the constant
use of mere storage facilities but does not include the usual and
temporary use of such facilities.
In this connection--
(1) An enterprise of one of the contracting States sh.R not be
deemed to have a permanent establishment in the ether con-
tracting State merely because it carries on business rlealings in
that other contracting State through a bona fide br, .ker, com-
mission agent, or other independent agent acting in the ordinary
course of his business as such;
(2) The fact that an enterprise of one of the contract rig States
maintains in the other contracting State a fixed place t r business
exclusively for the purchase of goods or merchandise for that
enterprise shall not of itself constitute that fixed plat e of busi-
ness a permanent establishment of the enterprise; alto.
(3) The fact that a corporation of one of the contract ag States
has a subsidiary corporation which is a corporation of the other
contracting State or which carries on a trade or business in
that other contracting State shall not of itself const cLute that
subsidiary corporation a permanent establishment of :ls parent
corporation.
(I) The term "industrial or commercial profits" includes manufacturing,
mercantile, agricultural, fishing, mining and insurance profil, as well
as profits from banking and security dealings, but does net include
income in the form of dividends, interests, rents, or royalties as refer-
ed to in Article VI, paragraph 2 or remuneration for persona services.
(m) The term "competent authorities" in relation to a contract i rig State
means the Minister of Finance of that contracting State or los author-
ized representative.
2. In the application of the provisions of the present Convention ey either
contracting State any term not otherwise defined shall, unless th context
otherwise requires, have the meaning which it has under the law--; of that
contracting State relating to tax.
ARTICLE III
L The industrial or commercial profits of an enterprise of one of the con-
tracting States shall not be subject to tax in the other contracting State unless
the enterprise has a permanent establishment situated in that other cvntracting
State. If it has such permanent establishment, tax may be impose) by that
other contracting State on the entire income of that enterprise froju sources
within that other contracting State.
2. where an enterprise of one of the contracting States has a permanent
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establishment situated in the other contracting State, there shall be attributed
to - that permanent establishment the InduStrial or commercial profits which
It might be expected tO derive in that other .contracting State if it were all
Independent enterprise engaged in the same or similar activities under the same
or similar conditions and dealing on an independent basis with the enterprise
of which it is a permanent establishment, and the profits so attributed shall
be deemed to be income from sources within that other contracting State.
3. In determining the tax of one of the contracting States, no account shall
be taken of the mere Purchase of merchandise therein by an enterprise of
the other. contracting State for that enterprise.
4. Income derived from the sale of goods (excluding the kind of income
mentioned in the following paragraph) shall be treated, for the purposes of
application of the provisions of paragraph 1 above, as derived from the coun-
try in which such goods are sold.
5. Income derived from the sale by an enterprise in one of the contracting
States of goods manufactured in the other contracting State in whole or in
part by that enterprise shall be treated, for the purposes of application of
the provisions of paragraph 1 above, as derived in part from the country in
Which the goods are manufactured and in part from the country in which
the goods are sold.
6. The competent authorities of both contracting States may, consistent with
the provisions of the present Convention, arrange details for the apportionment
of industrial or commercial profits.
ARTICLE IV
Where:
(a) an enterprise of one of the contracting States participates directly or
Indirectly in the managerial or financial control of an enterprise of
the other contracting State, or
(b) the same individuals or corporations participate directly or indirectly
In the managerial or financial control of an enterprise of one of the
contracting States and an enterprise of the other contracting State,
and in either case, conditions are made or imposed between the two enter-
prises, in their commercial or financial relations, which differ from those which
would be made between independent enterprises, then any profits which would
but for those conditions have accrued to one of the enterprises but by reason
of those conditions have not so accrued may be included in the profits" of
that enterprise and taxed accordingly.
ARTICLE V
1. Notwithstanding the provisions of Articles III and IV, profits which an
enterprise of one of the contracting States derives from the operation of ships
or aircraft registered
(a) in that contracting State or in the other contracting State, or
(b) in any third country which exempts from its tax profits derived
from the operation of ships or aircraft registered in that other con-
tracting State
shall be exempt from the tax of that other contracting State.
2. The present Convention shall not be construed to affect the arrangement
between the Government of Japan and the Government of Denmark providing
for relief from double taxation on shipping profits effected by the exchange
of notes at Tokyo dated October 15, 1927.
ARTICLE VI
1. The amount of tax imposed by one of the contracting States on royalty
derived from sources within that contracting State by a resident or corporation
of the other contracting State, not having a permanent establishment situated
In the former contracting State, shall not exceed 15 per cent of the amount
of such royalty.
2. The term "royalty" as used in the present Article means any royalty and
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other amount paid as consideration for using, or for the right t?I use, any
copyright, patent, design, secret process and formula, trade-mark m other like
property, and includes rentals and like payments in respect of mot in picture
films or for the use of industrial, commercial, or scientific equirrnent; but
does not include any royalty and other amount paid in respect of he opera-
tion of a mine or quarry or of any other exploitation of natural ro?ources.
3. Royalties for using, or for the right to use, in one of the ..ontracting
States, copyrights, patents, designs, secret processes and formulae, t 'ode-marks
or other like property as well as motion picture films and Indus riot, com-
mercial, or scientific equipment shall be treated as income from sou, -,es within
that contracting State.
9. The amount of tax imposed by one of the contracting States on he income
derived from sources within that contracting State from the sale of any copy-
right, patent, design, secret process and formula, trade-mark or of "ter indus-
trial invention as well as motion picture films (excluding such urns as to
which payment of royalty is inconceivable) by a resident or corp.oation of
the other contracting State, not having a permanent establishmarir situated
in the former contracting State, shall not exceed 15 per cent of the gross
amount received.
5. Income derived from the sale of the property mentioned in the preceding
paragraph shall be treated as income from sources within that ontracting
State in which such property is to be used.
ARTICLE VII
1. The amount of tax imposed by?one of the contracting States on dividends
paid by a corporation of that contracting State to a resident or c ,rporation
of the other contracting State, not having a permanent establishmeri situated
in the former contracting State, shall not exceed 15 per cent of the amount
of such dividends.
2. Where a corporation of one of the contracting States derives oroflts or
income from sources within the other contracting State, there sha:r not be
imposed in that other contracting State any form of taxation on iividends
paid by the corporation unless paid to a resident or corporation of toot other
contracting State, or any tax in the nature of undistributed profit, tax on
undistributed profits of the corporation, whether or not those diV lends or
undistributed profits represent, in whole or in part, polits or income Sr derived.
3. Dividends paid by a corporation of one of the contracting States shall be
treated as income from sources within that contracting State.
ARTICLE VIII
1. The amount of tax imposed by one of the contracting States on ny inter-
est derived from sources within that contracting State by a re 9dent or
corporation of the other contracting State, not having a permanent ,stablish-
meat situated in the former contracting State, shall not exceed 15 Per cent
of the amount of such interest.
2. The term "interest" as used in the present Article means inl,3rest on
bonds, securities, notes, debentures or any other form of indebted rless (in-
cluding mortgages or bonds secured by real property).
3. Interest on
(a) bonds or debentures issued by one of the contracting States, Including
local governments thereof, or by a corporation of one of he con-
tracting States, or
(b) deposits made in one of the contracting States
shall be treated as income from sources within that contracting Stale.
4. Interest on loans In connection with trade, business or other tra )sactions
carried on in one of the contracting States by
(a) a resident or corporation of that contracting State,
(b) an enterprise of the other contracting State, having a permanent
establishment in the former contracting State
shall be treated as income from sources within the former contractir g State.
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ARTICLE IX
1. Salaries, wages, pensions or similar compensation paid by one of the con-
tracting States in respect of services rendered to that contracting State in
the discharge of governmental functions to any individual who is a national
of that contracting State shall be exempt from tax in the other contracting
State.
2. The provisions of the present Article shall not apply to salaries, wages,
pensions or similar compensation paid in respect of services rendered in con-
nection with any trade or business carried on by either of the contracting
States for the purposes of profit.
ARTICLE X
1. An individual who is a resident of one. of the contracting States shall
be exempt from tax in the other contracting State on profits or remuneration
for personal (including professional) services performed within that other con-
tracting State in any taxable year if? -
(a) he is present within that other contracting State for a period or
periods not exceeding in the aggregate 183 days during that taxable
year, and
(b) the services are performed for or on behalf of a resident or corpora-
tion of the former contracting State.
2. The provisions of the present Article shall not apply to the profits or
reinuneration of public entertainers such as theatre, motion picture, radio or
television artists, musicians and professional athletes.
ARTICLE XI
A professor or teacher from one of the contracting States who visits the
other contracting State for a period not exceeding two years for the purpose
of teaching at a university or similar establishment for higher education in
that other contracting State, shall be exempt from tax in that other contracting
Sate in respect of remuneration for that teaching.
ARTICLE XII
A student or business apprentice from one of the contracting States, who
is receiving full-time education or training in the other contracting State, shall
be exempt from tax in that other contracting State on payments made to him
from abroad for the purposes of his maintenance, education or training.
ARTICLE XIII
1. Where under the provisions of the present Convention a resident of Japan
is entitled to exemption from, or reduction of, Danish tax, similar exemption or
reduction shall be applied to the undivided estate of a deceased person in so far
as one or more of the beneficiaries is a resident of Japan.
2. Danish tax on the undivided estate of a deceased person shall, in so far ,
as the income accrues to a beneficiary who is a resident of Japan, be in accor-
dance with the provisions of Article XV allowed as a credit against Japanese
tax payable in respect of that income.
ARTICLE XIV
1. For the purposes of the present Convention:
(a) Income derived from real property (including gains derived from
the sale, transfer or exchange of such property, but not including
interest from mortgages or bonds secured by real property), and roy-
alties in respect of the operation of mines, quarries, or other natural
resources shall be treated as income derived from the country in which
such real property, mines, quarries, or other natural resources are
situated.
? (b) Income derived from the sale, transfer or exchange of ships or aircraft
shall be treated as derived from the country where such ships or
aircraft are registered.
? (c) Income derived from the sale, transfer or exchange of a permanent
establishment belonging to an enterprise of one of the contracting
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States but situated in the other contracting State shall '')e treated as
Income derived from the contracting State where tt;(? permanent
establishment is situated.
(r) Capital gains derived from the sale, tarnsfer or exchatem of shareS,
bonds, debentures and similar assets shall be treated as +ierived from
the country in which such assets are sold.
(e) Salaries, wages, or similar compensation for labour or per; final services
as well as compensation for professional services shall treated as
income from sources within the country where are renderee the services
for which such compensation is paid, and the services aerformed in
ships or aircraft operated by an enterprise of one of th contracting
States snail be deemed to be rendered in that contract* State.
2. Income, the source of which has not been determined by the ,;revisions of
the preceding paragraph of this Article or the preceding Articles co the present
Convention, shall be deemed to be income from sources in that contracting
State of which the recipient of the income is a resident or corporati ,n.
ARTICLE XV
1. Japan, in determining Japanese tax on its resident (including o Individual,
who is resident fa Japan for the purposes of Japanese tax but aim, resident in
Denmark for the purposes of Danish tax) or corporation may )n,11.1de in the
basis upon which that tax is irnposed all items of income taxabh, under the
laws of Japan. The amount of Danish tax payable under the laws of Denmark
and in accordance with the provisions of the present Convention, whe her directly
or by deduction, in respect of income from sources within Denmark and subject
to the taxes of both contracting States shall, however, be allowed as a credit
against Japanese tax payable in respect of that income, but in an amount not
exceeding that proportion of Japanese tax which that income bears 1 a the entire
income subject to Japanese tax.
2. Denmark, in determining Danish tax on its resident (including an Individual,
who is resident in Denmark for the purposes of Danish tax but also resident
in Japan for the purposes of Japanese tax) or corporation may in, Otcle in the
basis upon which that tax is imposed all items of income taxabl, under the
laws of Denmark. The amount of Japanese tax payable under ihe laws of
Japan and in accordance with the provisions of the present Convent! ,n, whether
directly or by deduction, in respect of income from sources within Japan and
subject to the taxes of both contracting States shall, however, be allowed as
a credit against Danish tax payable in respect of that income, but ir an amount
not exceeding that proportion of Danish tax which that income h .ars to the
entire income subject to Danish tax.
3. Tne foregoing provisions shall not, however, be construed to preclude the
application of the provisions of Articles IX, XI and XII.
ARTICLE XVI
The competent authorities of both contracting States shall exchange Such
information available under their respective tax laws in the norma course of
administration as is necessary for carrying out the provisions of lhe present
Convention or for the prevention of fraud or for the administration cr statutory
provisions against tax avoidance in relation to the tax. Any InfO-rnation So
exchanged shall be treated as secret and shall not be disclosed to any person
Other than those, including a court, concerned with the assessment ani collection
of the tax or the determination of appeal in relation thereto. No information
shall be exchanged which would disclose any trade, business, industral or pro-
fessional secret or any trade process.
ARTICLE XVII
Any taxpayer, who shows that the action of the taxation atrtooritieS of
either contracting State has resulted or will result in double taxatiod contrary
to the provisions of the present Convention, may lodge a claim with the com-
petent authorities of the contracting State of which the taxpayer Is a resident
or corporation. Should the claim be deemed justified, such competent Authorities
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shall undertake to come to an agreement with the competent authorities of the
other contracting State with a view to avoidance of the double taxation in
question.
ARTICLE XVIII
Should any difficulty or doubt arise as to the interpretation or application
of the present Convention, or its relationship to Conventions between one of the
contracting States and any third country, the competent authorities of the con-
tracting States may settle the question by mutual agreement; it being under-
stood, however, that this provision shall not be construed to preclude the con-
tracting States from settling by negotiation through diplomatic channels any
dispute arising under the present Convention.
ARTICLE XIX
1. The provisions of the present Convention shall not affect the right to benefit
by any more extensive exemptions which have been conferred, or which may
hereafter bp conferred, on diplomatic and consular officials in virtue of the
general rules of international law.
2. The provisions of the present Convention shall not be construed to restrict
in any manner any exemption, deduction, credit or other allowance now or
hereafter accorded by the laws of one of the contracting States in determining
the tax of that contracting State.
3. The competent authorities of either contracting State may prescribe regula-
tions necessary to interpret and carry Out the provisions of the present Con-
vention and may communiAte with each other directly for the purpose of
giving effect to the provisions of the present Convention.
ARTICLE XX
1. The nationals of one of the contracting States shall not be subjected in
the other contracting State to any taxation or any requirement connected there-
with which is other, higher or more burdensome than the taxation and connected
requirements to which nationals of that other contracting State in the 'same
circumstances are or may be subjected.
2. The enterprises of one of the contracting States shall not, while having
permanent establishments in the other contracting State, be subjected in that
other contracting State to any taxation or any requirement connected therewith
which is other, higher or more burdensome than the taxation and connected
requirements to which enterprises of that other contracting State are or may
be subjected.
3. Enterprises of one of the contracting States the capital of which is wholly
or partly owned by one or more residents or corporations of the other con-
tracting State shall not be subjected in the former contracting' State to any
taxation or any requirement connected therewith which is Other, higher or
more burdensome than the taxation and connected requirements to which other
enterprises of the former contracting State, the capital of which is wholly or
partly owned by one or more residents or corporations of that former con-
tracting State, are or may be subjected.
4. The term "nationals" means all individuals possessing the nationality of
either of the contracting States and all corporations and other associations
(with or without juridical personality) deriving their status as such from the
law in force in either of the contracting States.
5. In this Article, the term "taxation" means taxes of every kind.
6. Nothing contained in this Article shall be construed as obliging either of
the contracting States to grant to nationals, of the other contracting State
not resident of the formal contracting State those personal allowances, reliefs
and reductions for tax purposes which are by law available only to resident
of that former contracting State.
ARTICLE XXI
1. The present Convention may be extended in its entirety or with modifications
to the territories of the Faroe Islands and Greenland if in these terrirories
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there are imposed taxes substantially similar in character to thoe which are
the subject of the present Convention. The extension of the Convention and
the modifications thereto shall be specified and agreed between the contracting
Governments in notes to be exchanged for this purpose.
2. The termination of the present Convention under Article XXII shall, unless
otherwise expressly agreed by both contracting Governments, terminate the
application of the present Convention to any territory to which tie, Convention
has been extended under this Article.
ARTICLE XXII
I. The present Convention shall be ratified and the instruments of ratification
shall be exchanged at Tokyo as soon as possible.
2. The present Convention shall enter into force on the date of exchange of
instruments of ratification and shall be applicable?
(a) In Japan:
As regards income derived during the taxable years eeginning on
or after the first day of January in the calendar year In which the
exchange of instruments of ratification takes place.
(b) In Denmark:
As regards tax for any taxable year beginning on or al-er the first
day of April in the calendar year in which the exchang of instru-
ments of ratification takes place.
3. The present Convention shall continue effective for a period cc' five years
and indefinitely after that period, but may be terriainated by either ef the con-
tracting States at the end of the five-year period or at any tirne thereafter,
provided that at least six months' prior notice of termination has been given
and, in such event, the present Convention shall cease to be effect-a-
te) In Japan:
As regards income derived during the taxable years beginning on
or after the first day of January In the calendar year ne' following
the expiration of the period indicated in the prior notice.
b) In Denmark:
As regards tax for any taxable year beginning on after the
first day of April in the calendar year next following th expiration
of the period indicated in the prior notice.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF the undersigned Plenipotentiaries have signed the
present Convention.
DONE at Copenhagen in duplicate in the English language on th tenth day
of March, one thousand nine hundred and fifty-nine.
FOR JAPAN:
Kelichi Tatsuke
PROTOCOL
FOR THE KINGDO OF
DENMARK:
J. 0. Krag
At the signing of the Convention between Japan and the Lingdom of
Denmark for the Avoidance of Double Taxation and the PreventiOt of Fiscal
Evasion with respect to Taxes on Income, the undersigned Plenipdentiaries
have agreed upon the following provisions which shall form an in ngral part
of the said Convention:
With reference to the joint Danish, Norwegian and Swedish dr traffic
operation organization Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS), the pr wisions of
Article V shall be applied to profits derived from the operation of aircraft
by that organization, whether the aircraft be registered in Denmai ,, Norway
or Sweden, but only to so much of the profits so derived as is a llocable to
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the Danish partner of the organization in proportion to its share in that
organization.
DONE at Copenhagen in duplicate in the English language on the tenth
day of March, one thousand nine hundred and fifty-nine.
FOR JAPAN:
Keiichi Tatsuke
FOR THE KINGDOM OF
DENMARK:
J. 0. Krag
(Entered into force, April 24, 1959)
ACCORD DE REPARATIONS ENTRE LE JAPON
ET LA REPUBLIQUE DU VIET-NAM
SIGNE A SAIGON, 'LE 30 MAI, 1959
Le Japon et in Republique du Viet-Nam,
Desirant agir en se basant sur les dispositions du Traite de Paix avec le.
Japon signe en la ville de San-Francisco le 8 septembre 1951,
Ont decide de conclure le present Accord de Reparations et ont, en con-
sequence, designe comme le'urs Plonipotentiaires:
Le Japon:
Aiichiro Fujiyama, Ministre des Affaires Etrangeres
Manichiro Kubota, Ambassadeur Extraordinaire et Plenipotentiaire
& la Republique du Viet-Nam
Kogoro Uemura, Conseiller du Ministere des Affaires Etrangeres
La Republique du Viet-Nam:
Vu Van Mau, Secretaire d'Etat du Ministere des
Affaires Etrangeres
Hui Van Thinh, Ambassadeur Extraordinaire .et
Plenipotentiaire au Japon
Pham Darig Lam, Secretaire General du Ministere
des Affaires Etrangeres
Lesquels,. apres s'etre communique leurs plains pouvoirs. respectifs, reconnus
en bonne et due forme: soot convenus des Articles suivants:
ARTICLE 1
1. Le Japon fournira a la Republique du Viet-Nam a titre de reparations
les produits du Japon et los services du peuple japonais, dont la valeur totale
equivaudra a in contre-valuer en Yens de trente-neuf millions de dollars des
Etats-Mils (U.S. .839,000,000), soit calcules au taux actuel ft quatorze milliards
quarante millions de Yens (Y14,040,000,000), pendant une p-eriode , de cinq ans
ft compter du Jour de Pentree en vigueur du present Accord et selon les
rnodalites prpscrites ci-apres.
2. La fourniture des produits et services mentionnes au paragraphe pre-
cedent sera effectuee, pour les trois premieres annees, a une moyenne annuelle
equivalent a la contre-valcur en Yens de dix millions de dollars des Etats-Unis
(U.S. $10,000,00b), soit calcules au taux actuel a trots milliards six cents millions
de Yens (Y3,600,000,000), et, pour les deux derniPres annees, a une moyenne
anhuelle eqUiValant a in contre-valeur en Yens de quatre million cinq cent
mine dollars des Etats-Unis (U.S. $4,500,000), soit calcules au taux actuel
ft un milliard six cent vingt millions de Yens (Y1,620,000,000).
ARTICLE 2
1. Les produits et services a fournir a titre de reparations seront ceux
demandes par le Gouvernement de la Republique du Viet-Nam et deter-
mines d'un commun accord par les deux Gouvernements. Ces produits et serv-
ices consisteront en Items necessaires aux projets choisis parmi ceux
enumeres ft l'Annexe du present Accord.
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2. Les produits k fournir a titre de reperations seront des bier s de capital.
Cependant, des produits autres que des biens de capital pourront, -run commun
accord entre les deux Gouvernements, etre fournis par le Japon sl ia demande
du Gouvernement de la Republique du Viet-Nam.
3. Les reparations aux termes du present Accord seront ifectuees de
tette maniere qu'elles ne porteront pas prejudice au courant normal u commerce
entre le Japon et la Republique du Viet-Nam, et qu'elles n'iMposerr ot au Japon
aucune charge additionnelle en matiere de changes.
ARTICLE 3
Les deux Gouvornements fixeront par consultations et d'un cm.,inurt accord
un programme annuel d'execution speciflant les produits et ser ices qua le
Japan fournira chaque annee (ci-apres denomme "Programme (1.-xecution").
ARTICLE 4
1. La Mission mentionnee au paragraphe 1 de l'Article 6 du present
Accord conclura des contrats, au nom du Gouvernement de Is Republique
de Viet-Nam, directement avec des personnes physiques japona-ses ou des
personnes morales japonaises contrelees par les Japonais, alin ,,tre soft ef-
fectude la fourniture des produits et services conformement au Programme
d'execution de chaque annee.
2. Tous ces contrats (y compris leurs modifications) devr0) etre con-
formes (a) aux dispositions du present Accord, (b) aux termes ace arrange-
ments qui pourront etre conclus entre les deux Gouvernements pc at" l'applica-
tion du present Accord et (c) au Programme d'execution applicabb a l'epoque.
Ces contrats devront etre verifies et vises par le Gouvernement an Japon en
cc qui concerne leur conformite avec les criteres sus-mentionnes. Le contrat
\reline et vise conformement aux dispositions du present paragra,,he sera ci-
apres denomme "Control de Reparations".
3. Chaque Contrat de Reparations dolt contenir une clause s Tulant quo
les differends qui pourraient provenir de cc Contrat ou surgir . propos de
cc Contrat seront, sur la demande dune des parties interessees, ac.dmis a une
commission d'arbitrage du commerce conformement a un arrar,:ement qui
serail conclu entre les deux Gouvernements. Les deux Gouvernen -tits prend-
ront des mesures necessaires pour rendre final et executoire tor arbitrage
clement formuie.
4. Nonobstant les dispositions du paragraphe 1 du present Article, la
fourniture des produits et services a titre de reparations pourro Cl :e effectude
sans Contrat de Reparations, chaque fois gull y aura un accord cot effet
entre les deux Gouvernements.
ARTICLE 5
I. En vue de s'acquitter de l'obligation de reparations stipule( a l'Artide
1 du present Accord, le Gouvernement du Japon effectuera, SlliVE r kl les pro-
cedures a etabIir conformement aux dispositions de l'Article 9 du ?resent Ac-
cord, des versements pour couvrir les obligations dont la 1Viissiot mentionee
au paragraphe 1 de l'Article 6 du present Accord se trouve redevablo en Vertu
des clauses de Contrats de Reparations et pour couvrir les fri !F. pour la
fourniture des produits at services effectuee conformement aux dial esitions du
paragraphe 4 de l'Article precedent. Cos versements se feront en rYe,c( japonais.
2. Par le fait et au moment des versements en Yens effrrtues con-
forme:ment aux dispositions du paragraphe precedent, le Japan sera con-
sidere comme ayant fourni a la Republique du Viet-Nam les ,roduits et
services faisant l'object de ces versements et comme s'etant acqu te de son
obligation de reparations jusqu'a concurrence de la contre-valeur en dollars
des Etats-Unis du montant do ces versements en Yens confornl'arent aux
dispositions de l'Article 1 du present Accord.
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ARTICLE 6
1. Le Japon donne son accord a retablissement au Japon d'une Mission
du Gouvernement de la Republique du Viet-Nam (ci-apres denommee "la Mis-
sion") comme son agent unique et exclusif charg?e l'application du present
Accord, y compris la conclusion et l'execution des Contrats de Reparations.
2. Le bureau au Japon de la Mission sera etabli It Tokio. Ce bureau
sera utilise exclusivement pour l'exercise des fonctions de in Mission.
3. Les locaux du bureau, y compris les archives, de la Mission au Japon
seront inviolables. La Mission sera admise It employer des codes. Les biens
immobiliers appartenant It la Mission et utilises directement pour l'exercise
de ses fonctions seront exempts de l'ImpOt sur l'Acquisition de la Propriete
Immobiliere et de l'Impot sur la Propriere. L?evenu de la Mission qui
pourrait provenir de l'exercise de ses fonctions sera exempt de toute im-
position au Japon. Les biens importes pour usage officiel de la Mission seront
exempts des droits de douane et de toute autre redevance percus It rimporta-
ton ou It l'occasion de rimportation.
4. Le Chef et deux membres superieurs de la Mission, qui sont des res-
sortissants de la Republique di Viet-Nam, se verront accorder les privileges
et immunites diplomatiques generalement reconnus par la coutume et le droit
internationaux.
5. Les autres membres de la Mission qui sont des ressortissants de la
Republique du Viet-Nam et qui ne Sont d'ordinaire pas des residents au Japon
seront exempts de 'Imposition au Japon stir les emoluments mills recevront
dans l'exercise de leurs fonctions, et, conformement aux lois et reglements
japonais, des droits de dottane et de toute autre redevance percus It rimpor-
tation ou It l'occasion de l'importation des biens destines It leur usage personnel.
6. Au cas oh les clifferends provenant d'un Contrat de Reparations ou
surgissant a propos d'un Contrat de Reparations n'auraient pits ete regles
par arbitrage, ou que l' arbitrage rendu It cette fin n'aurait pas etc execute,
la question pourra etre portee, en dernier ressort, It une cour japonaise appro-
priee. En pareils cas, et uniquement aux fins des procedures judiciaires neces-
saires, le Chef de la Mission et les membres superieurs mentionnes au pare-
graphe 4 du present Article pourront poursuivre ou etre poursuivis, et, en
consequence, recevoir in sommation et d'autres documents de proces It leur
bureau de la Mission. Cependant, us seront exempts de l'obligation de deposer
la caution judiciaire pour les frais des proces. Bien que la Mission jouisse
de rinviolabilite et de rimmunite comme il est prevu aux paragraphes 3 et
4 du present Article, la decision finale prononcee en pareils cas par la cour
appropride sera acceptee par la Mission comme decision l'engageant.
7. Dans r application de la decision finale de la cour, le terrain et les
batiments, ainsi que les biens mobiliers qui s'y trouvent, appartenant It la
Mission et utilises directement pour l'exercise de ses fonctions ne feront en
aucun cas l'objet de mesures d'execution.
ARTICLE 7
1. Les deux Gouvernements prendront des mesures necessaires It l'appli-
cation reguliere et efficace du present Accord.
2. La Republique du Viet-Nam fournira la main-d'oeuvre et les materiels
et equipenaents loca,ux disponibles, en vue de permettre au Japon de fournir
les produits et services prevus It l'Article 1 du present Accord.
3, Les ressortissants japonais dont la presence au Viet-Nam sera neces-
saire It la fourniture de produits ou de services aux termes du present Accord,
se verront, au cours de la periode requise de leur sejour au Viet-Nam, accorder
toutes facilites necessaires a raccomplissement de leur travail.
4. En ce qui concerne les rpvenus provenant de la fourniture de produits
ou de services aux termes du present Accord, les personnes physiques ou
morales japonaises seront exemptes de rimposition au Viet-Nam.
5. La Republique du Viet-Nam s'engage It ce que les produits du Japon
fournis conformement aux dispositions du present Accord no seront pas reex-
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portes du territoire de la Republique du Viet-Nam.
ARTICLE 8
Il sera cree uric Commission Mixte composee de represent,tats deg deux
Gouvernements comme organisme de consultations entre eux a. lrit le pouvoir
de formuler des recommandations sur des questions relatives d l'application
du present Accord.
ARTICLE 9
Les details, comprenant les procedures, relatifs b. l'applicaelm du present
Accord seront fixes par consultations et d'un commun accord 'entre les deux
Gouvernements.
ARTICLE 10
Les differends entre les deux Gouvernements concernant crpretation et
l'application du present Accord seront regles en premier lieu pr vole diplo-
matique. Si les deux Gouvernements ne parviennent pas b un eglement par
eette vole, les differends seront soumis pour decision a an tribunal de trols
arbitres, un arbitre etant nomme par chaque Gouvernement et le troisieme
etant designe d'un commun accord entre les' deux premiers , rbitres ainsi
choisis, a condition quo ee troisieme arbitre ne soit pas tin re ':;ortissant de
l'un ou de l'autre des deux pays. Chacun des deux Gouvernernr ots nommera
un arbitre clans an deist de trente lours C compter de in date de reception
par l'un des deux Gouvernements dune note de l'autre demandtii. l'arbitrage
du differencl. Le troisieme arbitre devra etre designe d'un c0 omun accord
dans un nouveau delai de trente jours. Si l'un ou l'autre des de ,x Gouverne-
merits n'a pas nomine son propre arbitre dans le delai Indic id OU si le
trotsieme arbitre n'a pas ete designe d'un .commun accord clans delai
l'un ou l'autre des deux Gouvernements pourra saisir le Pr?dent de
la Cour Internationale de Justice qui designers l'arbitre ou in trai Aeme arbitre
scion les rag. Les deux Gouvernements s'engagent a se conte rner h. tout
arbitrage rendu en application des dispositions du present Artic
ARTICLE 11
Le present Accord sera ratifle et entrera en vigueur a la date .re Pechange
des instruments de ratification, qui aura lieu a Tokio aussllot gut possible.
EN FOI DE QUOI. les Plenipotentialres soussignes ont sigh, le present
Accord et y ant appose leurs sceaux.
FAIT a. Saigon, le treizieme jour du mole de mai 1959, eh double ex-
emplaire, en langues japonaise, vietnamienne et francaise. En e; de diver-
gence d'interpretation, In texte francais fera foi.
POUR LE JAPON: POUR LA REPUBLIQU DU
Aiichiro Fujiyama VIET-NAM:
Kubota Vu Van MEW
E. Uemura Bui Van TInnh
Pham Dang Lam
ANNEX
Ti. Construction d'une centrale hydroelectrique
2. Equipment d'un centre industriel mecanique
Fourniture d'autres produits et services determines d'un eon) un accord
par les deux Gouvernements
(Exchange of instruments of ratification scheduled in Septembe 1959)
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LIST OF ADVERTISERS
Ajinomoto Co., Inc.
Asahi Evening News
Chichibu Cement Co., Ltd.
Chiyoda Fire & Marine Insurance
Co., Ltd.
Current Sociology
Daiei Motion Picture Co., Ltd.
Dai-Ichi Bank, Ltd.
Daikyo Oil Co., Ltd.
Dai Nippon Spinning Co., Ltd.
Dai-Nippon Sugar Mfg. Co., Ltd.
Daito Woolen Spinning & Weaving
Co., Ltd.
Daiwa Bank, Ltd.
Dowa Mining Co., Ltd.
Eastern World
Electro Chemical Industrial Co., Ltd.
Fuji Bank, Ltd.
Fuji Denki Seizo K.K.
Fuji Heavy Industries, Ltd.
Fuji Iron & Steel Co., Ltd.
Fujikura Cable Works, Ltd.
Furukawa Electric Co., Ltd.
General Bussan Kaisha, Ltd.
Harima Shipbuilding & Engineering
Co., Ltd.
Hitachi, Ltd.
Ibasen & Co., Ltd.
lino Kaiun Kaisha, Ltd.
Industrial Bank of Japan, Ltd.
International Political Science
Abstracts
Ishil.cawajima Heavy Industries
Co., Ltd.
Japanese Geon Co., Ltd.
Japan Steel Works, Ltd.
Japan Times
Jujo Paper Mfg. Co., Ltd.
Kawasaki Dockyard Co., Ltd.
Koa Oil Co., Ltd.
Komatsu Mfg. Co., Ltd.
Kyokuyo Hogei Co., Ltd.
Maersk Line
Mainichi Newspapers
Marunouchi Hotel
Meiji Seika Kaisha, Ltd.
Meiji Sugar Mfg. Co., Ltd.
Mitsubishi Chemical Industries, Ltd.
Mitsubishi Electric Mfg. Co.
Mitsubishi Estate Co., Ltd.
Mitsubishi Heavy-Industries, Re-
organized, Ltd.
Mitsubishi Metal Mining Co., Ltd.
Mitsubishi Paper Mills, Ltd.
Mitsui Bank, Ltd.
Mitsui & Co., Ltd.
Mitsui Mining & Smelling Co.,. Ltd.
Mitsui Shipbuilding & Engineering
Co., Ltd.
Mitsui Steamship Co., Ltd,
National Cash Register Co., (Japan)
Ltd.
Nichiro Fisheries Co., Ltd.
Nikko Securities Co., Ltd.
Nippon Electric Co., Ltd.
Nippon Kakoh Seishi KK.
Nippon Kangyo Bank, Ltd.
Nippon Kayaku Co., Ltd.
Nippon Kokan K.K.
Nippon Light Metal Co., Ltd.
Nippon Mining Co., Ltd.
Nippon Reizo K.K.
Nippon Soda Co., Ltd.
Nippon Suisan Kaisha, Ltd.
Nippon Yusen Kaisha
Nissan Fire & Marine Insurance
Co., Ltd.
Nissan Kiscn Kaisha, Ltd.
?P. T. 0.
189
Approved For Release 2003/04/02: CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP80R01731R000200100011-1
CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
03i Paper Co., Ltd.
Okura Trading Co., Ltd.
Osaka Shosen Kaisha
Osaka Yogyo Cement Co., Ltd.
Riccar Sewing Machine Co., Ltd.
Sanki Engineering Co., Ltd.
Sankyo Company, Ltd.
Shirokiya Department Store
Sumitomo Bank, Ltd.
Sumitomo Chemical Co.. Ltd.
Taito Co., Ltd.
Taiyo Fishery Co., Ltd.
Ten-Ichi
Toa Nenryo Kogyo K.K.
190
Tokio Marine & Fir( Insurance
Co., Ltd.
Tokyo Gas Co., Ltd.
Tokyo News Service, .1d.
Tokyo Shibaura E]ectiic Co., Ltd.
Toyoko Department Store
Toyo Rayon Co.. Ltd.
Uraga Dock Co.. Ltd.
Yamaichi Securities C... Ltd.
Yamashita Steamship r'o., Ltd.
Yasuda Fire & Marini Insurance
Co., Ltd.
Yokohama Rubber Co. Ltd.
Yomiuri Newspapers
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Obtain
various
patterns
by
simple
manipulation
Model RZ-201 Semi Zigzag
ill IECIA
RICCAR SEWING MACHINE CO., LTD.
11, 1-elrome, Raga's?, Kande, Chiyoda?lcu, Tokyo, JAPAN. Cable Address: "RICCAR TOKYO"
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
OUR PRODUCTS:
Pig Iron, Billet S,aID, Sheet Bar,
Shape, Wire Rod, JO, Hoop, Plate, Hot
'olled Sheet, Cold Rolled Sheet, Gal-
vanized Sheet. T n-plate, Panzermast,
Light Gauge Steel.
FUJI IRON & STEEL CO., LTD.
Nlhonbashl, Idobashl, Tokyo, Japan.
Cable : 5TEELFUJI TOKYO
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
--1
I NIPPON KOKAN KABUSHIKI KAISHA 1
1 (JAPAN STEEL & TUBE CORP.)
i
I
I
I
I
Established in 1912
as the Largest
I
Private Iron & Steel Works
President: SHIGE KAWATA !
.,.11.
' :".;;;''
, -,!v.
ilk, t
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230,11..;
...:. .,,,i
:, .4? ,,,A
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CPA
,40-5PEz.
Pilui
PIM
MAIN PRODUCTS:
Iron & Steel Manufacturing Division:
Steel-Tube Products, Steel Bars & Shapes, Steel Plates & Sheets,
Seamless pipe, Carbon Steel & Ferro alloy, Pig Iron & Cakes,
Chemical Products, Fertilizer, Carbide, Refractories.
Shi;;-building & Repairing Division:
Ship, Machine, Internal Combustion Engine, Car, Bridge, Oil Tank,
Iron Tower & Electric-welded Water-pipes.
Head Office: 2, 1-chome, Otemachi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
Telephone: Marunouchi (23) 7711. 7721. 7731.
Cable Address: "STEELTUBE"
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
I
I
I
I
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
f
DOWA MINING CO., LTD.
Capital: Y 2,500,000,000
President : HIDFSRUKO KURI-SHINI
Vice-President: EIICHI OGAWA
Pyrite ? Electrolytic-copper
Electrolytic-zinc ? cold ? Silver
Electrolytic-cadmium ? Sulphuric-ac td
Decu prized Cinder ? Qypsurrt
HEAD OFFICE: Tekko Bldg., Tokyo, Jap.at,
Cable Add: "DOWAMICO TOKYO'
BRANCHES-. Osaka, Sendai.
MINES:
Kosaka Mine (Akita Pref.), Hanaoka Mine Akit Pref.
Yanahara Mine (Okayama Pref
Akagane Mine (Iwate Pref.), Nissho Mine (Yarnag ta Pref.)
PLANTS:
Kosaka (Akita Pref.), Amagasaki (Hyogo Pr, I
Okayama (Okayama Pref.)
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
MAIN PRODUCTS:
Steel Forgings, Castings and
Steel Plate, Machinery for
Chemical Industry, Parts for
Railways, Rolling Stocks,
Marine Equipment. Various
Sorts of Industrial Machinery.
`.0
THE JAPAN STEEL WORKS LTD.
Head Office: 5 Banchl, 1-chome, Kyobashi, Chuo-ku, Tokyo.
Branch Offices: Osaka, Fukuoka, Sapporo.
Plants: Muroran, Hiroshima, Yokohama, Musashi (Tokyo)
Immum
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
faPan's Largest Producer of Copper
Also Piunous Producer of Petroleum Products Chemicals
0 NIPPON MINING CO., LTD.
Head Office:
3 Akasaka -Aoi-cho,
Minato-ku, Tokyo.
Products:
Copper
Gold
Silver
Lead
Copper Powder
Copper Sulphate
Nickel Sulphate
Zinc Sulphate
Arsenious Acid
Lead Arsenate
Cable A Idress.
'Kogyo 1 lon". Tokyo.
Selenium
Palladium
Platinum
Ferro-tungsten
Ferro-nickel
Pure Iron
Pyrite Concentr e
Zinc Concentra 2
Sulphuric Acid
Petroleum Prod cts
Branch Offices:
Osaka, Hokkaido, Sendai, Nagoya, Hiroshin a, Takamatsu.
Fukuoka and others.
Business Undertakings:
26 mines, 3 smelters and 2 refineries, oil efinery
and 4 oil terminals.
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
MIT'SUI
MINING & SMELTING
CO., LTD
THE BIGGEST PRODUCERS
IN THE FAR EAST
F
ZINC & LEAD
"MMC" 98.5%1- -EMK" 99.99%+
-EMC" 99.99%4-
COPPER ZINC OXIDE
GOLD RED LEAD
SILVER WHITE LEAD
CADMIUM LITHARGE
BISMUTH CADMIUM YELLOW
SELENIUM ZINC SULPHATE
ZINC DUST ELECTRO. MANGA-
ZINC SHEETS NESE DIOXIDE
ZINC DIECASTING SULPHURIC ACID
ALLOYS "ZAC" GRINDING WHEELS
HIEAD OFFICE:
MITSUI MAIN BLDG., CHUO-KU, TOKYO,
JAPAN
CABLE ADDRESS: MITSUIMETAL TOKYO
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
MITSUBISHI METAL MINING CO., LTD.
Capital : Y
President: Se lichi Koran ra.
Principal Products:
Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead, Zinc,
Tin Sulphuric Acid, Sulphide Ores,
& Fabricated Metals.
ITEM) OFFICE:
6,1-chome, Ote-machi, Chiyoda-ku. Tok
TEL: MARt JNOI TCH1 (23)4311-9 3321 -6
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP80R01731R000200100011-1
MARK
The Nippon Light Metal Company, Ltd.
(NIPPON KEIKINZOKU K.K.)
Kambara Plant
The N.L.M. Go., coordinated with Aluminium Limited of Canada
The Largest and Most Skilled Producers in Japan
The Largest and Most Skilled Producers in Japan
Virgin Aluminum ingots.
Head Office: 7-chome, Ginza-Nishi, Chuo-ku, Tokyo
Capitalization: 3,000,000,000
President: Giichi Kusano
Plants: Alumina Plant : Shizuoka Ppefecture
Aluminum Plants: Seiznoka and Niigata
Presecture
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
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Redios Ever!!
II
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ii
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out
MONOOM0411011
WH-1122
at*
mesa.
The Smallest
Here they are?the tirs', r l "pocket-
ables", the smallest radios 1 the world!
Gone forever are the days Ix len outdoor
listening enjoyment was m rred by the
need to carry a heav awkward
portable . gone forever the !keed to buy
big, costly batteries. One r Lore thing?
every single component has been
produced in the modern H lachi plants
with the same exacting ittention to
quality that has already won high honors
in electronic technology
sisiultUltftoOM
ustsuousiumuu
O O .
?
Approved For Release 2003/04/02: CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
gZha
MAKES
EVERYTHING
ELECTRICAL
From power stations of
tremendous kilowatts to a
kitchen room in your home,
TOSHIBA, Japan's leading
electric manufacturer turns
out numberless variety of
electric equipment .... all
for one purpose ....to serve
for the better living of
people.
TOKYO SHIBAURA
ELECTRIC CO., LTD.
2, Ginza Nishi 5 Chome,
Chuo-ku, Tokyo
Cable: TOSHIBA TOKYO .
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
MITSUBISHI
means
QUALITY PLUS INTEGRITY
Main Products
? Electric Equip 9,nt for Power
Plants and Ilbstations
? Electric Ea, omeht for
Mining, Ma. Ile and other
Industries
? Electric Eql 1:-)rnent for
Railways
? Electronrc Eqt. nment
? Electric Ap,-,rances for
House,ho:d
MITSUBISHI ELECTRIC
MANUFACTURING COMPANY
lead Office : Tokyo Building, Marunouchi, Tokyo
able Address : MELCO TOKYO
,
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
FUJI DENKI SEIZU K.K.
440.1,4.
FUJI DEISIKI
TRANSISTOR R DIO
FUJI ELECTRIC MFG. CO., LTD.
Always a
delightful
accessory!
Superior sensitivity,
sound quality and
quantity smart design
6 _ Stone super heterodyne
size 113 x 70 x 33 mm
Magnetic earphone, with soft
leather case Separate dry
battery
( 1)
( 2)
Merits
Superios sensitivity by using
latest type transistor
For its small size, full unstress-
ed sound
Temperature compensating
barister used
Circuit parts of reliable Fuji
make used
Modern good-looking design
with sedate colour
With miniature magnetic ear-
phone of good sound quality
With morocco leather case of
nylon chuck
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Television is now something
that we cannot do without
The numerous orders, both
domestic and overseas, which
are pouring in for the instal-
lation of complete TV systems
bear out the reliability and
quality of our products
Nippon Electric, the largest
and most advanced manu-
facturer of telecommunications
equipment in Japan, is also
Japan's foremost company
producing a complete line of
TV equipment for both color
and monochrome
Head Office: TOKYO, JAPAN
Cable Address: "MICRPHON TOKYO"
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
/4, 1 -chcime, Fukagowa Heikyu-cho, Kofo-ku, Tokyo.
/ Cable iNddress " FUJIDEN " Tokyo
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
8
Approved For Release 2003/04/02: CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
0
0

NON-FERROUS METAL PRODUCTS
fc
at
MAINPKIMUCTS
?d CARVES
etc
? Bare Wires and rut,-,
? Paper Insulated
? Rubber nsuiate, ,V?res and Cables
? Other lnsukired ,res and Cables
Submarme Lab w res
? A,ce,suri, sr ,larr
? Nietall, ,ter ur Electrical Uses
.1,44
k 130! t. It arts-k,.
dda .ddress
9 I 499,1EI 0" TOKYO
itE JO Mb., ?
41 THE^?ag, ruktiOk3, Sappore,
Nlamilacturierb and t,aorttra
'FURUKAWA A".0=t*. ELECTRIC
11 Co., LTD.
it
TOKYO. JAPAN
?irr.1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02: CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Naga i Bldg.? 18, 2-chome, Marunouchi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
"FUJIHEAVY"
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
KOMATSU MFG. CO., LTD.
One of the largest Iron & Steel Works in Japan
Capital: Y 3,500,000,000
President: YOSHINARI KAWAI
D-120 Type Bulldozer
MAIN PRODUCTS
Machinery:
Bulldozer, Tractor, Motor Grader, Fork Lift Tru k,
Engin, Dump Truck, Snow Vehicle, etc.
Steel Castings:
Frame & Journal Box, Wheel-Center, Special Ste :
Main Underframe, High Manganese Steel Casti g,
Anchor and Chain, Auto-Engin, Low-Phosphorous 1 ig
Head Office: Otemachi Bldg., C1-temachi, Chir ia
TOKYO JAPAN
Tel. TOKYQ (20) 7111 TOKYO C. P.O. BOX \lo
Cable Address. "KKKOMASEI .TOKYO
Press, Diesel
Casting Valve,
Rail-Crossing,
Iron, etc.
-ku,
. 186
1.51?11?111,01?M
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
SANKI ENGINEERING CO., LTD.
Most
up-to-date Tube Mill of THE YODER Company, recently installed
at Kawasaki Plant of Sariki Engineering Co.
President: KUMAO YAMADA
Head Office: "Sanshin Bldg," Hibiya, Tokyo
Tel. : Tokyo (59) 5251, 5351
Branch Offices: Nagoya, Osaka, Fukuoka, Sapporo
Factories: Kawasaki, Tsurumi, Nakatsu
Cable Address: SANKIENGCO TOKYO
BUSINESS ITEMS:
Steel Pipe; Metal Windows and Doors; Loading, Unloading
and other Conveying Equipment;
Air Conditioning, Plumbing & Electric Equipment;
Refuse dis posal Equipment.
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
PORTLAND CEMENT
081111A UOGUO CEMENT
CO., LTD
Head Office: New-Osaka Bldg., Doiima-Hama-Dor. Kita-Ku,Osaka
Tokyo Office: Room 601 Yusen Bldg., Marunouch Tokyo
Cable Address: "YOC.;YO CEMEN" Tokyo or Osa!oi
iss......._ Mitsubishi Shoji Ka isha, Ltd "MITSUBISF-1I GEM T,kyo or Osa.J,::
Iwai & Co., Ltd. "ROCKWELL' Tok.. rr- Osaka
Nomura Trading Co Ltd "NON/TIIR11130- Tok
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
CHICHIBU CEMENT COMPANY deN-N
6
I
a e noe 4C&Z,t
?
6
I
?
?
()tad& row
andepindn.a
CHICHIBU C:EMENT CO., LTD.
President: Kanichi Moroi
PRODUCTS:
Normal Portland Cement
High Early-Strength Portland Cement
Silica Cement
Moderate Heat Portland Cement
High Pressure Asbestos Cement Pipes
Portland, Blast Furnace Slag Cement
HEAD OFFICE:
c/o Japan Industrial Club Bldg., Marunouchi,
TOKYO, JAPAN
Tel. (28) 1361
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
GUMBAI BRAND
Main Products
CALCIUM CYANAMIDE
CARBIDE
ACETYLEN BLACK
CEMENT
FORMALIN
VINYLS
MELAMINE
ACETIC ACID
ETC.
(AWE! OM
(ELECTRO CHEMICAL INDUSTRIAL CO., LTD)
10, 1-CHOME, YURAKU-C1O, CHIYODA-KU,
TOKYO JAPAN
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02: CIA-RDP80R01731R000200100011-1
Cokes and Coal Chemicals
Fertilizers and other Nitrogen
Products
Dyestuffs
Intermediates
Pharmaceuticals
Agricultural Chemicals
Ion Exchanging Resins
Explosive (T.N.T.)
Calcium Carbide
Cable Address:
" KASEICO TOKYO "
MITSUBISHI
CHEMICAL
(314c)INDUSTRIES
LIMITED
2-chome Marunouchi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo. Tel. Tokyo (28) 6421, 6431, 1541
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP80R01731R000200100011-1
SUMITOMO'S Chemical Contributes
to the World
343
s="3'
CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS
INDUSTRIA CHEMICALS
SYNTHETIC RESINS
ALMINIUM NGOTS
DYESTUFFS
PHARMACE_TICALS &
INSECTIC DE
SUMITOMO CHEMICAL CO., LTD.
HEAD OFFICE : 22, 5-chome, Kitahama, Higashi-ku Osaka
Cable Address: "CHEMISUMIT O'SA3KA"
TOKYO BRANCH: New Sumitomo Building
8, I-chome, Otemachi, Chiyoda-ku TokyO
Cable Address "CHEMISITMIT T KYO"
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
eimimmummi
Chemicals!
High Test Bleaching Powder
(Granular & Powder 70%, 60%)
Sodium Cyahide (Ball Form)
Potassium Chlorate
Sodium Hydrosulphite
DDT, BHC Technical (WHO)
Sulfathiazol (Medical)
Zinc Die Casting Alloy
Cement Dispersing Agent
" POZZOLITH".
Titanium Sponge Metal.
etc.
cvess
NIPPON SODA CO., LTD.
HEAD OFFICE: Shin-Ohtemachi Bldg., Marunouchi,
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
CABLE ADDRESS: "SODA NIPPON" TOKYO
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Dyestuffs and
Intermediates
Estd
1916
Explosives and
Accessories
MANUFACTURERS- EX PORTrRS
t'itormaceuticals
" Yamakawa "
NIPPON KAYAKU Ceia
Direct Dyes
Acid Dyes
Sulphur Dyes
Sulfo Vat Dyes
Naphthol Dyes
Fluorescent Dyes
Insecticides
President
V asusaburo Hara
Dynamites
High Explosives
Black Powder
Safety Fuse
Blasting Caps
Elec. Blasting Caps
(including
"Delay" Caps)
Pen icillir Preparations
Pyrimidine Penicillin
(Patented in Japan,
USA t'ic UK)
Acetylsalicylic Acid
Methionine
FACTORIES: 12 Throughout Japan
Osaka Branch: qa nwa Bldg., 2-55, Kawaramc hi,
Higashi-ku, Osaka
Cable Address
'KAYAKU TOKYO"
Tokyo Kali? Bldg., 3rd Floor,
6, 1-chorne, Marunouchi,
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
C Used
entley's
Comrete & 2nd EdL
P. 0. Box 262, Tokyo Central
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02: CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
THE LARGEST MANUFACTURER?
of
Polyvinyl chloride resins produced in Japan by
Modern American Scientific Methods
in cooperation with
B.F. GOODRICH CHEMICAL COMPANY
THE JAPANESE GEON CO., LTD.
2, 1-chome, Shiba Tamura-cho, Minato-ku,
TOKYO. JAPAN
Cable Address: " NIPOGECO TOKYO"
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Established
1 9 1 3
(:able . Iress
" DIASTASI TOKYO'
SANKYO COMPANY LTD.
MANUFACTURERS & EXPORTERS:
Medical and pharmaceutical products,
agricultural chemicals, cosmetics,
baker's yeast, clinical thermometers,
etc.
IMPORTERS:
Medical and phanAiceutical
products, agricultural .hemicals,
scientific instruments.
Ow& 04( Zisnwe
a,n4e2tsw,Suaivz
Nearly fifty years friendship has continued since we were a,Pointed
as the sole distributor in Japan by Parke, Davis & Company, Detroit,
U.S.A.. one of the most leading pharmaceutical laboratories in t 't,-? world.
We have a pleasure of being sole importer and distributor of products
of Lopvens Kemiske Fabriks Handelsaktieselskab (Leo Pharm ,reutical
Products Trading Ltd.), Sandoz and Etablisstments
Ike most leading and influential pharmaceutical manufacture, :n Den-
mark, Switzerland and France respectively.
Head Office:
No. 1. Ginza Nichome. Chuo-ku, Tokyo
Branch Offices:
Tokyo, Osaka, Sendai, Sapporo, Fukuoka, Nago3-4,
Akita, Hiroshima, Kanazawa, Kumamoto, Moji, Nagasaki,
Niigata, Takamatsu, Shizuoka.
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
KANAMYCIN
"MEIJI"
SULFATE
INDICATIONS
1. Respiratory tractl infections due to Staphylococcus Pneu-
mococcus and Steleptoccus viridars: pharyngitis, bronchitis,
tonsillitis, broncopneumonia, pneumonia, etc.
2. Urinary tract infdictions due to Staphylococcus.,'Escherichia
coli, Pseuomonaslaeruginosa and 'Proteus vulgaris:. acute
and chronic cystItis, acute pyelitis, urethritis, etc.
3. Gonococcal infeptions : acute and chronic urethritis,
,epididymitis, cystitis, cervicitis, etc.
4. Suppurative inftions due. to Staphyloccus, Pneumoccus
and Pseudomonas aeruginosa: impetigo, phlegmon, lym-
phadenitis, abscless, mastitis, osteomyelitis, carbuncle,
post-operative infection, etc.
5. Bacillary dysen+y.
6. Acute diarrhea.
7. Prophylactic use for post-operative infection.
8. Pulmonary tubOculosis and urinary tuberculosis.
O A
Inqu'ry to Export Dept. of
i,.
MEIJI S KAISHA LTD
No. 8-/ Kyobashi, Tokyo, Japan
Cable Address: "EMUES TOKYO"
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
MEIJI SUGAR MFG. CO., LTD.
Seito Kaisha, Ltd.
LINES OF BUSIN ESS
Sugar Refining
and Warehousing
4
Head Office:
No. 8, 2-Chome, kii, Tokyo
Sugar Refinery:
Kawasaki and Tobata
Warehouse :
Kawasaki, Kobe and Tobata
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
SUGAR REFINERY ? WAREHOUSEMEN
TAITO CO., LTD.
1, 6-chome, Yaesu, Chuo-ku, Tokyo
Tel. ( 28 ) 6 4 1 1 - 9
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
(g)
TAIYO FISHERY CO., LTD.
Canned Goods and Frozen Whale Meat
President: Kenkichi Nakabe
Head Office: 4, Marunouchi 1-chome, Chiyccla-ku, Tokyo
NIPPON SUISAN KAISHA, LTD.
Canned Goods and Whale Meat
President : Kyuhei Suzuki
Head Office: Tokyo Bldg., Marunouch Chiyoda-ku,
Tokyo, Japan
???????'.. ?????.?????????????????????????????,????.??????1
?I? Oa. ? ? ??? ...NM MO ? ? 040= ?
NICHIRO FISHERIES CO., LTD.
Established: 1914
Canned Goods & Frozen Fish
President: Tsunejiro l-liratsuka
Address Marunouchi Bldg., Marunouchi, Tokyo
arm ??? ???????,?11. ??????? MID ????????? .10 ?????????? ??????????? minamm. om manor loo?????mmono.om morm. ???????????.= ??? awom.
Sect 7cot
NIPPON REIZO
FROZEN FOODS
CA ANED FOODS
Cable Address: "NICHIREI TOKYO'
Head Office: 8, 3-chome, Minato-cho, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Capital: y2,000,000,000 President: Kr.,,iiro Kimura
Branches: 15 Plants 193
THE KYOKUY0 HOGE! CO., LTD.
President : Kota 1-loketsu
Canned Goods and Whale Meat
Yuen Bldg., 20-1, 2-chome, Marunouchi Tob o Japan
T&1: Tokyo (28) 4621-5
,,,,, ,,,,, ....... ....... . . ? ? .
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
THE SUPER
SEASONING
TWAT BRINGS
OUTAU
HIDDEN FLAVORS!
AZI10 46?
'441.1,14444i atorA"."'"
Atiat
Ajinomoto Co., Inc., 7, 1-chorne, Tokoro-cho, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
30 YEARS E KPERIENCE
Tempura,
TEN --biCHI
SUKIYABASHI West Ginza 5-chorn,
Tel 57-1272, 1949
MA ELIC
TA BLDG.
ABASH)
I I iii1`...77,/
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Qas
leit (144 eassitvgie
asd ecommette
TOKYO GAS CO., LTD.
President : Hirotoshi Honda
Vice-President : Hiroshi Anzai
3, 1-chome, Yaesu Chu5-ku, Tokyo.
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
oi1.: R4inift9, Wholesale & ketail
DAIKYO OIL CO., LTD.
PRESIDENT: Masuo Takahashi
HEAD OFFICE:
Bridgestone Bldg., No. 1, 1-chome
Kyobashi, Chuo-ku, Tokyo
TeL 56-5131
OIL REFINERY: Yokkaichi-shi, Miye Prefe:ture
BUSINESS OFFICES:
Osaka, Nagoya, Tokyo, Sendat
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
1,A0P
111'
WtS14
SQU112--1
KC)A OIL
CO., LTD.
President
Eitaburo Noguchi
Capital
1,528,065,000
I-lead Office
(Eiraku Bldg.)2, 1-chome,
Marunouchi Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
?(rti
PETROLEUM
REFINING
LS
4110 P1 Pi a ;IZIPimm.11 021
oilioiliouoiliii
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111{(111111111111111111111111111111111
TOA NENRYO KOGYO KABUSHIKI KAISHA
Head Office: 3, 1-chome Otemochi C hod i-ku Tokyo
Refineries: Shim izu Wakoyarr
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP80R01731R000200100011-1
ER CO, LTD.
SHED IN 1917
B/CY
CONVEYO
RUBBER
RIMER Rd
MOLDED 11
EXPORT DEPT
Qhtemachi Bldg., No. 4, 1-c.home,
' Ohtemachi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
Tel. Tokyo (20) 1961, 1201
Cable Address s "YOKORUCO "
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Apprbved For Release 2003/04/02: CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
Appr
Refined Sugar
Yeast
Alcohol
Warehousing
DAI-NIPPON
SUGAR
MFG. CO., LTD.
President: Katsuhiko Fuj
Head Office: Marunouchi, I icy?, Japan
Cable Address: "Sugar Tokyo'
Branches: Tokyo, Nagoy, Osaka, Shtmonosek,
Factories: Yokohama, Sa, Moji
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
ft.
Fopm No. 10 REPLACES FORM 10-101
1 AUG 54 WHICH MAY BE USED.
? MEMORANDUM FOR: Mr. Dulles
I have checked this out with Bill Broe
and he concurs in the attached proposed reply.
After you have signed it the letter will be
sent
18 Noverdber 1959
(DATE)
(47)
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Approved For Release 2003/04/02 : CIA-RDP8OR01731R000200100011-1
GURU
ER 11-9246/a
Mie Fischer'
Allen W. Dulles, Director of Central Intelligence? in CO
reapone to your letter of 17 November 1959, asked me to send
you the attached copy of his 'statement to a Joint Congressiona
Committee on 13 November 1959*
cn
Thank you for your inquiry's
the,
Distribution:
Orig - Add
1 - ER
2 - SJGrogan (m/basic)
Approved For ReleaySe 2001/04702 : C1A-RDP80Ik01731R000200100011-1
Sincerely,
Stanley J. Grogan
Assistant to the Ddrector
*40.0