JOURNAL (BOTANICHESKIL ZHURNAL) AND SOME OF OUR SCIENTISTS IS DISCUSSED.

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,(2) Trans. 14-1063
-
Journal" botanicheakit 2herual3 and some of our scientists is
discussed. Instead of criticizinz one another and poi!Iting out
[existing) ahortcomino in a business like, scientific wanner,
the afrait teok on an offensive tone and became humiliating."
The reply of V.S. Ahrushchevt "The staff must be looked over.
Evidently, people who were selected.as editors arc aLeinst
.Alchurinfs'scienee. As long as they remain there nothtng vitt.
change. They must be replaced, others, real fAcherinites, rust,
be appointed. Therein lies the radical soltion or the prab1ea.'"2
..The wrong direction taken by the editorial botrd of the "Latent- .'
.cel Journal" (flotanicheskii lhurnel) has been voiced in a nuMber
of articles. ? They do not bear the character of en occasional,-
Isolated Incident, but characterize a position that pursued the
objective of censuring-thelundemental propobitions in the. Works
of Academician Lysenko.
Let us ?dwell bristly upon certain problemsof the aichurin
Oiroction in biology that have been subjected to criticism hy the
"Votanical Journal" tVotehicheskii Zhurhal).
Authors whose works appeared in the "r;otenical Journal" paid
a treat deal of attention to. the defense of chance as a dccisive
factor In evolution' In deTense of the fundamental thesis of
2 Plenul of the Central Committee, Communist Party, Soviet
Union,December 15-19. Stenographic record. State Publishing
house of Political Literature. oscow, 1953, p. 233
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(3) Trans. A-I063
torpuscular genetics, concerning the fortuitous character of.
changes occuring in .1p:sonic-is. (regin p. 113.
ilurber of the ItHotanical journal" tUotaalcheskii aurnal)
for 1956 includes e!CartiCle bsifl.V. Lebedev in.which.the process
of.nsiural?selection Is attributed the tele oft,sieve while its
creative role is deliied, which in esseneireducze to naught the,
basic proposition of [ttchurin!s teaching cotcrning the unity of
' an orcanism and its habitat. In the :same connection, In a series
of articles, is neented one of the basic prindtples.of Vachurints
?
teaching concerning tile possibility of inheritance of acquired
characteristics.
? Lspecially sharp 'ere 'stat.cments made on these grounds in an
editoriall in which the efforts of the.oritics are concentrated
on evidence that negriti the principle of inherttance of ncquired
charaCteristics.. The fundaMental;aeaning of an analysis of ,the
problem concerning the inheritance'of acquired characteristics
is Te:uced to a thesis of corpuscular 'gentles to the effect tfiat
they 4TO not inheritable. The Methodused In the article (in an
attempt] to produce-evidence.it t-vefy peculiar, one Instead of
discUssing and analyzing the Concrete factvavallalcle in the
.About some probles of Soviet biology. (On the ocr,41sion of
T.D. Lysenkols artist:1e "for Materialism in biology"); ?
"Lotanicheskil 2hurnal", no. 0, 195.0.
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literature, all of them ere declared intolvent with one stroke
of the:pen on the basis-that in all experients that bad been
conducted and In dote on this Problem in the lot:obsession of
scientists of different countries ?the original genetic mate,?
" ilia had prOved genetically heteroecneous".(pe 1141).
The editots'obvlously, conehlered thie oncephrate a?
suffitient-te relieofethemselves (of the jobl ef,examining the
Available facts and of'enzlyting them. -
)7urtherp-the editors noted that T.D. Lysenke one hie
? followers 4ad Confused the Problem of InheritanCe of acquired
characteristics vith the problem of the tole of exterml envirOn-
'ment ps a. fatter of.hereditary variation. It IS fitting to say.
that tha irotlem:concerninu inheritance of acquired-characteristic?
cannot be stated differently than,T,D. Lysenko" had done It. In
a neeation of the directed Character of the influence of external
conditions upon Variation and heredity, the article emp-Assiees
the Laportrnce of only the ilutagenic action of radiant energy.
In other:words, toe authors of the article recogniee as external
conditions only the role of the accelerants of the mutation
procese occurine.vithIn the sexual cells without Evne) any '
relationship to the environment.
The editorel tried to strenethen its own viewpoint recording
the heredity o acquired properties by referring repeetedly to
the opinions of a number of scientists of western "!:.uro.:e.
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? Trans. 4i-1063
After this, they indiscriminately negated all results of
experint;nts conducted in vegetative hybridization as evidence
of inheritance of acquIred prOverties. These facts hed already
been subjected earlier to a oirilar netati-n in en article by
A.R. Zhebrah2 [published] Ln 3 cif the year 056, and in an
article by Iu.11. Olenov3 In no. 7 of 1956. The possibility of
a directed conversion of sprint crops into winter crops and ot
winttr croDs into sprinjcrops (article by If.V. Skr1pch1nskil)4 .
? and a'series of other factors were also subjects of negation,
t4e6in p.1113.
.The position of the Journal was completely wrong when it ,
attempted to make of I.V;,..Aichurin a su'!vorter of formal'tenetiO
conceptions.
Everyft4ody knows oxactiy what ;Aebtrin wrote concerning the
laws of i'!endel, and thait 1.1r.ichurin gave theoretical sub-
stantiation to the principle of hereditary transmission of
acquiredcharacteristics.
In the editorial in the 'botanical Journal" (3otan1cheakil
ehurnall mentioned ahoVe, the position of a numter of scientists
? A.F. "Veture of trafting in higher planta",
npotaqicheskil Ehurnal", no. 3, 1956. '
ku.K. Olenov. Is the possibility or Vegetative hybrldltation
an argwent against the role played )1, chronosomes in heredity.
? "Dotanicheskil
4/.V. Skripehinskii. 'Once again e'out the transformaticn of
winter cerc.als into spring cereals and spring cereals into winter
? core In the light of Darwin's teaching. z;otanicheskli
Zhurnal", no. 4, i957.
Zavadskii. Scientific leritate of I.V. i4churin and
? some problems of tiology. ",:lotanicheshil '6hurnal", no. 1,.1(;56..'
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(6) Trans. A-1063
was treated entirely Incorrectly as regards the evaluation of the
role played by horMones and of stimulants in the life of plants.
PhysiOlogleally active substarCes were not rejected, es the
;editors of the "Botanical Journal" tBotanicheskii Zhurpal)
alleged, nor Was the possibility and necessity of working with
them, rejected was merely the non-materialistic interpretation
made by many scientists of a study of physiologically active
substances as special administrator's of the processes oecuring
In the life of plantt.
Criticlam of Michurints direction and attacks against the
setivitics of Academician TX. Lysenko reached their stverent
form in the t4pdantious editorial that appere4 In no. 8 of the
journal for 1958.
The estimate of losses that individual Michurinite scientists
tndt in partidularo Academician TO. Lysenko had, allegedly,
caused the State are completely inaccurate and unrealistic* which
hat been justly described in the editorial It the newspaper
"Pravda".
In a series of articles published in the "Botanical Journal"
tEotanicheakil IhurhalLen enemy of the Soviet.Union.tpd
,
nicenthrooe, such as Dobehantkli, who leyetti now advocates tratuet)
??????
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(7)
Trans. A-1063
? eacenice that ire'the basis of contemporary racism,' has.proP-
gandieed himself us a genOne (arwinist.
At the Tenth International Congress on.Oenctics it became
clear that ceiticism.on the part o1 14churinitcs of the basis Of
florganiat fundamentals otthe conception of a hereditary sub-
. stance that, sUpposediy, direct!! all characteristics and properties
of.an'orGanism,"-but does not 'yield:to directed change,bylvans of
? changed conditions of life, bac begun to attract ever ,increasing.,
_
attention amoncithe tioreprof;reislve scientists of tbe world'
(Professor.tindergren, Professey Sihoto and ot)era).-- This feet
was reflected in many reports (heardl'a*OnGress. In any case,
.by new. it. is obvious to all that Morniiinis dlrection:in Genetics
is net just a local kussian'phenolaenon in science. .At the Cencress,
several reports'vere made by scientlits from Switzerland,' japan,
.-England and other 'countries, Mils -by virtutof the brilliant
examples of their oum,txperi.ments demonstrated conclusively to
what ,extent their approach to the study of hereditary Phenpmena
had been enriched 'since they had ecquainted-thc'ssalves with
7
Mchuyin!s works and had be0un to use these principles it their
own investicati-.41.2
V.I. Mighdln end Kh.F. /(ushner. Tenth International GeneticC
%ongress in Canada.' nlevestlia ikademli 7=auk SSSR, terlia
Dielogichenskaisn, no. 2, 1959.
4
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(6) Trans. A-1063
It is Interesting to note that 0. special "Section of Vegetative
Nybridieation", one of thote that had the ler,seet number of visitors,
waS oranized.atATenth:Congreat on Genetics. Negin
All that has been stated above beers witness to the fact
that the "Cotanicei Journal" Dotatticheskii Zhuthel) had bp-passed
these facts and that Its atiertion to the effect.thist heredity.
toes- not depend on environntentalcorditions,jand characteristict.
acquired In the course of life are rot trans:aitted hereditarily
has been left 'unprPned. A tendeney to revise a series of
principles of contemporary genetics in the liGht ofilqichurinis
teaching has t'ven obscrved in foreign scienCe. The teaching on
the 1ndependcne6 of heredity from external conditions and Oa .
problem ofereditary. transmission of acquired characteristics
are becoming increatinOy Subjects of doubt. Thus, the basic.
principles of iehurints genetics inCreasintily attract the attention
of and.exert'thelr influende upon West..Foropean science,
It nOtt be noted that the editorial board of the "Fotanical
Journal" .V3otanichethil Zhurnai) had tahtn a much raora-irrecon-
enable position with regard to Michurinis direction, than have
many, scientists in the Vest.
The, new-staff Of the editorial offices of the "Jotanical
Journal" V;otahiceshii Zhurnall deems It necessary to declare
that all of its work will bo built on the basis of the Original
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(9) - Trans. A-I063
course charted by the brilliant Russian scientist, 101. Michtrin.
"Olchurints.direction in bioloy is based on the _firm foundation
of dialectic materialism, it continues and develops the great
I2arw1n tukehfp. Therin Iles' its perceptive strength and practical
efficacy. Proceeelno froz the recognition of -the Unity between
an oranie form and its habitat, TIAOrirInts biology develops as
a science that deals with the direction of heredity and its
variation, es a science that deals with, the direCtiop of the
proccstes of evohltion in the interest of sotiet.y" ,("Pravda',
no. 349 of DeceAter 14; 1956);
The -new staff of ,the editorial offices c..onsiders that
precisely 'iicLurints direction In bloioey is flethodologically.
correct.an4 therefore; very fruitful for the development -Of
theory andpractlet. In a leadippj article of "Pravda", numerous,
Of A ON) ?
exam?kcsAot the friportance or the achicvments'of
science.in the practice of national econo7.7 in our coantryt
"During the icari of Soviet authority, and especially In
recant ti,tes, our t,reeders se created reAerhable verietieS;
such as, for ptav10, 00 winter weatt: "Uovoukrainka",
"Reletsee:ovskaia-196", the .selected v?rieties of the tal-jnion
(lenet1cs-5eleqlon institute Ode8ska1a..3n, "Odetskai8-12",
"Odesskala-15' and Others that occupy In our country aany 'millions
of ilectares of winter crops. The same applies to sprind
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' (10) Trans, /.71063
wheats and other crops.'
,"In the last (few) deCades,,Soviet breeders and eetton
growers htvc :aude tre:Iendous stridos in'raising?the productivity
of cotton plants, In cotton yields, our country holds first
place,In the world".
The editbrs of the "Botanical JOurnel" (Botanichetkil
Zhurnal) did net write on the pages of the Jourrull,4out these
and other achievments of soviet biological science, but, at the
.same time, persistently advertized works, on 1,olyp1oidy and
roentgoutations. The point is not in the negation of the
importance of.other numerous methods used in exerting action et
,
various physical and cheaical agents ilonizing radiation,
? 0
Colchicine and others) that lead, In lirticLlar, to changes of
such cell organoids au chrolaosomes, Eeegin p, VI but in the
necessity of using as,a basis tne following opinion of I.V.
;lichurint ."in?raising etedlings anti growing from them pro-
ductive plants, it it essential to usemeans that depend on ran or
the furpose of deviating the strqcturt; of the young plant
orcanism4the cultural direction that we need,. In the telection ?
of nethods to this end, prefereftee must be given only to those
(means) that in achieving the ri,quired results disturb less than
others the vital 'processes in plants".1
1.V. flichurin. Works, v.1. Oplz (State United Publishing
Nouses) SollkhOzgle, 1939, P. 17d.
?
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(II). Trans. A-113f.>3
4
It is not surprising that selection practiced for the creation
Of new Varieties proceeds exactly over Mchurinis course, utilizing
widely'also tIe metho'd of rcating,,the tuportence of which I.V.'
Wichurin emphasitedoin the following Words: 44Here, it nust be
said that in,the matter of improving plant .varieties, not only
selection alone, that is used so widel7f by our experimental
'selection Stations, is incapable of producing new varieties-with
adequate resistance tp.degenermtion, but iVen.all types of
.hybrldAzation with the. very atrictest,selection cannot .produce
coMpletely.satisfactory results witheut a special regime for the
' reeving of seedlings vp to their Oaturity8.2
A thorough study of a series of biOlogical problems with the
'Aid of the latatit investigative methods (Isotopes, electron,
ultra-violet end fluorescent microsCopess-etc,) can Ova and does
give a great deal of kalowledge illout the regalarities of the
vital processet, tut this tree of work must be conducted
tron the standoint of genuine .materialistic biology, and not from
the position of Ideas' based on principles of corpuscular genetics.
Hichurinis'directIon in biology does not deny facte that have
obtained and art being obtained elso by the representatives of
corpuscular genetics, tut it discards the erroneous interpretations
. f.V. Vichurin. Works, v.l. Ogis Selikhozglz. 1939i p? 595.
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that ave been Attached to
As 6 sample of Cntiflly UfiIWcoptnhtcto: of d seutolon
care ad on by the 'aBottnical 1" (13 tanishoskil Zhurnaii
? r ?
0 As1061
in t Entitle -11; rit, Ai
WC
Shall citejhffollOwing-
Baranov ctnd 0116boretors it _Jays r foflowst gardlOss of ti
Complete siMpligity of the problem concerning th?l?duttJthi
importance of double interlinear hybrids, Ti). Lysenko and Other
Continue to speak against the leading scientific ntthads ;and
Inst the adaptation of doftble interlinear hybrids". Lot us
how ter?, Lysenkols 1tntkpwnts really lookv he;published them
beck in 1947,0 longioefote
laboraluys appeared in print* . "The hybrid ccds of?Malee that,
produce a good Increase -In productivity.tay be ; the resultant)
I grossing, tut local (plotted In thoeistritt)geolill tettarabla
variatief, Or or crossing one loco/ variety (Octternal form) uith,
a specially selected inbred line,
"SeIectionStetions must expetd the Work of gretting and
It Selecting original malae for, the prOduttion Of .h d
deeds"4-4 itegin 0. VI).
The abOve quotation flOws how ten?ftlocely the material cited
on the gages of the "Botanical Jeurnal" [Botanitheski' Marna ]
fatale by P,A. tarentv and cols
Pe A, Uaranovb mire Dubin n YMd.thx nov. P ONO
of hybrldHmtiee, .(PandaMental task and methods for tetr s /- on),
"Bota ieheekil 2hurnerb no. 44 1900
aurn0 "AgrObiologlieb no, 2b 19474
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had keen selected and elucidated.
Ms new editorial board decIdedly condemns 'similar methods of
distOrtion of the concepts and viewpoints of nuthors ond will not
tolerate them on the pones of the "Dotonisel Journar tgataniChooitil
Memel), The taw stoic(' of the editorial offices deems it very
important that s discussion be conductod not only by matte of
verbal argumentation, but also by manna of now factual materiel
figuring In it, for without it a discussion of any branch of
science is Inconclusive. This, for txample, applies to the
dissuasion of 'species and species formation conducted by the
"Botanical Journalv (Gotanichealcif 2hurnail that uts of s very
ontosided character. The new editorial board will pay principal
attention to the publishing of original articles devoted to the
deitiopncit of octvel problems of the taxonomy and morphOlogy of
plants, especially or the lower typo, to anatomy, obotany and
other eeetions of totany that are not elucidated in other journeit,
?the
The editorial toard considers ',especially 3mportentAorigit21
publication of worhs that deal directly with practical problems4
i.e. with the development of our agriculture,. Indottry end
medicine.
Tbe historicol seven-yotr plan for the development of the
notional economy of the USSIl (1959,4765)1 adopted ty the, 21st
Congress of the Communist Party, Soviet Union, confronts Seviet
botanist' seienct with vast and responsible tashe. Potany mast
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provide the scientific basis fir the mobilization of all the
natural riches of the plant world of our country (especially of
its eastern regions) for the needs of our State.
The realization of this important task wills In turn,
require the participation of the "Botanical Journal" (Botan c eskil
Zhurnall In matters dealing with the development of theoretical
problems of the botanical science bated on the phyloophy of
dialectic materialism.
The editorial board of the Journal calls on the entire body
or botanists of the Soviet Unions of different specializationss
to enlist creatively in the development and solution of the
great problems that were put before the botanical science by the
et., age which our country entered after the historical 21st Congress
of the Communist Partys Soviet Unions - the age of building a
Communist society.
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4
Medved', L. 1.
Gigiena truda pri primenenit insektofungitsidov
v seltskom khoziaistve.
[Hyglene of work in the tise of intettofungicIdes in
agriculture).
Moskva, Gosudarstvennoe .1zdatellstvo
Meditsinskoi Literatursr, 1958. 190p.
(Not in DA-Lib.)
(In Russian)
Partial, i.e. p.3-8. 05..184, and' Table of Contents1
Table of contents
?
Trans. Ass1064.
(In part)
vg/A
Foreword 3-4
rt.
Introduction
Chapter I. Toxicology of Polsonoas Agricultural
Chemicals %.
General part
9-33
9-33
. ? .
Chapter II. Toxicology of P6isonous Agricultural
Chemicals
34-125
Specific part -.
Arsenic preparations
00 00000 4010
it:147
Copper preparations
44-51
Organic chlorine insecticides
51-74
Organic phosphorus insecticides...,
\
Organic mercury fungicides

74-89
89E12
Preparations containing nicotIne.....6
L.
92-95
Anabasine preparations
,
95-96
Fluorine preparation's .
96-100
Sulfur preparations .
100.407
Hydrocyanic acid preparations
108-115
Formalin
115-117'
Chloropicrin 00004
117.420
A docent.
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(2)
Dichlorethane
Mineral ("1113..4 ..4.4.
Preparation )AM (Concentrated emu
thracene oil, Carbolineum)
Chaptet III. Means and methods for the
insectofungic ides and machines and
used. Sanitary-hygienic character
working conditions
Sprayers--- 00040
Trans. Ae1064
is ion of an-
i414 000
application of
apparatuses
ization of
420-122
In-124
124-125
? 126-157
126'440
140,447
Dalt mixers and bait scatterers............ 147
Soil fumigators- . 1040.
Aviation method for spraying and dusting o
plants 149-154
Chemical treatment of seeds.. .. i4 . ? ? ? ? ? 6????*???? 154157
..... '000
? 60 ? ?
Chapter IV. Sanitary-hygienic characterization and
the fundamental principles of sanitation for
working conditions during the application and
storing of insectofungicides 158'l74
Supplement. Sanitary rules for storing, transpOtta-
Hon and use of poisonous chemicals in agricul-
ture 175-184
Literature.... . . 0006 185e190
Table of contents 191
Foreword, p43-4
Prophylaxis of insectofungialde poisoning that Constitutes a.
very important problem for rural medico-prophylactic establish-
ments can be successful only.in case it Is practical on the baste
of knowledge of the toxic properties in the preparations used
and of hygiene ,practiced during their application. Meanwhile,
?
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(1) Trans. A-I064
.411.0
fa.
?
information concerning the results of a toxicologic, hygienic
and Clinical study made of individual preparations is published in
different journals, collections of scientific works, theses of
scientific proceedings of conventions and conferences that are .
published largely in small editions and, hence, Are unavailable
to physicians of rural medico-prophylactic establishments.
The need for publishing a manual on hygiene in the use of
insectofungicides is long overdue. Requests for the publication
of such a manual have been voiced persistently at meetings of
provincial ivyezdnykhl sessions of the Academy of Medical Sciences
USSR, devoted to problems of the medico-sanitary service for
the rural population, held in Krasnodar (1954) and Novosibirsk
(1955), of the 13th All-Union Convention of Hygienists (Leningrad,
1956), of the 1st All-Union Conference on the Hygiene and Toxi-
cology of insectofungicides (Kiev, 1957) and at other conferences
and meetings of doctors, as well as wain printed material.
The present manual has been prepared for the purpose of
rendering aid to doctors of rural medico-prophylactic establish-
ments in their noble endeavor to safeguard the health of the
workers of socialist agriculture. In determining the format
of the book and stating individual problems, we took into consi-
deration the wishes of practicing doctors which they have expressed
regarding lectures read by us at Inter-oblast' seminars for physicians
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(4) Trans. A-1064
of the Ukrainian SSR devoted to hygiene in agricultural work (Begin
P.41, including hygiene in the use of insectofungicides (1956).
Information on the designation of the individual preparations,
processes and methods for their use, on machines and apparatuses
utinted in the application of insectofungicides is stated briefly,
to the extent necessary to substantiate recommended sanitary*
hygienic salutary measures.
Due to the fact that manuals on general toxicology have not
been published fora long time, and the books that were published
have become bibliographic rarities, the information furnished on
the toxic properties of individual preparations is preceded by
brief data on general toxicology of insectofungicides. Knowledge
of the general regularities of the reciprocal action occurring
between poisons and the organism Is extremely necessary it being
able to understand concrete data on the toxic properties of the
individual preparations. In explaining symptomatology of intoxi-
cation by the individual preparations, the results of clinical
observations of people described in Soviet or foreign literature
have been cited to the extent possible. Fundamental recommenda-
tions for first aid measures and prophylaxis to be used in cases
of poisoning have also been cited. Some of the information on
the toxicology of insectofungicides and on hygiene in their appli-
cation is published for the first time.
fa,
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el% (5) trans.-A-10624.
The present book is the first attempt (to present) a generalized
version of the problems of hygiene in the use of insectofAgioldess
hence it must be expected that it has a number of gaps and it net
devoid of shortcomingth. The author will be grateful to receive
suggestions and critical comments and will take them into con-
sideration in the next work of hygienic research on ipsectofungie
cideS.,
Introduction, p 5-8 .
In the majestic program develOped by the Communist Party
and Soviet Government for a steep rise in agriculture, a signi-
ficant place is assigned to a further increase In the production
of chemical means for the control of pests and diseases of agri-
cultural plants: the use of such meant it the most important con-
dition for increased productivity. The high level of development
of theoretical chemistry in our country, especially of organic
synthesisjand of the chemical industry provides for a steady in-
crease in the use of chemical preparations In agriculture and in
the adaptation of new, more effective insectofungicides. In this
respect, the following data concerning an increase in the use of
poisonous chemicals in agriculture in the USSR1 are very indica-
I Informallon for the years 024, 1927 and 1933 has been borrowed
from the book "Insecticides and fungicides", by Al L. Efimov and I. A.
Hazes (Sellkhozglz, 1940). Information for 1940 and 1956 - from the
book "Theses of the 1st All-Union Conference on Hygiene and Toxicology
of Insectofungicides," by D. M. Paikin and P. I. Galakhov.
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(6) Trans. A-1064
-raw
4.??%if ?
tivet in 1924 1,200,(0002] tons, in 1927 e. 7,000 tons, In 1933 Ei
30,000 tons* in 1940 - 50,000 tons* in 1956 - over 300,000 tons.
In accordance with the historical decisions of the. 20th
Congress Of the Communist Party, Soviet Union, production OF
ef-
fective poisonous chemicals serving the needs Of agriculture will
be considerably increased by the end of the sixth five-year plan.
The use of chemicals in agriculture that plays an important role
in providing high yields is accompanied in our country by the in-
troduction of sanitary-hygienic, salutary measures that provide
safety in working with poisonous chemicals. In this Connection,
It must be borne in mind that from the point of view of State and
public Interests A distinction is made between two aspects in-
volved in the widespread use feegin p.6] of chemistry in agricul-
ture the positive and negative.
The positive aspect is based on the fact that the use of
the chemical method in the protection of plants from pests and
diseases, as the more effective
of measures employed to provide
contributes toward the creation
the population and raw material
the 1st All-Union Conference on
fungicides, Po V. Sazonov, 0. M.
out that measures conducted for
?.???,
one fitting into the general plan
high yields of agricultural crops,
of an abundance of foodstuffs for
for industry. In reports read at
Hygiene and Toxicology of Insecto..
Paikin and P. I. 0alakhov pointed
the protection of agricultural
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I '
rs'a
(7) Trent. A?1064
crops from injurious insects can already now provide additional
agricultural production in our country amounting to the sum of
45 billion rubles. Destruction of weeds by chemical means de-
creases the consumption of manpower for the weeding of plants.
The negative Aspect of the indicated method is based on the
fact that in the application of insectofungicides there occur
Industrial injuries that* under certain conditions, could have
an unfavorable effect upon the organism of the people who per-
form the work. The food products obtained from plants treated
with poisonous chemicals may contain residual quantities of toxic
chemical substances in amounts dangerous for the health of the popu-
lation that consumes the indicated products. Contamination of
the water and the air in populated areas by individual poisonous
chemicals and their accumulation In the soil are also possible.
Not only the danger of acute or chronic poisonings must be
taken into consideration, but also the possibility of a non-speci-
fic action of insectofungicides upon the organism of people that
can manifest itself by decreased reactivity of the organism. A
series of investigations has demonstrated that continued action
upon the human organism exerted by individual chemical irritants
of low intensity is likely to lead to a decreased reactivity of
the organism, thus, contributing toward a higher incidence of
disease in general. Constant attention must be paid to the problem
of carcinogenicity of individual Substances. There are indications
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(8) Trans, A-I064.
that Carbolineum and its preparations contain admixtures of
carcinogenic substances. (Begin p.7).
In our country annually, from early spring until late fall,
millions of kolkhosniks and workers of RTS [Tractor Repair Stations],
MTS and sovkhotes come in contact with poisonous chemicals. .Such
contact occurs during transPortation, storage and release Of
preparations, during the chemical treatment of seeds and when
they are planted* during dusting and spraying of plantt, fumiga-
tion of soil* preharVest defoliation of cotton, scattering of
poisonous bait for the destruction of mouse-like rodents and in
the performance of other work for the protection of plants from
pests and diseases. Such contact takes place also during the
production of poisonous chemicals. In carrying Out the work
Indicated, there may arise conditions under which toxic substances
may enter the Organism of the people at work in amounts capable
of causing intoxication. The main task is the prevention of such
a possibility.
In using insectofungiCides, as well at in the performance of
other agricultural work, sanitary working conditions depend on
the quality and intensity, within the limits possible, of the
action exerted by various factors of the external production
environment upon the organism of the people at work, and alto on
the character of the production operations being conducted. Dust..
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(9) Trans, A-1064
like inseCtofungicides are likely to produce considerable dust in
the tar of the working zone, and in spraying plantgAnd fumigating
the soil it is possible that fumes and !wet mayAtet the air.
rpt
In the early spring work (chemical treatment of seeds) is con-
ducted at comparatively low air temperatures (243) and a high .
relative humidity, but in the summer (dusting and spraying of
plants) At a high air temperature (25.32?)(01) and a considerable
insolation. When machines and apparatuses are used, there fre-
quently art noises and vibrations that exceed in intensity per-
missible sanitary standards. In the chemical treatment of seeds,
the workers lift and carry heaVy loads (grain in bags, buckets
etc.), rotate the drum of the treating apparatus and perform
other operations that are connected with certain physical ester-
tions and An inconvenient working polition. The same takes place
In manual .dusting and spraying of plants with the aid of knap-
sack equipment, Under certain conditions, the factors listed
above Can exert unfavorable act ton upon the organism of those who
do the work, (Begin p.8) but it it usually of a temporary charac-
ter* which is determined by the seasonal nature and short dura-
tion of the work. For example, dusting And spraying of plants is
carried out within a few days and is repeated several times during
the season, Seeds are treated on the eve of sowing.
Sanitation measures must be designed for the prevention or
mitigation of the unfavorable effect of all factors of the ax-
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e
?????
('?
ternal production environment upon the organismoof the workers,
but special attention must be paid to the prophylaxis of poisoning
caused by insectofungicides. The distinguishing characteristic
of sanitary working conditions in the use of insectofungicides,
as compared with other agricultural work, is the contact of the
workers with toxic substances. The danger of poisoning by in-
sectofungicides depends not only on the toxic properties of the
individual preparations, but also on the conditions of their
application. Our research has established that the diffusion of
the preparation in the sir of the working zone and their concentra-
tion in it depend on the processes and methods of their applica-
tion, and also on the constructional characteristics and working
Order of the machines used.
Efficient sanitary measures to be used in the prophylaxis of
poisoning caused by insectofungicides can be developed only on
the basis of data Concerning the toxic properties of a preparation,
the methods and processes of its application, the characteristics
of the machines and apparatuses used, and on Other data characteriz-
ing sanitary working conditions. All of these problems are eluci-
dated in the following chapters of the book.
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(11) Trans. A-I064
Appendix (p41754,184)
APPROVED
Chief State, Sanitary
Inspector USSR
V. 2hdenov
August 18, 19E5
Sanitary Rules for Storage, Transportation and
the Use of Poisonous Chemicals in
Agriculture&
General Principles
1. The present rules are applicable to all types of work
with poisonous Chemicals tined in Agriculture and are mandatory for
all ratans and ?blasts of the soviet Union.
2. At present, in the control of pests and diseases at
agricultural plants there are used mercuric preparations (NIUIP-2
(Scientific Research institute of Fertilisers and insectofungicides) -
granosen containing ethylmercurie chloride, NIUIF-1,, preparations
of arsenic, sodium arsenite, calcium attenite, calcium arsenate,
and Paris green), copper preparations CAB, trichlorotphenolate of
copper end Bordeaux mixture), fluorine preparations (sodium ftuo-
ride and fluctilicate); alkaloids (Mooting-sulfate, anabasin,
sulfate; chloro-organic compounds (DDT, benzene hexachloride, chlor-
ten and others); organic phosphorus compounds (NIUIF400 - thiophoso
metaphos, tarbophas, octamethyl, mercaptOphos and others), for-
malin, barium chloride, chloropicrin, dichleroethanes salts of
-hydrocyanic acid and others. All of these are poisons tor warm,
blooded animals and people and may upset the state of their health
when diffused in the organism. Hence, it is essentifl for persons
who work with the preparations listed above strictly to observe
the present sanitary rules.
Developed with the assistance of the Kiev Institute of Hygiene
9?N of Work and Industrial Diseases.
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. 3. Those Who work with poisonous chemicals must be instructed
about their poisonous properties and about safety methods to be
used in working with such chemicals.
Persons assigned to work with poisonous chemicals must
pass a preliminary medical examination,
5. Indications disqualifying from work with any poisonous
chemicals indludes
organic diseases of the central nervous systems.
psychic diseases (including stages of remission);
epilepsy;
endocrine vegetative diseases;
active form of tuberculosis of the lungs;
bronchial asthma;
inflammatory diseases of respiratory organs
chitis, laryngitis);
Degin p.1761.
(bron-
h) diseases of the gastric tract (ulcers of the stomach,
chronic gastritis; chronic icolitis);
1) pronounced forms of diseases of the liver;
k) diseases of the kidneys (nephritis, nephrosis,
nephrosclerosis;
I) diseases of the eyes (chronic conjunctivitis,
keratitis, diseases of the tear ducts (sleznye
putij and the eyelids).
6. Additional indicators disqualifying from work are:
a) with organic mercury compounds chronic or fre-
quent recidivation of stomatitis? gingivitis,
alveolar tyorrhea;
b) with arsenic preparations - diseases of the nose
(atrophic rhinitis, (lama, sycosis of the nose,
diseases of nasal accessory sinus, deviation of
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401.,
C)
(13) Trans? A-1061
the nasal septum, Swelling of the upper respire.-
tory organs, eczema on the face and hands);
with nicot1ne And anabasine diseases of the
cardiovascular system, transitional amaurosis with
a limited visual field;
d) with organic phosphorus preparations dittonia
of the vegetative nervous system, Spastic colitis,
diseases of the stomach with upset secretion,
diseases of the cardiovascular system,
7. Persons who work systematically with poisonous chemie?
cols must undergo periodically medical examinations, not less
than once every six months.
8. 18-year old juveniles Are not permitted to work with
poisonous chemicals, not are pregnant or nursing women.
9. The use of alcoholic drinks during the period of work
with poisonous chemicals it categorically prohibited-.
10. Work that involves contact with poitons Includes;
a) transportation of poisonous chemicals from the menu.;
lecturing plants to the Republic, oblast', inter.
district and district agricultural supply bases and
from the bases indicated to kalkhozes and sovhhotest
b) storing at agricultural supply basest
c) chemical treatment of seeds of agricultural drops,
their transporting, storing and seeding;
d) dusting and spraying of plants, introduction of
insectoftingicides into the soil, preparation of bait,
treatment of animals with insecticides and other
instances of the use of poisonous chemicals in pro-
duction,,
11. If precautionary measures are not observed, the poisonous
chemicals may enter the organism of workers and of other.peOple
who come in contact with them through the upper respiratery tract
in the torn Of dust, vapors and gases, through the mouth when dust
is swallowed, when people are smoking or handling the food they est
with dirty hands. Some poisons, for instance, such at organic met-
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(14)- Trent. A.-1064
cury phosphorus preparations, organic chlorine preparations,
nicotine' anabasine, hydrocyanic acid and others can enter
thrOugh the uninjured skin,
12. Work with insectofungicides must be conducted under
the supervision of specialists in the pfetedtion of plants
from pests and diseases, and also under the,supervition of agrono-
mists" sootechniclans, veterinary physicians, of kolkhoset, sov-
khoaes and other farms who have had training in the use of pre-
cautionary measures when working with poisonous chemicals,
13. Poisonous chemicals must be stored" transported and
released only in a special, stable, well coveted container, In
accordance (Begin p.I77] with TU [technical specifications]
for their preparation with the inscription "Poison" and indicat-
ing the name and quantity of the preparation.,
14. Those who work with poleoneus chemicals must be pro-
vided with special wearing aPpatel made from a compact dust-,
proof fabric of the moleskin type (overalls or robes), special
footwear (rubber boots, shoes, overshoes)" respirators, gas
masks, goggles and gloves.
The special wearing apparel mutt not have pockets and must
be bdttoned and tied IA the beat. Respirators and goggles must
be of corresponding sites and must be selected for each worker
individually. The special wearing apparel must be selected in
accordance with the site of the workers,
15. Giving pertission to work with poisonOut chemicals
to personsnot provided with special wearing apparel, special
footwear and protective devices is categorically prohibited.
16. when the work with poisonous chemicals Is finished, the
worker must take off his special wearing apparel, clean it care-
fully of dust and leave it in a locker In a separate room iso-
lated from the place where poisonous chemicals are stbred, Storing
special wearing apparel in a house or in rooms not designated for
this purpose Is Categorically prohibited.
17. Water* a washbasin soap and a towel must positively
be kept near the places where work is being done with .poisonous
chemical, but beyond the 'zone of Contamination.
18. Those working with poisonous chemicals must strictly
Observe the rules of personal hygiene: not to eat any foodunot
to drink and not to smoke on places of work. Food can be eaten
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In a specially assigned place* not less than 100 meters removed
from the place of work. The special apparel must be taken off,
hands and face mutt be washed and ones mouth must be rinsed
before eating. When the work Is done* the whole body must be
washed carefully with water (under a shower or in a natural
reservoir).
19. Storing of groceries, water, forage and household
articles in plates where work is carried out with poisonous chemi-
cals it prohibited.
20. CutsiderS and especially children are not permitted
In an area where work is carried out with poisonous chemicals.
21. Leaving poisonous Chemicals in a field or any other
place without a guard is prohibited.
22. When the work with poisonous chemicals IS finished, the
remainder that is unfit for further Use must be rendered hem.
less and dug Into a specially made pit at a depth of one meter,
Situated far from dwelling houses, cattle yards etc.
The destruction of poisonous substances must be carried out
in accordance with an instruction confirmed by the Ministry of
Public Health USSR and the Ministry of State Public Safety USSR.
23. The length of time spent working with poisonous Chemi-
cal must not exceed 6 hours, and in the application of strong
insectofungicides (preparations of mercury, arsenic, nicotine,
enabasine and organic phosphorus compounds) - 4 hours.
In the treatment Of seeds the work must not be continued for
more than 4 hours, regardless of the type of .poisonous chemical.
The rest of the working day will be used up doing work that is
not connected with poisons.
24. When symptoms of poisoning appear in workers, the victim
must be given first aid and Immediately after taken to the nearest.
medical center.- The workers must be familiarized with the rules
of first aid administered in cases of poisoning. (Begin p.178).
25. In the event a worker is poisoned, one Matt strictly ob-
serve the regulations for notification and registration of indus-
trial poisonings and industrial diseases confirmed by the People's
Commissariat of Public Health USSR, February j6? 1939.
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tear
(16) Trona. .fia.10611.
26, Every year, before work with poisonous chemicals is
begun in agriculture, medical workers (a felldsher, a rural
district doctor under the jurisdiction of the Raton Sanitary-
2pidemiologica1 Station) must on the spot instruct the workers
about the properties of the poisons used, the rules for working
with them, precautionary measures and first aid. Special instruc-
tion must be carried out when new poisonous chemicals are intro-
duced in agriculture.
27s Instruction, posters and memoranda about precautionary
measures to be used when Working with poisonous chemicals and
rules for the administratiOn of first aid in cases of poisoning,
Issued by the Ministry of Public Heaqh USSR tnd the Ministry of
Agriculture USSR, mutt be available at MIS (Methane Tractor 5th-
tions), on kolkhoets and sovkhozes and on other farms,
11, Precautionary Measures to be 'lined in
Storing Poisonous Chemicals,
1, .polsonous chemicals must be stored only in warehouses
specially designated for this purpose: Republic, inter-district and
district bases-, agricultural supply warehouses, as well as in
the warehouses of kolkhozes-and sovkhoLees and other farms.
2. Kolkhoz and sovkhoz warehouses for poisonous chemicals
must be sOuated in a dry place, preferably on the outskirts Of
a town or villegel at a distance of not less than 200 meters
from dwelling houses, food and agricultural objects (dining
rooms, dairy farms etc.),
3. The premises of the warehouse must be dry, spacious and
light. The walls must be solid and without cra4ks. The roof
must be in good condition, the floor smooth, asphalted or demented.
Wooden floors are not permitted.
4. Lighting must satisfy the standards of hygiene and must
be Adequate for the conduct of the operations of weighing and
measuring of poisonous chemicals (N101-54). '
5. Warehouses on kolkhozes and sovkholtes must be provided
with natural ventilation (draft airing by means of opening windows
or casements), and at the agricultural supply warehouse, an arti-
ficial exhaust fan in addition* (supplement no.'3).
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lb,
(17) Trent. A-1064
6. The premises of a kolkhoz warehouse must consist of not
less than two sections: a) the section for storing and releasing
poisonous chemicals, bLathe section in which special wearing ap-
parel, Water, soap, and medicine chest for the administration of
first aid in cases of pbisoning must be kept.
7. A specially trained person - the manager of the ware-
house of poisonous chemicals - is responsible for the storing and
release of the poisonous chemicals.
8. Outsiders are prohibited from entering the warehouse
premises. Warehouses of strong poisonous chemicals must have a
special guard.
9. The'presence of the warehouse men at the warehouse of
poisonous pohemicals is permitted only at the time chemicals are
released or received.
10. The warehouse must have scales, small weights and scoops
that are to be used only for weighing and measuring poisonous
chemicals. (Begin p.1793.?
11. Safety measures precluding the possibility of chemicals
getting into the zone of respiration or on the skin of workers
must be observed when a container is opened.
12. Paper and wood containers emptied of poisonous chemicals
must be burned in specially designated places, must at once
be rendered harmless and turned over to the central warehouses.
The use of containers emptied of poisons for storing or for the
preparation of food stuffs, feed, water and other articles is
categorically prohibited.
13. A record of storing and the release of poisonous chemi-
cals is kept in a special ledger according to the sample estab-
lished by the Ministry of Agriculture USSR.
14. Poisonous chemicals can be released from the warehouse
only upon the presentation of a written order from the chairman
of a kolkhoz, a director of e sovkhoz or from their deputies* and
only to the person who is responsible for the conduct of the work
with poisonous chemicals.
15. At the end of the working dayi poisonous chemicals that
are left over must be surrendered to the warehouse where they must
be kept in a tightly covered container. Under field conditions,
the poisonous chemicals not used up during the day must be turned
over to the responsible person for safekeeping.
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16. Release of poisonous chemicals must be Conducted so
as to preclude their getting into the zone of breathing or on the
skin of workers. If poisonous chemicals drop on the floor or on
Other surfaces, they must immediately be rendered harmless in
compliance with the corresponding safety measures (supplement no,
17. Poisonous chemicals must be released from a warehouse
14 a, closed container, indicating the name of the chemical and
with the inscription "Poison",
184 Poisonous substances that have become unfit for use due
to long or Incorrect storage in warehouses must be destroyed
In accordance with the instruction on the order in Which strong,
poisonous substances must be destroyed.
.19. The allocation, construction and content of base and
dispensing warehouses mulstliccomplished in accordance with the
sanitary rules confirmed b9 the Head State Sanitary Inspector of
the USSR, on April 16, 1950, Under no, 210-56.
211. Safety Heasures.to,hetreedin Transporting
Poisonous Chemicals
? Ye. llll ?
5).
1, Transportation of poisonous chemicals must be Carried out
with the observance of all precautionary measures. Persons ac-
companyiwthe transport must wear special apparel and must strictly
observe the rules for handling poisonous chemicals,
. 2, Hauling of poisonous chemicals can be carried out only
on a transport that Is easy to clean and render harmless (carts
made of boards in good working, order, trucks etc.).
3.. Hauling of food stuffs and other merchandise and articles
together with poisonous chemicals is categorically prohibited. A
transport designated for hauling food stuffs and passengers can-
not be used for transportation of poisonous chemicals.
4. Damaging the container, knocking against., throwing, spil-
ling and strewing of poisons etc. must be *voided during loading
and unloading. IBegin p.180].
S. persons who accompany a transport with poisonous themicalt
are obligated at all times to. watch the conditiOn of the container.,
In case the container is damaged, the Motorized vehicle or the cart
must be stopped immediately and the container must be repaired ,
with the mans available. 4
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6. When the hauling of poisonous chemicals is finished, the
motorized vehicle and the cart must be carefully cleaned, washed
and rendered harmless, and only after this they can be put to
further use. Cleaning of the transport must beparried out on a '
specially assigned place that is safe for people in the vicinity,
in accordance with instructions of local sanitary inspection
agencies.
7. Those hauling poisonous substances should be guided
by the instruction "Provisions of hauling,strong, poisonous sub-
stances in a wagon or in a motorized transport", issued by NKVD
(People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs) USSR in 1939.
IV. Safety Measures to be Used in the Chemical
Treatment, Transportation and Sowing of Seeds
I. Chemical treatment of seeds must*, as a rule, be carried
out in the open air, far from dwelling houses (not nearer than
200 meters)? In rainy weather treatment can be conducted under
a.harigar. The direction of the wind must be taken into consi-
deration and workers must be stationed so as not to have them in
the zone where the poisonous chemicals are dispersed. It is also
necessary to watch that the wind should not carry the poisonous
dust onto dwelling houses, cattle yards and pastures.
Note. .Treatment of seeds is permitted to be carried out
indeprs only &P there is a possibility of arranging effective
airing.
2. Chemical treatment of seeds must be carried out with the
aid of.special apparatuses or machines (PU-1, PSP-0.5) that are
in good working condition.
3. Seed treated with apparatuses must be delivered in sacks
made of ?a compact fabric. The brim of the sack must be fitted
closely into the unloading opening. Pouring of treated seeds from
an unloading opening onto the floor or into a bucket is prohibited.
4. Only the amount of grain required for seeding is to be
treated. The use of treated grain for nutritive purposes, and also
for feed of cattle and fowls is categorically prohibited. The use
of treated grain for nutritive purposes after it has been washed,
aired and cleaned of poisonous chemicals also by other methods,
is also prohibited. It is recommended that the remaindlr of treated
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pe-N
fl
(7\
grain be turned Over to another kolkhoz or sovkhos for seeding
purposes.
5. Mixing of treated grain with nontreated and Surrendering
it to grain procurement centers is categorically prohibited. Bags
Containing treated grain must be marked: "CHEMICALLY TREATED",
"POISON". Treated grain must be stored separately from foodstuffs
and feeds.
6. After the issuance of treated seeds
released room must be thoroughly cleaned and
moved with a damp broom (vlazhnala uborkai.
for sowing, the
waste must be rfl
,
Treated grain spilled in the room and rated with rubbish
must be swept up carefully and burned. [Begin p.181.
7. Only seeders in good working condition should be used
in sewing treated seeds. The lid of the seed box must be covered
tightly during the sowing. It is not permitted to work with an
open or broken lid.
Smoothing out the surface of treated seeds in a seeder with
one's hands-is prohibited,
8. Planters must be warned about the poisonous properties of
treated seeds. Sowing of treated seeds by hand is not permitted.
1. Treated seeds must be transported
pact fabric that are well sown together or
working condition. Treated seeds must not
a container.
In bags made of a Com..
tied and are in good
be transported without
10, The driver and other persons are not permitted to sit on
bags with treated seeds. A special seat must be adiasted for
person who hauls treated seeds In a wagon.
V. Safety Measures to be Used In Dusting and Spraying of
Plants and with other Methods of Application of
Poisonous Chemicals
I. Only special equipment of diverse power (airplane-carried,
tractor-drawn, horse-drawn and hand operated sprayers and dusters)
are permitted to be used in dusting and spraying of plants with
insectdfungicides, Dusting by hand and also with the aid of woven
begs Ikuliki) is prohibited.
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(21) Trans. A-1064
2. Signs of warning must be provided on places Of work
and on roads for the,benefit of those who pass through fields,
orchards and other places that have been treated with poisonous
chemicals.
34 Grazing of cattle is not permitted neat places that are
being treated with poisonous chemicals.. Grazing of cattle on
areas that have been treated it permitted only 25 days after
the lest treatment, and in cases Of specially toxic and persistent
poisons after periods indicated in special instructions.
4. Dusting and spraying in a strong wind is prohibited.
5. Workers who carry out dusting and spraying mutt be
stationed so as to prevent dust and fumes of poisonous chemicals
from getting into the zone of breathing.
6. Spraying of plants must be conducted mostly in the morning
and evening hours. Plants must not be sprayed when there is a .
heavy dew. It is recommended to dust plants In the morning and
evening after the dew has des9otat4d.
1. The lost treatment of the young crop or plantings must
be finished not less than 20.45 days before the yield is harvested.
8. In aero-chemical treatments of plants it is 'necessary:
a) to provide all persons likely to be exposed to the
action of poisonous chemicals with special apparel
and individual protective devices ((such persons
include) pilots, aviation technicians, signalers*
workmen who take part in the preparation of the so-
lutions of poisonous chemicals and in filling the air-
plane tank with the solutions);
b) to mechanize the preparation of solutions of poisonous
chemicals on a field aerodrome and the filling of an
airplane tank; (Begin p.182]
O) to station signalers with due consideration of the
direction of the wind, so that they would be out-
side the wave of the poisonous chemical. As the air-
plane approaches within 50..100 meters... the signalers
must step aside.
-7
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Trans. A-1064
9, Persons working on areas that had been treated with poison-
ous chemicals earlier must strictly observe the necessary pre-&
cautionarTmeasures (protection of the respiratory tract, special
apparel and special footwear, a shorter work day elimination of
any possibility of a contact of the skin and mucosa (slitistpe)
with treated objects etc).
10. The direction of the stream of a poisonous chemical
used in dusting and spraying must preclude any possibility of
,/ its falling inside the zone of respiration, on the skin end the
clothesof the workers.
11. Poisoned bait used against rodents must be prepared in
a'roOm'that can be properly aired or outdoors. Places where
solutions and poisoned bait are prepared must be rendered harm-
less or dug up after the work is finished.
124 Fumigation of warehouses can be conducted only in cases
in which the 'warehouses are situated at least 50 meters from dwell-
Ing houses and from livestock farms. All cracks and openings =let
be carefully sealed before the premises are fumigated.
O. During the fumigation period the warehouses must be
under constant guard.
?
14. After the fungbation Is finished, the windows and doors
mutt be opened one After the other so as not to allow a large
quantity oriole to flow out simultaneously. Work can he begun
in the warehouse only after a complete airing (absence of an odor
of poison).
15, Fumigation Of rooms and grain can be tarried out only
by brigades that are specially trained for the control of pests
and diseases of agricultural plants.
16. All production rooms situated within a 50 meter radius
from the fumigation object must be closed for the duration of
the fumigation.
17. Barrels with poisonous chemicals to be used for fumi-
gation must be opened with the aid of special keys. Heating of
the plugs In barrels or taking them out is prohibited.
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4n06, (23) Trans. M1064
4
VI. About Inspection of the Observance of
Current Rules
1. Inspection of the implementation of Current rules is
entrusted to the agencies Of the State Sanitary inspection (Service]
arid of the technical Inspection [Service) of the TsK Profsolues
(Central Committee of the Trade-Union].
. 2. .Upon instruction of sanitary inspection agencies, in-
spection of the observance of sanitary rules is conducted also
by the medical division and the feltdsher-obstetrical centers
Iodated in villages.
3. The current rules are mandatory for all Ministries and
department* using poisonous theticsis in agriculture.
4._ Persons guilty of a violation of the rules will be held '
criminally liable according to the existing articles of the Criminal
Code of the Union Republics, or to the retponsible administrative
agencies of sanitary or technical inspection, [Begirt p.183].
Methods of Detoxication of ContainersuPretiseS, Trans-
portation Pacilitiestand Special Apparel
from [the Effects of] Certain Poisonous
.Substances
I, In working with highly toxic poisonous chemicals (organic
arsenic, mercury, and phosphorus compounds, Cyanide' chloropicrin,
mercuric chloride, nicotine, anabasine and others), it is necessary
to detoxitate-prOtective apparel., premises, containers and trans-
portation facilities contaminated by poisonous chemicals.
2. Detoxication of strong substances must be carried out
under the supervision of persons who know the physico-chemical and
toxic propertiet of defumlgation substances.
' 3. Personnel taking part in the work of detoxication must be
supplied with appropriate protective apparel. When the work is .
finished, it is necessary to wash the whole body with water, or
to take a shower.
? 4. To render harmless containers, premises and transporta-
tion facilities contaminated by organic mercury preparations
(granotan, NIUIP-1), it is recommended to treat the contaminated
surface with a solution of a calcium hypochlorite mixture (at
ratio of 1 kg of calcium hypochlorite to 4 liters of water) end
to let it alone for 4 hours. Then treat it with a 3%-10% solu-
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(210
A-I064
tion of sodium chromosuifite [khromsernistyi natrii), or with a
10% solution of potassium permanganate. After 24-hours, the
treated surface should be washed with warm soap-water.
As a detoxication means for bags, it is recommendled to soak
[the bags) in al solution of potassium permanganate acidified
1, with hydrochloric acid (5 ml HC1 per liter of solution), after
which [the bags] must be washed in hot soap-water and rinsed re-
peatedly.
5. Defuthigation of containers (iron drums, glass dishes)
contaminated by organic phosphorus insecticides (thiophos;
mercaptophos, metaphos, octamethyl, carbophos and others) can be
carried out with a 5% solution of sodium hydroxide. Then the
container must be washed thoroughly with water.' In the event
the preparations are dropped on the floor then these areas must'
be treated immediately with the mush of calcium hydroxide and 20-
30 minutes later washed with water.
When the floor is being washed and the premises are being
cleaned, it Is recommended that sodium carbonate in a. ratio of
20 gm per liter of water be added to the water.
After hauling, the transport (carts, wagons and trucks)
must be defumigated with a .5% solution of sodium hydroxide which
later is washed away with Water.
Special apparel and bags are soaked inVigueous solution of
sodium hydroxide (20 gm of soda pre liter of water) for 1-2 hours
and later are wrung out and washed by the usual method.
Rubber boots, gloves, and aprons are defumigated by means
of rubbing with the mush of calcium hydroxide and then washing
profusely with water.
6. To detoxicate containers (Iron drums and glass dishes)
contaminated by organic chlorine preparations (Ohlorten, chlorin-
dan and others) they must be treated with a solution of sodium
hydroxide, or with a 3% solution of calcined soda, then washed
in pure water and dried.
7. Apparel and bags contaminated by insecticides containing
arsenic must be soaked in a hot 1% solution of copper sulfate,
[Begin p.184) then taken out and put in a.2% sodium carbonate
solution and 812% ammonium sulfate Solution. (The work must be
conducted in a draft [pod tiagol) or in the open air). The ap-
parel must be turned from time to tipai After 30-60 minutes it
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(25) Trans. A-1064
is taken out and rinsed thoroughly until the apparel submerged
in water stops giving off a blue coloring, The same method is
used to defumigate iron drums contaminated by insecticides con-
taining arsenic.
8. Glass and metal containers emptied of carbon Disulfide are
rendered harmless by washing profusely with a 3%*5% alkaline
solution, or by means of boiling, and also by leaving them in on
upside-down position with the opening downward at a certain distance
from the ground (5-10 cm).
9. Containers emptied of cyanide and smelted cyanide
(tsianplav) (besides insoluble ones - silver cyanide, copper
cyanide and lead Cyanide) are detoxicated with a mixture of a
10% solution of ferrous sulfate (sheleznyi kuporos] and calcium
hydroxide (2 t 1). The containers are immersed into this freshly
prepared solution for 3-4 hours, afterward they are rinsed with
water.
10. Glass and metal containers emptied of DDT and benzene
hexachloride preparations are rendered harmless with a 3%-5% sodium ?
a. hydroxide solution. Hags must be shaken out carefully and then
Now washed In hot water with lye.
11. The water used in treating containers, premises, apparel
etc. that contains a residue of poisonous chemicals is poured into
a specially fenced-in pit and treated with mush of calcium hydroxides
after which the pit is dug in.
12. Detoxication work is conducted in the open air or In a
Specially outfitted room.
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I
I t
. 1 '
Redenko, A. 1.
valetas SesuShi ntt urothai kartofelia.
(Influence of drought upon the potato yield),
Ittesckhl v MR, ikh proisithoshdente,
povtorleemoutl I villente not crochet*,
p.71493. Leningrad, Oldrometeorologie
cheskoe Isdateltetvo 1958. 213
(in Russian)
Excerpt only, i.e. p.69093.
trans. A4065
(In part)
vg/A
A considerable decrease In the pottto yield is, however,
observed not only In the eocthernTend Southeastern regions of
0 the soviet Union In which, owing to the Influents of high tem-
?
parsley:is, i large .mount (is compared with ?the northwestern,
regions Of the country) of the potato yield has been observed
left in the field every pint. Affording to: estimates of the
Alt.-Union institute of Plant ProtectiOn, Phytephthora alone
?
desttOys two to two ends halt millien tons of potatoes ennuellY,
which in terms of money is equivalent to an annual loss of Potsto
yield indenting to 7500 million rubles. Renee, we deem it
eppropriate to **Aline hi the present article silo the problem
?
Candidate
eiDroughts
upon the
of Agriculture-I sc iinces.
In the USSR, their origins frequency and influencl-
Acid), ed. by A. I. AUdAbkair
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?21 Trans. A-1065
,
"ler
concerning the influence of weather and climate upon the appearance
of Phythophthora on potatoes which we developed in collaboration
with the student, LE V. Oavriushenko (a woman] who Is working
for her diploma at the Leningrad Hydrometeorological Institute.
Of the many potato diseases, Phytophthora is the most widely
distributed Gas and reduces the yield especially drastically.
In the Belorussian SSR, in years thatiere favorable for the develop-
ment of Phytophthora, the elapse in yield (14) reaches up to 50%,
and in t he Leningrad Oblast' (4) up to 30%. Phytophthora (potato
rot) to caused by a fungus from the Phycomycetes fungal pro's!).
Usually, the fungus attacks potatoes during the post-flowering
period. At first, the disease manifests itself in the form of
dark-brown spots that develop on all organs of the potato plant,
with the exception of the roots. Later a mold appears in the
form of grayish-white film on the bottom side of the leaf, The
injurious nature of Phytophthora has posed before specialists the
task of ch5veloping Phytophthora-retiatant potato varieties.
Phytophthora-resistance of varieties can, however, change under
the infl4ea of conditions under which the potatoes grow and
(as a result] of the appearance of more aggressive blotypea, of
the parasitic fungus. Hence, along with the introduction of more
resistant (potato) varieties, it is very important to begin treating
the young crops with the corresponding chemicals prior to the
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4=6.
(3) Trans. A-4065
appearance of Phytophthora. With this in view, the development
of a sufficiently reliable forecasting method for the appearance
of Phytophthora acquires great practical Importance. A great
deal of research of quite a number of scientists (3, 6# 73 has
been devoted to the development of methods for the forecasting
of the appearance of Phytophthora. Investigation* In this
realm applicable to conditions in the Soviet Union are, however,
almost entirely absent. Meanwhile, a timely forecast of the sppee-
ranee of Phytophthora in relation to weather conditions would
permit initiating treatment of potato fields with the appro-
priate chemicals in good time? prior to the appeerance of phyto-
'phthora visibile to the naked eye, and, thus, avoiding great losses
to potato growers. A detailed analysis of weather conditions
in the 14111 event regions of the USSR for (the past) 22 Phyto-
phthora years has enabled us to establish precisely what weather
conditions are "critical" and precede the appearance of Phyto-
phthore on potatoes. [Begin P.90]. Investigations conducted for
the indicated 22 years of the daily course of air temperature, the
relative humidity and data on precipitations during the period
preceding the flowering of potatoes and the period following it
have demonstrated that the initial appearance of Phytophthora on
early potato varieties must be expected on the seventh-tenth day
after in each of these days the following approximate complex of
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(4) Trans, A-1065
4-1*.
'41 er
weather Conditions had been observed for the preceding ten days'
1. Average daily f24-hourj sir temperature front
15? up to 20?,
2, Meximal air temperature below 250.
34 Minumal air temperature above 10?,
4. Average daily relative air humidity aboVe 79400
S. Total precipitation about 20 mm and above.
Phytophthora can, however to a smaller extents eppear on
potatoes also when (only) two factors favor its developments air
temperature and precipitations or air temperature and relative
humidity.
The more precipitation of a continuing character falls during
warm days, primarily in night time, and the higher the relative
humidity of the air, the more rapidly and more intensively will
he development of Phytophthora on potatoes proceed. one of
the most effective control measures for Phytophthora is timely
spraying of the potato field with the appropriate chemicals before
the disease appears, Up to this time, a sufficiently promising
method for determining in advance the best date for the initia-
tion of Phytophthora control has been lacking. At the some time,
only the early use of chemicals in Phytophthora conthol assumes
the significance of a preventive measure. Hence, the proposed
method pursas the objective of determining the best dates for ft
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?as
ea,
(5) Trans. A- 0 5
use of chemicals in Phytophthora control, end in, so doing pre-
vents Its spreading on potatoes. However* to be able to judge
as to Whether or not Phytophthora will continue to develop otter
its original appearance, weather forecast for at least the next
five days is necessary. If the obtained weather forecast will
predict that the weather conditions indicated AbOVO as favorable
for Phytophthora will conttnue? then it will be necessary to take
Immediate measures of dusting and dpraying of potatoes, if, how-
ever, the forecast indicates that the weather is expected to be
unfavorable for Phytophthore for the next few days (for example,
hot and dry), then prognoetication of the dote on which Phytophthora
Is to appear must be withheld and the character of the weather
must be observed carefully in the days that follow. An example
of the technique of compiling a forecast for the appearance of
Phytophthera and of establishing the dates favorable for its
development by means of calculating the average meteorological'
Magnitudes
for the preceding ten days is cited In table 3 for 1954
which was a bad Phytophthora year in that district itegin P.93
the Pushkin Laboratories of the Institute of Plant Industry.
According to data by A. la. 'camerae and 0. S. Meklakova, Phyto-
phthora in 1954 appeared on early potato varieties on the 3rd of
August,
The climatic probability of the eppearence of Phytophthora
in the European part of the USSR has been established as a result
or
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(6) Trans. A.-1065
of on analysis made of the course of weather conditions of each
Separate year covering the periled from 1892 through 1953 for 31
meteorological stations that have a series of meteorological
observations fortmany years (not less than 20 years). Weather
conditions for the segment of tithe from June 10 through September
15 were analyzed for all years for each meteorologjtal center,
and were compared withc:Complex of meteorological factors favorable
(critical) for the appearance of Phytophthore which we established.
After the indicated analysis of weather conditions, the regions
with one or another climatic Probability for the appearance of
? Phytophthora on potatoes were determined. In the end result. the
0 Climatic probability for the sopearanca of Phytophthora In the
? individual centers on the European territory of the USSR was
determined and a map (fig.; 15) of the probable distelbution of
Phytophthora on potatote was prepared. Because of the unsuffi-
Cleat number of centers with year/Icor daily meteorological obser-
venom, we have not as yet been able to establish the demarcation
line of the probable distribution of Phytophthora from 600 of
the northern latitude Is. sh.1 northward, or in the western regions
of the European part of the Soviet Union. it. rollout from fig. 15
? that the greatest probability of Phytophthort appearance (over 75%)
embraces the northamestern pert of the European territory of the
USSR, i.e. exactly those regions in which the largest treat planted
to this crop are concentrated. However, in the arid regions in
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(7)
Trans. A-4065
the South of the US11. Phytophthorn occurs only in exceptionally
rainy end cold ants.
PHC. IS. Kam-a acponmoro pacripotrpaHeHHH (11111042201161 Ha Hawrocpene.
rpantittu pallonon pactipotrpailf11112 (1111TOOTOPIS; 2? r9SHHUFA pationoa manoocoeftle/Ilthl
Pig. /5. "lap of probable distribution of Phyto-
phthora On potatoes. j - Demarcation line of
regions of Phytophthora distribution' 2 - De-
marcation line Of regions lacking elucidating
data.'
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ku) .4IP . Trans. A-106110.
Table 3. .
-
rfethod of forecasting Phytophthora with thc aid of an adjustable (sliding) meteorological table
(PhytoDhtt'toraappejred on August rd Pus?tkln. 191
Dote
and
Month
?
Sequencei
of days
of weathe
favoring
Phytophth.
jemperature of air .
Relative humid'
of air in.%
7Precipita-
tion 1n nm
allv aver,
e
Maxi, i
tIn.fa1
...:_ty
Daily average
?
..?
ta
WO
0 CO
440
WO
0
0 ow
flrolC93A
eV*
' a,
- .4. - ,04
" el ?
OM
440
Egli=
000,
i....i..? ...0.0.
0
0 ..$
>014- ?
,
' ? ?"1'
4?4 . i
C) '
, _.4.4..0.4.-
0 CO
464.1_
*??? 1476
arnetis -
0 11a ?
0
I-It
=i _
w. 00
r us* ,
ict.a.a.
_ 14
Total re-
lat hu-
nidity for
10 preced
in. da s
4
"Total pa
day
T8Telcd
days
uy
.
n
_ ft
t7
"
"
"
. "
_ .
?
"
"
"
"
"
0
Aug.
9
1
2./
1
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
1
2
-
.
First
Second
Third
7ourth
Fifth
Sixth
Seventh
Eighth
Ninth
Tenth
- ?
17.5
16.0
16.4
17.5,
16.5
16.4s
15.4
14.9
14.8
15.5
etc.
14.5
16.3
18.8
19.6
16.4
15.8
17.9
16.1
.
_
4..
712
20.5
20.3
21.9
19.1
21.0
19.8
19.3
-
207
202
198
199
2011.
206
207
209
1 209
rJ
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
- 00 ChGN000000
NN 4"44.*NNNNNN
.
13.5..
9.1
8.6
14.6
1L4.2?
12.41
12.I
9.1
9.3
e.1,'
etc.
13.1
- 12.3
10.1
13.7
13.5
11.3
:-6.9:
1.2
i
117
Ill
110
114
115
114
1-14
11"
109
115
4
'-'90-
;
/6
' 70
ti't
79
78
? 77
.-
'
,
.
,
. 1
. 1
Ne.- .0,40N.010?0?43%0
..,,
,..........
. Oq% WMg.41r1.-110'44,1
.
,,, , . p...1,4 WON A:NONWITy
, . .
t-? N? 4?4000 e"lb N 1", Pwi
? i . ,
. .
' ' ' ' A. . - -- , , , '? ' i
cLor
....\?
.
.
le .
18
0.51
1.2
5.5
0.5
2
etc.
10.5
0.2
.
1.7
3.0
-
-
8
,p
,-5-
-)
z.-
?
.
?
56
56
56
40
25
25
23
26
164
161
158
155.
161,
163
163:..
162
164
166;
4 16.
16.1
15.8
15.8
16.1
16.3
160
16762
16.4'
6.6
19.2
19.7)
etc.
16.9
21.9
25.1
23.0
20.3'.
20.4207-
224
16.6
11.7 76.).
11.1 77
-etc.
11.0 :.95.:
11.4 -85-
11.5 III
11.4 76
11.475
11.3 77
10.9 76
1II5 081
Aug.
3
Appearance
of Phytoe
phora
th
16.4
V
167
V-
16.7
.
-
20.0
V.
209
- 1
20.9
.
13.7
119
11.9 80
,
-
1 802
80
0.2
25
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/15: CIA-RDP80R01426R010400040001-5
Kulltura kukuruzy v SSR.
[The maize crop in the USSR]
ioskva, Sovetskaia Vaukan
1957 501P 59.22 K958
(In Russian),
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Biology of Ilaize
Trans. A-1067
(Table of con-
tents)
JO/A
Kuleshov, N.N. Evolution of maize in the light of
lichurinis teaching 3-12
410 riunar, LI. and Krastina, E.E. Reaction of maize to the
tenperature regime 12-15
?
Influence of the length of day upon the
development of maize 15-18
Haloshina, Z.ii. Study of certain problems of the germi-
nation of seeds 15-21
Sokolova, T.P. and Zariftian, A.S. Dynamics of the
accuiallation of nutritive substances in maize from
different fertilizers and under different irrigation?
Lukastlik, N.A. Dynamics of nutritive substances in the
maize plant under different conditions of cultivation.
21-214
214.-29
Lysenko, E.V. Carotene content in the green mass of
ma14e from different fertilizers and under different
conditions of irrigation 29-30
L.S. Influence of preseeding treatment of seeds
upon maize yield 30-36
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Panshin,-I.A. Influence of preseeding dusting of
maize seeds with benzene hexachloride upon soil pests
and the growth and development of the plants
Razakevich, L.I. Dynamics of the development of the root
system of maize under conditions of the Volga..
Aktyubinsk* flood plain
* In Russian: .Volgo - Akhtubink4
36-37 ?
37-39
Klechetov, A.N. .Mycotrophy in maize. and mixed seedings. 40-45
Beguchev, P.P. Study of control methods for partly
'filled maize ears . 45-50
Polosukhin G.I. Can Maize injured by early autumn frosts
grow to maturity 50-52
Maisurian, N.A. Drying of maize ears on the plants 53-55
Sakhautdinovi B.M. and Antonova, M.P. Problem of culti-
vating maize in Bashkir V 55-62
Dunin? M.S. and Iakovleva, N.P. Problem of the control
of maize smut in new regions of its cultivation 62-72.
Cheremisinov, N.A. Certain agrotechnical measures used
? to increase disease resistance in maize - A. 72-74,
Megalov, V.A. Study of maize pests and development of
measures for their control V
Q ? 75-77
Shvestsova, A.N. Pests of maize under conditions of the
Omsk Oblast' 7740
Breeding of Maize .
Kovarskii, A.E. News in selection and hybridization of
maize in data on work conducted at an experimentaf.-.
selection station. Ipso 81-100
Golovtsov, L.A. Vegetative hybridization of maize...., 100-106
Konovalov, F.Ia. Problem of breeding maize in. Northern
Ossetia (1953 and 1955) V 107-118
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Golovnia, i.l. esults of work in the breeding and
agrotechnics of maize 118-122
niumov, R.N. The most productive biotypes of maize in
the Belorussian SSR and means for their seed productbn 1P2-12e
Orebennikov, P.?6. Problem of a study of the varietal
response of maize to fertilizers on irrigated light -
chestnut soils 129-131
Dekaprelevich, L.L. Varietal composition of maize in
Georgia and the breeding specificity in working with
It 131-139
Lutsan, Ia, P. Results of two- year' experiments in
testing varieties and in mailing a study of certain
problems of maize agrotechnir.:. 139-146
Lioloborodlko, 2.. C. Agrobiologial study of maize
varieties under conditions of the til.lianovsk Oblast'. 146-150
Denisluk, A.la. Results of a study of maize varieties
in tt.e Irkutsk Oblast' iiii4?446osiiii4 151'455
0 Zelenskii, M.A. Development of methods for the obtaining
of hybrid seeds of maize 155-19
Donetskaia, E.I. Experiment in obtaining hybrid seeds
of maize in the Zhitomir Oblast' 153-163
Samoilovich, 1.F. 11:xiririent in growing seed maize under
conditions of the Perm Oblasto 163-170
Uspenskii? N.A. Terentlev, E.L. and hiechkovskaia, M.S
Experiment in using maize varieties for silage under
conditions of Voronezh, 170-173
Agrotechnics of Maize Cultivation
Iakushkin, I.V. Results of work with pialze in the year
1955 179-187
Smirnov, V.U. Results of work with maize in the Kirov
Oblast' 167-196
Drozdov, N.A. Temperature for seed germination and time
for planting maize 197-207
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Tikhov, L.V. Results of work on agrotechnics of maize 207-218
Pelltsikh L.A. Some problems or sowing Maize 218-227
Kazakova, 0.I. Certain problemsof maize agrOtechnics in
Udmurt 227-!234
Trusov, M.S. Study of Method for agrotechnics of maize
under conditions of the Yaroslav Oblast' .234.-239
Trima, IT.K. Influence of different preceding plants in
field crop and forage crop rotations upon maize yield. 239-247
LishChenko, F.I. Time for sowing maize in the 1361erutslariSSI 247.-254-
gatsanov, N.S. Some problems of the agrotechnics of ?
maize in the Moscow Oblast' 255-261
Tret!iakov, N.N. Experimental study (of effect] of sow-
ing time and the composition of fertilizers Upon maize
yields in the Noscow Oblast' (195341955)
262-267
Prokoshev, V.N. and Khalezov, N.A. Some problems of the
agrotechnics of maize in the Perm Oblast' 267-274
Ivanova, O.A. Influence of various tillage .nethods upon
the maize yield 275-276
Aleglan, L.K. Methods for sowing maite under conditions
of the Central Urals ? 276-282
Ryzhov, A.F. Experimental results of maize agrotechnics
In the Chkalov Oblast' 282-287
Kozhevnikovi A.R. and Popova, G.I. Results of working
with maize in 1955 ? . 287-297
Kniazev, S. I. Agrobiological characteristics of early
ripening maize varieties and agrotechnics for their.
cultitration 297-301
Vershinln, A.K. Experi*ont in growing maize in the
Kurgsn Oblast' ? 302..307
Pronin, M.E. Influence of fertilizers upon maize yields
on leached out Chernotem. 308-310
Shubin, V.F. Agrotechnics of high yields of maize in
nein- ilmigated And irrigated farming in the Stalingrad
Oblast, 311-320
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(5) Trans. A 1 *7
Petrov, A,V, Some methods for oalte cultivation with
irrigationAconditions of the Rostov Oblast'.....
Lobav, ;1.?? ")eveloping a method for the detarrthatlon
of dates for scheduled Irrigation of f.laize#4,.?.???../.?
Stadniubuk, POP. Effectiveness
maize wit o irrl ation?.
Lobov, iJ and S
ings tir(!cir Ir
ett1clakovska14,
niohuk,
ion
of fertilizers under
*1'?
*0?0000.4 000 4141,04,0
fly of maize plant".
0000000000041041041,00.
of Aaize Prtnr the harvest
Df egrly under lrrJaticrn In the RostoV Oblast,. 329
3P4-326
326-327
32d-329
redorenko, 1,N, iti tion of maize
rout and ptoblene: of fertilization
Aeslikove, A.i, Depth and methods of
preparation under Alan In the foot
ern slope of the(entral aucasus..
Agrotechrics for high ma
relons of the forest steppe In the
Tereshcheniio,
Green feed in the leftrk forest steppe of? the
Ukraine .....
with widened inter
-
Under Kuban conriticra 330..335
the basic see#ed
hills of the north-
........0.100.,...?
Its yields in the
Ukrainian S -345
Charecteilstics of growing iaize for
00010
345-35
r?Ta1'y left bank of the inieper River.
Kosereva, V.A. Silicate bacteria under maize in the
South of the Ilttaine
351-356
Shehekun, C.I. Characteristies of grouting melee for
ijreen feed and'silaos in 0OldaVi
000000000000000004000
Study or. the most effective methods for the
ap;lication of fertiliters under 00**4
Lomuori, luoN Agrotechnics for high maize yields...e.?
Oeshcheriakov, Awn. Preseeding introduction of fertil
izers under
Katakov, i.E, Maize egrotechnics in Razakhstan,?,,,"?
Pluks, Za.0, .';conom cs? of melte cultivation according
. to data of training (firms of the Latvian Agricultural
Academy.
--,?0011.00.000000000***00******00* Ia ... 00000000000
359
369
36-373
37b-32
382-364
30-309
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S
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(6) Trans. A-1067
Shumilin, S. Ia. Economic effectiveness_ of sowing
maize on the training farm of VSMIZO in the year
1955 393-295
---*---
A 11-Union Agricultural Correspondence (Courses]
Institute.
Mechanization of ?laizeCultivation
Kerdivarenko, A.P. The Machine system of maize culti--
vation under conditions of Noldavia 34-401
A. and Domoratskii, P.I. Merchanization
of growing maize for green supplementary feed and
silage by reduced inter -row and inter -hill scheLles 401-406
Sablikov, M.V. Proposal for the mechanization of maize
Cultivation 406-409
Chochlia, S.I. Increasing the productivity of maize and
soya by means of mechanized preparation of seeds and
- seeding, and by obtaining two maize yields in Georgia, 409-418
Degma, A.A. Investigation of the fundamental work
. indicators of the grain planter T8-2A in planting
maize by the h.1?11-gtheck method 419-428
Polonetskii, S. D. Problem as to the type of seeders to
be used in hi 11- check planting and for [the planting
of) other row crops 428-435
Budagov, A.A. Mechanization of hil.1-check planting of
maize 4354.447
448-456
456-463
Gyrdymov, In. A. Mechanization of harvesting maize
Koganov, A.B. Problems of mechanization of ,planting and
harvesting of maize on kolkhozes and sovkhozes of the
Saratov Oblast'
'Utilizing Maize for Feed
.Babin, la.A. and Elpatlevskii, D. V. Composition of
maize silage packed in 1955 in the Sara toy Oblast'.... 464-467
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(Y) Trans, A-1067
flerzint, 1.A. Effectiveness of maize as a means of
feed (from data of practice and scientific farming
experiments in the Latvian SSR) 467-473
Gotlib, V.G. and Gotlih, G,F, Experiment in feeding
green maize to dairy cattle [in the milk - giving
phase] 4734483
DIchkov, N.A. Experiment in using maize for green feed
on kolkhozes and sovkhozes of the Altai [Territory] 483-490
Pliuiko, P.A. Use of maize in feeding agricultural
animals 491-495
Rosliakov, A.K. Problem of using maize to feed animals 495498
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Shifman, I.A.
Metody I resulltaty gibridizatsii
form buroi rzhavchiny zlakov
(Methods and results of hybridization
of CereakLleaf.442st formsl
Leningrad. Vsesoiuznyi Institut Zashchity
Rastenii. Trutwo no, 10, p. 137-1524
1958 464.9 1.514:2s
(In Russian).
Conclusions (p. 151)
Trans, A-1068
(Conclusions
only)
3g/A
1. Temperatures of-15?20? (C) are optimal for the germination
of teliospores of Puccini* triticina and P. agropyrina.
2. In order to obtain normal germination of teliospores with
the formation of basidiospores tinder any kind of temperature
conditions, including optimal ones, a sharp change in temperature
is necessary during their germination, from 20-25? down to 5 6?
and conversely.
3. Infection of the aecidial host can be accomplished under
conditions of teliospore germination with the formation of
basidlospores. The more profuse the formation of basidiospores,
the more intensive is the infection of plants.
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(2) Trans, A-I068
4. Puccini* triticina crosses with P. agropyrina as well as
with P. alternans forming a viable progeny that is either more
or less avresive* as compared with the original; there also
develop forms with a changed group of susceptible plants.
5. Puccinia elymi West does not cross with Puccinia
triticina or P. agropYrina* but crosses to some extent with P.
alternans* which indicates a physiological estrangement of this
species from rust fungi of the type of leaflof wheat,
6. As a result of hybridization* there develop physiological
forms that are distinguished from the original ones by _size of
uredospores and tellospores; these differences sometimes are more
pronounced than the difference in the sizes of specialized forms
and of geographical races.
7. PucCinia triticina Er. et Henn; P. agropyrina Er. and
P. talailal we consider merely specialized forms of Puccini.
kusistens Plowr.
8. The lecidial host of leaf rust of cereals is the place
where hybridization of leaf rust forms is performed and the
source of emergence of new physiological forms with changed
aggressiveness,
9. We consider that for purposirof limiting hybridization of
leaf rust forms* it is necessary to eradicate the aecidial hosts
(Thalictrum* Leptopyrum) and also wild grasses near wheat fields
as suppliers of crossing components.
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10. Hybridization, as a method, can serve the purpose of
a;..)
taxonomic subdivision of fungi andAa phenomenon otcuriTig in
nature, it may be the cause of form developing processes.
The work was performed at
the Laboratory of Mycology ime
AA, lachevskii under the super-
vision of the head of the lab-
oratory, Doctor of Biological
Sciences, M.K. Khokhriakov.
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-
Shopins.
Rol. predshestvennikev v izmenenil '
pornzheemosti ozimol pshenitst
' buret rzhavehined
[Role of preceding plantain the
changed susceptibility of winter
wheatc to leaf rust]
Leningrad. Vsesoluznyi Institu
Zashchlty Rasten11, Trudy. no. 10'
p. 183-192 1958 1:g:464.95415412S -
'
(In Russian)
Abstract
?
Transe A-1069
(Abstract and
Conclusions)
39/A
The Importance of tgrotethnice in the control of leaf rust
on winter and summer wheats-and the dissimilar influence of
. .
preceding plants upon the properties-of soil-and its regime are
discussed, Some of them .increase rust .infection fh wheat While
e"
Others decrease it. A study was made of sterner fallow, sunflOwere,
matte, newly plowed soil alter alfalfa and rye grass and of
totten that had precadedwbeet in crop rotations. Wheat varieties
used in the study sad dates on which leaf rust Infettion appeared
ere given,in tables.
Changed nutrition of'wheat determined by crop rotations Wtt
Studied as a factor in leaf rust control. Changes *touring in
?
to67
1
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the leaves of wheat under the influence of conditions of wheat
growth were bound to produce a change also in the parasite. The
decrease of leaf rust in different wheat varieties and the
resulant productivity of the varieties have been explained and
tabulated.
(Translation of] Conclusions (p. 191-192)
1, Susceptibility of Winter wheat varieties to leaf rust
under conditions of the Krasnodar Territory varies when grown
after different preceding plants. When grown after individual
prededing (Rotation] factors (summer fallow and cotton), wheat is
attacked by leaf rust more severely than after sunflowers and maize.
2. Tho differences In the susceptibility of wheat to leaf
rust correlate with the proportion and the quantitative content
of potassium and nitrates in the soil during tillering boot-
ing period of wheat. A change in the relation between these
elements in the soil is reflected In the change occurring in
their content In the leaves of wheat. (Begin p. 1923.
3. Conditions under which wheat was grown after different
preceding plants have a bearing upon the susceptibility of
wheat to leaf rust the following year.
4. The influence of the after effect of the preceding plants
Is reflected in the productivity of the wheat and in the weight
of the seeds.
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(3) Trans. A-I069
5. Changes occurring in plants under the influence of their
cultivation after different preceding plants manifest themselves
also in the change taking place In the laef rust itself.
6. For the purpose of increasing leaf rut-r7esistance in
winter wheat varieties, it is recommanded that seed planting$or
this crop be allocated to a background that leads a variety
directly to increased resistance and productivity.
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Trans. A-1070
va/A
Tumanov. 1. 1.
Pervyl god raboty Sovetsltogo fitotroni.
(Firot year's work of the Soviet phytetron).
Akademlia gauk SSSR. Levestlia. Ser. Biol.
no. 2, P.265-282, 1ir./Apr. 1959. 511 WO.
? (In Russian)
In the spring of 1957# the first round of the construction of
a Station for Artificial:litate began to fUnctloh. It consists
of laboratories of a new type and abroad it is callecVe phytotron
(Brash end Smsets. 19561 Bouillenne and Bou'llenne-Ualrand? 1950:
111 Vent, 1957). This phytotton permits making a Study of the vital
? ,phenomana in plants on a background of external conditions as
varied as the experimenter requires.
The Soviet Union is e continental country and, therefore,
meteorological factort are of decisive importenee to its plant.
Industry. The quantity of the yield and Abe prOpertlea of a
plant depend on the weather-conditions prevalent in the different
'periods of the life of a plant. Our country Is. vast and its
climate Is varied. All of this prompts the Soviet physiolOgist
to concentrate his attention on the external environment so as
to be able to elucidate its Influence upon. plants. This is a
Institut Flatologlixastenii lit. K. A. Timirieseva Akedepli
Uauk SSCR. (Institute of Plant Physiology -im: K. A. Timirlasev,
Academy.of Sciences USSR).
?
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(2) Trans. 1.-1070
difficult task. Under field conditions it is not easy to note
the differences in the, reaction of varieties and crops to climatic
factors'. The weather is extremely changeable and usually many
factors exert their action upon pleats simultaneously. Under such
an experimental setup it Is extraordinarily difficult to analyse
phyatological phenomena. (These conditiOns).gave,riete to the
thought of creating special, climatited light and dark laboreteries
In which it would be possible to-maintain automatically any weather,
regime required by the experimenter's scheme. After suracuilting
great difficulties in designing as, well as in building it, we
, created a complex structure which I described briefly earlier
(rumanov, 1157). Here, it suffices to point out that the climate
(conditioning) machines installed at the Station are capable of
producing 1750 tons of air of required quality per day (24 hrs1
for experiments when they operate at full force.
In developing the structure of the first Soviet phytotron,
we tried to utilite modern nachine technique more 'fully for physio-
logical work.by adapting.it to a study of the problems of national
isCanony that ere most important to our country. Now it is pos-
sible to regulate temperature and air humidity, to warm or Cool
the soil, to change the intensity and the character of light.
It is not difficult to create soil and air droughts, or to expose
plants to severe frosts. The erected experimental base permits
rationing external conditions as regards their intensity as well
as the duration of their influence. Apart from this, we are in a
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(3) Trans. A?1070
position to exert the action of one external factor or another
upon a phase of the .life of an organism of interest to Us.
Besides climatic conditions, the fertility of the soil
. plays an important :Ole tin the life) of a plant. field, experi-
meats 'conducted with the Application of fertilizers are insuf-
ficient for * study-Of the activity of roots, and physiologists have
long since been growing plants on a nutrient *option of Al very
specific composition. F.and.and aquatic cultures have been used
successfully for this purpose, ut in recent times a gravel medium
has attracted attention. An attempt tBegin p.266) 1. being-made
to combine optimal mineral nutrition with adequate aeration of the -
"I , root system by using this method. The gravel density is filled
- with.* nutrient solution the composition of which is studied. by
repeating its circulation'after speciiic intervals. The sub.
*trate can also be washed and later another, saline regime can
be given. This installation permits changing within a wide rung*
the root inhabited medium, according to the experimenter's will,
as regards the relation of the nutritive elements within it, as
well as the strength of their concentration, and, in addition to
establish the characteristics of mineral nutrition of in organism
during the'different phases of its development.'
Thus, the name of the described establishment ? "Station of
Artificial Climate? ? Is inaccurate: Here, it is possible to
create not only diverse climate but Also different fertility of
the root inhabited layer. ?The experimenter strives to regulate
?
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(4) Trans A-1070
nearly the whole externarenvironment according .to his own 'judge-
ment.-
In eubjecting # plant to the action of certain- climatic''
factors and in changing mineral, nutrition and the water regime
within a wide range, the physiologist brings about varied internal
changes within (the plant) organism. Complex methods have to be
used for their calculation.' Lately some new methods have been
proposed. Hence, the Soviet phytotran. is being outfitted with
modern laboratory equipment that 'makes it.possIbla to utilise
radioleotopes, mass-spectrometry4 chromatography,- electrOphoisisis,
epectrOscoPy, election and fluorescent microscopy, and cultures of
isolated tissues and organs. ,
Climatising represents an effective method not only for the .
study or individual physiological processes occurring within a
plant, but also. its reaction as an orgenitm in its entirety. The.
phytotron permits cresting special climatic and nutritive regimes
for Individual organst roots, leaves, fruits and others et-specific
times of life. By obserVing the react ion of a plant under such con-
ditions, it is posilble to study more profoundly and to widen
the theoretical' conception of the mutual relationohipS between
the different porta of the organism.
Thus, the newly created type of phYstologIcel laboratory is
designated for a study of plant behaviors 1) under diverse climatic
conditions, 2) with Varying mineral' and water regimes, 3) for
an anelysis.of the Mechanism of physiological processes.
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(5) Trans. A4070
The Soviet phytotron provides conditions for a systematic,
pronfound study of winter hardinetek drought resistance, salinity
resistance, mineral nitrition and photiperiedic culture of plants.
In accordance with the above, the laboratories of the profiles
listed have been transferred to the Station. In the year l95i,
forty four scientific workers and their steffe worked in -this
'Station.
In the first yeas' of work much time and labor was spent at
the Station on adjusting the different machine Installations,
On assembling laboratory equipment, on developing and adapting
methods and drawing up a systematic plan. Because the experimental
base +was not completely finished, It was impossible to conduct
investigations an e full schedule. All the results obtained can-
not be stated here, one can merely indicate the trend of the
work and let the factual material abtained illustrate it.
importance of Temperature factor
The Soviet phytotron permits making a study of the influence
exerted upon plants by a very large interim/ of temperatures at the
present time work Is already being conducted within the range of
*45 to -I95.. This section has many interesting problems: it is
essential to know the optimal heat regime for the idifferent varie-
ties and crops at the different periods of their life; to establish
. ?
the sensitivity of the principal species to frosts; to determine
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their hest resistanc4;.(Begin p.2671 to elucidate the influence .
of specific temperatures upon the whole organ's* as well as upon
its individual, organs; to demonstrste the reaction of physiologi-
cal processes to long termite well ss to short term action of the
hest factor.
Investigation ?read ,resistance of southern crops conducted
by 1..,A.-Neegoverov and A. K. Solovits (1957) was continued. They
made.* study of the behavior of thermophilic plants at low
positive temperatures and found that under these conditions
Injuries may be caused by two factors; 1) as a result of direct
unfavorable action of cold upon cells; 2) as a result of root
infection by pathogenic soil microorganisms. Death occurred
sooner in the hitter instance. Hence, the number of perished -
sprouts can be notably decreased by treating seeds prior to seeding,
and, better still, by dusting the soil with fungicide dust, if,
of course, exposure to cold did not lest too-long.
Viaenikov cucuabirs perished almost completely ,after exposure
to cold for one week on the.usual soil, yit survived (fig. 1) when
the preparation tetramethylthluremolisulfide (0.5 gm per kg) Was
Introduced in the soil. Positive results were observed also in
cotton plants.
Fig. 1. Sprouts of Viaenikov cucumbers after -a 7-dei,
exposure to cold at 8-14.* P - on sell treated
with O. gm trimethyl-thluramdisulfide per kg; 11- on
soil with no fungicide
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(7) Trans. A-1070
Oood sprouts of maise_were, however, obtained after '-
similar treatment of the, soil. ?
A cold environment creates favorable conditions for root
infection of thermophiles by pathogenic microorganisms not only
durinc the germination period of seeds, but also after th0.140.'.
pesrance Of sprouts. Hence, a'fungicide threstment of the seed
material alone cannot prevent a subsequent infection when the
-roots go down merkedly.deeper. F6? **ample, green pepper-Ebel-
garskil (Eulgarlan) perste] developed e normal root system eller
it had bun exposed to cold on ti soil disinfected with [the
above] preparation,, In the seas soil the underground parts of
411 a plant died off causing depreesion of the entire plant(Fig. 2)
when pathogenic microorganisms were not eliminated. Root in-
'faction complicates the study'of direct Influence of cold upon
?
thermophiles and this factor mist'beeliminatid.
If low, positive temperatures exert destructive ection upon
crops sensitive to them, then they are not only safe, but revert]
useful to cold-resistant species. To the latter these conditions
are necessary in order to pass through their developmental pro-
cesses. The study of vernalization (larovitatsliaj-of,green plants
and seedlings of biennials Is still viry incomplete. AL. S.
itruahilin clarified the Optimal regime for root crops. Carrot
seedlings pass through the first stage of their development the
quickest at +100 and +Ie. In colder weather (+1? up to 420)
vernalization proceeds more slowly. It proceeds sUCcessfully.
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also when the (temperature) fluctuates between' +1 and 420 which
is. often observed in nature in the change between day and night.
Lower temperatures are necessaryalso for the intensification
. of growth processes. (login p.265). &study of conditions that
contribute toward the advent and termination of the dormancy period
is one of the Station's teats. In the experiments conducted by
N. A. Satarova some tulips (Of the Golden Harvest.(0oltden Etsrvest)
variety) Were planted at .5' and others at +25?. The lower te*-
polestars aCcelersted the passing of the dormancy period in habil;
in thia.cass germination occurred 13 days earlier than under con-
ditions favorable for growth. After 30 days the plants were trans-
", ferred from 4.5* into a room with +25' where. they soon blossOied out.
The specimens lett the whale time at +9 or +25* -grew poorly0nd
failed to flower.
The hardening of collie to frostt also procoids?in hibernating
specie* at law. positiv$temperstates. A study of this'phonomsnon
In winter crops was made difficult by the fact that similar expert".
meat* must be. conducted in light, tinder natural conditiens.thits'
Is posilble Only in the tall and the spring. Yet. to Obtain law,
positive temperatures with sufficient light intensity in a labort..:
tory is technically difficult. Therefore, X. I. Transit* and 1 (1957).
Jointly developed a Method that permits hardening Centel, in the -
.-dark. I had demonstrated :earlier that in this -cape light was nee's..
? sary4or the accumulation of Auger by means of photosynthesis
(Tumanov. 1931). Mew, we have tried to enrich the tissues of
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winter crops with sugar by miens of their entry from external
solutions. -Segments of coleoptiles the cells of which absorb sugar
successfully from without proved convenient objects in similar .
experiments (Tumanov and Trunova, 1957). A week's meintenance of
cut-off-coleoptiles on a7saccharose solution at 00 (C)vas suf-
ficient to enable second phase cells subsequently to pass through
three days of hardening at temperature from ?42/ to -10. After
the described laboratery preparation, all colepptiles in the 4
winter rye Viatka were preserved tip to -17', The percentage of
survived objects was determined by a method is reliable as the
growth of coleoptiles after they had been thawed out.
Low :temperature alone is not enough for a first phase hardening
of winter crops: because their cells must Still be enriched by
sugar. Coleoptiles pass through this process on the solutions of
many sugsrst rattiness, staltosit'and saccharose, less Intensively
on glucese and poorly on lactose. This differenCe Is based on
the dissimilar capacity of various Sugars to accumulate in cell!'
In the form of other protective compounds. Lactose, to be pure,
doe* penetrate inside coleoptiles, but it does not stock up by
conversion into other sugars. The glucose solution used must be
osmotically stronger than that of saccharose, because only thus
the cells obtain a sufficient amount of sugar. For sacchaross,
12%-14% solution iwoptimal. In tissues, the first phase pro-
coeds worse on weaker as well as on .stronger (solutions).
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Sines wintee crops do not have a dormancy period, their
growth processes weaken et the very time of their hardening (Tumanoi
and Trunova, 190). (Sepia p.2691. Analyses have demonstrated
that In coleoptiles the content of fres as well as of bound auxin '
decreases during the first phase of hardening. (The fact] that
free auxins in cells influence their relistance to frost has been
demonstrated by the deterioration of coleoptile hardening after an
Increased concentration of indole acetic acid (200 mg per liter)
has beenadded to a 121irsolution. ,The ability of cells to develop
resistance depends also on their physiological condition. An im-
portant increase in frost resistance is observed only in young
coleoptiles.
Fig. 2. Green pepper chilled for 13 days
at 6-7?t P - in soil treated with'045 gm
trimethyl-thiuramdisuifide per ,kg; K - in
soil with no fungicide -
/he station studied also the second phase of hardening.
Northern tree species proved to be convenient objects for this
purpose. twine to the, difficulty of producing very low tempera-
tures In a. laboratory,their resistance had remained practically
uninvestigated. As a rule they are not destroyed by frost under
natural conditions.
First of all, the frost resitsiance or northern trees was
elucidated experimentally by the natural hardening observed In
the vicinity of Moscow. In the course of three yeers (1955-1957)4
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A. A..ftrasavtsev and I determined the resistance of -the branches
of birch, pine, oaks sprttce, linden, apple trees and other species.
In this case, their chilling in laboratory cabinets was 'begun
with the temperature that wee outdoors on that particular day, and
? It was conducted with a speed that eliminated a supplementary
--
passing through the second phase of hardening. ? One-year shoots
of birch, spruce and apple trees froze out in ?different seasons.
at drastically varying temperatures. in the summer they perished
et .9 end 0.7? C1, yet in the winter birch And -pine survive up.
to -65?, *pro*. up to -50? and apple trees up to 400. In re-
.. ? -
'talon to weather conditions, the maximal frost resistance in
411 . the same ppecies can reach different degrees. In birch*, for
example, it was 7,50 one year and -65? another year.
Attention has-been attracted by the strong increase in the
resistance of tree species at the beginning of winter and?its
eharp drop in the spring. In the atilt case hardening occurs at
negative -temperatures (second phose), but in the lattercase there.
Is observed a transition In cells from a 'frost resistant condition.
Into a vegetative One. In winter crops, the second phase passes
At Comparatively slightchilling (from -3* up to. -60). Now, our
experiments have elucidated ,that in northern trees this pretest
continues even during, severe frosts. These observations prompted
(us) to :begin-s etudy of the hardening of resistant objects at
different negative temperatures. It proved that frost resistance
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In northern species developed during a gradual and slow increase
In frosts.
.The apple tree (variety] Grushovka MOskevskaie freezes out
et -40? after a.hardening that is usual under the natural condi.
tions of the Moscow vicinity. By creating a mare favorable ex-
ternal environment In the laboratory for the second phase, it is
possible to increase resistance in the branches of this variety
to such an extent that after keeping them for 21i. hours at -60?,
their buds later open in the warm (atmosphere) and flower, although
their wood had been slightly frozen (fog. 3). These objects sur-
vive even -100?, but sustain serious injuries. An even more striking
frost resistance is obtained in birch when the second phase of
hardening Is mutated. (Begin 0.270).. lts shoot* die after
lengthy timing at -40?. Similar branches survived 400? after,
undergoing the proper preparation in a. laboratory, and 495? with
injuries (fig. 4). In a mild winter, spruce was killed by frost at
-30?, but its resistance was raised up to -100?..when it received .
laboratory preparation, and with injuries [it survived] up to -199.
The survival of etperimental branches has been demonstrated in .
our work by their capacity for subsequent. growth.
The trees of the northern belt ere capable of developing en.
unusually high frost resistance. After passing successfully the
second phase of hardening, they survive not only the most severs.
frosts observed on the surface of the Mirth, but even considerably
lower temperitures (-199). Such en exceptionally high resistance
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in tree species was obtained for the first time by laboratory
hardening. By this means it was demonstrated that the objects
used are indestructible by frost on the earth's surface. Their
death during some winters is due to the fact that they were in-
capable of developing maximal frost resistance as a result of
unfavorable external conditions that occurred during the prepare.-
tion period.
Fig. 3. Frost resistance of the-apple tree variety
Orusholika Moskovykais during the winter: left -
after a supplementary laboratorY hardening; right -
without laboratory hardening
[Illustration shows] the apple tree Orushovka harden-
ed up to -60? and in its natural state at -W.]
Now one can ask a theoretically interesting question, could
a further search for optimal conditions for hardening increase
the resistance of northern tress to such an extent that they would
be capable of surviving even temperatures close to the absolute
zero? Dry seeds and dried infusoris, algae, lichens, mossvand
also the sports of bacteria and fungi are capable of it (Becquerel,
? MO.' In our investigations, however, it Is a matter of obtaining
the same phenomena In cells saturated With teeter which, undoubtedly,
Is considerably more difficult and has not as yet been achieved
by anyone.
Under natural conditions, trees usually do not develop their
potential record resistance due to Inferior hardening at negative
temperatures. Their sharp fluctuations produce.an unfavorable
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effect. Even in Siberia where thawing is absent,. Etreej branches
warm up on sunny winter days considerably more than the air.
In the aiming, however, as a result of the rapidly proceeding
cooling-off of thetissues, the cells do not have sufficient
time to undergo hardening.
The data obtained about the tremendous importance of the
_second phase to northern tree species do not belittle the first
phase. Drenches cut-Off at the end of summer -and in the spring
cannot be hardened successfully In a, laboratory by Ow action Of-
'negative temperatures alone.
In making e study of the frost resistance in cells it is
necessary to watch under a Microscope haw the freezing of tissues
occurs. 0. A. Xrasevtsev (1957).designsd a freezing stage on
which sections can be studied at any temperature down to -80? (fig. 5)
Liquid nitrogen poured out in Dewerwessels chills the copper strips
which thanks to a high hest conductivity transmit cold to the sec-
tions lying in the chamber under the microscope. Temperature is
taken on the.steseiwith a thermoelement and is regulated by the
immersion magnitude of the copper plates (plestinok) in the liquid
nitrogen. This is.accomplished.wiih a device that permits raisins
and lowering Dewar vesoels. To prevent formation of frost on the
glass, the lens of the microscope and the chamber with the prepare-
tion are wrapped in a layer of cotton.
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Fig. Z. rrost-resistance of birch branches In the
winter. Left -40? after long thawing; -1000 and
-195* after supplementary laboratory hardening (at
-10?, -20?, -30?, ..40?, -50* and -60?3
Fig. 5. Device for deep fretting (up to -80s) at
the microscope table with liquid nitrogen
Pig. 6. 14icrostope stage being chilled by a brine
current from a freezing installation
Fig. 7. Cells of * palisade parenchyma of a cabbage
loaf examined through the epidermis! left - at room
temperature; right'. at ,4*
The chamber designed by hi. A. Samygle is convenient when
work Is conducted with lower temperatures. its chilling is achieved
'With.the brine current fed with a pump from the refrigeration
In-
stallatlon (fig. C1). rig. I thews a palisade parenchyma of a
. cabbage leaf before and after freezing (viewed from above through.
the epidermis). At filt* the content of the cells decreases sharply
In volume and each of them is surrounded with a large amount of
Ice., limn chilling occurs rapidly then ice forms inside the cells.
Sometimes cells containing ice inside and adjacent ones without
It are found in the same section (fig. 6). If the tempereture is
Increased then the coalesced crystals are transformed into solid.
chunks of ice (fig. 9). ISegin p.2721.
All the cells of an onion epidermis that had ice inside of
them perished after it thawed out. Others preserved a red pig-
ment! these had no Ice within the pretoplast and they survived.
At the present time very little Is known about'the life of
plants In a frozen state. Under such conditions their biochemical
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is
processes ore severely depressed, which illustrated by (their)
intensity of respiration. As determined by E. 0. Rakitina,
respiration intensity of pine and birch branches that are immune
to winter frosts decreases sharply at negative temperatures as
compared with those during the summer. ,As frosts increase up to
-226, respiration intensity decreases to such an extent that it
takes considerable time before the changes that have occurred in
the composition of the surrounding air can be detected. Thus,
during severe winters, our northern trees are for a long time
in a badly dehydrated (by the formation of ice) condition with
a poorly noticeable biochemical activity.
(Plate inserted between pages 272 and 2731s
Pio. 6. Epidermis of an onion bulb at 4?4 two
cells were filled with ice, but the rest were
not frozen
Pig. 9. Cells of a cabbage epidermits at -1.5?.
Transformation of coalesced crystals into en
unbroken mass at the relaxation of frost
A characteristic feature of over4inter1no plants is the en-
richment of their internal atmosphere with carbon dioxide. Analyses'
made by 1. 0. Rakitina have demonstrated that the CO2 content within
the shoots of fir was at different temperature as follows: 'from
4.2 to 0?44.6%; at -6c013.114 at -206=19.3%. It can be assumed
that an accumulation of CO2 when frosts increase Is obtained not
only as a result of the increase in its solubility bluster, but
? also as a result of encumbered diffusion of gases from the frozen
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plant the protoplast of which is strongly condensed.
:Investigations ofheat-resistance conducted by-Itf. 0.
Molotkovskil have demonstrated that bean shoots kept preliminarily
for 12. hours on a 0.1 molar solution of ammonium nitrate died off
when heated for threitours at 442?.5, while controls were only
slightly injured. (Begin p.2733. These experiments have demon-
strated Altat it is possible for plants to die:? at high temperatures
from selfpoisoning of cells with-ammonia. Accumulation of the
. latter during heating has a toxic effect. Such injuriee are not "
. observed under normal Oonditiohs. With the aid of inhibitors,
? it was established that the respiration proass exerts protective
action and increases heat resistance in plants. when temperature
is high, there Occur unfaVorable changes in nitrogen metabolisit
an accumulation of nitrogen amines faminnyi *mot] Is obtained by
Means of hydrolysis.
By the use of heating or chilling in special Incubators, It
is possible to maks a study of the,work carried out by the root
? system at various heat regimes. Experiments conducted by R. L.
VittokOr have demonstrated that many southern ferns grow in 6 warm.
root inhabited medium. Grapes and tomatoes, tobacco and pepper
(fig. 10) and other crops produce more vigorous plants at a soil
temperature of +28? -- 30? than at *12? -- Ve. An elucidation
has been Initiated as to how the war/ling up of the root system con? -
tributes toward growth Improvement of the entire organism. One
of the many factors that exerts action ih this direction Is the
4111 influence of temperature upon the movement of minaral elmagint*
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from the roots into the leaves. Experiments have demonstrated
that radioisotopes of phosphorus (P32) accumulate In the sur-
,
face organs of a lemon that grows in warm soil in a considerably
larger quantity than In cold soil (fig. M.' Another interesting
.fatt has also been established. Radloitotopes of phosphorus
-enter the leaves and other vegetative pirts'even'in warm soil
'Many Utes more-intensively'in.light than in darkness. Further
? it Is contemplated to set Up experiments (to test] the influence
of the temperature factor upen the ftultbearing Organs and to
study-by.this means the effect of their warMilh or chilling upon
the magnitude and the quality of the yield.
'
Fig. 10. Influence of soil temperature* left.-
'at 280 30?; right - at 120 -- 14.41 top row -
grapes end tomatoes; bottom row- pepper and
tobacco
Fig: 11. Influence of, soil temperature upon the
movement of radioisotope P32 from the roots into
. the tops of lemon shoots: at top - at 33?:. at the
bottom - at l9
- influence of Different Air Humidity upon Plants
Practical interest Is aroused primarily by a study of the
resistance of varieties and crops to dry winds._ The action of
this factor was exerted upon various objects in a greenhouse with
a climate conditioner. In this greenhouse, wind was maintained
for 10-12 hours with a 25-287 relative air humidity at a,tem-
perature of +42?. P. A. Oenhelt and 11.-A. Plogdanov have clarified
-experimentally the influenceof pre-seeding hardening of seeds
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upon the subsequent reilstence of plants. obtained (roll these seeds
to sit dryness. At first, the seed materiel swelled until it
Contained a specified amount of water and efterward it was dried.
out strop* temperpture within 36.0 hours. Erljana tomato**
'grown from control seeds were. badly injured by the indicated
dry winds yet those grown from treated seeds Survived it well
.(fig. 12)..'An'incresse Intha.reeistance to air dryness was
obtained *1st. in sunflowers ind the malt* Minnesota Extra [Mee-
sote.Ekstral.frOm seed hardening. ?
The method.proposed is effective in increasing plant resis-
tance also to soil aridity. In this cases gravel culture end
Knopts nutrient solution were used. fillegin p.2741. Drying of the
root-inhabited layer was achieved br taking the gravel pot tvason]
from the lower dish containing the nutrient solution. Ernst*
? tomatoes grown fres seed? that had been subjected to swelling prior
to seeding and subsequently dried proved to be'more,reistant to
soli dryness as well. ,
Lnfluence exerted upon plants by, gradation of sir' humidity
that inhibits either'groWth or fruiting without any manifestation
of injurious action ,continue to be inadequately investigated. ?
2..0. 2hUrbitskii growaome tomatoes at a 50% relative Air humi-
dity and others at a To; one. Fig. 13 shows that plants 'grown
In "more humid atmosphere were considerably sore vigOreus, but the
yield of their fruits wet smaller (1100 gm); in a-drier medium the
,growth of the surface portions was less stable, but the fruit yleld
410 was higher (1600 gm).
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Fig. 12. Influence of Ore-seeding hardening of seed
*materiel by P.: A. Oenkelle Method for resistence'Of
Briton* tomatoes to.dry-wInds:JA/1.centrols;
riGht - a pleat growlyfroM treated suds
Pig. 13. Influence OfAlfferent airThlifty upon ?
the vigor of tomato plants 'and their yield:
plant grew at a 50X humidityl 111121A- at a re-
lative air humidity. The coltniiii-ihow the size of
the fruit yield
Analyses have demonstrated that at air.litumidity.equaling 75%,
plants assimilate more potaisium and phosphorus but less nitrocien.
-Wilier theta Conditions the supply of fruits with nitrogen was
poorer.: tney ieceived only upYto 40% of it, yet at a 0% relative
air humidity - up to- 60%. it followsfrom this eXperiment that
411 a more vigorous development *Utile vesetutlikt:organi is observed
? in ,toimatoesgrowing in i 'damp atiosphere: Their dominant position
Within the cegsniem impairS the growth of the fruits. Herso.wa.
.encounter the reciprocal action between the. vegetative pens end
the fruit-bearing organs. Magill 14270.
Influence of the Light Regime
Since 'the lighting instalistion, have not yet been completed
it.the Station, it has been ,impossible to set up experiments 'for
the elucidation of the influence of Light intensity and light
properties upon different plants: Different degrees or exposure to
? light can be obtained by changing the distance between the
luminescent lamps and the objects.. A more powerful currantof
radiant energy can be obtained by combining incandescent lamps with.
lumineicent ones. An Investicetion of Action exerted the -spectral
?
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composition of light upon growth, development and photosynthetic
products holds out prospects. It has also been proposed that the
importance of this factor be elucidated (with regard) to the
hardening of plants to frost, for their .entry into a state of
dormancy, and their coming out of it. Various sections of the
spectrum are obtained,by the use of luminescent lamps with dif-
ferent luminophores. -Work conducted with intermittent light and a.
different length and 'intensity:of. the flash (vspyshka) is promising.
In experiments with varying lights the physical aspect of the
phenomenon (absorption of radiant energy by leaves) as well as the
emerging physiological changes.will be studied. Important work
remains to be done in finding the optimal lighting regime for
plants by means of selecting the proper sources of light required
(Or the normal functioning of the phytotron as wall as for a more
? successful use oflight culturing in the practice of vegetable
growing end floriculture.
The further study of the phenomenon of photoperiodism has
prospects. Much has been done in analysing the diurnal Influence
upon the blossoming of plants, but very little to elucidats the
action of photoperiod conditions. upon growth processes. In this
sector, the role Of this factor attracts attention When perennial,
? hibernating plants enter the period of dormancy and also.whe.M they
come out of it.
Our experiments have demonstrated the summer diurnal influence
upon the growth of many northern tree speciest.birch, Siberian acacia,
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larch and others. In a short (14-hour) photoperiod birch trees
? acquired the height of dwarfs, produced no branches and the leaves
.of seedlings fell. off in the autumn. The same picture was observed
on a Moscow day in nature, only their growth intensity was saint
-
what better. In one-year-oid trees that bad had the benefit of
continuous lighting, the increment in growth surpassed the (year-
olds) severel times; Many buds opened and formed secondary branches;
? seedlings grew till cold weather eat in and retained their leaves.
? Many Species .(grown] ander long day (conditions) do not enter
the dormancy period and, hence, usually (rees, out during the. winter
? (Moshicov, 1935; lakusheva, 1945 and others). In our experiments,-
411 We determined the frost resistance Of birch seedlings grown in
different photoperiods. During the cold period of the year 411
variants were put.Under favorable condition* for the first as
well as for the second phases of hardening, after which they were
**posed to the action of Severe frosts In fresaing cabinets. It
bookie clear that birch yearling* that had been kept under continuous
? lighting until cold weather set In were then capable of utilising.
chart autumn days with law pOsitive temperatures. (Begin p.276).
These seedling* entered the dormancy period and, after their harden-
ing, were capable of iurvIvIngi..-WJC] without suffering any
?
noticeebte injuries. They -were not exposed to more severe frosts:
It was assumed that the yearlings will not 'survive_ even7these-frosts.
Vat, atter a short natural day and subsequent hardening, the birch
seedlings. survived -194?. A further study of the influence of
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various photoperiods on the background of favorable and of colt
weather promises to expand the theOreticel concept on the processes
that prepare plants for the winter.
Fig. lk. Dynamics of photosynthesis in cu-
cumbers - under constant external conditions
under luminescent lamps; on on overcast
summer day
(Diagram shows 1): hours of exposure to light
?MD time of day,'
(Vertical lino): mg CO2 per die/hour
Since the Station is capable of msintaining constant external
? conditions, it was.interesting to trace the photosynthetic rhythm
In an experiment of this. type. N.41. Protasova set up correspond-
ing experiments with cucumbers. CO2 aisimilation observed under
luminescent lamps was more significant than that In the open on an
, overcast day in the summer. -Regardless of the constancy of the ex-
? ternal environment (lighting-,? temperature, air humidity) In .
a room where climate is conditioned, photosynthetic intensity
continues to show notable fluctuations that decrease gradually '
(tli'. 14). In the future, it will be necessary to trace the rhythm
also of other physiological processes taking place in similar
experiments.
Variation in Root Nutrition
Soil fertility of some type or other is of great importance
In the life of plants. Hence the development of the physiology
of an optimal regime for mineral plant nutrition .continues to be
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One of the fundamental tasks. Tha establishment of the characteris-
tics of_root-nutrition for the principle crops is attracting at-
?
tintion. to select properly the time for and the composition of
supplementary feeding, it is necessary to elucidate the require-
ments of an organism in nutrient substances during the different
phases of its development. The effectiveness of fertilisers de-
pends not only on the hereditary properties of varieties and crops,
but also on the weather regime... Hencc,'It is essential to knot,
the reaction of plants to any kind of root nutrition On the back-
ground ?f different meteorological combinatiOns. These and many
other problems Can be studied by making use of the phytotron, In:
particular with the aid of the method of soilless plant culture
(on gravel). This method is being used successfully in the Soviet.
Union byV. A. Chesnokova and E. H. Basyrina (1957).
Growing :plant* on an inert media* with a solution of the
necessary salts permits modifyingtoot'nutrition Within a, wide
range. This offers a possibility of resolving problems Of diag-
nosing lesiva* successfully and rapidly as to the requirements of
young crops and.plentings.in any type of supplementary food.
A. F. Agsfonove grew different varieties of tomatoes. on
gravel without transplanting them. Filling up of the substrate
with a nutrient solution was carried out with a.pump twice a day
124 hours). Under these conditions the tomatoes grewwell. In
connection with the development of a method for gravel culture,
A. F. Igafonova made a study of the importance of various forms
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? of 'Iran for beans and spinach when added to a nutritive solution.
iron chelated (khelatirovennot] with ethylene diamine-tetraacetic
acid Is more favorable than Chloride or citrate, especially in
an ecid and alkaline reaction of e medium. Chelated iron moves
within a plant with relative ease. Analysis has demonstrated
that the mineral 'form of iron (FeCl3) and In a considerable measure
the citrated- one accumulate primarily in the roots, but the.cht7-
lated-one penetrates in large emounts into the leaves and stems.
In the latter case the purfac.e mass and. the root system developed
_better end chlorosis was abeent.
The growing of plants on an inert medium permits unfolding
the study of their salinity.resistance.more widely,' since hereto-
fore it was difficult to control the qualitative compositien of _e
soli solution. The Station is equipped to elucidate fftgin p.2771
the action of various types of ealinity.upon different plant*, Of
chloride, sulfate, carbonate and their various combinations. The
problems arising (in this study] Include: the importance of salt
concentrations., the duration of their action, the sensitivity of
an organism 0 the salts during the different stages of Its life,
the character of the after effect when put on normal root nutri?
Further, it will be necessary to elucidate the salt-re-
sistance 10 plants under different climatiC regimes, for example,
on a background of high soil and air temperature, end under dif-
ferent [degree of) dryness' of the latter. If the variations, listed
were accompanied by corresponding tissue analyses, then it would be
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possible to penetrate deeper into the organisstion of the life.
of varieties and crops under the_ Indicated unfavorable charse- ?
-
teristics of tbi root-inhabited Isyer, -The development of methods
For a diagnosis of the degree of salinity as well as of pliant
sensitivity to It Is of importance to practice, as Is s search for
means of increasing the resistance of seedings and planting*.
B. P. Stroganov made a study of the influence of various
types. of salinity upon cotton and found that they, cause unique
morphological and anatomical changes in the organism. Fig, 15.
shows that the smallest possible cellular (kletnoe3 (xeromorphic)
structure Is found In cotton with (an excess amount) of sulfate
salts. An epidermis is distinguished when it contains chlorides
411 here the cells are very large with anancreeted content of water,
but the conducting system is poorly differentiated. The interme-
diate position is held by the epidermis of the variant on a fresh
water Ina presnaml background.
Fig. 15. Epidermis of cotton leaves with different
types of salinity. 1.4_11 - on a fresh-water back-
ground; center ? with sulfite; right - with chloride
(Must.]: Controls. Sulfate Chloride
Fig. 16. influence of lg soil salinity upon cotton.
From left to rights 1 - controls; 2-- sulfate; 3..
carbonate; 4 - chloride salinity
The solutions under study exert specific action not only upon
the external appearance of a plant and its structures.but they
Jend originality also to physiological functions. Chloride salinity
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inhibits the .growth and the accumulation of dry substance* more
Intensively (Begin p.278) than the -sulfate one (fig. 16). Since,
In the latter case, cell growth decreases drastically (small
-
celled), chlorides, obviously, decrees* sharply the division and
differentiation of cells, and sulfates - their growth, in the first
instance plants possess a lower trenspiration intensity than in
the second instance. Water absorption in chloride salinity is
provided-by the increased suction power of the cell es a result.
of the increase (obtained) in the osmotic pressure of cellular
Juice, but In sulfate (salinity) it occurs as a result of a better7,
developed root system and conduction paths. ?A further profound
study of the influence of various salts may not only reveal the re-
sistance mechanism, but it may even obtain important data on cell
physiology, improve the knowledge of growth processes and enrich
our conception Of biochemical conversions.
Cultivation of Isolat*d'Orgsne and Tissues
One of the methods used In * study of physiological fuactions
Is the culturing of cut off organs and tissues.(Butenkop 1956;
Smirnov, W56). This method was used earlier in the Soviet Union
in Individual investigations, but systematic work had not been
.conduCted. A.M,Salrndv (1156) managed at the Station to obtain.
sterile cultures of Continually growing isolated roots of a series
'Ar plants: tomatoes, carrots, spring vetch, red clover and alfalft
on the condition that they were transferred every weekto 0 fresh
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nutrient solution. In other species: cereals, many tree species,
and ginseng (Panix ginseng) growth ceased and cells died oft
.
after several transplantings. At first they' lost their capability
to divide at the tips el the main roots; then it became necessary
to utilise the secondary ones.
The daily increment in en alfalfa root was 40-50 mm. Within
16 days.ths length of the, root increased 10 times as compared with
the original sise (fig, 17), it was established that molybdenum
had a stimulsting effect upon the isolated foots of vetch, clover
and alfalfa. Replecement of iron sulfate with citrate In the
nutrient liquid improved the growth of this organ.
The external nutrient medium Undergoes'notable changes under.
the influence ef the physiological activity of roots. As a result
of ,its selective ion absorption its reaction shifts in en alkaline
direction (pH from 4.6 up to 5.5). Under the influencs of ex-
tracellular enzymic activities of tomato encl.:aft:Ifs roots, there
appear reducing substances within the external solution.
Fig, 17. Growth of an isolated alfalfa root in
a sterile nutrient solution: left - original tip
of a root; Tight - the sass iFEritter 16 days
of culturing
? . The secretory function of the root system has been inade-
quately investigated. In connection with this circumstance, the
recloroce1 action occurring between the isolated Toots of dif-
ferent species must be elucidated by means of culturing them
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jointly under sterile conditions. 'he study of the symbiosis be-
tween legumes with nodule-forming bacteria must be expanded.
Egegin p.2791. important work must be carried out on an enalysis
of the effect of variousphysiologically active substances gib-
berellic acid, stimulants and inhibitors of growth, vitamins etc.
MhCh fresearch) reMaine to be done before (we) 'hall be able to .
understand root assimilation of organic forms of phOiphorus, nitro-
gen end other complex compounds. 'Anilucidation of the. influence
of various external. conditions will help to discover the changes
Occurring in the activity of roots and In their edeptetion to
the surrounding environment.
, Methods of sterile culturing art being used also in work con-
ducted with the whole organism. A. f4. Smirnov (l958) demonstreted.
that alfalfa shoots contain intufficient carbon. He increased
sharply the vigor of the root system (fig. 18) in this plant by
adding 25 saccharose to sterile agar. Obviously, the extremely
slow growth of alfalfa following.its seeding, When it is readily
stifled by 'media, can be explained by the small carbohydrate
reserves in the seed. 1t
? it is desirable that the method for sterile culturing of
Isolated tissues be used more extensively so that problems of
the biosynthesis of alkaloids and many other substances can be
resolved. M. S. Hardinskaia studied the lignificstion processes
of cell membranes by thia_Method. ' Besides:being theoretically'
Interesting, the lignification deposit within them is of practical
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Importance: "maturing" of the wood of fruit crops Is connected
with their better preparation for the minter, while lignification
or haulms increases the resistance of cereals to lodging. In
experiments conducted with isolated calluses of carrots it was
possible to obtain an increase.in the amount of lignin by intro-
ducing Into the external culture medium one of its precursors:
glucoside of coniferin. The increase in lignification is demon-
strated by microchemical reactions; lesgin p.280]; it is accompanied
OY an Increased increment of dry substance (fig. 19).
fig. 18. influence of 2Z saccharoso added to agar
upon the growth of the root system in alfalfa shoots:
left - without sacchaross;:Latat - with saccharose
Pig. 19. Growth of a callus isolated from a carrot:
upper, - control; lower - when glucoside of coniferin
was Added .
The method for culturing isolated tissues is used widely In
the study of growth processes and dell differentiation'phenomena.
R. a. Eutaw) fa women] (1956) conducted 'experiments with calluses
of carrots, wild gripes and Jerusalem artichoke. They weregrown'
.an agar under Constant under constant external conditions (tem-
perature 26? (CI, air humidity 70%) in different nutrient mediat
.that of White Waite], Geller and Nitsch (Niche). The best re-
sults.were obtained from the latter mixture; it 01 distinguished
by a large potassium and nitrogen content. The length of time the
callus was grown between transpientings was i.5 months.
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Three types of calluses were propagated for experiments and
study: 1) a normal one, i.e. one that requires that auxin be added
to the nutrient medium; 2) the.root.knot (gall) type that grows .
without an auxin additive, end 3) "the adapted" ("priuchennyi") type
that evolved intermittently from the normal one and is distinguished
from the latter by its ability to-synthesise auxin. interest has
been aroused by "the adapted" inpriurochennyiul callus of carrots
(0autherette clone) that has been growing continuously in an iso-
lated state for 20 years (fig. 20).
Pig. 20. Adapted callus of a carrot root (Gautheretts
clone); cultivated in an isolated state for 20 years
A.Ciearlypronounted seasonal periodisa has been noted in the
growth of calluses. Regardiess Of the constanCir of conditions
in a room where the climate Is controlled and the uniformity of
the food, the most intensive growth, processes have been observed
In the spring, and at the beginning of summer; they proceed at the
.slowest pace between November and January.
A continuous Increase in the dimensions of a callut cannot
always be obtained; in carrots, for instance, there sometimes op- .
pear on it roots, but in the case of chicory a Whete plant can be
obtained from it.
The different relation of calluses to temperature has been
clarified. In corrots their growth stops from 4.9 to 441., but
they are preserved under these conditioni for a. period of 3-4
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Months. Later, having been transferred to an optimal heat regime,
they intensively increase in size and no necrosis is found in "
? their tissues. Yet, calluses of wild grapes not Only.cease'to
giow at. the Indicated decreased temperatures, but. they completely
perish within a month. in light, the else of a callus increases
more slowly.
. -
0:itudy was made of the effect of many.physiologically active
'substances upon the growth of calluses; trilotio-benseno acid,
adenine,,gibbereilic acid, indole acetic acid, maleic acid hydro-
xide, sodium.ethyl-xanthogenate, coconut milk etc. -Prom the re-
sults obtained it can be noted that adenine stimulates the remo-
tion of buds, but their shoots are different. Some concentrations
of maleic hydraside inhibit growth up to 5.5 months arid others'
provoke necrosis*
There is reason to anticipate that the method for Culturing
'isolated organs and tissues will be used in the future even more
extensively. It permits eliminating correlative reciprocal re-
lations between different organs, elucidating .the Influence, of
different substances upon plants by means of entering the cells
from the external environment, and it offers a possibility of
growing the objects under investigation in an external environment
at a specifid nutritive regime controlled by the experimenter.
(Begin p.2811.
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Future tasks
The statement of the results obtained has indicated and
eubetentleted the trend of the physiologics1 work conducted at
the Station. All of the work wan carried out on a background of
extensive variation of the factors of external environment: tem-
perature of the sir end the soli* degree of atmospheric dryness*
Intensity and properties of light* length of day* mineral nutri-
tion and water regime. A few things must be added to the above-
sold.
Interesting data can be obtained in making a comparative study
of the physiology of :seed gerMination in theraophilic and cold
resistant species. Pre-seeding treatment of seed material practiced
as a method of exerting action upon the rudimentary organism hes
been attracting increasing attention.
Facts already available permit anticipating substantial re-
sults from a study of thermoperiodiem. Here* it will be necessary
to disclose the characteristics of this phenomenon it different
types of plants and to understand its physiological mechanism.
Heretofore* the attention of researchers was centered chiefly
on the transition of the organism from vegetative growth to
generative development. The second important half of its life
from flowering up to maturing - continues to be poorly investigated.
In this section there arise =any problems connected with fertill-
cation* setting of treas1 the growth of the letter and with pro-
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310 Trans. Aa1070
found biochemical changes occurring within them during maturing.
In exerting the influence of various external rectors upon the
whole wigs/dem as well as upon Its individual pert* et this stage
a its lift, It is essential to extend the study of the physiology
of deposit* found in the reproductive organ* Of carbohydrate, .
protein and fat reserves* end to establish the conditions determining
the magnitude and quality of the yield.
Physiologically active substances (etimulents and inhibitors
of growth and others) do not always produce smiler results when
their action Is !exerted upon plontsi their influence is changed
notably by conditions of external environment. Hence, it Is desir
able to trace their action during different nether regimes and
to try to rind more effective method* for the use of these
preparations In practice. Such an approach promisee s. more nrIed
understanding at the role and the mechanism of physiological
thengeewten specific chemicel compounds are introduced into the
organism.
' Apart from a general analysis of vital functions, the phyto-
tron creates the required Conditions for the development.of
partial physiology of plants as well. available devices permit
establishing economically important characteristics in varieties
end crops,, elucidating their behavior under various climatic
conditions. end on the background of varied toil fertility.
it is desirable that this work be. conducted by physiologists in
Conjunction with breeders and egeotechnicians having centralised
tr.)
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It in branch. institutes end at experiments:1 stations in which
phytotrons probably wilt arise In the near future.
? To aecomplish this* one of the tasks of the Stetion is the
meetting up of rich* modern techniques to serve the-lett-nee Of
plant. industry. This work is conducted In conjunction with the
engineers and its objective is the designing of new installations
end Apparatuses. Per example* during the period reported* the
Station hes designed an installation that is to determine frost
resistance of fruit trees during the winter directly In the. orchard.
A similar structure ten be created for the purpose of determinlne
the resistance of winter crops and perennial grasses In the. field.
On the basis of the experience obtilined*.more simple end lett
expensive climate Amaines suitable for the solution of prectiCal
problems at plant industry experimental establishments end to aid
the latter in setting up research. work will havete be developed
In, the future. Interest in. the phytotron is widespread in our
country. It suffices to say that within a yearis time the Station
besi given advice to 25 scientific ettehlishments on the construes
tion* (Begin 0.2821* the designitg end the work of climate*. re..
friteration and other installations.
it is obvious* from all that has been said, that the phytotron
represents a: good experimental base. It permits developing syetema-
'neatly problems that heretefore could not be brought up becaun.
of the absence of the corresponding materiel circumstances. The
available equipment permit** within ComptiratiVely short time*
0
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(36) Trans. A-1074
Investigating many complex biological phenomena occurring within
the plant organism. This offers a possibility of forming a clear
Ides regarding the behavior of plants in a more complex field
?setting with various combinations of climatic as well as soil
conditions, which facilitates the solution of the practical
problems arising in plant industry. Because of the importance
of the described new type of laboratories, one can't help anti-
cipating that the building as will as the *quipping of the first
Soviet phytotron be completed at the earliest possible date.
LITERATURE
Butinko, R. O. 1956. Cultivation of isolated tissues. Plato-
logila Restenii, 34 277486.
Krasevtosv, 0. A. 1951. Microscopie observations of plant ob-
jects at very low temperatures. Fie101ogila Rastenil* 4,
570-572. '
Moshkov, B. S. 1935. Thotoperiodiam and frost.resistanca of
perennial plents. 'Zr. Priki. Dot., Gen. 1 tel., SeP11. 111,
6, 232-261. - 2 '
Nazgovorov, L. A. and Sdlovtev, A. K. 1957. Cold resistance
. of sprouting seeds and pathogenicity of the soil. Fitiologlia
Rastenii, 1, 4B9-504. ?
Sairnov, A. NI. 1956. Use of the method for the cultivation of
isolated roots In plant physiolegy. risiologlia Rastenn,
3, 360-304.
TUmsnov, 1. 1. 1931. Hardening of winter plants to low tempera-
tures. Tr. Prikl. Bat., Gen. iSil., 25, 69409. - 19$T.
Stints 11* Iskusstvennogo Klimata. Vesta. AN SSSR, 10, 111-116.
Tumanov, 1. 1. and Krasavtsev, 144 1955. Frost resistance in
_woody plants. Fielologlia Rastenii, 2, 320?.333.
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( 37) Trans. A-I070
Tumanov, I. 1. and Trunova, T. I. 1957. Hardening of the tissues
of winter plants with the aid of sugar absorbed from an ex-
ternal solution. Fitiologlia Rests:tit, 44 397-408. - 1958.
? Influence of growth processes upon the ability of tissue
hardening In winter plants. Fisiologlia Hastenii, 5, 112-122.
? Chesnokov, V. A. and eatyrina, E. H. 1957. orawing of plants
without soil on artificial media. Vest. S.-Kh, Nauki, G04
Vtorol, 121-128.
lakusheva, E.1. 1945. Frost resistance of clover and alfalfa
in connection with plant cultivation condition during the pri.
ceding vegetative period. Dokl. Vses. Seveshch. pa Fisiol.
Rest" no. no 147-159.
Becquerel. P. 1950. La suspension de la vie au-dessous de 1/200
K absolu par demagnetisation adiabstique de l'alun de fer
? dans is vide It plus eleve. C. r. Acad. Sci,, 231, 261.263.
? Bouillenne, R. and BouillenneWairand, N. 1950. Le phytotron de
l'Institut Botanique de l'Universite de Liege. Archives de
Institut eo. 20, 1-61.
Break, I. P. and Sleets. L. 1956. The phytotron of the Institut.
? of Horticultural ylent'Eteeding at Wageningen, Netherlands.
Euphytica, 5, 205.217.
Went, P. W. 1957. The experimental control of plant growth.
Chronic. Botenica, 17, 1-343.
- Article received at Editorial
Offices
July 16, 1958
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trans. Re'Alli
Coordinated conference on problems of scientific
. research work in the sphere of feed for agricultural
animals.
Vestnik Sellskokhoziaistvennol Nauki, vol. 4, no. 3,
P.144-147. . March l99. 20 V633
(In Ruselan)
On December 23 and 24., 058, a Conference was held at the
All-
- Union Scientific...Research institute of Animal Industry; it summed.
up. the result% of scientificd.research'xprk, as wallas Outlined
the basic .trends for research in the field of feeding of agri-
cultural animals. The Conference was opened by the Corresponding
Member of .VASKIIVIL [All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences
imeni V. I. Lenin], M. F. Tome.,
N. A. Staroverov, who addressed the meeting in the name of
the Ukrainian Academy of Agriculture, (Begin p.1451 said that in
the Ukraine, in order to increase proteins in the rations of
agricultural animals, corn was planted together with soybeans and
lupines. This mixture was given to the cattle as green additional
ration. Along with this, corn is ensilaged with leguminous
plants in the presence of organic and inorganic compounds of
nitrogen. Milk yields of cows have increased as a result of feed-
ing corn silage, prepared with ammonium sulfate. Interesting
'results were obtained in experiments of artificial drying of
soybeans, alfalfa, carrot and beet tops, as well as carrot roots.
Storage of dried plants in a ground form is the most effective
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in paper bags. For instance, the losses of carOtene did not
exceed 40-50% in-storing dried carrots. N. A. Staroverov ex-
pressed a'wish about the necessity of formation of a single
method for determining the digestibility of fodder.
Sapunov (Belorussian Institute of Animal Industry) re-
ported that two complex stations of the Institute study the lupine
as a source of plant protein. Lupine is ensilaged and used
(as a green feed) in a pure form and in mixtures with peas and
oats; this produces especially good results; the experimental
swine stepped up the weight increases, the mulch cows increased
milk yields when they were fed carbSmide (urea). In concentrated
? rations 100-120-g of carbaMide replaced the digestible protein.
Good results were obtained,. in swine fattening,, by replacing
100 g of proteins with penicillin mycelium. Studies of hydrolysis
were conducted on much cows. he milk yield of cows increased
by 300-400 g per day when 3 kg of hydrolysed and yeasted straw
? flour was added.
Professor N. I. Zakharlev (Kirghiz Scientific-Research Insti-
tute of Animal Industry ,and Veterinary Science) reported that in
? 1958 experiments were conducted in the Institute on the enrich-
ment of corn silage with alfalfa. Plantings of peas and soy-
beans, as S source of high protein feed for young animals, are
very promising under conditions of the republic. The effective-
ness of mixed plantings of barley and of vetch is being studied.
In the Kirghiz Institute of Animal Industry.plants are being
studied from the point of view of their content of iodine and
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?
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(3) Trans. A-1071
strontium; ensilaging of corn and sugar beet tops is being conducted;
experiments are conducted on ensilaging of corn stalks, tops of
sugar and fodder beets; of corn and alfalfa.
Professor A. P. Dmitrochenko (Leningrad Agricultural lnsti,
tute) pointed out in his report that 'observations, conducted by
him, gave him reason to make a conclusion that the digestibility
of proteins of different degrees of solubility is similar, but
their absorbability is dissimilar; their effect on the organism
of the animal is unlike also. Oil cake, infusion in 1g salt
solution was used in feeding the calves. Observations of the
microbic process in the rumen have shown that the presence of
? ketone bodies In milk pointed to the disturbance of fermentation
processes in the rumen.
Professor D. V. Elpattevskil (Saratov Zooveterinary Institute)
reported that at ifie Institute much attention is paid to the de-
velopment of feeding norms for large cattle* horses and swine.
A method of digestibility of feeds in vitro has been established,
as well as in animals. :Experiments were conducted on free (un-
limited] additional protein end mineral feedings* which gave
good results. Experiments were conducted on free feeding of trace
elements.' A method of chemicil treatment of straw with alkalies
(In the course of 7-10 days) was developed at the Institute; in
such cases the physical structure of the cellulose was changed
and its food value increased.
V. V. Alipov (South-Eastern Institute,of Agriculture) ac-
. .
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Trans. A4071
quainted the Conference with results of experiments of feeding
mixture of corn and soybeans (mixed planting), which gave
negative results, since, apparently, in mixed plantings the con-
tents of proteins were reduced in corn in connection with its in-
hiPition. The conclusion was made that in mixed plantings it
is necessary to carefully choose the components for the mixture.
Experiments were conducted on feeding carbamide to much cows
(100 got. carbamide replaced the oil cakes) for the enrichment
of the ration with nitrogen, as well as adding carbamide to the
corn silage.- Experiments were conducted on feeding-poultry with
hydrolyzed yeaitsi'they gave positive results.
L. A. Shchetinov reported that Omsk Institute of Agriculture
conducted experiments on utilizing protein of animal, origin.
For instance, lake crayfish "gammalue (gammards/l(source of
protein)was used in fattening of over 80 thousand ducks and over
24 thousand chickens.
P. T. Tribulkin mentioned that in experiments, which were.
conducted in Sibirskif Scientific-Research Institute of Animal
Industry, plants were included Into the, rations of isrge'cattle,
In particularly, soybeans, containing protein In large amounts,
In order to increase the level of the protein feeding. In 1957,
lp to 15 c of protein :and 3-6 c of digestible protein were
contained in the harvest,, obtained from one hectare (2.471.eciee)
of green mass of soybeans, as the analysis has shown. When feeding
silage to cows, which was.made Of a.mixtare of corn and of.
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(10 Trans. A-1071
qusinted the Conference with results of experiments of feeding
a mixture of corn and soybeans (mixed planting), which gave
negative results, since, apparently, in mixed plantings the con-
tents of proteins were reduced in corn in connection with its in-
hiPition. The conclusion was made that in mixed plantings it
Is necessary to carefully choose the components for the mixture.
Experiments were conducted on feeding carbamide to much cows
(100 g of carbamide replaced the oil cakes) for the enrichment '
of the ration with nitrogen, sit well as adding carbamide to the
corn silage. Experiments were conducted on feeding 'poultry with
hydrolysed yeaitsvthey gave positive results.
L. A. Shchptinov reported that Omsk Institute of Agriculture
conducted experiments on utilising protein .of animal origin.
'Por instance, lake crayfish "gsmmalus" Comments?' .(source of
protein)was used in fattening of over 80 thousand ducks and over
24 thousand chickens.
P. T. Tribulkin mentioned that In experiments, which were.
conducted in Sibirskil Scientific-Research Institute of Animal
Industry, plants were included Into' the, rations of large cattle,
in particularly, soybeans, containing protein In large amounts,
in order to increase the level of the protein feeding. In 1957,
lo to 15 c of protein and 3-6 c of-digestible protein were
contained in .the harvest., obtained from one hectare (2.471.acres)
of green mass of soybeans, as the analysis has shown. When feeding
silage to cows, which was made of a mixture of corn and of
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(5) Trans.. A-1071
leguminous plants, the milk yielda increased by 12%. Good results
were obtained in-fattening of swine with.a combined silage (potatoes*
root vegetables and grain wastes).
Professor V. N. Bukin .(Institute of Biochemistry of the Aea-
demy of Science of USSR) reported that vitamin A .(synthetic) is
successfully used in poultry industry.and swine breeding. It is
recommended [Begin p.146] to be given in the form of dry pre-
parations, and not as an oil solution. Observation's have shown
.that 40 g of 8I2 and 40 g of biomycin are sufficient for enrich";
ing a? large amount of feeds.
Professor M. P. Tomme pointed out that works, conducted
by V1ZH (All-Union Livestock Breeding Institute),?haveahown the
possibility of partial replacement of protein feeds with car-
bamide. Six combined feeds were developed* which are being
utilised in growing and fattening of young animals (together with
large givings of silage).
According to the report of Professor M. Is. Berginia, the
Latvian Agricultural Institute developed it prescription for en-
richment of (feed materials] with vitamins and mineral substances
for %taunts? (animals which lick). At the present time experi-
ments are conducted on early weaning of piglets, on feeding to .
highly productive cows and iwipe Of a Mixture of trace elements
(salts of zinc, manganese, borons.iron, cobalt* iodine, and so on).
In view of the fact that, in the preparation of flour from fish
wastes at a temperature Of 130?, proteins and other valuable
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,.nutrients are lost, the Institute suggested to conserve fish wastes
without * hot treatment, but to place them into vacuum apparatus
and after that to prepare from them a fish paste at 40?, which
contains 50-8.1 of dry substances, 381440% of protein and can stand
a long storage. Swine eat this paste with pleasure, as well as
the fish flour prepared by the. same. method.
Professor N. A. Shmanenkov and G. A. MagidoV (All-Union
Institute of Horse Breeding) acquainted the Conference with the
results of chemical preservation of feeds, with production of
dry preparations for preservation (obtaining a. tweet silage
without a reduction of pH), utilisatien of carbamide, use of bio-
mycin and vitamin B12 in growing of colts, it was mentioned
that phosphates improve mineral metabolism, growth and develop-
ment of young animals, increase nitrogen metabolism of mares in
foal.
N. K. Alekseeva (Uzbek Academy of Agricultural Sciences)
reported that in the republic cottonseed cakes, with an addition
? of mineral substances, are being used as animal fodder. ?Dthugaran
? (a variety of sorghum), which produces 4.5 c of green. mass, from
1 ha, is being studied. A. I. Khuisishvili (Georgian Institute.
of Animal Industry and Veterinary Science) imparted a prescription
for a combination feed into which enter wastes of the fruit in.'.
? dustrye of meat combines, fish wastes, dry press and cocoons of
?
mulberry silkworms. Honored Scientist, Professor P. P. Bereshnala
(Kishinev Agricultural Institute), reported that in Moldavia
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(7) Trans. A-1071
the protein problem is being solved by means of expansion of
plantings of alfalfa, of corn, la soybeans, chick-peas, vetch,
dolichos (kidney beans) and peas.
Professor I. W. Kugnetsov told about 'his impressions about
travels to foreign countries. In Holland, aelgiuM, Denmark and
England types of feeding are being developed, on the basis of
which rations are formed suitable to individual kinds of animals,
cones, types of farms, and so on. In Holland, at the present
time, more attention is paid to the contents of proteins in
milk and not to the fat content. In foreign countries, "provims"
combination feeds, containingproteins, vitamins, mineral sub-
stances, and so forth,? are now used on a large scale. Great
? importance is attached to copper, not to cobalt; to its effect
on milk production.
According to data of Professor N. I. Ionov (V1ZH) Wastes of
the mycelium of antibiotics can be used for the enrichment of
feeds: 2-3 kg of dry wastes are sufficient for enriching 1 t of
concentrated feeds. Use of biomycin raises (by 16.6%). the in-
creases of weight of swine during fattening. Terramycin produced
a better effect on animal's.
feeding
In his report "Theoretical elements of *agricultural animals",
Academician I. S. Popov acquainted the Conference with the pros.
?
ject of topics for scientific research, developed by VASHHNIL for
the next few years, where means are plannedfor the coordination
of work of scientific institutions on this problem. In drawing
?
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(8) Trans. A..1071
up the plans, VASKHNIL took into Consideration the degree to which
each problenrwas studied, as well as demands of the national economy.
This project includes seven most.important.subjectst I) Protein
feeding of agricultural animals. The practical realization of
this subject, comprising several subordinate topics, was entrusted
to VIZH, TSRHA (Timiryitev Agricultural Science Academy], Moscow
Veterinary AcedelyslillUnion Scientific-Research Institute of
Horse Breeding, All-Union Scientific-Research Institute of Fodder,
All-Union Scientific-Research Institute of Poultry industry, All-
Union Scientific-Reseerch Institute of Swine Husbandry, "VNICK" L
(VNIIOK (All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Sheep and Goat
Breeding)], SibNIIZH (Siberian Scientific-Research Institute of
Livestock Raising], Scientific-Research Institute of Livestock
Raising in the Forest-Steppe and _Woodlands of Ukrainian SSR,
Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Academies of Allied
Republics. 2) Basic elements of production of combined feeds.
Fulfilment of this subject, which includes 5 problems, was en-
trusted to VIM, SCientific-Research'Institute of Horse
Breeding, All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Swipe Husbandry,
All-Union Scientific Research institute .of Poultry Industry, Ukrain-
ian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, and Siberian Scientific
Research Institute of Livestock Raising. 3) Vitamins in group B
In the feeding of swine and poultry. Development of this subject
was entrusted to V1ZH (All-Union Livestock Breeding Institute], to-
gether with the All-UnionVitamin Institute and the Institute of
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Biochemistry. 4) Trace elements in the nutrition of agricultural
animals. Executors of the subject - MB, Moscow Veterinary Aca-
demy, mix [All-Union Scientific Research Institute of Horse
Breeding], Latvian Institute ofAnimal Industry, Ukrainian Academy
of Agicultural Sciences and the Siberian Scientific-Research insti-
tuteof Livestock Raising. 5) Studies of microbiological and
biochemical processes in rumens-of the ruminants as * basis for
developing technical methods of improvement of utilization (Begin
p.1471 of bulky feeds. Executors.of the subject - ?SIM [Timiryazev
Agricultural Academy], Moscow Veterinary Academy, Ukrainian Academy
of Agricultural Sciences, VIZH and the corresponding Chairs of
higher institutes of learning. 6) Working out a new system of
evaluation of the nutritive value of feeds. Executors - VIZH,
Leningrad AgriCultural Institute, Ukrainian Academy of Agricultural
Sciences. 7) Raising of the maturation of meat animals - swine and
poultry - by the factors of feeding. This subject will be worked
out by the organizations, which are engaged in fattening of an!-
,
male and poultry.
N. R. Florenskaia, Professor M. F. Tomme, Professor A. S.
Solun? N. A. Staroverov, Professor D. V. Elpattevskii, P. V.
Demchenko, A. I. Fetisov, Professor A. A. Zubrilin and others
took part in discussions of the report of Academician I. S. Popov.
Development of working plans and methods on the suggested
subjects was entrusted to special commissions.
(Signed) L. F.
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Trans. A-101Z
vg/A
Vershinin, P. V.
Ob iskusstvennykh'pochvennykh strukturoobrasovatellakh.
(Synthetic soil structure conditioners).
Pochvovedenie, no. 10, p.28-37. Oct. 1958. 57.8 P34
(In Russian)
The term synthetic structure conditioners implies primarily
organic compounds .that Improve water Stability of soil structure
when introduced into the soil. The idea of synthetic soil
.structure conditioners was conceived in the USSR in the year 1932
and is associated with the names of A. F. loffe and D.L. Talmud,
We have already reported (5) that the preceding historic
works on art-filiclal Structure conditioning were the experiments
conducted by Fadeev.and Vilfiams lin An attempt] to create a.
water-stable structure by means of introducing humic Substances
isolated from Chernozem soils into a soil-and-sand mixture.
The new ideas on synthetic structure formation were based
on the premise that water stability of soil structure can be
brought about by means other than merely humic acids (10).
At the All-Union Conference on Soil Physics held In 1934,
the author of the (present] article (2) made the first reports
on experiments conducted in synthetic structure formation on new
Agrofizicheskil Nauchno-Issledovateisskii Institut, Leningrad
(Agrophysical Scientific Research Institute, Leningrad]
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(2) Trans. A-1072
principles, but they were not successful among soil scientists.
The Agrophysical Institute, however, continued the work begun.
Various organic compounds were studied with a view toward uti-
lizing them as [soil] structure conditioners before the Great
Patriotic War broke out. The fundamental requirement made of
substances of this type was solubility in water, penetration into
the soil, entering into reciprocal action with it, converting into
an insoluble state, and, in so doing, be adsorbed by soil particles,
and impart into lumps of soil the properties of water stability.
These conditions were met by the most diverse substances.
Cellulose. The technical product - xanthogenate of cellu-
lose (viscose) - (C09040CS04)x representing a viscous liquid
and freely soluble in water was used in experiments. Pure quarte
sands of varying dispersity (0.5-0.005 mm) were given complete
structural form by the water dissolved viscose, and they ac-
quired the properties of water stability (2). Under the influence
of viscose, podzolized, structureless soils acquired the water
stability of ordinary, virgin, clayey Chernotems in various de-
grees. ?The increment in oat yield on experimental field test plots
increased sharply as compared with mineral fertilizers (6).
Hemicellulose. Of the hemicellulose (group] xylan was tested.
Xylan.was obtained by Sallkovskilts method. In specimens of sod-
podzolized clayey soils ground into a powder and treated with xylan
Jelly, the water stability of the (soil) aggregate did not increase
as compared with the aggregates obtained with the aid of water,
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even tn;:ugh xylan gels veil andimparts high mechanical stabi-
lity to soil particles. This fact can be explained by the great
water solubility of xylen. Introduction of considerable doses of
lime into soil treated with xylem decreases the. solubility of
xylan and thus enables the soil clods to acquire water stable
properties (9).
Lignin.. The lignin tested was obtained by the Bekman end
Lishe soft.method because it was assumed that lignin isolated
by strong acids (Begin p.29] changes essentially,and resembles
very little the natural kind: By this method lignin is obtained
either by extracting the fiber Isolomy) with 's two percent alcohol
solution of sodium hydroxide, or by extracting with 1.5% NaOH with
411 the subsequent elimination of carbohydrates by boiling with 2-2.5
HC1, or by means of precipitation with methyl or ethyl alcohol.
When such lignin is air dried it turns into a powder that is
Insoluble in water. It was introduced into the .soil in a one
percent solution KOH. Specimens of sod-podeolized clayey soil
treated with an alkaline solution of lignin in the amount of 0.5%
dry lignin per weight of soil increased the amount of water stable
aggregates (>0.25 mm) from 51.2% up to 82.6% (9).
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Structure formin
ant ty o peat
Soil gum in % per weight
of soil
abilit
of
eat
'Table 1
um
uan
stable
>0.25
Sod-pod:olic clayey gley
It Ii
Sod-ptidzolic loamy
n n ft
Sodmigley clayey
' W W
a ? W
0
0.5
1.0'
0
0.5
1.0
0
0.25
0.50
1.0
yo'er
aggregates
mm, in %
lgj
82.0
6.4.9
71.1
77.1
58.8
77.1
84.0
87.6
wa
Humic acid. Isolated from top peat according to Sven-Oden.
Introduced into soil also In 1% Mbli. On the some soil and in
the same dose as lignin, it exerted similar action. The total.
number of water stable aggregates of the same sod-podzolic soil
Increased from 51.2% up to 81.6% (9).
Bitumens. Bitumens were extracted from peat (according to
Stadnikov) with benzene alcohol within 8-10 hours with a subse-
quent distillation of the berckene alcohol. They were introduced,
into the soil in 1% KOH (8). On specimens of the same sod-pod-
colic soil, peat bitumens introduced in a dose similar to that
of lignin and humic *cid increased the total number of water
stable aggregates from 51.2% up to 85.8%.
On the basis of a study made of the structure conditioning
action of different fractions of organic substances, two techni-
cal products were suggested for the improvement of soil structure
water stability, namely - peat gum and gum derived from plant re-
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5) Trans. -A-1012
mains.
Peat gum. Partially dry semidiceomposed peat Of lowlands, upland'
and transitional marshes Is boiled in 1% KOH at e 1110 ratio of
dry peat to the solution for the duration of one to two hours (from
the tine it begins to boil). The liquid is cooled, allowed to
settle and.then poured (or it is drawn off through a ceramic filter)
into a prepared container. This poured off, transparent, dark-
'brown liquid Is celled peat gum. The liquid (colloidal solution)
isolated from upland peat contains 41.5% of organic substances of
approximately the following composition: a water soluble fraction
17.2%, beneene alcohol soluble [fraction] 19% and e humate one 53.51.
The peat gum Is introduced. into the s011 in liquid form. Atter
111 wetting the soil to a Specified depth, it is dried to an optimal
moisture for structure formation.. At this mdieture it Is aerated
with cultivators and harrows or rakes depending on.the sixes of .
the fields. The'macco-aggregates crested by means of treatment .ac-
quire the properties of water stability after drying. No difficul-
ties are encountered in the drying of peat gum [Begin p.301 ("soft"
drying at e temperature not exceeding 60? (Ci) or. In its intro*
duction in dry form into moist soil (preferably in the. spring).
Laboratory and field experiments conducted on various soils (pre-
ponderantly on those of the podsolic type) have demonstrated that
peat gum - in doses of 0.25; 0.5; 1.0% dry gum substance
weight of soil - increase the water stability of soil aggregates.
A 1% quantity .of gum introduced into heavy loam and clayey soils
produces about 82-87% of water stable aggregates, which comes
?
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close to ordinary virgin Chernogems of an analogous mechanical
composition (table 1).
Field experiments conducted with various crops have elso.
given positive results, as has been demonstrated by Kollasev (6),
Vershintm (1) and a number of other authors.
Structure Conditioning Substances from Plant Waste
(Complex Lignohemicellulose Substances)
Gummy substances derived from Asiatic cotton and reed. Asiatic
cotton (guise-pal - GOssypium hirsatum (1).) and reed were cooked
In an autoclave at a preisure of 2 atm ins 1% alkaline solution
for two hours, at a 1-10 ratio of dry organic substances and water.
.The liquid called respectively "gum from Asiatic..cOtton" and "gum
from recce were used as structure conditioners. Experiments were
conducted on loamy gray soils. Better structure conditioning
properties were displayed by nthit gum from Asiatic cotton". In
field experiments, the total number of water stable aggregates
>0.25 mm rose from 1.0% up to. 84.2%. They proved, however, bio-
logically unstable and by December (the experiment was begun in
July) the number of the tame fractions decreased to 0.5% and 7.7%
respectively.
Similar technology was used In the boiling of gummy substances
derived from geranium waste (Institut Vlathnykh Subtropikov v
Sukhumi (Institute of Humid Subtropics in Sukhumil). These gummy
substances also exerted positive action upon the increase in water
stability of soil structure. The quantity of water stable ag-
gregates,on the Imdtolic loamy soils Of Sukhumi increased from
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' (7) Trans. A1072
41.? up to 76.0 when these substances were introduced into the
soil.
Resin gum, Resin structure conditioning substances differ
sharply from those described above as to the action they exert
upon the physical properties of the soil, as well as to the quantity
to be introduced into the soil. We used gummy substances of resin
obtained from cheap varieties of resin soap or technical resin.
Rosin, as is known, consists of a complexity of resin acids with
a considerable preponderance of abietic acid (C203002). The
abietic acid of rosin is insoluble in water, but potassium and ?
sodium soaps are readily soluble in water. After saponification
of rosin (according to the saponification number), we obtained
111 a so-called resin gum. It can be introduced into the soil in the
form of a water solution of the desired concentration, or in the
form of a powder.. When it was introduced in the amount of 0.05%
.;1)r weight of the soil, than it increased the water stability
of the total number of aggregates of sod*podeolic loamy soil >3 mm
from 3.8% up to 49.7g. When a dose of 0.1% (was introduced) into
the same soil, then the quantity of water stable aggregates reached
68.0%. Their [ability] to decrease the,hydrophily of soil is a
characteristicr.orthese structure conditioning substances. Yet,
numerous field experiments conducted on soils of the sod-podsolic
cone indicate that the yield of a large variety of agricultural
plants always increases (4. 5) when these substances are intro-
duced in specific doses. In table 2 cited below are tabulated -
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the data of field experiments conducted for the purpose ofestab-
Aishing the doses of sodi0m:abletate that increase barley :yield.
The experiments were conducted by Is. A. Kovalev in the year 1938
on the sod-podzolic loamy soil of the training field belonging to.
the Leningrad Agricultural Institute. The else of the test plot '
is 14.0 m?.- Controls and experimental variant* received N7P75K75
(sic).. 1Begin P.31).
Table 2
Influence of sodium abletate upon barley yield
Gum introduced
in kg/ha
Average weight
cations taits
of four repli-
per test plot
Converted to ha
Increase ih?9;
Grain
Straw
Grain
Stray
Grain
Straw
0
10
All 50
S 200
woo
200
12.d
13.3
14.1
14.8
14.8
14.2
, 14.6 -
15.8 .
17.1
16.0
19.1
-17.6
32.0
34.3
35.3
37.0
37.0
35.5
3S.5
39.5
42.8 .
40.0
47.8
44.0
? 0
7.2
10.3
15:6
15.6
. 10.9
.0
2.6
11.3
4.0
24.2
14.3 ,
It follows from data in table 2.that a?dose of resin gum
fintroduced):at the rata of 200 lig/ila is best.
On Reciprocal Action Between Structure Conditioners
and the Soil
Let us cite some results without dwelling on the historical
development of concepts about the reciprocal action occurring
between structure conditioning substances and the soil. It has
been held that there were two problems: L. Reciprocal action be-
tween structure conditioners and the mineral particles of the soil,
2. The interaction of molecules within the itructure conditioners
411 themselves. The interaction occurring between structure conditioners
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(9) Trans. A-1072
and the soli was interpreted as a surface phenomenon. dummy
structure forming substances must be adsorbed by soil fragments
and must be held on their surface by Inter-molecular (Van der
Waals) forces. The mechanism of this phenomenon adds' up to the
following - there is a double layer of ions between the molecules ,
of the structure forming substances and the surface of the mineral
particles of the soil. The surface layer of ions (cations). hinders
the manifestation of the cohesion forces' between the molecules of
the structure conditioners and the soil fragments, because it
stands in their way and acts as a repellant force. The more hy-
drated the ions of the diffusion layer, the farther will they re-
pel the molecules of the gummy structure conditioners from the
surface of soil fragments. Yet, as the soil dries, the hydrate
Ion membrane is destroyed and the cohesion forces between the mole-
cules of the gummy substances and the soil particles increase. Final-
ly, there develops a state of affairs in which the Van der Weals
attraction forces begin to surpass the repellent ion forces and
the structure conditioners are adsorbed by the soil and are held
by the inter-molecular bonds. The double layer ions act not only
electrostatically; their chemical affinity with gummy substances
as well as with mineral soil particles Is of great Importance.
As has been noted above, all structure conditioners must be
readily soluble in water, must saturate the soil and must be adsorbed
by its mineral particles. Hence there follow two principles:
a) the reactive surface is to be considered the specific soil suss*
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00) Trans. A-1072
face b) Stn
tru ture f
tar covering of t
considered that he
epproxifffitC1y eqna
molecular layer for
to Wedekind and Kat
- he volume of the st
105 Om? x 10
humic acid an
have lo cm3
The humic and relat
tione
n epplie
surface wi
face of one
n amaunts equ
ummy substance.
e surements
cture Condit Per
OT .suppos ing the sped
utmtan
0.013 9m or 1
substances ci
121 a good strtcture condi
the soil In anon
the structure conditioning feet of abietete gummy substances
ts itself in smaller amounts
qual1e
r.per;.
earlier
ect w
about lg of Its wet.qht,
to ut g of
then we
of the-soi
ly. produce
reduced
ever,
manl
monomolecular layer is corresponding
The reciprocal action between th
ioning substances
substances in t
form a embrane"thet connec
then the thickness of the
lower.
molecules of
mportant in
the SOAS* 0
Puny s t
11 into an insoluble state
the soil particles and protects
them f Om, the destructive act on'of wa
soluble into an insoluble state occurs
transition from a
cases es a reaction
of polymer's tion with the assistance of -..either a
or a bond at the expense of the basic vs lent tar
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sta
down
As regards the charac
1 structure c
types that cony
tato only when there exchange
substances convert Into an lnolub1e state reyardless as
whether there arc exchange reactions with the soil or n
rst type incides huma ad compoun
well esll substances introduced intoth
soluble
their transftlon Into an insc.luble.
substances listed can be broken
on insoluble
eactiona with the sotl, P.
an exchange with the coil *bsoHrptin
verts Into a hum c acid
demonstrated by GuI iflV5tj.5.tiOn5 i ?turns Ant* * .Je41y that,
with, the lots of a certeift amount. of, vatert grows insoluble in ??
tor. eater reactions occur with potassium and sodium abletateS,
It can-readily be seen that In thisit le.ii tent that axA.
change coil ions and mo.cgleslily substances form insoluble:
compounds
The second type Includes viscoser under the thfluence ?
.
of aircerbon dloxidetonverta an insoluble celluloseIns.
dependently at exchange reactions ' h:0*. sell.
XrI1. In recent years Interest $n,a structuretsoIl ?
conditioner was noted in he foreign press, particularlythe
'American, without(y mention:.of our work).Attention was
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called to various structure conditioners1. Among those proposed
were the salts of.polyuronic acids and derivatives of polysac-
charides, derivatives of cellulose (methyl cellulose), sodium
silicate, organic silicate compounds (dimethyl dichlorosilane),
and the stearic, alginic and abietic acids. In american post-
war literature began to appear numerous suggestions for synthetic
structure stabilization that repeated our investigations of 1932-
1936.
Structure conditioners of a somewhat different type suggested
In the year 1951 aroused the interest of large firms. After many
years of investigations conducted in the laboratory and on field
,test plots, the firm Monsanto Chem. Co. suggested the derivatives
of polyacrylic acids as (soll,) structure conditioners. :they were
given the collective name of "Krillumn. .Two brands of structure
conditioners were suggested: CRD = 186 (copolymers of vinyl acetate
and maleic acid) and CRD = 189 (hydrolyzed polyacrylonitril ). In
the year 1952, different.firms suggested structure conditioners
named: "Polyacn, "Fluffium", "Aerotiln, %oast (Loksarr. In-
formation about Krillums got into the European press and a number
of European States (Belgium, France, Federal Republic of Germany
(FRO, German Democratic Republic, Hungarian People's Republic,.
Italy, England and others) proceeded to study the American Kriliums
See Journals: Soil SC1. America Proc., v. 10, p.450? 1945; -
J. Amer. Soc. Aaron., v. 38, p.95, 19461 J. Agric.'Sci., v. 37, P.257,
1947 and others.
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and to release their own. (Begin p.33]. As of now, the American
Krillums of the Monsanto firm indicated above enjoy the greatest
distribution; they are now frequently and appropriately called ,
by the names of VAMA (vinyl acetate maleic acid) and.HPAN (hydro-
lyzed polyacrylonitrile).
Detailed information on these substances was obtained from
the first publications of the following authors: Hedrick a. Mowry
(Khodrik and Meuri] (18).101180n (Ellison] (13). Martin and Tayldr
Martin, Tenor] (20), Ruchrwein and Ward (Rechrvein and Uord] (22).
It follows from the data of these authors that Krillums fully stabi-
lize soil structure when introduced in amount of 0.1% per weight
of soil, but even amounts of 0.05 and 0.02% produce good results
on some soils. The.effect of structure stabilizing not only does
not deteriorate on solonets soils, but even increases. The in-
troduction of Kriliums does not impair the hydrophilic capacity
of the soil. The yield of many agricultural crops increases from
the use of Kriliums. They are not badly decomposed by microot-
ganisms and the water stability of soil structure created by Krillums
lasts for a number of years.
Kriliums are typical polymers that in most cases are already
used in industry for various purposes (plastic materials, lacquer,
organic glass etc.). The basic link of Krillums is the initial
monomer. For acrylic acid it is CH2 = CH -.COON with * molecular
weight of 72,06; for Metacrylic (acid] CH2 = C - CH3 - COOK with
a molecular weight of 86.09; for maleic (acid] CCCH - CH'= CH COOH
with a molecular weight of 116.07.
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A 14) Trans. A-1072
. In the.prOcess of polyfterization that usually occurs under the
influence of catalysts, the individual links (monomers) begin, to
combine end form long chains. The number showing how many times
a given link reappears in the Chain is called the polymerisation
coefficient. Polymeric chains of varied chemical structure can
unite with each other thus forming a copolymer. A polymer of
acrylic acid is called polyacrylic acid, a polymer of.metacrylit
acid - polymetacrylic acid etc. Each link contains either one
active group or another: carboxylic, amide, nitrile and others.
If the carboxylic group in ecryliC acid were replaced by the amide
one then the.(acid would be called) polyacryloamide
replaced by the nitrile one then - polyacrylonitrile, and so forth.
411 A'polymeritation reaction is usually associated with the unbind-
ing of double bonds, on the strength of which molecules become
activated and require the ability to react:to each other., In
? copolymers the number of active groups per unit weight of substance
Is higher than in polymers.
What new contribution has the use of polymers made to the
theory of synthetic structure formation. As has been pointed
out above,. the creation of water stable (soil] structure requires
considerably smaller quantities of these substances than in the
case of humic substances (approximately 10 times (less]). We
have obtained such quantities of gummy substances that bring about
complete structure stability (ostrukturivanie) from resin gums.
But unlike these, Kriljums do not reduce the hydrophilic capacity
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(15) Trans. A-1072
of boil. The water stability brought about by these substancee
.
depends very little on the absorption complex. As has been demon-
strated by Allison .(l4), soils saturated with sodium even increase
'the structure stabilization effect of VAMA and BRAN Kriliums.
Reaction between-polymers and the soil occurs on the surface of
the soil particles: '
When the same quantity of polymers is. Introduced into the
soil, the stricture stabilizing effect drops, if the quantity of
clayey particles is increased In It; this was demonstrated in
mixtures of sand and clayey minerals (kaolinite (kaolinit] end
montmoriklonite in the form of bentonite) by Hagin and Bodnar:.
[Khegin and Badmen] (17)' and confirmed by Allison in a series of
soils. Hagin and Bodman associate the given phenomenon with the
size.of the specific soil surface as shown in fig. 1 taken from
the work of these authors. In the opinion of Ruchrwein and Ward
(22), the structuri.stabiliting mechanism provoked by polymers
[Begin p.34] is of a coagulative character: the polymers are
typical polyanionsor polycations. Since they are distributed'
among soil fragments they coagulate them.
Fig. 1. Minimum quantity of SRD-186 necessary for
'a complete aggregation in relation to the calculat-
ed specific surface (17)
(Legend of fig. 13: Specific surface, le
Montgomery-and Hibbard (Montgomeri and Khibbard] (17) made
an interesting attempt to connect the physico-chemical properties
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(16)* Trans. A-1072
of Kriliums that are highly molecular polymers with soil conditions.
They arrived at the conclusion that the activity of polymers (i.e.
their structure stabilising properties) depends on their "functional
capacity" under soil conditions (the term "functional capacity"
implies the relation of the number of active groups in the re-
petitive chains to the total weight of the polymer chains). Poly-
mer activity under soil conditions increases with the growth of
"functionalism", reaches a maximum, and then drops despite the
growth of "functionalism"; if "the functional capacity" is low
then the number of active groups is insufficient to achieve binding
with soil particles, If, however, "the functional capacity" is
high then the activity of the groups is very great, which in-
fluences the solubility of a polymer in water.
As the molecular weight of a polymer increases, its activity
under soil conditions rapidly reaches a maximum and then drops,
which is connected with the viscosity of the polymer and its
capacity to be adsorbed by soil particles. In experiments con-
ducted with sulfonated polystyrene the relation of polymer activity
under soil conditions to the number of sulfonate transverse
seams was established in molecule chains. The [polymer) activity
decreased as tha number of seams increased.
The approximate relationship between the binding forces
of the sulfo groups, the carboxylic and the amide groups is
expressed as 1.6 : 1.0 : 0.8 respectively. A hydrogen bond
isviael] obviously 'Arises between polymers and.soll particles.
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(17) Trans. A-1072
Emerson (15), In using as a basis the measurements of French
' and others (16) who demonstrated by the method of infrared spectro-
scopy that hydrogen bonds increase when an additive of CRD = 186
Is injected into montmorillonite, believes that there arise
hydrogen bonds (verticial and lateral little bridges) between
polymers and clayey minerals. Emerson considers that the action
of polymers is more effective In the case of the lateral little.
bridges. On the basis of infrared radiation spectra taken on
kaolinite, montmorillonite and illite treated with polymer S-17
(polyamides.semiammonium salts of the copolymer of methyl vinyl
ester and maleic acid), Holmes and Toth [Hholms and Tos] (19) have
also pointed out the emergence of hydrogen bonds between'clayey
111 particles and the polymer.
We have tested a aeries of Hrillums prepared in the USSR.
Tests made of polyacrylonitrilion sod-podzolic loamy soil pro-
duced.the following results: when polyacrylonitrile was introduced
in the amount of 0.1% per weight of soil, then water stable
aggregates larger than 0.25 mm comprised 95-96%, yet In control
soil they made up only 26.5%. The aggregates obtained with the
Bid of polyacrylonitrile were ground to a powder and (when] newly
aggregated under moist [soil] structure conditioning, they re-
stored their water stability. In this case the water stable
aggregates comprised 93.5%. Thus, polyacrylonitrile restores
the properties of water stability when lumps [of soil] Originate
after a mechanical destruction of aggregates. it is known from
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chemistry that many polymers possess the properties needed it,
restore polymer chains polymer chains after eimechanlcal destruc-
tion.
Polyacrylonitrile is adsorbed by the soil. Ong hundred gm
of the same soil and a five replicate amount of polyacrylonitrile
solutions of various concentrations were taken for theexperiment.
? /
(Begin p.35]. Pig. 2. shows the character of polyscrylonitrIle
absorption by sod-podzollc loamy soil. It can be seen from fig.
that.polyacrylonitrIle absorption by soil is a linear function
of concentration.
Experiments conducted in synthetic structure conditioning
in past years convinced us that the relatively large quantities of
structure conditioners of the humate type required for structure
stabilization are the fundamental deterrent against their utili-
zation in practice. Hence we, in our experiments with Rrillums,
were especially interested in .the problem of reducing the quantity
needed' for the stabilization of soil 'Structure. In conjunction
with the Institute of High-Molecular Compounds, Academy of Sciences
USSR*, we conducted several elementary experiments. The monomer of
metacryllc acid is soluble in water. The. conversion of a monomer
into a polymer requires specific conditions and, in particular,
the introduction of a catalyst into the monomer. A polymer of
* Institut Vysokomolekullarnykh Soedinenil AN SSSR (Institute
of High-Molecular Compounds, Academy of Sciences USSR].
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metacrylic acid (polymetacrylic.acid) is insoluble in water.
In our experiments the quantityof water stable aggregates in
sod-podzolld loamy soil increased from 22% up to 75,4 when a
Monomer of metacrylic acid in the amount of 0.1% per weight of
Soil was introduced in it. Consequently, sodivodzolic loamy
soil is itself a catalyst and converts monomeric metacrylic acid
were strengthened by its copolymerization with Metacrylamide.
Data on the influence of one of these copolymers (N VIII) com-
posed of metacrylic acid (60%) and metacrylamide (40%) for the
water stability of the same-iod-podzolic loamy soil are cited
in table 3.
It follows from data In table 3 that even a copolymer in-
troduCed into the soil in the amount of 0.001% per weight of the
soil increases essentially the water stability of soil structure.
Inasmuch as the quantities of the gummy substances introduced
are so small, one can draw the conclusion that the theory of a
monomolecular covering of the surface of particles cannot serve
as an explanation of the resultant water stability. Obviously,
the mechanism of gluing together (soil] particles by means of
polymers is different from the .One indicated earlier for substances
of the humate type. 'Evidently, the hypotheses concerning the
emergence of chemical bonds between a polymer and clayey particles
have a basis of their own.
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Fig. 2. Absorption by sod-podsolic loamy soil of poly-
acrylonitrile from solutions. Ratio of soil and solu-
tion 1 5
1 - Basic experiment; 2 - Replication
(Legend of fig. 2): Concentration of polyacrylonitrile, %
Vertical line): Absorbed in grams per 100 gm of soil'
?
Influence of a copolymer of
upon the water stability of
Quantity of the introduced.
copolymer in % per weight
. of soil
0.1
0.05
0.01
0.005
0.001
0
Table 3
metacrylic acid and mitacrylamide-
sod-podzolic lowly soil structure
Quantity of water stable
'aggregates >0.25 mm in %
per weight of soil
92.0
90.2
86.0
56.8
51.8
18..4
Let us make a simple computation. We shall assume that a
link of a copolymer hoe the 'molecular weight of about 200; then
one gram of this copolymer will contain the [following] monomer
links:
6.06.1023
201 82 3.03102/
(Begin p.36). If the polymerisation coefficient were considered
approximately equal to 15,000 (which is close to the magnitude
given by Emerson In the case of Krillums), then the number of
chains per gram would be
).0361021 = 201CNI7
? ?
1.5104
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Our minimal dose = 0.001% (or 10-5) contains the (following)
17 ? 5
chains 2.10 x 10- = 2.1012. According to a mechanical analysis,
an approximate count of the number of particles per gram of the
indicated soil gives a magnitude that comes close to approximately
1012 Approximately one polymer chain is required when soil is
rendered cohesive by means of a polymer at the rate of 0.001%
per particle of soil. It would seem that in such a case com-
plete stabilisation, of soil structure would have to be observed.
This, however, is not true'..
Consequently, not only the specific soil surface plays a
role in the reciprocal action occurring between a polymer and
the soil, as has been deemed by Magin, Rodman and Allison, but
111 soil porosity as well. The finer the pores of the soil, the
"more difficult" is it for long polymer chains to penetrate them:
the soil lets them through like a sieve. Hence it is important
to develop methods for the introduction of polymers into the soil.
In saturating the soil, the polymer fails to produce a com-
pletely uniform distribution of the chains among soil particles.
Therefore, mixing and repeated saturation should increase the
effectiveness of polymers. This can be seen from data cited in
table 4..
It follows from data in table 4 that repeated saturation of
the soil with a copolymer in the amount of 0.001% per weight of the
soil increased considerably water stability of soil structure
(compare table 3). . Calculations show that the total amount of a
?
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polymer applied in the given case to a hectare,at a 20 cm depth
of the arable layer and a volumetric weight of the soil equaling.
1 amounts to a total of 40 kg. There As no doubt whatever, that
A
these methods for soil structure improvement have a greet future.
Table k
Influence of the number of times saturated upon the water stability
of aooregates of sod-podzolic loamy soil
Name of
copolymers
Number of times
saturated with
ipiAlit the same
concentration
Quantity of poly-
mer introduced ?
- into soil in % ?
per weight of the
toil
Quantity of
water stable
aggregates .
>0.25 mm in %
Copolymer (VIII
1
0.001
metacrylic acid
2
0.002,
80.6
and metacryl-amide
3
0.003
81.4
4
0.004
87.4
Conclusions
A series of organic compounds that improve soil structure were
suggested it the Agrophysical Institute 26 years ago. But the amount
Of these substances needed to obtain high indicators of structure
formation was large and, therefore, served as the main obstacle
to their utilization in practice. In the postwar years new struc-
ture stabilising substances of a high molecular type of polymers
comprised chiefly of derivatives of acrylic, metacrylic and maleic
acids were developed in the USA. The amounts of these substances
required for soil structure stabilization are .10-20 times smaller
than those of humates and related substances.
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. A study of the nature of the reciprocal action occurring
between polymers and soil particles, and the'method of their
introduction into the soil will permit developing substances
that will completely stabilize soil structure at the rate of a few
tens of kilograms per hectare.'
Literature
1. Vershinin, P. V. and Konstantinova? V. P. Physico-chemical
basis for synthetic soil structure. L., Seltkhosgiz, 1935.
2. Vershinin, P. V. Pioblem'of artificial soil structure.
Fizika Pochv v SSSR (Soil physics in the USSR]. Ti. MAP
(International Soil Scientists Association], Selikhozglz,
P.43-57, 1936.
3. Vershinin, P. V., Konstantinova, V. P., and Kirilenko, N. V.
Study of cohesion phenomena in processes of soil structure
stabilization. 1941.
4. Vershinin, P. V. Formation of soil structure. Dissertatslia,
1953.
5. Vershinin, P. V. Structure forming fertilizers. Udobrenie
1 Urozhal, 1956, no. 8.
6. Kollasev, F. K. Structure stabilizing substances and plants.
Ti. Labor, Fiziki Pochv PAZ (Institute of Agricultural
Physics], no. 2, 1937.
7. Savvinov, N. 1. Physical structure condit
liters for USSR soils. Ti. Map [Internet
-tists Association], p.103-106. 1936.
8. Solechnik, N. is. Structure building gums
Pochv FA1 (Institute of Agricultural Phys
[Report] 1, p.31442. 1935.
9. Solechnik, N. Is. Structure forming gums. Ti. Labor. Fit.
- Pochv PAZ, no. 20 Soobshch (Report] 2, p.207-218, 1937.
loners and ferti-
tonal Soil Scien-
. Ti. Labor. Fit,
Ice], Soobshch.
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/15: CIA-RDP80R01426R010400040001-5
(24) Trans. A-1072
10. Talmud, D. L. Surface phenomena and their application in
engineering. 2h. Sots. Rekonstructslia I Nauka (Sorena),
no.. 3, p.183.191, 1932.
11. Talmud, D. L. Soil structure and structure stabilizing ferti-
lizers. Sb. Agrokhimlia I Udobrenlia (Collection of Agra-
chemistry and Fertilizers]. It. Maiskol Sea. AN SSSR, lad.
AN SSSR, 1936.
12. .Tiurin, I. V. Increase in the fertility and the cultural
state of soils in the USSR - most important problem of
soil science and agriculture. Pochvovedenie, 1954, no. 3.
. 13. Allison, L. E. Effect of synthetic polyelectrOlytei on the
structure of saline and alkali sells.. Soil Sc!., 1952, v.73.
p.443-454. -
14. Allison, L. E. Soil and plant responses to VAMA and HPAN
soli conditioners in the presenceof high exchangeable
sodium. Soil Sci. Soc. America Proc., 1956, v. 20, no. 2.
15. Emerson, W. W. a. Synthetic soil conditioners. J..Agric.
Sc., 1956, v. 47, part I, p.117.
16. French,.R. 0? and Wadsworth, M. E. The quantita application
infrared spectroscopy to studies in surface chemittry, Cook,
M. A., Culteri J. B. J. Phys. Chem., 054, v. 58, p.505.
17. Hagin, J., andtodman, 0. B. Influence of the polyeleCtrolyte.
CRD-186 on aggregation and other physical properties of some
California and Israeli soils and some clay minerals. Soil
Sc!., 1954, v. 78,. p.367.,
18. Hedrick, R. H. and Mowry, D. T. Effect of synthetic polyelec-
trolites on aggregation, aeration and water relations of soil.
Soil Sc!., 1952, v. 73, p.427-441.
19. Holmes, R. M. and Toth, S. J. Physico-chemical behavior of
clay - conditioner complexes. Soil Sc!., 1957, v. 84, P.479.
(al]
20. Martin, W. P. at. pD. ASoll and crop responses from field ap-
plication of soil conditioners Soil Sc!., 1952, v. 73,
p.455-47I.
21. Montgomery, R. S. and Hibbard, B. B. Theoretical aspects
of the soil - conditioning activity of polymers. Soil Sc!.,
1955, V. 79. N 4.
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Trans A-1072
22. Ruchrwei nd Wax D. w. Mechanisnof ciy aggre
tion by polyol ctrolytes. Soil SO., 1952, V. 73, P.4
492.
23. Wedekind, E. and Kate,
? chemical and physical
Dtsch. Chem. Oesellsch. no
? German ] .
owing lIgnins
igation of phenol-11 n
62,p.11724177, 1,
eport:
mt. Ber.
2929. [ In
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Irans. A.-suf3
vg/M
Helium, V. 1.*
Vegetatsionnyi period kukuruzy v'
nechernpzemnol polose.
.(Vegetation period of melee on non;..
chernozem soils].
Vestnik Sellskokhozialstvennoi Nauki
vol. 4, no.1.4, P.23-33. April 1959 20 V633
(in Russian)
High-stalked southern varieties and hybrids ofccErait, regiona-
lized in the non-chernozem zone, can produce 700-800 and more
centners of green mass from 1 ha 12.471 acres], but during most
411 of the years they do not ripen, and at the time of harvesting the
ears do not always attain the milk-wax stage of ripeness.
A question about unripeness of corn, which is of great pro-
,
duction importance, has been studied for many years at the Scienti-
fic-Research Institute of Agriculture of Central Regions of the
Non-Chernozem Zone.
Unripeness of southern varieties and hybrids of corn in the
non-chernozem zone is being often attempted to explain by the short /P
4%?.?
ness of the period of possible vegetation. Yet, near Moscow, the
mean duration of the frostless period equals 130 days, and the
period with a mean daily temperature above 10? to 135-140 days.
Nauchno-Issiedovatellskil Institut Zemledellia Tsentrallnykh Raionov
Nechernozemnoi Polosy [Scientific-Research Institute of Agriculture
of Central Regions of the Non-Chernotem Zone].
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(2) Trans. A-1073
Under conditions of the south this time is quite sufficient for .
the ripening of corn ears. Mast the Sterling variety ripens fully
in Xuban in 115-120 days, and variety Minnesota 13 extra - in
110-112 days%after the appearance of sprouts. But in the non-
chernoeem zone the southern varieties have no time to ripen and
are harvested, as a rule, before the coming of the milk-wax stage.
This occurs not on account of the shortness of the period of the
possible vegetation of corn but because of .the retarded pace of
Its development.
What are then the causes of the setback in the development.
of corn in the non-chernosem sone and what are the means for over-
coming its effect?
Many factors influence the development of corn plants; first
Of all, light, heat, moisture and elements of mineral nutrition.
All these factors Jointly affect the development of the corn
plant. Nevertheless, their role is unequal, and, therefore, the
Influence of each of these factors was studied separately.
Light. It is customary to think, that the length of the sum-
mer day, which increases in the direction from south to north,
Influences negatively the course of development of corn in northern
latitudes. Such an opinion is based on results of photoperiodic
experiments, in which corn tasseled and ripened earlier than under
natural conditions, when grown under conditionsof,Aan artificial
shortening of the day to 8.40 hours. Yet it does not follow from
this, that len.gthening of the light day must retard corn develop-
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(3) Trans. A-1073
ment. Such a regularity was not observed in reality (table 1).
It is seen from table I that, under conditions of lands
near Moscow, corn developed, practically, in theTsame manner while
growing in natural daylight or when it was continuously subjected
to light, during days and nights. .When analyzing data of Govern-
ment variety test plots, that were situated on the same longitude,
the picture became still more convincing. Thus, for instance, in
1954, at the Gzhatsk GSU (Government variety test plot] (59 35!
north latitude) plants of corn of sterling variety tasseled in 61
days after the appearance Of sprouts, and at the Barvenkov GSU
(48? 54! north latitude) in 74 days; in 1955, respectively in 77
and 85 days. Those'years, in the region of the Gzhatsk OSU,
411
during the first period of development of plants, (Begin p.24)
the weather was warmer than in the region of Barvenkov GSU. Thus,
here heat was the deciding influence and not the length of the
day.
table I
Length of the period "appearance of sprouts - tasseling" of corn,
depending
on tne iengtn or
ne day
Varieties and hybrids
Natural
dEY
Continuous
illum.nation
.1956
195r,
mean
1956
1957
mean
1..a.tipg
V1R 42 . .
Voronezhskaia 80
Nemchinovskaia
Slavgorodskaia 270
Sibiriachka (Minusinkal
73-
61
42
14.6
37
26
98
76 -
64
6
58
61
86
69
53
55
48
/A
79 -
' 63
14-
44
37
28
92
75
65
65
61
611
86.
69
55
55
49
LA
Footnote. At night theplants were illuminated with 300-watt
lampsI
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(4) Trans. Ai-1073
One should mention that the shortened (10 hour) day cannot
be regarded as the best for corn, since during such days the speeding
up of the development of plants is a reaction of corn to unfavorable
conditions. A 10-hour day requirement could not have been developed
by corn since this crop, in its process of historical development,
was never grown under conditions of such a day. Corn plants,
grown under conditions of an artificially shortened day differ
from plants, grown in natural day-light, by asmaller height,
smaller ales of tassels and ears, and, what is espeeially impor-
tant, by a smeller amount of leaves (2-3 leaves)*. Reduction ,in
the amount of leaves is then the chief cause of the shortening Of
? the period from sprouts to tasseling., and, in connection with this,
of the vegetation period of corn as a whole.
One does not observe any deviations from the norm in the growth
when corn is grown under conditions of a long day or even of con-
tinuous day and night lighting. Apparently, one can, rather, speak
about the positive effect of a lengthened day, since in this case
the time of work of the leaves is lengthened: as result of this
the plants develop a more vigorous overground mass. Thus, the
five-year study of the effect of the length of day on the develop-
ment of corn in the non-chernotem region has shown, that the increased
length of day is not a negative factor for corn.
Heat. Quite different results were obtained in studying
reduced temperatures on the development of corn in the non-chernotem
sone. The temperature proved to be a deciding fictor'in the develop-
?
* Such a reduction in the number of leaves is observed also when the.
young plants, during the period of formation of leaves, are subjected
to a deficiency of moisture or of elements of mineral nutrition.
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(5) Trans. A-1073
ment of the corn plant during the course of the entire period of
its life, beginning with seed germination and up to the time of
ripening. The biological essence Of temperature influence con-
sists in the fact that the reactions of synthesis of the organic
substance are endothermic reactions, the speed of which, and
consequently, the rates of growth and development of plants*
depend on the amount of heat.
As. the experiments have shown, the most rapid growth and
development of corn was observed at the daily mean temperature
of 23-25?. Length Of the inter-phase periods increased and the
vegetation period lengthened with the reduction of temperature.
Thus* at a temperature of 20-22?,-the corn. sprouts appeared in
6 days after planting* and at the temperature of 11-12? only in
15-17 days. With a further drop in temperature, the appearance.
of sproutsABegin p.25] can be delayed for 25-30 days. Appearance
of the 10th leaf, at a temperature of 18-19?, occurred in 26 days
after sprouting, and in 53 days at a temperature of 14-15?. The
tasseling phase in corn, of the variety.Minnesota.13 extra, occurred
at a mian'dally.temperature of 18-19? 11158 days, while at 15-16?
only in 90,days after the appearance of sprout's. Length Of the
periods between the remaining phases of development (tasseling-flower-
ing, flowering - milk stage, and so on) it in similar dependence
on the temperature.
In the non-chernozem zone there are few days with the best
temperature for the development of corn (23-25?). In the lends .
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around Moscow, for instance, the mean daily temperature in July
does notexceed IP; in connection with this the vegetation period
orsouthern high-stalked varieties is extended here, and to the
moment of harvesting, as a rule, they fall,to attain the milk-
wax stage. Only during the years with an especially hot summer
(19510 corn developed In the non-chernosem vine at almost the same
rate as in the south, regardless-of the longer day.
Moisture. Effect on growth and development of corn of the
remaining"factors, necessary for life, depends on temperature con?
ditions. With one and the same amount of rainfall in the southern
regions of the country the corn plants can experiences sharp
? deficiency'in.moisture, and in the non-chernosem sone they will
be under conditions .of sufficient moisture since, on account of
reduced temperatures, the evaporation here proceeds less intensively
than in the south. But besides the effect of the temperature level
on the moisture content of the soil, there takes place also the
reversed effect of the degree of moisture on the temperature of
the soils with an increase-of moisture, the expenditure Of heat
for evaporation increases;:as a result of this the.moist soil warms
up much slower: Difference in temperature of the moist and of
slightly moist soil sometimes attains 4.05, and this produces a
substantial effect on the activity of roets and the general develop-
.ment of the corn plant.
Elements of mineral nutriment. At a reduced temperature of the
soil (13?) the root system of corn assimilates nutrient substances
?
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?
?
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(7) Trans. A4073
2=3 times *lower than at a higher (20?). Nevertheless, it was
ascertained, by experiments, that by means of additional intro-
duction of fertilizers into the cold soil, it is possible to
intensify the absorbing activity of the roots and increase the
inflow of nutriehts.10to the plant. Corn usually, was much. More
vigorous, with a dark green coloring of leaves during the years.
with a cool summer on sections of the field where, for a long
.time, heaps of unscattered manure were lying; it usually tasseled
and ripened.much earlier than on the rest of the field. Conse-
quently*oon the general background of reduced temperature, corn
can grow and develop differently, depending to what measure it is
.ptovided with elements of. mineral food. Increase of soil ferti-
lity in the non-chernozem tope can, to 's considerable degree, re-
duce the "negative effect of heat dericienCy.
Thus, among all the factors, required for the normal growth
and development of corn' in the non-chernozem, zone, heat exists
in-the smallest amount. 'In order that under these conditions
corn would have time fully to complete its cycle of development*
itis necessary to adapt it to. the temperature regime present in
the-non=chernotem zone.
It is characteristic. for the central part of the Moscow oblast'
for instance, that with a sufficiently long total duration of a.
period with temperatures above 10?, the Mean temperature of the
hottest months does not go beyond 160. There are only 70 days a
year with a mean temperature above 15?. The sum of positive tem-
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(8) Trans. A-I073
peratures comprises 1,900-2,1000, which answers the requirements
of only the borderline early-ripening corn varieties. The sum
of effective temperatures (over 150) ,equals:628?. (Begin P.28)
The highest temperature is observed in the 20th days of July.
The period of possible vegetation and the sum of temperatures is
divided by this date in two uneven parts: larger and smaller.
The whole' period of life of the corn plant can be divided
into the following parts: planting - sprouting, sprouting - tea-
seling, tasseling - flowering, flowering -'ripening. The length
of the first period can change, depending on the soil temperature,
but, with the best time of planting, it is, practically similar
for all. varieties.
The period,from sprouting tortasseling'lests for some vane-
ties 40-45 days, and for others 85-90, and even more, days, As,
to the periods from tasseling to flowering ind flowering to ,
ripening, their length shows nonessential variations for different
varieties, if they run under similar temperature conditions*. This
can be seen from results of the experiment, L 057, 'when the
Seedlings Of the medium late variety Partitanks were grown in peat.'
compost pots; as the result of this the appearance of styles on
'ears' of this variety and of that of the early-ripening variety*, .
Slavgorodskala 270,'almost coincided in time; for the Partleanki
?
variety it occurred on August II, and for Slavgorodskala 270
*At the first sight it seems that in late varieties these periods
? are eonsiderably longer than in early-ripening, because they bloom
at a different time and the formation of grains in late varieties
proceeds under conditions of lower, fall temperatures. '
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variety on August 13; the length of the period from the appearance
of styles to the milk stage comprised respectively 30 and 27 days.
Thus the study of the structure of the vegetation period of
different varieties of corn has shown that the period of sprouting -
tasseling showed the greatest variations in duration. This part .
of the vegetation period is the longests in early-ripening varieties
it comprises almost half, and in late varieties even more than
half of the entire period of vegetation; and it is exactly it that
determines the length of the total vegetation period under conditions
of the non-chernogem sone. In order to 'become convinced of this,
it is necessary to consider the progress of development of corn
on the example of several varieties.
. In the lands around Moscow corn sprouts usually appear at
the end of May or at the beginning of June. In early-;ripening varle-
tiei (Slbirlachka, Slavgorodskala,270 and ?there) tasseling occurs
40-45 days after. the appearance of sprouts; that is,An the middle.
of July. Almost the,same amount of warm days and almost:half of
the total sum of effective temperature remain.for further vege-
tation. This proves to =be sufficient for. the forming of the grain
and its attainment of the wax stage or even full ripeness.
A different picture is observed in 'growing such late varieties
as Learning or Odeaskala 10, in which the period from sprouts to
tasseling continues 05-90 days. .In this case the flowering occurs
at the end of August, when very few days remain before the early
frosts and there is neither time nor heat for the formation of
?
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( 10) Trans. A-1073
grains. Even the not so late varieties, whose period from sprouting
to tasseling continues 55-60 days, are found under conditions that
are unfavorable for ripening. The matter Is that after July the
daily mean temperatures fall sharply, and even insignificant
shifting of the phase of blooming, from July to the second half
of the summer, leads to a sharp reduction of the sum of effective
temperatures that remain for the formation and ripening of grains.
In the sum of effective temperatures, which exceed 100, one July
day is equivalent to 8-10 September days. That is why it is so
Important for'the ripening of corn [Begin p.27] that the flowering
occur as near as possible to the middle of July. Thus, the re-
duction of the length of the period of sprouts - tasseling is the
chief reserve, at the expense of which the reduction of the vegeta-
tion period of corn and the ensuring of the possibility of its
ripening, under conditions of the non-chernosem sone, is possible.
But the period from sprouts. to tasseling is not uniform; it, in
its turn, is comprised of individual parts, the number of which
corresponds to the number of leaves in the given variety.
? Corn, practically, has no varietal differences lathe number
of embryonic leavest all varieties have 5 or 6 of them. Differences
appear only at the time of tasseling, when in early-ripening varie-
ties there are only 9-10 leaves, and in the late-20 to 22 and even
more. During the process ordevelopment the formation of sequential
leaves continues after the appearance of sprouts; each of the
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(11),- Trans. A.1073
leaves appears after a,definite period of time and In the presence
of a definite sum of effective temperature. The 4asserappears
, ?
after one last leaf. As the.number of leaves is a very stable
varietal symbol, and a definite time is required for the forma-
tion of each leaf, it Is natural that varieties of corn with.a
smaller amoUnt of leaves tassel, flower and ripen earlier than
varieties with a larger amount of leaves.. It was necessary to
find out if there are varietal differences in the rate of appearance
of iequential leaves in order to ascertain, how full is the de-
pendence between the number of. leaves and the length of the ve-
getati-on period of corn. The Institute of Agriculture of Central '
Regions of the,Non-Chernozem Zone studied for this Purpose, during
the course of 1957-1958 a great collection of the open-pollinated
(svobodnoopyllaiushchikhsla) varieties of Interlinear hybrids and
of self-pollinated lines of corn (table 2).
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(12)
Trans. A-I073
Table 2,
Rate of appearance of leaves in open-pollinated varieties
of corn
11.
?
Varieties
.
mean numper
of leaves
numper 01 Gays Isom tne appearance
of sprouts to the emergence of the
.
3rd
leaf
6th
leaf
9th
leaf
12th
leaf
15th
leaf
Sibiriachka (Minusinka)
Slavgorodskaia 270
Urozhainaia
Chakinskala ehemchushina
Bezenchukskaill 41
Nemchinovskaia
Voronezhskaia 80
Voronezhskaia 76
Khartkovskaia white dent
corn
Orushevskala
Minnesota 13 extra
Partizanka '
Sterling
yilit 42
Ontsskala 10,
Lcaming ,
'
10-11
11-12
11-12
12-13
13-14
13-14
13-14
13-14
14-15
16-17
16-17
16-17
17-18
16-17
20-21
21-22
,
?
it
L.
. 3
3
4
4
3
4
4 .
. 4
4
4
I.
4
5
5
24
24
-23
23
26
24
27
25
24
24
24
.25
23 ?
25
25
25
35
37
38
11
'
36
39
38
37
37
37
38
36
37
38
38
.
47
45
44
47
46
48
48
.
47
48
46
46
46
48
49
49
-
.
-
-
-
.
.
-
61
59
55
57
60
57
61
61
?
There were practically no varietal differences in the time of
appearance of sequential leaves (table 2). Consequently, the
length of the period from.the appearance of sprouts to the emergence
of the tassel in open-pollinated varieties is in direct dependence
only on the number of leaves. Somewhat 'different [Begin p.28)
results were obtained by the author and by 2. F. Baliura when
studying the time of emergence of leaves in interlinear hybrids and
in self-pollinated lines (table 3)
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(13) Trans. A.-4073
? Table )
Rate of appearance of leaves in interlinear hybrids and in
self-pollinated lines of corn
Hybrids and their
parental forms
Mean
number
of leaves
.
Number of days from the appearance
of sprouts to the emetgence of the
Mean num-
bet of
days need
ed for tho
formation'
of a leaf
3rd
, leaf ,
6th
leaf
9th
leaf
12th
leaf
?
Line VIR 26
Iskra (26X27)
Line V1127
14.5
16.0
1.. ,
7
6
7
J4
29
44
43
? 54
2
4.3
3.9,
Line VIR 20
Ideal (28X29)
Line VIR . .
114.9
16.5
14
9 .
7
6
41
32
ti
. 45
?
&is.
? 53
?
tel
4.1
Line 1/IR15.0
Slava (44)08) -
pne VIR )8
17.5
10-
8
6
1
il
111
34
11.4
' n
51
60
?
14:11
3.6
Line VIR 40,
Svetoch (4043)
Line VIR 43
-.
17.5
15.0
'
7
7
i?
35
37
.01
46
49
61
. 56
60 .
tj ?
3.9
4.7
?
As a rule, plants of Self-pollinated linea have somewhat fewer
- leaves than interlinear hybrids, but the emergence of each of them
occurs after a longer interval of timevin connection with this,
plants of self-pollinated lines enter the stage of flowering and
'ripening later. The slow rates of development of self-pollinated
lines are, apparently, the result of self-pollination; acceleration
in the development of interlinear hybrids is the results or the
appearance of' heterosis. the cited deviation .from the rules is
of great importance In the selection of self-pollinated lines under
conditions of non-chernoseM eons, and it must be taken into con-
sideration when evaluating lines as parental forms of interlinear
hybrids. Such deviations are very rarely observed in the open-
pollinated varieties.
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(14) Trans. A-1073
, The time, required for the appearance of the next leaf depends,
to a large extent, on temperature conditions. The next leaf can
.appear, during hot weather, in 2-3 days after the preceding one,
but during cold weather only in 10-12 days. Comparison of varieties
for the rate of the emergence of leaves must be conducted on plants
planted at one and the same time in a field similar in fertility.
In order to determine the mean amount of effective temperature
and time, required for the formation of one leaf, it is better to
use data of experiments with dates of planting that will permit
to observe development of corn under the most diverse temperature
conditions (table 4).
It is seen from table 4 that the early-ripening, medium-
ripening and late varieties form sequential leaves almost Syn-
chronously. In any case, difference in the number of days between
the appearance of two sequential leaves in any pair of varieties,
which are compared, proves to be greater than, the triple error of
the arithmetic mean. This. indicates, that there is no proved
difference among the varieties. (Begin p.29)
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Trans. A-1073
Table 4,
? Rate of formation of leavesiin different varieties of corn accord-
ing to average data from experiments with dates of planting
Ordinal number of INumber of days from the appearance of the first leaf
sequential leaves 'f . to the next one
1937
05b
.
Nemchino-
vskaia
Odesskaia
10
Sibiriachka
,
Nemchino-
vskaia
Odosskala
10
2
3
' 4
5
6
7
8
9 ?
10 :
11
12
. 13
' 14
110 15
1
11
19H-
1+5
2.5
5.6
6.1
4.3
4.1
3.8 .
4.3
3.6
3.8
4.5
.3.6
.
.
.
.
?
.
'
"
1.6
2.72.;
4.8
7.0
4.7
4.4
3.9
4.0
4.1
4.0
4.3
3.4
4.2
4.26
4.0
4.6
5.2
4.3
LS
.
6.3
5.9
4.2
3.3
. 5.0
4.8
.
,..
V . .
.
.
.
-
. .
.
?
1.2
2.6
-8
6.6
5.8
3.8
4.4
3.1
4.8
3.2
5.6
4.1
5.4
-
.
.
-
.01/4=NP*-PAAVW0N\AVVP-WW-P-OAAW.4"'
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
w.omivcmuw.owvtoi-
Length of the for-
mation of the let
leaf .
4.0
4.2
4.3
,
1
4.3
li..6
Mean sum of effect-
lye temperature for
1 leaf V
027.6
, 28.2
?
29.3
26.0
2.9
Four to 5 days, with A sum of effective temperatures of 26-29*,
are required on the average, for the formation of one sequential
leaf. One can use these data in the non.chernozem Sone for de-
termining the time of tasseling in plants of one or another variety,
proceeding from the number of leaves characteristic to it. But
.one should take into consideration that the period between the ap-
pearance of the last leaf and of the tassel is, approximately,
the same in length as the time between the sequential leaves.
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' (16) Trans. A-1073
Varieties with 10 leaves bloom in the lands around Moscow, ap-
proximately, in the middle of July, with 11 leaves 4-5 days
later; with 12 leaves, 8-10 days later, and so on. Varieties
with 13-14 leaves bloom at the beginning of August and by the
time of harvesting they succeed in forming ears of a milk-wax
and even wax stage. Varieties, which have 15 or more leaves, do
not produce stable yields of ears.
Howls it possible to adopt corn to the temperature repime of
the non-chernozem zone and secure the obtaininn of stable yields
of ears of milk-wax stage./ This problem is reduced to the shorten-
ing of the period between the appearance of sprouts and the tas-
seling. This can be attained either by means of cultivating
varieties or hybrids with a limited number of leaves, or by
changing the nature of corn so as to reduce its heat require-.
ments. The first-method has been used long ago in the selection
practice in moving corn from south to north. The forced and,
sometimes, unconscious use of thii course is connected to' the
fact that for .ch geographical region the number of leaves in
corn (Begin p.30] is limited by a certain point beyond which its
seed reproduction becomes impossible. For instance, in Krasnodar
krai varieties and hybrids can ripen with 20-22 .leaves; at the
Kharlkov latitude - with 15-16, in the Voronezh region - with
13-14, but in Siberia with only 9-11 leaves. In mountainous
regions with a vertical tonality the number of leaves in corn
decreases as the locality 'rises above the sea level.
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(17) Trans. A4073
At the present time, almost all the scientific establish-
ments of the non-chernozei -zone, which are occupied with the selec-
tion of corn, follow the course of cultivating varieties and hy-
brids with a limited number of leaves. The selection work in
these institutions is conducted in three basic directions: culti-
vation of new varieties, selection of parental pairs and production
of intervarietal hybrids, cultivation of zelffpollinated lines
for obtaining interlinear hybrids. As a result of Work In; the
first direction from different initial material and by various
methods, new corn varieties were-cultivated and ere tested* MOs-
Uovskaia 3, Mbskovskala 5, Razantkala 108, Gorki Leninskie 1.
WW1, (Geographical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of. the
USSR) IGAN 2, IGAN 3, IGAN 4, Podmoskovnaia, NiMChinovskaia and
others. In spite of the fact that some of these varietiet were
cultivated by a method of selection and others by a method of
hybridization, both at a controlled and an open pollination,
they all have a common characteristic - similar number of leaves
on a plant (13-14). .Coincidence in the results of work of dif-
:ferent selectioners attests about the matter that in the non-
'chernozem zone 13-14 leaves are that limit, beyond which obtaining
ripe seeds of corn becomes ever more difficult and, finally,
possible.
Corn varieties, which were cultivated in the non-chernozeM
zone, have several positive characteristics, the most important
0 of which is that by the time of harvest these varieties, as a rule,
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(18) Trans. A-1073
succeed in forming the ears and attain the milk-wax stage ofripeness.
Although they are inferior to the southern'high-stalked varieties
In the yield of green mass, but in the yield of feed units from
one hectare of planting they prove to be equivalent, and, in
some cases, they even surpass them.
It was established, as an outcome of work on the production
of intervarietal hybrids, that the best results are obtained from
crossing the early-ripening Siberian varieties with the high-:
stalked,southern varieties (of the type of Partitanka and Min-
nesota 13 extra). The Siberian varieties proper are not of in-
terest in a production respect since they are undersizedand the
ears are attached to the stalk very low. Yet, the early-ripeness
inherent to them permits, utilizing 'them successfully in hybridi-
zation as the mother forms, which are able tosp-rOduce-ripe seeds.
Intervarietal hybrids, cultivated as a result of such crossings
give in to the high-stalked varieties in the yield of green mass,
but excel them In the yield of feed units. The best among these
hybrids are Slavgorodskaia 270 X. Partizenka. 'Sibiriachka (Mint-
sinks). X Partizanka, Sibirlachka (Minsinka) X Minnesota 13 extra
excel Partizanka In the yield of feed units from one hectare by
10-15% and are able to attaidthe Plbase?Ofmilkwax ripeness.
The drawback in these hybrids is in the fact that their parental
forms differ'sharply in' thelength of the vegetation period and,
thus, require the growing of seedlings of the paternal (southern).
variety in peat-humus pots.; this serves as an obstacle for a wide'
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(19) Trans. A-1073
Introduction of new intervarietal hybrids into production.
Cultivation of self-pollinated lines in the non-chernimem
zone Is hampered by the fact that the rate of their development
(in consequence of depression from self-pollination) becomes still
more slowed down then in the initial varieties. Therefore (Begin
p.31] only lines with 10-12 leaves are suitable here for seed
reproduction, while the open-pollinated varieties Can have 13.44
leaves.
The simple interlinear hybrids, which are obtained from
crossing such lines, can be utilized as mother forms for the pro-
duction of better yielding double interlinear hybrids, which have
13-14 leaves*. Nevertheless, with the number Of leaves is con-
nected not only the length of the vegetation period, but also
?
.the yield of green mass; therefore, the early-ripeness, which is
conditioned by the reduction of the number of leaves, will be
always accompanied by a decrease in the yield of green mass. Mean-
while, it is desirable to have highiustalked varieties and hybrids
with a large number of leaves, and at the same time sufficiently
early-ripening, for agricultural production. This problem can
be solved only by means of reduction of the heat requirement of
corn.-
One should strive to achieve that the high-stalked, many.
leaved varieties would develop in the non-chernozem zone at the
* Lines or simple hybrids, cultivated in southern regions and having
15-16 leaves, must be utilized as the paternal forms.
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(20) Trans. A-I973
same rate as in the south, where they succeed in attaining milk-wax
stage of ears during 90 to 100 days after the appearance of sprouts.
But for this purpose it is necessary that the early-ripeness
be conditioned not by the reduction in the number of leaves, but.
by acceleration of the rate of thilr emergence under conditions
of the insufficiency of heat. Selectioners of the non-chernozem
tone used various methods, particularly, a method of selection
of early-ripening plants of many-leaved southern varieties in
order to obtain early-ripening forms, having whigh yielding
capacity of the .green mass. Since each variety of corn represents
a complex population, it is always possible to detect plants,
? which, differ in ripeness and deviate from the basic type. It was
succeeded by means of repeated selections to obtain forms that
are considerably more early-ripening than the initial variety.
But at the same .time, simultaneously with the increase of early-
ripeness, occurred the reduction of the number of leaves tind the
reduction of the yielding capacity of the green mess, connected
with it. Thus, In the selection for early-ripeness in the variety
Partitanka the period from the appearance of,spro"s to flowering -
has been reduced by 13 days, the number of leaves 'decreased to '
14-15 from 16..17; and in connection with this the yield of green
mass was reduced from 247 to 183.c from one hectare. It would
seem that this problem could be solved with the aid of hybridita-
tion of early-ripening Siberian varieties with the many-leaved
southern varieties. Butlt proved in practice that the thus
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(21) Trans. A-1073
obtained hybrids occupied by their characteristics,. an Intermediate
place between the parental varieties (table 5). Thus, in crossing
variety Minusinka, which has 10-11 leaves* with the variety
Minnesota 13 extra, which has 16-17 leaves, a hybrid with 13-14
leaves was obtained. The intermediate length of the vegetative'
period corresponds also to this number of leaves; it leans only
very slightly to the side of the early-ripening parent. And the
cause becomes understandable If one takes into consideration that
the rate of the emergence of sequential leaves in early-ripening
and in late varieties is practically similar; and that the early-
ripeness of Siberian varieties is conditioned not by the speed of
? appearance of leaves, but by their smaller number.
During direct training of corn for increasing its cOld-re-
sistance different methods were used: extra early plantings into
cold soil, the germinating seeds were "hardened" In the snow and
In refrigerators; selection of quickly germinating seeds was con-
ducted ander conditions of artificially reduced temperature, and
so on. These works have not as yet producsi?dany practically ap-
preciable results, although, undoubtedly, there exists a possi-
bility of reducing the heat requirement of corn. This is shown
by the variations in the characteristic of cold-resistance with-
in the limits of a variety, as well as among the individual
[Begin p.32) varieties. A confirmation of this possibility is
found in the results of work of some foreign plant breeders, who
succeeded in cultivating corn varieties, which are able to germi-
note at a temperature of. 5-6?. The problem of cultivation of
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(22) * Trans. A-1073.
cold-resistant varieties and hybrids of corn must be solved since
it is of great production .importance.
,Table 5
Characteristic of foliation and of the length of vegeta-
tion period in different varieties and hybrids of corn
(i97)
.
Varieties and hybrids
Number of days from the ap-
pearance of sprouts to tag-
- se ing
Mean number of leaves
, ?
-
in a
hybrid
in the
mother
variety
in the
,father
variety
in a .
hybrid
in the
mother
variety
in thi
fothei
varie.
ty
Sibirlachka X Minne-
sota 13 extra .
56
54
78
12.3
10.8
16.6
Minnesota 13 extra X
.
Sibiriachka (Minusinka)
65
76
54.
14.0
16.6
10.8
Slavgorodskaia 270 X
.
4ffinetota 13 extra
62
56
76
13.7
12.4
16.6
MEnesota 13 eXtra X
'
Slavgorodskaia 270
65.
76
56
13.8
16.6
12.4
Pervenets X Minnesota ?
13 extra
61
57
76
13.1
12.1
16.6
Minnesota 13 extra X
.
.
Pervenets
62
76
57
13.7
'-10.6
12.1
Pervenets X Severo- .
.
Osetinskala
0
57.
- 81
15.7
12.1
18.3
Severo..0setinskaia X ?
'
.
Pervenets .
67
81
57
. 13.6
18.3
12.1
Pervenets X Partisanka
61
57
76
'
- 13.6
12.1
17.0
Partizanka X Pervenets
45
76
57
' 14.5
17.0
12.1
Slavgorodskala 270 X
Partizanka
4.
56 -
76
-
14.5
12.4
17.0
Sitvgorodskaie 270 X
.
Severo-Osetinskaia
60
56
' 81
13.3
12.4
18.3
Sibirlochka X Patti-
'sank*
i ' 66
54
76
14.5
10.8
.17,0
?
It 15 also possible to influence the length of the vegeta-
tion period of corn with the aid of agroteehnical methods besides
the various methods of selection. Having correctly built up the
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.(23). Trans. A-1073
agrotechhique of cultivation, it is possible to produce favorable
conditions for a fuller and a more effective utilization of heat
by the corn plants. The temperature regimeoof soil in the zone of
activity of the root system Is improved considerably by a proper
choice of e field to be used under corn. According to data of
Academician of VASHBNIL (All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences
imeni V. 1. Lenin), 14. P. Mosolov, a field, having a slope to the
south of only 1?, receives the same amount of heat as does a field -
with a horizontal surface which is situated 100 km to the south.
Difference In the temperature between north-western and southern.
slOpes, et a similar steepness, comprises 6-7? in the air and
0 up to 5-7? in the soil at the depth of 1 cm.. Owing to'this,-the
soil is ready earlier on the-southern slopes, and one can.start
planting corn on them earlier and obtain a yield of ripe ears
?
earlier.
Corn grows and develops faster on soils containing 60-80% sand,
than on clayey soils. ,This is' explained not only by a better air
regime of these soils; but also by'their higher temperature. Dif-
ference in temperature (Begin p.331 of the sandy loam and of the
clayey soil during the course of the entire vegetation period com-
prises 1.0-1.5?.
The following results were obtained, in 1956, in comparing
the development of corn variety Nemchinovskala on various soils
(table 6).
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(214)
Trans. A-1073
Table 6
Rate of development of corn on various.9 L19
Soil
Planting
Sprouts
Tasseling
Millte.
wax stage
Y1414 OT
green mass
(in ha)
Turf-podzol sandy loam
The same, clayey
May 20
.May 20
June 2.
June 7
July 16
July 26
?
Sept. 3
None
320
282
,
Planting on best and concise dates provides the obtaining of
early and simultaneous sprouts; owing to this corn begins to vege-
tate earlier, its flowering proceeds during the warmer period of
the summer. It is as important to determine the best depth for
embedding the seeds: too deep an embedding not only leads to
the weakening of sprouts, but also delays their emergence for
several days. It is similar to a late date of planting in its
411 negative results.
The thickness of planting tells especially sharply on the yield
of ears; therefore the timely thinning and leaving in a hill of the
proper number of plants is one of the most important conditions
for normal development of corn.
A very important condition for normal development of corn
Is its being provided with all the necessary elements of mineral
nutrition. As it already has been pointed out, high fertility of
soil can decrease the negative effect of heat deficiency to a
large degree. Especial consideration must be given to supplying
corn with a sufficient amount of phosphorus during the entire
period of vegetation.
Growth and development of corn are in a very close connection
410 and dependence. Therefore, all these agrotechnical measures,
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(25) Trans. A-1073
which help the growth of corns producs also a favorable Influence
on its development.
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'r) Trans. A-1.074
vg/A
Protsenko, A. E.
Virusnye bolezni kartofelia.
(Virus diseases of potatoes].
Zashchita Rastenli ot Vreditelei
I Boleznel, vol. 40 no. 3. p.30-32.
May/June 1959 421 Z1.
(In Russian)
Virus diseases (degeneration) of potatoes reduces drasti-
cally the Yield in individual regions and in the end make a re-
newal of the seed material for this crop necessary. The following
are the known basic types of degeneration of potatoes caused by
!II different viruses.
Crinkle mosaic. The leaves of theInfected potato branch
are crinkled (bulging'between the veins), have turned down edges
and fragile petioles. Sometimes light-green spots are noticable
on the leaf blade. Growth Is inhibited and the tubers are small
end produce an unhealthy progeny. The disease is caused by one
or by several viruses.'
Mottled mosaic. Light-green spots on leave*, are well visible
in light. The form of the leaf is sometimes slightly changed.
Depression of the branch similar to that in leaf-roll mosaic has
not been observed, but in following years there may develop dwarf ?
plants from its tubers.
Candidate of Biological Sciences;
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(2) Trans. A-1074
Streak mosaic. Necrotic streaks (appear) on the veins and
frequently also on the petioles of leaves and stems. The Petioles
are fragile and the leaves fall off - at first the lower ones
and later also the upper ones. Sometimes mottled mosaic is ob-
served on the young leaves. In some instances diseased and
healthy stems grow from the same tuber (but from different eyes).
Dwarf leaf-curl. Inhibited growth of the plant, crinkled,
curly leaves, often resembling distinctly pronounced leaf-roll
-mosaic. The ttrbers are small.'
The gothic disease or the spindle tuber. Growth Inhibition
of plant. .Upright stems, narrow, crinkled leaves slightly curly
? and standing upright, with a coloring paler than that of healthy
leaves. The tubers are elongated and spindle-shaped.
It is characteristic of virus diseases to have certain com-
mon properties or which. the principal ones aret the character of
their distribution on the planting area, their ability to infect
healthy plants and the influence of climatic and soil conditions
upon their manifestation and distribution.,
Plants infected by virus diseases are usually distributed
more or less evenly on the potato field regardless of their number.,
In case of disease caused by deficiency of some element of nutri-
tion (potassium, calcium, magnesium etc.), or by the presence of
Injurious elements in the soil. (which happens very rarely), its
symptoms are pronounced in approximately the same degree in all
a
? plants on either a large orrksmall area. ,(Begin p.31).
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(3) Trans. A-1074
Virus diseases of potatoes, as well as of other plants, are
contagious, i.e. they can be transmitted from diseased to healthy
plants by various means. One Of these means is mechanical trans-
mission. Under field conditions, some types of infection are
transmitted from diseased plants to healthy ones by contact be-
Ween the leaves (in windy weather or during treatment of inter-
rows). They can be transmitted by various insects that infest
potatoes, for instance aphids, cicada, caterpillars, and by the
knife used to cut tubers before planting. .Thus, in one of the
experiments conducted at the Institate of Potato Economy, a
knife employed preliminarily to cut Potatoes oft a plant infected
? by mottled mosaic was used to cut tubers before planting. Con-
sequently, when the plants grown from tubers infected by such
means were examined with the aid of an electron microscope, it
was found that out of 49 plants only 3 had no viruses, and out.
of 44 controls there were 38.
In another experiment In which 47 healthy plants were in-
fected by means of rubbing their leaves with the juice of diseased
plants, all proved to be infected. Among controls 37 out of 47 were
free from the virus.
The X-virus of potatoes is transmitted only by mechanical
means. Others, for example, the viruses of leaf-roll and yellow
top are distributed only with the aid of insects - aphids, cicada
and others. All viruses are transmitted by seed (posedochnyi)
tubers. Hence, it is understandable why, the situation,becomes
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(4) Trans. A-1074
more threatening when the seed material is infected. .
. Virus diseases of potatoes are characterized by one more
peculiarity. A considerable time interval - from 20 to 40 days
.and longer -'passes from the moment of infection until the appearance
of notable symptoms. Hence, external symptoms of the ditease
usually are not visible the year in which the infection of plants
occurred and often not even in the following year. They can,
however, be detected either serologically, or by infection of in-
dicator plants., or with the aid of an electron miCroscope. In
the latter case, thread-like particles - viruses - are visible
amOng the formless pieces of the destroyed portions of plant cells
OWhen magnified 10-20 thOusand times.
Nor do viruses enter tubers from infected leaves immediately,
but lonlyj after 30-40 days. Therefore, it As possible to obtain
healthy tubers, If the. leaves are infected late.
..It'has'also been demonstrated experimentally that the virus
need not [necessarily) be in all portions of the tuber, nor in the
same quantities. It is considerably less.in the heart than around
the eyes, and, in some cases, not in all eyes, for example, when
plant infection occurred during the second half of vegetation.
The development of virus diseases of potatoes is greatly in-
fluenced by temperature, soil moisture, weather conditions and
fertilizers.
For some types a temperature between 20 and 30 degrees (1:)
is most favorable. Thus, in one of our experiments, symptoms of
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(5) Trans. A-I074
Infection by the X-virus of potatoes in tobacco disappeared after
the plants were placed under conditions of temperature above 300.
Control plants that were left at 20-29 had well pronounced symp-
toms of the disease and in the end perished. Potato tubers (although
infected by virus diseases) grown during a cold and damp summer'
produced plants the following year that were either externally
slightly infected, or had no infection'symptoms whatever. Con-
verselys'after a hot and dry summer there are more diseased plants
and the degree of disease is more pronounced. On soils with excess
nitrogen virus diseaies manifest themselves to a higher degree and
reduce the yield to a greater extent than on soils with a normal
ratio of nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus fertilizers.
(Illus.)t Potato plant infected by dwarf leaf-curl
It follows from the above said that measures against virus
diseases could be (Begin p.32) sufficiently effective if they were
applied in time, but the results will; tell only the following year.
Hence primary attention should be paid to seed material. If it
is healthy, it guarantees the absence of virus diseases and, con-
sequently,.a normal yield.
It must be kept in mind that measures used against. virus
\ diseases are simultaneously applied in.the control of potato diseases
? such as black lege ring rot, Fusarium rot (Or blight),'Rhisoctonia
etc. They all may be summed up within the following complexity,
, first of all for seed plots of kolkhozes and sovkhozes. Planting.
4
...
of uncut tubers of indium size and the proper shape characteristic
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(6) Trans. A-1074
of the variety. In the event Circumstances make cutting necessary,
then the knife must be disinfected every time In a 5% formalin.
. solution.
All plants showing symptoms of virus infection and other
diseases must be removed before the leaves close. Weeding out
(removal of diseased plants] must be repeated during flowering.
This is one of the basic -measures.
The harvest must be gathered as early as possible - 2-3
weeks after- flowering--, to prevent the penetration of viruses
from leaves into tuber, If the leaves were contaminated by plants
that had been infected but 'showed no symptoms of disease,. Although
the yield under these conditions will be lower as regards weight,
.4110 ye* there will be considerably less infected plants, and the yield
obtained from these the following year will be higher than that
obtained from larger but virus infected tubers.
Excessive fertiliting of the plot with nitrogen must be avoided,
and sufficient_ potassium and phosphorus is to be applied. Areas
intended for seed pieta- must be selected to the extent possible
with a great deal of mOisture, or else artificial irrigation is to
be carried Out. Practice has established that in coldei-northein
regions and in mountainous regions potatoes suffer less from virus
diseases.
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? vg/A
-Churaev,,I. A.
H. probleme bortby koloradskim zhukom.
[Problem of Colorado beetle control]..
Zashchita Rastenii ot Vreditelei 1 Boleznei
vol. 44 no. 3, P.43-44. MOVjune 19.59. 421 21
(In Russian).
The Colorado beetle is one of the most dangerous pests of the
potato crop.- After invading France for the first time in 1918
from America, this pest has by now spread throughout many European
countries covering a territory equivalent to 2 million square km.
411 In Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and in part in. Rumania it has
come close to the border of the Soviet Union.
To prevent losses of the potato yield on territory where the
Colorado beetle is distributed, the countries have been forced to
conduct from one to three chemicaltreatments annually which incur
large expenditures. The potato yield left.tinharvested due to
injuries inflicted by the Colorado beetle amounts to about 30% in
France and to about 15% in Western Germany. If the minimum losses
were calculated only it 10%, then failure to prevent the spreading
of the pest on . territory of, for instance, the Belorussian SSR
could result in a loss of over 500 million rubles, and [calculated
on the scale of the [entire] USSR - about 6 billion rubles annuall
Decisions adopted by the 21st Congress of the HPSS [Communist.
Party of the Soviet Union] have provided for a considerable in-
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(2) Trans. A-1075
crease in potato Production and, hence, the protection of the given
crop from pests and diseases has acquired specially great importance.
Taking into consideration the danger that the Colorado beetle
presents to potato growers, the Ministry of Agriculture USSR took ?
measures during the entire period of the postwar years that were
bound to play a positive role In preventing the distribution ofthe
peat on the territory of our country.
In the USSR, the Colorado beetle was found for the first time
in 1949 In the Ltvov Oblast' and as a result-of the mcPsures that
were taken it was completely eradicated. Since 1953 it annually
began to penetrate into territory of the Kaliningrad Oblast' and
0 also into the Lithuanian SSR end the Brest and Orodno Oblasts.
The first mass flight of the pest in the IMMO direction was register-
ed in the year 1956. .In the Kaliningrad Oblast!-It was found in 16
districts. As a result of the extermination measures conducted,
the number of foci decreased in 1957 more than 10 times as compared
with 1956. It could be expected that the results of this in-
vasion izalet) would be completely eradicated in the next year .
or two. However, due to a number of factors that manifested them-
selves in 1958 there occurred in invasion of the Colorado beetle
that was second in sequence but in larger masses into the Transcarpa-
thian and Dragobych Oblasts from the direction of Hungary and, in
part, from Czechoslovakia, and into the Kaliningrad Oblast' and
the Lithuanian SSR from the direction'of the Baltic Sea where it
had been carried by hurricane winds from Polish and German territory.
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(3) Trans. Af1075
The pest was detected in 711 populated localities that
bordered on Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Rumania where 5320
fool were found. As a result of extermination measures conducted
In 1958; by now, a considerable portion of them has been extermi-
nated, but, taking into consideration the proximity of the foci on
territory of the countries indicated, a second invasion of the
beetle into the USSR must be feared. Hence, the magnitude of the
extermination and prophylactic measures'conducted in the control
of this pest in the borderline districts in the current year must
not be below that of last year.
Ten-year's experience has demonstrated that by means of syste-
matic observations Of the appearance of the pest and by using chemi-
?
cal agents against it, its settling can be prevented and the foci
found can be completely eradicated,' This is a task of State In.
portance, and agriculture has at its disposal everything needed
for its accomplishment. (Begin p.44]. Now, the main thing is
that the available means be properly utilieed in the coming cam-
paign,
First of all it Le necessary to raise the role and the re-
sponsibility of the managers and agronomists of kolkhozes and .
sovkhozes and also of the owners or individual orchards in wry-
Ing out control measures for the Colorado beetle. To.have the
work organized the beet way, it is desirable to recommend to farms
that they provide technicians or brigadiers for the protection of
plants who periodically will attend a refresher training course.
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(14 Trans. A-1075
Practice of past years has demonstrated the exceptional impor-
twice of the participation of the population In this matter. It ,
suffices to say that a large portion of the foci is always detected'
by the population itself while tending the plantings. Thiti Is .
why in organising the inspection of plantings, one of the leading
places was assigned to the participation. of wide strata of the
population: withinthe system of measures for 1951 adopted by the
Ail-Union Conference on the Colorado Beetle held in February of
the current year.
It Is necessary to unfold morviwidely propaganda On the
injurious nature of the beetle end on measures for its control
ill - orally as well as in printed matter. The responsibility of the
owners of crops should also be increased in Cane they show: 'an.
attitude of negligence regarding measures conducted by the State.
The system of measures provides for the implementation of
ceintrol insepectioa of potato plantings by the brigade (team-
work] method In all raions In which the pest was found In *8,
and also within a 200 kilometer belt from the farthest eastern
foci. Special attention has been called to the quality of these
inspections, hence, it Is absolutely necessary that form agronomists
and technicians (brigades (teams]) take part in them. Eradication
of the foci of the pest and formulation of documentation must be
accomplished under their immediate supervision.
Prophylactic spraying'of potato plantings. with chemical pre-
parations that retain their toxic actkon on the leaves of plants
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?
for a long time are of great importance. It is recommended that
MME (a, 20% concentrated mineral oil emulsion (?)] DDT in a 0.3%
concentration (according to the active'element), or DDT paste in
S 0.4% concentration be used for this purpose at the consumption
rats of 400-600 litereAa of the working. liquid.
Taking into account the duration of the toxic action of the
preparations and also the factor of growth of the foliar mass of
the potatoes in redone infested by the Colorado beetle (with the
exception of the mountain rata-no of Transcarpathimend the DITO.,
gobyCh Oblast', and also ralons in which only isolated foci were
found in 1958, where only one spraying is carried out), it is
?
?
recommended that two, treatments be,carried but: the.first - during
the period of mass appearance of larvae of the let age group which
coincides with the continued mass exit of the beetles from the soil
after overwintering, the second - 10-15 days after the first.
Furthermore, it must be taken into account that the objective can
be reached only if the quality of the.work is high. Control in-
spections carried out with a view to detection of the Colorado
beetle must 'simultaneously represent a checking of the quality of.
the prophylactic spraying in progress.
Under conditions where the numbers of the pest are small, the
correct selection of dates on which inspection.and.chemical treat-
ments are to be conducted is a factor of great importance. The
development of a method insuring a promising forecast of these dates
will be (entrusted] to V1ZR (All-Union Institute of Plant Protection]
111 as a task of first importance.
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In organizing and in implementing measures for the preven-
tion of the distribution of the Colorado beetle, specialists of
plant protection and quarantine will be called upon to perform
an important role, The direction of the work in oblasts and raions
will be realized through the Oblast' agricultural administrations
and the raion agricultural inspection services by enlisting de-
tachments for pest control at RTS [Tractor Repair Stations].
Hence, it is very important to strengthen these detachments with
specialists and to supplement their staffs with the services of an
entomologist. It is also necessary to raise the role of quaran-
tine inspections and to increase their responsibility for the
quality and timeliness of the work being conducted. In accomplish-
ing all of his activities, the quarantine inspector of a raion must
maintain contact with the district agricultural inspection ser-
vices and with the district executive committees.
Pursuant to the decisions adopted by the 9th International
Conference on Quarantine and Plant Protection, there now have been
created -r: active bilateraynixed committees whose tasks in-
clude the checking and inspection of 1 Colorado beetle control
In the borderline distridts of the interested countries. The data
of the committees will undoubtedly perform a positive role.
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Trans. A-1076
vg/A
Kriachko, Z. F.
Opyt boriby s koloradskim thukom na Ukraine.
[Experience in Colorado beetle control in the Ukraine).
Zashchita Rastenli ot Vreditelei 1 Boletnei, vol. 4,
no. 3, P.45-47. , May/June 1959. 421 21
(In Russian)
' In recent years the appearance of the Colorado beetle in USSR
territory has been noted with increasing frequency.
Between 1949 and 1957, foci of the Colorado beetle in the
Ukreine were found In seven districts of the Ltvov, the Volhynia
? (Volyn] and the Transcarpathian Regions. These include also the
focus in the village Khltrelkas Nesterov District, LIvov Region,
that had attacked 110 potato fields on which 35 kg of the pest
were gathered in different stages of its development.
All foci were eliminated. Nonetheless, in the spring of
1958, the Colorado beetle again appeared en masse on territory of
the Transcarpathian Region: in 11.816 fields of 452 populated loca-
lities were gathered over 630 thousand beetles, larvae and ovi-
positors. Individual specimens were found in the Volhynia? Ilvov
and Stanislav Oblasts. It has been established that the basic
reason for this finvaiion] was the flight of beetles from Hungary
and Poland that had been prompted by atmospheric conditions.
Chief State Inspection Service for Plant Quarantine n the
ill Ukrainian SSR.
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To confirm this fact we can cite the following (evidence):
61% of the beetles were found in places where potatoes were stored
in earthen mounds (burty] and on tubers brought to the field for
planting; 8 beetles were found on the clothes of a kolkhoznik
who rode on a motorcycle through'a village at the Hungarian
boundary, beetles were found alpo on grape clusters (kolliakhl,
In the forest, in ensilaging pits, in baskets with potato tubers
and in many other unusual places.
All of these facts Indicate that the search for the pest and
measures for the elimination of its foci must be continued, since
it obviously cannot be fully uncovered within one year.
., A study of these problems has demonstrated that the develop-
mental conditions of the Colorado beetle in Transcarpathia and
other western districts of the Ukraine are extremely.cvaried: In
the plains there are two complete generations and some years
even three. In the year 1958, in the Transcarpathian Region,
for example, the first overwintered beetles in the lowland districts
were noted on May 11, the first generation on-June 19 and the second
generation on - August 15. As a rule, the beetles that left the
soil mated after 2 to 3 days and began to lay eggs.
In the mountain districts of the Transcarpathian Region, as
well as in the Livov, Velhynia, Drogobich and Stanislav Regions
the beetle develops only one generation. Thus, in the Velovets
(mountain) District of. the Transcarpathian Region_the.development
of the first generation ends at the end of July or at the beginning
411 of August. The young first generation beetles that have developed
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during this period nourish themselves intensively, but they do
not mate and do not ley eggs. Al the end of August they commence
to enter diapause. In 1958, all beetles went underground on
September 20th.
In lowland districts, overwintered"beetles usually enter die-
pause after July 9, those of the first generation after August 13
:and of'the second generation - September 15.
(Illus.lt Spraying of self-sown potatoes among
the young crop of maize against the Colorado '
beetle on the kolkhoz imeni Lenin, Velikoberez-
niansk District, Transcarpathian Region
In order to resolve the problem as to the desirability of
III
carrying out inspection and chemical treatments of potato crops,
we investigated the food specialization of the beetle and its
larvae. It was established that during the spring period the
beetle, in addition to potatoes; injured the seedlings and young
plantings-of tomatoes, eggplants and pepper. Neither the beetle
nor its larvae injure tobacco (the Sobolichskii local variety).
. Me consider that inspection.Of potato plantings for the pur-
pose of detecting foci of the pest, carried out in good time, is
the main link in its control. In the Ukraine, in the spring
of last year over 4500 district and rural organizers were pre-
pared at special seminars held in the western regions, and later
with the aid of the latter over 200 thousand mass inspectors were
prepared. 23.8 thousand pamphlets, 77.8 thousand posters, 385
411 thousand leaflets published by the State Inspection (Service)
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(10 . Trans. A-1076
were distributed among thcpopulation. 91 talks were given over
the radio, films were shown 197 times end 266 articles were pub- ?
lished in newspapers about the importance and the measures of pest
control.
Careful inspection was made of all storage places (caves
(burtovanie)) and of self-sown potatoes, (Begin p.46) (as well as)
of nurseries growing tomato, eggplant, pepper and tobacco seed-
lings. Here were gathered and deitroyed over 160 thousand beetles
and their ovipositors.
Potato plants were inspected as sprouts appeared by the-
farmers themselves and by owners of (individual) plots no less
than once a week and, apart from this, inspections were carried
out evercWhere by brigs-des selected from the population, in
particular by school boys under the supervision of agronomists
end organizers.
During the period that began with the invasion of the beetles
And lasted up to the appearance of larvae of the 4th age group
(from May 24 to June 25) were Conducted two (one afteranother)
continuous inspections of potato plantings, and later two more
(in the lowland tree of Transcarpathia - three) inspections: one
on June 30 - during the period when beetles of the first generation
emerge from, the soil in the. lowland districts and larvae of the 3rd'
age group appeared in mountain districts, the second one on July 17 -
during'the period in which larvae of the 2nd and 3rd age groups
appear, and the third one on August 15 - during the period of mass
111 emergence of second generation beetles in lowland districts and of
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first (generation beetles] in the mountain districts of Trans-
carpathia.
Potato plantings in the Transcariethian and Drogobych Regions
and in the boundary line districts of the'Lfvov and Volhynia
Regions were simultaneously subjected to continuous prophylactic
spraying or dusting with insecticides.
Chemical treatments of plantings were conducted twice, and
in the lowland districts of the Transcarpathian.Region three times:
the first one from May 18 through June 5 - as sprouts appeared'
(the period that coincided with the settling of overwintered beetles
and mass hatching of larvae); the second one from the 5th to the
15th of June (in mountain districts - mass hatching Of larvae, and
in lowlands - appearance of first larvae of 'the 1.1.th age group), the
third one - from July 15 onward, during the period of a mass exit
of first generation beetles from the soil - in lowland districts,
and mass hatching of larvae-of the 3rd age group - in mountain ,
districts, in a number of farms in the Beregovsk:and other district
it was necessary to spray 4 times.
The poisonous chemicals used were the followings 50% DDT
paste in a 0.8% concentration, go% MME (mineral oil emulsion],
DDT in a 1.5% concentration. The first one to be tested was
polychloropinen (a 65% concentrate). In sunny weather this pre-
paration in 0.75% and 1% concentration (according to the prepara-
tion) proved highly effective: 100% beetles and larvae of all age
111 groups died on the 2nd day after the treatment. Converted to a
one-time treatment, a total of 231 thousand hectares of potato
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(6) Trans. A-1076
plantings wet
a
d dusted with o nous chemicals.
This work was organized bydetatments of Tractor Repair
4.5 brigades
d sprayer-
ons RTS),
? that had at their disposal
dusters ONK-A,
?knapsack appara
A brigade
? operators auto -
nicien an Cautom
headed by an agronomis
?t sprayed all potato pia
horse o motor
prayersOHM 304.50
k -ears,
pond ins number of tr
aborers
ecorder. The briga
rrtved at a populated loca
less as to whom they he -
pense'of the Govern
in money according to calculations
the averageg
onous chemisi
longed.
mmnt,
The work was arrLed odt
The detachments were paid
confirmed by regional agricultural
treatment of one hectare includin
cats tame to 48 rubles and 60 kopeks
The foci (Place the pianteZnjured by the pea
administrations.
located adt area within a
stage the pest
radius), depending on t
divided into two?
groups, since the method used t
first group -.with larvae of th
the surface of the foci, Or wit
All potato plants found on
were sprayed with a 0.6% s
preparation
V**
pupa
fferent.
groups found on
ad. beetles 1
The
cus and within a radius of 1
?50%'DDT paste (as per the
then they were gathered with the tubers, and .a 25%
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(7) . Trans. A-l076-
benzene hexachloride dust on phosphorite meal was introduced into
the soil at the rate of 15 gm per square meter and covered with
rakes to a depth of 2-3 cm.
The second group - with .beetles, ovipositors andalso iso-
lated larvae up to the 3rd age group were found only on plants
and on the soil surface. Here [the treatment] was limited to
spraying the plants with the indicated-poisonous chemicals:
Within a period of no less than lo days each focus and the''
surrounding plantings of potatoes and tomatoes were observed
. every day. When living beetles and larvae were found then mea-
sures for the eradication of foci were repeated.
The use of the indicated system In the Colorado beetle con-
trol permitted-eradicating.compleiely isolated foci in the VOlhynia
and Levov Regions and to localize and,eradicate.their fundamental
? quantity in the Transcarpathian and Drogobych' Regions. Thus, of
,the foci found earlier in the Transcarpathian Region, some were
left on only 426 farms, i.e. 10%, while the pest was 'decreased 97%.
(Begin p.47). Supplementary eradication measures have been con-
ducted and it appears certain that they will produce positive
results.
Taking into ?consideration the probability that there are places
in which foci Illave remained undisclosed, plans to repeat measures
against the beetle during the current year are under way. It is
planned to carry out one continuous prophylactic spraying (in the
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lowland districts of Transcarpathis - two) during the period in
which ovcrwintered beetles settle down, including the develop-
ment of larvae up to the 3rd age group.
[Signed) Z. F. Hrlachko
Chief State Inspection Service
for Plant Quarantine In the
Ukrainian SSR
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Trans. A-1077
vg/A
Mellnikov, N. N.
Novyi gerbitsid simazin.
[New herbicide - Symaeine).
Zashchita Rastenli ot Vreditelei i
Soleenei, vol. 4, no. 3. p.53..
May/June 1959 421 21
(In Russian)
, In recent yeers Swiss researchers have found a new group of
active herbicides - derivatives of'symm-triaelne of which special
interest is held out by 2-chlor-1.,6-bis (ethylamino)-symm-triazine..
which has been given the trade-name of Symazine.
It represents a white crystalline substance-with a melting
point of 227? (C) (tt technical preparation usually melts at222?-
224?), is very slightly soluble in water and only slightlysoluble
in methyl alcohol and chloroform.. In room temperature Symazine
is resistant tO the action ofdiluted aqueous solutions of alkalis
and acids which destroy it by boiling by means of splitting off
the chlorine atom. It can. beAestroyed also when heated with con-
centrated sulfuric and nitric acids, and it is. non-explosive.. It
disintegrates slowly in a soil solution: its residual action
lasts from a few months up to 2 years. This permits etiliging It
in the control of annual weeds among the young crop of plants the
root system of which is embedded deeply.
Symazlne is [only) very slightly toxic for man and animals
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(2) Trans. A-1077
(the minimal lethal dose for experimental animals is 5000 mg/kg of
living weight).
When plantings are treated with this preparation at the rate
of 1-2 kg/ha, it destroys a large number of weed species for
practically the entire vegetative period, and when used at the
rate of 6-8 kg/ha, then weeds such as European bindweed, couch
grass anti others are also destroyed. According to data of Swiss
researchers who work in the laboratory of the Firm of "Geigy",
Symazine.used at the rate of 3.75-20 kg/ha suppresses the develop-
Ment of monocotyledonous as well as dicotyledonous weeds for a
long period - for over .5 months..
The aftereffect of the preparation is also long lasting. On
fields treated with this preparation.at the end of April 1955 (10
kg/ha), the following plants had injuries more than a year 'later
(in June and August of 1956): celery (Aoium L.), leek (Allium
porrumj, wheat, oats, barley, rye, peas, beans, carrots, radishes,
turnips, red clover, alfalfa, vetch, flax, and hemp; when the
preparation was used at the rate of 5 kg/ha, the injured plants
included wheat, oats, barley, beans, carrots, radishes and sugar
beets; when 2 kg/ha were used, then -none of the above listed
crops had any injuries.
Maize possesses a specifically high resistance to the given
preparation, even when applied at the rate of 10-15 kg/ha. In the
control of weeds on maize plantings. Symazine is uSually recom-
mended in doses of 1-3 kg/ha. But the sensitivity .to this pre-
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paration of the crop that is to follow maize must be taken into
consideration, since large doses of the preparation can later
have an injurious influence upon it.
Attention should be'paid also to a study of the possibility
of utilizing this preparation and its closetanalogue - chlorazene
(24.chlor-4,6-bis (diethylamino)-symm-triazine] in the control of
weeds in plantings of cotton and certain other crops. Although
the nature-Symatine action Upon plants has not been:i clarified
conclusively, there are reasons to assume that it is responsible
for a dliturbance of photosynthesis and a discontinuance Of the
accumulation of starch that occur within the plant (Coleus Blumel
and Tropaeolum).
The high resistance of maize to Symazine has been explained
by the presence of an enzymic system in this species of plants
that hydrolyses Symazine rapidly by splitting off the chlorine atom
and converts the preparation to a very slightly toxic 2-oxy-4,6-bis
(ethylamino)-symm-triazine.
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Trans. P-1078
vg/A
Bellkov, V. P. and Shutov, I. V. (Reviewers)
Novale kniga o khimicheskom metode bortby s
sorniakami [N. E. Dokatova. Khimicheskie
sredstva s sornoi rastItelanostflu v lesnom
khoziaistve. Goslesbumizdat, 1958).
[New book on the chemical method of weed
control) [Chemical means of weed control in
forestry].
Zashchita Rasienli ot Vreditelei I Boletnei,
vol. 44 no. 3, p.61. Say/June 1959. 421 21
(In Russian)
[The author of) the book examines in succession the impor-
? tance of the control of weeds and of undesirable plants. He
describes the more widely distributed herbicides and arboricides
and the methods used in exerting chemical action, and cites
fairly detailed practical instructions for their application to
forestry. In each specific case the author cites accounts of,
economic effectiveness. On the whole, the book Is useful to
production and may serve as a reference work for students. .
It, nonetheless, has its shortcomings. . Some controversial
and ill defined problems received a one-sided elucidation; it
contains [also) some obsolete recommendations that could disorient
the reader.
For example, a great deal of attention has been given to
chlorates and their extensive use in nurseries and on clearings
has. been recommended. Meanwhile, the author .himself points out
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that detoxication of heavy soil varieties (there Is a prepon7
derance of such soils In the Taiga tone) takes place slowly
after they have been treated with chlorates. This eliminates the
possibility of utilizing such plots under crops even a year after
the chemical treatment. The given circumstance should have been
noted more distinctly and it should have been emphasized that
chlorates can be used only on light soils.
The author's recommendation that sodium arsenite be used in
chemical drying of defective aspen causes one to wonder, inasmuch
its high toxicity for man.and useful animals is known. And the
observance of the rules of safety techniques under forest condi-
., tions is very difficult.
In examining the new herbicide of uniform action --ammonium
sulfamate -.the author gives the same.kind of advice as-he did
for chlorates. It is impossible to agree with this, since sul-
famate, distinct from chlorates acts upon the plant primarily
through its surface organs and not through the soil. Hence the
author's indication that sulfamate can be used In weed control
In its crystalline form Is incorrect (P.40).
?I
The suggestion that soil in arid regions can be watered be-
fore and after weeds have been treated with sulfamates is un-
grounded (p.91)t it can reduce the importance of the chemical
treatment to nothing.
The effect of,sulfamates upon weeds of the rhizome (surface
111 beach grass, couch grass and others) Is slight. Therefore it is
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Impossible to agree with the author's recommendation that this
preparation be used against perennial weeds on fallow plots of
nurseries (p. 91) and on clearings against beach grass in general
(P. 40), because this could lead to the spreading of the worst
kind of weed - the surface beach grass - and to choking of crops.
As regards ammonium sulfamate? it must be noted that this
compound is not only an effective herbicide but also an arboricide
of continued action. With aid of this compound it is possible
.to bring about the drying up of brushwood and of woody shoots Of
various composition, height and age. Hence, the indications in
.
the book that sulfamate could be used only in the control of
111 annual scrub (p.106) it not in conformity with the facts.
Further the author .indicates that for the purpose of thinning
out of the canopy of alder, birch and hazelnut in coniferous-green-
wood young forest growth Emolodniak] one can.use sodium and amine
salts 2,4-D, 2,445-T and 2M-4X. With reference to thii, it must
be noted that in the given case the use of sodium salts is in-
expedient, since they are inconvenient for application [obrash7
chenie], penetrate into plant leaves slowly and are readily washed
off by rain. For the care of the composition of mixed young
forestsArowth, amine salts 2,4-D (preparation 2,4-DA) should be
used first of all. This compound penetrates into plant leaves more
rapidly end causes not only the drying of birch and alder, but even
the thinning of aspen.
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(4) Trans. A-1078
The optimal time for spraying under conditions of the:north-
western regions are the dates from July 11 to July 20, Later in
the season (up to August 15, as is indicated in the book) it pro-
duces extremely puny results.
The author,alsp'points.out that in case there are insufficiently
heeled-in sprouts inedorub) and seedlings in the young forest stand,'
aerial spraying must not be conducted, because the flight altitude
of the airplane will exceed 10 in. The given requirement unjusti-
fiably limits the circle of objects (that benefit) from the use
of the aerial-chemical method of tending a 'young forest stand,
because insufficiently hceled-in sprouts and seedlings are found
practically everywhere. In fact, aerial spraying of a young forest
stand can be conducted even if the plane flies at an altitude above
10 in - it .merely increases somewhat the loss of the chemical in the
air.
' -The principal comment about the book must be made regarding
the instructions given for the use of the derivatives 2,4-D in
the control of mosses - peat moss and polytrichum - cited on pages
0-and.102. The author recommends the same dosage of the pre-
paration.(7-8 kg/ha) for the indicated objectives without taking
into account that polytrichum is more resistant to 2,4-D than peat.
moss. Consequently, the dosages should be differentiated.
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Trans. V
vg/A
Korotkikh, O. 1.
K istoril aviatsiodnogo melkokapellnogo opryskivanlia.
(History of aerial fine-drop spraying].
Zashchita Rastenli at Vreditelei I Boleznel, vol. 4,
no. 3, p.63. mayhune 1959. 421 21
(In Russian)
At the present time, fine-drop spraying and aerosols have
gained wide distribution in the USA and West-European countries. .
These methods are used with much sUccess.also in our Country. The
use of fine-drop spraying with poisonous chemicals of high Con-
ecentration in the control of the Siberian silkworm* was suggested
for the first time in world practice in the Soviet Union. The
turbine sprayer designed:by-V. F. Stepanov that is situated under
the wings of the airplane Po-2A was-utilized for these purposes.
With the aid of. this sprayer, In Eastern Siberia In the year 1940,
710 ha. of larch infested with caterpillars of the older age groups
of the silkworm were treated with a concentrated (AO%) solution of
:sodium'arsenite. More than 90% of the pest perished within 24 hours
after the spraying.
In the Irkutsk Oblast', in 1947-1948, tests were conducted of
the aviation fog-producing apparatus ATA designed by V. F. Stepanov
and mounted onto the Po-2A ,airplane (see illustration). Consump-
* Topics of reports of The Ecological Conference on Problems of
411 Mass Propagation of Animals (and) the Prognosis (thereof), Sept. 15
20, 1940, part II. Izd. AN, Ukrainskoll SSA, Kiev, 1941.
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(2) Trans. A-1079
?
? tion of a concentrated solution of technical DDT and benzene
hexachloride (010tTsG) at the rate of 12-15 liters/ha achieved
high mortality of the caterpillars of the Siberian silkworm of
.the younger age groups (P. M. Rates and others). Further, in
the Kirovograd Oblast', an oil solution of technical benzene
hexachloride was used against the pea weevil (Bruchus pisorum L.)
at the rate of $0 liters/ha. This also was sufficiently effec-
tive (Z. V. Ivanove).
In the years 1950-52, D. F. Rudnev and M. A. Anfinnikov
practiced fine-drop spraying with DDT oil solutions for the pur-
pose of destroying forest pests and they also obtained positive
results with a low consumption of the working liquid. In 1952,
111 A. M. Churakov utilized ATA successfully over fruit plantings
and against the acorn weevil (Balaninus glandium Mrsh.) in the
Krasnodar Territory. Later A. I. Sadovnikov demonstrated that
ordinary aerial boom sprayers can be used in treating a forest
with concentrated solutions of poisonous chemicals.
The experience accumulated in our own country and abroad
indicates that fine-drop spraying by the aerial method should be
utilized in mass production with more determination, primarily
in the control of forest and field crop pests.
(Signed) G. M. Korotkikh
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Trans. A-1080
? ve/M
Starostin, S. O.
Melkokapelfnoe avloopryskivanie v borlbe so
sveklovichnym dolgonosikom.
(Fins-drop aerial spraying in the control .
of beet weevil).
Zashchita Rastenii.ot Vreditelei 1 Boleznel,
vol. 4, no. 3, p.19-22. May/June 1959. 421 ZI
(In Russian)
'In USSR, annually, 1.3-1.5 mm n ha of sugar beet plantings are
aerially sprayed with poison chemicals, this comprises, approxi-
mately, half of all the area of chemical treatment for the control
of the beet weevil. Such a role of aviation in this matter raises
a problem of further improvement of methods of its work, raising
of productivity, effectiveness and reduction of cost.
One of the means for solving 'this problem is the use of fine.'
drop spraying with highly toxic poison chemicals with a small
expenditure of liquid. Possessing several advantages in compari-
son with aerial dusting (better retention of poison chemicals on
plants, smaller dependence on the wind, smaller losses, and so
on), aerial spraying is still behind it in productiveness. The
basic cause is in large norms of expenditure of liquids. The
problem of application of the fine-drop method of aerial spraying
for the control of plant pests is not new, and its prospectiveness
Is evident. As it is known, in atomization of one and the same
? volume of liquid, the number of drops will be the greater, the
?
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(2) Trans. A-I080
smaller will their size be; therefore, the required density for
covering the plants with poison chemical drops, as well as high
effectiveness, can be provided even with a small norm of expendi-
ture by using higher concentrations of poison chemicals.
One should mention that regardless of good reasons for chang-
ing to fine-drop aerial spraying, its practical application is ?
connected with the necessity of overcoming many difficulties and,
first of all, reduction of losses of liquid from evaporetion and
drift by wind of fine drops beyond the limits of the treated section.
Experiments of OosNII OVT(Secientific Research Institute of the
Civil Air Fleet) have Shown that water suspensions of poison chemi-
cal solutions are of little use for thecited purposes at the site
of drops about 100 microns and the height of the flight of 5 in,
not more than 60% of their number, that was ejected from the air-
plane, reached the earth; oil emulsions and oil solutions of
poison chemicals are best for fine-drop aerial spraying: they
evaporate slowly In spraying., (Begin p.20)
Spray nozzles of reduced cross section are used with outlets ?
1 X 5 mm; l X 2 mm and 1 X 1 mm in order to provide a finer break-
ing down of liquid in aerial spraying. The per second expenditure
of liquid, caused by this reduction, is accompanied by the increase
of the number of revolutions of the wind mill of the Sprayer and
by a considerable increase of pressure in the spray boom. Thus,
in installing a set of sprayers with openings of 1 X 1 mm on a
series sprayer of the airplane An-2, with the pump AM442, the wind
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mill produced 5,000 revolutions per minute, and the pressure in -
spray booms comprised 5.2 kg/cm2, while in sprayers with openings
of 2 X:5 mm, that are ordinarily used for spraying beets at a
medium dispersity, the number of revolutions fell to 3,600, and
the pressure in spray booms to 2.6 kg/cm2. Whereupon the disper-
sity of drops was changed correipondingly. One should point out
that a poly-dispersion system of drops, the site of Which varies
in wide limits from 10 to 400 microns and over in diameter forms
In aerial Spraying. 7The renge.of the size of drops was somewhat
narrowed in utilizing sprayers with openings of small cross sections.
Afgon chemical
Liquid
Sprayers
Pressure
Number
Aver.
operating concen-
consump-
_
Cross sec-
in spray
of
age
tration
(L/ha)
Amount
tion of the
boom(
drops
diame-
._
.-
outlet (mm)
(kg/cm')
on?
1 cm2 of
the
surface
ter of
drops
[micron]
10% emulsion of
DDT
15
16
1X5
5.2
64.3
' .66.4
6% emulsion of DDT
25
28
1x5
.2X5
4.8
103.3
117.9
3% emulsion of DDT
50
50
2.6
104.0
214.9
10% solution of
technical DDT in
-
diesel fuel
13
16
1X5
5.2
116.4
105.7
Data, cited above, is about dispersity of drops in aerial
spraying of sugar beets for the control of beet weevils.
It is seen from the above cited figures that with the norm
of consumption of liquid of 50 1./ha with ordinary medium-drop disper-'
? sion of liquid, or of 25 1./ha, but with a finer dispersion the
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.
number of drops per 1 cm2 of the sprayed surface is alike. The
size of drops, in the lest case, is smaller while concentration
of the poison chemical is higher in them. But the density of the
network of drops in the oil solution of DDT, with the consumption
of 15 L/ha, proved
the consumption of
Research Institute
extensive works on
to be higher than in the emulsion of DDT with
25 and 50 L/ha. Ukrainian Min (Scientific
for Plant Protection] and 000411 OVF conducted .
studying fine-drop aerial spraying with low
norms of liquid consumptiOn for the control of beet weevil, in
1957 and 1958, at kolkhozes in Kiev oblast'. As it was expected,
the obtained results were positive.
The following data from the kolkhoz f!Chervonnyi zhovten" of
Starchenkovskii raion, Kiev oblastf, in 1957, are cited as an
example. Spraying was conducted from the airplane An-2. Consump-
tion of the poison chemical at different norms of liquid was similar:
"polikhlorpinen" (polyc+rpinene] 1 kg/ha, and 20% of ".MME" DDT
(mineral-oil emulsion of DDT) 1.5
kg/ha.
Poison chemicals
Consumption of
liquid (L/ha)
of dead
beetles
o ych orpinene
1
The same
50% solution of polychlorpinene
in diesel fuel
Polychlorpinene
DDT
DDT
DDT
15
6
50
25
15
so
96
90
92
95
89
83
. 90
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Trans. A-1080
Approximately the same indices' were obtained in 1958 at
kolkhoses nimeni Stalinan, Smelianskil talon, Cherkaask ?blest',
nimeni Kulbyshevn, Skvirskii ration, Riev *blast', and at several
other farms. In all, 35 thousand hectares of plantings were
treated In the above mentioned ?blast's by the method of fine-
drop-aerial spraying with a norm of consumption of 25 L/ha. It
is also difficult to.overrate-its economic importance. Reduction
of the norm of consumption (Begin pall of the liquid to.25
will increase the productivity of airplanes per flying hour by
1
30-40% and the use of oil solution of polycherpinene (per 5-6 k/ha)
by two times; the cost of aerial treatment will be reduced by 3511,
411 not taking into account the savings on the delivery of water and
manpower, and many other expenditures. According to preliminary
estimates, transfer to fine..drep aerial spraying of sugar beets
with a norm of consumption of liquid of 25 L/ha will permit to.
save alone on the payment for the airplane work, transportation
end manpower, counting 4 rubles per hectare, about 5-6 mln, rubles,
per year.
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?
Shmanenkov, N. A., Meltnikova, T. S.,
Sokolov, IA. A., and Kotliar, E. IU. _
Mochevina-chastichnyi gamenitell belka v
rate lone doinykh korovw.
(Urea (carbamide) as partial substitute for A
protein in the ration of mulch cows)
Vestnik Sellskokhoziaistvennoi Nauki, vol. 44
no. 4, p.58-63. April 1959. 20 V633
(In Russian)
?
Trans. A-1081
vg/M
Among the nutritious substances-of feed proteins are of great
importance because they comprise thertoundat,ion of cells of the
animal organism. CoMtersion of feed'groteiAsj-to body proteins
I
occurs by means of coiplex biochemical processes: first of all
by the digestion of fodder.. Under the effect of enzymes of the
gastro-intestinal tract the feed proteins undergo a hydrolytic
decomposition into products of different degree of complexity -
albumoses, peptones, peptides, amino acids. After absorption
into the blood, these _products of hydrolysis serve as the initial
material from which 'organism builds the proteins required by it.
?
Results of the work were reported at the Conference of the Buresu
of the Department of Animal Industry (June 26, 1958) and at the.
Presidium of VASKHNIL (July 3, 1958).
Vsesoluznyi Nauchno-Issledovateliskil Institut Ronevodstva (All-
Union Scientific-Research Institute of Horse Breeding).
t,
?
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(2) Trans. A-1081
Often in feeds, along with proteins, the cited products of their
hydrolysis are present in a certain amount in a finished form,
which can be utilized by the organism in the same manner as the
product of digestion of protein substances. Thus, the animals .
build their proteins from products or hydrolysis of fodder proteins,
the final, link of which are the amino acids.
The amino acids, which do not take part in the building and
renewing of animal proteins are oxidized. 'Al the same time.their
amino groups separate out in the form of ammonia, and the nitrogen-
free fragments either become converted to fats and carbohydrates,
or are oxidized with the liberation of energy up to the water and
carbon dioxide; Ammonia, as a toxic substance itOdecontaminated,
,
being converted to urea, and, partiallY,-becoming neutralized by
acids with the formatioa of salts of amhonles is taken out of the
organism, in triese-i forms, with' the? ailne.
Agricultural animals are able to synthesize certain amino acids
from ammonia and nitrogen-free compounds of carbon, but, apparently,
in very insignificant amounts. For a normal development of ani-
mals, it is necessary that ready amino acids be present in the
feed proteins.
In nature, the initial synthesis of amino acids from ammonia
and simple carbon compounds, and proteins from amino acids; is
carried out by plants and certain forms of microorganisms. For
animals the plants are the chief source of proteins. In this
respect, a role of considerable importance is played by micro-
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(3) Trans. A-1081
organisms living in the rumens of ruminants [Begin p.59) and
which are able to build the proteins of their body from Ammonia
and products of conversion of nonprotein organic substances,
and, in the first place, Of carbons.
Mechanism of synthesis of amino acids, and then of body
proteins by microflora in rumens Of the ruminants has been studied
very little so far. It is known only, that ammonia .derivatives"
(carbamide, salts of Ammonium), which are added to the feeds,. can
be utilised as sources of nitrogen for this synthesis. Nitrogen
is utilized in the form of ammonia - NH3 for synthesis of amino
acids. Therefore, all the ammonia derivatives are subjected to
111 hydrolysis at the beginning; as.a result of thli free ammonia is
liberated. For instance, hydrolysis of carbamide (urea) occurs
?
In the following manners
CO(NH2)2 + H20 CO2 + 2NH3.
A. further stage can be the so-called reducing aminating of
keto acids, which proceeds according to the scheme:
NH3 + R-CO-COOH + 2H R-CHN82--COOH + 1420.
Individual characteriStics of the amino acid, formed at this
time, depends on the nature of the initial keto acid. Rumen Micro-
organisms of ruminants build the proteins of their body from the
obtained amino acids.
At the present time carbamide is used as a source of nonpro-
tein nitrogen; it is.synthesised byHchiMical industry from nitro- .
gen of air, hydrogen and carbon dioxide according to the schemes
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Trans. A-1081
N2 + 3/12.-1, 2NH3; 2NH3 CO2 CO(N1-12)2 + 1120.
Microorganisms, which reproduced In the rumen on the medium
with carbamide, move to the abomasum with the feed, die in its
acid contents, while their proteins are digested as a component
part of the feed. The practical importance of this problem was
determined after it was ascertained, that the microflora in the
rumens of ruminant animaltcwas able to synthesize. proteins from-
nonprotein sources of nitrogen of industrial preparation In the
amount of 25:.30of the total requirement of proteins by the animals.
This, approximately, corresponds to that temporary deficit in feed
protein, which is observed in many countries of the world, in-
cluding also the Soviet Union. Hence, the interest, which Is
shown in this problem by representatives of agricultural science
and animal industry practice of many countries, is understandable.
Soviet scientists B. N. Lavrov, 0. I. Molchanova, A. N.
Okhotnikova, I. S. Popov, I. M. Kuznetsov, and others made a valu-
able contribution to the study of the problem of utilizing non-
protein sources of nitrogen In animal industry. At the present
time 'this problem is being developed rather widely; whereupon
the growth of chemical industry creates great possibilities for
utilization of synthetic nitrogen compounds in animal industry.
We came to the following conclusions in using carbamide as
a partial substitute of protein In the ration of ruminant animalst
carbamide protein can substitute 20-30,1 of the ration', protein;
degree of utilization of carbamide depends on the synthetic acti-
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(5) Trans. A-108I
vity of the rumen microflora and quality of thebasic ration of
the animals; Giving of carbamide to animals in large doses can
cause poisoning of-the organism as a result of absorption of
ammonia and excess of urea; In feeding carbamide, it is neces-
sary carefully to mix it with the additional fodder, or with the -
feed Of the basic ration, in order that it enter the gastro-
Intestinal tract of animals gradually and evenly; the animals
must be gradually trained for the consumption of carbamide; in
zones, which are characterized by peculiarities in maintenance
and feeding of ruminant animals It. Is necessary, before utilis-
_
ing carbamide? to conduct a scientfic-economic experiment with
the participation of zootechnicians [Begin p.60] and veterinary
surgeons. The most effective measures for feeding carbamide must
then be developed on the basis of this experiment.
We think that insufficient studies of the mechanism for the
utilization by animals of nonprotein nitrogen,-Including car-
bamide, is the chief cause in the absence of the right scientific
differentiated approach to the use.of these substances in order
to relieve the deficit in feed protein.
? Following the suggestion of VASKHNIL LA11-Union Academy of
Agricultural Sciences 'men! V. I. Lenin], we are conducting a
series of experiments on the use of carbamide as a partial sub-
stitute of protein in the ration of the ruminant animals. In the
experiment, which was conducted during the period from April 1 to
May 23, 1958, at the koikhoz "Po stalinskomy puti", Irkutsk talon,
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(6) Trans. A-108I
Irkutsk oblast', the effect of carbamide (in a dose of 1 g per 5 kg
of live weight) was tested on the state of 'health, productivity
and nitrogen metabolism of-milch cows, while Maintaining them on
a low-protein basic ration. Three.groups of milch cove (of 10
head each) were taken into the experiment; they were of the local
Siberian breed, Improved by.Ostfriesian? The animals were se-
lected on. the principle of analogues, takina into consideration
the age, productiveness, live weight and the period of lactation.
All the cows were expecting their sixth calf, were in the 3-4th
month of lactation* first or second months of pregnancy. The
animals of the 1st group, on the average* weighed 374 kg, daily
milk yield equalled 9.6 L, fat content in milk - 3.85%; in the
2nd group correspondingly - 367 kg 9.7 L., 3.8%; in the 3rd -
390 kg., 10 L., 3.8%.
The first one was the control group, the two others - ex-
perimental. Animals of all groups were given combined feeds,
which were, approximately, equivalent in food value, but differed
in the source of proteins. The experimental cows received 30%
of proteins in the form of nitrogen of carbaMide In the combined
feed no. 1; in the combined feed no, 2 the basic source of pro-
tein was soybean grist. Flour, made from low-grade hay, was used.
as the basic low-protein Component in both feeds. Proportions for
the combined feeds are cited in table 1.
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111
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(7) Trans. A-1081
,
Proportions for combined feeds
Table 1
Feeds and mineral supplements
Combined
feeds
no. 1
no, 2..
Granulated oats
lb
10.1
Dried waste liquor
20
20
Molasses
3.5
3.5
Soybean grist
14.4
Carbamide (urea)*
2.5
Wheat bran
20.0
18.0
Hay flour
40.0
30.0
Salt
2
? 2
Bonemeal
2
2
Cobalt sulfate
3 g per
1 t
3 g per
1 t
Estimated composition
In 1 kg:
Feeding unitsw
0.53
0.65
Protein
0.24
0.23
Fat
0.03
0.03
Dry substance
0.83
0.83
Calcium (g)
7.7
8.1
Phosphorus (g)
7.6
8.2
Vitamin A- (mg)
1
1
Vitamin D (mg)
200
200
Cobalt sulfate (mg)
3
3
*Carbamide was added to the combined feed before feeding the
animals.
**In combined feed no. 1 there are less feed units than in
combined feed no, 2.
(Begin .p.61]
. Animals of the first group were supplemenally given 3 kg
of combined feed no. 2; animals of the second group - 3 kg of
combined feed no. 1, and the animals of the 3rd group were also
3 kg of combined feed no. 1, but at the same time carbamide (dis-
solved In molassei in the amount 89 : 11) was introduced in an equal
amount. Molasses were given to all groups in equal amounts (table
2).
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(8) Trans. A-1081
Table 2
Rations of experimental animals and amount of feeds consumed
MJ S&tS
Groups 1
Ration
(kg)
Actually
consumed (kg)
)
el
Ii
4a
W
43
0 C4
14C
OP.*
L>N4
0,
0.1
*0 ?
IP 0
00
???
.032
EW
00
combined
feed no. 2. I
Molasses
' Feed
units 5?
Digestible g
protein (g
?
)
0
Fs
.0
44
o
03
0
.4
???
0
C:
a
t
???
0 C;
0 0

IL :
Combined
feed no. 2
Molasses
Feed
units
Digestible
protein (g)
/
II
III
S
8
8
16.5
16.5
16.0
[4?4
-
3
3
3
-
-
1.1
1.1
1.1,
7.1
6.7
6.7
844. '.5.3
874
874
4 5.
5.5
16.5I..
16.5
16.0
3
3
3
-
-
1.1
1.1
1.1
6.51 832
6.1 863
6.1 86)
Animals of both experimenter groups were given 75 g of car.'
? bamide each day during the course of 35 days; this comprised 25% .
of protein of the entire accepted ration. The animals were trained
.to take carbamide during the course of 5 days, being given 20 g on
the first day, and then 30, 50 and 75 g. The experiment consisted
'of three periods: during the preliminery-110 days) animals of all
groups were maintaifiedon.the basic ration with a supplement of
.3 kg of combined feed no. 2; whereupon zootechnical clinico-phy-
.
siological and biochemical indices were taken. into account; during
the course of the main period (30 days) the full complex of research
WAS carried out, and during the final (10 days) period an exchange-
able experiment was conducted, as well as other research, on 8 coma
of both experimental groups.
On the 5th day' ofcarbamide feeding in one of the cows of
the second group symptoms appeared of a pathological condition
similar to uremic toxicosis. After a two-day break in the feeding
of carbamide and after the immediate giving of acetic acid, the cow
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recovered and was again included into the experiment. There were
no other disturbances of the physiological condition of animals
(table 3),
Animals of experimental groups did not differ from the con-
trol group according to clinico-physiological condition. Milk
productivity was estimated for all the experimental cows taking
- into account each milking. The live weight was determined twice?
at the beginning and at the end of the experiment. Data on the
.productiveness, live weight and percent of fat in milk of experi-
mental cows are cited in table 4. Lactation curves for ell the
groups are represented in the figure.
'Title of figure on page 611 Lactation curve of
daily tilkings'of cows of experimental and
control groups.
? 'Words in figure: at the left- milk yield In liters.
At the top: let group, 2nd group and 3rd
group. At the bottom: April-May.
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(10) Trans. A-1081
. Table 3
Clinico-physiological indices of the Condition of animals
average'velues
Periods of
research
Groups
11
111
Before the experiment:
Temperature
38.2f( 37,638.60)
38.2?(38.0-38.5?)
38.1?(37.7-38.6
Pulse
61.5(59-66)
63.0(60.0-67.0)
61.3 (59-67)
Respiration
16.1(15-20)
15.8(14-17)
15.5(14-17)
Amount of hemoglobin
5816( 52-64)
59.6(54-68)
.62.0( 54-69)
In the middle. of 'the
experiments
Temperature
38.2?(38.0-38.4?)
38.2*(38.1-38.40)
38.1?(38.0-38.3
Pulse
60.8(59-65)
60.2(59-63)
60.9(9-61.)
respiration
16.1(13-20)
15.7(15.-17)
? 15.9(15-17)
At the end of the f4
experiment:
Temperature
38.3?(38.2-38.4?)
38.30(38.1-38.40)
38.2*(38.0-38.3
Pulse
- 60.3(59-64)
60.8(60-63)
60.2(60-61)
Respiration'
15.8( 14-20)
15.9(15-17)
16.1(15-17)
of hemoglobin
53.6(45-63)
' 55.7(45-65)
55.8(49-66)
Footnote: Qualitative reaction of the urine to protein was negative in
all cases
Table 4
LavaLy
11)
:Pntoess
Etna Lne sive weiRnt ?I
o milk T%)
cow ton cne averagei
Live weight (kg)
tliWrIgs
At the begin.
ning of the
experiment
At the end
of the ex-
periment
On the ever-
age during
the ex er mt.
?
At the begin
ning of the
experiment
At the end
of the ex-
periment
At the begin
ning of the
experiment
Al the end
of the ex-
periment
'Mean ,daily
increase in
Groupsweight
(9) .
-
1
'9.6
9:4
9.3
3..60
3.75 '
-374 '354
' 300
II
,9.7
9.2
8.9
3.85
3.82
367 '
373
200
_111_j_.0e2_9z3
9a_3A8
3.73
390 "
393
100
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Trans. A-108I
Table 5
Nitrogen metabolism and alkaline reserve in milch cows
In feedina carbamide
Indices
grOUP II
rou. 1 .roup
Mean
experimental
group_
I
for
II
two
III
4
II
III
I
II
III
I
II
III
Total nitrogen of
the blood (%)
2.9
2.6
2.7
2.9
2.9
2.5
2.1
2.5
2.8
2.5
2.7
2.7
Total nitrogen of
.
the serum (%)
1.2 1.2
i.4
1.3
1.2
1.7
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.4
Nonprotein nitro-
gen of the blood
(g)
- 0.3
0.4
-
0.2
0.5
-
0.2
0.3
-
0.2
0.4
Carbemide of the
blood (mg g)
57 52
32
62
46
33
61
43
37
61
44
35
Amino nitrogen of
the serum (mg %)
53 60
65
67
51
50
58
49
58
62
50
54
Alkaline resevve
of the strum CO2
Ig%) w-
'Mal nitrogen**
34 52
54
49
48
49
45
49
56
47
49
52
of the urine (%)
1.0 1.3
1.3
1.4
-
1.0
1.2
-
1.1
1.3
-
Carbamide** of
th nrIrig (In
2_110,_<
2_
,A
.?
,_n
La
.
---irP4-Wi?aste the experiment, II - during the middle of the
experiment, Ill - et the end of the experiment
** The morning urine was tested.
[Begin p.63]
The indices of productivity, increase In weight and contents
of fat in milk proved to be somewhat lower In animals of experi-
mental groups than In the. control,. BlOod and urine of the experi-
mental cows were tested for contents Of the most important nitro-
genous substances, which characterise the: state of nitrogenous me-
tabolism (table 5).
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(121 Trans. A-1081
In animals of all groups changes of indices of nitrogen
metabolism and of the alkaline reserve have a similar character,
with the exception of the amino nitrogen of the blood serum and the
carbamide of the urine, the contents of which somewhat increased dur-
ing the experiment in animals of the control group, but dicreased
in the experimental groups. Introduction of carbamide into the
ration (in doses adapted by us) did not raise its contents in the
blood of mulch cows*.
CONCLUSIONS
In substituting carbamide (75 g) for 25% of protein in the
? daily ration of mulch cows, the state of health and productive-.
ness of animals proved to be, practically, similar to those in
the control group, where cows received an equivalent amount of pro-
tein in the form of soybean grist. Feeding carbamida in a dry
form with the combined feed, or dissolving it in Molasses (89 i 11)
and using it for seasoning corn silage, does not make any essential
difference. Nevertheless, the most uniform milk production was
recorded In cows, which were given carbamide solution In molasses.
According to biochemical indices the nitrogen metabolism of
experimental animals differed only slightly from the metabolism of.
the control group cows. In spite of a single case of clinical
*Discharge of carbamide with the urine, as well as the balance
of nitrogen will be ascertained in a special metabolism experiment,
the results of' which are being processed by us at the present time.
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(13) Trans. A.-1081
development of toxicosis, a supposition ensues from data of our
experiment about the possibility for Increasing the dose of car-
fed to milk cows under conditions of Irkutsk oblast', up
to 1 kg per 4 kg of live weight instead of 1 g per 5 kg of weight.
It Is suLgested that addition of carbamide to the cpmblned feeds
and Its dissolving in molasses be made at the factories where the
combined feeds are produced, where accurate weight dosagie can be
provided. Combined feeds with carbamIde must be put up In special
packlno with a label and Instructions how to feed it.
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411 owing to extremely strong spreading of the lateiDlight.
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Trans. A-1082
vg/M
Storoshanko, U. 0.
Ustoichivostt k fitoftore raslichnykh po immun-
nosti sortov kartofella v uslovilakh sakhalina.
(Resistance to phytophtora'shown by Various strains
of potatoes with different degrees of immunity in,
Sakhalin)
Vestnik Sellskokhosiaistvennoi Nauki, vol. 4, ho.-4,
p.132-134. April 1959 20 V633
? (In Russian)
Potatoes ore the most important supply crop o1 Sakhalin. it
comprises 30.355; of all the.agriculturaPcrops. -0eanwhile the yield-
:
lug capacity of iibtatoei-On the island, as yet, 0 low, particuiary
Low summer temperatures or the air (in AumAst, the warmest
month, from 16.9 to i7.7?), a high relative,hunidity of the air.
(during the summer months it is rarely below 80%) - all this favors
the spreading of the fungus Phytophtora infestans. Almost every
year a full. loss of tops of the non-resistant strains of potatoes
is recorded on .Sakhalin; and the loss of tubers from the disease
reaches 40% and more.
At the present time, along with agrotechnical and chemical
methods of control of the late blight, the most essential means
are supposed to be the planting of phytophtora-resistant strains (1).
Candidate of Agricultural Science, Acting Director,
Sakhalinskaia Kompleksnala Sellskokhoziaistvennala Opytnala Stantsila
0 [Sakhalin Complex Agricultural Experiment Station)
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(2) Trans. A-1062
'A question about the length of retaining of Immunity to the late
blight by the potato strains is of great theoretical and practi-
cal intereit in connection with a swift introduction 'into pro-
duction of phYtophtore-resistant Strains In regions of considerable
spreading of this disease.
? There are indications. in literature about loss of immunity by
. 'strains In their long cultivation (2,'3, 5), especially under new
conditioni that are unnatural to their biology. Thus, inj4exico,
In. 1952, at the altitude of 2,500 is above sea level; under condi- .
tions that were the best for development of the fungus.Phytophtors
infestans4 134 resistant hybrids were tested,. and they all proved
? - to be infected to one or another degree (4). The loss of resistance
hampers introduction of phytophtora-resistent strains into pro-
duction.
We undertook.* task both to select, for Sakhalin, high-
yielding potato strains, resistant to diseases, as well as to study
the length of retention of immunity to late blight by these, strains
In cultivating them under new conditions, that"are favorable to this
disease. For this purpose, in 1950, several dozen of phytophtora-
resistant strains and hybrids of potatoes were brought to Sakhalin
from the All-Union Institute of Plant _Industry and the Institute of
Potato Industry. The best among them Urallskii, Kresnouflmskil,
Gibrid Kemerata no. 1, Selanets [seedling] 6403, Seianets 7-585
(All-Union Institute of Plant industry), Mbskovskii and Selanets 996
? .(Institute of Potato Industry) - were studied during the course of
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' (3) Trans. A-1082
8 years.
. Research was conducted at the Sakhalin Branch of the Academy
of Science of USSR, as well as at the Sakhalin Complex Agricultural
Experiment Station. In 1950-51, the experimental area of the
plot comprised 15,4 sq. m; the control was plantdd after every ?
four strains. In 1952-53, the experimental area of the plot
was raised to 50 sq. r14 with a fourfold replication; and later
on it was brought up to 100 sq.,m with the same replication. Rs-
- , search was conducted on a high agrotechnical base. The non-resis-
tant regionalised strain Berlikhingen, local strains Sakhalinskii 44
Mestnyi alyi and early-ripening strains Pilot and Cobbler were
taken for comparison. ,
The research has shown, that not one of the delivered phyto-
phtora..resistant strains has shown full field resistance to late
blight under conditions of Sakhalin., Nevertheless, as a-rule,
the first symptoms of the disease were-found on these strains
15-30 days later than on the non-resistant. Under conditions,
especially favorable for the disease, in 1953, the first blemishes
of the late blight on Seianets 7-585, 6-103, 998 and strains
*Moskovskil and 0ibrid Kameraea no. I, appeared almost simultaneously
with the infection on non-resistant varieties. In 1956, the
strains Moskovskil and Olbrid Kamm* no.' i behaved in the same
manner. As the observations of many years have shown, the phyto-
phtora-resistant strains permit to move the dates of the appearance
of the disease by 2-3 weeks and to reduce the intensity of its
spreading.
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(4) Trans. A-1082
Table 1 shows the degree of infection of potato strains with
the late blight, varying In their resistance, as it VAS determined
at the end of AUgust and the first ten days of September. In spite
of the absence of full immunity, the phytophtora-resistant strains
showed very high resistance under field conditions in comparison
? L
with the other strains. 'Mks was observed also during the years
with very strong spreading of late blight (1953, 1957), when there
existed very favorable conditions-1'hr the development of the disease.
Resistant varieties behaved differently in-relation to the fungus
Phytophtora infestants, during different years. (Begin p.1333
Table 1
?
differing In their
Infection of potato strains
low
resistance 4 wttn late nfg
Strains
[Aug. 3,11i
19
I
19
2
195,
19
...
?.4
a,
?
t.t)
Aug. 23
?
4.1
ts.
W
IA
t
?
CA
0
AC
S
et
04
9
V)
Aug. 26
1Sept.
0
Ch
ern
404
?
CO
0
<
CI
+61
a.
0
En
t-.
?
oll
q
41;
&j\
?::
D.
*
41)
?
tx,
0
<
K
9
Ca
_.
4;
Urallskil
Selanets 7-$85
Kraseoufkukii
Moskovskii
Seianets 6-103
Oibrid Kamera-
ea no. 1
Selanets 996
Berlikhingen
Pilot-
Sakhalinskil
no. Zi.
Cobbler
Mestnyi alyi
00000
0 0
0 0
2 2
0 1
1 1
0-11
4 5
4 5
4 $
,5
4 5
0
0
1-2
0
1
1
34
4-5
3
4
3-4
0
0
1-2
0
1
2
-5
5
5
5
5
1-2
0
1
0
1
0
34
5
4-5
5
4-5
Q
4
0
3
-3
3
3
5
-
5
-
5
0
2-3
0
3
3-4
4
5
3-4
5
5
5
5
1
4
0-1
4-5
4,-5
4
.
5
-
-
-
-
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
14-5
3
4-5
5-U
(5-
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
5
5
5
4-5
0
0
0
0-1
0-i
0-1
-1
5
5
'
0
0
0-1
0
?01-1
0
0.1
1-2
1-2
0-1
-1
-1
0
-1
-1
.
-1
2
..4,
5
-5
-IL
3-1
0
2-3
0
0
?
) -1
0
?-3 ?
4
0-4
,1
A.kitVA wstim
P4)
rootnote: Degree of infection is given according to a six-mark systems
0 - no infection; 1 - up to 20% of the vegetative mass Is infected; 2 - up
3,/ 3 -up to 60%; 4 - up to 80% and 5 -.up to 100%.
*44..411.41.11414.11?1?110M410?11111014.11MMoll.1141
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(5) Trans. A-1082
_Thus, up to 1957, Including also the year 1953, the strains Uraltskil
and Krasnouflmskil were the most resistant. .Nevertheless, In 1957_
both these strains were infected with late blight much stronger
than the rest of phytophtora-resistant strains.
It is impossible, on the basis of the conducted research to make
a conclusion about any sizable loss of immunity by phytophtora-
resistant. strains of Leniningrad and Moscow selection after their.
many years cultivation under conditions of Sakhalin. It is in-
teresting, in the thit respect to trace the behavior of the phyto-
phtora-resistant Seianets 998. This strain, beginning at the time
of its delivery, 4,cifit its immunity to the late blight to an ever.
larger degree. In 1953, it was infected with the disease equally*
with non-resistant early-ripening strains Pilot and Cobbler; this
gave use. the reason (Begin p.1341 to refer it to strains, which
fully lost their Immunity.- Nevertheless, in later years, it again
showed itself as one of the strains that were most resistant to
the late blight.
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? Trans. A-1082
Table 2 (on page 133)
Yield of potatoes by strains which showed different resistance
to late blight under conditions of Sakhalin (C /ha)
Strains
Years:
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
19f7
On an
average fi
8 years
tirallskii
Seianets 7-585
Krwinoufimskii
Moskovskii
Seianets 6-103
Olbrid Kamerasa.no. 1
Seianets 998 .
BerIikhingen '
Pilot .
Sakhilinskii no. 4
Cobbler ?
Mestnyi alyi
.225
384
308
311
418
309
328
222
273
218
250
192
404
541
302
431
417
420
310
299
315
300
204
227 _181
432
313
394
329
280
270
296
230
149
186
182
431.;310
242
340
318
212
251
157
249
212
195
267
174
316
252
213
231
222
229.
270
131
192
138.
177
354
261
374
341
328
333
295
208
157
135
161
188
212
271
343'
294
230
282
144
240
299 .162
252
2142
209
20
201
114
246
220
233
229
155
135
146
135
321.1
316.1
312.1
310.4
, 292.0
290.0
248.5
234.1
'212.3
201.8
198.8
185.4
? ,
During our research of many years, the phytophtora-resistant
strains of potatoes produced higher yields, under conditions of,
Sakhalin, than the -regionalized and the local strains.(tab1e.2).
Their yield exceeded the standard by 73.2-34.0%. Besides that
the_ttOers of these strains were of good marketability, had a
sufficiently high starch content, we're less infected with fungus
diseases and kept in storage better.
We came to. conclusion, on the basis of our research, that all
the phytophtorai.resistant strains, which were studied by us; were
infected with-late blight under conditions of Sakhalin island
that are very favorable to the development of the fungus ,Phyto-,
phtora infestens. Although there was no full immunity to late
,blight in resistant strains, the diseate appeared on them, as a
? rule, 2-3 weeks later and their resistance was very high in corn-
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(7) Trans. A-1082
parison with other strains. These strains provided also the highest
and most stable yields. All this gives a-reason for thinking, as
before, that the introduction of phytophtora-resistant strains of
potatoes into production is the most fundamental measure for over-
coming the losses, which are caused by late blight.
LITERATURE
1. S. M. Bukasov and A.. 1*. Kameraz - Selection of potatoes.
M. 1953.
2. 0. F.. Maklakova - To the question about resistance of potatoes
to late blight. Reports Of. VASKHNIL, nO.,9, 1952.
All 3. F. S. Solodovnikov - About selection, seed growings_agrotechnics
of potatoes and vegetable crops. Alma-Ata, 1950..
4.. J. S. Nilderhauser and W. R..Mills. Resistance of Solanum
Species to Phytophtora infestans in Mexico.? Phytopathology
43, 1953.
5. W. Rudorf. Der augenblickiche stand und die Aussichten der
Zachtung resistenter Sorten der Kartoffel. Der ZUchter, 24
Band, Heft 2/3, 1954.
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Trans. A...1003
ver4
Vorontsov, A. I.
Koordinstsionnoe soveshdhanie po Eashchits Less
[Coordination Conference on Protection of 'Forests]
Vastnik Sellskokhozisistvennoi Naukis vol. 44 no. 4.
p141-142. April 1959 . 20 V633
(In Russian)
The traditional methodical Coordination Conference on Protec-
tion of Forests from pests and diseases, which was organized by
the Committee on the Protection of Forests at the Department of
'Forestry and Agricultural-Forest-Amelioration of VASKHN1L [All-
? Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences imeni V. 1. Lenin].
It was pointed out at the Conference that there still are
large losses from pests and diseases in the forests of our country.
In 1954-1956; the Siberian silkworm moth reproduced in great masses
on the areo about 4 min. hectares In coniferous forests of Siberia;
and valuable wood stands were lost on an ate* not less than 180
thousand hectares with a stock of wood over 30 men, cub, m in
the reclaimed forests alone. At the present time there exist foci
of gypsy moths in the European part of RSFSR on an area .of about
2 mm. hectares; this represents a grave danger to forests and fruit
plantations. Owing to a badly organized preservation of wood the
Predsedatell Komissii pa Zashchite Lesa pri Otdelenii Lesovodstva
I Agrolesomelloratsil VASKHNIL [Chairmen of the Committee on the .
Protection of Forests at the Department of Forestry and Agricultural-
. Forest-AMelioration of VASKHNIL]
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(2) Trans. A-1083
national economy suffers annually enormous losses, comprising not
less than 10 billion rubles per year.
A well adjusted accounting of damage, modern forewarnings
about the appearance of pests and forecast of their appearance and
propagation for the next year, prove to be the -basis without
which an effective protection of forests is impossible.' The
Conference listened, with satisfaction to the report about the or-
.ganisation of a department-for forecasting of mass appearance and
spreading of pests and diseases in forests at WHIM (All-Union
Scientific-Research OT/Iiiiiii7lie*Forestry and Amelioration). Never-
theless, the work of forest pathologists on localities on the con-
., trol and forecasting of pests and diseases of the forest is not
regulated, as yet, by specific instructions from the Union or
Republics Ministries of Agriculture, and is conducted from case to
case: This situation must be changed immediately. It Is necessary
to work out a regulation about the work of control and forecasting,
which must be followed by the departments of forestry and all the
forest farms in their work.
The Conference mentioned a necessity for developing theore-
tical'research and generalization of work, which reveal the causes
of the mass propagation of harmful organisms In the forests. Such
a distinct knowledge of the rise of foci of mass multiplication will
permit to organize correctly the work of forecasting and to im-
prove the methods of control.
At the present time. the chief feature of forest protection
?
??
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is the wide scope of aerial chemical works. It 16 necessary to
Improve these works and to Introduce into production more effective
methods of spraying with mineral-oil emulsions, as well-as the fine-
drop spraying, to use helicopters, to develop the aerosol method '
of control; it is necessary to construct midget, light duty machines
and. good hand apparatuses of a type of Czechoslovak RAO-1. The
most important problem of scientific organizations during, the next ?
few years is the mechanization of forest protection:
? The Conference paid a special attention to the introduction
of the achievements of science into_production. An opinion was
expressed that each scientific-research institute, university and
experimental station should patronize one or two forest farms,
4
where they must fully liquidate foci of pests and reduce to the
minimum the harm, that is brought to the forests by harmful organisms.
A desirable form for the application to the forestry of attain-
ments in forest protection, is development of systems of forest-
protective methods according to tones, and their inclusion into
the organizational technical plans in forest management of forest
farms.
. -
Systems of control of chief forest pests must be coordinated
,and conducted in a planned order. One of such systems is the com-
plex of methods for the liquidation of the May-beetle in the forest-
steppe and the steppe zones. At the basis of the system Iles the
chemical method of control of beetles during the time of their sup-
plementary feeding, which should be conducted in a combination with
'Agrotechnical and forestry measures that can be Ichanged In accordance
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with conditions of the place of growing and of the geographical
situation of the forest farms. The biological method of control
of pests of forestry is only slightly developed in'our country.
For instance, in Belorussian (Begin p.1421 Scientific-Research
Institute of Forestry research Is conducted during the course of
20 years on the application of egg-eater Telenomus and Trichonramati-
, .
dae for the control of pine moth and of other pests of conferous '
needles and foliage of trees. Nevertheless, the results of these.
works are doubtful. Along with this there are data, which per
mit to consider as effective the microbiological method of control
of Siberian silkworm moth and the pine moth, of garden pests,
and so on, but this method so far was introduced only slightly..
Up to the present time the scientific organisations for forest
protection did not develop a method for evaluation of losses from
pests and diseases and evaluation of economic effectiveness of in-
dividual measures for the protection of forests..
The Conference mentioned that of late forest phytopathology is
behind the requirements of the industry. ' Effective methods of
control of Fares annosus, Dutch disease, neerianke (gray rot?),
vascular oak disease, wilt of maple and of other leafy varieties..
It is important to mention that the developed system of measures
for the control of lodging of seedlings, of the brown edible mush-
room, (Agaricus me Ileus), and others, are not being introduced into.
production.
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In the coordination of work, or Its trend and timely applica-
tion.by the industry, an important role must be played by the Com-
mittee for the Protection of forests, which was organized at the
Department of Forestry and Agricultural Amelioration.
The Conference pointed out that, in 1958, the research on
forest protection was successfully developed at the All-Union and
-the Ukrainian Institutes for Plant Protection. Data, obtained at
these institutes are of great methodical and practical value. The
work is successfully developed at the Leningrad Scientific-Research
.Institute of Forestry. For instance, a method was developed at
the Institute for forecasting the mass appearance of Siberian
silkworm Moth; the Co-workers of the Institute conducted aerial-
chemical control of nun moths in forests of the Rumanian People's
Republic; research on phytopathology was also conducted.. Kharlkov
Scientific-Research Institute of Forestry, which is closely con-
nected in the work with forest farms of the eastern part of Ukraine,
has developed and introduced into production a system of measures
? for the control of the leopard moth in the steppe forests and a
method of mechanized introduction of Hexachloran dust for the pro-
tection of young cropsand plantings against larvae of May beetles.
In this method, the. consumption of dust was reduced to 2-3 kg per
1 hectare. The All-;Union Institute of Forestry and Mechanization
of Forest Industry has successfully carried out tests of a method
of chemical protection of the honbarked wood.
Important research Is conducted at the Moscow Forest-Technical
Institute. In 1958, systems of forest protection measures were
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?
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(6) . Trans: A-1083
developed at the Institute for the State National Forests of the
central zone of RSFSR; causes were studied for wilting of pine
forests in the Moscow region end methods of application of phosphoro-
organic insecticides in forest industry. Besides that, through the
Somov expedition of the South-Eastern Trust "Lesproekt" [Forest
Project), a system of forest protection measures was applied to
the forest management of the "Buzulukskil" pine forest.
Interesting work on studies of mass propagation of gypsy
moth in Bashkiria have been carried out by the Bashkir Branch of
the Academy of Science of USSR. Actual research of methods of
determination of entemoresistant wood species was conducted here.
The Conference examined also the basic problems of control of
gypsy moths in central ?blast's of RSFSR and adapted specific
suggestions for the development of the work of protection of forests
in USSR from pests and diseases.
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Tran A-104
vg/W
Resources and prospects for the development of
animal industry in Kazakhstan* (Editorial)
? Vestnik Sellskokhosialstvennoi Nauki? vol.
no. 5, p.3-10. May, 1959. 20 V633
(In. Russian).
? The Kazakh SSR occupies one of the first places, among the
brotherly united republics, in the production.of agricultural
products. As a result of reclamationof 20 zaln hectares of vir-
. ,
gin and waste lands, Kazakhstan became the largest region for the
production of commerical grain and occupies a second place after
RFSFR. In 1958, kolkhozes and.sovkhozeS of Kazakhstan sold to ?
? the State almost 10 times as much grain, than they annually de-
livered before the reclamation of vIrgin -end vette lands. As a
result Of forming, in the regions of virgin and waste lends, of
big grain soVkhotes, to which now belongs the chiefrole in the
production of grain, many raions of Kazakhstan., for instance
Esillskii, Ruzaevskil, OktiabrIskil, and
To the resu ts o' the n te. Session of VASHRNIL, Kazakh
Academy of fkgricultural Sciences, Departments of Biological Sciences
of the Academy of Science of USSR and of Kazakh SSR, which took
place 16-20 March of this year In the city of Alma-Ata with the
participation of active members academicians and of corresponding
members of VASKHNIL and of Kazakh Academy of Agricultural Sciences,
academicians and corresponding members of the Academy of Science
of USSR and of Kazakh SSR. Many representatives of scientific-
research and experimental institutions of Kazakhstan, Kirghiz's,
Western Siberia, and others also took part. Members of the Session
heard 70 reports at the plenary and sectional conferences, as well.
as many scientific reports. The Session heard a message of the
411 leaders of branch sections about the accepted decisions and approved
/ an extensive resolution.
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(2) Trans. A-1084.
others, became the biggest producers of wheat. Over 60 new,
virgin soil, sovkhozes sold to the Government, 1111958, over 2
min puds-[pud=36 pounds] of grain each, while all the virgin
land sovkhozes 633 mm n pude of grain.
?
The successes of Kazakhstan in the field, ofanimal industry'
are considerable also. During the 5 years, which elapsed after
the September Plenum of TsK KPSS [Central Committee of the
.Communist Party of the Soviet Union] tin 1953), the long lagging
Of the animal industry in the republic has been overcome. During.
this tiite the livestock of large cattle increased by 943 thousand
head (23%), of *Sheep and 'goats by 7.8' min head (42.3%), and swine
by 746 thOutand head (by 2.5 times). During this same year ,
period production of meat in the republic (in live weight) Increased
by 138 thouSand tons, milk - by 679 thousand tons, wool,- by 21
thousand tons, eggs by 250 mm n pieces. Nevertheless, the positive
results of development Of animal industry are only the beginning
of a sharp rise in this important branch ofagriculture in the re-
public.
Comrade D. A. Kunaev, Chairman of the Council of Ministers of
Ilezakh'SSR, said, while opening the United Sessiono-which was de-
dicated to the problems of increasing the productivity of animal
industry in Kazakhstan: "The Seven-Year-Plan, which was developed
by our Party, represents a scientifically based program of the
further vigorous tise in all branches of national economy, of con-
siderable growth of the economic potential and constant increase of
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the living standard of the population. The greatness_of the
Seven-Year-Plan now delights not only the entire Soviet people,
but also the whole progressive humanity'''. ?
The 21st Congress of the Communist Party set big and responsi-
ble problems before the workers Of Kazakhstan. During the current
seven years, 119 billion rubles will be invested in the national ?
economy of the republic, or by 20 billion rublei more than during
the entire preceding 35 years..
The 21st Congress of RPSS set up a-problem of further rise
In all branches 'of agriculture, which will provide the satisfac-
tion of the graving requirements In food and agricultural raw
111 materials. Simultaneously [Begin 'p.41 with this, the.necessity
was pointed out for obtaining a maximum amount of production from
the unit of area at the smallest expenditure of labor and capital.
"As in the years past", said Comrade D. A. Kunaev, "great attention
is given to the development of grain farming, in the first place,
by the increase of the yielding capacity of the grain crops,
especially of wheat - the chief grain crop of Kazakhstan. Kol-
khozes and sovkhozes should harvest annually not less than 1.5
billion pude of grille..
The January (16th) Plenum of. TeR 'US$ [Central Committee of
the Communist Party] of Kasakhstan, which discussed the results of
the December Plenum of TsK HPSS and the problems of the Communist
Party of Kazakhstan, admitted it possible to have at the end of the
year 1965 up to 75 mm n sheep and goats, up to 7.5 min head of
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? (4) . Trans. A-1084
large cattle, up to 2.6 min of swine, up to 1.8 min of horses,
up to 30 min head of poultry. At the same time, the 16th_Plenum
of the TsK KP of Kazakhstan set an aim to bring the production of
meat in the republic, already in 1963, to 1251 thouiand tons (in
slaughtered weight), that is to realize the specified plan not In
7 years, but in S. It is planned to obtain 9 c of meat in 1963
per 100 ha of agricultural land instead of the 3 c, obtained in
1958. The hard-working men of agriculture in Kazakhstan took
upon themselves a socialistic oliligation, in 1959, to deliver and
sell to the State 800 thousand tons of meat (in live weight) as
against 328 thousand tons; that is, over two times more, than in
1958.
The United Session of scientists of. four Academies, which
examined the Most impertant.problems of development of the
animal Industry In Kazakhstan, has acknowledged that (or the
realization of all the problems, which were raised by the December
?,
Plenum of TeX KPSS, the, republic has all the conditions for
bringing the livestock of cattle and poultry to the specified
quantity at the end of the year 1965 on the basis of further
strengthening Of the forage base, of specially wide. Introduction of
corn, of the greatest retention of young animals, of liquidation of
barrenness of the cows and loss of mature cattle, as well as
In-
provement of feeding, maintainance of animals and their care.
Consequently, the problem is. toutilize completely all natural
and economic features and possibilities ofeach oblast', each
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(5) Trans. A-1084
raion, kotakhot and sovkhoz for the development, in Kazakhstan, of
such branches of animal industry and in such their correlation so
as to provide the maximum yield of commodity production.
For the solution of problems of animal industry in the coming
seven years the correct evaluation of the economic effectiveness of
different branches of farming, including also animal industry is
of great importance; the correct Working out of such system of
objective indicators, which would permit evaluating the branches
economically correctly. It becomes possible on the basis of
correct economic evaluation of branches of animal industry, to
detect the resources for their further development and Increase
the effectiveness, to determine the most efficient combination of
111
branches. National economy can be efficiently organised only in
that case when this or another branch will be economically effec-
tive and will answer the requirement of national economy.
Natural conditions of Kazakhstan are exceptionally favorable
for development of sheep breeding. Radical changes occurred
during the last WO years in this branch of animal industry, and
this provided a considerable increase in the livestock of sheep
(by 7,222 thousand head). There were 26,330 thousand sheep in
all categories of farms on January 1st, 059. Experience of
leading kolkhoses and sovkhozes, as well as of many shepherd brigades
showed great possibilities, regarding the reproduction of sheep
herdd,and increase of production of'mutton and wool. For instance,
over 20 shepherd brigades of Chimkurgansk sovkhoz, using harmonal
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(6) Trans. A-I064
stimulation of multiparity of sheep ("SZHK"), obtained 135-
150 lambs from every hundred mothers and clipped from 2.6 to 2.9
kg of wool (countervail weight) from each Astrakhan sheep. Th.
brigade of the chief shepherd, Dzhangildinov,? (Atbasarskil soVkhos,
Akmolinsk region) obtained 110 lambs from every hundred mothers and
6.1 kg of wool from each sheep.
The Seven-Year-Plan specified that at the end of 1959 there
should be up to 30 mm n sheep and goats; among these up to A m16,
head at kolkhozes and.soVkhozes; and at the end of 1965 up to 75
mm n head. In connection with this, it is supposed to obtain from
the 11,665 thousand mothers, available in 1959, the same number of
labs as against the 9,400 thousand of lambs, which were actually
obtained in 1958.
It is contemplated that the plan for the production of mutton
be realized in the course of five years. It is planned to pro-
duce 250 thousand t of mutton (in live weight) In 1959. It is
considered, in connection with this, taking off about 5 min sheep
from among those putting on flesh.
As practice has shown, kolkhozes and sovkhozes of Kazakhstan
can successfully carry out the planned assignments on the increase
of sheep livestock, production of mutton and wool, by mobilizing
the resources. According to data of the Ministry of Agriculture
of Kazakh SSR, during the fall of 1958, at the season-of mating
end of artificial insemination, the mothers were in a good state
of fatness. This permits (Begin p.53 to assume that in 1959
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(7) Trans. A.-10814.
kolkhozeS and sovkhozes will obgain a higher commercial yield of
lambs. By means of correct organization of the spring mating of
Karakul sheep, whose lambs will be slaughtered for Karakul furs in
the early spring, it will be possible in the fall to obtain p
second lambing of lambs. This method of increasing the livestock
of sheep received a wide spreading in sovkhoses of. the South-Kazakh
Oblast'. The reduction of insideuthe4arm slaughtering of sheep
can produce a vast economy, as well as a sharp reduction of losses
of sheep from various diseases. All this will require great or-
ganisational and zootechnical work both on the part of specialists,
as well as of scientific workers.
In pre-revolutionary Kazakhstan, under conditions of nomadic
and semi-nomadic economy, the process of breed formation of sheep
was directed basically to the improvement of Kazakh fat-tailed
?:1
sheep, which were well adopted to breeding In deserts or semi-
deserts and which were characterized by a good meat-fat productivity.
.high early-maturing and excellent capacity for fattening. Along
with this, the fine-wooled sheep breeding was developed very slightly
In Kasakhstan before the revolution.
During the Soviet period, and especially in the.last several
years In Razakhstan In north-eastern and south-eastern ?blast's
the fine-wooled wool-meat-and meat-wool line received a wide develop-
ment.
In accordance with the problem of bringing the livestock of.
sheep and goats up to 75 mm n head in 065, it Is considered necessary
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to develop fivebasic lines of sheep breeding in the republici
1) fine-wooled wool-meat. 2) fine-wooled meat-wool, 3) semi-fine-
wooled meat-wool, 4) meat-fat fat-tailed, 5) Karakul fur. De-
pending on zonal peculiarities and, on the range of requirements on
the production of sheep breeding, its corresponding lines will
be represented by different breeds and intrabreed types of sheep.
At the end of 1965 in the republic as a whole the following
specific numbers are expected in the basic lines: fine-wooled
and semi-fine-wooled - 59%i meat-fat fat-tailed - 23% and Karakul
fur) - 18%.
? Sheep breeding is developed relatively lightly in Central
Kazakhstan, an area of 100 min ha, with extremely varied, basically
severe, natural climatic conditions. It is considered, during
the next seven years, sharply to increase here the numbers of sheep
and allocate them, according to zones and lines asfollowsit.in
the steppe and dry-steppe zones the fine-wooled, in the semi-
desert the semi-fine-wooled and the meat-fat; and in the desert. the
meat-fat line: As ayesult of further development Of Meat-fat and
meat-wool-sheep breeding in kolkhozes and sovkhozes, with a
simultaneous qtialitative improvement of the herd by.highly productive
breeds, Central Kazakhstan will become an important base in the
republic for the production of mutton, of the coarse, semi-course
and semi-fine-wooled wool and of sheepskin fur raw materials.
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In accordance with the projected plan for the next seven
years, the Session recommended further improvement of the existing,
? and breeding of new breeds and breed groups of sheep that will
.be characterized by high productivity and, first of all, by fleshi-
ness: Kazakh fine.'-wooled and Kazakh Arkharomerino, meat-wool semi-
fine-wooled, early maturing meat-wool (HemOshirt X Kazakh) groups
of fine-wooled sheep in Pavlodarsk oblast, and in the south of
the republic .also Degaressks Kargalinsk and Edilibeevsk breeds
- and breed groups.
In regions, that are set aside for meat-fat sheep breeding,
.it is recommended widening the measures for crossing the unimproved
,fat-tailed herds with Edlifbaevsk, Kargalinsk and Saradzhinsk
sheep; this will permit to Increase the production of mutton and
of rug wool. It Is recognized as expedient in Hazakhstan.to or-
ganize pedigree sovkhozes for the workwith the following breeds
? and'breed group: meat-wool semi-fine-wooled, the early maturing
meat-wool, Tsigaisk, Degeressk, Saradzhinsk anditargalinsk.'
It is recommended to the scientific-research institutions of ?
the republic to conduct the work in sheep breeding, according to
peculiarities of different economic tones, In the direction of
Increasing meat productivity of Abe fine-wooled sheep of the wool-'
. meat line, without reducing their basic wool productivity and im-
proving the quality of wool in every way. It is recommended to
organize in talons of Central Kazakhstan semi-fine-wooled sheep
111 breeding, and early maturing meat-wool fine-wooled sheep breeding
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(10) Trans. .4.4084
In northern rations of the first zone of Kazakhstan.
It Is intended, as the next 'problem, considerably to increase
the number ("udelinyi ves") of females, especially, in meat-wool
fine-wooled and seml-fine-wooled lines, as will as in meat-fat
sheep breeding.
Further research on the regularities of growth and develop-
ment of sheep, and working out of methods of raleing their ferti-
lity, early maturing, better remuneration of feed by meat pro-
duction, as well as studies of quantitative and qualitative changes
Of mist productivity of sheep, depending on the organization end '
(Begin p.6] technique of rearing and the age of slaughtered sheep,
permit considerable raising of the economic effectiveness of sheep
breeding in kolkhozes and'sovkhozes of Kazakhatan.
Cattle breeding is an important source for production of beef
and milk - the second leading branch of animal industry in the re-
public. At the. present time, In Kagakhsten, 54 head of large
cattle fall for each 100 head of the population, or by 15 head more
than on the average in USSR. High rate; in the increase of large
cattle and in the production of beef were established in the republic
during the last two years. These rates can bs-retained for the
following period also.
Beef cattle industry, with which 255 sovkhozes.and kolkhozes
of 47 talons are occupied, la one of the most important and large
resources of meat production In the republic. On January 1, 1959.
111 in Kazakhstan, in the zone of beef animal industry, there were
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1,406 thousand head of large cattle; this comprised 44.3% of
the total livestock of this type of cattle in the republic. It
is suppoCitd widening considerably in the future the zone of the
beef cattle industry. In this zone, during the next 34 years the
basic mass of large cattle livestock must be represented by high-
blood crossbreeds of the Kazakh whitehead and the Kalmuck breeds;
as well as by breeds Santa-Gertrudis and some other local breeds.-
During the years of Soviet rule, and, especially, after the
collectivization of agriculture, this branchunderwftt.great
qualitative changes. A large body of pedigreed cattle (about 70%)
was produced in the republic; It was concentrated, basically, in ?
? kolkhozes and sovkhozes. Breeding of two new breeds of large
cattle In the republic played a large role in the pedigree trans-
formation; namely, of the "Alatauskaie (by means of crossing local
cattle with the 7Shvitskil" [Swiss] in the south-eastern mountain-
foot hill zone) and the Kaiakh whiteheaded (by means of crossing
local cattle with Hereford in the dry-steppe and the semi-desert
zones). In this -same zone local cattle Is bred; it is improved
by crossing with the "Astrakbanskii".
As a result of crossing local cattle with "Krasnostepnyin
[Red steppe] and Simmental, large bodies of crossbreeds were pro-
duced in northern, north-eastern and north-western Kazakhstan.
In the presence in the republic oft 31% of cattle of Kazakh white-
headed breed and its crossbreeds, 27% of the red steppe breed, 14%
of nAlatauskalan, 14% of Simmental, 4%.of "Astrakhenskala, and 3%
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-
of the "Aulleatinskale, a problem is faced increasing still
more the numbers of pedigreed cattle in the republic. This will
-permitincreasing beef and milk productivity of cattle still more
in the future. In connection witkthis,' large cattle ofjmany
valuable milk-beef breeds will be imported to-Kazakhstan during
the current Seven-Year-Plan.
Further specialization In animal industry will proceed still
further In proportion to the increase of livestock of large cattle
of beef and milk breeds. In this respect the important role
belongs to the councils, formed in Kazakhstan, on the work with
Oszakh-whiteheaded breed, with."Alatauskalan, and "Aulleatinskaiei
? as well as to the. zonal council on the work with the red steppe
breed. Organisation, in Kasakiistan, of a network of State Stations
for breeding work-and artificial insemination Will permit elevating
the breeding work with laige Cattle to a higher standard.
The United Scientifit Session thought it necessary to recOm-
Aland to sCientific-resetirch.eatablishments of Kazakhstan to work
out apprOOriate forms of combination of beef 'Cattle husbandry
. with milk and other branches of animal-industry in all the regions.
of Kazakhstan.. The Session recommended organizing in Kazakhstan'
Special farms for bresding work, in Order to develop specialiied
beef cattle breeding and organize Mass growing. of pedigreed live-
stock, especially, bullsa-producers..
A method.of industrial Crossing will be worked out In 'order
411. to obtain early maturing young beef cattle. The United Scientific
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Session also recognized it necessary to recommend the organization
of intensive mill( cattle breeding around large cities and indus-
trial centers. Heavy-duty and light mechanization must be intro-
duced to the kolkhoz milk farms and sovkhozes, as well as conditions
must be produced for self-service and self-feeding of animals.
It is also anticipated to solve great problems in wine.
husbandry in, Kazakhstan: at the end of 1965 the numbers of swine
In the republic must be increased up to 2.6 mm n head, and the
production of pork by,the end Of 1963 mit rise to 355 thousand
t. Kolkhozes and aovkhOzes attained certain iuccess In the last -
few years in this brgnCh; nevertheless the farms did not -exhaust
the existing possibilities.
According to the estimates of the Ministry ofAgriCulture of.
Kazakh SSR, it is possible to obtain from mothers, existing on
January 1, 1959, during the course of the,year not less,than 2.2
? min of suckling pigs and to fatten about 1,700 thousand swine, prop
viding the production of pork at a rate of 132 thOusand t (in
live weight) as against 57 thousand t in 1958. the livestock of
swine must increase up to 1,100 thousand head by the end of 1959..
The Session set before scientific-research establishments of
Kazakhstan (Begin p.7] a problem for developing a system for
conducting swine husbandry, taking into account natural economic
conditions and peculiarities of agriculture in different zones of
the republic; to produce a good breeding base for raising planned
111 breeds of swine; to study and recommend to the industry effective
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methods of intrabreed industrial crossings and obtaining intra-
linear crossbreeds in crossing inbred lines for the maximum uti-
lization of heterosis.
.Poultry raising is an important source for obtaining cheap
nourishing meat underconditions of Kazakhstan. This branch
receives an ever increasing spreading in animal industry of
Kazakhstan. .It is sufficient to say, that in 1958 alone the
livestock of poultry increased by 48%. In 1958, the incubator-
poultry raising stations (IPS) sold to kolkhozis and sov4hozes
0,365 thousand head of young birds. Al the beginning of the current
year there were 3,682 thousand mature birds at the kolkhozes
0 and sovkhozes of the republic. ,During t1 current years kolkhozas
must accept from the IPS, as well as from their own incubators,
not less than 42 min chickens and fatten not less than 27 mln
head of poultry.
At the present time there are, in the republic, not less than
500 thousand head of waterfowl. In the presence, in the republic,
of an immense number of water reservoirs it 1s fully possible to
grow hundreds of thousands of ducklings on these water reservoirs;
utilizing the natural forage at its maximum. According to esti-
mates of the Ministry of Agriculture of KaZakh SSR, during the cur-
rent year the kolkhozes and soVkhotes of the republic can fatten
and deliver to the State not less than 15,000 t of meat of water-
fowls. Effective methods of raising chickens by the nest-damp
0 method, as well as over a deep bedding, especially In mass raising
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of poultry for meat, are of great importance under conditions of
Kazakh SSR. Development, by the scientific institutions of
Kazakhstan, of efficient systems for raising chickens for meat, the
so-called broilers, will permit considerably to increase the pro- -
duction of bird meat during the course of the year.with the smallest
expenditures of labor and capital.
Kazakhstan can-also become a large base for production of eggs
and egg output. In connection with this, the Session recommended
to the scientific-research institutions of the republic to con-
centrate the attention on the formation of a breeding base, on
the raising of the egg-laying capacity of birds, especially, of -
? meat-egg breeds. In this respect, the works on commercial crossing
and hybridization of animals, on the basis of development of in-
bred lines, and crossing with the aim of utilizing heterosis in
poultry raising will be of great importance.
The United Session, taking into consideration the latest
scientific data, as well as the leading experience of kolkhozes and
aovkhozes, considered it expedient to begin the development of
systems of conducting various branches of poultry raising according
to natural zones of Kazakhstan.' Formation of breeding bases will '
greatly assist In the raising of meat qualities and in the egg-
laying ability of hens. An important condition for increasing
the production of poultry meat is the development of poultry raising
around large cities and industrial centers.
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(16) Trans. A-10814.
Horse breeding and camel breeding must have further develop-
ment during the current Seven-Year-Plan. The problem Is raised,
in 1959, to Increase the livestock of horses in kolkhozes and sov-
khozes up to 871 thousand head, and by the end of 1965 on the
whole for the republic up to 1,800 thousand head. At this time
the production of horte meat must also grow to 85-90 thousand t as
against the 47 thousand t in 1958.
The Session considered it necessary to draw the attention Of
scientific institutions of Kazakhstan to the development of methods.
of raising and improvement of productive qualities of horses and
camels as applicable to different zones of Kazakhstan. Along with
this the breeding work with planned breeds must be improved, as, well
as the-work on development of specialized moat and milk types of
horses.
The Session raised before scientific institutions of Kazakh-
stan several practical tasks and scientific problems, in accordance
with assignments for the Seven-Year-Plan. Scientific methods for
Intensification of reproductive functions of animals should be
developed for carrying out the chief problem concerning. the
increase of livestock of agricultural animals and of meat produc-
tivity by the animal Industry; methods.and.technique .of artificial
insemination, applicable to different kinds of agricultural animals;
zootechnical and veterinary measures on questions of raising of all
the young agricultural animals, which come into being and the re-
taining of the female body of the herd.
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The Session considered necessary, as one of the Immediate
teaks, in 1959, for scientific-research establishments of Hazakhstano,
to render scientific help on eff4cient organization to agricultural
agencies, concerned with putting ,on flesh and fattening of the
entire meat contingent of large cattle, sheep, goats end horses,
as applicable to natural and production conditions of various zones
of Ikazakhstan.
. The Session recommended, concerning the increasing of pro-
ductivity of animal husbandry, to continue development of pure-
bred breeding of agtkultural .[Begin p.83 _animals, to develop
methods for creating constitutionally different productive end
stud types within the breed, *siren as toimprove the breeding,
according to lines and families, in order to create a breeding
base of animals, valuable in hereditary qualities, and, first of
all, of producers.
Effective procedures must be developed for using various
methods of crossing in order mainly to increase meat and other
kinds'of productivity of animals in commercial herds; it will be
expedient to develop methods for drawing up plans of breeding
work with a breed, as a whole, on instances of work with. Individual
breeds of large cattle and sheep. Testingtof producers on the
quality of their descendants will be organized at Stations on
Breeding Work and Artificial Insemination, as well as in all
breeding herds. Serious attention should be given to development
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(18) Trans. A-1084
of scientifically based methods of evaluation for provision of
farms, with fodder, taking into consideration its 'value; to prob-
lems.of effective use of feed resources by means of inclusion into
?
feeding rations of various Stimulators, trace elements, entibio-
41.
tics and others. The problem-thematic plan, recommended by the
Session, provides for wide studlei of the quality of animal.hui-
bandrY production (of meat, Wool, and others) in developing methods)
of efficient feeding, selection, and ()there; studies of the most
, efficient veterinary-zoohygienic conditions of maintenance and
utilization of sgriculttral animals, In conformity with characteris-_
tics. of natural zones of Kazakhstan.
The United Scientific Session pointed out In its resolution
that, at the present time, the attention of scientific institutions
and of all the scientists of Kazakhstan, who work in the field of?
agriculture, must be focused on such scientific problems, the
successful solving of which will help a quick increase of the live-
stock of cattle in the republic and the growth of the production
.of animal industry products, with the smallest' expenditures of labor
and capital per unit of productiOn. Scientists must furnish to the
Industry such advice, the introduction of which will provide increase
of labor productivity, increase in the yield of animal industry
production per 100 hectares of agricultural lands with a simultaneous
reduction of its cost.
The Session mentioned that the reduction of labor expenditure
and of the cost of animal industry's production will be helped by.
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further specialization of breeds and of the intrabreed types, by
the wide use in animal industry, of complexes of machines and of
special outfitting for the electromechanization of animal in-
dustry farms. Especial attention, in this respect, must be given
to the.MschaniZation of the water supply, the milking of cows
and shearing of sheep, preparation of combined feeds, removal of
silage from trenches end its distribution to the animals.
Accomplishment of 'these tasks depends to a great degree on
the cOndition or the fodder base in kolkhozes and sovkhozes.
Kazakhstan Is a republic of unbounded steppe spaciousness which
Is very favorable for successful development of sheep breeding,
animal industry, swine husbandry, horse breeding and poultry
raising.
In the territory, equalling 275,800 sq. km, 9.2 min: ha
(3.0) fall to the lot of natural hayfields, 165.8 mm n ha (60.1%)
to natural pastures. Although the productiveness of natural for-
age lands is.comparatIvely small (from 8 to 50 c of hay per' hectare)1
nevertheless, it is possible to obtainyearly from the existing
area, on. the average not less 'then 70 mm n t. of feed (in conversion
to hay). The lacking need in green pasture forage and hay can be
made up by. means of increasing the yielding 'capacity Of hayfields
*All over the whole republic 3.45 c of fodder (in conversion to
hay from one hectare) are obtained, on the average, from natural and
forage lands: in mountainous regions - 5 c, in forest-steppe and
steppe - 4.5, in the semi-desert - 3.55 and in the desert 2.1 c. It
is possible to obtain 14 times more feeds, than at the present time,
0 from the entire area of forage lands with the planting of fodder crop
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and pastures. It will be necessary, for this purpose, to accomplish
a great complex of measures on the superficial, as well 88 radical,
improvement of natural hayfields. The practice of kolkhozes and
sovkhozes of Kazakhstan showed a high effectiveness of additional'
sowing of perennial grasses (crested wheat grass, alfalfa, espar-
setts), as well as of annual crops (winter rye, oats, barley and
others), of rejuvenation of couch grass - sedge pastures' and hays.
fields by periodical plowing. A considerable increase of yield Of
grasses is obtained from introduction of organic, mineral and bac-!
teriel fertilizers to the.moUntain, estuary and water meadows, that
11
are. weAmoistened. -
Estuary irrigation, particularly a system of multi?storey
estuaries, formation of steppe estuaries of shallow filling and of
oasis irrigation, under conditions of Kasakhstan, are recognized
as viry effective measures that increase the productiveness of
pastures. The practice of many kolkhozes of sovkhozes of Kazakhstan
has shown that, on the average, 200-300 rubles per 1 'hectare of:
the estuary are required for the estuary irrigation, for Instance
for the construction of directing and water-retaining [Segin41.9]
.embankments and wateq. drains. With a yield of 20 c of hey per hectat
the outlay for estuary irrigation is repaid in the course of 3-4
years. Kolkhoz 7imeni Voroshiloven, Novorossilskii raion, Aktiu-
binsk oblastIr obtained with estuary irrigation, on the average,
about 17 c of hay per hectare on the area of 1,000 ha, and on the
? nonirrigated hayfields only 4.5 C. At the Karagandinsk Experimental
Station from 45.3 to 67.8 c of hay per 1 ha were obtained with
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with the estuary -Irrigation, while on nonirrigated sections of
hayfields - from 5.6 to 9.2 c of hay per I ha. Under conditions
of Kazakhstan the estuary irrigation represents a big resource for
e sharp improvement of the forage base. According to approximate
estimates, it will be posSible, in-the near future,. In Kazakhstan to
carry out estuary irrigation on an area of ,a.5-4 mr41 ha.'
According to estimates, made by the Pasturing Committee of
SOPS [Council for studyof Productive Resources] of the Academy of
Science of USSR, It will be possible in the next few years, by
means of radical improvement, to put into agricultural circulation
(it is meant to plant perennial -grasses as well as some grain
crop's), not less than 35mm. he, or 20% of the entire area of
natural forage lends in the republic; among them 10.44 min ha In
the forest-steppe and steppe, 18.61 min. ha in the semi-desert,
1.16 min. ha in the desert, 5.24 mm. ha in mountain 'regions*.
From the total area of 35 min ha, suitable for agricultural recla-
mation, about 5 mm. ha Can be introduced into the field crop ro-
tatiOns; these are, basically, chernozem or chestnut soils, Or
soils with a small part of solonetz [dark strongly alkaline soil].
Over 30 mln. ha -.mainly complexes and compositions of zonalsolls
and soils of hollows and gullies with a considerable amount of sOlo-
*Formation of planted hayfields is of special importance for
the desert and the desert-steppe zone, situated in the south-east
and south of the republic, where over og of all the pasturing
territory are situated and in the fall-winter period a vast-live-
stock of cattle. of kolkhozes and soVkhozes is concentrated. In Alma-
* Ata and Taldy-KUrgan ?blast's, in 1958, about 100 thousand ha were
allotted to planted hayfields; this permitted to form considerable,
assured stocks of hay.
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. (22) . Trans. A-1084
nett - can be utilized under plantings of perennial grasses or
can be diverted to grass crop rotations with one or two fields of
grain or annual fodder crops.
In modern animal industry, field fodder production, in the
system of field or fodder crop rotations, is an inalienable part
of the forage bast. Its proportion and structure, under condi-
tions of Kazakhstan depend on many different soil-climatic con-
ditions of individual ratans of the republic, on the kind of the
ratted cattle and of the production trend of animal industry In
kolkhozes and sovkhozes.
In 1957, 4157.7 thousand ha were taken in Kazakhstan under
cultivated feed crops, among these 753 thousand ha under silage
(among these under corn 614.2 thousand ha) and 159.7 thousand ha
under annual grasses. During the current Seven-Year-Plan-the role
of field forage production will grow still more considerably. Corn
has shown itself as an exclusively valuable crop in the strengthening
of the forage base in Katakhstan. Leading kolkhozes and sovkhozes
in the steppe and dry-steppe zones and in eastern oblast's of the
republic, utilizing the scientifically tested complex of agrotechni-
Cal measures, obtained 300-350 c.of green mass of corn qft dry lands,
and in southern and south-eastern Oblast's on irrigated lands - up
to 700-600 c per hectare.
? The United Session considered it necessary to recommend to
kolkhozes and sovkhoses a great complex of measures on the expan-
sion of planting areas and raising of corn production. It was, parti-
III
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Trans. A-1084.
cularly,-recommended to plant on each farm both the medium-ripening-
and the late-ripening varieties in order to obtain high yields of
corn ears of milk-wax ripeness. The highest yields of corn, at
smallest expenditures of labor, are ensured by planting it on .
fertile sections of irrigated lands and estuaries by the checkrow
method and obtaining two-three Plants per hill. Considerable in-
crease of the yield of green mass and of corn ears Is ensured by
. -
good care of. plantings; particularly by pre-sprouting and after-
.
germination cultivation of the soil - rolling, harrowing, applica-
tion of organic and mineral fertilizers, and on irrigated lands
and on the semi-provided dry, lands the planting of trigonella for
green fertilizer.
Kolkhozes and sovkhozes will, in every way possible, strengthen
the forage base in conformity with the planned tasks on develop-
ment of animal husbandry and increase Its productivity. Along with
superficial improvement and efficient utilization of the existing
natural forage lands** each farm will (Begin p.10). develop
forage production, particularly, sowing of grasses on field Sections,
which are not included in field or forage crop rotations.
**General attaching is meant of hayfields and pastures to kol-
khozes and sovkhozes; also introduction into practice of pasture and
mowing rotations, the so-called "corralled" (cage, portion, small
areas).utilization of natural planted hayfields in order to raise
their capacity and to reduce losses of grass yields, awing to their
trampling down.
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124) Trans. A-1084
In connection with.this, the Session recognized it necessary
to recommend for wide application the experience of raising the
productivity of-pastures and hayfields, that are situated on
solonets and solOnetz complexes, by means of terrace. (niarusnol")
plowing of soil and a following planting of perennial grasses,.
since this method has been tested under conditions of Stalingrad,
Saratov, North-Kazakhstan and Western-Kazakhstan oblestss. Along
with this, the Session considered it expedient in the near future,
to start building hydrotechnical installations and, first Of all,
for the estuary irrigation Of the most valuable hayfields and
pastures.
According to data of experimental institutions, under condi-
tions of Kazakhstan (In northern raions), the planting of perennial
grasses in double or tripe alfalfa-grain and esparsette-grain mix-
tures are the most expedient. It was acknowledged necessary,
beginning with the year 1959, to use spring harrowing (In 2-3'4'.
"sleda" (tracks?]) on the entire area of perennial grass plantings,
with the exception of subcovor crop plantings of grasses during
the first year of use.
It is possible to obtain In the southern raions of Kazakhstan
high yields of alfalfa on irrigated lands, with improved agrotechni-
que, and crested wheat and esparsette besides that on dry lands.
In droughty regions of the republic the field forage production
must develop through widening of planting areas of sorghum and
Sudan grass. The Session recommended, for increasing the harvest
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of plant protein, to widen the planting areas of chick-pea, vetch'
ling, peas, soybeans and certain other cereal-legume crops, and in
northern, sufficiently humid, raiont in the irrigated zone - of
vetch and vetch-oats, mixture.
In meadow-pasture crop rotations it is most expedient to as-
sign the annual and perennial grasses to pasturing and hay, as
well as the grain-forage crops, while In crop rotations, situated
near farmsteads, the labor consuming and hard totransport crops--
corn for silage, green and succulent forage, as well as potatoes
for fodder and fodder melon patch Crops.
The Session recommended to scientific-research institutions of
Kazakhstan for development during the current Seven-Year-Plan a large
complex of scientific problems on increasing the corn production;
on raising the prodiictiveness and efficient utilization of natural
forage lands; on the boosting of protein production, on cultivation
of new and Improvement of the existing varieties of grasses and
organization of their seed growing; on Improving the technology
:of. provision of fodder, mechanization of forage production, and
others.
In the presence of a large machine-tractor fleet:, the kbl-
khozes and sovkhoze4 of Kazakhstan have 411 the possibilities for
wide mechanization of forage production; first of all in culti-
vating corn, as well as in conducting hay harvesting. This will
permit obtaining, annually, high and stable yields of grasses and
111 different forage crops in amounts which will ensure full require-
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(26) Trans. A-1084'
ment of the growing animal industry in valuable fodder.
The Session recommended conducting afseries of specific
measures for the improvement of water economy constructions for
irrigation and water supply for pastures, as well as estuary
irrigation in the republic.
Mentioning considerable successes, as well as shortcomings,
in the work of the scientific institutions of Kazakhstan on the
working out of problems of biology of agricultural animals, the
Setsion has outlined also some specific measures in this direction.
Having approved the suggestions of the Kazakh Academy of Agricultural
Sciences on problems of economics and organization of animal in-
dustry the Session outlined basic measures in this field; carrying
out of this will hasten solvingthe problem of a sharp rise in
production of the output of animal industry in the republic.
Speaking at the United Scientific Session, Chairman of the
Council of Ministers of Kazakh SSR; Comrade D. A. Mummy, said
that the scientists of Kazakhstan made a.,valueble contribution to
the development of agriculture in the republic: They assisted,
by their research and valuable suggestions, in the growth of yield
trig capacity of agricultural crops,. In the increase of livestock
of cattle and in the raising of the cattle's productiveness.
Along with this there. are great shortcomings in the work of scienti-
fic research institutions of the republic, which hinder the progress
of agricultural science and further development of the kolkhoe and
sovkhoz production.
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(27) Trans. A-1084
Individual scientific-research institutes and experimental
stations work without coordination, duplicate subjects of scienti-
fic research; often Give advice to agricultural industry, which Is
economically ungrounded. He said further that it is necessary, on
the basis of fundamental criticism and self-criticism, to find the
causes, which hinder the development of science and agriculture, and
evaluate correctly the immediate tasks of the scientific-research
institutions for every kind of help to kolkhozes and sovkhozes In
the accomplishment and overfulfillment of the seven-Year-Plan for
the development of agricultural production in Kazakhstan.
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Trans. A-1085
vg/M
Staroselts
PrImenenie menLaiushchtkhsis kontsentratsU pri
iguchenli novykh preparatov etod 1ogar1fmi-
cheskogO Opryskivanile)
UMethod of thenging concentrations ift the s Udy
of new preparations (method of loge rithinic
spraying)]
Vestnik SeL'skokhos.thlstvennot Nauki vol.
May 1959 ia? v633
no. p.1104
P.I104
(In Russian)
In evalu t log thc.eft cUvencssof applIcation of rte1pre-
paratlons for the control at wecd, one has, ss a rule re-
sort to their comparison with the already known herbicides.
'quently one dose chosen for comparison Is quite insufficient,
and it is necess ry to test Several doses. Nevertheless, when
their number Is great
then the results are not precise awing to
the cumbersemenesa of the layout of the experiment. Evaluation of
effectiveness of the compared preparations is very approximate
to a certain degree since the most comparable Aata can be obtained
only in comparing preparations In doses which produce a similar
effect, but not In comparing different effects of similar doses.
Dia with a limited amount of studied doses (2 they can be corn
pared only by resorting to interpolation.
Nauchnyl Instituto Udobrenii
1 va [Scientific Inst
cides"irneriVt Professor Ia. V. Same lov
un is dam irnerd Professore
ert liters and Insectofung
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(2) Trans. A-1085
A much fuller characteristic of preparations, under comport-
ton, can be obtained while using them in a full series of gradually
increasing doses. A similar method was suggested by P.O. Shitt
for studying areas of plant nutrition. Success in realizing the
of doses was attained in utilizing changing
gradual changingfpncentrations, the so-called logarithmic
spraying; R. Gregory reported about this atthe First East-African
Conference on Herbicides. Logarithmic spraying is based on the
principle of gradual reduction of herbicide doses as the Sprayer
moves along the field, owing to dilution of the initial solution
of the herbicide. Thus, the passed course is the logarithmic
expression of concentration of the herbicide solution.
.A certain concentration corresponds to each section of the
field, and, In order to determine the concentration, it is suf-
ficient to know the distance of the section from the beginning
of the field. The obtained results permit comparing the tested
preparations by means of comparison of curves of their effective-
ness as a whole and of Individual points, that are characterised
by the same effect. Method of logarithmic spraying-opens up great
possibilities for a more detailed evaluation of new preparations
in respect to their comparative effectiveness. It is very con-
venient,for the rating of the selective effect of preparations,
depending on the doses, it permits characterising their degree
of toxicity more accurately for weeds and for cultivated plants.
This method opens wide possibilities in testing herbicide. mixtures,
which are receiving wide distribution abroad.
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In field experiments, in 1957, we conducted logarithmic.
spraying with herbicides* with the aid of two knapsack sprayers of
the type "Avtomaks", mounted on a cart. One sprayer was filled
with water, the other with the solution. The sprayers were con-
nected by a hose so that as one became emptiedthe liquid from the.
other flowed into it, thus, gradually reducing the Initial con-
centration of the solution.
The general area of the fields was 100 sq. in, the experi-
mental seas of the elementary fields in-fractional calculation of
variants with changing concentrations - 7.5 sq. m; fourfold re-
plication of experiments. The speed of movement of the sprayer
20 m'per minute. Expenditure of liquid - 1,000 1 per 1 ha. Each
field was treated with one passage of the sprayer, the speed
of movement [Begin p.I11] of which was checked by a stop-watch.
Uniformity of distribution of the preparation along the entire
width of the field (3.5 m) was provided by 10 sprayers, situated
in pairs at a distance of 70 cm end having 5 pipe-lines of similar
length so that at each moment all the sprayers would throw out the
solution-of One and the same concentration.
? At a uniform speed of movement of the sprayer and constant
per second expenditure or liquid, the amount of the intrOduced
* Further on we intentionally use a more general term "spray- '
ing with changing concentrations" instead of the term "logarithmic
spraying", inasmuch as the logarithmic curve of reduction of con-
centrations is not precise for us and it is necessary to strive
for its greatest correction.
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(4) Trans. A-1085
herbicide must drop rectilinearly from the beginning to the end
of the fields. In the construction, used by us, the pressure
was formed In the reservoir only during its lokading, and waS
not upheld further on; therefore, with the drop of the level of
liquid, the pressure in reservoirs was reduced approximately
by 25%, since the sprayers were filledonly full; as a result
of this the per second outlay of liquid wasreduced also. Distri-
bution of the dose of working'substance from the beginning to the
end of the field occurred according to a curve presented in the
diagram. (figure 1). In treatment by the usual method the sprayer
with water was disconnected. .
Title of figure 1. Distribution of doses in spraying
with changing-concentrations.
Words in.figure 1. Al the tops doses (kg/ha). At
the bottomr Elementary fields. Experimental,
. length of the field. General length of the
field.
Rating of the density of the stand of oats and of weeds was
conducted on experimental nmetrovkan (Square meter plot]; two
square meter plots in the usual spraying and 9 on the field with
changing concentrations of the-eolution. The height of plants was
determined by measuring 10 stalks situated along the diagonal line
of the experimental square meter plot. Weld of the total mast
was calculated at harvesting, while the yield of grain from each.
field was determined frim two test sheaves, which were dried to an
111 air-dry condition. On fields with changing concentrations the
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harvest was calculated fractionally (acaording to elementary fields)
and then underwent the threshing.
-
A. field experiment was laid out in oats plantings in order to.
study the herbicidal characteristics of the anti-grassy weed pre!.
paration ammonium trichloroacetate (TKHA-a")*(TCA-a) and to compare'
it with the already approved preparation of the same type - sodium
trichloroacetate (nTilti-nn) (TCA-sj. Utilisation of.a.cultivated:
plant in the experiment .uaranteed.a greater accuracy-of data,
awing, to the fact that the experimental plants were evenly distri-
buted on the section and'were.similarly developed. Although this
method has its shortcomings, it, nevertheless, gives, good results
in studies of the comparative effectiveness of the preparations.
TCA can both be introduced into the soil, as well as used for
-spraying the above ground mass.
In the given experiment, the effectiveness of TCA-s and TCA-a
were studied in spraying the plantings during the period of full
tillering of oats (June 20). The method of changing concentrations
was compared with the usual spraying. In changing concentrations,
the spraying was begun with a dose of 50 kg per 1 he and was gradual-
ly reddced to 0. 'In variants with the usual spraying TCA was.in-
troduced in the dose 'of 16 kg of the working solution per 1 ha.
On the next day after spraying, as a result of the effect of TCA,
yellowing of the tops of leaves was noted. In the usual spraying
? of plantings it was impossible to ascertain by sight the difference
? In effectiveness of the action of the preparations. About half of
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'the plants were damaged, and the remaining ones somewhat lagged
in growth. No substantial differences in the Action of TCA-s and
TCA-a?were noticed either right after spraying, or later on
(table 1).
Table
Effect of sodium trichloroacetate and 'ammonium
trichloroacetate on oats After the usual spraying
(one ionth after treatment)
Variants of the
experiment
Number of
plants per
1 sq. m
Average height
of plants
? (cm)
Control
240
69,
TCAs
118
58
TCA-*115
57
On fields, treated with changing concentrations, owing to
the fact that the initial dose was considerably higher than the
usual, oat plants were affected at the beginning of the field
very strongly, while towards the end the injury, was lessened.
On fields treated with.TCA-a the plants grew brown and dried up
to a greater distance from the beginning of the field than in
the variant with TCA-s.
In table. 2 results are cited of estimates of undamaged stalks
of oats, which were conducted on,9 experimental square meter plots,
situated along the length of the field (Begin p.112] at a distance
of 2 m from each other (figure 1). Such a spacing of the experi-
mental square meter plots corresponded to doses of TCA in the limits
from 4 to 50 kg per 1 ha. (table 2).
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Trans. A-1085
'Table 2
Effect of sodium trichloroacetate and of ammonium
trichloroacetate
on oats in treatm?. witn cnansy cunceni.ravvans
?
Doses
(krha)
Number of undamaged
stalks per
oat Height of undamaged
I so, in I stalks
oat
(cm)
TCA-s
TCA-a
TCAs
-a
.0
.0
12.5
17.5
23.0-
29.0
35.5
42.5
50.0
174
162
142
151
130
118
121
120
76
172 . ,.
153
127
119
135 ?
115
100
105
72
68
2.
58
57
53
55
51
47
71
62
56
' 54'
52
141
45
45
43
Data, cited in table 2, show considerable growing of the
? effect with the Increase of doses of herbicides; whereupon, in
'all cases, the effect of TCA-a,appeared stronger than TCA-s.
? Graphic representation of these data (figure 2) in the form
of straight lines deprived of deviations, permits determining
by haw many times TA-* was more toxic than TCA-s. Connecting
both straight lines by a horifOntal line, it is possible to deter-
mine by the crossing points the doses of both preparations, which
produce a similar effect.
Title of figure 2. Effect of the growing doses of
ammonium trichloroacetate and of sodium tri-
chloroacetate on the impairment of oat stalks
Words In figure 2. Starting at the top left:
Healthy stalks per 1 mz. TCA-sodium. ICA-
ammonium. At the bottom: Doses (kg/ha)
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? In order to reduce the density of the oats stand to 125 healthy. ,
stalks per 1 sq. m, 31 kg of sodium TCA per 1 ha were required in
our experiment. This same effect wasettained by Introduction of
22 kg of ammonium TCA. In the given case the latter acted. stronger
by 20% than the first. Similar results were obtained also in
the determination of the height of oat stalks. As a. result of
treatment of plantings with TCA, there were less of .healthy oat
stalks, and, besides that, lagging was noted in their growth.
With the increase of TCA dose the height of plants decreased re-
gularly from 71 to 43 cm. In treatment with ammonium TCA, the
height of plants to 55 cm 33 kg of TCA-sodium were required to be
introduced. In treatment with TCA-ammonium only 19.5 kg per 1 ha
were required (figure 3).
Title of figure 3. Effect of increasing does
of ammonium trichloroacetate and aodium
trichloroacetate on the height of oat
plants.
Words in figure 3. At the top: Height, cm.
TCA-ammonium. TCA-sodium. At the bottom:
Doses (kg/ha).
In this case the ammonium salt of TCA proved to be more ef-
fective by 411% then sodium salt. The cited data permitted to
ascertain a stronger toxicity of TCA-a, which in the experiment
proved to be more effective than TCA-s by 30-40%. Use of the method
of spraying with changing concentrations permitted determining
more accurately the difference of the effect of the preparations
111 and to express them quantitatively.
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Crops from sections, treated with changing concentrations,
were harvested on August 23, and on the next day from section '
treated in the usual manner. Results of yield estimates are.
cited in table 3.
As it As seen from table 3, the treatment of oat plantings
with TCA by the usual method produced a negative effect on the
yield of grain and Straw:, having reduced it almost by 2 times;
whereupon TCA-a produced a.somewhat stronger effect than TCA-s.
:treatment of plantings with changing concentrations of TCA pro-
duced still stronger changes in the oats harvest,.which-decreased
regularly with the increese of doses. The advantage [Begin p.13)
of TCA-a Was noted in variants with all doses (Cigure 4).
Table 3
Effect of sodium trichloroacetate and ammonium
trichloroacetate on the yie d of oats 1c/ha)
Variants of the experiment Yie of
Grain I Straw
Control 16.3 - 15.3
TCA-s 10.2 10.9
TCA-a 8.8 8.8
Title of figure 4. Effect of growing concentrations
of ammonium trichloroacetate and sodium trt-
chloroacetate and sodium:trichloroacetate on the
.yield of oats.
Words in figure 4. At the top: kg per field". TCA-
ammonium. TCA-sodium. At the bottom; Doses
(kg/ha).
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A similar effect was produced by a 1/3 lower dose of ammonium
TCA than sodium TCA. Thus, in order to reduce the harvest on the
field at 0.7 kg (medium effect) there were required 26 kg of TCA-a
per ha, while In using TCA-s for the attaining of the same effect -
39 kg of the preparation.
Similar results were obtained In comparing the effectiveness
of various esters of 2.4,-D. In the usual, field method; when each
ester was used in only two doses, differences between them were
not as great and definite so as, on this basis, to give a preference
to one of them. But in comparing these same esters by a method of
changing concentrations, when their effect on plants was traced
111 in doses from 0 to 2 kg per 1 ha, it was established, with a suf-
ficient definiteness, that octY1 ester 2.440 was more effective
in treatment of grain crops than butyl ester 2.4-D. Having a simi-
lar toxicity for the weeds, it harms the cultivated plants less In
Increased doses, therefore it can be used In higher doses (by 25%).
On the basis of data of our experiments, in the workshop or
NIUIF (Scientific Research Institute of Fertilisers and Insecto-?
fungicides imeni Is. V. Samollovj, in 1958, a power-driven "logari-
thmic" sprayer WAS produced; which gave good results In testing new
herbicides.
The described method of spraying with changing concentrations
is very convenient for the initial field evaluation of new pre-
parations. By means of improvement and Its wider utilization
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under production conditions, it Is possible to characterise more
fully the studied preparations and make better plans for further
field tests of these preparations.
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Trans. A.m.1000
vg/M
Bolsunovskaia, 0. V.
Plenum Oosuderstvennol Komissii po Sortoispytanliu
Sellskokhoziaistvennykh Kul' tin
[Plenum of the State Commission on Variety Tests
of.Agricultural Crops]
Vestnik Selsskokhotiaistvennol Nauki?-vol. 4,
no. 5, P.140-141. May 1959 20 V633
(In Russian)
A Plenum of the State Commission on Mariety Tests of Agricul-
tural Crops at the Ministry of Agriculture of USSR took place in
Moscow, on February 19 to 21, of the current year. 'Inspectors of
the State Commission, workers of the MSKIi (Ministry. of Agriculture]
of USSR, of.RSFSR and of scientific-research institutions took
part in the Plenum. A series of important questions was discussed
at the Plenum and appropriate resolutions on them were adapted.
Inspectors of the State Commission of United Republics,
Comrades I. S. Lovehlkov, M.&. Shalaev, E. D. Eiginson, I. M.
Ognev, P. K. Galitsinskil, V. S. Dshanelidte, T. A. Topchibashev,
V. A. Shilinis, A. T. Delimarskii, A. S. Meleshkin, A. L. Sotnikov,
I. F. Nenakhov, Ts. A. Torosian, B.. B. Ousson and A. F. Raud
addressed the meeting with reports about changes in the operative
variety regionalizing and about the work on State testing. The
speakers told about peculiarieties of work on variety testing in
connection with problems, which were raised by the 21st Congress of
the Communist Party, as well as depending on conditions in the re-
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publics. It was emphasized in all reports that (Begin p.I41]
special attention is paid, in.regibnalizing the varietietfto .
their qualitative evaluation in order that industry obtain new
highly productive and high quality varieties. The newly regiona-
lized variety of winter wheat "Betostala 1"-(selection. of the Kras-
nodar Institute of Agriculture) in Crimea_ oblast' and Krasnodar'
kral answer these requirements, as also do the variety of peas
"Stolenskii 812,, regionalized in Smolensk oblast', potato variety
"Detskoseltskil" (selection of the All-Union Institute of.Plant.
Industry), which was regionalized In Leningrad oblast', and others.
According to the report of the Chief of the Section of methods
? and Aarotechnique of the State Commission, Doctor of Agricultural
Sciences, Iu. N. Nalygin, a resolution was adapted about the need
of introduction of supplements and changes into the method of State
variety testing of agricultural crops. Instead of the existing
system of variety testing on small and large plots and In the in-
dustrial testing, beginning with the year 1959 only competitive
and industrial variety tests will be conducted. For certain,
chiefly, labor consuming crops' and "mnogosborovymn (difficult to
harvest?) the minimum size of plots in competitive testing is
established as 50 sq. m, retaining the 4 to 6-fold replication.
Industrial tests (with direct supervision of workers of the Variety
Test Plot) will be conducted, first of all, at that kolkhot or
sovkhoz, where the variety plot is of at a farm nearest to it.
411 In the absence of the possibility to lay out the experiment on
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these fermis, they can be conducted also on other farms under the
leadership and observation of agriculturists,of these farms.
Changes were introduced also in special methods for crops,
mainly for corn, olive family, silage, vegetable, and melon patch
crops, potatoes, grasses, and, others.
Beginning with 1959, a mathematical treatment of yield data
of competitive tests is being introduced with the use of methods
of variation statistics. -Introduction of this method gives a ?
possibility of determining the authenticity of data on the yield-
ing capacity of tested varieties, in comparison with standard
regionalised varieties and the accuracy of experiments on the variety
test plots.
? In the current year an-organization is foreseen at the State
Variety Test Plots for testing expanded collections of varieties.
All the varieties, which undergo competitive variety testing in
this sone, as well as valuable varieties from other zones, will
be included in the tests. Besides that, into these collections
will be included those varieties from other zones, which must
be examined for the resistance to one or another characteristic
(winter,hardiness,,lodging and others), the evaluation of?which Is
Impossible or very difficult to conduct in their own zone, owing
to the peculiarities of meteorological conditions (absence of
bleak winters, of a sufficient amount of rain). Here too will be
tested all the local varieties, varieties which were developed by
411 plant breeders, who conduct experiments outside the scientific-re-
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search institutions, as well as varieties of foreign origin.
- K. N. Oodunova, Candidate of Agricultural Sciences, gave an
'account, in her report, of the new problems of the State Com-
mission on testing on variety test plots not only the varieties,
but also the -effectiveness of new agrotechnical measures. Organi-
zation of this work is of special importance, since the intro-
duction into agricultural Industry of progressive agrotechnical
methods plays a deciding role in the raising of the yielding capa-
city of agricultural crops!
Chief of the Department of Fruit-Berry Crops of the State
Commission, Candidate of Agricultural Sciences V. M. 11.,ebedev,
? gave in account of problems Of fruit-berry and grape variety, test
?
plots, in connection with the resolutions of the 21st Congress
of the Communist Party. Along with he told about the work on the
organization of variety test plots, about development of methods
,
of variety testing of fruit-berry crops, and others.
The Plenum considered 295 suggestions about the Inclusion
into State testing of new varieties of agricultural crops and species
of bombyx of Soviet selection. A decision was made for testing
229'varietiespincluded among these are 11 varieties of spring
wheat, 11 of-corn, 15 of cotton, 21 of potatoes, 3 species of
bombyx, and others. Besides this, 90 varieties'of foreign selection
were included in the testing. The Plenum made a decision on ex-
cluding from testing 412 tunpromising varieties Of agricultural
crops and species of bombyx.
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V.
?
?
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Chief of Department of the State Commission, V. S. Ourchenko,
presented it report on changes in the network of State Variety Test
Sections,
The Plenum considered the problem of awarding the authorship
for development of new varieties. One hundred fifty fivetpplica-
tions were examined for 97 varieties, whereupon the authorship was
assigned to 106 plant breeders; included in these were such varieties
as winter wheat "Lutestsens 230", spring wheat "Pshenichno-
pyrtinyi gibrid 56", [wheat-wheatgrasX hybrid]; sugar beet
"Belotserkovskaia odnosemiennala" (single-seeded], tomatoes -
"Skorospelyi.VOlahskil 288" (early,ripening, Volga].
Lively debates developed about the reports that were heard;
members of the State CoMmissiont intpectors and specialists of
the State Commission, as well as specialists of scientific..
research Institutions, took part In them.
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Trans. A.4087
vg/M,
Zhukovskill P. M.
Vtalmootnoshenlia methdu khOziainom I gribnym
parazitom na ikh rodine 1 vne es (11: uchenilu
ob iskhodnom materials. dila selektsii)
(Interrelation between host and fungal parasite
in their place of origin and beyond it (To the
studies of initial material for selection))
Vtstnik-Sellskokhoziaisivennoi.Nauki, vol. 4, no.
p.25a34. June 1959 ? 20 V633
(In Russian)
6,
Research In the field of immunity of plants to infectious
diseases is, mainly, of fragAmentary nature. As beforei certain
aspects of immunity are treated in this research, but the problem,
as a whole, remains just as difficult, although its urgency grows
from year to year. Both theory and practice lag. Many articles
are published about morphological, histological and histochemical
factors of immunity; about the effect of mineral and organic
fertilizers, particularly trace elements, effect of time of planting
of cultivated plants and many other agrotechnical methods for the
Increase of resistance to diseases. The theory of immunogenesis
of plants, suggested ,by M. S. Dunin, is well-known. In the near
future the theory of D. D. Verderevskil will be published about
.
phytoncidal origin of immunity to parasitic diseases.
Professor; Active Member - Academician of VASKHNIL (All-Union Academy
Of Agricultural Sciences !men! V. I. Lenin)
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In spite of doubtless value of all these publications, practi-
cally, they can be but slightly used in selection and genetics.
_Genotypic immunity in geographical connection, as we intro-
duce it In the present article, is of the greatest importance.
This will serve as one of the divitions of the science 'of initial
botanical-geographical material for selection.
Unfortunately, the work on studies of immunity of agricultural
plants is organized unsatisfactorily in our native agricultural
science. The parasite, its races, cycles of development in various
geographical-zones is not sufficiently studied comparably with
the 'ontogenesis of the host. 'Physiological races of the parasite
411 and individual biotypes, and, the more so, their genesis, are
almost not studied at ill, while the methods of study of races are
not sufficiently reasoned :out. The races are but :those strains
which display a different character of reaction to certain pure-
line varieties of the host. Artificial inoculation Is used little;
.this is inadmissible, since natural infection does not take place
annually. Besides that, the regime of successful inoculation is
not yet ascertained for many plants. It was established that
growing potato seedlings at high temperatures and insufficient
access of oxygen cause the infection of seedlings by those races
of Phytophthora, which do not affect them under normal conditions.
In the dry climate of Central Asia, at a comparative low humidity
of air, even in regions of artificial irrigation, epiphytotics of
leaf and stem rusts are almost unknown among plantings of wheat.
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[Begin p.26]. Study of cycles of the parasite often proceeds
according to a false course, since the initial loci of infection
of the host sometimes remain unnoticed by the observer, If he ex-
amines its morphogenesis insufficiently attentively. Often plant .
breeders check their new variety on the resistance to rust on an
unfertile infectious background, foregetting, or not knowing, that
.the rust fungi infect the perfectly healthy, well-fed, but not the
weak plants.
The basic feature for planning the selection work for immunity
is the knowledge of prevalent physiological races and their distri-
bution in the given geographical region. It was demonstrated that
0 races of stem rust of wheat and crown rust of oats, even those
collected from various countries, show long stability in respect
to their reaction on the host, it was proven that new virulent
races. of the fungus arise by means of hybridization and mutations.
? It is possible to obtain new aggressive races of the stem rust of
? wheat in artificially crossing its heterozygous -races.
There exists a genotypical resistance to diseases. Many wild
relatives of cdltivated. plants possess it.,,It.was formed histori-
cally at the place of origin of the host and the parasite. N. I.
Vevilov was the first to express this idea. Now we have many facts
and we can say, that, if the species of angiospermous plants did
not have high resistance or even immunity in their place of origin
and of the parasite, they would have died. Owing to genotypic
Immunity of many wild relatives of cultivated plants, even their
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hybrids, provided the selection of parental pairs was fortunate,
are characterised by such a high resistance that they at times
rescue big sections of the plant industry on the terrestrial globe;
it was thus, for instance, with the cultivation of sugar cane in
Indonesia, with coffee cultivation on Ceylon; and now only the
development of hybrids of cultivated potatoes with wild immune
species from the section of Tuberarium can save the potato Industry
on the terrestrial globe, including also USSR, from constant apt-
phytotics of Phytoohthora, canker, pathogenic viruses and other
diseases.
Wild relativesof cultivated plants usually do not posses
411 absolute immunity at the place of origin of the parasite; this can
be considered as a regularity. They possess the so-called "field
resistance" (field resistant, FeldrVatens), or tolerance. The
fungal parasite, as a rule, infects only certain parts of the
plant, producing a limited sporulation and necroses. This per-
mits such relatives for thousands of years to survive as hosts
in the paresitels place of origin, and the parasite to survive
as a constant pathogen of infection. In those geographical regions
where the place of origin of both the parasite and of the host
coincide, there takes place a parallel *volution of the host,
which produces new, more resistant varieties and forms, and a
parallel evolution and adaptation of the parasite, that produces
new, more virulent races (the so-called aggressive races).
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Let us demonstrate this on the example of three plants: wheat,
oats and potatoes.
The place of origin of wheat is Caucasus and the central and
eastern provinc*s.of Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, as well as
western provinces of Iran, adjoining it. This was proved by a
large number of endemic varieties of wild and cultivated wheat.
It is only in this foremost Asiatic focus on the terrestrial globe
that this species potential of genira TriticumiAspilops and Secale
is concentrated. It is exactly here that were formed the diploid,
tetraploid and hexaploid orders of Triticum L. Wild diploid species
of einkorn - Triticum aeailopoides.and Tr. thaudar, which occupy'
considerable areas, are widely spread in the region of mountainous
steppes of Asia Minor. Tr. aegilopoides can also be met in Syria,
Palestine, Georgia, and on the Balkan peninsula. Many endemic
species of wild and cultivated wheat were described as occurring
in Caucasus, (Begin p.273 although some of them prove to be
synonyms. L. L. Dekaprelevich described such endemic species for
Georgia as hexaploid Tr. macha, tetraploid Tr. palaeo colchicum,
.Triticum georpicum) Tr. tubalicum. M. G. Tumanian described for
Armenlia diploid Tr. urarti, and Makushenko described Tr. armenicum.
M. M. lakubtsiner described for Armenila the endemic hexaploid'
species Tr. vavilovi. P. M. 2hukvskii described for Caucasus
ancient species, endemic in culture Ti. timopheevi and Ti. persicum
(now, Ti. carthlicum). The French geneticist, Dr. H. Heslot,
111 descirbed for Iran a new endemic primitively-cultivated tetraploid
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species, which he called Tr. isvahanicum. The German geneticist,
Dr. H. Kuckuck, has discovered in Iran, on one of the hills in
the Eikhtiari oblast', the center of which is the city Shahr Kord
(Chigha Khurj a section of ancient cultivation of the spelt (Tr.
svelte), which corresponded to the European spelt in its morpho-
logical and anatomical data. Yet in 1923, in Persian Kurdistan,
around the lake Unita. I have discovered sections of plantings of
spelt (its type is preserved in Leningrad at the Herbarium of
wheats of VIR (All-Union Institute of Plant Industryj); it was
classified by us, at that time, as a speltoid of the soft wheat,
? but which, nevertheless,. proved to be a genuine spelt. Tr. durum,
? Tr. aestivum, Tr. prOdum, It. compactum, and even in some places
Tr. turanicum are cultivated in Transcaucasia in. great diversity;
whereupon these species here are very differentiated. It Is true,
such tetraploid cultivated species of wheat as Tr. durum, Tr.
,tiraidum, Tr. polonicum and 11. dicoccum originated and differentiat-
ed in Ethiopia and the Mediterranian countries of North Africa.
Species of genus AcRilops are widely distributed, in Caucasus
and in adjoining countries of Asia Minor and of the Near and Middle
East. Some of them took part in the origin of cultivated wheats.
It is now acknowledged that the soft wheat (Tr. aestivud) contains
in its karyotype genomes of Tr. monococcum, Aegilops souarrosa.and,.
apparently, ask speltoides, naspellts" (Tr. speita) - genomes of
two first partners. This confirms the origin of hexaploid wheats
in countries of the Near and Middle East (Tr. aestivum, Tr. Baena)
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end Transcaucasia (Tr. machio. Tr. vavilovi).
The aggregate of the cited data.permits,considering, with full
certainty, that the process of species formation of wheats in the .
described botanical-geographical-part of the terrestrial :glob* clams
about during many millonia (archeological research has confirmed it).
? Along with this, the Caucasus Is the main and, apparently,
primary focus of development of the leaf (Puccinia triticina) and
stem (P. praminis tritici) rusts.
During the course of millenia occurred a divergent form-develop-
ment of wheats and a parallel form-development of virulent races
of rusts, which was accompanied by.an adaptation to the host, that
411 is to various species and forms of wheat. Polymorphism of wheat
could not proceed in the absence of parasites. Where species of
wheat originated and differentiated, there too sprang up various
races (strains) of rust. The Caucasus, and the countries adjoining.
it, being the place of origin of diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid
wheats, became also the birthplace of the leaf and stem rusts of
wheat. It Is natural, therefore, that Caucasus. and Asia Minor
became the strongest Infectious background, where species of wheat
developed that.were the most resistant to leaf and stem rusts in
the world: Ti. Itegilopoides, Ti. monococcum, Ti'. timopheevi, Tr.
persicum (now Tr. cartfilicum). The amphidiploid.11.., funolcidum,
developed through artificial crossbreeding of Ti. timooheevi and
Ti'. persicum, is also characterized by this high resistance.
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But although the most resistant species of the host originate
in the place of origin of both the host end the parasite, they, never-
theless, probably do not possess an absolute immunity. (Begin p.281
This is confirmed both when studying wheat as well as oats and
potatoes. Without possessing absolute immunity, as an ideal man144
festation of resistance, they have "field resistance" and tolerance,
which permit them to survive in the place of origin of the parasite
during the course of thousands of years.- Yet, in 1923-1924, we
recorded for Georgia a Oonsiderable susceptibility to powdery
mildew (Erysiphe graminis) of certain forms of Triticum persicum
(Tr. carthlicum) and partly to leaf rust in Georgia. M? M. lakub,
? tamer confirmed this for Azerbaijan and Dagestan. In Georgia
we had to deal with infected plants of Tr. monococcum. 14. M.
Iakubtsiner observed individual 'plants of Tr. timopheevi, that were
infected with stem rust in Western Georgia, that is in the birth-
place of this species of wheat. The hard wheats (Tr. durum), which
have a reputation of being resistant to rust species and were col-
%
lected frOM various countries of the globe: Balkan peninsula,
Indostan, China, Asia Minor, Jordan, Egypt, Algiers, Cyrus, Sicily,
Spain, Greece; Czechoslovakia, South Africa, USA, USSR (Ukraine,
Kirgizia) and Others, and which were planted in Dagestan (Derbentsk
base of VIR), were infected to 3-4 points (according to a 5-point
system) except for the Caucasian and Balkan forms, which were in. .
fected to 2 points. All soft wheats (Tr. aestivum) from different
countries were infected still stronger.
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The. German Institute of Plant Industry sent us, in 1957, .
19 samples of seeds of various hybrids of wheat, resistant to
leaf rust (Puccinia triticina). Not one of these, hybrids, in-
cluding the variety indicator, was less infected than to 4 points
(according to the 5-point system) when planted in Caucasus (Kuban
and Maikop Experimental Stations of VIR). The celebrated varieties
"Kenya" (714, 745 and others), which are resistant to all races ?
of rusts in Australia, New. Zealand and to the 30 prevailing races.
in Canada, proved to be susceptible to leaf and stem rusts and
to powdery mildew in North Caucasus. More than that, the wheat
variety NovoUkreinks 84, whiCh was selected especially for re-
? as:stance. to leaf met in. North Caucasus proper was Infected there and
in Dagestan with leaf rust to 3 points; varieties Skorospelka?
3 and Bezostaia 4, which were developed of late for the same pur-
pose in Xrasnoder krai0. were infected in North Caucasus to 2 points.
The. I2-chromosome fractions ofhybrids Tr: fUndicidum. X Tr. ephaero7
poccum were infected'in Dagestan to 1-2 points, possessing tolerance_
but not full resistance,
...There is no doubt that in Caucasus we find the place of origin
of the leaf (Puce, triticina) and stem (Pucc. eraminis. tritici).
rusts of wheat, the species, which since olden times were connected
with species of diploid and tetraploid wheats. It is natural that
in the place of origin of Triticum L., during the course of many
millenia, appeared also the specialized parasites of this kind
111 with many aboriginal physiological races, which are virulent even
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to Tr..monococcum, Tr. timopheevi, Ti-. carthlicum. It is possible
that the extreme susceptibility of hexaploid wheats (including
- ?
eeitivum) can be exp4ined by the presence in them of two
genomes of the genus Aegilops (aux. squarrose and Ata. speltoides).
Origin of genome "0" in the most resistant tetraploid species
Tr. timopheevi, remains unknown. At the present time we possess a
polyploid order Tr. timopheevi. Besides the tetraploid timo-
pheevi (2 n=28), known to all, hexaploid forms (2 n=42) were also
established in its natural population in its place of origin (in
Western Georgia); these were isolated by V. L. Menabde Into an .
independent Species Ti-. shukovekii Men et Eris, as well as the
? octopiold. form"( 2 n=56)? which was artificially obtained in Prance
by Dr. Heslot; whereupon octoploidy.was Connected with the mutation
of coloring (a black spike). This octoploid form the author ear-
marked as species Tr. timonovum Heslot. Thus, Tr. timopheevi Zhuk.
gets into the range of a super-species or conspecies. We cite
(Begin p.291 this fact in order to point out a continuing,evolu-
tion of the very old species Ti-, timopheevi, and the increase of
susceptibility to leaf rust partly in hexaploid, but especially
In octoploid form of Tr. tlmopheevi. .
According to the plan for this article, we must be interested
In what happens after importing the host or parasite separately,
or both together, to other, far removed, geographical regions of
the.globe. It Is known that in North America the local wild species
of grapes are resistant to Plasmopara viticola (mildew) the place
of origin of which is there also. These species possess a genotypic
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(11) Trans. A-1087
Immunity to this parasite of the-class of-Phycomycetes. When after
the discovery of Columbus, the best varieties of excellent Euro-
pean grapes were Imported to North Amends, they, at once, started
perishing there from this disease. On the other hand, Plasmopara
.vitiCOla was brought to Europe with the cuttings of American species,
that were resistant to phylloxera. Discovery of the Bordeaux
. mixture in France by Milliarde saved the European viniculture, but
up to the present time mildew still remains as a dangerous disease
in the Old World. .An especially striking example is the' intrusion
of potato late'blight (Phytophthora infestans) to Europe from
North America. ?The fungus from the tame class of Phycomycetes
111 was brought in 1830, and 16 years. later, outside the place of origin
of the fungus, sprang up the devastating epiphytotic of Phytophthora
in Ireland, where potatoes became the basic. food plant. One million
people died in Ireland owing to the famine, while 1.5 min migrated
to other countries.. Something similar occurred, in 1949, in
Chile. The reason was that there did not exist any crop of Solanum
tuberosum in the place of origin of Phytophthora in Mexico and it ?
Infected there wild tuberiferous species of potatoes. In the Old
World the cultivated potato S. tuberosum was already widely distri-
buted in the middle of 19th century. Having.reached Europe,'
Phytophthora founds very susceptible host outside its place of
origin, and since that time the Old World stands before a problem .
of control of this most dangerous parasite. The geographical fac-
etor here was of deciding importance. Solanum tuberosum never pos-
sessed a cenotynical immunity to any of the races of Phytophthora.
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An intensified selection activity in Europe on developing 'new varie-
ties of potatoes is hampered greatly now by the appearance of new
local aggressive races of Phytophthora. When comparatively re-
cently S. tuberosum was begun to be cultivated also in Mexico
(instead of S. anadioenum and others), in the place of origin of
Phytophthora, all the numerous Mexican races of Phytophthora
"attacked" the new-comer,from the temperate sone of Chile; a coun-
try that did not know Phytophthora up to. 1949.'
The cited data show the importance of seCondary foci of form-
development of the liarasite,',thatispring up outside its place of .
origin. Argentina has a reputation In USSR as a country of wheats
that are immune to diffirent.species of rust, of flexes immune to
fusarium wilt, and othert. Indeed, such Argentine varieties as
Magnif4e,.Klein petise, La Prevision, Klein Cored', Klein 11-66,
Klein Comets, Klein AMalla Klein, and others, stand out 'sharply
by their resistance to leaf and stem rusts in North Caucasus and
in Dagestan, that Is in the place of origin of these parasites. But
in Argentina proper they do become infected with certain /aces.
Apparently not only these geographical races of rust, but vicarioUs
raced as well are absent in Caucasus. A great number of physiologi-
cal races of stem and leaf rusts exist in Argentina. 'Mere they
differentiate Puccini' triticina and P. rubinovers tritici as species
of the leaf rust. .One should point out, that in Argentina, awing
to Dr. Jose Vallega, the talented specialist:on immunity of plants,
111 the work on studies and mapping out of physiological .races of rust
is organised excellently. [Begin p:30).
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(13) Trans. A-1087
Both the wheat end its rust were brought in to Argentina from
the Old World after the middle of 16th century, probably, by sea.'
It is possible, nevertheless, that the stem rust, from which
Argentina is. suffering, end, perhaps, the leaf rust also were
native. 1110.the light of work of Guyot, in France,-the stem rust
of wheat (Puccinia oraminis tritici) infects many genera of
Cereals; they are native to Argentina also. When wheat got into
Argentina, the local races of stem rust adapted themselves to it
easily.
Rust uredospores are carried a long way by air also. Craigie
showed the existence of "spore showers" of uredospores. It was
noted in North America that the southern wind brought rust uredo-
spores from a distance of over 1,000 km and distributed them over
an area of more than 0.5 min sq. km. There were so many of them
that on a tingle acre, which was slightly "lieeded" with uredospores
there were. 10 trillions of them, and on.a heavily "seeded" -
many times more. In USSR a case Is known of the "spore shower" of
uredospores in Stalingrad oblast, which has formed an island of
infection in a vast area of uncontaminated fields of wheat. Pro-
bably intercontinental drifts of uredospores are possible. through
the air.
In the case of absence of intermediate hosts for stem rust
(species Berber's, Mthonia) and therefore, a dropping out of the
phases of spermogonia and aecidla, the epiphytotics are only pos-
sible owing to the overwintering of uredospores; but then it is not
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known, how will that reflect on the emergence of aggressive races.
However, there are many barberries, meadow-rue (Thalictrum) and
other hosts of rust in America.
In any case, the emergence in Argentina of the secondary
focus of form-development of wheat rust is indisputable. Com-
position of races in the primary (Caucasus and the adjoining oblestts)
and in the secondary geographical foci is entirely different. This
fact introduces a geographical correction in the genotypic immunity
of species.
OenOtypic immunity of the host is formed
historically In the place of origin of the
parasite, and there, although it is not ob-
solete, it is fully reliable for the purpose
of selection. Outside the place of origin,
the resistance of the host depends greatly on
the virulence of local geographical races of
the parasite.
'Let us analyze the evolutionary interlinked species Avena
pterilis (wild) and Av. blyzantina (cultivated). The first species
is widespread in Palestine (Israel). Its local name "common oats"
points to its widespreadness. Here, in its birth place, it is
Infected with crown and stem rusts, whereupon their races are
identical to those which were removed from the cultivated genus.
In spite of susceptibility to infection, the forms of wild
oats Avena sterilis do not suffer and show exceptional resistance
(tolerance) to both species of rust (PuCcinia coronifera and '
P.praminisovenae). ,The life cycle of crown rust is ensured in
Palestine, owing to the presence of Rhamnus alaternus and R. ales-
?
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tinus. It was established that race 270 of crown rust Originated
endemically in aecidia of local buckthorn. Many Palestinian races
'of crown and stem rust are highly virulent, but a series of.varle-
ties of cultivated Am. byzantine, originating from Av. star ills,
is resistant to them. The most virulent race 6 of stem rust of
oats comprises 97% of all 'races and was collected from 14 genera
of cereals.
Dr. Wahl points out that oats Av. sterilis and. byzantine
sprang from one geographical .area. Evolutionary development of the
. host and the parasite, their mutual adaptation here too prove to
I
be interconnected. [egiwp.31]
?. A prolonged struggle for survival between the host and pare-
sitee.produces an adequate resistance of the heat to races of rust.
. of high virulence.
In the selection of potatoes forresistance to diseases, the
most essential is the resistance to Phytophthora and to .virus
diseases. It was pointed out previously that potato blight was
a historical disaster. In USA, in the state of Wisconsin, at
.the collection nursery of wild potato species, of interspecific
hybrids and cultivated varieties, many thousands of 'clones are
studied for their resistance to blight; as a result of this many
clones were isolated that are resistant under local geographical
conditions. Intensive work on development of blight resistant
varieties Is conducted bathe German Democratic Republic, In
Western Germany, in Holland, Sweden, England, USSR, Australia
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(16.) ? Trans. A-1087
and others. Each country developed varieties that are resistant
under local geographical conditions. But thisIs almost an illu-
sion. In the, place of origin of Pbytophthora in Mexico ptacticaily
almost any of these varieties from the Old World and USA, which
were put out for pale as blight resistant* come to grief (J.
Niederhauser).
In Mexico, our common potato (S. tuberosum). is a new crop.
Its yields are small. January plantings (early), during which the
cycles of the host (potato) and of the parasite (late blight) do
not coincide, produce healthy potatoes, but the plants are'develop-
ing during a dry period. .Artificial irrigation raises the cost
? of the crop extremely.
May plantings at the beginning of the rain period could
be giving high yields, but they are infected with blight, since
during this period favorable weather conditions are formed for its
development. Spraying with fungicides raises the costs too'
much. The Way out of this situation is development of blight-*
resistant varieties. Under such conditions, ever Since old times,
a struggle against blight proceeds here in the hexaploid wild
species of Solanum .demissum and the diploid wild species. At the
present time here was established a great number of physiological
races of Phytophthora, to which many tens of varieties of S. de-
OPIP MOINIONINO
are resistant.
missum.A But there do.not exist absolutely immune varieties of
S. demissum. There are forms outstanding in their "field reel-
stance" or tolerance. Blight infects only the lower leaves, and
it does not spread further: sporulation is limited, there are
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(17) Trans. A-1087
clearly expressed necroses (Niederhauser). This permits surviving
of S. demissum in Mexico for millenia against such a dangerous
infectious background. Thus, on the example with potitoes, we
see. that in the place of origin of host and parasite occur their
parallel formodevelopments and parallel, reciprocal adaptation.
Against the same several infectious background in Mexico,
since olden times, exist such diploid tuberiferous wild species of
potatoes as S. bulbocastanum, S. pinnatisectum, S. cardyophyllum,
S. polyadenium, and others # which are considered even more re-
sistant to blight than, S. demissum. S. bulbocastanum has been
studied already quite well (Graham, Niederhauser and Servin). It
was found out, that this species, in general, Is extremely self-
sterile and is composed of cross?sterile and cross-fertile plants.
? After inoculation of 1146 seedlings of S. bulbocastinum with races
1, 2# 3 and I. of Plytophthors infestans three types of infection
were observed: a) considerable resistance with small necroses on
lower leaves, b) resistance with imperceptible sporulation of the
parasite and c) susceptibility, expressed by large sporuleting
injury. Seedlings, possessing resistance to Mexican races of
blight are not always resistant to Guatemala races, and vice
versa. Both diploid and triploid forms are met in populations
of S. bulbocastanum. [Begin p.32].
Genotypic immunity of the host is formed historically in.
the place of origin of the parasite* but it is not absolute and is
expressed in the form of .field resistance and tolerance. In the
crucible of many centuries of strunale of the host ,and parasite),
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(a) Trans. A,..looT
both pertners evolve and both survive. The botanist, who is
occupied in introducing the plants, the geneticist and the plant
breeder must have a world map of geographical localisation* of
genotypes, resistant to diseases, superimposed on geographical
feel of origin of parasites, connected with them. It is useless
to look for resistance to blight In many wild tuberiferous species
And In cultivated local varieties. of potatoes (20, tubsresvm) in *
South America: that is, ewayfrom the place of origin Of the para-
site, historically localised inftatco and Guatemala.
,Resistance to reot?knoteell4Orm (ieterodere Fostochlensis)
is geographically, Centered 112-highiimounteinose regions of north-
western Argentina. Its carrier is the wild large-tuber diploid
species Salyut* ytioneltts. The tetraplold cultivated species S.
padipenum (H. BrUsher)I-Which sprang from it, crinteins nematode-
resistant forms in its range.
It is useless to bolt for genotypic inmilnit'y or strong tolerance
of wheats to leaf rust beyond the place of their origin in Caucasus,
? In Iran and Asia Minor. Only in the case of development of a
strong secondary geographical focus of form-development or the
parasite, producing Its isoluted.geogrtphical races (Argentina)*
it is possible to find there races tolerant for the primary focus.
Tolerant genotypes,undotbtedly transfer this characteristic
to their hybrids,.however not through simple one-pair combinations
with.susceptible partners. Transfer of genet of resistance is
hardly possible in direct crossing between two species. It
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(19) Trans. A-.1087...
is necessary to introduce intermediate species or varieties*
which would serve as a bridge. 1. V. Michurin called them
"go-between% History of development of such valuable Varieties
of wheat as "Prellud, Novinka* AVrors* Ardito* Magnir shows
the impOrtence of multiple-phase crossings. In selection for
immunity this 'way was utilised in the work with sugar cane.
John Niederhauser* in Mexico* succeeded* finally* in developing
s potato variety Erendire* Which is highly resistant to blight in
the place of origin of the parasite in Toluca (Mexico). The
scheme of development of this variety it as foliows:
Chippewa
4145 7
hdin X
Richt
vs
528-410(USDA
Lobel X
25691(USDA),----7
($. demissum XS. tub rosum)
end a
in the selection of cultivated plants for high resistance to
dangerous diseases one should* first of all, use the highly
re-
sistant and tolerant genotypes from the place of origin of the
host and the parasite* and further on successfully utilise them
In the gradual (bridge) crossings. Instruction about initial
materiel for selection requires establishment of regulations for
t planned introduction.
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(20) Trans. A-1087
LITERATURE
Vaviloir, N. 1, Centers of origin of cultivated plants. "Trudy"
Works] on applied botany, genetics and selection, v.17,
no. 2, 1926.
Vavilov, N. I., Studying of immunity of plants to infectious
diseases. "Theoretical principles of selection. v.1. 1935.
(Bellin p.333.
yavilov, N. I., Botanical-geographical principles of selection.
Theoretical principles of 'selection, v.I, 1935.
Dunin, M. S., Immunogenesis and its practical use, 1946.
2hukovskii, P. M., Agricultural Turkey, 1933.
2hukovskii, P. M., Studies In the field of hybridization, im-
munity and transplantation of plants. "Trudy" (Works] of
TSKHA (Timirlasevskil Agricultural Science Academy), ,
1944.
2hukovskii, P. M., Species composition and a new species of wheat.
Doklady AN USSR, a new series, 1949.
2hukovskii, P. M., Cultivated plants and their relatives, 1950.
Mukovskil, P. M., Problem of immunity of cultivated plants to
diseases. Problems of Botany, vol. 2, published by AN
(Academy of Science] of USSR. 1955,
Transhell, V. G., Review of rust fungi in USSR (Conspectus
Uredinarium URSS), 1939.
Iakubtsiner, M. M., Immunity of wheat species to stem rust.
. Journal "Socialistic Plant Industry". no. 20, 1936.
Graham, it., Niederhauaer. J. and Servin, L., Studies on fertility
and late blight resistance in Solanum bulbocastanum in Mexico.
Canadian Journal of Botany, vol. 37, no. 1, 1959.
Guyot, L., Role des Graminees spontanees dans lispidemiologie de
la Rouille noire des Cereales en Europe et Afrique septen-
trionale, 1959.
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(21) . Trans. A-1087
Heslot, H., Triticum lopshanicuota une nouvelle 'specs de Ble
cultive originaire Compte rend. d. sc. de Mead.
Sc., t. 247, Ms 2477, 1958.
HesIot, H., Obtentiox experimentele (Pun tetre,ploide aberrant
Triticum timonovum. 11)10" t. 248, P.452, 1959.
danos
tiartines, E., Estimacion de losAcaiisados pop las royal; de los
census. Revista de Invest. Ar., tomo 5. no. 4, 1951.
Malls W. ond Niederhauser. J., Observations on races of Phvto-
hthora infestans in Mexico. Phytopathology. V. 43, no. 6ir
Montaldo, A" El cultivo de las varledades di papas roalstentes al
Tiraon. Doletin tecnico, no. 1, 1953, Chile.
Niederhauser, J. and Mills, W., Resistance of Solanum species to
Ph ophthore infestans in Mexico. Phytopat. vol. Op no. 8,
1953.
Niederhauser, J. Cervantes. J. and Servin. L. Late blight in
Mexico and its implications. .Phytopat., V. 44, no. 8, 1954.
Niederhtuser, J., The blight, the blighter and the blighted.
* Transactions of the MeV York Acad. of Sc., ser. /I, vol.
19, no. 1. 1956.
Niederhanser, J., Erendira, nueva variedad de Papa, resistente
al 'Mon tardio. Agriculture technica en Mexico, We.
Rudorf..G. y otros., Investigationes sob?* lq=nided en trigo.
Publ. Univ. Mae. La Plata, 19.33.
Village, J. y Favret, La'royas de los coreales en Argentina.-
Revista lblA, Ano 5. no. 54.0 1952.
Valleys, J. y Pavret, Rates flsiologicas de Puccini* Oaminia tn
, tic! qua ataquan s TritAqea tbiephoevi. Revista dc Invest.
Agric., t. 1, no. 3, 1947-.
Vallega, J., Rasa* fisiologicas di Puccini* rubl20.ivera tritici
comunes en Argentina. An. Inst.. a. L,
Wahl, 1., Studies on crown and stem rust on oats in Israel. Bull
Res. Coanc. Israel, vol. 6 1), no. 3. 1958.
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Trans. A-1088
vg/A
Prutskov, F. M.
Kulttura rise v Hitae
(Rice growing in Chine)
Vestnik Sellskokhosiaistvennoi Wauki,
vol. 4, no. 5, p.97402. May 1959.
20 V633
(In Russian)
Origin and Evolution of Cultivated Rae in China '
- It is known from Chinese literature that in China rice is a
? very ancient crop. This fact is testified by entries in the books'
of Kuant Chishi (700 years B.C. (n. e. New Era)), Lu Dia-sin (195
years B. C.), and Hua Nantchzhi (122 year B.C.) in which cultiva-
tion of rice is mentioned. The antiquity of rice growing in China
Is indicated by other facts as well. For instance, rice plants
and grains were found in excavations dating back-to the New Stone
Age in China (2,000 years The word "rice" was found on
bone writings (kostianaia pistmennostt) (1401-1223 years B.C.).
Tribes of Yang Shao (lanshao) 'culture (3 thousand yearsB.C.)
were already growing rice (5).
On the basis of the very oldest literary sources and contem-
porary investigations, a well known Chinese learned professor,
Din In, considers that in China the cultivation of rice was begun
? Candidate of Agricultural Sciences.
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approximately 5,000 years ago, that is, earlier than in any other
country in the world; during the Chou Dynasty (1100-200 B.C.) rice
planting.was developed widely in the basin of the Hwang Ho,'
[Hhankhe] River (4).
In Soviet and in foreign literature it is indicated that the
ancient countries that cultivated rice were India and China (1).
Some authors believe that in India cultivation of rice was begun
earlier than in China; in reality, however, the utilization of
rice for cultivation was begun in India considerably later than
in China. This can be confirmed by citing a fact such as this:
the work "rice" (vrihi) was noted for the first time in India in
the song "Atherva Vida" (1,000 years B.C.).
According to data on years of research conducted bye' number
of authors, in individual countries, the utilization of rice for
cultivation took the following course': 4 in 1-2 centuries B.C.
rice penetrated from China into Japan; 2) in the 9th century. B.C.
rice was,exported from India to Iran, and from there to Europe,
Africa and America.; 3) in the year 1084 B.C. growing of rice was
begun on the island of Java.* On the Malay archipelago, rice was
Imported from the continent by (people of] Austronesian nationality '
and it was called by the Malay name of "Bras" and "Rad? (11). The
Latin name of rice'which is "Oryza",did not originate from the
Hindu "Arishin as was indicated earlier in the literature, but
from the Ninboisk (0u-Li-Za) that later spread in India. The
ancestral form of cultivated rice is considered to be the mild species
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of 0. Bath's L. f spontanea which is distribute In a number of
countries of southern Asia. A form of wild rice of the same type
was found in the marshy areas in the South of China.
As regards its morphological characteristics, the wild species
is not very different from the cultivated rice forms, In particu-
lar, not from pryea, Bettye L. subsp. Keng (the Japanese branch) and
?ryes sativa L. subsp. Helen (the Indian branch); the wild species
has however, a more flocculent shrub, more fruitless blossoms, the
grains in the tassels are arranged more. .loosely than In cultivated
forms, and the wild form inherently loses a great deal of grain.
?
As a result of natural' and artificial selection that has taken
thousands of years, China has developed different forms and varle-
Tr' finc.
ties of cultivated rice. Professor Din In divides rice grown in ..
the KNR (Chinese People's Republic] into the following forms: 1)
varieties of the Hsien forms (04. S. L. subsp. Helen) and Keng (forms]
(0. S. L. subsp. Keng), 2) varieties of early (spring) and late
(summer) planting, 3) aquatic and dry-valley.rice varieties, 43 glu-
tinous and non-glutinous varieties. These rice forms developed as a
result of.the.influence exerted.by external, environmental conditions
4in 1953, in s suburb of Loyang Molan), grains of the-Keng form a
of other formss-were found In a grave of the Han Dynasty (206 years
B.C. to 25 years A.D.). The rice cultivated, at that time in districts
situated south. of the Yangtge River belonged to the Hsien form whibh
is confirmed by entries made in the book "Shovent" during the 1-In
epoch (1700 B.C.) where the word "Nanhaithehl (or Nankhalchthir de-
noting Helen rice is mentioned. During the Sung (Sun) Dynasty (1011
A.D.) 1500 tons of rice seeds of the Hsien form Were imported from the
Fukien [Futsyzianl] Province Into districts north of the Yangtze Ri-
ver in which, from that time on, the area planted. to rice of the Helen
? form increased considerably.
[Footnote continued on next page].
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The Haien and Meng forms emerged under the influence of vari-
ous climatic conditions: early-ripening forms (of early planting)
and late-ripening (of late planting) emerged [Begin p.981 under
the influence of dissimilar diurnal length at different times of the '
.
year; aquatic and dry-valley forms of rice formed under the influence
of varying soil moisture; glutinous andron-glutinous forms developed
,
as a result of variation occurring In the .composition of starch dur-
ing the cultivation process.
The evolutionary process of cultivated rice can be presented by
,the following scheme:
-'Non -Glutinous
Aquatic-
0-*Early ripening-- -Kilutinous
d+Hsien (subspecies)? Dry-valley
Wild .(0-. S. subsp. Hsien)
rice ---- -*Late ripening
(0. S.
L. F. -.Keng (subspecies)
s2cOtanta) (0. S. subsp. Keng)
The Japanese scientist_ Kato (6,7), in 1928, divided rice in ac-
cordance with the fruitbearing degree of the hybrids and the serum
reaction of varieties into two branches: the Japanese (Meng) and the
?
4,(Continued from page 3]. Chfnese scientists express the opinion
that in the process of a long evolution and adaptation to conditions
prevalent in the mountain districts of the tropics and in districts
with a temperate climate, the Keng form exposed to the influence of
temperature and other environmental conditions developed from the
Hsien form. This hypothesis has been confirmed by data on research
carried out by Chthan Bei-lian, (or Vellionq (10) and Chen Chthu-
shen, regarding the vertical distribution of the Keng and Hsien forms
in the Yunnan Province.
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(5) Trans. A-1088
Indian (lisien) although the so-called Japanese strain (branch) was
imported. into Japan during the let and 2nd centuries A.D. from
China where the Helen and Keng strain had been isolated many years
earlier. .
Matszo (8,9)i another Japanese scientist, collected 1431
-varieties of irrigated and dry-valley .rice and after investigating
them, he divided all rice varieties on earth into three form: A4 /4
A
and C. The A form belongs to the Japanese branch of Keng which Is
s .
distinguished by a stable stem, rernsiveness to fertilizers,
high productivity, dark-green color .of leaves and its suaceptibi-
lityrto Piricularia [fungus].
? The 'D foim belongs to the Indonesian form of. Keng which is
characterlied by a light-green color and a alight pubescence of
leaves, ,a stable stem and a more considerable resistance to Piri-
cularia than that of form A. 'The C form belongs to the Indian
branch, that is to the Chinese form of Hsien; the leaves of the
plants have a light-green color, the stem is least stable, the plants
more resistant to Piricularia than these of form B. Matszo con-
siders that these rice forms' have developed under the action of
diverse Climatic and soil conditions ';at different latitudes of
the globe.
Rice ot the Haien form that is more adapted to unfertilt
soils and to their water deficiency have become widely distributed
in the Hwang Ho [KhUenkhe) River basin. In the same districts are
111 distributed rice varieties belonging to the King form.
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(6) Trans. A-1088
.On the Shores of Lake Tal Mu [Taikhu], in the mountain districts
of the province Hunan, Kwangtung Nuandun], Fukien [Futszian],
Shensi (Tsziano.si], and in the mountainous areas of the islands of
Hainan and Taiwan, that is., in the districts with more fertile
soils, is distributed rice of the Keng form.- During the evolu-
tionary process, the formHelen became more adapted to conditions
of a tropical and subtropical climate, and the form Keng to condi-
tions of the warm belt and the mountainous districts in the tropics.
At the present time, the. varieties cultivated in the subtropical
zone belong Almost completely to the Helen form which here is
considered as the basic one.
On the basis of observations of the individual varieties in
the province of Yunnan, Chen Chzhu-shen-established the conditions ?
required for the distribution of rice forms In zones in which
two yields of rice are obtained within a year*. Varieties of the .
}Oen form are distributed in regfons where the average yearly air
temperature is above 170, varieties of the Kong form - in regions
with an average yearly temperature below 160. The lowest air tem-
perature (13?) is observed in:the Littlen (LItatical and.Chaoton
uezdal. These areas are marked by a great: deal.of.clogds and fogs, '
hence, here low rice yields are not infrequent.
*Average yearly temperature - above 17? (C], average for January -
above 15?, average for October - above 200.
1[A rural administrative unit within a district equivalent to
one in a U.S. county]
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(7) Trans. A-1088
Vertical distribution of rice forms:-varieties of Hsien forms
are distributed below sea level; in districts located at an eleva-
tion of 1700 to 1900 meters above, sea. -level are grown varieties
of Hsien and Keng forms, but higher than 1900 meters - only Kong
forms.. Atcording to observations conducted by Chen Chshu-shen,
in the belt in which both forms are grown are encountered varie-
ties that ere difficult to identify by their morphological charac-
teristics. Grains of different forms(Hsien and Keng) are-often
found on plants of one variety. .In the Yunnan Province cultivated
rice is distributed (stretching] from the low hot areas (500 in
above SEte level).to the warm plateau (2400 M above sea level).
Cn the basis of his own investigations and observations and
also on the generalized works of other authors, Din In calls rice
of the Haien type a subspecies (O. sativa, subsp. Hsien). He be-
lieves (Begin p.99] that the Keng form has become differentiated
and has developed from the basic Helen type (2,4).
We consider that the facts cited tbove are sufficiently (con-
vincing] to cause a change in viewpoints as to the origin of cul-
tivated :rice and that certain corrections be made in the classifi-
cation of rice forms. It is desirable that in future the'lterml
"Japanese branch of rice" be replaced by "Chinese form of Keng"
(O. sativa subsp. Keng) and the (term] "Indian branch" by
"Chinese form of Helen" (O. sativa subsp. Hsien). Changes of this
type made in the classification will be in accordance with the
historically evolutionary process of rice culture in China.
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?
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(8) Trans. A-1088
Realm and Ecological Characteristics of the
Most Important Rice Forms and Varieties
In China, rice growing, especially of the irrigated kind, is
Pic , itt
widely distributed - from the province of Helluntsysn.[Kheilunts-
sian] to Hainan in the South, from the Island of Taiwan in the
East to the. Sinkiang-Uigur (Sin'tszian-Ulgur) Autonomous District
in the West. At the present time, 26 million hectares (26,69% of the
.area occupied by all other grain crops) are planted to irrigated .
rice, the harvest of (rice) 'grain comprises 45.64% of the totAl
grain harvest in. the country. From 1949 through l956, the cropping
area under irrigated rice in the Chinese People's Republic [KNR)
increased by 7159 thousand ha, and the total grain harvest in-
creased by 35475 thousand tons; average productivity per unit
area (ha) increased by 6.61 centners. In the year 1956 the average
productivity of irrigated rice comprised over 27 centners per ha,
and in. a number of southern districts it exceeded 75 centners per
ha. In China, large areas are occupied by early irrigated rice: its
share is approximately 25% of the total rice harvest in the coun-
try. In the year 19574 early rice grain was gathered on the average
of 22,75 centners per ha - .by i.4 centners more than in 1956.
In Southern China natural conditions are more favorable for
obtaining two, and in some districts even three, rice crops within.
a year. This zone includes the provinces of.Cheklang IChzhets-sian),
kweery711.11
Fukien [Futszianj, Klangsi [Tsziansi], Hunan, Hopeh [Khebell, Shan- 7
111 tung [Guandun], Shensi [Guansi), Szechwan [Sychuang, Yunnan
punInon11. and Kweichaw [Guichthool. the districts tnuth nf tho
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( 9) Trans. A-1088
Hwang Ho River [in the] province of Kiangsi iTsziansu] and Anhwei
fAnflthol], and also those south of the Tsintlin [mountain] range
that are part of the Shansi Province and of the provinces of
Hantau and Tsin Hai. .This zone has a warmer climate and the largest
quantity of precipitation. ? In the Yangtze River basin precipitation
reaches 1000 mm, the vegetative period usually lasts from 250 days
to 300 days. In districts south of the Min range frosts scarcely
reaches
over occur, the average annual precipitation/0500-2000 mm. Here three
crops per year are harvested. The southern part of this zone is In
the subtropical belt where climatic conditions are very favorable
for the cultivation of many agricultural plants. In this zone,
111 over 60% of the entire tilled area occupied primarily by the rice
crop is irrigated. .The young crop of irrigated rice comprises a
large portion of grain crop plantings. -
Ali a rule, in the north-western and north-eastern zones only
one rice crovis harvested. In the.northern districts, the climate
Is comparatively cold, therefore, here rice plantings comprise
only 5% of the irrigated rice area in the country.* However, in
the Korean lantbin Autonomous Okrug" (Northern Korea] Oirin Pro-
the productivity.of irrigated rice increased from 20.2 up,
to 37.-5 centnere per ha.
The distribution of rice forms according to zones and in-
dividual Chinese provinces is shown in the table.
*Earlier it was considered that the northern districts are totally
111 unfavorable for irrigated rice growing.
**(Equivalent, more or less, to a district within a district of a U.S.
county...,
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(10) . Trans. A-1088
Within the last. thousand years, Chinese farmers created over
10 thousand irrigated rice varieties. Yet as a whole (according to
the latest data), they number 'about 50 thousand varieties of irri-
bated, semi-irrigated and dry-valley Tice (developed] by native
farmers and breeders. There are in the Shantung-(Guandun] Pro";
wince alone 6717 native farmers' and breeders' varieties of early
and late irrigated rice; of these 169 varieties have been recog-
nised as deser/ving of widespread utilization in production. In the
Scientific Research Institute of Agriculture of Eastern China (City
of Nanking) a study is being made of 6000 rice varieties the.majority
of which were gathered in native provinces. Large numbers of native
varieties are available in the southern provinces and in the North
East. in the Chinese People's Republic, cropping areas under se-
lected and improved varieties are on the increase. It is planned
within the next few years to switch completely to planting from
varietal Seeds. The best varieties of Irrigated rice are: Hsien-dao
[Sian-deo], Reng-dao (Gen-dao), Hodao, Ludao, in the Hunan and
Kiangsi (Tsziansi] provinces'- Nantahao (Nantakhaol and Shenli-se.
In the North-East the varieties of,lua-chshi-2 and Chin-sh-5 are more
distributed, in the northern regions of China - the variety Wren'.
In the eastern part of China, the highly productive varieties
are: Nantahao, Shenlise? Chshunnun-4, Chshuiu-nun-853, 412, Lao
Lechin. These varieties occupy 20% of the total cropping areas
(allocated(' for rice. Replacement of poorly productive farmers'
varieties with highly productive ones will increase the country's
rice production by an average 10-15%. (Begin p.100).
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' (II) . Trans. A4088
At the scientific research establishments of the Chinese People's
Republic is conducted important research work with a view to im-
proving local farmers' varieties, replacing listen form varieties with
those of the Keng form (in order to change rice with one yield
for rice with two yields), and creating.more productive varieties.
On the basis of experiments in phase analysis of rice, conducted
at the Scientific Research Institute of Agriculture of Eastern
China, it has been established during the last seven years that
passing through the vernalization stage required temperatures of
19-300 (C), depending on the variety. The passing through the .
vernalization stage at optimal temperatures required 12 days. The
vernalization stage cannot be accomplished at temperatures of
?
3-5?.
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( 12 ) Trans. A-1088
Table,
Zones
Provinces
North-East
Rice seeding*
districts Hwang Ho
River basin
The North-West
Aligns of elevated
Weas (plateaus)
Rice seeding
districts in the
Yangtze River
basin
Rice seeding .
districts of the
? Chutsian River
basin
Central and Northern
Manchuria (north of
42? north latitude
Southern part of
Manchuria. Provin-
ces of the middle and
southern current of
the Hwang Ho River
Hanisu and Sinfchl-
an-Uigur Autonomous
Oblast'
Elevated areas of the
yunnan, Ouichou and
oychuan provinces
-Provinces of the mid-
? die and lower cur-
rent of the Yangtze
River
Southern part of the
Yunnan Province and
the provinces of
Kiangsi [Gutman,
. Ouandun, Fukien (Ft-
tszians), and is-
lands of Taiwan and
Hainan
Forms of Rice
Early ripening and ultra-
-early ripening Keng form va-
rieties at a high latitudef
there occur a few Hsien form
varieties at high latitude
Early ripening, medium ripen-
ing and medium-late ripening
.Keng form varieties
Early ripening Keng form va-
rieties. Earlier there were
,ultra-early ripening Halen.form
varieties of high latitude .
listen form varieties of eleva-
ted areas of low latitude and
Keng form varieties of eleva-
ted areas (including the distri
bution of the Shanlichen varie-
ty the grain of which is 3 mm
long and is bare with non-pube-
scent leaves)
Medium and late ripening varies
ties of the Keng form, early,
medium and late ripening varie-
ties of the listen form (the
Shenlichen variety has also
been encountered)
Early ripening Haien form vi, ?
rieties of low latitude, late*
ripening Hsien form varieties
(the Shanlichen variety is en-
countered) and the osaamOp va-
rieties of the Keng form. Al
present, other Kengi form varie-
ties are also beingj distributed.
gltq4nous
?
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( 13) ? Trans. A-l088
. As regards the light phase, the rice 'varieties distributed in
China can be divided into two groups. The first group is comprised
of varieties that are not sensitive to the length of day. These
include the early ripening varieties In the southern part of China,
early-ripening and medium ripening varieties of in Central Chihli,
and the medium ripening .varieties of the North-East and North-West.
In long day (18 hours) (6ultivation) the varieties of this group
are a little late in.heading, and in shortday (10-12 hours) not
over 30 days.
' The second group is composed of varieties sensitive to the'
length of day. It includes varieties of the southern districts
? of China and varieties grown in the rest of the districts for the
Purpose of obtaining two yields per year. These varieties are
very late In heading when grown during 18-hour long days. There
is a certain relation between the passing of the individual stages
of development and the reaction of plants to a long day. (Begin
p.101). For instance, rice varieties of high latitude regions react
poorly to lighting.
Natural conditions of China contribute toward the -formation of
various ecological types of rice, hence different ecotypes are en-
countered even within the limits of one form or one variety.
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(14) Trans. A-1088
Agrotechniques for Obtaining High Yields of Rice
Rice is one of the highly productive grain crops in China. , In
a number of volosts*, uesdi** and provinces, high and stable rice
yields are obtained on large areas. The productivity of this and
other crops has increased especially as a result of the coepera-
tion extended by China's agriculture.
Chinese rice growers achieved outstanding SUCCOSSE18 in the
.year 1958. In the Provinces of Anhwei (Anlichol], Hupeh (Khubei],
Kiangsi [Tasiansi] and Honan UKhenant], on an area of 1,154,666 ha
planted to' early rice, the average yield obtained was 75 centners
per ha. In the Province of Honan [Rhenan], average productivity
of rice reached 104.4 centners per ha, in the Province of Riangsi
(Tssiansi] - from 75 centneraip to 225 centners (per ha] on an
area of 76666.6 ha. In the DanIchen Ueed of the Honan Province thee
per hectare average of the productivity of early rice amounted to
412.5 centners [per ha], and on a field comprising an area of 1.79
ha it was 675 centners (per ha].
On the agricultural cooperative (farm] "Poputnyi Veter (Trade
Winder, Hupeh (Khubeil Province, the yield of rice grain harvested
on an experimental field in the year 1958 was 1219.5 centners per ha.
On an experimental field of the cooperative (farm] no. 2, Machen
Used, EUpeh (Khubei] Province, the rice yield was 1219.5 per ha., on
* LA rural administrative unit within an uesd.1
0* (An administrative district equivalent, more or less, to a
district within a U.S. county.]
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(15)
the cooperative [(erm3 Ts n
cooperative tfarml "Dunfen tung h *
ice gathered on an area of 1.03
ha.
' A very
village
rice
uneAr theClt -of-
Trans A-1088
2772 cent s.
AnIkholj Province
d to )1 centn
the
he
per
people a commune Of
on an experl-
s
(sic l of
to 92 9ions (sic)
plants were transplanted
666 ha) The rice
thick green.carpet,
is a resultant of the untiring
of the achievements of
ental.field meesuring 025,,mu were? g#
dry gre In which# when c nvertedo amounte
per he. Prior toinforascence,
onto th small fiel from an ar
s Planted so close that
The obtaining of hi 9h ric
r
ork of Chinese
science and advanced experienc
On leading farms e great deal of tti
ice. Seeds ere wetted preliminarily
they are planted on well Ce
wsfl developed seedlings are used for plantin
the seedbeds are planted 4-6 rice plants
used on rice fields are soybean oil
other types of fertilleors.
The fundamental agricultural meth Ods:
paid to r
germina no
dsdd cly healthy
each hIU on
fertilizer*
sulfate and
of cooperative
a depth of 50-60 c
quantities (manure
mu C0mprse
on experim
j were as4ollows plowing was carried t a
fertilizers were applied in
leaves of
ee
ne meal and mineral
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de
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fertilizers pia
was brought up to 105
9 m
900 thousand, or i3OO,O0G (1050
whole Periled of rice vegetht1n the plant
Irrigation was carried ou
Trans A-1088
density of the plants
hectare instead of
me. During .the
tended Ctrefu
on time, weed contr
wee conducted, the
young crop:was protected from wind* (with the Id otecreens)
birds were scared sway' and other measures were conducted.
At the agrieulturs1 cooperative
he basic fertilizer was applied at
der early rice and 120 tons per
titles of a Lxtreof lieu
? ferent waste meter s were used as t?Uieei
nel river silt used
0 tons
In addition,
utse d
Deep plowing and
tillable soil layer,
soil system and maker'
ul,
Unite
ive siab
plowing Is practiced (at a depth o
OW
dried olut. lee fields (of early a
13 times. Fields designated for s
harrowing
D4d a normal deve1opnent of the
fleas available to it. Wtnter
18-20cm)and harrowing of
is carried out 12
ly rice are plowed
Ids for seeding of
e it harvested, as
as to enable
and to,enable
1i-tin9e coopers-
le c led out
receding irri-
the first year before winter sets in, .en
late rice are plowed at the time
the fields are freed. Then the fields a
the soil to absorb water readily when it is irri
its mineral salts to dissolve in the: water. in
tive and in other leading farms Irrigation of 11
after the water that entered the fields during
t;
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Stt
on has eflcQmp1etClt used up.
Three to five dJs afterthe appearnceof sproutsn the
water is drained from e fields of early
Trans A-10 8
plant has 0
rice. Fields
6 stems
upied by the young crop of Iota rice ere drained
approximately 45 days after the appearance of sprouts when branch-.
tog has reached 1748 stems. The fields are left without water
until the surface hae hardened which Is conducive to branching and
strengthening of the root system of rice plants and also prevents
heir early lodging.n p.102). After the fields have dried
t they are again watered.
Leading farms introducefro
lizers into the soil (so-ca
iliz
Is and the tall
fertilit
fL.ldt of late ric
nd concentrated
spikes), that
ng or intlorescence
during the period of head
4 (khvOS e) fertilising introduc-
? On the
ure of
shortly before the ripening of
fertilizers (30 tons of utsu
liquid mud and manure) and 60 kg ammonium sulfate Per he), as
rule ere introduced at three (different) stages Apart from the
[application f the basic organic fertilizers, fields of early
rice ere fertilized-twicet prior to heading and before cr
heading, and on the fields of late rice three timest prier to
heading,during heading period and shortly before
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(18) Trans. A-1088
completed.
Inter-row treatment and Weeding on fields of early rice are
carried out twice, and on fields of late rice - three times.
Planned treatments of Inter-raw, weeding, irrigation, timely
draining off of water tram fields and introduction of fertilizers,
as well as many other measures contibute toward obtaining high
rice'yields.
On the state farm of Fuchen (Linshan Uezd, Kwangtung (GUandun)
Province), high stubble, up to the very tassel, is left when the
yield is harvested and later it is plowed under. Using this method,
as well as other agrotechnical measures, the state farm of Fuchen,
which is situated on clayey soils, has improved the soil struc-
ture and increased soil fertility. In the year 1955 the state
farm harvested 77.5 centners per ha of grain and, by virtue of rice
productivity, became one of the leading farms in the Tienshui
(Tsinochouj district.
The soil-climatic conditions of China are very specific, yet
many agrotechnical method used in growing rice can be applied to
the rice growing regions in the USSR as well.
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(19) Trans, A-4088
Oushchin M,, 19
1-01"1
Din In - Wild rice in the Province of euanthin and the varieties
developed from It "Agronomlie, Zburnal Universitet* imeni
Suntiat-tena, no. 3 Kenton 1933
Din In Preliminary report on the cultiva
and_of HalenAiteng species in ancient China a
' species classification at the present tiMe.
Zhurnal.Universiteta Wm' Sun lat.-sena, no
Origin of rice growing in China.
Universiteta La ni Sun'Iat'sen, flO. 7
En-de he new Stone Age in Chine.
Kato Study of the relat
rice with the aid of a se
language).
Kato - Relationship
ductivity of hybr
language)
Matsao- Study
1952 (In the
nd di tribution
e method of
"Agronomile,
6, ?Manton, 1949.
Agronomilae, hurnal
Renton, 1959.
p g 1955*
hip betwe fferent types. of
um. Tokyo, 1929 (In the JapanOe
rice forms ec?ordIn
Tokyo, 1928 (in
sgo - Theory end praot
(In the Japanese longue
10. Chan Vellian Distribution phe
agricultural ,production. u col
the one hundred year annIversnr Of I
Runmingi 1955.
Uno Malay rice, Tokyo 191* (in Japanese
C regions and their
ection dedicated to
V. MIchurinis birth.
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?Trtrit? 41.4-1V89-
vgjA ?
razvedeni1u
u krupnogo rogatogo',
Vestnik Sellakokhez
no. S. P?131'436
(In Russian)
ce
attle)
tvennd Naukla Vol.
My r959# 20 V633
d Ar ti-
In, Febru ry of 1959 a c ference s. hed.in Mosor Ly the
Ins group of the Permanent Committee on Economic and Scienti-
fic Technical Cooperation within the Realm of Agri Lttwe between
Member Countries of the Gount1 for Econ Mutual Aasistance
[CENIAl; the principal problcms discussed were th braedthg and
rtliicial insemination of ctt1c.
The Conference was attended by de1egate
Nine reports were heard and discussed at piens y
Member of the Ministry of Agriculture USSR, P E lo
P
nted
a report titled "Structure of breeding farms and breeding manage
? the
ment in the USSR and in countries ofApeopleos democracies
dwelled briefly on the history of
the USSR and noted gre t successes
Ca de e? of Alu Sc
f.Ag cultural Sciences im V.
He
development of breeding in
eating purebred livestock,
(VASithN
n))
[Al -Union Academy
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(2) Trans. A-1089
in improving old and in developing new cattle breeds. He demon-
strated, by giving specific examples, the achievements eal r increase
of cattle and in raising its productivity during the last five-
year plan as a result of the completion of meaiures providing for
a steep rise In agriculture planned by the September Plenum of the
Central Committee )(PSS (Communist Patty of the Soviet Union) (1953).
At the same time the speaker pointed out a number of *shortcomings
in the organizing of breeding matters and artificial insemination
of cattle in the USSR. In connection with the increased tasks of
raising the production of livestock products, the reconstruction of
the structure and system of breeding management begun in recent
? years is being continued in the USSR. This structure provides
State and kolkhoz breeding plants (elite farms) for the basic -
cattle breeds (they are produced at the base of the best breeding
sovkhozes, horse plants, kolkhoz breeding farms, experimental
farms of scientific research establishments and training establish-
ments that have the most productive pedigreed cattle); breeding and
reproduction farms that are being organized at the base of breed-
sovlitiozes
Ing and the better industrial sovkhozes, kolkhoz breeding farms,
experimental farms of scientific research establishments and train-
ing institutions; State breeding work and artificial insemination
stations that are being organiied, primarily, at the base of the
State breeding nurseries and the State factory stables; State,
interkolkhoz and kolkhoz stations for artificial insemination
111 (being organized on sovkhozes, training and experimental farms,
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on he better br n
nary h pitais).
n charac
democracIes that
and haracterlstics the speaker arrivad.at the conclusion that
fundamentally they are similar to the breeding system In the USSR
In the report Breeding of purebreds as a method of improving
roblems
it
Trans A-I089
of kolkhozes' and
e form
countries of t
counts of ta onal experience
cattle"by Doctor of Agricultural Sciences, E. Novikovs
of breeding purebreds and of its role In matters of Pod!
the zootechnical evaluation of znimls, selection and pr
when breeding purebreds MWTO exami ed. Qntbe
f the peop
cal data of the USSR and of countries
the author of the
aing one breedin
of breedings
th
t demonstrated that the desirabil
od or anOther Is determ ned by the develo
level of productivity and the degree o
at Improvement. In districts Inwhich pedigreed livestock
trig is developed and cattle productivity is h the basic
ich Cattle
has marke tab
method 'is the breedin
been Improved but
urebreds. In ?bias
e and in districts that r
(non-pedigree) Itvestock $ Possible to use the vcthod of cross n
with a view to breed transformation or cattle and a rapid increase
In its productivity. In the USSR and in countries of the people's
democracies the value of animals is determined by a complexity of
cheracteris Ica such as origins
ductivity. Having analyzed crit
lances development afta pram.
the methods for animal evalu-
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(43 - Trans. A-1089
ation approved of in instructions for the appraisal of cattle and
for the registration of animals in pedigree books, [Begin p.134)
the speaker demonstrated that in making a more complete and accurate
animal evaluation it is necessary, in particular, to take into
consideration thee productivity of cows for no less than three
butterfat
lactations; fAi. and protein content In milk; returns from produc-
tion [compensating] for expenditures for rearing, feeding and main-
tenance of dairy cows; generalized indicators of milk production and
pedigree; indicators of direct ancestors (mother and father) and
nearest relatives (sisters, stepsisters, brothers); objective
indicators of external evaluation and of quality of beef
from cattle of different lines jnapravlenli). Taking these
Indicators into consideration, more improved and more simple
methods of animal evaluation should be worked out. in E. Novikov's
report, much .attention wis paid to the analysis of methods to be
used in the evaluation of breeding bulls as to the quality of
progeny and the further improvement of these methods. The speaker
dwelled also on the Characteristics of selection and mating (podbora)
methods under conditions of wide-spread use of artificial insemina-
tion.
The VASKhNIL Academician, N. Rostovtsev, presented his
report "Effectiveness of various crossings' In dairy cattle". From
the position of Hachurin's Materialistic biology and Pavlov's
physiology, he at the beginning analyzed a number of theoretical
problems of breeding and improving animal breeds. The speaker demon-
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(5) Trans. A-1089
strated the, role and the place of different methods for breeding
and crossing purebreds in raising pedigree and utilitarian cattle,
the need of a substantiated choice and of the combination of these
methods in relation to the specific conditions of the farm and the
'composition of the herd. In confirmation of the fact that inter-
breed crossing does not always produce the desired results,
Academic N. Rostovtsev cited examples of unsuccessful crossing of
East-Friesian cattle with laroslav and Brown-Latvian, and Reds.
Steppe (cattle) with East-Friesian. In the second part of the
report, Academician N. Rostovtsev acquainted [his listeners] with
the results of his long experiments in crossing Black-Spotted
cattle with Red Zebu and Gray Ukrainian with Kostroma which he con-
., ducted at a number of sovkhoses in the different cones of the coun-
try. The results obtained in these experiments were good. On -
the basis of the data obtained, Academician N. Rostovtsev arrives .
at the conclusion as to the desirability of utilising hybrid bulls
of the first and second generations with Black-Spotted and Red Zebu
blood in utilitarian herds of Black-Spotted cattle with the objective
of increasing butterfat in milk. For a further improvement of hy-
brid animals and the strengthening of their inheritance of butter-
fat and abundance of milk, he recommends crossing second generation
hybrid cows of Black-Spotted blood with second generation hybrid
bulls of Red Zebu blood.
In the report "Improvement of a dairy herd after the ex-
perience of the pedigree.sovkhoe Maravaevotn? by Doctor of AgriCul-
?
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? (6) Trans. A.4-1089
tura' Sciences, S. Shteinman, which was read by A.Mitropoltskala,
were examined the methods of breeding work used on this sovkhos
and the data obtained. As a.result of systematic, thorough
breeding work, improved feeding and conditions of maintenance, a
highly productive herd of dairy cattle of the Kostroma breed has
been produced on the "Haravaevon sovkhos and animals excelling in
pioductivity,not only during one lactation, but during their
entire life were obtained.
In the report by Candidate of Agricultural Sciences, P.
Eisner, certain organising and methodological problems of evaluating
breeding bulls of dairy and meat-dairy breeds were elucidated.
? The use of breeding (bulls] that eonsiderably surpass the mother
stock as to their qualities and firMly transmit these qualities
to the progeny Is one of the mosteffective means of improving
cattle rapidly. The-importance of such breeding .bulls has increased
especially in connection with the mast use of artificial insemina-
,
tion from which a thousand and more, calves are obtained annually
from one bull. The breeding value of bulls can be determined
more accurately by examining the quality of their progeny. A bull
cenriot, however, be evaluated by the milk production of his
female progeny before they are 5.5-6 years old, when they finish .
their first lactation. Up to this age the breeding value of a
bull must be judged by its origin, appearance and development.
Hence the speaker deems it necessary to Continue work on the im-
provement of methods for the evaluation of bulls by their pedi-
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;
Le
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(7) Trans. 1-1089
gree and individual properties.
In the opinion of the speaker, a direct evaluation of the
productivity of the bull's female offspring under the usual farm
conditions and a,simultaneous comparison with their mothers as
well as with [heifers) of their min age. In using any evaluation
method, 'the problem of the unification of indicators of the amount
of milk produced in one milking, with due consideration of the
animals age, is the most complicated bne.
The report "Camtemporary situation and prospects of arti-
ficial insemination of agricultural animals", by VASHMIL Azademl-
clan; V. Milovanov and Prof. 1. Sokolovskaia (the report was'read
? by I. Sokolovskala), reviewed briefly the history of the develop-
ment of artificial insemination in the USSR and other countries,
? Its role In increasing animal productivity, in hastening the crea-
tion and further impiovement of pedigreed cattle (Hegin'p.135) and
of
the scaleAuse in different countries.
In the USSR, the GDR [German Democratic Republic - Com-
munist], the Hungarian People's Republic and in other countries,
apart from the ()blast' and rural district tokruchnyel stations,
central stations for artificial insemination have been established.
These stations house the best breeding bulls, chiefly of an elite
class and an elite record which, however, in most cases, have not
Als yet been tested as to the properties of the progeny. For the
purpose of increasing fertilisation, the authors of the report
recommend practicing varied feeding of the bulls and cows. To
insure total nutritionneas and food value. the rations of. heaaelino
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(8) Trans. A-1089
?
.bulls must include 70-75% of the grain portions of plants, and
conversely, the rations of cows, 70-75% of the green portions of
plants.
The basic problems of the technique of artificial Insemina-
tion were critically examined in the report. Special note WAG
made of the need of producing instruments and materials for arti-
ficial insemination from synthetic materials that insure low prices,
simplicity and better sterilization.
Corresponding Member of VAMMIL; N. Surlakov, In his re-
port, elucidated certain problems of organizing efficient use of
cattle which, In connection with the tasks set for a sharp increase
? In the production of meat and milk, and a decrease in their net
cost, acquirc.exceptional Importance.
The speaker cited data to the effect that in the USSR the
age of cows at their first calving is very often 33-36 months,
in the GDR - 30-33 months, in Czechoslovakian Republic - 27-33
months etc. On the basis of an analysis of available material,
the speaker arrived at the conclusion that in cases of feeding
full value feed and normal development, heifers of dairy and
dairy-meat breeds can be inseminated for the first time at the age
of 15-16 months. Milk production during the first lactation when
calving occurs at a younger age is usually somewhat less than when
calving occurs at a more mature age, but the total quantity of
milk and calves obtained during the whole utilization period is
? greater in the first (younger) cows.
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(9) Trans. A-I089
On the basis of an analysis of data on scientific experiments
and practice at individual farms, the speaker finds it desirable
to reduce the dry tsukhostolnyil period of cinils from 60 days to 35-
45 days. In determining the duration of the dry period, it is
*necessary to take into consideration the state of being well-fed,
productivity and the level of feeding dry cows.
In the report, considerable attention waS paid to problems
of increasing beef production. In examining problems of loote
cattle maintenance and'of mechanising labor in animal husbandry,
the speaker noted that their utilisation in practice will provide
? a sharp increase In labor efficiency in animal husbandry and a
decrease of the net cost of meat and milk.
In the report of the active member of the Ukrainian Academy
of Agricultural Science, P. Pehenichnyi? titled "fundamental
problems Of directing tupravleniej the ontogeny of agricultural
animals", the general principles of the regularities of the
growth and development of organisms under the influence of condi-
tions of external environment, and also problems of directing em-
bryonic and postembryonic development of agricultural animals were
examined briefly from the position of Michurin's biology and
Pavlov's physiology. In the opinion of the speaker, it now has
been sufficiently well elucidated when, under the influence of
the surrounding environment, tissues, organs and entire animal
organisms are most variable.
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(10) Trans. k-1089
The youngeit and least differentiated tissues, organs and
organisms are the most plastic. Organisms in the developmental
stage that are ready to pass from one stage into another, and
organisms with a shattered heredity are subject to the most notable
changes. INoticeable changes may appear in the tissues, organs
and in the entire organism of growing and-of adult animals with a
more intensive metabolism and more intensive activity. 'Knowledge
of these regularities permits animal breeders to approach the guidance
of organism development with greater substantiation.
Candidate of Veterinary Sciences, 1. Mesarosh (Hungary) pre-
sented a report on control, methods for sterility in cattle. For
0 the purpose orpreventing sterility, he first of all calls atten-
tion to the need of proper rearing, feeding and maintenance of
cattle. .Besides the general nutritiousness of feed. rations, it
is essential to take into consideration their complete food value.
Deficiency of mineral substances, especially phosphorus and cal-
cium, vitamins and microelements in rations may cause sterility in
animals.
? I. Vani reported that in'the Hungarian People's Republic breed-
ing of purebreds is the basic method for improving cattle. Besides
this', good results have been obtained in experiments conducted
in crossing Hungarian Red-Spotted cattle with Kostroma cattle.
The hybrids of the first generation produce an average milk yield
of 3-4 thousand kilograms with 4.5.4.8% of butterfat.
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Trans. A-4089
Professor Ian Paionk Poland) noted that i
and his colleagues employ complex evaluation
no external appearance and development
of offspring.
d to type and corree
o the structure and
P 1 )
ody structure of the
of he udder. In
breeding, he
nimals as
tivity and
A. great deal of attention'
rdals,and
evaluationof
is that are
s are not entered in the
iras
udder, 20- points are $e a ;ad out of 100..
given an udder evaluation
cPJtStete breeding register)
Is carried out in accordance 3.:
farms, an effort
had been evaluate
of semen as to gr
?10 PO
Selection and evalue
-
veloped method.
eding. bulls on
made to 'utilise
to pedigree
h and develo
pr n
the productivity of daughters during the first lactation.
spring a used
ing bulls verified as .to
arg,.
-until thtyAio years old.
Doctor K.Barteh for BerchJ
work conducted in determining pro
he quality of t
vestigations of the properties of milk obtain elfr
of 11 breeding bulls undergoing tests, he establis
S ad
s on
s of in
the daughters
a close re
lation between the content of butterfat end protein In milk Ac?
cording to his data, there has been observed between butte'rfat'.and
protein in the 11( of co .corre1etion coefficient of 0.5-0.7
and e regression coefficient of 0.3
.5.
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Trans. A-4089
?
Doctor 1.
he
d tha:tend his co
epUbi
the expo
the USSR and other democratic countries in mproving the organizing
of breeding work and of artificial insemination ,The Republic ha
established centers for artificial insemination and for
tr01 of sterility, central for the distrl
breeding sires d the supply inary equipment.
Moso1a told about his exp.rhnce in organizing
tech Republic,
nd mating In
PPraistl of pure
d also on the
n by means of
dee9freOzin9 and preservation with carbon dioxide.
Professor M. Lebedev dwelt on problems concer
artificial insemination
articular on problems
flebre?ng, f using inbre
yping herds on coo
development of new methods for sto
gan
art'
Ing of breeding work under conditions of wide..e
cial insemination the basis of experiments
ork condu
in the Leingrad Oblast., be oititheda plan for speciicmeOs.
men t
Professor E. Arzumanten noted
d for further Improve*.
ed
r methods for the evaluation of built by Ithe records of] their
daughters on different farms for the determination of the age of
heifers with A view to their first insemination depending on breed
and other cond tions
especially emphasizedl the
of breeding farms at the earliest
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Shmell
in breeding prac
(13)
Trans. A-1080
s and me
lzer3rep?rtd aboutan experiment
exited for their Impro
Ilc. Much attention paid to
ment in the German Democratic Repu
the organizing of productivity controls Cows under control com-
pris (of their total nub*rL twelve control tests are 04
ried out annually.. In the 1
ment and external appearance are
re not admitted for appraisal if
type as to body structure or corr
the State Breeding Register
n of bulls* the general evelop
to consideration
Ir mothers do not conform
tructure of tht udder.
made for the total milk
production [of a cow3 as well as for each part (dolls) of the
udder, In the year 1958, art
Nflas carried out on 56.8% of t
bulls attached to a farm is car
tor of Veterinary Medi
fictal insemination in the Republic
rge stations f
have bee
stations semen
owl and 'lettere.
d out every 2.5
* T. Maeveldi
Replacement of
3 years
reported that
r artificial insemination (3040 bulle.in each)
bl shed in the Polish People's Republic, Inmost
stored at 0441 (Ci temperatures At eie stations*
tests are made of methods for st ri
and by conservation of acids.
AS a result of discussion o
the Conference adoptedseries
The delega
regular exchange
semen at 79' temperature
On turn
f important recommendations.
e Conference noted
lenCe between countrs of
en sty that a
e people's
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(14) Trans, A-1089
democracies will assist in accomplish' g the tasks laid down
for a sharp increase of the production of livestock products at
the earliest possible data.
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*runs. .R.'?.1VVU
vg/M
Konstantinov, P. N., and Plotnikov, N. LA.
K voprosu o metodike polevogo opyta
[On the methods of field experiments]
Vestnik Sellskokhoziaistvennoi Naukt, vol. 4,
no. 6, p.35-42. June 1959. 20 V6.33
(In Russian)
Correct organization of field experiments appears to be one
of the most important conditions of agricultural research. All
agricultural procedures (methods of soil cultivation, planting,
kinds and norms of introduced .fertilizers), as well as the studied
varieties, must be given comparative scientific-agricultural and
economic evaluation under definite specific conditions of the
experimental establishment and of agricultural production. Field
experiment permits detecting production importance of these or
other agrotechnical processes or of the introduced new crops and
varieties in dose connection with the industrial and natural con-
ditions. It is possible, on the basis of data of a correctly
conducted field experiment, to obtain important conclusions for the
agricultural industry.
Prof. P. N. Konstantinov, Active Member-Academician of VASKHNIL
(All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences imeni V. I. Lenin];
N. LA. Plotnikov, Candidate of Pgricultural Sciences, Moskovskala
Sellskokhoziaistvennaia Akademiia imeni K. A. Timiriazeva [Moscow
Agricultural Academy Lucia K. A. Timiriezevl
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(2) Trans. A-1090
It was yet In the report of the President of VASKNNIL (All.
Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences been' V. I. Lenin], P. P.
Lobanov, at the-Jubilee Session of the Academy, dedicated to the
.40th Anniversary of the Great October Socialistic Revolution, that
attention was drawn to the necessity of paying special attention
to questions of methods of the experimental work; this should
provide for the increase of accuracy and authenticity of scientific
data..
At the same time Academician P. P. Lobanov mentioned that
at many institutes and experimental stations improvement of methods
of the experimental work is not any more a subject of constant
? attention and care, while many scientific workers .do not even use
the required and the most objective method of mathematical analysis
bf experimental data.
We became familiar with the work of individual varietal plots
After studying data, published in the information bulletins of the
State Commission on variety testing of agricultural crops, as well
as the reports, presented to VASHENIL, by the All-Union Scientific-
Research Institute of Fertilizers and Agricultural Soil Science.
As it is known, the central apparatus of the Gossortsett (State
Network of Agricultural Experimental Stations] provides leadership
in all the work of State Varietal Plots; and the methodical super-
vision of experiments with fertilizers In the geographical network
was entrusted to VIUA (All-Union Fertilizers and Soil Study insti-
tute]. It is pertinent to point out that both the central apparatus
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(3) Trans. A-1090
?
of Gossortsetl, as well as the VIM, which have highly qualified
cadres of scientific workers and specialists, pay great attention
to problems of. methods of field experiments. Nevertheless, at
? 'State Varietal Plots And In the work of the Geographical Network
of Experiments with Fertilisers, serious violations of methods of
the field experiment and of agrotechniqde are being discovered.
Let us cite several instances. Thut, in 1956, at the Pil-Khensk
Varietal Plot, in TuVinsk Autonomous Oblast', oats Were harvested
without an accounting according to replications in various systems
of soil cultivation. Khovalinsk Varietal Plot, Tadzhik SSR, also
calculated the yield of oil flax varieties not by sections, but
? . summarily. At the Minliarsk Varietal Plot, plellabinsk oblast',
harvesting of the yield was conducted One month after the ripening
.of mitring wheat and oats in ,the experiment on variety tests; at
the Kitabskii mountainous Varietal Plot, Uzbek SSR, varieties of
? oil flax were harvested In 47 days after ripening; thisled to
great losses in yields. After such (Begin p.361 most flagrant
violations of methods, :data of' experimentscannot be taken into
account. Exceptionally careless behavior in regard to scientific
research, was permitted by V. M. Takmursin, former superintendent
of the Gorno-Marilakii Varietal Plot In Mari ASSR, who
ly upset the methods and agrotechnique of the eiperiments. In
1956, he conducted'a summary harvest (for a series of experiments)
of. grain crops, ignoring the compulsory accounting of the yield
according to replicationa. Comrade Takmurgin, both in his initial
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(4) Trans. A-1090
?
records and in his annual report, showed the yield of grain ac-
cording to replications in order to escape the responsibility.
for violation of methods of experiments. Of course, single cases
cannot characterize the work Of the system of State Variety Tests
a ...
asAwhole. It was shown in a short report about the results of
variety tests.of agricultural crops for 1956, printed in 1957,-
that the greatest number of varietal plots conducted the experi-
ments on variety tests of agricultural crops without any violations
of methodical and agrotechnical instructions of the State Com-
mission and the experiments were accepted with a satisfactory and
good evaluation. Yet, it is recorded in this ,same report that
Al, in individual cases deviations took place from methodical principles,
accepted by the State Network of Agricultural Experimental Stations.
Basic violations of methods and agrotechnique at the State
varietal plots are as follows: planting with an insufficient number
of replications; planting of varietal seeds without the standard
variety or a control variant; incorrect planting in respect to
various predecessors; inaccurate conducting of analyses; planting
on poorly cultivated soil; violation of planting dates, absence of
sufficient care, violation of the irrigation regime violation of
dates of harvetting and threshing of the yield, and others.
In many cases, in 1956, the experiments of industrial testing of
varieties were not accepted in view-of the fact that varieties
were planted after different predecessors on different dates;
different systems of harvesting were used, as well as recording
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(5) Trans. A-1090
S
of yields of various varieties by different methods, and so on.
According to data of the State Commission, in 1956, 2,645
experiments, or 2.2% of the general number of conducted experiments_
were rejected, while in industrial testing - 320 variety. expert-
meats, or 5.2% of the number of the conducted experiments.
At the Ak-Havak Experimental Station of V1US (Uzbek SSR),
In 1957, an experiment with fertilizers Under cotton was Laid
out in a fourfold replication on a plot of 1057.4 sq. m. Dif-
ferences in yields according to replications conspicuously ex-
ceeded the differences in the variants of the experiment. Yields
of the first and second replications, which were situated in the
? first "lams" [stage, row or bed], were considerably lower than the
yields of the third and fourth replications of the second bed.
Evidently conditions of the environment, and, in the first place,
the degree of fertility.of these beds were different. It is
impossible to analyze data of these experiments and draw correct
conclusions from them.
In the experiment, conducted, in 1957, at the Oshsk Experi-
mental Station,'Kirghlz SSR* in which doses and dates of intro-
duction of nitrogen under cotton were studied, very variegated
data of yields, according to replications, were also obtained and
did not permit the making of correct evaluations of variants of
the experiment. In the report of V11JA on studies of forms of
mineral fertilizers in the Geographical Network for the. years
1956-1957, defects were pointed out in the conducting of experi-
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(6) Trans. A-1090
?
menta at some of the experimental establishments; departures from
the suggested schemes of experiments and methods, accOuntings of
yields' by insufficiently accurate methods, arbitrary exclusions,
with giving any reasons, of data on yields of individual repli-
cations; absence of data on agrochemical characteristics of the
soil of the experimental plot; insufficient conducting in experi-
ments of necessary research -and observations; absence of mathema-
tical analyses of experimental data, and others. Variegation of
data on replications in a series .of experiments must be considered
an essential defect. ' [Begin Pan. ?
Professor P. G. Naldin in his speech at the All-Union Con-
vention of Workers of Agricultural Science.(in 19S6). while discus-
sing the results of field experiments on the study of organic-mineral
mixtures, conducted by the experimental establishments of the
Geographical Network, emphasised that out of 125 experiments 79
were acknowledged as reliable, or 63%; the remaining 37g of ex-
periments were rejected. Many experiments were rejected by the
experimental institutions themselves. P. G. Naidin came to a
conclusion that not less than 50% of field experiments, conducted
at the experimental stations, proved to be defective. There are
still more rejections of experiments that are conducted directly
at the kolkhOses.
Many scientific-research establishments, State Agriculteral.
Experimental Stations and State Varietal Plots conduct their
experimental work in compliance with the accepted methods; this
411
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then permits, on good grounds, recommending to the industry more
improved and effective agricultural measures, new crops and varie-
ties that are prospective. Apparently, the most widely used methods
in the experimental establishments of USSR, are the nonstandardixed
checkerboard (shakhmatnyij, as well as the standard-paired per-
centage method in field experiments,' which provide for obtaining
dependable, trustworthy data. It Is necessary to pay the most -
serious tatention to the choice of the plot of land in laying out
the experiments. A detailed physical...chemical and morphological
soil examination must precede the selection of the plot. The Plot
must be typical, situated on the predominant type of soil with
the most unvarying typical relief, plants, etc. Besides the natural
soil variegations, the plots can differ also, on the strength of
their previous use under various experiments with a different tit..
lege of the soil with the introduction of various fertilizers 'to
different site areas, and so on. Therefore, it is necessary care-
fully to study the history of the section before laying out an
experiment. Knowledge of the history of the section will permit
conducting the soil examination with a greater effectiveness; also,
better to understand the variegation of the field and to organize
the methods correctly. Work on an unstudied plot, ass rule,
.leads to the fact that the researcher commits a gross error, utile
recommending agricultural methods, varieties, and so on that were
not well-grounded in the experiment, and, thus, impairs the agri-
cultural industry.
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The possibility of conducting an experiment on an unstudied,
unknown plot is excluded in general. Unfortunately such errors *
are yet permitted In field experiments. For example, an experi-
menter, under conditions of Irrigation In Rostov Oblast', while
studying the structure of the yield of spring wheat, compared the
obtained data according to two varieties Melianopus 69 and ?
Al'bidum 43, which were plantedt ? the first over spring plowing
(predecessor - cotton), and the second over fall plowing (prods'
?
cessor - winter wheat). More than that, the yield of grain of
spring wheats per hectare was determined in the experiment ac-
cording to two sample sheaves, that were harvested from a single
square meter of the planting.
As a preliminary examination before conducting the experiments,
we consider it absolutely necessary to carry out trial plantings
on slightly studied plots for the purpose of making more precise
(for definite specific conditions) the basic elements of methods
of the field experiment: the size of plots, number of replications,
accuracy of the experiment, shape of plots, and so on.
None of the physical-chemical soil analyses (although they
are needed) from the experimental plot can give such a detailed,
Idea about the variegation of the soil fertility, as a fractional
accounting of the harvest. The plant proper appears to be the
best reagent to the soil and'other-variegations of conditions of
? the environment; Knowledge of the history Of the plot, data on
soil examination and trial planting are the basic materials for
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?
the formation of methods for field experiments. If there is no
need for making trial plantings in conducting experiments under
production conditions [Begin p.38] (provided the .experiments are
laid out on large plots with a sufficient number of replications),
then in experimental crops'rotations, under stationary conditions,
the trial plantings must be conducted without fail. ,
In Our country not enough attention is yet paid to the quality
of the planting material and to the origin of seeds. At certain
State Selection Stations and Varietal Plots in one and the same
experiment seeds of some varieties are used with a germination of
80-85%, while others with a higher germination (95% and over), and
? often nonconditioned seedi are Used (according to varietal purity
and typicalness).
In State variety tests, it is especially important to take
into consideration the effect of the place of origin of seeds on
the yield, when varietal plots receive seeds (for comparative test-
ing) from selection stations (originators ofseeds), which work in
the most diverse soil-climatic zones. It was established, that .
seeds of one and the same variety (grains, those requiring culti-
vation
Inpropashnyel, or other crops), which were brought in from
other zones that sharply differ in nature, produce different yields
when compared with the yield of seeds of local reproduction. Tett-
Ing the seeds, obtained from different geographic zones, can lead,
and often does, to inaccuracy and most gross errors, because the
aftereffect of such a factor, as the origin, does not permit, with
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sufficient authenticity and correctly, to evaluate the varieties
during the first year of varietal tests. It is necessary to aim,
taking this into consideration, at such an organization of variety
tests that the varietal plots would be provided (for experimental
purposes) with seeds of different varieties, preferably of local
reproduction and of high varietal purity. One should not disregard
this rule also in.agrotechnical experiments.
Without startinEi a discussion of different opinions on the
problem of the size of the experimental plot, we think it necessary
to stress, that the size of the plot is determined in relation to
the probip* of research, to the variegation of soil fertility, kind
of experimental plot, agrotechniquepand others. Individual central
organizations, which conduct scientific-methodical supervision of
a large network of experimental fields, situated in various soil.
climatic zones, not so long ago legalized the experimental plot
for many crops to be the size of 100 sq. in with a 4 to sixfold re-
plication. From our point of view such recommendations require a
serious reason. It is necessary to take into consideration an
intricate complex of conditions of the place of the experiment's
layout and of its purpose. That is the reason why it is diffit.
cult to form such universal, infallible methods. Nevertheless, ,
basic principles for methods of the field expeilment'must?be worked
out and improved by means of extensive carrying-out of methodical
experiments. In practical experimental work certain adherence to
basic elements of methods must be followed. Thus, apparently,
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one can accept the recommendedarea of plots for many natural zones;
and, in particular, 50-100 sq. m for crops of continuous planting,
and 100-200 sq. m for crops requiring cultivation, which are tilled
with breaks. ' In field experiments; laid out under industrial con..
ditions of kolkhozes and sovkhozes, It would be proper to have plots
of an area not less than 0.25-2 ha(depending on the crop) in order
to mechanize the work. As yet, tars large Mechanized farm there
are no sufficiently well-grounded methodical directions on the
best sizes of experimental plots.
The most efficient allocation of plots, at which it. would be
possible to cover, to a maximum, the full variegation of condi-
., tions of the environment-by each variant, and, first of all, the
variegation of the soil fertility, appears to be in important fac-
tor. In multistage allocation of variants of the experiment,.
especially an leveled, uniform sections, this is provided by the
checkerboard ishakhmatnyll method. On variegated sections (ac-
cording to their soil fertility) the checkerboard method requires,
for high accuracy of the experiment, an increase of the plot area
(Begin p.39) and of the number of replications. In these cases the
use of the paired percentage method, with a smaller number of applica
tions would be appropriate In order to obtain reliable data (of 'great
comparability) and which will permit a simplified treatment of the -
numerical data. In a field experiment, regardless of the method used,
the chief attention must be paid to the observance of high agrotechni-
111 que (cultivation of soil, planting, care, harvesting, and soon).
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Conducting field experiments on a low level of agrotechnIcs
will not permit the researcher to obtaih.correct conclusions.
Such experiments must not be taken into account.
Replication of variants in the experiment must be compulsory.
The increase of the number of replications is more effective than
the raising of the 'size of plots for a greateraccuracy.of the
experiment. With a minor complexness of the soil covering of
the plot, which was levelled in respect to microrelief, on plots
of a size of 50-100 sq. m, it is possible to lay out the experi-
ment with a smaller number of replications (4-5);* in the presence
of great variegation of the field (a heterogeneous microrelief) the
number of replications must be increased. Under industriarcondi-
tions, with the site of the exporimentel plot of 1-2 ha good re
sults are obtained from a twofold replication during favorable
Years; 3, 44 5 and even6 replications per 1 ha are insufficient
on a variegated background during unfavorable years. Taking into
consideration the complexity of conducting field experiments under
Industrial conditions, especially of sowing and ham-resting? and
sometimes also the absence of sufficient experience of the experi-
menter, it is possible to recommend a threefold replication in the
presence of sufficient "lee of experimental plots; but with a two-
fold replication and when according to replications, the difference
'Two - 3 replications for the paired method.
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In the yield of variants is great, the experimenter finds him-
self then in a difficult situation. One can permit a twofold
replication in the limits of a field which is homogeneous
In fertility. Of course, the computation of the yield, according
to variants, including the control, must be conducted an areas
of similar size and at a high level_of agrotechnique.
Industrial experiment appears to be an obligatory, deciding
link In the researcb of the agricultural technician, plant breeder,
tester of machines, and others. Sometimes it is hard to make a
correct industrial evaluation of varieties (for instance with a
sharply differing shattering of grains or resistance to lodging)
40 in small plot experiments an variety tests even with careful her
-
vesting and threshing. Experiments, conducted under production con-
ditions, will help to gain an understanding of this matter. Besides
this, the industrial experiment will permit making an accurate
production and economic evaluation of new, more effective agricul-
tural methods, crops and prospective varieties. Such experiments
must be conducted in kolkhozes and sovkhozes applying high agro-
technical methods. Unbroken harvesting of each plot of the ex-
periment Is considered to be the basic measure for computation of
the yield in both the industrial experiments, as well as under
conditions of experimental establishments. Expediency in the use
of one or another means of computation of the yield is conditioned
by many causes. In experimental institutions, as an exception,
during the rainy weathers the calculation of the yield can be per.
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mitted by evaluation of two test sheaves or by isolation of sec-
tions.
Independent of the fact, which method (checkered or paired)
was used by the researcher in the experiments, the analysis of
data must be conducted according to the type of the year (dry,
medium or moist). This produces a much better Comparability of
the data's averages. Quite often, in experiments of many years
.standing, data according to 3.4 typical years permit understanding
the results of the experiment much better and make correct con-
clusions, than data on a large number of atypical, extreme years.
It is necessary determinedly to condemn the tendency in individ-
ual cases to maks the agriculturally poor quality experiments seem
to be sound with the aid of mathematics. ' Each mathematical'proces-
sing of experimental data, [Begin p.40) by any method, must be
preceded by the most careful agricultural analysis. The researcher
must know positively in all cases that the experiment was conducted
under conditions of the most. favorable agrotechnique, with a suf-
ficient size of plots and number of replications, that there were
no substantial violations of methods and technique. Without
entering into detailed discussion of different opinions on the
Importance of mathematics in the agricultural experimental work, .
one can mention, that mathematics (biometric methods of research
are meant here) is needed and useful. It is necessary Intelligently
to strive for applying mathematics in the experimental work. . Un-
fortunately, agriculturists often do not have sufficient mathema-
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,
tical training, and the mathematicians do not know the agricul-
tural science, as a result of this some of them approach the ilo-
logical problem from the narrow mathematical point of view, and
the others cannot use the biometrical methods of research with
sufficient fullness and qualification.
Experiments, in which .one is supposed to obtain serious,
large increases of yields, according .to variants (for examples in
experiments with effective fertilizers, with prospective kinds
of soil cultivation, and some others), can be conducted with an
accuracy of the experiment not only in the limits of 5%, but also
a lesser one. On the contrary, In the experiments where the
researcher must detect delicate, insignificant differences be-
tween the compared variants, higher demands must be made.
We, of course, do not deny that the average (m) errors of
mean values (M) of the accuracy of the experiment (P) and the,.
coefficient of authenticity (t), and others are the importaht
statistical indices, and there, where it is necessary, they must
be determined.
In England, USA, and other countries great importance Is attached
to problems of utilising mathematics in the analysis of data of?
biological experiments. Scientists of Bulgaria. Poland and other
countries write about this important side of biological research..
Professor "Oencho Oenchev" (Bulgaria) in his work "Importance of
the.mathematical method and of statistical regularities in.biology
and agriculture" makes an attempt of proving the necessity of maths-
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matical analysis of experimental data. He does not share the
idealistic opinion of the role and importance of mathematical
probability in natural science. But he asserts that "Wide intro-
duction of any measure in agriculture can be recommended in that
case when its positive economic effect will be proved as a regu-
lare'but not an occasional, phenomenon by means of carefully tested ?
experiments and correct and objective interpretation of the obtained
data by way of application of a mathematical method".
. We fully agree with the correct thesis of the Bulgarian scien?
tist, that good results can be obtained only In the combination
of good experiments withgood mathematical elaboration of obtained
? data. Unfortunately, in many experimental establishments of. USSR
the statistical methods of elaboration of experimental data are
ignored the most often, or are utilized obviously insufficiently.
Authors of articles, published in journals?ftemledelie"[Agri-
' culture] "Nauka i Peredovoi Opyt v Sellskom Khozialstve" (Science
and Loading Experience In Agriculture), and others not only do not
cite any indices of mathematical analysis of data, but in many
cases even do not write about conditions and method of conducting
the experiment.
The accompanying calculations and observations In the program
Of the experiment are of important value. They help in detecting
the interconnection of the environment with the studied phenomena,
In interpreting-correctly the obtained results of the experiment.
Under-estimation of the importance of this research, absence of
111 necessary computations [Begin p.411 hamper the possibility of.
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making sufficiently well-grounded conclusions and lead to a re-
jection of the experiment. .
The problem at. selection of the experimental plant merits
attention, in particularly, in agrotechnical experiments. It
is known, that reactions of varieties to different conditions and
agricultural methods (fluctuations of meteorological elements,
cultivation of soil, fertilliers and others) vary greatly; this
Is connected with the biological characteristics of varieties.
Especially changeable is the behavior of varieties and forms, that
are not adjusted to ecological anclindustrial.conditions. An .
agricultural ecotype must serve as the expeitmental plant.
' Branch and tonal scientific-research.inetitutes, which are
entrusted with the selentific-methodical leadership in the entire
experimental network, must pay more attention to problems of
methods, carefully to analyze defects In the wor4 of,e*perimental
stations and not permit gross violations of methods of the field
experiment.
The All-Union'Agricultural Academy men! V. I. Lenin, et the
leading scientific-methodical center, must take measures for a
deciding improvement of agricultural experimental work in scientia.
fic-research institutions. it is necessary to foresee, in the
thematic plans of the institutes, the theoretical and practical
problems, connected, with the improvement of methods and technique
of field experiments, both under conditions of experimental insti-
tutions, as well as of the production,
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Taking into consideration the ever growing development of
agricultural experimental work In our country and the increasing
requitement in trained cadres of experimenters, it is necessary
to introduce a special course of methods of experimental work in
agricultural higher institutes of learAing (nvutyn]. It is quite
expedient to have independent Chairs in individual large agricul-
tural.tiigher institutes of learning after the example of the Moscow
Agricultural Academy talent K. A. Timiriatev. The student must be
well trained methodically for his subsequent agricultural activity.
It is beyond doubt, that an agriculturist, regardless of the
.fact If he is working in an experimental institution, at a kolkhot
or sovkhoz, cannot dispense with the conducting of field experi-
ments in his industrial activity, end, consequently, do also with-.
out solid and deep knowledge of methods of the field experiment.
We consider that the necessity has matured for the publica-
tion of a series of fundamental educational and practical hand-
books on-the problems of methods of the experimental work.
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vg/m
Andreev, S. V., Martens, B. Kg,
Stepanov, A. S., and Trushinskii, A. N.
Kamera iskustvennogo klimata dila issledovaniii
v oblasti eashchity rastenli
tA chamber of artificial climate for research'
in the field of plant protection)
Zashchita Rastenil ot Vreditelei I Boleznei,
vol. 4, no. 6, p.17-18. Nov/Dec. 1959. 421 21
(In Russian)
This set-up was developed and.produced in the Biophysics
Laboratory of ViZR [All-Union Scientific Research institute for
the Protection of Plants]; it consists oft 1) a phytotron - a
chamber in which arc placed the experimental and other objects
of research and in which are installed special sources of light
and semi-conductor transmitting elements of the regulating appara-
tus, 2) conditioner - units for artificial production of required
climatic conditions, 3) water supply devices and 4) the control.
panel.- The volumetric capacity of the chamber Is 15 m3. Racks
are also provided for placing experimental plants" mesh isolators
with insects, and so on, as well as a eoll incubator for obser-
Vation of plantt, of-soil-inhabiting insects and microorganisms a
a different temperature of the soil.
Along the walls of the chamber, at the top and, at the bottom,
are two P-shaped air pipes, whichare connected to the conditioner.
The air is fed along the upper pipe, and returns to the conditioner
? along the bottom pipe as carbon dioxide accumulates in it.
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.(2) Trans. A-1091
In this manner the necessary climatic conditions are produced
and upheld in the chamber. A vestibule is constructed in front
of its entrance; a water system faucet and a sink are provided
there, as well as bactericidal lamps for disinfecting the clothing
of those working with pathogens of infectious diseases of plants:
The chamber is lighted with the aid of a set of lamps equipped
with mirror reflectors; luminescent ones and a spot mercury arc-
quartz lamp. of extra-high pressure, producing a spectrum of ultra-
Violet radiation in a wide range of wave lenghts. Al miter filter
wait constructed for the absorption of infra-red thermal radiation,
producing a harmful effect On plants.
Such a combined illumination of the chamber was produced with
the aim to approximate daylight to the maximum degree in its
spectrum composition.
? The ceiling, of the chamber is made of glass. The walls are
made in the form of panels, that are fastened to a dismountable
metal structural frame.
.The air, entering the phytotron, receives' the necessary mois-
"tura and temperature in the conditioner, inside which are mountedi
the evaporator of the refrigerating machine for air cooling, the
fan, the air humidifier, two electric heaters of air, that moves
through the conditioner, and of water, which enters the atomizer
of the humidifier. Regulation of temperature and humidity is attained
by means of separate switching in or off of the above cited devices.
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The humidity of air can be regulated by the change of tem-
perature of water, which is fed to the sprayers.
Switching in andstopping of the refrigerating machine, of
electric heaters, of the fan [Begin p.18) of the pumps are pro-
duced from the control panel, which has a button mechanism. Here
too are installed the control-measuring apparatuses, with the aid
of which it is possible to conduct the measuring of climatic para-
meters inside the chamber, as well as automatic regulation and up-
keep of the assigned regimes.
The layout of these apparatuses, based on the use of semi-
conductor thermal resistances, was also developed by the Biophysics
Laboratory Of V1ZR. M. A. Bergfelld also took part in the production
of the phytotron, besides the authors.
Title of the pictures. Chamber of arti-
ficial climate: 1) general view of the
phytotron. 2) Interior view. 3) Con-
trol panel. 4) Glass ceiling of the
chamber, over which are placed the re-
flecting incandescent lamps. 5),Three-
chamber humidifier of the conditioner
with the atomizers. Photograph by V. A.
Thin.
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Kalashnikov, A. I.1, Samoletov, A. I.,
Salgannik, M. O., and Kostin, I. O.
Opyt ispolltovanila malykh dot radioaktivnykh
itluchenli pri inkubatsil
III (Experiment with small doses of radioactive
radiation in the incubation of chicks)
Vestnik Seleskokhotialstvennoi Nauki, vol. 4,
no. 8, P.47-50. Aug. 1959. 20 v633
(In Russian)
?
The use of radioactive radiation as a biological stimulant
in the incubation of eggs of agricultural fowl is an entirely
new business. It is known that certain scientific establishments
have tried to investigate the influence of radioactive radiation
upon incubation eggs, but in these attempts the production percent-
age of healthy chicks proved lower than that of control (unexposed)
groups. The cause of this failure is clear to us: the doses of
radioactive radiation applied by different laboratories were too
high and they had been used at random without any theoretical
calculations.
In our investigations, we took into consideration the fact
that radioactive radiation occurs in nature and, consequently, it
a factor of external environment. Gamma rays that represent rigid
electromagnetic waves and possess great energy and high penetra-
tion power are of specially great importance. Gamma rays are a
411 1 Director of the Tomilino Poultry farm
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necessary condition in the life of any living organism. Hence
we refute the opinion that natural ionising radiation is harm-
ful for an organism. Agricultural practice utilizes effectively
? not only the electromagnetic waves of day light, but also infra-
red (heat) and ultra-violet rays the beneficial influence of which
upon a living organism is beyond any doubt at the present time.
As a basis for our calculations, we used the Magnitude of
natural radiation (equalling approximately 0.0003 roentgens?with.
In 24 hours4 or 0.0000002 roentgens per minute) which we adopted
as a unit and provisionally called KR (cosmic radiation).
Further we were confronted by the essential problem as to the
II/ exact time in the development of an embryo in which supplementary
ionising radiation can be utilised as a stimulating factor and
In what doses. At the very beginning, we assumed that the embryo
undergoes a more intensive development after every 3 days of the
Incubation [period] (beginning with the day the eggs are placed
in the incubator) and, proceeding from .this circumstance, we
established the days of the incubation (period] on which irradia-
tion was to be conducted (1,3,6,9,12,15 and 18th day of the incu-
bation).
Irradiation was carried out with the aid of uranium and thorium
salts that produce a soft gamma-radiation. During the (treatment]
session, a container with isotopes was put into an incubator, or
the eggs to be exposed were taken in their boxes [lotok] (at the
same time as controls) into one of the rooms of the incubation
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building. A notable, positive effect [beginj).48] was first
obtained from a dose of 0.00002 roentgens per minute when exposed
to a 10 minute treatment. The best results were observed when
? [eggs were] exposed to a dose of 0.0001 roentgens per minute
directly in the incubator and when exposed to a dose of 0.0002
roentgens per minute in a room of the incubation building. We
determined the hatching results by the number of fertilized eggs
which we obtained from one chicken coop with an identical col-
lection.
The experiment conducted In December 1956 (at an exposure of
360 eggs outside the incubator) demonstrated that the batch of
11/ healthy chicks hatched from the control group comprised 90.4%,
from the group irradiated with a dose of 0.014 roentgens - 92.8%,
and from a group irradiated with a dose of 0.021 roentgens -
During the following three experiments irradiation was carried out
directly in the incubator that contained 720 eggs (the control
boxes contained 360 eggs). As a result the batch of healthy
chicks in the control groups equalled 89.6%, when irradiated with
a dose 0.014 roentgens - 96.6% and With a dose of 0.021 roentgens -
94.3%. Both methods used in irradiating eggs (directly in the
Incubator and outside of it) have demonstrated the presence of a
stimulating factor.
Further, we defined more precisely the size of the dosage and
the duration of exposure in experiments which we conducted out-
side the incubator. In 1957, we irradiated eggs in one, two, four,
seven and nine replications for 10 minutes each [za odin *mans).
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(4) Trans e A?I092
A total of over 10 thousand eggs yereexposed to radioactive
radiation. All variations of the ,experiment produced a positive
? effect. The best results were , however, achieved in a seven
replication irradiation with a dose of 0.0002-0.0003 roentgens
per minute. During a one-time ten-minute irradiation, the embryos
received altogether 0.002 roentgens, that is, approximately as much
as from natural radiationyithin seven days._ Such radioactive
action produceda notable positive effect: (the yield) obtained
from 1222 irradiated, fertilized.eggs comprised 95% of-healthy
chicks, yet in control groups (1218 eggs), with all other con-
ditions being equal, the brood comprised 87.2%,.that is. 7.8% less
41/ In 1958, different variations were, used in experiments, in-
cludino changes. of chicken coops and seasons .of, the year. The most
effective one proved to be the same method of .irradiation: 0.0003
roentvens ;ler minute, or0.021 roentgens for the whole incuba-
tion period. There was scarcely any differente between the ir-
radiation dosages which we used and the doses of natural radia-
tion. This fact eliminated (our] misgivings regarding the injurious-
ness of these dosages In ontogeny and, in phylogeny. Observations
of the development, egg production and reproduction of chickens
that had been exposed to radioactive irradiation during the period
of embryonic development.confirmed.this fact. Radioactive doses
that influence a living oLanism and pre used-in institutes and
laboratories (tht.7 are exrmessed in hundreds, thousands and even
more roentgens, rnd scverely disturb metabolism, cause destruction
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(6) ' Trans. A-1092
the fourth day) and the nineteenth day. The grentest effect was
one day before
produced by irredintion on the nineteenth day last day-of
incubation whe* the embryo transfers from allantoic oxygen nutri-
tion to air respiration. It is assumed that in irradiation during
this period there occurs a partial decomposition of water mole- .
cules that are found in the air enclosing apace Epuga] at one end
of an egg and that there forms molecular oxygen that can serve as
supplementary food for the embryo. Experiments with single irradia-
tions have demonstrated that radioactive (even one replication)
influence exerted on a specific day of the incubation period can
prove sufficient to increase the brood of chicks %, that is to
obtain approximately the same effect that one does in a seven re-
plication irradiation. This fact can be explained by' the circum-
stance that the after effect of the penetrating radiation can be
connected with the' initiation linlitslirovanie] factor which is in
complete accord with Academician N. N. Semenovls theory concerning
chemical kinetics, although this hypothesis still requires,profound
supplementary testing. Consequently, a single irradiation can
produce the Same results as a multiple one. Experience his demon-
strated that a seven replication Irradiation1 with all other con-
ditions being equal, guarantees :-, more stable, favorable results.
At the end of 1958, we conducted a series of experiments in
continuous irradiation of embryos; for this purpose we placed the
irradiation source in the incubator beneath the brooders (lotki]
for the entire incubation period. For the-20 days of Incubation
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(7) Trans. A.-1092
each embryo received 0.6 roentgens, that is, 300 times more than
in intermittent irradiation. The positive result obtained in this
case scarcely differed from the effect obtained in intermittent
? irradiation.
Lately, we developed a method whereby eggs are irradiated
in the first days of the incubation (5-6 days) and on the nine-
teenth day. In experiments conducted by this method, the indi-
cators obtained of the brood according to breed were as follows:
New Hampshire (Nolu-gempshir) - 80.5% of the eggs placed (in the
incubator) (zalbzhennye] and 92% of those (that were] fertilized;
controls 71.7% and 85.6% respectively; Leghorn, - 89.8% of those
411 set and 94.4% of fertilized eggs; controls 84% and 90.2% respectively.
In this case, too, the result was approximately the same as in
intermittent radiation, but in more prolonged irradiation the effect
seemed to become fixed and more promising.
It must be noted that in the event high grade eggs are in-
cubated, then the irradiation effect is not particularly consi-
derable - the brood is increased by no more than 5-7%. Stimula-
tion is considerably more effective in cases in which the eggs
delivered for incubation are of a somewhat lower grade. On Decem-
ber 21, 1956, for example, 116 eggs each in the experimental and
the control group were placed in an incubator. In controls,
the ratio between the brood hatched and (the eggs] placed for
hatching comprised 77.5%, and the ratio of those fertilized was
84.9%; in the experimental group it was 92.3% and 97.2% respec-
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(8) Trans: ,A-1092
? tively; on August 18, 1957, 120 ecgs each were laid (to hatch) in
an experimental and a control group, the brood of the control group
comprised 83.4% of the (eggs] laid to hatch, and 88:5% of the
0 fertilized [eggs]; in the experimental group it was 92.5% and 97.3%
respectively. On December 11, 1957, out of 120 eggs laid to
hatch, the brood of each group among controls [Begin p.50] com-
prised 79:1% of those laid to hatch and 92.2% of those fertilized;
In the experimental group the brood equalled 90.8% of [.the eggs]
laid to hatch, and 98% of those fertilized. On January 18, 1958,
after 120 'eggs were placed in each group, in controls 80% were
.obtainid of the eggs laid to hatch and 83.5% of those fertilized,
111 and in the experimentrl group it was 88.3% and 96.3% respectively.
Observation of the subsequent development of irradiated chicks
demonstrated that the fowl developed normally and that its egg pro-
duction and ability for reproduction was somewhat higher in ir-
radiated chickens than in nonirradiated ones.
Uithin two years, the radiobiological laboratory of the Tomi-
lino poultry farm conducted 120 experiments and exposed a total of
about 50 thousand eggs to radioactive I-radiation during the in-
cubation period. In some experiments stimulation Was small (2..3%),
but the brood of chicks in experimental groups was in no case
smaller than that in controls.
In our experiments the lowest threshold of penetrating radia-
tion energy has been established at 0.0002 roentgens, after which
there begins a notable stimulating influence of irradiation. This.
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(9) Trans. A-1092
dose can be recognized as the minimal concentration of the energy
activation element. The upper radiation threshold beyond which
depression phenomena can be observed can be found within the limits
of 20 roentgen. A dose. of 26 roentgens produced an increase in
the number of chicks that suffocated within .the egg and reduced .
the total brood to 90.5% (among controls the brood equalled 92.4%).
In the same incubator with a dose of 2.1 roentgen, the brood com-
prised 94%, that is, 1.6% higher then in controls. Thus, the range
of useful radioactive influence proves to be very wide - from
0.0002 roentgens to 20 roentgens. In order to establish an optimal
regime it will be necessary to conduct new experiments in combina-
. tion with other factors: heat, humidity, oxygen exchange etc. The
data that we obtained permit in part utilizing radioactive iced's-
tion in production practice, as well as in selection.
In future, the postembryonic development, the production and
reproduction ability of .hens that have acquired the radioactive
impulse during the embryonic stage will have to be tested on con-
siderable numbers of fowl. For this purpose, a big batch of eggs
.
has been placed in an incubator at the Tomilino chicken farm.
?
(English, German and French summaries
are on page 50]
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vwin
Oaleev, O. S.
Metod polucheniia methlineinykh gibridov so
sterillnol pylltsoi materinskikh form
? (Method of obtaining interlinear hybrids
of maize by using the sterile pollen of
female forms]
Vestnik Sellskokhoziaistvennoi Nauki, vol. 4,
no. 6, .P.43-54. June, 1959. 20 V633
(In Russian)
Utilization of heterosis is a powerful means for increasing
productiveness of agricultural plants and especially of such that
submit themselves to hybridization comparatively easily. As it
is known, corn belongs to the number of such crops. Its dio-
eciousness and spacing of male inflorescences, which is convenient
for emasculation, permit to conduct a controllable crossing on
hundreds and thousands of hectares. One man can emasculate 5,000
plants during an eight-hour workday without particular exertion.
Additional expenses for the production of hybrid seeds, which,
usually, under conditions of the Krasnodar krai comprise 8-12
man-days per 1 ha of hybridization section pay well for themselves,
since the hybrids, especially the interlinear, considerably sur-
pass the ordinary varieties and hybrid populations. The effect of
heterosis in interlinear hybrids is 3 times higher than in inter-
varietal.
Kubanskaia Opytnaia Stantsiia Vsesoiuznogo Institute Rastenievod /7
III (Kuban Experimental Station of the All-Union Institute of Plant In'
dustry] ? /09y
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(2) Trans. A-1093
An unfailing condition for obtaining high yields of hybrid
seeds is the 100-percent pollination of plants of the female form
by the male; this can be attained only by a timely (before blooming)
111 removal of all inflorescences from plants of the material form.
Nevertheless, removal of tassels under production conditions is
not conducted altogether perfectly. Thus, during the course of
the last four years on many varietal plots of the Krasnodar krai
comparative studies of the yielding capacity of hybrid seeds Were
conducted; they were grown in kolkhozes and at the Kuban Experi-
mental Station of VIII (All-Union Institute of Plant Industry].
Results of these studies show that the yielding capacity of
seeds of the hybrid V1R 42, grown at the kolkhozes, is lower by
2.8 c per 1 ha on the average, than the seeds, grown at the Kuban
Experimental Station, where a careful removal of tassels was con-
ducted (table 1).
Table 1
Yielding capacity of corn seeds, grown in kolkhozes
and at the Kuban Ex ha
erimental Station (c/ )
Number
ybr d V1R
Yield of seeds of h 1 42
Year
of
In planting with
seeds
experiments
at the station
in the kolkhoz
1955
5
46.1
44.6
1956
32
57.5
53.0
1957
11 -
26.9
25.6
1955
5
- 67.2
65.1
Average
56
49.9
47 .1
The blooming of corn coincides with the most strenuous period
of agricultural works - the harvest of grain crops.
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(3) Trans. A-1093
And the process of detasseling cannot be mechtnized.in any
we, (Begin p.441 and in the presence of large areas of hybri-
dization sections on the farms a great number of people are
cupied with detasteling. All this compels, In the starch of more
improved methods of hybridization, to turn to the plant proper,
particularly, to the utilization of the characteristic of pollen',
Sterility, which was given the name of cytopiaamiC male sterility.
The vale sterility; transferred. along the female lini (through
the plasm) was yet discovered in 1931 by the Soviet scientist
M. RhadthinoV, and; independently of him, was described by the:
American, M. Rhodes. But the practical utilization of the male
sterility 'refers to a'much later 'time. N. Jones and N. Everett,
In 1949, suggested the use of lines with cytoplasmic male Sterility
for obtaining hybrids without the removal Of tassels. They gave a
description of the main peculiarities of this method.' It was '
experimentally established by works of various scientists, that
cytoplasmic male sterility can be introduced to the hereditary.
.type or the required line by means of reverse repeated (saturating)
crossings and selection.' Such lines can serve as female plants
for obtaining simple hybrids with male sterility* and the latter -
, as female forms of double hybrids; the male line of the'female
simple hybrid must retain male sterility in the descendants, while
?
*A certain raising of the productiveness of labor can be attained
only through a mechanical transportation of the workers along the
rows (use of a power-driven cart).
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?
(4) - Trans. AA093
the remaining two lines of the double hybrid - the parental forms
of tht male simple hybrid, on the contrary, must reestablish the
fertility (fruitfulness) of the hybrid.
The presence of two such types of lines, which determine either
the fertdlity or sterility, permits, o use such :a scheme of pro-
.
duction of hybrid seeds, which fully or partly excludes the neces-
sity of emasculation. (removal of inflorescences) of female plants.'
At the present time in USA two types of cytoplasmic sterility 7'
Texas and "Aiodshep ".[IojapYare used for the production of hybrid
seeds. The Texas type is the,most-widely distributed; most of the
prove to be fixers in respect to it. There are lines, which
.exclude this type of sterility;' that is, they restore fertility.
The presence of two types of lines, which determine the sterility
or which restore the fertility, makes this type of sterility the ,
most valuable for the selection. A preliminary cultivation of two
similar duuble hybrids is required, one - fully fertile, and another -
sterile for the industrial utilisation of sterility of the iojap
type. The fertile onalogue, blooded with the sterile, provides the''
necessary fertility of the plantings.
In the Soviet Union along with the Texas type of Sterility,
the Moldavian type is also widespread; it received its name from
the corn variety Moldavian yellow ("Bessarabka") and the Moldavian
orange. The first crossings, which started the practical use of
this type of sterility, were conducted by us at 'the Kuban Experimen-
tal Station of V1R in 1953.
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, (5) . Trans. A-1093
? The plants, which differ In the type of sterility, react
differently to the pollination with the pollen of one. ana the *ale
line .For instance, in pollinating * plant with the Texas type
of sterility by the line A34, it retains the male sterility in
the offspring stably, while a plant with the Moldavian ,type re-
store* fertility in the descendants. These types differ also in
the outward appearance of tasselsi in plants with the Texas type
the degree of sterility is Much higher, the anthers degenerate
? stronger, they very rarely protrude from the spikelets and never
open Up, that is ndyer spread any pollen; in the. Moldavian type the
anthers often protrude from spikelets and often contain a small
amount of pollen with germinating power, but they do not open up;
? owing to this fact the tassel continues to remain sterile. The
degree [Begin p.451 of sterility changes somewhat depending on
the place and condition of grOwing the plant.
Classification of lines. according,to their reaction'to dif-
ferent types of male.sterility. Numerous crossings, in which plants
with sterile male inflorescences were uied as female forms, have
shown, that in the World Collection of VIR tAll-Union Institute, of
Plant 'industry] there are lines which are suitable for the pro-
duction of both the female forms with sterile pollen, as well as
the male forms4 restorers of hybrid fertility. Each source of steri-
lity was studied separately; the reaction of lines vials tested se-
parately in regard to Texas and Moldavian types of sterility.
? Degree of fertility was evaluated according to the 7-point scale:
blooming of tassels proceeds normally, a lot of pollen it formed
(6 points); single male flowers are sterile (5' points); up to 50%
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' (6) trans. A-1093
of flowers are normally developed, form a great deal of pollen.
(4 points); tassel almost fully sterile, only single anthers
discharge pollen (3 points); tassel is sterile, a small amount .
of pollen forms In anthers, it Is mostly underdeveloped, In
blooming the anthers protrude from anthers but do not spread pollen
(2 points); sterility Is expressed still stronger, during blooming
.only single anthers protrude from spikelets, but they alWays re-
'main closed (1 point);. full sterility - anthers degenerated strong-
ly, do not contain any pollen with germinating power,and'never
protrude from spikelets too.
Plants, appraised at 5-6 points, form the fertile class,. at
3-4 points the semi-sterile, at 07172 points the sterile class.
Besides that, the Special condition ortassels? in which the anthers,
remaining sterile, !never leave the spikelets, but contain a
small amount of pollen, was.appraised at.a point 01. Sterility of
the Roldavian'type was appraised at points 01, 1 and 2, and the
Texas- at. only 0 and 01, and Very,rerely 1.
.The studied.lines, in respect to the Texas type of sterility,
were assigned to theft following groups!
? 1.- Fixers (In crossings with Sterile plants dependably re-
tain the male sterility in the descendants) no. D203,, no. D230, no.
D255, .no. D273,. A45, A21, A344 A39# A73, A111, A116, A131, A158,
A165, A166, AI71, A172, 8# 9# 15# 16, 33, 47, 119# 374, C1/4.# C42,
L, F4 R3, VW% M13, 0S420, 1.289, CN, 1328, C-6-29, 38-11,
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(7) Trans. A-1093
187-2, Cr-30, 0-380, J-22.
? 2. RestOrers of fertility (excluding male sterility in
? descendants): 24, 28, 1-153, LR, W15511, A34411, W153R, UW5, $1325,
SV19, SM-1, VH, K-1-1 and K.
? 3. Semi-restorerS (Intermediate between the two first groups);
M14, Iti 701, 01128, 25, 62, 206, A71, ND283.
? The remaining lines, studied by us, produced single fertile
'plants in the pollination of sterile plants of the Texts type.
?
As it is seen friim the cited data, there is a sufficient
number of line fixers in the ifIR collection, and very few .re-
storer'llnes. There are comparatively many of them only among
the Argentine lines (50% of studied Argentine lines proved to be-
good restorers). These lines are: UW5, $1325, SVI9, SM-1, VK and
K-1-i.
But the Argentine lines?have a long growing season, and there-
fore are unsuitable for direct use in medium-ripening hybrids;
lines- 1-153, 153 and A344 virtually'differ very little from each
other, and, apparently are analogues. Lines 2411 V.115511 and LR?
were not yet sufficiently studied.
Lines with the Moldavian type of sterility are more difficult
In utilizing for the purpose of selection. Extent of manifestas
tion of this type depends to a greater degree' (Begin p.461 than
the Texas type on conditions of the environment. This type of steri-
lity is retained more or less satisfactorily by the following
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?
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(8) Trans. A-I093
lines: 144 A21, A31, A42,
A73,
A114,
A131,
A148, A155,
A158, A165,
A166, A334, A344, A357,
A374,
A375,
A392,
15, 17, 22,
28, 49, 85,
90, 187, 0h51, M13, L$ 0$420, WF9, M14, NU 38-11, CS426, L317, W22,
41, Cr30, Cr36, 4226, C-6-29, N10203, ND283.
There are still fewer restorer lines for the Moldavian type
? of sterility than for the Texas. To their number can be referred
A34, A116, A71 A471 Und partially- A111, A340, A347, 8, 9, 16 -
and 23.
The characteristic of lines of regionalized and prospective
VIR hybrids is cited separately (table 2) La respect to both types
of sterility.
? 4Table 2
Reaction Of self-pollinated lines of regionalizedand prospective
corn hybrids of VIR in hybrids with Texas and Moldavian types of
cytoplasmic male sterility (according to data of Kuban Experimen-
tal Station of VIR and of Krasnodar Scientific-Research Institute
of Agriculture, in 1958)
Pollini-
zer
lines
Fertility (sterility) of the
hybrid in using It as a '
female form of plants with
sterility
yollini-
"zer
lines
Fertility (sterility) oi
the hybrid in using it as
a female form of plants
with male sterility
Texas type
Moldavian type
Texas typelMoldavian
type
VIR 11
SF
VIR 53
VIR 20
VIR 55
VIR 26
V
VIR 60
SF
25VIRV1R 21
FS
VIR 64
VIII 75
SF
V1R 29
viR 38
SF
VIR 82
VIR 93
SF
VIR 39
SF
SF
VIR 100
V1R 10
VIR 109
V1R 41
VIR 115
? F
?iIR
SF
V1R 116
SF
VIR
F.
VIR 118
VIR
Is.
VIR 133
VIR 51
VIR 157
SF
1ii 52
(Footnote
for table is
on next page).
VIR 158
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Footnote. Conventional signs of hybrid plants: "Sw - sterile, '
wfw-:-Tertile, "SF" - semi-sterile with a predominance of sterile
plants, "FS" - semi-sterile with a predominance of fertile plants;
lines of the Indicator of sterility.are marked out by underlining.
In 19581 necessary crossings were conducted for the purPoie.
of drawing up a characteristic of the entire collection of self-. .
pollinated lines. .The existing data can be used in the work of
production of double hybrids, whose tassels need not be removed dur-
ing growing of hybrid seeds.
Cultivation of sterile analogues of the lines.
Work of
production of sterile analogues (duplicates) Is conducted with
lines, that retain the male sterility Well in the descendants,
using the method of reverse saturating-crossings (figure '
Any varieties, hybrids and' lines, which possess' sterility to a.
high degree (point 0 and 01)?, is well as the female.type of In-
heritance of this sterility are Imitable as a source of sterility.
Three to 5 specimens are pollinated with pollen of the selected
? line, into which it is intended (8egin.p.47) to introduce the
sterile plasm; simultaneously with this, the plants of lines,
which were used as pollinieers, are self-pollinated., The next
year a repeated pollination of sterile plants of the hybrid of
the same line is conducted; at the same time a hybrid family,
Which showed the greatest degree of sterility is used as the
female; while as the male - the descendents of that self-pol-
linated plant of the line, which was the pollinieer in the ob-
taining of the given hybrid. During the third year this process
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(10) trans. A-1093
is agate repasto4, but when Solettlag=fenils families e*d plants
one takes into considsration? not ooiy the degree of sterility
of tassels, but also the alialoty of tRass tonal's* and; plaits
111. with this lins taken. Suet* saturating :itroweing* and selection are
coati-await antii that tins when the hybrid boson**, in its external
appearance of the plant sad sir, .so 'atotio to ths has that,'
virtually, it is lapassibli to distinguish then. lisvarthsless,
the obtained tarn differs fro* tits tins by the sterile feria of
the tassel and, .therefore, is .111.4 the sterile analogue of
the Oran tbs. It is obtalasd?aftor 5-6 generations of saturating
? eroilings: We of crossings on a large scale (especially during
the last stages of saturation), together with a directed selec-
tion, rodudos this tins to h, and sonetinit *von to 3 years. Ur*
of diffetontr genorations,, saturated with lines VIR 27 VIR 100
V/R 53 and V1R 64 are daplotelt In f in 2.
Title of tIgur 1.- *gnus for obtaining s stsrIls ana-
logue- afa cern line.
Words In figs, .1. TopAjast Goaerstions, Saturating
Wee* iftet. ii?tton Unst Reproduction. Vadat- the figure.
Canventional synbois:
ITS - plant, pritssasibCsals sterility of Taxa/ type a
A - fertile self-PollOttid Urtit,B
AT, - sterile analog** ?f has A
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?
Certain sterile flalogues of the third generation of the
saturation ,re tested in special crossings, which confirmed that
the analogues are the same in he-editary respect. Thus, for
111 instance, in the preliminary test, in 1958, the simple hybrid with
male sterility Fa (44 ms X38) ms yielded 70.9 c per I ha, and
Its fe:tile analof,ue F1 (4008)-71.9 co that is both harvests
were virtually similar. The sterile analogue of the line was kept
up in reproduction with the aid of its fertile analogue, which took
part also in the saturating crossings, Thus, an improvement of
the original lines as fixers is conducted simultaneously with the
reproduction of sterile analogues.
In those cases when no sterile analogues are produced for
the fixer lines, and they are utilized in the female simple hy-
brid as a Aale form, the work of their improvement by the above
cited method is carried out specifically. But in these cases the
saturating crossings are limited to one generation. such a work
was conducted at the Statian with the lines V1R 38, VIA 29, VIR 11,
and others for their utilisation In crossing* with the sterile
analogue of the line V1R 44.
As it Aready has been pointed out above, there are very few
restorer lines in UM Vlit collection. Meanwhile their number
slxuld not be smaller them that of the fixers; in a double hybrid
one or two lines, out of four, must have [Begin p.48] a restora-
tive ability. This problem can be solved by producing new fixer lines
411 o.nd analogues restorers for prospective lines, which are restorers
(by nature).
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(12)
Trans. k-I093
Title of figure 2. deneratiOns of saturating crossings
with the parttelpation of the lifse a) V1R. 27 ipel?
liniser)1 b) V1R 100 (pollise
nir); e) V1R 53 poi.
lintser); 4) V1R 611; (pollinfser).
Words in figure 2. Tep lines n; original; b; original.
Second lines Gensrationsvi* 2, 3, 4, Oeneratioos:
I. ** 3, 4. Third line* 01 origlas4,1 4, original.
Fourth lines Geaerstions: 1,2, 3, I. Generatienss
Use of cytoplasmic stela sterilltY in new lines.
In growing new4laesAt the Ruben isperimental Station* IA
original method of their evaluation hes been applied; it consisted
of the followings studies of the reaction of now lines on the male
sterility and, consequently* detectien'ef restisrers, le conducted
beginning with the third generation-otesit?pollination When the
combination ability of the.line Is already* stabilised. This work
ceincided with the studies of the Omnbination value of the line. _
Simple hybrids* possesslitamole sterility were used as tester,
(analysers); *wins to this both the reaetien to sterility and the
0 combination value of the line are exposed simultaneously.
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(13) Trans. A-1093
?
In this way one can raise a ureat numter of restorer lines In
a coNparatiVoly short time (5-7 years) provided the initial ma-
terial includes the factors of restoration of fertility. The
? worth of this method consists yet in the fact that restorer lines
ere selected for specific hybrid combination, in which a simple
hybrid with male sterility serves as a female form. For outstandinc
fixer linos the sterile analogues can be produced already beginnino
with the third generation. These lines, later on, can be included
into testers (taking place of the worst line or of both lines),
owinG to which the quality of testers will be improved, as well as
of hybrids with their participation.
Selection of lines by the new method is being conducted at
the Station already for the third year and gives cood results. Ten
new lines of the ceneration with a Good restorative ability is
intended tn be delivered to the collection from the 1959 harvest;
vterile enalocues are being produced for 5 fixer lines. [erin p.491
?
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trans. A-1093
111).4=ma
..
Ath\h6cil
7 o oopcprgEon
5 Ol.j-FirPo-r--171
?
2
III I
6 hi
, .5? 186M/
N
7 nth]
41TS
recrep c
myActonl
[wpm*.
4444
Tempe
fryAcka
ciembri.
dil4.1r0
, 7JJZZ,120,
_ i4,
;),?2,E2anfl.ginRLIns2PAI
Ypoirro0
sinnRintra
Vpoxo0
Orsx7hsx0x10
Prsx B
PBC. 3. Cxenn Ce.imatnn-11. IICIIT,ITflhIlI SI camoomanetinhIN 71 11 11 nil Eyitypyam iipn IICI1021b-
aona unit 11,11T011.1113NIZITIMCCICOrl NurimEoii tre '1121 1,110CTis
'
Title of figure 3. Diagram of seleetion and testing tl
self-pollintitedllinee Of corn in utilizing tyte-
_ platmic male sterility.
HOrdt in 1igute.3, Top: generation. 10 both squereS.
Tester with male Sterility. In both oblong quadran-
gles the word "tester" is repeated 18 times. Under
the quadrangles the wordt Harvest. Undef the mall
quadrangle the word: Harvest. Between the two
middle small quadrangles the word: or,
That Something newt which we introduced to the methods Of
Selection Of lines atiditybridal it graphite/1y reflected by the
below told] cited diagram on raising and testing of new lines of
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(15) Trans. P-1093
corn, that are utilized in hybrids with sterile pollen of female
forms (figure 3). This diagram represents an improved variant of
the most widely distributed, at the present time, diagram of selec-
III tion in testing new lines (loo up Rumffeldts "Utilitation of the
effect of heterosis In the selection of corn". Collection of
articles "Uhridnala kukuruza" [Hybrid coml. Publisher of foreign
literature. Aoscow, 1.955, P.143). We tried to preserve from the
old diagram as much as possible, up to the correlation of forms,
in order to show that something new which changes it substantially.
Let us mention one more very important advantage of the new
diagram. Pmerican specialists think that selection of hybrid
basing itself on inbred lines with sterile pollen, requires
a much 1Dnger period than the usual selection. In order to create
a sterile analogue of a line for a hybrid, it is necessary to spend
5-6 (fegin p.501 years, and for obtaining hybrid swede with the
aid of this tins and their testing several more years will be re-
quired. It is possible to raise a still more fruitful hybrid
durinc this time bi the usual methods (on a fertile basis).
Our scheme removes such a lagging in selection, which is con-
ducted on the sterile basis. Lines yet in the process of inbreeding
find their place in hylrids. The sterile tester points to this.
Sterile analogues are produced for the most outstanding fixer lines
in order to use them later on for obtaining more productive testers.
In this way the Idea of continuity of selection of interlinear hy-
Lrids is realized very succesfully.
?
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(16) Trans. A-1093
Production of analogue restorers of fertility for prospective
lines. Beginning with the year 1957 work is being conducted at
the Station on the production of analogue restorers on the basis
of the existing lines. Since the year 1958, this work was con-
ducted together with the Krasnodar ScIehtif1c-Research Institute
of Agriculture according to only one program. Transfer to the
lines of the restorative ability is attained by the following method
wtich are varieties of the method of crossing.
The first method (figure 4) is applicable to all fixer lines,
flalthe t'.1 CITA! 2 ckpetradanni
ETs - FR
(Us- FR)R-C
ff (Ms- TOR -Ci R-C i
5 I PS-FOR-C1R-C}R^C
IV -7 ARETS"F RA-C1R-CiR-C)R-C I ?0
9c
0-6
Comoseernerfue
nothopym
mommmente
Ptak.Vill?rMlie 6
CR
000
0 0 0 0
Title of figure 4. Diagram for obtaining an analogue
restorer of fertility for the line of corn, which
is alixer of sterility by nature
Words in figure 4. Top line: Generations. Scheme of
crossings. 7th line: Selfapollination. 8th line:
Repeated self-pollination. 9th line: Reproduction.
- Conventional signs:
ETs- plant, having male sterility of the Texas type
Fr - a fertile form, having restorative ability
41, c - fertile self-pollinated line, that does not have a re-
storative ability
CR -fertile self-pollinated line, which acquired the restora-
tive " ability.
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(17) Trans. AA093
In the first crossing any pl.nts, varieties, hybrids or lines,
which possess cytoplasmic mele sterility, are used as the female
form, and a restorer line as a male form. In further crossings
411
only restored, normally blooming plants of hybrids participate as
the female form, while as a mete form the line to which it is
supposed to transfer the restorative ability. One or twofold self-
pollination of fertile plants is conoucted among the most restituted
families after the products of saturation practically cannot be
distinguished from the pollinizer line.
The analocuviirestorer can be obtained also by way of direct
crossings. In this ease a line is used as the female form, and
the restored plant* of the hybrid as the male. The necessity in
such crossings arises when the blooming of the line is several
days in advance of the blooming of plants, intended for use as the
female form. [Begin P,51]
The second method (figure ) is alvlicable only to lines which
already have sterile atialegues. It consists of the fact that
during the course of all generations only the sterile analogue of
the line is used aF, a female form, while as a male - during the
first crossing a restorer (line, hybrid or variety), and further
on the restituted plants of the hybrid. Topping off this work
are, as in the first method, the self-pollination of restituted plants
end selection of the analogue restorer.
Utilizing the sterile analogue, it is possible to "introduce"
411 the restorative ability into the hereditary type of the line by
one year earlier.
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(18) Trans. A-1093
ATs- FR
(ATs- FR)R A
Title of figure 5. Diagram of obtaining an analogue
restorer for the line of corn with the use of the
sterile analogue of this line.
Words in figure 5. Top line: Oenerations. Scheme of
crossings. 6th line: Self-pollination. 7th line:
Self-pollination. 8th line: Reproduction.
Conventional sigps:
Ala - sterile analogue of line AO
A - a self-pollinated lino A
FR and AR - fertile lines, having restorative abilityata
The third method (figure 6) is applicable to the intermediate
group of lines (restoring the fertility only partially).
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( 19) Trans. A..1093
([Ts' D)Ts-D
RE Ts D)Ts D
[is' D)Ts-DITs- D Ts-D
Title of figure 6. Diaaram of obtainingian analogue
restorer of fertility of a eern lindf, which by
its nature proves to be a sisai-resterer.
Words in figure 6. Top line: Generations. Scheme of
crossings. 6th line: Self-pollination. 7th line:
Self-pollination. 8th line: Reproduction.
Conventional signs
ETs - a plant hiving a male sterilil.y of the Texas type
D - a fertile self-pollinated line 13
DR - an analogue restorer of line Dig
DTs - the sterile analogue of line D6
Saturating crossings were conducted In the same way as in the
production of sterile analogues. Sterile plants of the hybrid
for the product of saturation) are utilised in all generations of
saturation as female forms, and the line as a male form. The
saturating crossings are conducted up to the time when full simi-
larity is attained between the product of saturation and the
original line. Peculiarities of the method consist of the fact
that the saturated sterile plants are pollinated by the mixture
of pollen of the line, and in the 1st stage of saturation is con-
ducted a one-twofold self-pollination of restored plants; (Begin p.521
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(20i Trans. A-1093
direct crossings are also possible with the use of restituted plabts
as pollinizers. Another analogue of the line - its sterile form,
is produced simultaneoasly with the cultivation of the analogue
? restorer. It Is necessary to utilize, during the last stage of
saturation, not the mixture of pollen, but the pollen from indivi-
dual plants of the line and self-pollination in order to isolate
the sterile form and its fertile fixer. During further cultiva-
tion of descendants of saturated plants in individual families
It becomes clear which of the participating families of self-
pollinated plants of the line are suitable as fixers tnd as restorers.
At the present time the work on transmission of the restorative
? ability is conducted an 18 prospective lines.
Owing to the use of the above cited methods, sterile analogues
with the Texas type of sterility were produced for 8 lines and
with the Moldavian type of sterility for -2 lines. Material with
the Moldavian type of sterility was obtained from the third genera-
tion of saturation in 60 lines. Restorer lines were Isolated;
several lines with partial restorative ability are being improved.
First experimental hybrids with male sterility were produced. One
of them (V/R 42 ms), in 1957-1956, WAS successfully tested on
variety test plots of Krasnodar }cyst, having surpassed its fertile
analogue (grown from common seeds with detasseling) in the yield
of grain by 1.5 c per 1 ha on the average for 2 years (table 3).
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(21) ? Trans. A-1093'
Yielding ca
acit
V
of hybrid VIR
Variety Test Plots
vkazsIi 1.
Krasnogvardeiskil
Labinskii
Severskil
Average
Control (i/ZR
42 - fertile)
46.1
55.5
? 57.1
51.6
-Table 3
42 ns (c/ha).
AYbrld VIR 42 ms
50.8
48.1
56.9
56.6
.1
53
In 1958, the expediency of utilization of the male eternity
!tithe production-of hybrid seedswas confirmed also on the example
'of other hybrids (table 4).
table 1.1.,
Yielding capacity of new hybrid of the Kuban Experimental Station,
which were grown on a sterile female blots (data of the station.
Hybrid
Yield of gra A
test in 19S61 Oha)
Surpassing the yleld of-
the fertile analogue
V1R 313
V1R 327 ms +3.9
VIR 344 ms , +2.6.
73.0
68.2
66.1
All these hybrids had one and the same female form "Slava
sterillnala", which was obtained by means of crossing the sterile
line V1R 44 ms with the normally fertile line VIR 38.
The diagram of obtaining the seeds of hybrid VIR 42 me
(figure 7). differs little from the usually accepted plan of pro-
duction of hybrid seeds. The selection station, the same as
usual, reproduces seeds of foil!' parental: (Begin is.53) ,self-'.
pollinated lines. Seed growing eovkhozes of the I group produce
seeds Of simple parental hybrids, while the seed growing sovkhoxes
of the II group, as well as, regional'semkhozes [seed graying farms]
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(22) Trans'. A-1093
produce seeds of the first generation of the: double hybrid for comMero
cial plantings. The suggested plan his the following characteristics.
The sterile analogue of line VIR 44 ms is maintained in reproduction
410 with the aid of the fertile analogue of this,linc. The planting.
of two analogues is conducted in the same way as the planting on
the hybridization section in obtaining' a simple.hytrid. The sterile
analogue is sown as a female form, and the fertile - as the male.
The tassels .are nOt removed from female plants. As a result of
such %hybridisation" It is not the hybrid thatjs obtained, but
the same sterile o o t line VIR 44 as,
Conventional signs.:
9 - Sterile female plants
?- Fertile female plants
or. Fertile male plants
0 - Sterile plants (seeds).
?- Fertile plants (Seede).
Title of figure T. 'Diagram of seed growing of Corn hybrid
VIR 42 as, cultivated without4etasseling (male
lity of the Moldavian type IS utilized, reproduction
Of the hybrid Is carried.out with it. fertile form.
Mixing of this two hybrid 'forms is accomplished during'.
harvesting),,.. .
Words IA figure 7. First section: First years- Reproduction
of seeds of the line at the Experimental Station.
Second sections second year. Production, Of seedt of simple
, hybrids - parental forma of hybrid VIR 42 Line 44ms;
Line 38; Line 40; Line 43.
Third section: 'Third year. Production of seeds of the
double hybrid.,F1(44msX18)ms.?
Fourth section: Fourth year. Commercial plantings of the
double hybrid. Mixture Of seeds of hybrids VIR 42ms.and
VIR 142.
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(23) Trans. A-1093
In growinn the parental form of "Slava steriltnaia" the tassels
were not removed from the plants of the line VIR 44ms since they
are sterile and hybridization proceeds in a natural way. It is not
necessary to remove the tassels also in growing the seeds of the
double hybrid. The parental form "Fvetoch" does not possess the
restorative ability; therefore it is necessary for the restora-
tion of tne double hybrid in commercial plantings to add to the
"sterile" seeds approximately the same amount of fertile seeds,
grown in the usual mariner. Thus, in producing ateds of hybrid
VIR s the use of luaus' labor in hybridization is eliminated
only partly.
Hybrid Vn 4, apparently, will be used in agricultural
production in the curse of the next 2-3 years. The Kuban xperi
mental Station VI R pissed on 111c of seeds of ste7ile line VIR 44m5
to the production from the 1958 yield; this will permit during
the current year to Lay out hybridization sections for the produc-
tion of seeds of the first eeneration of the parental form of
"Slava sterillnaia" on an area of about 1,000 ha, and the yield
[2egin p.54] from this area can provide, in 1960, for laying out
sectilns for obtaining hybrid seeds without removal of tassels
on an area of about 30 thousand ha.
At the present time the Kuban Experiment Station of VIR and
the Krasnodar Scientific-Research Agricultural Institute work ac-
cording to a joint program on the production of such hybrids, in
which the need for detasseling would be completely eliminated.
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?
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(24) Trans. P-1093
Some of these hybrids already are undergoing station variety testing.
In. the years 19591962, they willbe tested on variety test sections
and, beginning with 1962, they will have a mass distribution In
kolkhozes and sovkhotes.
One should mention another important advantage of the new method
Of hybrid seed.production. up to the present tie, owing to the
shortage of seeds of the first generation, the plantings of hybrid
.
corn rarely exceeded the bounds of old regions of its cultivation;
therefore in the notthern'regioas of the country varieties and .
even subsequent generations of hybrids are planted, and on an area
of about 10 min hi heterosis Is not taken advantage off. In
410 Changing to the sterile type of seed grOwing this disadvantage
will be fully eliminated.
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I
Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/09/16 : CIA-RDP80R01426R010400040001-5 Trans. A-I094
vgfil
Sidon:Ivo F. 174P and Zubkota,'S. V.
Kholodoustolchivost kukurusy
(Cold resistance In maize]
Vestnik Seliskokbotialetvennoi Muhl,
vol. 4, no, 6, p.55-60. JUne 1959, 20.1(633
(In Rustien)
One of the basic biological characteristics of corn Is the
Increased-requirement for heat; this restrlets the pOssibilities
of its advancement to the north. Its lots ripening and, conse-
quently, tete liberation of the field for planting of winter crops
0 reduces also the value ofCorn ala cromoCcupying the fellow.
In connection with this, the production of cold resistant hybrids
" .
and varieties becomes ofgreet importance, [along with a better
preparation of seeds for planting, selection of larger and smoother
seeds, use of fresh reproduction seeds,for planting, air-heet
warming, disinfection and other mealitires. Nevertheless, the
second course it only auxiliary since in this'Case the hereditary
nature of corn plants Is net subject to' alterationand one does
not: succeed in obtaining considerable changes in the Increase of
told resistance of plants..
- The advancement of corn into more northern regions Compelled
the USA plant breeders, Yet'at the beginning of the-present century,
vsesolusnyl Institut Beaten evodstva (All-Union Institute of
Plant Industry)
?
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? (2) Trans. A-1094 .
to pay, attention to ,the production of cold resistant forms-of:corn.
Its a reapit,of this, the cold.lesistint variety Golden 01ov was
?
isolatid; it underwent wide distribution in the state of Vlsconsin
during' the twenties of the current century. During the lest 20
L. . . .
years a series of cola resistant verietieS were produced in Holland,
, -
?Germany, Poland and othercountries of Central Europe. Important .
?
work on prOduction of cold resistant varieties IS :aonduCted by
plant bleeders In mountainous regions of Caucasus and in.countries'
of the Balkan'penlnsula.
The World Collection of Corn of VI4 WI-Union Institute of
Plant:Industry) contains e large number. of vanities, hybrids and
0 self-pollinated lines, which differ 10 many Important properties..
and charatteristica, including cold resistance. The aim of the
.present work is to oil* a-preliminary cherictei in, cold rialstence
of a series of corn specimens from various cointriess
Cold lealstance of various corn specimens was studied during
the period of seed germination and during the Period from the ep-
Pearance of sprouts to the onset of temperatures, which were staple
and comparatively favorable for the:growth of corn, in the -incubator
at et temperature of 3, 6 and 104. Two hundred specimens in all
were taken for the experiment; among 'these 168 varieties, 26 hybrids'
and 6 self-pollinated lines. -The-spicimens Were planted in Petri
dishes into' the sterilited (reasted) sand, which wee'moletened to.
60% before planting. This moisture content was upheld duringthe-.
?, course of the entire experiment. Not 's lOgle specimen germinated
r ?
4.
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(3) Trans.. A-1094 ,
? ilk the variant with a temperature of 30; therefore, further on'the-
analysis will be cOnducted only of data obtained from variants of
germination-at tenperatures of 6.and 10? (table 1).
Specimens:from Holland had the greatest 'cold resistance
?"SrOnesPelaiS (Medium ripeni4).35. and V6-121, which germinated
. on the 10th cleir at a temperature of 6evthe first to 30,, while ,
the second oils to 36,61..
The.Srednespelila 39 andSredneposdniaia 42 germinatetto 2311,
the local. from Dagestan ASSR to 16%s Mi4oVskaia 25 from PashUir
ASR and Skoroopelala 10.(frOm Holland) to 10%. All the re.,
-
'maining specimens of this group germinated to lass.than-10.
.The least cold resiatant.ltheyttprouted Only On the 10th day
- at temperature Of 400) proved to_be the local. varieties from.
, .-
1 Georgian ssge a large number (Begin p.561 LTett-continued after.
, table 1).
Table 1
Performance of various specimens of corn in cold reilstance
during the period Of aired germination -
Orkgin
I1SR
Varieties, which germinated at!
6e on the 10th day
itybrld chIsminikii
MB and Milovskala
25 (from Vashkir
ALSR); Knbardlosk
ale belaia cubo-
vidnaia (from Ka-
bardino-Balkarlan
ASSA)0 local
K-8764 (from pegs-
sten ittsR) ?
fr on the 7th day
Mottos Kavkatskaia
theitalas Vbsmiriad-
nalas.Dagestanskaia
H.-9349s K-11993 and
K41997 (from Dage-
?stan,Arql); etetin-
skaials Sterling
Gorsklis K-12365
(from NorthwOsse-
tian'AS5R); Oh-
skaia,l, Sibirskaie
Krasnala (from
-Western Siberia)';
Kilfbenes. K-1172.
,K-9247 (from Kir-
_ bizia); hybrids
104' ontl_k2th_AAYLiming Aubanikil.,
__
Pervaia is vsekhjfrom
Krasnodar kral); Egip-
totsorens K.01821;
K-4018, K-4920, K-55690
it..70740 K.83611 K4484,
K-10748,, K-10749,
K-11953, K11954 (from
the Georgian MR); hy-
brid Volochisskils fl'.
merchenskala tubovid-
nate, K4975, K430319
1(-91I3 (from Dneprope-
trovsk Oblast). Goretst
Ranni , P Gotski
(table continued on next pace)
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?
(4)
Trans. A-1094
("toble-1 continued)
?
Hollend
410) many
Yugoslavi
? ktungarY
?;Argentina
USA
Mexico
Africa
S
Varieties., which ? germinat
10? on the 7th day Ur
ed at:. h 16- ey
6 ti iti bial
?
on t e th d
se nsaa ea
? kremnistaia, K-9415.
(from North-Ossetian
6
ASStt).
66 on the 10 day
-
Eirly-ripening .3
? : lo
Medium--ripening
I ? n .1
' ft? 16
ft . 29,
- n .
42
VC-121
rettMais ?
(Fat 'corn] ?
K-12673
-5709
?
35:
-39,
tukovinsitli 1,2,3
(from Chernovtsy.
oblast'); 'hybrids
Kollektivnyi stepnlak (from Dne'pro-
petrovsk oblast').
Hybrids CB-32, ?
CB-424,
pening 8, Early- -
ripening 9, Medium-
ripening 22* Me- -
dium-rlpening 22,
Modiumripening 26,
Medium-ripening 40,
CIV-6, 1115x 1185.
'
Brounir
Hybrid Mittenve-
sheri 12
khetes
Mammoth, Country
Gentleman,. Doll ?
K-2940
Early-ripening_ 2, Early
-ripening Early-- ?
ripening' 5, .Medium-
ripening 19, Medium-..
riperiing 20, Medium--
. ripening 32, -Meditus-
ripening 37,- Medium- ?
ripening 41, Mediuma..
late-ripening 48, C-144
py-160036, PI-180163,-
CI V-1.113.41, CIV-KB-184::?,
1,
Mandorfei, K-557,.
K-12061* K42724.
Albansk V bell zuban
Badenskaia.,
early golden. ear:
Pleistunan ? ?- 3
K-5713 .
Hybrids U-28; 5;Irnple
-
hybrids' 36$, 26)(23, ?-
3x26, 214x20, Wisconsin
453, ?olden Bantams'
Bratillan blue, Boone
County, Silver King,
K-278, K-302, K4857?8;
K4.5897, K-10811
K-2077
K-3538
tftgin-p.571
of sped imens
from USA, as well as the
comparatively larCO number
? of specimens from Holland."' Nevertheless, the latter must be tested
for the second time since there might have occurred an influence
of. accidental foctorii - the quality of seeds.and so on.
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- Trans. A*1094 .
?
' Part of specimens, occupying an intermediate situation be-
-tween the two groups cited above, are of interest. These speci-
mens sprouted at a temperature of 100 on the..7th day to tt various
degree, : As much as itch- temperature is not the most favorable ?for
the germination .of corn seeds, the specimens which sprout under
such conditions in a shorter period can be considered to be more
? cold. resistant. Onlya.smallmumber of specimens sprouted to ??
.40% aid more. The most cold resistant among them proved to bi
the specimens from mountain regions Of the Dagestan ASSR and Uzbek
SSR." A comparatively high cold resistance?wss shown also by
bridu pukovinskil 1 and Sukovinsitil 2 (table 2).
Iible 2
, ?
Amount of seeds, that 'germinated at a teTperature of 10? on;
tilt seventh day, in different specimens of corn -
f of
Varieties.
"Risvala belaia /rice whieel
'Local K1172 .
' Local K-9381, K-11993
Hybrids Bukovinskii 1 and
? 'Bukovinskii 2
Local K-10071 -
. K.12365
? K-11997
." K-5299
" R-10750 .
Hybrid Ma rtenvesher f' 5
Origin
?germinated
seeds
.. 56.0,
52.0
48.0-43.3
36.0-36.0
? .18.0.
14.0
13.3
12.0
12.0 ?
12.0
Central Asia
The same
Dagestan ASSR
Ukrainian SSR, Cher.'
novtsy *blast' ?
.Central Asla,
North-Ossetian ASSR
Dagestan ASSR
Central Asia ?
North Caucasus
Hunpary
'There are varieties and hybrids of both the foreign selection,
as well as those produced in USSR among the most.cold resistant '
%specimens,
-
lte studied. cold- resistance of different specimens of corn
? ? ?
during the first Period Of grow in two wayst .1) by eayly plantinde
OS -corn into -the ground and 2) by keeping gernanated (naklitinuv-
4
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(6) Trans._ A-1094 ?
shieplaj seeds Under condttiOns of reduced temperatures (.379),-.
The early sowing of seeds Into the ground permits, at the IsaMe
time, to evaluste?ths. initial material and to seleet.therOold,
resistant forms during the most crucial period of life of the
corn plant - at the beginning of the forMation of vegetatiVe and
?, ? ? .
generating organs. The, value 'of this method is reduced, by the
? fact, that-the regulation Of the influence of climatic donditionS
? Is restricted to only the tireof planting. The early, sowing
of corn 'Is practiced in certain regions-of Rumania; owing to thio*
with the onset of"Aorm weather. after the recurring spring fall.
of temperature, the seeds begin to grow fast. This method can
be used also in many regions of the Soviet Union in planting corn
varietiei, which ate_coldrivistant during the first period of
development.
. On May 11, 1951vsteds of 200 specimens, of, corn were sown On
the fields of kolkhoz "Iskre of Veevolothsk raion, LenIngrai
? ,
oblast', on the section of the Vegetable crop rotation (predicesslor--
,?
potatoes),.. At the moment of planting the teMPerature of the air
was 15.2?, and the-temperature of the soil 10?. On the 10th day
? Simultaneous sprouts appeared on all planted specimens* and at the
end of-May all specimens attsined the phase of 2-3 Icel./es.
(Begin p.58) Beginning with May 23 the temperature dropped and
during the. night of May 28 to 29th a frost was recorded. Part of
[Early-riPerlinid [Medium-ripening]
the specimens - SkorospelaleA' I BrednespelalaA' 29 Srednespelais 33
- (from, Hol land), Maleksberger (from Germany), Vassfele 11603
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(7) Trans. 'A-1094
.(from Hungary), hybrid MDX63-54 and self-pollinated lime .153R
(from USA) - were damaged only slightly. But pert of the speci-
mens were -lost entirely. Ruse Yellow, Ruse white, Ruchl
Oostila Sulleva white(from klbania), hybrid, 7735, /745;7746
(from Canada), hybrid KZ, Corn 191; self-pollinated lines 42,
179, MER, VVO (from USA).
The frost served as a provocative background ,for discovering
the most cold resistant -forms, as the damaged plants found them!...
selves under conditions of low temperatures, whiCh continued during
the course of the first ten days and of the most part of the second
ten days of.the month of June..
. Observations of the dynamics of growth of plants showed very
considerable -differences among the studied specimens (table 3).
Thi evaluation of damage after the frost on May 29, accepted
'by us, was drawn up according to the following principle: mark
5 leaves were very slightly toiched by the frost; 4 - yellowing
of leaves; 3 leaves were damaged by frost by it; 2 - leaves were
damaged by f; 1 - leaves were damaged by 3/4.
Evaluation of plants on June 17 was conducted by.teking into
consideration the characteristics of the growth of plants during
*According. to data of the nearest meteorological station, the
average daily temperature of air during this period watt In May - 30th'
8.6?,.31th 10.104 in June, 1st - 8.9?, 2nd - 8.0?, 3rd - 1140,
4th - 10.801 5th - 11.0?, 6th.- 9.3?, 7th - eth 1-1.4?,. 9th -
13.8?, 10th - 22.2?, 12th - 21.40, 13th - 14.2?, 14th
11.5?, 15th - 11.0?, 16th - 12.6*, 17th - 43.6?.
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(8) Trans. A-1094
this period: mark 1 - the plants ers strongly inhibited, the
frost damage Is expressed fairly strongly; 2 - the plants are
leis inhibited, but the frost damage, nevertheless, is expressed
quite strongly; 3 - plants started growing, but frost damage is
yet quite strongly expressed; the plants began to grow, frost
damage is expressed already slightly; 5 - plants have formed new
leaves, damage of leaves by frost is hardly notiCeable.
As it is seen from'table 3, specimens C-2, Saratovskii hy- '
[Medium-ripening]
brid, Beloialtoe psheno, Grushevskala (USSR), SIF-412, SrednespelyiA
36 and 37 (Holland), Bukevarskii zuban and Rumski slatni zuban
(Yugoslavia), self-pollinated line 8-8, hybrids 653-7655, 652-651
? (US,k). .have good indices on cold resistance. Such specimens as
the self-pollinated line 191 and K-127912'12797, 12805 and some
others (USA), white dent (Korea) proved to be unable to withstand
the reduced temperatures during the course of a prolonged time
and suffered strongly during this period. It.was recorded that
not even one of the specimens, which suffered strongly from frost,
attained the maximum mark of evaluation, which the specimens had
that underwent a.slighter deluge..
The negative effect of reduced temperatures during the PeriOd
from May 29 to June-17 was the strongest for late-ripening southern
?
varieties with a long vegetative period.
Studies of col4 resistance of corn by means of keeping the
[nakliunovshiesjaj
burstAseeds during the course of two weeks at a temperature of
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(9) .Trans. A-I004
34o were conducted with a collection of 5&speciments. On'June 6
the seeds were planted into the. open _ground; dry seeds, Which
were soaked In water for '24 hours, served as a contiol. Keeping
the geriminated (nakluinuvshiesiaj seeds at a reduced temperature
should have caused a sharp reduction of the field sprouting In
heat-loving specimens.
On the basis of different'-field germination* of seeds, which
were soaked for g4 hours -at room temperature before planting,' and
of seeds, which were kept at.(text is continued after table 3)
(Begin p.59) ?
. Table 3
Evaluation of corn specimens for cold resistance during the first
- period of theirLgroWth ?
Evaluation In
Subspecies Origin ? marks
Variety
on. on
Ma 2
MDX63-514'' flint
c8412 dent
Aeleksberger flint
.S-2 and Saratov hy-
brid Beloiaroe
psheno, Omsk 1 and
Pervenets
Medium-ripening 36
and 37 dent
Bukovarski suban and
Rumski slatki =then
"Algonguinn (Algon-
quin] and self-pol-
linated line 0-8.
Hybrid Early Blend
Shindelmaiter and-
Vorargelber flint
Pervomaiskala
ft
sweet
S.
USA
Holland
Germany
Saratov ?blast,
?
Western Siberia
Holland
YUgoalavia
USA
Canada
Germany
Orenburg oblast'
14
4
4
14.
14
(table continued on next page)
June 1
5
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
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(10) . Trans. A-1094
Olorila 1anetakogo
,Sterling
'Ornshevskala -
Indian corn
Medium-ripening 31,
33 and 34
Laningradka -
Self -pollinated
lines 62 and 153R
White dent
Rymplia Turzyi and
Matta DoMniaska
.Chimgauer.
Vass fele 15 OS
Self-011inated
line 191 -
Shcidski zubin,
vosadski slatni au-
ban. end Bellski
zuban
CB.45, C4.6,
Amdera 221
1111kurusa uluch-
shenala 261
? proved corn]
Hybrids Pioneer 377
and 382 ?
Mostard Erli Peri
Ottawa C0-13
Allan -
imeretinakii hybrid
Kartuli krUgi and.
Adzhamestskala be-:
Jetta
Hybrid early: Moira
Domniaska X Oran,.
shevyl-Tyrgu Frumot
Odesskala 10
Osetinskaia 1 and
G476 '
Medium-ripening 15
Moscow ranniala
Somata rannialt and
Rannkala ahemchu-
china
Mestnala and Polud-
menno semennale
halals
flint
dent
flint
starchy
dent
flint .
dent
ft ,
flint
ft?
ft

dent
dent and.flint
dent
ft
0
sweet
dent
flint
dent
flint
dent
dent
flint
ft
dent
sweet
dent
(table 3 continued)
Germany 4
North Caucasus . 4
Dnepropetrovsk *blast' 3
USA . 3-
Holland
Leningrad oblast'
USA
Korea
Rumania
Germany
Hungary
USA
Yugoslavia
Holland.
Zakarpatak .oblast
USA
Germany
Canada
North-Ossetian ASSR
Georgian SSR
Rumania
Odessa oblast'
North-Ossetian. ASSR
Hol land
Moscow *blast*
North Caucasus
3
3
3
2
2
3
.14
4
4
It
3
3
14
3
3
3
It
14
3
3
3
1
14
11
14
14
4
14
3
3
3
3
3.
3
Albania 3 3
(tables continued on next page)
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(11) Trans. A-1094
Hybrids ;%NR- .1
Wisconsin $5, self
pollinated line M144
8/11
Self-pollinated
line '1
Silosnala kukurusa
Silage corn
table 3 continqed
dent ?
USA
3
3
USA:
3
.2
Germany
2
2
(Begin p.60)
reduced temperatures, it is possible to give an idea about the
cold resittance of the specimens. Hybrids Kollektivnyi, V1R 25,
Progress, Uspekh, Krasnodarskik4, ChB, V1R 10, V1R 370 V1R 16,
Bukovinskil land certain others proved to be the'most resistant,
as well as several varieties of the selection of northern regiong
of corn cultivation for seeds and varieties of selection of foot
hill regions of Caucesuss Chishminskala 1, Voronschskais 80,
Hhartkovskaia 23, Rotenbergokaia, Dnepropetrovskaia-, Sterling,
Htbardinskala white dent. Seeds of certain varieties and hybrids
did not germinate at all after keeping them at a reduced tempera- ?
tures hybrid ViR 42, variety Hartuli'Krugl; secede of hybrid V1R 50
germinated only to t5%.
The cited method of evaluation merits attention for use in
practical selection work. since it it practicable to any 'selection
institution which has the most primitive refrigerator. The simpli-
city in conducting this work permits to make an evaluation on cold
resistance toe large number of selection material without especially
large investment end expenditure.
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Trans, AA095
veM
Ivashko, A. A.
Noveishie priboiy dila issledovanii v sel'skom
khogialstve itogam Meshdunarodnol peredvizhnoi
vystavki priborov v Moskvee)
[The newest devices for research in agriculture (On
the results or the International Travelling Exhibi..
tion of Devices in Moscow*))
Vestnik Sel*skokhozialstvennol Neuki, vol. 4, no. 6,
p.88.47. June, 1959 20 V633
(In Russian)
The international Travelling Exhibition or Devices, intended
for agricultural research, which was organized on the initiative
410 of VASHMNIL (All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences Lien!
V. 1. Lenin Is an event, which will speed up the development
of science and the rise of agricultural production both in USSR,
as well as in the countries of the socialistic camp. This first
exhibition, which represented an international result of progress
In the field of measuring devices for agricultural purposes, was
visited by about 90 thousand persons during the period of its stay
in Moscow, beginning January 25 and up to March 25.
The liveliest interest, that was aroused by the exhibit on,
confirms its actuality and opportuneness. Acquaintance with mor*
than a thousand exhibits in all the fields of agricultural sciences
gave the possibility to the specialists to become oriented in the
Candidate of Technical Sciences
411 * See journal "Vestnik Sellskokhosiaistvennoi naukin, no. 2, 1959.
P.143-145.
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(2) Trans. A4.1095
selection of Methods and experimental devices for the solution of
scientific problems. The exhibition has pointed out new'possibi-
lities, which are opening owing to the creation of new swans and
nethods of observations and messurings.
Specialists of designing and apparatus-building establishments
saw at the exhibition examples for development of new devices* both
? for sae:air-lc research; as well as for the control and regulation .
of agricultural processes, for determination of the Quantity and
quality of production.
Undoubtedly the exhibition will spur the organisation of
wide production of devices fOr agricultural purposes in our
domestic enterprises. .
In.1958, the Academy of Agricultural Sciencesimeni V. I.
Lenin began development of the construction of agricultural de-
vicest the Central ExperimentalsOesigning Bureau on .Building of
Devices has been organised and an experimental apparatus-bUilding
factory began to work..
The exhibition will produce a great effect also on the
? .coordination of device building among the participating countries.
.The exhibition has shown that the modern nomenclature of devices;
needed for scientific research in the field of agriculture; Is
so wide that its mastering is difficult even in the country with *
highly developed apparatus-building industry. And as much as.
nany of them are required in very small numbers, it is obvious, that
their production In every country will be economically inexpedient;
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-(3) ? Trans. A-109.5
?
(Begin p.811 and for many countries even impossible. The survey
? of eXhibits, which were presented by countries participating in
the exhibition, showed that .there are groups of device* which
are.better'presented by one of the countries and, naturally,
? it would be more expo-client to produce them in the-given country
instead of duplicating them in different coUntries.
Economic expediency of such i coordination of apparatus- ,
building is so much needed: for all the countries Of the Socialis-
tic camp,, that the exhibition will justify itself highly by solving
? this one question.
Data of the exhibition's survey permit to express certain
? preliminary conclusions. For instance, a group of. devices for
polarographic research of the chemical compositiOn of substances
received its highest, development in the Czechoslovak Republic.*
Here began and developed the method of polarographic research
under the leadership of its creator, Academician V. GelrOvski.
In the Hungarian People's Republic devices for research or fibrous
materials (cotton, wool, fabrics) have a wide distribution, ,The
Polish People's Republic is almost the only country, which pre-
sented a system Of devices for research in the field of forestry
(horticulture) and singular apparatuies for studying the. biology
of plants. The German Democratic Republic has presented high '
quality optical apparatuses and laboratory equipment for various
purposes.
?
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? (4) Trans. A-1095
In USSFylevices for.research in the field of animal, husbandry
and veterinary science, for examination of tractors and agricultural
'machinery, apparatuses for research with the use of radioactive
isotopes, radiations and semiconductors were the best presented.
' The level of development of the measuring technique for the.
basic branches of agricultural science, as well as. by countries,
.can. be presented in the following table. .
. .
Class' '
.
Number of devices
. countries
according to'
?
omudou
11441i4040d
asTastiunil
German
Democratic
Republic
Polish
People's
Republic
Czechoslovak'
Republic
.
USSR
,
. . ? . .
. -
I. Devices for research on
,
Plants, soils and the surface
layer of air .
25
39.
26
40
194
g. Devices for research on anti.
ma1 husbandry and veterinary
science
'
36
12
3
114,
106
3. Devices for evaluation of
quality and quantity of agricul-
tural production
,
26
8
7
12
57
4. Devices for examination of
the work of tractors and of
.
agricultural machinery
6
14
1
1
47
5. Devices for-the examination -
?
of work of power installations
28
.
.4?-
16
67
6. Devices and equipment for
the general, purpose
e3
31
4
53
115
7. Devices, based?on use of.
radioactive isotopes and radia.
tions
i 8
1
?
4.
- In d11:i212
05
45
153
' 6g
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(Begin p.901
The table shows that the'development of device-building is
uneven for both-the various sections of agricultural sOlences,.as
well as the countries. For instance, the western countries pre-
sented very few devices for examination of work of tractors and
, agricultural machines since the machaniaation of agricultural .
processes began' there only recently. In these countries there.
are also few devices, based on the use of radioactive isotopes,
radiations and semiconductors.
.The highest development, in all the participating countries,
was in devices for research of the chemical composition of plant
materials, solls,,fertilisers# as well as physics of the soli ind
of the surface layer of dlr. More than 300 device; weredesigned
for these purposes among the number, of those shown at the exhibi-
tion.
This Is explained by high development Of chemistry in all
. the branches of national economy.
One should point out, that there were exhibited very few
devices for the research into physical-mechanical characteristics
of plants; this appears, to .be the result of very slight develop-
.
ment of elaboration in this field. Very few devices were produced
also for research of gaseous exchange. and photosynthesis of plants.
Only three apparatuses were shown for this important problem, among
which two were the first experimental specimens.
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(6). Trans. A-1095
The Committee, appointed by the Presidium of the AcadeMy,
selected 1411 devices among all the sections of the exhibition
(173 native and 238 foreign),. which 'were the most promising for
use in.scientific 'research. end in agricultural production of USSR.
In their selection the Committee. invited specialists from
scientific-research institutes of VASKHNIL, TWO% (Timiriatev
Agricultural Academy], of the Academy of Science of USER, from the
All-Union Society of Apparatus-Building, from the exhibition,
as wail as .specialists from among the visitors:
Two circumstances were taken into consideration during the
selection, actuality of research; for.which the devices were
destined, and the existence of other means of.measuring for the
given purposes.
If for onepurpose there were presented several designs or
types'ofdevitee, then by means of comparison those devices were
chtlen?-which possessed the greatest number of positive qualities:
high productiveness, accuracy, facility in exploitation, and so-on.
Along with the selection, the Committee determined also the
meant of.supplying than to the scientific institutions;
The Committee recommended buying about 7,000 specimens of
devices for operation in. scientific-research and educational
institutions from among the '77 kinds .of selected foreign apparatuses.
Besideg this, it was recommended to buy one specimen each of the
99 kinds of devices, which presented interest in their separate
parts, for their study and use in development ornew apparatuses.
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(7) Trans. A-1095
Pert of devices, which were required in considerable numbers of
specimens, were recommended for mastering by the national produc-
Let us now point out some of the devices, among the number of
the selected by the Committee, which metit.special attention.
Czechoslovak Republic presented five devices for polaro4
graphic research in the.section of apparatuses for plant research..
? Each of:them is fore special purpose, and all of them represent
a scheme of apparatuses_for.scientific-research of paramount im-
,
?
portance. Micropolarigreph M-103 (figure 1) was designed for
determining the contents of various substances in solutions. It .
is used in biochemical and chemical research in mass analyses.
The device is composed of a galvanometer, of a photographic adapter,
abscissa lamp, potentiometric cylinder with a drive rnd a .
polarographic (Begin p.911 machine with electrodes. The remark-
able
thing in these devices is that with their aid it is possible.
to conduct mass determinations of contents of a large amount of
different substances, including also the contents of vitamins In
fruits, vegetables and other products.
Polarigraph AP-55 was designed for polarographic analyses,
requiring increased exactness. Polariscope (figure 2) gives a .
new possibility for scientific research to observe the course of
the polarographic analysie on a screen.
Title of figure 1. Micropolarigraph
(Czechoslovakia).
Title of figure 2. Polariscope (Cze-
choslovakia)
Title of figure 3. Automatic polati-
graph. (Hungary) .
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. Hungarian automatic polarigraph deserves special attention .
(figure 3). The device can. conduct an analysis of solutions of a
very small concentration to 106 mole/liter in the presence of
.very small amounts of.the solution (0.1-0.2 milliliter). The
result can be observed during the process of the analysis directly
? on the polarogram, awing to the presence of an electronic amplifier
and a mechanism for direct registration. Moreover, no darkening
of the room is required, no photographic work for developing polar0-
grams, nor any special vibroprotecting mechanisms. The potential
arising on the electrodes can be read during the process of analysis
? at any mOment not alone on the polarogram, but also on the control'.
voltmeter. This Is attained by the fact, that the moving of the
paper ribbon and the change of the voltage through the potentio-
meter.are.carried out by one motor;. thus, a .synchronism is attained
between the speed of the ribbon and the voltage. The time of
polarogram recording can be adjusted to 3, 6 and 9 minutes. The
.
device Is disconnected automatically after the end of the analysis
and the recording of the polarogram. .The order of polarization
? of chemical substances in the solution [Begin p.923 and the re..
cording of polarograms, can be adjusted, as desired, at a vOltige
increasing from zero or decreasing from the maximum.
The mechanism, feeding the paper ribbon, can work alto inde-
pendently of the voltage. Owing to this, registration of the
change of the diffusion current is possible at constant voltage;
this also permits prodUcing amperometric titration. Current measure-
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meat can be carried out also with the precision from 1.109 to
8-10-6a, in 28 stages.'
A resistance is provided for In the construction, with the
aid of which it is-possible to Check the'efficiency of the de-
vice. It is possible to register the'differential.by a special
mechanism made of RC elements,. In'cates when the voltage in the
supply system fluctuates more than by 10%, the feeding can be
conveyed to the electrOdes from an outside stotage battery.
Nevertheless, ,with all the positive characteristics, or this
device, according to the information of specialists, substantial
kinks exist in some specimens, which hamper their use.
Automatic titrimeters (Hungary) present a great interest.
Titrimeter of the type 7-77-1/C (figure 4) wtrks according to the
principle ore potentiometer. After this end of the Process of
titration, when the potential reaches a definite intensity, the
device is cut off automatiCally. The peculitrity of this de-
vice consists of the feet that the titrating, solution is measured.
Out by the unit of the electronic control. The dose of solution,' '
which Is fed in titration, decreases from 1.5 to 2.0 ml at the
beginning to 0.025-0.050 ml at the end of titration. Whereupon ?
the decrease of doses, as well as the-change of time intervals
between the feedings is in,proportion to the logarithm of the
concentration of the titrate.'
Accuracy of registration of the neutralisation potential is
?5
in volt.
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Title of figure 4.. Automatic titrimeter
(Hungary).
.. -
Three devices were shown at the exhibition. for. research on
gaseous exchange and photosynthesis of plants and microlrganisms. '
The Warburg apperatus (German Democratic Republic) is a set of 12
Erlenmeyer flasks into which the examined objects are placed:
particles of plants, bacteria, and so on (figure 5). During the
process.of.t.heir respiration end photosynthesis the Composition
of gaseous fluid changes in the flasks, and, consequently, also.
does its pressure; this Is registered by manometers, that are con-
nected with the flasks. In order to keep up the needed temperature
in the flasks the device is provided with e water bath with an
'electric heating apparatus, a thermoregulstor and an agitator.
Microrespirometer (figure 6), which was exhibited by the
polish Academy of Science, Is a new, interesting development in
the field of research on'photosynthesis.of microscopic Objects..
The nature of operation of the apparatus coimistes in its
revealing .the possibility ,for Investigation of the gaseous exchange
and Photosynthesis Of bacteria, of plant particles, of several.
cells, and so on. This is etteined by a Miniature construction of
a respiration chamber of a',volume of 0.7 cub. cm into which the
microscopic object Is introduced in a drop of water, which is ,
placed on the covering glass (Begin p.93) that hermetically
closes the chamber. The'respiretional chamber is connected with
a sensitive manometer, which is filled with p liquid that does
not adhere to the glass. A special microscope is mounted over the
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manometer's dial for a precise.reckoning of its readings. Use of
an iliuminating mechanism with light filters for various degrees
of illumination of the investigated object with different colors
of the light spectrum proves to be the novelty of this device.
. The Institute of Physiology of Plants of the Academy of
Science of USSR presented at the exhibition a device for research,:
of the Gaseous exchange and photosynthesis of plants with the
use of the carbon isotope 04. The air with C1402 circulates In-
a closed system of the device and bathes the investigated leaf, which
may be separated or inseparated from the plant. If the carbon is
abSorbed by.the leaf then the radioactive radiation, which is re-
corded by the counting tube during a certain period of time, Is
reduced. This device. Can be_utilixed.for exemination of the
gaseous exchange of plants under field conditions, if the electric
motOr mounted on it is replaced by a clock-work spring,Inechanism.
:Title of figure 5. Warburg apparatus' (Ger.-
_ man Democratic Republic).
,Title of figure 6. Microrespirometer
(Poland).
Title of figure 7. Davies for determining
the speed of movement of microparti-
cies (Poland).
. A device for measuring the speed of movement of microscopic
particles in plasmas (Polish People's Republic) is shown in figure
7. The main point of the device consists in the fact that a re-
volving scale is mounted in the eyepiece of the microscope and it
Is connected, kinematically, with the Kymograph. For measuring
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the speed of movement of,m1Oroparticlels observed under the
microscopes -a similar to it speed of the scalels.set up with the
aid of t buncher; and it it then automatically rectirdwi on the
kymograph. It is the only device Produced for the first time for
such purposes.
Among the devices designed for research in the field of ani-
mal husbandry, (Begin p.94) the devices for research of physic).-
logical functions of animals: respiration, pulse, movements in diges-
tive organs, and so on, are of considerable scientific interest;
also devices for research in the composition of blood, composi-
tion of feeds, and others.
? Title of figure 8. Radioteleactograph by
14 V. Panin (USSR).
Title of figure 9. Automatic classifier
of cotton fibres in length (Hungary)
Title of figure 10. Measuring device of
radiations (Hungary).
Radloteleactogr!tph of D.V. Panin (figure 6) permits to con-
duct investigations of the physiological condition of Animals on .
pastures, situated at a distance up to 15 km from the researcher.
A sending apparatus with a transmitting instrument, from which
radioimpulses can be transmitted to the receiving Station and
'register on a paper ribbon, is attached to the animal.
The portable sets for artificial insemination of tnimals,
shown at the International Travelling Exhibition, are of Greet
practical interest.
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The Hungarian People's. Republic presented a group of devidis
? for.examination of fibroua,materialet cotton, wool and other*.
The automatic classifier of cotton fibres in length (figure 9) 1s
- ?of special interest among them. The apparatus measures the length
of fibres, classifies them in groups by length and records the
? diagram of the quantitative distribution of fibres eccording to
? these groups. The device takes place of the painstaking and
labor consuming work of laboratory workers, and in-3-5 minutes
gives the full characteristic of the cotton specimen in the form
.of a'diagram,
? Over ten devices were exhibited, which measure the moisture
40 within grains, the soil and in other agricultural objects. The
Hungarian electronic hygrometer egigromatik" attracted the atten-
. tion of specialists among them. It was designed for a quick de-
termination of moisture in groins of various crops. The principle
of its functioning is based on the dependence between the moisture
and the dielectric properties of the grain, which is placed into a
special hopper of f certain volume. This device can (Begin p.95)
measure the humidity with an accuracy up to 0.5%, if its contents
In the grain do not exceed 30%. The device is convenient for
transportation (its weight is 8 kg) and for measuring moisture both
?
for scientific and production purposes.
In the section "Radioactive isotopes and radiations in agri-
culture" about 60 devices were exhibited for the examination of
the effect of radiations on agricultural objects, for control and
4
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,
autdmation of technological processes and for other purposes.
. The Hungarian composite calculator Orion 1873 (figure 10) is
eipecially useful for scientific research. It consists of an
.electronic counter tube, an integral amplitude discriminator,
high-voltage stabilized rectifier for feeding.gas-dischargi and.
scintillation counters andka tripping system. This universal
device takes place of four laboratory apparatuses.
The Hungarian piesoelectric.doubleebeam pressure indicatOr
(fictive 11) was marked as the most important among the number of
devices, designed for research on power plants. It reOresents a
complex of devices and appliances for investigation of pressures of
gases in cylinders of Various engines.
411
Title of figure 11. Piezoelectric double
-
beam indidator of pressure (Hungary).
-Title of figure 12. Diaprojection appara-
tus (Hungary)
At the International Travelling Exhibition of Devices; along
with the measuring devices new, original equipment for icientific-
reasearch and educational laboratories were also presented. For
instance, in figure 12 is shown a portable diaprojection [Begin p.96]
apparatus (Hungary), with the aid of which it is possible.to pro-
ject on the screen microphotographs of biological and other objects
with a 1,000-fold magnification. The German Democratic Republic
presented sectional laboratory tables (figure 13), which attracted
great attention of specialists by the efficiency of the construction,
.as well as by the heat and acid-proof coatings.
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Tratis:
- Title of figure 13. -Laboratory teble
. Merman Democratic Republic).
: At the.International Travelling. EXhibition, along with dc
vices cit Complicated layouts, were alto shown simple, but Very
effective apparatuses. For .initance, en ultraviolet illuminator
differed from an Ordinary table, lamp Only by the use of a mercury-
quartz lamp SVD-120A; nevertheless the interest of visitors of
different specialties In this' appuratus was exceptional. Actually
the. device can be useful both for scientific-research, as well at
.for solving Many production problems,. Out are connected with the
determinatiOn of quality of the most different Organid. materials.
It Is?suffiCient,?for instante, to illuminate the seeds with it .
In order to discover on them any changes, which cannot be dis-
covered by any other methOds. The device is based on the long
known property of all substances-to give off, when placed in ultra-
violet rays, a luminiscent radiance of a special color, inherent
only to the given substance, it is possible by this simple reliable
and convenient method to discover any changes on the surface of
seeds, plant leaves, fruits, tubers and other agricultural products,
any mechanical or chemical changes at the very beginning of their
development, when they are as yet imperceptible to the naked eye.
It Is possible by the simple device of Prikladov to determine
the contents of moisture In seeds. The Committee recomMended to
make a set out of similar devices for field laboratories, agri-
culturists and zootechnicians of kolkhozes and sovithozes. It is
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recommended to include into the outfit the portable laboratory of..
Peive for determination of the Most Important chemical elements .
of the soil and of fertilisers; a refradtometer for the determine-
,
tion of contents of sugar in beets, fruits, vegetables and other
agricultural products; a toluene themometer in a durable steel hol-
der, Which would be convenient for the determination of the
temperature of soil, seeds, that'ere Stored in great messes; soil
and silo borers for taking specimens; a portable device for determi-
nation of the quality of fodder*, end others. (Begin p.97) Out-
fits.of these devices will help agriculturists and tootechnicians
eq.kolkhozes and sovkhotes to solve production problems not by
groping and guessing, but on the basis of objective measurements.
A survey of exhibits at the International Travelling Ex-
hibition showed that for the-most part, in the field of construc-
tion of devices for agricultural purposes, the tendency of scientlets
and designers is for automation of the operations of analyses and
measurings; for shortening their length to the maximum; for In-
creasing accuracy and objectivity.
An ever greater development is accorded to those measuring
devices, which act without destroying the objects of research; for
instance, the moisture content of plant material without their
desiccation, or of soils without the destruction of their natural
.structure.
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It is particularly important that the exhibition is & travel-
ling one. In moving from country to country it will be constantly
enriched with new exhibits and, therefore, will not alone sum up,
but pima present the dynamics of development of international
apparatus construction for egriculturel purposes.
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vg/M
General Meeting of the Department.of Biological A
Sciences of the Academy of Sciences of USSR'iOI
Akademii Nauk:SSSR, levestila, Seigle Biologi-
cheskaia no. 4, p. 38-.6Z0.. July/Aug. 1959. 511 Sa2B
(In Russian)
The General Meeting of the DepartMent of Biological Sciences
took place on March 24-25 in the Conference Hall of the Main
Botanical Garden. The report on the activity of the Department
of Biological Sciences, for 1958, was discussed during the sessions,
as well as problems of biological science in the light of decisions
of the 21st Congress of HPSS.(Communist Party of the Soviet Union).
The activity of the memters of the Department. during the past year
was also analysed. Election of a new Academician-Secretary took
place at the. General Meeting in connection with the expiration of ?
the time of the commission of the Academician V. A. Engeltgardt.
Two scientific reports were heard during the last, evening session,
on March g5Cof I. V. Tiurin "Soil-geographical and experimental
works of the Soil Institute mini V. V. Dokuchaeva of the AN SSSR
(Academy of Science, of USSR], their scientific and practical
value" and of E. A. Asratian - "Effect of decJticati? ,of the
cerebrum on the regulation of the function of the organism".
Academician-Secretary, V. A. Engellgardt came forward with
the report about the activity of the OBN (Department of Biologi-
cal Science). In connection with the fact that the text of the
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report was manifolded earlier and .sent out to the members of the
General Meeting, the speaker mentioned only briefly the Most im-
portant scientific and scientific-organizational problems, which
characterized the activity of-OBN during the year 1958.: Basic
attention was given Over to problems of,the. biological science in
the light of decisions of the 21st Congress of RPSS. Dwelling on
the Importance of historical decisions of the 216t.Congress and
on. the serious critical remarks about some deficiences.in. the
work of the scientific institutions of OBN, the speaker pointed out
that to the lot of the Depirtment of Biological Sciences of AP SSSR
fell many exceptionally important problems, .ince biology developed
theoretical premise* for both the medical ?al' well as for the agri*
cultural sciences. Basically, the report was given over to the
consideration of prospects of development of individual trends in
biology for the next seven years:
The speaker pointed out that in the resolution of the 21st
Congress of KPSS those basic branchosrof biology, were named,- which
must be developed by biologists during the next seven years in
the' first place; namely, biophysics, biochemistry, microbiology,
virology, agrochemistry, selection and genetics.
In the development of these sciences, such problems as per-
ception of physico-chemical and structural principles of elementary
living processes, research on the morphology and physiology of
cells and mastering the processes of metabolism acquire a special
Importance. Work on the studies of protein structure and of nucleo-
-
?
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proteids is of fundaiental importance. ?
It is necessary to deepen the research on the. Clarification
of the Interaction ofthe form and function at the microscopic
level and, especially, submicroscopic studies of structures In .
the field of cytology and genetics. Much attention must be given
to the investigation of chemical and physical elements of heredity
as well as development of the. emergence and inheritance of Charac7
tertstics of the organism and the role, in this process, Of inter-
. action of the organism with the en4ironment.,
Of utmost importance are also the problem* on the study of
mechanisms end rules of -action of nuclear radiations on the Meta-
bolism, as wall as development of measures for the protection
from the effect of radiation.
Research on biochemistry and physiology of microorganisms end
viruses must be developed, while working together with bio-
chemists, cytologists, biophysicists. One should' expect the
mastering of bacterial synthesis of manyAipecific,substances-products
of vital activity of microorganisms; this should find wide use in
the economics of the country and in medicine.
Progress In the physiology of man and animals must be the
bast* for solving many important and actual problems of theoretical
and practical medicine, as well at of the animal industry. The
work. on studies of coaditions of existence and efficiency of men .
under extreme conditions, development of measures for efficient
protection of the organism from the-effect of radiation and measures
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to counteract the effects of these reactions, acquire a special im-
penance.
such attentiOmmust be given to the development of physio.
logical principles for high yields, in this direction, in
the first place, one can expect great discoveries in the field
. of photosynthesis. All this Will bring us nearer to mastering
the given process in plants and will help, finally, in realising
photosynthesis under artificial (industrial) conditions. Hitch
attention must also be paid to the regulation of physiological
processes in plants. (Begin p.6393
An ever fuller and versatile mastering andHutilisation of
? soil resources, as well 84 of the plant and animal world of the
Soviet UniOn ars requited., it is necessary to increase, during'
the next seven years, the work on the control of agricultural ,and ?
forest pests (EUrygaster, silkworm moth, weeds, and so on), On
pathogens and carriers of diseases of men animals and agriCulturil.
crops.
For a much quicker and a more purposeful perception of the
country's resources, it is necessary to work out new methods and
new practical forms of their studies. At the same time a wide,
complex method of research, combining field investigations with
experimental work, must be of special value.
On the basis of such complex, many-sided studies of natural
resources, a regionalizing of the USSR territory for national econo-
my purposes should be made; directions be prepared for wide circles
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(5) Trans. A-1096
of practical workers, as well as methodical manuals for e more
efficient industrial utilization and conservation of these riches;
also for Ulu control of all sorts of phenomena, which reduce their
value.
The scientific activity of academicians and of corresponding
members of the Department was described in the report of the
Assistant Academician-Secretary, Academician V. N. Sukachev. The
speaker again mentioned the small number of academicians and cor-
responciing membeibiologists in the Department which is one of the
greatest according to the number of its scientific establishments.
The extreme overloading of academiciens-and corresponding members
with work was mentioned again, as in the preceding years. OBNis
Bureau, is yet, did not carry out the work on investigating
the overloading of members of the Department. .
Reports and the acquaintance With the record of the OBN aroused
lively discussions. B. N. Stepinenko, Kh. S. Koshtolants, V. L.
RyzhkoV, F. N. Pavlovskii, A. A. Imshenetskii, 14. S. Oillarov,
G. V. Nikollskii, A. N. Bakulcv,A. V. Palladin, V. N. Chernigovskil,
N. A. Avrorin, V. P. Namara, E. N. Alshustin, and others took part
In the debate.
The meeting pointed out that the scientific and scientific-
organizational activity of OEMs institutions was carried out
according to a plan approved by.the Presidium of the AN SSSR for
scientific-research works and the plan of Inculcation. The staffs
of permanent scientific councils on problems were manned and new
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? scientific societies Were formed for the improvement Of the
organization of research. The scientific councils on problems
and the societies are the most successful forms of organizations
for guidance of science and for coordination of the scientific
activity of institutions of different services. Data were de-
veloped on three new problems end appropriate reports, concerning
them, prepared ("Hydrobiological processes and means for control-
ling them", "Biochemical principles for Improvement of technology
of the food industry, "Main questions of physiology and morpho-
logy of animals and man"). Remaking of such reports as "Basic
regularities of the biological effect of nuclear radiation" and
"Physical., and chemical elements of heredity" was carried out.
The Presidium approved two new societies at the Academy of
Sciences the All-Union Society of Blochemitts and the All-Union ,
Microbiological Society. More precise definitions were introduced
into the structure of scientific Institutions that enter the
makeup of OBN end the branch offices of the AN SSSR. In several
:scientific institutions the laboratories, that were too large;
were subdivided and new structural units were formed. Al the
Institute of the Morphology. of Animals, for instance, such inde-
pendent group* were formed as the group of biochemistry of 'cellu-
lar structure*, ecological phyviology? cytology of the Protozoa
and the ecological morphology of water memmals. At the Institute
of Biophysics,? in order to subdivide overlarge laboratories of
radiobiology and biophysics of living structures, independent
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groups were formed, having the right of an office - an office of
physics of biopolymers, an office of special Methods of micro-
scopy, am office of theoretical principles for the protection
from radiation, and others..
It was pointed out, that during the past year the international'
scientific contact has grown considerably and became stronger,
especially with countries of people's democracies. Collaboration
with China was on a large scale; 50 biologists went there to take
part In the development of 19 problems in biology. In all, about
280 Soviet biologists visited the foreign countries; among them
180 took part in 42 international congresses and meetings,
and about 100 went for a protracted work in scientific institutions
and fOr rendering consultative help.
At the same time it was mentioned at the meeting, that sub-
stantial deficiencies have their place in the activity of the
Department of Biological Sciences. To the number of these, in :the
first place, belongs the weak bond with scientific-research and
production organisations in agriculture, Individual branches of
light and food industry, as well as sanitation. .
A great defect appears to be In the case that no proper con-
nections were organised with institutions of the Department of
Physical-Mathematical Sciences of the Department of Chemital Sciences,
DepartMent of Geologital-Osographical Sciences of the Academy,of
Science of USSR, and so on.
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Trans. A-1096
A serious omission in the workof.the OBN's Bureau was the ?
'absence of discussions and debates on general biological problems
during the current year.
'Considering the problems of Biological Sciences in the light
of decisions of the 21st-COngress of HPSS and tilting into con-
sideration serious critical Comments which weie made at the
December Plenum of TsK gliss tCentral Committee ,.of the Communist:
Party of the Soviet Union] the. General MeetInp stressed the great
responsibility of the Department of Biological Sciences in the
formation of theoretical- Principles for practical measures in. the
field Of agriculture* of sanitation and other branches of national
economy of USSR. '.1Begin p.640]
The results of scientific works, at theyaccumulatevmust
be widely tested and actively introduced Into practice of the
. national-economy and sanitation through the institutions of VASEHNIL
_tAll-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences meal V. 1. Lenin], of
the Academy of Medical Sciences of USSR* Ministries.and.Councilii
of:National Economy.
The General Meeting adapted a resolution* the text of which
Is cited below:
? 1. To approve the basic trends in the development of bio-
logical sciences* which were stated in the report of the Academii.
alw, V. A. Engellgardt* taking into consideration comments and
wishes expressed. during the discussion of this report.
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To entrust the'CeN's 86reau with the ititrodUction to the Pre-
sidium of the .AN SSR (Academy of Science of USSR of. particular
, suggestions on the silicification of the prospective plan for the
development Of biological sciences for the next seven years, on
the basis of decisions of the 21st Congress of the Patty 'and
the December Plenum of the TsliI{PS.
2. In connectiOn with unfortunate or inaccurate formulations
In the presented report, which were mentioned et the General
Meeting of theAUpartMent, to entrust the OBN's Bureau in a week's
time to adjust and'finally to edit the text of the report after
consultations with the Directors of the Institutes.'
3. At the present level of development of science, the. use
of achievements of physics, chemistry and other allied sciences is
of extreme importance for the sOWing of biological problem*.
In order to unite the efforts Of biologists, physicists,
chemists end other Specialists, the 6eneral Meeting conilderis it
highly desirable to coordinate the activity of the OBN with the
Department of 1hysical48themat1cal Sciences, Department of Chemi-
cal Sciences and bepartment of Geologicali.Geographical Sciences
for the solving of a whole series of big interdepartamental problems,
ind in connection with it asks the Presidium of the AN SSSR about,
the formation of interdepartmental problem councils for .solving
the most essential.complex problems.
4. In every wayito strengthen the contact between the Depart-
ment of Biological Sciences of the Academy of Sciences of USSR with.
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(10) . Trans.- A-iovb
the AcadAmy of Medical Sciences of USSR and theVASKNNit, by
widening and brisking-up the activity of the Councils 4n-Probleis,
attracting for the solution of the main problems a wide circle of
scientific and practical-workers.
_r. 5. To draw the attention of the OBNys Bureau to the need of
greeter corrdination, actual help and strengthening of scientific -
? bonds with'the ACademfee of Sciences of the allied republics,
with ttle.Sibirlan Branch of An.sssR and the subsidiary ofAN SS$R.
6.jTo entrust the Bdreau of the Department of Biological Sciences
with persistent trying to get. from the Presidium of AN ssut the
means for widening the working areas of scientific establishments
of the Department by ,worof construction of new buildings, as well
as by assigning some money for material-technical equipment,for
institutes and laboratories of the Department, in order to create
for them condition; for Wide utilization of the newest methods of
research in byogY..
7. To attract the attention of the Presidium of AN SSSR to
the need of formation in the system of AN SSSR of a factory. for
the manufacture of. apparatuses, as well as of special laborateries
for the output of Synthetic organic substances, labeled (Or a
definite state.
_15. The General Meeting entrusts the Department of Biological
Sciences to put into practice the conducting of debates and dis..
cussions on the basic and the most important general biological
.problems, which effect the interests of.biologists of different.
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a.
specialties, attracting a wide number of active members, both
among tclentiets and practical workers.
To .recognize, as a certain -success for the DepartMent, the
founding of two new journals - "Cytology" and "Paleontology
To entrust the Bureau Of the OBN to continue in persistently
carrying out of the realization-of the full program of the planned
periodic publicetionsi it is also very desirable that the individual
reports of the academician* be published in a combined book.
10. To draw the attention Of the OBN's Bureau.to the ez..
pediency of debating at the meetings of the Bureau of only the
fundamental and big organisational problem* of the biological -
science, but solving the smell current matters during the courtit.
of. work.
11. The General Meeting states the matter *bout the wholly
Insufficient personal staff of the tepartment of Biological Sciences,
and in connection with the vast-problems, facing the biological '
science, addresses the PreiidiuM of the AN SSSR with a request for
the expansion of, the body of active members and of corresponding-.
members of the Department.
After adapting the resolution, the General Meeting expressed
the confidence that biological Scientists, inspired by the decisions
of the 21st Congress,of.the Communist Party will devOte all their
strength, knowledge and energy to the job of construction of the
Communist society.
?
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After the approval of the report, V. A. Engeligsrdt made
an announcement that he resigned as the Academician-Secretary
of the Department of Biological Sciences since the time of his
appointment has run out. The Corresponding Member of the Academy
of Sciences of UR, N. M. Sias/dans was chosen as an acting
Academician-Fecretary of ON fOepartment of Biological Sciences].
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/rens. A-1097
vgAl
Litvinenko, S. N.
voprosu ob lzuchenli rostovykh
stimulistorov-gibberellinov
(On the study of growth substances..
the gibberellins]
Botanicheskil Zhurnal (Momkva) vol. 44,
no. 5, p.645-647. May, 1959. 451 R923
(in Russian)
v.;
During the course of the last.twenty years the researchers
show great interest to.the new, very active group of growth sub
stances-gibberellins.
? . The history of discovery of gibberellins Is connected with the
? study of disease of the "bad shoots" or "bakanse" on rice, con-
slating of an extreme elongation of seedlings, which; on the whole,
leads to weakening and death of plants. A fungus Oibberella
fuJikurok - the pubescent stage of Fusarium moniliforme turned out
to be the pathogen of the disease. Jabuta and iisyashi (1939)
'obtained an active substance, which was called gibberellin in
the name of the pathogen of the disease from secretions of this
fungus.
? Later on, Stodola and his co-workers (In 1955) obtained gib-
berellic acid by a fermenting method, on an artificial medium.
tan c as Sad a em au I ra nskoi SSR,, Kiev (Botanical
Garden of the tcademy of Science of the Ukrainian SSR, Kiev).
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(2) Trans. A-1097
Gibberellins proved to be substances of extremely high
Physiological activity. The meter solution of gibberellin, in
dilution 1 1,000,000, speeds up the growth end development of
plants byany times: beans, peas, corn, pepper, tobacco, millets,
tomatoes, soybeans, and so on.
The history of discovery, production and study of gibberillins
Is set forth with much detail in the reference Journal "Khimicheskie
siedstva easfichity rastenii" [Chemical means for plant protection]
(1958).
A group of Soviet.scientists,'headed by Professor M. Kh.
'Chailakhlan conducta.an important work with gibberellins, that
were received from USA. Results of. their research are interesting
? and convincing; gibberellins speed up the growth and development
of plants, especially of annuals; speed up *flowering and fruiting;
break up the period of rest in seeds (Chailakhian, 1957, 1958a,
1958b).,
Significant are the experiments of Czechoslovakian physiologists
Ia. Hrekule and A. Martinovskaia (1958), who confirmed the positive
effect of gibberellic acid on the development of wheat and millet.
These authors worked with growth substances that were sent in from
England.
LA.Krasillnikov (1958) obtained and tested a preparation
very similar in effect to gibberellin,
In 1958 in Kiev, V. I. Bilal (Institute of Microbiology of the
Academy of Science of Ukrainian SSR and D. IL Verner (Institute of
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Organic Chemistry of the Academy of Science of Ukrainian SSR)'
obtained for the first time in the Ukraine .the'crystallized
berellin.
We started the work on studies of the effect of the native
gibberellin on the growth and development of plants in the Botani-
cal Oardsn of the Academy of Science of the Ukrainian SSR. Our
first problem was to satisfy *ourselves of.the physiological activity
of the newly obtained substance.
Therefore the conducted experiment bore a doubly reconnoltertrig,
? character.
The following plants Were taken for treatment with the growth
substance: aromatic tobacco (Nicotiana odorsta).and Chinese aster
(Callistepus sinensis) plants of a short day; gentian (Oentiana
cressicaulis) and sea lavender (Limonium sirardianum) - plant* Of
S.Iong day; privet (LiaustrumvUlgare) and Pyricantha coccinea -
shrubs.
-The grass plants were taken when week-old. In a phase of two
true leaves, and the shrubs - in a. phase of two seminal leaves.
Part of plants of each kind were treated each day withthe
water solution of. gibberellin In a concentration of 0.0025%. The
control plants received water instead of the. gibberellin solu-
tion. The plants were treated according to the method applied by
M. Rh. Challakhlan; that Is, the.volution of the growing substance
was daily applied with a pipettes one drop to the point of growth.
The experiment.was Started on June74,1958. All the plants
were kept in a hothouse.
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At the end of the first week of treatment it became apparent,
? that the experimental plants Calisteohus sinensia and Nicotlema .
odorata overtake the control plants In growth and development.
ABegin p.646] If the control pleats had at this time 2-3 rosette
leaves, then In plants, treated with gibberellin, the stem. started
to develop.
In 'plants of the long day (Gentians and Limonium) no any'
difference was noted betWeen the experimental and control sped-,'
-mens during this period. The same was observed also in the'shrubs :?
(LioUstrum and Pyracantha). -
At the end of the second week sines the beginning of the
traatment the results of the effect of growth substances became
apparent especially prominently in Nicotiaria odorata, the control
plants were yet in the phaike of the rosette, while those treated
with gibberellin had a stem 7-10 cm high with a mass of flower
buds at the top. The leaf Media of experimental plants were
larger, wider, their petioles longer than in the control plants.
Title of figure 1. Nicotiana odorata at
the end of the 5th week since the ?
beginning of the experiment. At the
left - the control plant; at the
right - the one treated with 0.0025%
gibberellin solution.
Title of figure 2. Callistephus sinensis
at the end of the 4th week since the
beginning Of' the experiment. At the
- left Is the control plant; at the
right - the one treated with the
0.0025% gibberellin solution.
At the end of the 14th week, that is 28 days after:the.beginning
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? of the experiment, the tobacco plants began .to.bloom, having a
stem 15-20 cm long. The control plants still remained In the
phase of a rosette. ?
One should point Out, that the difference in concentrations
oe.gibberellin solutions (0.0025 and 0.025%) did not reflect on
-
the tempos of growth and development of tobacco: plants of both
variants almost did not differ one from the other. .The plants
of tobacco are shown in figure 1 at the end of the 5th waek.since
the beginning of the experiment. The plants of the Chinese ester
developed epproximately at the same tempo as the tobacco plants,
.and started blooming at the end Of the 4th week' (Figure 2).
Plants of the long day proved to be insensible to growth sub-
stances ; during the course of 7 weeks no difference was observed
in the growth and development of. experimental and control plants.
As to the shrub plants, gibberellin produced a noticeable effect
on them: In both variants Of treatment at the end of the 4.th week
the plants attained a height Of 10-12 cm and had 8-10 true leaves,
while the control planta were. only 3.5 cm high and had only 2 true
'leaves (figure'3). (Begin p.6471
Title of figure 3. i strum vulgare at
the end of the th wee since the
beginning of the experiment. At the
left - the control plant; at the
right - the one treated with a 0.0025%
solution of gibberellin.
Our small preliminary experiment indicated, that gibberellin,
obtained by the Ukrainian researchers proved to be a highly active
111 growth substance.
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(6) . Trans. A-1097
The technology for obtaining gibberelin from native strains'
of Gibberella fuilkurol, which. is being developed by V. I..Bilai
end D. A. Verner, will permit to organize the production of.this
growth substance at the Kiev factory of bacterial fertilizers of
the Agricultural Ministry of the Ukrainian SSR.
Further work on studies Of gibberellin effect on plants can be
, developed according te the following basic direction*:
a) checking the effect of gibberellins on the widest possible
collection of plants - herbaceous (with a differing-photoperiodic
reaction), shrubs and trees, in Order to study the stimulation of
the Increase oUthe vegetative miss and speeding up of flowering
and fruiting (for instance, obtaining seeds of blennials,during
the first year);
b) studies of the effect of gibberellin on the size of the
period of rest, especially in seeds of tree varieties that are
hard to sprout;
.c) studies of influence of gibberellin 'treatment for the root-
ing of tree cuttings; especially of the hard to root forest end,
fruit varieties;
.d) as a particular case for speeding up the growth, it is
necessary to study the possibility of preparing, the wilding* of
fruit varieties for grafting during one year instead of two, as
it usually takes place in nurseries;
e) testing of gibberellins for treatment (spraying) of fruit
trees during the petiod.of flowering in order to reduce the shat-
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'tering of ovaries;
? f) studies of. the required high agrotechnical background for
treated plants, which ers developing in accelerated tempos; .
g) comparative studies of the effect of gibberellins and
auxins on the plants;
h) examination of the mechanism of the effect of gibberellins
on the mechanism of plants; .
1) studies of the most favorable doses and best methods of
treatment of various plants;
J) indispensable t4;sting'of growth substances on all the
above points under production conditiont along with the experimental.
Suchsis-the far from full enumeration of questions end problems,
that arise in.serious and deep study of gibberellins.
LITERATURE:
Rrasillnikov, N. A. (1958). Soviet "gibberellin". Vestn. AN SSSR,
Krekulep In and Martinovska (1958). Effect of gibberellic acid
on the development of Triticum and Panicum. Sot. Diurnal, 7.
Chimicheskie tredstva eashchity rastenli (Chemical Means for Plant
Protection], 3. (1958)
Challakhien, Kh. (1957). Effect of.gibberellins on
and flowering of plants. DAN SSSR, 6.
Chailakhien, M. Rh. (1958a). Chemical stimulators for
and flowering of plants. Sot. Zhurnal, 7.
Jabute, T. and Hayashi, T. (1939). Biochemical studies on
fungi of the rice. Bull. Agr. Chem, Soc. Japan, 15.
the growth
the growth
nbakaneen
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to Trans. A-1097
StodoIa, F. H. and others (1955). The microbiological production
of cibberellins A and X. Arch. Biochem. and Blophys., 1.
Received at the editorial office
on August 20, 1958.
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vsig
Razumov, V. 1., and
Gibberellin I vozmozhnoa
rastenievodstve
[Gibberellin end the possibil t
utilisation in plant growing
polszovani
Vestnik Sellaltokhosielstvennoi Matadi vol. 4,
no. 9, p.68-78. September, 1959. 20 v633
(In Russian)
A eubs.tance, producing an unusually strong effect o
was discovered in Japan over thirty years ago; Itis sec
a fungus Gibberella fujkuroI, parasitizing on rice. Later on
411 (in 1939) this substance was Isolated In a crystalline for in
connection with this * wide possibility arose for examining its ef-
fect on many physiological functions of plant organisms. Never-
? theless, It was only during the last 3.4 years, in different
countries of the world, that wide research on this preparation.
was unfolded. The obtained results turned out to be unexpected
and striking. It was found out that ibbe el n not only stimu-
lates the division end growth of plant cells Speeding up the
growth of different organs of'plants, t elso disturbs the state
of rest in seeds end tubera, as well es accele tes the develop.
p1
tee by
ment of certain plants. it IGqulte apparent that the research on
the effect of gibberellin on the plant organism will permit to
seso uzny natiuanvods EAU-Union Institute of
Plant Industry
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(2) Trans. A-1098
study the life of plants deeper., it is assumed, along with this,
that with the aid of gibberellin it will be possible to increase .
the yielding capacity of certain agricultural plants.
im'asmuch as gibberellin is produced-by a parasitic fungus,.
one can assume that this substance is foreign to the plant and
Its reaction must 'be regarded as purely pathological. Yet, at the
present time one can hardly consider such an opinion as well-
grounded. The matter is that research of microbiologists has
ascertained the presence of fungi and yeasts which secrete gibberel-
lin-like substances (2) in the Soil near the root system. Apparent-
ly these substances can be absorbed by the root system and enter
the plant tissues. ,And what is more, In the developing seeds of
beans (13,'35) end of certain pumpkin plants (30) a substance was
? discovered which issimilar in its physiological effect to gibberel-
?, lin. All this compels one to think that gibberellin is a substance
that is not foreign to plants. On the contrary it, probably,
takes part In several Important physiological processes. Other-
wise it would he difficult to understand the causes, owing to which
gibberellin is able to influence such diverse and crucial processes
of the metabolic activity of plants.
The piesent report has as its elm to throw light briefly upon
certain results, obtained An the experiments on the use of gibbertl-
lin, chiefly by foreign researchers.
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(3) Trans. A-I098
mETmop OF REACTION OF GIBBERELLIN ON THE PLANT
, Fungus Oibberella fujikurok secretes into the medium, in which
it is cultivated, at least three substances t Gibberellin Ali Gib-
berellin A2 and gibbereilic acid. The later one is the most
:active physiologically, although all the this* substances are
alike in their effect. They dissolve well in alcohol and water..
ando.thereforei water solutions are usually used for reaction upon
a plant. [Begin p.69] The method for introduction of gibberellin
is very simple. It is either introduced into the soil in large
concentrations, since a considerable pert of it Is absorbed by the
soil, or is applied directly to the plants; this is done much more
often.
The means for influencing the plants with gibberellin are
different. They come'to the following methods* .1) application of
e drop of solution (mixed with a moistener) on the top or side bud;
2) application of gibberellin in lanolin to the bud; 3) spraying of
the plant, most often of the top bud-and nearby leaves; 4.) dipping
of leaves with a removed tip (for a better absorption) into a,-
solution of -gibberellin or submerging of tubers and seeds.into
solution of the preparation; 5) injection of the solution into the ?
? stem of the experimental plant with the aid of an injector. In*
field experiments only the spraying of plants from a sprayer is ?
practicable.
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Concentrations of the solution differ, depending on the
crop and .the purpose that the researcher has in mind. Weak coil-
centrations (10-100 mg per 1 L) with a single or double reaction
produce stimulation of the growth of stems and leaves. A daily
treatment during the course of 30-50 day, with a solution, con.,
taming about 200-1,000 mg of gibberellin per 1 L, is required In
order to make genie biennial'placits bloom during the first year of
plintifig.. In order to increase the percent of setting of fruit in
eurantiacette the solution of 250-1,000 mg Per 1 L.'s active, while
in respect of grapes, for the same purposes, Just 5-100 mg per 1 L
are sufficient. A still smaller concentration of the solution is
? sufficient for a change of morphology of an ivy leaf or for in-
creasing the petals in the geranium flower (10 mg.per.11ter). Ef-
fectiveness of utilization of-gibberellin depends greatly on the
age of the plant. The treatment of plants.at an early age is
much. more .effective.
? Let us examine briefly those reactions of plants, which can be
produced by the use of gibberellin.
Elongation of the stem is the most characteristic reaction of
plants to the use of gibberellin. Marth (36) describes the results
of research that was conducted with 49 different plants. All of
them reacted to gibberellin with the lengthing of the stem. Certain
kinds (beans, aurantlaceae seedlings, tomatoes) increased the length
of the stem by 3-6 times, while others (spruce, pins tree, gladioli)
very insignificantly. Vary interesting research is described with
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genetically dwarfplents (mutants) of peas (I0)vMsise (42),
tomatOes (44). Dwarf plants attained to size Of normal plants -
as a result of treatment. It. $s true* the reaction of plants was
not fully unanimoue.. Frap among 6 corn plants four reaCted.positive-
ly* while two other Plants remained dwarfs.-
One'can force, with the aid of gibberellin, the bushy forms of
.beans to produce winding stems,' which increase their lentth by
several times as compared to the control. In one of ruch everiments
(SO) the height Of the control plants was '7 a, while of the ?
experimental - 112 cm. The'same reaction is peculiar also to
seedlings of tree varieties; thus* for instance* aucalyptuses, in
411 the'control* had a length of 12 cm, While those treated with gib-
kerellih'- 47 cis (49).
a
One can influence both the vegetating plants as well as the
deeds for the stimulation of. the item growth. The plants of. dwarf
peas (37)* grown from seeds that were soaked in a gibberellin
-solution* increased their growth- when compared With the control
plants. tBegin p.701
' The rate of reaction to the treatment with gibberellin is
determined to a considerable degree by the conditiOn of plant
(owing. Thus* in peas the height of stems* in growing them under
conditions of a ',94-hour day (when usually the growth is inhibited):
Increased mOre.intensely*.under the effect of gibberellin* than
of those cultivated during the long*, 18-hour dey (54). Observa-
tions of several researchers of the growth of plant; that were
treated with.oibberellin and crown at reduced temperatures (10-13?)i.
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which areunfavorable for the growth, are quite substantial.' It
proved-to be, that gibberellin as If widened the temperature range
?
of growth. The forage grasses, treated in the early spring, began
to grow'actively? while on-the control sections no growth was
discovered yet. The treatment of seeds pi peas and beans with,
gibberellin, and their planting at reduced -temperature, speeds
Up the appearance of sprouts very much MI. If these ObterVations
will be confirmed on a large number of crops, then a possibility will
arise for obtaining early young growths after early plantings,
which will be important tor the control of weeds and for widening
of the range of the vegetation peried.
Spreadino out of leaves. The *lee and number of leaves
usually Increased along with the elonoation of the stem under the.
?influence of thegibbers114ft treatment of plants:. Thus, es a
result of treatment, the leaves Of cucumbers covered an area of
, while the control.--9.2 Units (26)'. Sitilar_obeervations
were Conducted on potatoes (23), 15arley (27) and other plants.
Increase-of the size of the leaf area was also recorded-in the-,
work with cuts of leaves that were floating over the solution Of
gibberellin or water (27).
Often there was no increase in weight of leaves during the.
increase of the leaf area, as they became thinner, the contents
of chlorophyll in them becoming reduced. No intensification of
- the process Of eynthesiS was noted in leaves that were treated
ill - with g1Pperellin (23, 21).
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?
Several ofthe researchers mention that the increase of leaf
area was recorded in far from all plants under the effect of gib-
berellin. Sometimes the gibberellin treatment led to sharp changes
in the morphology of the leaves. The leaves of tomatoes changed
from complex to simple ones (45). In the work of Robbins (47) a
.branch of the adult ivy plant,.having mature leaves, after treat-
ment with gibberellin (10 mg per 1 L), produced a shoot, which was
strongly colored with anthocyan and bore leaves Airith three lobulest
such leaves are characteristic for the juvenile phase of ivie develop-
ment. Crescent lanceolate leaves, characteristic for adult trees
(49), formed on one-year seedlings Of eucalyptus under the effect
of-gibberellin treatment-(100 mg-per 1 L)..
As we see, one and the same preparation produces a different
,effect on plants, causing-on some the appearance of juvenile forms
of leaves on adult plants, while in others - formation of leaves,
characteristic for adult trees, on seedlings.
-Channes,of other orpans of plants. Under the influence of
flower buds in certain plants - geranium (54), ground ivy (43) -
the size of the. corolla can increase at the expense of the growth
of petals. In cucumbers MO, treated with gibberellin and growing
on a soil, welt fertilized with nitrogen, the number of male
.e
flowers, pr4ceding the formation of the female flower; increases.
Abiterility of male flowers is produced (39) In torn plants after treat-
mentor immature inflorescences the site of 6-7 cmlwith gibberellin
(1,000 mg per 1 L).
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Treatment of plants with gibberellin leads not alone to
spreading out - elongatioi of the already existing cells, but it '
also increases the speed .(Beuin p.711 of division of meriste-
matic cells of. the cambiogenetic zone (9). It Is Interesting to
Mention IriCortniction with this, that the tissues of the callus of
the carrot, cultivated omen artificial nutrient medium, grew more
intensely .in the case When gtbberellin was added to the medium (7).
Addition of gibberellin to nutrient media is used for cultivation
Of plant tissues (40)? for growing embryos removed from seeds (24),
for germination of ripe pollen (15) and its development in iso-
lated anthers, beginning with the stage of maternal cells of
microipores to the formation of tetrads.(51).
Gibberellin stimulated, In most cases, the growth and develop-
ment of the studied objects, n
TREATMENT WITH OIBBERELLIN AND YIELD OF PLANTS
If, as a result of treatment of plants W4th gibberellin, the
growth of steis and leaves was stimulated, did this cause'an .
Increase of dry weight of these plants every time? -Results of
research give a contradictory answer to this question. Stimulation
of growth and, at the same time of yield, depends in many repects
on the choice of the correct dose of treatment and on the provision
of plants with the flaw of nutrient substances. In the experiments
with beans (50) the dry weight of control.plants comprised 2 g, of
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thote treated every 5 days with .gibberellin (50 mg.per.1 1.)
2.1 gi and of those treated daily - only 4.5 g.
Several authors observed en increase ln.the.y4eld of vog0a
tattye mass of forage grasses as a result of treatment'of pinnts
with gibberellin, particularly in meadow grass (17, 24, 31, 36).
It is posOble to increase the yield of the first mowing of grasses
1.54.2 times (31) by combining the treatment of plants with gibberel-
ling (277 g per .1 ha) with fertilisers.' The folloWing moWinbs'can
be high also, after i'repeated treatment. If one does npt do -
that, then the yield will be lower, than on the control sections (38).
Nevertheless the. rate of the yield of forage grasses, depends on
the combination -of doses and dates-of treatment with gibberellin
with dates of harvests and introduction of top dressings. Where-
upon, the question remains 1 unsolved about the ability for over-
wintering of gressesi which were treated with gibberellin during the
summer. There is a reason to suppose that the ability for over-
wintering of forage grasses will be strongly reduced after re-
peated treatments with gibberellin.
In the work of Wittwer (54) it 'Ii reported about the increase
. In yield of several vegetable crops (celery, tomatoes, peas, beans)
as a result of their treatment with gibberellin.
Information about potatoes is contradictory. There are re-
ports of both the positive (23) as well as negative (24) effect of -
.treatment of potato plants with gibberellin on the yield of tubers.
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Data, obtained In the Laboratory of Physiology of the All.
Union Institute of Plant Industry, In 1958, In experiments with the
wild variety of potatoes S. demissum, show that treatment of planta
with week solutions of gibberellin leads to a. reduction of yield Of
tubers,' Moreover, the higher the concentration of the solution
was used the More was the weight of the tubers reduced. Potatoes.
were grown at a 12-hour day (table 1).
'According to data of foreign authors, experiments with corn,
sugar beets, barley, rye, and wheat (for grains). did not Produce
any expected increase in yield. Nevertheless, this does not yet
form 6 basis for a categorical- [Begin p.72]: conclusions:. (Text
continued after table 1)
? Table 1
Effect of gibberellin an the growth and tuber formation of potato.
AJausjx.s
uz vris wLzu yarzety z. camissum ?
Concentration of
oibberellin*
Height
(cm)
Dry weight
(g)
leaves
try weight
of tubers (p)
stems
o -
15
0.64.
2.0
16.4
.
0.1 mg/I..
15
0.59
2.02
- 15.3
1 "
16
0.47
1.22
13.9
?
10 "
20:-
',
?
0.62
.1.25
-11.1
100 "
29
?
0,75
1.20
8.4 -
*Spravina was condacted
7 times
in every
two days.
- Corn reacted positively to the treatment with gibberellin in
experiments of 1. V. Mosolov (3); the yield of ears in the ex.,
periment proved to be by 143% higher than In the control; the yield
of green mass of clover after treatment with gibberellin increased
by 150%.
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Quite definite results were obtained on several crops In treat-
ing flowers and fruits at the beginning of their formation.
L. Rappaport:(45) treated floral racemes of tomatoes.with a solu-
tion of gibberellin (1 mg per i and obtained 114. fruits on a
plant, while on the control plant there were only three. A. Persson
and L. Rappaport (41) conducted experiments with tomatoes, which
had sterile pollen. There were 0.7 specimens of parthenimarpic
in
fruits that set ivAthe control, while after spraying With gib-
berellin (500 mg-per 1 L) there were 15 specimens per plant. Effec-
tiveness of treatment with gibberellin for obtaining partheno-
carpic fruits in tomatoes is Indisputable. .At the same time while
quantitatively the yield Increased,, neverthaless, the size of
111
fruits of experimental plants was somewhat smaller than of the
ueual fruits.
' Treatment of flowers of pears and figs with 'gibberellin (25- .
100 mg per 1 L) gave very noticeable increase In the number of
fruits. The treatment with gibberellin (250.4,000 mg,per it).
was very effective in the sense of increase of the number of fruits -
of lemons, tangerines and oranges.. Spraying of almost ripiufruits-
of the aurentiaceae lends to the increase JA them of vitimin C.
The most astonishing Conclusions, as the result of treatment with
gibberellin, were obtaiiied on fruits of grapesj this is seen from
the work of Weaver (52) after treatment of flowers and of fruit,
which were Just set, of the seedless variety "Korinka chernalan
tplack currants] with the solution of potassium salt of gibberellic ?
acid (table 2).
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? Table 2.
Bffect of gibberellin on the weight Of berries and bunches of
cranes
Control (without
Treatment with ibberellin
- Indices,
treatment)
1 mg
74 m.
S. m
Weight of?A berry
0.26
0.?
0.
. 1. 1
1411.101...94i.A110,.........L.91.6
,
206J.
36,6
00
g n p.
Title of figure 1. Bunches of grapes,. variety,
? Black currant: A - of the untreated can '
trol plant; B - ringed, but untreated with '
? gibberellin; C -' without ringing but treated%11ththe solution of gibberellin ('mg
per 1 1.); D? - without ringing but treated
? with the solution of gibberellin (20 mg
per liter)
As it is seen from the'tabli, the Weight of the
fruit and of the bunch increased-by:5 tIMeititen'compared with
? the control (figure 1).,. Correspondingly the yield of grapes in-
creased from each bush. -Felling off of fruit is 'absent after
? treatment, the bunch fortes more loosely and this reduces diseases.
About the sans 'result, was obtained with varieties that have seed's-.
? One can conclude from the above cited that the yield of certain
egricultural'plents-caA be Influenced by_means of gibberellin.
BREAKING THE REST PERIOD?OF SEEDS AND BUDS.
, WITH THE AID OF GIBBERELLIN
During the progress of selection work, and sometimes under .
?
conditions of agricultural production it is sometimes .necessary
to u35 for planting the newly gathered seeds or ttibers, Which are
as yet in a' state of rest. Nevertheless, the.recommended methods
?for breaking the state of rest are not sufficiently effective.
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L. Rappaport, with coauthors (4.6), working in California aimed
at receiving two yields of potatoes per year; for this purpose
the second planting was dime with the newly harvested tubers.
Oibberellin was utilized for the overcoming of the period of rest.
Tubers, which were submerged for 5 minutes into the solutioh
?
? (SOO mg of the preparation'per 1 L), germinated uniformly and
fast, Whereupon all the eyes, present on the tuber, sprouted;
this led to the formation of multiple-stemmed buthes of potatoes
(figure 2): in the work, carried out in Netherlands in the city
.of Vageningen (19); nine different varieties of potatoes were
tested. A:fast and Uniform sprouting was recorded for tubers .
treated with gibberellin. In the Laboratory of Physiology
[Begin p.710. Of Plasits of the AllAinion Institute of Plant Industry
(Ts.M. Mashes) newly harvested tubers of eight different.varie-
ties were sprouted. Tubers were selected with a different length
of the period of rest - from 35.to 412 days. On the 20th day
after treatment with gibberellin (solution in water 0.004%, length:
30 minutes) all the Potato varieties had sprouts of,from.1 to 6 cm.
Varieties with a long period of rest had thicker end stronger
. sprouts than the varieties with a shorter period of rest (table 3).
Title of figure 2. Sprouting of potato
tubers, Kathadin varietyl On the
left - untreated tuber, on the right
gibberellin treated. .
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Trans. A.-1098
'Tfhle
Speed Of sprouting of newly harvested potato tubers after their
treftment wItn gincerelLin
-......,..........................
' Varieties
Length of the period
of rest (days) - .
Size of
after treatment
the sprout (mm)
on '
'-ah day.
12th day-
Arran Banner
' 112
12
35
Arran Consul-
112
12
60?
Majestic
112

Brigitte
110
0
4
47
Britta
' 63
.
1
15
Lorch
3
13
Erstling'
..gZ
.
:
6
Eigenheimer
35
._-
ig
16
The conducting, in-southern regions-of-USSR, of comparative
L.
test by planting two-harvest varieties of potatoes and of the
? newly-harvosted tubers of common varieties, treated with gibberel-
lin, was of unquestionable interest:
It IS possible to Use's gibberellin treatment of.female plants
before harvesting the yield in order to break the period of rest
in potato tubers., According to the report of L. Lippert (32), .
the treatment of plants with. gibberellin .(500 mg per.14er), 4.weeks.
?
before harvesting gave better resulti.
In certain cases the _possibility for obtaining misshapen .
ttlbers is not excluded after gibberellin treatment of potato plants.
Spouting of most of the eyes on the already formed tubers occurs
under female bushes. The eyes that sturted growing dn not form
a sprout, but a stolon?.which,carries a young tuber. As a result
of this a mass of young daughter tubers are produced (figure 3).
Conditions, under which such deformities occur, are not ,ascertained.
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It is supposed (32) that this occurs in using gibberellin in a con-
centration 10 mg per it. Date of experiments, C'onducted in the
Laboratory of Physiology of the Ail-Union Institute of Plant in-
dustry, show that the time of treatment is of great importance in
obtaining of suchmalformations. If the treatment of plants is con!?.i.c.
ducted during the period of the beginning of formation of tubers,
then the deformities occur, while a later treatment (1.0 days after
? the-endof blooming) does mit produce any misshapen tubera.
[Begin p.751
Title of figure 3. Character of tuber sprouting
in the soil after foliar application of gib-
berellin to femaleplants.
Gibberellin treatment for the purpose of breaking the rest
period it applicable not onlyrto potatoes, but also to the bud,
of many tree and fruit varieties. It is known that Peach plante,
after leaf fall, require a temperature +70 during the cOurst of
not less than 27 days, since without this cooling the leaf buds
cannot open normally. In growing ,the'plents,which lost their
leaves; in warmth, it was succeeded to compel the resting buds
to start growing by treating them once with a gibberellin solu-
tion. (4,000. mg per 11.).. But, if the peaches. have already Obtained
a certain cooling (18 days out of the required 27), then C weaker
concentration of gibberellin - 10 mg per 1 L - can be active. The
author makes a conclusion about the possibility of growing peach
? trees, using gibberellin, In more southern, warmer regions; where
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7_
they are not cultivated now. Clear results were obtained in expert-
milts with Japanese camellia (33) and pine (Pinus elliotti -
which, when grown at a short day, very soon enter a deep rest. -
Tbis rest period can be broken, without changing the length of
day, by treating the plants with a gibberellin Solution.
Experiments with tree peony (6) proved te be successful. It
requires temperature of 1-10? during the course of at least 3 months
for Its. sprouting. It was possible to break the state of rest,
excluding the cooling, but treating these plaints with gibberellin
(100 mg per liter). Experiments are known of overcoming the rest
in seeds of many crops. Seeds of apple (Malus Arnoldiana) re-
quire stretification during the courts of 30 days. They can sprout
also without stratification, but in this ease the seedlings pro-
duce a rosette'form. Gibberellin treatment (10.mg per -1 L) provides
an active growth .of the stem in height without the stratification
of seeds (5). Lettuce seeds sprout better in the light and badly
In darkness, but they germinate well in darkness after gibberellin
treatment of. 100 mg per 1 L 125).
G. Shamsiev, in the Laboratory of Plant Physiology of the
institute of Plant Industry, conducted experiments with
barley varieties, which possess a-well-expressed period of after
-
harvest ripening. The seeds were harvested and sprouted during
different phases of ripeness, as well as.were sprouted.after dif-
ferent periods of their storage'. The age of Seeds was figured from
the moment of their heading. The seeds were grown in Petri dishes
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over filter paper, which was moistened with water (control) or
gibberellin solutions of 200 mg and 20 mg per liter.
Dependence of the speed of seed germination on their age
was clearly shown in the control'. Sprouting of seeds on gibberel-
? lin solutions occurred very quickly, but in. this case also the
speed of their sprouting depended on the Age of the seeds. Gib-
.
berellin cannot produce a uniform sprouting of barley seeds, which
'were harvested from plants on the 31-48 and Degin p.761 even on
the 101 day after heading. Such seeds are not ready for sprouting
in their physiological state and their treatment with gibberellin
cannot produce full germination. Besidee that, the seeds of the
411 same variety of barley were sprouted over water and gibberellin
solution (0.2,1) at a temperature of 10? and 200. The newly har-
vested seeds sprouted more uniformly in the control at 10?.. It
is known that the reduced temperature is favorabie for the germina-
tion of, seeds that are in a state of after4larvest ripening. The
same dependence on-the:temperature was retained also In sprouting
'the seeds over the gibberellin solutiOn. Constquently,.Ma this
case also, gibberellin did not subatitdte fully those conditions
which are favorable for the sprouting Of newly harvested Seeds, but
only speeded up the process of germination.
? Acceleration of the development of plants with the use of gib-
berellin has been mentioned by many researchers. The American
scientist, A. Lang (29), in 1956, caused a flowering in Planta Of
411 - the winter race of henbane under conditions of .increased temperature
-Trre T-et'alts were olotained with the early variety of carrots
?
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(29), with campanula (14), endive (22), erabidopsis (48). It
appeared that gibberellin possesses One more physiological charac-
teristic - to replace vernalization of plants. Nevertheless, this
Is far from being so as the subsequent research has shown. All
the attempts to force the typical. winter ryes and'wheats (28) or
the biennial plants of sugar baste, which acquired a greet "extent
of winter crop qualities" rstepene ogimostil (16) to form spikes
with the aid of gibberellin proved to be without results.
The report of Wittwer (53) merits attention; he treated the
t?
plants of Cabbage, of turnips, rutabaga end other biennial plants
with gibberellin at a temperature of 10-13? and 18?. The flowering
of experimental plants was noted at 10?, but no flowering was ob-
served at the temperatureof.18*.notwithatandin the strong e/onga-
tion of stems Of plants that were treated'with gibberellin. In a
later work (54) Wittwer points out that it is absolutely necessary
to grow them at a reduced temperature (10?) In order to compel the
biennial plants to flower under the effect of gibberellin. Ap-
parently, gibberellin itself cannot replace vernalization, but
it can speed it up under such conditions when the process pro-
ceeds'very
,The results are approximately the same from the use of gib-
? berellin in respect to plants of a long-day. If such plants are
grown at a short day, they do not flower and do not form spikes.
Flowering of certain plants of this group is possible under condi-
tions of a. short day with a gibberellin treatment. Such results
?
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(19) Trans. A-1098
were obtained'on plants of spring henbane (28), catchfly, nip-.
plewprt (28), conef lower (fludbeckle) (4a 12, PPM (34). Spring ,
rye (28), 'Oats, cornflower, chamomile (Acthusa Cynapium - 34)
.-and others do not react to gibberellin 'treatment and remain in a .
vegetative state under conditions of a short day.
-AA At.is teen from all the above said, plants of a long day
behave differently after t.gibberellin treatment..-One'shOuld
point out, that all the plants of 'a short day do not accelerate
development if they ere.treated with gibberellin and are grown under
conditions of a long day..
Regardlessk-of..the opinion of certain authors (11), the accele-
ration of developmentof plants is by no means a generel'reaction
-under the effect of gibberellin. Only aAlmell number of plants,
in graving them it-a certain length of the day (a tittle below ?
than the critical.length Of.the.daY4, can 'respond 0 the gibbereT-
lin treatment by an acceleration Of flowering.
'One 'can make the following conclusion by summing up the above
cited: gibberellin is a physiologically active substance, which
influences a series of very important physiological processes.
In this respect the, research [DeginP.77) on the use ofgibberel-.
lin presents ajmeat scientific interests' since it 'opens up pos-
sibilities for penetrating deeper and perceiving many arucial pro-
cesses in the life of plants. At the same time some possibilities
open up in the use of gibberellin also for the purpose of its
practical use in plant industry. Nevertheless, it is necessary.
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in this direction to conduct research for establishing exact doses
In gibberellin treatments and of those conditions of growing, which
can produce the desired effect.
LITERAIURE
1. Breehnev, D. D.Iflfluen?of gibberellin on the growth and
development of plants. "Vestnik Selfskokhoziaistvennoi Naukin,
no. 10, 1958, p.15-22.
2. Rrasillnikov, N. A. Soviet gibberollin. "Priroda", no. 7,
1958, p.81-84.
3. Mosolov, I. V., Mosolovs, L. V. and Demchinskala, M. 1. - Effect
of gibberellin on the growth sad development of plants.
"Udobrenie I Urozhain,. no. 11, 1958, p.I1-16.
14. Challakhlan, M. Rh. Effect of gibberellin on the growth and
development of plants. "Botanicheskil Zhurnaln, vol. 43, no. 7,
1958.
5. Barton, ?1" V.- Growth response of physiologic dwarfs of
arnoldishe Sary to gibberellic acid. Contrib. of the Boyce
Thompson Inst., 1956, v. 18, N. 8.
6. Barton, and Chandler, C..- Physiological and morphological
effects of gibberellic acid epicotyl dormancy of tree palooy.
Contrib. of the Boyce Thompson Inst., 1957, v. 19, $2.
7. Bergman. L. - Einfluss von gibberellin auf des Wachstum von
Oewebekulturen des Callus von Daucus carota. Planta, 1958,
'Bd. 51# Rf. 1, pp.70-73.
8. Bourdeau, P. F. - Interaction of gibberellic acid and photoperiod
of the vegetative growth of Pinus 'Bilotti. Nature, 1958,
v. 182# N 4628, p.118.
9. Bradly M. V., and Orone, J. C. - Oibberellin stimulated cam-
? bial activity in stems of apricot spur shoots. Science, 1957,
v. 126, N 3280, pp.962,973.
10. Brian, P. W., and Hemming. - The effect of gibberellin acid on
shoot growth of pea seedlings. Physiol. Plantar, 1955, v.,
ant., 669.671.
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24. Aim' J., und'PfAff, C. - Uber Gibberellin Sure.. Ztschr.
.
fur PflanzenernEhr. Ming. Bodenkunde, 1958, Bd. el, N. 2.
P.133-141.
25. Kahn, A., and Goss, J. A Effect Of gibberellin on germination
'of lettuce seed. Science, 1958; 125, N 3249, pp.645-646.
26, Kribben, F. - Gibberellin-silUre und Blattwachstum. Die
Naturwiss., 1957; 44;AL-15, p.429.
27. Kuraishi, S. and Hashimoto,- T. - Promotion of leaf growth ?
and acceleration Of item elongation by gibberellin. Bot.
Mas., Tokyo, 1957, v. 70, N. 826* pp.86-92.
?
28. Lang, Am Gibberellin and flower formation. .Die Naturwlas.,
1956,0, H. 21, pP.544-545.
29. Lang, Am - Induction of flower formation in biennial Hyoscya-
mus by treatment with gibberellin. Die Naturwist., 1956,
H. 12; pp.284-285.
30. Lang, Am, Sandoval, J. A., and Bedvi, A, - Induction of
bolting and flowering in Hyoscyamus end Samolus by a gib,
? berellin-like materidl from a seed plant. Proc. of Net.
Acad. of Un. Stat. Amer., 1957, v. 43, N 11* pp.960-964.
31. Leben, C.-- Effect of gibberellic acid on growth of Kentucky
bluegrass. Science, 1957, v. 125, N 3246.
Lippert Systematic induction Of sprouting in white
potatoes by foliar applications of gibberellin. Plant 'Physiol.
1958, v. 33, N 2, pp.132-133.
. 33. Lockhart, ?J., and Bonner, J. - Effects.of gibberillic acid on
the Photoperiod controlled growth of woody plants, Pleat
Physiol. v. 32; 145, PP1492-494,
3144 Lone, T., and Boechi, A. - Sviluppo vegetato e riprodUative
di alcune longidiurne in rapport? all' azione delle,acido
gibberellico. Nuovo glorn..BOtanico, Italiano, 1956; v.63,
N
35, Plac Millen, J., and Suter, P. J. - The occurrence of gibberel-
lin A2 in plants Isolation the seed runner bean (PhaseOlus
multiflorus). Die Naturwiss., 1958, v. 45, H. 2, p.46.
. 36. Marth, P. C., Audit', W. V., and Mitchell, J. W. - Effect of
gibberellio acid On growth and development of plants of various
genera and species. Satan. Gat., 1956, 118, pp.106-112.
32.
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-(21) Trans. A-1098
11. Brian, R. W. - Role of gibberellin-like hormones in regula-
tion of plant-growth and flowering. Nature, 1958, V. 181,
N 46161, Pp.1122-1123. -
12.'Bunnow, Bo, und Harder, K.- Blutenbiidung won Adonis und
.Rudbekla durch Oibberellin. Naturwiss. 1957, V. 444 H. 16.
13, Bunsow, K., Penneri J., und Harder, K. - Blumenbildung bet
Bryophyllum durch.Extrakt aus Bohnensamen. Naturwiss. 1958
V. 45. H. 2, PP.46-47,
114. Carr,'D. J., Mc Comb, A. J., and Osborne, L. D,, Replacement
of the requirement for vernalisation in Centaurium Minus
Mvench by gibberellic acid. Die Naturwlas., 1957, v. 44,-.H. 15,
? PP.428-429.
IS. Chandler, C. The effect of gibberellic acid an girminntion
and pollen tube growth. Contrib. of the Boyce Thompson Inst.
1957, v. 19, N 2, 0.215.
16. Compbell, O.K. O..- Some responses of sugar beet to gibberel-
lic acid. , Publ. Inst. Internat. flitch. Bett., 1958, 21 at.
Corns, tt. 0. - Effects of foliage treatments with gibberellin
In forage yield of alfalfa. -Kentucky bluegrass and winter
wheat. Canad..Journ?Plant Sc,, 1958,-v. 38, N3 PP.314-319.
111 17?
18. Donoma, C. W. and. Walker, D. K. - Effect of gibberellic acid
on breaking of rest period in Marta peach. Science, 1957,
v. 126., N 3284, Pp.1178-1179:
19. Doorenbos, J. - Effects of gibberellic acid on sprouting
of potatoes. Netherlands JoUrn. of. Agric. Scf., 1954,v. 6,
PP.267-271.
? f'
20. Dure, L. S.,.and'Jensen, W. A.. - The influence of gibberellic
acid and indoleacetic acid on cotton embryos cultured in
vitro. Botan. Oez., 1957, V. 118, N 44 Pp.254-261.
.21. Haber, A. H., and Talbert, N. E. - Photosynthesis in gib-
berellIn'treated leaves. Plant Phyatol.. 1957, v. 32, N 2-
22. Herrington, J. E., Rappaport, L.
fluence of gibberellins on stem
endive. "Science", 1925,-1957.
23. Humphries, E. C. - The effect of
on the growth of Majestic potat
v. 4(1, N 3, PP.346-351.
?
and'Hood, R. J. 4. The in-
elongation and flowering of
pp.601-602.
gibberellic acid and kinetin
o. Ann. Appl. Biol., 1958,
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?
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, /runs. A...a098
37. Moore, T. C. - Effect of gibberellic acid-on the growth of
pew seedling when imbibed through the seed coat. Nature
1958, v. 181, N 4607, p.500. :
38. Morgan, D. C., and Mtge, G. G. Gibberellic acid and the growth
of csiop'p1ants. Journ Agric. Sol., 1958, v. 50, pp.li 49-59.
39., Nelson, P. M., and Rosimano.E. C. - Chemical induction of
malt sterility In inbred _maize by use of gibberellins. Science,
1958, v. 127, N 3313, pp.1500-1501.
40. Nickell, L. - Gibberellin and the growth of plant tissue
culture* Nature, 1956, v.-181, N 4607, PP.499-500.
41. Persson, A., and Rappaport, L. is Oibberellimi-induced systemic
fruit set In a male sterittomato. Science, 198, V. 127,
N3302.
42?
Phinney, B. O. - Biochemical mutants in maize dwarfism and
Its reversal with gibberellin. Plant Physiol., 1956, v. 30,
20.
43. Plack, A. - Effect of gibberelLic acid on corolla site.
411 Nature, 1958, v. 182, N 4635, p.610.
?
44.
Plummer, T. H., and Tomes, M. L. Effect of indoleacetic acid
and gibberellic acid on normal and dwarf tomatoes. Botan.
Otte., 1958,-v. 119, N 3, PP.197-200. ,
45. Reppaport, L. Effect of gibberellin on growth, flowering
and fruit set the Earlypak tomato. Plant Phytiol., 1957,
.141 5, PP.440-.444.
46. Rappaport, L*, Bippert? L. T., and Timm, H. - Breaking the
rest periOdi with gibberellic acid, Amer, Potato Journ.,
19574. v. 34. N 90
47. Robbins, W. - Oibberellic acid and the reversal of adult,
Hedera to juvenile state. Amer. Journ. of Botany, 1957,
V. 44, N 9, PP.743.q46.
46. Sarkar, S. - Versuche cur Physiologic der Vernalisation. Biol.
Zentralbl.; 1958, Bd. 77, H. 1.
v. 32
?
49. Scurf laid, L., and Moor. - Effects of gibbarellic acid on
species of Eucaliptus. Nature, 1958, v. 181, N 4618, pp.1276.
1277.
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(24) Trans. A-1098
O. Thunber, G. A., and Douglas. - Inhibitory effect of gib-.
'berellins on nodulisation in dwarf bean (Phase?lus vulgare).
Nature, 1958, v. 181, N 4615, pp.1082-1083. ?
51. Vasil, L. H. - Effect of kinetin and gibberellic acid of
' excised anthers of Allium cepa. Phytemerphology, 1957,
Ar? 7, N 2. A
52. Weaver, R. J. - Effect of gibberellic acid on fruit set and
berry enlargement in seedless grapes on Vitis. Nature. 11584
v..181, N 4612, pp.851.852.
53 Wittwer, S. H., and Bukovac, N. J. - Oibberellin.effects on
temperature and photoperiodic requirements for flowering of
some plants. Science, 1957, v. 126,-N 3262.
54. Wittweri S. H. and Bukovec, H. J. - The effects of gibberellin
on economic crops. Economic Botany, 1958,-v. 12, N 3, pp.213-
255.
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Trans. A.-1099
v0/14
? Damanskeia,
? Sredstvo protiv galiovot .nenato
[Means for control of root-knot es
iHeterodera radicicola)]
Zashohlta Rastenli, vol n
Nov./Dec 19$9
(In Russian).
Ic
ate ne
not es
6, ?p.41.
42 zi
\
preps ions are uc Ily d for the Contr
*worm; Hong these *Wisps is widely advertised.
'soli migant that possesses fungicidal lnsecti-
herbicidal and, nenatocidal characteristics. It was used
USA and in Holland for the control of citrus and potato nema-
todes in Its latter capacily *s preparation is the sodium
salt of methyldithiocarbamic acid C 3 ) with specific
gravity 1,233 and-active element or 52 (USW end 31% (of imported
.production). It is a liquid of yellow color, smelling like barring,
causing irritation and burns when it touches the skin; it Is used
In the form f a water volution end aft
soli is adsorbed quickly by Its par Ici
and several other substances arc pr
r in roduction into the
s. -RethyllsothlocyanIts
ducts of Its decomposition.
Roots as a neMatocide strictly locally in tI place of introduc-
,tion.
1956, 'I4osstasra tMoacov Plant Pr
ducted tests of ."Vapse, of na
con..
ye make, in a Mo ow bur.bun
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(2) Trans. A-1099
vegetable sovkhos "men! M. Oorlkii" on a crop of tomatoes. Two
basic problems were proved: the effectiveness of the 'action on
the nematode and the phytocidal character. The preparation was in-
troduced by two methods: by surface watering with e,following digging
over and smoothing of the sot] or by an Injection through an in-
jector to the depth of 12-15 cm With a following covering over
of the openings and rolling,of the soil. In the first case doses
were tested from 10 to,50 g per 1 m2 and in different concentra
tions of water solutions; in the second case - from 20 to 40 g/m2
In a dilution of 2 L of water.
In the firat series of experiments the soil was dug over a
week later in order to let out the aCcumulcied gases. Tomato
410 seedlings of the variety "Luchshil is vsekhn (The best of all)
? was set out 28 days after treatment of the soil. Tomatoes took
root and developed-normally in all the series and variants of the
experiment. Taking of stock was conductedtwo months after the
beginning At the experiments. Phytocidal characteristics of "Vapamn
were taken into consideration only by way of comparing., the growth
of stems of plants and the general trend of development of the
crop. The content of products of !Vapare in the plant was not
examined.
The obtained results have shown that the preparation is effec-
tive In doses from 20 to 50 g/m2 and does not produce any visible.
pathological changes in plants in the process of their growth and
development.
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vw4-4
.2
KuchaevZ, A. 0.
Primenenie antibiotikov protiv nasekomykh
vreditelei rastenii
(Use of antibiotic's against insect pests of
plants)
VZstnik Sellskokhoziaistvennoi Nauki, vol. 4,
no. 7, p.138-140. July 1959. 20 V6.33
?
(In Russian)
The microbiological method for plant protection was first
proposed and tested in our country by I. I. Mechnikov 80 years
ago; in the control of the grain beetle, Mechnikov suggested uti-
lizing the microbes Bacillus salutarium and Metarhisium anisopliae
that are pathogenic for this beetle.
In stibisequent years many Soviet as well as foreign investign-
. tors demonstrated the desirability of using biological measures .
In the control of injurious insecti. Attempts to use microorganisms
in insect control did not, however, always culminate in the desired
results, because the biological andecological bases of the problem
were not fully developed.,
At the present time there arises the question as to the use
of antibiotics in the control of plant pests. We have investi-
gated this problem on the 'gypsy moth Porthetria diipar L. which
inflicts great losses on agricultural and forestry economics.
? ?
. .
(InstituE Mikrobiologii AN SSSR) (Institute of Microbiology,
. Academy of Sciences USSR)
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(.2) Trans. A-1100
In mast propagation, the caterpillars of the gypsy Moth
tat the foliage of plantings Which leads to.a loss of the.annual
increment and the, drying up of trees. The gypsy moth eats, the
leaves of more than 100 plant. species. The more susceptible
'species are oak, apOle trees, maple, mountain ash and others.
10 it-Search for antiblotict-that would produce a deadly effect
uptin_the-gypsy moth, we In the fill of 4957 collected its out.
positors that were kept in a refrigirator at a 2?-4*.temperature,
ft93. In the winterof 1957/.8, caterpillars were developed under
laboratory conditiona so 'doing,' it was establithed that
they ate the leaves of oak and or mountain ash best of 101. We
selected these plants for further ,work.
To test antibiotic action exerted upon caterpillar Of the
OrMinoth, we took 34 antibiotic preparations of actinoMyCetCy
?bacterial, fungal and Synthetic 'origin. In table '1 are cited, the
characteristics and some properties of tbese preparations.
The intiNotie substances undergoing tests were pleceafor
12 hours in containerS in the form Of solutions of each antibiotic
separately In a concentration of 80.100 unite/ml. Cuttings of
plants were 'placed in.the containers with antibiotic solutiOns.
The (degree of] antibiotic penetration (Aegin p.139) into ..a
plant was calculated by the method which we described earlier
a crushed'mass of leaves ,was placed onto the plate (gazon ? a lawn]
of the test-culture Staphyllococcus_eureus 209. The experimental
-
results were estitated after 12-18 hours by the presence or absence
11,
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(3)
'Trans. A..1100
of a depression zone of the test culture encircling the cluster of
crushed leaves.
Characterization of antibiotic preparations
Name of
preparation
Name of the pre-
paration producer
Table 1.
used in tests
Biomycin
SyntoMycin
LeVomycetin
Penicillin
Streptomycin
Terramycin
111
Phytobicterio-
' mycin
Orisemin
?Chloromycetin
Erythromycin
Tetracyclin
(Achromycin)
Chloroampheni-
coll
Viomycin
Polymyxin
Bacitracin
Usnic acid
Actinomycin 76
2703
Aft'
. Iltparatton 070
Act. aureofaciens
Synthetic prepara-
tion
Act. venezuelee
Penicillium nota'
? tum
Act. globisporus
Act. rimosus
Act.lavendulae 696
Act. griseus IS
Act. venezuelae
Act. erythereus
Act. rimosus
Act. venezuelae
Pct. puniceus var.
floridae
Each. polymyxa
Bacil. subtilus
Lichen
Act. globisporus
Act. globisporus
fluorescens
Act. globisporus
vulgaris
ction of pre-
*ration in unit
olations for
taph. aureus
1 000 000
1000
729
2400
2800
800 000
1200
729
,
729
729
2400
1000
1200
27
81
27
10 000
2800
243
Source of prepara-
tion
Preparations available
for sale
Moscow
Same
40.11-Union Sc.-Res.
Inst. of Antibiotics,
Moscow
Same
Inst. of Epidemiology
and Microbiology im.
Gamalela. Moscow
Laborat. of Minist.
for Food Indust.
Peking
National Inst. of Med.
Research. London
Same
ft
rt
fT
Botan. Inst. Azad,
Fclen, USSR, Leningrad
Inst. of Microbiology,
Acad. Scien. USSR,
Krasilinikov Lab.
Same
ft
(Table continued on next page]
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(4) Trans,. A-1100
?
iTable
:
Name of the pre-
paration producer
'
1 tontinued frotxulal,
Action or pre-
paration in unit
solutions for
Staph. aureus
cmg/m1)
Source of prepare-
tion .
?
Name of,
Preparation
Preparation 1149
Preparation 1706,
1916, 2739
Preparation 119,
194, /19,829,
12050775
Preparation 77,
f1-42
Preparation 592,
1040
Preparation WK S
Act-. aurantiacus
. .
. ,
.
Act. griseus
- , ?
Att.violaceus
Act. rimosds
.
Att. globisporus
Act. Lavendulae
1260
80-1800
.
000-10000
1200-1800
270
2100 ,
Inst. or Microbio-
logy, Aced. Scion.
USSR, Krasil!nikov
.1,40.
Seine
. .
., .
?
tv .
.
?
.
4
. As a result of analyses it has been clarified that most of
the antibiotic preparations penetrated Into the leaves:of.oak and
mountain ash and were found there for a period elf 7 days. Those
that failed to penetrate leaves were Actinomycin 76, the pri
:parations 070,'.1205, 719, 829, 2739 and usnic acid. The ones that
, proved toxic for plants were biomycin, terramycin, preparation
2703, and in part grisilin: they cause Wilt or lose of leaf
turgor.
The antibiotic preparations that were not absorbed by plants
? from the solution were applied to the leaf surface by spraying the
? same concentrations. Plants thus treated remained normal the
same as control plants.
During the following stage of our work we tried to elucidate
the influence of thy antibiotic subitances introduced into plpnts
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(9 _Trans:. ?P-1100
(Begin p.111,0) upon the development of gypsy-moth caterpillars. . '4'e set
up these experiments as fellows: Just as soon as the gypsy moth '
caterpillamwere brought out of the eggs, they were transferred
(i5-20 specimens) to a breeding place with oak leaves 'treated with
antibiotics. The behavior and development of the caterpillars was
under observation for 20r251lays.. During the entire experiment
oak twigs were changed as the caterpillar ate up the leaves, and
every tims.ths (twigs' were treated with the 'appropriate antiblo-
,tics. -
'The'eXperiment*s demonstrated.that-tccording to the action
exerted upon the caterpillars, the matibtotiC substance; can. be ?
divided into 4. groups (table 2): the first group includes the
antibiotics that do not exert any notable' influence upon the develop-,
ment of caterpillars; thc second group - those exerting inhibitive
action upon the development of gypsy moths, the caterpillars
moved with difficulty were sluggish, ate the leaves passively and,
toward the end of. the observation, lagged in growth behind controls
(controls cm,?exPeriraental 2-3 cm). But all 135 caterpillars
_
were alive: The third group includes antibiotics that exert stimu.
' listing action upon caterpillars. The caterpillars that were given
such antibiotics moved around, ate the oak leaves quicker than those .
in control, and in site they surpassed somewhat control caterpillars.
'Thelburth group includes antibiotics: that exert deadly action
upon caterpillars of the gypsy moth. These are preparation 2703 which
0 killed on the average 35% of caterpillarsby the 8th day, actinomycin
76 which destroyed 4614 73Z of caterpillars died from preparation 1205
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(6) Trans. ii-1100
(and] the native liquids 119, 194, 819, 1775. The greatest effect
was prOduced by preparation 719 which killed 100% caterpillars on
the 6th day.
Table 2
________
Length of :
observation 4
(days)
_
Number of living
'caterpillars
Caterpillars
perished (%)
?...
?
Characterization of
Group
?
?reparation*
At begin-
ning of ex-
periment
At end of
experiment
caterpillars
.
:
.
Levomycetin, pen!-
streptomy-
cin, grisemin, pre4
',oration 070, chlo.
romycetin, erythro.
myrin, chloroam-
phenicoll, ylomy-
cin, polyliaxine,
bacitracin, usnic
acid, preparations
1916 106 100
20
,
?
.
150
175
f.1
caterpillar dovecillin,
lopment normal,
size 4-6 cm .
B omyr n, terra-
mycin, syntomyrin,
tetracyclin, pre-
parations 1149,
R-42. 77, 592, WKS
,
i -
$
A caterpi are
alive but with
poor mobility,
sluggish, size
2-3 cm.
Iii
Phytobacteriomycin,
preparation 2739
"
25
40
'
40
0
Caterpillars ate
oak leaves vigor-
ously, very mobile,
size from 4.5 to,
. 64 cm.
Preparation 2703
10
40
26
35
Caterpillars with
poor mobility,
?
Actinomycin 76
10
30
16
46
size 1.5-2 cm. eat
leaves slowly
rv"
Preprations 1205,
119, 194, 829,
1775
"
10
100
27
?
73
Preparation 719
6
50
50 '
100
.
'
ill
Controls
25
60
59
0
Size of caterpil-
lars 4-6 cm.
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.vgri
To melt (the plans of) the Plenum of TSR R.P.St5
ICentral Committee of the Communist Party of
the Soviet Union) (an editorial)
Zashchita Rastenii, vol. 4, no. 6, p.1-3.
Nov./Dec. 1959. ' 421 21 -
(In Russian)
Everywhere, in every corner of the country, hard working man
? in agriculture, as well as all the Soviet people, greet 'the next.
Plenum of ?TSK KPSS in a proper manner. Kolkhozes and sOvkhotes
successfully completed the plan for selling grain to the State,
as well as other products of agriculture; the preparation of
,animal husbandry products was increased considerably.
411. , At the Plenum questions will be raised about further develop-
. .ment of agriculture, about a still greeter increase of production
of agricultural commodities.
In connection with thise'sach powerful reserve as protection
of agricultural .crop from pests, dkjeases and Weeds acquires a
serious importance.
Computations shoW?that this Can give to the .country hundreds
.0 millions of poods (pood = 36 pounds) of additional bread and
other products.
Preplanting treatment of seeds, for example, dependably pro-
tects the grain plantings from smut 'and many other dangerous pests.
Pccording to data of the Agricultural Institute of Central Regions
of the Non-Chernozem Belt (Nemchinovka) use of granosani for this .
II/ purpose, produces an increase in the yield of sprinc wheat of 2-3 c
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(2) Trans. 4.-1101
per ha and of barley 3-4 c. Protection of plantings from the bug
lEurygasterj, grain moth, Hessian and frit-flies, and Other pests'
and diseases would give the possibility for obtaining on the
Whole for the country additional stocks of grains not lest than
500-600 million-poOds.tinnually.
Of still greater. importance are the measure, for the control
of pests and plant disesses in cultivation of technical And
vegetable crops, orchards ,end vineyards.- A timely treatment of
'cotton plantings with mercaptophos in order to protect it from
the cobweb mite produced an intrease of 3.6 c/ha at the kolkhOS'.
"men! Chkalova", Kulbyshevitk reion Tadjik SSA, end at the kolkho? z
"Vakhsh"; of the same ralon, over 4 c/ha. Violation of rules of
control of the cotton-boll worm, in 1958, was costing many kol-
khotes of the Azerbaijan SSR up to-7-8 and More centners of cotton
fiber In losses ? per each hectare of cotton plantings.
Last year at the kolkhoz "Druthba narOdov", Krasnogvardelsk
.raion, Crimean Oblast', the vineyards.were treated for the control
of mildew on an area of. n ha and the harvest of 0'4'1)04 obtained
was on the average of 99.4 c/ha, while at the neighboring workmen's
association "imeni Lenin", where the protection of vineyards was
. conducted only partially, over 30% of fruits were infectedlwith,
mildew, and the average harvest from an area of 91 ha comprised.
only 28.7 c/ha.
Control of many pests does not always require the use of
Chemical products. There, where the farm is Well cultivated, where
411 fall plowing is conducted properly and in good time, as well as
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16.71 ?8,41118491, ell"Aeiryi
'
other agrOtechnical measures are carried out, the losses of
harvests are prevented, and the danger of damage by pests to
?plantings is reduced to a great degree.
Overrunning of fields with weeds Causes great losses to the
'farm. ACcording to data of the Novosibirsk Agricultural Institute,
shortage of spring wheat and other cereals-comprises about one
third of the yield, owing to this cause: Of deciding importance
here is the cultivation of land, the timely and high quality carry-
ing out of agrotechnical_measures, such as the preplanting cleaning
of seeds from weeds, plowing and cultivation of fellows, fall
plowing, destruction of weed plants on the shoulders of roads, on
boundaries, on waste lands. Herbicides find an ever wider use
in the control of weeds. Numerous data show that chemical weeding
of cereal plantings, at very small (8egin'p.2) expenditures of
money and labor, as a rule, provides, an increase in yield of not
less than 2-3.c/ha.
In 1957, at the kolkhos "imeni Lenina", Nevinomyssk talon,
Stavropol krat, as a result of eradication of weeds with herbicides
on each of the 5136 hectares of plantings of winter wheat, a har-
vest was obtained on the average of 21.3 ciha, while on the fields
with similar soils and conditions of tillage, but without the use -
of herbicides, the average yield comprised 17.7 c/ha or by 3.6 c/ha
less.
The increased provision of agriculture-with chemical substances,
as well as machines and equipment for their use, the growth of cadres
of leaders and specialists at kolkhoses and sovkhoses, as well as
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t Trans. A-110I ?
the connectedwith it raising of the general level of dIrganista-
tion of production, permitted during the latter years cohsidetably
to improve In many regions of the colintry the protection at 'sowings
and plantings from pests and diseases. Summing up the results of.
their work for the Plenum of 'TSR WS, the agricultural workers can
report about many achievements also In the field of control of
plant pests and Osiases. During the current year, ais-In the pre-,
vidus years, the work on extermination of locust, including also.
those that migrated in vast swarms to the territory of Turkmen-SSR
from the bordering regions. of Iran, was conducted succeSsfully on
an area over 250 thousand ,hectaris. One can, say that this one of
the most serious, enemies of agriculturevutose devastating raids,
even at the present time,:prodacs'enormous losses in the bordering
countries of the Middle East, does not represent a great dancer
'for agriculture of our country.et the present level of equipment
of the service for plant protection in USSR.
The work On chemical treatment of sowings that Vas carried out
in regions of the widest distribution of such dangerous pests of
cereals as prygaster integriceps and the grain moth, made it pos-
sible to prevent great losses of yield from these pests on an area
of more than 5 min ha.
?
KoIkhozes and sovkhoges of cotton raising regions did not ,
,permit, during the current year, any significant daMages to cotton'
plantings by the spider mitt (Tetranychus urticas), which, in re-
cent years, carried away 15-20 or more percent of the grown cotton
yield. The solving of this problem was helped very much, Of late,
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(5) . Trans.- A-1101
by the increased provision of cotton-growers with the new highly-
effective systemic preparation 4. mercaptophos. The agricultural
toilers of Azerbaijan SSR provided an effective protection of
cotton plantings from the most dangerous enemy. of this crop - the
cotton-boll worm (Chlorides obsolete).
Use Or new chemical preparations - polychlorpinene,
oil emulsions and DDT pastes, in combination with a good organisa-
tion of protective work, gave the possibility reliably to guard
the plantings of sugar beets from damage by the beet pest
(Dothynoderes) and many other insects, which up to the present time
caused great losses to plantings of this most valuable crop.
Much has been accomplished for the improvement of protection
of other technical crops, vegetables, fruit plantings and vine-
yards. This has been facilitated to a great degree by the socia-
lietic competition for the best protection of the harvest from pests
and diseases, which was developed on the initiative of agricultural
workers of the Rostov oblast'.
Nevertheless, far from everything was done yet. The problems,
which were set by the'21st Congress of RPSS, on the increase of
production of agricultural commodities, urgently requires further
Improvement of the service of plant protection, of carrying out
In this field of systematic measures. It is very necessary to
establish a certain general State rule for the accomplishment of a
minimum of protective and especially of prophylactic works on the
extermination of the most dangerous pests and diseases of plants;
in the first place of those having the ability for mass reproduc-
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(6) Trans. A-1101
?
tion and spreading on a large territory. These functions mutt be
performed by the State Service, which must alto carry on the State
supervision of .the Completion by all the ferns, institutions,'ind
Individual citizens of the Soviet Union of the compulsory measures;
for the control of pest* and diseases of plants, talon as weeds.
As the, discussions of this problem among the practical workers
have shown, the most rational would be the organization of oblast'
(kral) station* of plant protettion; the regional instructors
'should be under the stations subordination; there also.should be
(depending on the. ecological and other conditions) a necessary
number of task forces, non-financed by State, which are equipped
? with machinery and apparatuses. Such task forces, along with carry-,
lug out Or work, financed by the State, (Begin p.3) mutt. also
provide necessary help, according to agreements, to kolkhoset,
? sovkhozes, collectives of workers and employees, and the owners of
Individual *lotions, in the protection Of plants from pests, diseases
and weeds.
The success of the Job, to a great degree, depends on a
further provision of agriculture with reliable and sufficiently
-effective means of protection. The agricultural toilers have t
right to appeal to the chemical and machine-building: industry, to
'.the plannin? and leading organisations, and, first of all, to the
Oosplan (State Planning Committee of the Council of Ministers of
the USSR] and to leader* of SovnarkhOzes (Councils Of the National
? Economy] with the request in short time to satisfy the.needs in
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(7) Trans. A-1101
effective means for chemical control of pests and diseases of plants
and of weeds, in highly-productive and technically precise machines
and apparatuses for the use of these substances. In the first
place, it is necessary to increase production of fungicides,
particularly, granosan, of trichlorphenate of copper, TMTIO
(tetramethylthiuram disulfide), to quicker solve the problem about
the output of hexachlorobenzene.
The chemical industry has all the possibilities and must fully
satisfy the requirements of agriculture in polychlorpinene for
the control of the beet pest (Bothynoderes punctiventris) and the
. and the Colorado beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineatals master the
? preparations of diene synthesis, and in the first place of.hepta-
chlor, which is extremely necessary for the preparation of combined
insecticides and fungicides, as well as concentrates of emulsions,
which produce a high effect in the control of many pests of sugar
beets and other technical Crops. It is time, finally, to remove
the deficiency in chemical substances for the protection of orchards
and vegetable crops; for instance, estersulfonatt, carbophos and
methylmercaptophos, to organize a wide production of copper oxychlo-
ride and zineb, which can replace the very difficultly available
copper -sulfate.
Special attention must be paid to the provision of agriculture
with herbicides, which continues to be on an intolerably low level.
It is necessary to guarantee production of 2M-4X,' along with the
? preparations of the type of 2.4-D, dichloral urea, and especially
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(8) Trans. A.-1101
0
of symasine and atrasine,- the most effective for the erill1ca0on
of weeds in corn plantings:
'While trying to'solve the problems for-provision of agricul-
ture with machines And apparatuses for the control of pests and
diseases of plants, itis necessary seriously to think' about the
reduction of their cost, since the selling prices are yet very
high, especially for hand. apparatuses..
The need for introduction into production of flew effective
methods and means for the ,control of pests and diseases of plants
and weeds urgently pushes forward the question about strengthening
the technical and methodical help to kolkhozes and sovkhoses, GO
111 well as to workers and employees, who have personal plots Of land,
in the organizatiOn of their crops and plantings. The agricultural.
agencies must take care of advising the farming industry and popu-
lation about the time for protective work, of wide propiganda'on
the achievements of science and Of the leading experience, about new
,chemical substances, machinery and apparatuses. Further improve-
ment of provision of agriculture with new, more improved means for
control of pests and diseases of plants, and help of the State in
.the quickest acceptance of these means, undoubtedly, will help a
fuller utilisation of additional reserves for the ftstest increase
of production of agricultural commodities in quantities, that will
fully satisfy their requirement by the population and by the national
economy.
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vg/M
Kulibaba,IU. F.
Zamenitell bordosskol'zhidkosti
(Substitute for the Bordeaux mixture]
Zashchita Rastenii, vol. 4. no. 6, p.41-42.
Nov./Dec. 1959. . , 421 Z1'
(In Russian)
The new preparation of the basic copper sulfate, developed
by VIUIF (Scientific Research Institute of Fertilizers and Insecto-
fungicides), was. tested by us, in 198,Oi concentration for.
the control of apple scab.
The poison chemical is a finely ground greenish color powder,
that can be wetted, containing .0.55% of basic copper sulfate
(26-32% Cu in conversion to metallic copper), 5% of sulfite
liquor, 1% of dextrin and not more then 2% moisture. It advantage
over the Bordeaux mixture is in the fact that it is sold ready
to be used and Is utilized for spraying plants in the form of
water suspensions Without the addition of lime. The solution
for the working- liquid is prepared by a simple mixing of the
preparation with water. The toxic element is copper In the form
of the basic compound 3-CU(0102aCuSO4: The basic copper sulfate
does not produce any burns on the apple tree even In a 2% con-
centration.
The experimental 'orchard (sovkhos "Mikhailbvskil pereval"
Gelendthik raion, Krasnodar krai) of an area of 2 hells situated
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(2), Trans. A-1102'
in the Valley ,of the river Doguab. The trees are 30 years old,
variety "genet Simirenkon, a thick top of trees, well developed;
agrotechnical measures [Begin p.42] are conducted every year.
,Ten trees were taken under the experiment. Half of: them were
treated with the new preparation, the other half with the 1%
Bordeaux'mixtura (standard). Altogether five sprayings were con-
ducted with the aid of ONK [name of a sprayer]: May 31, June 23,
July 3, 12 and 25. Forty liters of 1% suspension of copper sul-
fate.were used up for each tree.
One should mention, that preliminarily, during the period of
the green cone (April 10) the apple trees were treated with a 4%
Bordeaux mixture. To the moment of the first experimental treat-
ment the experimental trees had a mark of 0.1 for scab infection.
The effectiveness of the tested preparation was determined by
taking into account the scabs on leaves and fruits in the harvest,
according to the method of VIZR [All-Union Institute of Plant
Protection], by the Chief Scientific Co-worker of the Gelendzhik
base of the Station, O. M. Sokolov*. All trees were infected with
the scab.' The percent of development of the disaase was as
follows (see the table).
Date of account in
June
? June 26
July 8
?July 23
On the average
2
Experiment
1.3
15.3
27.3
27.3 ,
18.3
Standard
3.3
33.3
33.3
53.
30.6
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Oki
?
?
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(3) Trans. A-1102
The amount of infected fruits and the degree of their in-
fection. in the experiment were smeller (in marks): 0 - 75.5%9
I 17.6%, II . 4.7%, III . 1.9%, IV - 0.31', while in the variant
with the Bordeaux mixture: 0 - 41.8%; I - 39.9, II . 6.67r4
III . 6.3% and Iv - 5.4%. The percent of development of the disease
on fruits cc,mprised, correspondingly, 8.4 and 23.3w. Thus was
established the effectiveness of the basic copper sulfate for the
control of apple scab. The washing off of this preparation Is
somewhat lower than of the Bordeaux mixture, All this permits
recommending it for a wide r,roduction test for the control of
scab in pit fruit orchards as a possible substitute of the
Bordeaux mixture
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V9/14
Lipsits, D. V., Khithniak, P. A., and Sasonik, Kh. V.
,Deistvie gaMma-igluchenlia na rak kartofeliia-
[Effect of gamma-rays On potato canker]
Zashchita Rastenii, vol. 4, no. 6, p.47-48.
Nov./Dec. 1959. 421 Z1
(In Russian)
At the present time a great number of investigations is
already known about different ways for utilising ionising radiation
in agricultural practice: for retardation Of potato sprouting,
as mutagenic factors,' for the 'stimulation of growth and develop-
ment of the plant, for sterilisation of fruits, vegetables, meat
. products and others.
Some of the icientiitis iaise-a question, about the use of
radiations for disinfection of the soil from pathogenic microor-
ganisms. The first such suggestion was made by A. A. Geiro* In
respect to the pathogen of potato canker.
During the course of two years we studied this problem with
the aid of the gamma-emitter Co60, in the form of 12 Cobalt-
nickel wires of total activity (on April 27, .1956) of 132 milli-
curie. Having first insulated them by thin rubber bags, they were
placed in clay containers, filled with soil (mixture of garden soil
g. Chernovtsy. lhoesolutnala stantslia po Raku Kartofelia VI2R (City
of Chernovtsy. All-Union Station on Potato Canker of the ill-Union
Institute of Plant Protection].
411 * Buill. itobretenii !Bulletin of Inventions], 1957, no, 3, p.59.
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(2) Trans. A..1103
with sand in a?ratio 1:2), that was inoculated with the canker
pathogen (100 g?sporangial powder per g kg of soil). The con-
,
tainers were placed in a special small house behind massive masonry..
The control containers, which were not subjected.to the radiation,
were fitted out in.the same Way. The mdisture content in the con-
tainers was maintained at the level of 40-50$:of full capillary ?
water capacity, with the exception of the winter time, when
waterin6 was stopped. After the end of the experiment the wires'
were removed and a.biolOgical testing of the state of the fungus
was carried Out, for this purpose the irradiated soil was mixed
with 8 times is much of similar soil; Containers were filled
with it and potato tubers, of a variety susceptible to canker,
were planted there (the first biotest was conducted in standard
boxes). .
At the first irradiation WO wires were placed into one con-
tainer, and further on all the 12, in order to increase the dose
of irradiation of the fungus sporangia as much as possible.
When calculating the power of the dose*, we utilited the fol-
lowing basic formula
where D is the dose of irradiation in roentgens at the distance R
from the source of irradiation (in cm), t - time in hours, 14 -
activity of the source of irradiation (in K - the -
'--trffiriathors express their gratitude for the valuable advice to
0 A. I. Zaltsov (Coordination Section of Research on the Application of
Atomic Energy in Agriculture, VASKUNIL (All-Union Academy of Agricul-
tural Sciences linen! V. I. Lenin] and to S. P. laelishchev (Timiriatev
Agricultural Academy)
?
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(3) Trans. A-1103
constant, showing what power of the dose of gamma-raysi is being
created by the point source of radioactive isotope by the activity
of 1 millicurie, at the distance of 1 cm in 1 hour's time (for
Co" = 13.5). Nevertheless, we bad to introduce into this basic
formula severaircorrecting coefficients, which allow for the re.
duction of the rays in the soil and by moisture, present in it, as
well as a certain decomposition of Co" and scattering of the rays.
The layer of sand, 8, 6 cm thick, reduces by two the gamma-rays
passing.through it. Consequently, one can consider, (Begin 0.48),
with a certain approximation, that in our Case the layer of soil,
7 cm thick, reduced the rays by 1.62 times. Correction for moisture
had to be approximate, since In our case it was not strictly con-
trolled, and during the cold time of the year, as was said pre-
viously, the ,watering Was stopped altogether. Considering that.
1 cm of water was present in the 7 cm layer of soil, and that the
' layer of half absorption of gamma-rays Co60 for water. Squalled 15.7
cm, we obtained a correction value of 1.127. By virtue of the
matter that not only direct gamma-ray quanta ("gemma-kvantyn), but
also the reflected ones tell on the fungus sporangia, the total intefl.
city of the radiation, consequently, must have been increased approxi
mately by 20%. Calculation's have shown that after the first ir-
radiation.the sporangia of the canker pathogen in direct proximity
of the source of radiation, received (in rounded off figures) a
dose of 1756 thousand roentgens and at the periphery of the con. ,
tamer - 20 thousand; after the second irradiation, corresponding..
1y,% thousand and 62 thousand; after the third - 17,975
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(41 . Trans./1l03
?
thousand and /56 thousand roentgens.
Data about results of biological testing f the Condition of
the canker pathogen are cited in the table.
?.!
?
. .
-
Time of irradiation.
.
Dose at the
pr1phery of
er how- ?
sands of
roentcens)
Experiment ?Control
Plants
In all
Canker
infected
.
_
.
Plants
in all
'
Canker
infected
July 13, 195b-February 16, 1957
February 16, 1957-June 10, 1957
June 10, 1957.April 30, 1958
.
20
62
,156_
/5
5
6
6*
? 2
1
0
0
30
r
) .
5 .
6
11
4
3
5
* The biotest was conducted a iecond time.
The obtained results indicate, that under the effect.of gamma-
rays in a dose above 150 thousand roentgens the canker pathogen
already does not infect the tubers of the ;susceptible potato
variety. Apparently, the cause of this is in.the loss of the ability
to germinate =by the sporangia. We failed, to see, in microscopic
examinations, any replier differences between the irradiated
sporangia and the nonirradiated.
It seems to us that the Obtained data can serve.as initial
rnatcrial in the construction of the machine that is intended for
the liquidation Of isolated foci of potato canker by the effect of
gamma-rays. In it the gammt-emitter must not be made suspended, as
A..A. 0eiro has suggested, but in the .form of a cultivator ('freta")
or rode that are stuck into thOoll eta depth of 25cm. The '
??
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(5) Trans. A-I103
weiOlt of the protective arranement for the machine in question
will not exceed 4.5 t. iAle should mention., in cinclusion? that
the use of amine-rays for sterilization of the soil does not create
In it any Induced or residual radioactivity. ',7e intend, latPr on,
to define more accurately the effectiveness of amms-rays at dif-
ferent temperatures and moisture contentof the soil.
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J-1:11.111W,
vg/M
Poliakov, I. Ia.
Nekotorye itogi prebyvanila Amerikenskoi
Entomologicheskoi Delegatsil v snsR
[Certain results of the stay of the American
:r.ntomological Delegation in USSR)
Zashchita Rastenii, vol. 4, no, 6, p.6a57.
Nov./Dec. 1,)59. 1421 Zi
(In Russian)
The American delegation of stecialists on the protection of
plants visited USSR from July 10 to August 9. Its members were:
Paul W. :-,sman (heed of the delegaticn ) - President of the Ento-
molocical Society of the USA (a :systematic, specialist in the
Lomoptera orono), Head of the Section nf Insect Identification and
Parasite Introduction, Agricultural Research service of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture of the VA; Lev F. Curl 4- Assistant Chief of
the Section of Control of Pests, of the Agricultural Research
Service of the Department of Agriculture of USA; Herbert L. Eviler,
Assistant Chief of Agricultural Research Service (specialist in
the use of poison chemicals), Theodore S. Davich, chief of a
plant protection station of a Texas colle,e, specialist on cotton;
Professor Halbert M. Harris - Chief -ntomologist of the Experi-
Aental Station and of the State of Iowa (systematic specialist on
Heteroptera croup nd on methods of corn protection), Carl B.
huffaker, Associate sntomologist of ti f Section of Eioloilcal
Control at the California University (specialist on biological
methods of protection from weeds md harmful insects), John V.
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E) Iran'. ,a1Li0.5
Otmun, Head of the Entomology Department at Purdue University,
State of Indiana (specialist on control of bloodsucking insects
domestic and warehouse pests).
The American delegation visited many raions of Georgia.,
Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Hitakhstan (virgin lands), besides Moscow and .
Leningrad. In all the American guests, accompanied by the author
of these lines, 9ot the better of over 25 thousand kilometers of
airplane flight and about 3 thousand km of automobile driving
during the.Pourse of one month; they visited 22 scientific-research
.
institutes and experimental stations, 2 academies of agricultural.
Sciences of the republics, 1 training ruchebnyi") institute and
Rolkhoses, sovkhOzes and training farms.' The trip through USSR
permitted ourcolleagues to receive a sufficiently full idea about
the problems of protection of plants in different sone* of fruit-
growing, cotton growing, sugar-beet raising, in growing of grain
crops in old and new regions, as well as ways and methods.of'their
solving and of practical work in kolkhoges, isoVkhoses and experi-
mental farms.. During the process of interchange with the delega-
tion,the state and trend of plant protection in USA became clear
to a certain degree. In Moscow, during a meeting with our ento-
mologists, the American specialists briefly told us about the
condition of some sections of work in USA. They shared their im-
pressions of the trip In USSR at the reception of the Assistant-
Secretary of Agriculture of USSR, 0. A. Borkov.
In general, the delegation appraised highly the work that
is being conducted in IISSR on the protection of plants; they, in
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(3) 'Trans. A*1105
particular, mentioned that. in our country pre-plenting,treatment
with insectofungicides is conducted to a much greater extent,
aviospraying and aerosols are,used on a far wider scale, and the
service of accounting and prognosis Is well organised.
Special interest was evoked by the research, conducted 'In
OUT country,, on methods for utilising predatory parasites for the
control of pests. The matter is, that during the last 15 years
USA intensely developed the chemical method and legged behind .
USSR in the biological method. The guests appraised, as a very,.
positive phenomenon, that we pay much attention to the combining
of agrOtechnical, ecological and chemical measures-of action on
pests. The delegation acknowledged the high level of scientific
work on plant protection in USSR and showed great interest in the
ways used for its coordination on a state-wide scale and implanta-
tion of results obtained into production. (Begin p.573 At the
same time the Americans think.that, on the whole, the problems of
plant protection in USSR are less complicated than-in USA, where
the specific makeup of pests is more.varied end where, awing to
wide and insufficiently careful application of poisonous pre?
parations, many species have already developed a resistance to
poisons.
In the opinion of the guests, work of identification of the
species makeup of pests Is conducted on,a much wider scale in USA
(yearly the Central Bureau alone makes 112 thousand'identificatiOns),
low-volume rniskooblemn60] spraying is'being utilised and pre-
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(4) Trans. A-II05
parations of diene synthesis - aldrini dieldrin, endrin and others,
as well as,the granulated (for control of the corn borer) are.
utilized on a large scale (in' the USA).
? In the USA the'danoer of mass reprOduction of Mediterranean
fruit fly, which caused greet harm to horticulture, has been
'basically liquidated. Fifty-eight .thousand glass and plastic
fly traps are used for its detection. ,Dermeatidae, which damaged
grain in.store'houses, have bein'chedkedvthe harmfulness of the
Colorado potato beetle Is being fully averted; this has been
attained on the basis of systematic detection,of foci of the pest
and the use of.. thorough exterminating means at the Obvernmentla
?
expense.
.. The cutworm Is controlled by aldrin. Tent fumigation Is very .
well and effectively utilised, whereupon even in disinsectization
of large grain-storages and elevators impenetrable fabrics are used.
-It is also interesting to mention the applidetfon of .i bio-
logical method of control of weeds. on the basis of import of in-
sects, which are able to destroy them. So far then i is only one
positive example, but it is very convincing. The weed Hynericuis
perphoratum Spread over 4 mm n ha of pastures, depreciating their
value, but was practically entirely destroyed during the course
of 5 years as a result of introduction of two species of insects
from the genus Chrisolina.
Itis necessary to point out that the prevalent opinion,
that the biomethod of control of pests it widely used In practice
in USA, was not shared by the members of the American delegation.
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(5) .Trans. A-1105
During the last 15 years, as it was mentioned previously, the
chemical' method has doMinated absolutely. One Must have in view that
in USA under the biological method are implied, first of all,
development of agrotechnical.and ecological measures, develop-
ment of resistant varieties of agricultural cropso'and onlyrafter.
that - the utilization of cntomophages and disease .pathogens.
Nevertheless, a tendency is appearing for enriching' the fauns ,of
:cntomophaoes by .metinp of their acclimatization: A suggestion was
made about the exchange of entomophages between Our countries.
' The report of the delegation about,organitation of scienti-
fid work on plant protection in.USA.was Of great interest, in.
the Department of Agriculture exist* the Agricultural Research- .
Service with a_ Branch for the Control Of Pesti, which ensures the
development and introduction into practice of methods of plant
protection. Control of 20 of the most agressiVe pests IS conducted
at the expense Of-the Government. .The Service regulates the sale
of both poison chemicals, as well as thealachinery. As Mr. Haller
reported, approximately 100 min .-dollars are being spent for the
scientific work of plant protection annually. Extensive research
is conducted at the Stations end In Laboratories of the States.
At the same time, in order to obtain Mass uniform material, arti-
ficial nutrient media are widely used for rearing.experimental
insects for this purpose. According to the words of Mr. Davich,
the nutrient medium for the cotton-boll weevil wts synthesized
from 40 chemical substances. In a week's time 5 workers can rear
15 thousand individuals of this genus.
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(6) ?Trans. A-1105
Extensive work on the evaluation of the preparations and.
determination of effective forms for. their use are cf,nducted also
In laboratories and sAations. of chemical firms. In the opinion
. of Mr. Haller, the scientific work for evalUatIOn of each new pre-
paration costs .1-2 million dollars.
Special attention should be .accorded the [US] experience with '
the publicising of knowledge 03o:id harmful insects and methods for
their control among the population, 'which is strengthened by an
output (Or tale Of various portable means (of control]. iThus, for
fine-drop spraying with different Preparations, the industry pro-
duced 'siphon Jars [aerosol bombs] of various holding capacities in
rgreat numbers. It is sufficient to unscrew the cap of such'a can
and press a. button in order to start spraying. A clearly printed
label is pasted on the can, informing against which pests the con-
tents of the aerosol bomb can be used.
In conclusion I would like to point out the mutual advantage,
of a direct Contact between specialists on plant protection of
'USSR and USA. The trip of American entotivslogists to-USSR permitted
.their better understanding of the fundamental .problems of plant pro-
tection In our country, and [permitted] our specialists to learn
lot of new things about the practice for the et:intro' of pests and.
diseases in USA. This gives a basis for hope that the contacts of.
-specialists on the protection of plants in :USA and USSR will
continue to grow.
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Trans. A-1107
vg/M
To strengthen the connection of biology
with practice. (Editorial]
Akademil Wauk, Vestnik, vol. 29, nO.-3,
March, 1959. 511 A1c141,
( In. Russian)
Soviet people; under the leadership of the CoMmunlit Party,
V The scored a great historical victory in the job of building a toe'slistic, society in our country.
New rand problems are atbefore .the Soviet People by the 21st
Congress of the XPSS [Communist party of' the Soviet Union). They
Inspire the Soviet people, including the scientists, to further'.
? All creative successes in the building of the first Communist society
in the world.
By' further developing the heavy Industry, in'every Way possible,
as a basis of the entire national economy, it Is heccessary to
? .provide, during the shortest time possible, a sharp increase in
agricultural production and, thus, to create for the Soviet people
an abundance of foodstuffs, and the necessary raw materials for
Industry.
"Creation of a material-technical basis for Communism",
/7
N. S. Krushchev mentioned in his report to the Plat Congress of HPS! 0107
"requires the flourishing of science, of active participation of
scientistsin the solVing of problems, connected with a further many-
sided develop:lent of production forces of our country. The Seven-
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(2) Trans. A-1107
Year-Plan opens up before our scientists and scientific institutions
the-widest field of activity. There is a place to apply one's
energy and knowledge!"
The development of all fields of knowledge, including the
biologIcal aelpce - the basis of agricultural and medical sciences,
Is of creole Importance in the carrying out of ptOblemt of the 7-
Year-Plan. "The importance of the complex of biological sciences
will .be growing, especially, in proportion to the application of
achievements' of physics and chemistry in biology. Ilhereupon,a .
great role will be played by such branches of the science as Moa.
chemistry,"agrochemistry, biophysical microbiology, virology,
411 selection and genetics". (Prom "The Control figures of develop-
ment of national economy of USSR for the years 1959-1965", which
were eOproved by the 21it Congress of the KPSS).
A bond between theory and practice, of science and production
acquires exclusive importance during the new stage of the unfolded
construction of the Communist society. The December Plenum of the
TsK of KPSS (Central Committee of the Communist Party], where re-
suits of.victoriet,.scored by our country during the last 5 years
In the business of the sharp rise of agricultural production, were
summed up and new problems'raised.for a further rise in productivity
of plant growing, animal industry and an increase in ,the general
culture of agriculture, paid special attention to the strengthening
of the, bond between science end production.
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?
(3) Trans. A-4107
This refers to a large degree to biology; its development is
? the necessary premise for a mighty raising of agriculture, as well
as of forestry, fish industry, sanitation, of industry, reprocessing
raw materials of plant and anims1 origin. (Begin p.141
The expanded Session of the Presidium of the Academy of Science
of USSR and the Department of Biological Sciences togetheewith the
' 'active members of the Department took place.on January 20; the
Session discussed'the work and problems of the Department of Rio-
logical Sciences in the light of resolutions of the 'December
Plenum of the Central Committee of HPSS.
On the basis of thc report of the Atademican-Secretary of the
!II Department of Biological Sciences, V. A. Engeligardt, of tho core-
port of the Committee Of the Presidium, which examined the work. of
the Department, and of the dIsdussions, which developed after this,
a resolution was adapted; in it was given the evaluation of the
activity of the Department and its chief: problems were pointed out.
The resolution states that the Party end the Soviet Government
render generous help and support to science, in our country _bio-
logidal science has unlimited possibilities for the application of
results of scientific-research-activity to practice. The bond
between science and production is not one-sided, since while working
for practice, science, in its turn, gets from practice new important
-facts and ideas, which are subject to. scientific development.
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? (10 Trans. A-1107
The Department of.Diologicsi Sciences Of the Academy of Science
of USSR includes a large circle of scientific establishments, In
which problems are developed that are important in theoretical
respect; chemical structure and biological functions of protein
substances, regulation of heredity and vitality of plant and animal
' organisms,, physiology of the highest nervous activity,, interaction
between ,the cerebral cortex and the internal organs, regularities
of effect. of nuclear radiation on biological Objects, directiOn of
Metabolism of microorganisms, biological prinCiplee of parasitism,
: photosynthesis, nutrition and Ovelopment of plants, efficient use
and-indretse of 'productivity of soils of USSR, the fauna end flora
of .USSR. scientific, )rinciples of forestry, and others.
' .DUrinithe last 2-3 years, the Department accomplished the work
on coMpliation of ptospectUve plant (notes) On 16 leading pr6bleme
Of biology for the next period. To. this work were attracted scien?
tists and representatives of Mlnistries, of 0oiple0 IState Planning
Committee of the Council of Minipters of the USSR) of USSR, and other
establishments,
' The department strove toi'tna development of its research in
?those direCtiOne, which, along, with the solving of.genetal problems
of science, would also be widely useful in practice.. Thus, treat
of_virgin and-Waste lands in the country, having prospects for new
recitmetions, were detected; a State Soil Map of USSR for basic
agricultural regions was cotpiled (by the S011 Institute, imeni
?
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V. V. Dokuthaev); high-yielding wheat-couch grass hybrids (on an area
of about 200 thousand ha) were developed and are being introduced
into agriculture; they yield up to 60 c of grain per 1 ha (The
Main Botanical Garden). By means of matching the pairs, hybridi-
Action and selection, under specific conditions of growing, a
herd of cows was created, which way distinguished by a high content
of fat in milk. (5.1% against 3:5%) and by the heavy weight of animals
(on the farm,of the Institute of Genetics). Preparation "M-1" has
been introduced; it Inhibits the sprouting of tubers of food potatoes
during storage; this raises the yield of commercial potatoes by
10-14% (Institute of Plant Physiology imeni K. A. Timiriesev).
Effective methods for drying and storage of newly harvested grain,
as well'as of fruits and vegetebles were developed (Institute of
Biochemistry imeni A. N. Bakh).
A doctrine dvut natural focalisation of diseases of Men,
animals and plants was formed (Zoological Institute). A series of
helminthiasises in men and.animais was studied and measures developed
for the control of these diseases (scientific-research institutions'
under the leadership of Academician K. I. Skriabin). (Begin p.5]
All this shows that the Institutes of the Department of Bio-
logical Sciences are able to raise and solve scientific problems of
great practical importance.
Nevertheless, the scientific-research work of the Department,
as it was pointed out in the resolution, was not sufficiently directed
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(6) Trans. A-1107 ,
?
for solving the basic, problems, which fide agriculture, forestry,
sanitation, industry, which reprocesses raw materials of biological
origin, and fish industry. The practical result* end suggestions'
Offered by the Department's institutions, by the December Plenum Of
-TsK RPM.
? The Presidium-of-the Academy of Science of USSR and the CUreau
of the Department did not direct'the.work of the Institutes *Uf- .
Siclintly peristently in the rendering of cotistant'and eystematic
'help to the practice.- For this purpose it was necessary that the
:Departmont'aystematically cooperate in Its work With other departments
of the Academy, with Ministries of Agriculture, Sanitation and the
? Academy Of Medical Sciences of 'USSR, as well as more often conduct
experiments and tests of its suggestions directly at sovkhoses,
kolkhoses, medical establishmentsind factories.
,The Department's'Eureau did not pay sufficient attention to
practical uses of biological research; it controlled very loosely
the course of introduction of the accomplished scientific-research
-works. Undoubtedly, the guarantee of success of introduction Of
'such works lies the close contact of the scientific-research 'net1? ..
tutions with industrial, agricultural and medical establis:ments.
It should find its, proper development. Yet, extensive measures
cannot be carried out by individual workers and institutes without ?
constant help from the Department and the PresidiuM of the Academy.
The resolution draws attention to the.serious mistakes in
40 c,omprehension and conducting of criticism of scientific work permitted
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(7) ' Trans. A-1107
by the 'Department's Pureau.
? Oiling to the mcasureS adapted by the Party, all the necessary .
condttions Were set up.for the development of scientific research ,
and all the scientists were given the opportunity for fruitful
.wOrkr Nevertheless, certain biologists, instead, of centering.all.
'their energy in a further creatiVe.development of Soviet biology ?
.and utilizing its attainments in the national economy, Made the
criticism of certain' principles of the Plichurin doctrine and dis-
crediting of the achievements of the AtadiMician Ti D. Lysenko,
.and of his followers., almost their chief aim. -Al the same time, these
Critics gave few suggestions for basic improvement in different
111 _
fields Of 'agricultural production, on the basis oftheircwn acienti-
ficf,research wOrkS.
The "Botanical Journal made it e point during the last several.
years to-criticize certain principles of IklichUrinis doctrine and,
? In particular, the achievements of Academician T. D. Lysenko and
of his followers. Such an attitude of its editorial staff was
wrong and it hampered the development of SoViit biology. The
Bureau of the Department, reciardless of repeated instructions from
the Presidium of the Academy, did not take any measures, and the
Presidium did not correct the editorial staff of the "Botanical
Journal" in good time
It Is necessary to stress that premises, ways and approaches'
for the establishment of-scientific truth can be different and it
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(8) Trans. A-1107
is not always clear beforehand which, of these ways and approaches
will faster and better lead to the solving of the raised scienti-
fic and practical problem.
. Each truly scientific'trendvissuing from principles
[Begin p.63 of dialectical materialism, can develop only on the
basis of exactly established facts, which were 'obtained both from
the scientific experimeht and from practiCe. Therefore, each
controversy, arising among scientists, who examine one and the same
problem, but who follow different routes in its development, must
be solved not by wordy disputes, but on the basis of conducting
? joint experiments and mutual experimental and practical verifications.
Scientific criticism must be permeated with the spirit, pf ,
goodwill and mutual assistance, it must place before itself the
problem of strengthening the 'materialistic positions in'science.
The history of .science, and,.particUlarly,.history Of biology
knows instances when scientific disputes, solved by methods of.
experimental verification", helped a rapid disclosure of the
scientific truth and ended .up In extensive scientific discoveries.
Practicemuat be the tinal criterion of the truth of the theory.
Presidium and the Department of.2iologidal Sciences pointed
out, during their joint Session together with the active members of
the Department, that the efforts of, biologists Of the Department must
be directed to the formulation and development of important theoretical
. problems Of biology, which would help in the solving of national
?
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(9) Trans.. A-1107
economic problems in the field of acriculture, stnitttion, food
and light industry, as well as fish industry.
At the stme time it was particultrly mentioned that the PrO-
gressive development of modern.biology'is impossible without the
wide, bold and creative use. in biology of achievements of physics
and chemistry. The penetration of physics and chemistry into bio-
logy will lead to the enrichment not only of biOlogy, but also:
of physics and chemistry.
- The Departmentos Bureau sulst, together with the ,leaders of
scientific establishments of the Department and with the attraction
of the interested Ministries and Services, define more accurately
and supplement the basic directions of the 7-Year-Plan of the De-
partment in the light of resolutions Of the December Plenum of TSK -
Km and problems, which were raised ,by the 21st" Congrest .of the
MSS; develop, in the shortest time possible, specific measures
on the.organitation Of wide introduction into practice of the most
important result* of research, which were carried out in the violent'.
fie establishments of the Department, set i course for the establish-
ment of extensive cooperation with institutions of other depart-
ments of the 1,4ademy Of Science of USSR, ? VASIMIL (All?Union'
Academy of. Agricultural Sciences imeni V. i. Lenin], Academy of
Medical SciencesOf USSR, and branch institutes of sanitation, as.
well as with industrial establishments.
?
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(10) Trans. A-1107
In-view of a greet theoretical and national economic importance
of the question about the complex development of biology, chemistry
and physics, the Bureau of the Departments of Biological, Chemical
and Physico4lathemat1cajc1ences must define the course of the
plan of Joint research for the three departments and work out
the suggestions about the organisation of a complex of research by
biologists together with physicists and chemists.
Tha rparticipants of the Session acknowledged as correct the
criticism, set out by the newspaper "Pravda", about the wrong
. position, which was taken by the editorial staff of the "Botanical
The editorial staffs of biological Journals have suggested
, helping by all means In the development of the materialistic natural
science, and fight against idealistic conceptions.,
The Bureau of the Department of Biological Sciences must carry
out a systematic guidance of the journals of the Department and
give help to editorial staffs in the organisation of discussions
on essential and disputed problems of biology, baited on results
of experimental works, guaranteeing a correct, businesslike creative
discussion of these problems. ,(Begin p.7]
A series, of measures on tha'rendoring of immediate help to
the institutes of the Department were provided for the carrying ot
out of problems, that face the Department of Biological Sciences.
The construction organisation, of the Academy must guarantee the
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(11) Trans. P-1107
completion of the building for tie Institute of Biochemistry rimeni
A. N. tiakh" in V959, of two school buildings for the institutes of
the Department in l'AC, and give an estimate about reconstruction
and expansion of the building of the Zoological Institute in Leningrad;
e question was raised about a building for the Institute of Cenetics.
It is necessary to realize the resolution of the resiOium,
of the year 1957, about the formation of the Institute of Radie...
tion and Physico-Chemical BiolPgy and to provide physicists 7..nd
chemists to take part in its work.
The Iresidium, Department of Biological Sciences and the active
members of the Department expressed their strong conviction that
the creative efforts of Soviet biologists will be directed to the
development of important scientific problems, to the extended use
of physics and chemistry, havin6 in view the omnifarious develop-
ment of the bond between science and practice; this will provide
the greatest help of biologists to the work of the expanded construc-
tion of the Communistic society.
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Vlar4
4flovanov,
Dostithcnhla 1 eadac
seltskokhoziaietvenn
Iskusstvennouo o
h shivotnykh
[Achievements and aims of artificial Insemination
of farm aninalsj
Vestnik Seltskokhestaistv nnol %auk', vol. 4. no.
p.92449. ceptemher, 1959 20 1/633
(in aussien)
ficial insemination of sericulturel a has been
widely implanted into the practice of 5oviet anlal husbandry. In
over 35 can animals were zirtificially Inseminated In 175e not
less than 50 rein, that Is about half of all the female livestodk
of %heep und cows 13 expected to re insellnated in 1959. Artificial
Insemination is applied fzkr wider in URttn In other countries
(fire 1). For instance, in USA, Owe the livestock of animals
is vory eret, In 1956, only 6 nin head were artificially insemi-
nated, that Is six times less than In U-c11. In the comparative
ranee of female livestock of cows and sheep In artificial Insemina-
tion, Uliz occupies a third place In the world. The skApe7iority
Is held ty Eenmerk (92) and Czechoslovakia (7P41). Nevertheless
natural c nations of these email countries cannot be compsred with
extremely varied end, often, difficult conditions of the huee
territory of the sovIet Union. Already now there exist In
Talon,. with 140w:artificial in mination of cows (for tn tome
uzny
industry)
tva sA 'Jn1on Inst.
f Animal
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(2) Trans. A-1108.
Prishekaninsk Vologda.oblasti, 'Borodiansk raionsyliev oblast', .
LebodIfiekli !talon. .S.WW Oblast', Aramil'ek :oolong Sverdlovsk oblast'.'
rind Othere);:end In many obi:Letts of the Ukrainian .SS, in 1956,
80A of the entire female livestock of tows (PoltaVa,Niev end- ?
Dnepropetrovsk Oblast's') Were artificially insedinatid It is
proposed, by the year 1065,_to inseminate artificially, 85% of the
female livestock of cows and &Mot female livestock of sheep;
that. is, virtually, the entire basic female livestock.
In um artificial Insemination is especially widely used in
sheep. relaing. An 1958 20 rain febiale$ (57% of the female livestock)'
'wet* inseminated infthiirMaimeri- Sheep breeders ere-trying, in .'
1959, to inseminate not less than tO Aln females (about A/4, of the ,
411
rentals livestock of sheep).
Title of figure 1. Artificial insemination
of cows end 'sheep In 1958-1959 (the- .
Countries, where leis than loin females
'were:artificially inseminated annually,.
ere not cited): A - range of female ,
livestOck of cow* and sheep (In %), B -
amount of females inseminated-during
the year (min head).
Words in figure 1. Above the figure: 114 B.
First lines USSR
,Second *lines USA
. Third line: Bulgaria
Fourth liner England (incl. Scotland and Ireland)
Fifth line: France ?
Sixth line: Ceechoslovakia
' Seventh line: Rumenta
? 4ighth line: Denmark
Ninth line: Federal Republic of Germany
Tenth lines German Democratic Republic,
' Eleventh lines Netherlands ?
Soviet methods (Bsoin p.933 'of artificial insemination of sheep
? are successfully used by sheep breeders of Bulgaria, RUmania, China,.,
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?
Mongolia, Albania, and Others, inseminating, yearly, millions of
female sheep with excellent results. At the same time not one
capitalistic country, until now, could Utilize artificial insemina-
tion of sheep so widelycsithough during the Course of over 20
years repeated-attempts-were made in this respect..
.
During thelast three year*, artificial inseminatiOn of large
cattle (mulch) has spread widely in USSR. In /955, 1 min cows
were artificially' inseminated in 057.- 2.5 min; in 1958 - 5 min
443 thousand, but in 1959 It is planned to inseminate artificially
10.6 ran cows; this will comprise i part of the female livestock
in the.country; this is more than in ingland and USA taken together.
Thus, If this plan will be carried .out, then, in 1959, the Soviet
411 Union will overtake USA not only in the percentage of the range,
but also inLthe.total number of artificially inseminated cows per
year.(fiGure 2).
Title of figure 2. Dynamics of growth of '
artificial insemination of cows in .
'USSR and USA.
?
Words In figure 2. Right, outside the
? figures Cows inseminated (min head).
Inside the figure: at the top - USSR;
at the bottom USA. Below the
figure - Years: 1930, 1940, 1950, and
1960. ,
In unsR the rates of increase of artificially Inseminated cow* are
cart:fatly high. In USA, in peat years, the artificial insemination
of cows grows, on the average, by 5-6% per year, and In the Soviet.
Union by 100% per year (that is, it is doubled).- Such *rapid
'growth became possible because In USSR artificial Insemination in
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(la Trans. A?,..1100
kolkhOzei and sovkhozes is being organized by the State Stations
on Breeding tork (Begin p.943 and Artificial Insemination and
by State and interkolkhOt Stations of Artificial Insemination: This
form of work was used yet during the prewar years at Nizhne-
Tagillak, Prisheloninsk, Ifolokolsmsk,Molochanak and other State
Breeding Ferns. During the postwar years arose the problem on ?
reorganization of artificial Insemination; numerous projects for
orgsnitation.of special Stations for artificial insemination were
developed locally.
Reorganization of work on artificial insemination told both
in a sharp increase of theists of inseminatiOn of cows as well
? as In the rise of the yield of young animals. For Instance, at
Novopokrovik State Station (Kirghiz SFA, the oldest in ths Union,
'during the 11 years 0,27Crcows were artificieliy inseminated;
fertility (translator', note: the word.eterilnosts (sterility), in.
the original is undoubted, an error] comprised during the first
years 94-95% (during the last 7 ysars.96-97%). The eucceSses of
Kuibyshev Oblast' Station on Artificial Inseminstion, the largest
in USSR, are'well known*. In some.of the talons of this oblast
were obtained 100-105 calves per 100 cows, and on the whole for the.
oblast' the barrenness was reduced from 23 to 3-4%.
? In Belorussia artificial insemination is as.yet not-used suf-
ficiently (only, 6.4% of cows ere artificially inseminated) and the
?
*About the work of this station see article of P. P. AgapoV
in the newspaper 0Sill'skoe khozialatvo" for March 17, 1959.
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Trani. A-1108
barrenness up to the prosenttim, la extremely high -.up to 33%.
utth the, oroanitation* Stet* Stations for ArtifiCiel intemins*
tion the. situstiOn hat changed sharply. In the region of the sett.:
vity:of Vitebsk IntirralOn StatiOn,frara among 14,40 ertificially.
inseminste4 cows, .111? -proved to)). barren (less than 81), that
, PIA times lest than for gelorussis es a whole. In'Orshenvk ralop
ertificiel insiminstionfteducedloarrenness of cows to 3.504 while
In koikhOses of Chashniksk.relon, whire artificial insemination
was not used Only 1l cows Were inseminated) the barrenness 'reached
22.7g. nt the Gam* tiOe st the kolkhos. men' Lenin'', Vitebsk
vision, in 19.5E6.97 Calves were obtained per .100 cows after int
411 -
insiminationr. At the'llO t giler' OblestAgriCUltural Ex-
perimental Station, organised two years ago, the barrenness of
.3,800 cows comprised not more than 3-514 (aecordinp to the report
of All. soottchnician of the Ststkon, E..0. Zheinina). ;ne.could.
cite many similar instances***. They etiow that introduction of
artificial:insemination helps 'in a rapid and.mees reduction of .
?
barrenness. Along with this there still are Many stations of art!-
ficial'insemination- whore, on account of ,badly organised work, the ,
fecundity of animals is law, infectious diseases *ere wlde6: spread,
and so on. Uork at the lagging stations must be lifted to the level
of the letidinc ones. The leading stations, in their turn, have .
inekheuttible poisibilities for the improveMent of theirwork.
**According to a report of 643 Scientific Co-Worker of Most'
Agricultural Station, L. H. Gorokhov.
Aft 041, See. Collection "Experience in the organisation of artificial
MI' insemination of agricultural ant:hale, Mo, 1159.
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(6) Trans. A-1108
Artificial insemination permits using better bred producers.
In the ealtic,region all the producers at the stations of artifitial
insemination are the elite Ones; In Kirghle SSR 80% of elite bulls
are used; in RSFSR 71%, in Ukrainian SSR .6 70%; the situation
Is much worse in Transcaucasia; in Azerbaijan -.64%, In Georgia -
581, In Anonia. -.43% of producers are elite. Introduction of
artificial insemination improved the use of pedigreed producers;
up to 800-1.000 cows received the semen.of one pedigreed bull.
In individual cases were obtained up to 5,000 calves end over 18
? thousand (18,414) lambs from one producer; fgegin:p4953 this
virtually, permits refusing the utilisation of bed producers. The
number of descendants of elite producers, obtained at kolkhoses and
sovkhoses, rose sharply. For instince, in Muibyshev oblast', in
1956, (before the organisation of the station) only 1 thousand
elite calves were obtained,. while in 1958 33 thousand.
The attained successes -show that we have found new, progressive
forms of organisation of artificial insemination and this method
became thi most important means for mass breeding improvement of
animal husbandry at the kolkhotes and sovkhOsss.
During the next seven years, artificial I:fulmination must
be expanded still more. Animal husbandry workers ere faced with
real problem of artificially inseminating the entire female live-
stock of large cattle, sheep, goats, swine end horses at, kolkhoses
and sovkhoses, using only the elite and the record-breaking pro-
ducers; of obtaining during the period of the Seven-Year-Plan two
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(7). Trans. A-1108
or three generations of animals descending directly fOM the best
pedigreed producers of the country; that is, entirely to stop using
poor-quality males. .This will help radically to renew the herds
of kolkhoses und seVkhoies, replacingall inefficient animals with
3/4 or 7/0 thoroughbreds. Such 's replacement' it nece,sary in order
to raise the productivity of animals, which later on viii depend -
not onlyon the abundance or. feeds but also, to large degree, On
the hereditary characteristics of animals. .
' It Is necessery to create, at the present time, specialised
beef cattle for a sharp ries in the production of beet. Of
a deficiency of pedigreed. producers Of speCiailsea beef breeds of
? cattle, it Is necessary to Utilize the ezperience.cf production
of the Kazakh Whitehead Melogolov6i9 breed, numbering at
the present time 300 thOusand head. It was only the use of arti-
ficial insemination that helped to produce such block of 0:amble
In the presence of seveval dozens of pedigreed bulls or the beef
breed. A Similar work, but on a much larger scale, mat Conducted
by Soviet animal husbandmen in Creating the multimillion herds or
? fineswooled sheep, utilising *limited number of highqdeilty
'flneswooled rams.
We think that it is'neceecary In ths basic regions of the -
beef cattle industry to formlarge methanisea'statiOnt of ertt.,
fitial inseMination (which 10111 be supplied with refrigerating
plants, evie and eutOstransport and radio communicetion4 there
should be collected 400 or Mors pedigreed bulls of specialized
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beef,brieds. Each such station can serve, under conditions of
South-East and of Raeakhstan, up to a million cows (by loading .
the deficit (numbers of] producers with from 5 to 10 thousand end
more females per year). In the regions of beef anlIal husbandry
these stations can utilize the bulls all the year round and pre-
pare stOcks of frozen semen for the pairing season: This will
permito.during the course of 7 years, obtaining it multi-million
block a 3/4 thorouijhbred cattle of beef breeds.
. Besides that, the bulls of .beef breeds must be also used
In the regions of milk production. The semen of such bulls must
be used to leseminete Inefficient cows, whose calves are not
suitable as replacements of the milk herd. The obtained calves
111
can be grown,for fattening locally or transported to regions of
virgin lands for the formation'of blocks of beef cattle.
In Conformity -with problems or the 7-year national economy
plan, the 'Workers in anima industry require serious help from'
scientific establishments in order to develop the breeding work,
as well as artificial insemination. It is necessary to develop
a more improved and practicable technique of artifiClal insemina-
tion for mai* production and use; that Is, It is necessary to
.develop.construction and technology for the preparation of,
-vices (Begin MO for artificial insemination from synthetic
polymeric materials; for instance, devices, prepared to be used
only once, will facilitate the work and remove the possibility
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(9)1 Trans. A-1106
of Sproadintj-inteptious diseases (single-use thermos** for the.
transport of semen, tubes for artificial vagina, INedtorS,
catheters for insemination* and others); it is nedeeeary-t6
, .
'prove simple cnd practicable.!Sethods.for short...term storage of.
semen, without coolin0 and for prolonged storsee of:813%144n
frosen state with the use of liquid nitrogen (at- -193?). as well
as 14 a dried state; tb improve methods ofinaemlnation of females
for a further increase of. their fecundity.
1S.1959, the Central Station of Artificial Inseminition of
.:.1421i (All-Union Scientific liestarch Institut* of LIviatock Dreed.
Ing] constructed 0 thermos for shi0Oing semen tb-be-Usid,but once;
111 it vas very convenient for :large stations. of artificial ihtemina-
tion. The thermos .consisted at afbox (of cortogitid cardboard).
end a polyethylene little bag, which is herMiticallysealed after
filling it With fisius.of-t,tmen and an Ice block. :The spice
between the carton Walls and the little bag -is filled with heat-
nexerial, (ihivino, sawduato'cheff,,peet crumbs, and, ses
on). The cost6i.thecardboerd thermbs Is considerably lower' then
Of .that aide of glass or foamy plastic, and Its production can
be easilYorfianiged locally; transportation expenses a-re slow
lowered considerebly owing to the light weight of the thermos.
But the slain advantage is that the cardboard thermos need not be
returnedlo the etation, and this prevents the possible spreading
of infection. The suEgeeted thermos is useful for transport end
(' keeping of semen at temperature 0., but cannot be used for the-
transportation of frozen semen.
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.Durinu the lest two year', workers in animal husbandry show
.great interest in the rew'method of :storing the semen:witty:Alt
cooling, et e.tempeiliture of. fro 410 to +25!.; IntrOduction of
,this method prorviOusli., when the use of sulfonamides and antibiotics
ih the Stor,Ing of semen was not mastered, was.not possible since'
at the cited telverstbres microorganisms developed very rapidly
.and the semen became unfit for use. The method suggested by.
Van-Demsrk and his coworkers,. In 19$6-4957, for the keeping of
the bull semenOnwhich bacterlostetic eubstances,and.cabon..
dioxide were Used did not prove to be worthwhile. Checking
this method on fecuhdity, both in our country and .abroad, pro.
duced'queeilftable iisults.
, in MR, during the present yr, 4. 11..Sytine developed a.
Ibicarbonate-phosphateft.mothod for storage of Nitta acme:C*11th-
out cooling. in this case carbon 'dioxide, dissolved. in the medium,
Is produced in a_ chemical way, 'by c partial decomposition of the
-bicarbonate, which forths 11.pert of the medium. In addition to '
this, one succeeds -1n regulating the concentration of carbon
dioxide Yore preciseOP and it keepa more stably. Already 100
cows were inseminated at the pedigreed-cattle breedihg,form-
'rplemkoel nAlcksandrovon,by this method (it ern be used also .
In swine hus)-andryl. The given method permits preserving ampules,
with semen not less than Z days, without ice or thermos, In a simple
box with InsulatinG materisi. At the present time the-suggested
,method is undergoing a wide production test.
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Nevertheless, it.does not solve fully the problem of pre-
servation orthe semen and cannot replace the method of its In-
definitely long preservation in a frOsen.statevfor'instence, in
dry ice at a temperature of minus 781 this-latter method is
? used in the work of the Central Station of Artificial Insemination
of V121.4 by the Stations.of the Ukrainian And Lithuanian SSR, as well
as other.institUtions of the tOviii Union. Thu methodpermitted'
Iransporting the semen of hills, exhibited it VSKW (All-Union
A4ricultural Exhibition], to transpoler region (city Of Voriltsk),
to the extreme south (Tedshikttan) and to foreign countries
? (hlbeilia).".(Begin P.97)
111 , But dry ice is in short supply, and Ate production directly
at the !tattoos of artificial insemination is economically and
technically inexpedient. Therefore it is recOmmendedlo use
11..010 nitrogen ell a cooling Medium with minus 193? as the boiling
tilopereture (that is by 119- lower than dry.ida); this permits pre-
serving.the semen. The experience of preserving 'the semen 10
liquid nitrogen (mitts already at VIZI1 and the All-Un on Institute
of Horse Breeding. The industry can furnish it in large quantities
as a,sideproduct in obtaining liquid oxygen. There exist small-
slas set-ups for compression of air, they.con be furnished to the
stations of artificial insemination. The only-technical difficulty
is the preparation tf high-quality containers for conservation of
the liquid nitrogen. High?quaitty containers with vacuum-powdet
heat insulation are known; they preserve the liquid nitrogen. In
the courts of three weeks without overcharging. Organisation of
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(12) Trans. A..1108
industrial production of such containers would considerably simplify
the organisation of trtificial insemination of cows. .Such con-
tsiners, with liquid nitrogen and.empules with semen, could be de-
livered once in three weeks to the points of insemination and re-
placed with new ones, as the need arises. This will sharply
reduce transport rehandling of the semen, end the three-week _pre-
servation of it locally, which coincides with the period of re-
currence of the rut of the cows, will permit to inseminate each .
cow with the semen of a certain bull. -
Along with this, it is necessary radically to improve the
training of animal husbandry workers in problems of artificial
insemination and breedinc work, as the Stations carry out the
work with all kinds of agricultural animals. In view of this all
the animal husbandmen must be faitiller with the technique of?breed-
ing work and artificial insemination, whereupon the training of
highly qualified specialists must combine deep knowledge of braids
tog work of different Rinds of agricultUrel animals and Of art!-
tidal insemination.
The most important and responsible problem, at the present:
time, is to develop a new system of conducting the breeding work at
kolkhotes and Bovkhoses. Within the next few years the breading
work in kolkhotes will be conducted with the aid of artificial
insemination; this will permit discontinuing the us* of low-
? quality produters-and, an t limp scale, actively and systematically
to influence the reproduction by organising a mass and rapid Ma-
III , ,provement.of the breed and of the productiVity of agricultural animals
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? (13) ? ?MM.' A4I08
in,sovkhotes end kolkhoses ft the same tine, in lntroducing
artiiicial insemination 'it is necessary _especially carefully.to
choose the pedigreed producers, clearly to plin the breeding
, work, to conduct accoUnting and records of the origin end produCti-
vittr.of the genealogical analysis of female herds, to organise a,
correct growing of young animals, its evaluation and record of
'productivity.: .
We suggest the followinglieneral system oi work for breeding
' and artificial insemination:
1) the bail* tor mass improvement of commercial animal hull-.
bandry Ofkolkhoses Must become the interkolkhoS (cooperative)
111 stations of artificial insemination, formed at the expense of
kolkhoses (sifter the example .of 0111khovatskala and other inter,.
? kolkhos stations). Their bail; problem is the improvement of
cattle by.means of a wide use of the best.producers,vhieh are
obtained primarily from "piesikhopes". In the recions of ,commercial
animmthusbandry (Milk, beef and ',stool) it is recommendid'systemati-
cally to conduct alternate Crossing or to use semen from two-
throe breeds. for the utilisation of advantages of hybrid descen-
dents. It is also desirable to have bulls end rafts of beet breeds
for obtaining eariromaturing young beef antnals from the less
produCtive females. All the breeding work (Begin p.8] On farms,'
Serviced by such stations, mustbo.dirated to the formation 'Of '
more-productive, healthy cattle, which pay we for the feed,
independently of the degree of thoroughbreeding.
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(14) Trans. A-I108
2) in regions, producing pedigreed cattle, State stations on
breeding work end.artificial insemination 'must do the work; they .
Should be formed on the basis.of State stud stables, State breeding
? farms and breeding sovkhoset. These organisations, having to do
ro
with basic blocks of thspghbred cattle, which are improving the
? bread, should supply the regions of commercial animal husbandry with
'pedigreed producers. Therefor., it is necessary here to conduct
highly qualified end syStematiO breeding work.. In Udikhozes,
.which have breeding farms, all documentation about the origin of
'ramie, Conducting of pedigree records and of -pedigree books must
be centered in the hands of specialists, who conduct these re-
cords impartially. State breeding stations must conduct a centra-
1, listed record of all Inseminated animals in their region; where-
upon they must be given the right to issue pedigree certificates
and conduct pedigriebodke. In order that the initial pedigree
record be absolutely correct, the insemination of kplkhoz cattle
in regions of activity of State stations must be entrusted with
the technicians of the station, who must draw up the nitial
breeding documentation.
For definition of pedigree qualities end Checking of data
about the Productivity of kolkhos thoroughbred animals, the State
breeding 'Motions must have highly qualified judges or experts.
?.The expenses for their upkeep must be paid'for by kolkhozts in
the form of pay not only for the insemination of females, but also
for.the evaluation of animals, Issuing of pedigree certificates,
recording in the pedigree bock, and so on..
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(15) Trans. A-.1108
? For speeding up of.the qualitative improvement.of animal -
husbandry, it is necessary to raise the role' of sOklicizes, which
must furnish the semen 'of the'best ,iroduCers to interkelkhos and
State stationse.or organise stations of artificial insemination,
not financed by the State, for servicing the holkhotes. At the pre-
sent. tiMe the valuable producers in sovkhoset are, utilised-to
I'2?. These animals Must be used to the full for the Improvement
ofthe,holkhos cattle (with a laid of from P.,'to 20 thousand females
per year, dePendiric on their pediGree value): ?
lnt3Anection with the preeminent' transfer to artificial'
Insemination new requirements are 'lea bet forth:to the methods
111 of the breeding wOrk., first of all, the requirement in_pedigresd.
producers will be reduced by 40-50. times. Kolkhotes, Serviced
by the stations, Will stop bilying-prodtice4 and, In ConneCtion
? with this the pedigreedoscattlefbreeding ferns will find, t dif
ficult to sell their ordinary thoroughbred material. .
Along with this, the demands Of the quality of pedigreed
producers ilitt:croweiceedingly. Already now the stations On
pedigreedE?cattle breeding %toil( And artificial insaMination undergo
great difficulties in acquiring pedigreed producers of required,
?
?
quality. The semen of mediocre producers does:nOt'find,any
market, and the stations must liquidate them. i.ater on, ai th
? Improvements In breeding work will proceed at the state breeding
stations, the requirements in quality of.producers will grow still
higher. This must be taken. into Consideration by all therworkers:: .
All
eT th0 breed!nti lefts: ?
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(16) Trans. A-1108
Under new COnditions the problem of evaluation of the pro-
ducers aicording to the descendants also requires serious study.
The workers of agricultural science must help the Stets breeding
_stations in the organization of systematic checking of the
quality of the,descendants of all the used pedigreed producers,
of systematic development of card indices for.the breeding ac-
counting, of compilation and conducting of pedigree books, and
in the greatest possible utilization of (Begin p.99] the most
outstanding producers for obtaining'from them not less than 20-
? 25 thousand of descendants per year.
At the present time there are few producers in our cOuntry
41, which were checked according to the descendants, but even the simple,
replacement of second-rate producers by the elite will produce
-11 very appreCieble result.
A mass introduction of artificial.inseminstion into animal
husbandry of sovkhoses and kolkhdees piste forwerd imeny difficult
problem* before the agricultural science,., but at the,sane time At
opens up prospects, that were unprecedented earlier, for a crea-
tive zootechnical work With huge masses of animals and Creates'
possibilities for very rapid pices in improvement and formation .of
highly valuable breeds of animals in our country..
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Trans. A-I109
vgM
'Helicopter for the protection of plants '
(A talk with the Deputy of the Chief Designer,
HuznetsoV) ?
Zashchita Rastenii, vol.
tiov./Dec. '1959. ?
(ln Russian)
no. 6,,p.22-23.
1421Z1 ?
Of late the helicopters are being widely Used for the control
of pests and diseases of plants along with airplanes. MOTs and more
farms express their approval for this type of chemical treatment
as the most sensible and efficient, especially on broken terrain.'
What are the 'prospects for the use of such machines in the
111 near future? This was the question that the editorial office
addressed to the Deputy of the Chief Designer, 11.-A. Kuznetsov.
This is what he said.
Helicopter MI-1, developed by the collective under the leader-
shit', of the Chief Designer, M. L. Mil', was equipped with apparatus
for the control of pests and diseases of plants, for spraying and
dusting, about two years ago. Already the first tests, in orchards
end vineyaids of Crimea and of Krasnodar krai, have shown that
.
the new way of lutilizing these machines promised great advantages.
Indeed, a helicopter does not need an airfield, it can take off
from a small patch of land; this is especially important in zones
of intense gardening and viniculture, where each hectare of the
area is Valuable. A helicopter spends considerably less tins than
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(2), Trans. A-1109
the airplane for idle runs, for turns, and Bo on; it flits.easily
over.broken terrain, where it is impossible to use not only the'
airplane, but also land equipment. Spedific advantages of these
machines became apparent. On the strength of their aerodynamic
characteristic*, the wave Of the sprayed poison Chemical is pressed
to the earth by the descending streams of air from the rotor,
providing excellent covering of leaves both On the tipper and the
under side, along the full extent of the tree or WO. With the
use of the airplane as it is known, a considerable part of the
poison often drifts to the side, and the remaining poison, basi-
cally, reaches only the upper part of leaves. ?
. Operation tests of the helicopter gave positive results and
have shown the possibility of its Wide application. Nevertheless,
-Certain deficiences Were also discovered,. which demanded improve-
ment of the special apparatus. We took into 'consideration the
remarks of farmers and of specialists of GosNIIGVF (State Scientific
Research Institute of the Civil Air Fleet] and provided for im-
proving the quality of the treatment. Thus, in the initial variant
the spray booms of the sprayer were installed only at the sides;
they did not go under the fuselage; therifore't narrow strip* a
gap, remained along the Center of the run, where the centering of
the leaf surface was very weak. The defect was liquidated by in-
stalling injector nozzles under the fuselage on an additional spray ?
boom. The construction of injector nozzles was changed for the
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(3) Trans. A-1109
improvement of dispersity of .drops by using nozzles from land
sprayers with eddy-forming devices. Spec iii ejectors were installed
for drawing OfUof liquid frOm *pray booms; this%permitted to*
avoid the inflow of the solution after the shutting off of the
sprayer. "The introdtced -changes substantially improved the work
of the spraying and dusting apparatutes.
It is necessary to point-out thit A1-1, according to its
flight character, basically is up to the requirements for the.
exploitatiton On the protection of plants. It is completely safe;
has 'a Sufficient reserve capacity; Can be filled with chemicals'
without shutting off the rotor; this, considerably shortens the
. time of filling. Already nOw, as the tests have shown, itt use
In mountain.orchards,and, vineyards is Cheaper and more effective
-then all other methods of treatment. Nevertheless; the coot
' of operation Of a helicopter is still very high and the detigning
hOresu pewits basic attention to the improvement of this parti-
cular indicator. 'Since 1957, the resources otthe machine (t*
? is, the time Of work without a Capital overhauling) were Increased
twice and a further Substantial increase is being planned.
The working load of the helicopter was raised considerably. It
-can now take 150 to 400 kg of poison chemicals instead of the former
260 kg. This was attained by increasing the sturdiness of.construc-
tion and removal of equipment not needed for agricultural work.
Productivity per 1 hour of flight has.thus-been raised by a time
411 and a halt-and comprises, while spraying vineyards up to 151a.
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Trans. A-1109
Asa result of this, flying only II, hours.per day.(2 to 2.5 hours:
early in the morning end 1.5-2 hours before dusk) the helicopter
replaces the work of 150 to 200 men. The productivity of the
helicopter can yet be, Increased as a result of a more efficient
organization and 'spacing of filling 'platforms (Begfn p.233 near
the treated sections by the shortening of the flight course,', and
soon.
' From the point ot view of national economy, the universality.
of the helicopter and the possibility of its ustvall Over the Union
la of great importance. With this aim in views.we are developing
_a simple device, which will permit using,our machine both in spring
? and in the fall for distributing poisoned baits for the control of
rodents on the edgeS Of fields and of Water reservoirs. It is also
expedient to use it in the fall for defoliation of cotton.
The design permits a quick re-equipment of the helicopter to
a patsengets sanitary or mall variant; this will perMit using
it also in winter time.
There is a'full justification for ascertaining that the light-;
weight helicopters, of the M1-1 type, will find a proper place in
the practice of plant protection; and will permit making one more
step ahead on the way oftechnicel progress in this field. To Speed
up their introduction into agricultural production on a wide scale -
this Is ,the aim of our collective during these days, which precede
the calling, of the next Plenum of TsK KPSS (Central Committee of,
the Communist Party or the Soviet Union).
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Trans. A-1110
vg/M
Kolesnikov, A. V.
?lsuchonie nukleinovykh kis lot u rastenii.
(Study of nucleic acids in plants]
Akademila Nauk. Veatnik, vol. 29, no. 3,
p.130-132. March, 1959. 511 Akl4V
(in Russian)
The Department of Biological Sciences of the tcademy of Science
of USSR conducted a visiting scientific Session at the Bashkir
Branch of the Academy. In contrast to previous joint Sessions of
the Department with the Branches, where results of studies of natural
resources of the specific territories were discussed, the Session
in Ufa bore a doubly thematic character: it was dedicated to summing
up the first results of the studies of nucleic acids In plants. .
? Interesting data were obtained, during the past years, about the
Importance of nucleic acids In the carrying out of the most im-
portant vital functions of the organisms; and the Soviet biologists,
who were occupied with the studies of nucleic acids, keenly felt
? the need for comparing the experience of their research, the newest
data and defining further ways for development of the problem.
Over 100 men from institutes of the tcademies of USSR and
Ukrainian SSR, from Bashkir and Moldavian Branches took part in the
Session, is well as men from some other scientific-research esta-
blishments, Moscow and Bashkir Universities, Moscow Agricultural
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(2) Trans. A-1110
Academy &men! R. A. Timiriazev", pedagogical and agricultural
Institutes. During the course of the Session (from November 25 -
? ,to 28, 1958) over 30 reports were read and discussed."
While opening the Session* P. A. Genkelt, Assistant of the
Academician..Secretary of the Department of Biological Sciences,
emphasized that the study of nucleic acids of plants is one of
the new trends.in biological sciencsp'whiCh has many prospects,
In so far asthe detection of regularities.of'nucleic.mstabolism
in plant organisms pushes forward considerably the'soiving,of many
scientific problems of physiology and .biochemistry of plants.
Be expressed confidence that the Session will not only sum up
?.(Begin p.131] the results of the aCcomplished research, but also
will serve as a starting moment for thworganigetion or systematic .
work, on the scale of the entire country, for the studying of this
group of compounds, which play an important part in the life of
the higher plants.
A. N. Belozerskii addressed the Session with a reviewing report
"NuCleoproteini and nucleiC'ecid and their biological importance".
Reminding that, during the last 10-15 years, several works have
shown the connection of nucleic acids with the processes of growth,
reproduction, heredity and morphOgenesis, as well as with the bio-
synthesis of protein, the speaker paid special attentiOn to the
specificity of nucleic compounds, mainly the desoxyribonucleic
? acid (DNA), and pointed out to the importance of working out the
411 problem about the.participation of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the
synthesis, of protein.
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(3) 'Trans. A-1110
A group of reports was given over to the detection of the
nature and biological role of nucleic acids (A. S. Spirin "The
chemical nature of the infectivity of plant viruses", I. S.
Kulaev."Poiyphosphates and.their physiological importance", Zh. .A. ?
Medvedev "On the mechanism of RNA's reaction to aminoacitis and
peptides.in the synthesis of proteins",.and others). The Speakers
revealed the leading role of RNA In the definition of the specificity
4 of plant viruses* gave certain data which indicate the connection
of polyphosphates, insoluble in acids, with RNA. A supposition
was expressed that polyphosphates, which are insoluble In acids,
take direct part in the synthesis 'of protein and of nucleic adids,.
? supplying phosphorus and energy'for these processes. The results of
research set forth in the reports showed the heterOgeneity and
different -functions of RNA in the synthesis., depending on its
localization In the protoplasm and organoids of the dells'activa-
tion and transfer of amino acids and peptides from one fraction of
,RNA to the other, permanence of the bond of RNA with peptides..
In a series of,reports new methods of reseerch on nucleic
acids in plants were described (V. 0. Konarev *About the complex
-
formation of RNA-pyronine", V. Ca. Konarev and S. N. Amirkhanovi
"fluoroMetric method of definition of activity of rIbonuclease",
and others). .A.,thought was expressed that pyronine, inasmuch as
it possesses a. specific affinity with RNA, which goes beyond the limits
of the usuel- physical adsorption, and is capable of entering into
reaction with it in a steady correlation, it dan be utilited for a
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(4) Trans. A-1110
quantitative cytochemistry of nucleic acids, for the study of the
reaction of RNA with other components of the cell, as well as for
the fluorometric accounting of RNA's dspoigmerization bg 'various
factors.
Reports were also presented, which characterized the role
of nucleic acids in form development processes in plants (V. G.
Konerev, N. V. Slepchenko and others). It appeared from the re-
ports, that nucleic acids are centered in the most crucial organoids
of the cell, that they constantly interact with the Constitutional
proteins of the cytoplasm and the nucleus and have a direct con-
nection in the synthesis of a series of morphological structures
ornonprotein nature. It was established that the stepped'up con-
centration of RNA precedes the regeneration of the cellulose
sheath on the surface of the plasmolyzed protoplast and in
points. of formation of secondary enlargements of the,cell wall,
in the forming of fibrovascular bundles. A task his been under-
taken.of A deeper study of mechanism of participation of nucleic
acids in the formation of structures and products of specialized
metabolism, determining economically valuable characteristics of
plants, and, in particular, the role of nucleic acids in the
formation of reserve nutrients. According to the report, made at
the Session (by G. S. Kuramshin and V. K. Khangilldin), a vigorous
accumulation of nucleic acids preceded the intense accumulation of
dry Substance both in the entire plant, as well as in its separate.
organs; this permitted speaking about the possibility of influencing
the plant through nucleic metabolism,
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? Trans.. A.4110
Data, obtained up to the present time about the contents of
nucleic acids in certain structural elements of the cell, were
.
described in the report of M. S. bodintsova "Ribonucleic acid in
?
structures of a plant cell", intention was paid to the fluctua-
? tions of the mountof RNA in chloroplasts 'of young apd old leaves,
as well as to the'hIgh percent of content of this acid In microsomes
(up to 91; to the absolutely dry weight). .
In the reports Of E. 2. Oltnina."Nucleic acid* in seeds Of.
; apple and cherry in the state of rest" and of N. A. Warova
(Begin p.132) "About nucleic acids in tissue' of flower crops
- in the state of test" it was shown that nucleic acids play an
Ilkimportant role in the formation ofreproductive organs, during ,
their, passing into. the stats of rest and their emergence from IL'
In a young globular seed and in the actively dividing metistematiC
tissue of the cell, the plasma of the cell and-the large nucle0a!,
luses in nuclei are saturated with RNA, while DNA Is Concentrated in
the nuclei. In proportion to the formation and growth of the bud .
the content of nucleic acids in it is gradually reduced, especially
? at the expense of RNA. ,In the pasaing of.bud cella into the state
of rest and cessation of cell division, the contents of DNA are
?
reduced considerably and RNA disappears almost completely. ' Later.
, on, in the germination of seeds a synthesis of nucleic acids pro-
ceeds from the decomposition of reserve netrients. The rise In
'the contents-of CNA and RNA before the emergence from the state of
rest was detected both IA buds and In bulbs of flower plants.
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. (6) Trans.A-1110
It. G. Butenko in the report "Intensity of synthesis of nucleo-
proteins in the upper shoots of soybeans and lupines, grown at a
different length of day" pointed, out the dependence of synthesis
of nucleoproteins on the photoperiodical regime. As-it proved to
be, the synthesis of nucleic acids during a long day was always
higher regardless of the photoperiodic reaction of the plant itself.
The effect of the envirOnment on.the contents of nucleic
acids was etteblished In the 'youngest and most active organs of
the'plant. M. A. Ali-Zade in the report "Effect of water regime'
.on, the content of nucleic acids in points of growth of a tea.bush"
cited data, which indicate that the water regime, considerably
111 Influencing the growth processes, has an effect also on the contents
of RNA: the active or slowed down growth of the buds always responds
to the rise or fall of its content. ,'
Two reports dealt with nucleic- compounds In the soils (I. A.
?
,/4azilkin "Nuclease activity of microorganisms of gray forest
soils" and of 1M. 14. Barangulov "About nucleic acids of Soils".
The ability of many groups of microorganisms to secrete'ribonuclease
was pointed out, alto the dependence bf nuclease activity on the
,microbe complei. In that or another type of soil. It was shown that
the content of nucleic acids correlates to the content Of humus
In the soil and that DNA considertbly predominates over Rat in
the nucleic complex of the soils. A suggestion was expressed, that
nucleic acids play an important role not only in the phosphorus
0 -regime of soils, but alto in the physico-chemical and biochemical
.processes, occurring in the Oils..
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(7)
Trans. A-1110
The necessity of further development of research on the follow-
ing most essential questions was pointed out in the resolution,
'Opted by the Session: nature and biological role of nuCleo-
proteins and nucleic acids in plants; biosynthesis of nucleic acids;
.their role in the phenomena of heredity; role of, Internal factors
in the -contents, distribution, and condition of nucleic acids; effect
Of external conditions on the Content and state of these acids; nu-
cleic acids and plant morphogenesis; role of nucleic acids in the
general and specialised metabolism of plants and in the formation
of reserve deposits.
Attention was 8180 paid to the necessity of improvement of
111 methods (especially the quantitative) of studies of nucleic acids.
The Session recognized it expedient to entrust the instittte.
of Biology of the Bashkir Branch With the.Coordination of works
on biology of nucleic metabolism of plants and expressed a wish
to conduct the next session on this problem in 1960.
The Bureau of the Department of Biological Sciences approved
? the work of the Session and confirmed the basic trends of scienti-
fic research on nucleic metabolism, recOmmended by it.
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Trans. A-1111
vg/M
Sulthoverkhov, F. M.
Metody I effektivmost, kormleniia ryby v prudakh
(Methods of feeding fish in ponds and their.
effectiveness]
Vestnik Sellskokhoziaistvennoi Nauki, vol.; 114
no. 8, p.58-67 August, 1959. 20 V633
(In Russian)
In the Control Figures for Developme7t of National Economy
of USSR or the years 1959-1965, which wire approved by the 21st
Congress'pf the CommunistParty of thp0Soviet Union, it is pointed
.:4
s
out that_the-increase in the yield of Mp.will be achieved by
utilization of new industrial regions in open seas and oceans,
by a wide use of ponds, of lake-river reservoirs and water
storage places, that were constructed in the country, which can
produce annually not lessthan 6-8 mm n centners of fish.
Developing the problems of nutrition of fish since the year
1935, we tried to find a possibility for utilizing in pond
fisheries the wastes of food industry and of agriculture; those
that are cheap, easy to transport and keep well. Oil cakes and
wastes of grain crops satisfied these requirements, in our opinion.
In experiments, during.the year 1938, casior bean and hemp oil
cakes, wastes from, the screening of grain crops, as well as the
\
dried flesh of mollusks.war e tested.
Candidate biol. science, Vserossliskil Nauchno-Issledovatellskii
0 Institut Prudoyogo Khoziaistva (All-Union Institute of Pond Fish
Breeding]
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(2) Trans. A-1111
It is.known that fish, propagated in ponds (carp, trout and
others) eat up well the artificial feeds and at the 'same time
give a good increase,.- According to certain foreign data (6,7,9)
fish is fed rye, barley, wheat, peas, lupines, lentils, vetch,
corn and industrial wastes in-the form of the cocoons of the
mulberry silkworm. lt,was established also (4) that carp uses
artificial feeds as well as the warm-blooded animals do. As a
result of feeding fish with wastes that were not used in the
animal industry, In 1935, we, for the first time, obtained 14.6 c
of fish per 1 ha of pond; that is, the yield of fish from a
unit of area was increased considerably.
Later on, at the State fisheries of the northern raions of
the central belt, as well as in the south of our country industrial
experiments were conducted on feeding fish with various wastes.
At fisheries in each zone 2-3 ponds were set aside, which had a
natural fish productivity established for many years. Feeding
of fish was done with two or threefold stocking of fish. The
quality of feeds was determined according to the. chemical com-
position, consumption and the size. of expenditure of feeds per
unit of increase of fish. In all cases the stock.weight of the
carp and Its increase from consumption of natural food in ponds
were excluded in calculations.
We conducted about 80 economic experiments when 30 kinds of
feeds were tested. Experiments have shown, that the carp eats up
willingly (without a thermal treatment) almost all kinds of oil
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(3) Trans. A-1111
cakes, when they are given in a pure-state; included are also
those containing alkaloids (cottonseed and castor bean), as well
as oil cakes of the mustard family, containing.mustard oil, 'which
cause renal and urinary bladder disturbances (rapeseed, winter-
cress) in warm-blooded animals, bitter oil cakes, whichypoll the
taste of. milk (camzline seed oil, safflower), and oil cakes which
have an unpleasant smell (perillic); The plain taste-of fish is
so great that in feeding Salmo irideus and carp (experiments of
1956) with feed mixes which contained 15% of the technical flour
sweepings, poisoned with arsenic, no poisonings of fishes were
noted. -
.Carp can utilize well different sweepings from macaroni
111 mills, from hulling mills, elevators, bread factories, as well as
wastes of grain, of combination feeds, of dough, which cannot be
used in animal industry on account of some admixtures (Begin p.59)
(earth, metal., glass); as well as wastes of rye, wheat, peas,
vetch, lentils, seeds of Siberian acacia, and other crops, con-
taining up to 40% of healthy seeds; it was established that seeds
of weeds can be the basic feed for fishes.
Seeds of different plants contain sufficiently large quantities
of nutrients. According to data of Mann (5) seeds of cockle
contain: 15.3% crude protein, 16.6% fat, 56% Carbohydrates; seeds
of bindweed: 10.5%. crude protein, 2:1% fat, 68.5% carbohydrates;
seeds of wild lentils: 27.2% crude protein, 0.7% fat, 62.4% '
carbohydrates; seeds of common wintercress: 28.2% crude protein,
III 28.2% fat, 22.9% Carbohydrates.
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(4) Trans. A-1111
It is possible to include in the feed mixes certain kinds
of fresh animal feeds, which help in assimilation and better
utilization of oil cakes, grain wastes and seeds of weeds. To
the number of these belong: undesirable small fish, wastes obtained
during processing of fish (at a moisture content of 75-78% they
contain '14.4-15.8% protein and 2.5-4.2% fat), fresh blood, con-
fiscations from slaughter houses, mollusks, tadpoles as well as
frogs, Which are obtained in water 'reservoirs. They contain a
smaller amount of proteins (5.6-10%) and fat (O.6-i.8), but the
fishes consume them well in mixes.
Chemical analysis of oil cakes, taken by us for carp feeding,
111 has shown that they contained an insignificant amount of calcium.
Atthe same time it is known that salts of calcium and phosphorus
are very important for the growth of fish. In 1950, we set up
en experiment on feeding fish with feed mixes that were balanced
in nutrients and in mineral.composifion. For this purpose we
added chalk* which contained 51.2% of pure calcium to oil cakes;
it is assumed that under the effect of gastric acid, particularly
the hydrochloric, calcium becomes assimilable. Certain researchers
(8) have maintained that the medium of carp's intestines is alkaline,
and therefore the assimilation of calcium (In the form of chalk)
is impossible. The others (3) doubted the changelessness of the
medium of the alimentary canal of fishes. In our experiments we
determined the reaction of the medium of the intestines CT 50 carps
with the aid of a potentiometer at different temperatures of
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(5) Trans. A-1111
water, using various feeds. It proved to be that the medium of
the front part of fish intestines, at a, temperature of water of
10? and lower, is neutral or slightly acidified, and is always
slightly acid at temperatUres of 15-20?. The medium of the second
part of carp's intestines has a pli6.5-7.4, depending on theldnd.
of feeds; pH is neutral the most often while feeding on natural
food, but in feeding oil cakes, which have tots of protein, and
In the presence in the ration of 0.05-0.09% of calcium - it is
acid (pH=6.4-6.8). After feeding oil cakes. with th*e addition of
chalk (contents of calcium in the ration are 0.52 to 0.68%) the
medium of the intestines becomes slightly alkaline. It is obvious
that the breakdown of food in the first part'of the carp's in-
testines proceeds under the effect of acids; in this case calcium
is absorbed in an ionized form. Since the digestion of food in
fish occurs primarily in the second part of the intestines under
the action of enzymes, which react on food in a neutral or alkaline.
medium, the feed.must contain a sufficient amount of basic elements
for the neutrAlization of the excess of acids, which form as a
, result of decomposition of protein. In the presence of, fatty
acids calcium, as it Is known, forms insoluble calcium soaps
(fatty acid calcium), which is emulsified by bile. In connection
with this calcium can be absorbed in an alkaline medium in the
form of an emulsion. (Begin p.60)
Methods used in our experiments on feeding fish in ponds were.
as follows: we put into a box the oil cakes, granulated in a
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(6) Trans. A-1111
?
crusher, or the grist; we diluted in a barrel the pulverized
chalk at a rate of 2% to the weight of oil cakes. This mixture
we poured into the box with oil cakes, mixing it to the consistency
of thick dough*. The obtained feed was dropped down to the feed-
ing places from spades or with the aid of a hand dump truck,
mounted on a boat (figure 1).
Figure 1. Boat dump truck for distribution
of feed to fishes: a) loaded (1- feed,
2- handle, 3- hinge, 4- boat); b) in-
verted.
The. thick dough, lowered into the pond, absorbs water; as
a result of this the weight of the feed is increased, and the
moisture content reaches 78-80%. We added 2% of chalk to the feed
? mixes, besides this, in the experimental ponds. We fed fish at a
twofold density of stocking. Both in the control and the experi-
mental ponds the use of natural food, during various utilization
of oil cakes, was approximately the same.. Weight of the content
of intestines of Carp (food with the addition of chalk) as a rule,
was smaller in experimental ponds than in the control ponds.
The obtained data on the growth of fish, that Is on the utili-
?
iation of feed for the increase of fish, have shown the possibi-
lity of reducing the expenditure of feed per unit of increase of
weight of carp (table 1).
* For obtaining a thick dough the amount of water must be equal
(in weight) to oil cakes. At such a proportion the moisture of
the feed mix comprises approximately
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(7)
Trans. A-1111
Table 1
Results of experiments on the reduction of outlay of feeds
.
Years
Place where the ex-
pertinent was conduct-
ed
Feed and feed mixes
Mean weight (g) of
two-year olds in.
ponds
Expenditure of feed per
unit of the increase of
weight of fish in ponds
Control
Experimental
Control
Experimental
1947
1949
1951
1949
1951
1954
Savvinskii-fishery?
Moscow ablest'
Sawa place
?
.
n
.
Fishery "Oktiabr,"
Belgorod oblast'
Fishery "Progress",
Kursk ablest'
Savvinskii fishery,
Moscow oblast,
'
'
,
Cottonseed oil
cakes (90%) + flax
oil cakes (10%)
.
Cottonseed oil
cakes (100%)
Cottonseed oil
cakes (100%)
Sunflower seed oil
cakes (100%)
Soybean oil cakes
(60%) + cottonseed
oil cakes (WM
Seeds of Siberian
acacia (90%) + flou
sweepings (10%) .
,
291
.
356
476
.
328
.
500
.
380
358
378
.
496
420
528
460
- .
?
7.4
5.9
5.8
5.6
- 6.5
.
.
5.6
?
3.8
4.0
3.6
,
. 3.5
, 4.8
4.6
-
.
'
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(8) Trans. A-11I1
(Begin p.61]
In the fall the mean weight of fish was higher, in all the
experiments with the addition of chalk, than in the control.
Reduction of expenditures Of feeds per unit of increase of weight
comprised 2633%. The effectiveness of the addition of chalk to
oil cakes was checked during different years in fisheries "Spartak",
Kursk oblast', "Kliuchiki" and "October" in.Belgorod oblast',
Addition of chalk to various moistened oil cakes reduced their ex-
penditure per unit of increase of weight by 28% on the average.
In 1952 we determined the effectiveness of feed mixes, balanced
according to nutrients and protein, in most of the fisheries of
the RSFSR in feeding carp with the combined feed 4-r, consisting
of 60% cottonseed, 20% rape and 8% flax seed oil cakes, 10% of
grain mixture or flour sweepings and 2% of chalk (Table 2).
Table 2
of comparison Of nutritiousness of the cottonseed oil
cakes and of the combined feed -r
Indicators Com
Results
4.
Cottonseed oilcake
ined feed
20,9
(:411
1
=
Digestible proteins per 100 g
of feed
Sum of nutrients
Protein ratio
Ratio CatT
31.5
68.7
1:1.18
31 = 0:32
97.14.
Expenditures of cottonseed oil cakes (without chalk) per unit .
of increase of weight comprised 6-6.5kg, and of combined feeds,
similar in composition to combined feed 4-r, and which did not
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S
?
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(9) Trans. A-1111
contain chalk, - 5.8 kg per 1 kg of increase of weight of fish.
Expenditures of the combined feed 4-r, on the average, at all
fisheries of RSFSR were 4.2 kg per 1 kg of increase of weight of
fish. Average saving (compared with normal expenditures) equalled
27.6%. At several of the fisheries ("Leninskoe", "Nara", "Osenka",
Moscow oblast', "Niva", Voroneah oblastl, "Dvurechle" and "Progress",
Tambov oblast', "Para", Riazant oblast') expenditures of the com-
bined feed comprised 3.7-4.0 kg per 1 kg of the increase of weight
of fish, and the saving of feeds 31 to 35%.
We also tested grist in fish feeding. Expenditure of grist
per unit of increase of fish (under all other equal conditions)
was higher than of oil cakes on account of a.smaller amount' of
fat and considerably large losses in distributing the grist (the
floury substances of grist do not fall to the feeding places but
settle around them in the form of a cloud). Some agglutinants ?
were begun to be added in the form of flax seed oil cakes, mill
technical sweepings, rye or wheat flour dust, flour from grain
wastes in order to reduce the losses of grist. In feeding carps
.with balanced feed mixes of different grists and oil cakes, under
industrial conditions, the expenditures comprised: in feeds with.
predominance of oil cakes - 4 to 4.2 kg, and with the predominance
of grist - 4.6 to 5 kg per 1 kg of increase of fish (table 3).
"Experience has confirmed the high effectiveness of feeding
carp different oil cakes and gnats, which contain a fuller collec-
tion of amino acids. Feeding fish with one kind of feed badly
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(10) Trans. A-1111
influenced the increase; as a result of this its productivity was
reduced.
Observations of Tsunts and Kronheim (23) have shown that
plant feeds were bedly utilized in threefold stock1ni, of fish.
Mixes of various feeds were comparatively badly utilized in our
experiments in feeding carp only In sixfold and higher stockings.
(Begin p.62)
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?
(11)
Results of use of balanced feed mixes in fisheries
Fishery
uoktiabr"
Belgorod
oblast'
"Nave,
Voronezh
oblast'
"nezburan,
Kaluga
oblast'
"Neprelke
Tula
oblast'
Years
Feeds, balanced in
mineral substances
1955 Mixture of differ-
ent grists with ad-
dition of flour and
grain wastes + 2%
of chalk
1954 nixture of oil cakes
+ 2% of chalk
1.955 The same
1955 Cottonseed, peanut,
soybean, sunflower
1956 seed oil cakes and
gnats + 2% of chalk
Cotton seed grist,
sunflower seed oil
cakes and grist + 2%
chalk
1955 Aixture of various
gnats with the ad-
dition of grain.'
flour feeds +.2% of
chalk
1956 Sunflower seed, soy-
bean, rape oil cakes
cottonseed grist,
grain-flour wastes,
fresh animal blood +
2% of chalk
ilk ?
Trans. A-1111
Table 3
1 Fish produc-
tiveness
Results
of feeding
Density of
stocking
(in multi-
plicities)
Area of feed.'
ing the fish
(sq. ri.)
(kg/ha)
4.)
0 16.4
0
*I a al 0
?44 g
V 0 of CO
g w
V4
O. 6.1
DID Mow
natural
'total
41:43
0 o C.
)f
Ow of
COOL)
to of
ofq
V 0
6
142
350
2080
507
5.0
5
102
350
1968
549
410
5
102
350
1978
510
4.0
3
200
24.0
661
500
4.2
2
200
320
700
400
4.1
31
290
1151
520'
4.6
3
- 30
290
732
453
4.5
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(12) Trans. A-1111
Apparently, in using balanced feed mixes the density of stocking
can be increased, and instead of 6-7.5 C per I ha, 20-25 c of
fish and more per ha can be obtained.. in highly concentrated stock-
ing the fish utilise feeds better, and the high natural fish pro*
ductivenese of ponds Is attained in that ease when fish is fed
strictly according to norms under conditions when the natural food
in ration comprises not less than 17%. With such * ratio of
natural and artificial feeds in the ration in ponds, that are
not fed by current, 21 c of fish per 1 ha were obtained at the
fishery "Oktiabry"; at the fishery "Niva" up to 25 c end in the
finishing pond no. 3, which is fed by current1 at the fishery
- 28 c.
At the fishery "Spertak", in a fivefold stocking of fish,
15-20 c of fish per 1 ha were obtained, whereupon the natural
food, on the average per season, comprised a little over 20% in
the total ration.. in May the amount of natural food in the
ration of fish is very great, then it drops, reaching the minimum
at the end of June, and remaining at this level during the course
of the entire August (table 4).
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Trans. A-1111
Wit_ _Lk.
Proportion of natural and artificial feed in the ration
of carp at a fivefold stockin in to the total wel ht
Months
Mean index of filling
of fish intestines
Natural
food
_
Artificial
feed
May
June
July
August
September
3.0
2.0
2.2
2.8
2.2
90-95
' 50-60
15-20
10-20
, 20-25
...10
40-50
80-85
80-90
_ - 75-80 .
The oxygen regime of water in ponds deteriorates during
the second half of summer; the use of nutrients of the feed
drops as a result of this. It was established, that .with a
denser stocking and correct feeding the natural fish produc-
tiveness of ponds rises sharply. Increase in the yield of fish
per unit .of area during a dense stocking and feeding is attained
not only at the expense of the feed, but also on account of a
more intense use of natural food by fish; its use proceeds some-
what differently in dense stocking and feeding, than under simi-
lar conditions and at the same density of stdcking but in. the
absence of feeding (2). Sometimes even at two or threefold
stockings the fish do not utilise all the natural food. At the
same time after the departure of chironomids or a mass dying
away of zooplankton the fish often do not find sufficient amount
of food even at a normal density of stocking. In the first.case
fish use more fully the supplies of natural food in ponds, and.in
the second, they feed normally and grow during the course of the
entire vegetative period.
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14) Trans. A-1111
During the first vegetative period, when the fish are still small,
the supplies of natural food in ponds are not used fully. In
denser .stockings and feeding of fish the supplies of natural food
are used better, and the natural fish productiveness of ponds is
increased. During the second half of the vegetative period,
when the requirement of food grows in the fish, the deficient
amount of nutrients Is compensated by artificial feeds.
Title of figure 2. Hydrochemical regime
of ponds during feeding of fish. At
the fishery "Spartak" (a cloudy day,
August 18 and 19):
1 - pond no. 21 (sixfold stocking of
fish); 2 - pond no. 8 (threefold
stocking of fish). Al the fishery
"Oktiabro" (a cloudy day, August 20-
21) in the pond no. 7 (fourfold
stocking); 3 - section covered with
duckweed, 4 - zone of open water.
Words in figure 2. At the top: 02 in
m1/1., At the bottom: hours.
Irregularity in the development of natural food during the course
of the vegetative period [Begin p.614.] can be used In the feeding
of fish for obtaining maximum natural fish productiveness of ponds
with the smallest outlay of feeds per unit of increase. For in-
stance, at the kolkhoz "Imeni Lenin", Petrovsk talon, Saratov
oblast', in 1953, in feeding carp with grain wastes and seeds
of weeds (beginning with the second half of the vegetation period) .
15.3 c of fish per 1 ha was obtained froma pond of an area of 5 ha;
and only 6 c from the same area but with a natural fish productivity.
At thissake farm, although the feeding of fish was started late, the
0 two-year .old carps attained, on the average, 800 g of weight.
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(15) Trans. A.4111
It was ascertained at the Savvinsk fishery of Moscow oblast
that With a more intensive utilization of natural food by fish,
chiefly during the first half of the vegetation period (with two-
fold stocking), the natural fish productiveness of ponds has
grown by 35..40%, and in threefold stocking - by 73-84% in cora-.
parison to the natural fish productiveness, obtained with normal
stocking (estimated for natura1 fish productiveness) and without
feeding the fish.
Many years of 'observations at the fishery "Partizan", Voronezh
oblast', have shown that threefold stocking a.nd feeding of carp
have increased fish productiveness of ponds by 85-92% (table 5).
Table 5.
Effect of feeding fish in dense stocking
on navuras.lisn
proouctivenesv
oz pones. .
Years
Density of stocking of
Fish productiveness /on
the average kg per 1 ha)
fish
Natural
From
-total
feeding
'
X936, 1937, 1938
Single, without feed-
,
1939
ing
249
.
249
1940, 1941, 1945
Threefold, with feed-
ing
480
486
166
1943
Normal, without feed-
ing
267
.
267
At fisheries "Kliuchiki" and "Oktiabion, Belgorod oblatitt,
natural fish productivity of the finishing ponds with tWofold
stocking increased by 40-43%, at threefold by 60-72%, and at
fourfold by 75-92%. The worth Of the increase of fish production
at the expense, of raising natural fish productiveness (as a result
of dense stocking and feeding of fish) exceeds the cost of feeds,
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(16): Trans. A.,1111
used for feeding the fish, as well as the expenditure of labor.
Partial increase of natural fish productivity is connected with
the fertilizing effect of fish excrements, the amount of which,
at the usual moisture _content (77-80%), surpasses the increase in.
fish by 22.times.2 It was established by experimental observations
that with an increase, equalling 10 c per 1 ha, the amount of
fish excrements comprises 22 tons, and with an increase equalling.
20 c per 1 ha up to 45 tons per 1. ha. Analysis of fish excrements
has shown that the unassimilated part of oil cakes, which entered
the pond in the form of excrements, considerably surpasses the
recommended norms of fertilizers for ponds in the amount of nitro-
gen. It was established that fish droppings contain Many more
biogenous substances (nitrogen (Begin p.65] and phosphorus) than
poultry and swine droppings. According to our observations, with
a single feeding, a fish remains at the places of feeding 1.5-2
hours; all the rest of time it Is looking for food along the entire
area used for finishing (.or fattening]. The best time for distri-
bution of food is the early morning (not later than the sunrise)
when, as a rule, there is no wind. The feeds, distributed in
the morning, are characterized by an increased content of oxygen
and their use by the fish helps in the improvement of the gaseous
regime of the pond water.
Our observations (in l93) have shown that with the reduction
of oxygen up to 0.5 mg/L a fish spends energy for obtaining it
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(17) Trans. A-1111
from air (it rises to the surface and swallows the air); as a
result of this the carp not only stops growing, but also loses
weight; during reductions of the amount of oxygen (below 0.5
mg/L), and this usually happens in the morning before sunrise
during windless, cloudy weather, the night fishkills occur.
?
A sharp imp/overishment of water in oxygen is caused., basically,
by the decomposition of organic substances, as well as the nightly
use of oxygen by hydrobionts. During clear sunny days the amount
of oxygen in water is reestablished up to the :formal saturation.
In strongly concentrated, stocking the medium becomes so impaired
that fish consume the set out feed badly and do not assimilate it.
It is possible to Improve the condition'of the medium by giving to
the fish mixtures that are balanced in nutrients, in mineral'
composition and vitamins' (which provide the smallest expenditures
of the organism per unit of increase). In our experiments the
best'results In the use of feed were obtained in those cases when
for 100 g of the feeding mix the sum of digestible substances
comprised: for the yearlings not less than 70, for the two-year
old fish - 65 and for the three-year old - 60. Protein proportion
in the ration must be narrower for the yearlings (1:0.4 - 1:0.5),
medium for the two-year old (1:1.- 1:1.5) and wide forAhe three-
year old (1:2 - 1:2.5). Towards autumn these proportions must
comprise 1:1.5 for the yearlings and 4:3 for the older age groups,
since the, accumulation of fat in the organism of fish proceeds more
Intensively at a temperature below 18?.
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(18) Trans. A-1111
If there are not enough carbohydrates and fats in the feed
mix, which are used by the carp at the end of summer for energy
expenditure and the laying aside of reserve substances, then the
fish loses weight. At the fishery "Nivel', Voronezh oblast', in
feeding (beginning on September 20 and Up to October 10) of the
two-year old carp with oil cakes, the fish in all finishing ponds
lost,more than 10% of weight. When a fish stops feeding the losses
in weight are explained by the fact that its intestines are fully
cleared, and the body tissues lose moisture in the curtailment
of metabolism. During the second half of the season (at a reduc-
tion of temperature below 18?) loot, mixes with a wide protein
proportion are required both for the improvement of growth and
the raising of effectiveness of utilization of feed per unit of
weight increase of fish, as well as for obtaining of a better
quality (a higher content of fat in the flesh of fish).
In using balanced feed mixes, that include the required
nutrients, the amount of outlay narrows down to the sustaining of
normal active life of fish and the obtaining of production (in-
crease), which was specified in the plin. Irilufficient feeding
inevitably causes a reduction in the growth of carp and increases
the outlay of feeds per unit of production. Some of the authors sug-
gest standardising the amount of feed for fish, depending on its .
weight (1,9 and others). One cannot agree with these suggestions
since the relative amount of feed consumed by fish is reduced with
III* the increase of its weight (in proportion (Begin p.66) to its
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(19) Trans. A-1111
?growth and increase in age) from 24% for the yearlings to 6% for
the two-year old ones. We suggested to take, as the'basis for the
method of standardization, the doily increase of fish during the
course of the season. We estimate the amount of feed according to
the outlay per unit of increase of Weight of fish and the amount
of artificial feed in, the total ration. For instance, if the mean
daily increase of weight of a two-year old carp in June comprises
6 g, and the outlay of the feed mix per unit of increase - Ii. g,
then, at a threefold density of plantina, one third of the increase
will be provided by the natural food, and the daily norm per head
will comprise 16 g (6)(10(2,/3); at a fivefold density, where the arti-
ficial feed in the ration will comprise 4/5, the norm of feeding
will be equal to 19.2 6 per day per head (00(4/5) (table 5).
Table 6.
Approximate mesh daily increase (in g) of yearlings, two-year
old and three-year old c r
Month
10 day periods
Northern
(up to
parallel)
raions
the 55th
_
Central belt
(55-51 parallel)
- ,-- -------,
Southern and south.
eastern ral ns (to
the south of the
? 55th parallel)
0
0)
c
, .?-?
?id
m
W
- )?-?
Two-year
old ones
cii
W 0
W
14 'CI
.0 ?44
I-4 0
c
.4
????M)1
u
W
? 0
>4
Two-year
old ones
Three-
year old
ones
`earl ing
0 W
1
0 LI
)1 ^4
(-'0
Three-
year old
ones
April
May
June
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
?di"
.011.
.-
-
-
-
0.1
al.
?
2
2
3
14.
5
??
2
3
4
7
10
SO
''
-
...
-
0.1
0.2
.0 MO
1
2
2
3
L.
5
NV
2
3
4
6
8
12
-
-
..
-
-
0.1
0.3
o1
2
3
3
4
5
6
2
k
8
10
12
14
(Table continued on next page)
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Trans. A-1111
(Table 46. continued)
Approximate mean daily increase(in g) of yearlings, two-year
old and. three-year old caresfeedino
z
..)
c
0
X
10 day pirlods
Northern raions
(up to the 55th
parallel)
Central belt
(55-51 parallel)
Southern and south-
eastern raions (to
the south of the
55th yareAlel)
L &
el C3CO
CO N4
>..,-
Two-year
old ones
a-
Three-
year old
ones
Yearlings
1.0
ow
ec
)s 0
h
old
ones
1 m
16 CA
0
(1) "4
,Two-yea
old one
.0
I-4
go 0 ? )
CO CO
la I. C
4 CO 0
>t
July
?
Au-
gust '
.
Septem-
ber
Octo-
ber
1
2
3
1
2
3-
1
2
3
1
2
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
MD
.
5
5
6
6
6
4.
2
-
-
Oa
.
10
10
12
12
12
8
4
2
-
ID
-.
0,3.
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.4
.
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
.
6
6
6
7
7
7
3.
1
-
-
.
12
14
14. .
14
14
10?
8
4
-
-
.
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
? 0:1
6
6
7
7
7
t
I.
2
1
-
-.
15 ,
16
16
16
15
12
10
6
3
-
-
On the basis of control catches, conducted during the course
of many years, it is possible to compile a diagram of the mean
Increase of weight of fish for the given fishery and estimate the.
norms for feeding the fish. Our examinations of the contents of.
the intestines of fish, conducted at the fishery ?Spartale,
Kursk oblast', have shown that at a temperature of 20-24? the art!-
tidal feed (castor bean oil cakes with wastes of rye) is retained
In the intestines of the fish over 20 hours. Therefore we recom-
mend to feed the two-year old carp (at a 2-4 fold density of stock-
ing) once per 24-hour day.
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(21) Trans. A-1111
LITERATURE
1. Eleonskii, A. N., Pond fish breeding. M. 1946.
2. Eleonskii, A. N., and Kutnetsov. N. F., Effect of concentrated
plantings of carp on the productivity of fish breeding ponds.
Trudy of Mosrybvtuta (Moscow Technical Institute of the Fish
Industry and Fisheries, imeni A. I. Mikoyan), no. 2. H., 1939.
3. Suvorovs E, K., Principles of ichtyology. M., 1948.
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Trans. A-iile
(Summary and Literatur(---''
vg/M
Eiubov, R. E.
Deistvie I posledstvie ioniziruiushchikh iziuchenii
kobaltta-60 na rost? razvitie I urozhainostt
khlopchatnika,
(Effect and results of ionizing radiations of cobalt-
60 on the growth, development and yielding capacity
of. cotton)
Akademlia Nauk Azerbaidzhanskoi SSR. Izvestiia, no. 5,
P.28-39. 1959. 442.9 Ak132
(In Azerbaidzhan. Russian Summary)
Summary, p.38-39
In recent years much research has been conducted on the
clarification of the effect on plants of small doses of ionizing '
radiation from artificial radioactive isotopes"with indicator [tracer]
activities" ("pri indikatornykh aktivnostiakh"]. The most im-
portant are the works of P. A. Vladsiuk [I], who proved that .a
preplanting treatment of seeds with small doses of ionizing radia-
tions or the introduction of different isotopes into the soil faci-
litates the utilization of available nutrients, the conditions of
metabolism, and a considerable increase in the yield and productivity.
of plants.
A. A. Drobkov (3], N. G. Zhezhel (4], A, N. Giullakhmedov (2],
0. K. Kedrov-Zikhman, A. N. Kozhevnikova, L. N. Plotashchik (5],
on the basis of several years of field and vegetative experiments,
0 conducted with natural radioactive isotopes under different soil-
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(2) Trans. A-1112
climatic conditions with various crops, came to conclusion that
the introduction of negligibly small amounts of radioactive isotopes
under different agricultural crops produces a positive effect on
the development and yield of plants.
We studied the influence of ionizing radiations of C06? on
the growth, development and productive capacity of cotton in the
year 1956. The effect of ionizing radiations of C060 on cotton
(variety 108F) was studied under conditions of a small greenhouse.
Filling of containers and introduction of fertilizers was conducted
on June 23, 1956. Fifteen kg of mixed sierozem [gray desert soil]
and meadow soil of the Udzhar talon (Shirvansk steppe) were placed
into each container. The labeled cobalt nitrate COO was intro-
!! duced into the soil at a rate of 250* 500 and 1,000 millicurie per
container.
In two variants ordinary cobalt nitrate (1.02 and 2.04 g per
container) was introduced along with the labeled cobalt nitrate.
The effect of the ordinary cobalt nitrate was compared with the
effect of the radioactive cobalt nitrate C060. Nutrients were
Introduced into all containers - nitrogen in the form of ammonium
nitrate end P205 in the form of superphosphate at the rate of 6 g
of the active element per container.
The planting was conducted on June 23, 1956. A planting was
again made on June 3, 1957 In order to study the aftereffect of the
radioactive cobalt. On the basis of conducted experiments one can
make the following conclusions.
?
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(4) Trans. A-1112
LITERATURE, p.37-38
1. Vlasiuk, P. A., Effect of nuclear radiations on plants. M.,
1955, p.127.
?. Giultakhmedov, A. N., Influence of uranium on the development
and yielding capacity of cotton." "Izv. AN Azerb. rO"R",
1957, no. 9.
3. Drobkov, A. A., Effect of radioactive elements on the yield and
quality of agricultural plants. In the collection of works
"Use of microfertilizers VASKENIL", Sellkhozgiz, 1941.
4. Zhezhel, N. G., Influence of natural radioactive substances on
the yielding capacity of agricultural plants. 1955. P.149.
5. Kedrov-Zikhman, 0. K., Kozhevnikova, A. N. and Plotashchik, L. N.,
Effect of cobalt on agricultural plants under conditions of
liming [Begin p.38] of turf-podzolic soils. In the col-
lection of works "Use of isotopes in agrochemical and soil
research", Publisher: lzd-vo AN SSR, E., 1955.
6. Kuzin, A. M., Peaceful use of atomic energy. Materials of the
International Conference in Geneva, in 1955.
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vg/M
Dvoriankin, F. A.
Obnovliaetsla IL"klassicheskela genetika"?
(Is classical genetics being revived?)
Voprosy Filosofil, vol. 13, no. 12, p.128-138.
Dec. 1959.. Not in DA library.
(In Russian)
Of late the idea about the "revival" of "classical genetics".
begins expanding.ever wider in the scientific literature. This
idea found its reverberation in an entire series of articles in
biological journals, as well as on the pages of the journal
"Voprosy Filosofii (The Problems of Philosophy). Thus, for in-
stance, in no. 6, for the year 1957, was published an article
by N. P..Dubinin "Method of physics, chemistry and mathematics in
the studies of problems of heredity"; in which is. announced the
"revival" of modern Vtismannism (the latter, usually, in such articles
is called differently by its followers, depending on the age of
its revived theoretical principles: for the long past it is "meta-
.physics", for the recent past it is "formal genetics", and for
the modern state -'always and only "classical genetics"). The
"revival"'consists in the fact .that the author, in the name of
the trend, retracts a series of theoretical principles, which
were defended by native "classical aeneticiets" against T. D.
Lysenko, about twenty years ago, as the foundation of "dialectical
materialism in biology".(see contemporary reports in print about
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(2) Trans. A-1113
the convention at the editorial office of the ,journal "Under the
Banner of Marxism", in 1939). How much indignation at that time
was caused by the criticism of these genetic principles by the
Michurinites. Indignation of the followers of Vaismannism was
caused also by the speeches of philosophers, who did not want to
support Morgan's genetics as an unfolding of "dialectics" in
modern biology; the theoretical exercises of G. Miller, were
represented as such, for instance.
N. P. Dubinin calls the principles, that are defended now
by the geneticist, as it really should be, metaphysical and me-
chanistic, but this forced acknowledgement he presents as a re-
. sult'of an independent progressive development of "classical
genetics" without any conflicts. Nevertheless the foundations of
-
the same idea are still preserveds independence of the hereditary
process from the life conditions of the individuals. "Classical
genetics" no longer insists on the monopoly of the cell nucleus in
the determination of hereditary characteristics, since many geneti-
cists consider probable as. additional and subordinate determiners
(for secondary hereditary characteristics) also the role of the
chondriosome apparatus, plastids and cytoplasm granules* conteining
RNA, and of other particles, which can'be recognized as being cap-
or
able reproduction. The number of such postulated "determiners of
heredity" does not change the general position: the organism is
divided into two natures, the causes of hereditary characteristics
remain individual and autonomous, independent of the general bonds
A ty
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in the world. With the exception of the modern chemical interpre-
tation,.'the postulation of many phases of internal determination
of heredity in cytogenetics is known from the prewar works of
Darlington; division'of the material basis of heredity into nuclear
and plasmic was Introduced as e result of the 20-years research on
inbreeding of rye of 0. Nielsen. But no matter hew many individual
types of "hereditary units" would be suggested, the idea proper
of the possibility of. hereditary transmittal only where there
appears an ability for self-doubling, remains a denial of the trim
development by way of new growth. A reason for the admission of
collections of secondary genes -uplastama" end "plazmona" - was
0 seen in the fact that a series of real hereditary characteristics
did not conform to the scheme of "Mendelirovanie" (Mendelisationj
and could not, thus, be referred to the nucleus. The idea of A.
Weismann which serves as a basis for the attribution proper of
the function of determination of hereditary characteristics to
the nucleus; was dictated by the tendency to substantiate the
independence of heredity from the environment, which influences
the age formation of individuals. The need for some basis of this
idea gave rise to the hypothesis about the germ plasm; it, as
though,'could preserve stable characteristics awing to a simple
equivalent division, which precedes full age development of [Begin
p.1293 individual-producers, and, therefore, is "not subject" to
the influence of peculiarities of individual development.. This
411 criticism may seem to be "old", but it cannot become newer as
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long as. modern Weismannli
ekplanation.
rministic
the reproductt?n of complete rganisms, with .
the entire aggregate of hractertst,icst Is -aceomplished:bY. the
nucleus of the gamettavecterding.to..Morgen!s:_theories, and..a all
the .protein components Of the cytoplasm, Incieding_allo the
ftblocetalyzereeenaymes, are subordinated ?to it then, virtua.
theory about the mono
at'long as genetcs..leans
role of the nu lew remains the
the idea of heredity (bated) on
immu abiiity of d structures and the recombination of their
sections. Thisbefore, remains a reduction of all form
movement of matter to the initial quantitative mechanistic move
ment to the denial of historism in the development Of the causes
themselves of evolution.
This, as formerly, represents variability
as autogenetic Independent of the character o influence of
ternal factors on metabolism, independent of the previously
occurred development (phylogenesis) inasmuch as it is expresse
In the entire bodily organize Ion of living beings, In the type
of their metabolism, In the frequene
and 'development in he new form
to the peculiar tlet of condition
the composition of nu
'''material'foundetions
sider the conception
remains outside the
recognize 'the qualitat
and proport on of owth
v?lopment reactions of Individuals
offormatlon, and not
rI structures..
be in
the use of on rM
nsuffl I n order to con
heredItyIlstic? This conception
toricel 014100k on nature since It does not
ve development, of the CaUSCS themselvesof
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(5) Trans. A-1113
variabilit? y. '
No wonder that the "classical geneticists" insist to strongly
on the idea that the combination of sections of DNA molecules with
four different bases are so varied and numerous.- This is the
same calculation of the fact that the number of independent cases
increases the probability of accidental expedient (adaptive) com-
binations, which cen-by themselves provide all the diversity of
living.forms for all the ages of evolution, and it remains for
"natural. selection" only to adapt to the single system of living
nature wholeseries of successive, changes, independent of the con-
ditions of development of species, but which proved to be adaptive
111 by accident. "Selection" here is not the moving power of the
progressive movement, acting owing to the renewal of the "gradual
multiplicity ,of living forms" at each new level of evolution, but
is only the recorder of the events that occurred before and with-
out it. This is a step, back from even the classical Darwinism, a
true carrying out of the idea, proclaimed- by Weismann about.the
return from Darwin to Empedocles in order, under the disguise of
formal recognition of a historical principle in biology, to refute
it and leave in the problem about causes or adaptability of changes
"a wide field for faith" (Weismann).
?
The conception of organic development, established by Charles
Darwin consisted of the inheritance of tendencies for variability,
that are-caused by the conditions of life; it explains the succis-
siveness'of the adaptive changes, which are useful for the pre-
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servation of the speciei (descendants) in a certain ecological
situation, which is conditioned by the interaction of organic forms.
Darwin's selection - is a variability of formation of complete
individuals, changing during all the periods of their age. But
in Weismann's conception of "mechanistic selection" the changes*
in principle* do not depend on the peculiarities of ontogenesis
and are, without fail, accidental for the conditions of life; there-
fore their adaptiveness is preadaptive and breaks up with causality
This is a preformistic, indeterministic "theory".
What progress then has modern "classical genetics" attained in
comparison with this idea and utilizing the newest chemical inter-
111 pretation of "genes"? What Is its explanation of the causative
.connection between the previously selected accidental and the
newly, accidentally originating mutations. They are not connected
by the essential bond-historical successiveness, by the trend of
changes. Denial of the principle of heritability of changes,
acquired in ontogenesis, this is a denial of historical conditiona-
lity of consecutive adaptations, which lead to the progress of
general organization. It cannot be based on the rigidity of struc-
tures of the "hereditary substance", since by pure reproduction of
something similar to oneself can be "explained" only the constancy
of living forms if it Is attained by the immutability of heredity
and invariability of relations of organisms to the environment.
There are no conditions for such a constancy in the living move-
? ment of progress and differentiation of animals and plants. Here
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constancy is achieved by the renewal of species in new generations
under changing conditions of the environment, "development anew"
(Lysenko). The primary adeptiveness of Changes can be attained
only by way of form developing reactions of individuals adequate
to the effect of the enVironment. A mutual adaptation-of entire
living forms is achieved only by selection, which extends over
the entire life process of generations. It cannot be predetermined
by chance mutations, even if they were caused by the environment
as a simple stimulus for an indifferent variability. (Begin p.130]
True, N. P. Dubinin reports that the "hereditary substance"
is no longer described in "classical genetics" is an imperishable
"philosopher's stone", which transmutes substances, but remains
inviolable to change. The possibility of influence of external
factors on the "hereditary substance" through internal change is
permitted. It is spoken even about the possibility of admitting
the dependence of the quality of mutations on the quality of factors
causing them. But all this is only a wordy "approach" to the idea
of unity of the 'organism and the environment, since its role again
comes to a push from without, which causes random changes, which
do not depend either on the character of activity of factors; or
on the complex of conditions of existence according to directions.
Moreover, it is known that in cytogenetics, even during prewar
years, it was spoken of a certain dependence (but not of conformity)
between the "mutagenic" factors and the frequency of "crossovers",
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(8) Trans. A-I113
as well as of the increase of the percentage of mutations in
Irradiation of Drosophila by X-rays; it was written about this
also in connection with the effect of polyploidy under the effect
of treatment of plants with colchicine.
The theory of chance variation WAS at one time directed by
the mechanistic materialism against the "plan of development pre-
determined by the Creator"; but, in fact, it never takes biology
out of the faulty circle of preformation, since it represents
evolution as a miracle of preadeptation (adaptation to future con--
ditions of existence), inasmuch as the numerous series of adoptive
changes, on which the evolution is built, do not have, as a nature
of their cause, the results of evolution of the living environ-
ment itself of the organisms. If the geological conditions of
existence of organisms on earth remained unchanged, and the re-
quirements of selection did not depend on the qualitative changes
of interactions between species, which are determined by the
developing demands of the progressing new organic beings, then one
could yet think, that the innumerable combinations, possible. for
organism structures, conditioning the form, can provide an adaptive
evolution by a purely mechanistic selection,the most corresponding
to the unchanging conditions of life. But the "conditions of
existence" are not alone a complex and changeable value, but are
also a progressing cause of a new variability. They are created
In a "biological rotation", owing to the interaction of regularly
411 changing geological conditions of life which do not depend on
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the aninfals and plants themselves, with other condition of life,
but namely, on "mutual relations" of organic species, which are
progressing irregularly, and are replacing by their own selves the
complex of species formations. Relations of species, new and "sur-
vived" from Old historic natural formations, regulate by their own
selves also the effect on organisms of abiotic, physical and chenii-
cal factors of the environment, "biologize" all the ecological
factors of life. The mutual relations themselves of Species de-
pend on the accumulation of progressive changes in the general
organization of beings, together with which change the demands
and abilities of organisms. Whereupon the type of interrelations
between the species, which determines by itself a'qualitatively
specific natural formation in each *geological period, changes again,
depending on the replacing of living forms, dominating during this
period, which by their "way of living" impose the type of relations
in the given formation.of species to all others. Provision of
such conditions of natural, selection by changes, which do not de-
pend on the developing conditions of existence, is simply impose.
sible.
? All this requires understanding the ecological factors as a
naterial basis of heredity and of its variability, existing in
the system of organization of the living environment, while the
other, - the basic, physiologic-morphologic, as the material basis
of heredity exists in the "nature of the organism", that is in the
characteristics of corporal organization of beings as a whole, and,
111 according to the progress of the scheme of the organism, this ma-
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terial foundation changes qualitatively.
To reckon that in this complex system of interaction of the
organism with the environment all the organic development can be
provided by accidentally appearing and eternally acting-recombina-
tions of the links of molecules of the "hereditary substance" -
this means to reduce the causes of self-movement of the living
nature to the evolution of a chemical form of movement Of matter
and not admit the qualitative paaaages to new, higher forms of
movement of Matter. In this exposure of the metaphysical under-
standing of the world was the Whole essence of the criticism of
the mechanicism [or mechanistic materialism), which was expressed
111 by. Engels at the appearance of Darwin's theory of development.
"Classical genetics", retains, in the system of theoretical.
Ideas, the theory of mechanical selection of Empedocles and the
Idea of Aristotle about an extraneous powers which animates matter.
This ideal antiquity will remain as a preformation autogenesis so
long as the "classical geneticists" deny the three Darwinist prin-
ciples of the "historical method in,biologyn: 1) adequacy of the
variability in the "nature of the organism" (Begin p.1311 which
takeup in their own way the "factors" of the environment (principle
of "unity of phylogenesis and ontogenesis"); 2) adequOcy of the
variability in the nature of conditions of life, which cause gra-
dual changes by its repetition (principle of "unity of the organian
and conditions of existence"); 3) adequacy of the.trend of the
? newly arisen successive changes in respect to the character of con-
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ditions of existence, which determine by themselves the preeminent
survival and reproduction of organisms (principle of "accumulation
of successive changes in the direction of selection").
Darwin's old ideas outstripped by far the theoretical level
of the newest positivism In biology.
These principles, which were developed by materialism in
biology, as a result of ancient studies of natural relationship
between species and. inside the species, and their relation to
"physical conditions of life", which were tested by Darwin's
analysis of practice of artificial form development, undoubtedly,
are necessary for a causative explanation and study of heredity.
111 They all are united in the well-known law about the heritability
- of new characteristics, which arise under the effect At the environ-
ment on the organism in the process of individual development of
animals and plants. This biological law is understood incorrectly,
In a limited way, if it is not extended to the recognition of the
formation and acquisition by the whole "system of living nature"
of new causes of development, which arise as the result of the
evolution itself.
Without the recognition of this classical legacy of materialism
in biology, the attempts to explain the character of heredity only
from within the organism, the attempts to explain only morphologically
(by structures) or only chemically (structurally-enzymatically) will
always be unsuccessful. The search for organic "material bases" of
? form are not in vain: they will lead to success in the perception of
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ways of origin of the living organic substance from inanimate sub-
stances_ - this is the problem of chemistry. But the living remains
as such only in an organic system; it is necessary to look for.
causes of its evolutionary variability under conditions of a biolo-
gical process.
Organisms are bodies which are subject to'age and are directedly
developing; their qualities change according to how the conditions
of the environment direct the differentiation of the living body;
the basis for the trends of this differentiation every time are
the morphologically irreversible results of the preceding develop-
ment. Structures and processes, conditioning the initial stages
0 of the formation of substance of the living organism of a certain
kind, can be simple and relatively constant, but their complexes
very intricate. And, inasmuch as in the aging process they are
the ones that act, and not their origins, it is they that acquire
a similar, and even greater, importance for the determination of
the species character and for different varying directions of all
subsequent processes of the formation of individuals. All of them -
the basic and the derivative components - are the only ones in the
system which comprise the material bases for heredity; they determine
the trends of further variability; the bases, which depend on the
history of development of the organism from the accumulation of
that which is acquired. The other necessary aspect, determining
the heredity, is provided by the environment - conditions of individ-
411 ual development of the hereditary type in its single fort - in Indi-
viduals.
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(13) Trans. A-1113
In this fact is the essence of our difference of opinion and
not in the recognition or denial of successes of modern biology;
this latter is always contemporary and is always developing through
.struggle.
If one judges from half-admissions,. "classical genetics"
stands on the "verge of great 4d1scoveriest" and plane to "openly,"
acknowledge (de jure) the inheritance of the acquired charactdris-
tics and the adequirCy of variability in respect to the character
of action of environment on the organism. But we will have to
wait for this admission again for about thirty years. "Classical
genetics" does not hurry with the admission of the newly arising
411 realities and is afraid of simple materialistic truths, but it is
very generous with the advertisement of the retarded and forced
?
acknowledgements as their own discoveries - such is their style.
Behold, how they present the same miracle of preadaptation in
a laboratory coverall of 20th century - as a great progress of
"classical genetics" which, they said, opens up possibilities for
directing the nature of organisms with the application of methods
of mathematics, physics and 'chemistry to biological research. This
is very flattering to the representatives of these sciences: at last
they dragged out the "helpless" biology. But it proves to be, that
they only drew it up to the old psycho-Lamarckian idea about heredity
As a "mneme"; exactly this idea lies in Oamov's hypothesis about the
"code of hereditary Information", in which the will of progenitor-
organisms is dictated to descendant-organisms. .And at the same
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(1L.)
Trans. TA41I3
the audienceisdazt1edby the message that the recognition of
i I y of the acquired characteristics is
equivalent to the
recognttnotthe stream of information from the descenda ts to
the genitor understan ing that the weird np ogenitors e ns
ditary. plasma
and the word "descendants" the organism.
There is not a si
gle word mentioned in the article of N.
Du inin about the matter that the problem about the causative -
effectfr, Pprichinno-sledetvennyle] connections between heredity
and environment in individual development was raised (Eegin p.132)
and experimentally solved by the works of T. D. Lysenko, D
Dol ushin and others; they examined (using a large collection of
ill varieties), since 1926 the regularities of the phasic process of,
growth and development, There is not one word about ,the fact that
whole army of agrobiological researchers of tht Soviet Union
on the one hand the followers of Michurin, and on the other the
followers of Mendel - debated ,in print and experimentally. All
the leading speclaUsts and theorists of selection solved the
question of heredity, applying in practice the theories, developed,
by them, to the work of socialistic reconstruction of fields and
arms. And all of them sanctioned Michurinis idea about controlling
the nature of organisms; they approved Michurints trend In biology,
adapted the principles of the theory of phasic development and
broke away from ,formal genetics. Only the armchair and the labora-
tory geneticists who oriented themselves to the "Western school's
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(15). Trans. A-1113
remained with it; but they cannot even keep .up the pace with it.
Nothing is said that even the projects of new experiments* which
were accomplished by foreign geneticists, whom N. P. Dubinin cites
now, were caused by the decisions of the August Session, which,
engrossed the, attention of biologists of the whole world in the
problems of regulating the. nature of organisms with the aid of
the effect on the organisms of controlled factors Of the environ-
ment.
in' the main, N. V. Turbinin in his article "About philoso-
phicalproblems of modern genetics" comes forward from'the,same
positions (Journal "Voprosy Filosofii" no. 2, 198). The same
. ideas permeate the article of D. F. Petrov "About certain philoso-
phic problems .of the doctrine about material basis of heredity"
(in the same journal, no. 7, 1958). There is a point in dwelling
in more detail on the essence of questions discussed in these
articles, and first of all on the problem about the "material
bases ofheredity".
24 Truth and lepends about material
bases ot heredity.
Could one, following N. P. Dubinin, N. V. Tilrbin and D. F.
Petrov, consider the natural nonrecognition of Che theory of genes
as a '"rejection of attempts to give a materialistic explanation"
to nature's phenomena/ Apparently not'. As it is known, I. V.
Michurin also agreed with the "theory of gemmules" of Darwin, which,
nevertheless, admits a causative ekplanation of the inheritance of
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?
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acquired characteristics, but positively denied Morgan's chromosome
theory. K. A. Timiriatev considered, in general, every theory
about "hereditary units" as a survival of preformation. Charles
Darwin thought that the rise of consecutive changes during all
ages of life of individuals is the result of direct end indirect
effect of conditions of life on the forming individuals but not
a result of chance.
. D. F. Petrov asserts that the doctrine about the "materiel
bases of heredity" began with the discovery by G. Mendel of "discrete
,character of inheritance" and the discovery by him also of the
"basic unity of heredity". But the history of biology does not
confirm this: 1) phenomenon of the so-called equality of the
first generation of hybrids and the "splitting of -descendants into
forms of the generators" was known yet in the time of Pallas
(see, I. I. Mechnikov); 2) the discrete character of inheritance
was known long before Mendel, but was explained in all its signi-
'licence In the theory of selection by Darwin; Darwin's entire
theory of selection is based on the recognition of the possibility
to isolate the inheritance of individual differences and bring their
development to a full conversion of the initial form with the aid.
of selection; 3) in the works of Buffon, and differently by K.
Wolditenabout hereditary ("generative") substance, which Is
separated into the conditioning conservative reproduction of heredi-
tary characteristics and into being susceptible to the effect of
the environment. This is the history of the problem which has
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?
been dragging on for ages. It is ridiculous to date its beginning
from Batson, who "discovered" G. Mendel.
Disputes about heredity have deep roots: beginning with the
known works of Hippocrates, Plato and Aristotle (the eastern,
more ancient, theories are not widely known) they were not con-
ducted, by any means, around the question whether it is necessary
to consider the internal structure and the composition of the
"egg" and "semen" as a direct material basis* for the reproduction
of the parental type in the posterity("inheritance") and the cause
of development of a specific living form ("heredity"). Disputes ran
In another directions should one consider the:characteristics of
the "semen" or "egg" formed by the entire organism of the generators
111
'or formed independently of the body. Secondly, the disputes
centered around the problem, should one consider it natural and
necessary that under the effect of external factors arise new
living structures and new hereditary characteristics, as, for in-
stance, K. F. Wolf thought, basing himself on the studies of the
egg and buds; or should one accept the "hereditary substance"
("rudiments of life" of preformism) as one that cannot be influenced
by the conditions of the environment, as was believed by the op-
ponents of Wolf. (Begin p.133)
At the present time the disputes proceed on the same plane
as the discussions of K. Wolf with the followers of the theory of
preformation; theoretically the new consists in the fact that since
the time of generalizations of I. M. Sechenov (and, maybe, of
?
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K. F. Rullierf yet another idea arose in, biology: should one
consider the material bases of heredity conditioned only by the
intraorganism characteristics, only by "Internal structure" of
living beings or consider that material conditions of existence
of organisms exist in the external environment, which acts on the
organism and provides for their development, and are the second
(equally necessary) material base of heredity in view of the fact,
that it is impossible either to obtain, or preserve any living
form outside a certain environment (It: F. Rullier, I. M. Sechenov).
The material bases of heredity are produced in the "body organize-
tion".of living beings (Marx); they are provided in the form of
411 material possibilities of development (Michutin); the Other neces-
sary aspect is provided in the material conditions of development,.
?
which are determined by the environment.
Materialism consists in seeing and representing nature in
such a way as it is, without any preconceptions. 'It is not enough
to recognize that heredity is conditioned by the composition and
structure of the eggcell or zygote in order to be a materialist
in biology. The main thing Is to understand that the world is
united In its materiality, and to see in the peculiarities of
physico-chemical structure of organisms the result of not only
direct causes, depending on the action of some organic substances
on others in the organism, but also understand this interaction'
as the result of universal material bonds, to consider it the
product of the whole history of development of the living in the
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Interaction with the environment. The histOry of development,
which created certain systems of successive formative processes
of metabolism of matter, which are feasible-only in the presence
of specific "Internal" end "external" conditions, is expressed.in
a material phenomenon the "organism".
But the old followers of the preformation theory have also
based their ideas about the "history of species" on the hypothesis
about "hereditary substance" ("immortal rudiments_of life"), which
survives earthly "catastrophes" and conditions all the future
diversity of living forms. One should not hide oneself from history
and conceal the origin of the bases of modern chromosome theory
411 from this idea of preformation., WeismanntS idea of heredity ts
called "classical genetics" because it "returned", in the defini-
tion of Johansen, "to classical views of Aristotle" from Darwin,
"who corrupted the theory of heredity" (according to Johansen),
by authorising the inheritance of changes, caused by conditions of
life during all the periods of life of the organisms. But, ac-
cordin to "caissical" views of Aristotle, the body of the being
has the same relationship to the "hereditary substance", as a
picture to the paint on the palettes they form the picture and
not it them.
After Darwin explained the ecological causes, which determined
the trend of successive changes in generations' through the pre-
servation of the most adapted (selection) and development, in this
111 way, of entirely new living forms (varieties), biology centered
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(20) Trans. A-1113
Its attention on the search for ontogenetic causes of evolution
(A. N. Severtsov); that is, of causes which cause individual
deviations from the maternal type.
"Units of heredity" in the 19th century "revealed" absolutely
everything, and G. Mendel only followed the "general vogue".
Thus,,Charles Darwin suggested the "hypothesis of pangenesis",
in which he tried to connect In one theory the basic ideas about
causes of directed individual development according to stages,
aboUt regenaration, about inheritance and acquiring of new ,charac-
teristics under the effect of environment, De Vries gave his
theory of "pangenes", K. Negell - the theory of "idloplase,
which was later adapted by Weismann, who, incidentally, then con-
nected the "hereditary substance" with the chromosomes; their own
theories about hereditary particles, _"molecules" were presented
by Haake, T. Eimer and others; in short, Darwinists, Lamarckians,
and pure followers of the idea of preformation, they all were
occupied with these units.
The affirmation of D. F. Petrov that R. A. Timirlastev? as If,
highly valued the discovery by Mendel of the "hereditary unit" is
a deep fallacy. He only protested against the affirmations of
"classical geneticists" (Batson and other of Mendelliifollowers)
that Mendelism replaces the "antiquated Darwinism" and pointed
out that they preservation of characteristics in crossing, discovered
by Mendel, removes the objection of Jenkins concerning the impossi-
bility of development of new growth, inasmuch as they, as if, will
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?
be put out ("levelled") by crossing a changed individual with an
unchanged.
The true opinion of K. A. Timiriezev about absolutely all the
theories of "hereditary substance" was such: "The same fate awaits,
probably, the whole assembly of "ultreopticheskikh" (tiltramicro-
scopic?) entities, by which certain scientists (Darwin, Nagel!,
Weismann, de Vries, and others) as if tried to explain the facts
of heredity, which attracted attention during the second part.of the
century, but, in reality, only Paraphrased them (Begin p.1341 in
vaguer expressions". (K. A. Timiriazev; Works, vol. 8, p.77-78).
You see: "they tried to exgain" but did not explain, but only
111 paraphrased. This was the opinion of K. A. Timiriazev about this
subject.
"All these attempts represt only the remnants of theories of
preformation, emboitement and so on, which had such a wide distri-
bution in the 18th century. As also at that time, these attempts
represent instances of unlawful intrusion into the field of biologi-
cal dynamics of the static mentality of 'morphologists, which was
engendered by their obsession, as if a form can be explained by
another form, preceding it and if the visible connection is, at
last, broken, then one can lust fabricate a series of unseen
forms, and thus into Infinity" (In the same work, page 78).
Does it then turn out to be that K. A. Timiriazev, without
recognizing the "hereditary units", also "refused the attempt to
give a materialistic interpretation to heredity", "to open the
?
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door to vital*? NO, D. P. Petrov made a mistake by choosing
such conception..
The Search for organic material collies, conditioning the
reproduction of the "general constitution", "Internal structure"
? and-"mode of conduct" Of organisms was not by chance; not they?
'themselves, but only certain theories were caused by the effect
of imperialism; this refers only to 1:eismannts treatment of heredity
as isolated from the regular development of the environment and -
.-based'on the Maithuslan "struggle,of embryos". VS can never
say this about Darwin's !theory of gemmules". But as to the fact
that all these theories still remained in the limits of remnants
of the preformation, K. A. Timirlarev Was right.' These theories,
both of Darwin. and of the Neo-Lamerckians, did not take into con-
sideration the results of development, and, particularly, did not.
Consider the evolution of the organisms of living beings themselves
and the importance of the evolution of methods of organiettion
of substances into new dynamic systems of. various types. These
were "mechanistic" theories, since they followed from the idea
that only the peculiarities of the organism, and then in a purely
morphological ("structural") sense, can explain by their awn
selves all the heredity, as if it was capable of existing all by
itself in any kind or environment. The other side of the unity
Ifts.forgOtten - the organism -,the Medium, which conditions by
itself the realisation of hereditary possibilities In ontogenesis,
411 and which guides their further development by its direct 'action ?
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through metabolism (principle of "assimilation" of Lamarck) and
by indirect action - through preservation and reproduction of in-
dividuals with adaptive characteristics and tendencies for develop-
ment (principli of selection of Charles Darwin).
The theoretical biology of the predominant trend as yet only
drams near to the understanding of the idea of K. F. Rullier and
I. M. Sechenov that the organism represents in itself a unity of
the general organization and the environment; that is, of the
internal and the external conditions, which provide a certain form
of a being.
Of course, this idea-biology's awn dialectic penetration into
111 the essence of that which is called an "organism", - must be ,
specified, must obtain prods in simple facts. Biology, since
the second half of the 19th century, took two courses in the examina-
tion of the nature of heredity. -One of them - Darwin's, Michurints -
led to research on the nature of the organism through its manifesta-
tions, through the conduct of organisms in a certain environment.
This means that one must study the characteristics of biological
bodies according to the type of relations of different organiza-
tions of the living to similat ones and of similar to different
combinations of conditions; then the causes of form are perceived
according to form developing reactions of organisms to the environ-
ment. This trend can be called "physiology of conduct", and in ?
it is
the Timiriezev's plan - "experimental morphologV"; these methods
for studying the nature of organisms were used by Darwin, Pavlov,
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(24). Trans. iv-1113
Miichurino-Burbank, Timiriasev, and is used by Lysenko and, essential-
ly, by the entire agrobiological practice.
The second way - this is the physico-chemical research into
the ".internal structure" of the organism, which specifies by it-
self the physiological basis Of that or another formation and
conduct of individuals, of course, again only in a certain environ-
ment. In this way one could distinguish two trends' the morpho-
logical and the physiological. The first consists in looking for
everlasting identification of certain structures by others pre-
ceding them, by forms, which anteceded in phylogenesis the contem-
porary one, end by structures of the embryo, which consecutively
411 condition each other in the individual development. Or again one
could proceed by means of physiological experiment, that is,
seek the possibility of directing the process of metabolism; this
would require their preliminary studies. 'Timiriatev considered
possible and prospective only the physiological explanation of the
Internal organic causes of formation, but always connected with ,
experimental morphology. He considered it hopeless to search
for purely structural causes.
' He hoped for "enormous success of the doctrine of enzymes",
which seemed to him [Begin p.I35] to be the key to the explana-
tion of ennumerable conversions of organic substance into living
bodies". He paid special attention to the polarity of characteris-
tics of the nucleus and of the protoplasm: "may be there would
appear a chemical explanation for the above cited morphological
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dualism - protoplasm plus nucleus: one would represent the basic
material for obtaining the entire endless diversity of substances
in the organism, the other would include the condition for ac-
complishing this differentiation" (in the same book, p.89).
One should not think, that the idea about eneymatic action of
the, nuclear matter and the whole physiological trend in the ex-
planation of formative processes appeared only 5.7 years ago and
was not known to anyone at the end of 19th century. One should
not think also that, In 1929, T. D. LysenkO referred the phasic
processes of ontogenesis to the category of internal biochemical
conversions according to accidental assumptions and arbitrarily
in his field and laboratory experiments, and the explanation of
heredity brought to a certain type of internal and external meta-
bolism.
All this was the result of the truly classical physiological
trend in biology.
Where should the results of this physiological way lead) In the
opinion of K. A. Timirlazev, who Mimed up the development 'of
biology in 19th century? To the study of the "Initial origin of
substance in plants and animal", that is "the process of their
nutrition", ihe completion of this process of seeking the material
physiological bases was seen by K. A. Timirlazev in the uniting of
both methodical trends - in the creation of "physiological, experi-
mental-morphology", which, controlling the nutrition, will "model"
the organic forms. The physiologist can control the development
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(26) Trans. A4113
of plants by changing the composition of food (in the same book, .
P.91).
Here is a clear answer of Timiriazev to the question in what
do Darwinists see the material bases of heredity. The followers
of Michurin proceed in their research in their agrobiological way,
by means of experimental morphophysiology; they examine the forms
of the bond between certain combinations (by complexes) of material
external factors and the form development, which are outlined yet
in the process of individual development, which pass then into
variability, that lasts for generations", that is into the develop-
ment of new forms of life. The gradual changes and sharp con-
versions of plant forms are disclosed also at the same time.
Physico-chemical physiology looks, together with cytophysio-
logists, for internal organic causes of conversion of substances
and for a basis for development of a certain form. Agrobiological
"physiology of conduct of the organise studies heredity In a controll-
ed field and laboratory environment; studies form development
reactions of hereditary type on the environment.
They are not antagonists, nor competitors, but two methodical
lines of a simultaneous development of two sides of the same
question about causes of form development; these are two methodical
trends, both equally necessary to biology.
But it is a different story, how the facts are interpreted,
what the trend of the theory is, what is its service to the world
? outlook and to which one in particular.
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(27) Trans. A-1113
The followers of Michurin are convinced, on the basis of
experimental studies of productiveness and form development of
organisms in a controlled environment, of the fact that every
living form (the whole totality of hereditary characteristics,
type of growth and development, type of reproduction) is conditioned
by physiological metabolism. Therefore they cannot oppose their
way of research to biochemical physiology and they never opposed
It. They are only against reducing biology to chemistry. But,
besides that, they also do not want to stand stilt in waiting
until that time when physiologists and biochemists will be able,
at last, to explain what type of metabolism explains the differences,
111 say, between the most winterhardy wheat "Liutestsens 329" and
the typical spring wheat "Liutestsens 62". The Michurinites, as
agrobiologists in their specialty (and not biochemists), explain
this from the point of view of "physiological conduct" in the
light of the theory of phasic development.- This explanation offers
also sufficient understanding of the nature of heredity in its
unity with the environment of formation, and permits finding a
practical guidance for the controlling of the nature of organisms,
that is their productiveness and form development of descendants.
But quite another matter is the unacceptability of the con-
ception of an independent "hereditary substance"; it in principle
includes in itself.the division of the essence of life into a form,
depending on the environment, but which is not essential to form
111 development, and into a heredity, which does not depend onAhe
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environment, but which also conditions the form.
Modern biology refuses looking for purely morphological
"hereditary structures" - the genes, as corpuscles of "hereditary
substances"; physiology proceeds along the way predicted by K. A.
Timiriatev. Very soon, with the aid of physics and chemistry
it will become convinced of the fact that one cannot attribute
to any one individual substance (a component part of the organism)
[Begin p.136) a monopoly for the organitation of "self-reproduc-
tion", and, consequently, also a monopoly in the determination
of inheritance. This is a function of the entire living organi-
zation, of the whole organism, of the entire self-reproducing and
developing biological system. This is the result of successive
phasic processes, a product of organic substances which are in
Interaction, a result of all processes, which lead to irreversible
morphological age development of the individual.
Any separate substances, any structures in the composition
of a complex living body are not able to self-reproduce outside
the organism, as well as any of the simplest living systems -
viruses and phages - specifically are inoperative outside the
organism and are not composed of DNA alone. And on the contrary,
even the extracted substances can play a specific role in the
reproduction of hereditary characteristics, when they enter in
e connection with the organism.
Michurinites consider the philosophy of dialectical materialism
as the only true methodological key to the understanding of the
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(29) Trans. A-1113
essence of natural and social phenomena. Therefore they acknow-
ledge the opinion of Marx as unconditionally correct: "Any trace
of different elements, as sucho'disappears completely in a living
organism. Here the difference consists already not in a separate
existence of different elements, but in a living movement of func-
tions differing from each other, which are all animated by one
and the same life. Thus, their difference itself does not precede,
In a complete form, this life* but, on the contrary, itself .
constantly flows out of the life itself and as much again con-
stantly disappears and is paralyzed in it "(K. Marx and F. Engels
"From the early works" p.224).
Material basis of heredity (that is the basis of constancy
of reproduction of a certain living form), this Is the whole
corporal organization of the multicellular beings, the whole
cell, the entire complex of components, which stand below the
cell of-living structures; everywhere this organism base actually
becomes realized (from the possibility of becoming a reality) only
in conjunction with a definite environment.
As to the "classical genetics", it represents a transitory
nonscienctific system of concepts about heredity as about some-
thing separate from the organization of beings, which Is left
over only as a housing for the "hereditary substance", "that is,
It. is capable of its own evolution" (G. Miler). Its purpose was
to draw up "convenient" .hypotheses into which the facts of heredity
could be "fitted", but the reasons of the historic opinion about
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(30) Trans. A-I113
living nature would be excluded; also the idea of unity of the
world in its materiality will be removed, as well as the idea
about the general causative-effect connection among nature's
phenomena. The direct cause, which gave rise to WeismannismOlas
been forgotten at the present time but the system of these ideas,
hidden under biological terms impedes the development of the
physiological trend in the study of heredity. Loading a postulate
over another postulate, the Neo-Kantian trend in genetics re-
treats in parts, around borders, but preserves the base - "the
theory of chance in variations".
It is known that formal genetics has renounced the initial
concept about the "gene" as an unchanging protein molecule,
"Inductively" controlling the development of the individual.
A switching to interpreting the effect of genes as enzymatic did
not take place in view of the protein nature of enzymes and,
consequently, their definite participation in the process assimi-
lation-dissimilation. .It was necessary to find a new unchanging
support for the "reproduction of one similar to oneself", such as
the "classical geneticists" consider-the inheritance essentially
to be.. That is why a support for concepts in the same lines was
? sought for in the form' of the "rigid structure" of the DNA molecule.
And since the protein enzymes are synthesized also in the cyto-
plasm, an entire scale of stibordinations between, the nuclear
Substance and the enzymes has been. invented it order somehow to
establish a preconceived control of the nucleus over the proto-
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plasm through an " odiary" RNA. After that it was nces
to admit the autonomy of certain
RNA m
cases of Insubordination to the materna
of Mendel as
crossings whe
sequently new
Only one
components of
assimilation and dissimilation; that In the organism nothing
ules in order to explain
edity to the rules
ws. But there remained remote interspecific
these rules are realized only an exception* ?con-
sumptions became necessary* so on.
ng'is forgotten iittddltion to this, that all the
living organism arise anew during he process of
mains unchanged afld the constant here is fluid and Is renewed
by conversions. To represent any components of the age process
of heredity's development as predeterminators of all the characteris-
tics ,of the organisms which are Inherent to a developed individual
this thtn means to presume the possibility of transferring the
Influence of the descendants to the ancestors Ince all he Sub.'
stances are produced by the organism.
We are deeply convinced that chemistry,engaged
o the problems of heredity, will quickly put an end to the theory
of unchanging structures and their mechanical combinations.
(Begin P.1371.
Therefore when D. F, Petrov speaks about the necessity of -
development of an understanding of genes as DNA molecules "which
have their own metabolism, connected with the environment de-
pending on it and able to Change In different directions under the
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I.
influence of various influences of the environment", then we can
say calmly: this is a prophecy about the rapid end of the theory
about the special "hereditary substance". The gene-enzyme, which
takes place in metabolism, which is again reproduced in this meta-
bolism, arising again in the evolution of a living being, which
is directed by the influence of conditions of existence, which
preserves the succession with the history of development of organisms,
which permits new hereditary characteristics to arise - this al-
ready is not the same "gene" with which we began our controversy
with the formal geneticists.
But the Michurinites did not, have any intention to deny
diverse qualitativeness of components of a living organism, to
110 deny differences in the functions of organic groups in the process
of internal metabolism and in formative processes. On the contrary,
their agrobiological facts, their genetic experiments and studies
of phasic development of the morphophysiological, age process of
plant development have permitted long ago T. D. Lysenko and his
followers to ascertain that a living body is of different qualities
genetically; that during the time of development the state of the
?
organism changes since its biological requirements change, as does
Its selective relation to factors of the environment; that for the
realization of the vegetative process other complexes of con-
ditions are required than for the generative progress, and so on.
But let us return to the now existing "gene" and not to its
as yet mythical conception. In fact it proves to be that the effect
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(33) Trans. A-I113
of environment on genes, which Is now recognized by "classical
genetics" is only a wordy declaration, an illusion of the
progress of genetics. ,
Thus, D. F. Pettey is indignant at M. A. OlishanskIi (see
no. 6 for the year 1958) that he does not want to see the difference
between the points of view of Gamov and N. P. Dubinin; the latter
asserts that 'mutations arise under the effect of certain peculiar!-
ties of metabolism and that the mutagenic factors of the environ-
ment produce mutations through the change of metabolic processes'
in the cell". This triple tautology seems like an oath of loyalty
to the idea of the unity of organism and environment; but further
on come explanations in the footnote, which show that the depen-
dence of mutations on the quality of the influencing factors
.
must be understood, so to say", in the Pickwickian sense". If
adequate hereditary variability Is understood as a "presence of a
specific spectrum of mutations, which corresponds to a certain
factor in the environment and is conditioned by the very' mechanism
of the action of this factor", then such an "adequacy", as it proves
to be, was established yet ?by V. V. Sakharov in 1938 (but, in fact,
It was spoken about yet before him). But this "spectrum" turns
out to be a group of differently directed changes, not characteris-
tic to the nature of the factor that caused it; its role is to
give rise to a mutation, but of which kind they will be, that is
already the work of an accident. More then that, even when during
0 an experiment changes are obtained known to be adequate to the nature
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(34) Trans. A.4113
of the environment, then they arc explained by the "classic genetics"
with-the aid of a known subterfuge, with the aid of an assumption
that the detected adequate changes already existed before the action
of the factor. D. F. Petrov writes: "Thus, in utilization of low
temperature as a factori? which increases the hereditary variability,
and growing the treated materiel at a low temperature, which is
critical for the studied object, it is. possible to obtain a sem-
blance of greet purity of the emergence of forms with Increased
frost resistance". Now then, the direction of mutations is only
an appearance. The* environment here Is just sorting that which
has been created accidentally and by itself: "all the. immutable
111 forms, and the forms that.were,changed in other directions, die end
only very rare forms, in which the mutations arose accidentally,
which lead to an increased frost resistance, are preserved"..
This is a typical "explanation", which you should, please,
use in selection ed in medicine in the style of "controlling the
nature of organise according to Dubinin and Sakharov. If there'
arise thermophilic, winterhardy, frost resistant races of organisms,
or those resistant to antibiotics, the explanation is always the .
same; it excludes the causative-effect connection between the state,
of the environment and variability. it is such: different non-
directed 'changes arise accidentally, but only those of them will
remain which are suitable to the given environment, although they
did not exist in the initial culture, so long as it was not sub-
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(35) Trans. A 1113
jected to an effect. With such an "explanation" one can only
expect a favor" from the goddess of Chance, and the entire evolu-
tion becomes a miraculous picture because of a coincidence of
amaeing chances, which fall into the hands of the artificial or
?
natural selection as soon as they are needed by a man or by the
natural environment..
But if you ask the authors of such an explanation of chances:
were the changes arising in the experiment actually taken into
account, was it really found out If they proceed in all possible
directions; was the survival of the known frost resistant plant
during (its) emergence and the loss at the same time (Begin p.1383
411 of the thermophilic (plant] in this environment taken into account
or did any conversions take place? It will prove to be that nothing
of the sort hapPened. Simply, after having obtained, at a law
temperature, forms that were changed to various degrees, they,
nevertheless, explain prejudicially that, apparently, there were
present here some thermophilic variants which simply could not
survive: in other words, that which they assume they offer as an
argument for the proof of their assumption.
Such is, in fact, this Myth about the revival of Weismannts
"classical genetics", which at the present time has "recognised"
the possibility of influence of external factors on the heredity '
through Metabolism, and which has "discovered" .(with a delay of
half a century) the possibility of controlling the nature of
? organisms by means of obtaining rare, but accidental, although
always- adequate mutations.
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And this is presented as a "living reflection of dialectics".
But how arrogant are the "dialecticticians of accidental
unforeseen _happenings" in their relationship to Michurin's doc-
trine, which has shown in Its field practical methods of control-
ling the heredity: T. D. Lysenko, in their opinion, does not
take into consideration the very important circumstance that this
adequate,phenogenetle reaction was conditioned by natural selec-
tion, which preserved the forms with such adequate reaction. it
Is known well that in those cases where the appropriate natural
selection was absent in the past, an adequate reaction did not
-take place". Thus speaks D. F. Petrov. This means that which
411 does not arise before selection cannot be produced by selection.
Such is their "recognition" of Darwinism.
It IS known well that selection has for centuries created
different breeds by combining selection of horses for trotting,
with constant training and regime; Selection for milk productivity
was combined with a specific ration and a method of milking the
cows; selection for the capacity of a hunting dog to make a point
was connected with a constant care for the development of the
new instinct, which Is foreign to the initial nature, to "refrain"
from catching living birds. But according to "classical genetics"
it is well-known that selection only finds the new, which occured
before it and without it. lhe doctrine of Johansen, preached by
D. F. Petrov about '"genotypical" and phenogenetic" reactions of the
?
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4
(37) Trans. A-1113.
organism
organism is typical for Johansen, who was a Kantian; he divides
the natural facts into the appearance - "phenomenon" and - the
"essence", which is as if elusory to us. But facts of practice
show that the "appearance is substantial" and "the substance
appears" especially if one starts writing about philosophic problems
of the doctrine about material bases of herdity. There is-no
A
division, on principle, of the organism into a "genotype" or
"phenotype" in which the latter changes adequately to the effect of
the environment, but does not change the "hereditary substance"
(this modern entelechy), preferring "rather to die" than include
itself into "inappropriate factors". Evolution is not interested
111 in those perishing on account of objection -to include the changes
of the external world that do not fit them the history of develop-
ment and of progress Is not founded on them.
"Phenotype", in the best case, is only an idea about a single
form of realization of the hereditary type, whichcorresponds to
the characteristics of the given environment; a conception which
reasonably contains only the reflection of the fact that each
hereditary form exists in multiformity. And how can selection note
and preserve an adequate phenogenetic reaction if it does not affect
heredity? All the reactions of organisms are conditioned by their
heredity; all of them express the response movement, acquired from
the effect of the environment, at the basis of which lies the pro-
perty of all living bodies - irritability.
?
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(38) Trans. 1-1113
It Is not proper to teach dialectic materialism with the aid
of noncritically absorbed Hantianism of Johansen and on the basis
of this to convict a Nichurinite, T. D. Lysenko, who does not
agree with the agnostics in the6failure of the attempt to give a
materialistic explanation to adequate variability".
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'Trans. A-1114
vg/M
For further technical progress (Editorial]
Zashchita Rastenli vol. 4, no. 5, P.I-3.
-SePt./Oct. 1959. 42121
(.In Russian)
- Majestic problems of creating the economic-technical base of
Communism in our country, which were set in the resolutions of the
, 21st Congress of -KPSS (Communist Party of the Soviet Union] and of
the June r.lenum of TsK KPSS (the Central Committee of the Communist
Party], have found the liveliest response in the heart.of each
Soviet citizen. Socialistic competition developed in mills and
factories,' mines, construction works, transportation, in kolkhotes
and sovkhozes, in scientific-research organizations and structural
? bureaus for an early completion of assignments of the Seven-Year-
Plan, for a further technical progress in all the branches of
?. national economy.
The semiannual results, published in print, about the ac-
complishment of the State plan for development of national economy'
of the USSR for the year 1959, attest to successes attained in this
matter.
They beceme possible, owing to the heroic efforts of Soviet
people and the wise leadership of the Communist Party, which is
confidently leading our people from victory to victory.
Nevertheless, the Soviet people are not used to becoming soothed
by that which has been achieved. It Is natural to then to strive ,
ahead for conquering new boundaries in production, science and
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(2) Trans. Ais1114
technique, and In the building of the communistic society.
Comrade N. S. Khruthchev pointed out in his speech at the June
Plenum of the TsK KPSSI ?A steady growth of productivity of labor
is of deciding importance in the building of the communistic society...
The fast and steady growth of productivity of labor and the high
rate of development of national economy can be provided only by
way of technical progress, on the basis of the best achievements
? of Science and technique, as well as the leading experience".
The June Plenum recognized It necessary to center the attention
on solving the problem, raised at the 21st Congress of KPSS, both
? in agriculture as well as. in all other fields, namely, liquids-
111 tion of hard manual, labor on the basis of complex mechanization
of cultivation and harvesting of cereal and technical crops, pots-
? tOes, vegetables and others.
One of the Week -spat of this problem until the present time
Is, undoubtedly, the control of pests, diseases of agricultural
crops and weeds.
An economic-technical base was created in our country during
the years Of the .SoViet rule; it permits to realize, on a large
scale, measures for the protection of plants from pests, diseases
and Weeds. Yearly, over 20 min ha (hectare m 2.471 acres) are
. being treated by the chemical method alone. Industry puts Out, in
large quantities, over 100 kinds of various poison -chemicals, tens
of thousands of tractor, horse-motor and knapsack sprayers, dusters,
combined machines, aerosol set-ups, bait-spreaders and Aviation
apparatuses for these purposes.
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The use of those facilities permitted* of late, considerably
to reduce agricultural losses from pests and diseases. Neverthe-
. less, the present needs of kolkhozes and sovkhoxes are yet badly
satisfied by the chemical end machine-building industries, and the
scientific-research and design organleations conduct very slowly
the work on production of more improved preparations old mechanisms.
For instance, preparations for spraying are put out with a
small content of the active element - 5.5% DDT dust, 12% BHC dust,
and so on. Coefficient of effective utilization of these poisons
in dusting is very low - 25 to 15% and even less. Thus, it is
necessary, In practice, to'use large norms of chemicals and often
111 obtain an insufficient effect. At the same time a series of new
Organic compounds? such es the wetting ILT powders, polychloropinene,
polychlorocamphene, ethylsulfonate, mercaptophos, sineb, captan,
and especially the herbicides, for which the domestic technology
? of production has already been developed, were either not produced
at all, or are produced in very limited quantities. Further lagging
in, say, the preparation of enriched Hexachloran (with the content
of gamma..isomer 90-95% and more), which is needed for the produc-
? tion of combined substances for seed treatment, end which reduces
the expenditure of labor for the treatment of seeds almost in. half;
it els? raises the yield of cereals by 1-2 ciha Ecentner m 100 kg]
by. reducing the infection with diseases and by pests, as well as
by its positive effect on the growth and development of plants. It
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Was established that, for instance, the application of one ton of
Merouran, for the preparation of which 120 kg of enriched BHC
are needed, preserves about one thousand tons of grain, While for
.corn the economic effect of this preparation , is :still. greater.
Besides ,this, the production wastes of the enriched Hexachloran.
(nontoxic !Somers) -(Begin p.23 .are utilized for putting out .
Other, very valuable, preparations for the protection 6! plants,
namely, hexachlorobentene, 2,4,5-T, pentachlorophenolate of sodium,
trichlorophenolate:of copper, and others.
...-It is quite .obvious that further technical progress inlhe
chemical method of-control..of peetso'diseases and weed a IS 11.
thinkable without the fastest relearch and organization of produc-
tion of new,"more effective and economical poison chemicals, that
are less dancerous to men and animals; for instance, herbicides
for technical crops, systemic poisons against .suctorial insects,
preparations of a complex activity, and others.. Is it not that
several years ago effective substitutes for copper sulfate were
found zineb and captan, as Well as copper Oxychloride, which
permitted 'reducing the expenditure of scarce copper; Comrade
N. S. Khrushchev spoke at the June plenum of the TsK IIPSS about the
necessity of economising It (copper). But their. MS8s production'
as yet has not been organized.
Expansion of the output. of highly effective poison chemicals
must be Indissolubly connected with a correct and full use of
41kthe existing technique, as well as with the production of more im-
proved and efficient new machines for the protection of plants. It
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is not a secret that often, even-In-the presence of horse or
tractor-drawn dusters or sprayers, the treatment of plantings is
conducted Manually from.gaUie bags. Precisely by such.?mithod",
for Instance; were flax plantings treated with CDT. at many farms-of
Pskov, Kalinin and Moscow oblastis. ,There are cases when the equip-
dent is sent to those regions where it cannot be used. Thus,
tractor-drawn duster-sprayers 011,10-15 were sent.to,the former Veliko.;
lukskaia oblast'; for several years they were not used for their.
direct purpose, while, at the same time, in other oblestss there
were clearly not enough of these apparatuses.,
The matter stands very badly with seed treating machines of
high productivity. There are very, few of them,on.locations and
very often the seed* must be treated on the farms in barrels, heaps
or, simply, In the body of a truck. Many inventors and 'innovators -
.(lsaev, Tarnovich and Starostin) suggested several valuable attach-
ments to a grafn.combine for the liquidation of this gap, as well
as to other machines and to grain-loaders (Taresov, Rider, Ratush,
and others); but this Is only a temporary way out of a forried
difficult situation. .liolkhozes and sovkhotes are anxiously awaiting
to receive as soon as potIlible the highly productive seid treating
machines; and, first of all, even PU-3.0 in aufficient numbers.
,
Scientific and structural organizations (TsNIIMPROM (Central Scienti-
.
fic'Research Institute of the Cotton Industry], lig. NUR (Uzbek
Scientific Research (7) InStitute for Plant Protection] and others)
must, at last, prOduce a necessary machine for the mechanisation
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of centralited treatment of cotton ascii with a preparation of.e
complex action and incorporation -of this operation into the con-
tinuous production process at the cotton-cleaning plant; this
machine will permit using this progressive method' at any cotton-
cleaning plant and, thus, will fully free the farms from this
labor-consuming pperatioh during the tense period of cottonplanting.
Widegpplication of chemical preparatiOns for the protection
of cotton 1. for the. control of weeds, defoliation and desiccation
:also:requires the building of special machinery. In this respects
story about the sprayer-duster MN, which was distributed by '
"Ufbekselfmash" (Uzbek Agricultural Machinery Plant (in Tashkent)),
even in 1949, basically for the defoliation Of cotton is quite
Instructive. During the Course of 10 years this combined, mounted
machine was being worked over and improved, and now Is put out
under the brand OUN-4-6. In Uzbekstan alone there are over 7 .
thousand such machines in uie.: Experience of many years of ex-
ploitation shows that, basically, they are used not for defoliation
and desiccation of Cotton (these works are now done for the most part
by Airplanes) but for the protection of alfalfa fields and of
cotton plantings from pests and weeds, and moreover mostly as.
sprayers, rarer as dusters, and very rarely as both forms' simul-
taneatsly. Thus, for instance, in Andishansk *blast, from March to.
June, 195$, *daily 320 such =Chines worked on spraying weeds and
mulberry trees, end -from May to August up to 500 of such =Chines
were used for the treatment of cotton, whereupon only 1/3 fOr dusting*
and the rest for spraying. Ihe question arises, is.it expedient
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further on to produce such combined machines for cotton-growing.
farms? Obviously, it is time to change to the production of
separate Mounted sprayers and dusters. This will permit reducing
sharply the outlay of metal and ,reduce the cost of the machine.
At the same time there should be produced more sprayers than dusterai
approximately by 3-5 times. Heavy-duty blower sprayers OPV and
OW were produced for the'machanisation of.chenical protection of
. agricultural crops; last year they passed State tests and received
.positive appialsal; they, undoubtedly, represent a step forward;
as compared with OES, OKP-15 and OW-15. The new machines have
.great productive capacity, provide good effectiveness of treatment
and each of them Is serViced only by one tractor driver, who operates
the working parts of the machine from his cabin. Apparently, the
designers must dO one more step ahead for the technical progress;
render automatic the operation Of the flow of working liquid.
- depending on the height and thickness of tree plants. Letter on 1t
willbe expedient to transfer attention to the production of Mounted
systems, ?which 1414 permit carrying out the application of conceni.
:trated liquids and aerosols.
It Is necessary for factories to organist faster the produc-
tion. of new, more improved apparatus, for the protection Of plants;
to make them better and cheaper and to propagandist them wider; to
increase the output ofAtxperimental lots for this purpose, is well
as of advertisement posters, brochures catalogues, end so on.
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Agricultural aviation finds its widest application on, the
fields of kolkhozes and sovkhozes. More improved and powerful ,
Iak-12,'An-2, ts well as the helicopter 'Mae in to replace Po-2A
airplanes. It is necessary.tOspeed up the development of special
apparatus end focilities for mechanized loading, IWO% will provide'
0 higher Coefficient of useful employment of poison chemicalS.
Synthetic materials should be used much wider in the produc-
tion ,of special machinery and apparatuses for the protection of
plants. The, first experiments showed the prospectiveness of teXto-
lite gears, caprone bushings and tips* vinyl.plastic Eviniplas-
-tovyke) spray booms,and.valvee., tanks made Of plastic, and'so on.
111 Replacement of cast iron, brass, bronze and copper with these
Materials will prolong the time of service 'of the special machines,
will reduce their weight and Cheapen their Cost
As it is pointed out in the resolution of the June Plenum of '
the.TeK RPSS, science must play a great role in speeding, up. techni-
cal progress in all branches of natiOnal economy. Further creative
development of science and technique, in s continual link with ?
? practice of communistic building is the most important problem of
all scientificaresearch organizations, of all Soviet scientists-.
Our scientists. (Begin p.51 entomologists, phytopethologists,
? bacteriologists, virologists, zoologists* Chemists,'mechanizers
and other specialists - have done a greet deal of good by developing
:Methods of plant protection and having created preparatiohs and
410 machines necessary for this, but a whole lot has to be dont yet
?' for full liquidation of harvest losses in plant industry frOm pests,
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diseases and,weeds, and for the prevention of their mass repro-
duction.
It is necessary for the scientific organisationt:oi our coun-
try, working for the protection of plants at the present stage,
:of development of agriculture, to keep up a Stronger connection With
production, better to find Out Its foremost needs, strongly to direct
their strength for the quickest solution of the chief. problems ant
for fast introduction into production of all the achievements of
the native and foreign sciences. Along with this, it is necessary,
urgently, to work out methodical and theoretical questions, since
they will permit opening the way to further technical progress.
111 Unfortunately, one observes yet a lot of routine, inertness and
? technical lagging. For instance, the Ali-Union Scientific-Re-
search Anti-Phylloxera Station has existed in Odessa for many
years; it was called upon to develop methods for the liquidation
of foci of the dangerous pest of the grape vine. This Station
has done a lot of good in recommendations of control methods, but
it paid Very little, attentiOn to such an important question,
as the development of an authentic method for the determination of
infectiousness. And even now yet, as it was 100 years ago, in
production they resort to such a labor-consuming, and, mainly,
imperfect method as digging and examination of the root system of
each bush.
? Arother instance. ViZR (All-.Union Institute of Inant Protec-
111 tion) has an experimental base.-,Slavianskala - in Krasnodar kral,
at which it conducts experimental work, particularly on Euryoaster,
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Yet the economic-technical possibilities of this base are very
limited. It lacks many thIngs, even the usual laboratory equip.'
cent, special machinery and,constant supply of electric energy,
and, naturally, it is Impossible without this to conduct research
at a modern scientific level.
It is time for scientific institutions on the protection of
plants to pay serious attention to the.equipping with modern
apparatuses and Machinery.
The June Plenum of TK KPSS directed its attention to the
coordination of scientific-research works. VASICHNIL (All-Union
Academy of Agricultural Sciences 'mini V. I. Lenin] carries out
111 the coordination of research in the field of plant protection; yet
it is ih need of considerable improvement, especially,, the coordint-
tion of research work on mechanization and the main thing 7,organita-
? tion of control for the carrying out of decisions of coordination
conferences.
? Further technical progress in the protectioh of. plants is
closely linked with the tfaining of cadres and the raising of their
qualifications. Organizers of the control of pests and disc:kites
of agricultural crops were chosen of late it many kolkhozes and '
sovkttozeill they were given special training at study courses,' in
agricultural technical schools, and some even in colleges. Such
cadres must be formed at each kolkhoz and sovkhoz and their quali-
? fications must be raised systematically. The modern, evermore
complex economicEtechnical facilities, which are used for the protec-
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tion of plants, require special deepened training of cadres; and
not only of those who are directly occupied in this field, but
also agronomists of other plant industry specialties, as well as
the mechanisers, and even the managers themselves of the farms.
They, who'use the newest technical facilities in the fields,
orchards and forests, who introduce Into prodUction the newest
attainments of science and protect the harvest in a practical way,
-require daily help.
Having included themselves into socialistic competition, and
having taken upon themoelves new, increased obligation's in honor
of the forthcoming next Plenum of TsK IIPSS, the workers, engaged
111 in the protection of plants, will render practical help in the
preservation of harvest from pests end diseases and In proper
manner will meet the opening of the Plenum with new labor suc-
cesses.
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? .Trans. Alll
vg/M
KhOkhriakov, M. K.
.illkologi Is l=prakticheskie voprosy fitopatologli
'44ycology and practical problems of phytopathology).
Zashchlta Rastenii, vol. 4, no. 5,1;425-26.
Sept./Oct. 1959. .421 Zi
(In Russian)
Mycology, as it is known, is, the science of fungi. It encon.1-
passes the questions of systematics, as well is of morphology,
cycles of development, specialization, geographical distribution,
variability, and other biological characteristics of fungi.
? Modern mycology has attained importance in very many fields of
national economy and science, in people's nutrition, public
health, in veterinary medicine, communal economy, and so on. In
the present article we will charaCterite its importance only in
agriculture, and, mainly, in the field of phytopathology.
? It is sufficient to say that phytopathology had its origin .
In the bosom of mycology, and later on isolated itself as an
Independent science, including sections on bacterioses, viral
diseases and flowering plant parasites. The bond-between mycology
and phytopathology remained unbroken up to the present time, and
at times it Is hard to tell where the first one ends and the
second begins. Already conducting of a correct diagnosis of a
(
, k
fungus plant disease presumes not only the presence of appropriate
mycologic knowledge, but also sometimes the use of rather complex
diagnostic measures (humid chambers, isolation of. the fungus to
a pure culture, artificial inoculation of plants, and so on).:. .The
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bond between mycology and phytopathology remained unbroken up to
the present time; and at times it is hard to tell where the first
one ends and the second begins. Already conducting of a correct
diagnosie of i fungus plant disease presumes not only the presence
of appropriate mycologic knowledge* but also sometimes the use of
rather complex diagnostic measures (humid chambers, isolation of
the fungus to a pure culture, artificial inoculation of plants,
and so on). The choice of appropriate measures for control
depends on the correct determination of the pathogen.
At present mycofloristic research is conducted on a wide
front in almost all the republics of the Soviet Union, as well as
the accumulation of knowledge about the species makeup of fungus
diseases And of their geographical distribution. This will permit
defining more accurately the areas of fungus plant diseases,. as
well as the dependence of their development on climatic conditions
and, in its turn, will produce data for conclusions about the ex-
pediency of quarantining individual diseases, as well as about the
connection of fungal parasites of cultivated plants with the flora
of fungi on 'weeds and wild plants.
However, the center of attention of modern mycology lies,
neverthelets, not In the geographical investigation of the fungal
flora, but In a deep- study of the character of development of its
individual representatives or groups,
discovering different stages or forms
especially in the part of
of spore-bearing in the cycle
of their development. Further on, it is
Important to determine the
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range of infected plants, or specialization of fungi, their dif-
ferentiation into intraspecies forms, physiological races, bio-
types. It is also necessary to conduct other experimental re-
search of their biological characteristics.
Studying the biology of living organisms In their development
and in connection with factors, surrounding them, mycology examines
fungi in all the phases of their development not only on the plant
in question, but also on cthers .too. Studying the variability
of fungi, mycology solves both the purely theoretical questions,
for instance the ways of form and species development or systematics,
as well. as the doubly practical ones. Thus, while studying in
parasitic imperfect fungi the higher spore-bearing forms, which
usually winter and, up to this time are unknown to'science, mycology
investigates the overwintering forms of the parasite and, conse-
quently, finds out the sources of spring time infections caused
by them, besides defining more accurately their systematic depen-
dence. As a rule, additional reservoirs of infections are found
in the range of plants infected with fungi.
Data, obtained as a result of this research, can serve as a
basis for methods of control; for example, an appropriate tilling
of the soil, destruction of intermediate hosts of certain species
of rusts (of cereals, currants and others) or Of weeds. It will
be also possible, on the basis of these data, to recommend how to
conduct certain crop rotations, in which the crops affected by
411 fungi would return to the same field only after a lapse of time
sufficient for the inhibition Of the development of the fungus.
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The practical' Importance of studies of fungi -specialization ?
is seen, if only, from the following two instances. UP to the
present time formal systematics considered that ergot with large
horns, which infects the ovary of such large-grained cereals as
rya, barley and others, belongs to one species Cleviceos purpurea
Tull while grasses withiminute ovaries (foxtail, timothy grass;
meadow grass, bentgrass and others) are affected by another Species
Cl. microcephala Tul., which is characterized byminute sclerOtia,'
and the manna grass by Cl. Wilson!' Cooke. Conclusions were made
from this that ergot does nett pass over to cereals from .the cited
plants. Meanwhile,.as the research. of L. I. Pshedetskaia (1953)
? on cross infection of a collection of grasses with different forint
of ergot has shown, the latter quite easily infects any grass,
changing the site of its sclerotia (horns) depending on the size
of their ovaries. Thus it proved to be that all species of ergot
on grasses are synonyms, that is, forms of one species, having a
wide range of hosts. And this means, that it is necessary to
control the disease not alone on cereals but also ()mother grasses;
?
It is necessary to increase the eradication of grassy weeds, use -a
crop rotation, excluding the repeated planting of crops, which are
Infected with ergot, on one and the same section.
A similar example with the pathogen of potate clinker -?
Svnchytrium endobioticum Parc. Research of V. 1. Potlaichuk (1951)
.has shown that here too, in spite of the high degree of,parisitism
of the pathogen, (Begin p.263 its specialization did not prove,
so narrow as it was supposed: it infected also some other repre-.
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sentatives of the potato family (Solanaceae) besides potatoes.
A herbarial mycologist, approaching the problem formally, without
the use of the experimental method of research, and having
discovered S.,endobioticum on tomatoes or thorn apple, would.con-
clude that he has to do with a new species of fungus; and, having
described it as such, not only would complicate the synonymy of
names, but would also delude the practical men in agriculture.
By considering the form of fungus on tomatoes as a separate species,
which is unable to pass lover to potatoes, the practical men, in
such a case, would not organise appropriate crop rotations and
would permit the planting of potatoes an the same field after the
canker infected tomatoes; and in the case of discovering canker on
the thorn apple would not pay any attention to this and would
not undertake measures for the liquidation'of the focus of infec-
tion. All this would lead to unpleasant results. Consequently,
a more precise determination of the systematic status of the fun-
gal parasite Is of both narrow theoretical interest, As well as of
perfectly, practical interest. These instances show the unity of
fungal systematics as theory with practice.
Data about ergot, cited above, show that fungi are changeable
organisms, which change their morphology, depending on the ex-
ternal conditions and, first of all, on the factor of nutrition,
particularly on the host-plant. Formal systematics of fungi
considers, up to the present time, that if a fungus has been
111 discovered An another plant, on which it has not yet been observed,
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Trans, ftelll5
end, If it somewhat differs MorpholOgically from the previously
known, that it should, as though Without question, be a new
species to science. But .modern. mycology considers that It. Ls neces-
sary to experimentally check in each case: if the fungus moved, to
the plant in quettion from another one, and if it changed its -
in connection with'it.
Research'of the LabOratory of Mycology "'men* Professor
A. A. IachevskW of VIZR DM-Union Institute of Plant-Protection)
shoWs precisely that far less 'species of fungi exist in nature
than are described in literature; that their classification, at
times, is built on unstable, unessential features; it proves to be
111 artificial, end in many cases needs a critical revision. Precise
diagnostics of plant.diseases,can be guaranteed Only by the de-
.velopment of natural classification of fungi with the attraction of
Modern methods of research.
Fungi, being unstable organisms, change not only under the
effect of the Substratum, but also of the:geographical fector.
Study of these characteristics in the development of parasitic
fungi provides a basis for compilinE, tonal systems for their'con.-
trol; .Thus, it was found out, that crown rest Of grassesp?whlOf
has common buckthorn as its aecidial host In the northern regions'
of the European part of USER, has, besides this, buckthorn Palles
in North Caucasus, and in the,Far East-Dahuria6 buckthorn.
Leaf rust of wheat in the European part of USSR usually over
winters in the form of uredomycellum on winter 'crops', but in .
Eastern Siberia, where winter crops of wheat are absent, it adapted
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itself for overwintering In the stage of teliospores, which, upon
gelmination in spring, infect the weed Leptopyrum fumarioldes; and,
from the latter, the rust passes over to the wheat. Therefore
there cannot be a single instruction for the entire Soviet Union
for the control of cereal rusts, but should be differentiated
according to zones.
Thus, study of the cycle of development, of specialization,
variability and other biological characteristics of economically
important parasitic fungi produces a key to the solution of purely
phytopathological questions about the methods of overwintering
of the fungus, about sources of the renewal of the infection of
110 diieeses, about the range of affected plants; all this, in the
long run, permits to establish methods for control of the studied
diseases of plants.
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Trans. A-1116
vg/M
Haravianskii, N. S.
Predposevnaia obrabotka semian
kombinirovannymi preparatami
(Preplanting treatment of corn
with combined preparations)
Zashchita Rastenii, vol. 4, no. 6 p.42.
Nov./Dec. 1959. ti,21 21
tin Russian)
kukuruzy
seeds
I.
At the experimental farm of the All-Union Institute. of Feeds,
in kolkhozes" imeni Lenina" Ukhtomsk raion, and "Malek", Rhimkinsk
raion, in 1956-1958i for the treatment of corn seeds the 50% dust
of TMTD was tested in a combination with one of the following pre-
parations: 15% heptachlor, 20% dieldrin, 10% aldrin and 12% gamma
isomer of HCH, as well as zinc phosphide in combination with HCH,
and mercuran.
From 20-50 wireworms were counted per 1 m2 at the experimental
sections. Shedding of seeds and sprouts, caused by their damage,
comprised in 1956 - 20% and in 1957-1958 40 to 63%.
One should mention that all the preparations raised the energy
of seed sprouting, and TMTD with heptachlor or aldrin (200 g/c)
and zinc phosphide with HCH (0.5 .kg of each per 1 c) the most
markedly (by 8-20%). ?MID with heptachlor and zinc phosphide with
HCH in the cited doses showed the best effectiveness in the control
Vsesoiuznyi Institut Kormov EA11-Union Institute of Feeds).
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of pests. In the first case there were registered 34.9% of shedding
of seeds and sprouts, damaged by virewtrmsj in thesecond case -
14= to 5%; damage toplants caused by the frit-fly was reduced by
45-37x as compared with the control. The greatest death rate of
the Wireworm (5040%) was attained at a moisture content of soil
(estimating from the full water capacity) of 40-60%. These pre-
..
parations did not produce any negative effect on the growth and
? development of corn.' The yield .of green Masa, grown on heavy
clayey soil, increased by 25% (firma 376 t0.470 c/ht) in the variant
with TMTD.and heptachlor, as compared with the control. Production
experiments,, during the current year, on an area of 40 ha have
111 confirMed-the high effectiveness of TMTD with heptachlor; this
? provides a basis. for recommending it for.preplanting treatment of
seeds of corn as a substitute for mercuric insecticides.
It was established by our research thst the most favorable
.dose for mercuran, for treatMint of seeds planted into light soils,
was 1QO g/c (development of plants is impaired, with .a larger out-
lay); and into soils,- which possess a greater adsorptive capacity,
" 200 to 300 g.
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- Trans. A-1117
vg/M
Paramonov, A. A.
Wazrevshie voprosy fitogellmintologli
(Urgent questions In phytohelminthology).
Zashchita Rastenii, vol. 4,
no. 6, p.25-28.
Nov./Dec. 1959.- 421 Z1
(In Russian)
Of late the control of nematodes.(phytohelminths) acquires:
an ever more important meaning. .It came to light that these pare-
sites cause enonmou'Imultimil.lion losses to the agriculture of
our country, including also the hothouse industry; this is the
411 result of the widening of tones of damage of the most well-
known stem nematodes of onion and garlic, potato-and partly Of
Strawberry, and especially of the wide distribution of root
knot nematode; and also beyond the borders of their natural area -
in the northern zone, where they established themselves in hothouses.
?
-
*It is rufficient to illustrate the above said by the fact that the
root-knot nematode is now widely spread in Moscow's hothouses and
on certain farms in the Roscow oblast'. It is quite clear that
this is a direct result of 'unsatisfactory state of problems of
prophylaxis of hothouses against them. This IS also true for other
Species of plant nematodes.
Thus, the problem of limiting the zones of harmfulness of
phytohelmlnths in our country is one of the first.
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y (2) . ' Trans. A-1117 '
Agriculture and business are interested in the studies of
means end methods of spreading of phytoparasitic nematodes. tnd
In the development of miatures which will inhibit this. process.
It seems necessary ,to us already today, for instance, to compile-.
yearly oblast' maps of spreading of-root-knot nematode at hot
7 1
house farms having in view, that new farms, and, all hothouse
combines, which are free trom nematodes be advised of the sources,
of. danger. This hind of wOrk?could be conducted by the ?blest'
_Agricultural Administrations. An urgent publishing of printed.
instruCtions on the prophylexis, of hothouses against toot-knot'
is
nematodesAalso needed. One should bear in, mind that,Ohytonematodes
? ate microscopic ? organism of high_ viability and the protection of
hothouses. frolt,thet is almost as delicate 0 problem as Is the proo
tection of farts (hothouses) from.virutes, bacteriosis and Mycoses.
And how does this problem get on in practice? ,For.eiample, the
regime of: transportations of onion. and,. garlic on barges and in.
freight cars, at well as the regime of storage.of plant production
at the'procurement points Oftleris'conducive to the distribution,..
of onion-garlic nemstOdes. Ve had an occasion to'observe.a cats
of delivery of onions for scallion growing from Masan, Oblast!
to one of Mbseow suburban hothouse farms. The Onions were dirty,
with soil adhering to them. The onion nematode is capable Of ens- -
Mosta. Is there anything remarkable in the fact then, that such
shipp3ngs contaminate the tare, conveyance, freight cars, points of
destination of the freight? It is .time to think about the tatter.
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(3) Trans. A-liI7
that it is necessary to Include compulsory anti-nematode measures
In the organization of transportation of agricultural products,
which aro subject to storage, as well, as during their storage.
At the present time the question became ripe for the forma-
tion of a network of,anti-nematode points under the supervision of
agricultural agencies. It is necessary to study the fauna of
phytohelminths; in order to have data for the organization of.
? the internal quarantine -'the foundation of control?of.the wide .
?
distribution of root...knot nematodes and stem nematodes, hoterodera
of cereals, potatoes and beete)citrus' nematode*, and many other
species; beingifor the.most part, polyphagous and capable of
111 high ecological adaptability.. (Begin p.26]
The next problem of first rate importance must be the studying
of mechanisms of pathogenic effect of phytohe/minths on the ?
plants, especially the cultivated one. It le only of late that
it became known that phytohelmInths possess highly active ecto-
enzymes, which are capable of subjecting to hydrolysis the car-
bohydrates, to split proteins and lyse propectic (propektinovye]
'cell walls of plant cells. Under their reaction the plant tissues'
undergo complex changes; their normal physiology is broken, their
biochemical characteristics change, and deep destructive processes
set In. As a result of this arises an Intricate complex of-pstho-
genic factors. Nematodes,.themselves'dangerous to plants, attract
the development of viral, bacterial and mycotic diseases. This
? ? load becomes too heavy for the plant end it dies. Nematodes-, as
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(111 Trans. A-1117
a title, do not leave the infected organ. They only move from one
place to another. And only a full loss of a plant organ (for in-
stance, of a tuber, of an 'onion bulb, of a garlic clove, and so.
on) makes them return to the soil-and invade new plants or roots,
tubers and so on. This is-typical fOr'many phytohelminths.
In connection;with this one cannot help emphasizing that
' all or almost all counteractive means, known to us, as a rulei ere
not connected with en exact study of 'biology and phytopathology
of harmful nematOdes, phys1ology of the diseased plant and bio-
? chemical processes, Which are Caused by the vitel activity of phy-
toheiminths. Mbst.of them are bUilt'on accidental empiricism. -For
instance, mechanisms and Causes of,action of nematodel chemical
preparations are little ,known. Such a condition hinders.intentional
Enteelenapravlennoen] production of such preparations. But-it LS
a fact that many of theta became nematodidel only because still
yesterday they were insectitidal. But there is a distance of
huge size between nematodes and insects. We need specific nemato.
cidal preparations. It is the problem of NIVIF (Scientific Research
Institute-of Fertilizers and Insectofungicides imini is. V. SamoiloV),
in connection with Specialists, to produce such preparations on.
the. basis of studies of physiolOgy:of'phytohelminths.
Absence of developed knowledge .of physiology of this groupOf
parasites and of the diseased plant all this determines' one more
,
leading characteristic Of the:greatest amount Of modern."nematoci-
410
del" chemical preparations. The greater part of them are toxic to
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(5) Trans. A-1117
the plants. This fact determines also the method of their use.
We, as a rule, are powerless in helping the plants during the
course of the vegetation. itself. Ile wait for their death, for
the removal.of the remnants of the yield, In order to disinfect -
the soil after that. However, there is not a single preparation
in existence which could exterminate the nematodes even in hot-
houses. Even chloropicrin produces only a temporary effect.
Naturally; a thought suggests itself about the necessity of mea-
sures for treating the plants by controlling the .nematodes during
the course of the vegetation proper.
In.connection with this, the necessary research was conducted _
at the-Helminthological Laboratory of. AN SSSR [Academy of Science
of the USSR]: Nevertheless, the fact is that if during the periods
between rotations we disinfect the soil and reduce the Kurabers of
nematodes, then during the vegetation periods we are raising it
unintentionally. Therefore therapy is urgently needed, especially
for hothouse farms. The physiological research is aimed at just
this. It is closely connected with studies of possibilities for
treating plants for controlling phytohelminths. The ways for
se/lying Specific problems are set and are being partially realized.
The'cited laboratory tries to solve two basic problems: a) what .
are the best dates for the use of remedies on plants for the con-
trol of phytohelminthi and b) on which principles the treatment
should be built.
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The answer for the first question is being successfully
developed both for the open and the covered ground by way of
studies of dynamics of the quantities of nematodes, in conjunction
. with the:factors of such dynamics. .The treatment is more succese-
ful when the number of nematodes is smaller. Exactly during such
? periods the. therapeutic methods are the most effective. Under
field,conditions the number of phytonematodes undereoes regular
fludtuations, which are now partly possible to determine prog-
noptically. In the covered ground and especially in respect to
? ,root-knot nematodes the problem is quite clears the treatment is
.needid, first of all, at the beginning of the vegetation, before"
? the appearance of buds, that Is during the period of plant growth.
The answer to the second question was also partly given t ,it As
more expedient to choose such chemical preparations, Which do not
produce a nematocidal effect, since they are usually toxic to
? plants also, but use a 'nematostatic preparatioh (by analogy with .
? bacteriostatic); one that does not kill the nematodes, but in-.
hibits their reproduction. Research, which was conducted,in the
'cited laboratory, has shown that, apparently, (Begin p.273. there
are many such preparations. Some of the thiocyanogen and salicylic
compounds, which produced's .nematostatic effect were tested in
particular. Further on it proved to be that ammonium nitrate
produced the same effect. Methods for its use were first developed
for the rot' nematode end later on for the tomato root-knot nematodes.
It was found that dusting soil in hothouses with dry ammonium
?nitrate would be the Most effective; in respect to tomatoes, for
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Instance, three times, using 80-100 t per bush (area of the root
system of the plant) during the first half of the vegetation;
before budding, approximately every 10-15 days (research of
L. S. Turiygina). Observations have shown that the numbcr of galls,
as well as their site, was sharply reduced; this was connected with
a sharp decrease of numbers of ova in the sex tubes of the
parasite, These data permit to hope for the introduction of the
cited method of tratment to the farms. Doses for treatment of
cucumbers are bring worked out now (T. Pokrovskela). However,
the hothouse farms themselves must take part in this simple and
accesible work, detcrmining the doses of saltpeterfbr the cumu-
li, ber crop. It Is possible that at different farms there will
arise some variations in dosing, ti e think that the chief purpose
of ammonium nitrate is the treatment of plants in discovered foci
of gall nemetodiasis of hothouse crops. Therefore at the present
time the laboratory is working out a problem about an early diag-
nosis of the gall nematodiasis without the dislocation of the root
system of hothouse plants. The method will be developed at the
end of 1959.
The problem arises, what to do about the treatment during
the period of budding? An attempt was made in the laboratory to
use the auxins (growth substances) in combination with a leaf
feeding for this purpose. Sodium salt of 2.4.5-trichlorophonoxy-
acetic acid (2,4?5-T) was used, according to a method developed
by Lu. V. Rakttin and A. V. Krylov (1957), in the following
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modification: 40-50 mg of 2.4$.-T per'l of Water were usid for
the treatMent of tomato buds. Ammonium .nitrate, potassium chloride,
extract from superphOsphate and boric acid were used for leefi!
'feeding (S. G. Nauge, 058). Such e.treatment produced an increase
in the yield of tomatoes, notwithstanding the pfesence.of root- 4
knot telworti; this indicated the therapeutic effedt, which increased
the vital resistance of plants.: These examples, ehOW that the course
taken has Justified itself, by using treatments with the. aid of .
preparations, which Inhibit the nematodes (auxens draw oft the.
labile substances from the roots and Cause a reduction in nutrition
of root:sknot nematodes) (ftramonov,,1954).
One cannot doubt that the treatment of plants to control
phytohelminthiasis 11111 develop also in other directions. They,
of course, will be numerous. But :Only one thing Is clear: treatl-
ment of_phytOnematodiasis of plants it necessary and that this
trend is progressive, new and searching; it Is closely connected
with. deep study of *physiology, of phytongmatodes, and the study
of physiology of the diseased plant Is inevitably connected with
It.. This complex can .surmount the routine, which narrows the methods
of nematode control only to the decontamination of soli.' No, both
are needed: decontamination of the soil between rotations, and a
blow to the nematode daring thecourse of the vegetation proper.
Only a combined action, only a double blow, both during the rotation
and between rotations, can produce a.real and lasting. effect. But
this is not all yet. The morient arrived, when it Is necessary to
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think (at least in respect to hothouse farms) about including
antinematode measures into the everyday and normal agrotechnics
? for agricultural crops. The control of nematodes must be con-
ducted systematically, and not only at the time when the Catastrophe
has arrived: it must be one of the aspects of agrotechnics. And
it is exactly in such a case that the control of nematodes will
be truly effective in the plans described above. Extermination
of nematodes, at feast at hothouse farms, can be possible only
on such a basis.
, The nematode problems, which are discussed in this article,
can be solved only on the basis of thorough theoretical research.
? So far such research has only been started. The helminthological
Laboratory of AN SSSR did not as yet step out into practice. The
very first steps in the proper theoretical research have permitted
making the above cited first and modest practical conclusions.
Development of our knowledge is necessary in the field of faunistics,
syetematics? functional and ecological morphology, special ecology
of phytonematodes, their physiology and biochemistry. The prospect-
ing research, the importance of which today is not yet quite clear,
is also needed. But the scientific work, in all these forms, must -
be closely connected with the production. (Begin p.28) Only such
bonds can overcome empiricism and help master the new, progressive
methods of control of nematode diseases of plants.
At the present time it becomes ever more clear that nematode*
are closely connected with fungi(micellar) and bacteria. A bio-
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Trans. A-1117
cenolo0c complex-nematodes, bacteria and fungi acts in a fir t
place in a plant. Coordinated works of phytohelminthologists,
mycolouists and bectriologists, ond even virologists IS the next
problem, which was not as yet planned.
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litillUe 14?114U
( ? vg/M
Tarnovich, N. K.
Nekotorye voprosy mekhanizattil zashchity
rastenIL v semiletke
(Certain problems of mechanization of
plant protection in-the 7-year plan) '
Zashchita Rastenii, vol. 4,
Sept./Oct. 1959.
(In Russian)
no. 5, 1).17'181;
421 21
.The 21st Congress of ?PSS [Commtnist Party of Soviet Union]
has placed before the workers, engaged in the protection of plants,
a responsible. problem - masterfully to organize the control of
pests, diseases and weeds; fully to utilize this important reserve
for obtaininc additional yields of agricultural production. The
'providing of kolkhozes, sovkhozes and RTS (Repair tractor station],
with production apparatus and machines is of great importance for
the solution of this problem.
AcCording to the preliminary estimates of the MSKH SSSR '
'Ministry of Pgriculture'of the USSR], it is projected that in
1965 35% Of the area under cereals will be treated with poison
chemicals, as .well as all the sugar beet plantings, cotton, oil
crops, orchards and vineyards, 750 Of flax-"Dolgunets" (long
staple flax), 251 of vegetables, 7.50 of potatoes and 10% of brush-
woods. About 150 thousand tractor and automobile dusters and
sprayers, as well as 45 thousand horse-motor and hotse-drawn onts
will be required for this purpose; 47 thousand machines for treat.
Head of the Laboratory of Mechanization of V1ZR 4A11-Unionlnsti-
tute of Plant Protection]
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(2) Trans. A.1118
ment Of seeds, 2.5 thousand bait Spreadersvmany.soil and standing.
'plants ditch-diggers, end to on.
A-still Wider application will be found also for aircraft
sprayers, clutters and bait spreaders.
' Development of systems of machines for the protection of .
'agricultural crops. frOM pests, diseases and weeds must be com-
pleted Wing the years 1959-1965. The growing needs of farms
? require that. these machines be characterited by high productivity,
that little metairmetalloemkost17] be used for their construction,
that they should have power-operated working principle, which
would reduce the expenditure of labor and would-improve the quality
111 of treatment. Special attention mutt be givento the production of
lOw-volume sprayerspiterOttol generators, heavy seed-treating
machines for treating seeding material, to the mechanisation of
secondary processes (preparation of solutions, hauling of poisons,
loading, end so on).
?
SOtentists and deSigners ate facing serious problems in
solving this vett program. The problem-thematic plane of scientid.
fic-research institutions for the years 1959-1965 include the fol-
lowing problems.
, Research On hydraulic, pneumatic and hydropneumatic methods
of liquid dispersion and determination of best methods for the
formation of dispersion systems; theoretical and practical solu-
tion of the problem of regulation of dispersity in the process of
production of aerosols and of fine-drop atomisation 'of liquid.
Application of electrification and ionisation of the air-liquid
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(3) Trans. A...1118
streams In order to increase the coefficient of use of 'the working
liquid and to reduce the losses of the smallest particles of
chemicals. Development of .methods of preparation of stable su-
spensione and emulsiOns with the aid of vibrators and sounds of
.high frequency. Making more precise the technological process
of thermo-chemical treatment of seeds. Research on. the techno-
logical process of depth fumigation of toil against phylloxera
in.vineyards. Research on the technological process of Weed con-
trol in plantings ot technical crops during the preemergence'and
post-eMergence periods (with the use'of'screens for the protec-
tion of seeds of the basic crop. Development of typical machine
? unitts.pumps, reducing gear, poison feeders, mounted systems, and
so On.. Selection.of antitorrotive materials, resistant to.the
effect of poison chemicals, (Begin p.18) studies of ?plastics and
their Use in the production of machines. Development and intro-
duction into production of progressive technology, and soon.
Such are the theory and practice in the field of mechanise- ?
? tion of the protection of agricultural crops in the years 1159-
,1965. Many collectives of engineers.and scientific co-workers
are occupied with their solution. OSKB (State Special Design
Bureau] at the factory "Ltvovsellmashn, 05KB-1 Of the Moldavian .
Council. of National Economy, SKB (Speical Design Office] of the
Leningrad Council of National Economy, MO on'cottons.and others,.
together with V1ZR Pal-Union Scientific ReSearch institute of
? Plant Protection and V1SKROM (All-Union Scientific Research Institute
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(10 Trans. A-1118
of Agricultural Machinery) have already produced a series of new
designs for machines and apparatuses: 34 brands are now either
being put out or are under production, 43 are in the stage of
development or are being tested by the factories or by the State.
The experience, accumulated both in our country, 114 well OS abroad,
is being ailensively used in designing the new technical equip-
ment.
One should point out that the mechanization of plant protec-
tion is being developed at an inadequate rate. The total volume
of chemical treatment, of field crops and orchards is considerably
lower than in some foreign countries. While the basic field work:
plowing, planting and harvesting are mechanized in our country to
111 more than 95, the protection of plants is only to 25-30g.
The cause for this lies, to a large degree, in the fact that
agriculture does not receive enough technical equipment-for the
control of pests and diseases of plants. During the. last 10
years only 50 thousand tractor sprayers and dusters were produced;
by many times less than in USA. Production of these machines _was
not put in good order until the present time. Orders are placed
in factories, which do not produce them basically. Building of
one brand is sometimes divided among 2-3 establishments. Many
designing bureaus Of the country, for example 1.1vovskoe? Kishenev-
shoe, Lenitigradskoe are working without cd-ordination, thus per-
mitting unnecessary parallelism. As a result of this, agriculture
'receives expansive machines and apparatuses, not always of the
proper quality and in insufficient numbers.
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(5) Trans. A-1118
The arisen situation in the production of technical-equip-
ment for the control of pests, and diseases of plants, as well as
weeds, is intolerable. A speedy and radical improvement Is needed
in this matter. It is necessary to separate out specialized ?
factories. This will help in raising the quality of the manu-
facture and reduction of the cost of machines for plant protection;
will increase their output.
Realization of supervision of the activity of scientific*
research institutions and of the State Special Design Bureau by .
the State Scientific-Technical Committee of the Council of Ministers
wilt permit using the engineering force and the material-technical
possibilities correctly and purposefully, generalizing the experience
of their work and solving quicker the problems important for agri-
culture.
Mastering the achievement of science and practice, extensive
introduction of mechanization will give the possibility to kolkhoges
? and sovkhozes to raise the effectiveness of measures on the prq-
tection of plants and sharply to curtail the damage, which is
caused by pests, ,diseases and weeds to agriculture.
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Trans. A-1119
vg/M
Dzhiembaevs H. T.
K sisteme lashchity seltskokhozialstvennykh
kulltur na tselinnykh zemliakh Kazakhstan*
(Concerning the system of protectiOn of agricul
tural crops on the new lands of Katakhstan]
Zaahchita Rastenils.vol. 4,
no. 5, p.20-23.Sept./Oct. 1959. -VI Z1
(In Russian)
Over a thousand species of harmful insects and about 900
pathogens of diseases of agricultural crops are to be faUnd in
Kazakhstan. Such. variety of them is conditioned, to.a consi-
derable extents by the great geographical extension of the republic
and by the difference of natural and economic zones entering it.
That is the reason why in the obtaining of stable and high yields
a prominent, role must belong to the control of pests and diseases
based on a system of measures, , which take into account the zonal
peculiarities.
The northern part of the republic can be divided into five
regions in the entomological respect (according to D. P. Aleksandrov).
The first- Podurallnyis or European. Here enter the administra-
tive raions at the foot of Ural mountains of West Kazakhstan and
Aktiubinsk oblastts. 'Pests of fields vegetable and melon-patch
crops here do not differ from those to be found in the European
40 Kazakhskii 1ZR (Kazakh Institute of Plant Protection]
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part of, USSR. Both climate end soil favor normal development of
millet midge, Apameapaludiso cutworm moth, Calliotamus italicuso
grain moth and pathogens of smut, rust, root rot and other
diseages. Into the second - the West-Siberian region enter the
northern administrative forest.isteppe raions of the Kustanai,
Kokchetav and Paviodar ?blast's and the entire North Kazakhstan
oblast'. Here the conditions are favorable for the development of
Gomphocerus sibiricus and Paracyptera microptera, frit-fly, Loma
melanopus, grain moth, leaf-chewing owlet-moths, cruciferous
sawfly, leaf beetle, Phylotrittai the same diseases are to be found
hire as in the first region. In the third, the Central Kazakhstan
region, into which enter the ***ions of West Kazakhstan oblast,
that are situated to the west of the Ural river, the central raions
of Aktiubinsk oblast' southern and central ndons of Kokchetav oblast',
the northern raions of Karaganda oblast', left-shobre raions of
Pavloder and Semipalatinsk'oblast's and all the reions of Akmo-
linsk, grain moth, leaf-chewing owlet-moths are widespred, as
well as stem borers, thrips, best webworm, stem fleas, Aelia
acuminate, Phyllotreta concinna, seed-eating weevils (curculio
Tychiuk and erytomas), alfalfa leaf weevil and Eurygaster .integri-
clu. Besides the diseases, cited for the two first regions,
here are also to be found fusariosis and ergot, virus diseases of
potatoes, bacteriosis of vegetable and cereal crops. The fourth -
sand and flatland erosional region (all the right-bank steppe
raions of Pavlodar and Semipalatinsk ?blast's central administrative
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raions of Kustanal oblast' and large areas of Akmolinsk oblast')
is characterized by frequent dust storms, which cause soil
erosion, especially during the winter and sprinc months. The pests
here are the same as in the Central Kazakh region, but they cause
a trainer damage. Stronger 'harm is done here than in .other re-
gions only to sunflowers and vegetable - Melon patch crops by
Opatrum'sabulosum, to millets by.Pirdileus calceatus, to the mustard
family by diamond-back moth, to cereals - by beetles of genus
Anisoplial outbreaks of reproduction of Calliptamus italicus and
of beet.webworm, of clover and wheat mOths *re also possible. The
fifth - Altai foot hill region .includes the entire East Kazakhstan
(Begin p.21] ablest' with the exception of,Zalsan basin. This
region is characterized by a sharp vertical zonality. Here are to
be found the same species as in the West-Siberian region; besides
them, the pests of clover, as well is beet webworm, grain mite,
larvae of scarabaelds are of importance. Focal distribution of
pests is characteristic for the region in question, as well as for
other mountain-foot regions.
There exist subregions in each. of the enumerated regions,
Which do not differ sharply one from the other in the composition
of basic pests. Whereupon one notices a decrease of moisture-
loving species in directiona from north to south and from west to
east along the entire zone of reclamation of virgin and waste lands
with the exception of the Altai foot hill region.
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Trans. A-1119
Everywhere, with the exception of the fourth erosional region,
in order to accumulate and preserve moisture, grain crop rotations,
requiring cultivation, are basically introduced: 60-70 are under
grain crops, mainli, wheat, and 0 to 20% of plowland under clean
and serial [counties] fellows. At individual farms - grass crop
rotations. It is thought that for the habitation of pests, with
the exception of wireworms, impossible conditions are produced
on fallow fields. But many pests will concentrate and overwihter
constantly on the leading out (nvyvodnol") field of perennial
grass plantings. At the same time one should expect their
heavier development on plantings of spring wheat, during its
? continuous cultivation on virgin lands in the course of 2-3, and
more, years. In such a situation the system of measures for the
control of pests and diseases comes to ? prevention of Mass re-
'S
1 4
production and their extorminaticin by chemical means. Grain moth,
wheat thrips,-Aelia acuminate, frit-fly, millet midge and wireworm
spend their whole life on the fields. It is hard to keep them
away from plantings. But it is quite possible to reduce their
number and not to permit their reproduction in quantity, taking in-
to consideration the critical vulnerable periods of their develop-
ment. It is important, for instance, to deprive of nutrition the -
caterpillars of grain moth by 4 timely shallow plowing of stubble
on fields and by a subsequent deep fall-plowing. The famished
individuals will not be able to overwinter normally; in the spring
'they will change quickly to pupae, from which will emerge less
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Tran. A-1119
fertile butterflies. The owlet moths are very vulnerable also.
during the period of overwintering, which they spend In. the upper
layer of the S011. A mechanical' destruction of overwintering
places can also lead toli mass death ofthis pest. It will be
necessary to resort to chemical means for their greater numbers,
using DDT dusts or mixes Of; this preparation with vofat0i. Deep
'fall plowing 'of all fields after harvesting must be the basic,
-
cotpultory)measure for the reduction of nUmbers of pests of grain,
crops. The time of plowing, from this point of-vIew",,depends on
the ,composition of pests in the specific field. With a large
.namber Of shattered grains and osss'reproduCtion of caterpillars
of the grain moth, the plowing must be conducted right after her
The fields, which are heavily?infested with'Aelia acumi-
nate and wheat thrips, must be plowed at latex' dates. The time
of plowing Is of no importance for grain flies and millet midges.
.The second compulsory measures is the eradication of Weeds,
burning of plant refuse and plowing of such sections in the late
fall or early spring. The third MeasUre (against tic grain moth,
?
millet midge, wheat thrips and grain true bugs) is a quick,
timely harvesting of cereals without losses. A divided method
of harvesting in this case has an 'advantage over the straight
combine method of harvesting if it is carried out at the time of
wax ripeness of the grain and the rows of grain crops are harvested
.carefully and on time (on the 2nd and 3rd day after mowing). '
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(6) ? , Trans. it-1119 ,
,Pests of vegetable and broadleaved crops (corn, millete)
hold on in the weedy fields, and, especially, if such fields are
poorly cultivated and are seeded to grain'crops. Critically
vulnerable periods for the development of the cited pests are the
times of feeding of caterpillars in winter, of feeding of butter-
flies and.overvIntering of caterpillars and pupae. :Cabbage and,
clover moths overwinter in the stage of pupae, beet webwOrm as
caterpillars, and cutworm maths as eggs. In spring they all
feed on weeds since there are no plants yet on the plantations of
corn and vegetable crops. Famine during this period leads cater
pillars to death, end adult individuals 'to. underdevelopment.
Eutterflies? Which are deprived of additional nutktion of nectar,
remain either completely barren, or deposit few eggs. Cater-
pillars and pupae overvinter In cocoons and cradles in the upper
layer Of soil. Destruction of their "(Welling!'" leads to mass
4 death of the pests. The musturd family pests - plorids and
diamond-back moths - are widely:distributed on all *treble lands.
Overvintering is the vulneiable period for them. (Begin p.22]
Eradication of remnants of weeds around plantings of crops of the
mustard family moves back the time of appearance of butterflies
on the plantations and, thus, preVonts their early infestation of
,the young plants, when damage IS dangerous. Cruciferae and
beet true bugs and Pleas, as well as crucifer?* leaf-beetles and
bloasom-eaters are also widely distributed on tilt the arable lands.
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(7) Trans. A-11I9
?..They appear early on plentations; In spring they feed on weed
sprouts, end after that they move over to the cultivated plants.
It is possible to reduce their numbers by eradicating the early
weed .sprouts around the plantings by mechanical and chemical means.
It le possible ta control Opatrum.sabulesum which'harms corn,
darkling beetles and.beetimst, Which harm beets and sunflowers,
by keeping the fields Clean. In the spring the weeds must be
eradicated before.flOweringt on the fields, on sectiOni.near the
farms, along the roads and around the fields. As it has been
pointed out already, in the absence of feed, In the form of nectar,
many. species of insects remain barren or deposit very fewyggs.
After the 'removal of harvest it is necessary very quickly
to rembvy post-harvest residue from the fields since pests finish
' there their feeding and overwinter. It should not be permitted
to graze cattle on pattures near plantingss since locusts breed
on "trampled" pastures. It is rather hard to keep destructive
!Meets away from perennial grasses: they move here from new and?
waste lands, at well as from grass plantings of former years.
It is necessary to harvest, grasses before the appearance of buds
in such localities for a systematic reductioh of numbers oilsests;
and still earlier during the appearance of pests in large numbers.
It is important to conduct the harvesting on time during the,
year prior to the year when the planting is left to go to seed for
the control of pcsts of alfalfa flowers and seeds; this will lead
to a considerable reduction In the number of seed-eating weevils
and blossom pests.
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(6) . * Trans. A-I119
Control of wind erosion of soil is the basic requirement
for agriculture in the fourth agricultural entomological region..
Grass crop rotations will be introduced here, predominantly of
perennial grasses - up to 40-505 of the plowed lands and clean
serial [coulisse] fellows: Large areas will be occupied by crops
4
requiring cultivation (sunflowers, corn, and others). Vegetable -
melon patch crops will be allocated preferably in the river valleys.
Agricultural measures for the reduction of harvest losses from
pests and diseases here Must be similar to those in other grain
crop regions; but the conditions for their carrying out are con-
siderably mort difficult, Almost all the agricultural measures,
directed for the, reduction of the damaging effect of dust storms,
will help in the development of those species, which are found
here now in comparatively small numbers, and among them - grain
moths and the wheat thrips. 'Exterminating. measures must be con-
??
ducted against them.
In thezone of virgin lands of Kazakhstan the grain crops
ale badly.damaged by susliks [pocket gopher]; among them,the
mostly widespread and numerous are the Citellus pvcmaeus and *b.
erythropenys Br. At the present time the method of poisoned baits
has been widely used for the exterminetion of these little animals.
Susliks do not like to invade plowed lands. After the plowing of
virgin lands, they concentrate in great numbers around the plantings;
they should be exterminated in the early Spring on these seetiorks.
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(9) Trans. A-1119
Mouse-like rodents are widely distributed in this tone:
Lawirus, Aagurus Pall. end Microtus socialis Pall. - species,
which are capable of mass breeding during favorable weather and
on fields that are weedy and improperly harvested. It is necessary
to conduct dusting of plants with intestinal poisons and spreading
of poisoned 1,sits, made of grain and green plants, In order to
control them.
In recent years, in the grain region of the republic, a
spreading of smut, especially on wheat plantings, was observed.
The basic cause of this is poor provision and bed quality of
treatment of the mass of seeds, which are mostly brought in from
other places and are not free from smut spores.
Thermic disinfection must be used for the control of smut.
A system of preventive measures must include the following. Re-
placement of strongly infected varieties by new, highly productive,
which are resistant to diseases and are adapted to local coLditions;
formation of s healthy seed fund. For this purpose harvesting,
stacking, thrcshlnp and storing of the harvest must be conducted
In such a way that the mixing of grains, the healthy enu the in-
fected, which were harvested from sections that were contaminated
with smut and ergot, would not be permitted: approbation of and
strict rejection, according to the degree of contamination with
diseases. Timely harvesting of seed sections and improvement of
the process of the combined method of harvesting, since the grain,
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(10) Trans. As1119
which Was mechanically damaged, it left standing too long,
(Begin p.23) becomes infected'eatsfer with,harmful fungi (fuserlosis,.'
helminthotporium);Ing; cleaning and sorting of the newly , ?
harvested grain. bisinfestation of grain storage places end granas
ties, of psckingmaterial, tarpaulins and other implemente, as
well at seeders, harvesting and grain cleaning machines. Setting ,
uvof feivoreble conditions for the growth and development.of ;gents
(introduction of mineral fertilisers, leafsfieding). Late fall
seeding of spring wheat is being sucCessfullyused in recent years
at Many farms. for the sane purpose. Introduction of t corttot crop
rotatiOn, collecting an destroying of the iftfected parts of plants,
? as well as selection of healthy ears for seeds are of Orimery
Iifl-
portanc?or the control, or boil tmut and nigrOsporosis of corn.
In order to prevent-damage from rust to plantings, special.
Attention. must be given to keeping up of a high level Of agros
technics and. Conducting of sanitary measures (elimination of minds
falls, deep fall plowing,-eradiCation. ()tweeds, epees itoiatioh of
.1
winter crops from the spring ones).
Transpiration of winter crops can be prevented by the elimina-,
tion of infected residue, by spring top dressing with phosphorus
and potassium fertilieerso'spring harrowing, seeding with healthy,
well filled seeds, timely harvesting of the yield, drying of'imeas.
All these measures crests conditions, which limit the development
of diseases.
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(11) Trans, A-I119
The total vllume of agricultural cultivation, use of methods
of so*otechnique for the reduction of numbers of pests and develop-
ment of dUseases, along with the use of chemical measures, in special
emerliency, will reduce as much ss possible the loss of the yield
from pests and diseases?
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Trans. A-1120
vg/M.
Dunin, H. S.
diskussIl 0 silikatnykh baktertiakh
fOoncerninc-the discussion about silicate bacteria]
'Zashchita II:latent!, vol. 44 no. 5,p.29-32.
Sept./Oct. 1959. 421 Zl
(In Russian)
During the last 5-6 years the question about silicate bac-
teria began to attract the ever increasing. attention Of Soviet
scientists and practical men in connection with the works of
PrcifessOr V. G. AleksandrOv (1953, 1956, 1958 and other), of
? Rosareva (1956), Gorokhovekii (1957), and'of some other researchersi
including also many phytopathologists (T. 1. Fedotova, 1957,
V. 1. Rtivchenko, 1957 and 1958, S. U. Potrukovichl 1958,
? E. V. Chemodanova, I. P. Maksimova, 1958, B. Chslo? 19591 and
others). Taking into Consideration the cOntradiction in the
opinions about the effectiveness of these bacteria, the editorial
office of the journal "Zashchita Rastenli ot Vreditelei I Boles:lei"
has offered its pages for .a wide disCusaion. We are giving here
below a.concise review of its results, both according to.the
published data, as well as to certain others, which reached the
editorial office. Let us point out right here that in e11 cases
the question Is abOut preparations of silicate bacteria which were
prepared, mainly, at the Odessa Agricultural Institute and by VIZR
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(2) Trans. A-1120
(All-Union Institute of plant Protection], and which were Introduced
Into the soil with fertilizers, with the irrigating water or with
the planting material and seeds.
Introduction of silicate bacteria into the soil together With
fertilizers and during watering. In 1958, Professor Aleksandrov
made public the results of 12 different sectional experiments
and production tests of introduction of silicate bacteria into the
soil simultaneously with organic-mineral mixes mainly under con-
ditions of Odessa oblast' (the experiments were conducted, in
most cases with corn, as well as with tomatoes, potatges. and winter
wheat). The average increase of yields from the addition of only
411 the organic-mineral mixes comprised 12.7%, while In combination
with silicate bacteria.- 27.6%.
A two-fold watering with the addition of silicate bacteria
(during the period of appearance of corn sprouts and 21 days later
after the first watering) at the rate of 500 L/ba (hectare = 2.471
acres) was conducted.at the Agrobiological Station of the Cherkassy
Pedagogical Institute on the backcround of soil fertilisation
(10 tons of compost, 3 c (centner = 100 kg) of superphosphate and
0.5 c of potassium salt per 1 ha). Acceleration of growth and
development of corn was noted, as well as a sharp decrease in
the infection with boll smut and an increase of the yield of ears
by 18.7% (Assistant Professor I. G. Firsov, 1958).
Head of the Elgavskil Variety Test Plot (Latvian SSR),
L. Gorlacheva (1957), introduced a mixture of the preparation of
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Silicate bacteria with superphosphate into the soil (at i depth
of 5-6.cm) at the time of. the first top dressing of corn (variety
? Sterling). Increases Of yield Of green mass comprised: in 1956 - '
10 c/ha (3.20,), and in 1957 - 49 0/he (k1.9%). In. a similr
experiment with corn it the MatitkoVskii Variety Test Plot, in
Cherkassy oblast', (set naaahchita Rastenii ot Vreditelei I Bolog-
na!" no. 5, 1958,.. U. Petrukovich) the top dressing with.super
phosphate (3 c/ha), which, was first mixed. with 3 L of pure culture
Of silicate bacteria, did not reduce the disease-rate Of plants ?
? with boll smut, entailed d_noticeable increase of infection with.
? fusarlosits bacteriosis Of ears and infection with fungus 5ohaeroa.? ,
theca Lev. No material difference was noted in'the increase Cr.
grain yield in the variante of the experiment.
At the training farm of Onepropetrovsk Agricultural institute ?
(Assistant trofesson E. V. Chemodanova'and Assistant 1. P. Haksimov,
1958). atop dressing of corn with Organic-mineral mixture, with
the addition.of silicate bacteria, reduced the infection of plants-
,
with boll smut more than twice and increased the yield of ears
by 4.2 c/ha (6.0%) se Compared with the plot where only the
organic-mineral mixture was used for the top dressing. According
to the report Of these same authors, on the fields of Aolkhot . ? ?
nimeni Suvorovn, Dnepropetrovsk ration, 35.2 c/ha Of corn ears were
harvested from the control plot (without fertiligers),'on the back.-
ground of organ.ic-mineral MiXture -_44.5 c/ha, while after the
introduction of the organic-mineral.mixture together with silicate
bacteria - 55.1 c/ha. .
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(4) ,Trans. A?I120
M. F. Mukhutdinov (1959) studied the effectiveness of bac-
'terial preparations in their introduction with irrigation waters
under tomatoes and cabbage on plots, the size of 100 sq. st, at
the kolkhoz "intent Chapaeva", Buguruslansk ration, Orenburg oblast'.
He established, as a result of three year research, that a complex ?
bacterization with three preparations (azotobacterin, phosphoro-
bacterin and silicixte bacteria) was characterized by the highest
effectiveness, which was equal to full mineral fertilization in
doses: 16-20 kg of nitrogen, 20-30 kg of Phosphorus and 'EP-20 kg of
potassium per A ha. Moreover, expenditure-: for the complex bac-
. .
terization "is, approximately 10 times less than the corresponding
expenditures in the application of mineral fertilizers".
Different results were obtained by S. U. Petrukovich (1957)
with tomatoes. Moistening of sprout roots with the suspension. of
silicate bacteria (according to instruction of VIZI) did not reduce
the infection of fruits by top ("vershinnol") rot.. In conversion
of the yield (from plots measuring 64 sq. in to 1 ha) the author
mentions an increase of 5,6 C. With the described method of bac-
terization of tomato sprouts by a complex of three cited bacterial
preparations. M. F. Mukhutdinov obtained a considerable increase of
yield (32.4%).
Treatment of seeds with 'the preparations of silicate bacteria.
This method was tested in the overwhelming majority of experiments.
As it was already reported by T. I. Fedotova ('Zashchita.Rastenii
ot Vreditelek I Boleznei", no. 3, 1957), at the sovkhoz "imeni
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411 Stalin", Novo Kubansk raion, Krasnodar krai, the infection of winter
wheat with leaf rust was reduced by half, as a result of treatment
of seeds with silicate bacteria, and the yield of grain increased
by 3 c/ha. Similar data were obtained also in the experiments of
V. I. Krivehenko (1957, 1958) at the cited sovhhoz both on small
plots?.as well as on large production areas.
In the Cited work of T. 1. Fedotova it was also reported about
the very high effectiveness of the use of silicate bacteria for
the increase of disease-resistance end yielding capacity of such
crops as corn, bailey, rice, peas, lupines, and others,. According
to data of a post graduate student of VIZR, Comrade.Mironenko
(1953-1955), it proved to be possible almost fully to liquidate the
foci of fusarium infection as a result of treatment of' rice seeds:
at the kolkhoees of Chechen-Ingush Autonomous SSR, Moreover, the
grain yields increased by 2.6-4.0 c/ha.
The Chair of Phytopathology of the Saratov Agricultural Insti7
tute (Instructor, Professor M. N. Rodigin) has conducted a-series
of experiments on the effectiveness of silicate bacteria at the
kolkhos "Spartak", Alkarsk raion, at the training farm.No. 1
("removal( raion) and at the fUgachev Variety Test Plot. According
to the report of the Candidate of Agricultural Sciences, Z. I.
Rumiantseva, at the kolkhoz "Spartak", in 1956, silicate bacteria
have increased the yield of green mass and of corn ears by 32 c/ha,
At the sane time the amount of ears, attaining milk ripeness at the
time of harvest, increased b.s, 24%. (Begin p. 30]. But next
year different results were obtained. Treat.'
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. ?
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' (6) Trans. A-1120
meht with silicate bacteria did not reduce the number of plants in-
fected with wilt, Ted becteriosis,' boil smut and fusarlosis, but was
accompanied by a reduction (by 18%) of the infection of ears with
alvtolate bacterlOsis.
? It is Interesting,to.point out, that under conditions of ir-
rigation different varieties of corn responded differently to the
.preplanting .treatment of seeds with silicate bacteria. Thus, in
the variety VIR 42 a tendency for the reduction of infection with
boil smut was noted, while in King-Cross 1, on the contrary, for
an increase.
In the experitents'of the post graduate student of the Chair
? of Phytopathology of the Moscow Agricultural Academy "Imeni K. A.
Timirlarev", B. ChelO (1959), at the training farm "Dubki" (Vareisk
raion, Moscow oblast') treatment of seeds of winter wheat("Moskovskala
2453" and wheat-couch grass -hybrid 186) caused a slight reduction
of infection (by 4%) with leaf rust, approximately the same as the
phosphorus-potassium leaf, feeding. A slight tendency (at times in
the limits of a possible error) in the reduction of infection of
wheat with leaf rust was noted In Albania by the same author. For
different varieties, under conditions of irrigation, the treat-
ment'of seeds with preparations of silicate bacteria either did
not tail on the yield of grain (variety San pastore), or caused its
small (by 0.6 c/ha) reduction (variety Tevere), or gave (for the
4
variety S. Kapelli) an insignificant increase (1.7 c/ha).
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(7) Trans. A..1120
It is pointed out in the Cited report of L. Gorlacheva that,
as a' result of treatment of seeds of winter wheat with silicate
bacteria the 'increases of. grain yields comprised: for the variety
Kursas. 9.4%, for the wheat-couch grass hybrid 186 6.8%.
S. U. Petrukovich tested at the ManlkoVsk Variety Test Plot
preparations of silicate bacteria, which were received from the
Odessa Agricultural Institute and. from VIZR. lz the experiments With
'wheat ("Ukrainka USKH1") slight difference* in the limits of the
observations
experiment's error were noted for'both preparation* In mostAin the
Infection of plantings with boll smut, leaf rust end stem rust and
a certain tendency to the reduction of the grain yield (by 0.2-0.3
c/10).
. Ai E. Chumetoy (Zashchita Rastenii ot Vteditelei I Doletnei",
'no. 2# 1958), as a result of experiment*, conducted at kolkhoees
of Krasnodar kral. with the participation of the agrochemist,.
D. A.Andreeva, and phytopathologist, A. G. Zolotova, came to,conui
elusion that "silicate bacteria did not effect a change in the
infection of wheat with rust fungi". At the same time he reported
that...increases in yield on plots, which were seeded with.bacterited
seeds, were "within the limits of experimental error". Particu-
larly, all data "do not confirm the conclusions of T. I. Fedotova
about the technical and economic effectiveness of silicate bac-
teria for the control .of rust'by 0 method of applyingtthem to the
wheat seeds at the time of seeding".
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(8) Trans. A-1120
The Krasnouflmsk State Selection Station (Sverdlovsk oblast)
also did not discover any material positive effect from silicate
bacteria, received from VIZR. here A. S. Boiakova (1959), as a
result of study of these bacteria on the resistance to bacteria and
pests to spring wheat, barley and buckwheat (in an eight-field grass
crop rotation on turf-leached out soil), came to conclusion that.
differences in yields of control and experimental variants "are within
the limits of the experimental error". At the same time, as Boiakova
reported to the editorial office, silicate bacteria did not produce
any noticeabl&effect also on the reduction of the rote of,infec-
tion with leaf rust and Powdery mildew and of injury by frit-fly
and Phorbia oenitalis. Positive results of treatment of seeds of
various crops were pointed out in several other scientific reports.
Thus, in experiments of Comrade Zakharzhevskala (Institute of
Agriculture of North-East) the infection of the long staple flax
With fusariosis was reduced to 7% as a result of'bacterization of
seeds (as compared with lcgl in,the control). Increase of seed yields
by 16% and of straw by 9% were also noted.
Under conditions of Voronezh oblast', according to the report
of Comrade Konovalova, treatment of sunflower seeds with silicate
baateria reduced in-half the infection of this crop with white rot,
and the yield of seeds increased by 3 c/ha (by 20% when compared with
the control).
Silicate bacteria produced a positive effect on sugar beets,
increasing the yield of roots by 27 c/ha in experiments of E. V.
Chemodanova and 1. P. Maksimov (1958).
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(9) 'Trans. As.1120
.V. I. Krivchenko (1957) mentioned reduction of infectiousness
of cucumbers with ground rot from.46.6% (in the control) to 16%
under the effect of silicate bacteria. But A. V. Kolesnik (1959),
under conditions or a protected ground and of a well controlled
regime of vegetation. experiments (on. local chernotem with the ad-
dition of 20% of. crumbly humus ["peregnoi4ypets"]), came to con-
?
clusion, as a result of two years.of-xeseardh of the Chair of
Agrochgmistry and Protection of Plants of the Orenburg Agricultural
Institute, that introduction orsiliCate bacteria together with
cucumber seeds "did not give noticeable positive results neither i
In the, degree of development of plants, nor in the reduction of the
rate of infection with powdery?mildewne the yield of cucumbers,
comprised only 45.5% of the control.
In the above cited report of E. V. Chemodenova and I. P.
MakelmOv (1958) it was mentioned (according to data of newspaper
"Dnepropetrovskaia Pravda" of November 28, 1956) that at one of
the kolkhozes, in Ktimelinitsk oblast', the use of silicate bac-
teria on 12 hectares of a potato field increased the yield of tubers
almost by 50 c/ha (method of the application was not mentioned.
In 1956 Nemeshaevsk Experimental Station obtained negative
results in the treatment of seed potatoes with silicate bacteria.
'In 1957 two additional experiments were conductedt a) on the back-
ground of soil fertilization at the rate of 30 t of manure, 45 kg
?of nitrogen, 60 kg of phosphorus and 75 kg.of pOtassium per 1
hectare, and b) on a manureless, background. It was established., at
the same time, that "bacteritation of tubers on manureless back-
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(10) ? Trans. A-1120
ground did not produce any increase of yield, but, on the contrary,
it even reduced it, There was no increase of yield on the back..
ground of Z..NP. The increase of yield. comprised 5.6% on the back? s,
ground of NK". On the basis of results of these experiments, the
scientific Co-Workers of the Station G. N. Tishchenko, A. D.
Vtganova and A. M. Khoptiuk (1959) consider it impossible "to
agree with the assertion of. individual authors that Silicate
bacteria, give positive results on all different bolls".
Aftereffect of silicate bacteria. lhe attention of researchers
was also attracted, among the most important questions, to-tbe..*
possibility Of an aftereffect through seeds and planting material
on plants of the following generation. According to data of T. 1.
411 Fedotova (1957) and V. I, Krivchenko (1958), seeds of wheat yield,
which were harvested (under conditions of Krasnodar krai) from a
field, where silicate bacteria were introduced, after having been
planted, produced plants with a raised resistance to rust. T. I.
Fedotova points out that the "effectiveness of this aftereffect is
practically equal to the effect of bacteria in the year of appli-
cation, The same was noted in respect to the yield". ?According
to ?data, cited above, of the Nemeshaevsk Station the treatment of
seed potatoes with preparations of silicate bacteria did not en-
tail any noticeable improvements of seeding qualities in the her-
svest of tubers. (Begin p0111
Such are the more or less specific data about the effectiveness
of various methods of application of silicate bacteria for the in-
?
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Trans. A-1120
crease of yielding capacity and reduction of the rate of infection
with diseases of agricultural crops in a short.outline. In addi-
tion to them it is necessary to consider also the report, sent to
the editorial office by the Learned Co-Worker of the All-Union
.Scientific-Research Institute of Microbiology, K. 1. Surman (1959).
It is mentioned there Ins general ,outline that "use of silicate
bacteria is not less effective then the application of the uni-
versal* recognized bacterial fertilizers azotobacterin and phos-
phorobacterin. According to summaries of the years 1956 and 1957
'among the 315 experiments with silicate bacteria an increase of
yield Was obtained in 265 cases".
. As it is seen from the above stated, in a number of expert- '
ments on a large amount of vegetative and field plots, as well as
in production tests on hundreds and thousands of hectares it was
.noted that introduction of silicate bacteria directly into .the
soil with fertilizers, with irrigating waters, with planting and
seeding materials produced considerable increase of yields,.and-
reduction of the rate of infection of agricultural crops with
various fungus and .bacterial diseases, and, what is still more
important, a considerable increase of productivity of agricultural
crops and improvement of the seeding qualities of grain yields.
From the economic point of view the high effectiveness of
silicate bacteria is especially emphasized also by the insignifi-
cant coat of these preparations. It comprises no more than 20-50
kopecks (kopeck 1/100 of a ruble) per 1 ha of planting. Besides
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( 12) Trans. A-1120
? that, introduction of silicate bacteria with fertilizers, with
Irrigating waters, with aced', and such other methods is not con-
nected with economically appreciable additional expenditures.
But mentioning these positive aspects, one cannot close the eyes
on the rather considerable amount of experiments where no positive
effect by 'silicate bacteria was noted neither a reduction of
the rate of infection with diseases, nor increase of yields and
Improvement of seeding qualities (of potatoes).
'Naturally a question arises: what causes the contradiction in .
the evaluation of effectiveness of silicate bacteria? To answer.
this one should know the physiological-biochemical characteristics
411 of the cited bacteria. Is it not, first of all, that the improve-
melte, which can be introduced by silicate bacteria into the con-
ditions of nutrition of plants under different soil-climatic and
economic circumstances are determined exactly by these characteris-
?
tics.
Physiological...biochemical characteristics of silicate bacteria.
A. 0. Aleksandrov points out, that the improvement of nutrition of
plants, produced by silicate bacteria, comes to the feet that these
bacteria, breaking down the aluminum silicates of the soil, increase
the supplies of assimilable potassium; they also convert into a
state that is assimilable to higher plants the supplies of phos-
phorus, which are found in the soil, and they also assimilate
the nitrogen of the air.
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(13) Trans. A?1120
T. I. Fedotova (1957), V. I. Krivchenko (1957, r958) and
K. I. Sur:man (1959) basically confirm the mentioned, role of the
cited bacteria in the improvement of phosphoro-potissiUm.nutri-
tion. At the same time, for instance, according to data of K. I.
Suiman,- "silicate bacteria did not produce any increase of yield
with 0 background lacking mineral fertilizers, did not increase the
yield also on the background of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers.
Increase of yield was obtained only on the background of NK under
conditaons of sufficient potassium and nitrogen nutrition". Ref
sults of experiments (which are cited. by this author, unfortunately*
without mentioning the species Of experimental plants) attest also
that in the chernozem and podzol soils silicate bacteria "can im-
prove potassium nutrition only insignificantly (by 3-00; put can .
facilitate phosphorus nutrition to a more appreciable degree (up to
12-18%)".
? Increase of contents of soluble compounds of nitrogen and
potassium was mentioned in the experiments of A. E. Chumakov (Kras-
nodar krai, l958). But, in contrast to data of K. L'Surman,
changes in the contents of assimilable phosphorus were not dis-
covered.
The plants can have all the necessary elements of nutrition
in the presence of organic-mineral fertilizers. Under similar con-
ditions, in the'opinion of V. G. Aleksandrov (,l958), "the usual
explanation that silicate bacteria'furnish potassium to the plants
In the same manner as Phosphorus bacteria furnish phosphorus or
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(14) Trans. A-1120
agotobacteria-nitrogen, does not suit". It is proper to mention*
in connection with this, that certain authoritative specialists,
microbiologists* repeatedly pointed to the insufficient research
in the biology of silicate bacteria. In individual statements
even the existence proper of such bacteria, as a biological type,
was doubted. At the same time there exist considerable practical
data indicating the singularity of these bacteria, as well as about
the rightfulness of their separation into an independent species.
Of fairly big importance also is the fact that such bacteria,
apparently, often are contained in the soil in considerable numbers
(V. A. Pisemskala and T. A. Kochunova*,1956). Therefore, it might
be wise in many cases, for the increase of effectiveness of silicate
bacteria, first of all to create-Conditions in'the soil, which
would help the multiplication and strengthening of the metabolic
activity of these bacteria.
Experience of many years in the studies of nitrogen-fixing and
other bacteria attests also about possible great importance of
comparative studies and selection of strains of bacteria, which,
occasionally, possess sharply stepped up activity of one or
another property. Such work, in respect to silicate bacteria,
has just been started.
In this way both the physiologo4lochemical data about sili-
cate bacteria as well as the results of field experiments of their
application are far from free from contradictions. They are, in
all probability, conditioned not only by the characteristics of
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(15) Trans. A-1120
strains, soil and soon, but also by differences in methods them-
selves'of microbiological, physiological-biochemical, agrochemical
and other research. Suffice it to say that, for instance, &aortal-
nation of the content Of phosphorus in the soil decidedly depends
on methods of its extraction and of quantitative analysis. But
different authors used dissimilar methods in the studies of.this
problem, as well as in the determination of the contents of other
elements of plant nutrition in connection with the application
of silicate bacteria. This circumstance alone in combination with
a diversity of climatic, soil and economic conditions can lead
not only to contradictory, but even to mutually excluding conclusions,
Along with the cited reasons the lack of coordination In the
evaluation of effectiveness of silicate bacteria is conditioned
to a large degree also by defects in methods of field experiments.
Quite often they were conducted without replications. Consequently,
one of the bisic conditions, necessary for the obtaining of reliable.
results, was violated. At the same time, in the greater part of
experiments in their accounting and analysis proper attention was
not given to the evaluation of accuracy of results and authenticity
of differences in the infection with diseases and differences in
yields of compared variants.
. ,
* * *
(Begin p.321
' The cited practical data and their concise analysis indicate
that the problem about silicate bacteria requires further studies.
'
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Discussion data, published on the pages of the journal, ail
as .other literary data, in conjunction with a series of other re-
ports, enumerated above, - all this points to a possible large econo-
Mic importance of silicate bacteria. But In order, finally, to
. decide the effectiveness of the latter, and, at a positive decision
of the question - to provide in the production practice the stable
effect of these bacteria on the reduction of the rate of infection,
on the raising and improvement of qualities of the yields, it is
necessary basically to improve a further development of this problem.
In contradistinction to separate experiments, which took
place up to the present time, coordinated collective work, is needed
by scientific institutions and kolkhotes and sovkhoses, according
to a single plan, by approved methods, in the presence of a
systematic organisation, methodical leadership and controi. It
can be the 'most correctly carried out by a group of qualified
microbiologists, physiologists, agrochemists, soli scientists,
climatologists, plant growers and phytopathologists. VASHNI4IL
CAll-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences imeni V. I. Lenin)
can organise such a work the best of all.
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Trans. A-1121
vam
Fedorinchik, N. S.
? Effektivnost, biopreparata trikhodermin-.3
(The. effectivenessof biopreparstion Trichodermin-31
Zashchita Rastenii, vol. 44 no. 5, p.32-33.
Sept./Oct., 1959. - 421 Z1
Ain-Russian)
Microorganisms', which live by parasitizing the root...systems
of plants, are to a large degree inhibited by saphrophyte forms
even before they have time to enter the tissue of a living plant.
They develop only in those cases when for some reason or other the-
plant root system has become impoverished in their antagonists.
Therefor* the isolation from different typ*s of soils of the most
hardy and often found microorganisms, which are able to dislodge
and inhibit the parasitic forms, is of great theoretIcal and prac-
t.
tical interest.
Enrichment Of *oil with saprophyte forms, antagonists, can be
achieved in various ways: by. planting specific plants, by special
methods Of *oil cultivation, introduction of directed crop rotations,
introduction of the culture of antagonists in one or another form,
and others. Out research was directed on the enrichment of soil
with the widely known fungusvantagonist, Trichoderma lighorum Hers.,
by means of_its introduction in the form of biopreparation Tricho-
dermin-3. This preparation represents the culture of Trichoderma,
artificially Cultivated and accumulated In the mass on warmed up
pest. We chose peat, as substratum for the nutrition of the fungus,
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(2) Trans. A-1121
.for two reasons: it is the cheapest and most readily available and
itself Is a good organic fertiliser. We prepared Trichodermin ac-
cording to the instruction of the Laboratory of the Microbiomethod
of V1ZR [All-Union Institute of Plant Protection].
At Pavlovsk, on the section of the Pushkin base of V1ZR, a
field experiment with winter wheat "Leningradka" was conducted
for the evaluation of the antagonistic activity of.Trichoderme in
the restriction of development of covered smut (wheat smut). ?rich?.
dirmin-3 was introduced at planting of seeds into the rows at the.
rate of 800 ha/m2. [hectare to 2.471 acres]. The same amount of
heated peat was used in the control. Wheat seeds were planted
without any treatment.
111- In the variant, Where Trichodirmin-3 was introduced into
the 901, the yield of wheat proved to be by 26.7% higher, and
there were by 29.6%-less of wheat smut balls than in the control.
Dusting the seeds with Trichodermin and their.treatment,with the
suspension of the pure culture of the fungus did not produce any
effect. Although Trichodermin, after being introduced into the
soil, considerably limited the development of smut, the contamination
of seeds with spores comprised 6.6%.
Field experiments for the evaluation of effectiveness of Tricho-
dermins.3 in reducing the rate of infection of flax with fusariosis
and black spot were conducted, approximately, according to a simi-.
ler scheme. Data are cited in Table 1.
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( 3) Trans, A412I
Table 1,
Variant
. of the experiment
Plants,
per img
weignt Of
a shgaf from
1 mg (g)
.
76 or plants
infected with
black spot_
,and fusariosIs
:mut PaiLs
[flgolovokn]
per 100
plants .
Control
Introduction of ?rich?.
dermin into the soil
Treatment of seeds with
Trichoderma (pure cul-
314.2
397
350
67
1162
798
15.4
9.5
11.6
479
855 ,
695
iiiill
-
[Begin p.33]
Positive results were also obtained in the restriction of
development of pathogens of. root rot of spring wheat (table .2),
Table 2
?
Variant of the experiment
k
Plants
per 1 m2
Stalks.,
per 1 me
Weight of
seed* per
1 mg (e)
, (of
infected
plants
'Control (pure)
Control (introduction into
the soil of heated peat at
the time of seeding
Introduction into the soil
of Trichodermin at the
time of seeding
Treatment of seeds with
pathogens of root rots of
wheat (Fusarium and .
Helminthosporium) at seed-
ing time
Treatment of seeds with
pathogens of root rots and
Trichoderma at seeding time
1U7
196
212
78
.
145
273
281
321
106
205
38.4
55.5 '
58.5 .
13,6
32.1
4.0
6.0
0,0 .
.
.
24.0
4.0
,
Thus, many-sided field experiments attest that Trichodermin-3
limits the development. of many disease pathogens, which are trans-
ferred through the soil, and An this way produces a positive effect
on the yieldof agricultural plants. The norm of introduction of
110 the preparation in the soil can be different, depending on several
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Trans. A-1121
local,condltions. Less of it Should be introouced Into the soils
that are rich In organic substance, are well bested through and
are normally moistened, but more of it should be Introduced into
Impoverished, cold soils. According to our data, the most advan-
tageous dose with peat is 8 Vha for the north-eastern cone. The
method of introduction is of no fundamental Importance: into the
rows or holes simultaneously with the seeding or planting. The
increase of yield from the cited dose of Trichedertain-3 is greater
than from 00 Vha of pest alone.
The necessity of heating the peat for this preparation is a
drawback in the technology of its obtaining. 4ork is conducted
for the replacement. of heating with composting, as well as with
formalization (by L. F. Abisove, a postmgraduste student).
The effectiveness of Trlchodermin should be tested on * wider
scale. From our point of view there exist all the grounds for its
wide Introduction into product on.
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