PROTECTION OF THE HARVEST FROM PESTS AND DISEASES

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• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP80R01426R010000010001-2
• Release Decision: RIFPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 477
• Document Creation Date: January 4, 2017
• Document Release Date: April 2, 2013
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: July 11, 1951
• Content Type: REPORT

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Savzdarg, R.
2ashchita urozhaia ot vreditelei
--boleznei (Protection of the harvest
from pests and diseases]. Moskva,
1947, 72 p. (Agronomicheskie besedy
no 7M 464.4 Sa 9
Fror2 the editor
Topic 7,
Table of Contents
Trannl. 186: Plant Protectiox
Translated in part from the
Russian by R. G. Dembo
tection of ffarvest from Pests and Dise s
1. Loss of harvest from pests and diseases
2. Posts, their development and propagation
3. Diseases of planta and their causes
4. Yethods and measures-in controlling pests and diseases
5* Main poisons against pests and' diseases
8. Pasts of field crops
7* Diseases of field crops
8* Pests of vegetable crops
9. Diseases of cabbage and of. otatoos
10. Pests of grain and disekses of vegetable during storage
Topic 60 CareOf plants
1. Care of minter crops:
2. Care of spring crops
Pecomtended literature
11 July 1951
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Chuvelchin, V. S.
4116?,. Posobie pe bor'be
velwr, bolezniami seltakokhoziaistvennykh
kulltur (A guide to the control of pests
? *nd diseases of agricultural plants]. ?
Ed. 5 Hoskva, 1945, 484.4C472
Pests and disease
Profs
Tran 1. 167i Plant Protection
Translated in part fromthe
Russian by R. G. Detbo
agricultural plants cause a tremendous harm
to agriculture. This harm is especially great duritg the years of mass
spreading of pasts and diseases. In Tsarist Russia there Were years,
when locust destroyed crops of hundred thousands of hooter, when mice
Used to destroy 50-80 (IA of grain crops in many raion(s) and would
=age fruit crops intensively, when the inter? worm would destroy crops
upon the entireSurface of peanPussia.
According to thepotimation of the entomologist A. G. Lebedev, the
yearly sum of agricultural losses of pre-revolutionary DuBoia amounted
to 1.430 millions of gold rubles from harmful insects alone.
During the years of Soviet Power plant protection grew in the JS&R
conspicuously, and the loss of agricultural crops decreased considerably;
but they still continue being quite high, and the struggle for their
decrease should be .carried out persistently and systematioally.
During 1938-1942 the eurygaster caused a tremendous damage to
agriculture. It infested several mitUons of hooters of grain crops.
The cotton losses in 1941 amounted to more than 48 thousands of tons
of cotton-rev material in Uzbekistan alone from one disease--vericillicse
? Pests cause great damage in storage economy.
Hence it is quite obvious that in the struggle for the increase of
crops of all/agricultural crops and the increase in total crops the measures
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Chuvaki4ti v s,
protection should be gi
early organized -cot
treat attention.
tly and effectively carr
control of pests and die cases along the entire infooted territory the
cropetnotli-only could be -protected against damage, but the
-
pests could be destroyed as tell.
The task of this guide is to turnIsh necessary agricultural biowledge
colllective farm instructor and also' to the d leaders, to-assist
them in aciOiring.the methods in controlling pests, to acquaint them with
the recip48 and applications of the chemical means, rules COD erning the
usage of jpotaons, equipment etc.
Ined for the readerts attention has been expanded in
comparja4 to previous editions. In this edition are mentioned the following
ide plants and their utilize
of many
control, simplent measures in recogn
and di 4206 of rice,pests and diseases
eagyi, pests and diseases .of oil plants.
agricultural
ing chemical substances,
of dding plants, pests
:These divisions will assist the reader in acquiring many important
repies to .qu.utIons hich occur In the practice Of plant protection.
,
*lthough this guide is destined primarily for the European part of
?
but it includes a
lea of "basic agricultural pests and
which are spread in -.Asiatic part of USSR..
Ti71 data included in the guide concerning the productivity of equip..
/ Mont and the
/
for the achle ement of h
4
penditure of labor -are exemplary and should serve as initial
0.
in the control of pests and diseases.
In controlling iqrleulturai pests and diseases the early and correct
out of agrotechnicol. measures applied for the euittvation
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Cbuvakilin, V.
? freed Cr
roccepe ion.
es
iy .1sportant In theon(s
he years of occupation, egrioulturs
In those raion(s) declined. Large fields or land vex ined unplanted and
gra in those places, where sovieg has been done. the agrotechnique
was very low since the maohine production of the Ifachine Tractor Stations
and of collo kve farms use destroyed and the simplest agricultural inven-
tory during the years of occupation either be mme unfit or was destroyed
by fascist aggressors.
The &Crease of .p3anting fields and sharp decrease o1groteohnical
I Greeted favorable conditions 1w the apreadri of posts and diseases
were conducive to the formation ?t riui?oua xew ilia.' La connection
that there is a threat for the agricultural sowing fields which are
entered. This threat ecu
erted only by carrying out sgrtcul
tural rk and especially by the soil cultivation at a high sgroteohnical
level, p peci y by a thorough weed-control,: and
and other.teasur
peat -destruction.
by means f chem
The measures of high agrotechnique creating the best condition for
he development of plants simultaneously decrease drastically the number
of agricultural pests and therefore is recommendedof their control
measures.
In order to avo d repetition, only the most zportant agr.otechnicai
measure applied against each pest and disease are indicated in this guide.
Therefore, when indicating the ma urea in controlling pests and diseases
the agrote hnlcal and agricultural measures are connected under the term
aprophylactio measures".
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Chuvakilin, V..3.
In order to find in this guide the neeesary&nforations concerning
measures of controlling pests and diseases it is necessary to know upon
which plan the said pest or disease has been disclosed; then it is advisable
to find in he table of contents thedivision in Which the description of
pests and diseases of this plant is given and to compare carefully the
disclosed pest or disease with the description and illustrations included
in thie division. Pests which damage many plants are described only in
connection with that plant for which they are of reateat significance.
In those cases when the pest is of secondary importance reference is made
to the page where there are more informations concerning it.
Special divisions of the glide are composed and supplemented by? the
following authors:
Part 1 has been reprinted from previous editions
by V. S. Chuvakhin.
Part II has been reprinted from previous editions and partly supple
mented by B. NA Pastukhov and V. S. Chuvakhin.
Parts III and IV are composed by V. S. Chuvakhin.
Part V has been composed br S. D. Popov and partly supplemented by
V. S. Chuvakhi (Tractor pollinator-cultivator OED and attractant D-2)
Part VI as been composed: about gophers, mice like rodents,
field slugs, lcuat - by P. V. Zarin; about the rest of grain and legum
pests - by D. N. Pastukhov and partly supplemented by V. S. Chuvakhin
(wheat nematod, millet moth); 4Tisesses of grain and legume plants" by
K. S. L stnikova; "Pests and Diseases of rice" - V. S. Chuvekhin.
supplement?
has been
Inted according to previous editions.
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Chuvakhinw V.'S.,
VIII has been composed by Chuvakhin
Parts IX and :X are composed by V. S. Chuvalichin concerning pests and
diseases of cotton pests of kok-nagyz and oil plants; A. U. Nikiforov and
B. N. Pastukhov - about the pests of sugar beets, flax and hemp; K. S.
Nixshnikova - about diseases of flax sugar beets and oil plants.
In present edition the division of pests or sugar beets has been revised
byB. N.. Pastukhov, on pests of flax and hemp -.b S. Chuvakhin.
Division XI has been composed: by B. A. Gerasimov - about pests of
? vegetables by MUshnikov - on diseases of vegetables and partly supple-
mented by V. S Chuvakhin (pests and diseases of carrots).
Part XII has been composed by B. A. Gerasimov. Revised for this..
edition by V S. Chuvakhin on pasts of orchards and vineyards, by K. 6.
NUshnikova - concerning orchard d vineyards,
Part XIII composed by K. S. Wushnikova,
Part XIV composed by V. S. Chuvekhin.
All remarks concerning this book might be ad reseed to: Uoscaw,
0.46 244+
Orlikov str. 3 Sel khozgiz, ( ) "Agriou tural Publishers, editor of
agricultural literature.
End of Article
25 June 1951
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us4010,, J. A. Tranel. 186: Plant Protection
Bolesni ael'skokhosiastvennfth rastenii
(fitopatologia) [Diseases of agricultural
plant?PhytopathologY)1 1940. 464 N222
Foreword
Introduction
Table o
Part
ont
nts
Translated in part from
Russian by R. O. Dembo
ODERAL . "0 IATION C0NCERNl10 PLANT DISEAS
Chap. 1. DiagnoBis of plant diseases
Tho incipa1 exterior signs of plant infestation (7),
The neceseity of specific definition of the cause for
the disease (13). Diagnostic significance of signs (13).
Stating the diagnosis In phytopathology (16).
Chap. 2. The basic characteristics of plant diseases
Definition and causes of plant diseases (17). Comparison
between the plant diseases and diseases of men and animal (18
Principals of classification of diseases (19). The trans-
formation in plants as the result of pathological pro-
cess (21). The meohinism of damage caused by diseases (22).
Consecutive phases of the infectional process (23). Phases
of plant diseases (25). Types of plant diseases (27). The
wintering of parasites and the problem concerning inherited
plant diseases (28).
Chap. S. Nonparasitio plant diseases
. General oharacteristios (30). Surplus and deficiency
of meleture in the soil, the effect of low temperature (30).
Chap. 4. Vino Plant Diseases 34
Genera characteristic -of virus diseases (34). Degree
,of constant symptoms (35). The intentional character
of virus. diseases (36). The wintering of the virus under
various conditions (37). The character of lootalieation
1,,,sn
.of virvees (30). Centemporary lens rIg the nature
r D
o virus OW). TAO nature ILn degree or virus immunity(40).
The spreading of the virus on the plant '(41).
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Noutnav,
Bolesni seltskolhoziastvennykh
aetenii (fitopatologia).,...4
. 5. Bacteria as plantparasites
The si nificance of bacterial diseases (43). CauseS for
diseases and conditions for their development (44). Types
of pathological processes (45). Basic meahures in co
trolling bacterioses 47).
43
? ntinomicetes as the cause for plant diseases
sent pointe of view concerning the systematic con4itte-
actinomieetes (48). The role of actinomic tee in scab
diseases of potatoes and sugar beets (48
hap. 7. Fungi as plant parasites
General information concerning fungi
Systematic location of fungi and their origin 60). The
structure of the vegetative part of _fungi (51). Forms ?
of existence of fungi originated from mycelium (52). Types
? of vegetative propagation of fungi (64). Reproductive
propagation of fungi (66). Distribution of sex with lower -
and higher fungi (60).
nCiplOe in fungi systemisation
hort survey of fungi system (61). The characteristic of
he most important systematic groups (64). Peculiarities
of tho cycle of fungi development (75). Questions concerning
the variability of fungi, significance of adaptation cases
of mutation, hybridization and heteroce.riousness (79).
idea concerning morphological species. specialized forms ,
and races or of biotypes (85).
60
61
Chap. 8. General physiology and ecology of fu 86
Peculiarities in fungi food (86). Parasitism and saprophy 18131,
classification of intermediate categories (86). Itypotheses
Which explain the possible ways of evolution of parasitism (88
Adaptation or speoializatin or fungi (88). Buis for the under-
standing of specialized form and biotype from point of view
of specialization (90). The possibility of growing and
preservation of fungi in the soil (91). The gravth of spores
with fungi and the conditions involved (92). The mechanism
of nourishment of ecte- and endoparasites (93). The influence
of exterior conditions: 0 n the development or fungi (94).
The ability of fungi to endure unfavorable conditions (95
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VILUMOV, N.A.
Bolethi selldkoOoziastvennykh
411 rastenii (fitopatologia)....
Chap: 9. Bigher (angiosperms) plants- ae plant parasites 97
? Parasitiah among higher plants (97). Peculiarities n
. nourishment of green and non-green parasites (97): The
:
most important representativesof parasites (99).
Chap:-10. Ecology, dyne:Mice and forecast of diseases 104
elegy of diseases
Thesignificance of the anvironmeiit during the development
of diseases (104). The significance of temperature and of
moisture during the development of the parasite (106). The
afloat of light upon the fungi (106).
Dynamics of diseases ? ?
Areas of the spreading of the diseases (106). The
?spreading of diseases in the direction from bidi (109).
List of diseases imported from America into &trope and
vice versa (110). Attempts' of determining the regularity
of the spreading of parasitic fungi and bacteria (113).
Dietribution of parasitic spores by aerial movement (113
The share of insects in the matter of spreading of ft (116).
General conolusione (119).
at for diseases
Tho significance of tore?
forecast (121).. Warning
t (120). Various types of
24).
120
thiip. 11. Bsctc information about the immueity of plants ?126
Susceptibility and immunity of plants (126). The possi-
bility of finding immune species of plants (126). The
change of 'specialisation anal aggressiveness of the'
parasite duringmutation/a&Ing hybridization -(127).
Biochemical and other qualities of plant0126). The -
characteristic of inheriting immunity through inter-
breeding (129). Problem of acquired immunity of plants (132).
Conditions of enviroment (134).
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4.
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-Doloshi sel'skokhosiattennykh
rastenii (fitopatologia).....
p?
Part I/
=SODS OP corfRomano PUNT DISEASES
2. Gonex;a1 coneideratLons concerning the methods of control. 135
Categories of measures (156). Systems of measures (136)
Selection of possible measures (137). The significame of
immune species (138). Conditions for decrease of degree
of significance of parasites (1$9). (3uarantine meaeures
and the government's quarantine of plants in USSR (140
Preventive meaaures of control (agrotechnical) (142).
Chemical measures of control (144).
Chap. 13. PrInciples of the chemical control method
Role and significance of the chemical method in plant
protection (146). Idea of poison and toxic chara?rtsttca
(147). Dissociation and toxicity adsorption (150).
Definition of various types of toxicity (151).
146 ,
' Chap. 14. Spray.xig and pollination
General Information coerning spraying and pollinati
The principal purpose of' praying (164). TimsHand
schedule of spraying' (155). Comparative evaluation Of
the methods otspraying and of pollination (150.
Spraying of plants
Machines for spraying (157). Compounds for spraying (1
Individual c)aractorietios of fluid fungicides (169)
Most known groups of poisons
Fungicides of copper groups (162). Fungicidee of ulphur
groups MO.' Fungicides of arsenic group (157).. Other
fungioides.(asseMbly greup).(176).- Combined- compounds (179)
154
16/
162
Pollination of plants
General demands for powdery fungicide (179). urvey.o
most widely spread dry fungicides (161). The effect o
the fungicide on the plant (182),.- Influence of the
presence of traces of fungicides in nourishing preduct (1
119
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Boleeni selsakekhoziatvennykh
rastenii? (fitopatologia)
Chap. 15. Disinfestation of seed material, soil, buildings 164
Disinfeetation of seed material
?Peculiarities of the dig/ate:station method (164). Machines
for disinfestation(166). Primary and secondary effect of
fungioides (167). The necessity of applying the thermic
-disinfestation (168). Disinfeetation by the chemical
method (189). general ideas concerning the dry and non.
dry method of poisoning (193). Disinfestation by the
thermic method (194).
Disinfestation of the root system and of young plants 19
Disinfestation of the soil
Disinfostation by the chemical method (196). Disin-
festation by the thermic method (200).
196
Disinfestation of cultivated buildings and storehousos 2oe
Disinfeststion Of cultivated buildings (202). Mein-
festatipia of storehouse* (202).
Norma of the expenditure of fungicide in various fields
of agriculture
DISEASESOF FIUD P1$ T3
p. 16. Smut of eerea a . 206
general information concerning *mut
Harm caused by diseases of cereals (206). Causes for
smut (24). Biological characteristics of smut fungi (209).
rays of plant infestations (210). The significance of
the amount of intectional origin and other factors (211).
2mut species affecting wheat
ret or malodorous smut - Tilletia tritici (213). Dusty
smut - Ustilegp tritici (216). Stem smut of wheat
Urooystis (Tuburcinia) tritioi (218).
Species or sMut effecting rye
Stem smut of rye 7 (kooystie (Tuburcinia). occults: (220).
Vet smut of rye Til etia_secelie (22i)
213
220
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uaumov, v. a.
Bolezni oellskokhosiatvennykh
iastenii
Species of smut affectingbarley 221
flard smut of barley tietilago Jensenii (2 1). Dusty
emut or barley - Ustilago nude (222).
of smut affecting bate
sty Smut of oats Ustilego-ave (222). ? d it
of oats leVie (228)
Species of smut affecting corn
? Vesicular smut of corn --Ustilago sees )228). Dusty
smut of corn - porospOil*Reilianum_(224)..
Spedies of smut affecting panic grass
Smut or panic grass . Ustilago panici.militee 2
The system of in controlling smut
Chap, 17. Rust of cereals
General information. conoerning rust
Causes for rust, p?ouUsrit&e8 in their development
? and parasitising (228). List ? of rust fungi parasitising
on cereals-(229), Amount of losses from rust (230).
rechanisM of harmfulness of' rust (230). Peculiarities
? of oontrolling rust (281). '
Species ef.iUst
Linear rust of cereal Puoeinie graminis (232) Crowned'
rust of oats . Puceinia coronifera (240Y. ,Brown rust of
? wheat . Puccinia tritioina (244)-. Brown ret of rye -
Puoqinia disperse* (248). Yellow rust or cereal .
Pucoinis glumatum(260). Dwarf rust of bailey Puoeitia
anomaia (2607-84ge4f4sonee-ef.smuse-opeeitee.4e.
me4r4les-eP-seiattnt-rest.et.speetlet.
'Significance of immune species in the, mat of oontrollin
rust of cereal
The method and technique of .eradiatthg the temporary
hosts of rust
The significance of the chemiesi method of controlling
rust or grain
226
228
228
232
8
259
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E10102ril set w szoicnoztavvennysn
rastenii (fitopatologie.).
Chap. 18. ravenous oro tie on cereals 262
Earmfulness of the dig09100 and general evaluation(262).
Morphology or the parasite and the symptoms of infes-
tation (262). 6Pecia1isation of the parasite (264).
Ecological peculiarities (264). Various harmfulness
of gangrenous ergotism (266). Measures for controlling
gangrenous ergotism (2(6).
-Chap. 194 Fusariosee of cereal gee
Various types of manifestation
Sweating of cereal - Fusariumnivale and any other
species
General picture of the development of the disease (269)
Causes of fusarioses (270). Infestation of various
species (271)
Drunken cereal [Brown Fool; Rot and Ear Blight, Fusarium
herbarum, F. Graminum,. . avenaceum (F. subulatumi,
F. culmoruml and other ?ote?nfesting spikes - Fusarium
greminearws
General picture of development of the disease (272)
Causes for the disease (273). The significance of
climatic factors (275) Control measures against fosari-
oses (276).
Fusarioses of corn - Oibberelle, Fusarium and others
269
272
277
'COnsral.evaluation and symptoms at infestation 1277
? Control measures (276).
Chap. 20. Mildew, holminthosporium a.d bacteriosie of cereal ? '279-
1ildew of cereal. - Brysiphe graminis (279). Helmit ho.
sport= or cereal . Belminthosporium gramineumi. H. tares,
H. sativum (280). Baotoriosis of cereal spikes . Bacterium
transluoens var. undulosum and other species (282)
?Baotericais of corn - Alpanobaoter Stewartii and Bacillus -
A e (266).
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NAUMOV, N. .
Bolensni eel sakokhoaistvennykh
rastenii (
Chop. 21. Diseases of fodding plants (cereals and legumes) 265
Present condition of the problem (285
Diseases of clover 286
Clover canker - Sclerotinia trifolorum (286). Floral
mold of clover - Botrytis anthophila (287). Anthraonosis
of clover 01Ceoskorium caulivorum (286). Fusariosis of
clover - Fusarium trifolii, F. redolens and other speoies
? (289). Rust of clover Uromvces trifolii and other
? species (290). Mildew of 7=7.-- rrysiphe communis (290).
Peronospore of clover - Peronospora trifolii=arvensis..and
other species (290). Spottiness ?of clover leaves -
species Ascochyta, percospora, Pseudopezia,'Phyllostiets
ahd 'other ipeolea (291). Bacteriosos of clover- Bacterium
trifoliorum, Bacterium radiciperda (292). Dodder on
()lover - species of Cuseuta (292).
Diseases of alfalfa 293
Brown spottiness of alfalfa leaves - Pteudopetiza
medicaginis (298). Peronsopore on alfalfa - Feronospora
aestivalis (294). Dodder on alfalfa species of
Casouta (292).
Diseases of meadow cereal 296
Part rv
DISFASES.OF TCNICAL PLANTS
Chap. 22. Diseasee of potatoes 800
General information (500). Potato fungus, or potato
rotteness, potato mold, phytophthora Phytophthora
infestans 3-1).
Virus diseases of potatoes
Rolling of potato leaves Loaf roll (all). Curliness o
potato leaves - Crinkle (512). Striped spottiness -
Stipple-streak. (i8). Mosaic of potatoes (514). Aucuba -
Aucuba ( 314).
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Us
Bolenzni seltskokhoziaistvennykh
rastenii (fitopatologia)..,.... A
Bacterial, diseases ,of potatoes
Wet rot (315). Black lag of potatoes - Bacillus
phytophthorus (316). Bacterial wilt of potatoes e
Bacterium solanacearum (317). Cirole rot of potatoes -
Bacterium sepedonicum (Aplanobacter sepedonioum)(317).
Brown or ferrous spottiness of potatoes - Bacterium
solaniolens (318).
315
Fusariosie of potatoes 318
Wilt of potatoes (verticillose) Verticillium albo-
atrum-(320). Black soab of potatoes (rhitoctinia)
Rhizoctinia solani, basidial stage - Bypochus solani (321)
Spottiness of potato leaves: - Naorospoiqum solani (321)
Yellow spottiness of potato leaves Cercospora ooncors(323)
Canker of potato tubers? Synchytrium endobioticum (323).
Scab of potatotubers (329).. Dustlike Boa of potatoes
Spongospora subterransa (Wallr.) Johns. (syn. S. Bolan/
Brunch) (351), .Analysis of potato tubers in search of
canker, dustlike scab and rhisoctinia ($36). The system
of measures in controlling potato diseases ( 36),
Chap. 23. Diseases of sugar beets . 389
General information (339). Root eater of sugar beets
(diseeSe of complex character) (340). Rot of sugar beet
pith - Phoma betee(342). Cercosporose of sugar beets -
Cercompora betiCOla (343).- Virus diseases of sugar bests
(3461. dlitgatnalau rot (a complex disease) and organi-
tation of preserving sugar beets(347). The system of
measures in controlling sugar beet diseases (351).
Chap. 24.. Cotton Diseases 353
General information (353), Bacteriosis (hommoz) of cotton -
Bacterium malvacearum(354). Tracheomisis of cotton -
species Vertioillium and Fusarium (.362). Curlineas of
cotton, leaves (virus disea8e)(636). Rot of cotton roots
(367), 'Canker of root nook - Fusarium bubaricum(368)
Anthracnosis of cotton Colletoripum gossypii (Syn.
Glomerella gossypii) (369). Diseases of cotton bolls
and,of fiber 070).
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mmulavvi 1.
Bolentni seliskokhoziaistmennykh
rastenti
Chap. 25. Flax Meows 373
Genera. information 373). Flax anthracnose Oolloto richum
linicolum (syn. Coll. lint, Gloesporium lint) (374). Fusari-
osia of flax - Fusarlum lint, partly other species (F.
graminearum, P. sp of the section Gibbosumil (377). ?Brown
spottiness of flax stems ("frangibility of stems"), poly-
sporop less correct - "drying") - Pol s ora
Dying of flax stems (ascochyta of flax Ascot:10a lint-.
cola ($81). Flax rust ("drying", "mukhosea) - Melempsura
lint (381). -Flax bacteriosis (384). Flax disease "pa8amo"-
1 ctaena 11-icola-(cyn. Soptoria linicota), marsupial
ascomycete e Weosphaerella linorum (Ur.) N. Baum.
(385).? Flax dodder 0Uscuta epi1iuum (386Y. Measures for
corkrolllnx flax diseases (388
* *
Chap. e
es of Sunflower
General information (395). thite rot of sunflower, Bolero-
tinia - Sclerotinta Liberttana(395) Rust of sunflower
Fuccinia hetianthi (399). Orobanche on the sunflower 7.
Orobanche cumana and 0. ramoaa (401). Verticillose of sun-
flower - Verticitium dahltae (401).
Ohap-gb, Diseases Tobacco and mskhorka (Tobacco rusticanal 406
,General information (05). Black leg so other disease
of seedlihge (405). _Black and grey-rot or seedlings
.-
Alternaria op, and Botrytis Oinerea (406), Black root
rot of tobacco - Thielaslopsis basicola (407). Plate
rot - Solerotinia Libertiana (408). Fusariose milting
of tobacco ..'Fusarium Oxyopprum mar.-nicotianae (408).
Mildew of tobacco - bnrst.heoichorearuief.nicottana
(409). Bacterial spottiness
(410). Bacterial wilt of: tobacco -.bacterium
solanacearum (410). Virus diseases of tobacco (411)..
Orobanche on tobacco Orobanche ramose. (413). Non-
parasitic diseases of tobacoo,(413J. System of measures
in controlling tobacco diseases
Diseases of Hemp ?
-(kral information (391). Branchy oroba.nche Orobanc
a (391). Mite rot Sclerotinia Libertiana (3931.
spottiness of hemp stem - Dendroehomm Mmrconii (393)
391
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Solenzni sellskokhotiaistvennykh
raatenii (fitopatologla
Part V
'DLSEAS GP GARDSD ADD MEWS PttLD. CROPS
. 29. Diaea?e of cabbage and other mustard family.416
General information (416). Cabbage hernia (416). Dis-
eases of seedlings of cabbage and of other mustard
family (black leg and similar cases) - Rhisoctonia.
Phytium and others (424). ftrenospore on cabbage -
Perenospqra brassicae (425).
?
Chap. 30. .Diseases. -of legumes
426
Rust of legumea -,Urotypes pis* and U. us(426)
Anthracnose of beans -,Gleosporium Lindem len= (42?).
Spottiness of fruit and of peas - Ascochyta_ pisi (429).
White rot of peas (430). Grey rot of beans and peas (431)
S.
Chap! 3j, Diseases of Gourd plants .
432
Perenospore or oucumbers - Pseudo ro os or ubensis (432).
Sacterios of cucumbers Bacterims n 433 . Mosaic
of cucumbers (434). Mildew of gourd plants - atinymumtat
fulisinea and Erysikhe oichorsoearum (434). Mite rot of
gourd Sclerotinia Libertiana (435). Grey rot of govrd
family - Botrytis cinerea (485). Anthracros of gourd
("medianka") E9J1.2Lt2tr..LpLg_iu.mlaenari_um (436). Smoky
said of cucumbers and their other diseases in hothouses
(437)
Chap. 32. Diaeases of P
and other pzte of the carrot family 439
acterial rot of carrots and other plants (439). White
rot Of carrots, parsley and celery - Oelerotinia Liher-
tiama (440:
Chan. 33. Dt.seese of.oni
Perenospore Of onion, -
Onion smut - Driecystis
White -rot of onion - Se
The 578teD0 of measures
442
onospore Schleidenii (442).
uburcinia) cepulae (442).
erotium cepivorum7447).
in controlling diseases of onion(447
?
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Naumov, 5. .11? ?
Bolenzni sel'skokhoziaistvennykh
rastenii
Cahp. 34, Diseases of tomato s 449
? Brown spottiness of tomato leaves - Cladosporium
Ally= (449). Rot of tomato fruits (449). Virus
diseases of tomatoes (461). Bacterial canker of
tomatoes - Aplanobacter michiganense (452). Wilt
of tomatoes (454). The system of measures in
controlling tomato diseases (454).
OF FRUIT - BRRIES
. 35. Diseases of the apple and pear tree 455
General information (455). Fruit rot - Sclerotinia
(Stromatinia) fructigtena, Lonilir fructig?iia7Tr5T.-
Scab of apple and pear tree - Venturie. inaequalie,
V pirinu (Fusicladium dendriticum, F. Pirinum) (460).
Bacterial or root canker (3i7Wpody of roots)?
Bacterium tumefaciens (466). Rust of apple and pear
trees - Gymnosporangium tremolloides and G. sabina (469)
Black rot (black canker) - Sphaeropsis maloram (471).
Mildew - Sphaerotheca mull Burr. (Podosphaera leuco-
triche. Salmo nj (475). Diseases of trunks and of
branches -f fruit trees (frost-hit, drying of the top, 4
the fungus meroullus, hollow, etc.) (475). The system
of measures in controlling diseases of apple and pear
trees (476).
Chap. 36. Diseases of. stone fruit 478
General information (478). Grays or frui , rust. -
Sclerotinia (Stromatinia) laxa (S. cinerea),tonilia
IrX;-TE-JfneraTTBqO7--Pocket Plums Exoasous pruni
(480). Illtches broom on cherries - Exoascus cereal -CM)
Crinkle of cherry loaves - minor
of peach leaves - Exoascus deformans (482) Mildew of
plums - Podosphaera tridactyla (483). Naldew of Peaches -
SphaerotWica pannosa (483). Spottiness of leaves and
c- fruitsof ttohe ft-aft plants (alto hommoze of fruit
trees) - Clastorosporium carpophilum (484). The system
of measures in controlling diseases of stone fruit plants
(486).
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No.4mov, II. A. -
-Bolenzni eePskokhoziaistvennikh
rastenii
? Chap. 37. Diseases of g apes
General information (487) Mildew of grapes Plasmoparai
viticola (487) Oidium Unoinula necator Burrill (syn.1
U. Spit-alio e r.k et (urI17377a). Cerecsporose of
vine, - Cercospora Roeslerii And C. vitieola, partly also
other species (490. Anthracnose of vine Gleosporium
ampelophagum (494). Chlorose (495). '.Grey rot or vine-
Botrytis cinerea (496). nits' rot of vine Coniot
diplodpella (497). The system of measures for control-
ling vine diseases (497). -
487
Chap. 38. Dis ases of berry pieita 499
American mildew of gooseberry - $ haerotheca morsuVae 499)
Anthracnose of red currant - Gl000sporium ribis (b03).
Rust of currant and :of gooseberry - species of the genus
Puceinta (505). Rust of black currant Cronartium
ribieola (506).
'Chap. 9. Diseases of frit and of vegetables during: storage and
transport
Ecological peculiarities of storage (508). Basic
parasite diseases of fruit plants (511). Baeic parasite:,t
diseases of vegetable plants (515); Measures' precedng
storagp (519).
508
index of the basic
and chapters
appliedatare to indiv
index of nsmes of diseases and their causes
epics ?.
52l ?
547
IndeX of Latin nanes ? or fungi, bacteria,? their na-
mitters and parasites of higher (floral) plants 552
END
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Phytopathology on a new track.
2ashch. East. 119-14. 1935. 421 P942
The fact that plant distas
- cereal, technical plinte,
It is sufficient to
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Trans'. 189: Plant Protection
Translated by R. G. Denbo:
'cause great losses and low crops of -
?fruit, Vegetable and food plants is well known.
ntion dozens of per cents (and in some 04606 All
100 o,/o) of pbtato tubers which ro
for instance, as .the result of infest*
- tion by the fungus Phytophtora infestans.. In the past, under the oonditions
of capitalistic "organization" of production, under the conditions of cruel
nal
disasters. One of such disasters was mentioned by Engels. Ht. speaks.of -
the starvation which occurred in 1847 due to the potato disease in Irelan4.
As the result of such catastrophe was the death of ono million Irishmen
and a forced emigration across the Atlantic of two millions who lived on
potatoes or almost only on potatoes. ("Dialectics of natur Moe ow, .193S,
page 58).
We may also mention the infestation of cereals (wheat, rye, barley and
others) by fungi of the genus FUsariun., As the result of the activity of
exploitation of the working class, this fungus caused greatest
these fungi the crops lost its economic valu
population was forced to use
; in those cases when the
such breed for nourishment severe mass'dis gees
developed. Such a situation occurred
by smut.
Besides the
0 as a result of rye infestation
when the harmful activity of agricultural diseases
was obvious, a greater number of cases should be taken into emsideration,
when the disease is very little notice or unnoticed at all by the unskilled
observer, nevertheless destroys A great amount of drops..
The socialistic reconstruction of the entire national economy of USSR,
the collectivization and the construction of Soviet farms entirely ex ludis
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Dunin
PhytopathoIogy on a new track.
at the
nt tise the possibilit
a
of such -.Oharac-.
ter and size to which Engels was referring. Nevertheless, in spite of all
our achievements, we are far from, that position when it would be pos ible
to say that the socialist agriculture does not have great losses in agri-
culture. And 1f the increase of the quantity and the improvement of the
quality of crops upon the fields of collective and Soviet farms, in
collective and Soviet farms, orchards and gardens, is the central problem
of socialist agriculture during the second Fivo-Year=Plan then t in quite
clear that for the practical solution of such problem, placed before the
country by the party and by the government, the study of plant diseesea is
of primary and often of decisive importance.
Already in previouo years, as a result of phytops.thological r?arch
widely expanded by numerous scientific institutions in various corners of
the Soviet Union, the Soviet phytopathologists su?oeeded in introducing
into Produotion a whole eries of most important and often entirely new
and very effective measu
I don't consider it as my task to summarise the results of this pork,
but it is necessary to mention the following facts. In Tsariot Russia the
losses from smut alone according to most modest account, amounted to
10 Of the total crops. As the result of utilizing poisoning of seed
. grains in collective farms, Soviet farms and in individual farms those losses
were reduced several tithes in 1933 in comparison to pre-revolutionary
conditions. This progress
s achieved in huge collective farms and State
Of course,
even =Mt the losses from snut are quite signticant. It is necessary to
- farts with the help of hew, more effective and cheaper mordants.
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Dunin
Phytopathology on a new track.
work hard to invke these lossen entirely unnoticedin our socialistic
economy. Nevertheless the given figures indicate undoubted and great
success resulting from the great organizational-tecbnical changes in
controlling
/n the field of protecting potato drops from most dangerous diseases
we y speak now of the most essential results mad primarily of the fact
that in the very near future the collective and Soviet farms of the raion(s)
which are most Infested by potato disease will obtain species immune to
. this destructive disease, and which at the same time yield high crops, with
high contents of starch, with good taste good form of the tubers, etc..
From disconneoted neasuree to a system of measures.
We might mention the fact that as the result of a successful collectivi-
zation and construction of huge highly mechanized Soviet farms, the initia-
,
eries of very
tive of Soviet phytopatholegiste manifested itself in a
successful attempts of shifting from individual and: disconnected control
measures against diseases to whole, completed systems of measures, both
prophylactic and healingdestroying.
no doubt, the future belongs to such a type of work in the field of
practical phytopathology.
Nevertheless, it is necessary to note, that in this precious 'work,
Soviet phytopethologists:vere forced to construct projects of similar
systems based upon old data obtained under the conditions of pre-revolu-
tionary farms or even in foreign practice which took place, it organiza-
tional tochnioaj conditions, which differ considerably from the conditions
-
of our collective and Soviet fa
the
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4
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Durtin
Phytopathology on a new trac
Now thisgap should be fii d In the shortest.time.
Basic attention to all species of prophylactics.
The Soviet phytopathology ahould pay in its system of
attention to the division of prophylactic work. It is not necessary. te
prove that ththr work provides the most reliable, the most simple and
most access Dale measures against ali, including the most dangerous and
the hard eradicated diseases,
For a practical phytopathologiat, this c/a* that in his further
measure
spec al
work in constructing and improving complex protective systems, he should
pay apecia.l attention to the creatg of an organic relaton with Agra-
technique,. During crop rotation of real cotton, fruit-vegetable and--
other collective and Soviet farms concerning problems of pre-sowing
411 preparation of the soil about timing, depth and mays of ploughing and in
?
a whole series of other problems of agrotechnique, the.phytopathologicai
point of vew should find a constant end ntif ly-founded productively
-
effective reflection.
During the second Pie-Year-Plan, the field of Irrigated agriculture
in the men increased considerably. Phytocathologie
ahould fulfill a
series of special research,even here, in theirrigated raion(s), for
new pIsnts so that theArrigated agriculture, as a result of corresponding
prophylac enures should yield not only high but Immune crape as well,
insured against "unexpected epiphytes..
Other possibilities of prophylactic are closely related to the ro-
technical side of the work of phitopethologiste. I have in mind. the
probleiof immunity of agricultural plants to diseases..
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Dunin
Phytopathology on a new track..
!I?reit is necessary to distinguish two roads whIch open
scientific research wide vtstas which are of great significance in soc alistic
agriculture4
The first road,, partly assimilated, ts the active participation of
phytopathologists'in the work of cresting immune species. Although, as
v6 mentioned already, we are at the present time at the beginning of
introducing immune sp
cies of potatoes to phytophthora, although there'are
species of wheat and of oats immune to rust diseases., although vegetable
crops has few species with high 'immunity to various diseases in the field
and during the storage of yield yet it is necessary to mention that the
phytopathologists of USSR are in a very insignificant degree drawn to this
work. To a grater extent he participation of phytopsithologists limits
itself to occasional expertisa. At the same time the phytopathologists
?
who utilize the newest Methods snatomoomorphologic
and bio-chemical research should become constant participants of spats*
matte work along with selectioners and should assimilate the new species
along with the seed growers.
The second course, whose revolutionizing possibilitiev is hard to
evaluate today i he immunisation of plants. It is entirely outside
the sphere of attention of phytapatholegists. Until recently many
authorities 'denied even the possibility of immunisation and at present
time there is no lack in such expressions. Nevertheless, the farther
Ile advance, the 'less there s decisiveness in such statements because
many facts indicate the mistake of such affirmations. It is necessary
that the Soviet phytopathology? without anydelusion about the absence
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Dunin
PhytopathoIogy on a new-track.
of complications should undertake a further working out of the problems
of artificial munizatlon of plants, at
assimilation of that.factuahmaterial
present time and which does not permit
outstanding field of phytopathology.
field would be
ting the 'work with: a critical
h has been accumulated atthe-
ther ignoring of this new and
the necessary attention this
ble to develop into an independent scientific discipline
as it happened with the study of Immunity of animals and :man
Until recently all the attention of Soviet phytopathologists was
directed to the study of those disco
which -caused great damage to various
'fields of socialistic agriculture. The phytopathologists wholForked with
these diseases ad not pay almost any attention to those diseases of
agricultural plants vhieh don't even exist in the USSR. Two principal
oiroumstan
ed escaped the attention of the scientists; first that these
diseases in a series of countries and
damage to foreign agriculture; second,
of the cause of these diseases did not
Individual countries caused great
that the biological peculiarities
exclude the possibility of their
penetrating and spreading within the borders- of USSR.
Such sever lessons as the spreading ofpseudo.mildew of gooseberry
and especially potato tanker (In *stern Europe) illustrate quite clearly
hat could happen when there' is nb'sufficient attention to this group
of diseases.
Therefore in the future for. the development of our ecrk, we should
take to the point of departure .the following -condition: the maximal attention
of the Soviet phytopathologisti should be concentrated not only Upon
economically important diseases which exiSt in USSR, but upon those d&eessea
As well which don't exist at all in the Soviet Union or those which exist
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Dun in
Phytopathology on a. new track,
-_ but which manite.st their harm/ oilly in a few raion(s) of the Soviet Union.
A thorough and wide study of diseases of this second group
necessary condition of wilfounded and effective applicatio
measures.
Stepchildren of phytopatholo y
the objects of phytopathologioal research, as a rule,
nonparesitic diseases, bacterloses and virus diseases occupy an insufficien
place*
Such a situation should be chan
should attract the same attention
for. instance, the diseases of petabolism. It is necessary to recognize
'as quite abnormal when the pathological processes, caused by the incorrect
regime of mineral food, unpleasant physical intlue c etc. are studied
only by agroohemists, physiologists climatologists, etc The phyto-
pathologist with his specific point of view could and should introduce
Into his own methods and results of study this important group of diseases.
flare -we must count the experience of foreign p ytopatologists who along
with fungi and bacterial diseases dedicate great attention to those plant
diseases which are caused ,byintarior and exterior unfavorable conditions
rOpect to the plant).
According to the tradition of the myatilogists who head the phytopa ho-
logical work vre devoted until now little attention to that important
most
? -tire y. ..!poparasitit diseases-
:o noninfectional diseases;
-group of diseases which are caused by
ler -organisms. and are called
bacteriosis*: It is possible that our cotton tame, citrus orchards,
grain and legume crops and other Plants suffered much less from cotton
hommoze, from such diseases of citrus as, for instance-, "citrus bl4st".
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?
?
Dunin
Phytopathology on a now track.
and other species of bacterioses, if these diseases would have occupied
a corresponding 'Aloe in scientific research. -
A group of virus diseases of occasional character (sometinies-subjective)
catch our attention only in individual
aion(s) of ussn and not because
only.in these ralon(s) these diseases have arOerious economic significance.
, Potatoes, legumes, vegetables, end. in recent time also cotton - all
these diseases are infested by virusdiseases, whose spreading and harm .
- are Jeer aeing con tantly in a series of cases 4.special character of
virus diseases, the peculiar ways of their spreaeing should become the
subject of widely organized, systematie research. Only in this case: :could
ue expect the -working out of a series of effective protecting measures
against all important manifestations Of virus diseases upon important
plants, .
Chemization and mechanization of controlling plant diseases
Based upon the results of phytopathoIogicel research and ,according
to'organizationaletechnical work conditions in collective and Soviet farms-,
the applicationf chemical methods of plant protection, in connection
with the, inprovsment of corresponding machines and equipment, should be
expanded. Until recently the initiative of4hytopathologists vas insufficient. .
As the proof ofthis shortco&ng mould be considered the fact that, for
instance, -the most powerful apparatus - the airplane - has considerably
re limited field of application in controlling dIseales than it has in
controlling pests; the fault lies in the specific peculiarities of the
controlled objects. The main, idea is that ee forgot the special role of
the aviomethod in socialistic agriculture, the Initiative given to engineers,
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S
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Dunin
Phytopa y on a new
mechanics, pilots and other workers. It is superflous to mention that
the representatives of these qualifications have a harder time in grasping
phytopathologioai problems than the phytopatholegists themeelves. The
phytopathologints should expand in the future a more intensive and
initiati!e work than it hap been done before, placing the engineer-
constructive thought at the appropriate place.
Improve the organization and the methodology ,of eoonomica -research.
In the p aotiat of phytopathoIogical research for economical rea o
various inspections occupy an important place, and sometimes even consume
u great part of strength and means. Nevertheless this vrkshould be
considered insuffi?lent with many items.
The main reason for poor results is the break and dis-harmony an the
work itself, Registration, economical systems quarantine organize
institutes, Stations for Plant Protection, and finally even separate
specialists often work as if in a race, catch separate fragments of
problems and thereby constant* leave something unfinished; this has been
told by all the_personnel which proceeds with the same problem,
Along with the organised confusion there is a great deal to be done
tior-the simplification, increase or accuracy and first of I in the
objectivity in the registration methods.
Phytopathology and the biological method for plant protection.
After the Soviet phytopathologists 'turned their fkee to
production, they concentrated their scientific research irk upon the
problems of destroying parasitic fungi, and bacteria, causes and agriou
tural diseases.
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10
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Dun in
Phytoptithology on a new track
It would b advisable also to take into consideration another side
of the work - the possibility of utilizing some fungi as allies in .
controlling pests and weeds.
? 4..
More attention to theoretical problems
is not my task to construct, the program of phytopithological
'
having the possibility of .discussing all problems, I consider
it necessary to say a few words.about the burning question. The "feel0 that question; they relie on that question and often delay their
work on account of that question. Those who work on immunity; or in
quarantine institutions, phytopathologists who study the diseases of
new plants, professors of uhiversities and of other agricultural schools,
andstudents 4nd finally (end foremost) the mycologists of the Soviet
n on - all of them feel it. .
Mat is licking in the work of phytopathologisto What its ne easary
to create? A good "flora" of fungi and bacteria; the moist needed defini-
tions of fungi are lacking.
The majority of p.hytopathologiste and students do not know he old
Russian definitions, and moreover, various foreign "flora"; those Which
are available are old and do not correspond '.tO the development of Soviet
phytopathology mycology and bacteriology.
This topic should be discussed in more detail in a special article;
the concrete most important details and means Of solving this problem
ohould be discussed more circumstantially, but even here this burning
problem could not be overlooked. This problem could not be solved by
"one phyto;pathologiot alone, but by orgatised efforts of a group of them.
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Dunin
Phytopathology on a new track
If there will be organic tie between phytopathologie
research and producti
If there will be an organized and methodically
correct collective so ution of basic theoretical proble
be confident that n a
then e could.
ry nhort time the Soviet phytopathology will
come into existence to replace the present separate, e.lthough somehow
valuable, phytopathological fragments.
16 July 1951
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?
?
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Pivovarov, V. M.
Methods of control used against the sugar
beet sob worm (Loxostege stioticalis L.)
with an estimate of their efficiency.
Zashoh. East. ls 103-114. 1935. 421 P492
Trans'. 190s Plant Protection
Si6 104
Translated from the Russian
by R. G. Dembo
The registration of economic 7 effeotiveness of measures is the basic
organization in oentrolling agrioultural pests. Only 'with the availa-
bility of this registration shall we obtain the possibility of rationally
constructing plant protection against pests, directing the losses in such
a manner as to obtain the best result from practical measures. In 1933,
the year of mass propagation of the Sugar fleet Web Worm, we made an
experiment in registering the effectiveness of control measures applied to
this pest in productive conditions of the work of MIS (WIC- ).
The registration has been done upon sugar beets in Semilukskil.
ralon of Voronezh ?blast' in the collective farm ICamaomolets."
I. Registration of the effecttvoness of chemical control measures.
For the experiment, six fields were put aside: three control fields
and three for experiment. The average size of the field in the experiment
equals 4 hectare.
The registration method.--Upon experiment fields in 5 places, along
the corners and in the center, the amount of caterpillars upon experimental
fields of 1/4 of a square in. were counted; thus, the average density upon
1 square m. was obtained. SiMultaneoUtly, the percentage of damage of
sugar beets leaf surface according to 6-ball system was registered. Thus,
were determined the density of caterpillars and the intensity of darage
upon all fields before and after spraying. The time of registering and
spraying are indicated in table I. The result of the experiment was
counted d4rihg the harvest by weighing the entire crops.
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/90
0
CD
CD
=Pi
(D
CD
8
CD
-n
CD
(T)
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(D
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-10
n.)
Table
Wolio of
Fields
Men and by Mhioh
Compound Sprayed
?
Time of'
PeLatrat&on
,
Field Sprayed Fteld
COntrolled
Number
of cat.

on 1
c.? m.
(WO of
damaged
leaf
urfaoe
Yield
from
1 h-;
Va. of
cat. on
l'sq.
,Av/io of
damaged
.lenf
eurfaco
Yield
from
1 h.
I
Copper 21/1/
21/VI before
- 217
0,1
--
160
0,1
aceto-arsenite
spraying
.
23/7/
,23/1tI after
ISO.
5,4
--
260-
6,1
1 spraying
26/7I after
111
-21,2
366
19,9
--
2 ePrayinge
? 26/VI
28/VI after
79
41
324
504
85,8
142
S sPrayings
II -
Arsenio
Caloium
21/VI before
aprIkying
240
0 05
..
--
J58
0,01
--
Oxide
23/VT after
485
11,0 .
--
395
18,9
--
1 spraying .
21/11/
25/VI after
121 :.
24,3
--
644
54,7
-.
2 sprayings
28
28/VI after
100
58,5
299
337
88,6
220
2 sprayings .
Arsenio , 21/7/1
Sodium Oxide
21/VI before
spraying
111
0,2
-
217
0,01
--
25/VI after 1
sprayinc
56
2,0
--
24/
1,5
.-
Copper 24/VI
23/11I after .
88
8,8
--
1031
30,7
--
Aceto-
2 sprayings
III
arsenite
28/VI after
84
28,5
383
584
90,1
120
4 sprayings
'
i. the. apraythg upon the III field was don
on account of the bad weather._
4 VI by bari
oh ?ride, but unsuccess
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Pethods of control...
It is evident from table I that the yield of sugar beets upon the
. cultivated fields is higher than upon oontrelled (unsprayed). TIAreby,
the density of caterpillars, which at the beginning of tho spraying were
in their second, stage, reached at the average 111-240 pieces for 1 square
meter. The plants were at this tine in the phase Of 3-6 pair pf leaves.
The eeneral increase of the cost of fodding sugar beets or,1,1, rubles
for 1 oentner during the year 1932 i4 expressed in rubles: upon one
field were collected from one banter 322 centnere, counting a yield of
controlled, untilled field, we obtain an increase from an heater 322-142
r. 180 eentners which, according to the prices 'of 1932,. consists of 350 ?
rubles. Counting the cost of triple spraying of Paris 'Green (C0PPer.
aceto-arsenitegaccording to the calculation of MIS OBV 1932) 10 rubles
46 kopek X 3 = 31 r. 38 k., We obtain an econoric effect of I field cost _
? equals 328r. 62 k.'.
.On the second field from 1 heotar was collected 299 oentnere at the
harvest of controlled, non-sprayed field of 220 centners. Increase of
yield 299-220 equals 79 centners or 138 rubles. The coat of work is
expressed in the sum of 31 rubl. 32 k. Henee the economic effect from
the Second field equals 126 rubles. 68 kopek.
On the Third 'field, the yield of 383 centnere during the yield
control of 120 c. Increase of 263 c. or F26 rubles. The cost of spraying
this field is expressed in the sum of 18 rubles 24 k., and the economic
effect equals F07 rubles, 76 kopek.
Taking the averace of the three data (on I, II and II/ fields), we
acquire an eoonoric effect for the operative work in the sum of 321
rubles. 02 k. from one hectar of foddine sugar beets.
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Vothods of control...
II. The effect-of agrotechnical measures.
Besides chemical' measures of control, of great importance is the
agrotechnical metho4.among which a field of weeds occupies a primary
place. The control of reeds ie applied not only as a self-aim, but at
certain times, it Is applied as the method of controlling the sugar beet
web worm (Loxosteue sticticaliaLCombining these two qualities, the control
of weeds in the system of measures a,ainat web mem plays a more important
role than the chemical measures.
According to our observations it 1932, the spreading of butterfliee
of the worm on the plantations during laying (and, conseeuently, infesta-
tion) depends upon the availability of weeds of goose-feet and amaranth.
Item the, field has been weeded out and did not have any weeds, with-100
strokes of the butterfly .net, 30 butterflies were caught; nearby, however,
on unmeeded fields 1g0-200 pieces mere caught. The fields of sugar beets,
which perished from web worm, were covered by goose-foot and amaranth;
but on fields free from mueds, i.e., .at the moment of laying upon seeded
fields, there was no laying and such fields almost eid not suffer from
the rub worn.
.
The time of seeding plays a very impqrtant role in controlling the
web morn. For the determination of dependency of infestationove made
the following experimeht. The auger beet, evenly overgrown by weeds, was
divided into sections which Imre 'weeded at various times: 1) before the
mass flight, i.e., before the laying; 2) during the mast; flight and the
mass laying; 3) during the growth of caterpillars and 4) during the second'
growth of the caterpillars. The obtained data are indicated in table 2. '
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Fivovarov, V. 11.
Methods of control...
Table 2
NoNo
Fields
Time of Weeding
Number of
Plants
Number of
"
Weeds
Sugar
Beets
Caterpillars
on 1 sq. m.
1
11/VI before mass flight
20
70
10
2
15/VI mass flight
15
70
80
5
17/VI hatching of caterpillars
12
65
, 92
4
20/VI second stage of cater-
pillars
10
67
457
.ot weeded
915
--
93.5
The best tine for -weeding out in respect to controlling the web
worm could be oon idered the time before the rase flight of the butter-
flies. It is also possible to perform the wading during the mast flight,
laying of eggs and the hatching of caterpillars while they are in their
first stage (with somewhat worse results), but by no means later. If
the density of caterpillars during the weeding at the time of the first
stage remained 1,2 pieces, then during the weeding of the second stage,
the density upon 1 plant vas already 6 pieces. This sugar beet died in
spite of spraying after weeding.
The same data were obtained in 1932 and upon the Ramon zonal
experimental station (see tah1e-3).
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rxvuvaruv, V. ..
Methods of control...
Table 3
The Influence of Weeds Upon the Infestation
of Sugar Beets by the rab Worm
Place of
Registration
Condition of
Plantation
Time or
Registration
Quantity of
Weeds on 1
sq. m. .
Quantity
of eggs
of w.w.
on 1 sq.
m.
0/0 of
decrease
of ie.
eggs of
w.w.
Exper. field
Broken,
covered with
weeds
17/VI
52
72
--
Broken, and
weeded out
0,0
0,0 .
100
.Selection
field .
Broken and
covered with
weeds
12/VI
60
417
--
Broken and
weeded out
9
74
83
Agricul-
t ural field
Broken,
covered with
18/VI
60
316
--
weed!:
'
Broken and
weeded out
iefta
13
82
74
Agricul-
tural field
Unbroken,
covered with
weeds
18/VI
77
264
--
"buketirovano"
?18/VI
36
160 .
40
'
As to the time of the determination Of weeding, our data are in
harmony with literature indications; but in connection with the time when
to start weeding, our data differ from the recommended time of most authors.
Alekseenko (3) recommends: "As soon as the eggs are discovered, it
is necessary to cut and to weed out immediately all the weeds from the
field and the garden. It is necessary tofulfill that work on time, as
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Pivovarov, Y. M.
Methods of control...
soon as the laying of eggs came to an end." Roshkin (13) recommends to
start the weeding from the moment of mass laying. Zhukovskii (8),
Norol'Icov (11) "after laying eggs," Arkhangel'skii (4) "at the end of
the flight of the butterflies," Pliginskii (17) - "after 3-4 days after
the end of flight of the butterflies."
We see that a series of authors recommend to start the weeding for
the control of the web worm during various times - from the moment of
the discovery of eggs and ending with a very late time - after 3-4 days
after the end of the flight (at this time caterpillars already appear).
A. Baishchev went even farther, recommending to destroy weeds, as he
expressed himself, "in case of mass appearance of the worm," which is
evidently not correct.
If we consider the weeding only as a method of controlling the web
worm, then the time of its fulfillment becomes very rigid (hard).
Svistunov says that an early weeding gives positive results, a very early
one and a very late one is .harmful." A very late 'seeding is harmful,
because the caterpillars attack the crops and destroy them. A very
early one is harmful because before the laying weeds grow which are
suited for laying.
It is necessary to take into consideration that from the moment of
the appearance of web worm until the laying the flight of the butterflies
continues for uncertain time, since in ease of the female's sterility, the
flight might last a longer time; and,on the contrary, a friendly, short
flight of the butterflies usually is a sign *which indicates the appearance
of caterpillars. Yet there are exceptions to this rule. In 1929 when
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_
Enthods of control
the flight wee delayed, the damage was great. Generally speaking, the
period of weeding in case of the a penrance of fertile butterflies of
the web worm.is very short. In the year,1932, this period lasted 6-4
days, counting from the beginning of the flight until the hatching of
caterpillars. But if the weeding could be started after the end of the
flight or after 3-4 days after its end, as it has been recommended by
come scientists, then under such coneideretion Of the problem there would
be no possibility of weeding, since at that moment there will be already
caterpillars; 1. e., the beginning coincides with the end.
Our observations.00nfirm in this case the correctness of the practice
of the farm kainsugar, that the beat time for weeding is the time before
the flight begins (Bel'skii, E).
A doubt could emerge that the sugar beet crops or other crops which
are free from weeds will be infested directly upon the plants. But our
Observations and the observations of some other authore - Pliginekii (16),
Keppen (10), Pokrovakii (le) indicate the contrary. Esterberg says that
"as an exception the butterflies lay eggs upon crops - clover, carrots,
sugar beets:" Alexandrov (2) gives an example when a somewhat increase of
laying vas on the sugar beet because during the laying it has been weeded
out; but yet the mass laying, according to his opinton, was seen on the
weeds; and, therefore, "the weeding of the fields prior to the laying of
eggs will be of greatest significance, as a preventive measure."
Carrying out of weeds.-4uring.the weeding the problem of carrying
out the weeds is of great significance. Our observations indicated that
the gathering and carrying out of weeds with the caterpillars of the first
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Pivovarov, V. U.
Uethods of control...
stage gives good resulte; but the carrying out of weeds with caterpillars
of the second stage and especially of the third stage and of older stages
does not give any results. During the weeding, the caterpillars fall
quickly on the ground. The results of registration are given in table 4.
Table 4
Stage of the
caterpillars
Density of caterpillars
before weeding on 1 sq.
m.
Number of cater-
pillars upon the
weeds taken oct
o/o of the
remaining
caterpillars
1
23,9
21,0
0,7
2
28,5
13,8
61,6
$
30,0
0,4
98,7
Thus, according to our data, the carrying out of weeds with cater-
pillars of the second and the third stage, although useful, is not able to
guarantee crops from loss, since the majority of caterpillars remain. upon
the field. The carrying out of weeds with the caterpillars of first stage
under the conditions of 1932 was the main factor in protecting the sugar
beet (weeded during the first stage of the caterpillars).
litleding after the appearance of caterpillars.--As soon as the cater-
pillars appeared, the interests of pest control and the interests of /wed
control as far as the sugar beet is concerned are contradicting each other.
On one side, the weeding could be dangerous for the beets damaged by the
caterpillars of the web worm (with their great emount), on the other side,
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Pivovarov, V. U.
Methods of control...
without weeding the =gar beet, is under the danger of death from the
effect of weeds. The possibility of a new weeding occurs only after the
departure of the caterpillars into the coil. In order to determine the
length of the pause in weeding, we are mentioning here the phonological
.tire of the development of the caterpillars of web -worm of the first stage
in 1932 (Smmilukskli raion): 16/VI.- when the hatching starts; 18/VI - mais
hatching; 101 - the appearance of the second stage; 21/VI - the appearance
of the third stage; 23/VT - the appearance of the fourth stage; 26/VI - the
appearance of the fifth Stage; 29-30/VI - caterpillars of fifth stage;
011 - the departure of caterpillars into the soil; 4/V11 beginning
of oocooning; 6/411 - mace cocooning.
tie see that the pause in weeding should occur from 16i,I8 of June until
July 6th, i. e., 18-20 days. X.I. Streliteov (22), K. V. Nostrovekii (12)
and a series of other authors indicates analogioal data concerning the
length of the' development of the web worm. But if we take into considera-
tion the fact that with the beginning of weeding (i. e., after 18-40 days),
this weeding will be finished not in one day, but will be dragged out for
a long time, especially if we take into consideration its low productivity,
since large weeds grow out, then it till be clear that a considerable
part of the :Alger beets will stand in weeds longer than one month. The
sugar beet which stood in weeds for a long time yields a very low harvest
(even after weeding), or dies entirely. Besides, after a prolongated
pause, the weeding costa are high - 90 labor days for 1 heater (since
it grows heavily). Under farm conditions in many Oases the weeding is not
dome on account of lose and of oncoming of other important summer work
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Pivovarov, V. M.
methods of control...
(mowing and ethers). Thus, a considerable part of the beets (if not the
entire one) caught by the caterpillars of the meh worm and left in the
weeds will perish. In the collective farm nKomsomolets" of .the SemilUicak
?elan, as a result of a pause in meeding, 5 hectars of beets were lost.
Thus, a complicated- situation arises: both are dangerous, to weed
(when the caterpillars appear) and to leave the sugar beets in the reeds.
In this problem poncerning the loss of sugar beets, there are many serious
controveriles between the entomologiete and atronomists.
I found the solution for this situation. With the appearance of
caterpillars even in a threatening amount, the melding could and should
be Continued, but it has to be done by rows. The new method of weeding
411 consists of the following: the infested sugar beets by the caterpillar
is weeded out only in rows; the width of the weeded stripes should be
15-20. cm. Upon the boundaries (between the rows) the weeds are left
unweeded. Thereby, a double purpose is accomplished: 1) the beet plants
? are freed from meads, obtain a flow of tar and light and grow freely;
without being crowded by meads; 2) the caterpillars remain upon the weeds
(which ti-ow on the boundaries) and do not transfer to the beets - thus
the beets are protected aga'net the e ,terpillars.
After cocooning, it is necessary to meed once more, Including the
boundaries. The experiments gave the following results.
1. Upon the weeds left in the boundaries there mere 1.909 caterpillars
for 1 sq. m., and upon the beet plants 36 pieces and yet the caterpillars
did not transfer to the sugar beet.
2. The percentage of damage of 10111 surface upon the field weeded
out in rows and left unmeeded is almost equals upon thefirst there are
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Pivovarov, V. Z.
Zbethods of control...
29 o/O, and cn the second - 28,5 p/o.
3. The harvest, depending upon the weeding method, varies considera-
bly. This enables the selection of the best method and best time for
weeding.
Table 5
The Harvest Depending Upon Time and L'ethod of teeding.
Rollo of
fields
Weedingethod
Time of
weeding
Phonology of
web worm
Harvest
from 1
hector
v. ts.
Cost of
crops from
1 h. in
rubles
1
Weeding In
regular manner
1I/Vr
Aass flight
144,1
288,20
2
'Reeding in
"rows"
20/VI
Caterpillars.
of First and
170
340 '
leading by
regular manner
20/VI
Second stage
Caterpillars
of First and
Second Stage
Weeding after
d0000ning
--
Caterpillars
cocooned
40
80
nue, the profit of the Introduced measure of the weeding by 'rove"
is expressed in the sum of 2.50 rubles for hector or 130 centners. If
ie take into consideration that the weeding after c0000ning does not
occur on account of logs, then the sugar beet perishes; the profit of
the measure is expressed by the sUm of 340 rubles or 170 cantners.
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Fivovarov, V. r.
rethoda of control...
Something similar in the idea, but in a different form, we find with
Zverozomb-Zuboskii (9) who furnishes the example, when a"sowing of ott.er
plants was recommended between sugar beet: rows in order to divert the
insects to then." In our oonditiona this, of course, is inapplicable.
A weeding (in .regular fashion) could be combined with spraying;
thus, the weeding time could be lengthened also.
? It is necessary to underline that the method does not pretend to
be the main method in-system of measures. It has to be applied, as has
been said, during a delayed weeding, 1. e., if the caterpillars appeared
upon weeded crops of sugar beets in a threatening amount. It is clear
that with the early measures against web worm, the application of
measures will not be required.
Due to the short weeding (ay a control method), there are great
difficulties as to labor power; hence - delay in weeding. Therefore,
we rust devote great attention to the organization of weeding. First
of all, it is necessary to determine the alternation in weeding, taking
into consideration the threat for various plants from caterpillars of
web worm. The practice had shown that the web warm is most 'dangerous for
sugar beets, soy beans, "koriandr" onion, carrots and late sunflower.
The weeding of these plants should be given primary attention, as soon as
butterflies appear. Such plants as cucumbers, early sunflower, cabbage
could be weeded out later. Finally, the plants which are little and
rarely damaged, like tomatoes and potatoes, could be Weeded last.
Plouhing cocoons.--In controlling the web worm, the ploughing of
those places where the caterpillars went into the soil requires attention.
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S
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Pivovarov, V. r.
Methods of control...
During ploughing, the cocoons thrown upon the sur ace will die. The
majority of.specialists recommend a deeplloughing of the field in early
spring or late fall.
In 1932 the ploughing under our conditions could not be applied,
since all the caterpillars at the time of departure into the soil were infested
by parasites; therefore, we were not able to consider the effectiveness of
this measure.
Concerning the problem of the location of cocooning caterpillars,
i. 6., in the places *doh are supposed to be ploughed, we find in litera-
ture contradictory opinions. Sakharov (20) insists that "the caterpillars
of the web worm prefer friable soil for their cocooning." In fall, 1929,
and in spring, 1929 (Trnmelinitskii sugar combinate and Panin raion
respectively), I Observed cocooning upon soft soil." Nstovtsev and
Pospelov tell us the opposite: "for the cocooning the caterpillars
sereh for soil with hard soil." Alexandrov (2) and Silant'ev (21)
express an opinion which is the most correct, that "the cocooning in its
main mass occurs in the places of food (sugar beets, transplantation,
clover)."
The problem of the places,where the caterpillars hide for winter, is
of prinoipal significance because the majority of the caterpillars hide
in places of food or mainly upon ploughed fields and on stubble
(Dobrovoliakii. 7); the reploughing or harrowing could be coordinated
with other farm needs, for instance, ploughing in minter, spring ploughing,
etc. Only in sueh a combination could the reploughing, as a control
method, be of some significance.
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Pivovarov, V. M.
Methods of control...
The time of sowing.-- There are in literature some indications upon
the time of sugar beet sowing as a method for controlling the web worm.
But this problem is treated by various authors in a different ray. begracit
(15) recommends late sowing, but Bilskii (5), Aleksandrov (1), Bogoiavlen-
skii (6) and others recommend early sowings. According to our opinion
early sowinge of sugar beets are more immune against damage by caterpillars
since a mass of leaves of the early beets are more than with the later one.
Late sowings which do not sprout at the time when lob worm's laying of eggs
(consideration that the sugar beets is not infested) are of low her-goat
because of the agrotechnical method.
Mowing of weeds.?In the ?cyotem of measures in controlling the web
worm the cutting of blossoming weeds is given a considerable attention; it
(mowing) is prescribed as imperative in controlling web worms.
This measure is given the following basis: it has been fixed that
during the flight butterflies accumulate Upon blossoming and high weeds
for feeding. After the maturing of the eggs, the butterflies fly upon
the. nearest plants and infest them. Thus, the blossoming and high weeds
are sources for infestation.
The foundati n of this measure corresponds fully to common sense; the
results of the analysis in 1932 forced us to evaluate this measure differently.
We to I; a field with typical weed spots under our inspection. Upon this
field wo observed a. great flight of butterflies and there were dead fields.
The latter has a conformation of the soil with conspicuously expressed
straight boundaries. If we compare weed spots with dead fields, it
Immediately appeared impropable that Om cause for sugar beet loss would
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Jietods of control..?
be the influence of weed spots. If they would influence the intensity of
infestation br web vo-,rm, then there should 'oe a ctronger infestation which
decreases with the increase of distance, since around those spots were
conditionn seducive for egg laying. But it became clear that there was
no reltionsllp Cetweer .he distance from the weeds and the infestation
degree, i. e.; the role of weed spots as the infestation center was not
justified. This led to the idea conoerning the expediency and effect of
mowing weeds in controllang the web worm sa,d of the necessity of investi-
gateg tie problem.
First of all, let consider tYe fact that there are many places of
web worm butterflles accumulation anel that they vary.
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Quantity of Butterflies Caught by SO Strokes of the Net in Various Fields
Table 6
Date
Looation
Gen. Amount
Liale
Vera le
13/v1
14/VI
1F/1n
s/v x
cin
sftz
1 Oa
Field of weeds, shores of the river Veduga
On weeds, in bushes, in hollows
On onions
On the crops of sugar beets
On winter wheat, oovared with blossoming?
weeds
On fields near a park
In a garden protected by .a high abrupt elope
At the edge of a forest .
On weeds, in fruit conservatory on.
elevation
In a.garden, protected against wind'
Around the river Veduga on weeds
The same place, on nugar beets
Th a same place, en zeeds
? 220
41
121
291
187
157
Individua
45
_ 270
1
70
25
43
_ -
40414
flight
0000
56
Noticeable flight
167
420
175
????
30
Oft 410
75
57
0/?44%
40.40
41541?11,
44
41040,
.0.40
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Pivovarov, V.11.
Ittethode or control...
The accumulation of butterflies are fund not only on weeds, but
on plant oropa an well, whioh is imposeible to-mow so that the butterflies
would not aoeumulate ,there. Therefore, Puzyrnyi (19) 'says that a partial
destruction of blossoming. vegetation could not influence the deo .ase of
butterfly nourishment and, consequently, upon their fertility, nee
butterflies fed themselves on tht; blossoms_ of the linden tree and Cme
fodding grass end other plants.
"The problem of mowing becomes more ookplicated with the condition
that, besides "pa Sive" flights (according to the wind) the butterflies of
the web wpm according to Llubotudrov (14) Make "active" flights at the
distarcc of 3 kIa; in search .for appropriate layinc place, they- fly e
farther. Therefore, for the full protection against infetlitin. of crop
by the eggs of the web worm, it is necel .:ry to destroy bloasoming weeds
around threatened plants' t & rad/us larger than three'k. Taking into
consi'exation napy "nidi" and also the tact that "nidi" are not only weeds
but crops as rell, it' is quite liaprobable, if not even impossible, to
create conditions which furnish a guarantee of mowing blossaming weeds.
It has been confirmed by the observationt of previous years that
the butterflies of the web worm lay their eggs on small weeds which '
just started to sprout, especially goose-foot, spat, bind teed end otharsv
end on large weeds, which are to be mown, the egg tre not laid. Our
observations in this problem indicate the following.
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I
Number of Disclosed Eggs and Caterpillars of Web Worm Upon Small and Large Weeds
Table 7
Date
On Small tbedslin
? (1 and 3 sm. height)
Larger Abode .
.
.
?
Number of
Number of
Average
Number of
Number of
Aver.

.
plants on
eggs or
on 1
plants on
eggs or
for 1
. Remarks
1 eq._ in.
caterpillars
on 1 sq. m.
plant
, 1 sq. m.
cat, for
1 eq. m.
plant
.
17/17I
700
847 .
1,2
.
...-
--
.
--
.
. .
18/VI
813
896
1,1
Samples
not taken
' 15/VI start of
egg
,
?
19/VI
915
915
1,0 -
93
not disclosed
19/91 dtart of
egg hatoh.
?
.
21/V1
1189
1250
1.08
95
5
, 0,06
23/91
Y79
1945 -
2,5
OS
4
?
0,04,
.
.
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Pivovarov, V.
riethods of control...
It in evident from table 7 what a great difference there is
concerning the nudber of caterpillars upon small and .large medal upon
arall there are 1,000 oaterpillars or even 2,000 for 1 sq. d. and upon
large ,ones 4-5 pieces.
The obeervation of Nograah (15) is -interesting. Be says: "as a rule,.
the butterflies try to lay their eggs closer to the eurface of the soil,
and consequently bind weed, sput, "kalachiki," and sprouts of such plants'
as goose-foot, wormwood vere infested by eggs. Bind weed, which twine
on coreals,.or on ether'planta,an rell another hil;11 plants which do not
have root leaves, eons almost free frod eggs." re see a coed example
that not only the species of the plant, but its height 89 well affects
the laying of eggs.
In our experiment the field of peas wee characteristic there
blooming weeds yeri growing - 'camomile, hemp nettle, etc. Aocordingto
literature dlta, peas are infested first of all. We could insist that
peas would be eaten sinoe all the factors were available, which indicated
that fact - the flight of the web mord, fecundity of the females, the
vicinity of blooming' meeds, etc. But yet tLat assumption was not justified,
peas remained undamaged. Butterflies were searching for small, just
sprouting plants; they did not lay eggs upon high plants.. Thus the
discriminating ability of butterflies has bedn determined. They search
for rall weeds w ich are hard to now, 'which, therefore, have to be
yeeded out. We see that from tris point of Vier' .th, mowing of high
blooming weeds in grooves is of no use as a control measure.
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Pivovarov, V. M.
Methods of control...
The mowing of large and blooming weeds as a control method did not
give any positive results according to our analyses. That does not imply
that mowing is entirely unnecessary. Aocording to the requirements of
agronomy, we must control weeds. Mowing is one of the measures in controlling
weeds. It Beene, it is irrelevant by which trothod we do our mowing - by
eentamological or agronomical method - but mowing is absolutely essential.
It seems the various points of view give only a formal difference, not an
essential one. But it is not so. As a matter of fact, the new approach
may produce better possibilities for the acceleration in weeding as a
. control method.
178 know already how short is the time of weeding; it is counted in
4-6 days; and therefore the mowing of high and blooming weeds would be
done when the weeding is a rethod of control as it was applied in practice,
but at a different time (before or afterwards, this is the problem of
agronomy). During those 4-6 days, it is necessary to pay attention
mainly at the weeding campaign (period), without weakening the weeding
due to mowing. This could be of great benefit, since mowing requires
3-10 o/a of man power at the most responsible moment. These ren could
be utilized for weeding, which is used as a narrow place in the system of
measures against the web worm.
Catohing of butterflies.--We give sufficient attention to catching
butterflies by drag nets during mass egg laying on crops.
The effect of catching depends upon the width of the grip of the
butterflies by drag nets. According to data of rainsugar, the catching of
butterflies with drag nets give positive resulte,provided they are used
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Pivovarov, V. M.
Itethods of control...
on a wide belt.
We are giving here some data as a result of catching obtained in
collective farms. Two drag nate rere waled in our conditions. The
width of the grip wac 20 m. The catching was done during the mass flight
(200-300 pieces during one grip) and macs egg laying. A part of the sugar
beet vas left as a control. On the same field, approximately 2 ha., the
catching use done during two days.
The registration indicated that from 250 plants of the controlled
field 107 were infested, and on the tested field out of 250, 104 were
infested. The density of infestation in one as in the other case is the
came - in average 5 eggs to one plant. During the hatching of caterpillars
a difference in the density of infestation on the field, where the
catching was done, has not been observed. Thus, the catching of butter-
flies by drag nets of 20 m. appeared to be ineffective.
ConclUsions
1. At the density of 100-200 pieces on 1 sq. m., the Caterpillars
of second stage, during the plant phase of 3-6 pairs of leaves by
spraying with copper amtp-arsenite and with arsenic aodium oxide, the
profit amounted to 321 rublesfor 1 hooter of sugar beet with the coat
of 2 rubles for centner.
2. Its freeing of plants from weeds during the flight and egg laying
of the web worm is a good measure for protecting crops against infestation,
provided they are destroyed by weeding. 'Melding, as a control measure,
should be accompliehad at the beginning of caterpillar hatching.
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Privovarov, V. IL
Methods of control...
.3. The seeding of sugar beets with the availability of the second
and highir stages with the density at the average of 150 pieces and more
for 1 sq. m., during the phase of plant cromth of 34 pair of leaves,
even with the carrying out of weeds does not save sugar beet drops from
perishing. In such oases, the weeding could be done only in rows of
.15-20 outs width (on the borders, the seeds are left as attractants for -
caterpillars). With such a measure of weeding, the, sugar beets are freed
from the depressing effeot of weeds, obtaining a stream of air and light,
develops more or less normally. The caterpillars remain on the needs and
do not transfer on the sugar beets. After cocooning, a11 the weed' are
'needed out. The profit Pram the introduced measure - the seeding in rows,
in comparison with beets weeded after cocooning, amounted to 260 rubles
or 130 oentners per 1 heater,
4. Taking into consideration the Short time for weeding, mainly .
because of labor shortage, it is necessary 'to need sugar beets, soy beans.,
"koriandr," onion, carrots in the first place, late sunflower; in the
second place - on early sunflower, cucumbers, cabbage. On tomatoes and
potatoes which are hardly affected, the weeding could be done last.
5. Eeploughing ae a method of controlling seb. tot= will be of .
serious significance if it is considered as an obligatory measure
(winter ploughing, spring ploughing).
6. Early sowing of sugar beets are more immune to the damage by
caterpillars since the mass of leaves with the early Sugar beet is larger
than with the later sugar beet; therefore, the early sawing of sugar
beets could serve as a method with the swab worm.
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Privoyarov, V. M.
Methods of control...
7. Mowing blooming and high weeds as a control mettod did not show
good results, and therefore this could be considered only as a method of
controlling weeds. This enables us to weed, not at the time when weeding
Is the control method, but to transfer it to a different time (carlier or
later). This corrective might give an essential profit, since the mowing
at the most responsible moment requires 8-10 o/O of labor which could be
utilised during weeding, thus increasing its tempo.
18 June 1051
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rvwvmuwv, V. m.
Methods of control used
against the sugar beet web
worm (Loxostege sticticalis L.)
With an estimate of their effroiency.
A List of Quoted Literature.
1. Alexandrov, L. A., K biologii i ekologli baboohek lugovogo motyllka
v raionakh Kurskogo otdel. SekharOtresta. Materialy po izucheniiu
lug. mot. The biology and ecology of butterflies of the web
worm in the raion(s) of Kursk division of Sugar Trust. Materials
in study of web worm. Voronezh, 1930.
2. Alexandrov, L. A., Lugovoi motylik i miry bor'by s nim. The web worm
and the measures of controlling it. LIvov, 1930.
3. Alexseenko, N. Ehk borot'sia e lugovym motyl'kam. Bow to control the
web worm. 1932. SKEGIZ (c)cm Agricultural State InstitUte.
Moscow.
4. Arkhangelvskii, W. N. Lugovoi motylek i mery bor'by a nim. Sallie B.
Sev. Kay. Kr. Stazre (CTUP4). The web 'worm and meaeurei of- .
controlling At. Series B. of Northern-Caucasus Krai.of the Station
of Plant Protection. Rostov an the Don, 1930.
8. Bel'skii, Lugov0 motylek 1. Irak Uberechlsveklu ot ego gusenits. Web
worm and how to protect the auger beet against its caterpillars.
Kiev, 1930.
6. Bogoiavlenekii, S. G., Vrediteli sekharnoi svekly lzd. ritommuna."
Pests of sugar beets - Voronezh.
7. Ddbrovaliskii, B. V., 'Web worm in Northern Caucasus, Biull. VII "lees.
seezde pa zeshoh. rest. Bulletin VII of the All-Union Congress
on Plant Protection Ur. 5, Leningrad, 1932.
8. nukovskii and Boevskii. Vragi ogoroda. Enemies of the garden.
Izd. "Kommuna." Voronezh, 1932.
9. Zverozamb-Zuboskii, About the periodical appearance of web worm and
about some of its other peculiarities. Sbornik I UNIS. ()Wilt).
1931. Kiev.
10. Keppen, F., Insects which harm the sugar beets. Sel. khoz. i lesov.
Agriculture and forestry. 1880. No. 12, pages 422-423.
U. Korol'kov, D. M., Borth& a glavneiehimi vrediteliami Gado i ogoroda
i nekotorye vrediteli polia. Control of main pests of orchards
and gardens and some pests of fields. Moscow, 1920.
111 12. Kostrovekii, K. V., Web worm in the vicinity of Verktualachesk Selection
Station of rnion's Sugar in 1929, Sbornik UNIS efFil40, 1932.
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PA
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Pivovarov, V. M.
Methods of control...
13. Koshkin, S. I., Lugovoi motylek i mery bor'by s rim. Web worm and
measures of controlling it. Smolensk, 1930.
14. Liubomudrov, I. S., The dynamics in the development of web worm in
1929, in the Podol'sk raion of sugar beet planting. Web worm
in 1929-30. Sbornik UWIS otehic). Kiev, 1931.
16. Negrash, K. A., Concerning the laying of ego by web worm in 1929.
The web worm in 1929-1930. Sbornik MS. Kiev, 1931.
16. Pliginskii, V. G., Lugovoi motylek v 1929 g. v raion. evekloseianiia
Vostoohnogo otdeleniia Sakharotresta. Vaterial po izuch.
lugOvogo motyPka. The web worm in 1929 in the raion of sugar
beets planting of the Eastern division of Sugar Trust. Materials
for the study of the web worm. Voronezh, 1930.
17. Pliginskii, V. O., Vrediteli I bolezni svekly, bor,ba s nimi. Pests
and diseases of sugar beets, their control. SKETIZ. (C)C770)
Voronezh, 1933.
18. Pokrovakii, E. A., Pests of agricultural field plants in Petrovsko-
Razumovskii, in 1921 in connection with the meteorological
peculiarities of this city. Otd, ntom. Entomological Division
of GIOA. (AW,#) //. 1932.
19. Puzyrnyi, S. 0,, The web worm in Khaekov division of Union's Sugar
in 1929. Sbornik UNIS aftifq 1932.
20. Sakharov, N., rpoiavleniiu lugovogo motyl'ka v Chernoiarskom uesde
v okrentnestiakh VladimiroVki Tsarevskogo uezda. The
appearance of the web wont in Chernoiarsk uezd and in the
vicinity of Vladimirovka of Tsarevsk uezd (county). Astrakhan,
1915.
21. Silent'ev, A. A., K voprosu o merakh boriby s luEovym motyl'kom.
The problem of the measures for controlling the web worm.
22. Strel'tsov, I. I., Materials in biology of web worm in levober. steppe
and the results of experiments in controlling it. Sbornik UN/S.
(yvig). Lugovoi motylek v 1929-19304,g. Web worm in 1929-1930.
Kiev, 1932.
25. Esterberg, L. K., MOb worm in 1929-30. Zashchita rest. t. VIII.
VIII, No. 3, 1931.
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elk
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sobutski
14. system of controlmeasures age net
pests and diseases in the ,sottoft=growing
regions of Central Asia- gaebab. Rasta
2; 35-44. 1935 421 10942
Trans'. 191: Plant rotectoz
Translated by B. C. Dembo
Prom the Editor
recently the measures in plant protection were used against
individual pesta ordiseases (for instance mut, corn moth* sugar beet
worm etc.
Beerthelessin protect
one speci
g any plantega nst damage
deal not 4th
, but with a aerles of species of pests and diseases. In
connection with that the working out of complex systems of measures in
plant iirotectlon is the most important problem. The solution of this problem
represents groat difficulties.
Separate researchcarried out without ary definite plan hamper the
compilation of a complex system of meaeure Yet, ail these difficulties
should not interfere in the working out co- ex systems of measures.
Viva the first version, although imperfect, helps in elucidating all
and to correctly utilise the achievements already available. Without any
critical summary those gaps are difficult to discover.
-The article of N. I. gosobutskii is the first attempt of composing
a single system of measures in.controlling pests end diseases of cotton.
The editor and the author himself do not consider the published
system a perfect. According to the opinion of the aditor it has nor
the character of a Schedule of measures. lb doubt, series of problems
In Sesobutskii system is indicated in general formulationsand requires
further detcile and more expanded research. There are few Concrete data
concerning the raioning of immune forms Of
tton, the problems of cotton
quarantine are not discuesed, the problems of the
ng time the amount
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KoohatskLi li. I. 2
and the tine of wate g are not differentiated; there are few Oncrete
data and normsin connection with the depth and the time of ploughing,
there are no de.ta on fertilization. No doubt, in, the system of measures
there should be tndictod. the problem: of location of pests and disea es
and an analysis of factors vhich influence the change in the amount of
Pe
theseand a aris of other import
(Intel solution. In I.935 In particul
problems require the
be main problem of the
socvion V/ZR is the working out of 1c,anura foa Concrete ralori(o)
along with the division of plant protection of the All-Union Cotton
Institute and of Central Asia tatton.of Plant Protection of the Alloanion
Institute of Plant:Proteetion.
publishing the article of
or tions connected with cotton gro
chara.oto
okit the editor asks he
g to furnt eh theft' ideas and
itie n the, cycle of development,behavio
f damages canoed by Cotton and alfl fa pests
require that in the struggle for the pro tion of cropsa.tnt pests
. and diseases llot :only one specific measur
in individual case would be
apiplied but all possible measures would be utilized during the enti
rear.
tem Of meaoures should inelude: a) a wide utilization of
basic agrotochnic I measures for' pest and disease control,
spring plouCling the cultivation of cotton between rows,
.0 and
control of
weeds on cotton and alfalfa fields, the utilization of crop rotation the
selection of immune species etc.; b) the utilisation of the chemical control
sea Tare pollination spraying, setting poisoned. attractant 8 etc. *
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Kotobutskii* NI. I. 3
Of course the system of measures cannot limit itselfn y with the group
of agrotochnical and chemical methods, and in many cases the physleo--
mechanical measures, as Well as the biological method should be included.
ZeneciallY, in the system of measures in cohtrolling cotton paste a few
mechanical control measures should be included which did not have any.
significance in some raion(s) until recently (collection of caterpillars of
the corn earvormehlorideaabseleeal, mechanical control measures of
locust) and also quarantine. The editor
Chemical and agrotochnical control measures in controlling pests an
di sea ehauld be carried out in such a manner that one measure would
supplement the other and that each mealare would be applied at definite
time when the Deets and the diseases are most vulnerable from point of
law ofeffective eontrol.
It in hard to foresee at which time and where the defin te pest or
disease would appear and therefore it Is still harder to give specific
scheduled ties for various measures. BOCSUOS of that the total of chemical
and agrotechnical control measures in the yearly system of measures has
been divided into four periods more or less differentiated from each other
according to the character of work, and namely: spring:period (Marchallay),
summar period (June-Auguet). fell period (September-rovember) and, finallY,.
the winter period (rovember-Pebraary).
Such a grouping of measures according be periods in relative, but this
relativity would increase if the measures would have been grouped according
to menthe or to definite timing. It is hard to forecast the%ime of
appearance of pests and dieeaseg. for the entire year, and etill harder to
forecast for various years in various?raion(e) of Central Ata.
It is absolutely necessaryte?accept that individual measures and
the entire system will yield thetepected effect only when they will be
carried out and practiced daily in collective- and Soviet farms. It is
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Kosobutekii 14. I. 4
neceemary to include in the productive plants of Soviet and collective farms
the meas.-met; of controlling cotton and alfalfa pests and diseases with
such a rr-liner that these measures would be carried out according to a rim.
For the published system of measures in controlling pests, diseases
and. Wee'13 in cotton reion(s) of Central Asia materials were compiled since
the organization of the Centre" Station of Plant Protection of the Central.
Asia SQL ntifie Cotton Institute, i.e. since 1929.
"nat7, of separate exneriments were united into one system of measures
only 7.t. Vie end of 1933 and only es the result of inseection of a ore-
limineaa- 3;7- 5; tem at large collective farms (gamaganskii kozeolex, Tur, mnian
exnedition, Tadehik expedition, vatich were orgenieed in 1933 by the
Station of lent Protection of Central. Asia Scientific Research Agri.
culturl InItitute, the expedition of the All-Union Institute for Plant
erotection etc.).*
* For ar.-angir, the syetes of measures in the way as it is publiehod the
followine meterials were used: I.) V. V. Ialdlontov according to hi.; work
in fiaar?-rudin and at the StRtion of Tlant i3rotection of the Scientific
Research of Agricultural Institute, mainly in the connection of pests ,:rith
weeds. 2) A. A. Tibilova according to her work in the SAtr.'eA lam
crA3PA H 4 ) . mainly in the biolocer of. web worn. In this part ere
also need the materials of IU. A. Piontleovskii and the materials. of
NamenghInskii complex, mainly in bioecology. 3) P. P. Rogaeh in his work
at %tree aliink of sTAZRA SIMI, mainly concerning ekaredrine. 4) L. Ce
Vitkovskii and M. A. %min*, mainly concerning corn earworm in the work
at the eevi.et farm Vakh- ste In !a.dzhikistan. 5) K. I. Kosobutskii, in his
work in Seleit and STAZPA MITI, mainly concerning the economic si,p.ificance
of nests aryl diseeses and technic:1 and economic effect of the measnres.
6) A. V. Veeinger Alektorova, specialists Sisykh and Vitieeva -
materials concerning the profilectie of watering and agrotechnic in
controlling ecede. 7) K. IT. Zavodskti and V. V. Iakhontov concerning the
measures in controlling plvtanotiu.s. 8) P. G. rstifeeva. Serbinov, ane
Vasiltev concrIrnigg wilt, homraoste and adhesive bacteriosis.(Lately it has
been aoterininod that the cense for disease is not a bacteria, but an
lfalfa lug). ? 9) The works of S. A. Itharin on alfalfa seed eater and on
the intro ...action into practice of arsenic compounds in controlling
mites on 1.0-ciffs. Besides1 for the system of measures were used renort3
Of op,IrLting organizations end all literary resources on rests, diseeee 3
and weeds which exist until now.
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AT.I.BOULtura;44; n* 4*
Thepublished system ofmatures could not be considered as something
undieputable and. 1.711C angeabie. According to the change of concrete
environment, -under the conditions of socialistic reconstruction of agrid.
culture this first system of measlzre will have to change, supplemented
and improved
1. Spring period (Kerch-May)
ring he Spring period on cotton raion(s) all. basic p
field cultivation, the replanting of cotton into conservatories,
ng
planting of cotton in the ground (by seeds or by plants from eonservatori
are 'done. Daring this period the following pests and diseases appear:
a) the' root mite, the field cricket the need dividing stage of hornmoze
d root. decoy appear ii consorvatoriesarid damage the young plants; b)
upon alfalfa_ appear the c
flare of the beetle phytonomus (already in
the first -days of March) and ka.radrin caterpillars (at the end of May):
) the web rzlte and cotton aphids appear and epread widely upon weeds
along the boundaries, on slopes and edges of the irrigation ditche on
curbs of fields and roads. On uncultivated spacer, the hatching and the
di3velonment of Marode graeshopper, iktbace.rkan? and at the end of KV
appeoxe also Oasis grasshopper; d, the cotton itself appears acaeia
aphid, 1710tnikov aphid the big cotton aphid, seed dividing stage of
homrsoze; during /Immo summers with warm spring appears also the web ?
mite.
Hero are incli.cated the baste pet e and diseases for he given period,
but here in a possibility of the appeurance-of other pot and diseases.
2. Per a correct and early organieation of Controlling pu 5te and
diseases during spring the following work should be carried out on cotton
farms; a) inspection and remodeling of sprayers at the beginning of f.larch,
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and also the preparation of poisons and equipment; b) brigd1ers of
? collective and Soviet farms inspect the cotton and alfalfa fields
(especially their ed 9) at least once in five days, they note the field
and the pest which appears md organize an early measure which would be
indicated for the given pest; with the same purpose the brigadiers of
collective and. Soviet farms inspect (once in six days) the weeds located
Close to cotton fields and with the availability of grasshoppers and
aphids they orgtulize the cohtral of these pests on weeds as it is
indicated below: d) along with the inspection of cotton fields the
bri diers of collective and. &Met farms note the degree of weeds on,
each field in order to compose a plan R5f hilling which would carry out
the billing on the weeded
During the spring ploughing it is necessaryavoid places on
ccuslate. On fields covered: in
previous year by rhizome weeds manual .veding along with ploughing 10.
errors/1.21g by spring
which weeds appear rapidly where pests
carried out, and. also combing out rhizome by means o
harrows, epring. cultivators, grubbing large rhizome by aketmen.11. 1alt2 Mes
? may lie in soil not. on the entire field, but Toy nidi (Curtains), in this
case the combing of sect curtain is carried out separately in order to
avoid the spreading of rhizomes all over the field.
? 4. Along with ploughing and preparation of the fiLoid for sowing
he planning'of
tton fields is carried out with the aim of eliminating
detrefis.ionfi_Iwhers iiat.er 41C etutulates and conditions arise which fo stet
dieaes and which also encourage the development of such weeds as
CyperU e
Aefizo,podium notiagrariai, ?adzhirik14 and. others.
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7
Immediately after plouaing 0 sityultaneonsly,i with it & deep
? diggin:; f ll plca covrod by wedds (boarders ? curbs of cotton fields
e t c .
aleo ;Sowing of weeds by sketnenin on slopes and edges of
irrigation ditches with the z..-.1r4 of de easIng the amonnt of pests by
depriving., them the usual nourish-MC.72u awing tize ctcai spring period.
6. During the planting of cotton in conservatories the soil should
:.be taken at the place':
:there Was. The soil'
homnon pr
ha! bo: inspected: and al the rodent pete (larvae of wire worms larvae
darlaing beetles cockchafers, cater lers of winter:owletcAgro
etc.) are
should he poisoned
n out and destroyed.- Seedg planted in glitesoo
below).
7? tn case of the appearance of root lites in conservatories, whicb
noticoble by drooping and drying pleits, or of crickets which is
noticeable by gnawed leaflets or by the presence of the cricket itself,
following measures are u a) in controlling the root inite - an intensi
ventilation of the conservatories, b) in controlling the cricket
eke mannred attractants are thrown in the conservatories.'
in pltzt Lag grafted cotton Into soil it is necessary to note the
plants diseased b
became infected
destroyed so that the disease-would not
case there ishomm
If in the glass one pl
of three
this plant has to be taken out from 'ground and i
n the other plants. In
the glasses should be
destroyed. In case tho majority of plants is infested than the trans-
plantation should be discussed in each individual ease ronodst
id
MTS ) Maohine ftt?r Station.
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9. The polain of cotton seeds against hommoze before transolentrAian
into the soil. The roisoning in carried out in a concentrated sulphuric
? . filmedl
acid(125-150 g. acid upon 1 14 bare socdo and 175-200 g. upon 1 kg swollen
cotton Seeds) or in the solution of formalin (99 litres of rater to one
litre AO Percent formalin), with the consumption of 17 to 20 litres of
solution for 1 centner of seede, or, finally, by pollinator NAV (for
every kg of needs 12-15 gramme of the compolind 11.011 ie used). In case of
seed poisoning in concentrated sulphuric acid the seedamaet be carefullg
washed in running wtter and should be carefully dried.
10. It is necessary not to Plant any other olants (cornownash) on
cotton field in order to avoid theeccumulation of pests (mites, nkorobochni1:11,
aphidi etc.) and their transfer upon cotton.
.11. la fertilizing cotton fields it to necessary to exclude from
the fertilizers all the wage left from the cleaning of cotton on cotton
plants.
12. During the sewing of alfalfa it is desirable that new alfalfa
would not be Placed directly near the old alfalfa in order to avoid the
transfer of 11hvtonnaus from the old ploughed Alfalfa upon new alfalfa crops.
13. In case Of the apPearance of caterpillars of winter owlet,
tAProtie sesetuat or of larvae of wire worm and of darkling beetle, it is
necemry to plece mill cake or green poisoned attractante upon the infested
fields from the mowed weeds or alfalfa (the weedg or plfelfa are reintened
with 0.3. percent solution of arsenic .1nCium ovla, and is placed in piles
between rows upon the infested field). The mill cake attractants are placed
under the cotton buShes and are covered by soil.
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solAtt ? I. 9
'.en the cotton startr, to ..r,raut it in hecesT-1.;? in th., first
u1e.ce to re7luve the pinto ..ihida are infested by hormlo!!e with tr,r,nso%rent
sots on t%0 3eed fivielni; leaves and to destroy these plants in order to
roroid infct tion of thc naiGht2oring sound ?1,-,nts.
. order to dec=1;e thl =mut of rftitm the A-1r7 of the
et,-.7,a,..nce of mites unon cotton an a consid^rable ecrease of the field,
it in 1-7.cury to sta.rt the control of miten on thole 1;cedn which
surround the field. In the first place it is necessary to pay attention
to the yueds under nulberry, wee's, elone to "dav:31all, and weeds on the
border nr alfalfa. In this cese, carrying ont the coltrol on the
*Jouni!'.:-L'1, it is Nirisable to include also the edgm of alfalfa in the
width of 1-1.5 m.
control is c%rried out before the cotton is moved by sprlying
with n7 :F.1cuate (14.5 percent solution) or netrium !sulphx te
(110-15 plAcrrlit solution) sulplmr-oxide emulsion 3 ( 5 percent solution)
or, fin lly, by the waste of petroleum industry flemnlsionsli (2-3 nercent
solution) rith the consumption of 759-1000 lit pro hectar in all cages.
15. :or the control of ac2Ci?. sips* aphids on cotton the
followin,; ihould be applied: a) spraying by slosp.lariabazine or soap nicotine
solution (4 c soap and 1 g anabazin or nicotine fer 1 1i wrtter, wi%h the
consumption of 75C-100 liters of eolutinn pre hectar); b) nollinF.tion with
anabalent or nicodest; for 97-95 kg lime-bloom or wood dust 3 tn
n r ...:7c?71n with the consumption of the dusty equi -Tient from
30-40 ::Jx) ha. is taken. For the accelar;Itir,n of aphids for the
polinri,%1;eyer it is poseible. the application of an airplane is
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Siallateneously the spring inspecting registration of the nidi of
the holothurian of grasshopper and of Karocco locust, the compositicm of
the plan of locust control, preparation of fertilizers, the transport of
poisons and of equipment to the given places - all this has to be carried.
out.
17. As soon as the web mite arToears on the edges of cotton fields,
it is necosscry immediately to carry out the edge cultivation including
the protected belt in the field, with the width of 3 to 5 m. of boundaries,
curbs close to the cotton field etc. In the first place the infested
borders of the fields which are acme to mulberries. Iduvalau and alfalfa
should be cultivated.
For this work the following is used, depending on the presence of the
pests: a) pollination with Vaorsuiskii concentrate of First sort (20 t-4. of
the concentrate and 10 kg. of wind-blown silt or-liake at the beginning of
summer and 25 ? 15 kg. wind blown silt or lime pro hectar in July and
August); b) rollination with ultra sulphur (40 kg- at the beginning of
summer and 50 kg. pro hectar in July-Augast); c) spraying with 4 pn-cent
solution of soft soap (750-1000 liter per beets)* 4) solution ISO (0.5-
0.75 percent according to Born with the consumption of 050-1000 liters
per heater).
In case of further spreading of the web mite into the cotton fields
it is necess ry to carry out a nest or a fall cultivation by the same
equipment's..
18. Forage alfalfa considerably infested by the larvae of phytonomus
should. be mown at the very moment when the larvae enter the stage of open
life. %then they are not locked in buds, but are well noticeable on the
alfalfa plants.
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Sath a. mowing is usually done 5-12 days before the first mowing. The
mown rlfrlfa is harvested immediately and is carried to new places for
drying (vide curbs of irrigption ditches, yrrds of collective farms eto.),
and it is desirable to spray -the mowed alfalfa with 0.3 percent of solution
of arsonic-mtrium oxide with the consumntion of 750 to 1000 liters solution
per better the very same day. The purpose of spraying - to kill the lerw-s
of phytonomus which fell daring the mowing. With the slight infestation of
alfalfa by phytOnomus the firot mowing is done at the usual time, but for
the rest- the same witk is carried out. 1.4. the mowed alfalfa is carried
fro' the field, ut the ,alfalfa is sprayed by a solution of arsenic natrium
oxide.
? In case of a serious infestation of alfalfa seeds by phytonomns the
latter "to rolinated with arsenic calcium oxide with the consumption of
10,12 Iz perimeter at the moment When the larvae enter open life.
19. Controlling the Morocco locust Olocioetsuruemoroccanus, by
spraying arsenic calcium oxide (upon uncultivated grounds) with the con-
sumption of 3,-4 kg. calcium per bectar Or by means of mill cake attractant
( in the nl:mt, to avoid burns, only attrectants - for 24 kg. Mill cake
0.5-0.6 arsenic natrium were used).
The control of Moroccan locust and.natbasarkan should bo completed
before the appearance of the 4th stage of larvae, since after they get wings
the control becomes more complicated.
20. In case of mass appearance of caterpillars of ukaradrina0 upon
alfalfa their control is carried out to prevent the transfer of the
caternillrrs upon cotton and licuidating the damage of alfalfa by the
Ilk? .caternillare. On forage alfalfa the control is carried out by mill cake
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Kogotru.t it,
attrictent (for 32 kg of mill cake 0.7-0.8 kg. sodium areenite, and upon
need alfalfa by pollination with arsenic calcium oxide 15-18, kg. per
hectar).,
21. The control of ?atbasarkan in places near cotton, the field
cricket on cotton and the mete cockroach in places covered with weeds
and on the cotton by applying mill-cake manure .attractants (for every
24 kg. of mixture of mill cake with manure 0.3-0.4 sodium irsenite)? In
every kg. of mixture there should be 750 go of mill cake and 250 g. of
smnure. 15-18 kg. of attractants is spent for one hectar.
22. During the first hilling of cotton along with the billing' the
cut reeds in the rows and. between the rows are collected immediately by
individual portions and are carried away from the cotton fields to prevent
the transfer 45"/ pests upon the cotton plant.
23. The mowing of, weeds along all the irrigation field to prevent
the seeding Of weeds as well as the liquidation of reserved weed qualities.
The motrin; has to be carried out before rain along the klopes, curbs, and
edges of. reservoirs. Per drying the mown weeds are carried beyond. the
cotton fieldn to prevent the transfer of the pests from them upon the
cotton and alfalfa fields.
24. In case of the aPpearance of the fikaradrin" caterpillars, the
cultivation of the infested fields is. done .by pollination with arsenic
calcium oxide -(young stages) or, if there was no pollination, by throwing
attr ctrnts (older stages). This chemical, control is carried out before
weeding, because in c'm3e of weeding without orelimiwry control, the
ilkaradrinan caterpillars tranefertte the cotton plant. In the same manner
? as during the billing, the pulled werde are carried out beyond the cotton
fields in order to carry out the Nkaradrinan young caterpillars and ages
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along with the weeds. Besides. on the fields damaged by the okaradrinn
caterpillEreaad extra watering is necessary to promote the growth of the
damaged Plants.
II. Wilmer period (Iand-Augast)
Airing this period all between rows cultivations of cotton, watering
etc. are carried out on cotton fields. The following pests and diseases
'could be found upon cotton plants during that period: a) almost before the
end of June the mellon and cotton aphid develop and damage cotton, and at the
. end of the period the fall generation of aphids start to appear; b) at the
beginning of Vey the caterpillars of alcaradrie of the first generation,
and at the end of June and the beginning ofJuly appear alpo the caterpillars
of the second generation; c) the caterpillars of corn earwerm of the second
? and third generation start to damage cotton; d) on the fields appear the
leaf hoMmoze and at the end of the period - the stem hommoze; e) the
? harmful ectivity of the alfalfa bag starts upon the cotton crops: f) wilt
apPeare on the fields; g) at the beginning of the summer period the ossie
cockroach Continues to dmmege cotton; hYthe web mite cTetranychus pxticmel
spreads intensively causing not only edge infestation but nidi and massive
infestation PS well.
As fcr as organization is concerned in order to wanly the correct
system of measures, the collective and Soviet farms are confronted with
the following tasks: a) the collective and Soviet farm brigadiers continuo
their observation of pests and disersed On cotton fields. By mo,als of
periodic inspection they registertthe infestation fields ? they organize
and carry out those measures which Ere indicated for that period. The
registration of infested and cultivated fields are carried Out according
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to a special instruction of Registration Division and with the assistance
of collective and Soviet brigadiers; b) upon all the cotton fields covered
with the pottoned seeds against hommotei the technical effect of poisoning
is registered e) in the same manner, with the assistance of collective and
Soviet farm bri Otero, is carried out the registration of the tecIlnical
effect of vark against aphids, web mites, Ilkatedrin, skorobochnie and
others; d) according to special instructions of the Registration division
with the !-.3sistance of collective and Soviet farm brigadiers a special
pereonnel registers the deposit of the holothuria of the Morocco grass-
hoopor. cocl:roach, fatbasarke and other locust pests..
Fro7, the general system of mez.suree during the slimmer period the
following measures are applied;
1. The cultivationoCall fields infested by melon aphids by spraying
with soap-anabazin solution or by polinetion by Ranahitdests" upon lime or
road dnnt. These cultivations ihould be emmleted at the time when the
*plaid under the influence temperature depression or pests and parasites
will decrerae. During the appearance of sumer period of the fall generation
the control is carried out on the .infested fields by the same ways, by
spraying and pollination.
2. The end of the method of mill cake nure attractants agrAne the
oasis locust rcallibtanius,
3. Control of the okaradrins caterfallare ull*Malcotton*ropm;AWthe
begiating of the period the control of the caterpillars of the first \
generation, and at the end of the period against caterpillars of ,the
second generation. The control is carried out either by polliwitiop of
the cotton with arsenic calcium oxide (15-18 kg. pro hooter) or With
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attractant poisoned by mill cake (:30-40 kg. per hectar)? The pollination is
applied against the younger caterpillars and the 'attractants - ngainst
the older ones. Upon the fields infested by ukaradrin" before the weeding or
before the elternate billing the same rules are followed as in May, i.e.first
of all it is necessary to carry out a chemical control of the "karadrin"
caterpillars, otherwise the unpoisoned caterpillers would transfer upon
cotton after the weeding.
4. The second and third sowing of weeds on edges, slopes and curbs
of reservoirs, along boundaries, curbs of fields and. roads in order to
prevent the seed producing of weeds and the liquidation of their reserted
abilities. The .second mowing is done on June 20 - July 10, and the third.
July 20 -Joaaust 10. The mown weeds are collected and are carried far from
the cotton fields in order to avoid the transfer of the pests from the
mown weeds upon tie cotton.
5. Control of caterpillars of the corn earworm upon cotton crops
at the bezinning of the period of second generation, at the end of the
period with the third generation, by means of pollination with arsenic
calcium oxide (18-20 kg. per hectar) or by attracte.nt of dry preparation
(10 kg. of small sifted mill cake to 1.5 kg. of arsenic calcium oxide or
1 kg. elite powdery aritenic). on - one heater 30-40 kg. attrattant is used.
Pollination is applied against young caterpillars, and the attractants-
against the older ones. In both Cases for the acceleration of the an
air,lane is advisable.
6. The operating work against the web mite is carried out in the
followino monners a) edge work against the web mite are carried out on .s1.1
those cotton fields, whose edge infestation began in June. Dunn;; this
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edge ror the cultivation of weeds is done sinraltaneously, farst of all .on
the boundaries which belong to the alfalfa along the field., and blown weeds
(poisons and doses are indicated in the spring period); b) nidi or entire
work is carried out on all those fields infested by the web site where the
mite ? -.7e-rar, e,'ring the spring period, but there was no edge weeding done,
or it hs been done, but appeared to be unsucceesful. Daring this work,
besides the fields, places are cultivated which are covered with weeds.
For entire cultivation the Shorsuiskii compound tirst degree is used,
if it 13 available, and ultra sulphur, and also ISD. Upon all maps with
massive infestation for the acceleration of work the application of an
? airplane 13 adlisable; the nidi or lease cultivation of fields against mite
with the Irma .compounds of all' those fields upon which the edge infestation
occured during the simmer period, but there were no edge cultivation, or
they sr without success. The places of weeds are not cultivated.
Cultiv7tion against Mites should be completed before September 1. In
separate raion(e) and on separate fields depending upon the cotton
vegetation the work' could be continued. until September 10.
7. The additional first and. second billings are carried, out and. the end
of Jay -md August upon fields heavily covered with iweeds of root sprouts
and rhizomes.
8. Alfalfa heavily covered by root sprouting weeds, intended for
ploughing, are ploughed in fall or better in summer, immediately after the
third raowing, at the beginning of August with the parnose of drying the
weed roots. 1;ith the same purpose the fields free from cereals are
ploutted it the middle or at the end of July.
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9. Daring the June. July and August hillings of cotton simultaneouply
the cut weeds are accwsulated and carried out from the cotton field. in
order to prevent the pests to transfer from the drying weeds upon the
cotton.
At till; tithe of the second and third hillings Ngumain forms auxiliary
rhimes not deeply rooted. Vith the purpose of decreasing weeds it to
advieable,to dig out those auxiliary rhizomes, to carry them out from the
cotton 'fields and destroy them.
Besides, on the fields heavily covered with weeds one or two supple-
mentary hilliw;s are done so that by carrying out frequent hillinge the
covering.fielda with weeds would decrease.
On seeded alfalfa a periodical mowing of the weeds liketeguiain,
alcsyl-hi Lel:" and ?nsolodkal., is done.
III. The Pall period (September-November)
Daring this period the ripening and harvest of cotton crops occurs,
the fell preparation of fields' for the sowing of cotton for the next year
etc.
In or6arizational sense during that-period the following work is
done: a) registration of. the economical effect of poisoning Of seeds bry
sulphuric acid, formaline and by various dry poisons according to the
special instruttion.of the Registration Division, by a special personnel
with the assistance of brigades of collective and &mist farms; b) reais-
tration of economical effects of controlling the web mite1 cotton tlphids,
ftkaradrinao, fil:orobochnik" etc. by registering the harvest on weeded and
unweeded fields. The registration is carried out at the instructions of
the Regisial?-tion Division by a special personnel with the assistance of
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bric..dicr.1 of collective and soviet farms; 0 the report of every brigadier
on the ql,lort history of the given fields in respect to the seasonal in-
fegt.ltinn pests and diseases, and also by very harmful weeds; d) a fall
verif:Ting registration of the deposit of holothuria encroaches, Merrenco
rr' rPr .ocnst. Registration is carried ant according to
Epecial instruction of Registration nivision, specie/ personnel. with the
ansis'7.-nce of briff-diers of collective and Soviet farms.
larinL; the fall the following measures are cerried out:
1.
Irr,e onitivetion of all fields infeted by melon aphids causing the
widenin:77 nf fibers. Control of the fll generation of aphids by the
serf-lying nethod should he determined before the mass opening of bolls.
tht: control. from the mor.ent of the )e1.l mrturing, when a 11..-:rt
of th,-; is el r-ody onen, only pollination is possible bee-a/se s-rciing
would spoil the fibers. In case, if the spraying is necessary becsLuse
another po..c:on is not available, then the some is admissible only after the
preliminary collection of all the open bolls.
2. the first and the following harvest of cotton the mu
PIPterial (blrpk or yellow skin) is harvested.seps:rately and is separately
sent to the fr,ctor7 with the inscription *widened". The raw material of
the pl !nferted by ho-..triose is harvested separately and is sent to the
factor:: rjti the inscription *infested by homneze". In cotton fsctories
the infeFterl sand widened raw material is -'reserved and cleaned sikparately.
3. Immadittely after the heIvest "gam-pais is harvested in the
rollowing order: a) on fields intensively wilted !.nd homed am-1sta is
dt.f; out with the rot, and en the other fields e manual or machine harvest
is carried ont. The vended gnse-oda is token to the yards of the
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collectivo farms or is hayatecked far from the cottonl fields. -Upon all the
infested. and. 'seed covered fields fall ploughing is carried out first of
.4. naring the fall ploudaing the manual digging out or vach1ne
conbin.: t4,4tf ir'nec is carried out on the fields vhich are heavily covcrod
by rhilene veeds, then carried out beyond. the cotton fields.
5. Sicallte.neously with the harvest of gaza-pai the clearing of leaves
under the trees along the reservoirs. the .skirrting of foliage in piles and.
burning then in order to eliminate favorable conditions for the wintering
of pests li2:e web mites and. other!).
IV. Winter period. (Decembisrh.PebruarV)
During this period the poets and dioceses are in a papause. In ?
mature condition or in the stage of cocoons or larvae the pants are in the
soil, covered with ground, in soil fracture, under fallen foliage, in weeds
etc. According to these locations the following measures are carried out
during the winter period.
1. Clearing the trees from foliage, raking it into piles and burning
it in order to destroy the wintering pests.
2. Digging of boundaries, curbs of reservoirs to create conditions
unfavorable for the wintering pests.
3. The burning of weeds on curbs of reservoirs to destroy the
wintering poets. The burning is carried out only on each reservoirs Where
there are no trees, otherwise the burning spoils the trees, especially
the younG ones.
4. The straw and places obtained during the threshing in Which
the alfalfa seed eater is wintering is given as feeding to livestock until.
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Tosobnt M. 1. 20
the en,1 of the Onter reriod. The unnocestmry vrnstt not good for the
I ivet,c1 4 burned in oreer to ellmin. to the snrePdinf; of the send el--..ter.
5. Durg the winter ,er,tering of the fields infested by pests,
horimorli anf.pflt, hetvily covered by rhirome, yards must hev:,
It 1. 0. -x?blo to cry out the irrirtion by flonflinr.
C. ic nape as foal of in rni other rae-to obt-inrd. on cotton
factor-5,-. -irt order to destroy the rent available there. The WaSt 0 not
rs fnel P.t the beginning of the srtring n,nriod (birch) i.a Awned
to rrnvent the rests to trsnefer uron the cotton crops.
July 16, 1951
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IKVESTIIA. -
August 17, 1951. No. 192 Translated by R.D.
p. 1. soviet Health Care. (Ed.)
p. 2. Experience in industrial construction at collective farms. Voronezh;
building.
' August 18, 1991. No. 193- ' Translated by R.D.
p. 1. To introduce more rapidly the new, irrigation system (Ed.)
Peforestation at Lower Dnepr region. Kiel*. .
p..2. "Viatka-2", new frost-resistant variety of rye, of high yield, produced at
Eirov Institute of Agriculture of No.Eastern USSR under the guidance of
well known .selector Eudnitskii. V Ttenslated
p. 3. Among tree shelter belts. Kuibishev obi.
August 19, 1951. No,. 194.
Nothing of interest.
August 21, 1951. No. 195.
, Translated by R.D.
p. 1. Grandiose construction on the Volga. (decree 8-21-50 to construct
Kuibishev Hydro-electric Station on the Volga. ?(Ed.)
p. 3. Entrance examination at WIZ are completed. .
August, August 22, 1951. No. 196 Translated by R.D.
p. 1. Cotton harvest begun in Moldavia. Kishinev.
August 23-, 1951. ro. 197 Translated by R.D.
p. 1. New method of raising cotton. Tashkent. Translated
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Kozikov, F. V. Transl. 1921 Platt Protection
On the methods to be applied in record
Service. Zadhch. Rast.- 2:129-1334 1936
? 421 P942
Translated in fu:
K. G. Dembo
by
The notes of F. L. Kozikov, L. V. Koloukhin and F. S. Pervukhin
discuss a most interesting question concerning the methods of work of '
Registration. Despite the absence of concrete suggestions the editors
publish these' notes in order to stimulate an exchange of ideas on this
most important problem of plant protection, especially since this fall
VIZR (13141)) The All-Union Institute for Plant Protection plans to have
a special convention on the problem of the method for Registration.
Already, on the first convention of the workers on pest control,
which took place in December 1951, a resolution has been accepted which
clearly formulated the responsibilities of the scientific research
organizations and of the operating network in oon ction with the economi-
cal significance of pests and the evaluation of the effect of measures
in controlling them. By a serIes of decisions and of conventions of the
workers in Plant Protection, it has been determined that the problems of
study of losses and effects of the me asures should represent one of the
basic problems in the work of research organizations. Nevertheless, by
reading the latest literature, both the popular and the one which pretends
to be scientific in the field of economical significance of pests and
diseases, we, discover
indicatin the losses
to the following inde
6 per cent* for medium
less that 20 per cent,
authors, an exclustv
that the figures which are given by the authors in.:
ottinue to be of the usual standard which sums up
the decrease of harvest of slightly damaged plants
damaged . 10-15 per cent for heavily damaged, not.
whereby in theta standard. data with individu
, conspicuous difference exists which is expressed in
?
?
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? Eozikar, F. L..
On the methods to be applied .in record service.
hundreds f thoucanC hectars or lost or damaged crops; if these losses
are expressed in money-- they amount to hundred of millions of-rubles.
Undoubtedly, this indicates the fact that a majority of authors who did
not pursue any circum tantial study in this line indicate figures whith
are far from roality and vd:ich are of subjective and quite orienting
nature. At the same ttr
the amount ?
operating measures which increases
.every year should have had more conerete,econ mit b s s for the. Assumption.
It would be erroneous to persist that some workers did not
ake seriou
.attempt to study the losses from pests and diteaces; _have in this
.
direction some results which give us the po
ibility, especially from the
methodical point of view. to approach more closely the study of losses from
individual pest s and diseases and of the effeets of measures. Of great
value we may consider during the last two years the works' of the coworkers
of the economical sector of VIM Xosobutskit and others. Being the
result of. research work acquired as perimentso these data could not be
of_maes productive character, but represent a value as methodic 1 materials,
which is necessary to utilize on the widest Scale.
The first-source of acquiring the mass materials concerning losses
and the effects of measures should be the etwork of Division of Regis-.
tration of VIM (!3OP) All-Union Plant Protection. This was really the
main task of the Department Of Registration organized by the Division of
Pest Control. Unfortunately, this work of the Department of Registration
was not developed,- expanded nor introduced into a normal channel
result of which the systematio accumulation of materials and their work
.did not progress in comparison wit 'the past. Without being unfounded,
let us bring separate excerpts froth the opinions of specialists ent ale-
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Kozikov, F. L -
On the methods to be applied in record service
gists-economists rho fu
Registration concerning the lasso
pre-revoluti
on the, work. Of DivisiOn of
Cron certain harmful
nary years and during the period of the first
ects during the
For Instanoe Briantsev writes:: he materials during the revolutionary
the ,First
Period were
ot sufficient, especially during the last year
Five-Year Plan and the first year of the Second
Year Plan, in comparison
with the best materials of pre...revolutionary period, but at the same time
they are
till far from the requirements for an authentic loss registration.
The basic elements he fields infested or damaged by pests, the
intensity of their infettation; the data
damage mere absent most of the
time or uere insufficient. Therefore in respect of registering fields and
the degree of their infestation, it was ry to use the methods of
extrapolation and interpolation, as to the data on damage it was neessary
to give them a provisory ifican e!.. From the opinion of another
specialist,vie notice that: The data of the Division of Registration
indicate that there is a disproportion of possibl
losses from individual
and group-locusts. While usually the losses from the individual and from
the group locusts are
f the tame kind and the losses from group' locusts
require general attention, the data of the inspection indicate that the.
possiblelosses from the Asiatic and Moroeto locusts consisted in
5 3 ofo in 1952 and in 1933 - 9, 2 o/o. If th is the oasis, then the
centre of. attention should be transferred to the Individual locust
although we could dispute
It
.9
In general, all the data on losses of 11 pests are subje
ive and
do not differ from the data indicated byother authors. Such a condition
is not casual. The methodical handbooks which ere publishedby the
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Eozikov, P. L.
On the methods to be applied in record service.
Registration Division even with an ideal application in the work could not
turnieh iore concrete data on the losses caused in our agriculture from
pests and diseases.
The content of these handbooks sums up to data of losses, although
? in some parts they are not void of tendencies in applying- the analytical
method. The grouping of plants into slightly, medium and heavily damaged
when the difference between the categories is cps Med from 1/4 to 3,/2
? of the infested or damaged plants could give-only the idea of damage,
especially since the infestation degree is doterthined by the eye. Under
such conditions the data of the observation points could hardly be utilized
s materials for statistical work, and if it is used in our work, then it
? is not surprising that the obtained results are close to the data on losses
acquired by the eye. The handbooks of the Registration Division are
Insufficient and elementary if we intend to study the losses by an
analytidal method when the damage Is counted as a function from the
coefficient of the harm, the intensity of infestation, the number of pests
and the duration of their presence upon the plants and when the influence
of other factors should be considered, which is as important fo&r the damage
as the intensity of infestation.
From nll materials offered to the osCrtin points as guidance in
lesiaregiatratiOn,: the best it the instruction ritten by the specialists
G. U. Iaroalavtsev, A, I. Karpova, A. V. Vyrzhiko kaia and P. B. C4lakhov
for the field entomologiCal observation points of the Registration Division.
But it is -doubtful whether thie in truotion is acceptable in the work of,
the observation points, and especially with the qualitative personnel at:the:
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Kozikar, F. L.
On the methods to he applied in record service.
present t
the authors of this instruction write:
?!poet
dfticult to obtain information concerning the influence of damage Ilion
the amount and the quality of the crops. The complexity of the problem
of. the influence of the damage upon the crops on one hand Is -explained
by the variety of conditions of growth of plants in various raion(s) of the
'Union in different years, and on the other hand 7 by the biological
peculiarities of the same plants (species, qualities). Only i small pa
of the pests,damages,the formed fruits and the seeds her the size and
the quality of the crops are in direct relation to the degree of the &triage,
. The majority of pests damage- not the productive, but-the vegetative organs
of the plants, often during the period when the'fruits and the seeds were
not formed. In such case the plant reacts to the damage labile the reaction
and the ability of the plant to restore the lost organs depends upon the?
age of the'plant 'at the moment of damage, conditions of nourishment soil
cultivation, fertilization, heat, moisture, etc.), drought 'immunity,
ripenest of plants etc."
Of ciourse it ie; Impossible to argue against such an approach, 11110-M10e
only with a profound study of the factors which influence the amount of
crops is it possible to epee); of :the possibility of obtaining if not
complete figures, at lea8t quite close to: the actual Ones. It is only
incomprehensible her would the observation points be able to furnish us
with those figures without experimental work and without any detailed
research of the indicated factors. It is therefore doubtful whether these data
will differ from those figures which are Obtained by individual persons by
the eye, especially since the instruction recommends to use all the
of slight or heaVy damages couldthen give the average loss....
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A
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Kozikov, F? L.,
On the methods to be applied in record se ice.
?
Without going into the details of Individual points of instruction
on the loss registration, it is necessary to note that as a whole, it is
too huge and complicated: the style i not accessible to the wide masses
of the workers in Registration: muc)-1 of it is the official ideas of the
workers of the central?offiee who are very 1tttleacquinted with the
working conditions of the observation pointaand st 11 less with the
preparatOn of the majority of workers in case they ate required to
fulfill this work. According to these ideas the instruction could not be
used in practice at the majority of observation points, and therefore is
unable to introduce anything new into the solution of the problem. It is
necessary to note that the Instructions dispatched to the fields suffer
from essential shortcomings in their counting of losses of damaged plants.
This has to be aonsidered in .a special article.
A problem which Is also important and essential is the one which
considers the effect of measures. Vas it solVed at the present time?
It is possible to say definitely that its solution is not at its best.
It is impossible to deny that the Registration Division undertook measures
to acquire the necessary data, but the idea of effect in publishing the
Anstrwitions was. of somewhat peculiar character. For instance, the zonal
instructions in regittering pests and disesses.edited by the Registration
Division in1934 suffer of those essential shortcomings that under effect:
Is understood the influence of poisons upon p sts and diseases,and-it is
possible to obtain, the data of the effects of the measures according to
the amount of change in the plant infestation. No'doubt, we could not
look the fact of the effect, but at the tame time it is impossible to
ov riook other fa tors related to it
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Kozikov, P L.
On the rt thods to be applied in record service.
to
It is known that the applied poisons do not remain neutral in relation
e plant, but it.produces either a depressing (burns) or stimulatin
effect, *hereby the SflfllS poison under different conditi
produces a
different effect.- This situation ?requires fron us to consider the 'idea
"effectft more broadly, on one hand - the decrease of plant damage on the.-
,
other hand .- the influence of the poison on the (3o dition and the damage
of the plant i In reality me observe a lob of 90 per cent and at the first
glance the effect is equal to 90 per cent. Along with this there are
plant burns up to 60 per cent with the inten?ty of l-2O per cent- thus
it seams that instead of protecting the plant we oppress it nose severely
than even the pest itself.; hence vie don t obtain any increase in crops
as & result of the applied measures. The destruction of pests is
sufficient either, because there might occur the death of some percentage
of pests but still the increase of crops might not occur,
More circumstantially is worked out the problem of obtaining acme
exponents of the effect of the ieoiires under the same instruction of the
Division of Registration which we mentioned above, but the latter will not
be acceptable neither in registering the damage and the harmfulness nor as
the -registering the effect of meatures for many observation points on accoun
of the fact that the study of e.couomIo effeat is connected with a deep
analysis of other factozt-requiring the organization of -special experimental
work.
in order to obtain more Concrete data according to the exponents of
damage and the effect of measures against basic pests t teems to us that
the essential work system should. be constructed in such direction that
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On the methods.to be applied.in record service*
the study of th
questions which are insufficiently dwelt upon and which
demand more research is essential. From the available network of obser-
vation points it is necessary to form 30-40 control points of various direc-
tions which should carry out. the work of the corresponding experiments.
The number of controlled points is: determined by the position that in each
basIc &man of agriculture (seed, cotton, orchard, sugar beet, etc.) is
necessary to form four points in various territorial zone(s), of which
two will indicate the loss, and the other two the effect of the meaeures.
The materials Obtained from the given control points are the necessary
correotives to the atorialsobsined.in these problems in mass order.
It is necessary to complete the personnel of the control. Pointe.
fly the supervisory one by highly qualified persons who Were
411 occupied in the pa twiththe work In this field. 2,11 general, the personnel
of the control points could be completed by persons who are graduating
from colleges., taking into consideration that many of thorn are graduates
in topics of economical dgnificance of pests and the effectsof the
measures against them.,
For the methodical supervIsion and a conOtant control over the work
of these control,points in the central apparatus of VIZR (V30 the
All-Union Institute or Plant Protection is necessary to create independent
groups to register the damage and the eftect based upon existing regis-
? tration sectors or registration and eeonomi s who would perform the
theoretical work of the methods along these problems and to give a deep
analysis- and direction for the entire work of the Registrgtion
These are the present conclusions in the problems of work in registering
sr the losses and the measure effects in controlling agricultural pests and
diseases.
16 July 1951
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Stepanov, K. M.
Dissemination of infective diseases of plants
by air currents. Zit:shell. Rest. . 3-86. 1935.
421 P942
Trona.. 193: Plant Diseases
Translated in full by
R. G. Dembo
? (Fret the work of the Ecological Laboratory SF VIM)
? ((PP r1/131))
In the phenomena ofd ssemitation,of diseases, the question of the
distance of their motion in the air is Of the most theoretical and
practical interest.
The understanding of these individual factors of the spreading and
of development of diseases, especially their development in locations
where the sources of the original infection (for instance, rust) are
absent, depends on the solution of this problem. On one hand there
prevails an opinion that infectional diseases may spread in the air on
very long distance hundreds of kilometers and more). Often such an
opinion is supported by corresponding facts which were determined by
numerous analyses of air filled with spores of fungi and by observations
of the timing of the appearance Of tbe disease in places emote from the
infectional sources. Thin le proved the possibility of the rust infesta-
tion which arrives from Uanch)Ahuria into the Amur oblist -(Shitikovs...
? Busakova, 1927), in America - its drift from Southern States into .
Northerm States and into Canada. On the other hand, there- are data
concerning a limited Spreading of Separate diseases by air streams.
According to the data of Jonet and Bartholomew (1928) the rust of
apple tree which appeared in a considerable degree in orchards close, to
weede of juniper, produced slight infestation in orchards removed from
the latter on half a mile or more. Orton and Beattie (192$) describe
a ease in Columbia where in one place during twenty years neither the:
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193
2
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Stepanov, N. IL
Dissemination of infective diseases of plants
by air currents*
apple tree ner the juniper did suffer from rusts while at the distance
of ten miles in that locality rust was violent upon both plants* Butler
(1917) in his summary brings a aeries of historically verified facts of
the spreading of such diseases like Mildew of grapes, gooseberry and ma
others and arrives at the oonclusion that the wind is not able to sprea
dISSaRSS on long distances.
The indicated facts and many others vim ar to them do not imply
. any doubts, but require some clarifications.
In reality, the Spreading
of disease by air is a quite complicated, pheneno?, which depends on
various moments during which sometimes the diseases are spread at a long
_ distance, in other instances - quite limited distance. Naturally, t
question arises - how is this explained, whidh are the rer;ularities? -
To determine the latter - signifies the possibility to determine in each
separate case the zones of the .spreading of diseases, and corresponding
deductions derive from them. Although there
attempts made for
purely mathematical determnatin of the epreading boundaries of the ,
infectional origin (Schmidt, 1918), our task is to determine the regulariu
ty of spreading infeetional particles by the experimental method. The
given work was the principal division of special research carried out by
the Laboratory of Ecology in 34. As the method of experiments mentIoned
in this arto1e,,se aceepted the follew ng: In the open air
(the island
Elagin and the vicinity of Leningrad) the spores of Tilletia triti I were
dispersed cleaner in mixture with Bovista plumbea. Bete
were placed on the field of the experiment.
The glasses
glasses
re smeared with
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Stepancir, K.
Dissemination of infective diseases of plants
4111 ?by air currents,
?
gelatina-glicerine, in various paints, whose coordinates were determined
as to the 1 cation of the spore dissemination. After a certain tiros, the
glasses were covered by integumentaries, and then the sports were rated.
he height from which the spores
The direction and the speed of the wind,
were dispersed and their amount were determined during the experiment.
As the.result of several of such experiments, the following regularity
of spore dispersion has been determined. It is expressed by the following
equation: y= a + -where y is the distance, ex is the number of spores
ax
set on the given field (for instance, upon: he in egument ry glass),
c and a are constante whose significance is determined by the conditIons
of tl-te experiment (the speed of spore motion their amount, the wind epeed,
eto .) 1
The character of the dispersion e the relation of
unchanged in all oases (excluding those when the dispersion is prevented
by barriers - forest, mountains). The practical significance of this
? equation consists in the fact that according to it1 it is possible to
determine the zones of spore disperlion in each case for which it is
sufficient to evaluate the deposition of spores for one unit of surface
in two points differently removed from the source of infection. An
example of such zpnes of dispersion is the scheme presented on drawing
The given equation enables us to determine the zones of the dispersion
of diseases but it nsufficient for the determination of their
appearance. It is necessary for this purpose to know some norms of air
infestation by s
s 2 the size of plant surface which 143 threatened by
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ot,Fin!.uvv, n. M. ,
? Dissemination of infective dneasee of plants
by air currents.
the carrying of infection.from far, the viability of spores the amount
of infection and-the conditions of environment (temperature, humidity,.
etc,). Nevertheless, ?under corresponding field observations, the determined
regularity could be utilized in the work after the availability of
?
:.additional data for the determination of the mentioned problem. We have
in
he registration of the appearance of spores and the observations
of the first manifestation of the disease upon various distances of the
source of infection. This could be explained by an example taken from
literature (lambert, 1929).
Spread by the wind from 175 bushes of barberry heavily infested by
rust, during 20 hours the following amount of asoldiospores set upon the
411 field of 1 eq. at at the distance of 1.-8 meters - 1737, and at the
distance of 21,6 meters 11 spores etc. The observations done fter
12 days *ben the disease should already manifest itself) indicate that
rust spread somewhat farther than 1,5 miles.- Bence, we may accept that-
at the distance of 2 p lea (5,3.km.) rust did not appear. According to
the equation indicated, above, we deternine that at the distance of 3,3
km.- the average of 0, 1 nscidiospores aettled upon 1 sq. cm. 01' 1,000
Upon 1 sq. m. Therefore, such an overcharge of the air by eacidiozpores
under the, given ecological onditions,did not present any economical
danger.
With similar observations under various conditions and in various
locations, the "home of infestation could be determined. Knowing the
latter, it IA easy to determine the zones of spreading of various diseases.
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Etepatovi-
Dissemination of i fective: diseases of plants
by air currents. -
1t us explain it by another example
of similar field observations, a maximum
uredospores of brown rust of idlest has be
that as the result
infestation by
edivhich under the
optimal conditions for the development of the disease does not excel 1600
sp
?
or 1. sq.. mile (or 9,15 for 1 Sq. cm is neoessary to determine
could a, wheat field infested by brown rust, at the sie of 100 h.
spread the infection Under maximum conditions. We register the settling
of, the uredospores in two points differently removed from the field long the
line of wind and we determine that under the iven infestation degree at
the distance of 200 m. 'at the avera
at the distance of 00m.S -.6 spores. lio* far
ettle on one sq. cm.
and
under the given conditions,.
should the settling f the sare uredoepores occur with 0,15 'spores on I
sq. cm?, According to the indicated equation, we determine that this
'norm will be met at the distance of 6 1/2 km. Consequently, at the given
anent this field represents a threat for the infection for other crops
In a radius up to 6 1/2 km. Further, the =fount of spores will increase
in c nnettion with the increase of the field infestation, and according
to t at under similar conditions, the zoneS of infectio al effect upon
that field will also widen. If we de vensine the dependence between the
settling of spores and the degree of field -infettation (i.e., the amount
of spores on the field) and of meteorological conditions, then such zones
-could be determined based on those data without any registration of
factual settling of spores.
Many such examples could be indicated In nature phenomena are much
more complicated, and It 'necessary to tke various moments into conaiderstirn.
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ag.
Dissithination of infective diseases of plants
by air currents
Nevertheless,
spreading of t
a more effectiv
Y P
maple ofdeter
disease remains the same.
the distance of the
order that it could have
significance it is necessary to develop in the produ
environment expanded mork on the dispersion of spores and of the distance
of spreadingof the disease with the registration of the main conditions
of the environment. The obtained materials will elucidate the regularity
of. the dispersion
to Indic
infectional particles and will give concrete exponents
the boundaries for the spreading- f any di ease: The Important
problems in this respect are: nonfleU or air infeStation by spores, the
?
amount-of infection, its
onsumption in time1 the influence of the environment
upon the dispersion-of infeCtional orIgin, etc. Similar work is of
considerable praotical significance. Its basic purpose is to determine
a erlterium for a spgclfic evaluation of any source or infection In
relation to time and the distance or its harmful influence.. This* in
turn, produces scientific foundation for a series of
in controlling
plant diseases: the destruction of temporary hosts of r.Isti the quarantine
boundaries, mlere-raioning of measures, organization of the sowing field*
to.
hark this directions planned for the year 1935 mainly in
tion to rust).
note I. The mathematical analysis of our da
Prof. IU. L. ,Pomorskij. In using the
AZ been performed by
t data, this equation as given
by Dr. ILA. Naamov in his textbook "Diseases of Orchard and Garden Plants,"
Second edition, 1934, page 100. It has been shown in a short report of
0
scientific research work of the All-Union Institute of Plant Protection
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bsopanov, a. U.
Lissemination of infective diseases of plants
by air currents.
for 1934," pare 84 where a visprint oocurred: instead of y = c 1,1, should
be road y ss c - 4 ?
sx
Note 2. I. e., the maximal number of spores settled upon one unit of
surface during a specific length of time 'which under the given ecological
conditions will not cause the development of the disease in an economically
perceptible amount.
Drawing 1. The scheme of dissemination of spores Tilletia tritici.
Ficures 100, 30, 10, 3 aid I indicate the averacp amount of spores settled
upon a field of 1 sc. am. The mind speed during the experiment from 0
to 3 mA. 2.109 spores were disseminated. ScLle is 1,6 mm. - 1 m.
16 auly 1951
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I -
Prokor,ev, A. A.
Additional Factors of Growth and
their role in the life of plants.
Uspekhi sovremennoi biol. 261943..948;
Nov.-tec. 1948. 442.8 Er3
Transli 1941 Growth Substances
,
Translated from the Russian by
S. N. Monson
In the second half of the nineteenth century the dispute bctween ?
two Outstanding scientiets, Pasteur and Liebig, attracted a great deal
of attention. Both scientists had Obtained completely different results
in studying the conditions of growth and the enzymatic capacity of yeasts.
rhile Pasteur claimed that a synthetic medium consisting of ammonia salt
yeast ash and auger vas satisfactory for the growth of yeast, Liebig, in.
repeating Pasteur's experiments invariable obtained negative results.
Since the authority of both scientists went unchallenged, the disagreement
remained an unsolved aoientifio riddle Znr many decades.
Only in 1901, Wildiers succeeded in proving that the addition of
insignificant amounts of some organio growth stimulator, named "bios",,,
was essential for the normal growth of yeast, in addition to mineral
salts and sugar, The study of '!bios," conducted primarily by Vigi and
his school (KOgl u. nasselt, 1936;07,Ogl u. i'obnia, 1936) established
that "bios" contains various compounds which stimulate the growth of
cells. The group which dissolves in water proved to be the most active
part of "bios" and was given the designation "vitamin B."
Elements of bios possessed exceptionally high physiological activity
and exerted marked action even in infinitessimal concentrations. ThUs,
for'instance, according to KiSgl. and IGnnis, the componeht biotin visibly
accelerates the development of yeast even in a solution of 1: 40,000,000,000.
Robbins established the activity of similar weak concentrations of
thiamin, another part of "'bias," upon the growth of isolated roots of
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/94
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Additional lectors...
tomatoes. In the light of these facts the historical dispute between
Pasteur and Liebig was solved. According to Wildiers, Pasteur may have
introduced into the nutritional synthetic medium a relatively 'aro, amount
of seed stock which enriched it with elements of "blots." Pasteur consequently
observed a normal growth of yeast lacking in Liebig's experiments, who
introduced a small amount of yeast cells into the medium. It follows thus
that in contrast to any other elements used by organisms for the construction
of their bodies, the above substances are required in very limited amounts.
They resemble in this respect hormones most of all, of attich the most
typical representative is, for instance auxin, the growth hormone.
So long as the participation of these elements in the metabolism
of plants possesses a definite characteristic, it is expedient to segregate
them into a separate group. The designation, "additional growth factors,"
given this group appears, however, moat inappropriate and unsatisfactory,
in our opinion; we shall have occasion to (Nell further upon this below.
The diversity of adeitional growth factors, at times specific- for a
limited group of organiaMs, equally determiies the vast diversity in the
metabolism of various representatives of the plant world. Be shall
restrict our review only to some of them, those most typical and of
greatest significance for manifold classes of plants.
GROUP VITA= B.
racCallum and Kennedy named the soluble growth factor Vitamin B.
Subsequent studies established that an entire group of elements is
covered by this designation. At present 10 substances of diverse
chemical composition and physiological activity have been segregated.
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Prokori.ev, A. .A..
Additional Teeters...
knong these substances those most thoroughly studied are $ Vitamin B1
(thiamin and tuiervin); Vitamin B2 (riboflavin); Vitamin B6 (adermin and
pyridoxin);. nicotinic acid and its amide.
vivAnn B1 (thiamin or tuiervin). Attempts made to cultivate is3lated
roots of different plants rapidly led to the.conclusion that a medium
containing only water, mineral salts and serving as a source of carbon,
in the form of glucose or saccharose, is insuffioient for root growth.
An entirely different result was obtained when autolysie of yeast was
added to the. above medium. nobbins, (1922), established, for instance,
that the introduction into the modified medium of Pfeiffer (containing
sugar) of small amounts .of yeaet-autolysis substances produced definite,.
positive effects in cultivating cereal root ende under sterile conditions.
Later White, (1934), developed the perennial culture of tomato root ends.
(Lycoper sioum esculentum L.) by adding extraot of yeast. In his
experiments Iihite weekly transplanted nev.ly cut root ends into a fresh
medium. The total length of the entire grown root system in a similar
culture amounted to, tens and hundreds of meters.
In applying a similar method', nit? (1938) also successfully
cultivated roots of many other plants, such as buckwi.eat, mustard,
white clover, petunia, sunflower, etc.
Bonner simultaneously succeeded in establishing the efficacy of
the action of yeast extract upon the growth of isolated roots of peas.,
Thus, at least with regard to some plants, the necessity for stimulating
the growth of isolated roots by elements contained in yeast extract
was established. Other researchers established the same with respect
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Content
ri
LJL
0,108 0.0148 0008 60m 10nm. 0mm.
I II III I II III
Illustration 1. Correaation (relationship) between content of thiamin
and subsequent growth of tips of pea roots in vitro.
I - tips, distant from growing seed; I/ - corresponds to rootlets that grew
in vitro in one meek; III - rootlets that grew in vitro in two weeks.
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Frokorev, A. A.
Additional Factors...
to lower plants. In this connection the extensive experimen a of Sohopfe
and his assistants who established the outstanding significance poasels10
by additional growth factors in the life of vegetative organisms with
regard to many objects (particularly the fungua Phycomyces) is espeoially
noteworthy. Subsequent study of yeast extract established that the aotive
growth faotor resembles in its attributes vitamin Bi or thiamin. 7-eit$
of crystallized thiamin, 48 an additional growth faeter, performed on
diverse objects indicated that the latter clearly exerts an exceptional
influence upon growth.
On the above diagram (i11.1), secured from the work of Bonner,
(1938), it is evident that the reduction of thiamin content at the. tips:
of pea roots reduces growth. Complete withdrawal of thiamin aupply stops
all root growth. It follows that the expenditure of thiamin determines
the rapid discontinuation of growth of isolated root tips under conditions
where thiamin is lacking in the nutritional medium.
A different picture is obtained when yeast extract or pure crystallite
th&emin is introduced into the mtdium(Table 1)
Table 1
RAPIDITY OF oilorm OP CUT ROOTS OF PEAS
kIN 71ILLI1ZETERS PER ROOT); DONNER, 1037
Experiment
I
II
III
rv
Nothing
66
10
0
0.01 o/o of yeast
extract
64
4.5
45 '
'IC
.56
0.2 gamma/Cm
-meOumr1
65
72
65
66
65
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Prokof *ev, A. A.
A.dditional Factors...
?
According to table I, roots develop identically during the first
meek, irrespective of the content of thiamin in a medium. But already
at the second trial, during the seoond week, a radical difference is
noted betvmen the variants. Roota which do not receive thisurtin from
the outside grow poorly, rapidly discontinuing all growth (third stage
while .roota which are fed with yeast extract or crystallized thiamin
grow energetically, 'with uniform rapidity from stage to stage., Similar
results were obtained by Robbins and Bartley (1937) in' cultivating tomato
roots. The above authors cultivated in successive staee out ends of
tomato roots over periods of five months in a medium which containea.
in addition to essential silts and saccharose, various suounta of thiamin,
proving that nnderthese conditions unlimited growth is possible.
Isolated root plants serve only as one of many examples of the
significance possessed by thiamin in the life Of vegetative cells.
Numerous work on the culture of organisms has proved conolusively
that thiamin- is absolutely indispir.sible for many fungi, yeasts and
bacteria, 4n lila most carefully executed work on Phyoomyoes blakesleanue,
Sohopfer (1934) proved that the normal growth and development of fungus
occurs only Mben thiamin is present in the medium. Different oombinations
of mineral and organic salts variations in conditions of cultivation,
etc., are incapable of ensuring the growth of fungi without thiamin.
Similar results mere obtained by.Burgeff (1934) with Pycomyees,
ratans van Tiegam plus and minus; Chaetocladium macrosporum Fgff plus,
,and Pirasitella simplex Bainier ptaa and
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Weight of fungus in
milligrams
to200
t0250
'
A'
0.125 0.25 0.9
Thiamin x 10
1.0
7
Illustration 2. Growth of Phycomyces in nutritional solutions containing
different concentrations of thiamin.
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Prokoftev, A. A.
Additional Factors...
The dependence prevailing batmen thiamin content in a medium and
the growth of fungus (Phycsomyoes) is illustrated with sufficient clarity
- in the curve (111..2) secured from the work of Burkholder end McVeigh
(1944).
Judging from these curves, the growth of fungi .is directly dependent -
upon the content of thiamin in a medium.
It is necessary to observe, however, that some other fungi, Mucor
rimed? hiene.lis, and U. rtucilasineus did not react upon the introduction
?of thiamin into ,the medium.
Subsequent work of Soviet and foreign researcher established that
various representative plants of the vegetative world react differently
upon thiamin. To some the presence of thiamin is an absolute prerequisite,
while others are able to dispense with it. (Yeruaalimakii and Bulatkin,
1945; Odintscrva and Velma, 1941). The success of the chemical
property of thiamin which led to its synthesis permitted to teat, along
with thiamin, the biologioal reaction of various derivatives and separate
parte of the thianin noleaule. It seemed (as will be shown below) that
? many organisms do not require an entire molecule of thiamin but only
particle's of its composite parts.
In order to understand the situation we shall examine the chemical
nature of this combination.
The final construction of vitamin B1 was established by the end of
1936, following which its synthesis was performed by different rethods.
According to the formula proposed Ly Williams, thiamin repreeents a combi-
nation of pyrimidine and thiazole nuclei' connected by a methylene bridge.
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Prokof,ev, A. A.
Additional Factors...
1514P\C 2 "" t-
un ?C
I 11H._ 2 II II 3
CH3? C\\11
11\s/ C112.CH2011
Pyrimidine Nucleus Thiazole Nucleus
Tests of various groups of thiamin meatoule established the following
to be active: In the pyrimidine nucleus the group NH2 and in the thiazole
nuoleue the oxyethyl group CE2CH2OH and CIL The blocking of the above
groups inactivates thiamin as a growth factor either entirely or reduces
its activity radically.
The acquieition of chemically pure thiamin was fcllored by numerous
experiments directed towards determining the influence of thiamin upon
the growth reaction of various classes of plants. The amount of scientifio
papers dealing with the need of thiamin by bacteria, fungi yeasts,
individual organs, and antire groups of superior plants is at present
numbered in the hundreds.
These studies, rllich cannot be enumerated here, established the
different reaction to thiamin on the part of various vegetative organisms.
It was disclosed that an entire group of .plants while existing under
usual, normal conditions does riot react to the external introduction of
thiamin. Since the presence of thiamin in these plants was, however,
established, the conolusion could be reached that rimilar organisms ? -
are capable of syhthesizing thiamin from their usual sources, carbon,'
nitrogen and ash. Contrary to these autotrophic plants, there are come
altbgetter incapable of synthesizing thiamin. The e:riatence of these
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Prokof sev, A. A.
Additinnal Factors...
organisms is possible only if thiamin is present in the nutritional
substrata. Apart from these extreme groups, there are also organisms
which acoomplish synthesis of thiamin from its components pyrimidine and
thiazole. Some of them are capable of only uniting thiamin and thiazole
into the thiamin molecule; others poetess the capacity of synthesizing...
one of the oomponenta and require for additional "feeding" only the
remaining lacking part of the molecule.
Thus, it is possible to arrange for a certain classification of
vegetative organisms, by using as a basis the capacity of plants to
synthesize thiamin.'(tablo 2).
CAPACITY OF VARIOUS GRObPS OF PLANTS TO SYNTHESIZE THIAMIN
Group
II
III
Iv
V
Normal development
in medium containing:
al. ON
thiazole
pyrimidine
thiazole and
pyrimidine
thiamin
Table 2
Some Representatives
Green, photo-synthesizing plants; some
moldy fungi (Aspergillus niger; A.
flavus; A. orizae, Penicillumbh,
47-1:70?
Isolated tomato roots; some fungi
(Phyaomyces ramannianus, Nucor
rsmannianus)
Many fungi, parasites and saprophytes
(Phytophthora fa o iri, Pithium
Butleri. Solaro um doligia77.
WUfirs.) acetone-ethylio bacteria
Isolated pea roots; some fungi
(Phyoomyces Blakealeanus, P. hitens;)
yeasts (Torula Laurentii, T. fermen-
tati); b3aina (Staphylococcus
aureus).
Some fungi and parasites (Phytophthora
oinna momi, P. capaioi).
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rrQLu 5V ? A ?
Additional Pastors...
As shown in table 2, the entire group of green, photo-synthesizing
plants, as well as some moldy fungi do not require normally a supply of
thiamin.*
Representatives of group II are capable of synthesizing pirimidine
and require therefore only the addition of thiazole, building thiamin
up themselves; various fungi belong to this group.
Group III includes organisms which synthesize thiazole and therefore
require pyrimidine in order to produce tLiamin. Many fungi, parasites and
saprophytes, acetone-ethylic bacteria belong into this group.
Representatives of group IV have very limited synthesizing capacity.
They are capable of producing for the thiamin molecule only a combination
of two complete nucleii, pyrimidine and thiazole.
This type has its representatives in all classes of plants,
beginning with superior plants (roots of peas) down to the lower (fungi,
yeasts and bacteria).
Planta of group V require for their normal growth prepared thiamin
molecule Which may not be replaced by any combination of components,
wrimidien and thiazole. Several parasites (Phytophthora zinnamomi,
P.,capsioi), that are supplied by thiamin synthesized by the host-plant
belong to this group.
The measure in *doh components 'of thiamin may substitute for
thiamin is demonstrated in the example of cultivated, isolated pea roots.
* According to Maevakii (937), nicrobes that produce abundant growth
on ordinary media possess a high oapaoity for synthesizing substances of
the Vitamin A group.
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in
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Additional Factors...
1110 (Table 3).
?
Table 3
ACCORDING TO BlIFICER, 1938
Growth Factor
Additional growth in tam in one meek
above the control molar concentrations
10-6 10-7 1 10-9 I 10-11
Thiamin
Pyrimidine plus
thiazole
Pyritaid inSal one
Thiazole alone
40 ?40? 34
40
0
0
43
0
0
36
0
0
10
14
.0
As seen in table 3; the addition of thiamin or ad mixture Of
corresponding amounts of pyrimidine and thiazole. produces a similar effect.
Separately, thiamin and tbiazole do not influence growth at all. Table 2
shows that closely related organisms differ occasionally in their reaction
to thiamin and its components. To illustrate this statement further, ee
shall refer to data on yeasts of the -genus Torula, Obtained- by Robbins,
1936, ani Odintsova, 1940, (Table 4).
Table 4
rEED 01 men Ant ITS COMMENTS BY 7ARIOUS mcirs OF TORULA
MEC IES
POSITIVE REACTION TO ADDITION IN IgEDIDli
Toruly, kefyr
^ cremoris
It laurentii
? fermentati
? rosea
Pyrimidine
plus
Thiazole
? sanguinea Pyrimidine
? latvica
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Prokof lev, A. A.
Additional Factors...
An analogous picture was observed by 8ohoPfer and Blumer (1938)
in their studies of different species of the genus listilago. Among
10 studied species 7 developed normally without thiamin; 1 was weekly
stimulated by thiamin; 1 was satisfied with a mixture of pyrimidine
and thiazole, and finally, the species U. scabies& depends for its develop-
ment exclusively upon thiamin and does not grow on a mixture of the
latter's componente.
4
' Table 4 shows that within the limits of" one genu it is possible
to find representatives of almost all groups.
An uneven reaction to thiamin on the part of isolated tomato roots
or peas takes plate frequently within the limits of different raced of
one species.
As noted above some plants do not react upon the addition of
thiamin to the medium. Is it, however, possible to draw the conclusion
therefrom that the given organisms, specifically plants containing
chlorophyll, are able to get along without thiamin?
Illtuay studies convincingly established that all -green plants_
contain in their tissues perceptible a-....ounta of thiamin. Thus, Schopfer
(1936), for instance, in analyzing the leaves of 134.8peoies of plants
found that all provided for the development of the ftingi Phyoccetes,
e., contained thiamin. In his stmpary Bukin, (1940), oites data
concerning the content of thiamin in different plants, the presence
of the lrtter being apparent not only in organs filled with chlorophyll,
but also in roots, fruits, seeds, etc. An analysis of the body of low
?
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Prokorev, A. A.
Additional Faotors...
vegetative organisms whioh develop beautifully in synthetic mediums that
lack thiamin indicates that in this case the plant tissues contain
thiamin. Sohopfer and Jung in adding to the medium extracts from various
species of moldy fungi (genus Aspergillus) established that the mycelium
of all tested species contains an adequate amount of thiamin to ensure
the normal growth of the fungus Phyoamyoes. Thus, there is every .
opportunity to believe that thiamin plays a substantial role it the
metabolism of any vegetative organism.
RTE or THIAL7D IN ITTABousm. The .excepticinalcignificsanoe of
thiamin for the life of animal organisms produced numerous studies devoted
to the determination of the mechanism of its action. Here one should
first of all note the work of Lohmann and Schuster, 1937; Stern and Hofer,
1937; Tauber, 1937 and 1938, who proved the prosthetic group of the
enzyme of oarboxylase; 6. e., cocarboxylase is a pyro-phosphorio ether
of thiamin. According to Engelhardt and Wenkstern, 1943, thiamin in the
living cell consists "either ih its initial, non-phosphorylated form or
in phosphorylated form as the part of the enzyme proteid (in yeasts in
carboxylase, in animal cells in pyruvo-dehydrase.)" In the latter case,
1. e., as a prosthetic group, thiamin participates in the,oxidization
of'pyro-racemic acid. So long as the significance of pyro-racenic
acid and its transformations in carbohydrate metabolism is known; it
is possible to assert that one of the functions of thiamin is in its
capacity to participate in carbohydrate metabolism. Subsequent work in
the field of animal bio-chemistry, however, shoved that the role of
thiamin in the metabolism of cells is considerably wider and touches upon
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Prokof lev, A. A.
Additional Factors...
fit and protein metaboliam, in addition to carbohydrates. The work of
Kritman (1940, 1943) whowed that thiamin "enters into tie composition
of different enzyme systems which are responsible for the various
transformations of alpha-keto-acids.ft The experimental data of Kritmnan
and others indicates that during Bl avitaminose there is a slowing down
of those transformations of anino acids which are connected with keto
acids (regeterativesminisation and trans-aminization).
Thus, the lack of thiamin leads to the disruption of decarboxy-
ligation and oxidation, as well as of reactions of condensation of
alpha-keto-acids, which fmve a "determining influence upon the use of
keto-acids in the synthetic phases of carbohydrate, fat and protein
metabolism" (Kritzman, 1943).
The above explains why the leak of thiamin in rations of animals
causes so many different ill effects. Evidently this equally applies
to plants. A good argument in support of the latter is the absence of
growth of many vegetative organisms in mediums lacking thiamin. A series
of papers written by Soviet micrObiologists (Odintsova, 1940, 1941,
1941a; Eeisel, Trofimova and Lisovskaia, 1945; Meisel 1940, 1941)'shOwed
that the introduction of thiamin into a Medium not only encourages the
tempo of growth but reflects equally upon the morphology and physiology
of the vegetative cell. Thus, for instance, cells of the yeast-like
fungus Endomytes magnusii are enlarged under the influence of thiamin,
the expansion in size extending also upon the nuclear apparatus of cells.
Simultaneously an accelerated deposition of glycogen is observed, similar
to the accumulation of glycogen by animal tissue which received thiamin
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? Prokorev, A. A.
Additional Factors...
and glucose. The writers observe at the same tire the accelerated
enzymatic capacity of fungi under the influence of thiamin. This served as
the basis for the supposition that thiamin should be viened as one of the
primary factors which determine the enzymatic function of the cell which
develop in the process of adjustment to aneorobio conditions of existence.
(Odintsova, 1941).
Proceeding from the importance of thiamin in plant metabolism,
attempts were made for additional feedings: with solutions of thiamin of
photo-snthetio plants, cultivated in Sandy or soil cultures. rover,
except for the experiments of the Formers, Bonner D.' and Bonner J. (1940);
Bonner J. and Green,(1938) with custard and mom which gave positive
results, the remaining studies (Ninnum 1941a, b; Swart., 1941; limner, 1940;
Templeman and Pollard, 1941) did not disclose any effective action of
thiamin upon the growth, general habitue and yield of plants. The analogy
with the growth of the fungus Phycamyces was complete; supplied by thiamin,
through introduction into its medium, there was no further reaction to
increases in thiamin content. This leads to the conclusion that a normally
photo-synthesizing plant is capable of supplying itself with the necessary
amouLt oi thiamin. Organs lacking chlorophyll react altogether differently.
As shown above, isolated roots are unable to grow in a tedium lacking
thiamin. A similar need is felt by entire plants placed in the dark. ,Ia
this case all material data adequately testifies to the fact that the
absence of an external supply of thiamin leads to the rapid exhaustion of
its stores in the organism and results in discontinuance of growth and
4111 death. The degree in which expenditure of thiamin takes place in this
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?
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Prokof tev, A. A.
Additional Factors...
connection is shown in the work of Ovcharov of the Institute of Plant
Physiology of the Academy of Science, who studied the change in the
quantity of thiamin in connection 'with seed. germination. (Table 5)
, Table 5
irARIATIOD Ill &OMIT OF TUMID DIIIDO SEED GEPXINATIOR OF 17FIEAT (1945)
Duration of
germination
in days'
Amounts of thiamin in Gamma
Per gram of
dry matter
Per 100 plants
2
8
6.95
4.38
3.32
3.12
15.40
10.50
6.68
6.07
Table 5 proves that during Geed germination of wheat there is rapid
expenditure of thiamin. One may suppose in this connection that the
additional feeding of superior plants with tLiamin, while it May produce
positive effects, may take place just in the phase of hetero-trophic
feeding, 1. e., feeding at the expense of the supply of seed or organ.
This consideration may be accepted as a basis for different methods of
seed nhorr3onization" (Tovarnitskii, 1937; Tovarnitskii and Rivkind, 1937).
The degree 'in which treatment of' seed by thiamin may reflect upon
the growth and development of plants is shown by studies made 'by
Oveharova, 1946. Thiel writer treated wheat seeds before planting with
a solution of thiamin and yeast extract and obtained a more rapid grcnirth
of treated plants as compared to the control. In the final summary
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Prokoftev, A. A.
Additional rectors...
"vitaminigation" reflected upon the increase of yield of the entire mass,
as well as the yield of seeds; in addition, one may poiht out that treated
plants produced larger seeds. (Table 6)
Table 6
:mama or TREATITNT or SEEDS BY THIAMIN AND
YEAST EXTRACT upr:: TEE YIELD OF Ina (1946)
VARIAFT
Above (pound
mass (bulk)
Weigh
t of 200 seeds
o/o in relation
to control
F
o/o in relation
to control
Control (Water)...
18.8
100
4.6
100
Thiamin
26.9
143
5.8
126
Yeast extract
25.3
136
5.5
119
To quote another example, one may refer to the experiments of Went,
Bonner and Warner, 1938, who showed that peduncles treated with thiamin,
when exposed for some time to the effects of Ind-ale-acetic acid developed
a much more vigorous root system than peduncles (stalks) treated only
with hetero-auxin.
The study of the connection between the mineral feeding of plants
and the synthesis of thiamin in them points to the close connection between
these processes. Data accumulated at present testifies to the feet that
an increase in potassium, nitrogen and phosphorus feeding of superior
plants stimulates the synthesis of thiamin, which in turn does not fail
to react favorably upon the tempo of growth and yields. As to the
siEnificance of thiamin for crops of lover organisms, it is indispensable
for the majority of these.
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Prokof'ev, A. A.
Additional Factors...
VITAYIN P (Riboflavin). Among other substances of the group Vitamin
2
B2 oocupies a special place. Despite its relatively complicated compo-
sition, its molecular structure was established precisely. As determined
primarily by the work of Kuhn et al., the nucleus isoalloxazin is at
the basis of the Vitamin B2 structure, combined with acarbohydrate
derivative of ribose. This led to the naming of Vitamin B2 "riboflavin,"
a term now commonly accepted.
0R2 (CROR)cm2CO
1'
Riboflavin Riboflavin
Obtaining flavins from different vegetative products indicates
that they are widely spread in vegetative organisms. It is true that
the majority of plants contains a 'relatively small amount of riboflavin
and Kuhn, for instance, was compelled to process three tons of lemma in
order to Obtain 0.6 e. of the subetanoe'. The peculiar characteristic
of riboflavin consists not in the extremely small content of this
partioular class of -compounds, but to the contrast with other substances
of group Bi and specifically tt,iamin; the characteristics of B,-avitaminose
4
were not observed among larger groups of animals and plants.
At present the curtailment of growth among rodents is not disputed
whenever riboflavin is lacking. Numerous attempts to influence the growth
of various plants by riboflavin indicate that in the majority of cases
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Prokoftev, A. A.
Additional Factors....
the latter do not react upon an additional feedini, of vitamin 82. Thus,
Burckholder et al., for instance- note that none of the 110 species
and "races" of yeasts studied by them required the addition of riboflavin.
Similar results sere obtained by Rogosa (1943), who also experimented with
various yeasts and by O'Kene (1941), who studied Staphylococcus aureue.
Bonner and Deverian (1939), in cultivating isolated roots of peas in
media containing riboflavin, did not discover any visible effect from the
introduction of the latter. Evidently, only bacteria of lactic-acid
fermentation and some pathogenic microbes (species of Streptococcus)
among the number of studied organisms require riboflavin for their normal
development.
With regard to green plants, additional feeding with riboflavin
does not produce any apparent effect.
The studies of Marburg, Christian, Teorell, Baas, at al., indicate
that riboflavin represents a component of certain respiratory enzymes,
forming their prosthetic group. "Enzymes of this type act the role of
hydrogen-transporters in different oxidative-metabolic processes of the
.
living cell as a result of the ?xi-reduction in the alloxazin cycle."
(Ruzin, .1946).
Thus, there is no doubt concerning the importance of riboflavin
for the metabolism of vegetative organisms. The limited response of the
predominant majority of plants to riboflavin may be explained by the fact
*According to Yerusalimakii and Neronova (1946) acetone-ethylic
bacteria do not react to the addition of riboflavin to the medium,
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,Prokoftev, A. A.
? Additional Factore...
that its synthesis is easlity accomplished by the living cell. All of this
leads to the conclusion that the influence of riboflavin upon superior
plants is no longer a prospective problem from the standpoint of practical
use.
ITITAIIN B6 (Pyridoxin or adermin). The structure of vitamin B6 via.0
established in 1939 by Stiller and Kuhn, working independently of ench other,.
cli on
ne it,1
\ 47
Pyridoxin .
AS ' seen from the above formula, pyridoxin represents a product .of
pyridine. The physiological role of pyridoxin is practically tuiknawn.
According to Knight (1946), pyridoxin represents a ca-enzyme of tyrosine-
de-carboxylase. Knight's statements provide only the most general
information concerning the role of pyridoxin. in the metabolism of the
vegetative cell.
This is equally true with regard to the work of the group of
American authors (Lyman at al. X1946), who shoved that pyridoxin exerts
a favorable influence upon the growth of"Streptocoocus faecalis in
oases when some amino acids are lacking in the nutritional medium.
So long as the beneficial effect was increased considerably by the
enrichment of the atmosphere with acetic acid, the authors expressed
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Prokof tev, A. A.
Additlanal Factors...
the opinion that pyridoxin may enter into enzymatic systema which parti-.
cipate in the fixation of acetic acid.
Simultaneously, a series of experiments point to the favorable effect
of pyridoxin upon the growth of various plants., Thus White, for instance,
who formerly 'as very sceptieal about the necessity of using pyridoxin
.for the cultivation of isolated roots, later (1943) established that
pyrodixin represents an effective addition to thiamin and glycine in
growing the tips of tomato roots. Robbins and Bartley-Schmidt also
observed the favorable effect of pyridoxin upon the growth of tomato roots.
The above authors after testing various nutritional media came to the
conolusion that the combination thiamine and pyridoxin will produce a
noticeable increase in growth. (table 7).
Table 7
INFLUENCE OF B AND B b UPON TSB MONA OF CUT TOMATO ROOTS
s and Bartley, 1039)
Robbins 6
Added to FO et0 of
nutrient solution
Weight of Root in mg
(average from S roots)
Nothing
Thiamin 5 gamma
TheAmin,i.gamma
Vitamin B6 (1 gamma)
Thiamin (5 gamma)
V1tamint6 (5 gamma)
Vitamin B6 (1 gamma)
Vitamin B6. (5 gamna)
0.4
3.4
16.1
15.7
1.8
1.3
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Prokof'ev, A. A.
? ? Additional Factors...
A similar conclusion with regard to tomato roots is :Ade by Bonner
apIDeverian, and with respect to isolated carrot roots byBonner. (1940).
Judging from the results obtained by Many students, pyridoxin exerts
its greatest effects in combination with other growth factors., primarily
thiamin and nicotinic acid. Attempts to use pyridoxin for stimulating the
growth of normally vegeteting superior plante were very infrequent and tie
results obtained from them contradictory. According tO Bonner (1940),
. the introduction of pyridoxin into irrigation water (the experiments
were conducted on sandy crops)- Increased the accumulation of the bulk
of mustard.. The greatest effect was produced by pyridoxin upon the growth
of roots. A still more signifioant effect was obtained from additithalci'
with
feeding 1 pyridoxin of the plants cosmos and cotton. Other results were
obtained by Einnum (1941) in experiments with sandy crops of radishes
and cauliflower. /n applying pure, crystallized preparations of different
vitamins, including pyridoxin, as wall as their combinations, the author
did not observe any effect.
Thus the problem of using pyridoxin for practical purposes remained
completely unsolved.
NICOTINIC ACID. The influence of nicotinic acid and several of its
derivatives (especially the amide) Upon the growth of microbes was
established with complete certainty (Knight, 1937; Dorfman, Racer and
Saunders, 1938; Suunders, Dorrman and Kocer, 1941). Itany pathogenic
microbes react particularly well to nicotinic acid. Thus, for instance,
almost all representatives of the intestinal typhus group do not develop
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Prokof tev, A. A.
Additional Factors...
at all when nicotinic acid is lacking, or show scanty growth. The study
of the activity of various derivatives of nicotinic acid indicates that
a favorable reaction was produced only by those derivatives which are
easily converted into amides:
Amide of nicotinic acid.
The latter circumstance is explained by the Net that amide of
nicotinic acid specifically enters into the composition of enzymes which
fulfill a significant role in the oxidative-metabolie processes of
living cells. As a part of the prosthetic group of enzymes dehydrase,
the amide of nicotinic acid undergoes a reversible hydrogenation and
dehydrogenation, which result in the transport of hydrogen.
The importance of a similar reaction permits us to consider
nicotinic acid (in the form of its amide) as a necessary component of any
cell. The reaction of any organism to nicotinic acid is therefore
determined by the degree a given organism is capable in synthesizing this
pyridinio derivative. As &lawn in the work of American students,
chiefly Addicott and Bonner (1930; Addicott.and Deverian (1939) Bonner
and Addicott (1937 ;1939); Bonner (1940), nicotinic acid represents
an essential factor for the cultivation of isolated roots of many plants.
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Prokofiov, A. A.
Additional Factors...
table 8 servos as an illustration of 1c nfluence of nicotinic
acid upon the grarrth of roots in a s:mthetic medium.
As seen in table 8, only a combination of thiamin and nicotiniq
auid-supports the growth of pea tips with constant and sufficiently
great rapidity. In a medium?containirg only one Growth factor, the
rapidity nf growth drops from trial to trial.
' EFFECTS OF TBIArIN AND DICOTINIC ACID UPON TIE
GRO7TH OF CUT TIPS OF PEA MOTS (ArDICOTT, 1941) '
Table 8
EAnDllY OF GOTH It Mq IN A Y 'EK
_
ADDED TO /MILT
1-10
6-10
7-10
8-10
0-10
Thiamin plus nicotinic
acid
,
734
81.0
80.3
78.2
82.4
Thiamin
--
77.4
sn.9
32.2
17.8
Nicotinic acid
--
79.1
53.8
22.2
8.2
*During the first 5 weeks roots wore cultivated in a medium containing
B1 plus n loot ini c acid.
It was subsequently established that roots get thin for lack of
nicotinic acid.
'Microscopic observations indicate that under those conditions the
size ane nunber of cells in the root are reduced; 1. e., not only is the
activity of the meristem disturbed, but also the growth of cells formid
by it.
In considering the activity of nicotinic avid upon the growth of
out ends of roots, experiments were made for. additional feeding with
nicotinic acid of entire, normally photo-synthesizing plants. The
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? Prokoflev, A. A.
Additional Factors...
majority of these experiments (see, for instance, the.aboVe mentioned
work of Minnum, 1941) did not dieoloae any effect which undoubtedly
testifies to the fact that green plants are capable of synthesizing
under normal conditions the amounta. of nioOtinio acid essential for them.
It is evident that in the case of thiamin, the supply of nicOtinio
acid from the outside may produce testate in the pytnt only at the moment
of hetero-trophic .feeding of the organism. In this connection it is
necessary to dwell upon an interesting experiment oonduoted by K. E.
Oveharov, member of the Institute of Plant Physiology of the Academy
of Sciences, performed jointly with his assistant Virsobskala of the
Inning Botanical Station M. I. Vatvee* at Tadshiitan. The above soientists
treated defoliated runners of Bokhara almond with solutions of nicotinic
acid and obtained a rapid unfolding of buds and an accelerated growth
of leaves. The results of these experiments are of decisive interest
since they testify to the possibility of stimulating Growth processes
with the aid of hiootinio acid in superior plants as well.
tb have hardly exhausted the Group of additional factors of growth.
Of undoubted interest arcing them are equally biotin, adenin, Uracil and
many others. The data presented above gives uknevertheless, an
opportunity to draw certain conclusions. The principal question Whioh
may be presented here consists in thnfollowing: wherein lies the
exceptional aotivity of additional growth factors? Vhy do disappec.ringly
small concentrations of these substances produce such exceptional effects?
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Prokof'ev, A. A.
Additional Factors...
The solution of this problem lies in the field of the metabolism of the
vegetative organism and the explanation of the role played by additional
growth factors in this metabolism.
We have in our review continuously attempted to stress one peculiarity
concerning additional growth factors. This ieculiarity consists in that
they all are oomponents of some enzymatic system. This applies equally
to those additional factors discussed in our review and the majority of
those not reviewed here. They all enter into prosthetic groups of
different enzymatio systems which evidently accounts for their high
activity. Table 9 provides some understanding of this connection between
enzymes and additional growth faotors.
. -
ADDITIONAL CROMMTACTORS - corpormiTs OF
ENZYMATIC SYSTEMS (Haight, 1940
Table 9
ADDITIONAL ?MTH CO'PONENTS OF SOME SYSTEM'
FACTOR
Thiamin
Riboflavin
Pyridoxin
Nicotinic, acid
Biotin
Cocarboxylase; thiamin enzymes
Various flavo-protein enzymes
Co-enzyme, tyroaindecarboxylase
Pyridin enzymes
This close connection between enzymes and "additional growth factors"
undoubtedly deserves the moat careful attention. It seems expedient to
raise the question of a meaningful terminology for this group of substances
in this conneotion, a terminology which should reflect the bio-chemical
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Prokofvev, A. A.
Additional Factors...
essence of these factors and would permit to draw a precise boundary
between different metabolites. Terms used at present, such as
"additional growth factors," "substances of the bios group," "undisputed
metabolite," etc., are extremely inappropriate and fundamentally wrong.
Is it possible, for instance, to consider thiamin an "additional growth
factor" for organisms wlich are unable to exist without it? Or what is
comprehended under the term "substances of the Mos group"? It suffices
to raise these questions to realize the vagueness and inaccuracy of
these terms. Taking this into consideration we propose to name this
group of substances "procoenzymes" (pro ooferment). This term reflects
the basic, unique characteristic of these substances, their connection
with the enzymatic systems of the organism. The prefix "pro" indicates
that these combinations represent an incomplete part of prosthetic groups
of enzymatic systems. A similar term appears to us more convenient and
appropriate than those used at the present time.
The second point upon which vie consider it necessary to dwell
concerns the reasons for the different reactions to organisms upon any
procoenzymes. Above we have cited examples of similar distinctions
among lower plants (see also Ierusalimakii, 1947). Here we shall
therefore limit ourselves to only one illustration taken from the field
of culture of isolated roots of different flowering plants. (Table 10).
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Prokof?ev, A. A.
Additional Factors...
Table 10
NEED OF GROWTH SUSTANCES BY ISOLATED ROOTS OF
DIFFERENT SPECIES (Bonner, 1940)
Reed in growth
. substances
Thiamin Thiamin and Thiamin and Thiamin, nicotinic
nicotinic acid pyridoxin acid and pyridoxin
Species
Flax Fees, radishes, Carrots Tomatoes, sunflower,
alfalfa, clover; thorn apple (Datura
cotton stramonium)
An. seen from table 10, the isolated Plant roots vary in their
capacity to synthesize procoenzymes. Tibile one of them (flax) is capable
of providing for its essentials with the aid of thiamin, others (tomatoes,
thorn apples, sunflowers) require the external introduction of an entire
group of procoenzyres for their growth. A large number of examples can
be quoted in this connection. It seems to us that a similar variety of
the synthetic abilities of vegetative organisms is the result of an
evolutionary process. The varied relation to procoenzymes not only by
different species and varieties, but even individual clones within the
limits of a variety, indicate the pronounced variability of this
characteristic. Numerous facts in the field of microbiology testify
to the adaptability of microbic cella in the process of a prolonged
culturing with a lack of individual procoenzymes, which undoubtedly is
connected with the acceleration of the syntl-esizing capacity of microbes
with regard to these substances.
The intensification of the growth of cut root ends in the succeeding
stages also speaks for the possibility of similar adaptation among
superior plants.
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Prekorev, A. A.
Additional Factors...
All tbis permits to.,7,onsider proeoenzYmes to be a most effective
weapon in the hands of a bioloi;ist, al1owint ior the influence, upon the
most varied stages in the life bf a vegetative organism.
Simultaneously, the reviAped material provides the opportunity to
express the supposition that the action of pr000enzymes will be at its
peak of effectiveness during 4: noments of the heterotrophio phase tf
nutrition of superior plants. The possibility is not precluded, for
initance that a pre-cowing treatment of seeds by the appropriate substance
will contribute to .more rapid germination. The combining of procoenzymes
with synthetic substances of the type of heteroauxin also appears to be
most expedient. The use of similar coMbinations in the vegetative
propagation of plants appears to tie particularly promising. One should
'consider that the application of procoenzymes must be based upon the
detailed study of their need by a given organism. It is regrettable that
similar 'studies are almost not being made at present with regard to
superior plants, despite the fact that their importance is not didputed.
End of article
20 July 1951
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Prokof'ev; A. A.
Additi,nal Factors...
References: (In Russian
Bukin, V. N.,
Ierusalimakii, N. D.,
Ierusalimskii, N. D. and
Bulatkin, A. D.,
191.0. Vitaniny. (Vitamins). WL. 352 p.
1947. Verr data on growth substances of microbes.
Microbiology, vol. 16, issue 3, p. 255-271.
1945. The influence of growth substances upon
acetone-ethyl bacteria. Microbiology,
16: 107-111.
Ierusalimskii, N. D. and
Neronova, N. M., 1946. Influence of growth substances upon acetone-
etb:-lio bacteria. Microbiologia, 15: 303-311.
Kritzman, M. G., 1940. Trans-aminisation and avitaminose
Biokhimia, 5: 281-287.
Kritzman, M. 9., 1943. Metabolism of animo acids and vitamin B1.
Blokhimia, 8: 85-96.
KUzin, A. M., 1946. Khimia i bitkhinia patogennykh mikrobov.
(Chemistry and Biochemistry of pathogenic
microbes). Medgis.
Maevskii, M. M. 1937. Synthesis of vitamins by bacteria.
Dapekhi zootekhnich. nank; 3: 157-174.
Meisel, V. D., 1940. Morphological and physiological changes
of the cell under the influence of vitamin
B1? Akad. Nauk. Dokl. 29: 127-129.
Meisel, NI. N., 1941. Ft:notional-morphological analysis of the
significance of vitamins for microorganisms.
Influent* of vitamin Bl upon the structure
and several functions of Endompes
magnusii. Microbioloa, 10: 649-669.
Meisel, M. N., ? 1943. Vitamin effect of aminothiasole and
streptosole. Referaty robot uchrezhdenii
otdela biol. nauk. AN SSSR. Papers of
Dept. of Biol. Sci..Acad. poi. =PR.
1941-43, p. 127-128.
Maisel, M. N., Trofinova,
N. P. gad Lisovskaia,
P?,
1945. Growth substances and their influence upon
the structure and viability of yeast
organisms. Microbiology, 14: 191-201.
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Prokofsev, A. A.
Additional Factors...
Oycharov, K. E.,
Odintsova, E. N.',
-Odintsova, E. D.,
Odintsova, B. N.,
Odintsova, E. N.,
Odinteova, E. N. and
? Meisel, M. N.
Tovarnitzkii, V. I.,
Tovarnitzkii, V. I., and
Rivkind, T. L.
1946. "Znaohenie tiamina v shim/ rastenii."
The significance of thiamin in the life of
plants. (Thesis, natuncript).
1940., Influence of vitamin BI upon the propagation
of Torula utilis (Torulopsis utilis).
Microbiology, 9: 253-266.
1941a. Influence of vitamin Ba upon the fermenting
. function of microorganisms. Licrob*.ology
10: 670-667.
1941t6 Influence of vitamin B1 upon the formation
of nuclear apparatus in Phycomyces nitens.
Referaty rabot uchrezhdenii otdela tic=
nauk-AN SSSR. (Papers of Dept. of biol.
sot., Acad. Sal. USSR) 1941-43; p. 130.
1944. Amcgmulation of vitamin Bl by the yeast
cell. Akad. !auk. Dokl., vol. 42, No. 3.
1841. Yeast-like rungus Endomyces ma nunii as
a biological indicator of vitamin
:eferaty rabot uchrezhdenli otdela Biol.
nauk. AN SSSR. (Papers of the Dept. of
Biol. Sol. Acad. Sot. 'SSB) 1941-43, p.129.
19$7. Plant and hormones. Uapekhi sovr. biol.
6: 130-142.
. .
1937. Ebrmanization of seeds AA a possible agxo-
technical method. Akad..NaUk. Doti. SSSR
16; Nos.
Engeltgardt, V. A.
and Venkstern, T. V., 1943. On the correlation between the 4,rosthetic
group and protein in the composition of
enzyme-proteid. Biol-himia; 6:96-107.
The balance of references is in, English and refers to foreign
authors and their work. (p. 957-956)..
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Trans], 195: Plant Pro:
Liubishchev, A.A. tection
Princiales of estimating losses
causes by field crop pests and
diseases. Dashch. Past. 4: 12-29.
1935. 421 P942
Trans. by Rf G. Delabo
In this article I intend to make a short survey of the methods of
estimating losses caused by pests and diseases. The article is a
preliminary information for a wider methodical handbook prepared for
psblication. Because of .the width and complexity of the subject matter
and. of the small size of this article, the composition appears to be
conspective. Without repeating the ideas which were already dis-
missed in my previous articles I will not illustrate again the degree
of present backwardness in respect to the economic significance of
pests nor the necessity of obtaining actual (not exaggerated. or
underestim.ted) data concerning their economic significance.
If at the present time the necessity of exact informations about
the losses from pests and. our udsatisfactory knowledge in this field. are
obvious to all the workers concerned vitt/this field, yet the problem
of finding the basic methodical principle for the solution of this
problem is far-lrem -befit iiolveet: 'ilia-lopinion is widely spread th.:..t
this problem could be solved by& centralized instructorship of an
unprepared personnel. The latter would furnish information according
to one method: The obtained information could be summed up by the
central apparatus. Without denying the apnlicability of this method
for some individual cases, esnecielly in cases when we deal with a
stable, widely spread and easily definable pest, we may cueetion its
general applicability. Its shortcomings are the following: 1)a huge
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Liubishchev, A. A. ..
Principles of estimating..
amount of forms as soon as we try to include all pests; 2) the impossibility
of obtaining numerous comparative data for pests which affect for a
Short tins; 3)absence of sufficient, knowledge concerning many pests.
This fact hampers in forming rational standard forms for registration;
4)the most essential - the impossibility of utilizing materials gathered
according to a different method, especially of old materials. At the
same time, for the economic raioning data are necessary for 15-20 years,
therefore, a complete ignoring of old materials hamperSthe problem of
economic saioning. These considerations compell me to believe that
the problem of reg storing losses will still be mrinly the T)roblem for
research and not only inspecting, and that it is still hard to solve
ethant tro cahditions; 1h ,h methodical preparation of the lower
pet sonnel who would be able to understrnd independently the complex
phenomena rnd critically evaluate data which arrive in the, correspondence;
2) the multiplicity of methods of approachtfor the mutual verification
of deductions and for the possibility of summing up all the materials
obtained by various methods.
I will now discuss some basic ides and will mention that by the
term woestn is understood animals and plants ae well.
Losses; harm from pests expressed in money units, damage - in
economic ' sense (counted on the field unit). harmfulness - for one
plant or a part of a plant or upon a post unit. Infestation - the
presence of signs of the activity of the pest upon the plant or on a
group of plants; disease - the presence of the pest itself.
The necessity of differentiating all these terms in important
for the following reasons.
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Liubichchev, A. A...
''rincimles of estimating...
The necessity of determining the losses is obvious during the
calcul -.tion of the occured harm, where there is no other unit except
the monetary, and also in individual cases when it is impossible to
find, the damage in economic units; for instance, a slight deformation
of the fruit form influences its export value, but often there is no
economic loss. On the other haild, it is expedient to confine ourselves
to the determination of losses and indicate damage in economic units,
since there are cases where damage gives a better estimation of the
economic significance of the pest than the loss: due to the
fluctuation of nroduct prices, the decrease of production might cause
the increase of the cost of production and therefore we might have
the impression that the pest does not have any economics significance
which is wrAng. It is clear that in these cases it is necessary to
utilize some stabilized prices while for exported goods the prices
have to be calculated according to those of the world market.
t.,:he differentiation of damage and harmfulness does not need any
explimation. A series of pests indicate a direct damage, while others
could be determined by their harmfulness and propagLtion. But even
there, vhere the damage is possible directly, the definition of
harmfulness is important for three purposes: 1) for the inter-
polation of data and the linking with the data of mass inspections;
2) for the forecast of the possible damage during the early phases of
the pe,t development; 3) for the rating of potential damage. The
harmfulness is expressed in percentage of crop decrease for a unit
of infestttion intensity or of the disease (the coefficient of harmfulness)
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-4-
Liabilahhev. A.
71-7.1ples o!' estimating..
or thn bsolute infliction; the amount of production Which could be
dr_maged by one peat. In those Oases When the harm is clearly defined
and there iS no proportion between intensity and bans, the coefficient
of harm ihould be replaced by the principle of the dependence of the
harm to the intensity.
Inlet tion end disease are not closely related. afe7tstion can
not bohiiher than the disease, for instance in case of stinking smat
caries,. When only a certain part of the infested plants
*hew signs of infestation, or during the earlk otnges of infestation
by the Nedish fly tOscihaaoma frit,. When the external siol$ ware
not manifested. On the contrary, the disease is higher than the
infestation for instence, for insects which transfer gredwAly from
one plant to the ether (spring owlet cAnamea nicticans) locust), ana
in gener-1 in those cases where the peat abandoned the plant. It ie
more convenient to determine the harm according to disease ?ince the
dive is easier to determine and, as a rale, it kept loner than the
intestntion, but to be able to determine dmge according to infestation
is also necessary for the following reasons; 1) in those cf,ses wn
the infestition does not manifest itself comeletely (stin)ing smut)
the proseuce of a hidden harm is possible (Bortgardt) and the deter-
of harm according to disease would be smaller; 2) the deter
minntion of infestation is easily controlled in mfimy cases against
possible mistake ; 3) for the forecast of possible harm it is
necesr:, to determine the damage from infestation.
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Liubiatichev, A. A... -5..
Principles of estimating...
Must, eccordinc to the degree of the eroblese the wive of deter-
mining losses could vary: 1) a direct estimation of lonses is done
oft/7 in thoee cases when there is a cualitatire damage, otherwisP, the
damage is eetimeted and multiplied by the cost of e product unit;
such a aivlsion is expedient already because it is easy to revaleate
losses If there is a change in the nroduct value; 2) a direct
estimetion of harm is easy when the entire illFnt 11 s been destroyed
(for inst,:nce, cleering from winter eelet rAltrotis seeetuel) or where
the nest is distributed unevenly, but, as we shs.11 see further, it
Is ponsilile elo in other more eorrliceted ceses; 3)duxine the diffUsed
spre,&ine of the poet, low infestation and compsratively ccnstent
harmfulness it would be more expedient to carry out the work by
eltieatin the harnfulness (releted to the unit of infestation
intensit:/- cr to the disease) and the spreading of the rest.
During all means of exrinining the prohlen there are specific
difficulties, but at the same time, it ie elwsys lossible to find
moans of overccming those difficulties. Basic methodicj d'ffictlties
are: 1) selectivity of paste; 2) the reaction to the demags and
3) irrecalarity in the distribution.
Selctivity in the broad meaning includes all cases of 4iff,?!!ncs
in the factual crons of ninfested nlante or fields and the rotential
hervelt of the diseased plenty or fields, i.e. would be the hervelt if
Us pest ettlt? be:absent,. It is necessary to differentiate; 1)the
active selectivity, i.e. the actual (of course, unconscious) selection
of plants by the pests; for inetence, the Hessen fly almost dons not
lay its eies on oats and, if it is able to select. it /ez-s its ftg3s
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.1.1111101SacneVe A. A...
l'rinci les of estimating...
on the secondary stems; 2) passive selectivity,11A4 the result which
see.as to be a selection, occurs only because of the -bnence of the
definite ;)lert. For inst-nce, on winter crops the s..ne rninen fly
infests ver; ofter briely the first -tenn, pbecibly bncmine 4,,rior
itn ri_,,t the: ;te'.s Tie. red on'y p.'tly. Tr,r th- ac+4re Rnlectivity
we lfiz -;3f the old t-rn of selectiveIlhilit;', nd tbc, rallIve could be
nen,:ld d'fferenti-1 effect.
Thc coaination of there tvo .liffnrent n'Pra-rna info onr, non-
encl. tuic is :):, edient Lecuse: 1) %et often re 11-'le to deterne
without s-eclk-1 detailed res,3arch which kind of s-,lect!vity ts.1
discle,, ; 2) ,,ith the statistical cultivation of the -ter1.12 the
sf thrse kinds cf Jelectivity %Le 1.1,r mnt:-.:';c-1 nrinciples
of rennin, the camuflaged influence of both tines of ?,electivit:,
e.rn e-senLi4lly alike.
-,:lides the di:ferentiftion. tilt. Tie earets acsrding to thE&gr e of
estla_t:nb the probl!TA, la sheul ;1,to diff,,i-r*i..t', the -Iv-Tee of
solvInc, Uri- nroblem. In ny previous uork I indicate?: thr-e b-,sic
ustdels of rcsearch:
- ? trae stionai re and exTrrt. Al]. the
three i.iethode have the rt for exisilence, in inrrovertent
and su '1.0mett each other. In each rf thnn in possible tn eliffn;- Mato
F.;72ros,ches according to the (loupe of the nrefilem.
The ?oat :ier-ect coulA be rp:mn5 e grf,du'l-cr1tical
in 4,,i7f.ded into two 1r,sic directions: 1) to 7,gr-_nh1c,11 11.. the 7lethod
of biological record which is apjied not nyly for the 5irect det-rmination
ofrmfulness. of the quentitative reristrption of 1-7:-An f^r the
solution of series of problems of ecologicel nature; 2) analytical
method - by means of evaluating the harmfulness. The successive -
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-7-
Liubidhcher...
Principles of Estimating...
critical method does not exclude the existence of other methods, but,
on the contrary, should include it into one system. Of special im-
porttnce isthe method of questionnaire - the data of numerous corres-
pondents; without those data it is impossible to carry out statistical
regionalizing nor the filling of the intervals between data of
comparatively few points with qualified observers. Here at the first
place a pear the problems of correcting the data obtained from various
dtstricts and their interpolation into one unified system. Finally,
the exper, method will le of great significance since the estimation of
all pests is a process for ay years. In spite of all its II7Wtians_
the expert method still furnishes a series of improvements. In its
primary, unsatisfactory manner it represents a sketchy judgement of
a person who had good experience in the given problem. His 1100051vement
goe,klong the following lines: 1) the increase of the number of
independent experts; in selecting experts according to ie territorial
di8A we proceed with the questionaire method; 2) documentation of
expert's proofs, not of a simple orienting ouinion, but substantiating
it by all available materials; 3) determination of the upper and lower
limit of the damage.
The third point of view in classification of losses is that of
nationcl economy. Here we differentiate direct and indirect, actual
and potential, liquidating and non liquidating losses. The definition
of these terms is indicLted in another work CLiubishchev. 1901 b).
In addition to the ideas expressed in that article, I will limit myself
by indicating that whale the problem or rating the actual Losses permits
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Liubi,.hchev, A. A... ?11?
Principles of estimating...
only one decision, the problem of definiespotential'losSes. permits
innunerble solutions. It Is impossible to discuss potential losses
from any pest in general; certain conditions have to be considered for
the solutionof that problem. For instance, in discussinglocuAwe
-map:madder the potential losses by securing the hapsoetrueture during
the conplete end of Control, or during the change of fare conditions,
(cultivatien of virgin,seil, new methods of agrotechnics, planning, etc.)
and the reeMrvation of control, etc.
according to the artificiality and remoteness ro?
duction, ve may differentiate experimental and field methods for the
rating; of louse. Here we have a'wide Wale. of methode stetting with
purely experthental damages or artificial infestation of plante in '
vegetating vessels up to pure observation nhder undisturbed conditions.
the tri_nuitions are; the method of model plants, method of isolated
field?, method'of.field isolators (see Shchegolev, 1934). In all these
CSO s the very fact of differentiating, noting and isolatinga Causet
, unexpected changes in the conditions of plant eprouting..
Disclissione concerning greater or minor value of the field and
experimental method take place in all ecienceo. The widely spread
opinion concernifig the prefererce of experiment over the observation is
in general void of sufficient evidence. The main reason for the tr2nsfer
of scientific research to a higher position is the introduction or a
qualitative,epproach to the study of phenomena; the significance of
the cmperiment fluctuate depending are-the'concrete nature of the
problett.
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-v-
Liutishchev, A. A...
Principles of estimating..
For estimating losses the experimental method. could not be
leading, on account of a series of considerations: 1) diversity of
factors yhich influence the harmfulness of the organisms, causes to
build a great amount of combinatione which makes the approach tooclumsy;
2) the transfer from laboratories to productive conditions regattas
special work, since in the laboratory it is hard to create conditions
similar to field conditions; 3) for mazy plants ,an artificial cultivation
under laboratory conditions. Although in principle It is possible, but
for technictl reasons 14 not feasible (clover, perennial plants);
4). fins). y, a series of divisions of the general problem of estimating
losses might be solved only by the field method, by theoretical eittr-
polation of the data of field observa.tions and finally by complicated
statistically-economic research. Here belong: quantitative regis-
tration of pests, its complications are often underestimated; the
estimntinz of potential losses, when the experiment has a limited
application, and in some cases inapplicable at all (hardly would any
one recormend to stop the estimation of losses atter the control is
done); estimatitt of indirect losses etc. Therefore, I think that the
experimental method is of great significance as a secondary one for the
elucidation of such problems, where the application of the field method
would bring us to our end only after a great experiment: 1). the
solution of the problem concerning the presence of the positive effect
in so mn complicated cases (for instance, thaftedieh fly).and not Just
the selectivity of the pest; 2) the general theory of the reaction of
plants upon the damage (the method of artificial damage); 3) specification
of ecological relations etc.
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Liubishchev, A. A.!.
Principles of estimating..
Topogrephical Method
The topographical method or the method of biological survey has not
been sufflci4ntly worked out and began to be applied only recently. As
advantages are numerous: I) it may indicate data of damage directly
without dividing it into elements; 2) it is indispensable for a mass
application and doesi not -regain any special equipment. If, despite
such advantages, the method did not acquire recognition (althouea the
attenpts of its annlication are of long duration), we could explain
it by the fact that its advantages were underestimated and the
difficulties overestimatedl Its underestimation rested upon widely
spread opinion that there is a comparative regularity in spreading of
the majority of pests under specific ecological conditions which could
be different only according to the number of the pest and could be
compared according to bther signs. But the comparison of ecologically
different fields might cause great mistakes ,since we consider usually
the differarce which in explained by other factors. In reality an
immediate study of pests indicates that as a rule the distribution of
rests is =even (examnles are indicated in my article: 0Is the Army
of Paste Legistered?" The Ilanual of rint 1.3 P 3* Ito. 3,
1932 and, in the chapter "The Methods of quantitative Registration of
Pests" uhich is under prinl; on the other hand, although the- relation
between the spreading of the pests end the ecological conditions is
beyond doubt, but it is of another nature than the relation between
the harvest and the ecological conditions, and, desiring to determine
? All trnion Institute for Plant Protection
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_11_
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Liubl*chnv, A. A...
Princi-les of estinating...
the relation between the pests and the crops we are able to remove the
camouflaging influence of selectivity by meant of a thorough analysis.
Besides. the IMO topographical method is an excellent measure for thl
study Of ecological dependence of pests; by determining these relations
we tiad the basis for extrapolation of the data of the observation point
Olrer the entire salon. I will bring here a few examples.
Grathevoi appliee the topographical method in fixing the harmfUlness
of tha crown rest enceinte coroniferai; the disease and the crops
decreased according to distance from the infestation source ? ferests
with wo4s of buckthorn (Mammal cathartics.). By this method the
distriation of rust was determined by ecological conditions (the
distance from the infestation source), but these ecological conditions
did not Influence or influenced the crops differently. Such influence
can Itor instance, the bushes of buckthorn could be found mainly
upon lol. places of relief or the forest could cause the decrease of
eropa e.ue to a highly de/eloped root system (this has been found) etc.
.It is net hard to control this by means of registration by surveying th
relief and other characteristics and by measuring the, signs of tho plant
independent from the given pest. In case of rust they will be: the
number of buihes to one field unit, bushiness, the height of plants
before the ei7Taearance of rust etc. If these sig kil independent from
rust will not indicr:te any systematic differences according to the
dittnee from the infestation source, then we may explain the difference
In crops by rust. But if any relation will be disclosed, then the
research becomes more complicated and the solution of the problem
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Liabishchev, .
trine/mica of 'Estimating...
might be found by comparing the fields found on. the same distance from
the forest, but .which differ 1?g the presence or absenceof the. basic
source - buckthorn.,
Basically, the topographical method (or the ecotopogeaphicel ?
etcm-rfling to Bartseli, 1931) imIlies that all the exanples taken are
indicated on a. plat., upoil ihiehare 'indicated some basic ecological
data:, relief, field boundaries, bonnds, nearness of forests, rivers,
ravines, etc. Bow many specimens should be taken, how-to register then,
? WhiCh.ecologidel signs should be taken - all this will vary in each
? .concrete case and will depend upon the peculiarites of the studied object.
The Main methodical principles will be the following: 1) the direction'
of lineeaccording to which the specimens ars taken should result from
our kno;ledza of the given pest; -2) Where we expect a greater infestation
the Tlecimens should be more eften,with a smaller infestation they Might
be cora rare; 3) in determining the average infestation we take into
considerttion the distribution of specimana? but not the' average
figure. Let'ushave an example. Vit'tnow that gophers live upon
unplaagheC field with thin vogettion4'along the roads, hille etc.
ConsequentlY, during inspection these sign should be indicated in the
plan. In inspecting infestation of fields, we must draw perpendicular
lines along the field bonndery, clone to the field, Whereby the.atemnt
of npecinens should decrease according to the distance from' the
bounlary. Revertheleis, with the assistance ofrare specimens the entire
field sbnuld be covered from one end to the other (for instanced after'
2.3 Crossings of the field in the width of 3-5 meters). because. first
. of all came amount of gonhers are also in the center of the field, and.
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Liubishchnv, A. A...
Principlea of estimating..
second, they form sometimes large colonies in the center of the field.
When ye discover such a colony it is useful to inspect it in perpendicular
direction with the aim of indicating ,its lines upon the blueprint. Of
course, it would be absolutely incorrect to take Just the arithmetical
meen of our specimens and consider it as the typical infestation by
gophers and their economic significance. The first is obtained by.
extrapolation of the obtained data from a field, the second - the
combination of distribution of gophers and th:nt of the crops. 'For the
solution of the first problem the density of the goehere upon in-
dividual ecological fields: ravines, roads, hillu, desert lands with
heavy and rare vegetation etc., is determined. The relation between
the density upon these fields and to distance is determined; such a
relation could be ?a positive one-the plant attracts the gophers,
negative one - due to the control in a related field. In the last case,
we may extrt-polate our data directly upon the close field?, in other
cases this extrapolation may be sufficiently reliable only when a
wide zone near the plant h?s been sufficiently inspected.
"ith the eresence of positive or n'egatilre relation the amount of
gophers will decline or increase according to the distance from the
crop field until it will reach a definite level, ,ihere it will be
stable, or will indicate uneven fluctuations. Only the data of this
stIble level could be indicated upon the field, the data from the field
of the aedreasing or of the increasing/Urn/ties might_ be extranolated
into ennlogical zones in the given raion. This means the basic
differ:ace between the topogrt.phiw-1 epproech and the generalivation
in tin pecimens which was practiced until now. Until recently
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ila*uhrea. 0114111.4170r ? 0 ;A, ..ogrw
Principles of estimating..
many vorkers considered pest registration mainly as te indication of th
number, tho distribution of specimens and the method of using them so
that tho rvorage mount would indicate the clear idea concernisg the
mount of pests in the ratan i?cb is under inspection of The observation
point. :Prins our point of view, this approach is entirely incorrect:
due to the irregularity in pest distribution the tAting of specimens
enable usts find the nature of the inspected field, but without any
registrc,tion of the pest distribution on the inspected field no extra?
eolation is oossible.
ror the fixing of the economic sivaificance of gophers or of other
rest,. two .7rurveys should be e-Ispar d: the distribution of tho ;pent,,.
and. t&t of the crops. The relation between the amount of the post
and. th.t of the crops indicates the date. concerning loss if sufficient
criticisTa is applied. I will explain by a few words how the mount of
crons could be determined and wh!,t we consider a critical approach.
ao amount of crops mit be wagered by the most variable methods
denendini; u-ion the scale of research. If we, for instance, posses data
conceraing sane large cereal Soviet farm of the site of tens of
thousand.s of hectars, then we, might- over to with srveys on a routt
scale, for isstasice on a scale of division-, of 400 hectare. Every
div:11) im ehrrActpr4v^R infaiirtg,Ait.n r-ed ernee (economical data)
end thoze dtt are used for compt,rison. If the scale of inspection is
more nar-i-ow, then it would be more expedient to apply another registration
metho4 for crops by threshing individual fields according to tones
(on tr_fferent distances from the field boundELry), if threshing equiomsnt
is or by obserw.tion of the combine work, if those necessary
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Linbishchev, A. A... -15-
Principles of estimating..
equipments ere not available; the crop renistration in the work with
the combine ed.gat be accomplished by rating the amorcnt of crops upon a
specific field, for inetance so many kilog:rams end. liter (or soms other
meaeare unit) four a leundred meters or on the contrery, by the distance
at teach the combines are filled with grain. Finally, with the MO t
etiruto reo-,rosch it is possible to register the distritation of esoarate
holes slid the distribution of crops (in specimens, for instence, upon
one se. neter) at definitodistances from Che hole. It is wrong to aseume
that we should give any preference to a specific methoe Which would
distirt4uisen by its higher detail and more accuracy in rating. Rsch
method_ h its merite and Ito -shortcomings and the greatest dr:.sr.1. iflflity
-
of our conclusions will be ac4uired when the results of various nvithode
will be in harmony with each other.
According to the difference in methods by registering, cerepe the
comps.risou of both surveys and. the neture of a critical utilization of
dats will differ. in general, both surveys could correspond and 'lei
should comp. re the crops cud the infestation of the identical locationa*
But wIsz,t do we mean by identical locations? If we take it literally*
it moans that the lines for the infestation specimen and for crops
should correspond. This requirement is buriening (it is required
either to indicate a great number of marks in the field or to hang
line 3 \rith C.crinItegeodetic instrument) and often unnecessary. The
degree of conformity of both specimens should correspond to the accuracy
of our ,sethod. Tor instance with a wide survey", each field is
characteried by the average of several figures for infestation and
one flail-a for crops. if se have a eufficient amount of inspected
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Liubitiachevo A. A...
Principles of estimating...
.fields (for instance 60-100), then every field is one "point' of
biological survey. 41 inspecting according to zones. a "point" aight
be considared a field edge of the .width of 25 meters and length of
100 meters and we compare the data for this "point* disregarding the
place oi! the "point" where they were obtained. Only with the regis-
tration of the crops distribution near. the individual hole, a definite
mark with the indication'of their quality is necessary: inhabited,
cbandonned, family, poisoned, etc.
traon we use the critical approach we should. o c4Urse, take into
censidoration all the phenomena of the selectivity of pests (passive
and nctive). Tor instance. it is known that the gophers prefer to
settle along ravine?, hiLls but on the other hand. they avoid prec-
ipices, on the ploughed field they usually prefer unploughed parts,
location with disrupted soil (tie. Depending on natural-historical
'conditions this selectivity nay boo both positive and negative. Tor
instance. Implonghed, neglected,par'te of the field. yield poor crops
even without% gophers in comparison to the rest of the field. Therefore,
the simple etnaparison.of crops in connection with the distance from the
hole mit?jit give a mistaken idea of the harmfulness oi gophers since
all tho differences in crops we shall explrin by the gophers. On the
contrar?-, if the ploughing of the virgin 'field centimes, then ths_ild
fialds midot stand: farther .from the virgin field and enrqequently will ,
be less infested than the new fields which, 'due to the** freshness. ?
ii111 yield higher crops. In this instanee, the loss will be camouflaged
by oontroversial factors and. we shall obe,in low loss axponente. How
could we avoid each mistakes? We shall need signs. independent of the
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LanY.shcb,Frr, A. A...
Princi-,,les of eetinstting..
pest and the relation between the crops an' natura-historicel con-
di?tions. For instance, with the rt,O.str,tion o: crops arnund individual
holes it is necessary to classify holes according to their char-cteristi.cs:
1) tiLeir relation to the uncultivated soil etc.; 2) he,btt-,...ble and in'latable
condition. :tor each category of fields it is necessary to determilt7 the
difference in the average productivity: with a full absence of crope,
for on unplouji-d. part of the field the ty.Acal amount !Ind
the frequency of loes; for places not inhaSited Sr gophers or wIth
igtinkmbi.ted holes it is necessary to determine Vail character of harvest
decrease from the center of the uncultivated field to its perirheriee,
and. this curve of the decrease in thfuniahabitea fic1C, to corro eith
the curve of decrease in the inhabited. field. This *eV' we are able to
remove the camouflaged influence of selectivity.
Daring the work at a larger smile, in cossr.ring the
infesttion and the crops of various zones of the massive of different
time o utilization, the des7ee of heLsrogeneity of the rmesive is
detor:4ined bw- the evaluation of grass land in the locelities not infested
by go'-hers Tsud by the determination of the aver,,ge crops of spOme.
with a suicient amount of the Siessire it is possible to elisclose
places with varied settles/nests (i.e. in the kunderies of a field of
homogineous time length) which could be directly cowl:red with ez.c'h
other.
The registration of topogiephical relations helps us in early canes
to avoid, wrong conclusions based upon insufficient erit5 cal e.Trelicet ion
of veal-I:ion statistics in mixing systenatic and occasionc.,1 mietc,Res.
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Liubishchev, A. A...
Principles of estimating...,
Let us give the following example (taken from concrete reality): the
Infestation of seede of cauliflowers by bacteriosis appeared to be
considerablybigher for mulched plants than for unnulched plants and the
difference is absolutely authentic. It it possible. to conclude that.
mulching assists in infestation? The study of topographic relations '
helps in solving this problem. /f .the mulched lots would alternate, 4th
the unnuldhed lots end would indicate a strtistically authentic difference,
then the hypothseio of the influence of mulching would be possible to
Condider substantiated (without solving the problam WIxtber the mulching
influences by itself or because cil!* special conditions). In reality
there is an ummulchedsfield along with the mulched one. Therefor:,
individual mulched plants 'could not be cobsidered independent repetitions,
but arc connected parts of the same evidence. The study-of the infestation
locality indidttes ttrA we have 4 gradual' increase of infestation from
one end to the other and that thwreneof,unmulchnot.field-thich.ie acme
to the mulched one does not manifest any difference in infestation.
The inspection of topographical relations rejects with complete safety
the hypothesis which seemed poesible without registratioli of dis-
tribution of specimens.
Definition. of Barehlness
The definition of harmfulness is necessary When Ai direct definition
of harm appears to.be too clumsy, difficult to realize due to the
relative regularity in the Ispreading and to the relation with ?ecalogical
conditIms. But this is beneficial also when there is a full pos=.,
oibility'of direct definition of damage by the topographical method. In
such case, the damage is defined indiredtly?by the meansof registering
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fly A. -19.- -
krie.e71::leo for estleatiej..
the s-.:reading of pests. The expediency of such a definition is clears
knoein.k.:. the bErnfulness and the amount of the pest we are able to !Gann
the ii ont1,1 &Image.
Urtil recently the definition of danage by harmfulness was CODm
tiered. the tot reliable measure, and the basic method of definition or
harafelnces was considered the method of vegeteting vessels. We indicated
*hove 0.4e -,:rincipal objections egninst the vegMtetive method. A closer
stadr c: individual work on definition of harmfulness convinces 10.4 in
the ,.3iett the vegetative method does not furnish tbet accuracy of reset
cleien,Z 1K7 its eueeorters. A detailed disenssion of this work will hew)
to he enetponed due to lack of place.
at if we consider the field method RS the best for definition
of herfelnees, then we must eliminate all the shortcomings which ere
inherent in it end metre it not lees relit/ae and at rate then the
vegetative method.
'an basic quality of the vagetetiTe method is the fret that infest
and not infested pleats are alike in everything before infestation or
before the diseeseq the fact of infestation or of disease causes the
only difference end, consequently, the difference in yield could be
expl,:ined by this distinction. In field conditions there Is no each
a corrison, home:Lee due to the selectivity at the morntt of
infef;t%tion* the infested plants and those uninfemted are different
and, th-refore, Rs R. rule, the future yield is not ideeeicel.. Bat it
is cemitc o'mlous that we are able to obtain cooperative plants if vie
shall select pltnte within the boundaries of hoteogeneous category
according to the sign irrelevant as to the pest. Kardiumov WAS one of
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Principles of estimating..
the first among the advocate? of that method Who, for the definition of .
harmfulness of the grain sew fly Orachelus tabidusi compared not simply
the weikht of infested. and uninfested stems, but of etetle Whose length
is similar. With a gradual development this notho4 adds up to the
comparison not of separate groups of stems, but of lines (so called the
line f rrtression) of the relation between 'the yield Characteristics
(weight of the grain. the average weight of one grain, the amount of
grain, etc.) and the ch,?racterintic independent from the pest. This
way wc arrive tt a .definite coefficient of harmfhlneos in comparison with
the pri,1:-_ry, the rough ones
Bat is one definition of a coefficient of harmfulness sufficient
by Which are tossed upon one independent principle? Definitely not,
because re often munt verify Whether the inOeuendent charicteristie is
real1Inaependent from the pest. For instance, in CIltd with the -grain
dew fly :Iirdinleav taken the length of spike as the independent. Character-
tette. ant are We sure that the larva of the saw fly does not inf-
luence the length of the :pike? ?or the solution of similar problems
the formr#tion of new lines of regression between the characteristics
Which ctue rny doubt in its independence (for insttnce, the number of
- slikee in General; the number of developed spikes,'etc.). 'Only in case
.of their actual independence, the, lines of regression for .any ptir of
such cherreteristice will be identical for the infested and uninfested
steno, Dithough the arithmetical means, dna to selectivity, may not
coincils. Therefore the coinciding lines could be coneidered as a .
proof frt. independence.
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L A...
Prieciles of estineeing..
Azother nossible source for nistakee night be the c.rcuatance
that ee ai, not conaider entirely the selectivity of the peat. For
inet Let , Le my work on the grain eaw fly (Liubishchev, 1931) a simple
Comp, eon of lines of regression according to a chazacteriotic
inde:nn, et from the pest (the thickneee of stems, tho lnngth af the
eeilee) 11 not remove the cseouflaaing influence of selectivity until
enothee i,;/-ee of selectivity- the dieeaee of thu firet etore has on
reeovee. 1-.en could we be assured that the select! ity is exhaueted?
We 0.11 cef: ust it when all the methods nrodeco Lhr sane reeulta.
Tel th?ezetioned cese of the 3PW fly, the nresenee of one mistake during
the first tae of work is cr from the feet thet the av -tion
varieles eethean of rating the coefficient of hernfuluees resulted in
dzast.c fluctuations of the obteined amount.
riaa.11;, , the research could. be considered. comeleted , bedded
of ebt :eine a series of noncontr7eictory eeeences,--, .es sun up our eete
In co 'este a8reoment with all our knowledo -f petheloey end rhysiology
of the di sad elent.? Of course, if besed oneeur well aetlyzed data
we ceee to e result which contradicts our data acceeted ir. conternorary
plant phriolo, then it does not mean thet our eal wereeeronge- the
4iS aka ni.ht be on the part of ehysIOIogy; but until we.* rifyethe
conteaeleLery affirmations of physieIogy we must consider the eluestion
still unsolved,
Thi; athodoIogy has been worked out in many eases. reem tines tt
leaas t e :.teic:te satisfactory solution of the ereblem for instance, in
Case eiVe tile rye thick flyOsosoma noxieles (see 1-!e1iakove 1932) or
with clee 31 weevil (un:ou3liehed data of T. A. Vasil 'ev). In other co.sea
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Liubishche7, A. A...
Principles of estimating..
the wor17 is complicated, bixt finial/ it leads to our and (see ce:eal
say flie. Linblihchev, 19151 and unpublished date of 7. I.
MAkaiov,3!:a , European corn borer asrayik nubialit according to
unpublished data V. I. Telitekli, flax rust according to date nre,ne,red
for V. Vesterova). There -re, of course, cases when this
e_oes not lead to a definite solution because we msy find a layer
of v,riou getierations of the pest of uneven ham n (unpablished (1ta of
G. Titov concerning the Hessen f1). In this ease (for instance,
the :-A.ze ef the cocoon) it is im.ossible to define the harmfulness of
each roe:tion sem_mtely. Since it is imccssible, we should consida'
the flucturJion of the ebtined coefficients as a dat because it
indic,:les the real fluctuation of the phenomenon.
The above indicated general method of comp rine the lines of
re,:rsaion in its primary stage (obtainine &It% during the moment of
harvest) could peen ina2plicable for pests which infest the pl7Int early
and which cues such a deep chngs in the plant thet at the moment of
harvest :1, sien is left disregarding the pest. This we twve, for
instace, euring early infestations of the Swedish and tissen fliee.
"re, the method of regression lines is aoplicable, but only in
applyinc model plants ..!eich we observe from the very beginning of
vegot'tien. Ere we notice eigns independent fro* the pest, for instance,
the ti.;:e of s7roating (counting 'k twenty-four hours or part of the
twenty-four hours) the number of leaves before the infestation by
the
(7.13h fly (the beginning of infestation could be determined ay
analinif the nlint* gehich ar., in the vicinity) the length of the
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Princi-,les of estimating..
longelt leef etc. Thiel wsy we are bble to determine the splectivity
of the '-,1,0(1.: eh fly and to avoid its ct4nouflecing influence byteans
of cpm-,ring the lives of regression of harveet detti, according to
signs dcter-ined bePre the infestx.tion by the r,ediela fly. Thie
measure, 7:f course, is inconveniont and, uossibly, for the Stedilh fly
It ,- n7alto to mch the enkby means of applying the
teloz;ralphical apnroadh.
Umlly, then we determine hermfUlness, we should teke into
consi!lprtion the possibility of comPenerAton of the dempls Iv the
develo-Awnt of undiseased prirts or Plants. In thele ceses 'Ann tha
comrclinzAion occurs within thP 711tnt ttpelf (for inet,tce, nclw stele
to re-1 11'.P A.P,troype! onpn) the Ilrat Should be determined not
by ti o 7tT, but by thc nlnt. 13ut wtth infestption of the entire
Plant (flr instance, the ressen fly in vinter crops, or dry lat)
the reaction of neiehboring rl,,nte which compensate the h-rvet is
The determination of this eoproansationary reaction differs
in it liicultyoccerftng $o the th!nonienon whether the trIces of
the disc;,.sr0 -,71trt are preserved ftring the moment of h'rvest or not.
The firlt case we have, for instnce, with the dry nrut. Tv this c-,se
the nre-,-f.ence of compensation could be determined J:7 ne1171 of studying
the relYdonship between the harvest of individual Ilents ecroraing to
the riimoteness from the dl set nlant. It is clear that, If cow--
nenwtion takes place, then the plants ne,lr the diseaeed ones would
yiela hither crone than the remote ones: but if there is no eirference,
then, ,re't live no right to evek about con,-env.tion.
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Isiubitchev, A. A... -24-
Princt acas of estimating..
)?or the Fessen fly upon ainter crops we have another, more con-
plicatnd CALM: at the time of harvest, as a rule, no trace remains from
the ,1_ rt which died during the winter. But in this case, the death
of tli 1 it occur so early that the influence of the death due to the
]i05 Ben lay could be coma red to any other factor (unlike the arrillt %ten
the p1: rt lives long and ceaaee to as:4735.1:M shortly before the
.f the spike). Therefore, the influence of the blanks in
F.11 could be determined. Or we could determine the e. ependence
of t'a?. '_verage loarvest of one plant from the amen:au Lae number of
the rremained plants upon a definite field. - 10. 15 or 33 running cm.
st.I.re we may deteruaale quite accurately the harmfulue ,;
simiL r -1e3t2, end those corrections in compensation which r.-e have to
alio% 7 ' ,riLa various degrees of infestation. Since for the same
}teaseli fly on winter crops we may determine the damage by the trapograahical
method or by utilizing the aateri.4 accra.(liag to ,43rms (.f sowing
the c:..rra5.aortaing cultivation (the camouflaged influence of the terms of
sowin._; coulcl be removed by the introduction of coefficients of
correlation), then the problem of selecting the method of research is
solved b;) erarining concrete &Etta and in relation to time and means at
Our dispoeal.
Therefore, depending tk: n the ;leculiritia f thc ata,t, it is
rec. e s v.ry to modify the nethod of study its damage and hornfulnesa.
In
order to arove the variety of pests from thia methoical punt of
view, 'ancient to indicate that we are able to perform this
division Ly various means. vs Bre able to differentiate: 1) the
priaa.ra lests. the ones which infest the sound plant, and th94econdary,
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?
?
?
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s." ? ? ?
2rinc -.11s ri-C estimating..
the ort-s 1,hich infest the diseased plant: 2) diffused ones uhich
37.1read co-.:ii).!.rtivey evenly, and contrasting on: 3 which are spread
1,11f"Tr'`!1
4? 1' ? ?
? i.th one tr.'s of dflaage or with several tyoee ofds,Nr:ttle;
--JP>r-rment or alternate intensity of infest:A:on; 5) direct ones
the h!...rvent directly, anr indirect ones which affect through
ti' tig organs (it is not necessry to confuse with direct and
Inct7.,-:;ses); 6) pest i.:hich 6.r.raz4;o in their early and late ste.cee;
7) -(.:71.n:; %left moving; 8) wist,, which leave behind con-
',7,7,-.cos of their activity end the once t 1.e.P.va
tre.co'37 P) =, which ce.use obvi.711,1 ...;:-.mage or hirlden; 10) with the
,oloctiv!,ty, L. .tin Iect;v1t;.- or vithout
7.1e,33 oteriotics could often combine ytth er,.ch other in such
conelder%ble :mount of CO inntionsrob
vz.ricty of 11.: !?;? ,:-
711%r:11Q1to
Trip tt, LOY of the econnnic gignifc1ce of ,pestaoit is necessary
5.ts nortaining to sone 43iv1sion a.cc rdin to the algae :aid
to 01).tlir.r., -71rn "or r4,3e!?rch ,acc.erlingly. To ineicate tho nethod of
dotr i. h rrfulacgrio without te2s_ing into cono-..er _ation the
nect-o; -4,_1-17s of the pest this mesas to formulate such e huge scheme
t-thich t1' 'be h,.rit to figur^ out end to opnly. -1 it !?oui. ? reqw.ire
1.-c.kric end moans for its fulfillment.
Itring the d.eterninttion of the coeffici-mt of hi fulness it
: or.7311:le te forecs It ell roseible cembin,..tiote of footers
Th*ace the hitrmfuluess: it is necessary to choose comblirttions
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Liubishchev, A. A...
Principles of estimating..
which are more frequent. This approach will be successful depending
on the degree of our familiarity with the pest and, of course, e.ccordini;
to the investigator's experience. According to all these data, the
result will be of more or lees clearness.
The Definition of Losses
The problem of defining losses is 6 synthetic one - the drawing
of 's. picture of the economic significance of the pests based upon
individual elements of observation. We mast include here all data of
definingbarmfulnees, damage and the distribution of the pests: all
the mass research materials obtained by the inquiry method should be
connected with the above data and the regionalizing, the pest in
. locality and in time should be rated; not only the maps of Ito spreading,.
but the frequency of ite mass manifestations. Therefore the entire -
problem, besides of the discussed one is divided into four basic parts:
1) the quantitative registration of the pent: if the definition of
damage is found by the topographical method, then this problem is
solved simultaneously, but if we define it by harmfulnest then an
independent definition should be found; 2) tying up data which are
obtained by a specially prepared personnel with mass data obtained by
the inquiry method; this problem includes the introduction of correctives
into the data of mass correspondents, extrapolation and interpolation
of data; 3) the regionalising; of the pestihich is divided into several
parts (we shell mention this below); 4) the general synthesis of
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Liubi shchev. A. A... -27-
Principles of estimating..
1. The quantitative registration of pests.--Tbe basic difficulty .
of the quantitative registration of pests is the irregularity of the
distribution of pest even in the boundaries of even ecological con..
ditions or under ecologictl conditions Which practically seem to be
elusive. These difficulties could be overcome only by the topogranhical
method and by the study of the structure of the pest distribution.
The ch:pter *The method of quantitative registration of pests" (in AY
book under print ',Me methodology of post registration" with the assistance
of M. I. Eosobutskii and I. P. Stepantsev) will furnish the details,
and here I will just indict.te that thii study of the structure is
carried out by three basic methods; 1) determination of correlation of
' infw:tr".tion of neighboring fields under various scales; 2) defining the
coefficient of distribution tinder variable size of specimens: 31 com-
paraieon of the distribution of empirical and theoretical Curbs. *Ch
a study Will permit to determine the degree of deviation from the
etatisticallyunifokmed and furnishes the basis or such an approach
for the distribution Of and taking specimen*: This 'MY we roach a
conclusion which Is obtained on the obssrvation'field of the entire
ration.
2. Linking, extrapolation and interpolation of data. -.4extra,-
polation is understood here as the judgement of losses in the entire -
raion based upon data of one observation point, under Interpolation we
underst..nd the counting of temporary data between neighboring observation
points and the points of mass observations. In those cases where all
data furnish an even picture of gradual changes of degree of infestation
and of disease (for instance, on the maps of diseases from winter owlet;
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Liubi sachem, A. A... -28-
Princilles of estimating..
data of I. iilipsev). interpolation does not represent any dif-
ficulties and the picture could be considered quite reliable. But
if we have drastic differences or jumping fluctuations, then we need
a (=Meal analysis of the obtained materials. There might be various
cases. The first one, and the simpleet, consists of systematic dif-
ference (increase or decreaim) of data of mos correspondents in.
comparison with the data of a special personnel., ,The reason for a .
difference could be realistic (for instance, if ..the observation points
are loca.,ted at old experimental stations, anditte mass correspondents
-acquire their informations from newly constructed Soviet and collective
farms) or is explained by mistakes of mass observers. An itinerary
observation of a few locations by the personnel of observation points
will e.seist in finding the causes for differences and to make corre-
sponding conclusions. Thus, if the testing indicates the reality of' the
differences, then, the data of the observation points could be
generalized only by the regional fields, for mass conclusions the data
of the correspondents should be used. Often there is a difference
based on inaccuracy of observations; the correspondents either do
not pny attention to the peat or. on the contrary, confuse it with
other pests and overestimate its significance. The reason for such
an overestimation is often simply the camouflaging of agricultural
shortcomings which caused a poor sprouting, the development of weeds
etc. After having defined the presence of underestimation or over-
estimation it is possible to introeuce corresponding corrections into
the ma.ss data. A more frequent case - the drastic fluctuation of
data. Fere also might be cases of real fluctuation of pests or it is
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.Liubishchev. A. A... -29-
1111 Princi-lles of estimating..
based upon an insufficient attention of some correspondents. Here the
problem is determined bY observation of several locations, for in.ltance,
the itinerary between two points, of which one indicates the abgenee
of the post, the other indicates its presence. In case the visit of
sueh Re-aptyp point would disclose the pest and such a result would
.repeat itself we have the full right of indicating the infestation
upon Vas nemtpyil points as well. Such a case occurs with smut. This
disease is spread quite regularly and therefore the difference between
infested and non-infested, fields is lx.sically provisory: depending on
the assurrition which percentLgs of infestation we would, consider
uninfected. In the given case, even without inspection we my spread
data of approbations for those fields where there was no e.pprob.tion
.or informations are not available, and we should not proceed as we
used. to, for ineance, to consider all fields which were not under
observrtion as not infested.. On the contrary., if the observ- tion will
manifest n real drastic difference in infesting the neighboring points,
then tho itinerary will permit to indicate whether we deal. here with
the attactment of the pest to definite ecologic:]. conditions or with
the nidi distribution of the pests. In the first case we are able
to extrapolate our data according to corresoonding ecological dif-
ferences, in the second case to study the structure of the distribution
of the peat (the sice of the nests, their location. etc.). In case
this problem would be too complicated. then we will find the average
infest .tion, but with the indication of the fluctur.tions and with the
fixing of any shortcomings in any direction. This is achieved by the
method Wirt for the fixing of the lower boundary we di sOuse all points
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Liubishchev, A. A... -30-
Princinles of estinating.? ?
from -here we do?not have any informatione whether it does not disclose
any of this pest, bat for the definition of the ,main boundary we shall
spread data obtained from the points of observations to those locations
Where, no informations were available.
3. regionalizing? The general problem of economic regionalizing
is divided into the following parts: a) statistical regionalizing i.e.
the indication of the basic zones of the harmfulness of the pest by
means of utilizing many informations concerniztg. their appearance. Such
maps exist in america2 literature, partly also in our country; thus.
Volt skii used the data of 34 yearn published under foThe year in
agriculture., for the draft of a nap of winter owlet cAarotis serntumi
(see r. U. Troiteldi. 1.922); / prepared a map for the HOOSett fly (water
? print). D.I.ch raps indicate purely empiric.l regularity wich formulate
and are in need of corresponding theoretical foundations; b) regionslizing
the hernfaness is a problem In itself. The first regionalizing is
based upon the summary of questionnaire materials, and it does not reach
any quantitative conclusions in respect to the harmfulness of the pent.
In several points the harmfulness of the peat is determined. In many
cases several definitions provide clear differentiations of harmfulness
according to raion(s) (for instance, for the Kesses fly upon spring
crops in tbe 'Ukraine the harmfulness is considerably hieeer than in
Northern Caucasus), but, of course, a few points are sufficlist to
indicate general regional setion of harmfulness. This can be determined
after having evaluated the relation between the harmfUlnees and the
complexity of ecologicel conditions. Ye now arrive at the thirt rroblem-
c) the theory of the distribution of the pest. aegioneliving would not
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Liubi shchev. A. A...
Princi-nles of estimating.. ,
be complete until we give a theoretical interpretation of indicated dis-
trnution and until we indicate the satisfactory quantitative correlntim
between the theoretical lines indicated bY us and the empirical data.
Sach theoretical accomplishment provides an aesunnce in the dependability
of our conclusions and will assist to carry out our work by a more
economic manner. Finally such work is of great significr_nce against
quartntine pests: the fixing of zones of potential harm of a pest which
was not?;,-ot imported. Attempts for such theoretical maps is atailable in
foreign literature.
The construction of such a theory requires, first, fixing the
dependence of the pest and of its harmfulness on a series of .conditions,
, and second, to find the .deroendence in production." For the first deter-
mination the experimental method will be beneficial in many cases,
the concrete data which were first used as hypothesis during the
for
analyst? of field conditions; the work of /A. I. Prints could be a
good example of such application of the experiment. As to the con-
sideration of determined relations in production; we face here 9005
serious technical complications consisting in the necessity of a radical
reconsideration of the available ?meteorological data. The regionalization
of the pest, of course, depends mainly on temperature and. moisture
during specific phases in _the defelopment of the pest: but regionalizing
the harmfulneas depends on the character of phenology of the pest and
the plemt. Therefore, even if we admit that the character of dependence
is determined correctly, we are unable to utilize the isolated lines of
usual meteorological atlases; except under minimum and maximu.m tem-
perature, bemuse those lines are constructed according to calendar data
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L1110i sacnev a ? A. ? ?
Principles of estimating..
and not according to phenological data. On the other hand, the relation
between individual pests vary. For some, the time of temperature's
increase is important, for others, ae with the grape mildew, the definite
combination of minimum and average temperature with a definite quantity
of rainfall. Therefore, often in observing meteoroloecal stations,
we either don't find any similar data or their rating in a complicated
performance. Therefore. it As not surprising that such maps which
fulfill strict requirements are not available. Nevertheless, the
practiel significance of the problem does not pereit us to retreat
on account of these difficulties.
4. The general synthesis of losses.-- The simrlest method of
synthesis of losses is the acquisition of effects of harmfulness unon
the sore-ding and cost of one unit of production. In determining the
average da%age the averagez-amount of losses is taken (or recomeended)
and it is tultipaied by the average yielding capacity. Of course,
each a nm.sure could be anplied an first approach. Bat, since the
harmfulness is often connected ivith the amount of the possible yield,
We ma;,. corlmit error.' Here is an example: the Swedish fly is khovn
for its :pecific. hermfUlness under poor conditions of sprouting during
the first period of vegetati,m: in such cases it is able to destroy the
harvest coripletely, bat without the Swedish fly under the same con-
ditions the hrrvest might be slight. For instance, with a good
development of the plants ever a hundred percent infestation might have
no influence upon the crops. Therefore, we my construct such a table,
althouh artificial, but which corresponds to general real relations
(in all c...tes the hundred percent of infestation is tr'ken into con-
sida.-ction, hence the infestation and the damge coincide): -
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Liubishchev, A. A...
es of estimating.. ?
Potential yield without the
Average
'
Swedish fly (in centners)
1
10
20
10.3
Harmfulness (in percent)
100
20
0
40
1',_ctu.91 yield (in centnere)
0
8
20
9.3
Thus, the average decree.se of yield during these three years
coaeists of one centzum from hectar or. 9.3 percent of the possible
harvest for three years; leeanwhile if we multiply the averaee harm-
fulness by the average potential harvest, we obtain a decrease of 4.12
centners or more four tiries the real one; the mistakes..., as we -see, in
not small. The general method to avoid similar mistakes is to obtain
averse :lapses according to the potential yield.
.1 will limit myself to these short considerations. The problem
of rating the secondary and potential losses will be put aside: here
? the methodical work le still in more backward. condition than in respect
to direct actual lessee. As to the category of eradicating and non-
, eradicating lossas, the botuidary between them varies depending upon the
perfection of the control methods. Before we obtain definite informations
in respect to actual and potential losses the determination of eradicating
losses could be performed by the expert method.
Zxpert Method
As it has been indicated, the acquisition of definite informations
in regard. to losses of the Okiarity of pests occupies come time cal
reclaims an important, specially prepared personnel. And since pro-
duction requires on the part of research Organizations some indications
of harm from the pest then the expert method has the right for estence.
Such a critical expertise might provide a reliable, althanch inaccurate
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1...tuulsauz1uv 11/ A, ? a? ? ? +44w
Principles of estimating..
answer by-means of coordinating various data. For instants, for the
den/A. of the theory "white spot" it is not necessary to wait until the
problem of ht-rmfulness of the Swedish fly will be iolved in all its
accurLay. The comparison of data: 1)decrease of wheat sewing during
the last decadee,afterlhe development of railways; 2) a higher yield
cappcity of vheat in this reion in comparison with Southeast; 3) the
absence of correlation between the yield and the, percentage of infested
bushes vhich indicates that the amount of the Swedish fly does not by
itself influence the yield etc.. The given hypothes13 is absolutely
incompr;tible with the factual material. A more circumetential analyois
(gee Srbernik Vra Ho. 7. 1933 and the circumstantial article. along.
:with :L 14. roz1ov4 sent to print) discloses the causes for errors,, and
the ceordimtion of all reunite permits us to reject the regionalizing
inflacnce of the Swedish fly, although its economid significance
remtt.ins indefinite. .
A good example of the 1-4oplidetion.of the critical exnert method is
the work of 17, T. Aristov Along the economic significance of apple
floner eater (Anthonomus-pomoram. seen. T. Aristov, 19S2). and also a
series of :Jerk of German authors. Thr harm of Anthonotas remains
indefinite, but by comparison or all data we are able to determine the
density of hrrm and, to regionalize its practical eiinificance.
7inally, as an example of a more indefinite. expertise I will
indicato ny ratingsAccording to general losses from gophers and locust
(Liubishchtv, 1933). Here we proceed with the expert evaluation,
analyse it, indiate the availability of errors and their minimum
eignifid-nce tnd arrive at the boundary of the potentisl damage.
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LinbirlIchtv, A. A...
Principles of estimating..
In this articlo I was forced to abstain from the analysis of ,
concrote data and to discuss the available literature only superficially.
But I do hope that, in spite of the Complexity and the multiplicity
of the problems connected with the evaluation of the economic significance
of pents, the matter is not hopelessly complicated and with the efforts
of ell ,,orkeri the problem might be solved successfully.
Samoa
1. The complexity of the problem of the economy of pests requires
a high prertretion of the personnel and the utilization of all Various
ways of solving the problem.
2. The meant of study the problem of losses vary: a) according
to the character of division of the problem into elements (damage,
harmfUldess, disease, infestation, etc.); b) according to the degree of
the arourrey of approach: gradually6critical. questionnaire and expert
methods; c) according to national-economic point of view; d) according
to the degree of artificial method.
3. in production we must pay special Attention to the applicatin
of tha to2ographical method. Its fihortconings and camouflaged influence
might be removed by introducing supplemented signs and by a critical
di scussion of topographical relations. Without the registration of
topogra!)hical relations it in easy to commit an error by taking parts
of one repetition for individual reretitions.
4. During the definition of trrmfulnest by the field method
quite reliLble results could be obtrined by observing three basic
mnthodical rekuirements: a) comperison of the line of regression
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Liumencnev, A. As..
Principle a of estimating..
according to the sign independent of the pest; b) agreenent of data
obtlined by various independent methods: c) agreement of data with our
knowledge according to the physiology of plants.
5. The definition of losses, besides the immediate registration
of hermitlness, includes the diviaione: a) the quantitative registration
of pests (recording to the topographical method eimaltaneously with the
definition of damagm; b) connections. extvpolations, and interpolations
of data of the field with the data of the presented region; c) region-
alizing which is divided into three parts: statistic_l regionalizing,
regionaizing of harmfulness and the theory of zone divisions; d)
anti:teals of losses Only during the first approach Which Could be
replaced by a simple multiplication of elements..
6. The expert method vill for a long ties preserve its significance,
but, if we apply during the expertise all our data and by coordinating
it into a unified noneontradictory system. We may. obtain Conclusions
thich are reliable and which could: be of practicl significt:nce.
Bibliography
1. Aristev, N. T. 1932. The harmfUlnees of an apple tree flower
case r* Trudy po Zaehchite Eastanii (Works on Plant Protection)
rar. 1, No. 6. p. 1-30.
2. Liubishchev, A. A. 1931a. The method of registering the economic
effect of pests. Trudy po Zaihchite Eastenii (Works on Plant
Protection) v. 1, no. 2. p. 369-505.
3. Liubishcbev. A. A. 1931b. The problem of defining the amount of
losses caused by harmful insects. iMehchita Eastenii. (Plant
-rotection) v. 8, no. 3-6, p. 472-483.
LiubiShdher, A. A. 1932. Is the army of pests counted? Sbornik
VIM( 3w5P ) (Collection. All-Union Institute of Plant
7rotection) no. 3.
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Lihchov, A. A... ?37?
Principles of estimating..
5. Liut:-:chev, A. A. 1933a. The effect of measures end of loss
re3etration. Sbornik TIM, no. 5.
6. !Aabisl,chev. A. A. 1936b. The problem of the white gpot and
entonology. Sbornik VIM: no. 7.
7. Neelnkova, 0. V. 1932. The economic significPnce of rye chalcid
Za ehchit a BR stenii ( Flant :?rote.ction) Sbornik. no. 1.
8. Trof.takii, N. N. 1922. The prolem or the Derioglicrl mass pro-
- nF, t int of harmful insects. Izvestiia Otdela Prikladnoi
Entomologyi (Bulletin of the Division of Applied lntnmology)
V. U, D. 87.
9. 'cSolevo V. IL, Zaammlikti, A. V.. and Bei?Bienko, O. IA. 1934.
:Tasekomye, vrediashchie po1ev7m kulltaram. (In3ects which harrA
GIZ (State Agricultural Institute).
10. E? 7011 F. 7. 3.931. Bcotopographical maps: their use in
6,litalto1ogy t.nd nvithods of makin;;. ? Journ. T'con. Enton. 24,
no. 1. p. 151-157.
July 7-34, 1251
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Sellskokhoziaistvennaia Akademiia
imeni K. A.-Timiriazeva Timiriazwv
Agricultural Academy, Moskva, Selikhozes,
1946, 390 p. 106 M6525e
Trans. 19R1 Institutions
Trans. in pprt by
R. 0. Denbo
The Department of Genetics and of Cytology' (p. 224-232)
The Department of Genetics exists in the Timiriezer Agriculture
Adademy since 1929 only. This is due to the fact that genetics is
only 3-4 decades old. Is our country the science of genetics started
to exist only after the October Socialist Revolution.
The Department of Genetics and of Selection hae been organized in
the Academy after the October Revolution, and it existed In such a
form until 1927 (the year of death of tho chairaan of the department
S. I. Zhegalov). In 1929 the Department of Genetics and of Selection
was divided into two departments: Department of Genetics and of Cytology
aid the Department of Selection and of Seed Growing. The formation of
the Department of Genetics and of Cytology took place in 1931 When
A. R. Zhebrak (active member of the Academy of Sciences of BSSR) has
been appointed the supervisor of the department.
Before 1937 the scientific work has been carried out only with
the ,groups of students Who soecializeq in selection and in seed growing.
From 1937 the course of Genetics with some elements of Cytology has been
introduced into all divisions of field and vegetable production
departments.
The curriculum of the department consists of lectures and of
laboratory work OR Geheties and on Cytology during the winter, and
additional practic%1 studies during the summer. The studies in
Genetics consist of discusaion on crossing, on herbarium of beans
and wheat, and also of LtiIvidual
experimemts by students on the
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Academy...
' -2-
Drosolhila. In the Drosepiala exneriments the students study the
unifsrmity.of hybrids of the first generation, splitting in the
second generation, the law of the independent splitting of Characters
caused by genes localized in various Pairs or chromosomes, end also heredity
signs of flex. During the summer, studies the students acquire the
methods and the technic of crossing legumes and cereals and become
ac,inainted with the elements of genetic analysis of vegetative material
in the field and in the vegetlqive house. The 7cytological- work aims
to acqwp.int the students with the technical preparation of cytoleilical
eqnipment and of the study of basic stages in cell division, and also
the survey! of cytological equipment of various agricultural plants.
ale staff of the Department of Genetics carries On research from
the very st.rt of its organization. In 1934 the department solved the
erobleti of the interrelation between phenotypical changes and. Ole
changes in genotype. This problem is of great methodological sicnificance.
Until then the opinion prevailed in literaure th,A the genptypical
peocesses do not depend on the Changes of the phenotype. It has been
determined by the Department of Genetics that even slight phenotypical
changes Which are caused by the aging of the organisms, by temperr.ture
etc. influence the processes Which occur in the genotype. The con-
dust las along these studies are new in genetiC literotnre tn6. 'ore
discussed in a doctor's dissertation presented by A. R. rhebrek in
1936. Tro experimental works on this .,roblem were published in the
oBulletin of Academy of Scienceso.
\ '
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Academy...
The second problem which has been discussed in the department--
is that of mutual' influence of graft upon wilding in grass plants.
This problem has been discussed by I. V. Midhurin. After Michurin's
research the department applied the method of treneelantation of grass
as the method of vegetative approach of various species and genera.
After having carried out a great amount of experiment? in grafting for
the purpose of crossing beans, lupinus. vicia, soy bean, vicia faba,
lentils and other plants, the department did not obtain any hybrid
seeds of peas with all the indicted species and genera of the legume
family. There were not obtained any hybrid seeds from crossing Peas
with other species and genera of le6gmes without grafting. In the
process of study the character of grafting development it has been
deteruincd that a series of phenotypical.signs under the influence of
grafting is changing. Based on these results the department came to
the conclusion that during transplantation various changes of pheno-
typical kind occur iihich could be canoed by other factors of the
environment, but during transplantrtion changes which would produce
the crossing of these genera did not manifest themselves. Daring
tr..-neolaatetien vegetative hybrids do not occur according to.many
authors who carry out such experiments with other grasses, because
for th? formation of the vegetative hybrid the blending of two genetic
cells am& the formation of a new organisetwith the chromosomes of both
grafted com,onents are necessary. Three works of A. B. 3hebrak on this
topic helve been published in various editions and one work is prepared
for publieLtion by the assistant A. A. Fedorov.
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Timiriazev Lgricultural
AcadeM7...
Thc next question studicd in the department is that of the nature
of the effect of intorspecies crossings with autopollinpted plants.
the 2uperimental stations of the Union arlksorking and worked during
recent severel years on that problem. The experimente of the department
were carried out with peas and wheat. The department considers the
experiments with peas as completed. The obtained experimental data
indicate that the effect from interepeciem crossing sums up to modified
changes which disappear after 1-2 generations. .Usually the seed
material obtained from interspecies crossing propagate under best agro-
technical conditions. These seeds are of higher weight and of better
nourishing qualities. Therefore, by sewing mach seeds the breed ie
better than by usual seeds sown in inferior agrotechnical environment
411 and we acquire an impression of a positive significance of inter-
species crossing. In reality the effect of intersnecies crossing
results in a better raising of plants obtained, from deeds of inter-
species crossing. In its experiments the deprteent aspired for a
similar raising of the experimentrl and control material and did not
disclose c,ny effect frminterspecies crossing. This conclusion
corresponds to the data of other author on other plants.
Me study of a long inbreeding is also quite important. During
the process of working ont'this typic it has been detzmined that
durinj a long inbreed the processes in genotype are different from
that without inbreed (candidate dissertation of A A. Tadorov).
The department studied the problem of inheritance in the length
of the veestative period of peas. The practical remit of this roth
is exlressed by the fact that new speedy pea species were acquired.
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Underv...
According to the decree of the Committee on higher learniwg and
the -1'eopleis Cosseiseariat of Agriculture of USSR the ?lairlaser
Agricultural. Academy has the task of raising irimune species of winter
and nrine vilest for the ?blast's of nonblack soil. This problem could
be solved by hybridization of various species of wheat and. by obtaining
new breedings in the process of mutation. The most effective method,
according to the department is a remote hybridisation, i.e. the
crossing of various species of wheat and the crossing of wheat with
other grain products of close genera. It is necessary to use the
crossing of various species of wheat, because many valuable qualities
of wheat are spread among various species. The combination of these
qualities in one species le possible only by hybridization.
The department of Oenetics shifted. recently over to the work
with wheat. This could be exnlained by 4111 fact that wheat is the most
importrzt agricultural plant manifested by various species, with a
varied number of chromosomes. Therefore, the int er species crossings
are interesting not only in solving a series of practical problems,
but also in general theoretical sense since they enable us to grasp the
evolution of the most important agricultural plant. wheat.
..4il species of wheat, as it is known, are divided according to
the number of chromosomes into three in groups: 14-chromosomes,
28-chromosomes and. 42-chromosomes. The number of chromosomes are
strict1:7 constant for each species and it can exist only with the
presence of a definite number of chromosomes.
Therefore, the number of chromosomes are the most essential
distinctive peculirities of the species of plants and. of animals*
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AeaderlY6-.
That ie why the geneticists search intensively for various methods by
Which it would be possible to increase the number of chromosomes in
plants au:, first of all in crops.
According to contemporary genetic-evolutionary otinions, all
species of Wheat originated from a common ancestor. Nevertheless,
the beundaries between Various chromosome groups of wheat and species
are quite real and are easily disclosed in the process of crossing.
Thus, for instance, by crossing the Wheat species with 14 chromosomes
with species of 28 and 42 chromosomes we obtain hybrids almost entirely
sterile. By crossing the species of 28 chromosomes with the species
of 42 chronceomes we obtain either sterilsor slightly fertile hybrids.
Coneeciuently, the number of chromosomes is the real indiestor of the
boundary between species. Thia fact confirms the conclusions of
conta:.ilomry classical genetics pbout the spectra role of chromosomes
in the process of inheritance. It is true, not only the member of
Chromosomes are the signs of the -species boundaries, but the structure
of the latter as well, becuase within the boundaries of thep8 chromosome
group arVvarious apecies and some of thee, even with the impel
number of chromosomes, differentiate considerably. Thus, for instance,
Timo:eev whest with equal number of chremosames crossing with other
speCiOS of the same group result into highly sterile hybrids.
In practical sense this species of wheat is of seeciel interest
for selction, because it is characterized by the immunity to mee7
Wheat diseases and pests. It is known that Wheat diseases and pests
cause considerable damage to agriculture. According to data of the
sedition of the All-Union Institute of Plant Production, the loss
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Academy...
from rust alone reaches 10 percent of the grain yield. Therefore, the
raising of immune wheat species is a most important problem.. The solution
of this problem is possible by crossing cultivated Wheat species with
the Timoftev Wheat.. Nevertheless, this problem could not be solved
until recently by hybridisation with.Tr. Timopheevi because this species
is genetically different from other species and produces hybrids highly
sterile. In order to includeVILetkeeA.m into the selective process
it,is necessary first of all to solve thetheoretical problem in
resorting the fertility of hybrids of the first generation between
Tr. Titopheevi and hard and soft wheat. The individual seeds obtained
from the hybrids of the first generation do not solve the problem of the
synthesis of new wheat species because in each plants the process of
further Gaining into other species occurs. In the following generations
either ?pures hard and soft wheat breed or Tr. Timooheevi.- The litter
is the resat of the absence of homology of chromosome complexes of
these opecies and thie hindera the combining valuable qualities of one
'species with valuable qualities of the other species. The solution of
this problem is possible only by means of overcoming the sterility of
'hybrids and of the synthesis of a new wheat species which combines the
complex qualities of basic parent species.
lacte were observed in genetics when by doubling the number of .
chroncekimes with highly sterile hybrids their fertility ie restored.
Such a doublinG of the number of chromosomes in sterile hybrids
occured often and caused the restoration of fertility. Therefore
the problem of restoration of fertility could easily be solved by
111 coubling the number of chromosomes. Since already at the beginning
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of A. R. Zhebrak's work in 1936 it became known that the hybrids of
hard and of soft wheat with Triticum Timopheevi are sterile. A. P.
Zhebrak, when starting these crossings, simultaneously discussed the
problem of the doubling the number of chromosomes within these hybrids
in order to restore their fertility. Starting with 1936, began a
persistent search for methods to restore the fertility of highly
sterile hybrids of wheat by doubling the number of chromosomes since
this is the only method of obtaining fertile epecies. Por this purpose
the effect of high and of low temperature was tested. These tests were
c( done before by American authors to obtain polipboid within corn and in
other IA tmts. But the method of temperature effects used by A. E.
Zhebrak uith the purpose of obtaining amphidiploids in the hybrids of
hard wheat with the wheat of Timofeev did not give positive results.
This fact could be explained by the fact that the exper!ment was not
carried out on a sufficiently large scale.
The work of American authors Blakeslee and Avery published in
1937 on tha application of colchicin aiming to increase the number of
chromosomes in plants attracted the attention of many geneticists of
USSR including those of the department. In 1938 the department had
the hybrid seeds of the following combinations: 1:1',.. durum X Tr.
Timopheev, Tr. durum X Tr. monococcum, Tr. nolonicum x a. durum,
Tr. persicum X Tr. Timopheevi and others.
After having cultivated hybrid seeds of the first generation
by the solution of colchicin at the concentration of 0.1 percent.
A. B. nebrak obtained already in 1938 individual normally fertile
spikes from first combinations of indicated hybrids. Thus, the fact
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Academy...
Of the appearance of spikes with seeds in highly sterile hybrids
indicates amphidiploid, i.e. the process of doubling the number of
chromosomes. ;Poe to thin process the somatic number of chromosomes of '
both parents were united in the hybrid. A cytological Analysis enabled
us to disclose 56 Chromosomes in the somatic cell of the first combination
and 42 chromosomes of the second combination, i.e. a.cytoloecal analysis
confirmed the first assution. Consevently, as there:mit of experi-
ments of 3.938 A. E. Zhebrak obtained two new amehidiploid sliecies of
Wheat. The first of these species belong' to an entirely new group
of chromosomes, and the second - to the hexaploid 42-chromosome group.
Ve.did not succeed in obtaining similar speciesrof wheat, although'
=my scientists faced this teak. Experimentally created 56-chromosoMe
amphidiploid species of Wheat is characterized by the following
peculiarities: by high immunity to Mildew, dense bushiness, large grain
Which exceed the grain, of the parent species by close threshing etc.
According to the character of fragility the new species of Whert
occupies taa intermediary position between the prrent species. According
to this chLracteristic, as the investigation or 1939 and 1940 indicateo.
a slicht splitting occurs, and among the second and the third generations
of amphidiploid was possible to disclose species both with fragile
spike and less fregile snike. The fertility of the amphiAlploid is
lower than the fertility of the hard wheat, but higher than the
fertility of TriticUm TimOrheevi.
Possessing greater bushiness in comparison with the bushiness of
hard wheat and also immunity to some fungus diseases and to petits,
the ar.?hidiPloid opeCies which hassbeen celled by the author
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Acaderay...
Trtticum 9oveticum - the Soviet wheat with a slight negative selection
represents an Immediate practical interest. The basic significance of
the work consists in the fact that due to amnhidiploid it was nossible
to include r. Timopheevi into the selection process. Nith this
amphidi loid A. R. Zhebrak made in 1940 crossings of c. snries of btber
valitios and epecies.
The second, amphidiploid between hard wheat end monograin
(*odnosernlankaw) Wheat has 42 chromosomes and s ccording to the number
of cbrommemmes it does not differ from other species of the 42-
chromssons group. According to systematic signs it is clossr to
hard wheat. This amphidiploid is characterized by hada buShiness and
?unyisldins threshing. Besides, in the second generation it wts possible
to disclose forms with a not fragile spike. This species is of some
interest for the further work both as the selection method and the
crossing method. This amphidiploid enables us to understand better
the process of the origin of the entire group of the 42-chromoeome
Wheat. Urtil recently two different opinions exist along this roblem.
The 42..clsromosome amphidiploid species indicates that all the other
42-chromosome species could occur by hybridization of 28-chromosome
species with 14-chromosome cereals by doubling the =mbar of chromosomes.
.11:he nethodologY of the effect of colchicin uron the seeds wprked
out by A. R. 7hebrak in 1938 has. been applied to hybrid combinations
In 1939.end in 1940 and produced positive results. ? In the process
seven new amphidiploid qualities of wheat have been obtained, and in
1940 their number reached 33. During the 1940 season the amphidiploide
of Tr. Timopheesi were obtained. These facts indicate the high effect-
/VOW ss of the method worked out and applied by A. B. 2hebrak,
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Acaderze...
?or the production of amphidiuloid around 106 various crossingn
were performed in 1939. 'AMong these Combinations were obtained hybrids
of the seeds of the first generation Te.tieum Timonheevi with the following
species: Tr. vuldare, Tr. durum, Tr. turgidum, Tr. nersicum, Tr.
orientale, Tr. yokmican.
The greatest number of hybrid combinations was obtained with
hard wheat. According to this combination, all species of hard Wheat
known in UTAR are included into the crossing. The author believes that
an m=y aaphidiploids it will lm possible to produce the most
valuable qualities Which could be included into production as new
species after a slight negatiga selection.
In 1040 this kind of crossing has been continued and many new
hybrids were obtained, but the cesultsef this crossing were not
worked out. From crossings of 89 combinations in 1939 were obtained
hybrid scrds of 59 various combinations of the hybrids Triticum
Timonheevi with hard, Soft and other Wheat species, were cultivated
by colchicine. In 33 combinations amphiploids are already obtained
but a supp)ementary cytological analYsis is reqp4red along this line.
During 1008, 1979, and 1940 the department obtiAned amphidiploids
along the following hybrid combinations:
1. Triticum durum, v. leucuram Tr. X monecoccum
1) Triticum durum, v. lecurum, c. "Sary-bagdau X Tr. Timapheevi
2) Tr. durum, v. leacurum, c. eAk-bugda" X Tr. Timomheevi
Z) Tr. Tirophsevi TX. durum, v. leucurum. C. Hak-bngda*
4) Tr. Timopheevi X. Tr. durum, v. melanopus 069
5) Tr. durum, v. melanoius 069 X tr. Titor)heevi
6) Tr. durum, v. melano-ms falcate X Tr. Timorheevi
?) Tr. duran, v. melmovas X Tr. Timemheovi
0) Tr. Tiaopheavi X Ti. darun, v. hordeiforms 0189
9) Tr. durum, v. hordeiforme0470 X Ti. Timopheovi
10) Ti. Timopheevi X Tr. durum, v. hordeiforme 0432
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Timirta.7ev Agricultural -12-
Acaderr.m.
11) Tr. clurrm, v. ha:dein-rine,' (v..71 X Tr. Timenheevi
12) Tr. dur11.1, v. herdeiforoe ?27 T Tr. Tino-hoevi
1n, Tr. durum, v. hordeire)rme (27 Xr. Timonheevi
14) Tr. Timophoevi X Tr. taruo, v. :.ordsiforne CIO
15) Tr. durum, v. hordeife.rme okrmrttas X Tr. Tipopheevi
16) Tr. Ourum, v. eritnromelen X Tr. Timorhsevi
17) Tr. durum, v. iicum 16P40 1:Pr. TimoTheevi
18) Tr. durum, v. ,Jorino-letcarum 1142 7 Tr. Tinonheevi
19) Tr. durum, v. leucomelein 16233 X Tr. Timonheevi
2C) Tr. durum, v. Schehurdinii 16491 X Tr. Timorhoevi
1)
e0i
Tr. persicum, v. stminenDI 35C.2 Z Tr. Timopheevi
Tr. Timo heevi X Tr. persicum, v. rubiginosum 11891
1) T. orientele, v. insigne 15992 X Tr. Timorheevi
1) Tr. rolonicue 7 Tr. Tinopheevi
2) 1"?. polonicum, v. villas= 23562 Y. Tr. Timopheevi
7) Tr. polon!cum Y. Tr. Tinovheevi
1) Tr. turgidtm', v. rubriF:trie Tr. Timonheevl
0 Tr. turgidum, v. herreras Tr. Timo-heevi
Tr. tt-A-Eielmr, v. Dreischnum X Tr. Tinorheevi
1) Tr. polonicum 7: Tr. durum, v. melanorms 069
1) Tr. vulgnro, v. lute:scene otlerquis" X Tr. Timopheevi
2) Timophcovi 1 Tr. vulgare, v. lutescens otiarquisti
3) Tr. Timooheevi X Tr. vulgare, v. alborubrum aSandomirkall
4) Tr. Tisonheevi X T. vulo re, kolckolamst-Idaw
5) Tr. T:mop 4:evi X.T. vnlgrre, v. erythroseermum 2411
6) Tr. Timoteevi X Tr. vulgar, v. nlltutum C553
7) Tr. Tinonheevi 7 Tr. vulare, v. lutescene "Tetchero
Besides thy! munerated rnrhidinloids there exist others with
RIX v riot s hunhero of hard %heat from the collectir,n of the 4110Union
Institute of Plant nroduction 'whose variety has not been determined.
"rom the obtained amphidirloids four enecirs coule be considered as
new, five-ncv subsreciel, end the ret - new varieties me r,cee. Among
thee pi1otd wpecies we heve three various chromosome grouns:
42-chr(0Elps, 56-chrenosom4s and 79-chromonomes. The first of them,
42-chrl-e7smmr.s, rxi.sted befnre rnd therefore the amphidirloid of hard
wheat ')rneuced by A. R. Zhebrak enables to disclose a procese of the
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Ttsirtazav Agricultural -13-
Academy...
origin of r11 other 42 chromosome species. The last two, 56-chromosomes
. and. 70-chromosomen are produced by A. B. Zherbrak by the experimental
method. To the 56-chromosomes group belong the following amphidiploids:
Tr. Timopheevi with Tr. durum, Tt-.:..turridum, Tr. rqlonicum, Tr. persicum,
r orientale. The first amphidiploid obtained by A. B. Zhebrak of
hard uLae.t and Timopheev wheat has been given the name' of Triticum
,soveLicum,. Consequently, in a short time (2-3 years) A. B. Zhebrek
produced a. new species of wheat with a series of varieties and re.ces.
Me greatest number of amphidillold species was obtained from the
crossing of Tr. yimopheevi with hard wheat. A special attention has .
been Given to the crossing of various varieties and. species of hard
wheat bsCr.nse;ticelzusplitpleids of hard wheat with 7riticum stintorheevt
are of ' immediate prretical interest, because according to the
grain quality it is close to hard wheat and in its bushiness_it exceeds
it. In i=runity they arp close to Tr. Timonheevi.
The limiting circumstance in the introduction of new amphidiploid
variistia4f wheat into agricultural production could be explained by
its low fertility, because amphidiploids are less fertile than hard. ,
wheat1 but according to this basic characteristic the obtained amphidiploids
differ depending on the recies teken for crossing. Thus, for instance,
amphidiploids Tr- Tisorheevi X Tr. durum X gprdeform 0189 are closer
to hard. wheat in their fertility. All the amphidiploids have spikes
with average num. ber of grains higher than 3, and the majority of
spikes hit:a. inetheir small ears not less than 4 grains. 'In general
the fertility of amph.idiploids is lower than the fertility of hard
wheat. /n agricultural practice the decision how to utilize maul'
amphidiploide of plants (including amphidiploids of wheat) depends upon
the degree of fertility.
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Academy...
The department worked also on the improvement of polyploids and
amphiclitloids in cotton. This topic has been discussed by the candidate
Razev, assitzted to the chair of Genetics of the Azerbaidzhan Agricultural
Institute, under the supervision of A. B. Mebrak. As a result of this .
work 3 ar.12314diploids wore obtained from the hylarids of species of
cotton vith varied number of chromosomes.- This result indicates the
fact that the ap-;licat'ion of colchicine enables us to obtain amphidiploids
and. polyploids in a large number with various plants.
In ll these works it is important that the obtained results are
achieved. by the effect produced by colchicine. This refutes the opinions
of old tutogeneticiets who considered the seed. plasma isolated from
external conditions and immune to external influence. This also
refutes the naive LamarrLue conception concerning the adequate change
of genotype under the influence of e specific factor of the environment.
The work of the department indicates that colchicine specifically
affects the mtorial inherited structure of the cell .in increasinz
the nuriber of chromosomes. This work confirms the dialectical unity
of tho inncr nature of plants with the environment and the interrelated
processos. with external factors.
The ap lication of colchicine is important by the fact that this
is a. very effective external factor. The experimenter is able to
reconstruct the available species of plants and to produce new ones.
By combining hybridization with the effect of colchicine it is
posaible to create new species in unlimited number which did. not exist
in ntture and which it was hard to obtain before. The recent experimental
work by -.pplying the hybridization method. and. the effect of such
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Timirtazev Agricultural
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factorg like colchicine ind.icptee thlt conte?Incr4rL, c1ciaetintics
cptvinered I:17e nethrd. of ervolrition and la n_bie not only to er.)lain
the flvnliation4.--ry 1)roCes-2, but even to -produce new plant varieties..
July zz:,
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Sol '81,:okhoziaistvennaia Akaderiia imeni
E. A. 'iimiriazeva [The Timiriazev Agricultural.
Academy). ?parrs, Sel'khozgiz, 1946, 106 1852 Se
390p. ,
Translation 196:Plant Protection.
?
Trans lated f non the P.ussian by R. Dembo.
The Department of Selection and Seed Growing Of Field Grope (p. 232-237).
The first work on the selection of agricultural plants started in the
Timiriatev Academy (then - rnscowAgricultural Institute) in 1903 by the assistant,
of the Department of Venom,: Agriculture and Goil Conservation', D. L. Rudzinskii,
with the assibtance of the superintendent of the Department, academician V. W.
Miliaria. This work did not beloe6 to the program of the subjects in the depart-
ment, and their initiation could be explained only by D. L. Fudzirskii's interest
in plant selection.
In order to evaluate the historical significance of this ,undertaking, we
should take into consideration that it started at the time, when Russia did not
110, have even a 8 424 le aeleotion institution, when only a few seed farma of this huge
.country took care of seed varieties, whereby their material was the varietieo from
abroad. Then there were no courses on selection in' ahy of the agricultural schools,
but even the word "selection" end the ooneeption "variety" were entirely strange
to agricultural production.
Therefore it would be net exaggeration to say tat D. L. Dndzinskii is the
pionecr of selection TfOrk in RUssia, and the Timiriatev Acadery is the berth of -
this work.
In 1903 began the work with poitatoea, minter and spring wheat, pats, and
somewhat Inttr (in 1906), with beans. In 1903 all the'imiseries occupied 240
square "sazhen" (2,154 meters) upon occasional fielda. Two small rooms with a
total space of 30 Square "uazhen I" served as a laboratory. The budget fluctuated
from 400-1000 rubles. The entire personnel conciated of D. L. pudzindkii and two
workers (one of them - R.I. Xhokhlov is working in the Academy until now).
?
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Timiriasev
re '9- I ral. 1,56.
7udzinAli's ,Lroue aimed to five the first praetical results of selnotion and
thus tn st4n.rt c..diertising of selection in Fluids. Ns to Pudrinskii's
extrenre4,rar:. erc-r,4 and efficiency, he succeeded to give after six yenrs, the
Pussion selection varletieu of potatoes, winter **gat, oats and benne, even in
such poor riuhrtur., 11/4,1thout the necessary equipment, under very modeet oon-
ditions and ,r!tt. a 1,1,ry poor budEet. Some of these varieties will re-eir 117 to the
presert ti,vtal.:.,1;rL.Ized tor wide adore (the Yosoow oats I-31g ()courier e field
of over r hectars).
Ti toe ratov Se/eotion station was opened. After n veR-, the
T*26.rtlet iujue oripnised the selection station at the Vogeow 1.7r1-
oultrmlTrutt. 14.?'.3. :4 budget of 3000 rubles. Starting with January 1117,
FIrdenP1.!1 aiwcihted the head of the selection station, and 8.I. alov
.:?rarAitioner in I.U)9) was appointed as his assistant. The r:ouncil of
the 4:11.t1C :;6C,4Yerti 1..5 'desisting." of land for the selection stet, r.
In coiri-ctim w1th the casual characteristics of the initiator of
seleOltortry i4t. Lite .i.osouw Selection Institute, the work of licizincifti ;.;roup
eta nnt !Ave Cirect colAeotions with the educational activity of the Tnstiute
for el:: ye.nrs. 1:,l1' 1..JOJ did the situation improve. From this tire or, tie
select!o!. A.0";:ts:: out alothods for selection, the study activity and the
pr&O-icn1 ::oltfALo4i oJ vurleties tor the sone with non-black soil.
selection 108 COLSidered as al non requIred au"!%letrU;
there r ? tlearte.:1, it,r it, und the seleotion station carried out i4 rnrie' only
durir7 ulth bane students and agronomists. A short cov..rsc
selection vals ,ivrn urini; 15-IL hours.
Tn Inn% %. 7.c,7,art-o of :oeleot,ion and tal' one bias of Agricultural 111.nr
with a recl'rod co,,wnt: ihit:Lated. As its first head was. appointed Prof. S.I.
negalov who vas also entrusted with the headinc of the selection station a the
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Timiri.azev
? Acadezv.
?
40-q
Tronel. 194.
j. . L.164/..1ov a. series of woe,: oz. selection of rye, wheat,
,Lrasr, the ,r,' tics of oats and otl-Agrs. !-..e lay the foundation for the
Holtion of tp.rdou pluLts ata.;.1 ;turtiri, with 1920 he heed the department of
f; DOC. r0Lic111 leve1opi4t: thc nark at tie selection orchard-
s. I:2. selectionery work
?
vitt, .rarden 71ants at the fnrr, h';',rillovo", which Ins beet. reorcanised into
ti-lec.! ion
;ej1v t jttd ts. Cade ":he irtroduction to the &election
of t.Lrirult,:ria 1:ants", bilic4tecs-te the aasic manual for colleges erv3.
"ivt,rsitlos, u.r alsc. r.:+r evek:ione Tito ?rorked in the tion.aiu of selection and
:ttirt
depo.r4.-op.7t ".4.0:340 ?
Lfte! the death of 3. I. Zhelov, the tette of the
mt,, licaule a part of :`osccra ;1-:e1cction C'enter in 1932 and
t.ti,sed 470 x:t1tjLs L CrpEtr44,:l: Li itiCL fie -reseurctnstituticti. After three
tor:Lif. L. LL1 station renewed its activit,1 .
rror: ty or Ll.c existence fa' this station, the selection
worv, Le tLe se lee:ion depart:A-a t, cor.centrate a:Laic r the incie?enclent
ds. ice; f ti t;Lttich. f1itiily, the selection divn has been corfirmed
,v.er t.!!s d!..vlsion tas heatZeri b;?,7 the assistant head of t;ie depart-
mtn 7. bt the :7reeert tine, the; selection work on field plants
rr nt L t:lc 1,erartr:ent c So. 1 ectior arcl 5.7eee Iroduction
a clonc tstItanz.r-e-cf t:-,e anlectian diion of t'qe field station. The
course on -,tnetict,has Lco:l net off as a
serste
dertirtrient.
Po,,,'114:erf f.hc z,":.on have vox-IA.1C out a seriea- of questions which
ikarc, Ix, ft :1=r7onsco of ?ruLt..cir., L?4 dropa?al..inl; new varieties of field
props. snt reentkon "The Cytological Analysis of Meat and Vetch (75 04 sative.)".
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Timiriasev
i 9' Transl. 196.
b Nikolasv and Sveshnikov, "The Theory of Eybridication of strange varieties",
by Zhegalov, Earpechenko, Sweshnikov, "The Study of natation Changes", by
Megalov, Ivanov, "The Llethod of Selection of (Vain and Vegetables", by Pus-
sinskii, Zbegalov, Timofeev, eta., "The rethods of flax selection", by ratveev,
"The Physiological and rioohemical Causes for the Frost /=unity of Mater
Meat", by novorov, "Problem of the biology of clover", by Lorkh., Lisitsyn,
Selavri, Lieitsyna, Fedorchuk, Samsoncar, as the most important works published
during the indice.ted?period.
At the present time, at the department of Selection of held Crops of the
Academy there is still carried out pedagogical and exploring work. For the pre-
paration of speoialists in the domain of selection and seed nroduction there
has been organised at the Academy a special division of selection and of seed
produotion which is included into the field production department. At this
? division, the profile of the student-selectioner is determined by a series of
courses, namely: C4snetics, General Selection, individual Selection, Production
of Varieties, Seed Production and, finally, Agricultural Ecology. The practical
work is carried out by the students during the surrer between 3 and 4 courses.
A six month pre.otice is carried out between 4 and 5 courses. The productive
practice le carried out upon 13 best selection stations of MM.
Starting with 1929, the Department had prepared 300. specialists who work
at the seed production wyetem upon selection stations and in Institutes.
The course measures occupy an important place in the preparation of cadres.
Fifteen thousand approbators and about six hundred agronomists-seed producers
were prepared only for the last five years. rot less than one thousand persons
went through the qualification courses.
The experiment of the Department's work is utilized widely in other colleges
and universities of our country. During recent years the methodical approach of
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Timiriazev
-kr .,-t!)
Transl. 196.
teaching and. the pedagogical process itself are olosely misted with the
scientific-research and production work which are carried out by the?Department's
?workers.
Students who yearly carry out work on 10-13 topics are of great assistanos
to the ,Department.
During the lett three Pive-Year?Plans.individual instructors obtained
valuable results in research work which were. widely applied lathe NatiOnal 1
Toon*ny of the Soviet TInion.
The Academic P. I. Lisitsyn is the firet organizer of the Soviet Socialist
Seed Production for which contribution he was given the title of the honorary
worker of Science and Technique. ? The manual written by him became the foundation,
for guiding_ courses on s ed production in all agricultural educational in
? 110- stitutions of USSR. ? He also 'worked out the pethods in selection of clover. The
? works of Lisitsyn an Biology of clover, on the study of the basic material (wild .?
clover) enjoys world fee. The clover variety which has been Produced by
Lisitsyn goes through state testing. The varieties Of riddle Eussian Clover,
rye (Lisitsyn) and oats ShatilOvek 56 produced by Lisitsyn occupy on the fields
of the collective farms three millions sim hundred thousand heaters.
P..I..Lisitsyn Carries out at the present time a groat part ofr-his re-
search wOrk at Alemandrovsk Selection station (Ivanovek Oblast') where he works
Out the following problemsi
? 1. Nitrogen dynamics in the root system of clover. The results of this wrilt
were used by Lisitsyn as the material for a report in which he discussed the
necessity of surveying the 'existing measures in utilising the clover turf (sod).
? 2. The change in the ? nitrogen. content in the clover, part whioh is above the
. ground'. According to obtained data, the food. value of clover might be deter.,
mined not by the,percentage of the leaves, as it is practiced
t the present time,
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Timiriazev 43" ) ?renal. 19ft,
but by a direct chemical analysis. The correlation between the percentage of
leaves and of raw protein does not exceed 0.3. This fact changes 'the all-
accepted method of clover selection upon one .of the most important economio
aiGns.
3. The effect and the duration of heterosis with rye with free and com-
pulsory crossing of standard varieties of rye on non-black soil in pairs, in
threes and fours.
4. The process of segmentation of hybrids of standard rye with local
samples of rye of the Far rorth.
8. The production of non-lodging Lisitsyn's rye.
6. The Agrotechnios in the seed production of winter vatoh,(Vicia Sativa).
At the Aleksandrovsk station P. I. Lisitsyn carries out the propagation
for the production experireants of varieties of wild clover which are most
teresting in regard to frost resistance, lengevity and ability to resist the
spring floods.
Candidate V. E. Rhokhlov worked out the methods of selecting flax. carried
?
out an extensive organizational work on the system of variety control, began the
organization of seed production of Coiathern and riddle Neaten hemp. The
varieties which he produced, flax-"dolgunets" 1)83 (growing upon 120 thousand
heotars)., seed flax E48 and E39 (occupy a field of 300 thousand hooters), buck-
wheat "Bogatyr" (occupy 93 thousand heaters), are widely circulating in pro..
duotion. Rye, rosoow "Viatka" is also introduced in produotion. Two sorts, of
higher
winter wheat which are awnless and of 16-20 percent/yielding capacity than the
standard variety 2411, and one variety of buckwheat are at the stage of pre-
liminary propagation.
Candidate A. P. Gorin worked out a series of problems in the biology of
spring wheat under the conditions of non-blacik soil belt. Two perspective
varieties of spring wheat .are contemplated.
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Timiriasev Transl. 19C
411 Candidate Walygin handed over four varieties of oats to the state for variety
testing.
Candidate Kharohenko worked out methods of selecting hopswhich have been
accepted at a series of stations. Two prospective varieties of vetch which are
now under final. testing were produced.
The academic Lisitsynts clover group Works in the department. This group
carries out its research with agreement means (The Institute of Forage and the
Lenin Academy of Agrioultural Soience). The ?hied' scientific worker of this
group, V. F. Fedorchuk, carried out a tremendpus work on the ombriology of
clover which enables us to determine the causes of instability of yield in seeds
of this plant and the beginning of the selection of clover upon the, seed yield
by means of selectionof.plants with a high percentage of bigrain legumes.
. In this group Veprikov (PJ.) carried out work in respect to the yield of
seeds of red clover, depending upon its production and conditions of spraying.
These works were published in 1936.
The chief scientific assistant V. I. Lisitsyn worked out the method of
artificial infestation of clover by canker and the selection of clover for the
immunity to canker. At the present time she is studying fUsarium.
The chief scientific assistant, S. K. Selavri, is studying the causes for
the destruction of clover from unfavorable winter conditions. The Obtained
results indicate that, although agrotechnical matures do increase the frost
resistant)e of clover, yet they are unable to guarantee the preservation of
clover savings under unfavorable winter conditions. It has been determined at
the same time that some varieties of wild clover winter without any losses during
the severest winters.
Finally, the scientific worker, G. Z. Nankin, produced among the represen-
tatives of wild clover same Varieties which are resistant against spring floods,.
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Timiriazsv a?3 ?maul. 14i.'0
i.e., which are suitable for meadows, submerged under water.
Before 1915 the scientific works of the selection station used to be pub-
lished in "The Works of Selection Stations" which were edited annually. Sewn
issues appeared altogether. Between 1915 and 1929 works used to be published
in "The Vows of roscow Agricultural Institute", then in "The rem of Timitazev
Agricultural Academy".
After 1929, eighteen scientific works of the Department's personnel were
published in the magazine "Selection and Seed Preuotione.
Besides, the following books were published: One book (on ?lover), two
textbooks on selection and seed production for colleges and universities, one
text-book on selection for technicums, one textbook on variety studies and ,
one manual for the practical work of students.
? Under the editorship of P. I. Liaitsyn the Agricultural State Publishers
published a guide for agronomists-seed producers and for brigadiers-seed pro-
ducers and a handbook on individual selection.
?
Al?
September 7, 1951. End of Chapter.
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K. A. Timiriazeva (The Tiniriazev Agrimiltural
)91'skokhoziaistvennaia Akadaniia ineni Tranal. 196, Cont.
.1., Academy). reeky*, 1946, 390 p. 106 r852Be . 51
Translated in part by Rosa C. Dembo
The Department of Agricultural Chemistry (p. 174-183)
?
The independent Department of Agricultural Chemistry at the Timiriazev
Agricultural Aoademy exists somewhat over ten years. Nevertheless, the instruc-
tion of Agronamioal ChatIstry as well as.tiLe.dtvelopment of research in the
field of agricultural chemistry, has a longer history and began from the
very first years of the Academy's existence.
At the Petrovak Academy between 1865 and 1690 in the Department of Organic
and Aeronomical Chemistry was offered a course of Agricultural Chemistry which
was given by Professors of Chemiatry, first P. A. Il'enkev, and then G. G.
Gustayson. Prof. P. A. Illenkov was then first translator of the famous book -
"Chemistry in its application to Agriculture and Physiology", by Liehig.
into Russian, and G. G. Guatavson ras the author of "Twenty Lectures on Agro-
nomical Chemistry." In his course, G. G. Gustaveon discussed the problems of
the circular rotion of substances in agriculture, soil chemistry and.ferti-
lizing chemistry; he organized well the practical work along the agricultural
analysis. Nevertheless, this Department, not being agronomical, did not carry
out any experiments with fertilizers (these experi.lents were not included
into the program of experiments at the Department o General Agriculture).
The course of Agronomical Chemistry offered by G. C. Gustayson until
1890 'has been eliminated from the teaching schedule, when instead of Petrovsk
Academy, the Yoscas Agricultural Institute has been organized. The reason
for eliminating Agrigultural Chemistry from the schedule was, that parts of
111 Phyeicao6y, offered by K. A. Timiriazev.
Agricul-
ture. same reason was given for the elimination of a course of Plant
this course were included into silica courses (Botany, Soil Science Agricul-
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Tiririasev 25 ? ?renal. 196: Institutions
The absurdity of elirinat:ng Agronomical Chemistry from the curriculum
. of Figher Agricultural Institutian is now obvious. But it was not easy to
prove it at that time.
K. A. Timirialev, who has been removed from his office at the Academy,
with his usual determination ailvecated the instruction of Plant Physiology and
of Agricultural Chemistry. In his article 'Plant Physiology, as the B!ksis
for Eatianal'Agriculture",. he *rote:
"How could be explained the scientific. progress during this last century
?
which was reflected upon agriculture, which transformed its entire oharac-
teristica, which transformed it from incoherent collection of recopies and
from a blind imitation of successful examples Into a coherent, intelligent
activity? Of course, by the emergence of two new branohes: Agronomical Chem-
istry and Plant Physiology," And further: 'Agriculture became what it is only
due to Agronomical Chemistry and Plant Physiology: this is obvious a priori
and is proved br the entire history. And is it not strange, that in our country,
from the tire when us started to speak about the pro in scientific agri-
culture, these two scientific, foundations disappeared as independent subjects
from our higher Agricultural Institutions? The future Vistorian of the devel-
opment of scientifio agriculture in our country will, certainly, have diffi-
culty in explaining this anomaly."
This "anomaly" continued, nevertheless, to exist and for rore than
thirty years the course of Agricultural Chemistry was not included in the
Academy's curriculum and there was no independent department.
Ilevertheless, despite the elimination of Agricultural Chemistry from
the curriculum, the instruction of the aame and the research work in this
branch of science Imre highly considered at the Academy. It is possible to
say without any exaggeration that during the last half a centany the Academy
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26 Transl. 196s Institutions
? was the basic place of the preparation of highly qualified scientific agricul-
?
tural chemical padres and was the center of the development of agricultural
chemical scienoe in our country. The aeademio D. V. Prianishnikov who could
be considered the founder of Soviet Lgiroultural Chen!stry played the nost
important role in organizing this course.
A student of K. A. Timiriazev, P. A. Prianishnikov, from the very firet
steps of his ev!tivity at the Academy, carried out a persistent, urgent struggle
for the rights of Agricultural Chemistry in the curriculum of Agricultural
Institutions and also organized the instruotorship and wide agricultural chem-
ical scientific-rermarch work. In the matter of further development of indi-
vidual branches in a3ricultura1 chemical preparation at the Academy, its
supervisor, IA. Deratianov, played an important role.
D. B. Prianishnikov who headed the Department of Individual Agriculture
started from 1895 the course "Study on Fertilization." In order to obtain the
right for offering that course (in the Department of Individual Agriculture),
there was some kind of an exchange by the parts of the course with the Depart-
ment of General i&griculture, and namely, V.'S. Tilliams took upon himself the
instruction of readow Production, and D. N. Prianishnikov - the Instruct!on
on Fftilization.
Since Ve study on fertilization was based, according to D. K. Prianish-
nikov, upon plant physiology and Boil chemistry (chapters on absorptive powers,
etc.), hence the course was given into the direction of agricultural chemistry
(and noOnly in the direction of fertilization). In the same year, in the De-
partment of Individual Agriculture was organized the laboratory research in
which exploration has been carried out an the correlation between the soil
and fertilization and on chemistry of plants (the transformation of substances
during the growth). SirultaneouSly, D. N. Prianishnikov succeeded in obtaining
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Timiriazev 27 Transl. 196: Institutions
a nursery (vegetation house) from the Department of Botany. This nursery which
has been organized by Tiniriazev seemed to be useless for the Department of
Botany after Tiniriazev's resignation. Later on, TiTiriazev donated another
nursery which he built for the Nizhegorod exhibit. Timiriazev often expressed
his admiration for the experiments which were carried out in these nurseries
by Prianishnikov and by his students.
Thus, starting with 1895, definite divisions of agricultural chemistry
were included in the. Department of Agronomy. were was also organized the
basis for research work on plant chemistry, soil chemistry and fertilization.
Prianishnikov attracted i great number of students to this work 'which was of
great significance in the life of the department. The students' work on
vegetative experiments became the new link in instructing Agricultural Chem-
istry.
It is necessary to observe that before the foundation of the Department
of Agricultural Chemistry, the students had practical work in.agrioultural
analysis in the Department of Organioal Chemistry. Under the supervision of
Demtianov the instruction of this subject was well organized. Thus for a
aeries of years the instruction of agricultural chemistry at the Academy has
been gradually realized, due to the initiative of Prianishnikov and Dem'ianov,
at the time, when even the word "Agronomical Chemistry' was not recognized
as an official terminology.
Prianishnikov, boOing the assistant director of instruotion, introduced
in 1908 into the curricula of Agricultural institutions of higher learning
diploma dissertations; this requirement forced the students for experimental
scientific work; simultaneously, there were carried out measures in eliminating
many courses by introducing sections; the first sections were ugricultural
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28 Transl. 1961 Institutions
chemistry and soil study. The num';er of dissertations in agricultural chem-
istry was quite high during that period and they became another link in the
preparatlon of agricultural chemists.
Finally, 1910, PrianIshnikov started a course on the chemistry of plants,
at the beginning voluntary (at the request of studentev circle), and then the
course has been added to the cdrriculum.
Tremendous efficiency and tireless energy were conducive for Prianish-
ni14-ov, for over thirty years, in combining the Instruction of Indivioual Agri-.
cultene with the course "Study on FertilivItion" at the Academy, as veil as
the lectures on the course of Agronomical Chemistry at the University (and
one tine - at the Bigher Institute for Women), and at the same time to develop
research work in agricultural "chemistry.
The basic significance in instructing Agricultural Chemistry and in prep-
aration of agricultural cadres Wad the orfenizing of the section of Agricul.-
tural Chemistry and Soil Study at the Agronomical College which later became &
division, and then it became the College of Agricultural Chemistry and of Soil
Study. It is quite interesting to observe that the section was organized
earlier (1908), which fact made it possible to organize a separate Department
of Agricultural Chemistry (1928).
Only under the Soviet Regime, when numerous new institutions of hiL:htr
learning sprang up, some of these institutions introduced separate Departments
of Agricultural Chemistry (Krasnodar, later Form'), although without being
approved by the statute. The rain CommIttee on professional education inc14d
In 1920 agricultural chemistry into the curriculum of agronomical schools, yet
that curriculum has not been realized. But, according to the development of
chemical industry, with the realization of great prospects in the wide chemise..
tion of aWonal agriculture of rssR the agricultural institutions oItigher
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29 Transl. 196: Institutions
learning accepted in 1928, as a rule the existence of the Department of Agri-
cultural Chemistry. An Independent Department of Agricultural Chemistry has
been organized at the Academy in 1927, in connection with the impossiblity_
of uniting in one person the supervision of the courses of Individual Agri-
culturesind Agricultural Chemistry after the departments were enlarged.
Stetting with 1930, in connection with the increase of specializetiol. ,
besides the general course in Agricultural Chemistry, the department organized
the following divisions: the methods of agritultural-;hemical research, physio.
logical bases for applying fertilization, fertilization systems in the farms
of various specialization. At that tire was worked out a wide prozram
agricultural chemistry which was offered in other institutions of higher learn-
ing which have special Colleges of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Study.
In 1911-1932 the Department acquired the means for increasing the volume
of laboratory-practical studies in agricultural chemistry and receives equipments
for new laboratory premises.
In 1940 the Department served four colleges ( Agricultural Chemistry and
Soil Conservation, Field Production, Fruit-Vegetable Produotion and Economics),
the Division of Absentee Instruction, Division of Agricultural Education, and
carried out tremendous wort in preparing: and improving the qualification of
-workers of Socialist Agriculture.
At the Department mere offered in 1940 the following courses : 1) neneral
Course og Agricultural Chemistry (Academic Prianishnikov) 2) Yethods in Agri-
cultural Chemical research (Prof. R. A. Golubev), 3) biochemical bases in
applying fertilizers (Cand. A. G. Ghestakov) and 4) systems in fertilization
(Cand. V. Kleohkovskii).
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Timiriazev 30 ?renal. 1961 Institutions
resides, separate courses in lectures on Agronomy were held at the Col-
leges of Field Production and Fruit-Vegetable Production (Card. O. F. !Wray-
Zikhman) at the College of Economics.
The workers at the College of Agricultural Chemistry wrote a series of
textbooks and manuals which are used by students of Agricultural Chemistry"- -
not only at the Academy, but at other education institutions as well.
The scientific-research work of the Depart7.1ent of Agricultural Chemistry
has a great.history starting with the first years of Prianishnikov's work at
the Arndemy.
Scientific works of Prianiahnikov and his laboratory made him world
famous and placed Soviet Agricultural Chemistry at one of the first places
in world i3cience.
Starting with 1896, Prianishnikov's Department became si-lultaneouely
the Agricultrual chemical experimental station. During the first period
(1896-1908) the scientific work has been organized only by the means and
strength of the Department, without any additional personnel, bul)y drawing
a considerable number of students of senior standing to this work. The organ-
ization of research work of the Department which has been realized at the be-
ginning by Prianiahnikov in institutions oPhigher learning consisted in drawing
all students of senior standing (then about SO students) to vegetative exper-
iments, but not in the form of a simple acquaintance with the methods, but
ty means of permitting every student of carrying out his own experinent, even
if small, in such a manner that it would become a certain link in the entire
outline of the Department's work for the current year.
But, since it is impossible to draw definite conclusions from experiments
taken separately, each experiment wns carried out parallel with other students.
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31 Trend. 196: Institutions
At the outset it had been assumed that, if only 50 percent of the experiments
corresponded in accuracy, then it was possible to achieve good results, due
to a great number of experiments. But reality excelled these expectations,
and the 'first period of the existence of the Department-Station was to rich
with results, that, so far as vegetative experiments is concerned, it is hard
to require anymore.
As a result of such research, it mars posdible durinc the first years to
bring Olarity into the phosphor(' problem *high had been so complicated before,
due to the disintegration in the. study of the role, of the toil and that of
the plant and of the phosphorite qualities. Further, it has been given atten-
tion to fertilizers, 'whereby new data were obtained not only for ammonium
sulfate, but for ammonium nitrate as well, which data chanced entirely the
conceptions on the physiolojoal characteristic of this compound. During this
very period the first experiments were carried out with the mixture of various
doses of line upon various ground which disclosed the re-o eity of a thorough
approach to the problcm of controlling soil acidity. To that perIed also belong
the experiments with Iron phosphate and line soil, experiments with potassium
minerals which manifested aealmilability of potassium in nepheline, and also
the first e-periments with nutrition mixtures, which caused the origin of t
new variation ("Pfianishnikov's nixture"), etc. On a series of problene
which we are unable to discuss here, we obtained new results which are not
only of locol sicrificanoe, but significant as well, in connection with Prian-
iehnikov's famous laboratories.
The second period of the Department's existence Which began in 1E08
is characterized by the fact that the repartment Wan to obtain means for
the organization of research work and for the invitation of a special personnel,
?
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52 !renal. 196: Institutions
so that an experimental station sprang up within the Department, although
without a special statute and definite personnel.
If the first work of the Department Pertained pr!Imrily to the study of
such sources of fertilization which are accessible to Agriculture without the
assistance of chemical industry (phosp:orites, lie, ashes, potassium minerals,
components of dung, etc.), then, during the second-period an important role
lee played by the products of chemical reproduction of phosphates (superphos-
phate simple and double, dicalcium phosphate dihydrate),
whose methods, in applying to our raw materials, underwent a thorough study for
the first time.
Here was proven for the first time the erroneous opinion about the inef-
fectiveneas of all our phosphorates for its reproduction into simple super-
phosphate; further, were discovered reasures for extraction of phosphors
acids, the conditions for precipitating conditions for infusion prepared of
various phosphate raw material etc. ewe examined.
The first works of the Technological Division of the Scientific Institute
on fertilization on the production Of phosphorates were based upon these data.
The scope of problems worked out by the Department was very wide. Thus,
besides phosphates, the sources for nitrogen were studies (the nutrition by
ammonium compounds, cyanogen; a series of work map dedicated to the problem of
utilizing turf nitrogen), further - was studied the problem of nutrition with
iron, of the significance of calcium for plants, of root secretions, of the
intreluction of anions and cations, of nutritional mixtures in Lenora', the
methods of sterile plants were studied in applying them to higher plants etc.
Besides the work on plant nutrition and fertilizers' study, a series of
work has been carried out on soil chemistry. Thus, the measures in determining
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Treuasl. 106: Institutions
absorbed Substances (potassium, ammonium and calciuzn) by means of elimineing
neutral compounds were studied. reasures were arplied based u-on research
carried out and developed by K. K. Gedroits and by other explorers.
Factually, the erection of an experimental station was not followed at
the beginning by a formal action or by the supplement to the statute of the
Agricultural Academy, partly because the organization of agricultural chemical
work at that Department of Individual Agriculture was not easily organized;
therefore, aiming towards some kind of solidafity with the problems of the
repartment -the' name was given:. "Station on problems of plant nutrition."
The agricUltural chemical station has been formally legalized and obtained
status later, namely, in 1920.
At this time, a new perlod began in the life of agricultural chemical -
experimental station (tiring wh!.ch time the work has been expanded and many
important scientific works were published. For awhile the station at the
Department became factually the chief center of work on the problem of ferti-
lization (until the Scientific Institute on fertilization, whose agricultural
chemical division was organized in 1919 based upon the repartment and its
stations and which was entirely based upon its cadres, acquired its own buil-
ding, and nurseries were erected Opon the "Tolgoprudnyi" experilental field).
Means for the development of its work during this period were acquired
by the station as subsidies from.a series of rani organizations and of research
institutes of the Iiiher Soviet of rational Economy.
The most important problems on plant nutrition and soil chemistry were
at the centre of attention of the station's work'. The se problems were connected
with the branches of chemical production which should serve agriculture. Thus
in connection with the development of production of synthetic aornonia, an
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34 !renal. 196: Institutions
? extensive work has been carried out on the problem of utilizing ammonium ni-
trate for plants (the works of D. N. Prianishnikov and V. S. Ivanote, I. G.
Nikusar', etc.). In connection with the disaovery of Solikamak deposits, new
data were obtained for the physiological cherecteristic of potassium compounds
(works of Prianishnikov, V. V. Butkevich and others). In connection with the
problems of liming, the forms of soil acidity were studied (the works of Druz-
hinin, Golubev, Aakinazi. Iarusov and others), and also causes of uneven rela-
tion between plants to the same degrees of acuity upon various soils (works
of B. A. Golubev, and others). Newmdthods were introduced in the study of
nutrition mixtures for plants (especially for technical). These measures
ensured more the immunity of the solution reaction (works-by Y. K. Domontovich,
T. T. Demidenko and others). Further, they paid their attection to the role
111 of microelements etc. Thus, in the foreground always stood the basic 'problem
of summing up physiological and chemical bases by the fertilization method.
The chief results of the Department's scientific work are reflected in
sixteen volumes of reports and in numerous articles of D. N. Prianishnikov
and of his assistants in a series of magazines, here and abroad.
But besides the immediate working out of a series of scientific problems,
the station was the school of research, influencing favorably the Department's
activity. Thud, if about 30 students close to Prianishnikov new are heading
departments of Agricultural Chemistry, Plant Physiology. and Agriculture at
Agricultural Institutions of Higher Learning of USSR, then their education
of course, ve promoted by research work Which developed widely in the Depart-
ment due to the establishment of the stations.
At the station the following professors began their scientific
R. R. Shreder, V. V. Inner, N. K. Nedakuchaev, V. S. Butkevich, E. K. Valiushitskii,
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55 Transl. 196: Institutions
A. C. Doiarento, I. S. Shulov, A. V. Iabediantsev, I. V. Iakushkin, A. A. Val-
uzhskii, A.E. Sokolovskii, 0. 0. Petrov, V. P. Bochetkov, A. D. Eurinov, V. I.
Sazanov, F. T. Periturin, F. V. Chirikov, B. A. Zhemchuzhnikov E. V. Bobke,
A. I. Smirnov, A. A. Stollgane, 4. F. Tiulin, D. V. Druzhinin, A.Z. Lambin
eta. Besides of institutinas of.higher learning here originated cadres for
research institutions which were initiated later. Thus, with.the erection'
of the Scientific Institute on fertilization, its agronomical divisionoffered
and
the instructorship to those who studied at the departmentAk at the station..
Menthe Central Institute for Sugar Production cr;(4,inated, that for the for-!
' nation of its agricultural chemical -division ten professors were expted among ,
the workers of the station and among the candidates of the department. Besides
YascOw,,a series Of institutions in other cities- have personnel which etudied
411 at the same Institute. And, finally, when the All-Union Institute few Ferti-
lization, Agricultural Technics, and Soil Study has been established in 1931,
the agricultural chemical station was included in its entirety in the insti-
tute, as the starting cell for its erection.
Among the Department's and Station's workers who worked here during var-
ious periods, and now are oarrying out the leading scientific Work in other
scientific research institutions, we may mention the following: E. V. Pobko
(Doctor of Agricultural Science, supervisor of the laboratory on miorob fer-
tilization and assiatant of the Head of the laboratory of mineral fertilizers
of the All-nnion Institute of Fertilization); A. F. Tiulin (Doctor of Agri-
cultural Sclence, Head of the laboratory of soil colloids of the same insti-
tute), S. S. Iarusov (Doctor of Agricultural, Science, Assistant Bead of the
lime laboratory of the sane institute), Doctor of Agricultural Science, Prof.
F. V. Chirikov, Prof. I. C. Dikusar, Prof. T. T. Demidenko (Bead of the Labor-
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Timiriasev 36 Transl. 196: institutions
atory of Physiology of the All-rnion Institute of Oil Plants in Krasnodar'),
D. L. Askinazi, Z. A. Logvinova, V. V. Butkevich, Z. I. Zhurbitskii (Nead
of the Agricultural Chemical Division of the All-rnion Institute of vegetable
production).
In 1931, the All-Union institute on rertilization, Agricultural Technic
and Agricultural Soil Production acquired not only the personnel, equipment,
and the building of the agricultural chemical experimental station of the
Academy, but the entire staff of candidates. It is clear that this could not
be reflected on the scope of the scientific work of the department. Neverthe-
less, soon afterwards the scientific research work of the department restored
and gradually reached its large scope. Starting with 1933 candidates were
admitted to the department. At the present time the number of candidates at tin
department reached ten; the entire instructional personnel of the department
participates in scientific research work.
During recent years at the department was intensively studied plant nu-
trition, according to the growth periods, in conneotLon with biological chemical
processes in the influence of fertilization upon the quality of the crops.
The results of the murk which have been carried out at the department in this
direction (I. G. Dikusar, I. V. Culiakin, A. 5. Kalinkevich, A. V. Viadisirov,
I. I. r:unax.And others) became the foundation for a series of recommendations
accepted at the present tine in applying fertilizers (basic, regular, and
feeding) for individual plants (sugar beets, kok-aagyz, etc.).
Important results mere obtained in the study of nem fertilizers, which
mere not aprlied at first: termophoaphate, blast-furnace slag, glaserite
and others, (work of A. -9. aestakov, 1. ). Koechkovokii, and A. V. Vladi-
morov), the significance of sodium in the composition of fertilization for
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Iiniriazev 67 Transl. 196: Institutions
a series of plants - sugar and fodding beet and others - has been explained
(work Of D. 7. Druzhinin, A. G. Shostakov).
In the domain of studying ttte problems of chemical amelioration of soil,
the (significance of mobile aluminum in the soil, vitae ie one of the basic
conditions for the decrease infrops of individual plants upon acidic soil,
has been proved (work by B. A. Golubev): the apolication of lire fertilizers
and of line tuffs which contain magnium has been widely examined (O. F. Nedrov6.
Zikhman and O. E. Kedrova-Zikhmen); a series of new facts concerning the con-
dition() of effective application of fertilisation by boron and copper (work
.of O. F. and O. t. Redrov-Zikhman, A. O. Shestakov, D. BOhulin). New
nethods of utilizing pent and peat soil in the raions of peat 'production
are introduced into production, for instance, the application of peat-slag
and other fertIliters (work of r. T. Bakhulin).
Of espeoially great iignificanve is the scientific-social actiVity of -
the head of the departnent, academic-prize Winner, I. -N. Prianishnikov.
Along with A. V. Ban, Prianishnikov as one of the initiators of the .
-establishment of a committee on chemization of national economy of 'USSR
and partioiliated intensively in its work. With the assietance of the Committee
on ()atomization, in agricultural institutions of higher,learaing of USSR,
startiLb 1928 mere established independent departments Of agricultural
chemistry.
In his work D. n. Prianishnikov devotes considerable attention to
state planning for production and for the application of fertilizers. In
1921 he delivers a report at the State Plan Commission on the topic: "The -
'immediate problens in the field of production of mineral fertilizers" in
which he emphasized the need of agriculture of USSR in phosphates.
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Prom 1922 until 1929, as a member of the State Planning Commission, D. N.
Prianishnikov participated aotively in determining the prospects in production
and in the fpplication of fertilizers in rssR.
Without limiting himself to the work in State Planning Commission, he
delivers a series of reports and publishes a series of articles which attracted
the attention of all the workers of industry, agrticulture and the entire
Soviet social interest to the problems of fertilizer production and its sig-
nificance in the increase of crepe. In some works Prianishnikov advocates
the rilitary strength of the Soviet Union, indicatin; a close relationship
between the needs for tefenee and the problems of chemization of agriculture.
The most active part is played by Prianithnikov in the working out of
Five-Year plans in the development of the national economy of USSR. le pro-
moted the idea of planning all fertilization reeourcea of the country, encourages
the unification of the measures in the agate= 6f agriculture and of chemical
industry aiming to ensure the necescary growth of crops.
Pointing out constantly the necessity of the iligheot development of chem-
ical industry and of maximal inorease of production of Wneral fertilizers,
Prianishnikov sinultaneously points out to ths workers of socialist agriculture,
the problem of adding nitrocen at the coat of increasing the, tiowing of clover,
alfalfa rtl other legumes, at the cast of a better conservatiln of dung, at
the cost of better utilization of peat and of other %Inds of local fertili-
zers.
Already in 1925, in his speech "Pal,tus and Russia", Prianiehnikov, op-
posing lial,tus theory, proved that in our country there are great potential
possibilities for the increase of crops indicatine, as prJmary measures,
the shift to crop rotations with clover and plowing plants and the application
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39 Trans'. 198: Institutions
of fertilizers. He insisted upon the fact, tat at the time, when the pop-
ulation in our oquntry will double up, the agricultural production could
be doubled 6-7 times, and with the extent of plowing land, even 12-14 i1mes4
The Stakhanovites of socialist agriculture indicated in reality the
limitless possibilities in the increase of crops. The great attention of
Stakhanovites in the application of fertilizers is the best proof bow great is
the significanre of fertilizers in the increase of crops.
Prianishnikov's work in the field of plant nutrition had not otly an
applied, agronomical significance, but solved basic problems in general
physiological sense as well.
In 1929 Prianishnikov was elected active member of The Academy of Sol-
ences of USSR. From 1935 he is active member of the Lenin All-Union Academy
of Lgricultural Chemistry-and Chemization of Lgriculture of the Academy of
Agricultural Science which was established with his initiative.
We must also mention Prianishnil:ov/e wide activity in representing Sov-
iet Agronomical Science at various scientific conventions and congresses
abroad and at international scientific organizations. His scientific reports
and public addressee at international conventions have been always a striking
illustration of tie prmess of agronomical science in our country.
In 193G, at the International Congress of soil surveyors, Prianishnikov
has been elected President of the Fourth Commission (soil fecundity) of the
International Association of Soil Surveyors.
As the greatest scientist with a world name, Prianishnikov has been elected
honorary member of a series of scientific organizations abroad.
Prianishnikov's contribution to socilist motherland has been often men-
tioned by Soviet social organizations and their leading organs: in 1926 he
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LAwA,Anzov 40
?
?
received the Lenin reward for his scientific
the chemization of national economy of USSR.
In 1936 Prianishnikov has been rewarded
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Tranel. 196: Institutions
work, and in 1932 - the reward on
by the Order of the Labor Red
Eanner and in 1940, in connection with the seventy-fifth anniversary of Tim-
iriazev Agricultural Academy - with the Order of Lenin. Academic Prianish,
nikov received for his scientific work "Agricultural chem stry" which is a
textbook for agricultural institutions of higher learning the Stalin prize of
First degree. .
The basic problem of the Department's personnel and of its Head is the
preparation of highly qualified cadres in carrying ow-the tasks of Socialist
Agriculture which, in the decisions of XVIII Congress of All-rnion Communist
Party (b), were reflected in the following point: "To introduce in collective
and state farms a correct system of. organic and mineral fertilizers paying
special attention to the rational utilization of dung and of other local fer-
tilizers, to eliminate losses of mineral fertilizers. To introduce widely
the liming of podsol soil and the gypsing ofsaliferoue soil."
The scientific basis of measures on the re4lization of this task and
the preparation of cadres for the carrying out of these measures represent the
basic problem of the Department's personnel, as well as of all Soviet agri-
cultural chemicists.
Xnd of Article
L.A. B.
9-11-S1
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-A1
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11110 -Sal sicokho alai st ennaia Akademia lung Trend. 196: Institut ions
X. A. Timiriaseva clhe Timirlasea Agri-
cultural Academy,. 390 p. Moskva, Sel'
khozgis, 1946 106 Kasas?
Translated by R. G. Dembo
Academic Williams' Seed-Control Station
(11252-254)
Seed-control production originated in 'Russia even earlier than
rr. Robbe first station was founded (in 1889).?
In -1864 at the Riga Politschnic Institute the work on seed anrlysis
was ?lionized for the first time. Officially the firat station vas
founded in Russia in 1877 at the Chief Botanical Oardern. Starting with
1881 A. A. Fatter organized the seed control in the Department of Agri-
culture of the Peter ,Acadessy.
Later, the entire supervision on seed analyses was entrusted to
V. R. Villiaas who then was the assistant of Prof. A. A. Padeev. Cu
111, June 11, 1896, V. R. Williams and S. IA. Demlianov apnlied to the Depart.
ment of Agriculture for the foundation and organization of a station for ?
the research of soil, seeds and fertilizers. The Department of Agriculture
permitted to found a station *which had to carry out analyses of seeds,
soil and fertilizers and of similar work, as experiments, according to
private orders...II
During this period of its activity, the station serves mainly the,
Agronomical Divison of ti. Moscow (Marais District Council and some more
remote Councils from where about 200-300 samples of seed material used to
arrive. One part of the samples passed some control.
During this period started the basic collection of weed seeds, which
is at the present time at the seed-control station where 1982 seed varieties
according to 109 .families are registered in the catalogue. This collection
includes almost all species of weed seeds of the eitire Soviet Union and
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- -
teed-Control Station Transl. 196:Institutions
? partly obstructor-seeds which were imported with seed material from abroad.
Later, from the station of soil, seed and fertilizer research, a
need control station has been separated Which carried out the seed analyses
up to 1932, acting simultaneously as an arbitr and as consultant.
Tiro m 1916 until 1923 the control station participates in the pre-
paration of personnel of agricultural workers at special institutioni.
In /*raja Of 1931, in connection with the reorganization of the
rcaderay, the seed-control station was transferred to the Departnent of?
cameral Lgrieulture. and in August of the same year became a part of
rOCCOW Oblast' Station which was reorganised into Moscow saectioa centre.
The transfer of the seed-control station factually excluded frou the
program of Agricultural Institutions of Elgher Learning an entire division
"Seeds: which, undoubtedly, reflected negatively upon the pre?aration ofper-
eonnel of specialists of Agriculture-agronomiste of higher qualification.
Thus, from 1931 the Academy lost a station, and its students wear., unable
not only to pass a normal course of seed .production and of seed control,
but to become. acquainted Witha well-equipped station as well. On the other
hand, the absence of such a station deprived the Academy of a scientific-.
rescarch base for the course of plant production.
In &member, 1934, the station was again transferred to the Leedom,'
end became a part of the Department of Plant Production.
From 1934 a special division *Seed Science and Seed Control*. Which
youree is required from all students Who studied plant productlon, has
Doan inaugurated. Besides, the course on seed-production has been offered
at the majority, of courses in improving the qualification and the pre-
. paratioa of the agronomy personnel Which are organized at the Acadany. In
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4!Teedo.Contral Station Trait el. 195:In3titutiiens
? 1938, 1939 and 1940 the control station took direct part in All-Union
courses of increasing qualifications of the directors? and inspectors'
personnel of seed-control network of the 'anion. Thr this pur-.c se the
station. vox/red out a Series of equipment and of manuals. V. 7:bbrokhotov
wrote a handbook on seed production.
Trom 1934 the station been research work.
The basic problem of the station's /*Search sums up to the 14?orking out
of cotplex mechanical and biological neasures which influence the
improvement of seed char4cteristios aiming to -increase crop yield.
TO ihe basic works which have been acoovolished at the statior, from
1VZ4 'which have been published entutillred In production we it alr', the
following:
1)the study of 'morphological and physical characteritles of
standard varieties of cereals in connection wi h various relons
of origin;
2)tho study of ueed qualities of olovelo vc.rious raions
of origin;
Z)qualitative evaluation of po?vi',.rs for magnetic of
f.c?? r nt and foreign production;
4)testing of cotton seede(working out methods of seed :=nalysis
of cotton);
5)testing the maturity of raw-cotton and of eottoi- scads;
6)the working out of the method of delinting cotton ete17., with
hydrogen chloride and the itudy of the influence of delintir?:. seed
qualities of cotton seeds;
?)the testing of the giet1304 Of .06c1 sprouting with din robensole
(A. A. Gurevich' method) on grains and the working out of s. ,ethod
for determining cotton seed sprouting;
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comirum.youbruL 7AWW11,1UU A. 61.4 ????? ? ????? ????? IA MI
? 8)the testing of seed cleaning at the Ehomutov se-elating
plant;
9)agrotechnical evaluation, of seed cleaning machines;
10)testing of seed-cleening machines (work at the 'Departments
of Plant Production, itechanizetion and Control need. station).
? 11)the study of the size of plant seeds in. connection with the
working out of sieve standard.
An ianortant place in the work of the station occupy the productive
tnalyses of seed?material. The station serves the field strtion of
the Lcallemy; a series of scientific-research organizations. The st.Al'on
carried out the evaluation of seed material which arrived at the All-Union
'Agricultural Exhibit.
The amount of, terieties which passed -through the station from 1935
_
.up to 1940 inclusive, reached 7781; 19755 analyses were cnrried out.
_%irting towards rationalization and precision in seed research, the per-
soanel of the station worked out a series of devices.
,
ADt-9-27-51
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Tumenov, Enikeev, S.G., and Lizandr; A.A.
Primenenie rostovykh veshchestv dlia povyshen-
ita urothainosti kuloturnykh rastenii (Utiliza-
tion of growth'substancea in increasing the
yields of cultivated plants). Sovet. Agron.
4(7)1 26-32. July 1946, 20 3o84
TransI,198: Growth
Substances.
Translated from the Russian by S. I. Orison'.
been
Sixty five years have already/Spent on the study of growth substaliceS. Of
these, over fifty mere spent on purely theoretical research. The possibility of
applying physiologically active substances in practice was established only
atter 1934 following the discovery of the Dutch chemist togl thatindoleacetie
acid represents one of the growth regulators (heteroruxin). This acid the
chemists produced in their laboratories synthetically.
Thus physiologists obtained'al)reparation which reacted upon plants. Sub-
sequent studies of compounds resembling indolosacetio acid disclosed that many
other chemicals were growth substances.
Over one hundred of these OoMpounds are known at present. They are the
derivatives of indole, naphthaline, napthole, phenoxy compounds, and benzoic
, acid. It becams possible to oeleet from -among different growth substances
those most aotive,..whioh penetrate rapidly into pIents, and are inexpensive and.
easily applied. In practice the follawinggroWth Substances received the
widest application: naphthyl acetate, indolebutyric, iodoleacetie napthoxy-
acetic, dichiorophenoxyacetio, ohlorophenoxy *patio eoids and their derivatives.,
Physiologists and agronomists have Studied the application of growth sub-
? stances in plant industry for about ten years. The above preparations were
used with success for various purposes: rooting grafts, obtaining seediest
fruits, preventing fruit drop from apple trees, delaying growth of potato t e
? in storage, weed destruction, and for solving tany'other practical. problem',
There were nevertheless failures. Direct application of'growth.eubstances to
-? increase yields proved unsuccessful. Such attempts were repeatedly made.
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Tnmanov, I.T. 2 Transl. 198.
Attempts were also made to increase yields of cultivated plants by treating
seeds with growth substances. Already in 1936 Kholodnyi had recomrended
treatment of seeds with hormones before planting. The potentialities for in-
creasing yields in this manner were so tempting that similar tests were made by
many people on different plants.
At first, information based on thie work told of some increases in yields,
but subsequent, more careful and broad studies showed that this path did not
offer any prospects. Tie refer for confirmation to one of the last papers on
this subject. Stewart and Hamner, (1942) had tallied field and vegetative
engaged in on a particularly broad scale
experimenta/by the US Bureau of Plant Industry, Seeds were treated with
different growth substances in liquid form and also mixed with talcum. The
most diverse plants were subjected to this treatment for better yields:
radishes, oats, turnips, sugar beets, soya, squash, carrots, buckwheat, corn.
Teats were conducted on many soils and under different climatic conditions.
Their conclusions agreed with those of many other studieas treatment of seeds
by growth substances did not influence growth and yields of cultivated plants
to an appreciable extent.
Irt the present time, this negative conclusion can be explained from a
theoretical standpoint. According to data agreed upon by many writers, seeds
themselves contain
giteM112:x1MINWeleang a large amount of growth substances. Kholodny in 1935,
applied moistened pieces of corn endosperm to one side of an oat coleoptile
and obtained significant growth curvatures. If seeds are rich in growth sub-
stances on their own, (Hatcher, 1945), adding more of the latter is super-
fluous and at times even harmful. Among many other attempts to influence
plants, we began (1943) to study the influence of growth substances upon
yields of alfalfa seeds.
The first tentative testa were made in 1943 at the Kirghiz Selection
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Tumanov, 1.I. 3 Trans3.. 198.
Station on widely spaced rows of field planting of 3-year alfalfa "Tpkmakskaia
The plants were sprayed in the -evening with a solution of indolacetic acid on.
one blooming, variant, and on another in the fruiting stage. Concentration of
the solution was 0.0001 percent.
Spraying was done-with a garden sprayer 1 liter Of solution to 1.m
sq. meter). Because Of their poor solubility In water, growth substances
were first dissolved in =OA quantities of ethyl alcohol and water was then
added to the solution ug to the necessary volume.
The estimate of yield of seeds from one linear meter, repeated three times,
is presented in table 1.
'Yield of seeds
for one shoot
for one linear nete
Period or epraArig
g
percent
?g
per cent
June 5 during bloom
0.41
153
49
189
June 18 during fruit-
ing
to'.28
87
29
100
Control
0.52
100
.29
?100
At a later treatment at the beginning of fruiting) no increase it the -
production Of seeds was observed. The report Concerning this variant in.
dicated that it vas maintained under lees favorable conditions with regard to
watering. The last result required therefore further checking..
Ti*, success of the tentative experiment prompted further work in this
direction. /12-1944 a field experiment was again conducted at the Xhirgis
Selection Station but on another wide-spaced planting area of 2-year alfalfa
nTokmakskaian, on the second mowing. ,This pare higher concentration of in.
doleacetic acid (0.005 percent) was used. Spraying was done with a solution
of 70 on to 1 sq. meter. This was done twice, during budding, on June 19,,
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TUM/1104, I .1. 4 Trarrsl. 198.
and during blooming, June 29. To prevent rapid evaporation of the solution,
spraying was done in the evening.
The action of growth substances was determined under different watering
conditions; the number and periods of watering varied.
Figures are presented in table 2. It may be seen that treatment of al-
falfa with growth substances resulted in a substantial increase in yields of
seeds.
Table 2.
Yield of Seeds
Variants of Test
For one shoot
rt_ per cent
NO watering 0.24 195
One watering (bloom) 0.33 as
Two vaterings (budding
and fruiting) 0.35 175
Three eaterings (budding
blooming and fruiting) 0.39
Four waterings (growth,
budding,blooming?fruiting) 0.50
Average
For one linear meter
per cent
20 200
32 110
35 233
179 32 1 159
1
138 51 159
0.36 1 140 34 1 162
Even during lack of water, treatment with growth tsubstances had affected
increase in yield of seeds.
In 1945 tests were laid in two places* At the town of Frunze, in field
testa, and at Macaw in vegetative tests. At the Khirgiz Fruit and Vegetable
Experiment Station, field tests were performed on a two-year wide-spaced row
planting of alfalfa *Tokmakskaia". Success in work with growth substances de-
pends in considerable measure upon the concentration of the solution. One of
the tests studied therefore the influence of indoles.cetic acid in different
concentrations. Plants were sprayed at the beginning of bloom on the first
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Tcmanev, LI. ? 5 Transl. 195.
410 and second moving. Three concentrations were testedt 0.005 percent; 0.0005 per
cent; 0.00005 percent. The data is presented in table 34
?
Table 3.
No.of seed pods of ilfalfa of
?
?
Variants of test
Wei ht of seeds
of first mowing
second moving
On shoot
On 1 linear meter
On 1 shoot
On). linear meter
,
g
percent
g
1percent
items percent
Items percent
.
Control
0000005 percent
0.0005 percent
0.005 percent
0.38
0444
046
0035
100
116,
gto
.
91 :,26
29
28:
'72 c
-,
100
98
248
1 '
88
,
54
53
66
66
'
100
98
322
122
',6666
i
5184
6777
7392
100
111
'130
14.2
(
I
Remarks Because of injury ,caused to alfalfa by the beetle
Phytonom s
variabilis Herbst.), the yield of the second mowing vas estimated by the number
f seed pods (ebobiki"),
? The optimal concentration of indoleacetic acid in the first mowing proved
0.0005 percent, in the second 0.005 percent and 040005 percent. A higher con-
centration of the solution for the second Moving is epparently less, dangerous,
since shoots are tougher by that time.
Tho choice of preparation is of considerable significance for the efficacy
of growth substances. At Prune , naphthylacetic, indolebutyric and indol-
eacetic acids were used; (Table 4). Plants were sprayed et the beginning of
the blooming period.
Solutions of 0.005 percent of indoleacetio, indolebutyric and naphthylam.
cetic acids failed to increase the yields of seeds. of alfalfa of the first
moving. At this high :concentration it vas not possible to compare the
activity of the different growth substances.
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6 -Tranal..Avo.
Tumanov,
?
Growth substance and
its concentration
Yield of seeds from
djne sEoot one
percent
Control
Indoleacetic acid
? 0.0005 percent
Indoleacetic acid
.0.005 percent 0.35
Indolebutyric acid
0.005 percent 0.35
-Indolabutyric acid
0.0005 percent
0.38 100
0.86 226
Naphthylacetic acid
0.005 percent . 0.40
Naphthylacetic acid
0.0005 percent r
OD
92
87
let mown
near met
pert:so
Table 4.
Ko.of seed pods on 1 shoot
from 2nd mowing
Items percent
100
721
26 90
29 100
IND
54
100
248 66 122
OD
105 '
37; 128
irD
67
37
122
70
116 ?215
51
9.5
178
It follows from the Woo*e data that idaolebutyrio and naphthyitacetic acids
possess the. best "prospects" for treating alfalfa during blooming.
Of .importance for the efficacy of growth sub-stances:upon. the yield of
-.cultivated plants is the proper selection of the period of spraying. The first
tests revealed already- that treatment should be applied at the blooming stage.
By spraying fruit trees at. the proper .time, it is possible to prevent fruit
drop in apple trees. Following spraying, fruits of many varieties are retained
more securely on their branches because of the delayed formation of the separ-
ating layer'of:the peduncle (Tumanov, 1946). Spraying was also used towards the
end of fruiting of alfalfa to determine the possibility for reducing losses of
-cced poc n harvesting. It was proposed to increase the stability of attach*
ment (prirostanie) of young fruits.
In spraying with the colution indoleacctic acid (concentration 0.005 percent
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Tumanov, 1.1. 7 Transl. 198.
on wide-spaced rows of bunched and nest-like planting i of alfalfa, we did not
eetablish substantial differences in the action of growth substances for
various methods of planting. Table 5 therefore presents only average figures
on 'prayinga of alfalfa with 0.005 'percent of Indoleacetic acid during cliff.
ent stages of development.
Periods of Spraying ,
Harvest of seeds
Table 5.
No. orbobiki" (seed pods
1 shoot
I linear meter
1 1 linear meter
g 'percent's
,
percent
phoot
percent ?
percent
Control
0.05
100
34
100
71
100
5215
100
Beginning of bloom
0.79
120
SI
148
84
118 6364
121
Eeginning of fruiting
0.77
118
44
129
60
84
4978
95
End of fruiting
AD
OD
77
108
5633
108
Fere spraying was also most, effective during the bloaming stage in both
the first and second mowinge.
It was important to verify the possibility for increasing yields of seeds
of alfalfa by treating plants with growth eubstances in other regions as well.
This was done in rosoow in 1946, 'where vegetative-and not field experiments
were set up.
For the treatment of plants triiodbenzoio acid was used, in addition to
indoleacetio and naphthylacetio acids.
According to Zimmerman and Hitchcock, (1941), this substance possesses a
"formative" action upon plants. In using a solution of this substance,
Turtannv erd Lizandr (1946) radically altered growth of alfalfa. It was inter-
esting to establish vdiether "formative" substances were capable of increasing
yields of alfalfa seeds. The preparation triiodbenzoio acid was synthesized
for us through the courtesy of A. E. Guseva of the Institute of Biochemistry
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Tumanov, 1.1. 8 Transl. 198,
? of the Academy of Sciences of USSR. During the Moscow experiment a change in
method was introduced. It was of interest to establieh the influence multiple
treatmients by growth substances have on the same plants. 8 to 10 sprayins
were therefore applied every five days.
The results of the experiment with 2-year alfalfa, ilkrainskaia blue
Vo. 257, are presented in table 6.
Growth substance and
its concentration ,
Dry weight of aboveground
vegetative parts on one
shoot
Yield of seedw
per shoot
6
percent
g
percent7
Control
2.6
100
1.4
100
Indoleacetio acid
0.0005 percent 2.5
94
241
150
Indoleacetio acid
0.005 percent
4.3
165
2.3 164
Triiodbenzoic acid
0.0001 percent 2.5
94
1.6
114
Triiodbenzoie acid
0.001 percent +3.2
123 2.7 192
Saphthylaoetic acid
0.005 percent 5.2
125 0.9 64
Figures obtained
from
Table 6.
Weight of
1000 seeds
1 percent?
1.86 100
2.16 116
2.14 115
2.01 108
1.96 105
2.15 116
vegetative experiments indicate that spraying with
growth substances increased visibly the yield of seeds of alfalfa. Indole-
acetic acid in oonoentrations of 0.0001 - 0.001 percent increased seed pro-
duction by 10-64 percent.
The "formative" substance, triiodbeneoic acid pro-
duced an equally positive influence upoh the yield of seeds. A comparison
bc. the concentration of trilodbeneoic acid of 0.0001 percent and 0.001
percent revesled that in treating alfalfa with the latter substance the yield
? of Deets was increased 92 percent.
The latter concentration affected the "formative" action upon alfalfa
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TUmanav, 1.1. 9 . Transl. 198.
? at a concentration of 0.025 percent; 135 aker solutions of this substance failed
to produce visible, hanges.
The highly active naphthylacetio acid was applied in too strong a con-
centration (0.005 percent) and as a result the yield of seeds was reduced by
one third.:
A oompariton of experientnindicates that repeated treatments are not
?neeeseary. A single spraying,
noticeably.
In addition to alfalfa,
properly administered, increases the yield
etative tests were performed in roscow in 1945
with butyric flax, running beats (Lopata) and summer wheat, tutesoens 062. In
table 7 the results of the influence of indoleac tie acid upon the yield of
flax etudrfashn) (curly flax) are presented. (We4ly spraying with a solutian
of 0.0005 percent beginning with the blooming period).
Conditions under
which tests Were
made
Control -
0.0005 percent of 1.
doleacetio acid
to.of bolls on shoot
13.9
21.7
100
156
12.6 '?
14.6
Table 7.
Yield ofripe
seeds _par shoot
percent
l00j 0.60
i 1160.77
1
100
128
ight of
0 seeds
g percent ?
6.10 100
6.80 .111
I
It rill be noted that spraying with growth substancea of plants during
their blaming period increased the yield of flax seeds by 28 percent.
The experiments were conducted simultaneously with. those made with running
beans. This object vas of interest to us bedauxe the latter is a plant of
abundant growth but, poorly fertilizing beans. Only one experiment was made in
this instance, the plant being treated rekly with a solution of 0.005 per
cent indoleacetio acid The results are seen tn table 6.
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Tumanov,
Conditions under
tt..'.0-h tests Imre
made
Control
? 0.005 percent of
indoleacetie
? acid
10?
Dry :weight of plan
ercent
86.2
97.6
Under treatment the
100
11
Transl. 198.
Table 8.
Total length o. of inflo-
of lents reecens
ield of beans re
OM
1267
Dry weight
of beans
rose s.cnens s.roent
100 31
100
38.6
per
cent
100
1551 122 1 37 119 31.7 82
ie d, but the eg'etative growth int:Tea/ad
by 22 percent and the dry "'eight of plants in a slight measure. It was not
possible to increase the percentage of fertilized beans.
In working with wheat we tried to Obtain a more productive stalk by
applying growth substances. Spraying with growth substances was done weekly
during stalk formation and four times between the booting and blooming stage.
The results are presented in table 9.
Conditions under
which experiments
were made. .
o.of stalks
r _plant
No.of Lrains
per 1 stalk
per
ce n t
spec.
per
cent
spec.
Control
Indoleacetio.aold
0.005 percent
Triiodbenzoio acid
0.001 percent
r'rlicu4brnzoio acid
0.01 percent
5.4
6.1
4.4
4.8
00
24.2
113 22.8
100
- Table 9.
Weight of Yield of grain
1000 graIns per plant
rcen
36. 100
4.8 100
;
4.8.: 94 4.8k 100
82 i23.5 1 97 40.5 110
4
85
89 23.7 98 ?39.01 106 4.4 SI
As seen above, the application of indoleacetic and triiodbenzoio acids did
not increase yields.
This result may be compared with other data obtained
from publioations on weed control, achieved through growth substances,
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Tumanov, I.T. 11 Transl. 198.
(Bamner?and Tukey), (1944); Slade, Templeman and Saxton (1945).
Considerable variation in the sensitivity of plants to growth substances
was established. Among all plants the group of cereals, cultivated, as well as
uncultivated (weeds) and meadow crops radical/Yr stood out. They proved cam-
pletely non-sensitive to growth. substancee. Even strong solutions of acids
Which easily destroy weeds did not have any effect upon cereals. It is to be ?
stressed, nevertheless, that triiodbensoie acid led to an increase in the size
of whest grains. Treatment with growth substarees increased the imight of
1000 grains to 39.0 - 40.5 g, as against a 'control weight of 1000 grains
equalling. 36.7- g.
We further established that an increase in yield following treatment with.
growth substances is accompanied by an improvement in the quality of seeds.
Several American and. British researchers sprayed plants during their bloOm
411 with growth substances. They sunoeeded. in obtaining positive results with
tomatoes, strawberries and blueberries.
In the USA tomatoes were sprayed first during their. blooming- period to
obtain seedless fruits.
In the process of the work it was noted that tomatoes treated with growth
aubstances developed 'a larger'nunber of fertilised fruits. In additilinn, their
?
initial growth was more rapid. As a result of the ins
'ale in yield the num-
bar and else of fruits also increased. Thus in one experiment an increase in
yield of 33-30 portent was obtained from spraying toratoes (minter) and their
fruits were larger in size. ,(17Urneok Witten:. and Uamphill, 1944). Because of
the earlier germination of fruits and their faster initial growth, the first
ripe tomatoes were obtained two weeks earlier.
Increase in yield, as a result of the increase in percentage of fertilised
harries, following treatment with naPhthylaoetio acid, was Obtained in straw,.
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Tumanov, I.I. 12 Transl. 199.
? berries (Simabrick, 1943). In blaokberries, spraying with liquid solutions of
naphthozacetio and chlorphenoxyacetio acids increased tbe size of the berries
4S-99 percent (17arth and reader, 1944). Thus foreign reeearohere were able to
increase production of tomatoes and some berries, while we demonstrated the
possibility of raising yields of seeds with the aid of growth substances among
field crops, alfalfa and flax.
The number of flax seeds on a plant inoreases radically following treatment
with growth substances.' Upon forming a,certain numbtr of bolls the flax plant
(untreated) discontinues its growth and formation of new buds and gradually dies.
Treated plants, on the other hand, act altogether differently. Their growth
and the appearance of buds do not stop. The size of seeds is also increased as
in the case of alfalfa.
All available data indicates that increase in yield, resulting from treat..
111 ment with growth substances, takes place at the expense of the formation of the
number of flowers and.infloresceneee, fertilized specimens and fruits, and
strengthening of fruits and seeds. Future study of the theoretical bases for
the increase of yields through application of growth substances will not only
assure the practical use but also permit penetration into the inner life of
plants and extend our knowledge of physiology.
The eXperimente mere perfornied at the city of Frunze (1943) by the
scientifio assistant, A. r. Franke, the candidate in science, S. G. Enikeev
(1944 and 1945), and the scientific assistant, A.A. ilzandr, Moscow (1945).
The plan, method, supervision and literary Presentation were the work of
LI. 7sarino-7.
=mislays
1. Three.year field-and vegetative experiments with alfalfa revealed the
possibility of increasing the yield of seeds of alfalfa by spraying the. plants
with a liquid solution of growth substances.
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:-Turtanov, 1.1.
, 13 Trent'. 196.
2, Among the tested: solutiOns indolsbutyrio, naphylacetic, and triiodbentoic
acids proved most effective. Plants may be easily injured,by an incorrect
concentration. In our experiments, solutions of 0.0005 percent of
napthylacetio, indolebutyric and indoleacetic acid proved most effective.
A higher concentration ves r quired in the case of triiodbenzoio acid
(0.001 percent).
The best time for spraying proved to be the period of blooming.
4. Frequent eprayings did not increase the action of growth substances. Evida.
ently, One or possibly telo sprayings re. adequate.
5. Sprayint, during blooming with a solution of grovth'sUbstances may increase
the yield of other plants as vell. Positive results were obtained in the
case of butyric (oil) flax. It vas hot possible to achieve any increase
in the yield Of cumner *mat by this method.
6, Increase in 'yields by treating plants with a solution of growth substance
is based upon the inCreASO. in the number of flowers on a plant, the per -
centage of fertilized seeds, the eise of the latter, and the 'growth of
vegetative vigor in. plants.
AIT
August 50,r 1951.
End of Article.
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I. V. I
Is mnogoletnikh rabot po selektsii
svekly as Ramonskoi stantsii.
(From work of many years on suzar
beet selection on Ramon station).
Vsesoiusn. Akad. Sellskokhos. nauk
ia. V. I. Lenina. DOk. 1947. (11)1
20-22. 1947. 20 Aid.
Translated from the Russian by R. G. Denbo
199: Sugar Beets
Sfe.??Auk
At the thirtieth anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution were
completed 25 years since the work on sugar beet selection on Ramon experimental
station started.
In determining the problems of sugar beet selection, when the station was
founded, we pointed out the following:
1. The existing methods of sowing sugar beets based upon the non productive
consumption of large seed masses require improvement, specialisation and repro-
cessing according to the basic atm of the sowinzo the acquisition of material
4101or the plant, mother (foundation) material, reproduction material, seleotion
material.
2. The sowing of selection material has to be carried out by various methods
of two basically different purposes: for evaluation and for reproduction.
3. For the industrial plantations as well as mother (foundation?) planta-
tions the sowing methoa with interruptions (broken, pointed) is recommentiable for
experiment during which the normal density of the rays could save up to 50,
of the seeds. A special application of sowing machine in the direction of returning
half of the seeds in the seed box for a second sowing.
fel?
4. For mother (foundation) plantatiems it would be necessary to recommend
more regular distribution in both directions, or, it would be neoessary to de-
crease the distances between the rams up to 27 am, by increasing them within
ilors raws up to 18-20 cm (instead of 36 and 12-15), aiming to the square form
(the form accepted for selection nurseries). By keeping the previous density
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'iauanxin, i. v. x Transt. 199
within the raw', this measure would lead to the extermination of a smaller
amount of plants, With the decrease of density, it Would lead to an increase
of the root.
5. For mother plantations' the iowingi of small density (around 20 pounds
of seeds for ndeiiatinan [2.70 acres]) should be taken under experiment.
6. The ideal:distribution and even sprouts; necessary for selection
nurseries (destined for a repetitive selection), tn the Eaetern ratan, with
a dry spring, are' impossible for 'manual sowinse. It'is necessary to equip
the stations with small sugar beet sawing machines.
7. For Original selection-plantations, it is neoeisary to care not only
about the regular standing, bni about a free development of separateiplants as
well, which leads us to interruptions 'on long diatanoes and simultaneously
to the drawing together of the raw*, therefore a machine sowing with the sue-
weeding square distribution of plants is imperative.
?
8. The individnal'registration on individual plants permits the carry-
itg out of study of varieties (relative infinitesimal) on a amall amount of
nests,- summing up the di-vision to one root and increasing the number of rep-
etititns up to 100 or '150. By this amount of repetitions, a high degree of
accuracy is ensured (the poisible error below 1.5 percent). The reproduc-
tion Of yaluable posterity should be -carried out independently from the
rare machine sowing withthe most limited interruption.
During the years of folunding the station, its activity wasconsidered
of little use for the augar'beet plant in general,'ind especially for the
production and cultivation of selective varieties of sugar beets which would
be valuable for nobewhat wide part of sugar beet belt. The availability of
,
"
large quantities Of nitrogen and humus in Voronezh black soil, the short warm
period (late spring and early fall) forced the farmers to produce varieties
-
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Iakushkin. I. V. 3
Transl. 199
which ripen quickly and varieties with a amall amount of nitrogen. But the
selective methods for quick ripeness were unknown at that time and the pos-
sibility of changing the chemical structure by selective method was doubtful.
In one of the succeeding reports, in 1928, we observed that the Ramon station,
as the most Eastern of sugar best stations, has been called to produce local
varieties of sugar beets adapted to various climatic and soil conditions. IS
then pointed out that, if there are no Felon varieties of sugar beets, we must
produce them.
Already during the first years of selective work at the Ramon station
was indicated the possibility of high saccharinity and of high weight of
the root. At the mime time in Western Europe t?si achievement of such a valf?-
uable combination was denied.
During the succeeding period of the station's activity the point of view,
that the sugar beet plantations near Voronezh are able to produce only sugar
beets whose characteristics are: the low weight df the root and small sac-
charinity, has been rejected.
when the Ramon station has been foueed and during the first decade of
its activity, when / was supervising
it, in subar
as most i portant the following basic positions:
tion according to the complex of characteristics;
a low percentage of jeneral
zation of their second year
ing to my point of vier, is
beet selection I considered
1) the development of seise-
2) production of varieties with
and harmful nitrogen in the roots; 8) the utili-
for selective purposes (the planting year, accord-
irreplaceable for the solution of a series of
problems, especially for thibroduction of early ripening varieties); 4) the
application upon selection fields of wide food fields which promote the sprout-
tug of individual peculiarities of plants. According to our opinion, it would
be quite Important to combine the seleotion for the structure with the formation
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( )
%
(-4;
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. Takushkin, I. V. , 4 Transi. 199
. ,
of -varieties or of materials not only of high quality; but for good conserve-
tioft Waren.
'Itring-the sacceeding?three.Piwo.Year-Plans the Selecqve -workwith
Sugar.bsetswhiOh are.arried.out at.the.Ramon station,undev.the supervision,
of the?IXt?ndlfseleOtioner, the laureate of-Staliesprise, Avedikt
, ? ?
/AV ianOvieh lumov; gave outstanding-. results,' . In the,- state testings with
varieties the RaMoncverieties occupied the: first:plade-many a _title leavingbehind a- series of other firstfelasit So iet7varieties. - ? ?
2 - The Ritel011 varieties are the ir ar eties:_of wide belts. The
as far &St as Altai- krai, and in. the West.
',on the Right galore of,BnePrs
At the, present, time- the ,Rsmon'svariettes occupy the- fourth place susar,
beet plantation in the,.SOviet Union.- At the.#anot station is recorded t e
supremacy of _seed .blendings which are the product of intervariety crossing,.
The aelectien of materials for such hybridisation. .e-,one of the,unat perspec-
tive methods of sugar. beet salectiou.(acoerding to?the analogy with corn and
rye). '
?Natiumov also_determined that the -etntr.sowina:arc, a perfect _means for
the elimination of the blooming formn. fromAte_mle,rieti es. also worked out
methods for long- conservation (tiro winters) dr -sugar- beets for the production
of varieties immune to fungi and bacterial diseases.
- Good progress vas achieved by the station in the crops of sugar beets
seeds. Under the supervision of Maclumov were successfully developed the ez..
periments in pinching which started at the station already in the twenties.
ESAlumov also indicated that the best results are obtained by the cutting off
the upper bud in fall.
The Ramon varieties distinguish themselves by high seed productivity, by
large seeds, and some of them (No. 1537) by large cotyledons. The Ramon varie4
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. Iakuahkin, I. V.
5 Trend. 199
ties are characterised by high evaluations in industrial posterity. Thereby
is confirmed the expediency in the reconstruction of the sugar beet structure
with the transition from a great amount of varieties to a limited iiumber. But
the control of many variations in sugar beet production is still in elementary
stage. Meanwhile, one of the results of the work of Ramon station for a
quarter of a oentnny is the conclusion of the necessity of shifting from the
yearly production of new varieties to the improvement of the best varieties
into genuine varieties which should undergo systematic Improvements, but
should not change yearly. 'Oath such a reconstruction there is no necessity
in carrying out selection work on sugar beets at several neighboring atationa,
for instance, at the stations of the right shore of the Dnepr. Some of
these stations could be assigned new tasks with other plants, and for the
perfection of sugar beet varieties five stations would suffice instead of
ten, with the conservation at sugar beet stations of that wide scale of work
which has been and still remains typical for the Soviet sugar beet system.
At the thirtieth anniversary of the Ootober Revolution the Soviet sugar
beet selection is able to evaluate proudly the results achieved by it.
Many Soviet varieties are higher than those from abroad.
L.A.B.
9-4-51
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/02
SAVChTNRO, E. V. The new sugar beet pest.
Sovet. Agron. 5(5): 66-68. Vey 1947. 20 So04.
: CIA-RDP8OR01426R010000010001-2
Transl. 200: Sugar Beets.
SV131'0
Translated from the RU1185.1121 by R. G. Denbo.
Until recent times the sugar beet undermining "miniruiushohaian moth lax
known only in the countries of Southern Europe (France, Spain, Italy), in the
Near East (Turkey, Palestine) and in Northern Africa (Egypt, Norocco).
In USSR its individual nests were first disclosed in 1945, in Transo-_,
-
darsk krai; in st=er of 1946 it embraced the entire sugar beet sone of Ruben'.
On the majority of fields the moth had infested from 80-100 percent of the
plants; in the more infested South-Eastern part of the krai the amount of the
moth caterpillars reached a few dozens for one sugar beet root. On ir.dividual
tarns, already at the beginning of tituic,8 percent of sugar boots %verc destroyed
by moth caterp!llars.
The study of the biology and of control nr, asures against thc zioth under
the conditions of USSR was almost equal to zero, which feet increases the
danger for our national suipr beet sowing.
The undermining sugar beet moth is a small, insignificant moth which is
12-14 cm wide in the wing-spread; on itt reddish gra" y front wings there are
several black, eye-like apots, and the wide tail wings aro gray and AIM edged
with fringes of long, densely set bristles. The mature noth ?etc:1411er
,reachee 12 mm. in Ionzthe is green, with a light head and with characteristic
long pink lines upon the aides or the backa rztornally it reminds Partly the
caterpillar of the well known cabt.age moth [diamondlmok moth, Plutella
rtaculipennis].
In the caterpillar stage, the post winters upon :sugar beets in separate
plants which remained undug, in auger beet waste after harvest, on the surface
of the ground and in the upper layer of the soil. The cocooning or eater-
;
pillars ocerars? early spring, in the place where they wintered. The butterflies
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Savehenko,
2
Tranel. 200.
of the first generation fly out f cm the cocoons in the middle of April;
their flight lass about one and If months. The active life of the moth
begins in the evening, before the a et, and laste up to sunrise; at night
the moth likes to fly towards light, during the day it hides in rosettes of
plants, under the soil and in cracks of the ground; -the frightened moth flies
suddenly away and hides again. The proteoting dark color makes the moth al-
most unnoticed upon the surface of the soil.
The second generation of the moth flies out in the ported between June 10
and 20th, the third - during the second half of July and the fourth - at the
end of August; based upon the comparison Or the climatic conditions of !tree-
nedarsk krai with the climate Of other countriee, where the biology of the moth
has been studied, it is possible to expect in ruban, the development of the
? fifth generation of this peat.
The sugar beet moth begins its egg depositing soon after the flying out
? of the butterfly from the cocoon; one female is .depositing 10-100 eggs, at the
approximate average 25-40; very tiny pearl-white eggs of the moth are dis-
tributed individually or in amnia groups on the sugar beet rosette, Upon the
petioles and on the leaf bases, or some timee directly upon the ground.
The sugar' beet meth is capable of deprsiting unfertilized es which are
able to produce life-ready caterpillars whereby the energy of its propagation
increases considerably.
------ rue t6'th5-intensive propagation of the sugar boot moth, in -placed whore
at the beginning of sumer it is Yard to PIO any traace of it, aft6r 1- 1 1/2
menthe' already 00-70 percent of plants oould be already infested by it.
The moth caterpillars appear from the egg on 4-7th day after thelr do-
? positing. The upper leaflets become interwoven by a web around the buds into
a compact nest, in Which a few caterpillara of the moth (some time 8-10),
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d ? s Savehenko 3 Transl. 200.
? which feeds on the bud are hidden. The, damaged plants are easily noticed due
to the blackening of the flower buds, and later, after the destruction of the
buds, at the sprouting of rancorous secondary flamer-bearing stems which change
the entire appearance of the bush. On the flowering seed-bearing parts, the
cater4il1ars damage flower-bearing stem*, which deform on account of that and
become yellow above the damaged place, and individual green tubers into which the
young caterpillars penetrate; the damaging of rature tubers has not been
noticed as yet. The leaves and the petioles of the seed-bearing plants are
damaged more seldom.
Upon the sugar beets of the first year the moth lives and feeds itself
first between the web of the covered leaves or under the turned edges of the
leaves; the damaged leaves usually beceme black. Many caterpillars irrrodiately
penetrate into the leaf tissues, breaking winding mires into the tissues; the
young caterpillars underaire the central 're ins and the petioles of the leaves
more eeldcm. According to their growth, the caterpillars disclose a tendency to
go down upon the root tip; here they damage the bases of the lee petioles,
sprinkle the root tip and often penetrate into the top at several cm, gnawing
through its long passages, which are filled with excrement.
The *user beeti of the first year, damaged by the moth caterpillars, stop
growing, the leaves blacken and then rot and die; sore timea upon the damaged
plants 1-2 leaves are left. Ae the result of the inner damage of the top which
facilitates the infestation of the root by various disease organisms, is the in-
capacity of the root for conservation after the harvest, and the root's rotting
in the field, which results in the rotting of the entire top.
For the young sugar beet in the stage of 3-4 loaves, the appearance of 4-
caterpillar. upon one plant is critical; for the mature sugar beet during the
?
period of closing the raws - 24-25 cailerpillars are critical.
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?
Salta henko
(:) According to the data of foreign literature, the saccharinity of the
4
Transl. 200
sugar beets damaged by the moth is able to decrease at 25 percent as compared
with the normal beets.
The caterpillars of the undersnining sugar beet moth damage the fodder and
the eatable beet as well; under natural conditions, the caterpillars obtain
4 r
their nourishment from the wild sea beets. The undermining sugar beet moth does
not develop upon the goosefoot family [Chenopodiaceaej nor upon the amaranthe.ceae
families. It caterpillars, when placed upon those two species, parish of
starvation not touching these plants. Therefore, in Krasnodar* krai, whore the
wild sugar beet grows very seldom, the only food for the catorpillars aro acme
sugar beet roots which are left undug, and Which started to sprout. The moth
infests, apparently, the normal plant of the seed-bearing sugar beets only from
the moment of plant sprouting, and the sugar beet of the first year, after the
appearance of 3-4 pairs of leaves won the plants.
The caterpillars of the sugar boot moth finish their development and "
cocooning after 20-50 days 'after their appearance from the eggs; during thia
period they pass five Stages; during starvation, the caterpillars of the third
and the fourth stages are able to cocoon. The -cocooning emirs in a loose silk
cocoon upon foddering plants or in the soil nearby. The cocoon stage lasts 7-14
days.
Thus, in the Krasnodesrsk krai upon the development of the undermining sugar
beet moth, a few species of the ichneumon-fly Caphelinid parasite,
Proepaltella beriesel are parasiting, but this infestation did not exceed 20 per
cent during the surzser of 1946; now the insignificant mortality of the caterpillars
of some other definite disease could be noticed.
The basic measure in controlling the undermining sugar beet moth is the pre.
ventative measure. Into the complex of fall-winter Preventive measures are
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Savohenko
Transl. 200.
? included: the preliminary digging, :the removal from the field and the delivery
heavily damaged sugar beets
of the ateettexbastaxtteskyklepoisatiesed to the industrial organisation's. The in-
fested sugar beets should be reprocessed at the plants ID the 'irst place,.
regular and forage beets whioh did not loose its couriehing and fsraze value
should be utilized withOut leaving it in the ground too long. In eonnection
with this, the peaking of the beets into "kagatc" and "hurts" requires a
strict scrutiny of the infested tubers.
Not a single sugar beet tuber should be left in the rield; even a short
conservation of the infested sugar befits in field heaps is undesirable. The
sugar beets infested by the moth cater filers could be cleaned by frustrum or
by straight cut. The cleaning Of the Sugar beet at a frustrurn decreases the
infestation of the fielde, destroying a great amount ef caterpillars. On the
? other hand, in this case there is a risk that the spreadint; of the caterpillars
from the roots during their censer-vatic:EA in the Neld, derin6 Lransportation,
leading at supply stations, during the na.ollng into lcagats" and "hurts" and
their conservetion. If the sugar beet is out stra%;ht, a great weount of
caterpillars which are in the tots penetrates into post-- rarvest waste and could
be easily removed tram the field, but the gross gathering of the suor beet
raw material deer:Wises.
Disregard the measures of aleaninz, euipr beets, it is necessary to gather
thoroughly all the post-harvest *las te n the end of each labor day, remove it
from the field, and feed the cattle with it, or silo it, and in some oases,
where it is impossible to destroy it, to dig it into the ground at the depth
of not less thae 0.5 m. It is reoczei.lended that the iteste which is thrown into
a pit should be poisoned by polychlorides of benzol or be covered with calcium
? oxide; durisk; the charging of unpoisoned pits it is necessary to pack it
thorcughly.
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Savohenko
6 Tranal. ZOO.
Immediately after the digging of the auger 'beets, the infested field
should undergo a thorough plowing with the obligatory application of plowing
machines which mould ensure a complete turn of the soil.
Beeides of the sugar beet waste the mother sugar beet could be the source
' from year to year fore repetitive infestation of the fields by the. undermining
sugar 'beet moth. Taking into 'consideration the thread Of moth. and the re-
latively small specific gravity of the Kuban' sugar beet seed produotion, accord-
ing to the general scale of the Union, it is appropriate to discuss the preblem ?
of temporary interruption of sugar beet production in ZUhan,. In the future,
the method of disinfestation of the roots of the mother -auger beet .by means of
spraying gaseolle inseoticides should be tested as applied to our conditions:
This method. of controlling moth would permit the, plantinz of auLer beets by non*
411 infested roots (tubers).
In case of preserving some sprouts in sugar beet crop rotation, it is im-
perative to isolate them locally from the sugar beets of the 1'1mb year. This
might be accompliehed by means of planting the tubers into the field of crop
rotation. The expediency of such mescure ie confirmed by the fact that the
butterflies, of the undermining auger beet meth do not fly far, due to rhich the '
Auger beet of the first year is less infested the further :Lt is from the old
suzar beet field. The isolation Of the first year auqar beet plant's is ex-
pedient also in the interests of controlling the disease of sucar beets through
"peronesporogn.
During the spring-summer period,emong the proventikve. measnres in con-
trolling sugar beet moth, all general agroteohnical measures rhich !norms(' the
immunity of sugar beets to damages ehould be utilised, a thoreh loosening of
the soil.between rev's, and also the removal and the destruction of individual
infested plants or of their parts during the appearance of the first- caterpillars
? of the moth in the field:
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V.
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Savehenko
7 Tranel. 200.
Among the chemical measures, the spraying of :sugar beets during the period
of the moth flight by a 0.5 percent emulsion of the compoUnd DDT,gave good re-
sults. The spraying with the compound DDT and the application of regular con-
tact and intestine insecticides yes ineffective.
The fact that the undermining auger beet moth has been discovered only in
Krashodarskkrai which geographically has been isolated from the rest of the sone
of the sugar beet sowing in the Union, compel ue to. pay more attention to the
quarantine measure,. Kreanodarsk krai should be placed under quarantine; the ex-
port of living non-conserved and nen-fumigated tubers and seeds of all varieties
of sugar beets beyond the borders of the krai, and also saepIew of soil should be
oceipletely prohibited. By means of quarantine of the Vinisteriut or Agriculture
of rSSR, it is imperative to inspect in the shortest time al/ the ?blast's and
republics shich are close to Zrasnedarsk krai as far as the undermining moth is
? concerned; all those places should be inspected where this peat is spreading,
at the expehee of regular and forage sugar beet.
? Unfortunately, the system of measures in controlling the undermining sugar
beet moth which has been suggested by the All-Union 3cientific-tesearch Institute
for Sugar Pests already in 1946 has tot yet been confirmed by the rinieteriume
involved and ham not been realized in practice.
Despite the fact that the sugar beet in Kresnodarsk krai practically ?burns"
of that moth, the teohnieal measures necessary for the strengthening the control
of the meth have not been imported as yet.
Ie can not tolerate such a situation any longer. If, in the very near future,
the situation will not be changed, than will the sugar beet production be en-
dangered not only in Kuban', but in other raione of our Union as well, velars the
? sugar beet moth is able to spread easily.
The elimination of the undermining sugar beet moth is not a local, but an
All-Union task.
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Transi. 201: Sugar Beets
Orlovskii, W. I. (Professor) z -
4111 -Selection of sugar beets in USR.
Selek. i Semen. 14(12)1 3248. Dec. S%- 1
194'. 61.9505
Translated from the Russian by S.N. nson
?
Prior to the Great October Socialist Revolution there wag not a single
scientific-research ins itute in %testa for the study of suo...r beets and
sugar beet productilnk_ Nor was there any planned organized chain of selection
stating. The few in existence were privately owned and spreae without plan,
772;7= _ - -
chiefly on the area of the so-called South-West krai;_they supplied_certified
_ ?
seeds of suar beets for 2S-30 percent of the entire su-ar beet area which at
that time amounted to slightly above BSO thousand hectares.
_ _
A considerable part of sugar beets was tomtimis 2.111" with imported
seeds, purchased for gold valuta, or with local reproductirms of 1-ported
_
seeds. Only few sections were planted with local "non-varietal" seeds of
sugar beets. The pr!ncipal task in the first years of Soviet rule WRS con-
sequently to es,Ablish a domestic selection-seed industrial chain, provide it
with personnel and modern teohrical e,..u!pment.
In the first two to three years the chain of 'election stations and vol-
ume of varietal work mere reviewed and reorganized; vurlatiENANNIdrel--poten-
__
tially 1,e8t selection stationsAextended and e..uipped anew (nladovsk, Verkh-
_ _
niacLesk, Ivanovsk)!
Simultaaeoualyladvanced special courses mere or,anized for selectors to
train them as spec:lignite for these statione. /n 1922 the S(,ientific Insti-
tute oteleotion began work at Kiev; it was subsequently named the All-Union
_
Scientific-Research Institute 01 Sugar reete. Its staff, jointly with the Vert-
__ . _ ---------
_
etal-Seed Administration of clavsakhar (Chief Adm!nistration of the Suer
InduftTy),developed standares for the sugar beet seed industry add other
1111 crops un6er sugar beet crop rotation. These plans in varietal production
z
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Orlovskii, I:, I. !renal. 201: Sugar rests
received the approval of several all-union oonferen,7es held between 1922-
1926, in which the foremost specialists-selectors of the Soviet 7nion partic-
ipated.
A special chain was or_aniled for so-called collective varietal testings
of slava:- beets (similar to Government beatings) to decide upon the choir!e of
the -et valuable local initial stook in further varietal-ineustrial work:
The highest grade varWm1 stock Ws- widely propagated in a short space of
time to meet current needs of the beet see
inftatry. Laboratories of the
Institute (Kiev) studied seleotion, anatomy, physiology of sugar beets and
other agricultural crops. Yajor achievements performed in varietal work on
sugar beete_in the first fe% years were:
1. Reorganizat!on of varietal-industrial seed chainsto conform with the
_
needs of the sugar beet industry and the organization of to new stat!ons:
relo-Tserkov and Ramona.
, 2. Development ot- standards of Soviet au,Lar beet varietal inAl4try;
Establishment of he.!: initial stock; acceleration it.. propazation and
improvement o elite seeds of sugar beets;
4. Complete independence of sugar beet pl ntin,s from 4orei,n sources
and diecontinuanre of imports ol mother varietifAs :V' sugar beets from ab-oad;
6. Development of many theoret!cal problems on selection and the biolocy
of beets and other crops under sbgar beet crop rotat:on.
6. Train!ng of highly skilled personnel as selectors;
Subsequent tasksin varietal pra-luction consisted primarily in solving
problems connected with the Stalin 6-:ear plans of that period. The pm-
lapel teaks with res;:eet to sugar beet varieties were:
?
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Orlovskii, R. I. 3 Transl, 201: Sugar Beets
a) further development of beet planting in the principal areas, particularly
the now regions (Northern Caucawie, TSCHO, Povolzhie, Western Siberia, Central
Asia);
b) increase sr gross of crops of sucar beets and improvement of their
? , . W -
quality;
c) extension of chatn of selection stations;
- ' ?
d) intensification of scientific researbh and improvement of sugar beet ,
'varietal induStry.
In solving thece aims, the All-Union Scientific-Research Institute of Sugar
? i; " . ? 4
poets tocether with faro organizationsisithin its area accomplished the follashag:
Improved selection selection and.seed growing based on the regional adjustment of
varieties of elricultural plants, etc:cording to Darwinist principles, as against
methods of cosmopolitism advocated by Xestern Etiropeen scientiats who proceed
' -
from metaphysicar concepts. Plans were'Eieveloped to' set up selection stations
. ?
and ill_thilLsg'Thnumatione to sing'stetions re organized: Pervomaiskkjia,
VeseloPodolianakaiia;WgOlvakaiia.; end Biiekaiii, and Frunze Point, in addi-
_
^ _ ? _ - ? --
???-
tion to 52 varietal plots. ' fi
?
Regional and Coverren?Cirarieta.i-testing dtations of sugar beets -sere
also established. The orcanization of e Chain ofl-sclection stations arid
varietalpibta;maiab-rding'to e plan, and that of government and regional
varietal 'testing points; psnmitted first to verify the regional adjustment
- -
ofeeugar beet varieties and secondly; to propelY regionalize varieties and
set standards for varietalOhangea. The introd'uctienOf scientifically
regionalized crops into indhstry shouIa, bited'On the Most-"conserVative
estimatespre'vidi t'he-gOviet Union with nonlesa than 1.'5"centners'in addi-
-
tional sugarfrem each hectare of planting.
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Orlovekii, N. I.
4 'Trans'. 201:. Sugar rests
Multiple government tests of Soviet and the foremost foreign sugar beet varieties
proved the superiority of domestic regionalized varieties which produce an
additionnl overage of 5-6 percent of sugar beets per hectare, compared to the
majority of foreign varieties.
Special studies, as well as government and regi-mal vrieti1 testing, in
the USSR jaELVe now proved the insolvency of statements of foreign selectors
asserting that the limit in sugar cantent has been reaoted in sugar beets and
that $t is impossible to combine high yield with high sugar content i! one
variety. In contradiction to this, SovietSelection Stations have already
transferred many varieties to induatry that'eombine a high degree of produc-
tivity with a high percentage of sugar. Among the hest representative vari-
sties in this :roa:p are V-1513 and \/-23 of Verkhniachski Station and L-1939
of 1,9gov Station. The Institute and selection station have developed a plan
for preventing regression in sugar beet varieties in seed propagation and
ensuring thereby their prolonged use in industry.
On the eve of the Great National liar about 500 thousand centners of high
grade varietal seeds were grown annually, an amount adequate to supply the
area of sugar beet planting of the USSR, including the reserve fund; an amount
which places the Soviet ram at the top in sugar beet seed worlyroduction.
Dozens of hIgh grade beet varieties have been transferred to industry by
many selection stations; the best varieties are:
Uliadov Station - 1T-1030, r-155S, U-1716 and r-552;
Verichniachsk Station - V-1025, 7-1408, V-1513, V-1612, V-23;
Belo-Tserkov Station - BTS-12-6, NTS-1150, 13n-16n, BTS-135;
Veaelo-Podoliansk Station - 113-206;
Ivanovsk Station - 1-1305, 1-1531, 1-1745, 1-502;
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Orlovskii, N. I. . Trans'. 20It, Sugar Beets
L'gov Station - L-1037, L-16.50, L-1749, L-406;
Ramona Station - R4337, R-47, R-306, R-407;
-Pervo-Vaisk Station - P-1144; P-473, P-475;
-- Biisk Ltation - P-J51 B-309, B-Ml;
Frunze Point - F-234, F-302;
Ialtushkov Point - 1.51-476;
In the rrocess of producing varieties many statIons developed their orig-
inal methods of selection, such as selection by seedlings, reaction to ferti-
lizers (L`gov Station) selection.according. to biological characteristics (Ra-
mona Station), eta.
The principal achievements in varieties al sugar beets consisted by the
out reek of the areat NatIonia War prirarily in the ,followings the establish-
ment o a varietal chain conforming ti a plan, which included in aPition to
the 'ceding Institute (MO, selection stations, selection points and several
dozens of varietal plots. The need for pure seeds was thereby fully taken
care of. Proper regionalization of sugar beet varieties was introduced into '
practice; -and lastly major problems of the theory of aelepticn and the biology
of suzar beets werch-thcienuchly studi14.
At present V178 and selection atations are engaged in a number of theoret-
ical problems; these will.bedwelled upon in this article in brief.
Individual, group and maw:, selection was developed on sugar beets;
(7 baeio principles were established for inter-species, inter-ver'etal and intra-
varietal crossings. rethods'of *selection and evaluation of sudar beets were
devel ped accordint, to special traits, speedy ripening, non-flowering, drought
resistance, law content of harmful nitrogen and ashes, increase in superior
quality, loss of woodiness, resistance to a...Senses (peroospore, root-eater,
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Orlovskii, B. I. 6 Transl. 2O1s Sugar Beets
mound-storageirot, eryeiphose?), reaction to different elements of nutrition
and temperatures.
On the basis of T. D. Lorsenko's theory of stage development of agricul-
tural planta, a stage analysis for sugar beet varieties was developed. tef-
inite production schedules vow() set up for every selection station, supposed
to take into consideration ecological and industrial characteristics of the
individual regions in Sugar beet production.
YOthode to *epeed selection were developed by planting freshly gathered
seeds and seedlings in summer and fall and by making use of hothouses during_
.the 'winter months..
The significance of agro-technical methods and crop rotation in Varietal
work and selection was studied. At present varietal work on sugar beets pro-
ceeds basically along the following lines:
A. BBLECTION
)
Stages of work:
I. Selection of pedigree or super-elite groups in selection nurseries,
their partial clonicity and,tevelepment in nurseries and hothouses.
II. Growing of seeds haft pedigree plants or their croups by-mmtual
crossing.
/II. 2-year evaluation appraisal of descendants of pedigree plants at
station varietal: testing
IV. Propagation of rere valuable descendants (ambers).
V Additional evaluation of these mumbers at station and regional
tests on varietal plata. Formation of new varieties from record-breaking
specimens.
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ovlov Ult*, N.
,the
It
Ooyer,nmeht test
eeondarr Troptigation ;?
is-of,:totterriiiient tests)
ticti-of - tindtfatrial
7: ft-Male, 261i Bet.
MED (41014-1EG-.
, Veriet,y,-to:Obtain Ute.A
tio t. regional: Vsrai test
an
or ',deo db--,bynt lee chain:- la- Arati
other ?
plot
otz ot her -,-be:ete tsf '?reeord:, Ner tette s
seed growing state farms for the pro-
aevern -t,-.ztests tria1'seed
Delivery stilet seed
abeve, d Wi. naturally-
. selee tion le,.our-rently appdregwit
01104
7 :re'S
17,97_
Pro7e
e4tiPP-1
aile'extensitre? reenteets I "With- ,Etellentif o, reh.75,netitu, es nosier vari-
eties otatINtateil end wi1d,:tbrms..16 tleets-, ere ed) and:: .0t46ied
W The pbthlbi 11t iidra tahlierznestP,tients end mangoide,laras.
prove& in ? Drat t ice tbgether i.th ulle.:r-ofTtran wii8 TOrm0-':autat :beet,30'
for, ant1ohi9e-initti. Eitook,:neeetearrl'Orthe,produetibri :of varieties,' of
b,igher fIe1s aTdtkx.gat od.ntentithat alstityoseess elleb epeolsa:use.fn1
aroughtand froztr;:r0.11??tanxift, re.a.i.e..tange.,to,--oero-opporel epundi-stoyage:rpt
an other d Saease 8.
VariablIity-an arity:,4
r la
tine,t0Mloal?-?and, biologleal tra'4.ts ,.0f. sugar beets:
:::!...74The.intermedia (dominanttend,Jieterosis?
tent -was
saturated
beets' -
oreaty ef; sug
tab 11 tb1c1-. zetandard s ,:taT1A. -L40 otiis ',mete !Ile-we:loped for lie
rpho-
ntf rtvartistal ?and re,gard to sugl,r
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a Trans.. 4%m otabmg
Orlovakii, N. I.
?
A new hypothesis of the origin of cultivated sugar beets and the hybrid
Origin of beets (from tam crossings between root-fru !t and folbage beet-marigold)
was developed, based on detailed universal study of the large variety of forms
of beets, products of crossings. Regularity in the heredity of single and
multiple seed of sugar beets,(soplodia") and a new form in beets (single-
seedling) were obtained.
The adoption of many forms of forage, table and uncultivated varieties
of beets for purposes of hybridization permitted the development of new, vari-
eties of increased productivity and sugar contents that equalled those of cul-
tivated beets. These hybrids are at present widely propagated in industry.
The laboratory of selection and genetics of vins, together with rrunze
Point; developed methods for planting seeds of beets without transplanting
for the benefit of" the central..asiatio sugar beet regions. The cytology of
beets was etudied with reference to bloom, fertilization and the embryonic
development of the plants. Causes of auto-sterility of beets were established;
factors determining auto-fertility; methods and technique of artificial hy-
bridizatIon; methods of Obtaining seeds by self-pollination from euto-sterile
races; and the cariosity of the greater part of knomn spe^les of the genus
Beta.
kvbrids*B. corolliflora, P. lomatogona, B. maerorhuse
B. trigyna of sugar beets were studied at the genetics, laboratory. The
laboratory of anatomy of MS conducted interesting tests to learn the inner
structure of various crops and uncultivated beet forms; the development of
sugar beets in the first and second years and their most important organs,
i.e. leaf, petiole, root, stem and seed mere studied In detail. These studies
engaged in jointly withphysiological and bio-chemIcal laborator;es helped
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Orlovskii, V. I. 9 Transl. 201: Sugar Beets
?
establish many characteristics of root structure and their heads, connecting
passages ("Fluter') 'which determine the movement of sugars and their trans-
-r-Sormation, Positive and negative points in root structure and uncultivated
types of beets were also established for purposes of hybridization with cul-
tivated species. Of major interest is the latest work of the laboratory of
anatomy. The etudy of the transformation of chlorophyll grain, the anatomy
of root and leaf growth and root of sugar beet when not transplanted, as well
as the influence of vernalization and heat treatment of seeds upon differ-
entiation processes of merismatio tissue, growth points of eugar beets, and
fillually, the influence of various elements in nutrition (P,K,F, etc.) upon the
transformation of anatomic: elements in beat growth.
Laboratories of php:iology and biochemistry of VNIS studied processes of
photosynthesis) tering, mineral nutr:tion, -breeihing of various beet varie-
ties, sugar formation and growth under conditions of external environments.
Many biochemical proces.es connected with fomentation of beets were studied
extensively.
By applying original equIpment and methods of research it was established
that during noon hours and hot days the water balance of beets is disrupted
because of the break between evaporation and supply of water from the soil;
this ie accompanied by a reduction in the absorption of carbon acid and its
LIP
simultaneous escape connected with the loss of previously accumulated dry
substances and retardation in growth.
Ey applying specially constructed equipment to the study of breathing
processes, characteristics in breath7ng of different organs-of beets in the
various stages of their development were established under manifold conditions
with regard to mineral feeding and waterinL. Varietal characteristica of
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Orlovskii, R. I. . 10 TranaL. CALLS QULUJ- uyouo
IP- bcets'sere also deterMined. Extensive studies of sugars in leaves and roots
of beets sere aixexatatatmixa engaged in, as sell as beet growth under different,
?
mineral feeding and?eatering: The negative influence of nitro,en upon beet
groWthwas determined prior to the photosynthotie action of its assimilating
apparatus. The developrent of the latter which accelerates nitrous feeding, in
. necessary correlation with other elements of mineral feeding contributes to
more virorous 'beet growth.
?
Important ObsorvatiOns were made with respect to the distrfbutidn of
a
sugars in different tissues of roots/64g the various forms of beets. Thus it
was found that vascular ktots of the inner root part of beets. vontained,more
saccharose than the corresponding layers of inter-node parenchyma.
In contrast mangald parenchyma contains -more saccharose than do modes?
("puchki"). Special studies of oropsing beets with other root crops and beets
with mangolds point to ,the poidibilities of increasing the sugar content of
parenchyma layers of beets at the expense of the absorption (**espriatien
by hybrids of.the corresponding charaoteriatice of_mangolds.'
Of particularinterest to selectors is the role of foliage and root in
accumUletin:; sugar in the root. Contrary tattle farily widespread belief that
the root is "passive in this respect and acts only as a source for the flow
of sugar from leaves, slAcial tests estediahed that this is far from true.
TiSSUBW of roots, as 'es proved by biochemical study of grafts of beets upon
forage and vice versa, actively participate in the formation and accumula-
tion Of sacoharose in roots.
? Extensive experiments have been conducTted lately on sugar accumulation
under different ao!ls, climates and other factors of external environment.,
The tole of harmful nitrogen and ashes is under study, as le the development
of methods to reduce these substances in beets. It is particularly desirable -
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Orlovskii, I. I. 11 ?renal. Vls Sugar Beets
to stress the work of VNIS and its system of varietal work on hi eta during
the Second World ez. At the beginning of the war, in 1941, rladov and L.vgov
stations were evacuated to Blisk Station, Altai territory. The remaining
stations incluein VNIS itse/f, were evacuated into Central Asia to Frunze
Point, which became the main base for sugar beet proeuotion and suar beet
planting between the years 1942 and 1943.
leading selectors and other specialists were also evacuated to these points
together with the mere valuable seleeton stooks. . It is natural that during
tl,ewar (before the Institute and stations returned) many special laboratories .
of the Institute and stations discontinued their operations and devoted their
maIN attention to essential propagation of the evacuated stock and the pro-
vision of seed beetfunde witl the ..7est varietal taserial.
Sciontifio staff members of the Institute and statione took active part
in introducing ewer beet seed plantings at collective farms; an average yield
of seeds was obtained 14 1942 in the beat sone of Central Aida that amounted
to 15 poods per hectare. Celeotion proceeded in addition on material received
from all selection stations, selection nurseries, tutting stations, planting
plots of elite seeds, regional and government testing stations.
As a result of the devoted labor of all selectors, the evacuated seed
stocks were not only saved but propagated to an extent which permitted the
stail-o-WWW7-tbetr-return_te;:years later +.45 fully restore the pro-war
scheule in their respective localities. Seed stock of industrial varieties
of beet,* was also propagated to meet requirements in seeds of ell sugar beet
zones of the rssn in full measure, including regions freed from the temporary
(3erman. occupation.
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Orlovskii, R. I.
12 Trans).* 201; SugerEeets
In Central Asia new hybrids of VETS beets were propagated along with
forace and table beets and severatuncultivated species. Considerable study
was encagrd in on the phsiological and blocherical properties of beets in
?
Central Asia, specifically, at Frunze and Issyk-Kul'sk ?blasts and Uzbekistan.
--------
A new and effective tethod of planting sugar beet steeds without transplanting
was developed jointly with rrunze Point. Fgscist inVadors caused enormous
? losses to Soviet varietal Sugar beet proeuotion. no joint efforts of selec-
tors and biologists under the leadership of the Party and Government succeeded
? nevertheless to heal the wounds inflicted by the enemy in a comparatively shor t
tire and reestablished completely (by 1946) pre,qaar seals of output in the Major-
ity of the principal branches of varietal production.
The principal task.until the end of the fourth five-Year plan, to which
? is subordinated varietal. worls, is to ensure the entire USSR of sugar beet
plantings with pre seeds and rem improved varieties of sugar bets. The
prerequiSites for thls task are already at hand. Accomplishments in selection
in 1946 are adequate for otaining pure industrial seeds. revertheless, much
. has still to te done to improve vrrieties in the nature.
Success in accomplishing the task depends to a large ertent upon the
accuracy of main prerequisites upon which future varietal work is based. These
1. organism and extcrnal environment are continuous in their correlation(?).
External environment vleved in wide concept (citrate, soil, level of technique,
methods of caring for plants, eto.) affects to a certain decree the transforma-
tion Of properties of the organism, population, the course of complicatecipro-
ceases in natural selection, the efficacy of artificial selection. In this
410ponnectioe varietal work Should atm at keeping the selection process on an
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orlovzkii, U. I. 13 ' Trench 2013 Sugar Beets
?
agricultural level that includes crop rotation, fertilization, height of
yield and would be Typical for advanced farce at the time new varieties are
introduced to industry. Thus agricultural technique at advanced farms must
already reflect the superior background in subsequent five-year plans.
2. Selective processes will be more effective if not conducted on poor,
narrow-generic initial material but on richer, rore diverse, initial stocks.
In sugar beet selection hybridization should therefore be used on a vast
, scale, specifically In combination with 'directed selection. Eybridization
disconnected from systematic selection "chaotic"), without rat;onal regu-
lating in pollination may produce average material, epecifically loss in
regional adaptation of .sugar beets, i.e. loss of the positive results in
ecological selection. Particular attention should also be paid to intra-
varietal crossings in sugar beets.
3. Selection and seed growing cult be inseparable. Propagation of
seeds mist go alongside selection and conieibute to systematic improvement
of the variety. In seed growing intra-varietal croscings.of the components
of varieties trained under differentNenvironmental conditions must be widely
used.
4. Along with this must go on universal biological study of anatomy,
biochemistry, physiology of sugar beets, genetics and cytology.
This is essential not only from the standpoint of stirulating increases
in sugar contents and the yields of sugar beets but for speeding ripening,
ing"
developing drought-resistance and resistance to diseases, improvviquality,
aiming ultirately at increasing sugar output per unit area, Better knowledge
of sugar beet crops will in turn contribute to further improvement in selection
methods and seed growing.
All-Union. Scientific-Research Institute
of Sugar Beets (VNIS)
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?
Sigrianskii, A. M., ed. Tranel. 202s Plant Protection
Spravoohnik agronoma po bortbe a bolezniami sel,skokhoziaistvennykh. rsstsoti
jAgronomiet's manual on control of diseases of agricultural plants). Moscaw,
1936. 615 p. 464 812
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Translated in part by Anna Antik
Table of Contents (p. 611-615)
From the Editor 3
General Conception of Plant Diseases and measures to control them 5
Reasons causing diseases and their recognition 5
Conditions determining plant diseqses 29
Determination of damage caused to Igrioulture through plant
diseases 33
Betio tasks of practical phyto-pathology 34
Basic purposes of measures in the fight against diseases of
agricultural plants 35
Yeasures in the fight against diseases of agricultural plants 38
Vethods of ohemicil fight 39
Thermic method of fight 40
Systens of measures 40
Outline of exposition of data accepted in the handbook 41
Chapter I. Diseases of Grain Crops 42
Destruction of winter crop germinations 43
Destruction of developed plants 46
Meat 47
Bye
Barley 87
Oats 93
Corn 100
Sorghum ("dzhugara") 113
Millet.. 118
Italian millet (foxtail millet, bristly fox-tail grass,
getaria italica, "mogar", -"kunak" 117
Rice.. 121
ruckwheat 126
System of measures in the fight a,ainst grain crop diseases 126
1. System of measures in the fight against 6rain crop
mildew
127.
2. System of measures in the fight against .rain crop smut
130
3. System of reasures in the fight against grain crop
fusariosis
133
4. Spreading of smut on cereals
136
Recommended methods of seed treatment against smut..
140
Spreading of -rildew on cereals
144
Economical characteristics of standard wheat varieties
146
Chapter II. Diseases of Forge Grasses
152
Eiseases of cereal grasses
152
"Mager"
152
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Sigrianskii, A. V.
2 Transl. 202: Plant Protection
:Page
Sorghun 1c2
Sudan grass 1c3
"Pal-tam" IRS
Cultivated rye grass and Voistervolid rye grass 174
Timophy 106
Brame grass rbezostyi" 158
Agropyrum and American couch grass 15.9
readow-pasture grasses 160
Diseases of bean family grasses 164
a) Annuals (vetch-sprin and winter crop-, feed pea
variety and feed lentil 164
Feed pea variety 16 c
Spring ard winter crop vetch and lentil 164
b) Perennials (red clover, alfalfa, esparsette, sweet
olover) 166
Clovers 166
Alfalfa 174
Sweet clover 177
Esparsette 178
Lotus 178
Chapter III. Diseases of Technical Crops 179
'Fibre crops (cotton plant, gumbo hemp, Chinese bell flower,
ramie, Indian hempo.flax, hemp)
Cotton plant
Mambo hemp
Chinese bell flower
Ear" ie
Indian hemp
Ilax
Eemp
011 producing crops (sunflower, mustard, false flax, sesame,
castor plant, soy-beam, peanut
Sunflower
Mustard and false flax
Se sane
Castor plant
Peanut With nut).
Soy-bean
Tobacco and naYiarha (law tobacco trade)
Plseases of seedlings
Yeasures for the fight a-ainst tobacco diseases in nur-
series
1,:easures for tle fijit a6ainet tobacco diseases IL t!e
field
Poppy
Fuller's teazel
Tops
sugar-bearers
Jerusalem artichoke
Chikory
?
179
179
193
201
201
203
205
213
21c
21c
222
222
223
224
226
212
212
233
240
241
244
246
247
247
248
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Sigrianskii, A. M.
3 Transl. 202: Plant protection
Page
Ether oil producing plants 248
Oil rose... 248
Lavender 253
NUskatel sage 254
Geranium 256
Peppermint 262
Coriander and anis 265
Perna' 267
Vedic:nal plants.... 268
Pelladonm 268
lienbare 269
Valerian 269
Thoru apple 271
Digitalis 271
Pubber producing plants 272
Yok-saghyz, krym-saghyz 272
Tau-saghys 275
Chondrilla 274
Tea shrub 276
Chapter IV. Diseases of Fruit-berry Crops, 'rape Vine and hlit Fruit 282
General diseases of fruit-berry crops 287
Basic, reasures to keep orchards in healthy conditIon 296
Diseases of seed varieties 297
D seases of stone varieties (peaches, w:Tioots, plums, cherries 313
Diseases of gooseberries, red and black ourrente 526
Diaases of raspberries 332
Diseases of garden and field strawberries 134
riseases of figs 336
DIseses of olives 340
Diseases of the rIllberry tree 342
Pisea es of the citrus fruit (tanger5ne, orgnge, lemon) 345
Diseases of the crape vine 350
Diseases of nut-fwult varieties (almond, pistachio, "fundue,
walnut, chestnut) ? 167
Almond...... 367
Pistachio tree 367
"Funduk" and European hazelnut 368
Walnut 369
C estnut (edible) 372
Nursery 174
Agenda of measures in tl-e fiEht against diseases of
fruit-berry crops ? 378
Standard expenditure of po!sons 382
Chapter v. Diseases of Vegetable Crops 384
Potato family 384
Potato 384
System of measures for the fight a:a nst potato diseases.. 404
Tomatoes 407
Diseases of egg-plant and pepper 423
Diseases of sweet potato 424
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46/1..anakit, A. M.
4 Transl. 202: Plant Protection
Diseases mustard?faily plantsIroabbage, turnip, radish, eta. %gl
Diseasesof finiOiLand'.gaillic...!....%:' " " "4-4. 446
Diseases of the gourd fasiiIY OOOOOOOOO ***** ******** ::::::414????-?.:::44:;00* 453,
Diseases of t'betbeeid:faMili::,::::.:,.'.:::::::.::: ..:.::..,:".:..:. 463'
DieeeSei,of-the carrot familY (carrot, parSleyT ;41ery; parsnip
..... ****** . **** 04.410 474
Diseases of beet.... .********** ******** 478
Diseases of asparagus ***** .... ......... 484
Diseases of rhubarb........ ****** 04% 0 489
k]
Diseases of spinach.. ......... * . * ..... ? ?.??????? 0 466
, ..? .
Diseases of lettuce . ***** 0040 .. 487
Systems of measures tor the fight against diseases of cabbage, on-
ion, tomatoes and cucumbers. ** . * .............. 4?414,....???? 488
Chapter VI. Diseases of Fruit and Vegetables whfle in Storaco.... *** 491
1. Vegetable rot . ****** 0.4.0"04,00.16.01110.44.00. **** 491
Rot of cabbage and other mustard family crops.: *** . ... ... 491
Rot of carrot.. . ....................... 494
Rot of beet .00.00?..000...0 4.0101.........? 495
Rot of onion...?. ** . ****** ..... ..... 406
? 496
Factors influencing development of vegetable rot...... 497
Production quality.............. **** . * .. * .497
....
Storage conditions...........................?... ***** ..... 498
2. Fruit rot Sw.11.0....e04 ' *silo.. ***** .411A9 900
Prief description of rot...... * ? 41,0,0....04,064 **** S. *** 501
Facts influencing the development of fruit rot... .0.060i. ***** ii. 504
Fruit quality * . **** . ** ....... ........... *** . * 504
Fruit transportation ,bisi?o4,410 SOO, 505
.
505
Outline of measures for the fight against rot in storing fruit
and vegetables ....... 507
and dilI). ** *
Rot of potato..... .-0000040-0410 *
Storage conditions....
Chapter VII. Fungicides.......... *
? 508
Chapter VIII. Machines and Equipment for Grain Treatments and Dis-
infection of
.??. *
Apparatus for.dry grain treatment................:..
Apparatus
'Apparatus "Ideal"........
Apparatus "Urozhai" ???
Apparatus "Pobeda"
Apparatus "OBV -1"
? ? ?
.530
530
631
532
534
537
Machine for wet treatment ofgrain--"ekstra"....... ***** 00?064.0 644
Combined machine for grain treatment,--"P-2"....... * . **** .. * ...... 547
Equipment for thermc disinfection of seeds (with hot water).... 557
Installation for thermic sterilization of grain 559
Installation for treatment of potato tubers with hot
formaline............... 1,410 562
Installation for sterilization of cotton seeds with sulphuric 'Mid 563
Machine for treatment of cotton seed with sulphuric acid.. 966
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Sitrianskii, A. 7.
5 Transl. 202: Plant 1-rotection
Pe
Equip 'lent for tLerric son clein:ection 566
Equipment for oterlioal soil direnfeotion 669
Literature '572
Alphabetical index of Eussian nanes of eineases ane crops,
subjeat to injury 581
Sept. 12, 1051
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AO 3
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Chanishvili, Sh. P. . Tranel. 203: Sugar Beets
Utilization of roots from the Bummer Cougar] beet crop for transplanting..
0 Selek. I Bonen. 17(7):60-70. July 19g0. 01.0 8e5 ZA3-Lk`A
Trar.elated from the Russian 'Ni R. G. Denbo
? The experipieuts which we carried out upon irrigated fields of Garda-
bantk steppes with the stubble plants-of sugar beets indicate that the intro-
duction of this meaeure on the fields of collective farms of Eastern Seorgia
will considerably increase the base for raw material of our sugar industry,
since one hectar of stubble sugar beet yields at the averaLe up to 2g0-300
centners of roots.
Votes Sh. Chaniehvili and V. Varsanova - Effect of surer sowing of
sugar beets in Oardabansk raion. Informations of, the Academy of Sciences -
of Georgian.SS0, v. VIII, to. 3, 1947.
$1. F. Chanithvill - Sugar beets and potatoes as stubble plants. Topics ?
? of report at the Third soientific session of the Institute of field produotion
of the Academy of Sciences of Georgian SP, 1948.
Besides, the toots of the sugar beets yield :from the stubble field Uould
be easily utilized as transi.lanted plants. According to the results of limper-
inents, although of one year, Which we described below, the tubers of sugar .
beets crops of stubble field are preserved better and lose affected,by "kacat"
rot than the tubers of the harvest of regular spring sowings.
It is well keown, that the conditions of Agricultural technics and of
fertilization, especially boric, influence the ability of preservation and
promote the itprovement of the quality of tubers which are used for mother
sugar beets.
Votes r. I. Utvth., The influence of fertilization upon preservation
of sugar beets. "Sugar beet field production", Kb. 3, 1938.,
?
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,4
?
4
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Chanishvili, Sh. 2 Transl. 203: Sugar Poets
0. Y. Ledrov-Zilchman, O. E. Tedrova-Zikhman, A. N. Yothevnikov - The Effect
of boric upon crops and the quality of the seeds. "Soviet Agronomy", No. 3, 1346.
D. alaid*. - Preservation of Tether suar beet. "Soviet Agronomy".
Ro. 2, 1948.
Prof. I. A. Yubin Loviet biochemistry in controlling losses during the
preservation ot vegetables. "Soviet science", No. 8, 1940.
This eorresnonde to the teachings of Vichurin and Lysenko on the transfor-
mation of the hereditary ability of plants une.er the influence of the condi-
tions of the environment. The more negative is the co-plex of the envirorment
under which the growth and the eevelopment of ; lants ocaurs, the stronger is
the transformation of the p1ant14, and seed material to tie worst. This has
been proved especially conspicuously by the academie T. I% Lysenko in determin-
ing the causes of the degeneration of potatoes from spring planting in Southern
raions of USSR.
Sugar beets, as well as potatoes, are depressed in Southern raions of
USSR in July-August from extremely high temperature and low relative air
humidity which is expresed in more or lcse.growth checking.
Based upon the study made by acad. T. 1. Lysenko, we may looeume th%t
the roots of sugar beets of spring sowing wtome rosettes with its buds are
influenced by high summer temperature should possess worse characteristics
_
-
in the mother sugar beet than the roots of the summer stubble sowitv.s which
_
_ -
are not influenced by these factors.?
Paged upon this assumption we started an elsperilent in 1916 at the Tnsti-
tute of field production of the icademy of Sciences of neorgian FSE for sur-
veying for the mother sugar beet roots which were selected from the spring and
summer sowinr,s of 1948 which crew under similar soil conditions.
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Chanishvili, 8h. F. 3 . Tranal. 203: SN16ar r cats
For. planting were selected Where of similar weight - at the average of
400 e. The tubers both of the spring and of the stubble yield were kept under
similar oondit'onst in baaement, in stacks, covered with sand.
respite the fact that during the harvent of 1948 the auger beet tubers
of both the spring and the sumer sowing contained approximately an equal per-
centaLe of water (about 63) in spring,, on March 1.7, 1949, the tubers of stubble
sugar beets contained ?8.07 percent water, and the spring - onlp 73.73 percent.
There was still a Greater diffei-ence botVieen them before the plantilg on
rarch 23rd; there was in the roots of stubble ;sugar beets 75.3 percent iter,
and in the spring sugar boots only (39.3 porcent. The titers of the stubble
sugar Incite lost altoLether 7.7, percent water during conservation, and the
spring sugar beeta lost 13.1 percent. In connection with this the percentage
of loss of sugar in the stubble beeta should be less than in the spring ones..
*See the works of L. italaida and Prof. P... A. P.ubin which
were mentioned in the preyic .e note.
We must also add that the percentage of wtste from mound rot amounted
to 68.3 percient in the tubers of the spring sawing, and !n the harvest of
stuble sugar beets there we only 20.2 percent of ptirtly damaged tubers.
The better storage of the stubble sugar beets in comparison with the roots
of the spring, cowing could be explained? apparently, by the difference in
the stae of their 6rowth during harvest'.ngs the tubers of the stubble sugar
beets are of a younger so than the sugar beet crops of. the spring sowing.
The sugar beets were carefully selected,. and the sound undamaged tubers
were utilized tor .C1eld and vegetative experiments according to the schemes
1) planting of tubers of stubble crops and 2) planting of tubers of the spring
crops.
In the field experiment the general field was 35.64 m2, the registered
? field - 2$.76 m2; it his been repeated four times. The quality of the sugar
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Chanishvili, Sh'. F. 4 Transl. 203: Sugar rests
? beets itoth variations - "Verkhniachka" 10-25. The. tubers are planted on
?
ploughland on arch 23 with between raw of 90 cm; 60 on, were left between
the plants in a row.
The mother sugar beet has been hoed twice,: :!ay 14th and June 1Sth; it has
been watered four times: April 27, Ley 18, June 6th, July $ed. It has been
harvested on July 30th.
The observations made u on the er erimental field indicated a consider-
able advan aa of the plants Of the stubble Gu ar beets in cam arison with
those of the spring sawing. The advantage was manifested in the following:
1) in a more quick forms.tion of rosettes, 2) in a smaller percentage of the
"stubborn" ones which did not form rosettes, or of rotten tubers, 3) in a
o nsiderable superiority of both the seed yield /ram vath field and of the
?productivity of, one plant, 4) in the improvement of the seed quality - a
higher weight (see tables 1,2,3).
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Chanishvili, Sh. F. 5 Transi. 4vo: ouGar uumws
Development Phase
The Course in the Development of Plantings
Planting of Stubble
sugar beets
The initial formation of 1//V
rosettes
Vase formation of rosettes
The initiation of sprouting
rasa sprouting
Initiation in blooming
Uses bloomin3
Table 1
Planting of spring
_suxar beets
Pootnbtet For root planting from the harvest of sugar
beets of spring sowing are mentioned only the dates of
the initial phases Since only 65.7 percent of the roots
formed rosettes, so that 'there vas no mass initiation
of observed Pieties.
Percentage of plants vilich formed rosettes on Vey 18th
29/IV
Table 2
Type of experiment
percentage of
plants vilioh
formod'rbisettes
According to
the quantity
of plantings
In relation to the
plants vtleh formed
rosettes
Planting of stubble
sugar beets
69.8
84.1
93.7
Planting of slags"' beets
of spring 'sowing
'553
29.5
53.1
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Type of experiment Wo. of
planted
tubers
nc. of plants
mfitch formed
rosettes
rercentage
in relation
to planVng
ro. of
plants
8;rout-
!nr
reroectaLe
tothose
wWoh
formed
rosettes
Y!ele -f
seeds (in
centeners
;Ter hen-
tar)
Absolute
we!ebt of
tubers
Table 3
,.:411,4 of
1 ,Aant
(in g)
(-)
p
0
m
4
t-- ?
H.
Planting of stubble
sugar beets
44
38
86.4
35.F;
03.4
28.01
22.94
188
Planting of spri.E
suoir beets
44
20.7
47.1
14.c
70.C;
7.62
21.76
12g
Footnotes The difference between the amount of the tubers which formed the rosette and
the amount of the plants vf,ich started to sprout is explalned by the fact that some number of
plants with the rosette VD id wilt later due to various reasons.
sgoed .162ns :03
0
0
-0
co
0
0
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Chanishvili, Sh. P. 7 T-ransl. 203: Sutar Pests
? . It is evident that the plantings of spring sugar beets were behind,
according to the growth of the stubble 1?.eets; the formation of rosettes
spread during five weeks. Mile on 'Vey .18th in the plantings from the yield
of sugar beets of sprint sowing, in four repetitions, only 55.7 percent of
tubers which formed 'rosettes were counted at the average, there were 89.8
percent from the stubble sugar beets. (see table 2).
During the vegetatiOn of the rother sugar beet strong winds negatively
influenced the growth and the development of the plants. On April 12 the
Rosettes of young leaflets of the plantings suffered from a strong, rorth-
?
etstrrn wind which out the leaves by the ground'particles. As a result, the
leaves dried out alrost corpletely, and later new leavei had formed.
Later on, strong winds eaused lodging of plants which were strongly
developed and the loss of ace's parts of the t4bers. respite of that, the
mother sugar beet yielded quite high seed crops (see table 3).
The data given in table 3 indicate that the plantings from the crepe
of stubble sugar beets yielded almost four tines as many seeds as the
.plantings of the tubers of tho spring sewing. This is explained not only by
the lamer percentage of the plants which formed rosettes and which broke
out into blossom, but by the high yield oflndividuai plant as well. One
plant from the stubble sugar boot kielded 168 g. seeds, and in the plantings
of spring sugar boots there were only 128 g. Besides, the absolute *Wight
at seeds in the first case is somewhat higher than in the second case.
The results of the vegetative experiment gave a ai-ilar picture,
although the difference in the yield between the plantings of the stubble *
and the aprini.; sowing is trailer than in the field experi7ent., which is
quite clear, since during the vegetative experiment the conditions of growth
? (moisture, nutrition regime etc.) of the plant:: even up considerably (see
table 4).
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?
4
Sh. F. 8 Tranal. 203s Zutar Eeets
(D
0
CD
(/)
Table 4
(D
CD
Types romation of rosettes Sprou.ting rasa bloominc, ease maturing Yield (in t) Absoluts
for e vessel weicht of
seed ( -0
-0
traria',
Plantings of stubble 30/C: 1/7I 10.23 17.SO
-n
sugar beets
Plantings of i;71-ing 8/lV 15/V 4/VI io,ki 18.38 17.72
(T)
sugar teets CD
(D
n.)
o)
co
n.)
. .
0
0
-0
co
n.)
n.)
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Chanishvili, Sh. F. 9 Transl. 203: Sur "sets
? Table 4 indicates that root plantings from the stubble yield of sugar
beets sprout and develop much faster than the pleuitino from the sprin, sowing.
The reason is tha'., at the time of planting the tubers of stub-1e sugar beets
had a much hher percentage of moisture than the roots from Me crops of
spring sowirq,-. ry the way, the surveys made by ? A. Tubin and by other
Soviet scientists Indicate that the decrease of the amount of water in the
cell protoplasm', due to wilting, "causes a drastic in,-rease in ty riodlo
activity Of/fermentations 'both of carbohydrate and of nitrogen compounds, i.e.
the !ncrease in the activity of the factors of disintegration."
Conolus?on
?
?
1 1. The tubers of the y'ald from stubble sugar beets utIlised for rlan-
ting are considerably super!or in their quality than the tubers harvested
from Burin, sowing.
- _
2. The tubers of the yield of stubble sugar beets durisw storage are
^
rarely 0!maged by "kagst" rot, *Ile the tubers from the sprin, sow in are
damaged con3iderably. 1.ealdes, the first lose leas water and ilastio sub-
stances than the se(:ond ones.
_
S. The percentage of 1)7.t.,_ whioh don't forr rosettes in the stubble
sugar beets Is con:vide:ably limaller.tham in olantin-a from spring sowing.
-
4. According to lift eds from a field unit and according to the produc-
Vvity of one plant, the tubers from stubble suor beets are conethlarably.
?higher_ than the tura from _sprin_ sugar beets.
_
L.A.T.
Birstember 13, 1931
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Bordonoa, r. u. Transz. cue: eugar recce
Sugar beet fors producing one-seeded balls.
Proc. Lenin Acad. Agric. Sot. rSSR, 1941, GR74,9--
(11): 3-4. 1941. 201K1
(Lae been preserted by Aoaderic I. V. Iiikushkin)
Translated by R. G. rembo
All forma of cultivated and wIld our beets of the variety Beta vulgaris
L., as a rule, have multi-seeded balls. There are no varieties of sugar beets
(sugar of fodding etc.) which are characterized by one seed t-lbers.
The multi-seediness of the aur berit tuber banlpers the rechanitation
of sprouting because from each tuber appear 3-4 or more sprouts whi.o. are dif-
ficult to separate from each other. The multi-seediness of the tuber increeses
the amount of mnall plant sprouts, and consequently of the tubers as well.
In America attempts were made already in 1903 of_produoini one-seeded
- ? _ _
_
varieties. Put this 'work 11113 not successful and baa been abandoned. All the
attempts rade abroad in producing one-seeded sugar beet variety were directed
towards the sorting of seeds, aecording to the number of blossoms, instead of
producing ner one-seeded biotypes of sugar beea.
The selection work in USSR on the production of one-seeded varieties of
sugar beets began in selection stations Fein-Sugar. In 157,4 hu6e masnives
of sur beets plants were inspected and among them were discovered indivic'ual
plants, all of which or the greater part of the tubers were one-seeded. The
seeds collected from there plants were the basic material for our wurk. These
seeds were natural hybrids between one-and multi-seeded sugar 'oeeta. All
the transplanted seeded plants, as well as from rair crossings in Isolators
had multi-seeded Were only wit- more or less great quantity of one-seeded
fruits. Entirely ore-seeded plants among the variety F1 were not disclosed.
According to their development (blossoming tire) F1 plants did not differ from
the regular multi-seed sugar beets.
The one-seediness under_reguler conditions of sugar beet sprouting is
recessive.
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Pordonos 2 Trowel. 204: Sugar Pests
In F there is a division between one- and multi-seeded fruits. In F2
?
the majorit:: of the plants which are mainly one-seeded differ eoreiderably
_
according to their appearance from the multi-seeded_plants, be!ng characterized
_ _
by a strong vegetative development and peculiar form of the bush.
Locording to various hybrids, the amount of the slitting ono-seed plants
fluctuates from 20 to 30 peroent, including one-seed variety which don't blos-
som during CA: first year of life.
Along w:th the egitting, according to the number of blossoms in a tuber
of F2 hybrids with one-seeded sugar Loots, a sharp division occurs acoording
to the blossom time, whereby the chief characteristic is their early riening.
The plants of a labor croup are in their majorit:, one-seeded.
One-seeded plants are characterized by late ripening of the nlantings,
_
but vary in the blossom time. The latest forms of one-seeded plants appear
to be "upriamtay" (stubborn) during the second year of their life. The numlier
_
of "uprimntsy" among some numbers of hybrids is very great with one-seeded
sugar Ivet. Py artificially lengthening the vegetative perlod (in a nursery)
these "upriamtsy" bloom and produce one-sprogt seeds. The one-seeded plants
are long stage forms.
Along with late maturing one-seed forms in F2, a small number of one-
seed plants differentiate whioh, according to the blooming time, don't differ
from the regular multi-seed plants. Usually the same hybrids F2 Produce a
smell Pereentage of plants with many seed fruits. One-seeded plants which
bloom simultaneously with many need sugar beets yield normal crops and well
germinated seeds (table 1).
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Bordonos 3 Transl. 2041 Sugar Beets
The Division of Hybrids F2 of One-seed Sugar Beet According to
, the Number of BlossoMs and Time of Blooming - ?
Time of No.
Blooming ' Seeds1,O
1-19 1 --- --
Table 1
umber of blossoms In tubers
,25
,50 1,75 2,00.2,29 2,90 2,75 3,00 3,29 3,0 5,7s
15..30/V1
--1:,
11
4
r-,1s/V1i ?
-....
89
3.
49
1?IB/Vu!
---
17
19-30/111.1
---
1
"Fholostiaki" 100
"Upriaptsr.. 39
elf
??????
1,3b 16,t- 71.4
aim
eV.
-
- ? I
191
331 65
64
38
22
2.
4 64R
41
150.30
21
3
11
-
2
- 349
1,
2 2
1
? 2.-
- 58
1
. 4...
S
.-
18
MP.
..
-
a.
- 1
aft
???
-
-
-
- 100
..?
. 39.
?143
484- 97
87
32
33
..6
4, 1213
The posterity of one-seed plants selected in the second generation, oh-.
tamed by group and pair crossing, appear to be one-seeded. Thelchar oteristic
of one-seediness is preserved by Crossing one-seed plants of various origin
*blob enables to avoid the close oroswing when producing one-seeded variety,
of sugar beets.
While the number of blossoms in the tuber with regular one-seed plants
varies, by eecreasing the number of plants under poor Conditions,of sprouting,
one-seed plants are characterized by high resistance according to the number
of blossoms in the tUber.. We were unable to change the number of blossoms in
one-seed plants in the nursery at entirely different plantin,nd nutrition
time.
Thus, re obtained straight lines according to otaxilmripomix*Tx flexmkstxxx
one seediness. By selecting the plants according to early ripening, Ile ob-
tained one-seed Sugar beet varieties which are blooming at regular time. We
carry on further work with these wrieties in or' at tolobtain aonstant lines
according to the early seed ripening.
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44,
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Bordonos
4 Tranel. 204: Sugar Beets
The study 'of hybrids F3 aeoording to their one-seed forms present an in-
terest, aoeording to their low blot:leo:tins.
The study of seed weight of one-sprout plants !ndicate that the seed
wet ht which shells from the tubers of one-seed plants surpasses considerably
the seed weight of the multi-teed tubers. (Table 2.).:
Table 2
The Average Seed Weicht in One Sprout and tulti Sprout Forms of Sugar Beets
One-seed
Plante
Type of the tuber one-sprout bieprout three-sprout early ripen late ripen-
ing, 1 sprlut ins: AL sprout
Seed weight On re) 1,8
2,7
37.3,6
It is interesting to notice that the seed weight of late ripening of
one-seed varieties is not Inferior, but on the eontrary somehow highar than
the weicht of the seed Of one-seed early ripened plants.
Presented April 8, 1941
The All-Union Sugcr Institute.,
Kiev, Laboratory of Ceneties
Sept. 12, 1951
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Sokolov, A. D., comp. Trans'. 205i Plant Protection
Sbornik postanovlenii, pravil instratsii po karantinu sellskokhoziaistvennykh
S
rastenii. (Collection of rules, regulations and ,instructions for the quaran- ?
111. tit.? of agricultural. plants). Leningrad, 1934. 84 p. 464.5 So3
Translated in part b: R. Dembo
Table of Contents
Foreword 3
On the organization of unified quarantine service at the People's
Commissariat of Agriculture of rssR
On quarantine measures in Leningrad oblast'
The situation of quarantine oontrol for the import from abroad of
agrica/tural production and living plants into USSR
Regulations of quarantine inspection No..20 of cargos at harbors and
porta
8
10
15
Quarantine Control 19
The order in handing out seeds which are imported from abroad to
their destination 20
Grapes quarantine 29
411 Potato quarantine 53
Regulations on the content of quarantine fields of potatoes imported.
from abroad 40
Quarantine regulations of importation of seed and trade potatoes to
tho territory of USSR . " 46
Orchard quarantine 49
The establishment of orchard quarantine in Leningrad oblast' 64
The order of realization of importing ,plantin3msterial: fruit, ,:rapes,
berries, forest decorative and other living plants 65
Regulations of accepting for transportation of plarendi Material and of
,
living plants along various types of motor transports of 'USSR
. Elucidation of the order of transportation of planting material and of
living plants at USSR
Illegal export of decorative plants from the raions under quarantine
Order of printing materials on infestation of plants by quarantine
diseases and pests (circular for all quarantine inspectors 15/V-33)
68
84
85
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Sviridenko, P. A. and Predit, K. I. Trend. 206: Suva. Beets
Conditions contributing to the propagation of the auger beet flea
(Poecillosoet tus.eo status Fieb.) and smaller flea? (Chaetoonema ,
Breviuseu a Fe d. u Phyl otreta vittula tedt.) and improvement of
methods for their control. Vsesolus. gauch. Issled. Inst. Sveklov.
Polevod. Rauch. Otohet 1941-1942: 192-115. 1941. 06.9 V963. ?
Translated from the Russian by S.N.Yonson
The sugar beet flea (?) belongs.to the most dangerous auger beet pests.
It prevail. in all sugar beet areas but taunts particular injury in the Altai
, .
krai where it destroys or severely injures annually a considerable part of
sugar beet fields, necessitating repeated plantin:.s.
Existing control measures egainet these pests, both large and small, did
not produce the neceissary results, 'each caused TXT7EP to include the bio-
ecology of theae pests and methods for controlling them into the recearCh
program of the laboratory of entomology. The present article is designed to
give a brief description of that work as conducted in 1941 and 1042. .
Studies mere engaged in under the aUpervision of Prof. P. SViri-
denkt; K. K. Predit, A. A. Ge;seimova and G. C. Annenkov participated actively
in the work
Field tests and observations mere organized at Altai krai, Rubtsov ex-.
:.periment field, and at the collective farms, imeni Kirova and Voskoia, of
Rubtsov region.
The development of sugar beet fleas (?) add their quantitiis more ob-
served at station plots, *hid', included all principal varieties of soils.
Various species of plants mere examined to determine the minterin abodes
of pests in early spring and fall periods; soil and vegetative layers mere
analyzed.
Simultaneously with determinating the phenology of rests, actual calendar
. periods for applying destructive control measures under industrial conditions
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Sviridenko and Frodit 2 Transl. 206$ Suva. Feets
at collective farms were studies and compared. The action of various insecti-
aides was observed at laboratories and under field coeditions. The assembled
material permitted the determination of several In ortant points in the ecol-
ogy of pests and to lan measures for the protection of sugar beet plantings
even before the completion of the erogeet.
Conditions under which the Sugar Peet Plea Propagates
Three species of 1.1.jurious fleas attac sugar beet plantinge in the region
are
under study. They mem the grey flea (Poecillosceytus cognatus Fish.),
vegetable flea (?. vulneratus Palm.) and the green flea (Orthotylus flavos-
parsus 8h1b.).
The most widely spread and dareLerous was the grey flea. 1-his species
injures, (in addition to sugar beets) also CompositO, oilbearing plants,
perennial legumes and several bast crops.
The grey sugar beet flea lays its eggs upon many uncultivated and culti-
vated plants Which serve as food for its larvae.
In the Pu tsov region of Altai krai the biological connacti n of this
peat with 26 species of plants was established (egglaying, feeding of adult
insects and their larvae), primarily among the families: Chenopodiaceae,
Cruciferae, Papilionacese and Composite..
Larvae mere four, to feed on only 19 species and egglaying was Observed
on the following IS species: hedge mustard f Sisymbrium), rape [Freesia&
napusl, field mustard, alfalfa, common mormwood firthemilsia absinthium);
Lrthenisia Sivers, bindweed [Convolvulus]; potatoes; sugar beets; saltwort
[salsola canine); knot meed [Polygonnm aviculare); oraehe [Atriplex lacinatum];
and pigweed fChenopodium album]. The sugar beet flea develops and feeds to
P11 appearances on several other plant species as well.
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Sviridenko and Predit 3 Transl. 206: Sugar l'eets
It shows, however, a definite selective capacity for some plants; thus
pigweed, saltwort, alfalfa, rape, cOmmon wormwood were pfIrtioularly infested
by eggs of the flea. The peat developed more rapidly on pigyeed than on the
rest. /n the winter of 1942-1943 eggs were distributed among plants in the
following degrees: pigweed - 22 pereent; saltwort percent; alfalfa -
4.6 percent, bindeed -1.5 percent; common wormwood - 1.5 percent.
Principal sources during tks spring infestation of sugar beet plantings
boundaries
areienes of roads and irrigation canals, keiledettee, and other plots where
pigeerd and saltwort predominate. From these sections winged posts fly over
to sugar beet fields. Following their settlement, the density of the flea
population in its diverse stages becomes somewhat beveled.
Date on quantities of pests and observations on their dovelopment'under
natural condition:: during the vegetation period reveal that propagation of
this peat in the summer stii takes place not on sugar beets but on read boun-
daries and irrigation canals, covered by various species of weeds, chiefly
pigweed and saltwort.
The Grey sugar beet fleasevorely populates alfalfa; on other crops-and
fields carrying stub'lle of rt. 'rt, rye, eta., the pest appears only when
these are covered with weeds, especially pig:weed.
? Quantities of the grey sugar beet flea vary consieerably throuGhout the
different seasons and years. In 1941 they were enormous; in 1942 the density
of populat!on deeressed drastically. According to surveys, density of pop-
ulation in 1941, in the different stages of development, varied fror 0 to
2.960 specimens per 50 strokes-of "saohok"; while in 1942 it amounted to
a proportion of 0 to 785 specimen?.
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Sviridenko and Predit 4 Transl. 2061 Sugar Beets
? The number of pests fell !.n 1942 because of weather conditions (lower
terperature of air and increased hum,.dity) and in connection with the mese
propaLation of the parasite-nnaesdnik" which destroyed all larvae of pests.
restruction of pest larvae by larvae of the parasite amounted to 70 percent
in the surrior of 1912.
The oyole of developuent of sugar beet fleas at Altai krai lasts 25
to 55 days. During the stminer the pest may, produce three to four generations;
the latter are, however, extended and overlap, which makes it difficult to
recognize them under natural conditions. Fertility of femalea depends upon
the type of plants they feed on. In feeding upbn pigwood aaltwort, hedge
mustard, females lay a larger number or egce than when feeding on other
plants.
? In the summer females lay ems chiefly on lower and upper surfaces of
leaves of sugar beets, mustard plants, etc., in the fall on stems of pigweed,
gooscforit, baltwort, bindweed, wormwood, rape, and hedge mustard.
The pest lays eggs from,tio to six tines. According to counts made
in the fall of 1942, the -quantity of cj1 egg-laying varied; let laying produced
18 to 20 eggs; second layinc - 14-16 eggs; 3rd laying - 10-12 eggs; 4th laying-
6-8 eggs; 5th laying - 2-4 eggs; 6th laying - 1-2 eggs.
egg; of the flea .are highly resistant to frost. Dry and warm spring
-weather offers the moat favorable conditions for the development of the
first generation. The rapid devellpment and good survival of larvae of the
first generatiOnlusuallyaljfollowed by sacs flights of the pest to sugar
beet field? and their subsequent inpry. At Altai krai spring has limited
precipitation. Plants upon which larvae of the first generation feed are
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Sviridenko and Predit
" Trend. 2064 Cugar Feet.
hardened by the time the pest is arimj,d; this prahpts the pest to migrate
upon young plants, the sugar beet sprouts.
Large areas of vitu;te land and other soils covered by vegetation and favor
by the pest, as yell as spring loather cantributing to the development of
larvae, are the male reasons for repeated macs appearances of the sugar beet
flea.
The adult flea Of the first generation is moat harmful to sugar beet
plantings. Ears is here control is moat essential.
!less appearances of the Auger beet flea are determined by the migration
of ttes pest from its air:tering abodes (place of all egg. laying and develop-
ment of larvae of the first spring generation). Of deoioive importance is
consequently the control of initial infestation of sugar beet plantings:
destruction of wintering eggs and later of their larvae.
Sizes of land plots on which fleas lay their eggs in the fall and oly?hich
they teed and develop larvae in the spring are, on the whole, considerably
shallot than plots of subeetuent.infestation by adult fleas of the first gen-
eration and the latter's future progeny. It is therefore expedient to organize
pest control at initial sources of infestation to protect sugar beet plantings
and conserve poisons and material; to effect this veeds should be burned it
late fall, plots plowed over, and in the spring insecticides used against
larvae.
Teat of Pyrethrum and Bilious Preparation In the Control of the Peat
? Preparations of pyrethrum and bile solutions taken from cattle (refuse
obtained from stockyards) are tested under laboratory condition', as a means
of controlling sugar beet fleas. As &result Of tests of different dosages
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Sviridertko and Predit 6 !renal. 206: Sugar Beets
of pyrethrum, it was found that mortality of lervae of fleas was high as a
result of use of liquid extracts of preparations of 0.006 percent concentra-
tion.
It was subsequently established that under identical conditions alcohol
extract of pyrethrum -produced a higher mortality (91.4 percent) than extracts
prepared on transformation? oil (76.2 percnet). A study of bile of cattle'
revealed its inset:ten:deal properties. It was found thmt bile exerted a high
contact taxi? action upon the sugar beet flea. By spraying posts with 1 per-
cent solution of bile an average mortality of 52 percent was achieved. By
applying weaker so,ations mortality was lower, 'Int still high; 0.5 portent
solution destroyed 50.4 percent of specimens; and a solution of 0.25 percent -
39.6 percent. -
Along with high contact-toxic properties, bile spreads well on foliage
411 and body surfaces of pests. This property is very valuable, since the efficacy
or varicus insecticides used in pest control depends to a large extent upon'
good regular spreads by the liquid.
The addition of bile to liquid solutions of inseaticidea must increase
the efficacy of not alone obit:Lot poisons, used in peat control, but also
poisons of internal action. ruring complete coverage of foliage with poisonous
solution, the plant is better protected and lose affected by insects. In
attacking plants the latter are swallowing deadly dosages of poison more rapidly
from a smaller area of injured leaves.
The addition of bile to a liquid solution of pyrethrum greatly-increased
the toxic action of the solution in our tests;
The highest-mortality of larvae was obtained from an application of
0.006 percent solution of, alcoholic extract of pyrethrum (1:1) and 0425
110 percent liquid of bile solution. In spraying weed vegetation (pigweed and
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Sviridenko and rredit
saltwort) upon which larvae of fleas had settled, the average mortality vas
94.S percent.
The temperature of the surrounding environment had considerable effect
on larvae treated with pyrethrum; important is also the leaf structure of
sprayed plants. At a temperature below 17-18?, toxioity,oliquid Pyrethrum
is somewhat reduced. Mortality of larvae on pigweed leaves is lover (when
sprayed) than on saltwort.
We also tested the effect of powder/Ake Pyrethrum which exhibited a high
toxicity with regard to larvae of sug%r beet fleas: Dimany laboratory exper-
iments mortality of fleas varied from 7.0 to 24.6 percent. Dusting various
weeds in the fields (air temperature 20?) resulted in e mortality of larvae
of 99 percent.
Thus Pyrethrum In liquid solutions and powder ie _a completely reliable
method for destroying larvae of the Grey sugar beet flea.. The addition of bile
aids
ANWPAGOActhe spread of the liquid on the plant and body of pests, the contact
of.poison-with the delicate bodies of larvae, and in addition, because of its
ovn contact activity, toxic properties of the combined insecticide are
significantly increased.
Conditions for Proptgating Sugar beet-and Striped fleas
of
ry reGular observation and control/ell stages me esttblished 11 species
of =all fleas("bloshek"); of these only three species are dangerous to suGLr
beets, the common sugar beet flea (Chaetoonema concinna EIrsh); the southern
sugar beet flea (Ch. breviuscula Feld.) and the striped grain flea (Phyllo!.
trete vittula Redt.l.
There are numerous references in literature indicating that the small
striped flea is less dangerous to sugar beets and that this species represents
only an insignificant specimen among the MAAS of sugar beet maall fleas.
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Sviridanko and Predit 'Trend. 206'; Sugar Pests ?
?
Our observations further established that the striped email, fleais a
?
most harmful sugar beet pest and apparently chiefly responsible for the Vast
injuries caused to sugar beets in their early stages of development, repeatedly
Observed in Altai krai.
' The harmful activity of the striped small flea is of the same nature as
that of the large sugar beet flea, although the striped pest attaets miser
beet plantings earlier' than do coon and southern sugar beet fleas.
In 1042 the striped small flea attacked sugar beet plantings in early
when
June, at the time/there mere no gazer beet fleas. The latter began to settle
upon sugar beet fields only in the third week. of JUPO ?
Observation stations of the record Service, in establishing their pros-
=See of past appearances, drew attention only to auger beet fleas, as a '
result of *WI the danger threatening sugar beets was always .mintrised. In
addition, yeasuree for -the control or fleas 4ugar beet plantings were Usually
adapted to the period of activity of sugar beet fleas, while striped sped-
mane made their appearance much earlier.
rstimates of pests wintering in 1041 - 1942 revealed thet, the largest
number of cucar beet fleae was distributed along bourdaries of irriation
canals ("aryki") overgrown with grass. Vire the density of small fleas was
largest; then came plcte alOnt; boundaries of old sugar beet fields, overgrown
with weeds; the Old sugar beet fields themselves, and barren lends, as well
as road boundaries. On other land quantities of stager beet fleas were small.
Mintering striped fleas had a differtnt distribution in 1941. %bile
density alleg irrigation canals was enormous, a large =dant of poets was
also concentrated an winter wheat plantings. Thus the principal location
for winterinc and the foci of masa settlement of sugar beet-and striped
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Svirieenko and Predit 9 Transl. 2061 Sugar roots
? fleas at Altai krai are primarily at boundaries of irrigation canals overgrown
with greed. The sugar beet flea winters in vast numbers- on old st:gar beet
fielde and surrounding weeds, road boundaries, irrigation canals and on empty
plots, while the striped pest prefers plantinz,s of grain crops.
In early sprint the striped flea tligrates after wintering to suGar beet
fields where Ito nember ins:wearies rapidly. Liter th:s species settles among
other plants and thair quantities are, therefore not inerensed ?Auger beet
fields during the Gunner, as are the quantities of sugar hoot small fleas
which fires=user:Lep.Mul scemrShat later mule reach their peek when the new
summer generation appears.. In addition to settling on plantings of sugar
beets, the sugar beet small flea attacks plota aTrercrown eith weeds, espe-
cially pigweod, saltwort, hedge mustard.
The 'quantity of fleas in diVerent stages varies depending upon seasons,
?and is determined by ti,eir propagation and migration. In the reeond half
of sutror the number of sugar beet fleas is reduced oribest fields and increases
on edges of irrigation canals and empty lande, overgrelin by weeds, primarily
by pgweed, saltwort and hedge mustard. '
Concentrations of small fleas are observed first along edger; of canals
situated near sugar beet fields, where V-eir manber is large. In June the
population decreases when pent, migrate to sugar beet fields. reginring Au-
gust, irrigation annals again attract pests as winterine, hideouts and tteir
nuraber increases there.
In order to prevent stairs appearances of small fleas on sugar beets,
pests should be exterminated on fields in the spring, as is 'usually done,
and on their wintering abodes in the winter and early spring.
tettlement of petite during the winter and their quantities throughout
the vegetation period point clearly to the necessity of' burning' weeds around
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Svirdenko and ?reit lu IFSUO14, 4.ww?
plantings of sugar beets and the eradication of weeds in
Edges of irritation cenals are particularly apt to become overgrown with
weeds, along with boui.deries of roads, waste lands and roes where, agricultural
and wintering hideouts
machinery passes. Teed vegetation in these places serves as food/for pests
throughout the entire vecetation periNi.ismAxesxwiattekesxki,4110,a
Liperienee has shown that burning of weeds in the spring destroys 0
of the pests. Uurning of weeds in late fall when the dry grass burns partic-
ularly well, is even more effective.
Vase 'injury caused to auger beets by email fleatoin the paqt years at
Altai krai is the result of not only Snadequately conducted cuktural, mechan-
ical ane chemical control methods, but also of the law efficacy of the mea-
cures tbemoelves, which to a large extent ie due to lack of coordination and
poor correlation of control measures wr3th periods of appearances of pests
110 of the first generation from their winter hideouts and flighto of adult .
pests of the secnnd generation as well at the inadequate attention paid- to
foci of pest accumulation:
Infestation of small Fleas by Parasite',
In l542 a hiEh degree of infestation. Of mall flees by internal para-
sites, the larvae of "naeednie of the family F-raconidae was noted. Striped
small fleas were infested by thece parasites in small measure (2 percent)
and only in June. Infestation of sugar beet fleas, however, isradually increased
and in September amounted to lg-S0 parent. Fleas Infested by larvae of this
parasite perished as soon as the larvae of the parasite made their appearance.
Laboratory observati-me of the parasites established the possibility of their
propagation.
In addition to the parasite-nnaesdnik", pests were infested by nematodes..
1111
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Svirdenko and Predit
11 Transl. 208: Sugar Beets
Vegetative Poison. in the Control of Small Fleas
Injuries oaused to sugar beats by email fleas in the earliest stages
of plant Growth cause greatest harm. Pests feed then on the pulp of coty-
ledons and first leaves, frequently injurknc GNI growth points. Insecti-
cides of intestinal fluorides and arsenic preparations and contact-nerve-
muscular action (nicotine, pyrethrine and amtbasine preparations) ere applied
in post control.' At the time of initial plant Growth the foliage surface of
beets is so email that spraying and dusting poisons are penetrating the soil.
more than anything else, without any benefit to the plants. Only a small
amount affeoga.the roes .or plants in places *we injuries src mused by
pests. This interferes with Pest control and frequently obstructs the effort.
? In early spring, during the formation of auger beet plants, fleas
.are attracted to plantings not only because these represent forage to them,
but because et micreelimatio conditions prevail on plowed fields. At that
tire the plowed black soil layer absorbs more sun than do adjoining places
covered by grass under which peste over-wintered. The diffeeence in temp-
erature between the surface of black fields and adjoining boundaries of roads
and irrigation -canals causes the pests to migrete to sugar beet plantations
even when there is no adequate food there. then temperature of the 'air drops
in the evening and on windy days fleas look for cover under Clumps of earth
or in dense rose of planted sugar beets on which they feed.
This mioro-climatio factor in the earlier migrating of fleas upon sugar
beet fields and the limited forks resources on plantations during early per-
iods of the Beaton mere responsible for the development of the attractant
method of control. Oreen weed grasses; were used as attractants, especially
those most favored by pents, (hedge mustard, penrycress, rape, saltwort,
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Sviridenko and Predip
12 Trans]. 206, Sugar Beet,
gold of pleasure (Camelina sativa], etc.), which were distributed on fields
in small piles (220-360 g). They were chiefly placed in checkerboard esaittion
at a distance of about 2-2.5 m. from each other. The attractants were dusted
with nicodust, pyrethrum or sprayed with nicotine-sulfate Or lijuid solu-
tione of pyrethrum prepmocab*cm. The green attractants drew pests an forage
and cover curing cool weather; here fleas concentrated, were poisoned and
destroyed. testruotion.on attractants amounted :to 06-90.7 percent. Attrac-
tants dustud with pyrethrum rroduced a higher mortality than those ducted
with nioodust. Pyrethrum evaporates more slowly and attractants treated with
this preparation drew more pests to them. It wan also observed that the
effect of Pyrethrum in piles of vegetative attractants lasted longer tLan on
uncut veotatiOn:
The method of oontr011int; small fleas with the kid of-attractanis rep-
resents a caving in expenditures of poisons and permits exercise of control
at the earliest period of sugdr beet browth. In addition, green attractants
detract fleas fro n sugar bent fields, reducing the amount of injury.
'In addition to vegetative attractants a nixed liquid 'pmeparation OP pyre-
thrum (0.048 percent), bile (2 percent), and molasses -(1 percent) wan tested.
This preparation results in a higher porcentaLe of destruction (65.7 percent)
than obtained by nicotine-sulfate (42.7 percent).andsoditm fluoride (TO 'per-
cent).
tile in this preparation contributed to the formw.ion of stable erml-
eions while moleenes improved the adhesidn'of the inceoticide to insect
surfaces' and in additioc attracted small fleas.
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Sviridenko and Predit 11 Trans1. 206: Susar Feets
Conclusions
1. The principal source of spring Infestation of auger beet plantings
by large and email fleas is their wintering hideout: edges and bonn:aries of
roads and iiiigation canald, waste lands, and other riots overgrown with
weeds;
2. Sugar beets are injured most in early periods of srowth when not
hardened and lacking large foliage surface. Sap sucked from young plants by.
floes, Injury of cotyledons and growth points frequently Causag complete
destruction of plants.
The adult flea of the first generation is of 'greatest injury to sugar
beets; it goes through Its larvae stage on Weeds and uncultivated plants in
places of egslaying in the fall. Sugar beet fleas are attracted in early
spring to plantations not only by plant sprouts but chiefly by favorable micro-
climatio conditions.
4. Control of both small and large fleas is usually exercised on sugar
beet fields when plants are injured during noticeable concentrations Of petits.
For better plant protection and non-admission or mass migrations of pests from
their wintering abodes, as well as to saw poisons, control should be applied
not on eugar beet fields but at the pests' initial accumulations, I. 0.:
their winterinL htdecuts. -This maybe accanplished by burning weeds in the
fall and applyins: chemicals and cultural treatment in tti6 spring agiinst
larvae (overplowing of wintering places).
5. Bile of livestock obtained in large quantities from stockyards
posseeses high.toxic properties as a contact insecticide. Mile toxic,.
.bile is also a good emulgent which ensures, in dombination with other insectio
foliege
aides, a good spread of poisons nnAlfurfaces and bodies of insects. The addition
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Tiridenko and rredit
14 Tranel. 206: Sugar Beets
of bile to solutions of inseoticides increases the efficacy of their action
upon 4nseets.
? 6. Tho liquid preparation of Pyrethrum 0.046 percent), together with
nolassee (1 percent) an0 bile (2 percent), leads to a higher percentage of
destruction among pests (Bc.7 percent) than did nicotine-sulfate '(42.7 per-
cent) nnd codtur4f1Loride (70 percent).
7. Croon vegetative attractants (which attract fleas nost on voeds),
treated With ni ()duet, nicotine-sulfate: or pyrethraa attract fleas as forage
?and cover durini; co 1 evening tenperaturet. Crean attractants permit appli-
cation of control durincearly stns of sucar beet grorth.wten greatest in-
j ry 3s caused by poets, le sprayin6 or dusting writh chemicals of entire
fields:do not'produce proper results. This method, upon being tested under
industrial oonditions? nay be widely introduced into practice for the control
of sTall fleas.
D.L. Tverskoi., candidate of aricultural
sciences
Bunina, sr, soientific worker.
L.A.F.
9-13-1
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Svekla (Feet). In Sel'akokhoZiaistvennai
?Entsiklopediia 11%-2, V. 4, P. 90-99.
Neskva, 1940. 30.1 3a42.
Translated from the Russian by S. N. Noma
Svekia Peet [Beta vulgaris 1.4 is a biennial toot plant of the goose-
foot family.(Chenopodiaceae). The uncultivated beet has a coarse branched
root of email weight and usually insignificant sugar content 10.2.- :6 percent
It is found on:the shorts of the rediterranean. Black and Caspian Seas, in
Transcaucasia, Central Asia the Canary Islands, and in California. An Un-
cultivated beet was found in the Mountains of Azerbaidjan F. macrorhis stem.
a perennial root, Weighing frequently to 10 kg., sugar content to 12-16 per-
.TransI. 207: Sugar Peets
cent.. From this wild sugar beet were obtained, following Many years of Se-
? lection, forms of cultivated forme and table beetvarieties.:
Sugar Beet(R:Vulgaris Ver. Saccharifere) was evidently produced from
white varieties of garden table beets. It has arefitively large root
(from 330-600 g.'to 1,500?2000 g.) and Contain:: 17 - 20 percent:of Cane sugar.
Individual roots contain 24 percent of sugar; the industrial: output repre-
sents 16 4. 20 rercent of the weight oflmOoessed.sugar beets.
Normally only Vegetative organs, i. e..follago, roots and root bodies are.
formed from planted seeds/the first year. In the second year flowerbearIng
stalks are formed from buds of planted toot fruits -which produce seeds
towards the end of the sumrer... Under unfavorable meather conditions, i.e.
spring frosts,(the latte4affecting plants in their early stages and leading
evident* to complete vernalization); isolated beet:: develop flomerbearing
runners and flower ("ts tukhal in the first year; the result is a coarse
beet of little sugar content. This characteristic appears in many varieties
in dinerent degrees. Occasionally plants do not produce Any stalks, and
seeds even in the second year..
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STekla 2 ?renal. 207: Sugar Deets
Flavors are bi-eexual with 5 cu-like perianths, 5 stamens and pistils:
flowers are in groups of 2, 6, 10; ovary uni-nidular (?) (nodnognesdnoe")
with one? cotyledon resting on a receptacle with which it unites in ripening.
Fruit is nutlike. In ripening fruits aggregate forming clumps at their bases,
so-called seed balls. ?R;aoh fruit consists of remainders of the perianth
and the seed, a shiny brown structure oe white starchy content. It repro..
cents 50-55 percent of the total weight of the fruit body. The outer seed
cost consiets of the folded embryo; it surrounds the perisperm in the center
.
in an incomplete ring ("albumin"). Two cotyledons are formed in the seed
ball, the cotyledon "elbow" and the embryonic rootlet. The chemical compo-
sition of seeds changes depending upon variety and conditions of cultivation.
Content of major substances varies within the followik, limits (in percent):
water 9.5 to 10 percent; raw protein - 20.15-23.25 percent; raw fats - 16.88
? -23.10 percent; non-nitrous substances - 44 -54 percent; cellular tissues -
1.69-4.54 percent; ashes - 3.74-4.42 percent; amount of phosphoric acid in
ashes is ab. 45 percent. Nitrous substances consist of 65 percent albumen.
Carbohydrates are represented primarily by starches (to 37 percent).
Normal growth of seeds produces no less than 150 seedlings per 100
bodies, of which no less than 75 should produce seedlings in turn. Large
fruit bodies (not any smaller than 3-4 mr, in diameter) produce large average
weight roots and high yields, compared to small bodies. Seed sprouting begins
at 40 and proceeds more rapidly at 25?. At first seeds smell, absorbing
150-170 percent of water conpared to their weight. The sprouted seed first
develops a rootlet, then cotyledons :each turn green. Planted at average
depth (2.5 cm), (in dry weather - 4 cm), into friable, normal, motet soil of
? 8 - 10?, seedstalks shruld appear on the 10th of 12th day. Following the
appearance of real leares, cotyledons die off.
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Svekla 3 Transl. 202: Sugar Beets
The initial structure of beet roots differs from that of a mature plant.
In the cent ,r are vessels, at the sides of which is the parenchyma with the
initial cambium and fiber. Ballwin the fiber and endoderm .of the original col*
there is another layer of cells - the pericambium. The mature beet has con-
centric rings or zones of vLeoular-fibrous bundles which do not resemble the
original structure. The transfer from primary to secondary structure is very
coMplen. An acoelerated 2rowth of the pericambium causes the root to develop
in thickness; this tikes place so fast that the initial cork tear!: and is
shed. The root is closed by a second cork formed from the pericambium. In
the secondary cork secondary cambial rings are formed which in turn produce
vascular-fibrous bundles. After this process a new cambial ring is forred
in the cork, at a certain distance from the first. This again fortma vaacular-
fibrous bundles, etc. The spaces between rings of bundles are occupied by
sugar-bearing parenchyma of -which the cells continue to grow even after new
rings have formed. At the crown leaves are distributed iniipirale, young '
leaves occupying the center, old leaves ea the periphery. Thus vascular-ft-
brous root bundles, which continue in leaves, must cross at the crown. The
mature beet is composed. of three regions: the upper part, i.e. the crown;
the neck, which connects the crown with the lower and most important part of .
the plant--the root. The neck is formed from the cotyledon knee (bend) and
does not have any lat.ves or side rootlets. Root or root body is cone-shaped,
flattened on two sides and often grooved; two depressions form a spiral and
contain lateral rootlets arranged in two double rows. The root system ex-
tends in the soil to a depth of 1.5 - 2 m. Important links in the root sys-
tem are the short-lived haired rootlets (1-3 mm long, 0.08-0.14 mr thick).
In addition to the aharacteristics of the root structure, external morphological
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Svek la
4 Tranal. 207: Sugar Beets
characteristics of leaves and root bodies are important from an economic stand-
point. In type of collage plants are divided into groups: the so-called "lying"
and "upright" close spiral foliage., Under conditions deficient in insulation,
plants with "lying" foliage are more productiveuthery absorb sunrays in greater
measure, Of similar significance is the intensity of leaf coloring and shape
of leaf lamina, whether smooth or curly. Curly leaves and intense green col-
oring permit a plant to absorb more sun when insulation is inadequate.
Roots are elongated, cone-shaped, truncated (best yield, slightly lower
sugar content) and cylindrical (medium sugar content). Aside from yield and
sugar content other considerations are connected with the shape of beets;
ease in digging, losses in harvesting because of tearing off of tip, etc.
Root and leaf shapes are inherited characteristics and are important features
in selection. Cromth of foliage, and roopts during the vegetative period is
irregular. Schematically, the course of sugar beet growth may be divided into
three periods: In the first period the plant develops primarily its foliage,
while root growth falls behind; during the second period the root body is at
its most active. The development of leaves continues but the tempo is slower
than that of roots. The third period of growth is characterized by a slowing
do mn in both leaf and root growth?instead there is intense accumulation of
sugar. loeaf growth is practically zero and gradually stops. In contrast,
roots continue to gain weight well until late fall, although the speed is.
gradually reduced. Reduction in weight of .foliage noted at the end of August
dots not indicate discontinuance of new growth. .The latter continues through-
out the vegetation period; having reached. the stage of the tenth leaf, the
plant produces a new leaf every day and a half., Beginniagduly leaf dying is
more noted, and in the middle of August, the quantity and area of dead leaves
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Svekla
5 t*ansl. 207s Sugar Deets
exceed the amount of new foliage. The above characterldtics in the process
of leaf and root growth strongly influence the relationship with regard to
weight in the first and second periods. In the beginning of the vegetative
period root weight represents only 1/10-1/5 Of weight of leaves, while during
harvesting, it exceeds the weight of the foliage one and a-half tines.
The most 1-portant composite part of sugar beet, sucrose (or cane sugar),
is forted from monosaccharides (?) synthesized foliage, transmitted to the
root. Synthesis of cane sugar in the root at the expense of monosaccharides
is accomplished by fermenting invertase.
The sugar content of roots is constantly increased during growth; the
largest accumulation takes place in August. Increate in sugar content con-
tinues through September and October. Sugar content is irregular'in various
root parts. Among the above mentioned three parts, the root is richest in
sugar content. Invertical direction, sugar content increases from the top of
the root downward towards the bottom of the upper half of the root, which
usually corresponds to its largest diameter. Then it diminishes, reaching
its minimum at the tip of the root. Despite the reduced sugar content kt the
tops, it is, nevertheless, adequate to warrant their industrial processing.
In cleaning beets of leaves during harvesting, the tops are therefore pre-
served on the roots and are equally processed. In a crone-out, the area
between the eentral ring of vascular-fibrous bundles is richest iiisugar con-
tent. The latter is reduced as it reaches the periphery of the root, as well
as its center. There are inOications that sugar content is connected with
the size of cells of parenchyma and that larger cells usually produce less
sugar than smaller cells. The advantages of the beet root, however, as a raw
material from which white crystallized sugar is obtained, are determined not
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Svexia rrunal. 4Vfi ouGar oulaud
only by their sugar content. Of considerable importance for processing sugar
beets and sugar production is the remaining part of dry-root substmees called
"non-sugars". The degree of use of sugar from the root depends upon the amount
and quality of composition of non-sugars and the possibility of obtaining
sugar in crystallised form. The libber the quality of non-sugars contained
it the toot, the lover its quality. The. harmful action of non-sugars is the
result ol substances that belong to non-sugars and interfere with the crystal-
lisation of sucrose. For reasons of a physical-chemical nature, sucrose is
retained in the solution, a part of it remaining in.molasses. Among the most
harmful non-auger molasses-forming substances are the diluted forms of nitrous
combinations, i.e. amino-acids, organic bases of salts of nitrous &cies.
Among ash-contsinipgelements, potassium and natrium are of major significance
In this connection.
A certain conception of the quality of sugar beet root is derived from
the so-called "Good vanity" whIch refers to the percentage of sugar content
in the dry substance. Thus 88 in "good quality" indicateg that 81 percent
of dry substances apply to sugar and 1.5 percent to nen-sugar. At an equal
degree of sugar content, the more superior the root, the better kw its
"god quality."
The transpiration coeffioient(?) in sugar beet is not high (300-310),
but because of the enormous evaporating surface, the total amount of water
needed is very large. It is conecnly believed that the normal dev-lopment
of a plant is taken care of by O) n." of precipitation during the vegetation
period. Of greater significance, however, is not the total amolnt of precip-
itation but its distribution throughout growth periods of beets. In the
early stages of Growth plants not having an ettensive leaf surface have but
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Svekla ti ? Transt. 'U( ugar teems
The best predecessors for beets are minter Cereals, especially minter
wheat, planted on clean fields fertilised with manure, and perennial legum-
inous grasses. Growing beets in continuous culture, even with ample manuring
loss of
of the soil results in depressed yields and/sugar content. Under crop rota-
tion beets favorably affect yields of other crops; they specifically serve
astgood predecessors for spring wheat.
Cultivation of tl-.e Soil should be therough and deep; only in that case
will roots develop normally andlOain proper shape. The latter circumstance
is of Great significande from the ;cent of view of yield and the possibility
of light cultivation of beet*. Deep plowing is engaged in in late sumter
or early fall. Stubble disking should precede it. The latter must be done
imtediately following passage of the combine and simultaneous removal of
hay, and if ordinary machinery is used, prior to transportation of sheaves
after they are distributed in piles. Depth of main plowing should be no loss
than 27 am. with plow and foreplow. Fields plowed in the fall are.not har-
rowed. In the spring when first driving into the fields, the soil is culti-
vated with scrapers or is harrowed twice with heavy equipment. Cultivating
and harrowing before planting is done according to schedule and by methods
suited to local oanditions. If the soil, hardened because of flood and use
cannot be made friable at proper depth, the soil is worked with shares with-
out moldboards.
Fertilization of soils at-sugar beet state and collective farms is
decisive for inoreating yields of beets and other crops under crop rotation.
Beets carry away a much larger amount of nutritious elements from the soil
than do other plants under crop rotation. Kutritious elements are absorbed
by beets throughout the vegetative period, most of all during July and Aug-
ust. In recent years studies of' domestic and foreign authorities have
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Svekla 9 Tranal. 2071 Sugar Beets
demonstrated conclusively the inadequacy of the ten "classic" elements of nutri-
emts for sugar-beets. It was established that absence of boron in the soil'
produces in beets rot of the "heart", (usually on eons of alkaline reaction), ,
and that lack of manganese leads to leaf spot and lee roll. Experiments'
made with nagnedium phosphate shoved that they benefit yields of beets more
than super-phosphates. Of speo'fic.significiance for beets is natrium. On
leached and vigorous chernozem it noticeably dieclotTes positive action.
Thiaaceounts for the advantage of-ueing potassium nitrate in place of cal-
cium, and established that potassium and nixed salts (10 percent) are superior
to concentrated potassium fertilizers. In estinating the norm of mineral
fertilizers it should be borne in mind that the percentage of apolication in ,
the first year is 2.510 for phosphoric} acid,30-170 for potassium acid end
60-80 for nitrogen.
'latching the charfeteristics of beet nutrients, fertilisers are intro-
duced b:1-three methods: 1. basic fettilizers (manure., Minerals or their com-
pounds) are introduced under deep ',lowing; 2. raw fertilizing - parallel
with the plantinglof seeds by combination planter; 3. additional feeding--
in-between rove during hoeing, from the end of cultivation until the foliage
grows dense between rows.
Beets develop slowly in early periods of growth and their root system
is incapable of absorbing food elenents from fertilizers introduced deeply
during plowing into the soil; row fertilization is of significance, in this
connection, consisting -of-super-phosphates, potassium salt and potassium
nitrate, which tat better for beet crops than di) nitrogen fertilizers. .Using
ammonia salts. on northern chernozem is not recommended because beets absorb
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Svek la 10 Transl. 2071 Sugar teats
them poorly when young, if the soil lacks alkali, while absorption of ammonium
by mature plant is evyal to that of nitrites. Depending upon variations
in soils, rev fettilization'is introduced in the following tentative dosegea
(kg per hectare), U-10-15; P2Or 20-0v K20 - 10-20.
- It is expedient to substitute the usual technique of Introducinz row
fertilizers (airost to the same depth as seeds and: closely adjoining them)
with the distribution oi fertilizers alongLeide seeds ,and below them.'
Beets develop better from the start when fertilized rather than without it;
they develop resistance to diseases, pests and ;unfavorable weather conditions.
Additional feeding with well diluted and accessible fertilizers of nitrogen.,
potassiugand phcsphorus, as well as liquid and bird ranure increase beet
Avowth considerably, improve retarded plots and.elivinate former eeficiencies
in fertilizing.. Additional feeding is given upon ohecking after thinning,
at times even prior to the njoinin,." of rove. 1:orms of fertilizers in addi-
tional feeding and.the very nature and intensity of this method change depend-
ing upon soil conditions, *he course of meteorological indicators, previous
fertilizing, and quantities of additional feedinLs, as well, an ace of plants
and technique used. This measure need not be uniform. As an example one pay
refer to dosages of elements for additional feedings recommended by Cliv-
svekla of AKZ of USSR.
The increase of dosa6es of nitrogen and potassium in additionai.feedings
should be applied on 1IGht Grey and grey "opodzol7 soils, next on leached
and "opodxorchernozem. On vigorous and ordinary Obernozem it is expedient
to iscreale the amounr of phosphorus. Larly additional feedings should con-
tale nitrogen which contributes to leaf Growth. Later introduction may injure.
root quality because of the increase of the content of non-albumen, of "harm-
fur nitrogen. Late introduction of P204s, however, beneficial.
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Svekla 11 Tranal. 207: Sugar Deets
?
Dosages Of Introduced Elements of Food under Poets in Additional Feedings
Additional feeding Ddpth in Distance from
om. . row (in cm)
Ink-/h .6
First
10-12 ? 10-12 10-12 16-30 1rs-30
,
Second -
- 16 and
-deeper
22.5 -- 10-20 1G-30 lc-10
, Application of additional feeding of sUcar beets in our country is the
result of the spread of the Stakhanov movement, credit belonging to goals of
"five hundreeand "thoUsand"reeords attained by laborers. In 1935 U. Dem-
ohenko and ?Ver. women field workers of the "600" group, which attained these
goals, began introducing this method for the first time at their ferns and.
obtained coed /insults. At present their exaMple is followed by other col-
loctive farms. Additional feeding ickmdt despite its positive action should.
neverthelese,not riplace'basic fertilizing. since the latter still remains
the decal:Ivo thomical method in. boot growing. ForMs and combinations of basic
fertilizers depend upon yields, type of soil predecessor, qualities of
fertilizers nn a periods for their introduction. For mnure the nor k has been
established at 18-40 tih: for miner4 fertilizers (in kg/6) at 60-123
at 60 - 180 P205and from 60-200120. In combining wanure and mineral fertili-
zers donagos of the latter dre corresporditLly decrewed. The efficacy of
fertilizers is closely onnneoted with the quality of other aro-technical
t
methods and is raised under improved agricultural standaels. I has been
established that on different soils the efficacy of niizogon and potassium
fertilizers increaces.in a measure corresponding to transfer from ordinary'
ohernozems to vigorous chernozeme, and from the latter to northern chernozems
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Svekla 12 Transl. 2071 sugar geaue
and grey forest-steppe soils. A(ditions of phosphorus are increased in reverse
order, reachinc their maximum on vigorous chernozems.
Aside from the increase in yields, all fertilizers, except nitrogen,
increase (and this only when introduced in raised norms,-without adequate
quantities of phosphates and potassium) the suer content in roots by 0.3-0.7
pert-ent and even by 1.5-2.5 percent. Of particular importance is potassium for
increasing sugar content.
Residue of beet industry and muck may be suocessfully utilized on many
soils as lite fertilizers. Prior to lining soils, of increased hydrolytic
acidity, the super-phosphate may, when initially introduced, be replaced -
by phosporite? flour! at double the amount of phosphoric acid.
The combination of organic and mineral fertilizera in initial introduc-
tion and additional feedings May radically improve the balance of carbonic
acid in the aboveground layer of air.. In high increases in yield(ot record
breaking plots) the. daily increase at certain periods reached a colossal
'amount (30 c/h).
During periods of vigorous developdent beets may require CO2. In that
case the amount of carbenio acid extracted from decayed organic fertilizers
Is particularly significant. Tests have shown that phosphoric acid and po-
tassium of manure are more fully absorbed by beets than from corresponding
m'.neral fertilizers, since phosphoric acid of manure, together with organic
elements, is gradually mineralized and not subject to retrogression. Eitro-
gen from manure in absorbed by plants in much smaller degree than mineral
nitrous fertilizers.
Planting of rests IC done only with row planters. gest planting has ,
not become popular yet. Planting is usually by tractor-driven caibination
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Svekla
13 Transl. 207: Sugar Beets
with inter-rows of 445 mm. The average norm of planting is 30-12 kg/h. Pfter
planting rolling is essential to make moisture Eore accessible to seeds and
even field surfaces. The latter aids in subsequent field work. Planting
must be in straight regular rows, otherwise mechanical work in care and digging
is impossible. The advantage of. early plantinLa (together with raw planting of
cereals when the temperature of the soil is 5-6?) is indisputable. Too early
planting is, nevertheless, worse than normal planting. To ensure high den-
sity of crops regular and close sprouts are essential.
Vernalization of seeds of beets, jtAging from e iments made in 1936-38,
is of considerable industrial significance. By speeding the appearance of
sprouts, vernalization aids elnELIstio_grorth_tt only in the initial period
of development, but also in subsequent months, a circumstance which reflects
favorably upon ultinate yields. To prevent flowering, it is recommended to
plant vernalized seeds when the, tenperature of the soil is 6-7?. Vernaliikion
is done 10-12 days before planting,__100 kg. of seeds require moisture of
in four
14 percent kw supplied/doses in the course of 48 hours, and 90 liters of
'eater. On the 4-S day there should be 3-5 percent of sprouting seeds. Later
the temperature of seeds before planting is kept at 5D70, achieved by regu-
lating the thickness of seed layers. The number of sprouted seeds before
_
planting should not exceed 10-15 percent. Aside from vernalization the
practice of moistening seeds of beets has gained popularity in the past years
at state and collective farms. This is done 4-5 days before planting, the
proportion of water being equal to the weight of seeds. Etter is added grad-
ually, 4'or 5 times, as absorbed by seeds; the entire procedure should not
take lainger than 24 hours. On the 3rd and 4th day temperature of seeds
410 reaches 18-250, which contributes to their fast "awakening." Temperature
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15 Tranel. 2071 Sugar Beets
hoe the soil, destroy weeds. After checkirg, as Weeds continue to grow, corks
form on the soil an a result of rains; 'ming between roue no less d,than
vhm.
3 cm. deep follows to the dflith of,smain parts of the plant. (12 on. for VICS-1
and 16 cm. for.VBIISP-SK). Deep cultivating between rows must take into con-
sideration the condition of moisture and firmness of the soil and growth of
beets. In periods of close stand of beets weeding must be done by hand. Ad-
ditional feeding is succescfnlly combined with cultivation between rows.
Special plant feeders have been constructed which permit the introduction
of fertilizers tO proper depth,(in solutions and dry state). reohanical in-
between-row cultivation is done by the tractors nrniversal-2".
Harvesting is begun in the middle of September. The Party and Government
have set definite periods for the end of digging, the completion of whisch
must be strictly observed. Equally compulsory is delivery of beets to indus-
trial plants immediately following digging. Delay of either is harmful to
yield and increases losres.
In establishing the order in which beets are to be dug at different parte
of fields the following must be considered. The first and second weeks in
September produce an average of 2 Olin additional growth of yield on roots
and increase the sugar content by 0.1 percent. Digging must therefore start
at plots of the most mature plants. Here additional increases in weight and
sugar content of roots are amellebt. In addition to external symptoms of
beet maturity, it is recommended to observe increases of both weight and
sugar content an many fields in order to develop proper plans for harvesting.
Beets ripen more rapldly on plots where they were planted before, where not
injured by pests, if located near winter crops, where less fertilized by
nitrous substances. On plots heavily manured or fertilized by nitrous chemicals,
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Svekla 16 Transl. 207: Sugar Beets
if planted late and adjoining perennial legumes, baste grow vigorously in the
fall. Roots must not be injured during harvesting, as this impairs their
- storing quality.
Tractor beet elevators dig in rows; toots are gathered by hand and beep
implements. Dug up beet roots are cleaned. of soil and rootlets with the
blunt edge of.a knife, the foliage is out off, the crown cleaned to conio
shape, all buds (eyes) removed to prevent their sprouting in storage. The
top (crown) itself is left on the root. Cutting the top flat is not permis-
sable, since this leads to considerable loss in beets and sugar. The bottom
of the root is out at the point where the diameter does not exceed 1 cm. This
cutting is done on special benches and by band. Cleaned beet are placed
into boxes (without bottom or top). Transportation goes on at time of dig-
ging. In urgent cedes horse-and mechanical transportation is used. Beets
not carried away from the fields are covered with cool soil (taken from lower
layers) (5-10 cm) to prevent wilting. All roots should be dug up from the
fielC, none left behind. Foliage shluld be fully gathered, made into ensile
and used for foraie.
1.?
A remarkable change in yields of sugar beets Sagan in the USSR following
the achievement of'"500? workers who in 1935 gathered 5006630 o/h. Members
of the Politbureau and the Government awarded medals to these women workers
and their feats were mentioned in Stalin's speech at the let All-Union Cbn-
ference of Stakhanov rorkera, brigades and units, who between 1936-39 succeeded
in setting similar records. Unheard of yields of 1,1000 to 1,3000 to 1,400
centners Of beets per heaters were gathered, 'which exceed_ by far official
international records of 950 cA on irrigated plots in California. This ex-
perience is extended to sugar beet fields on large areas. Hundreds of collec-
tive farms and state farms average 300-450 e/h and more.
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Svekla 17 Transl. 20p Sugar Beets
Stekhanov-euger beet growers achieve high yields because of their devo-
tion to work, proper organization in production, high labor discipline, and
mastery of techoique. The essence of agro-praotices of stakhanovites consists
in the proper application of the entire complex of agricultural methods which
ensure maximal correlation between all factors that influence growth and aid'
yields. Hiving mastered the prevailing technique of growing beets, stikhano7
vitae have added many new methods to both agricultural practices and chemical
means.
They introduced additional feeding, additional cultivating between
rows, erplied local fertilizers, increased norms of mineral fertilizers,
deepened plowing to 27-30 am. Stikhanovites have actually created a new sys-
tem of agricultural practices in beet growing. Their achievements were demon-
strated it the All-Union Agricultural Exhibition.
411 Seed Growing of Beets. As cross pollinating plants beets are easily regres-'
?
sive, because they lose the positive charaoteristics acquired and fixed by
selection. Uninterrupeed selection is the!!!!!!_n!!!s!!!._!!...?.7777_vane-
ties; this is_phe_task of selection stations of Olavsakhar ( Chief Administra-
tion of the Sugar Industry) of the USSR which produces highjpgaityr mother
seeds for state farms. State farms propagate these on all sugar beet fields
. _ _ _
-? ^
(state and colleotive farms) of their respeotive regions
The pToduction of sugar beet Yarieties is regionalized tn.d...e_s into
consideration the complex of natural (soil and climatic) conditions of
regions for which the warieties are grown. Soviet sugar beet selection has
provided industry not only with varieties which equal those of foreign pro-
duction but are oonsiderably superior to them. This has been confirmed by
many international varietal tests. Sugar beet planting in pre-revolutionary
Russia was based almost exclusively upon imported mother seeds. Successful
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Svekla
18 Trans". 207: Sugar Beets
aton
'pork of Soviet selection station4has not only freed USSR from the import/of
mother seeds of beets but has provided our country with the opportunity to
export sugar beet seeds on a large scale.
Certified mother seeds are produced at the following Soviet sugar beet
stations: Uladovsk, Ivanovsk, Ltgovsk, Ramona, Verkhniaohesk, Pervo-Yaisk,
Belo-Tserkov, Veselo-Podolianak, and Altai. The cleanest and most fertile
plots of sugar beet field wedges are assigned to plantinLs of mother seeds;
norms for fertilising are supplied as in the ease of industrial deed, and
depend upon soil and climatic conditions. !other seeds are planted by raw
planters, m4dth between rows is 36 on. Period of plantings the middle period
of industrial seed planting; norm of plant4ng - 16-22 kg/h. Superphosphate
and nitrate are introduced into rove at the same rate as for industrial ud:.
Care is alike but thinning is at 9.11m, and on particularly well cultivated
plots ampla supplied with nutrients and moisture even at 6-8 cm. The state
farms of Glavsikhar usually provide one heotare of mother seeds to 3-4 Imo-
tares of industrial seeds. Applying, high agricultural technique and careful
storing, beets obtained from one hectare of mother seeds may by spring produce
200,000 roots and over. Digging of mother seed beets is done by beet eleva-
tors which cause fewer injuries to roots than manual digcing and is of impor-
tance in storing. Early harvesting in 'warm weather is not pormissablo. Roots
are kept stored Jr/underground piles on the fields at 2-3?. A higher temper-
ature eauses\scoelerated breathing in roots, expenditure of sugar, lovers
resistance toldiseese, etc. Treshhes are dug for piles (kagat) one month
before harvesting to cool offxsalia the entire depth of walls to 2-30. Piles
-
(in m) are: length -20, 'width-0.7; depth-0.9. Foliage is cut off immediately
\IP
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STekle. 19 Transl. 207: Sugar Teets
? from dug-up beets (resting buds are carefully preNerved and 5-5 am. of peti-
ole s are left); 17amediate1y after cutting roots are layed in accurate rows
In plles.
Before olac.Ing roots in pies, their bottom is laid out tritb a layer of
porous soil, 10 em thick. The beets shuuld not touch each other. Every layer
of roots is covered with moist soil (20 percent moisture) to separate it from
the succeeding one. After filling,the pile is covered with a layer of soil
20 cm. hit,L. If temperature in oiler is 2?, covering is hlEher. Total thick-
ness of cover is 1.1 - 1.S m. To localize possible rot in piles soil parti-
tions are bult dividing the pie into sections at every 4-S m.
r,anure and mineral IsAilizers are introduced under mother seed beets;
fields are deeply played (25-27 cm). Preparation of the soil in the spring
(harrowing, cultivating) is doneearly and with nnrticular care. Prim,' to
? planting the field is marked in all direction (70 x 70 cm.). Every root
receives (in adfltion to initial fertil1zers)_1S07200 grams of humust_10-20 g.
_
of superphosphate and 5-10 g?. of natrTum-of sulfate of ammonium (all ferti- _
Users are thoroughly mixed with additional planting only healthy
beets are used, removed from piles immediately before. Every beet is olanted
vebtically and firmly surrou reed by soil; the soil layer above it is 1-1
am several day later, when beets begin to show growth, the soil is raked.
Lately seeding machinery has been put to tests. Considering thArbees are
cross pollinators, seed beds of carder oh forage beets should not be any
closer than 203 km. Care or planted material consists in cultivating between
rows, (in both directions), weed control, aeditional feeding and pinchin6
or tops of flomerbearing stalks to increase si7e of seeds. In view of the
irregularity in ripening of many seed varfetier harwstirg up to the pre:ient
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20 Transl. 207s Sugar Beets
time was dons by band. Cut (slumps are shaken over canvas (to colleot the most
ripencd sow's), tied into sheaves of 30-40 cm. in diameter and left to dry
in piles of 4 in the field on previously prepared platforms. Dried sheaves are
covered with stmilr_paay). Storing in piles is not psrmissable.
Threshing follows harvesting and dryinr. Seeds ale cleaned of remainders
of cut ktaIke and mixtures and aired. Freshly threshed seeds should be properly
aired; they are kept under a is r 20-30 cm. thick. Sugar beet seeds acquire
resistance for storing not before one 'month after threshing, provided their
moisture is below 13 percent. Even these seeds should be aired. The hygro-
scopic nature of seeds is very tigh and they should therefore be stored only
in extremely dry quarters, not on earthen ground. or under sheds. Advanced
workestledinobtaining record yields of sugar beet seed of 40-50
Principal 1.4;ts of Sugar Beets.
1. Nematodes Heterodere schachtii) their larvae (length ab. 0.4 m.71)
penetrate into yOung rootlets and feed. on their jvice; beets exhibit a char-
acteristic %artiness'', entire bodies are Covered with short hairy rootlets.
In severo oases yields are reduced to zero. Methods of control are: long
rotation and eteriliang of soil with ohlorpicrin.
2. Caterpillar of cutworm moth (Agrotis Segetune Schiff)
3. Caterpillar of Sugar beet webworm (LeXostrge stieticalis) which
feeds on foliage and roots;
4. Sugar beet weevil (Bothynoderes punctivel4/12_Lemt) deStroya
,young shoots, while its larvae gnaw at roots;
5. Sugar beet flea (('haetoenema breviuecula fald.) destroys the pri-
mary leaves;
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Svekla
21 Transl. 207: Sugar Deets
6. Sugar beet beetle ("ave)loviohnaiia shchitonoeka") [Cassida nebulosa
L.] feed e on leaves;
7. Sugar beet .(maggot or miner) "Klopik" [Poecylosoytus cognatue :lob)
(EemiPtera) sucks sap of leaves and seedling stalks.
. General methods of controls ,L. digging up last year's beet fields and
.new plantations; 2. weed destruction on adjoining lands and roads; 3. prop-
agation of peat parasites (trichogremma). Among control methods for indi-
vidual pests the most important are: 1. .catching butterflies of outworn
moths on rolasses; 2. catching butterflies of sugar beet webworms and in..
sects of Peocylosoytue cognatus nob. in cheesecloth nets; 3. attract and
open
destroy butterflies by keeping/fires at night; 4. gathering weevils and cater-
pillars of cutworm moth by hand; S. spraying of infested plots with poisons
(against caterpillars of webworms, weevils and moths); 6. catching moths
with special nets; 7. spraying witt. tobacco ereparations and soap-kerosine
? emulsions (against Poecylosoytus cognatus Fieb.; B. digging small ditches.
Among chemical measures the following are ap9lied: 1. against weevils -
spraying with ?arts green (e5 g, 70 g. lime, 10 1.. or water) or with sodium
fluorite (100 g., 100 go of molasees, 14? liters of water) or with sodium,
fluorite (70 g. to 10 liters of water) or barium chlorice (400 g, 100 g
molasses, 10 liters of water); dusting veth sodium fluoride (10 kg/h) or
calcium arsenate (8-10 kilh%.
2. against fleas: dusting shoots with calcOum arsenate (8-10 kg/h)
or sodium fluoride (8-10 kg/h)
3. against Cassida nebulosa L. ("shohitonoska") - spraying with so-
dium flouride, (70,g to 10 liters of water) or barium chloride or Paris green
? (20 g, 40 g of line to 10 liters of water).
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Svekla 22 Trensl. 2047 Sugar Beets
? Principal Diseases of Sutar Beets .
?
.3.. Rapt Eater, disease of early shoots of beets. At pre ,light
brown moist ears ?above ground .part of cotyledon knike?,?sthieh grad-".
ually e ands
? ? n o .
ant by a ring/ In eases; of severe infestwe
tion and rapid spread1the plant dies within s., few hour. In such cases the
auger beet field aay change. in appearance within, a few days and form empty ,
space u the disease proceeds-store slowly and if/attacks only the, cork of
the germ, plants may heal by forming additional rootlets.? The disease is
caused bt_a_esimplex of fungi (rusarium homa, AlternarIa and foitkimm).
These microorganisms develop primarily on weakened Shoots o brats susceptible
. ?
to infeatatior,i. 4Sctste, of these fungi are carried by seeds in planting (Phoma),
others.are carried?in..the soil or on vegetative. residues. (Vu.sar LUM, Alternar is.).
If infestation i. no more than 30 percent it does not tffect the rowth -of
plants tbo severely and. yield may be normal. This Is emplained by 1., the
fact that not all -injured shoots are ,destroyed; 2. -healthy plants remain
-
af ter ?thinning; only where., infeatation.is sev-ere ,the disease becomes dangerous.
It is ,at it
on poorly, aired acid-a.nd rung .off soils .the combination
of low temperatures end ample preolpitation.contributesto the moms ,spread
of the disease. The most effective Inethod ,of controlling it is good cultural
treatment; of particular.eignificance .is titie,ly and adequate cultivating of
the soil before planting and healthy seed -planting over mineral fertilizers,_
as le 11 as early rolling. The,ideme of infestation is weakened by lining.
Proper treatment of the so 'before planting Is necessary so seede,may enter
, _ . _ ?
friable1 porous soil. (lood airing aeaemplished by repeated cultivating be
tween rows is most important in controlling *he, disease... Thinning should be
as close as posaible,theiroment.of the of. initial leaves.
2. CercospOra, leaf spot, caused by the fungus Ceroos
Spots are small? ashy-grey with purple margins, forming primarily on canter
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2$ Transl. 207: Sugar Beets
leaves that have completed their Erowth. Appears in the middle of summer;
_
develops stron;ly towards fall under conditions of increased humidity. Causes
mass drying of leaves. Spread in the summer by spores which form a grey fan
on spots. Winter as dormant mycelium on vegetative debris. Infestation of
the foliage depresses assimilation and leads to the growth of new leaves at
the expense of reserve substances of roots reduced in sugar content; it pro-
longs ripening and deteriorates beets for storing. Yeasures of control:
harvesting of clA foliage (ensilage, digging-in), deep fall plowing, crop
-
rotation, rolling, seed control, repeated spraying or dusting with Paris
green, preparation A. The initial spraying or dusting must be of preventive
_ _
- -
type and start long before the discase makes its appearanoe.
_
_
Mosaic of sugar beet is a virus disease which causes irregular leaf col-
oring. Along with normal green foliage, light areas appear in the form of
spots of rolnd or indefinite shape. It may begin towards Oahe end or early
_ _
July, increasing in the fall. The disease is transmitted fro in plant to plant
_
by aphids. The infeotioss origin over-winters in beets stored for planting.
-
In the spring it is first observed on plantings from which it is transmitted
to-bee.ts of the first,wear. Several weeds may also serve as sources of in-
fection. The results of the disease are: reduced yields of seeds in mothcr
beets and lover sugar content in beets of first year. Control: Considerable
distance between plots of mother beets and industrial beet fields grown for
seed. Use of plants from uninfested fields for seed stool; control with -
mosaic transmitters, particularly on seed stock fields; weed destruction;
early planting and application of methods ensuring vigorous and close devel-
opment of beets, especially during early vegetation periods.
4. Other less prevalent diseases of beets are: Of rot of "heart*,
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Svekla 24 Transl. 207s Sugar Beets
chiefly resulting fron lackfif boron lithe soil; b mildew; c pseudo-mildew;
d) rust; 3) root canker; f) root scab.
Forage beet. (Beta vulgaris'L.) differs from sugar beet in its larger
water content and lesser amount of sugar. Raw protein of fora,..6 beet rep-
resents 2/5 amide -aoids? and only 1/3 albumen. In shape forage beets are
divided into the following 6ro1pss 1. long, straight or bent, deeply placed
in the soil ("maMmut", "steer horn"*; 2. conic-shaped, elongated-oval;
3. cylindrical or bagl:ke with root extending, above soil ("Ekkendorf",
"Armin -Krivensk"); 4. round varieties with ball-like root ("Yellow Stern -
dorf", and "Red Oberndorf");. the half-sugar (white and rose) beet approaches
closely forage beets, except that its sugar bentent is higher, it contains
more dry substances and shape of its root is conical. Long beets are richer
in dry sUbstances,mhile.round and shorter beets contain more water. The
largest yield among root crops is derived from oylindrical varieties. Lengthy
and ball-shaped varieties produce smaller yields in beets but have thicker
foliage. Half-sugar beets are inferior to forage beets in yield but have
greater drought resistance and stand winter storing well. Beets are at a
depth of 1/4-0 in cylindrical and round varieties, and in harvesting they are
easily pulled out b: hand. Theyadapt to lees deep soils and easily stand
transplanting. The best varieties are: "Yellow Eckendorf", "Arnim-kriven -
skaiia"; "Barr"; "Mammut" (Mammot); "Ideal Eirsche", and the semi sugar white
and'p'nk beets.
Yield of forage beets depend upon cultural treatment. In 1937 average
yields amounted to 150-200 o/h, although several advanced farmers obtained
yields of 2,000-2,500 oih.
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25 Trensl. 207s Sugar Beets
Forage beetstake second place in farm crop rotation after potatoes,le
gumes, hemp, tobacco, and other crops which respond to fertilizers and deep
cultivation. in field crop rotation forage %ttets may be introduced only in
well cultivated soil. In order to obtain high yields ample manuring is es-
sential in addition to mineral fertilizers. Density and planting of seedlings
are siLnificant. Uormal density is 75-80,000 plants per hectare (50-55 am x
a9 an); planting of seedlings is particularly important on heavy and raw
soils. Large increates in yields are obtained from additional feeding (pro-
vided there is additional watering) timely thinning (if planting ras by
teed) and adeqUate deep cultivation.
HARVESTIEG of_forage beets is done before early frosts when lower Leaves
begin to dry and rows are more noticeable. Forage beets are stored in special
? storing quarters ottit holes dug in fields. The foliage of forage beets
represents a nutritious food item.
CAET:IXBDETS (Data vulgaris L.) Two kinds are grown. Beta vulgaris var.
esculents and the foliage rangold, (Beta vulgaris war. dole). GardeMpeete
are used in soups, sauces, garnishings, pickling,mixtures of dry vegetables.
They take second place among root crops after carrots. The fleshy fruit
develops in concentric rinos from Upper part of the root. The color is red
or deep red. Eingolds have strongly developed petioles and large leaves.
Beets of the most valuable table varieties are characterised by smooth rings
and even intense red coloring. To determine ring shape the VIR scale is used.
The best varieties are: 1. flat and flat-roundt "Egyptian" and "Crosby",
(early varieties ripening in 80.40 days); 2. rounds "Bordeaux", variety
of Soviet selection, good yield, even coloring, no rings, "Eclipse" (100-
1
110 days); 3) long varieties: "Erfurt" (150-1E0 days).
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Svekla
26 Trarsl. 207: SuFar T'e.ets
CULTITRAL 4iC.TICLS. In crop rotation Larden lAmts are ir the second
year planted on fresh organic fertA.Lsers (if soils are poor, Faso in the
first year). Venting in the central sone must 1:e done no later than by May
15. Planting is ribbon-like, in two lines, distance between ribtors r0 nm,
between lines - 2 am.; 6epth of cover is 2.0 -15.q am. horm of plant!rc is
lb kg/h. Slrouts appear in 3-12 days. Care: tirely thinning; wef,dirg,
when necessary, ault!vation between rows, additional feeding. linel distance
between plants in rows - 6 top cr. Larvesting berore car14 frosts set in.
Loi, varieties are plowed with beet elevators; rol)rd wrieties are pulled
out by hand.
Selected beets arelcut short, sorted an peaked into bags containing
SD kg. In the winter beets are heaped in piles, trenches, or sl-..eds of vee-
table storage bins. Record yields were obtained in 107 at the collective
farm ineni Illicha, Kuntsev region, koseow obla4t,, by C.0 brigadc headed by
comrade ghaemova (1,400 c/h).
YrNGOLD is grown In the same manner as other forms of beets. Spinach
varieties are: "Swiss", "English-eternal", aud petiole-verietios: "Yellow
Improved", "Lueullus.. Thinning of first crops ii IL June, of secone: crops
in early September. rangolds are also grown in hothouses.
Special beet varieties are: "Yellow ChAe" ad "Red Chile", which are
of ornamental interest.
End of ertiale
L?A ?B ?
-18-1
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Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/02:
Alekseev, V. S.
Problems of the sugar-biset state farms in 1947.
? Feb. 1947. 65.8 8.2
Translated from the Russian by R. G. Dembo
CIA-RDP8OR01426R010000010001-2
Trans'. 208s Sugar Bests
Sakh. Promysh. :20(2): 1-7.
Tasks of the sugar-beet state farms in 1947 [Translatorls title]
Before our Great Rational War the state farms were the leading highly
mechanized agricultural enterprises with high crops of sugar beet and of
csK,,reale??grasses and with a well developed productive husbandry. They Ilere
a good example of correct and skillful farming and promoters of progressive
agricultural teolpic among the surrounding collective terra.
The German invadors caused great harm to the sugar-beet state farms. A
great task we were facing in restoring these fa
From the very first days ,since deliberation from the invadors of
sugar beet raions started a strenuous work in restoring the sugar-beet state
farms.
? In 1945 alreadylmany sugar-beet stets farms gif:n_sr uite a good harvest
of suziar beets. and of cereals, fulfilled the state plane
a tremendous work in raising productive working cattle.
unfavorable oonditi-na, in a series of sugar beets state
early, carried out
In 1946, despite
farms where an in-
tensive bolshevist struggle has been carried out, Where high agricultural
teohnic has been applied, good results were also obtained. 011shansk sugar
combinate nr the Kiev sugar-beet trust collected a harvest of cereals 18.5
OA& and fulfilled the grain production of 101.5 percent. Aleiskii sugar
_
_ -
combinate of the Altai trust collected a harvest of cereals 17 ciha, and sugar
beets seeds 22.5 oihas Taldy-Rurgansk sugar combine Alma-Atinsk trust received
, cereals 20 c/a, sugar-beetsseeds 21, plant sugar beets 291 o/ba, etc.
Hundreds of progrersive workers of field production and of husbandry
succeeded victoriously in restoring sugar beet state farms and tleir further
? development..
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2 Transl. 208: Sugar Beets
The'traotorist Panenko (Lenin sugar combine of the Kharkov trust) had
. .
plown during the first half a year of 1946 with the tractor CM 916 ha.
The group of tovo-Bykovsk sugar combine of comrade Ibriapa had grown 24.6
cAla of sugar-beets. The calf dealer of the Krasno-Iarushek cattle farm,
comrade Shahan& had grown 26 calves with the average weight gaining of 800
g. in 24 hours, etc.
And yet many sugar-beet state farms did not fulfill their tasks during
19661 they did not carry out the outline on sugar beet seeds, on sugar beets,
on cereals, grasses and are indebted to the government.
Therefore during 1947, the second year of the new Five-Ycar-Plan, the
responsibility of sugar-beet state farms is increasing as to the production
of high yields of sugar-beet seeds, of cereals and grasses. This year the
sugar-beet state farms along basic divisions and indexes must lift themselves
up to prewar work level, revive former glory of the progressive farms. The
basic requirement of Stalin Five-Year Plan should be fulfilled: "To ensure a
model production in the state fcrma, to increase consiCerably the crops of
agricultural plants and the productivity of husbandry, to increase the produc-
tion on tractors, combines and in other agricultural machines and to decrease
the cost price of agricultural production."
Mat should we do in order to fulfill these tasks?
Already in fall of 1946 the majority of farms advanced along the road
of improving agricultural technics - deep plowing and tillage were carried
out, the seeing of winter crops on fallow fields has been carried out
on time.
The basic factor in growing high crops of all field plants is the strug-
gle for accumulating and storing moisture. This measure is especially
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Alekseev, V. S. S Transl. 208: Sugar Beets"
111 significant in connection with the lack of moisture lakt year and the small
?
amount of rainfall in the first half of winter. The state farms must first
of all stop the snow fall along the fieles destined for sugar-beets, on
winter sowings and on grass seedlings. Each centineter of snow cover on the
field of one heater yields abou1.5 thousand pails of water. The availability
of a great amount of plowed land creates the prOblem of storing moisture in
spring. Therefore, there should be renovateo the old equipment: scrapers,
plought, cultivators and also produced new ones in a great amount.
Haw significant is a scraper in concervi. moisture and in increasing
the sugar beet crops is well known from the experience of Stalin state farm.
In this state farm upon fields where the scraper has been applied the soil
moisture before sawing vas 1.5-2.5 percent higher in conparison with fields
where the scsaper Was not applied. According to the data of Verkhniach
selection station the scraper increased the sugar beet crops e. 5-11 percent
higher as compared with two passages of the plough.
It is also necessary to pay attention to the preparatIon of tractor
trailors Which enable to carry out an aggregation of the agricultural inven-
tory and to fully utilize the power of tractors. There are many examples when,
due to int:Ion:eat aggregation, the tractor power has been poorly Mtilisod.
After the :ear in many sugar-beet state farms the level of small mecha-
nization decreased which, of course, was refloated on the crops. In 1945 for
the production of 1 h. of sugar beet there was spent SO percent more labof
power than even in applying the simplest mechanization.
Some workers tried to explain the absence of mechanization by lack of a
necessary agricultural inventory. Of course, it is not so. The reason is
that these workers underestimate the significance of small and medium
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Alekseev, V. S. 4 Transl. 268: Sugar Beets
mechanization, they do very little in restoring hoes, plougha, and they do not
try to utilize with maximum effedt the existing equipment.
Let us take as an example the sugar-beet state farms of thelhartkoy
sugar-beet trust. In 1941 at the trust of the sugar-beet factory less than
one friability of the soil between rove has been carried out, and the digging
un
with hoes was done only on 6.4 percent of the entire field. Quite/satisfactory
was the mechanical ploughing of plantings, for instance. Podsarednian sugar
beet state farm carried out the ploughing ones and obtained a harvest of 8.2
c/ha, and the Parkhomovak sugar-beet state farm which carried out the plough -
lug three times obtained high crops of surr -beet seeds 14.1 c/ha. These
facts do not need further explanations.
If we were able to restore almost from scraps many tractors, combines,
threahera, then we may say with assurance that with the same success me are
able to restore equipment of medium and mall mechanization.
In 1947 the sugar-beet trusts and sugar-beet state farms must make the
decisive step for the introduction of various types of mechanization for
sugar-beets. Without mechanization it is impossible to achieve the intro-
duction of high agricultural technic, the increase of crops and the decrease
of expenditure for labor and net cost. We should take into consideration
.the fact that the conditions of 1947 require urgently a drastic decrease in
labor power for the production of sugar-beet plants.
A successful introduction of meohanization is closely related to a good
technic of sawing. Therefore it is necessary to pay attention to the fact
that the presowing tilling of the soil would even out the field surface, so
that there would be no furrows, bald patches, huge clods, that the sugar-
beet rows would be strictly straight, and the between rave would be even along
the entire field..
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Alekseev, V. S.
5 Transl. 208: Sugar Beets
The second year of the Five-Tear-Plan should became the year of a def-
inite lift in sugar beet production, in the yield of sugar-beet seeds, factory
and mother beet. The state farms must secure perfect quality of sugar-beets,
that the yield could be an example, the pride of our work. The duty of sugar-
beet state farms is to head the struggle for a high, rich harvest and by this
example to attract the neighboring collective farms.
Each yorker should unders:and that only as a result of a drastic increase
of sugar-beet crops are we able to 'secure a general increase of crops of all
plants of sugar-beet crop rotation.
Mat is most important in the fulfillment of this task? In connection
with some shortage in sugar-beet seeds during the last two years and with the
increase in sowing of sugar-beets in collective farms the program of planting
in 1947 has increased. At the average they will occupy 50 percent of the
entire sugar-beet wedge. Many state farms mill beVe mainly plantings and
mother sugar-beets. Such a great amount of sugar-beet seed production requires
a serious preparatory work, a well analysed outline, correct organisation of
all work starting with the plantik, and ending with harvesting. This year
a high crop of sugar-beet seeds; the advanced markers intraudeed many new
ideas, enriched agricultural technic.
For instance, Orekhovskii sugar combine of Poltava sugar-beet trust had
produced at the average in 1949 upon the field of 300 hectare 26 cAla of _
sugar-beet seeds. Individual groups obtained unusual yields the eds.& of
comrade Oladkikh produced 42 cAla, the tam of comhade Belonoshka 40 Cjila.
As the experience of the last two years indicated, in order to obtain a
high yield of sugar-beet seeds, the most important is the evenness of the no-
--
ther material, a careful Treparation of the tubers before planting.
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Alekseev, V. S.
6 Trans'. 208: Sugar Beets
The progressive sugar-beet state farms practiced in 1946 the digging
out of the tubers 8-10-days before planting, with a careful aorting and dis-
carding of the unfit. The tubers which were dug out were kept before plan-
ting in heaps covered by a layer of ground of 25 am. which enabled to select
better tubers and with a repetitive sorting before planting to discard the
tubers which did not give any sprouts. This caused the growth of tubers up
to 100 percent, increased the crops in individual links of Siniavik sugar
combine up to 18 o/ha. The participation of tieats during the planting of
tubers upon their field is of great signifioance. In 011shansk sugar_combine,
where the planting was without tdgm, the yield was 11 Oa, and wherever a
team did the planting the result was 13 o/ha. The introduction of ferti-
lizers gave good results. Thus, in Smeliansk sugar combine the link of corn-
reds Goloborod,ko which brought in 25 t of dung in fall and 4 T dry sand
accumulated 14 o/ha of sugar beet seeds.
The task is that every trust or sugar beet state farm would follow the
experience -f the advanced workers in high crops of sugar beet seeds, would
teach the methods of the agricultural technic applied by them to all briga-
diers, links and would introduce those meLhods next year in all branches,
in all fields.
Quite instructive is the example of struggle for a high yield of the
Novo-Bykovsk sugar combine of the Chernigov sugar beet trust whose work has
been recorded in a special order from Dinister, Comrade Zotov.
The director of Dovo-Bykovsk sugar oombine, comrade Kitkeriko, organized
and attracted into active participation the workers and the employees of the
plant to the production of high yield of sugar beets. During two years their
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7 Trend. 208: Sugar Peet..
they harvested 18 o/ba upon a field of 40 ht. The workers of the plant,
without jeopardizing their regular work, received additional salary in money
and sugar and cave the country hundreds of oentners of bigh quality seeds.
If tle workers of other sugar combines would follow the example of Eew-
Bykovsk combine, this would lighten the problem of labor power.
'This year the state farms have all the possibilities of producing high
crop of factory and mother sugar beets. It is necessary to ensure Lull sprout-
ing and to plant upon ont.heotar no leer than 100 thousand roots at the mo-
ment of digging_t_ All agricultural technical measures should be utilized in
'tte filfillment of these two exponents. WI do not knew yet what the meteoro-
logical conditions will be this spring, but, even in considering look of
roisture in the ground from last fall, we are Ole to say that we should not
to
delay with the sowing of sugar beet:: even for an hour and it has/be carried
out in a very short time.
It is necessary to indicate that in 1946, under conditinns of extreme
drought, those state and collective farms which have fulfilled strictly the
entire complex of agricultural technic obtained at the moat oritical moment
of moisture deficiency strong sprouts of sugar beete which endured the drought
and yielded a good harvest..
Experience of many years and mainly the experience of cvanced workers
indicate that the density o: planting, sugar beets after sprouting of 116-
120 thousand of plants for one hector and of 100 thousand at the beginning
of digging with the ppplication of elementary agricultural technics will
yield 250-350 0/ha upon large fields. The faisous sugar-beet grower, comrade
Parmusina, harvested in 1945, 1003 o. from one ha. At the beginning of dig.
ging she preserved 127.5 thousand tubers per ha. The leaders of trusts,
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Alekseet.
agricultural worker.
8 Tranel. 208: Subar Peets
bricadiers and teAms mu t urge this year a struggle
for Cense planting upon all fields of sowing of factory and ttother sugar
beats.
The experience of the Eakhmich sugar-beet state farm of Lenin Order on
the rationalization of sugar.beet work 443 worth mentioning. In this sugar..
beet state farm instead of entire sprouting, is carried out the sprouting
across rows with t,he simultaneous light digging of the sprouting roes and
by leaving r-6 bouquets on one meter. A final Working out of the bouquets
occurs after the ascend digging of the field. The entire plantation breaks
through the rot, loosens aimultaneously and is dug twice a fast as during
the full breach; during the breach .and the survey the sugar beetreceives
four broaches. During thie method of cultivation,there,is considerably less
depression on the part of weeds and los of moisture;
only to 42 men per hooter..
In. 1945 the BakhMach sUgar beet state farm,:by?applying this method of
'cultivation, obtained a yield of mother sugar-beet on the field or 211 hoc.
tabor paler amounts
tare 2g0 0/ha and factory sugar beets up to 200
Ala.
In 1946 the sugar-
tat tate farms of Chernigev sugar truSt,worked with sugar-beets according
to the method of:Beichmach 'tate farm upon a field of 450 ha and obtained in
all instances good results for instance, Nosov sugar-beet state farm obtained:
about 290 alha on a field Of .92 ha of mother sugar-beet.
Numerous exporimental data indicate that by carrying out all the agr
cultural techniol measures, directed towards the improvement of winter and food
regime -of the soil the Coefficient of moi tureutilizition increases. Under
these conditions, for instance, for :the ferhation of 1 o of sugar beets over
1. n, of Moisture is consumed; fpr the formativg of 1 d:Of sugar-beet seeds
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Alekseev
9 ?renal. 2011r Sugar Beets
14.6 mm. of moisture is consumed. If me figure out that the average amount of
waterfall in the raiona of the distribution of our sugar-beet state farms
is 450-550 mm. this indicates the necessity of posing before the state
farms the task of increasing ne t year the struggle for the sugar beet crops
to 300-350 cAla and sugar beets seeds 20-25 c/ha.
Without correct grass rotations it mould :be impossible to achieve an
increase in fertility and in obtaining hich irmune crops of all plants.
Therefore it is necessary for the sugar-beet state fords of carrying out
considerable work on crop rotation during the current ycar. The sugar-
beet wedge and Lrasses should in 194? reach the prover level.
The law of the Five-Year-Plan requires that in collective and state
farms should be introduced correct crop rotations "with the application of
grass sewing using widely grass mixtures - legumes (especially clover and
alfalfa) and of cereals of many year grasses."
-The basic agricultural technical requirement of grass field of grass
systan of agriculture - is the cultivation of mixture of many year grasses,
reanmhile, many sugar-beet state farms are upon incorrect and wrong road of
sowing mainly of only legume grasses.. They forgot that the structural-form-
ing potential of the mixture of perennial grasses is much higher than of only
legume grasses. According to the data of Ivanovsk, selection station, the
percentaie of structural elements in plougl'.ing field is Oe.25 cm. on clover
plus cereal grasses 5 percent higherithan on pure clover, with eaparsette
plus cereal graaaes higher by 9 percent than on pure espareette. According
to Vorkhniacheak and Ivanovsk stations on grass mixture, the crops of the
succeeding plants increased on siring wheat up to 4 o, sugar-beets up to
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Alekseev
. 10 Trans'. 203; Sugar Leets
46-50 c and sugar beets 'up to 3 a from 1 be; the %ixture of?grasses in com-
parison with the sowing of only legumes yield en increase of Crops of hay up:
to 25,percent and its quality improves consideratay.
In 1947 the sugar-beet state farms Must carry out important work In
introdupin;? he ra& rotation systems, critically survey crop rotation and
correct the errors conmitted before. In prop rotations of sugar-beet state
farms fallow land occupy a great and important place. Falloi land is the
second link in its importance for correct crop rotation. Pefore the was;
Mary sugar-beet state farm showed elamples of good
ultivation of fallow
lands. Plack April and Ila:.fallow lands were of'conaiderabli. amount. repet-
itive underlayer cultivation of grasses dUring the. summer, its Weeping up
before sowing in ideal cleanness with a constant loosening and Mulching
the upper soil layer- were law in the work of every specialist ix sugar
groter. 17i'e must this year fully foster? the system of ciltiveting fallow
land as it existed before the war., Almost .a full. insurance of auger 'Lef t
state fs.rms by plasm land and along with this the posaibliti of aoconplishing
the stirinwork quickly enable u$ to use the fallow land in April and May and
? tb build still a titronger foundation of a high crop in 1948.
? Responsible basica are beiore the sugar-beet state farms in the field
of hulibandry. According to the outline of 1947, the increase of cattle per
capita amounts to 21 peroenttp gi - 11 percent, axes - 25 percent, horses
8 portent; it is forecasted a fn ther increase An the productivity of
?cattle, in milking 10 percent increase is planned. ?A.,r1 organizatirn of
twenty new husbandry farts of 'cattle, horsey and pigs is planned. All thi$
could be fulfilled only based upon the or,anization eta strong fodding base.
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Alekseev 11 Transl. 208; Sugar Beets
? It is necessary to introdune nost thoroufhly correct fwdin? crop rotations
sh!ch would produce the necese-try arount of green rase, hay, tubers, silos
and other jioy foddinr.
Th.!.s won. houlv. be done rainly tractors, comb!nes and .y other ecri-
cultural ma&nes. Three quartet-es o$1 work en sugar beet state frre will
be carried out in 1L/47 b, tractors. ,pod work of the tractors will decide
the succese tie erterprise. :n 104c and 1946 a series of trusts (Coroneth,
Kurer, Mitomir, Chernigovek) have pool' utilized the traotors wtich led to
the leta;Int.. of a6ricultural wor1,-; Cue, the Borinsk sugar comittne of Noronesh
suLar-osettrust, as a result f poor tretor 'work, carried the sowinL 60
_
days and accomplished it orlly or June l. As it showed or the rsultrive
are able to see fro .-1 the following, most ineicative data; barley s,vin before
I.ay 5 yielded l c/a, no before June 10 perished; -oats and spring wheat
411/ sown before Vny yielded 11-/3 cOna, sown before June 10 - 4 oAla.
As a r.le, the state farns voh delay spring sown;, not on1y lose in
oroos, but inter:ern 'r the succeedin,: unrks the and tilling of :-*allow
hind, the sowlng or wirEer crops, etc.
The experinent of progressive workers in utiliz;ng tractor prArks techs
th,.t thT success., caAd be secured not only b:r h'ghly qualified re7odd1ing
of tractors, but by a correct organization of exploitation of the tractnr
perk as -ell. 7t is necess?ry to follow a careful technical ca-e for trac-
tors an for att ched atTioultural eactines. For this purpose it is necessary
to instruct mcotanics, brigadiers, traetorists, hookers the technical metIods
in tan g care of machines; e.-pty spots shotld kot be overlooked, hence the
tractors should have 4 well planned r^ute; correct aggregation for the full
loading of' power of every trae.or should be organised; it is necessary to ensuwe
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Aleketsev
12 Trans'. 2083 Sugar Beets
two shift of tractor work for 20 hours a day. For this purpose it is nece-
Geary to Ontroduce a corresponding arrangement of the Working day in brigades
and to control strictly its fulfillments it is necessary to liquidate entirely
the standstill of tractors on account of their poor eervice, tr14;gani2e the?
charging of tractors by fuel and water at the station, and y seeds during
its running; to organize in the tractor brigades good food, living quarters
(tractor booths and others), daily atria regiatration of production, expen-
diture or fuel and of the quality of accomplished"Work fighting decisively
bunglers and trcuble-makers; to orv....nite widely socialistic competition among
the tractoriets, brigaded, links. By following these basic rules of explei-
tation of machines the tractor 'a productivity will increne conilderably and
will yield higher crops. .
. Along with the.acoomplishment of great production tasks, in the center
of our attention should be the problena of i4roving the life or workers and
of specialists sugar-beet state farms. Our community housea should be always
kept orderly and clean, as well as our dining. roma, clubs. Each department
of the sugar-beet +vete farm should by its external appearance and order in
all corners reflect high organization and (natural life of a great socialistic
enterprise. ror this we don't need great expenses, only daily care is requirad
on the part of supervisors, of high -and low rank.
ror the creation of a strong provision base there shoLld be reflected
in the plans and in the work of 1047 the 'development and irproverent of work
of additional branches: apiculture, pisciculture, poultry raising, pig feeding
on the waste of aomman food, orchard, production, garden production. 'AS must
pay atteotion to the organization of wateeng gardens, using for it local res-
ervoirs, the erection of the sitplest pump station and also free energy Of
already constructed hydraulic stations.
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Alekseev
13 Tranal. 2081 Sugar Pests
Thus are the basio tasks of sucar-beet state farms for 1947. Eo dote-t,
a treat army of workers, specialists of sugar-beet state farms will -ive all
ti,eir power and krowledge, so that next yr the would vould be able to advance
on tile road Of restoring sugar-beet state farms and their further devel-Tment
and will honorably accorvilish ter rrrat tase.
.L .
9. 17- si
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Sveklovodstvo (Sugar beet Growing).
In Selvskokhoziaistvennaia Entsiklopedila,
2, v.4, p. 98-100. Yoskva, 1940. 30.1 Se42
Translated by S. W. Monson
Transl. 2091 Sugar Rests
S4- ao
The culture of sugar beets began in Russia in the early nineteenth cen-
tury. In 1914 the planted area of pre-revolutionary Russia consisted of
753,584 hectares and was concentrated primarily in the Ukraine and Kursk,
Voronezh, and Tambov gubernii. Limited areas at Orlov and Tule gubernii
and Ruben' ilso grew sugar hest crops. Within the boundaries of nssR (as
of' August 1, 1639) the area planted under beets amounted to 646.7 thousand
heoteres of which private land and sugar refinery owners possessed 499.6
thousand hectares, while peasant households, practically all under kulak
omn6ership, held 149.2 thousand hectares. After the revolution the need
for sugar increased drastically in the country and areas of sugar beet
planting were considerably extended. in 1938 the area planted with industrial
sugar beet at state and collective farms comprised 1,180.3 thousand hectares
(indluding 1,127.8 thousand h. grown at collective farms). The number of
state farms producing sugar boots was 180, at collective farms 21 thousand,
all serviced by 930 machine *rector stat:ons (YTS). Sugar beet planting in
USSR represents 35.4 percent of the world's area of beet planting. In plan-
--
ted surface USSR ocsaupiss first place among ell countries in the world.
At present beet crops in the 'rSR have been moved into such regions
where beet growing was Unknown before the revolution (Rezak SU, !ars'
-
SSR, Georgian SSR, Armenian ssn, Altai and PrLoonski.i_kraliaa_Saratov_and__
Novo-Siberian oblast' and Bashkir SSR.). Soviet agronomy demonstrated that
sugar beets could be grown at'Arkhangel'ek, Vologda, Kirov, Omsk, Miens-
-
binsk, and other northeastern regions. Yields of beets, as a result of
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83744?70d tyo .2 "renal. Mt Suger Beets
special sieleures onderteken by the Part and the 'Government, ere..lincreasing
steadily from year .to year. .fol.lowing after ,the -first:years
colleotlyization (see yield).
At the 17th _Convention :of .1/1cp(b) cbrnrade Stalin: disclosed in port
-the .cs.uees, f :the?above decline ststiog 'orppe ?suffered onirslight
.variations retaining their ,high yields ;compared to pre-war levels, auger
beets in the regions where reorganization of agriculture *as proceeding -at
its highest tempo, entering the reorganization per iod--1.astri suffered the great-
- - ? -
at elump in the last-yeti-of riorgenize.tion,-1.13:-19$2, ind-brotight produc-
tion Amor to--below'pre4ar Ulna,
gross-yield of a 1937 amounted to o
?Oentners as Compared-to-109.0 millions 'or coaxers in 191.S:.- in' grois yield
"
ITSSR-:Occuplea first' place among sugar beet Planting Colntriiii; The -refative
ght of MR' in world production 'of sugar-teetie"amikants'to-airperCerit:
? /
oThe thf-nd? five-year- plan, donee rned with the aeijaiopmerit -of haticnef
economy, wrivisszed by 1942 a yield of up to -282" mill:lode cif 'cintniri, at the
rate of-,235 c/h.
? .The rarty,end Government undertook vsitouo tfeasuree to annum 'collec-
tive farms planting -sugar 13ests with the -Wost modern:Uchnical equipment; to
promote the.. cpncmic organitation of farm" and, itioreaseleutar'_beet 'yields.
Contract terps Isere altered. The new contract agreements provided that
whenever the net amount (norm) in delivery of sugar beets per heotare is
overfulf tiled, the collective farm receives an Add it ional compen sat ion amounting
to 400 percent of the basic pay for its purplus. The agreement takes into
consideration the correlation or social interests at a colleative farm with
those of individual collective farmers. All farmers raising sugar beets
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Sveklovodatvo
410 are joined in groups of links which are assigned fixed plots for beet grow-
Ing. The yield of beets is computed separately for every link. One half of
?
the additional premium payments earned by the oollective farm is distributed
among links producinL the highest yields, on the basis of labor days spent
by every collective farmer. Farmers receive in addition auger, beet puflp,
molasses, in proportion to invested labor days.
Table 1
.Equipment of Sugar Beet 'rowing Collective Farms with Modern
Technical Beans (quantities of items)
Name of chine and u t
1934
A. 1038
Tractor- plows
18.868
Sugar beet planters(adjusted to 12 roles)
7.500
12.597
Inter-row oultivatorc(adjusted to 12 rows)
215
12.818
Plant -feeders
10.965
rioultural e uipment for pest control
7.034
. 11.884
Sugar beet elevators(?)
2.707
17.764
Collective farms aro equipped with modern technical tiplements. The
heaviest and most labor consuming tasks i+ugar beat production are mecha-
nized. The degree of mechanisation at collective farms and its expanse in
the past few years are presented in table 1, while level of mechanization
is listed in table 2.
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Sveklovodstvo 4 Trani:1. 209: Sugar Poets
'
Table 1
Level of Mochanigation of Principal Labor Processes on Sugar Beets
at Collective Farris (in Percentage)
Designation of Work done by Tractors. 14,
1937
Sugar beet planting
6.7 -
84.3 .
?
Inter-raw cultivation
12.6
52.4 -
Additional feeding
59.2
Digging
9.2
78.5
Transpertation of sugar beets
26.0:
32.1
Over 70,000 tractors and 35,000 machine:1 are at work on sugar best
fields of collective farms. Creative Stmbition is, however, not satisfied
with theca accomplietictonts. Yeug Soviet -engineers, teohnicians and collec-
tive. farmer-inventors labor persistently to produce a sugar beet Combine that
may permit digging, ?Cleaning and cutting' of anger hoots iiitgAhleast expendi-
ture. Ingtheer Koren tkov designed a machine which digs and piles sugar
beets.; Inoteases _in trained personnel equal levels attained by tech:int- "
sation. ? (table 3). ,
Table I
Special Agricultural Personnel Employed at Sugar Eiet MS.
1934
' 147
.kroncr iota _
4.048
?5.549
Teohnical personnel .
.3.325
5.968
Cot...tine drivers (perators)
7.693
Tractor Drivers (Operators)
29.006
106.104
Chauffeurs
6.996
18.888
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Sveklovodstvo LIMU1514t flir%?wi a7.uvis uwwym
Application of fertilizers under sugar beet crops increased from year
to year. (table 4) Table
Introduction of Vineral Yert lisers under Iger Feet rrops (In Tons)
Years Total amount of inc1,-eirg
rineral fertilisers Soluble phosphates nitrogen potassium
14 7,? 20 (3/0 40%
? ???????MOOMIIMOS1110111.
1934
382.9%8
362.70
11.7es
633.124
944.930
97.743
1936
T98.921
FC2.400
103.040
1937
698.627
639.384
131.646
8.44c;
30.401
131.481
131.497
22S aro-chumical laboratories were established to improve the appli-
cation in etoring of fertilizers at Ili! engaged in p1antin4z sugar beets.
SuEar beets are grown in special rotations wit perennial grasat.,,e,Lrain
. _
crops, Roe cereal-legumes. Further success in sugar beet production is con-
nected with t)!e inlitroduction of proper crop rotations and planting of
perennial grasses. The following problems should be solved in sugar beet
crop rotation: 1. Proper development of principal branches an crops at
collective farms to ensure the fulfillment of government assignments In devel-
oping agrioulture in every region/ !n extending the area of perennial
d.asses it is necesst.ry to preserve, whererer possible, and to et- e areas
of cereal plantings. In introducing crop rotations conditions essential for
increasing yields of crops under rotation must not be obstructed. rroos
must ka include those essential for collective farms, i.e. grain, legumes,
potatoes.
2. The establishment at every collective farm of a firm forage base
ensuring development of sout husbandry and productivity of cattle. The
required amount of planting of grain-forage crops must be detcrmined for
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Sveklovodstvo 6 Transl. 209t Euzar rests
hay and green forage
of this purpose and the neoesscry ares established for/giving consideration to
to increase in soil fertility. In deterrining upon summer keep of cattle,
it is necessary to fix the anount of fern crop rotation.
3. Ensure-increase of soil fertility and definite, uninterrurted srawth
of yields. This requires assignment of the necasscry area of planting of
perennial grasses and establishing their role in rotation. Sugar beets and
winter wheat should taxAtaxtlemdmTiexexbe provided with best predecessors.first.
Rotation should proceed under agricultural measures and fertilising that
ensure high yields. The volume of' work on'the .respective crops should cor-
respond to the amount of available labor and Means of production at collec-
? tive faro* and UTC, NO that the most irportant agricultural methods may be
carried Out. Proper sugar beat rotation must ensure the fullest Use of labor
and moans of production at collective farms and ITS in separate basic agrioul-
turaperiods. In introducing rotations shape and direction of fields under
crop rotati/n and of brigade plots rust be determined with the view of cre-
ating the most favorable condit!ons for the best use of maohinery.
The average yield of sugar bests throughout the Soviet Union is growing
annually In connection with application of fertilizers, mechanical means
and the raising of the cultural level of collective farm land. 1935 will go
down in history (of roviet sugar beet planting) as the first year vf.'In the
Stakhanovite practices ensured drastic increases in sugar beet yields.
The promise given by tansomolka M. Demchenko to comrade Stalin at the
2nd An-Union Conference of Collective rarrerShock workers, to secure
yields of sugar beets no lower than SOO c/h, served as msignal for the ex-
pansion of Stakhanovite speed-up. The promise given to comrade Stalin became
a matter of personal honor not. only to E.' Demohtitko, but to hundreds of
other uomen-farmere. To attain the goal of SOO IA hundreds of women-farmers
formed links all over 'USSR. 42 other links succeeded in attaining the goals
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Sveklovodstvo 7 IransL. 4VV: PVV a
0 of c/h. Laxly advanced farmer beet growers earred the h'ghest award, the order
of the rnion of SUR.
In 1035 the "no" graders proved that yields in sugar beet :yawing regions
of the rnion could be produced In amounts of 650-700 c/h. In 1936 the women
"1000" graders obtained yields in sugar beets of 1.100 - 1.300 and 1.400 c/h,
yields which surpassed all known world records In capitalistic countries.
Competition is growing steadily from year to-year, placing into the fore-
ground outstanding farmers-"Stakhanovtey" who attain world records in yields
of sugar beets. In 1938 over 150.000 links, about 30.000 brigades and over
one half of all collective farms yore in competitions. Socialist comoetition
and Stakhanovite methods at work in tens of thousands of nets ensured during
ar extremely dry year (193E4 yields in sugar beets which exceeded even those
of 1935 and 1936. Stakhanovite metLods are used at present notOnly in indi-
throughout
410 vidual links and brigades butfalt entire collective farms, )TS and even admin-
istrative regions.
Thousands of collective farms have attained high and stable yields of
sugar beets. The average high yields are given vivid illustration in tabll 5.
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Sveklo*Odstvo
8 Transl. 209: Sugar Eeets
.' Yield of Sugar Poets At Advanced Collective Farms in 1938
Table 5
in C/h
Name of Collective }'arm Area of GlIcar Peet (in 14) Yield
Inept Leninn, Cltemerovets region,
Kamenets-Podol'sk obi. '
.
143 * .
394
"Chervonny Prikordonnik",
l'ampoltit regjon, Vlnnitsa obi.
150
:Le. Tuibiebeva, Shathkov
region, Kiev obi.
,
282
270.:
"Do Fammuny",' Yampollek region
Tinnitsa obi. ,
240
305 .
Ian. Kuibisheva, Saltaki region
VoldavianA8e1Z
40 ,
4C0
"Socieichi Fantsk region
Eirgit SCE .
65
475
In toldaykn ASSEtin 1038 close to 20 collective farms obtained Yields
above 300-0/h. At Fame4s-Podo1'ek Oblast' over 200 collective farms succeeded
' in producing over 250 o/h. Uore than 20 collective farms at Kantak region,
Kirgiz so, raised an average of 350 c/h of sugar beets.
Smialiat oompotition directed towards attaining high yields in sugar
beets epreed over entire administrative regions. Nia orTesn recorded
the following highest average yields enng the individual administrative
regions: (table 6)
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Sveklovodst*o 9 Trassl. 2091 Sucar reets
Table 8
3ft!H1'jihestaveeYieldoi?PeetsinitieeaY_szidRe,ions of (it c&j.
Years Oblast' and republic, Region AVera-e Yield
4.14=???????????10.110....MOMMIlii*O.WOMMII0101????14.
1933 Voronezh, R31SR
V. Flavskii
14
1954
;iev, ta:rsn
Kumenskii
106
1455
Voronezh LSI SR
V. rhavski
217
1a56
Vinnitsa, prsn
Yeell Vek
29C
1237
temenets-Poeol'alt T
7olochlisk
32
1938
Kirje SSR
Tan tak
Even hIgher Chan the total yield of sugar beets wes the amount of sugar
obtained per unit of area in the part years. The average sur content of
beets in ''CrIL in 193.R amounted to 19.14 peroent, a record level. Stakbano-
vitas succeeded in inoreasing this f,t;ure. Thus, Naria Pipipenko (colleo-
tive farm "Chervoba Ukraine, Losov region, Xharlkov oblast') reified beets
containing 19 percent of sugar from a total yield of 1.140 c/h; Trine Lit-
winova (coll. farm "granny Pakhar", voroneeh 014-20.1 percelt of sugar.
Ulle regions of sutar beet planting are known to produce hither suor content.
The avvrai.p yield of :Aets at Kazakstan and Lir4ie?LiSR exceeds tie rnion
average, *bile sugar content of beets is 18 -19 percent, in individual
collective farms even larger. At relovodel region (Tir6ie LsE), (collective -
farm 'Teri !'r.x") sugar content of beets was 190 percent; at. rennin collec-
tive farm - 10.2 percent; at !runes collecUve fart - 20.8 percent, at
"Gorr y siotovoe - 21.2 pereent? etc.
0-14-cl
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rolsoit. NI. E.' Transl. 2101Sigar Daats ? S'-
,
,xasures to increase the-yields of sugar beets.
V.:h. Promysh: 20(4);- 3.7. Apr. 1947
1110 66.8 Ss2 BD. September 13, 1951
Translated from the Russian by R. 0. Dembo
,
?
The resolution at the lebruary plenum of the Central Comnittoo of the
al-Union Communist Party(b) "On measures for increaslngagricultaro daring
the post-war years" indicated'a program for a speedy restoration and
lift of agriculture, for the production of abundance of foodstaff for
aur population and of raw material for our light industry. to increase of
yields of agricultural products and the expansion of gross harrant of grain.
aucar-beets and of other plants is the most important task of eociallet
ogrlculture and in the first line of its leaders--the state farmr. The plenum
of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party(b) ordained wide
meaenresin transforming state farms into model high-producing fame,
ono of the heel(' conditions for the growth of harvest end or the
ca?ansion of gross harvest, especially or sugar-beets, is the tido util-
isation of the achievement of advanced agricultural science and the intro-
duction of the progressive experience of the Stakhanovites into production.
CI' course, we_should not overlook the unfsvorable meteorological
canditions of 1946, nevertheless they should not justify entlroly the law
yields which were obtained. The real reasons for such low yieldo ,,2ere not
co ma the meteorological factors as the defects Which occurred in agri-
cultural technic and with a better organization of labor and of production
meaeures harvested this year better crops than their neighbors tho did not
lhlfill the requirements of agricultural technic. Who were unable to organiee
correctly labor and man power in producing high crops. The result? of the
agricultural season of last year indicate that many of our state farms are
still depending upon external conditions Which le the result not in the
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M. K. Transl. 21013zgar Beets
lacking of mans of prodnctions, but mainly of not having utilized them.
This has been confirmed by data of yields in state farms and. in trusts
during 1946.
The state farms of 9amsk sugar-beet trust (Manager, com.Ponarearenko.
chief agronome con. Enliantsev) obtained the average of 7.9 c/ha of grains.
120 gib' of sugar-beets and 5.9 c/ha of sugar-beet seeds,_A.rihis yield is
_ _
eves for 1946 too low, especially for sugar-beet seeds. Nevertheless the
First-of-fiay Super-Beet State Farm of this trust obtained a yield of 11.2
c/ha of grain, 235 c/ha of factory sugar-beets and 9 c/ha of sugar-beet seeds.
This means it doubled the average crops for the trust on sage-r-beets, and
it increased the grain and sugar-beet seeds one time and a half. The
Elroy state farm of this trust which has similar soil-climatic conditions
the First-of-Nay Sugar Beet state Farm and which is located nearby harvested
`411 5.2 c/ha of grain, 1.9 c/ba of sugar-beet seeds, and stored the factory sager-
beet for planting, since as a resat of the low harvest of moth: r sugar-beets
the storage plan has not been fulfilled. This is not due to lack of resources.
On the contrary, this state farm is provider, by energetic resources which is
much better and the producing program of the spring sowing was lower than
e.t the First-of-May farm.
?
First-of-May State Kirov State
Farm Farm
The sise of the plowed field 3161 3555
The number of the divisions 4 4
lib. of tractors counting in 15 E2 13 17
Horses 59 41
Matlock' (Dees) 66 101
Used plowed land for 1 BP (in ha) 11.7 10.6
It seemed as if under such conditions the manager of Kirov
sugar-
combine, comrade Xrutsev and the chief agronomist, con. Nikolsev should
have fulfilled considerably earlier their field work than their neighborl
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41114,*
gellnik. H. K. Transl. 210: eX:r Beets
the First-of4/.ay state farm. In reality, the sugar-beet state farm delayed
intolerably spring sowing and the production of sugar-beet plante and ful-
filled thiv work one month later than the Pint-of-Hay state farm, The
Kirov State Fhrm delayed still mere the production of sugar-beet olaMts and
the plyaghing of follows and other fieldwork.
The work of the Tractor Park was organised exceptionally poorly.
%Ile at the Firpt-of-Hay State Farm many tracterists achieved hiei pro-
duction, for inetance. A. K. Oudemenko at the tractor ME produced
604 ha, the tractorist Dilute-658 ha. A. S. Litvinovskii-494 ha, A. S.
Shapova1ov-4/0 ha, V. S. Shevchenko on the tractors-2,-39212s; the tractor
brigade I. K. Gladneva fulfilled the plan at 134,percent after having worked
out with en0.15 HP tractor 543 ha of soft plough land; at the Eirov& state.
farm during the last two years only one tractorist I. A. Zhitniak surpassed
the norm, after having worked out .398 ha of soft plough land with the
tractor of WM.
One of the basic factore in otr attempts to obtain high yields is the
strict fulfillment of the entire complex, of trartor work. Without early
plowing, without early and clean fellows, with the dislay of spring field
work and of the production of eugar-beets, as we observed it at the Kirov
State Farm, we could not even dream of obtaining Med crops of grain and of
Sugar beets. The decisive Condition of a suecessful work of the tractor
park Is the well-prtpared cadres of tractorists, tractor brigadiers and the
correct organization of their work.
The Kirov sugar-beet state fans is located 25 km of its aask trust.
0 This is the closest state farm of the trust. We should not doubt that
manager of the trust, cos. Ponomarenko and the chief agronomist com.
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14431411k, M.h. Trowel.. ;310: %gar Beets
Kuliavtativ often visited that state farm. And unwilii.ngly the q.uestion arises:
have they not seen th:? ugly job of that state farm during the lest two years
and. could not they assist that farm in correcting its work?
iie discussed the work of iCirov State Perm and. of Sumer trust at such
length because such viork during 1946 could be observed also in other treats
end state frras (Kiev, Vimaiskii, Livov trusts).
At the same time at those very trusts and even sue.."1-r beet farms the
advanced workers, rthiLhanovties, schieved high crops. Over 70( c/ha of
su.gar beets obtained the field tears laer of the Red Amy Susir Combine of
the Poltava suoir-beet trust, the hero of $scialist labor. M. I. Geta noon
a field of 2 ha, the field teem leaders fib. Terebillo Itzta A. GAnnets
obtained with their to:L:1'a a yield of over 600 c/ha. Me flail tv1 leader
of Veselo-Podoliansk sugar beet 3tRte farm., the hero of *.bciAlist Labor,
. audsento, obtained a yield of sugar-beets 672 c/ha ona field of
2.7 ha. The team leader of Sosnovetsk combine of Vinnitsk tre-A, F.
Saulko obtained a wield of 580 c/ha fluor beets. trader difficult conditions
of Kirovogras ?blast', with a complete absence of waterfall, the tais
_
leader, comrade Brik obtained 511 char of sugar bet. In the Xiev treat
r,inaivsk sugar combine the team leaders M. I. Iakianets obtained f..,35
_ _
c/ha of sugar beets, end A. P. V0lchan-514 c/ha. A high crns of sugar-
beet seeds were obtained by the team leaders of Orekhovek stae r... of
_
Pal-
tav "'apr beet_ trust, T. B. Gladkikh, c/ba from a fiel:i or 5.6, the
team leader of gew-Bykovsk sugar combine of Chernigev inwar-beet trust,
A. ralriapa. 24.6 c/ha from 2 be, the tem leader of 3estetathinsk sugar
combine of 1,:masen Oblast., E. Bulycheva, 21. c/ha from 3 ha, and others.
As a rale, the density of planting upon all Stakhanovite fielis of
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Mei silk U.- it.
sl:; 210: ar.3eet,
tion gner,than 100 the sand oota er bactr.on-
oved-platiting densit the moment of dng-
i-.tuters ?per.hectar siith'thtraverage i&?t of th tither $36 g;
0 -thantsuid tubers-vire obtained by ? this seeders ae tea Oslanets.
Terebillo.
did t. e 'teen ;lender Ste.
All :of ,then leo:toned:Us tail bet
aprifared,-, they ,eng Teraund!fthe'rsuatr.bee
t .the
e
' %ea kitit
-leaflet' at 16 en .deep, after "the atggl2tg they looserea the soil, itfter-
taiting they astragal:I; ? added.at least tio be s.after t 'diggings and
aftrt,the testble; ais feeding:they-Introduced: gni* 11.5 ei potassium
nitrate 2.2.5c. sndl-1?.2 pettiitsinta
?apPlying-adv.anced acrienituratecnic.
? It le -etiperflons to ear that ench:4gr
f our state 'ferns." Ilvervtigrononis
the dielsion ore: brtattorre of their irork that under equal
n?er. at the brigade' fitildl.scitte"
,
enae-Poor reitIts. If, folloving
'waited tonscientionsli
tectrac?is accessible ;1
t fern who is in
Conirinced.. by the
aae Soviet
obtala ypod
t
le of %drank*,
aSaulko;,;the,other.teesie vattld 'work-at consci3rttio1G1y, than they
nag ,4orkers spirt-
the principal- task
is necessary riot only to
vide advertise the esperiente of thesthrtolt.; but also', try to apply
cold. obtain, different . ? Atte- An
Oti Tia,tulti.cxpandt of this
eidingworkete of 0144r-beet ?t&te feriae;
in
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1,:altnik, I. U. ? Tranel. 210t Sugar Beets '
from the leaders of party, 3oviet, and atgricatural institutions a.
systematic and skilful leadership in aviculture, the oliminatio'n of
bureaucratic, red-tape methods of management which is usually manifested in
giving' tasks without their organi.zational daily assistance and toryting in
fulfilling the tasks.
tie should not forget that sugar-beet state farms, as the h:11.'s for
advanced agriculture end the nurseries of the best work measures, should
exert wore and ponithre influence upon the gni-rounding collective fame,
should show them an example'. ?What kind of an example could be iYervtahln,
lazhne-Tavolshnnsk or Sotnitskii auger beet state farms which obtained a
harvest of 30-40 c- of sugar-beete Ind 2-3 a of grains from one hooter,
In 1947 the sugar beet state farms possess all the necesrary
conditions .for the fulfillment of the take placed by the Tebroary plenum
of the Central Committee VICP(b). The fall plowing for sur-beet a end spring
plants has been fally carried out and even earlier than in the preceeding
years. The provision Of .mineral fert. ilizers state-farturizarelsed.
slid also the amount of applicatIon? of local fertilizers. All the
?
premises are utilized for the elimination of droucht and for the ratti
71eld of all plants in 1947.
The year 1947 should be marked in sugar-beet state farms by increase
of agricultural production, by. introduction of grass crop rotations. by
ths Improvement of the quality of field work. by mride development of
Gtakhanovito movement.
In order to *obtain high end brume yields of all plants the sugar-
best state farms ahead successively apply the entire complex of agricul-
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H. Z. Trans'. Sugar t
tura technical measures indicated by aCienCO tad by eitalchimovite ::sractice.
7ere belong the correct and early tilling of the soil, the ap)11c:..tisn of
fertilizer Se care for plants and controlling ?.gricu.lturel pests
fU3e.t.a3e5. early harvest without any losses. Out of this co:.11A-c, in orler
to obtain a high yield of anger-beets, the most decisive are t.to:ie agricul-
tural measures which ensure a full density in plant in whio% c:ntk Lu
-
riot less then 100 thonsand roots per one heater. The aviriples uf
Cludseao. "agonul'ke end of other Iltakharovites sax? harvt-!3teti at least
110415 thousand tubers are a 4001 indication that such densit;i? .)ossible.
The density of planting depends not only upon dense sprot.t,
c,orsts respects, ttp-le the %weeding tilling, thorough clearance or fields
froz1 weeds and pests (sugur-beet weevil, flea. bed-bog). 3e81,:es. raring
thei second sprouting (second pair of letflets) and during the eiVearanc?
of rosettes it is necessary to pay more ftttention to the nowerZ;.1 7"ovelim
c?ment of the sugar-bets and leave those plants which are 'Jest
eliminate those which are weaker. Plants trhich P..t the :30 r second
sprc-ating are strongly developed will yield during the harvest P.. he vier tuber.
;.cording to data obtained by our experimental stations. the m1E:hex-beet yield
obtained by our experimental stations, the sugar-beet yield olitainod earing
cecc:nd srrouting of large sprouts, in ern:vex/son with the yieV has been
obtained after leaving small plants surpasses 80 percent. Thus. .:-,he quality
of the pleats which are left in the row daring the second sprtluting is the
basic factor for producing a high surr-beet yield.
Along with the normal density of standing (one hectar for 100 thousand
roots) the leaving of powerful plants during the second sprouting
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nelinik. N. E. Tnnel. 210: Sugar Deets
and the testing of the rosettes will ensure a considerable increnee in
crops.
The search for a high yield of sugar beet seeds and their qunlity should
begin with the arranging' of best conditions for the yield plantings of
best quality. If we will be able to obtain planting of good quality with
the average weight not lower than 250...300 g. then we 411 pronota in
some degree a high yield of sugai-beet seedt.
Tit recent years the sprouting 'of the planting material due to
decilts of the agriculthral technic of the .mother sagar-beet, haft been
rodnced. The root quality also deteriorated. The second eproutirr, of
the mother Itagitrk;aiiiit shOuld occur at a distance of 1042 on co that at the
moment of harvest the plantation, yieldt at leatt 140 thousands of roots
one hector.
Darihg the second-sprouting of the mother sugar-beet, it in necessary
to strengthen the contrel of the labor quality. We mast keep in mind, that
the second sprouting of the motherengarzbtet is decisive for the yield
of the 'lotted material0 end, if the identity of .the planting for the production
sugar-bees_an_inctor for abtainins high cro s. then for the sowing
of tiother_Ingar_bests_thie significanckincreaste _many times.
The significance of an early highly qualified planting in order to
obtain high yield Of sugar-beet seeds is well known. We should mention her.
? few IhetteUres in nursing traisplanted material. One of the peculiarities
of the transplanted material is that. in' comparison with sum?r-beets. the
roots do not _penetrate deep into the ground.- Due to this fact, the transplanted
plents.use only the moisture of the upper part 'of the soil (up to 50 cm) and
^ take very little moisture from deeper areas; the leaves of the transplanted
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Vallnik. H4C. . Transl. 210:Sugar Deets
plmnts evaporate during one tine unit more moisture comparing vith. the leaves
of the sugar beets.
According to the data .of Ivanove?election station, daring the ripeui.
tag of the transplanted plants 70 percent of the. root system (1:t lleight)
are spread 0.50 cm in width, and in the depth some roots reads 0.3 far as
150 cm; during blooming. 'when there is a =tibial expenditure of noisture.
the roots of ths transplanted plants reach only 105 cn in depth. he root
system of tho first year stigar..beete reaches during baprvest tint 244." cm in
deptb.
According to the data of Damon* selection: station, the le:ves of the
transplanted plants during the. same length of time loge considert.14.7 tore
moisture than leaves of sugar-beets. For instance, the leaven cf trune-
planted plants love 10.7 percent moisture in two hours, but the ati,ar-beet
3.eaves-.7.6 percent; after '4 hours the leaves of transplanted plant3 lose
18. 1, and the leaves of sugar-beete--11.1 percent; after six hour il the first
ones 21.7 percent and the latter 13.8 percent; 'after 8 hours--&.r and 17.8
percent; after 22 hours--58.2 and 31.7. '
Due to these peculiarities the tilling of the soil is axtra7.cly importents
the upper layer of the soil should be loose and thus allow the air and
wnterfnll to penetrate into the recite. The loosening of the soil also prevents
the growth of weeds and, loss of moisture through evaporation. Ilat,t is why
the introduction of double cross looesning, of the soil around transplanted
plants and constant control of weeds are so important. Sags.r.beet state
farms are able to carry out at least four double cross looseninge of the
soil and the necessary weeding. The execution of the rest of aLricultural
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)1.t. ?renal. 210t Sugar Beets
?
technics in nursing transplanted plants (feeding, tying up the bushes)
and gaily harvest without losses will create the necessary conditions
? for 'obtaining a high yield of sugar-beet Seeds.
It ii ieceseary to mention that the Stakhanovites during their work
t.rith so.gar-botets.paid special attention to the normal density of planting.
selection during second sprouting of the stronger plaits, and during their
we* with transplanted plants they paid *Attention to early loosening of
the soil between rows and a most? thorough control. of weeds.
Of the measures in nursing cereals let us discuss the harrowing of
the sowings. It is well known that the Stekhanovites (Bfreecrer reingeT)
applied in their work a double harrowing of spring wheat. Time, ItTrescv
harrowed the first ties before the sprouting of the plants (with a deep
? placing of the seedsi ant the second harrowing before the iippeazsnce of
? Stems. The application of this measureftnorsassd the yield Of .spring
"heat up to 5 c/ha. ?The best tins for 'harrowing pring wheat is the be-
ginning of the appearance of the stews wheretrl It Is necessary to take into
consideration the soil condition. It is necessary that the soil would crtuable
=der the harrow and would not produce lumps. The one could be said con- ?
corning barley used for beer production. The harrowing after sowing results
In sten sprouts and, according to the data of the experiments of Eostov..on..the.
Don agricultural station, It increased the yield in 2 Gibs.
The most important stearnre is an early weeding, especially of sowing of
spring wheat, barley and aillat. Dor. ing the first stages spring wheat de-
telcPe 'ftry slowly and therefore upon fields covered with weeds it refired
from the weeds considerably. In order to create better conditions for wheat
?
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Trend.. 210s Sager' Beets
it is necessary to begin the weeding as early as possible, as soon as the
sprouts are strong. the same could be said for barley and millet. Special
attention should be given to the seed fields 1:T:on. which the carrying out of
iach simple agricultural technical methods promote considerably the it1C11111110
of crops.
All thee. eiricaltural technical measures were carried out only under.
the Conditions of good labor organisation.. It is imperative to ensure in
the state farms the organisation of team wark, to register individual
labor executed by each member of the team; lack 'of personal responsibility
should tiot be overlooked and the regeneration should be according to work; there
Should be socialistic competition between brigades, team* and separate members
ef the team. It should be mentioned that _before the lair over 14 thouimad
Stakbanovites and 16 thousand skilled workers were working in migarw.beet
state farms and sugar combines.
Now the wave of the Stakhanovite movement and of Socialist competitions
for hiet Stalin yield. in irngar-beets and other plants reaches widely the
'workers of wager-beet state 'farms: The managers of sugar-beet state farms,
party and union organisations should advertise this movement and promote its
development.
In 1947 the sugar beet state farms should achieve high hareest not
only of sugar-bsets, tat of other plants as well, by introducing pre-
gressivo st4^elcultarel technic. correct .organisation of labor and of pro-
duction meaenree. by promoting socialist competition, by the 'moralise in
labor production and the strengthening of labor discipline; this would ensure
the execution of the tasks ordained by the plenum of the Central Committee of
the All-Union Communist Party for the lift of socialist agriculture.
A.D.T.
Septenber 17, 19.
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Golublititii, I. N. Trauma. 211: Phytoncides
fffect of onion phytoncides on the
Germination of pollen grains.
Priroda 38(3): 67-66. Ker. 1949. 410 P933 ID. Septeaker 140951
Tzenelated from the Russian by I. O. Denbo.
At the present tine there exists alemmoir quite a rich literature
about the ;aortal volatile effect of phytonoides upon nieroorgenisms which
were discovered by Prof. B. P. Tokin. As it is will looses the most
effective phytoncide are produced by various varieties of onion and garlic.
The research made by pavlova. (1944) indicated that the mortal effect
of phytoncides of anion and of garlic coul& reflect also upon a series of
higher plants (water thyme, legume, twtuash, corn etc.). This indicates
the universal effect of phytoncides upon the cells of both higher and lower
organisms.
In 1948, before I was familiar with the discovery of Prof. Tokin, I
discovered accidentally a strong parenting effect of flying fractions of
phytoncides of a simple onion upon the sprouting of pollen grains of plants
with closed seeds.
In carrying out experiments in producing pollen grains in artificial
environment, I obtained a demonstrative confirmation of indications mentioned
in botanicel literature about the presence of peculiar secrets in pollen
g,rains and, in the stigma of pistils which stimulate (or, in some cases, cheek)
the sprouting of the pollen (Golnbinsidi, 1945-1941).
Widening the experiments in growing pollens, with the intention of
bringing closer the conditions of sprouting to normal Conditions, I decided
to carry out the sprouting in the presence (i.e. in the atmosphere) of the
flowers of the OM or of another type. Tor this purpose, at the bottom of
a Petri cup upon whose covers were placed drops of growing medium, were
? placed flowers of corresponding type. The experiments really produced a
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I. N. -3- Trend.. 211:1hytoncides
positive effect and the preseace of flowers of the ,same plants as well as
of other varieties often stimulated the sprouting of pollee grains accel-
erating the process, increasing the percentage of sprouts and the length
of pollen
Pnither it mas planned to study the effect of volatile substances
of fruits and in the first place, of apples. whose Influence upon the ripening
of other fruits end upon the development of plants has been mentioned in
literature. Not having at our disposal any apples, we decided. to 'sake the
experiments with some vegetables anti as the first we used staple onions.
Th first first experineat in germination of the pollen in the Petri cups
over the circles of onion ?bulbs rhich were cut across gave each unexpected
!
?
?
restate that they immediately attracted our attention. Really, the pollen
of a series of plants sown upon freshly cut onion refused to sprout, while
simultaneously it geminated well in control cups. Repetitive attempts of
germinating the pollens and including into the exoeristents the pollens of
new vtrieties of plants gave the sane results.
Daring this experirentias been determined that the presence of the
pollen sown upon the nourishing parts of the cut onion not only checks the
sprouting pollen grains, but kills them entirely, since the transfer of the
pollen into fresh air, after having been five minutes in the atmosphere of
phytoncides of onions did not save the pollen grains and they lost their
ability to sprout forever.
It is characteristic, nevertheless, that the phytoncides of onion kill
the pollen only after its sowing upon the nourishing parts for sprouting.
The Phytonc ides do not affect the dry pollen (fit least during the effect of
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Golubinskii. L. Tranal. 211:Phytoncides
24 hours with triple onion shift). The pollen of any of plants under
experiment (about 15 varieties) after having been in dry conditions during
twenty four hours in an atmosphere saturated by the phytoncides of onion
and sown later for sprouting sprouted normally.
The mortal effect upon the sprouting pollen is indicated only by a
freshly cut onion. When we sow the pollen4 upon en onion thich haa been
cat half an hour ago they sprout normally.
laple Onion bulbs which were not cleaned from their external teals
meeifest a peculiar effect upon the growing pollen. A few, small bulbs
A44 7'.
were placed into a cylinder, at-the-eleeriIt about 150 cm. In order to
create in the cyliner a humid atmosphere, some water has been poured into
the bottom. Ihe cylinder has been covered by a glass plate into whose
interior some drops of the nourishing medjws with the sown pollen were intro-
duced. The task of this experiment was the study of the influence of whole,
uncleaned bulbs upon the sprouting of pollen grains. It has been clarified
that in this case, although the pollen grew somewhat normally, the thickness
of the tubiflorae was inferior to the control one. Besides, in this case
the medium and the tlibiflorae somehow conserved, remaining unchanged up
to six-eight days (under the temperature of 20 percent). It is quite char-
acteristic that neither in this case, nor with the sowing over tho cut onion
was it possible to observe ftuigi mycelia which were developing stronkly in
su.,r solutions which serve as nourishing substrate for the sprouting of
pollen grains.
Especially powerful effect of phytoncides upon the sprouting pollen
tubiflorae is derived from the onion juice, whose minimal ;aixture hampers
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Colubizpkii, I. U.
.4? ?renal. 211: toncidee
their sprouting.
The testing of the phytoncide effect of other plant varieties h.e.d.
confirmed the date of Prof. okin end of his assistants. Like other
e.r7Jeriments with microorganisms, the phytoncides of other plazas Lffect the
pollen less than the onion phytoncifles.
A.D.V.
September 14, 1951
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Puzikov, D. N.
Variety breeding and seed production of sugar
beets during the Soviet period. Sakh. Promysh.
20(11): 43-46. Nov. 1947. MS Sa.
Translated from the Russian by R. Dambo
There was no sugar beet seed breeding in pre-revolutionary Russia. /n
this respect the auger industry !vas at that time depending upon foreign seed
breeding firms. Cancelling their methods of selection, organizing oleverly
seed trade, the foreign seed producing firma, especially German, acquired mo-
nopoly upon the Russian seed market.
Tremendous expenses, required for a serious organization of selection
work, failures which are inevitable during the first stages of selection,
and unsuccessful experiments at our own selection laboratories which were
organized at our sugar factories, all this frightened the Russian sugar
manufacturers of selection work. Sone individual selection tatir,os and-seed
producing farms existed in a poorly manner and were unable to co-pete with
foreign firms.
After the Great October Eevolution the situation along these lines
changes considerably. Even during the Civil War the VSSR started the estab-
lishment of its own selection-seed producing station. /n 1920 the private
selection stations and seed growing farms mere nationalized. In 1922 was
Tranel..2122 Sugar Pests
established the eeleetion - seed growing Department of Yain Sugar; the
scientific-research selection institute van.
The inheritance acquired by rain Sugar was not rich. The majority of
,selection stations and of seed producing farms had been destroyed: selection
)archives were taken away or destroyed, the laboratory, living quarters and
offices were burnt down or devastated. Qualified personnel of selectioners
which consisted mainly of Poles left for Poland. The seed fund also de-
creased drastically. It vas necessary to start the selection and seed.groving
, ?.anew.
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Fuzikov, D. Y. 2 Transl. 2121 Sugar Meets
The first stage was the collection of the most valuaule variety material
which existed in the country. It was necessary to restore the work of the
best selection and seed-groming stations which were active before the Fevolu-
tion. This task has been fulfillee sin::oessfully ix. quite a short period.
In DU already were morl:ing 16 stations: ;ladovsk"t(a, "erkhniaoheikaia,
4
FelotserkovSiaia, tdychesksia, Il'inctskala, Sitkovetekals, Ikemeronenskala,
Yanhinskaia, Ialtushkov?kaia, 71ronovskaia, Ivanovtiala, Kharikovskala,
Berezotochskala, Khoroshkovshaia ard Tetkinskaia. 'ihis year the Lamoinsk
selecton station has been added and mull- organized for the aallstance of
sugar-beet seed sown g of Voronezh, Tambov and Fensen oblasts.
A summary of the first steps of Soviet Selection stations W4S mac;e in
1023 and in 1924. Variety testing which was oarried out in 1923 in 13 parts
-__
of the 7krainian S$U and in central black-soil ?blasts evaluated the entire
variety fund of sugar-beet seeds which WAR available in Lussia. Twenty-seven
varieties of rational selection which were
and five foreign varieties were bested.
The testa proved hopeful results: the national varieties
produced upon 14 selection stations
occupied ten
first places on sugar beets from one heater. According to sacoharisnity, the
national varieties also Indicated good results, although the first place was
ocoupied by ultra-saccharine variety of the Polish firm Iatash.
In the foreign testing of Soviet varieties:two outstanding Gdychsk
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van-
sty which ocoupied in Halle (Germany) the second place on the composItion of
the sugar and the sixth on the collection of sugar. In all of these tests
not a single :arman variety had such high productivity with the high saccha-
rinity (18 percent) of the Soviet varieties.
The variety testing made in 1924 confirmed the evaluation of 1923.
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Putikov, D. K.
3 Transl. 212: Cuger Ieets
Based upon these variety testings it was possible to come to the conelu-
sion that there are in the country good selection material and that the beat
of them mere collected.
The distribution of selection stations in the form as it existed before
_
the revolution did not correspond to the planred distribution of sugar-beet
_
seed breedIng aed to the tasks of producing varieties which are best adapted
to the soil-climatio conditions of the most important zones of sugar-beet
sowing. Therefore, a network of selection stAltions was inspected. Udychsk,
Vitkovetsk, Kallnikekela, Il'inetskaia, Beresotochskaia, Yhoroshkovikala
stations mere closed, and their material has been transferred to other eta-
tions. liew stations are erented: hamons%ala in Poltava oblast', Veselo-
Podolianskaia in Poltava oblast'. Then in 7ursk oblast'was erected L'Alvskaia
station which aoqu!red the material fro- Tetklsk 0-ation, the re,ation of
the ilrst-of-May for the service of sugsr beet sowing le Trasnodarsk krai.
The reoranization of the network was accomplished by the ere-tion of tiiskaia
selector station for the service of sugar-beet sowing in Altai 17ral, ane Frun-
zin selection locality for the service of irricated sugar-beet sowing in
Kazakhsk and Yirgiz
Simultaneously with the reorgarization of the network of selection sta-
tions they are provided with a -edern laboratory ecui7ment, new laboratory,
living quarters and service buildings are erected - elevators, nurseries,
vegetation houses, electrostations, shorm. All selection stations are pro-
vided with tractors, living treating Tomer, with new F..ricultural machines,
inventories, mineral fertilizers, e;L;rarian massives are regulated; correct
crop rotations are introduced. The Soviet government inl7ests tremendous
capital into the construction of selection stations.
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Puzikov 4 Transl. 2128 Sugar Deets
The experience on selection of suvr -beets accumulated during five
years of work (1920-192S) indicated that by selection of sugar beet tubers,
according only to their saccharinity and to the weight of the tubers, it is
difficult to achieve any progress in selection. work with sugar beets. There-
fore, the Soviet selectioners began to base their work upon a complex, all-
sided study of sugar beets as a living organism. It 11148 necessary to produce
sugar beets the most adaptable to the conditions of specific zonee. They
had to differ by high yield capacity and saccharinity by small percentage
of nitrogen, speedy growth, small content of mineral non-sugars, by a high
juice percentaLe, immunity to fungi and bacterial diseases in the process of
growth and during storage by non-blooming.
For the solution of these problems mere encouraged selectioners, biologi-
cal chemicists, physiologists, agricultural chemioists, field producers, micro -
biologists, phytopathologists, entonologists, agrophysicists, matematicians
and other ppecialists. Bach station transforms into a huge eaperimental-se-
lection institution Which inoludes, besides the selection division, a series
'of other laboratories and divisions.
The scientific-research institute of selection is reorganized into an
All-Union scientific-researeh Institute of sugar-beets. The cumbrous labora-
tories: microbiological, agrochemical retesroh, study soil and meteorological
conditions of the raions of sugar growing, work out the methods of field exper-
iments, execute methodical guidance of scientifie-research work of the experi-
mental-selection stations.
The network of variety breeding fields and of experimental points which
embrace all the zones of sugLr sowing is strengthened and improved.
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Pusikov 5 Trend. 212: Sugar Peets
The best qualified personnel is attracted to selection-research work in
the Institute, at stns, variety fields arrl experimental points; the best
personnel is seleoted amonF, the youth who t;raduated from higher educational
Institutiars;the preparation and the perfection of personnel is organized.
Si ultanenusly wittlthe organization of material basis for selection work
tlt r.eoaration of personnel of nomeroue specialists-selectieners, work
in organizing seed producing farms is widely carried out. Two hundred tsodel
_
seed bree,iinz sugar beet Soviet farms mere newly restored. These fares pro-
duce yer,rly mD0-600 thousand highly qualified seeds of sugar beets.
A network of seed factories and seed bases is created. ';:(1?ipped accord-
ing to the latest technic, the seed factorice_alonwiththeir send bases
_ _
mere tble to produce and to stnre such great amnunte of euger-beet see 's that
it was able to provide for the demand of the entire owntry for a year. _
------- _ _
_ .
As a result of measures adapted by Main Sugar, the auger industry of
rs!..F. fully freed itself from foreign dependence. The ver:etl. composition of
sugar beets had changed.
FeplacinL tLe foreign varleties wMoh were dominatirg in Tsarist Pussia,
now appeared new varietiee of sugar bet e of natinnal selection stations pro-
duced by Soviet people.
Already durinL its infanoy (1923-1970) the Soviet selection 7roduced a
series of first ?last: sugar beet varieties (as far as productivity is concerned)
which excells the varieties or foreign selection in sucar production.
The practice indicated that the needs of the b(st Soviet selection is
capable for better yield than foreign varieties. At the first place, according
to the amount or yield from hectar, stands the variety of the Charkov station;
_
the second place is occupied by the variety of Ramonsk station, but according
_
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VUZ11(1211
to the saccharinity 7.t. '13 7.2 percent hij,er tIan the Ttartkov wriety and is
the best ir slicer carte/It of all crop varieties. '"le Tarietits of 1.10vskii,
ITanovell, nlaeoveko!, 7e1otserkorskoi raid IPi1et6koi stat:ans
productivit;;.
The sl-ift fro- aur setds to tYe i11ot n of orop ftrietios In 1%;l
which hat been carried tr.A. la 1=4-1, yields to our ratical toono-y 2-2.5
percent of aJeltional suLar fro" 0 1 .;ectr of suzar-et plantin6.
Te foreioa crops writWes Tippc, Kleintantsleben, ,loerainL, trube
are oonsicerbly Lrferior to Soviet crop varieties accordInG to t iold of
succi- from hectar and are not sLI;erior
saccharinity.
Yxperi-;ents Which uere cLrried out ir rola, r , during re-
crnt yec.rs provtd the proLuctivity of soviet var:eties ot? sur-'ueets.
A treTeneons rork in oreat!k: a notAork of Soviet selectiAl stations,
seed factr.ecs and bases and in providlnL them with aded ftchoic has been
_
carried oi:t In the years of the Fir rIan.
First Stalin iive-Year
Thin war a LenAine revolutionary recnnstruotior of variety-seed produc-
tion In the field of sugar-beets. Not a sissle oapitalist co_ntry possesses
s11,117 , 7nwcrfu1 -;ar!et-seed produoint? system as me possess In our soLsr
ireustry.
The sucar 1:-.(1ustry of .2sarist lussia dur:ng tLe 11C years of its exis-
terce elle to ottc.in sugar-beet see s of rational selectivn only 1/4 of
its reguirerent.
The Loviet sugar Ineustry in the first ten years of its existence already
produced all the recess ry amot.nt of highly qualifiek: selection seeds of tationsl
or! !n.
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Puzikov I Transl. 212:. Sugar Beets
In comparing theta twO historical factors, tfe advantage of the socialist
system Of national econ'Omy.OWer the vapitilidt ayatem la-Obvious.
"hiring the years of.thoSeCond.Stalin Irive-Yetr-Plan the Soviet sele6-1,-
tioners ind'seed-beeedera:stakted with the eiedutiOn of a net:great twat:. -
,to produce subh-sugar-beet"Watietiea whiCh Oauld be adapte&to the soil-
elimatie end productive conditiehe of ihi-Mnet important zonet of tugar-beet
:Weds in USSR: '
? ? -
?
In order to adapt these varieties into he most remote places with most
variable conditions of olimate, soil, agriedltd.ral tezhnic, the capitalist
seed firms 'pooduced a-theory'of'cOspopolitism of sugar-beet variety, i.e.
equal validity Of'the.Varietk diteeiarding-thO'locality of its pioduCtiOn.
This theory was well founded as lani as the imported augai-beet seeds were'
?
111 superior to those sugar-beet aedda of thecolintry which impoited.them.-
But? we know sinee Darwin 't time very Well that all organisms changeunder
, .
the influence of the environment. The SO4ieteeleistors and-seed-breeders
who were guided by the'progreasiVe theory of Baewin did'not accept the' -
anti-Darlin theory of cOsmopoliiidm.
"
The 1MprOvemeht of methods of selectin:died.pioducing Work and.accumu-
lotion of Material in variety-testing assiaied'in'prodUcing variOds'evalua-
. .
?.-
tion of tke same varieties in different zones 'of aniar -beet planting already
in the middle of the first Five-Year-Plan."-This fact boodle mete obvious in
? -
ipite of complicated conditions caused by the fluctuating meteorological
?eanditioni.
This caused theproduction of virietied according to their indexes in
those 'mei of sugar-beet seeds where they are prepared for sowing instead of
general evaluation of the varieties along the entire network.
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ruziVov 8 Teansl, 212: Sugar Pests
? Of laie;est theoretical and productive significance eras the production
?Fa series of first class varieties Which pre-erved their valuable qualities
not only in the first, but in a series of succeeding generatiors. Such first
_
variety wee I 1105 which hae been produced upon /vanovsk station. Formed in
1930 from a series of carpeting and individual selection numbers, t1 .is vari-
-
ety, after propagation in 1931 and 1972 has been for the first time included
into variety testing in 1933 and obtained perfect evaluation is a great number
of sugar-beet ranee acoordirg to it high sugar yield.
The variety of Varkhniachesk station V1025 of normal direction, the
crop varieties of rladov station - 7 103r, Llgovek L 1057 and L 1053, of
Ivanov station - 1006 which were under experiment in 1935 yielded high sugar
_ ? ? ,
crops in a series et zones of ugar-beet planting. The first and the second
generettens of the indicated varieties "reserve their valuable qualities in
? the tones of temperate ell- ate (?) in 1938-1941. The testing of the third
and fourth generations in 1045-1946 indicate the considerable productive
value of these varieties within a more limited number of zones oF sugar-beet
growing where they continue to appear.
?
- The varieties; from Panon selection station - P 1537, from Ivanov I 1531,
_
? - _ _
Lfgov L 1535. 'eleteerkovsk PTS 1551 and_etters which were produced in
1916?distinguish temselvee by a high generative irmunfty.
_
The fact of g:Ilerative iemdlity of a series of perfect Soviet varieties
is a great even in the field of selection of sugar beets. It signified the
birth of sugar beet variety as such.
The sugar beet variety production of the best seed enterprises of the
capitalistic, countries Cid not Lnow and does not /rrovt reliable, generative
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Puzikov 9 Transl. 212: Sugar eets
?
?
?
immure vnrieties of sugar beets. In thE best case these firms brie selection
raterials Which preserve their value only in the first generatiln.
The Success achieved in producing generative immune selectinn materials
placed u:,on a firm basis the problem of :roducing such sugar beet varieties which
are best adaptable to tile conditions of tne main zones.
;it the present time a aeries of zones of sugar beet plantinz vhich em-
brace over 50 percent of all sugar beet sowings in t:e country has already
E;gh productive vqrlaties whioh are aLaptible to local conditio:s. The other
zones also have good varietica. .lieverthelessi considerable fluctuations of
these varieties according to van i us years indicate the insuf:ioiency in their
adaptability be local donditions.
The best raion varieties ate those produced by seleotimner A. L. :az-
lumov at the Ramnn eta ion - P 11.37 am4-iL3tX,. These varieties yield in the
Voronezh and Tarbov zones of sugar-beet Jawing an increase of 6-3 percent of
sugar.
The Ivanov station provided its sugar-beet growin, zone (Sumsk, )flar'kov
oblast& and the Southern part of Poltav oblaat') with good ratan varieties
I 1745, / 1111, I 1501. These varieties provide the inorea-e of altar at
I-% percent in their zones
The Uladov station produced high productive varieties IT los% 1115
which yield 1-6 percent more sugar in its zone (Zhitomir oblast and the Tor-
them n part of Eamenots-TO:oltsk and vinnits ?blasts).
L'ov, Pelotserkovsk, 'erkhniaohesk stations rroduoeC a series of rairn
varieWs.
One of the greatest echievements of Soviet seleotimners 15 the elimina-
ticln of the yearly crop rotation. Put in capitalist countries they are still
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Puzikov 10 Transl. 212: Sugar Beets
using in sugar beet production only the seeds of the first generation of the
seed Onto which are aubstitoited by new selection seeds.
The production of high productive, generative immune varieties which
are adapted to the conditions of concrete sugar-beet zones in USSR permitted
.the majority of raiogs to Shift to sugar beet sowings of the same varieties
for a series of years.
The basic: problem of selection seed producing work is for the near
future the provision of all sugar beet tones of our country with productive
varieties of sugar beets which combine high yield with high saccharinity.
The cultivation of non blooming varieties for all miens of sugar-best
?
sowino where the sugar beet blooming is noticeable Ii quiteimportant.
The cultivation of ultra -saccharinity varieties of sugar-beets is of
?great interest for the selection work and for 'productive sowing of. a aeries
of miens.
A speedy solution of tee problems will lift still higher the authority
of Soviet selection and Soviet seed production.
End of article
?
L.A.B.
9-18-51
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Foofilaktov, Vs y.
Root-.Torning growth,
Lenina Delsakokhos.
Trud. 5021?1-182.
' Trans1. 213t;Orovith Substances
substances. biokkov. Orden&
Akad. t, F. A.Timiriaceva,
1045.- 106 /,952T
The author is the head f the Peparthent of Inorganic
cd analytical chemistry
, Translated from the Russian. by R. Dembo:
Endocrinology, the science of the inner secretiOn of animal glands,
whinh becam an independent scienee based, mainly, upon the work of Frown-
Sekara (1889) discovered the study of hormones (starling, 1905).
Hormones:along with enzymes, vitaminea and Inductors (organic e), in the
contrary to energpplentio aubstapaes ( Ibumen, carbohydrates, fats lipoids).
are preented in the organism in small quantities and, manifesting its oligo,.
dynamic effect, provide a normal development and a normal life activit: of
the organism.
The chemical nature of the aniral hormones has been determined in a s
of oases, The chemical synthesis of some of them.-thyroxine and aarenalin
(the over kidney gland) and some representatives of the group of sexual bar
mones--has been realized which fact permitted to use these synthetio comp?
for serving medicine and husbandry.
The study of analogical substances has started in the vegetative world
somewhat later. Already Darwin, who discovered (1880) the Atenomenon of the
transfer, from a distance, of geotropical and phototropical irritat'on,
expressed the assumption of the presenoe of some substances at the top of the
vegetative organ (root, stem) which spread along the ortan and transmit the
irritation thete.
Later on, Sachs 1887), "Beierinks; 88) fir-pressed the idea of cheitoal
regulation of morphogenotic processes in.plants which obtained later the devel-
opmeat ia the work of 'Etter!' (190q) and *Fitt'
G-ft
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? Fiofilaktov' 2 Transl. 213
Further works of the individuallbotanists who tried to apply the ideas
of endocrinology in explaining some of the life phenokema of vegetative orga-
nism (Feliubov, 1914; DE. Leb, 1917), and also fundamental res-arch of Kholod-
nyi(1918), Eibetland (1913, 1925), introduce us into the contemporary period
of the development of vegetative hormones --phytohornones or growing subitances.
In order to explain the plant's reaction upon the nechanical damage
(wound), in order to explain the phenomena of tropisma(geo-photo-electrotro-
,
pisms) in order to explain varions morphogenetic effects of the explorer, the
existence of ipeoial material fectors has been assumed.
Thus, Eibetlandt admitt the exiatence of wound hormones ("necrobormone",
"Travmatin"). Stark, Grendmann?-tropitm hormones (trepohornones"). Vent
and ?there- -horibte, of morphogenesis OA "kalipans "risokalin"which forms
111 roots, "Kaulokalin" which forms stems, "Karpokalin" which forms fruits, phyl -
lot:aline 'which assists in leaf development; as factors which determine blooming
are considered phlorigen (Chailakhian), "vernaline" or "anthesinen,"antogenes"
of other authors; in sprouting cereals Ifni a;sumed (Kholodnyi) the presence
of rblastanine".
The chemical basis for this Wen was furnished by the work of Hegel (1930
who explained the chemical nature and composition of the sprouting substance - -
auxins "a" and "b" and hetero-auxine,. which aro widely spread in plants in
small quantities and which are contained in quite considerable quantities
in the urine (of man) from valets they were at first developed, and auxines
("a" and rb") are.still derived.
The number of such compounds has increased after the discovery of "blots"
(rVildte", 1901) which is so important for the development of lower plants
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Feofilaktov. 3 Trans1.213
4110 (yeasts), the disclosing of its complicated nature (Fiultmern, I923) the
fixing of its main parte: "mezoinozit"--cenCeEastoott, 1927), aneirine
(tiamine, vitamin (*Williams) -qtompouede known previously, and biotin.--
ail 1.8002s(Kecv
1952)*; and finally, pantoten acid--C9B17W05(ti1liams).
These data assist the ahem/cal method in proceeding with the study of phyto-
hormonal phenomena.
*According to the latest discoveriea of American authors--
V. du Vigneau and coworkers--biotite has the oompound
C10160310 (see below).
The conception of some explorers (Kholodnyi and others)jwhich is based
upon the nphysioligical polivalencen of these subotances4?auxine, heteroanxine
and also their non-specification and which is Of Less pluralistic character/
is quite deceiving.. Thus, the inereased concentration of auilne in the fields
? of coleoptile accelerates the growth of these parts, 'but delays the growth in
the root tissues; the solution of teteroautrine in connection with the concentraf
tion affects the root growth either In retarding or accelerating fashion it
became clear that heteroauxine has the capacity of causing acceleration or
retarding of thrice:11 growth in their length, with other, plants it stimulates
the cell division which may cause specific morphogenetic effect?root forma-
tion, thickening of the stem or Of the root, etc, or the transformation in
the form of the developing leaves. It became evident that the root requires,
evidently', for the geotrepiCal reaction, the same sabot:knee which is the
growth regulator and which dotermines the phototropical and geo,?tropical
bendings of coleoptile and of other plant organs which are above the Lt-,und.
OM the other hand, this sUbettInce is not specific: the tops of corn coleop-
tiles which were planted upon beheaded roots of blue lupine Caused distinctive
geotropical benango.
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? The'polivalent character of these firmly determined growin7 substances
in their combinations or in various concentratims explains many phenomena
of tropisms and morphogenesis, without going beyond real faCte, end this will
out the list of various Wins% tropohormonss", "phlorigenes", etc.
As the cause which produces the inequality of concentrations of crowing
substances in individual parts of the plant organ which are influenced by
tropisms se muet consieer the physiological polarization of tissues which sums
up to "electrical polarity", i.o. the presence of a definite differentiation
of potentials beteeen the eidee'pf the organs which are variably oriented
(Kholodnyi, 1929).
Thus, Prauner (1930) discovered a soicalled "geo-electrical effect"--the',,
a
presence of an electrical gradient in plant along the vertical line (the inolise
of the potential downwards).
The photopolarization of tissues under one-eided light is expree,sed as-
cordinz. to Kholodnyi (1927), Miller, frauner (1927), also in the creation of
potential differentiation..-the becones electro-negative in
relation to the non-illuminated one.
It has been known for a lone time that' the struck cpot becomes electro-
negative in relation to the neighorint, non-struck fields; some increase of
the positive oharre of the eolle which are located directly under the surface
of the wound should correepond to this factor.
Auxine, an evidently,.beteroauxine also, according to the data given
by Vent and Kholodnyi, rove along the living vegetative tissues in the direc-
tion oPthe growing potential (anion). This explains the change of auxine con-
,
oenteation and the tropism phenomena,(geo-photo-electro..) and wound phenomena
which are produced by it.
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Feofilaktov
5 Trwsal. 215
The academie Kholodnyi thus formulates the real position of this problem:
wOut f the chto of factual material, gradually stand out clear contours of
a theory which promises in the near future to unite the multitude of the most
varied experi--ental dats based upon one principle and to bring them all into
definite order.'
Such is the position of the phytohormone problem in general terms.
As soon as the phytohormones became accessible, some of them obtained
practical application. Indolyl-acetic acid was known to the chemicists before
its role an a, phytohormone hes been .detcrmined. The chemicists also knew
the methods of acqutring it synthetically. And this .suhstance has been prac-
tically applied first by grafting of various wood species and in applying to
in:rimier species vrith ich vos were unable to produce root formation by the
well-known methods.
The summary of the foreign and of our national experitent wasgiven in
a pamphlet or r. Kh chailakhian? end B. 4 Turetskala which was published in
1942 under the editorship of N. A. Miksimov who worked a great deal in this
fiel6
Due-to a tremendous interest in such substances and also due to their
small amount in plants, where their presence is manifested by special extremely -
sensitive biological mett,ods, and due to the practical :Impossibility of acquir-
ing them by utilizing vegetative material, the question arose Concerning their
chemical synthetical acquisition, at least of some of them.
Let us recall that in Order to obtain auxin ("aft anC "b"), up to now,
urine has been used as the batio material eearating from it hormones with,
great difficulties.
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reofilaktov 0
S.111.4441, SW OW ??????,
Out of the Mentioned phyto-hormones there is a specific composition for
auxin
(iv).
(I), auxin re (I1) heteroauxin (II) vitamin El trst), "mesoinotit"
construction of biotin according to exploration of V. du Vigneaud,
K. hofmann and D. Nelvill (1V42) is expressed by the formula V, the texturb of
pantomorphio mold by the formula Vie
cr3
cHc-cE2 fH-t11-02-CH3
RC C-all-C.tl1-h-COOH
I I
I OE OH OE
II NE
CH2 -COOH
CH -D -EC1 C===C-CH2-Ch ON
I
CR2-N
CH Cl CH--sIII
-
CH3 CH2 CH3
CH3-CH2-FE-hC CH-91-CH2-CE5
-1E-CE2-CO-CF2-000E
I' OE
IV
)P\
NE KR CH3 OR
I I \ I
Cit ) -COO ; CH2OHI-CH-CO-NE-CH2-CH2-00011
I I 4'4
C72 C113
VI
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Feofiitktov ? Trawls:. 4.1.
?
The atteMpte for ::a synthesis of the auxin NO and "b' are unable to
? that
promis/goed results, taking into coneiderationikhe presence in the molecule
of seven and in molecule /1--of five aasymetrie earbon:atoms enablesthe
for-
mation of the compound I 2.L 128 stereoisomers whose:division- aiming to 4
-so-
late physi,ologically active isomers, became ttiFclEgilalmest hopeless).
Beteroauxin (indolyll.acidic,aoid),has been _synthesized before: now its
syntheses are considerably improved (rai ma, Khoshino) (V. 58, 2037, 1925)!
The organic ohamicists tried experiments With phytohorMonnl effect and
with sane other substances which are analogs Or homologs of heteroauxin,"since
in anizal physiology the fact has been determined that not only the compeund
'which hap been discovered inanimals possess tome physiological affect, but
often the homologs and analogs of the given substance, for instance, in the
group of sexual normoldi.-andkosteron, eistroni in vitamins--a, D1 and some
of his analogs, Kl and metilaaphtochinon and others, as well
Physiologically active are the following analogs of heteroauxins
ir-naphtyl-acidic acid.
These compounds were utilized in practice of plant productiln. These
substances, not being:phytOhorMons in real sense,- but being their substitutes,
according to their effect, in acme eases surpass natural hormones. Thus, for
? instance, the indolyl Oil acid 'which has:not been_dieclosed in plants sun!.
passes several times (soma times 18 -times and more) heteroauxin in its effect
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Feofilaktov 8
"Trans'. 213
. for.. root forming. and therefore 'retiresents' a special interest. The application
of this substance assists in:OodUcing.a.gabi- development of the root syetem
in such plenty which either are unable tb pro:Paget:, by grattihg tooniferofue
needle treat:, the majority' of cifirus trees, be fruit plants), or with euch
. ? _
plants .-with which the grafting indulcites ?wly and iribecurely (gooseberry,
-quinine tree .and others).
? .
Therefore, the-iimplification of -measures of synthetic acquisiton of
indolyl oil. acid, 'in order to use it for ;tarioue-brano?iel in plant growing,
represents a task of great 4mpoitance.
, ?
:Literature indieatce tib Methods of obtaining it. Jackson and taiike
(..T. An. Goo., 1930, 5029) Tialiieethie eynthesis-accerding to the scheme:
CV2
1(
co. -011110e1 '1 H2 00H 47-480/0
? 804V/0 "
42 -000C2H5 H2 O0C2Hg
CH2-114,11H?Ce5
?
CH2 -
100
-CH2.CH2.CH2.COOH
-COOH CHg0H
..2R7577
?CH2CHiCH2?CO0C2H5
-C9002E5
curcE2.612.c000n3 IR .cli2cA24cEi.coce
. .
Al it is ishoen 'stage I -Ir'is quite SitiefiOtoiy (60-81 percent), but'
stage II-III( the locking of the'indoly1 ring) yields an unsatisfactory re.
eult: after cleaning by distillation in a vacuum (7mm. under 238?) the out,
come is 47-48 percent of the theoretical.
After having obtained dicarboxylic acid (IV), after disarboxyling, the
authors transfer it into methyl ether (V), destillate it in a vacuum (2300,
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Feofilaktcre 9 Trowel. 213 ?
6 mit) obtaining 74 percent of the theoretical1 because, according to their
experiments, a direct'decarboxilling (IV-VI) yields a product (VI) which is
hardly cleaned. The eaponification. of methyl ether (V) into indolyl oil acid
yields '(VI), according to the authors, the necessary acid, which is cleaned
with difficulty and which melts under 1240;the outcome of this stage (V-VI)
is not indicated.
A4"S
In 1941, the academics-S. S. Nametkin, N. A. Dtbanovskii and A. C. RUdne*
(DAB USSP, 1941, volume XXXII, page 533), in observing the considerable com-
plexity of the above indicated synthesis of. the American chemioists which up
to the recent time is considered the only method of Obtaining indolyl oil
acid, described the of obtaining it based upon the synthetic method 43
of indolyl acidic acid which were given by Japanese explorers Wiz and Rho...
shimo-(v. 58, 2037, 1926).
C211511g]
C1CH20N
em???????
NAM.
owe
N-d112-0N
???????1100???1>
NH
nitrate-Pindoly1
acidic .acid
NH
-CH2-00011
R-indolyl
acidic acid
Utilizing this method in obtaining indolyl acidic acid, according to the
scheme indicated below, S. S. Nametkin and his assistants applied it success-
fully to the synthesisflof indolyl oil acid by replacing nitrile of chloride
acidic acid by nitrile 71f chloride oil acids
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Feofilaktov 10 Transl. 215
C1CH2411241124N
t,
-(cE2)3com
The stace of obtaining magnium-iodine-indole from indole and from mac-
nium-iodine -ethyl (1=.-41I) as well as the interaction of magnium -iodine -
indole with nitril yof chloride-oil acid (IT?HI), is realized in the sphere
of anisole; nitril (IV) which was obtained after the analysis of the compound
(III) has been cleaned by distillation in the vacuum (2 mm, 210-2].8),
56.2-36.5 percent of the theoretical escaped. Its saponifiCation yielded
the necessary indolyl oil acid (V) with the escape of 83.5 percent of the
theoretical atter cletninc vhich melts under 124?.
Not a single of the described measures promise the formation of indolyl
oil acid by an accessible compound in the form as it Is given.
The measure of Jackson and kinske, although it is formed by cyclohexene-
carbonaceous ether and aniline, yet it yielded to the authors not high dis-
charge; in some stages the cleaning of temporary products through distilla-
tion in a vacuum (III and V) is required; this method includes five stases.
The method of the academic Nametkin, although it includes less stages
(only three), but yields also a low escape (discharge?) (36.2 percent;
83.5 percent), requires vacuum distillations (IV), the main things is the
complicated accessibility of the initial substances: indolyl has been hardly
accessible until recently and mill not be for some time an accessible sub-
stance, nitril yof chloride oil acid (which le obtained according to the
scheme: glycerin, allyl alcohol, chloride allyl, chloride bromide trirethyl,
nitril yof chloride oil acid) is not easily accessible and requires the
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..orilarcov 11 Trans'. EIS
? ?
110
application of ESN at the 'act etas,: the reaction of maLniumiodine-indolyl
with nitril requires iodine ethyl and anisole.
With systematic research of reactions of aromatic diazo compounds with
alkyl acetic aoideio ethers, whose results were published before (see "Isv.
Akad. Nauk USSR*, department of chemical saence, 1941, page $21), A. A.
Ivanov and tyself studied the first stage of reactions:
CH2 CH2
47 11
011:! CO C6H5N2C1 C12. 100H
CI' CII - C0002115 CH2 Cz C00C2115
'11-2BC6B5
CH2 CU2
The escape of the Proftot II appeared to yield 95-90eroent of the theo-
retical under repeated experiments, i. e. it MRS more'thaniAmerioan explorers
(80.41 percent), and, besides, this substance has been obtained in two-stere-
oleometrio fonts eich has not been observed by American explorers.
Besides, by studying thy capacity of aryl-hydrazones in looking into
indolyl derivatives under the appropriate regime of theaction the following
scheme could be obtained with a qualitative escape (see the following infor-
mation)s
C112-C112-02-00011
,C-CO0C2115
Too
nephth-hydrazone
ketoadipin k-mbl
2 .2
-CH -CH -COOC H
C-COOC H
-2
RH
etyl ether
naphth indolyl-S)
acidity
2-oarbetoxin
*Propionovs
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Feofilaktov ,Transl. ,213
This indicates that the escape indicated in the article of Jackson and,.
Manske even at the stage (II--111). at 116-48 percent, are not maximal. and could
. , ? -
be increased.
??.! ? :' (.
Besides, the distillation in, the vs.cuui . which has been described by these
scientists as substances necessary for the cleaning of substances, atcording
wo? ? ? ? ? ? ,
to our estimation, were not absolutely necessary.
Based upon the experiment of Jackson and Manske on yexious stages of
. _
the synthesis and also realizing the critical remarks,expressed above,
-
worked out the following, scheme of the synthesis (ses the formula on page
?..
180).
Cyclo-hexanon carbon containing ether (I).?mbich,is obtained from .cyclo
hexanon (the preparation is anfollows: phenol--cyclohexanol7cyclobexanon)
and from oxalic-ethyl ether, n?combined with,chloride diazobensol,(from anilin
_
N ? ? ? ';" r .
.
and sodium nitrite) in alcohol-water medium in an open glass vessel at the
coling up .to +.1
CH2,
I, -
0112 CO . ? _COO CI CH2 COOH
CH2 CH-CO0C2B6 .
'
\/ -
CH2 .
1.
C-(P2)3,-!COOH
cp2. c.tcooc211
/e ,
. Ni,
-NH-C6HS
?
CCOO 1,70 94)
-H
"
0-950/c>
?
(.2 H2)
rey
12E
COOC
87-940/0
C-COOC 11
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- Feof I laktcrv 13 Transl. 213
Phenilhydrazon of acidic ether (II) escapes in the form of orange-yellow
crystalline product (mixture a- and forms). Escape 93-98 percent. With-
out any oles.ning, by boiling it for several hours in an alcoholic solution
of sulphuric acid and by pouring it into freezing water, we obtain ether (III)
with an. escape of 90-95 percent of the theoretical, the temperature of melting
is 76?; its saponification with alcoholic solution KON,under cold temperature,
without any preliminary cleaning, yields quantitatively K-sodium chloride ?
of dicarboneted acid (11/), the acidity of It-sodium chloride yields a lose
dioarbonated acid with the escape of 87-94 percent of theoretical; this .acidity
without any cleaning,, yields, by heating on oil bath, decarbo-oxidizing, the
expected .indolyl-oil-acid (V) with the excape Of 60-70 percent of theoretical,
and only in this stage a cleaning is required--one-or double crystallization
? from water (with the addition of carbon) yields a clear indolyl oil acid
(temperature for reltinG is 124?).
The advantages of the worked out method are: the accessibility of the
initial materials--cyclohexanon, oxalic-acidic ether, anilin, alcohol, metallic
sodium; among them there are no poisonous or hard accessible (indol, nitril,
-chloride oil acid), stn./laity of apparatus formation: .alrost all the op-,
orations are done in open vessels: glasses, flasks: the most complicated--
vacuum distillation when obtaining oyolohexanon carbonic, ether, tti!) boiling
of the alcohol solution with a reverse cooler, with the looking of indolyl
cycle starting with oyclohexanon-carbonic ether, there is not a single oper-
ation of the cleaning of temporary products (netther crystallization, nor ?
vacuum distillation); the cleaning of a definite product--the crystallization
from hot water with carbon.
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Fe of i laktov 14 Transl. 215
? The following are the high discharges which me obtained; stages 1-II
95-98 percent, instead of 60-61 percent with Jackson and Vanske, stk." II-/II
up to 93 pc reent, instead of 47-46 percent of the same authors, direot decor-
boxylizing of decarbonate aoid (IV-V) with the escape of 601-70 percent (which
could, be 'increased), . Instead of indirect say through methyl ether of indolya-
oil acid?all these are the distinctive peculiarities of our variation from
the methods of Jackson and Lanske.
With varioue modifications of this basic variation Ile synthesised this
spring up to 6 g. of indolyl-oil acid which, after having been handed over
to the experimental station TUNA (Timiriazev Agricultural Academy), proved
to be active as a stimulating root forming aubstance ii,on grafting of cherries,
white cedar '(Thnja), potatoes at the concentration from 0.02 up to 0.0025
percent in -eater solutions.
In order to draw the perspectives which are drawn in case of the acces-
sibility of this substance, let us recall: the polivalent character of the
physiological effect of similar substances with the example of heteroauxin.
Under certain conditions it causes the acceleration or the retarding of the
cell growth longitudinally, under othrr conditions it stimulates the cell
sion
div*m which leads to a definite morphogenetic effect?root formation, thicken-
ing of the stem or of the root; its solutions affect the root growth either
retarding or acceleratin dependint; upon concentration, whereby the sensi-
tivity of the root is very great.
Thus, Fidler indicated that by diluting up to 1), in I liter, the toot
growth in water 'plants is checked (20 percent in comparison with control).
Nevertheless, with further diluting se observe growth acceleration; 0.1/' in
1 litr accelerate 50 percent (i.e. the dilution of i mg. in 10 ta of water).
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Feofilaktow 15 Transl. 213
Oeiger-Guber and Burlet indicated that the maximum acceleration of corn root
growth occurs under 0405 r for ,1 litr, e. 1 for 2000 t. water! .
The atpve ground organi--steme, leaves?are much less,responeive to the
effect of those suestances. In order to stimulate the disturbance in normal
morphogenesis of these organs, considerable concentrations are required. Thus,
the grafting is achieved with the concentration of 0.00S-!0.01 portent of
heteroauxin.
It is interesting to observe that not only stems leaf petioles., but
even the basic wino of the leaf blades react upon the Intensified supply of
grovtng substances (heteroauxin) by the manifestation of the root forming a0.-
titity. In those domains of these or6ans, *Lars theconcentration 6f the
growing hormone .reaches a definite sloe, there begins an abundant foundation
411 of additional roots, they reach a definite length and ut.er.1avorable
tions are able to fulfill all functions intrinsic to normal roots.
lihen heteroauxia in introduced under the bark of a willow or of a poplar,.
it oaue a noticeable division of cambiu (eden).
The. academic Kholodnyi (106) obtained the increase in. the growth of veg-
etative or6ano and increase in fruit bearing by cultivating oats seeds with
heteroauxin (0.01 percent) for twenty-four hours. Timin and Len (1i738) ob-
served the same uhenomena when carrira out analogous experiments with oats.
and wheat.
Amlong and Naundorf (1937) stated the in ease of the. root mass with radish
and sugar beets after hormonlemg.with hetoroa4in.
Stair and Diu-tat (1038) observed a higher fruit yield after havik; oUl-
tivated tomato seeds- with heteroauxin.
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?
?
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. Peofilaktov
16 ?renal. 215
. ?
Amlong and Naundorf inform about a successful distillation of early lilac
by moistening its buds with the solution of heteroauxin for a week.
Thus, in many cases hetcroauxin stimulates the development of seeds and
of buds which are in a condition of natural rest.
In recent years various explorers in USSR and abroad carried out a great
mmo nt of experiments by hormoniting grafts with heteroauxin and with other
synthetic compounds. The success of these experiments was of inch significance,
that at the present time this method begins to 'penetrate in the horticulture
practice.
Among the Soviet explorers we should mention the work of gcmissarov (1930
who succeeded in inculcating the grafting of pines and alsojof N. A. Vaximov
and Gogolashvili (1937) who obtained good results by cultivating with hetero-
auxin the graftings of oranges, mandarins and tune trees.
The tank of the chemiciat, as the collaborator in solving this most im-
portant theoretical and praoticel problem, is to make thistle magic substances
accessible to physiological experiment, to experimental and economic applica-
tion in various domains of plant production. And for this end it is necessary
to work out more simple and oheap measures for their synthetic acquisition.
Our experimental work is directed towards this aim.
Conclusions
Progress in the field of biochemistry of planta enabled the scientists
not only to separate several "growing substances" or phytohormones, but the
determination of their chemical qualities placed the question of their syn-
thetic accuisithnn for utilising them in plant production.
Among such growing substances of greatest interest are the growing sub-
stances which stimulate root formation.
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? ? ?
reof laktcre
1? Transl. 215
Among these, of most practical importance are indolyl acidic, naphtha
acidic an indolyl-oil acids. Altho gh the latter has rot been fo,Ald in plants,
but ac-ording to the power of the root forminG effect it surpasses many times
the natural phytohormona.-indolyl acidic acid by affecting plant traftings
with the conr!entration of 0.01-0.03 oeroent and even (T.10101 percel)t. Two syn-
theses of ilrfoly1 oil -rid are k- own: 1) JacVson and lianske (LAM?composed
of lyclohe;mnon carbon containinz ftcie and aniline; 2) academic S. S. Nametkin
with assis,arts (1.941)--obtained it from indolyl ane nitrilerchloral oil
acid. Path these methods, or dus to the oomple,ity and hard accessibility of
the initial Taterials, indintte the fact that indolyl oil acid is not an acces-
sible corTound.
Le the result of our research, we.are able; to simplify considerably the
? realizati?In ot enparatn stager of the synthesis, based upon the scheme of
?
Jachson and !;.orsko, to inoreece ocnsieerably the solutions according to the
stages, an, as a whole to um the nethod of the synthesis ot inc!oly1 oil acid
froT1 cycicbexanon eurbon-oonta!n5nes, ether and aniline which are ow-paratively
accessible.
The co-na:ind indo171 oil acid 'shish has been obtained by this method,
after hwrin: been analyzed at experimental s'ations of '11EA (Temeriazin
ALricultural Academy), indicated conspicuously the expected root formine effect
un plant 'Tatting.
L.A.B.
D.2F-n
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?
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lrauces.
Dobrotvortseva, A. V.
[(VMS) (All-Union Institute of Sugar beets - Kiev))
Pelleting sugar beet seeds with fertilizers. Stich.
Promysh. 25(2): 39-42. Feb. 1951. 65.8 Sa2
Translated from the Russian by S. N. Monson
The first period in the development of sugar beets (from the appearance
of sprouts to the formation of the third pair of leaves) is the most critical.
The establishment of conditions Contributing to joint, full and healthy sprouts
represents therefore one of the major problems for increasing yields of sugar
beets and the basic) prerequisite for the mechanization of methods for their
care.
The principia cause for obtaining thinned sproutings.consists,in our
opinion, in the common use in industry of the type of sugar bee* sliding coulter
which does not meet agro-technical requirements. To begin with, it does not
meet the chief requirement proposed by Williams concerning the planting of
seeds on a firm, settled and moist bed. This type coulter firms the bottom
of the trench but its construction is such that the companted layer of soil
introduces the fertilizers into rows and not seeds. Fertilizers are covered
with friable, dried soil through side indentations and sugar beet Reeds planted
on the friable soil. Thus there always is a friable layer, no less than 1.5 am
thick, between seeds and the compact toil layer. The thickness of the former
layer may be even larger if the surface layer is dried out. .This condition
- may be eliminated in two ways. First, by constructing a sugar beet ooulter
of another\type to meet' agricultural requirements for planting seeds and
secondly, by adapting the available coulter for planting sugar beet seeds.
This may be done partly if seeds will Ve planted on the layer of soil firmed
by plowing, though this will interfere with fertilizatior.in rows. Planting
of seeds together with mineral fertilizers, in prescribed dosages, will lead
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Dobrotvortseva 2 Trans1. zis
? to, an increase in the concentration of salines around sees and may Cause
depressed plant growth during the initial period-of it development. re set
,
ourselves the task to find a better method for iMprovingAnutrition of sprouting
seeds by pelleting them' before planting, with bacterial andorganic-mineral.
fertilizers. Laboratory and field tests were undertaken for this purpose. in
1949. Ditrogeni as.a bacterial ftAtilizer; euperphosphate (granulated and?
neutralized) as a mineral: fertilizer; peat-phosphorus-potassium fertilizer. as
an Organic-mineral) and humus as an organic fertilizer mere used to pellet
sugar beet seed's before planting. Nitrogen, of which the reaction is based
? on the Use of the microorganism 4Ititotobactern, vas? taken in the form of peat
substance. Igtmus ius taken from it nursery, dried and turned into powder..
In obtaining neutralized super-phosphate, wood and hay ashes, and superphos-!
thi$E.
phat5Imere turned into dust, etrained through a- fine sieve, mixed and left
to stand for Several hours. Ashes amounted to 10 percent of the weight of
superphoephates.
:Peat-phosphoruspotassium fertilizer? of the brand IIUIF 'contains: $0
icent or peat, 20 percent of 'IQ percent of lt20.
Granulated superphosphate and concentrated peat-phosphorus-potassium
fertilizer had a neutral reactien.end contained more than one-half of their
phosphoric acid in soluble form. Nitrogen and humus were taken in amount*
or 20 perdent,Thosphates-40 perbent of P205of the weight of seeds, i.e.
practically 4-5 times less than the dosage accepted for row fertilization.
The technique of pelleting seeds involved moistening the seeds in water
before treatment, rad airing them to a point where fertilizers would cling to
them without dissolving. Seeds were then gradually and:evenly dusted with
Organic and mineral fertilizers and carefully mixed with a wooden shovel.
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Transi. 214
Dobrotvort
Ba
before tr a
needs.
Qua plot of podzol soil (
on 0
3
with trogen
The planter
hosphates
of pelleti.r.g seeds befor
superior grade practice
on poorly nourished soil
rmed in a darkened place
planting, one
nourished
planting-treated
made' to Study
h was performed acaoidlia
oil (test I) the other '(test .2)
d in table 1.
VA
0 TBST Beet yield Percent of Yield of 3eet yield Percent
(in o/h) sugar , sugar (in /h) of sugar
Control, seeds
moistened in
water
VelIeting ecede
with ilitr
PeIleting seeds
with nitrogen
and 'peat-phosphate
Pelletinz -seeds
with granulated
stapori,phomittabe
Pellating *mid ?
with nitrogen.&
neutralized super,-,'
phosphate
Pelleting seeds
with pest..phoephorue.
Pelleting swede
with humus
20 cg/PL P205
10 ?15 TC20 in row
-d of
gar
1445 143.8 16.07 25.1
34.2 43.1 154:0 15.73 24.2
51.7.4 14.3
277.5
282.7
29863
1460
14.2
3869
'40.1
42.4
,162.9
'7
26.1
22.8
15.33 25.0
VIM
16.71 Z3.8
23.8
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Dobrotvortseva 4 Transl. 214
In test I an additional yield of 27.7 *Awes obtained fror. pelleting
seeds with nitrogen, while pc:listing seeds with nitrogen and peat-phosphorus
produced an additional yield of 41.7 c/h. Pelleting seeds with peat-phosphorut
alone increased the yield by 22.6 c/h. In test 2 the highest increase of 23.8
c/h was also obtained from pelleting seeds with both nitrogen and peat-phos.
Py pelleting aeeds with nitrogen alone the increase was 10 c/h, while
the comdined treatment of nitrogen and neutralized waperphoaphate resulted in
19.1 c/h. Reduced fertilization of the test field reflected upon the absolute
yield and the size of additional yields. This may be attributed to the accel-
erated bioloLical activity of azotobaoter on better cultivated soils.
In test 2 attention is drawn to poorer resdlts fro n row fertilization
compared to pelleted seeds before planting without PK. Row fertilization gave
only 8.3 c/h., any researchers repeatedly indicated that "azotobakter" is
unable to develop and absorb nitrogen without soluble salts of phosphoric
acid. E. V. Dianova and A. A. Voroshilova concluded, for instance, following
a atudy of the cause of absence of azotobaker in clativated soils, that "azo-
tobacter,, when introduced into soil without additions, is unable to survive.
and that tho introduction of phosphate creates conditions favorable for the
development of azotobaoter. (Scientific-Agronomic Journal, No. 7-8, 1927).
Pelleting seeds 'with nitrogen and subsequent pelleting with a small dose of
phosphate will consequently contribute to the increase in the biological activ-
ity of azotobakter. The positive reaction of pelleting seeds before planting
with small doses of phosphates together with nitrogen was confirmed in field
tests conducted at experimental points: Rorovinets, Taltushkov, Bershadski4,
Federovka, Shovohenovo, Rakitianskianekuld 2.40Witehino. (table 2)
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Dobrotvorteeva
?
Transl. 214
?
Experimental points!
Variants of tosts!
VPIC into rows
I
- told of Poroent
boots ' of
in aih) - auger
itorovimm
YALT0S0KOV
111:11S11ADSK
FrOKOVSK
241 15.9
Yield
of
tluznr
38.3 I 329
Yield PerOont Yiold
of ' of of
beets sugar Sugar
(in 0,/h) (tno/h)
Foliating seeds with
nitrogen i% neutralised
super-phosphate
-01
Pelleting seeds with nitrato
granulated super
phosphate 37
-??Fa.1., mom.
Foliating ?cede with
Granulated auper
phosphate
?fik ????? ?????
EPK into roma
Pelleting seeds with
nitrogen neutralised
super-phosphate
01
03
7.41 27
17.3
M." 4.1. ?
6.2 I 18
7CELTIC0
,232 10.9
9.0
-0.1
Pelletint seeds with
nitrate granulated
-
super-phosphate 2.1 9.2
Pelleting coeds with
granu&ated super-
phosphate
2C.9
1 'lleld Porcont Yield.
of of. of
'cots Sugar Cugar..
(in o/h) '-(in_o/h
?330 119.8 65.3
377 17.2 64.8
1 3.6 12
-01
-01 9.1 ' -10 001
5.9 1 10 t -001 - 1.4 11
.;
Yiold Peroent Yiel
of of of
Ueets Suer Sugg
in ?A) (in/
1.7 1.7 02
-2.0 1.3 02
r
-01 1.5
RAErtlArrl ?Tmilmaro
II-
43,0 I 285 s18.3 52.2 lp 162 ' 20.1.
0 3
03
AVBRACC
1
.18.2 51.0
1
- 3.81
i
r,-,_
4.6 i 23
0.8
2.0 1 29
0.3
2.1 23
-01
-03
32.6
280
3.8
18
-
5.6
13
4.0
14.4
03
.--m?????
3.3
0.13
15'2.86
I 008 ..74
.1
0
CD0
CD
(D
CD
73
73
8
CD
-n
CD
(T)
CD
(D
n.)
n.)
. .
0
0
-0
co
0
0
n.)
-10
. o
-10
n.)
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Dobrotvortseva
6 Transl. 214
At Fedorovka, Utevehenkovo and hemetehino best res its mere o tained from
phosphorus introduced in the form of granulated superphosphate; at remaining
experimental points-from phosphorus introduced in the form of neutralized super-
phosphate. Additional root yields amounted to 11 to 48 oA; sugar yields--
1.7 to 7.4 a/h. Oranulated superphosphate introduced together with seeds increased
the yield or sugar beets by 7 -32 cA and of sugar 1.4 to 9.9 cA, as compared
to the introduction of a considerable amount of F20+nto rows (20-2c kg), even
though combined with 8 - 12 kg. of 1.1 and K201
End of article
L.A.r.
9-2g?ga,
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IIlir ', Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/02: CIA-RDP80R01426R010000010001-2
jihibrotvortseva, A. V.
dzi [(VNIS) (All-rnIon Institute of liugar beets -
S CS- ll'i
Pelleting sugar beet seeds with fertilisers. Sakh.
/110 Promysh. 25(2): 39-42. Feb. 1951. 65.S Sa2
Translated from the Fuesian by S. N. Vonson
?
?
Tho first period in the development of sugar beets (from the appearance
of sprouts to the formation of the third pair of leaves) is the most critical.
The establishment of conditions contributing to joint, full and healthy sprouts
represents therefore one of the major problems for increasing yiel.A1 of sugar
beets and the basic prerequisite for the mechanisation of methods for their
Oar**
The principal cause for obtaining thinned sproutings consists,in our
opinion, in the coinuse in industry of the type of auger beet sliding coulter
which (ides not meet agro-technicel requirements. To begin With, it does not
meet the chief requirement proposed by -allisms concerning the plantinz of
seeds on a firm, se4tled and moist bed. This type coulter firms the bottom
of the trench but its construction is such that the compacted lRyer of soil
introduces the fertilisers into rows and not seeds. Fertilisers are covered
with friable, dried soil through side indentations and sugar beet seeds planted
on the friable soil. Thus there always is a friable layer, no less than 1.5 am
thick, between seeds and the compact soil layer. The thickness of the former
layer may be even larger if the surfs.? aver is dried out. This Condition
nay be eliminated in two ways. First, by constructing a sugar beet coulter
of another type to meet agricultural requirements for planting seeds and
secondly, by adapting the availible'coulter for plantieg sugar beet seeds.
This maybe done partly if seeds will los planted on the liver ol soil firmed
by plowing, though this will interfere with fertilization in roes. Monting
of seeds together with mineral fertilizers, In prescribed dosages, will lead
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Dobrotvortseva 2 Trans 1. 214
to an increase in the concentration of saline? around eseeis and may cause '
depressed plant growth during the initial period of its development. We set
rh E.
ourselves the task to find a better method for improvingAnutrition of sprouti
seeds by pelleting them, before planting, with bacterial and orgenic-mineral
fertilizers. Laboratory and field tests were undertaken for this purpose in
19494 Nitrogen, an a bacterial fibItilicer; superphos hate (granulated and
neutralized) as a mineral fertilizer; peat,phoeptallEmitp!!!!sium fertilizer as
an organic-mineraly and humus as an organic fertilizer were used to pellet_
sugar beet seeds before planting, bitrogen, of which the reaction is based
on the use of the microorganism l'azoto-bacter", was taken in the form of peat
substance. Fume was taken from a nursery, dried and turned into powder.
In obtaining aeutrnlized super-phosphate, wood and hay ashes, and superphos-
Jtiltsso
phateA were turned into dust, strained through a fine sieve, mixed and left
to stand for several hours. Ashes amounted to 10 percent of the weicht of
suporphosphates.
Peat-phosphorus-potassium fertilizer of the brand IMF contains nO per-
cent of peat, 20 percent of P205, 10 percent of N20.
Granulated superphosphate and concentrated peat-phosphorus-potassium
fertilizer had a neutral reaction and contained more than one-half of their
phosphoric acid in soluble form. Nitrogen and humus were taken in amounts
of 20 percent, phosphates--20 peretnt of P20qof the weight of seeds, i.e.
practically 4-1 times less than the dosage accepted for rem fertilization..
The technique of pelleting seeds involved moistening the seeds in water
ijoirnra treatment, and airing them to a point where fertilizers would cling to
them without dissolving. Seeds were then Gradually and evenly duated with
organic and mineral fertilizers and carefully mixed with a wooden shovel.
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, Declassified and Approved For Release 2013/04/02: CIA-RDP80R01426R010000010001-2
Dobrotvortseva
Bacteriazation of seeds with nitrogen mac performed in a darkened place
before treatment with phosphates. The planter was set for planting treated'
seeds.
On a plot of ,podzol ot1 (viIS) two experiments were Made to study results
of pelleting seeds before ,planting, one of which was performed according to
superior grade practices, on a well nourished soil (test I), the other (test 2)
on poorly nourished soil. Results are submitted in table 1.
Test': 1
Test 2
VARIAETS OF TrsT
Control, Gees
moistened in
water
Pelleting seeds
with nitrogen
Pelleting seeds
with nitrogen
and peat-phosphate
Pelleting seeds
with granulated
super-phosphate
Pelleting seeds'
with nitrogen
neutralized super-
phosphate
Pelleting seeds
with peat-phoephorus
Pelleting seeds
with humus
20 kg/it P205
10 15 120 in row
Beet yield
(in o/h)
Percent of
sugar
Yield of
sugar
(in ofil)
Beet yield Percent
(in c/h) of sugar
Yield of
sugar
(in o/h)
271.1
14.5
39.3
143.8 ?
16.07
23.1
303.4
14.2
43.1
154.0
15.73
24.2
317.4
14.5
45.4
187.6
15.56
26.1
277.5
14.0
38.9
146.7
15.53
22.8
282.7
14:2
40.1
162.9
15.33
25.0
298.3
14.2
42.4
air
? 151.7
15.71
23.8
152.1
.15.67_
25.8
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Dobrotvortseva 4 Transl. 214
?
In test t an additional yield of 27.7 c/h was obtained frcr pelleting
seeds with nitrogen, while peateting, seeds Witt nitrogen and peat-phosphorus
produced an additional yield of 41.7 c/h. relleting seeds with pent-phosphorus
alone increased the yield by 22.6 c/h. In test 2 the highest increase of 23.8
c/h was also obtained fron pelletiir, seeds, with both nitrogen and peat-phos.
Ey pet/sting seeder elth nitrogen alon, the increase 1MA IG c/h, while
the coroined treatment of nitrogen and neutralized superphosphate resulted in
19.1 c/h. Reduced fertilization of the test field reflected upon the absolute
yield and the size of additional yields. This may be attributed to the accel-
erated biolocical ectivity of azotobacter on better cultivated soils.
in test 2 attention is drawn to poorer restate fro- row fertilisation
otspared to pelleted seeds before planting without, PK. row fertilization gave
only 8,3 c/h. Nany researchere repeatedlY. indicated that ,"azotobaktern is
unable to develop and absorb nitrogen without soluble salts of -?hosphoric
? acid. r. V. Dianova and A. A. Veroshilove concluded, for instance, following
a study of the cause of Oltenia* of azotobaker in eyttivated soils, that 'azo-
tobacter, when introduced into soil without additions, is unable to survive
and that the introduction of phosphate creates conditions favorable tor the
development of szotobacter. (Soientific-Agronomio Journal, No. 7-8, 1827).
Pelleting seeds with nitrogen and subsequent pelletirg with a smell dose of
phosphate will -consequently contribute to the increase in the biolot,loal 'tette-
ity of atotobakter. The positive reaction of pelleting seeds before planting
with small doses of phosphatee together with nitrogen was confirmed in field
tests conducted at experimental points: Norovinets, Yaltushkov, Eershadekft,
Pederovka, allevehenkovo, Rakitianainatma ZetaAthIno. (table 2)
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?
Dobrotrortsesa
Experiments. tT3
Variants of. es
011
Transl. 214,
Yield of Percent Yield
beets of of
n o/h) sugar kigar
Yield Parcae
,of of
beets sugar
'in
Percent Yei
of ' of
SUgar: Su*
0/0
lit to rove
26.9 377
Pelleting seeds with
nitrogen & neutralised
?.phosphate
Polleting seeds with ni
granulated super
phosphate
Pelleting seeds with
granulated super
phosphate
48
ta
37
7.09 ?
NPK into rows
Pollsting seeds
nitrogen tt neutralized
super-phosphate
Polleting seeds
nitrate & granulated
super-phospbate
Pelleting seeds with
ranu&ated super-
phosphate
2.0 29
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Dobrotiortsert
6 Trans'. 214
At,Fedorovka, Shevohenkovo and ritohino best resvits were o...tained from
phosphorue introduced in the form of granulated superphosphate; at remaining
experimental points-from phosphorus introduced in the fora ol neutralised super-
phosphate. Additional root yields *mounted to ll'to 48 eih; sur yields.
1.7 to 7.4
Or
ulated superphosphate introduced together with seeds increased
the yield of sugar beets by 7 -32 c/b and of 'Sugar 1.4 to 5.9 c/h, as compared'
to the introduction of a considerable amount of P2061into rciws (20-25 kg), even
though combined with 8 - 12 kg. a 11 and 1201
L?A?D ?
9.,415-61.
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?
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Misevich, Z. A. and Zakharchenko, A. I. Transl. 215: Saaar Rest*
Downy mildew of sugar beets. 'Xkh. PromYell. ?5"
20(a): 31-34. June 1947. 65.8 Se2 Translated by R. Dembo
The authors are scientists at the Verkbniachesk experimental-
selection station.
himinz to increase the yield of one of the most valuable plants of
sugar-bect mites- sugar-beet plantings, we must concentrate our attention
not only an the requirements of agrotecImic, the achievement in seed.
verieties, bat upon the quality of the planting material as well.
The irr)rovement of elanting material should start with rejecting of
mother plants in the field, not so much in regard to the size and form of
the tubers, bit according to the presence of diseases.
c!ach vegetative diseases, like downy mildew, rust and mosaic disease
_ _
of saep.r %acts, by negatively influencing its development during the first
year of life transfer upon the plantings throne: the mother roots. Downy mil-
_
dew has an emuscially destructive influence upon the development of islantings.
This disease has been first discovered upon- the beets is the nierii a of en
century in the countries of ',Testern Zurope. At the beginning of the XIX
tury it becnne widely spread. Thus, in Saxony in 1894 downy mildew of sugar-
beet =Dos mached 40, clement._ jn Rnes_ia this, disease appeared_i_n_1215.
In 1927 downy mildew was discovered at the Verkhniachesk Selection
_
Station of -.,ziev oblast' where it has appeared yearly. In 1941 this disease
has been found on 22 farms.
airini; the German occupation the development of downy mildew has _been
especiallw 2_4ticeable. According to the data of 1945, the disease embraced
40 percent of veer-beet farms: about 20_pez_!_cenl_of
creels ani alitrat 25 percent of plantings have been infested. The disease is
_
?
found most often u2on young leaves. The manifeetation of this dlksease is er:.sily
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?
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Misevich end Bakbarchenko
?renal. 215: Sugar Beets
seen by an unarmed eye; it has a film of dark gray color with a violet or
yellow shade upon the lower (weaker upon the upper side) gide of the leaf, at
its base.
At the infested places the young leaves thicken, the edges of the
leaves turn down, are friable, their growth stops.
In rainy years the infestation is noticed upon old leaves In the form
of yellow spots upon the upper aide of the leaf, with a dark gray film of
Nrceltura upon the lower side.
With planting plants, downy mildew infests the leaf rosettes and the
sprouts of the early stage.
When the sprouts are infested by downy mildew, separate btanches,
bracts, tubers 'are affected in various degrees.
The plants affeeted by downy mildew obtain the quality of *prodiferatsila?
(proliferation ) during the first and second year of their life.
According to our observations, in 1945 the disease was disclosed upon
roots,, especially with Borne varieties, by changing the root form from cone
shape into spindle shape, in conspicuously expressed ribbing and the lengthening
of the root top.
Meteorological conditions influence considerably the development of
downy mildews wet weather is conducive to its development and, on the con-
trary, dry, hot weather hampers the formation of spores and the development
of conidia and stops the development of the disease. The large mother
sugar-beet could serve as the source for the initiation of the disease.
The roots of the mother sugar-beet which are infested by downy mildew,
according to Verkkalacnsk station, yielded 55 up to 90 percent of the plantings
? with external symptoms of the disease.
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? Kisevich and Zakhsrchionko
The dismiss could easily t
?natl. 215tSagar Bee
sfer frost the infested plantings ta the
moths sugar-beet, 4if both plants ars closely situated.
In order to eliminate the harmful influence of downy mildew upon
plantings, we removed 426 sugar-beet tubers which were infested bydnony
mildew. The tubers were subdivided into five group, according to the intens-
ity of their diseassi(ss Table X, page 4)
The diseased. tubers, stored with sound control tubers, were stored 170
day.. 162en diseased tubers were taken out from storage rooms in spring, 1945,
about 4.2 to 23.9 percent perished. Most of these tubers perished by the
decay of the central,
Al]. tubers which we
serration. About n percen
perished at the very
perished ones has been n
served.
ed after spring rejection were un
r
of the roots, at the average along all groups,
t vegetation. A larger percentage oft ht
ed with plants which were
Infested later.
Atong the plants which ,formed items. about 13 percent
fruitless
About 44 percent of tubers diseased in theifirst year did not
indicate any symptoms of disease upon plants.
Tb.e manifestation of the 'disease upon plantings of plaits which wars
infested late in their first year of life has been explained as the later
phases of development. These very plants yielded a larger amount of plantings
with definite symptolie of; the disease which corresponds to the conclusions of
Terkhniachesk station in 1939.
The plants with definite tome of the diseasivielded in the second
year considerably less crops than the plants which were planted with diseased
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?
The symptoms of the disease
o f :no the r
It
percentage
of tubers
which per-
ished in
storage
?
percent qp percentage percentage
,of tubers of fruition* of
whidh per bushes tubers
,ished at which did
the begin- not pad
.ning of any Crops
vegetating
Table
percentage of plants with
' dineese nv4ifestatioa
the roe- At the generative
Otte stage stage
?
Leaves without fibs
4.8
14.6
6.2
20.8
33.3
66.7
Leaves with filo Upon
the lever side
9.8
12.8
17.2
30.0
38.3
63.7
Individual dying of leaves
11.5
11.8
3.9
15.4
38.3
64.7
Complete dying of the
central bud
23.9
8.3
. 21.5
29.8
:
46.2
83.8
New. *mad. but &termed
leaves grow
4.7
7.3
14.9
22.2
83.4
16.6
The average
10.8
10.9
13.7
23.6
48.9
53.1
ti
?
a
fei?
a
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? Lieevich end. Zakharchetko .s. Trane].. 215: Omar Beets
?
tubers, but which externally did. not manifest any disease. (See Table 2, page 6)
Comparing the seed. crops from diseased mother tubers (from bush..
With distinctive symptoms of the disease in plantings, from bashes without
distinctive symptoms of the disease) With the crops from sound, control
tubers, we may come to the conclusion that downy mildew decreases considerably
the seed. yield in some 6110,11 up to 35-45 percent and even more.
A yield equal or close to control is obtained from those diseased
pleats which are diseased in the second half of the sumer of the first
year of life and externally they did not manifest any diseases upon the
plantings. This has been confirmed by the data of 1946 as well. This year
especially harmful influence upon the plantings of mother tubers resulted which
recurred. three times.
Our research of 1944 and 1945 over the diseased sugar-beet of the first
year of life throve light upon the causes for the decrease of seed yield.
13esidee of losses of some parts of the buds, including often the
central part, the diseased plants have a low sacthr.rinity and a lower weight
of the tuber in comparison with the control sound. plants of the same variety.
Tills is seen from table 3 which is composed, based upon the analysis 327
of the raion mother sugar-beet on April 29 and infested bythwoy mildew 24.26 of -
UV, (Bee Table 3. pace' 70
As it is seen from the data of table 3 the wagar yield for one plant
drops at 30 percent under the influence of early disease of downy mildews
The repetition of the disease reflects upon sagar-beet crops by decreasing tie
yield some times twice, as it is seen tfros the data on table 4.(page 73)
The shortage in crops of sugar and of seeds, due to the infestation
?of surar-beete by downy mild" causes considerable losses to sugar beet farms,
especially seed producing "ones. (See Table 4, page I.)
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1
The symptoms of thsi:,ercentage The average weight of the sees 'Percentage The average weight of seeds =
W.
i
l i
disease of the 'of bushes , . from pus bush of buihes from abash
mother wager-beet :vith deft- from basheif 1 ,without bushes withj- ,
' g
,nite sym- with con- ' ,in percent-, symptoms out deft- 1 in percent- m?
iptoms of spicuwas ' control age of of the nite AMP- I control age frog
dissase 'symptoms (ia g)! control 'disease toms of the tin g) control n
cb
of the die.. tin percent) disease
Alas* (in 14 i
1
Leaflets without ,
film 25.0 : 98.0
Leaflets with film ,
upon the lower side 35.5 90.0
138
71.0
50.0
166
54.5
. 33.9
153
68.5
19.2
140
68.8
84.7
i
I
148
87.9
61.1
151.0
lb()
100.3
120.0
125
96.0
128.0
134
0.5
136.0
151
88.5
112.0
176
63.5
Individual dying of
the lemflets 65.4 105.0
Oomplete dying of
the central bad 15.5 1 88.0
,
New, sound, bat 1
deformed leaves arei
growing
16.7
130.0
!
1 1
.1erLSSL.?.?_31.2..cL1 -12.4.22-148r0.?...;_6L_L9---..43.28.?.L.-139-t4..._;,.14.2.tt288s8....,
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Table! 3
0150
The mutt-
bar of
plant e
lee of infestation
Average weight
f tuber
Ancrant of
sugar in peroen
smcAr fre
1 tuber
Smor yield
in poreolit)
.t ti.
3.90
June
312
1649
62.1
'73.5
103
314
16.43
73.7
3
44
Augu.st
327
17.08
.67.6
81.0
200
Sound tubers
90
15.68
70.9
100.0
Table 4
S..4 Variety
Aiqetght n
once
diseased by dor" mildew
twice
-
1308 Ivanev stption
23 Vezighniaehsit Station
390
027
32'0
29).
336
4
(D
0
CD
=Pi
(D
CD
(D
2,
(D
(T
CD
(D
n.)
o.)
o
n.)
. .
0
0
-0
co
0
0
n.)
0
0
0
0
8
64
0
0
it"
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Xistrrich and Zakharchenko Transl. 215: SagAr Zoete
? 7 The history of the development of downy mildew at the Vorhbriachesk
?
station indieates the fact that, by applying corresponding measures, it
is possible to eliminate this disease or to check its development for a
long time.
A. considerable development of the disease which occurred in 1937 and in
1`...-38 he., been checked in the :succeeding years by couplet isolation of mother
suzinr-beets from plantings.
A new outburst of the disease occurred only as a result of planting
diseased plants upon selection field during occupation.
The shifting of plantings from the mother migar-beets at a distance
of several kilometers (after the Oliberation of Verkhniachesk station from
the invadors)eaused almost complete recovery of mother sugar-beet crops.
Based upon our research and upon the experiment of Yerkhniacheak station
We would. like to recommend. the fella:dna meamxres_in controlling downy mildew:
1. The shifting of reproductive sugar-beets from plantirg pl snta. _
tions at a distance of at least 1.5 km; without changing he existing
crop rotations and the distribution of pleats, this measure could be _
realised by means of planting reproductive sagar-beets upon a winter_
_ _
field preceding plantings (method TN'S).
2. All the after mowing waste upon the fields planted. sugar-
,
bests, and especially upon empty fields and. near them, should be estemeinated.
3. We should observe constantly the planting of augar-beats, especially
of reproductive sugar-beets, for an early removal of the diseased plants
of the first nests of infestation. Young plants are most susceptible to
_ _
the infestation of downy mildew. 3efore the removal of disea sad tubers,
it is necessary to spray the entire sragar-beets by one percent
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3.sevisch and Zalcharchenko .9.
Transl. 21.5: %tar Beets
? Ceaux mixture anseoticid4 with a radius of 10 m from the el.ses.ied
?
iditht considerable amount of irfested plants, before their shifting*
it 1..s necessary to spray.ith Bordeaux mixtnre the entire field.
Syststic removal of all plants infested. In, downy mildew, provi-.Thd there
iz V2Etal P41011nt of them, could save the entire plantation.. he
:0-Aing of this olrration until thc4 beginning of digging should not 1.Ye
unit ted. under any circumstances.
The dugout 'diseased plants fihould be ulaced into pails with the
solution of formalin or into double sacks moistened by forestlin: diseased
nlexits are iug into the same field. at the depth of at least G.5 n.
4. The leaves of root-bearing plants are *nosed at the place
of the plantations where there yea downy mildew disease.
5. The plowing of the field upon which the infestttion of downy
mile.ew has been noticed should be nlown at the depth of at lea9t
AD1-9-25.51
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,
Trend. 2161 Plant Protection
Yee so iusnoe *So andarstvennos Ob' adinenio po
? Borst* c Vredit(eliani Boleanieui ? Bel' Oros
Lesnom Khosialstva
Postanovlenlia. pravila I instruktsil po karantinu protiv vreditelei
I bolesnei eel' skokhosiaistvennakh kul etur '(M/solutions, rules and regulations
on quarantine in controlling agricultural pests and diseases). 2, p.
1933. 464.9 V962
Translated in part by B. 0. Denbo
TA3L2 0./..?'COITENTS
Yoreword
The organisation of a unified quarantine lorries at the People's Cos.. - 4
miessriat of Agricultuv of Imo
? The order of delivery of seeds isvorted from abroad according o destine. 6
tion.
Vin? quarantine
quarantine against phylloxera, ?
40 Instruction for inspaction of phylloxera on grapes 13
quarantine raioning of the territory of grape production in IlSSII 18
.21
a
?
Braes for registration of vineyards
Bales for founding vinsyards, ths acquisition and the delivery of 23
planting material - ?
Roles for giving permissions for delivery and transportation of vine 25
planting aaterial
Instruction on disinfestation of vine planting material with boiling
water
Instruction on fumigation of vine planting material by hydrogen cyanide 29
in staple disinfection moa.
Temporary technical instruction on cleaning vineyards which are infested 32
by PhYlloxera through the- mechanical nethod
-Cotton Quarantine.
The quarantine situation in controlling cotton moth and noodle worm
leshipovatyl chervil ?
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VseaouLentrepo-
Trans/. 216:Plant Protection
Potato quarantine
The situation of potato quarantine 38
Instruction on disinfestation of potato tubers and of soil in con- 42
trolling powders scab and sponge wore "subterraneas
Rules for keeping quarantine MIAs of potatoes ,which are importod 46
from abroad
Orchard quarantine.
tosolution of. the council on "Arden quarantine which was caned by
quarantine nenagement of people's Comniesatiat of Agri-
-culture of USSR.. on September 3. 1932
The introduction of orchard quarantine
'The situation Of orchard quarantine
Instruction for daterminizig the ratans Of free farming service so
Instruction in stathorizitht the right of permitting the transportation 62
of planting material (for quarantine inspection) ?
52
Instruction for farm supervisors in permitting the transportation of 63 .
planting artd of seed materia3.
Instruction for preparing reports on quarantine inspection. 66
quarantine in Controlling the dapanes? Beetl?
qpitssntine measures in controlling the Japanese beetle 88 .
quarantine in'Controlling the Bean. 8??8*
qlzarantine measures in controlling bean (lemmas) seeds 69,
ADV-9-25-61.
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Aft ifProva. T. I. Utilisation of
gl,? aceth substances in the propagation
? of fruit and berry crops. aml 1 Oprod, 1946
(4/5), 71-76. Apr./May 1946. 60 6'13
transl. 217:0rowth Substances
Translated by H. 0. Dembo
Among the agricultural technical measures which accelerate the growth
of planting material of fruit-berry crops the application of growth substances
is of great significance.
' Growth substances.phytohormonss or growth hormones--are present in
the plants themselves in small quantities and influence greatly the growth
process.
In the Ebviet Itaion,as far as studying the physiology of hormonal
phenomena of.the vegetative orgiumiiim is concerned, the academic 11. T.
Eholadnyt played an important role. In 1931 he discovered the a tiamilating
influence of auxin phytohormone upon the initiation and development of
side roots in corn sprouts. This observation has .been also proved by
foreign explorers. The American scientists Zianermann and Hitchcock. of
Bois-Tompson Institute. proved (1935-1936) that the effect of auxin-tater
solution upon plant grafting accelerates their root formation.
Further they succeeded in separating from some mold-fbngi a substance
which is similar to auxin and which is called heteroauxin. Hetero-auxin is
similar to betadadolyl-acidic acid. Three growth substances have been
discovired: auxin A. auxin 11 and heteroauxin. In order to obtain auxin (A
and 13) the urine of animals and man has been used, as initial material, but
it is difficult to separate the hormone from urine. Heteroauxin (beta..
indayi-acidic acid) could be prepared by synthetic means.
The following substances proved to be physiologically active: beta..
indolyl-propionic, alfa-naphtyl-acidic acids. These
substances, not being phytohormones, since they are not found in _plants. In
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legorovak,
V. I. -a- ?rang. 217i Growth Substances
? many eases surpass natural hormones (heteroauxin).
Figaro 1. Currant grafts, Versatile white, a Donth
after planting in the norsery. From left to rights.
two grafts covered with indolyl-oil acid during six
hours; 2 grafts cultivated. during 12 hours; 2 control.
The indicated growth substances are a powerful meetenre in directing
plant growth. They acquired wits application in working out ueagures for
the acceleration of fruit-berries grafts and of other agricultural plants.
The basic work in applying growth substances in the Soviet Union are
c--:.rried out by the Institute of Ph,ysioloa of the Academy of Sciences of
USSR condor the supervision of prof. N. A. Maksimov. The institute worked
out methods in applying growth substances.'
3.
Challakhian and It. ZN. Turetskaia? *Short nethodical
indications on the application of synthetic growing.
substances for the rooting of grafts*. Moscow, Pub-
lications of the Acaderky of Sciences of MIR. 1942.
4.0.0?10...??????????????woommiroomn
In these instruction is given the description of the technic of
applying growth substances sad a table is given of the restate of their
application during grafting of individual plants.
Valuable results in grafting forest and fruit crops were obtained by
Fonisearov (1938) at the 1?I;k1ngrad Forest-Technical. Academy, 908o1oshvill
(1937-1938) at Batun Ittanical Garden. Lochershenko (1939) at thektuni
Central Selection Station of Subtropical Plants, Carasenko $t Timiriatev
Moscow Agricultural Academy and others.
At the Moscow Frperimental Selection Station of Main Consery of the
ginisterium of Food Industry of US19, in working out measures for the
acceleration of propagation of fruit-berries crops, the growth substances
were tested in 1944-1945. In 1944 heteroauxin was teste& in relation to tho
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S
7
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orova. V. I.
?repel. 217:Growth Gabstandes
acceleration of grafts of various varieties of black, red and white currant.
Esteroauxin Wag taken at the concentration of 0.01 percent (100 mg for One
int- of water). In connection with the degree of graft ii 1ct1oD, a
voried e;sosition vas accepted (the tine length of the effect of the solution
of the growth substa:ace)t
for the lignified grafts of black carrent.24 hours:
for lig:lifted dafts of red and white current-48 hours:
for green 'rafts of black currant-4 hours;
for green. grafts of red and. white current-8 hours.
The lignifiod grafts wore taken at the length of le an. the cren
crzfts were token at the length of two internodes. The grafts ut5r,).ound
into bundles of 30-60 'pieces and placed in the 'heteroanacin solution of 2.3
=depth. About ten thouoend, of ligaifiei =extant _grafts were treated by
hoteroauxin. The experiment. has boon carried out under industrial con-
ditions. Me positive effect of heteroinuttn upon the lige. ified grafts
plented into the ground in spring hae been determined. The treated grafts,
d4..-pending upon the variety, formed roots 7-12 days earlier thrum the control
ones. Daring the unfavorhlo spring of 19? which was famous V a.drought,
the grafts which were treated by heteroanxin formed roots sooner than the con-
trol ones and produced the sprouting .of two year sprouts with all currant
varieties. The sprouting of two year currant increased along may varieties
of treating the grafts with heteroauXittAt 12.50 percent. The f,v.neral condi-
tion of plants treated with heteroaaxin, was different from the control ones
during the first year of their life. The treated grafts grew faster and
yielded, big bushes.
In 3.945 we extended our experiment and besides of heteroauxin we tested
? tho effect of indolyl-oil acid. Growth subotances were tested iron green
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Zgorova V. I. -4. Tiling". 'VT.:Growth Babstances
? grafts of currant!. ,gooseborry and ,cherries.. The treating of cumgant
and gooseberry. grafts .with growth substances wal carried out in. three
terms: June 25.. July 15, And August 1; on &orioles oncs--July 3..
In the .experiment with currant the following varieties were taken:
? ? , . .
the black currant-"Liia raoderednaie egoronatsiae; red currant-sTarsheviCh!.
nellentU White currant -Ver04110.,English.? Three varieties of gooseberry .
wore taken: Manton*. green elfinike and Ragiish yellow. line varieties of
. .
?
cherries were taken, including the old Rassian varisties-rladitairskata. Liub.
skate, gentskaia, of the Nichurin varieties.Plodorodnaia Miehurina Emu'.
GOYIM, taiirpotreb cbernsta, iubtleinata, lionomart and Ihekharayslx.ia..
ror currant and zooseberry-the growth substances were applied at the
concentration of 0.005 percent (50 mg for one litr water)! The exposure
for currant leas. accepted 6, 12 and 24 hours. and for gooseberry-12 and 24
hours.
The green grafts wore cut in two. internodes; in order to decrease the
to.ter evaporation through the leaves, the leaf surface was decreased in a half.
The green grafts were taken from the currant bushes six years o321, the
grafts of gposeberry-fottr.. years old. The cherry grafts were cat in the middle
of the cror of trees six years old. Altogether .1.0 thousand green grafts
were cut and treated with growth subetances. The planting of grafting.
was carried out in nn.rseries where tomatoes previously grew. For the
rooting of green graftings we .may utilise nurseries previously used for cabbage.
The graftings of current and of gooseberry affected. by the growth
substances fere roots such faster than the control grafting.. Daring this
treatment the growth of roots accelerates and, their power increases.
Figure 2. Currant graftings of Selland red, one "tenth
after planting in nursery: from right to left: 3 graftings
treated by indolyl-oil acid: 3 control..
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Epripme V. I. Trine. 23.?: Growth 9abstances
? As a result of an intensified development of the root system the growth
of the over ground part, aces/orates. The plants obtained fron graftings
which were treated with growth substances grow faster and develop a more
powe3?f4/eaf sUrface, as, fbr instance, lath the acceleration of grafting,
of Versaille white currant. Le it is indicated upon the drawing I, the most
effective was the 12 hour exposure; the roots were more powerful. The con-
trol grafting. did not form any roots at that time.
Indolyl.-oil acid was physiologicnlly more active than .heteroanxin.
bie Must mention that heteroanxin, besides or being less active; disintegrates
easily end losse its characteristics liFtickly. Therefore, before using hoter--
.cauxin, its physiological effect upon the plant should be tested.
Tho following results were obtained on June 25 during the treataent
of graftings of currant. English white variety, with indolyl-on acid
(0405 percent): with the exposnre of 6 hours 41.0 percent im.ve roots. with
?
the exposure of 12 hours-73.7 percent. Me- control graftings 473Vel roots
38.5 percent.
The variety Inglish white, when treated with indolyl-oil &Ad, with the
exposure of 6 hours, gave the best relate. The amount of the root pro- -
duoing plants increo-ses twice in comparison with the nos-treated
plant s.
The currant variety Holland red which produces roots with 'Jiff!.
culty fo,raed roots after its grafting. were treated with indolyl-oil acid
(0.005 percent): with the exposure of 6 hours-26.6 percent; with exposure of
12 hours-73.3 percent.
The control graftings accelerated 17 percent.
The best result :was obtained by treating the graftings of Ilona:id red
'with indoly1 oil acid for 12 hours; the amount of plants which formed roots
increases more than spur times in comparison with
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-Tgorova;' V:I. Trend. 217s Growth Eabstanoes
? the non.treated (figure 2).
The grafting' nf black currant form of the sane amount roots ,,,bether
thew were treated ri.th a growth subetan.ce or not. But those which were
trev.ted? form roots faster and develop better during the first growth period.
(figure 2).
tinder the influsece of indolyl-oil acid and of heterosurin, the green
grn.ftings of gooseberry form a rP.-ot system 7.10 days sooner and nape powerful
than the control onee. Asa result of an accelerated root growth, sprouts
are formed. Mae to the fact that the roots with the green currant grafting*
tally ere formed with difficulty, the apllication of growth mbstzaces Is
The indolyl.oil acid at the cnncentration of 0.005 percent at the em.
rosure of 24 hours had a good effect upon the root formation of ,-?;0.7:seberry
grafting". (Figure 4)t
Gooseberry grafting* rinik green 50 days eXter the planting into
the nursery. Irma left to rithts 2 grafting* treated
by indolyl-oil acid. for 24 hours; 2 control graftings.
The graftings of ghauton variety treated with indolyl-oil acid, Iorad roots
77.4 percent and the control ones 59.5 percent; the treated gr!-..fti.ogs of
groan *Finik" formed. root* 56.7 percent, the control-37.8 percoat, treated
yellow 'Prtf,lieh-44.2 percent, contro1.27.0 percent.
Best results in root formation were obtained frcoa early graftinge-Zune 25.
The verst results were obtained with the gr,ftings on July 16 and ..ugust 1.
observing the irt.ture of root formation with the cherries, -umder the
influence of indolylroil said. it has been stated that all cherry varieties
in propau.ting by mesas of &ren crE,ftings are qble to twine rota. The
percentage of root fornin ^ltzte fluctuate trith each ariety.
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I. Transl. 217: Irowti: 'Zubstances
?VrnIaia, airpotreb black and itonoluakh form roots easily. 1.:,entakala
and Liubekaia form roots with difficulty. With the concentration of indolyl-
oil acid at 0005 perms:at. best exposu.re for the majority of vezit;ly.Lea was
12 hours.
Under this exposure the green ev-aftings of cherries accolo their
root formation &ad roth growth in the length.(Zigare 5).
leisure 5. Cherry graftinge variety Liubskaia 15
(bye after planting in the nursAry. rrom left to
right: 2 aaftings treted by indolyl-oll acid for
12 hours; 2-control.
/hen Green grertings of cherries were exrosed for 24 hours in a soiu.
Vou of indola-oll acid. (0.005 percent) this was destructive for 0Viirpotrabsw.
nubileintiaft, "Plodorod litichurino whose leaves became soon ;,,t-now
tig ? Lind instead, of roots a callus was formed which require-4 a Great
? evend.iture of the nourishing substances of the i;Telting due to which it
VeuLens, roots are not formed, the bud door not open and tho 6xsit perishes.
The experiments which were carried out at the koecow az)-rLdeui4'30.
selsotion station enable us to arrive at the following conclusions:
1. ale trp.Aication of heteroauxin in lignified gruftin.:.!s
of karious varieties of currant erased the acceleration or root Corwation
in 7-32 days. The grafting(' which were treated with heteroauxin accelerated
the sprouting of two year plants 1240 percent (depending upon the varie)y).
2. Indolyl-oil acid has a physiologically active effect twon the
root formation of currant graftings. Under the influence of this acid the root
formation accelerates and the strength of the root system increa,ses as a whole.
3. The basic and. determined moment in applying growth so., tances
is the best concentration and the duration of the gmfting ex yours in the
111 solution.
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rramosim4-V... ' Tranil. 217:Ctowth SUbstanees
? The application of acid in the con: entration of 0.005
percent (60 mg for a litr of water) increased the percentage of the root
formation of the green currant graftings. Thus. for instance, with varlet,
English White When treated with indolyl-oil acid (July 'for 6 hours
the number of root ibrnizig planto increased, twice in comparison with Control
plants.
graft 1C enroll:Ltd red .(bard root forming) the number of root
formin+lants, in comparison with control, increaaed 4 tines under the effect
of indolyl-oil acid during 22 hours.
4. Green graftings of gooseberry are greatly affected '47 indolyl-
oil acid. Indolyl-oll noid in the concentration of 0.005 percent with the
evosnre of grafting* in it. solution for 24 houregive good results. The
root formation increases 1740 percent (depending upon the varlet) in COM"'
parison with the control ones.
5. ITnder the influence of indolyl-oil aid upon the green cherry
grefti"..the root feration is accelerated. The green grafting, of the
vallority of cherry varieties reacted well to indolyl-oil acid with a con-
centration of 0.005 percent (53 mg for one litr of water) for 12 hours.
MINI the exposure in the indolyl-oi/ acid solution lasted 24 hours, the
reaction of the varieties: black Itirpotreb. Iubileinaia, Flodozodnais
Mich:rina and rentskaia, wan negative.
ADV-9-25.51.
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- -
Geller, I. A. and. Khariton, G. Transl. 218:Sugar Beets
The utilization of nitrogen bacteria and.
other microorganisms for increasing the
yield and sugar content of sugar beet.
Sovet. Agron. 9(3):65-68. Mar. 1951 ::20 So84
Translated. by R. G. Dembo
el'he authors are connected with the All-Union Scientific-Research Institute
of Sugar-Beets)
Root secretions and dying parts of the root system are the source for
carbon and. mineral ash nourishment of many organisms which inhabit the root
zone.
According to the calculation of Krasillnikov, the weight of micro-
organisms of the plant root zone (rhizo-sphere) reaches 60 c/ha, while
in the rest of the soil mass their weight reaches about 20 c/ha. The amount
and the content of the microorganisms in the rhizo-sphere are fluctuating
during vegetation rephing greatest density during the initial growth phases
and during blooming.
? The high density of the micro-organisms in rhizosphere indicates that
these very organisms influence in a considerable degree the activity of the
higher plant, neutralizing the products of root secretions and plants and
taking direct part in providing the plants with the elements of ash and
nitrogen nourishment.
As a whole, the life activity of the microorganisms of the rhizo-
sphere is a favorable factor for the growth and the development of plants.
But, there is no reason to believe that all microorganisms which are found
in rhizosphere affect the plant equally favorable, since the products of
substance exchange of various organisms are of different kind, thereby
affecting the plant in a different manner.
This results into a practical problem: to fill the rhizo-sphere with
? microorganisms which are useful for the given plant. Of the rhizosphere
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Geller, I. A. and. Xhariton, E. G. Tran81. 218; Sugar Beets
microorganisms, according to numerous experiments, nitrogen fixing bacteria
(in particular. Azo'cbacter) improve the conditions of the plant's life acti..
vity and. by this the introduction of Azotbacter with seeds directly into
the soil is of great agricultural importance for the increase of yield and
the improvement of the quality of the production of agricultural crops.
In respect to sugar-beets, our research indicated that the saturation of
sugar-beet tubers with Azotbacter increases both the yield and the saccharinity
of the sugar-beets. The data of 1949 concerning the yield and, the saccharinity
of subar bests after the experiment with azotbacterin are given in the
table 1.
It is most important that with the increase of soil fertility the effect
of azotbacterin increases.
Thus, for instance, at Zemetchinsk variety field without fertilizers
we acquired the increase of yield of sugar-beets from azotbacterin-13 c/ha,
and. by applying mineral fertilizers the increase due to azotbacterin was
46 c/ha of sugar-beets. (See Table 1, Page 3)
Analogous results were obtained by A. V. Dobrotvortseva at the experimental
field ? of the All-Union Scientific-Research Institute of Sugar Beets in the
experiments with azotbacterin ? Upon a soil which has been treated with
sulphur and SOW ashes she obtained a sugar-beet yield of 144 c/ha and an
increase from azotbacterin.4.0.2 c/ha; upon a field with a higher level of
fertility she obtained the same year a higher yield-.27.1 c/ha and the
increase due to azotbacterin was 32.3 c/ha.
Airing the experiments upon black soil, by adding mineral ashes, at the
Umansk Selection Station of the All-Union Scientific-Research Institute of
Sugar-Beets, in producing sugar-beets upon the nourishing field of 45 X 40 cm,
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Geller, I. A. and. raariton, E. G. Transl. 218: Sugar Beets
Table 1
The place of the experimen
Yield of tubers in ciha Saccharinity
CONTROL AZOTOBACT
CONTROL AZOTOBACTE
The Verkhniadheek experi-
mental Selection Station of4
the Order of Labor of Red
Banner
Ivanovsk Experimental Selac
tion Station
Korovinetsk Variety Field..
349.0
383.0
204.0
Shevehenkovskii Variety
Field 228.0
Parafievskii Variety Field 285.1
Kozhanskii Variety Field.. 336.0
Dclinskii Variety Field 159.5
411 Batyeva Mountain (Experi-
mental Field VNIS) 215.0
371.5
387.5
239.0
255.5
306.8
385.8
173.6
236.0
17.7
18.1.
15.4
18.3 1
17.5
16.7
1a.0
17.8
v/
19.1
15.8
18.5
17.5
16.9
18.2
14.5 15.6
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Geller, I. A. and Khariton, E. G. Transl. 218: Sugar Beets
we acquired an increase in yield from azotbacterin?56.5 for each tuber, and
while producing sugar-beets upon a field of 45 x20 cm the increase in
weight of one tuber was at the average 3.3 g., 1.e. the effect of azotbacterin
increased considerably under the best conditions for sugar-beets.
Thus, with the increase of the soil fertility, the effect of the meas.
sures of applying bacterial fertilizers will increase.
Along with the increase of the yield it has been determined that
sugar-beet seed bacterization with azotobacterin increases the saccharinity
of sugar beet as well, The data given in table 1 indicate that in the
experiments of 1949 the increase of sugar percentage in sugar4beet butlers
by applying azototecterin was 0.3-0.5 percent, and in individual cases
reached 1 percent.
Due to the importance of the problem of the increase of sugar-beet
saccharinity, the research in this direction has been extended. The influence
of Azotbacter upon sugar-beet varieties-its yield and saccharinity has been
experimented upon various nourishing fields.
It became evident that the influence of Azotbacter upon sugar-beet
quality depends upon variety peculiarities and upon the conditions of variety
production. The data of 26 experiments with black soil, which has been treated
with mineral ashes, at the trmansk Selection Station (the experiments were
carried out by A. F. Ilikolaeva) indicated that the sugar-.beet varieties of
high saccharinity react positively to Azotbacter during vegetation, but at
the end of vegetation this effect becomes hardly noticeable or even negative.
For sugar-beet varieties a drastic increase in saccharinity has been noticed
at the end of vegetation.
In table 2 is indicated the increase of the percentage of sugar from
411 aaotobacterin. (Table 2, page 5)
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Geller, I. A. and Marlton, E. G. Transl. 218: Sugar Beets
Table 2
Number
of
the nous-
ishing fiel
Sugar
percent-
Increase of sugar from
Azotbacterin in percentage
Varieties
in cm
age
5/VII
5/VIII
5/IX
.
5
450
18.3.49.1
or-C-0-1,1
f- .1.0.6
+1.6
..---7
4
45X40
18.7.618.9
-0--.4
+1.1
+1.2
8
45320
19.9.21.2
v .
(+0.1
(+0.7
\-. ,/
9
45X40
19.8.21.0
+1.05
+0.9 /-' -0.15
/
It is advisable to apply azotbacterin first of all for varieties,
as for yield, undeAractical conditions of collective farms and state farms;
and. the problem of applying azotbecterin for the varieties, as to saccharinity,
is necessary to work out by the experimental method.
The experiments indicate also that it is possible to increase sugar-
beet yield as well as saccharinity by means of other bio-compounds. In
our research we tested the effect of mold fungi Trichoderma ligaorum and.
Pennicillium chrysogenum. The data of three year experiment indicated that
the saturation of sugar-beet seeds with the spores of Trichoderma lignorum
causes the increase of sugar-beet-:yield and saccharinity. In our experi.
ments we compared the effect of Trichoderm and of Azotbacterin. The
results of the experiment are given in table 3. (Table 3, page 6)
At the average, the increase of sugar-beet tuber yield from azotbacterin
during three years of these experiments is 17.3 ohm, and from Trichoderma
18.5 c/ha. The increase of the percentage in sugar content is at the average
0.3-0.4 percent.
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?
?
Table 3
?
The place of the experiment
1
Year of li Control
Trichoderma
Azotbacter
ezperi- root
ment ?; yield in
c/ha
sugar in
percent
yield
in c/ha
sugar in
perdent
yield
in c/ha
sugar in
percent
Zgurovsk variety field
,
1946 141.1
16.0
161.2
16,3
159
16.0
Zametchinsk variety field
1947 200
17.7
233
18.6
213
18.4
Deriuginsk variety field
1 1947 190.6
19.5
191.8
19.9
193.3
19.9
Zametchinsk variety field . 1948 148
18.2
171
18.4
179
18.4
Deriuginsk variety field 1948 212
17.9
217
18.1
219
18.0
Bershadsk variety field 11948 303
17.3
323
17.4
325
17.3
Dolinsk variety field 1948 179
16.0
187
15.9
187
16.0
Table 4
Fertilization
Control
Trichoderma
Penicillium
yield in
percent
sugar in
percent
16.9
17.4
yield in
percent
103.0
110.1
sugar in
percent
17.3
1717
yield in
percent
106.0
106.1
sugar in
percent
14.4
17.4
Without fertilization
WPK
100
100
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Geller, I. A. and. Khariton, E. G. Transl. 218: Sagar Beets
Practically the same results were obtained in our experiment upon
gray soil of Batgory (experimental field VNIS) Which has been partly treated
with mineral ashes, in comparison with the effect of Trichoderma lignorum
and Penicillium chrysogenum.
In table 4 is indicated the influence of Trichoderma and Penicillium
upon the sugar-beet yield and saccharinity. (See Table 4, page 6)
In the experiments of IA. P. Podtykan Who examined the effect of all
bio-compounds indicated above upon the soil of Batgory Which has been
treated with phosphor-medium mineral ashes, with the yield of control
field 422 c/ha, the increase of crops from azotbacterin was 23 c/ha, from
Trichoderma-24 c/ha, and from Penicillum-28 c/ha, and the sugar content from
azobacterin increased at 0.7 percent, from trichoderma,-0.2 percent, and
from penicillium-la percent.
Thus, the saturation of sugar-beet seeds with useful micro-organisms
causes yield increase and improvement of tuber quality.
The basic problem then is to introduce widely these measures into
collective and state farm production and to work out means for further
increase of the effect of bacterial and fungi compounds.
The possibilities in this direction are tremendous, applying, for
instance, the complexes of useful microorganisms. Taking into consideration
that the mon fungi Trichoderma and Penicillium improve the life activity
conditions of the sugar-beet not at the expense of soil wealth connected with
nitrogen, since they do not fix nitrogen in noticeable quantities, we may
expect that by applying them with Azotbacter the effect of such a complex
Should increase considerably.
Without making any decisions a-priori, we Should take notice of the
fact that the problem of regulating the life activity of soil micro-flora,
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C-eller, I. A. and Ithariton, E. G. Transl. 218: Augar Bets
according to Williams' theory, is of great practical significance. The
further development and application of Williams' theory should be extended
by an active interference into the biological life of the soil, and.,
particularly, by wide application of a series of biological compounds which
are used under specific soil-climatic conditions, with the consideration of
the biological peculiarities of various varieties of agricultural crops.
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4
- Geller. 1. A. and Xhariton. 3. Transl. 218:Sugar Beets
4 The utilisation of nitrogen bacteria and
other microorganism: for increasing the
yield and. waFAr content of sugar beet.
? Sovet? Agron. 9(3):68-68. Mar. 1951 20 So84
el'he
Translated by R. G. Denbo
authors are connected with the All-Union Scientific-Research institute
of ftagar-Beets)
Root Secretions and dying parts of the root system are the source for
carbon and mineral ash nourishment of many ore/misses which inhabit the root
sone.
According to the calculation of XrasilLnikov, the weight of micro-.
Orms of the plant root tone (rhiso-sphers) reaches 60 ciha, while
in the rest of the moil mans their weight reaches about 20 0/ha. The amount
nnd the content of the microorganisms in the rhiso-sphers are fluctuating
during vegetation rmehing greatest density during the initial growth phases
and during blooming.
The high density of the micro-organisms in thisosphere indicvAetthat
these very organisms influence in a considereble deEree the antivity of the
higher plant, nentrali2ing the products of root secretions and -lents and
_
taking direct part in providing the plants with the elenents of ash and
n it ro gen nouri shment
Ae a whole, the life activity of the ricroorgenives of the rhiso-
sphere is a favorable factor for the growth and the development of plants.
lint, there is no reason to believe that all microorganisms which ars found
in rhizosphere affect the plant equally favorable, since the products of
substance exchange of various organisms are of different kind, thereby
affecting the rlant in a different :manner.
This results into a practice' problem to fill the rhiso- sphere with
_
?
microorganisms Which are useful for the given plant. Of the rhizosphere
_ _
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?
?
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()eller, I. A. and Khariton, B. G. - ?Tanta. 218: Sugar Beets ?
microorganisms, according to numerous experiments nitrogen fixing bacteria
(in particular, Azotbacter) improve the c^nditions of the plant's life acti-
.
vity and by this the introduction of Azotbacter with MIMI directly into
1
the soil is of great agricultural importance for the increase of yield and
the leprovement of the quality of the production of 'agricultural crops.
In respect to sigr-beete, our research indicated that the saturation of
sugar-best tubers With isotbactior increases both the yield and the saccharinity
of the sugar7beeti. .The dita of 1949 concerning the yield end the saccharinity
of saber bests after the experiment, with azotbacterin are given in the
table 1.
It is most important that with the 'increase of soil fertility the effect
?
of asotbacterin increases..
?
? - I J ,??
Thus, for instance, at Zemetchinsk variety field without fertilizers
we acuired the increase Of yield of sugar-beets from azotbacterin-13 c/ha,
and by applying" mineral fertilizersthe increase due to asotbacterin was
43 c/ha of attar-blot (See 'Table '11-page 3)
Analogous results were obtained by A. V. Dobrotvortseva at the experimental
field of the All-Union Scientific-Research Institute of Sager Beets in the
experiments with azotbacterin . Upon a soil which has been treated with
sulphur and some ashes she obtained a sugar-beet yield of 144 c/ha and an
increase from azotbacterin-10.2 c/ha; upon a field with a higher level of
fertility she obtained the sane year a higher yield-27.1 c/ha and the
increase due to azotbacterin was 32.3 c/ha.
Daring the experiments upon black soil, by adding mineral ashes, at the
Umansk Selection Station of the All-Union Scientific-Research Institute of
Sugar-Beets, in producing sugar-beets upon the nourishing field of 45 X 40 ea,
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?
?
?
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Geller, I. A. end Ishariton, L G. ?renal. 218: Sugar Beeti
Table 1
The place of the experiment
Yield of tubers in c/ha
Saccharinity
The Verkhniacheek experi-
mental Selection Station of
the Order of Labor of lad
DaAller ............ .........
,CON11201,
Ivanovek Experimental Selec-
tion Station
,crovinotek Variety Yield...
Mierchankovekil Variety
Field
Parafievekil Variety Field
X**tomtit Variety Field
Dolinekli Variety Field
Batyeva Mountain (Expert ??
Ile tal Field VMS)
349.0
383.0
204.0
228.0
285.1
336.0
159.5
215.0
AzoiroliAtcrat,
371.5
387.5
239.0
255,5
306.8
395.9
173.6
236.0
coNTRol.
Azac,BACTE1
17.7
17.9
18.3.
19.1
15.4
15.8
18.3
18,5
17.5
17,5
16.7
16,9
Ift.0
18.2
14.5
15.6
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'Geller, .1. A. and Marlton, E. G. Transl. 218: Sapr Beet e ?
we acquired an increase, in wield iron azotbacterin-56.5 for each tuber, and
while producing sugar-beets upon a. field of 45 x 20 cm the increase in
weight of one tuber was at the average 3.3 g., 1.s. the effect of azotbacterin
increased considerably under the best conditions for satp,r-beets.
Thus.? with the increase of the soil fertility, the effect of the mem-
sures of applying bacterial fertilizers will increase.
Along with the increase of the yield It has been determined that
sir-beet seed bacterization with azotobacterin increases the saccharinity
of agar beet as well, The data given in table 1 indicate that in the
experiments of 1949 the increase of Nagar percentage in sugar-boot tubers
by applying azotobacterin was 0.3-0.5 percent, and in individual cos
rched 1 percent.
Dee to the importance of the problem of the increase of sngtr-beet
saccharinity, the research. in this direction has been extended. The influence
of Aeotbacter upon sugar-beet varieties-its yield and saccharinity has been
experimented upon varicras nourishing fields.
It became evident that. the influence of Azotbacter upon sag...?r-boet
quality depends upon variety .peculiarities and upon the conditions of variety
nroduction. The data of 26 experiments with black soil, which he.s been treated
with mineral ashes, at the Umanek Selection Station (the experiments were
carried out by A. F. trikelaeva) indicated that the sugar-beet varieties of
hich saccharinity react positively to Azotbacter during veepte.tion ? but at
the end of vegetation this effect becomes hardly noticeable or evert negative.
For sugar-beet varieties a drastic increase in saccharinity has been noticed
et the end of vegetation.
In table 2 is indicted the increase of the percentage of sugar from
n ? azotobacterin. (Table 2, page 5)
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Table 2
romber
of
Varieties
5
4
8
9
the tow- Omar ,
Jibing fiel percent-
ca age ,.15/VII
sugar from
Azotbacterin in percenta&e
45120 18?3-19.1 +0.6
v 45X40 18.7.18.9 -0.4 +1.1
45X0 19.9-2/.2 +0.7 ? +Oa
45X40 19.6-21.0 11.06 4.0.9
.0.3
-0.15
I. advisable.
ly axotbacterin, first of a13. far aitettei.
a El for yield, underactical conditions of collec
farms and state far
and the problem of amly ng asotbecterin for the varietio , as to sicchar
is necessary to work, out by the experimental method.
The experiments indicate also that it is possible to increase sugar-!
1t.v.
beet yield as well as sacchariaty neans of other bic:.compounds. In
our research we tested the effect of .mold fungi Trichoderma lienorum end
Pennici/lium chrysoeenua. The data of three year experiment indicated that
the saturation of sugar-beet seeds with the spores of Trichodervia lienorum
causes the increase of sugar-beet.jield and saccharinity. In our expert-
merits we compared the effect of Trichodera and of Asotbacterin. The
results of the experiment are given in table 3. (Table 3, page 6
At the average, the increase of sugar-beet tuber yield from axottecterin
during three years of these exoeriments is 17.3 0/ha, and from Trichoderra-
10.5 eiha. The increase of the percentage in sugar content is et the average
0.3-0.4 percent.
L,\
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? "eller. P. rytti 11-inritrm r. rt. ?ran al . 21R: SucAl? leet
Table 3
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. .
Geller. I. A. and Marlton. E. 0. Traria. 218:r Poets
Practically the same results were obtained in our experiment upon
gray soil of Be.tgory (a:wise:A*3. field VSI.3) which has been partly treated.
with mineral ashes, in comparison with the effect of Trichoderma lignores
and Penicillin* e.hrysocenna.
In table 4 le indicated the influence of Trichoderma and Penicillin*
upon the -engar?beet yield and saccharinity. (See Table 4. pace 6)
In the experiments .of IA.' P. Podtykan who examined the effect of all
bio-cempottnds indicated above upon the soil of Eatgory which has been
? tror.-ted with phosphor-mediwi mineral ashes, With the yield of control
field 422 c/ha, the increase of crops from asotbacterin wee 23 c/ha. from
Trichoderma-24 chns, and from Penici3.lun-28 c/ha, and the suclr cts.ntent from
atobacterin increased at 0.? percent, from trichodertta-0.2 percent, and
from penicil'ina-I.2 percent. ?
? Thus, the saturation of sugar-beet seeds with useful nicro-orcanisme
'c:_usee yield increase and improvement of tuber quality.?
The basic problem then is to introduce widely these measures into
collective and state farm production and to wort out means for further
increase of the effect of bacterial ?end fungi compcninde.
?
The possibilities in this direction are tremendous, applying, for
instence, the complexes of useful 'microorganisms.. Taking into cousiderotion
that the mold fungi Trichoderma and Penicillin's improve the life ectivity
conditions of the sugar-beet not at the expense of soil wealth connected with
nitrogen, since they do not fix nitrogen in noticeable 41xentities, e gay
expect that by applying them with Azotbacter the effect of such c, conplex
should increase considerably.
without making any decisions a-priori, we should take notice of the
fact that the problem of recanting the life activity of soil micro-flora,
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Geller, I. A. end i.hariton, Z. G. Tans].. 218:Aagar Beets
according to Williams' theory, is of great uractical significance. The
11irther development end application of ?11111.ams' theory ihnald extended
13) interfqrence into the biological life of the 3111,
particularly, by 'vide acolication of a series of biolofjcal n.13 nhich
u.aed under specific vil?climatic conditions, %-itb, thevoaa....-.1extion of
be bio1ne;icz.1 peculiarities of various vri3 of qvicra1ti..1.r.3,1
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.16
Edellehtein, K. 4. External
? preharvent feeding of Inger beets.
ziekh. Proleysh. 24(5)139-41. May 1950
65.8 SI 02
?
Trans's 219:Sugar Beets
Translation by B. 0. limbo
'During recent years, in the field of olent feeding, the orineirle
formulated by the academic williame, that the plent itself sbo-.14 be fed
said not the soil, ecouired more imolortsrce.
In the system which has been worked out we may consider the external
feeding as quite effective. By means of this meseure we free ourselves
from the tempor,try correlation between fertiliser and soil and we obtain
a stronger effect upon the slbstence exchange in plants.
T. D. Lysenko sayv that the *cause for the change of the nture of
t lng orgtnism is the chance of the tyre 0! assimilation, tbti &' nee
of metabolism.*
By notismly interfering: into metabollcm we are able to their
tore.
A leaf is the orcan where the initiating !emotion of an Orville sub-
ntence occur, where the peculiarities of metabolise are most cons-Amens.
as well ts the connection of irdiviihtal metebolisms which determine the
processes of synthesis and the disintegration of the organic substance.
Therefore, the externsl feedire, i.e. tie introduction of nortehti.? elements
into the pIrnt throulth the levee is of gr-'t interest.
vs7,,privents with externel feeding were cerrie4nut in the eoviet 'Mann
by P. lieleznov. Domantovieb, Whatenov end L. Tnrfell. In their
a:Aperiments the yield of pug- r-beets ',noreaLemit by 65 percent. :.,1cording
to T,7,1 d,ita of the Institute of inger.Beet Production, the root feedings
increased VA" sugsr-beet yield by 25.40 ettut, which forms an increase of 16
percent.
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T.deltehtein, U.K. Trend. 21919oler *lets
? The sugsr-beet leaf blades contain 4-5 percent 'agar at the time
of harvest Which constitute between 10 to 15 percent of its Senora anti-
ability of the entire plant (leaves plus root). Thus, within the leaves
a considerable part of sugar produced by the plant remains unutillwed in
sugar protection.
It has been determined that the sugar which exists in sudar-beet leaf
blade in the form of saccharose runs into the root as simple sugar-nonee?
For a long tine the separation of saccharose into sonomagba" has
? been possible by means of hydrolysis which occurs, due to the effect of
the fomentation of saccharose of invertase.
According to contemporary conceptions, phosphoric acid Pla.ve a de-
cisive role Inc arliohydrate metabolism of plants. Along with the Pro-
cesses of hydrolysis, there occurs in the pleats a process so Celled.
? phosphorolysis, i.e. the joining of carbohydrates of phosphoric acid to the
molecule, as a result of which phosphoric ethers are foraed. These compounds
(glucesophosphates) have a considerablY higher potential. The eintheele
of complicated carbobydratee-starch, saccharose. could go, 111001111.110.,,
only by means of preliminary phosphorolising of sugars.- On the other hand,
with the interior cell. decomposition of conplicatsd carbohydrates into mono-
sugar, phosphoric acid has to be added. Thus, both the synthesis, and the
decomposition of complicated carbohydrates could occur only with the pres-
ence of phosphoric acid and is catalised by a specific fermentation-
pho sphorylo els.
It Is well known, that phosphates and potassium, when Introduced into
the sell, assist in the accumulation of aigar in the roots. tibiae*
according to the data given by academic I. V. lAkushie in his text-book
? *Plant Production*, phosphates introduced under sugar-beets (basic fertilise-
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1:dellshtein, H. H. Trans1.219: %gar Seats
tion plus planting in TOWS end feeding) increase the saccharinity of
roots from 0.36 up to 0.7 Percent, and rOtanSitalip from 0.4 to O. ..,ercento
depending upon the type of the soil.
Taking into consideration the role of phosphorus and. Mtassitw, we
ce.rried. cut experiments of external feed.ng of sugar-beets with the
solution of phosphoric acid and potassium during preharvest period at the
TiniriezevAgricu3tural Academy under the direction of the Ac-Idemic I. V.
_
Iskushin. Our basie_p.rob1em was_thr, increase of s,..acharinite? of the sugar-
--
beet tubers.
_?
As sources for phoenhoric acid ant potassium were ap-lied sw,erpbosphate
and potassium chloride which are 'widely used on farms.
Yor the solution were tat, en ten parts of water for one weit,b1 part of
superphosphate which contained I.? percent of P205. With each. correlation
? we obtained an extract '&10'1 contained P206around 1.? percent. he solution
concentration of potassium chloride WAS 0.6 percent. For spraying we used
the kit sprayer alartomaks.
l'he external feeding was carried out during non-rainy deyee because a
rain which would cone after spraying would wash down the solution which Was
placed Irril the leaves. The best hours for spraying are from nine in the
ulornlng and from four in the afternoon until seven in the evrning. since
the leaf must Preserve the solution drops at least for half ixa,11-,o;.,r, it
would be meaningless to carry out a feeding during helnours of the day.
The escape of the solutions for I el 2 was 0.3 litr.
In 194? we carried out an investigrAing experiment. The au.g- r-beipt
sipraqing was carried out in two terms: Ir0013 one field on lentelduer 19, and trews
another f ield-Sept ember 28.
The percentage of sager in sugar-beet tubers (saccharimeter) yielded
restate rhieh are given In table 1. (Page 4)
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_ 74. M. Tranel. 219: Stior Beets
Table 1
??????????
Time of Time of
Spraying Analysis
Percentage of sugar after feeding
September 19
September 26
September 23
actaber
Control
water)
1
Extract
superphoe-
nhate
Iblution
KCI
13.90
14.92
14.22
_Wrote the data of table 1 we see that the preharrest externa feeding
of sugar-beets with the solution of??phoephoric acid and with the solution.'
.._____._... ?____. ? ? ________________,___________. _.... _...? ____. ..____
of potassium chloride yielded a considerabletnorease An wactr percentage
._ _...._.
in the tubers (about _2 percent) in comparly.....n with control tubers.
_ .
In 1948 this experiment has been carried out three times u,ot a field
of 600 m2.
The experiment scheme: 1-control, perphosphate mixer. 8-ootassium
chloride. 5:U sprkving of sugar-beet leaves has been carried out on
September 15, the sugar porcente.ge in the sugar-beet tubers 1M5 dotcrmined
on the fifth day after spraying (engsrmet
Table 2
Percentag? of sugar in the tubers
.!-..xperittent Variations
Average
1. Control 15.45
15.30
'16.05
16.C1
Fuperphosphate 16.15
16.35
16.60
16.7
totassium chloride 18.10
16.80
16.20
17.00
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" 7dellshtein, M. X. Transl. 219: gager Bente
? The data of table two indicate that 1)the amount of eager in the
roots eoreled br superphosphate solution, Is 0.7 percent higher than in the
roots of control nlants; 2)in plant roots Which received a folf!iine with the
solStion of potassium chloride there is 10,33 percent more sugar than In
the tubers of control plants. The conspituous difference in the offset of
external feeding1 according to the years (1647-1948), could be 1,2bIained by
the difference of temperature conditions during feeding. In 1946 the end
of the summer and the fall was cool which Oneumered the penetration of the
volution into: the leaves which negatively influenced the fomenting pre-
cesses Which occurred in the leaf.
In 1949 the experiment was repeated three tiues Upon S field of 600 O.
The subdivided fields were SO up; the field was divided into two porter,' the -
spraying was carried out In two terms (the first field on Angost 29). lour
days after sprayirg there was in the sugar-beet tubers the following amount
of sugar: (sou table 3)
fable 3
1;xperiment Variations
Percentage of sugar in the tnbers
XI
III
Average
1. Control
11.13
10.85
12.16
11.39
2. Superphosphate
12.92
12.33
12.8D
12.69
Z. Potassium chloride
12.34
12.54
13.06
12.65
A. we owe from the data of table 3 after spraying the le-ves with the
solution of 2'205 contained 1.3 percent more sugar than in control tubers. end
111 1.26 percent more than in the leave, which were !prayed by potassium chloride.
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Ziel'shtetn H. K. Trans/. 219:3meer Netts
? The feeding Upon the second field was carried out later-on neptember
18. Sugar percentage in the Where was determined six days after the
feeding. In this C401, the sugar percentage in the roots incrqesed in
comparison with the tabors of control plants: by 0.56 percent from the
feeding witheolution Pes, mai by 0.69 percent from the feeding with the
solution of potassium chloride. Thus we may say that a later spraying (later
than the second half of. August) yields an inferior effect.
The suger-beet crops werehervestel on October 3. In comparison with
control amity, the smear percentage In sugar-beet tubers which were
sprayed on August 29 with the solution Pes increased by 1.68, and in
tethers sprayed with the solution of potassium chloride by 2.289.
The tuber yield has increase (qamparison with control plants) by
9.1 percent due to euperohosphste feeding, and by 10.9 percent due to
411 potassium chloride feeding. Sager yield from the field which was sprayed
eith the extract of superphosphate surmises& the control field 441.5
percemt, and troll the field wprayed bypotassiUm chloride by 26 pereent.
In 1949, we carried out at the Ramoe Selection Station en experiment,
in collaboration with the workers of Agricultural Division of Civilian
Aviation, with external preharvest feeding by spraying vegar-beets froa
an airplane (I ha). The feeding was carried out on September 10, end?
the sager percentage was deterained six days after spraying. The super-
phosphate feeding of wagar-bests from an airplane increased the sugar
content in the roots by 1 percent. the yield was 42? chi' while the
yield from control field was 392
In order to decrease the censweption of the sprayed solution, the
eoncentreion p2p5 of the extract ems increased up to 6percent, and its
?
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-Ale3.1shtein, M. ?i. Tranal. 219: 8usir Beets
consumption decreased by 800 litre per hectar. It is necessary to notice
that, by spraying fross an airplane, a thin and equal spraying tff the
iolutinns is achieved.
The indicated results fron airIllane feeding of sugar-beets onnfirm the
il'Ittp obtained upon the Held r:rrerinental Itation of the Tiniriasof,r
Academy.
It Is necestary to indicete that the 7/apartment of pint-.F-?-xalAction
_
of Tivdrianfre Agrioultnrel Itca.1e17 carried out in 1949 an exteraz1 feeding
of mg/tr.-best seeds which also caused an increase in seed yield.
_
Vor two years (1948- and 1)49) we carried out experiments with
mrternal feeding of wheat with -,hne,horic aeld at the molient
grain etArted to fill. Al a result, we noticed an increase of yield 17
the increase of the absolute weight of the grain and the decrease of the
arount of undaveloned ears in the lower Tr.rt of the ...heat ear. This con-
firms the positive role of nhosohorus in the movements of carbohydrPtes
within the plant.
Conclusions
The external prebarvest feeding of sugar-beets with this solutions of
ohosphoric acid and of 'ID te ssim chloride increase 3 considerably. totvar
ercentaae in the tubers and the yield by up to 10 percent.
The nreharvest external feeding of sugar-beets should be carried
OWt in the Recant decade of August and not later than t ditys before the
halvest.
nr-9-27-51
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Iommako, T. D. Tranel. 220:37stematic Botany
News in science concerning.. biological species.
Akad. Rank STSR. estn. 21(3)1 6645.
Wart111931. 511 Xrallit
Translated by S. . son
(Report presented at the annual meeting of the Aoadeny of Science of
USSR on Feb. 2; 1951).
Up to the present time biological, science has no clear understanding
of the term fenecies". This despite the fact that every biologist who
observes living **time, and especially practical agricultural workers
dealing in?plaats, animals and microorganiems, are first eonfronted with
the circumstance that all -interrelated orgenic.nature consists of eepusts
forms distfit in quality.
? It is recognisable in agricultural practice that among snivels, the
horse, Cow, at, sheep and. others represent individual forms of animate,
distinct in qual,ity; while sang plants, i.e. wheat, rye, oats. barley,
carrots, etc., the saps applies to then. This is equally true in uncul-
tivated, wild nature that eurroundeus. nveryone is able to distinguish
netwsea en oak, a bin& and a pine tree, all representing separate charm.
teristic forms.
Interrelated living nature consists; As stated above) ofindividual
forms of plants,. animals andnicroorganioes. These forms oforganisms
which under normal conditions do not crosser de not produce normal and
fertile progeny if crossed i.e. are physiologically incompatible* are
called 9/0,01010. In agricultural practice and especially in natural science
special forms that do not cornonly cross and are distinctly 4ifferent,
though close, are frequently referredto by the sans name)i.e. plant and
enociie?
Thus the designation wheat is applied to common soft whet, haniwheat,
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Lysenko, T. D. rand. 220; Systetic Botany
? onemertin, two-grain, etc. wheat. The mine dandelion is u.sul.ly !Also *united
to sate non-crossing separate forms distitiot from each other, i.e. species.
To fix the concept of these forme, (1.e species) botanical. and 20404ga1
science has leng ago systemrtised (Linnaeus, 1707-1778) duel tlealiPatisee
for species in the Latin language. rime, rtticu vnara carmen, soft
1,tients Triticututom - hard wheat; iticu oneargrAned
%Ainat, etc. The first part of the name is the. noun indicating the genus
=mon to all reltted species united in practice and science (systematics)
into one genus. The seeord ?;nkrt of the name is the adjactivfl, such. as
Comm nralgaree or hard, 411,6, indicating the concrete fer,-, of species
of 1-dant or animals.
then dealing in uractice with ono species of a plant or
-77seies are designated only Sy the gpirag nape each as, for inst:1-tc wheat,
e, or horse, sheep. goat. In dealing, wever, with severe/ reltted
species a dual desir-Aation is used, such as carmen wheat Trit1ew7 vulgare.
etc., or one of the species is named by the genus (connon, sort -4}Lept is
neually referred to as whertt only) and the other species, i?n? ritacum
elcocust. given another designation, name The very
structure of living nature consist!ng of grouns of eneeies resembling
eLch other but nevertheless selerate, distinct, non-orosning under ordin-
ary living conditions, served as an indication to naturalists that species
originate from eneb other, that related species have much in comron end
that this similaalt, reflecting unon the unit (tie) in their ca-140
points to a common genus. Xeture itself forced duel des1.43,3_tinni. for spe-
cies upon science.
Pre-Darwin biology maintained a metaphysical, anti-scientific view
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Lyeenko. T. D. Tran sl. 220: Systematic Doteny
upon a species. The belief profane that forms of species are unalterable
and not connected with each other in any way in their respective origins
end developments. It was asserted that species cannot originate from each'
other, that they supposedly are created separately and are independeat
of etch other. '
Lamarck and particularly DarWin rejected the erroneous claim of meta.
physical biology vlih regard to the perpetuation and inVarlability of forms
of species and their independent origin by establishing their theory of
evolution.
Darwin proved in his evolutionary theory' that all vegetative cnd animal
species originate from each other.- Re thereby established that living
nature has ite histery, its past, its present and its future. Therein
lies one of the immortal services rendered by Darwin. Basic &Iranian,
however, is- only one-sided, flat evolutionism. Darwin's theory of stain-
tion originates from the acceptance of mere/euentitative chaneas, it does
not recogoise conpuleion', regulafrity in transforeation.?ehanges from one
qualitative condition to another. But without the transformation of one
qualitative condition into another, without tho originating of r.,,A7 quali-
tative conditions from the depths of old conditions there is no develop-
tont, bit only increased or diminished quantity: only what is cooly
called growth.
?
Darwinism confirmed in biological science the concept of the origin of
acme organic forms from others. Development in living nature was inter-
preted by darwinism only asacontinuon,. itiinterrupted line of evolution.
A
As a result biological (pittance (not practice) stopped considering species
as real, separate, qualitative cenditions of living nature'. In his
"Origin of Species'. Darwin wrote: 'It is evident from the above that I
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Im'pout?, T. D. . Tsars-11. 220t f7ateestic Botany
consider the term 'species' altogether.arbitrary, invented for convenience.
?
to. designate groups Of specimens reitembling each other and not .distinct from
the term 'variety' designating forms of lesser variations in their diem-
?
toristless The term .'variety' le eque117 applied arbitrarily, corirred to
individual distinettons and is used only for convenience."
E. A. Timiriasev wrote on the same subjects *Variety and cocoles
ore only 'distinct. (differing) in time; any boundary IS unthinkahle.*
Thus according to the theory of dareinims, nature should, not possess
tc,tural limits and interruptions between speciet. According to this
Cleary the development of the organic world is redaceCto tm3triCoVehanges.
.ulth no originating of new elements from the depths of the old, vitheut
further developttent of Ivor qualities as other aggregates (asons).Of .char-
c,o toll et 1A38.
This theory claims that a long stretch of ,time is required to obtain
one species from another,- that in the course of human history it is net
possible to observe the inCeption of some species from others.
Organic nature;has existed.for a long time, horever. Ono could .
therefore assume that the lengthy period of conversion from one .species
to =other has been gone throtigh and. that It may be possible to oh,-;orve
the birth of new species in our time as the result of prolonged treys-
' formations. lbe theory claims nevertheless that 'there are actually no
boundaries between new and old IIVICIOS .from which the 'former originate. -
Lr. d that for this reason it is not possible to observe the ince:Atom
of a new species from the facetis of the old..
Contrary to the theory of continuity, which does not recognize inter-
rtretions in development, the conversion of one quality (trait) Into another
indicates that there are no boundaries betvems species and thrt such boundaries'
sctually exist; every naturelist has been aware of these long epos To
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tyseblco ? T. Trend. 220: Syetematic Botany
? explain the break between species darwinian Ults compelled to invent the
so..called intra-species coupetition and strut/As. According to this theory
all intermodinry farms which eareeosedly filled the breaks between species.
constituted thus an ainterrupted line ilk organic nature and were dropped
as less fitted in the struggle for sarrival.
To lemoothen the apparent non-conformity behet n the theory of evolution
and the actual development of the vegetative and animal world. LUrvin took
recourse to the reactionary pseudo-scientific teaching of galtints concerning
intra-epecies struggle. This struggle is supposedly caused by the fact that
nature always produces more individuals of one species than are warranted by
available living conditions. rwin used this as a basis for his theory of
the divergence.of characteristics, i.e. the formation of an uninterrupted
line of organic forms of breaks, facets, as a result of which species of
pleats and animas, easily disiintplshed among their respective groups
wire supposedly obtained. ascot* and breaks between related species were
consequently, according to darwinisn, obtained not as the result of quali-
tative changes (transformation) and not as a remit of the concept of
qualitatively new groups of organisms among species of pleats or aniaals,
but as a result of mochanbeal elimination, wawl destructton of forms, not
differing in quality and utijoining each other in an uninterrupted row.
This accounts for the conclusion arrived at by all followers of the
theory of flat evolutionism that spiectgl are theoretically not the result
of a PPADCT:SS Or YPHT OV LITIk NATURE discovered by science and
practice but are conventions invented for the convenience of clessifleation.
The apparent contradiction between theory of evolutionism and actuality
i.e. the development of organic nature, thus remained in existence. It is
?supported by the fact that darwinian was able to explain the deiveloyment
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Lysenko; T. D. ' Trona. 220: Systematic Boteny
?
of the Organic world only this and in no other way. The arlianation
cold not serve as a workable theoretic- al bade for practical tramsformation,
vas .inable to ',serve at a theoretical basis for. the planned traneforsation of
living nature in the interests of practice.
The foremost biologist, E. A. ?Timiriazeve a fervent fighter agaisst ?
.idealiers And reaction in science,' althoieli curable to surmount the evolution7
imm in Darwin's theory in his lifetime, reoogaized clearly that sr,ecies were
not et:inventions bat real, factors in nature. Ea therefore wrotOt tZhese
facet!, torn links of an organic &app.-were not intrOtucad into Maturn by
men btit mere forced upon him by nature itself. This genuine Vet rseuires
a realistic erplanation.?
It vat however not possible to provide 'ouch .a realistic epAlnation
from the stananoint of flat evolutioniea, end E. A. Timirle,e0 hiVenif
confined himself to the incorrect Darwinist explanation of this fact as
reeulting from supposedly "intra-species cevostitioa.
Ca; in our country where socialism is vict4ons, where ti a ao,lrant
concept le dialectic ceterialisn, as dEveloped'in Stalin's cloths. real '
biological facti.erECIES0.-vere given the opportunity to 1,1moviali a genuine
emplanation.' Collective and stnte farm agriculture provides for nnlinitid
develorment of materialistic biological science, i.e. Eichurim theory of
creative darviniam. I. T. tiichurin wrote: NYe have As .yet no ?roper and
eshaustive concept vs to how nature has.created and to this an,;r centimes
to' create innunemble species of plents. , e-re at present much nor*
concerned over understandini; that we have entered the stage of hittorical
development in which we are capable to interferirpereonally to naturets
activities and AND /FCEXASV NUMMIt Or FURS :1? gplIC/ZS
? aPircnnepuzeT DIVEST THD SilitiCTIJX!1 OF THE= wAterins r;To ;)1eyilps
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f7seioko, T. D. Trans'. 220 r listentAtic .110t4147
? 4,1.1.4%.%); N. We ehould understand that working Jointly with imture
resents a very valuable step ehead, represents a fact of univeriAl
that Wi1 beeone apparent in the future develoneent of thie work,
t,owhieh 1.vreu3.se was provided by the c3owerfuljelt of our resfolutinll which
wkoned nillions of loviet minds, permitting a consider .blopext of the
population to improve actively and deliberately earrounding
:dchurin e teaching is creative darwinism which views dev61.0.,..ont not
a flat evolution but as the coneept of ft new quality emerginv; from the
deptbs of an outgrown contradiction of its origin, which suffs;:od the gThdullil
uxorical accumulqtton of its characteristics and it the atJi ,fith the old
4-...0.11,ty was tratreformed into new, deliberntely different tiger to of
clzracteriatice equipped with their own contrasting law for surelvel.
Dialectic materialism, developed and raised upon a new heidat (level)
by tlav writings of conrade Stalin, represents the most inb1 ndpower-
available to biologists and Vichurinites,i'or solving
tteoretioel weapon farrossiietegoirdrelfeMAlletegrinetcprebieriptivilesie)tx
involved biological problems,
3bielegintexandxktekierinitesci including the problem of the oritiwting of
sate epecies frosi others.
In nature as in agricultural practice there are always rill tIve, not
co4nletely defined facets between orpecies. understend under rel4tive
but fully defined facets (border lines) such distinctions whtc! llow for a
difference in RoZCIES and. resemblance among species, separatinc: orgtuic
nAture into qualitatively distinct but nevertheles mutually linked n:
The uninterrunted row of forms between arrecies as varied deflaito
terisj conditions in living matter remains unrecognized not bevuse
continuously joined forms have become extinct as a result of tratu 1 corsoeti-
tion, but because there ,,M11 ne,t and cnnnot be any such continuity in nature.
1111 :Ai.ttire does not -lessees uninterrupted contimuity; both reguirrik, and interxvrtion go together.
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IZYseilko, T. D. ? " Traria. 220 t Systematic Setany
SPECIE3 IS A SPIMIAL taTiALIZ+71VIMY 7Lfl (DIST,I1D7.) c. 07
07
LIV/P0 rWl".2211AL rortHs. 717131TE IMIZA-SPXOI7g11171.ATInlallIPI
.A crubtacsnaisTio or riskr2 Jm A1ittAL"3.11C1-3
Cir.:MIS:IS. -These intra-species rale.tionshiplo are distinct in ;:cialit;/ from
? the relationehips between individuals of various species. 4r.tititc:%IvE ,
r,13Mirton ZETUEID Dir2P.A-rkeZilES Raartf:5SFIr5 At)
1:7-12."4:112:1 Mt or val Mosi2 Ilevatwrit, CPIITSTA 7014 PrIPMS
ell ..,r7r,d/Es pfl?l VADIETISS.
The statement..that 'variety is the beginning of a rjecies i?-,nd that ? ?
42eeies is a draetically expressed variety is wrong. in proceeding from this
erroneous. formdlation it appears Wit there are no qualitativo distinctions
and &este between vettes and varieties and that a species does not .real.
1st/tally exist in nature. but has been invented for. the convenience of
classification. systematics. Here, as hes already been et.ated. 11 hidden -
on of the fundamental eontrldictions between) the theory of flat evolutionism .
and the reality Of an organic world. There are no internodif?to v..rieties amen
erAcies not because these variotisi were dropped in the process of an intra-
species "true., bat because these intermediate varietlee were not nrodnced
by nature nor will they be produced.
Varieties are forms of the existence Of a given species and not steps
directed to its transformation' into another species. Wealth of varieties
is ensured by the matipie ecological adJustment of a given species which
contributes to its production and preservation.
The lar' ger the =ober of varieties in 'any species, the more varied are
intra-speciee populations and the better provided for are roast Alities for
the production of species and ali its varieties.(i.e. by means of cross
pollination).
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Lysenko, T. D. Trend. 220: Systematic Betm4,
tetra-species rolationehips among individuals are, as stated above,
distinct in quality from the relationehips of individuals ofvorious species.
The concept of a species in biological science is therefore different in
principle from other botanical and zoological concepts, such as Genus,
family, etc.
It is easy to note that relationships of individuals of varioue species
of the same botanical or zoological genus fail not only to contribute to the
development of given species but on the contrary, are in competition and ante.
_
conistic. In nature and agricultural science it is therforeusulliy diffi-
cultto find !samples for prolonged co-existence in mixtures of individuals
of varied but related species, i.e. of the same botanical genus. Coexist-
. .
ence is frequently observed among vegetative species but these are species di...
tent from each other, belonging to different botanical genera. Coexistence
among species of the same botanical genus is possible only she? individuals
of every species are distributed by scartainse, nests.
The concept of a genus in botany and zoology corresponds therefore not
to common related bonds such as intra-species ties, but tells only of the
immediate bond in origin of species of the same genus. The concept of a
Genus should ehnzooterize the morphologically related but qualitatively
distinct species.
Individuals of different species of the same genus, deepito their ex.
?
tercel resemblance, do not cross under ordinary conditions, nor do they
provide after crossing normal fertile progeny, i.e. they are physiologically
incompatible. In addition, the relationship of species of the same genus is,
as stated obey:), competitive, mutually excluding.
Species are links ins chain of living nature, stages of qualitative leo.'
ltionesteps in a gradual historical development of the organic torld.
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Lysenko T. I). Transl. 2201!Systematic Botany
? 'tains* in the past years from research on formation of species in the stage-
. tative world supports this view.
Xxperimente made In 1948 by T. X. larepotian disclosed that during
- winter planting of the hard wheat (28-chromozome).cr, nea, ono
? part of plants is transformed in relatively sho* tine (2-3 generations)
? into another species, the *oft 42.chronosone wheat. Triticoa vulgar*.
Proceeding Ira the previously established Michurin biology of genetic
difference in quality of the body of the Vegetative organisms it-toste decided
to search far seeds of soft 42-chremosone wheat in stalks of htrd wheat of
? plants under test. The result was that isolated seeds of soft wheat were
. etWily found in stelhs of ht,rd wheats i.e. seeds of botanical ./rpecies in
stalks of another species. In planting seeds of soft wheats 11. vulgar*, ob-
? taped from stalks of T. durum, plants of *oft wheat. 7. Toler% were pro-
diced as a rule. In. searching caretUlly it is :possible to discover every
year seeds of soft wheat among sone stalks of hard wheat on ordinary Indus--
? trial plantings in many regions.
In 1949 search for seeds of 'rye In stalks of wheat were be on fieldt
of pre-nountainous regions where plantings of winter wheat are. frequently
Contaminated by rye. The initial cause for wheat contaninatirn by rye
? in these regions has not been learned to date.
farepetians H. N. Takubtsiner, V. N. Gronachevskiis as well
6.e many other scientists, egrononistss and students discovered in fields
is pre-mountainous regions isolated seeds of rye among stalke of both hard
sad soft wheats. In 1%9 over 31)0 seeds of rye were found. Thee* seeds
were planted on the ezperinental field of the All-Union Acadesw of
cultural Science. taunt Lentos. at ?Lenin Hines upon the initiative of.
the Institute of Genetics of the Acadesy of Science of USSR, and on fields of
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Lvocnko. . D.
Tran41?220:Systematic Botany
T
the I. A. Timirialev lb scow Agricultural Academy. The All-Union Lendeay
Of 4'-igricultural Sciences, Went Lenina.also obtained from those regions
unthreihea stalks of soft and hoed wheat. These stalks were threshed at
different biological scientific. institutions and different individuals
63117eiated seede of rye.
In planting these seCdo of tire, developed in stalks Of hard end eoft-
tteat, diveres but novartheiese typical for rye plants were developed.
ulth eftallimeeptiens. Only in isolated Cases were Wheat plants obtained
fron rie-type geode. In *AI nbove listed cases where seeds of one epecies
uere found in stalks of another, tho plants themselves, as wall ao their
atone Could not be included in sone intermediate forms on the basis of
external characteristics. They were typical; ordinary ?talks of hard and
mat wheat. The internal Condition of these wheat plants was, however, no
longer common or uniform in quality with regard to species. This is proven
b7 the fact that these wheat plants produced not only Goode of 1,cat but
isolatea seeds Of rye. i.e. ends of another spOcieS.
In 1949 the Lenin Agricultural Medea), also received a speelmen of oats
r.
Lu the panicle of WhiCh, along with soods'of oate, were isolated seeds of
noveuign. Arena fatua, i.e. *vena eattve had produced isolated seeds of
cnother species, )vena fattia.
Instances of finatage of Arena fatue in pure strains of oats have
been repeatedly reported in doMestic and foreign literature.
In producing branched Wheat Triticum tureidas on the experimental fields
of the Lenin Agricultural Academy, as will as in several other plaice,
conterination by mixtures of loftand hard tineat.'oats. 2-and 'e-row. barley.
ee utell as epring rye were observed in plantinge of Wheat. Our observations
(7) led us to the conclusion that the primary source for the appearaco of these
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Lysenko. T. a. Tirana. 2201r: stemetic Betio,
mixtures is the beamed whent (tam itself.
In 1950 plants of berley re-oresenting mixtures in plantings of bravoed
wheat, ft. turglitat, showed that they had developed from seedor which in
oatv?rrd anpet,rtInce did not differ r3 all from seeds of whet
21 Surrasitinti has been repeatedly made in nrectice concerning the trane.
fortastion or amelioration of one snecies of various f-gricultn.ral rtints
,Into vnether such as for instance the transformation of wheat irto rye.
he.d. given rise to a lengthy discussion in our natiforil literature
the firsthalf of the past century.
Cases of the transformation of h-rd wheat into soft .41ta-,t or the trans-
formation of hrd and woft heats into rye 're arnarently not hc.v. The
abwre Env Met*, however, were obtained deliberately or disclosed try deliberate
Vert cases had corteisted in the followino Isolpted Tawas of soft whelA
vcrt. found among olentings of bard wheet; these rropageted more aNi more is
farther planting, gradually difghlecing 13..rd wheat. Similarly, PIrlorg niantings
rf sinter wheat isoletedplents of rye were observed.In subsequent -lentings
of Feeds from yields of these fields rye rronagsted raoidly ft.10 :ilylodred
atm:to All these instances of tiiscovering some snecies of vegot.,tive forms
ir -ilantirgs of other species scientists refused to regard as resuits of
the trateormation of one rectos into another. TAW doubts werr always
:resented. It was not estr.blished whether the -Tillery cline of this
coutemination was a common, frequently observed mechanienl mi-ture. There
y44,2 ?lc: assurance that among original seeds there hadnot been an isolated
seedas mixtures of ntiother soecies. &entrance thot in the fiold of
1,trtine, seeds of other reties were not ct,rried over by water, .4.16. or
? vo esqurence that seeds of mixture Sneetes in a given -11.-nting bad
not bees in the soil for a long time. etc.
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Lysenko, T. D. Transl. 2200yetematic Botany
This explains sty on the basis of past oases it is not possible to prove
that primary sources for various mixtures,and several conteminators of
,plantings, aside from mechanical introduction, may also have been originating
vegetative forms of one group of species from other species.
All enumerated arguments against the inception of other species may be
rejected with regard to the above current test., IsOlated seeds of rye,.
discovered in stalks of wheat which had Gruen for several generations under
definite conditions, can actually not be attributed to 'introduction by
.birds, man or any other means. Those-seeds.were produced by wheat plants
and had developed in wheat stalks.
.The supposition of the hybrid origin of seeds may be equally rejected.
, .
It is knout: that Sbeet,may be crossed with rye, though this occurs seldom.
In those oases a definite rye-wheat hybrid is obtained which in external ap- _
pearance is easily distinguished from, both 'sheet and rye. In addition,
rye-wheat hybrids aselk rule, selc-sterile,,do not produce seeds, end
nay produce these:only if pollinated with the pollen of one of the par-
ents, preferably *teat. In thi above case seeds of rye derived from stalks
.
of 'wheat produced ordinary plant*s of rye of normal fertility. Ihey did
not exhibit any hybrid characteristics. The same may be said concerning
the rest of facts mentioned above.
? The examples we mention concerning the originating of some. species
'by others are valuable because. analagous facts may be observed on.cor-
reepondinglielde in any: year. These facti may also be obtained by
growing plants on special fields under experimental conditions.
Factual data obtained up to now concerning the formation of species ap-
plies to the vegetative 'world only. Lecessary data.on the process of forms-
tion or species in the anitalwarld is: leaking eo far. It ie ,nevertheless,
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-Lyienko, T. Transl. 220:Systematic Lotsay
entirely possible that the development of rAcburin'a biological theory
will soon furnish provisions for assembling factual data, analogous to that
of the plant world but applied to zoological objects.
Laterial available on the saject'of the formation of species in the
vegetative world provides graved fOr the belief that several existing
plant species (if not all) are capable of producing anew other species at
preterit and are frequently produoing them under /suitable conditioned. The
same vegetative species is cap010 of producing different related spedies.
Thus bard wheat, Triticum durum, may produce soft stoat. T. vulgar., and
also rye, Seoale cereale.
Changes in in external environment, esaential for specific species
of Given orcanils, are 'sooner or later forced to ,ohange their specific
characteristics and as a result same species will produce others. Under
the influence of changed conditions that may have become unfavorable for
the nature (heredity) of organisms of growing plants species, Lerma of
the body of other species are originated and formed in the body of species
conforming better to changed external environments.
Zsch variation in quality in the 'body of the same vecetative organism,
characteristic of different species, owl in sOre instances be observed
with tbs naked eye. Facts of multiple originating of some long emi4t445
species from others to also explained by the emergence of varietal dis-
tinction in quality in species under thei4nfluence of corresponding external
environments. If plants of .a. given species, in acme manner or other, get
into conditione relatively unfavorable for the normal development of their
specific characteristics as species, a forced transformation (chants) takes
place,I.e. the originating in the plant ortanis0 of a given species of
germs of another speciee, the oharacterisiics of which are better suited by
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-*dank?, T. D. Traps1.220:Systenatic Botany
the now environment.
The production of isolatedspecimens 6f another species within the,
old epecies, to meet conditions better, leads to rapid propagation and the
capseity to dislodge under theca conditions the species front 1014oh they ?
oricinated. If this ocOurtin nature, the originated epecies completely
dislodges the Old Spec:lee in that area by rapid propagation.
The situation id different In agricultural practice 'where cultivated.
plants are protected from weeds by cultural methods.
Ccienee hai known for a long time ,that many species of weeds exist
only In agricultural practice; under natural conditions there are no such '
,species, nor are they able to exist there.. Thus If a field eontaminated
by many epeoles'of weeds ie left fallow, it will over a period of time.
after Boma 20-30 years, i.e. rather soon, be completely cleared. of many
Species of weeds. Suoh a field 'will, no longer produce species' of weeds .
but other'species peouliar to ordinary virgn and uncultivated plots of
that recion.
Speciee Of weeds are products of cone esistincapecies in nature, as
RT e cultivated plant species; for instance thlmost harmful weed novsuig",
Avena fetus, ray be produced by oats. '
species of plants peculiar to virgin soil will find suitable
_conditions for its norral deValoment on plowed land. The species
formerly grown on virgia land Will therefore sooner or later, change
into other epecies better adapted to Conditions created by soil cultiva-
tion. This appliedequally to cult:vetted plants when Ulay heppen to
get into unsuitable climatic and.egro-technical conditimrs. rilley will
Slowly or more rapidly, but invariably transform into other speoles:to
?set prevallinr cmditions.
. Some species of 'weeds have been cultivated.lonc ace. Thug rye,
originating under certain Conditleas from wheat. acts to Om oln.* 41.41
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Lysenko, I., D. Transl. 220:Systematic Botany
weed by dislodging wheat from fielder In such regions special methods .
are applied, i.e. cultivating and i.thipning, cleaning of wheat seeds
from seeds of rye and generally protecting wheat fren being dislodged by
rye. Zr. other regtans rye has been introduced ei a crop. This also
applies to soft wheat which frequently originatee from hard wheat and '
'and in such caseSacts.ns oontaminator. Revd wheat is protected by cul-
tivating seedplaritings. soft wheat has beenintroductd as a crop long ago.
any other species of cultivated plants equally originated from other'
sp'acies of .culture crops. This explains shy 1t has not been possible
to find wild initial species for many cultivated plants.
Poor agricultural practidee that do not establish necessary geed
conditions on 'fields for cultivated crops deteriorate the nature of
these,plante with regard to yield and lead to the impairment of its
quality. Simult4Cously, poor agricultural methods contribute to the
development of a variety 'of meede, seeds end other germs of which are
in the Soil or are carried in with poorly cleaned seed stocks..
Finally poor agricultural practices may also create conditions for
originating Isolated gaits of many seed by cultivated plants. .
The establishment of. Initial sources for species of weede'and the
disclosure of environmental conditiore determining such origin represents
one of the most important task's in agronomic biology. Scientific work
applied, in this direction will not only facilitate geed control on fields
where weed, prevail tut will permit the elimination of the possibility
for producing some species of weeds from other weeds and cultivated plants.
By creating nel4ondit5:oni for organisms or eliminating the influence
upon them of existing oondItiona in an external environtent it is possible
to establish new plant species useful to agriculture and prevent the
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Lyeerko, T. D. Trant1.220:Systematic DotanY
? dew. lopatent of weed vart.tea harmful to our econory.
Therein lies one of ths practical atd important tasks requirinc
theoretical study, the prolaer of the formation of species; it is far
fron be the only one.
End of Article
A17-9-20-51
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TOpchiev, A. V. Madam:Jut/a results
of the scientific activity and of the
introduction of completed research of
the Academy of veiences of U.S.S.R. for
19130. Aad. lama $30/. Vest. 21(3):36-65.
!cr., 1951. 511 Ak.1.4V
?renal. 221tInstitutions
Excerpts translated b7 5. Munson
(The wathor is chief scientific secretary of the Presidium, lor,der.7 of
?clone*s of the 1;531i. This report presented at meeting of Ye). z, 1951)
Viith regard to the complex problem on ',Obtaining higAaxtit., sae
solelde, the Institute of flint Physiology, inert E. A. lrisariu.:_?nv.
Ca.lvacyped and introduced into practice an effective methoct for curt,-,11ing..
Ce growth of potato tubers in storrge, a a ea sure which reducf:s tz.1 loss
in tuber weight during prolonged sterago by 3-6 tines.
? IA not method was developed to prevent the drop of cotton balm,
mbieh raises the yield an averLIge of 25; it passed the induztriztl test.
'hith respect to IlOsoutchouk enct guttaperchao. the Botanical institute
created ne highly productive forms of rubber bearing plants.
The vast and usethl work performed. b the .Botenical and Zoi1 Institute
jointly with other institutions in compiling soil, geo-botadies1 risTs end
other data deserve? mentioning.
In line with the above a.chievements, It is necessary to 7,014t to tome
?inbatantial deficiencies in the WO rk of soedertnente.
The Zoological Institute did not complete the fourth volure of the
? lizatbook sAnittal liorld of 1/531/6, nor was the field uvrk on the ,,..ubject
?',Insects injuring seeds Of cultivated clover and alfalfa', nerfor3aed. its
? equally applies to vorlit on silkworms.
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Ionstantinove P.N. More attention to be given to experiatatal work. 'mt.
Agron. 4(7) s 11.1 8. July 1946. 30404
? Translated fres the Russian br 3.1%. Monica.
(The author is an active member of All-Union Academy of Agricultural
Sciences, lineal Lionise)
The USSR has accomplished a great deal in agricultural experimmatatios
'but the work metres farther improvement. The entire complicated *retest
of experimental institutions, subordinated to various ministries and their
respective alsinistrations which are haphaserdly distributed throughout
the territory of the Union calls for fundament?al reorganization.
The enormous network lacks unified scientific and operative supervision.
Distribution of these institutions is most irregslar throughout the country
and while planned production requires complex experimental institutions,
superfluous specialisation is frequently the case (cereals, cotton, *nor
'wets etc.) The lack of coordination in subject matter, contradictions
and detachment from demands of agricultural production are noted in practical
actuality. They reflect upon the expediency of the work of agricultural
experiment institutions. lead to delays In sorting actual problems and
unproductive expenditures. Muky institutes are known to undertake unneces-
sary studies, such as VIII studying problems of mechasisation.
The Odessa Institute of Genetics and 'election also studies mechanism.
time and planting *twister wheat on stubble.
Institutions frequently duplicate work and interfere with each other,
with the result that they ors known to advertise all kinds of "discoveries"
of things long discovered. Specialised institutes, such as the Institutes
of 'las and Hemp Industries, and recently the Institute of Bast Crops, maY
have nee& for subjects like mechanisation and even the construction of
machinery (who but a plant grower is bettor equipped to observe details
? in this narrow field?), but in stellar instances these institutes should
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goastentiacv Trend. 222: Institutions
provide regular sections in aechanisation. Selection stations are devoting
scant attention to agricultural techniques; in some places old and prolonged
rotations of crops were discontinued. Bseential problems in agricultural
methods are usually overlooked.
Many objeotionable features in programs of research institutions could
be enuaerated. The establishment of a single scientific and operative,
center is imperative for purposes of unifying the activities and increasing
the expediency of the work of agricultural experiment institutions.
? The All-Union Academy Of Agricisltural Science,. lama Labiaa, should
become such a center. This will call for the transfer of all agricultural
experiment institutions of the various ministries to VASIBIL. The latter
should equally supervise the work of scientific-research agricultural Arzi
? (hither educational institutes). The role of agricultural Vila in the
?
experimental field must be stressed. VAStlitilL should in this connection
organise the following departments:
*) a departaent of agricultural reorganisation with sections of economics
and organisation of agricultural production; sections of natural
sciences (soil, climate, flora); crop rotations; distribution of
agricultural production with the following sub-sections: distribution
of agricultural crops and of varieties of domestic animals.
b) ? department of agriculture with sections of irrigated and non-irrigated
agriculture (ogre-chemistry. selection, agricultural meteorology),
plant protection, microbiology,
e) a department of husbandry with sections on species of domestic animals,
and a veterinary section;
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Non stent inov Transl. 2221 Institutions
d) a department of forestry;
e) a attp".7.'tmert of vegetable and fruit greying;
f) a den/Art.:lent of agriculture/ mechanisation with sections for use of
machinery, repair, regionalization of agricultural machinery, equip-
ment, pinening and development of new machinery.
V17r.a. 1.1ould also be given control over mealy institutes of the nation
aoadenleit the Botanical Institute. the Institute of Oenetics, Institute
ofMicrobiolef:,7, and the Institute of Agricultural loll lIcience.
The eztire territory of the tr3r should be divided into an adequate
number of economic and natural zones. It seems f'easible to consider the
establish:tont e ems 24-26 zones. on then 3-3 non-chernosen, 8 chernezen,
3-4 foreet-ste -me. 3 Siberian, 4 zonee of dry egricelture - (dark chestnut
ehestralt sails, ltht chestnut eons and solonets soils);
sub.trenicel. ones; 1 zone for Cettral Asia, 1 for the rex Seat, etc.
Agriou3.tura1 experimental institutions in every sone should be lanced?
=der tho suporri 14023 of the major ernertmental institution in their sone
(zonal tus.itute or oblast, agricultursl experiment station) where a igOrStl
SICienttfic councilShould be sot ttp. Me central link of the network
should be rn:)re !ranted at republic, krai end eblanto complex experiment
station3, relare eepartments on wicultural economic and the organisation
of egrioultnral production, mechanisation, sell science, meteorology,
chemistry, etc., should be set up or strengthened. These large ste.tions
would enencmte closely with local land institutions and wepervise the
work of re4ona sttttions and fields, and the lower network (ffrl, cottage
laboratories). No other experimental institutions should conduct expert-
ciente on ?-i-xicultural production above the planned lower network.
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Moustantinov
Trend. 222:, .lustitutions
Selection station of SDITUPRA (varietal aduluistratious), together
with other stations should be transferued Sato coupler stations. Mb
geed *elector or agro-ohemist will lack knowledge to agro-techuiques.
Iconorics and agricultural practices represent the basis far everything.
The prednuissting role slier selection as a subject matter at several large
stations is permissible, superfluous specialization at many agricultural
experiment stations should, however, be done sway with.
Agricultural VU2Y'should head the work of large research institutions
(lastitUtee, ?blasts stations, )M) .
xperimentson varieties of-all crops should be united under a single
governaont commission of varietal testing, to beattached to the Council
,of Ministers of USSR, with separate sections on cereal, technical, forage
and vegetable crops. An institute for varietal testing and regioaalizs
tien-ef.e,Wicultural drops should be organised. The ears institute Omrald
deal with problems of agricultural regioualisation and distribution Of
agricultural crops in cooperation with TASMONIL and with s ewascil whose
function it will be to study the productive (creative) capacity of AM'
(Academies of Science) of MR.
The Mist expedient arrangement in subject matter at the upper, *Ultra
sud lower links of research institutions is possible only when agricultural
regionalization of U$SR and the productive spocialisation of separate swims
? and suer* and micro-regions will be determined. .
The accorplishments and deficiencies of the two-year expedition or
the brigade of SU of USW, made under my supervision, Which dealt with .
the distribution of agricultural crops in Siberia (194143), as well as
my familiarity with the work of concrete experimental institutions support
.this view.
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? lonstantinov Trans'. 222; Institatiens
The eftornaus et:totemic sigaificance of the proper distribution of
agricultural crops is hardly subject to controversy, provided thle dis-
tribution will take into account the demands of industry and the economic
and natural characteristics of separate cones, oblast(s) and regions in
individual areas. Inadequate operation of planned crop rotations testifies
also to their inadequacy cum farms. At 20.5% of collective tarns in the
Zest, given crop rotation schedules, only single percenteges or parts of
? percentages met these requirements.
Complez agricultural regionalisation creates maximal clarity in
subject natter at scientific research institutions. It permits sears..
tion of .perspective and rejection of all Incidental subjects that do net
meet currant needs of local agriculture. It determines the distribution
of labor euang research institutes, *blast' and regiolial stations, and
simplifies cenerallzation and the effective use of the enormous scientific
material, both old and new. The adninistration of work planned for the
lover netmork (MS, cottage laboratories) will also be helped.
Proper regionalisation mays nevertheless, be accompliehmi only in .
the event that sone of the major local research institutions, in collaboration
with YASKENIL, will independently carry out agricultural regionalisation
in their novas according to plan! Sections In agricultural economics.
studying jointly- wit) planuing organisatime the general probloms in
agricultural economy, the organisation of agricultural production labor,
etc., should be organised at every one of these institutions. They should
provide for the economic evaluation of typical crop rotations at their
respective zones of ladividual agricultural methods and crops, provide
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Eonstsmtinov ?mil. 2221 Institutions
for the proper distribution of ,agricultural _crone and domestic animals,
region.alite agricultural nethods in their souse, etc.
are fa7.111ar with the principles of plant growing in crop rota..
tient and are almost unfamiliar with their economic basis. In planning
for crop rotations at any region fron an econonic standpoint, we would
aid and provide for" a closer agronomic foundation. Sammie and plant
industrial ?ses for crop rotations are inseparable; they supplement each
other. Economic considerations should be leading,. however, a circumstance
frequently overlooked.
Itherevar possible it is also necessary at present to. introduce schemes
? -of typical, crop rotations to stoat the direction indicated by local economy
and to aPpraise their relative value. Such crop rotations should have
appropriate sectors on plots in order that general equipment end nachinery
of a heavily mechanised fans can conveniently be used for soil cultivation,
planting, care of crops, weed control, harvesting. Crop rotations nay be
also organired outside of the territory of the institute or station.
Economics of crop rotation say be studied at available large farms
where crop rotation is practiced. It is imperative to stress the critical
evaluation of planned crop rotation and its introduction into industry. It.
is also essential to devise *chases for the study of prods:col:sore, bearing
in mind that without crop 'rotation proper agricultural practices, cultiva-
tion, introduction of fertilisers, weed and disease control and effective
selection are not possible. Ons should not be content with a situation
where nurseries of initial material for selection of field crops are die-
tributbd on a variegated (randomised?) plot located on the outskirts and
auay trmn crops ender rotation.
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&on.tantinot Trend. 222: Institutions
Agricultural regionalisation requires intensification in the sttdy
of soil science and agricultural meteorology on the territory of the
institutions therieelves, as welt as on territories of the Bones they serw
The hydro-thermic program has to, be practiced directly on sectors of crops
under rotation. with established rain-gauges. ? variety of thermometers
and evaporators in the fields.
The stu.dy of pure-stanCplaatings and grass ai,tu?ei is ?graphical cross
section is acute, so 19 the Cultivation of their layers and turnover, layer
plants, the cultivation of hard and soft wheats on hard and soft soils.
Soil structure is closely connected with this problem', its eircnOnic signi-
ficance, the possibility of increasing the structure of the soil by cultural
treatment, the introduction of fertilisers, etc.
It is hie' time re detached outselvse from the hypnosis of the pre-
dostusat significance of vise Mutters, with regard to pure-stand plantings
of grasses. Their careful study in a geographical cross section will
without doubt refer to their diverse agronomical significance.
Thus in dry regions of extensive agriculture (dry steppes primarily)
in grass field crop rotations, where grasses are used, for a prolonged period
(54 years)
grass mixtures pia/ an hipOrtmult role in controlling field
contamination end a lesser role as reconstructors of soil structure. Despite
the enormous significance of Vass Planting (grass mixtures, pure-stand
plantings) this has unfortunately been inadequately studied in geographical
cross section.. Itsperimental data en the relative erpediency of pure and
mired grass plantings in geographical cross section is very ecarce.
Mechanisation of crop. and varieties in geographical cross section
has also received -Inadequate study. thus, according to Professor Yekubs,
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Ionstantinov Trend. 2223 institutions
it would pro's expedient to devote attention to several problems:
a) adjuitments for deep soil cultivation (fore-plow and its construction;
soil digging machinery - methods and depth of cul- tivation of furrow
depth; t*.row plows; deep plowing, methods for their use and equip-
meat; hard-pan breakers and mols-dsainage);
b) , deep cultivating without turning over of layer; chiseling to sub-
stitute for spring plowing;
c) control of crust; ,
d) rolling of soil in geographical cross section; rakes of the rolling
? t7Pu;
narrow-roved, combined and nest-like seeders, one-grain seeders with
different attachments ibr planting grain and small used crops:*
? f) ?equipment for inter-row cultivation and plant feeding:.
g) harvesting machinery (among them those with wall reach for experi-
mental stations); universal use of combines; adjustments for harvesting
lodged grains; special harvesting 'machinery;
h) threshing machinery for special crops;
1) . sorting machinery and selection of sifters.
It is understood that expediency in mechanization, agricultural tech-
nique and oil science will be higpest when these phases will be closely
correlated.
The solution of the problem of optimal programs for storing selected
varieties of different crops is urgent. She study of physiological-
. ?
biochemical characteristics of every variety under optimal and ordinary
industrial programs of storing must be given careful study. She influence
of the origin of seeds of the owe variety, storage program, the physiological-
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gonstantin.ov Trend. 222: Institutions
biochemical characteristics of seeds upon yield are enormous. Differ-
ence in yields may anount to 40-60-80. Standards for pleating qualities
of seeds should include these new points.
lorrHoPsOP AGRMILTURti, 1117tRIMIZOTAL 1104
Methods for precise lehoratory experiments (objects of special
laboratories) hive been more or less set up. The establishment of
vegetative tests with various living Empalme on specific su.bstrats: is
more complicated. Here extreme care is essential. The choice of a plant
for experimentation ensures accuracy in conclusions. Yield experiments
are still more complicated. Correct result* are determined by basic
factors: the object under test, optimal agro-technique, optimal end
minimal compression in space anti tine. Accuracy in conclusions is *neared
by the selection of si uniform variety. Thiel is usually a regionalised
variety. Accuracy in conclusions is also ensured by a typical and even
plot, with respect to its predecessor, by relief, hydra-thereto program,
uniformity in soil cultivation, planting, nary, harvesting, establishment
of type of equipment and machinery. Severe contamination and differences
in degree of contamination, disease mfeetation distort results considerably.
Accuracy in conclusions is &leo ensured by typical conditions throughout
the year and the individual mmeons of the year, as well as the most
important periods of vegetation, the stages and phases of development,
the type of plant under test. *ext come types of seed qualities in plant-
ing material physiological maturity of seeds, purity, germination,
metabolism, absolute weight, nor* of planting, origin of seeds; t7Pinni
development of onto- and phyto-pest etc. The ability to typify condi-
tions of the environment.
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Xonntantinov Transl. 2221 Institutions
The very list of nuaerous factors that zingers accuracy in conclusions
alone speaks volumes conc.. ruing the anonyms complexity of methods in
field experiments. A good experimenter must be capable of analysing the
multitude of conditions facing himwhile he conducts his experiment.
He vast also possess the ability to generalize ?broadly and synthesise the .
data secured and be able to analyse it.
The problem of typical years in their entirety, parts of 'years, etc.,
confronts the experimenter with difficulties. It is important to develop
a method for *typifying* years and certifying data. It is not possible to
trust any accidental figure or stereotype averages derived occasionally from
very variable data of repeated occurrences.
Here the experimenter will be confronted with an entire series of
disciplines on general knowledge and supplementary special disciplines
Marxism. Leninism, soil scien-ce, tftl) r11010g7 ? agro-tectudque, plant indust17,
agro-physice, microbiology, agro-chemistry, selection, physiolegY. phyto-
pathology , entomologi, mechanisation, botany, etc.
An el:per/neater ,must be yell supplied with diver's* knowledge. The
road to knowledge leads, however, through systeas and methods of study.
Methods of the agricultural experimental field indicate stages and lays
- for the acquisition of entire groups of supplementary sciences. An
experimenter should, in addition to his narrow specialty, possess a knowledge
of many agronomic sciences, agricultural economics, the organization of
? agricultural production. He should know soils well and the climate ef
the territory of his experimental institution, his region, should possess
a clear general idea of the soils and climatic sones of the Soviet Union.
The experimenter should, I repeat, be a good agro-technician, since without
agre-technique there can be no effective work done in agro-chemistry,
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Arim
lenstaninov Trenal. 1322: Institutions
selection, plent protection, etc. The ecology of agricultural plants
and disee,---.ea i.cu1ct comane his particular attention. 1:e should always
restember t ield testi.; must be conducted under conditions of modern
improve male eization, a circumstance equally not.eppreciated, especially
in stuiyie ? cizr?craic a and productivity of crepe under rotation. The
actual lelustr-lel condition in mechanization should, neverthelese, not be
overlooke.l.
ii t:.L.oes not preclude sensible specialisation and differentiation
of labor ,oue, epecialists of experimental institutions. These should
well pre-eall. Scientific coordination between ecientists is however pos-
sible only ii both specialists know each other's :subjects well. The work
of en exp?:rieen:.or will acquire greatest expediency under circumetances ehare
close colleberation is eetablished with related laboratories, where an experi-
confers
mentor r.a .i t0-01,CS and testicles most frequently with the entire group.
Isolltee. 'work. of experimenters - selectors, workine on winter cad spring
wheat, -..leter wheat r..nd rye-wheat hybridization, Agropyrum-wheat hybridize...
tion, the zALction of perennial wheat, etc., mey serve as examples of
obiectioleiJte 9Lreale1iem.
Zue aeove cells for the revision of subject matter at allied laboratories
and for ti-e establishment of necessax9 contact in their work.
Zn t 1L ht of the above, the complexity of factors of external
environmentss they reflect upon results of field experiments, endless
talks caeca rning sirppo sed3.y universal methods of conducting field testy, the
siue of let their replicas, without regard to the object under test
and conditions of environment, appear positively negligible. inastioes
such as, "%het ia better .. large or email plots? 2-10-12 replicael
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Yonsteninov Transl. 222: Institutions
Under oetinel testing conditions duplication may be preferable to 10
replicas weer non-optimal conditions, i.e. under very irregnlar,
imflr urtural teckground and poor cultivation of the soil. There is no
optimal rtet.hod ccording to regions as yet. In some instances men with-
out a tree of emberrasement take plots of 36 m2 under three replicas in regions
of varici7tecl soils. The results are not comparable, as may be expected.
..:Icond point to be consieered is siolti-variation of tests. 'Ivan
St zonal ir.titutee tests are shamelessly conducted in 7.0 or lore variants
on varitcd-Jeclrig.ounds. The optimal number of variants should be made
more precise (specific) in different schemes depending upen zones. The
third riolnt concerns the application of mathematics .in processing experi-
mental e-tr Vho only uses it and in at manner? It le &naiad in
proceseinL; "both valid and invalid 0/3servatians- An agronomist-a:Ter/mentor,
poorly verl*._ in mathematical fine paints will frequently evaluate correctly
the results of his labors from en agronomical standpoint, will reject one
v,irient, lye r r Old ttle eWrat lea to another. !chile any nathematicien
will tell bin ...hat either all tests are valid, or sal invalid, depending
upon the correletion of the number of good and poor variants in the test.
The 80.calle5 average eingte trnerelised error in tests (standard deviation),
obtained from foreign sources, proves a veritable scourge, especially for
young be6Anners-experimentors?
rt 13 tie that some agronomiste-ezperimentors have no desire to yield
to genuine mathematicians. Here or there one may come across a method
with trlecific (precise) indicator, either aisofiriao or Iambic or deotyllic
method (aller-Arnold), Kostestkil method, etc. fell, all in all, comae-
titian between agronomists and, mathematicians deserves better application.
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ZonstantinOV Transl. 2221 Institutions
Distortions in applying mathematics in processing test data continue.
In order to remedy the situation / decided in 1941/2 to recall the ancient
grandfather method of ordinary processing and evaluation of experimental
data to experimantors in my article on variety grouping. To overcome
distortions in results of tests with regard to irregularity and variation
in fertility of soils is one of the major problems in field experiments.
The comparability of test variants of varieties in varietal tests, as well
as the correctness of their grouping, depend upon the degree to which this
influisace may be ellainated. The effect of irregular, frequently chaotic:
variation in soil fertility, according to zones, covers up all actual dis-
tinctions =Ong varieties. The properly conducted *pairings method, as
recomaended by me, raises comparability, while neglect in this instance
will frequently wipe out its advantages.
The attempt to find a method for grouping varieties, not according
to actual yields, which frequently differ in individual replicas, but
according to less variable, =re constant characteristics, is therefore
warranted and plausible. It may be the place occupied by a variety with
regard to its rank In yield or a. test in each replica, more or less uniform
with respect to soil cover, relief, contamination, etc. The tendency of
better or poorer varieties (variants) to occupy within the limits of
individual replicas the best or poorest places in yield is more constant
and less mzbject to variation than are actual yields. If therefore tea
Croups will indicate within the limits of every replica their rank in
yield, the derivatives of elementary rows of rank orders for each variety
(variant) and all replicas will, provided superior treatment le applied,
? be less variable. Grouping of correlation (in percentage) of every
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Zonstantinov Transl. 2221 Institutions
variant from the standard would be still better. Poor results are
obtained front three replicas at 100 sq. a. and less.
In conclusion I wish to limit myself to a few good wishes to research
institutes and largest agricultural experiment stations.
I.. Assign unification of the scientific asthod of supervising all
experiment institutions to the reforaed All-Union Academy of
with
Agricultural Sciences and ccusider it connected/1w the Council
of Rini eters .of USSR.
2- itliainate *dualism* (duplication) in the administration of expert
-
gimbal institutions on location. The director should be also its
scientific supervisor. A well qualified scientific supervisor may
be .03119 scamps who is in charge of personnel and Stands. This will
Increase the Mee of responsibility If U director for ills entire
?realization. An aide should be assigned to deal with economic-
asbdnistrative duties, and a scientific council organized at the
directorate level.
3. Organise sections of agricultural economics and organization of
agricultural production in 1945, where there are none. Where these
are available, their work should be strengthened.
4. Organ. Ise in this connection, study on the productivity and *canonics
of crop rotations, as they exist in large mechanized agricultural
industrial wilts, as well as at those newly established on the ter-
ritory of the experimental institution or beyond its typical rotation
of crops, using modern mechanised agricultural production methods.
Study the cause of inadequate application of scheduled crop rotations.
5. Intensify the study of soils and climate and their regionalization.
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onetst1nov ran s1. 222: Institutions
5. rhe existing organisation of scientific *loath:me and labormto se
of experimental institutions should be reviewed again from the
standpoint of proper differentiation of labor and, cooperation in
work, as well as complexity in stibilsot matter.
7. Provide subject matter for new sections and make more precise
that of present sections in this connection.
8. Intensify the study of mechanisation by organising a network of
? machine.testing stations. ?
9, Process the method of agricultural experimental wort end
of field testing, as based on this data.
10. Organics their scientific certification througtt the
Institute of Agriculture by introducing agricultural methods and
other achi.evemeet? into industry.
Organize the work of egricultual regionalisation and the distri-
bution of agricultural crops in a serviced raglan; the gttpifyingis
and. regionalising rotation of crops; distribution of varieties,
agricultural stothsde, anima genera, etc. All these projects
should be coordinated with? planning organisations and VASUNIII.
Zed of art
S.
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Pokrovskii, E. A. Vey preparation Tranal. 223: Insecticides.
for the control of injurious insects.
Sovet. Agron. S(1):90.93. Jan. 1947.
20 So84
A Few Cceipound in Controlling Ilarmful Insects
The author is a candidate of Biological science.
Bexachlorooyclohemane or benzolhexaohloride (C6B6C16) is obtained
as a result of pkotochemical ohlorifying benzole with the illumination of
reactionary solution of actinic rays.
The mothod of a constant countercurrent of the photochemical &aqui.-
sition of hexaohloroycloheyane has been worked out at the Institute of
Fertilizers and Inseoto-Fungicides.
The compound represents a mixture of isomers of hexachlorocyolohexanes
alfa, beta, gamma and delta and of other substances which are formed cUiring
the process of ohlorifying benzol.
The preparation of hexaohlorocyclohexane consists of four simple
? operations
The simplicity in preparing it, the possibility Of a fast mass
output and the low cost will promote its wide expansion.
At the entomological laboratory of the Institute the following
application of hexacholorocyclohemane was studied: for the treatment of
fruit trees and of berries before the spring budding, as en insecticide
of contact and intestine effect, and for dusting grains.
13esides toxicological testing of hexachlorooyclohexane upon insects,
experiments mere carried out with aiming to explain phytooide qualities
(plant burning).
For a more thorough study of hexachlorooyelohexane, the institute
sent the compound for testing to .the roscow station for plant protection, to
the All-Union Institute of Oil-Plants, to the All-Vnion Institute of
Tabacco and rakhorka Industry, to the Voronezh Oblast' Agricultural
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Pokrovsky, E. A. T renal .223: Insectio ides
411 Experimental Station and into the Laboratory of the Botanical Garden of
?
?
the Academy of Sciences of USSR.
Bexachlorooyclohexane was tested in the fonn of five- and seven
percent dust. Its effect was compared to the effect of a five percent
dust of diohlorodiphenyltrichlorethane (DDT, compound *Gesaroll which
is an Insecticide .of high effectiveness and which is applied in Various
mays.
Besides the dusts of hexaohlorooyolohexane and diphenyltrichlorethane.
the insects under experiments were sprayed With talcum in order to deter-
mine the effect of the filler without the active ingredient.
Each variant of the experiment as repeated at least three times, 'with
three repetitione.in the experiment.
For the experiments of early spring treatment, before the opening
of the buds, were taken apple-trees 'which mere infested by eggs of apple
sucker [Psylla mali]and graftings of black currant which were abundantly
covered 7ith thorax of spotty scale undek which its eggs minter.
The experiments mIth eggs of apple sucker [Payne malt], carried out
in laboratory and in orchar, indicated that neither hexachlorooyclohexane
nor agezarol" kill the eggs, i.e. they are not ovioides. The amount of
dead eggs upon branches treated with dusts hardly surpassed the amount
of dead ones upon control branches..
Both compounds, by killing the sucker larvae 'which grew from the
eggs, reduced the infestation of apple buds by half. But the effect of
both compounds is hardly sufficient, if we compare it with the effect of
the compound Selinoi-aei especially intended for early spring spraying and
which cleans the buds from the larvae.
The seven- and five percent dusts of hexachlorocyclohexane and
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Pokrovaky, E. A. Tranal.223:Insecticides
"gesaroln 'did not kill the 'eggs of the spotty scale which rate wintering
under the thorax.
During inspection, 16 days after the birth, there were very little of
living, larvae which 'develop normally and which form thorax. There was
a great,emount of larvae upon the branches 'stitch were not treated ,at' all
or treated with talcum.
The compound "Selinon-nein which contains I'dinitrokresol" in the
concentration of 1 percent caused a complete destruction of the eggs.
The compound dichlorodiphenyltriohlorethans which is applied as
an emulsion "Lemzeto" at the concentration of 1 percent did not kill the
eggs of the scale, but later on it caused Com-)late destruction of its
larvae. Obviously, it is necessaryto find a method of applying hexa-
chlorocyclohextute for early spring sprayings in the form of emulsions.
As a contact insecticide, hexachlorocyclohexane was tested under
the conditions of laboratory experirent upon four species of aphids:
cherry, apple, cabbage and chrysanthemum. The registration of the experi-
ments was done after twenty-four hours. The results are given in
Table 1. (page44)
Fiexachlorocyclohexane was in all cases _highly toxic, causing complete
destruction of all aphid species. The high effect of hexachlorocyclo-
hexane upon aphids makes it superior to dichlorodiphenyltrichlorethane.
The Institute of Tobacco and wilekhorka" Industry tested the dust
of hexachlorocyclohexane in controlling poach aphid which is very harmful
to tobacco plants.
During experiments which, rere carried out by repeating twice upon
664 insects under laboratory conditions, the 5 percent dust of hexa-
ohlorocyclohexane with the consumption of 50 kg/ha resulted in the 9c.6
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Table 1
,
Aphidspecies
.
'compound
conaump-
,
Aphid destruction from
:compoun (In percent)
hid destruction(in percent)
during control experiments
tion
"'kin kg/ha)
5 co/o.
dust
ROWE*
T We ?
dust
Haat*
esaror
-5 o/o
DDT
Cherry a hid... . ... . ....
, 10
20
40 . .96
94
95
100
100
100
92
90
91
Centre .._.. ... ... . ... .. ......6o c
Talbum:20 kg/ha. .. . ... 120/6
Nicoduet 5*6 20.k ha 92o/0
, .
Apple aphid.........:.. .....
10
20
40
100
99:
100
86
.98
99
87
97
96
Control...v....4.... ....4...8o/6
ValCum 40 kg/ha 4400
Nicodust co/c 20 k a 96o/o
Cabbage aphid......* ...... ..
20
92
......
. 'I
Control...... ..... ,......
Talcum 20
Ticodast 5C/C-20 k- a 88o/o
Chr eanthemum aphid.. .. ..
10
20 :
40
a9
73
86 .
69
? 80
94
49 -
Control7-7-717/37-
Talcum...- - .0.4F70/*
Bexachlorooyo lohexane
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Pokrovsky, E. A. Trans1.223:Insecticides
percent destruction of the pest on the third day, 99 percent on the
sixth day--and on the eighth day--complete destruction, in comparison
to the 2.5 percent of the aphid mortality upon control plants. A ten
percent dust of hexachlorocyclohexane caused complete destruction of the
aphid during the same time, but on the third day after apraying already
93 percent of destruction has been observed.
In comparison with the compounds of dichlorodiphenyltrichlorethane,
hexachlorocyclohexane demonstrated higher toxicity upon both the larvae
and the mature insects of peach aphids. Thus, while the compound "patrol"
caused 100 percent of aphid destruction on the thirteenth day after treatment;
hexachlorocyclohexane caused complete destruction under the same conditions
and the same concentration on the eighth day. Hexachlorocyclohexane and
dichlorodiphenyltrichlorethane affected the tobacco aphid comparatively
slowly. The elucidation of the duration of the compound's effect indicates
that diohlorodiklenyltrichlorethane is more resiitant and maintains
its toxicity longer than hexachlorodyclehexane. Fut the resistance
manifested by hexachlorocyclohexane and longmaintaining of toxicity, at
least for two-three meeks, which it not natural to any of the insecticides
of contact effect mhose activity usually it lirited to a few hours which
requires direct effect of the compound upon the insects during spraying.
The same institute tested hexachlorocyclohexane as a contact insecti.-
aide upon tobacco thrips [onion thrip, Thrieidae tabaci]. A five percent
dust of hexaohlorocyolohexane caused the destruction of 98.6 percent of
larvas and 100 percent of nature insects after 24 hours; a ton percent
dust caused a complete destruction or thelpest after 24 hours. Fiverpercent
dust of dichlorodiphenyltriohlorethane caused 93.5-95 percent of larva
destruotion and 97-100 percent mature insect destruction after twenty-four hours.
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Pokrovsky, L. A. T renal. 223:lesecticides
According to their toxicity upon tobacco thrips, hexachlorocyclo-
hexane and diohlorodiphenyltrichlorethane proved to be .of equal value,
but they were by far superior to the most effective insecticide of contact
effect-anabasinesulphate. The 5 percent dust of anabasinesulphate mixed
with kaolin caused after tlAsnty-four hours the destruction of 42.3 percent
of the larvae and 56.6 peroent of the maturv insects.
The plants were not harmed by the spraying with hexachlorocyclohexnee,
but the tobacco was not good for smoking.
texachlorocyclohexane dust demonetrated high effectiveness upon
grass bug fl4gue pratensiej which is a serious pest of all plantn.
Lxperiments proved that themortality of the bugs reached TD percent
after the ai,plication of 5 percent hexachlorocyclohexane duet or "gezarol"
with the consumption of the compound in the truant of 20-30 k
During
the experiments which were carried out witr the Intention of burning
plants, the dusts of hexachlorocyclohexane and of getarol, even with tbe
consumption of 100 kg pro heater did not cause, any burning uron the plant.
Thus, the testing of the hexachlorocyolohexane duet, as a contact
poison upon the insects with sutorial quality, proved ,high end resistant
toxicity of the compound.
texaohlorocyclohexane proved to be high effective during the experi-
ments with rice weevil [Calandra oryzaelby dilating vheat grain (100 g.
dust to a ton of grain).
The grain was thorouoly mixed with the compound for thirty minutes,
and then the weevils were placed upon the. Five percent dust of bele-
chlorocyclohelene caused full destruction of the weevil after three days,
and 5 percent dust of "getarol"-after seven days. . Talcum in the amount of
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Pokrovskii, L. A. Trans1.223:Insecticides
1:19100 of grain after seven days cnused only 5 percent of the destruction
of the weevil. Mith the control plant there was no mortality of the
Weevil. There is some reason to assume that hexachlorocyclohexane
affected the weevil as a fumigant as well.
At the rosoow Station of Plant Protection analogous experiments were
Carried out With grain mite fTyroglyphys farina.]. The results are indi-
?
cated in Table 2. (Page 8)
in controlling relies a?greater amount of the compounds were consumed
than in controlling rice weevil, whereby hexachlorocyclohexane as more
aotive than d1chlOrOdipbenyitrichlorethane.
The mites belong, to those insects which, are isslune to-various poi-
sons. Their egga do not parish even by fumigation with hydrogen cyanide
aoid and with chloropicrin. he absence of rites in dusted grain in-
dicates that, lf their eggs were not even -killed.by the compounds, the
larvae perished anyhow.
The dusts-did not affect the grain aproutt.
t five percent duet or hexaehlorooyclohexane was tested upan'cater-
pillantas a contact and intestine insecticide..
As a Poison of contact effeot the cOzpound was tested by spraying
it in btepanov's equipment, with the Censumption of 10, 20, 40 kg/ha
(the batch of the instrument it of 40, 80, 160 mg) in controlling
caterpillars of gypsy moth (Porthetria displOand of apple moth.
tive percent hexachlorocyclohexane duet caused almost the complete
destruction of Gypsy moth rith.the consumption of 40 kg/ha; dichloro-
diphenyltrichloroethane caused the came effect with the consumption of
10 kg/ha.
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PokrovskiS4 B4 As Trans1.223:inseeticidera
Table 2
Compound
4esu1ts of .the
compound upon t
Bexachlorocyclehe,
ft
tiva04:04????
After: 25 deys there was no mite
20? t fl
After 80 days individual
.After SO days no niths
After SO days I IIdual mites
er 30.days no mites
ring tho entire experimon
here vas a gre&t amount of mite
Dichlorodiphon aria orethane
The same.. . .. ?*****404.4***
Gesarol *****
* a. * * 4"ea? ? ? ????016??
'Talcum. *
Contre14.4
*** S ?. a-i..e*****
*******.
Compound
Table S
Mortality In percentage during consumption
Rexachlorocyclohe zane
n percent dus
Dichiorodiphenyltrichlorethane44
5 pereent dust,4,444 ?4!..? ? .444,.,4.
Gezarol a 0********? 4 ..
89
6
BO
Calcium arsenate 3G percent.... ..
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POkrovskii, E. .&. Trans1.223:Insedticides
Tho effect of hexachlorocyclohexane and of dichlorodiphenyltrichlore-
thane upon the caterpillars, i.e. upon gnawin,; inieots is most important.
Poisons of intestine effect are applied in controlling them: usually they.
are compounds of arsento which are poisonous for warm blooded animals. The
possibaity of replacing such insecticides is of great importance. ?Al.
sides, the possibility of applying the same insecticide is controlling
both insects, auctorial and ?gnawing, makes this insecticide universal.
The'duste containing 7 percent of hexachlorocyclohexane and agezaroll
containing 5 percent of dichlorodiphonyltrichlorethaue were sprayed
upon nests with caterpillars of the second6neration of apple moth.
After twenty-four hours the destruction of caterpillars from hexachloro-
cyclohexane reached in one experiment 85 olo, and in another 97 percent.
After fory-eight hours the caterpillars perished completely. Sesarol
caused the destruction of 57 percent of caterpillars after twenty-four
hours in one case, and in the other caae-83 percent. After fory-eight
hours their couplet destruction followed. '
A five percent dust of hexachlorocyclohexane was tested byiulfur
method, as a poison of intestine effect 4 ix controlling the caterpillars
of cabbage owlet moth [Barathra brassioae] with the consumption of 20
kg of the compound for one teeter of the surface. The results were nega-
tive, while ngazarol" causedcanplete mortality of the caterpillars.
Eexaohlorocyclohexane had a repulsive effect upon the caterpillars:
they did not touch the attractants.
Similar results were obtained at the laboratory of the Yain Botani-
cal Garden. of the Academy of Science of USSF by the coworker Perdennikova
? S. P. 111th the comumption of 25 kg of the compnund for 1 ha of the
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Podrovskii, B. A. ?renal .223 Insect 'aides
surface, 23 percent of the caterpillars died on the third day. "Gesarole
nailer the same conditions caused the death of 95 percent of caterpillars.
and 5 percent dust of dichlorodiphenyltrichlorethane caused 69 percent,
and calcium arsenite-43 percent.
Five percent dust of hexachlorocyclohexane, proved to be highly
effective already on the third day upon caterpillars of the third generation.; t,
as an intestine poison. 'Eut still this compound was inferior in its
effect to dichlorodiphenylchlorethane. ihis is well proved when applying
a smaller norm (12 kg/ha) of the compound. (Table 3, page 6.)
During the eXperiments at the Voronezh Oblast' Agricultural Expert.
mental Station, two hours after spraying millet lots (size 10 m2) infested
by millet mosquito Nayetiola destructor], a great amount of dead mos-
quitoes were discovered upon the ground and upon registration sheets.
Flying mosquitoes were Observed in individual specimens. Upon control
lots there vas an intensive flight of mosquitoes. Dichlorodiphe41-
trichlorethane were active more slowly, but they yielded the same results.
Luring the sprayirg of raspberry and of apple trees with 5 and 7
percent dust of hexachlorocyclohexane there was no burning of the leaves.
The laboratory of the Botanical Garden made experiments with 5-
and 10 percent dust oehexachlorocyclohexane upon cherry, lilac, rasp-
berry and apricot trees, whereby for two weeks there was no burning of
the leaves., rut, on the leaves o0ucumbers in conservatoriee turns were
noticed.
The literature on applying hexachlorocyclohexane as an insecticide
is insignificant. The compounde of hexachlorocyclohexane have several
names. 666, three six, tammekean". The latter name pertains to the
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Pokrovsky, B. A. Trans' .223 Iisectie ides
compounds of tammaisomer hexachlorocyclohexane. In USSR this compound is
called Roxachloran.
"Gammeksan" proved to be highly toxic for insects and for some other
jointed animals.
According to Dr. Slade, a poisoned attractant of 002 percent mixture
of the isomers of hexachlorocycloheaane caused the destruction of 62 percent
of flying locust during two days, while diohlorodiphenylchlorethano at the
concentration of 0,2 percent caused 57 percent of its destruction, and Radium
arsenitecaused 57 percent of locust destruction at the concentration of 0.4 percent.
The larvae of the 4th and 5th stage of the flying locust sprayed with
the hexachlorocyclohexane dust perished within twenty-four hours those
sprayed with "gezar 1" did not perish.
The first experiments indicated that:
1. Hexachlorocyclohexane in the form of 5- and 7 percent duat mixed with
talcum proved to be a highly effective insecticide of contact effect upon
aphids, flea bugs, thrips caterpillars of younger generation locust, upon
rice weevil and cereal mites during the spraying of grains.
2. According to its effect upon aphids, the dust of hexachlorocyolohexane is
much superior to the diohlorodiphenylch orethane which, in a Aeries of experi-
ments was little effective in controlling aphids, and according to litera-
ture data, is entirely ineffective in controUing aphids.
3. As an insecticide of intestine effect, hexachlorocyclohexane requires
further study upon various gnawing insect species.
4. Hexachlorocyclohexane and dichlorodiphenyltrichlorethane are not ovicides.
runIni;,the?exkriments with haxaohlorodyclehexane dust neither burning
offset upon the plant nor upon the sprouting of wheat seeds could be observed.
5. Hexaohlorocyclohenane is a univerei insecticide which preserves its effect
for a long time and in effective in controlling suotorial and gnawing insects.
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4
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Pokr?1111Ws, E. A.
?
23 Insecticide a
It could be ommended for aide experiments s ti 7 percent dust
o for spraying
iran?s.
In controlling ustorlel and gnawing insects
grains
if it will not contOtot the sanitary re
?
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.04 41.46144.4 ? .1.,4? ? 4T ? A413141104.4,,f0MilVW4W1W4UWO .
Whys of investigating new herbicldes4'
Leningrad.- Inst. Zaeoh? Rest. Sbornik:
5I61-67. 1933.. 464.9 L542
Translated from the Russian by S. N.
(From publications of Sector of Weed Control Of VIZRa)
One of the major factors in the control of weed vegetation by chord-
n
eel method
the selection of the most actits herbicide.
In selecting a herbicide one is net guided by activity alone, The
Substance mist also be inexpensive, obtainable represent a product of
domestic production, manufactured from ordinary available raw material,
? i.e. must be chosen after all technological economic reasons have been
considered.
Table 1 presents major basic substances used in weed control abroad
and in our own practice. This table does not exhaust the list of herbi-
cides. Several substances found in literature, such as boron fluoride,
mercuric chloride, etc. have, been deliberately omitted from the tibia
since they cannot be used extensively in our country as herbicides or
becau e of their high cost (boron is available in the Soviet 'Union only
in eery limited.quantities), or yet because of other negative properties.
In addition, substances have been omitted from the table *Moir representing
by-products of principal industries, such as sodium bisulfate, residue
from the production of chloride, obtai ed according to the old method through
the action of sulfuric acid upon common sodium chloride.
- The active element in acid sulfate is sulfuric acid, the content of
mtdch determines the degree of activity.of this -herbicide'. In studying the
substances we consider only pure concentrated herbidides whiCh produce
maximual active effects.
The use of by-products containing active sub
instances compensate for the lack of full-bodied herbicides, but in the
ay in
ny
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Elmanovich. W. Translt 224 Herbicides
1110 'majority of oases wastes possesSonly local limited significance in view of
,. , ..
? their low concentration (from much dilution With water) And large volumes awn
-
weight (50/O of alkali, for instance) which require unwieldy containers un-
suitable for transport. Occasionally mates containing large amounts of a0-
Ave substances do not, provide opportunities for their,apPlieation in seed
control because of limited quantities or high degree of contamination
with injurious substances harmful to the soil.
TABLE!
P!IrCI?aL SUBSTANCES APPLIED I 7EED CONTROL (EE S)
ACIDS:
1. R2SO4
2. 8.803
3. EC1
Re04
S. 80rt-H20
MALI:
6.-"Na0H-
7. KOH
8. NH4OH
NH3
H91. AS203
SALTS:
10. fpo80475ej
[CuSO411. ? 20]
? 12. %HMO's
13. Na24204
14. Oa() As203
IS. CaHAs04
16. CaCN2
17. UgC12
Kel ? M012 ? 6H20
X01 ? V004 ? 3H20
-EO1+,11004 ? R20
18. NaClOm
? 19. Ca(C10)2
204 Bia105)2
EC104
25. K2Cr207
24, Ne2Cr207
25. NaP
Organic Substances:
26t RCOR?tRsCOR
27. %%OH, CH C6H4OH'
28. NH2C6R5 29.(C611012)
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Nlmanovioh, Ns Trans1.224:Nerbicides
As seen fro table 1, herbicide's maybe' divided into the following
groups: Is acids; 2.alkali; 3. salts.; 4. organic substances. All acids
are herbicides bees se of the presence of *active hydrogen ion in these
compounds which act toxically upon plant (living protein Substance of the
cell.) However, the problem remains, Which of the acids should be applied
as a herbicide for volume work?.
Parallel tests upon the activity of various acids (sulfuric, hydro.'
chlorie, 'trio. Phosphoric, sulfurous) performed on a mass scale on large
areas under uniform conditions, which take into conSideration economic
effects, were antortunately'not conducted,by u4; they will be d?alt with
in subsequent eXperitents; if the're lotion is the same from Ida
dosages in weight (which is doubtful), preference should be given,
which it lest expensive andavailabIe not only at present but with an
eye to future Chemical Industrial outputs in the second five-year plan.
Sulfuric acid, meet popular with us and abroad, is currently the least
expensive substance. Its cost it 015.00 a ton (29 gold rubles) in the
New York market.
Obtainable In the domestic market at 85 to :100 rubles
per ton now, its price will drop to 55 rubles by the next plan. The
chemical is nevertheless not plentiful and may be used for weed control
at the expense of the amount allocated for the preparation of super-
phosphate fertilisers.
If at present our cost of hydrochloric acid is equal to that of sul-
furic aeid (costing also 85 to 100 rubles), it may be obtained in the
future in larger quantities from an expanding industry of organic ohlorine
compounds when its price will undoubtedly drop to 15-20 rubles per ton.
It should be borne in mind, however, that hydrochloric acid represents
approximately 40 lab of solution of hydrogen chloride in water at a
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Elmanovich, N. Transl.Z24therb ic ides
pecific gravity of 1.19. In In America the practice
1000/0 gas in cisterns, i.e. hydrogen chloride tram
transport pure
ed through pressure
into liquid state. In such case hydrochloric acid will evidently prove
more profitable than sulfuric acid. Nitric acid developed synthetically from
itrOgen and hydrogen is of especially gr
seeds:
C
significance for controlling
interesting base of the mixed action? of
this ,substance. At first nitrous acid acts? upon weeds as an acid and herbs
aide, later as nitrogenfertilizer for the soil (table 2). An analogous
picture is obtained in the case of phosphoric acid. First it acts as
herbieide, then asa fertiliser. In view of its considerable output
based on Iihibin apatites,' its cost will tentatively be about 155 rubles
per ton. All soluble ]kaUea possess do acids, high 'herbicidal
eharacteristicss because of the presence of hydroxyl group ON.
Table 2
CBES-PERT
Nitrogen ertilizers:
1. 141?3---ga(N?3)2
2. Nh5 __3U7102--->11N0 ---->ea(1103)2
2. Potassium fertilizers:
3. KOH ---;L-slt2CO3
-7
5. 113PO4 ---1CaRPO4
.fi. P09,33->CanI)044-CAC
(2P0rns+ sito ? 61101-4-2E3PO4)
7. PC15 ---7CaPPO4 -1-4-,Ca0121 (2PC1e-61120e/OP01-f-211 POO
011 8. P205---,115PO4 -1'000304
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? Simanovich, N.
Caustic 'soda represents a very valuable economic product in view
its vast application. it will hardly' be possible to pply it for
parUcularly'eire?ts price abroad
Trans. 224:Berbicides
weed control in large quanti
(1:thot'OS0.00 per. ton)and at home will net be breatly reduced, end may
not be any less than 150 rubles per ton.
Caustic potassium is a more valuable product in view of the &eater
value of the raw material used in its product an; it will equally be of
dual action, tirat herbicide, and later. potas ium fertiliser. This dual
action of the substance requires very thorough processing in mess exPeri
lanEe size
ments on emommeonacte pldts, a circumstance wtien should be: includedinto
.the plan of researoh. work in the following year.
The group of s1tc produces
large amount or herbicides. In the
USA copper salts, compounds of erectile lead, i.e. salts of heavy metals
e extensively used. This" groupof vats
industry, particule
log in our nemly developing
pounds of copper, essential for the electrifi-
cation of the country, is altogethoi'unsuitable for introduction on a
large scale in the apacity of herbicidesand cannot be depended upon in
the r future ? Considering that abroad the appearance of herbicides from
he group of salts takes place upon the initintive of private individuals
and firms an enormous amount of these appears on the market, representing
mixtures of the principal active substances in different variations ilth
dmixtu-es of different fillers.
' Among the principal herbicides contained in patented mixtures are
chlorates. In 1922 In France there appeared a pateM.. of the tcyer plant
and the chemAcal society de Massy Fabaiseaa Reunis (F.P. 666459, of August
24 1922 published February IS, 1924), ehich was offering chlorites and
perchlorates as a means for weed control; it wan recommended to mix the
substance in dusting with sand, talcum and other substances. In the
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Zlmanovich, N. . Trans1..224:Iferbic5.dea
mane year. B. Teppet P. 547599 of January 31, 1922, pub.'. 1)e c. 19,
1922)recommended the use of sodium chlorate and pbtassium chlorate as
herbicides, indicating that both sere supposedly to be applied as such o
with the addition of sodium or potash, especially :odium or potsieei,um
diebropiate. Falph Nelson Cipman (F. P. 660:265, Sept. 19?j928, publ.
July 9 1029) suggested the use of a mixture of 3 parts of sodium chlorate
and 2
arts of potassium chlorate and recommended its use in powder form.
B. Teppet (P. P. 644.166, Feb. 21, 1927, pub)... Oct. 8, 1928) proposed
chlorates of all kinds for weed destruction. According to the patent,
the principal composite part is sodium chlorate or potassium chlorate,
as such or mixed with other substances, particularly sodium or pdtash.
Jean Sohneebeli (Swiss patent 129.209 of ray 1, 1928, pub/. Dee. 1 1928)
proposed a solution of sodium chlorate subjected to electrolysis, i.e.
sodium perchlorate
It folio-ea that in all this group of liBted patents the principal
active substances were chlorates (potassium, sodium and calcium),,the re-
maining mixtures were of no particular significance in action and served
only to warrant the patent. The preparation Unkraut-ex", issued by the
firm Seholte and Dharlier and petented in Germany, differs from pure sodium
chlorate only by its attractive label and the addition of 0-15o/o of
soda; an almost inactive substsuace.
The application of sodium chlorate in DSA tucreases steadily from
year to year; thus in 1019 it amoUsted to 17.7 m.; in 1927-693.9 in.;
in 1929 3513.4 in. at a cost of 154 dollars per ton). Let us note that
the manufacture of sodium chlorate in the USA is not established and that
this product under the designation sodium Chlorate is imported from
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Eimanovich, N.
Tranal. 224:Herbicides -
Germany. Potassiun chIorato is as effective as sodium phiort 0. Its
application is particularly recommended on acid ?soils. It is easily obtained:
by chlorinating milk of lime at a'temperature of 4040i0 and represents
an intermediate product for obtaining potassium chlorate Chemically; to
separate it' in pure form, hoiever, is difficult
in view of its llygroseopio
nature. In the USA potassium chlorate, under the designation "Atlasite"
with the addition of substances stabilising this 'salt is produced in solid
form and is a solid product. its cost it naturally lover than that of.
Oodium chlorate. An analogous preparation, magnium chlorate, s altogether .
unknOvn in a dry state; it could alto eervea a herbicide.
In our search for new herbioidee attention vas driven to ohloribe
pre tions.-(table
TAULE 3
Vow Lerbicidea?strongly active (chlorine groupand chem sm of their action.
I. (G12-1- H20 = 21iC1-1-0)
2.
(2$2012-1- 21120 = 4HC1H-SO2 +-38)
3
(2444 -HBO = 41101-1,- 2502+2S)
4
(so2C12-t 2%0 asT 21101 i-B004)
.5?(81.014i-2fl20 = 2}C1 *S102)
The results are meet favorable; they established the particular
aoLivity as herbicides (see table 4). The action of indicated chlorine
preparations is based on the fact that they decompose rapidly into
hydrochloric acid and molecular Sulfur .(in applications of? chlorine and
bichlorine sulfur) from moisture in the airand plants The second
group of ezperitentS searching for
for this purpose,
herbicides uses liquid chlorine
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Elmanovieh, N. Trans1.224:}ierbieides
It is known that chlorine
vegetation, but it is unsuited
ercises a strong burning action upon
or use as it disperses in the air and the
percentage of application is negligible. In addit5on, it is dangerous
to conduct work with a gaslike and pdWonous substance that may be directed
by wind anywhere. I therefore suggested to test the action of chlorine
dissolved in chloride-organic solubles, snob as 4-chloride hydrogen,
dichlorethane, tetrachlorethane, ete. The application of a liquid for
the above purposes in place of as makes the work easier. (See Tabi. IV)
A mixture prepared of carboyl 4-chloride and liquid chlorite in the
proportion of 11, had in iron cylinders a pressure of about 3 atmosphere
this offering a significant advantage since the mixture vas easily thrown
from ?
itatxef the cylinder:under pressure without additional forcing. The exuding
liquid has low temperature (to 100 C) and asidefamits burning action may
freeze vegetation: The inadequacy of these mixtures lies in their severe
poisonous action to the environment which cells for particular care'.
In comparing the above herbicides with chlorates, ve h*.ve to stress
that they may easily replace chlorates, since large ernunt of chlorite
is used for the production ofthe latter by chemical means, 1.e. to one
part of chlorite 5 partUtor the formation of potassium chloride vhieh
kepresents vast*:
/n dosages which do not exceed dosages of ehloratee -chlor-products
have possibilities for partially rePlacing ehloratea; the work should
therefore be conducted on extensive fields to judge the technique of
application and economic profitableness of these substances, compare
to other herbicides (chlorites)*
With regard to spraying methods, they have been 1-studied and only
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EIMAIMOVIOA, Be A nm.. ultimata's
RESULTS OF =PRI
TABLE rir
IN CONVECTION 'Z11 SEARCH FR
Rafe of Herbicide
Dosage for
. in Cr.
4-Carboxy
0
0 ?
ft 0
?* t.?...
V oo.* O e O ? ** .oe
Sulfur diohloride......
O a
2-Sulfur
? ?
4Carbonyl
4
.Sulfur dichloride
?
4-Carbony1 ohlorid
'
a A A
25
60
00
25
50.
21
SO ,
Field
BO
100
10
SO
.111-On Field
?? SO
100
110'
160.
Chloride in 4-oerbonyl
chloride. * ? *
.......
A A -
n n * 0.
Sulfur
.
ft0 ft
2..5u1fur bi*,chlorite.
O A
?4444.44
A*44
0044044
*4 ** V **
041.49.AOSP
ft
?
ft
ft
?
ft
?
ft
tf
Neatogenat of
' *4.*
. 25
SO
80
100
10
20
30
40
SO
60
20
30
40
60
Concentration
of applied so.
lution in o
I-In Wurseriee
100,
100
7.100
'100
100
100
100
100
of 1 sq. m.
100.
100
100
100
of 5 pg. f4
100
100
100
100
104-10
104-90
104-90
1041.90
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
Under other tested substanoea me
1Y-tinder Rurtery conditions:
potac.u..'
ft
S.
Xantogenat of potassium
It n ii
se
Wastes-SA. yellow oils
O If
ft ?
-Key desigpatio
ID*
25
SO
Field plata
21
SO
SO
100
14O
10
10
of 1 n4.m.
10
10
100
100
100
plant death to 20 0/6
g. plant death to 10 0/0
3, plant death *bore 90 0/6
'CMS
Effect of action
according to
established coal
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
2
3.
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
1
2
2
2
3
3
3.2
2
3
5
hall__ refer
Rornarka
Plant death-100 0/0
death.10 0/0'
PI t de:at/1(.60 ?A
lf
ft
?
m 70%
? 90 o o
? 90 0/0
10 0/0
m 100 0/6
lee olio
" 100 olo
Contaioe,aldehyde of
uperlor grade-100.155?
Plant death-100 0/0
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Le vdr
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Eltenovich, N. Istrans1.224111erbicides
points connected with the seIe t o of material for specific appara
have to be learned.
In view of the severe burn.ing action of those substances upon plants,
control shot ld be directed to destroy weeds in the fall and spring up to
the tine of planting of cultivated crops destruction of vegetation on
arable (wpary") fields and sections of particular contamination for burning.
Such is the field for the application and potentialitiesirt using
? chlorine and chlorine products in agricultural practice for weed control, .
In considering the importance of the chemical method for the control of
weeds on fields vegetable and flower gardens, forests, etc., it is essen-
tial to recognize that it development may be based o
1. sufficient supplies of substances-horbioides;
ilriong these substances najor attention should be directed to the production
of concentrated active herbicides of Which the manufacture should be steady
expanding
to correspond with the needs of greetm weed control;
2. use of wastes from industrial production which in some cases replace,
valuable substances, though they are of local and limited significance
in view of low concentration, large addition Of water, volumes and weight,
which makes thorn inad iesable:for transport where appropriate oontainers
are lacking.
S. It is necesaryto reduce constantly the assortment of active sUbstances
,to .
while searching- or-tewmore'effectIve herbicides; and/consider such
factors as canonical value, simplicity in manufacture from available
raw material, and the possibility ,of mass output.
4. Inview of the special active characteristics of chlorates as herbicides
particular attention should he devoted to the manufacture of sodium chloride
of standard quality; simultan
ugly, search for methods of produo
g other,
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LI
46.
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Blmanovieh, III
Tra I.224;Herbicides
.s expensive solid chlorites potassium-and magnes ium chloride should
be speeded since the latter nay along with .chlonites of alkaline metals
exhibit the same action at lover cost.
S. In conducting masa experiments on fields in onnontion with weed contr
special attention sho, d be devoted to the *oice of ubtancs which
exhibit dual actions first herbicidal then serving as fertilisers for
cultivated plants (potacclum chlorate, potassium
Yanimidel, nitric a id
ammonia phosphoric acid and phosphorous anhydride, chlor-phosphoric
compounds, etc.)
6. To direct attention at mass experimen oxi fieldsto t2is.ptrt1ou1ar
action produced by chlorite and chlorite products.
ADV-10-2- Si
End of article
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Vsesoiusnoe Gasudarstvennoe Ob'edinenie Trans1.225sPlant Protection
pre Boebe s Vrediteliami I Bolezniami v
Seltskom i Leen= Ihoziaistve.
Postanovlenlia, pravila I instruktsii po karantinu
prottv vreditelei I boleznei seltskokhoziaistvennykh
kulttur (Resolutions, rules and regulations on
quarantine in controlling agricultural pests and
diseases), 3 40 p? 1935. 464.9 V962
Excerpt from the Introduc
Translated in part by
S. N. Vonson
Oni (p. 3)
The material published in this col
tion of directions reflects
the qualitative changes.made towards intensifying the development Of the
present stage in plant quarantine in the USSR. It should, as did the two
preceding teems, serve as a practical guide for fulfilling quarantine
regulations in the interests of further development of 400a/et agriculture.
(Signed) Quarantine, eietor OBV
Section headings&
Release of seed stock and Iiv
harmful scales
S..
ng plants from regions infested by
4
On cabbage and tomato seedbods(seedlings) p. 4
Decree pronouncing quarantine at Gori region in cistern 4reorgia p. 5
Yeasures ensuring he introduction of quarantine against harmful
scales on territory of GeorgiahrepUbl a p.
Practical quarantine measures against harmful scales...p. 6-7
Unlawful ,export of ornamental plants from regions prcounce.d under
quarantine p. 7-8
Rules on moving seed stook: fruit, grapes, berry, timber, ornamental, and
other living plants...... p. 8-10
Rules for accepting seed stock and living plants for railroad transport
111000n USSR.... ........... . p. 10641
?
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vsesolutnoe... Transi.weatriant vroteotlon
41111kRulee on tr
by USSR en area
k end living plants of all specie
? * oe * OOOOOO ?00,..041.?04,0-0-0.? ? 1243
Instruction on supervision during transport of se
and living; plants.... OOO . O OOOOO ........ OOO . OOOOOOO
c
Coction I. Enloe for establisbing degree of infestation or non-
infestation of plantinge-eubject to quarantine OOOOO p. 4
Section IX. Rules for lesuing and annulling quarantine documental
Section III. Vegulationp4n treatment of seed stook and r1&ving
plants........... OOOO . ** .......... p. 24
? Certificate Uo.....(eample)
? requisitio ...for...(cample)
Decon o4unrantine inspector no....
Permit a* ?
4-16
Summary on release
(sample table)..
04,40.0***10.044
plants, form Do.
104 ***** ,400441?****.054,4,,,S#i
Report on export end import of need stock, seed -potatoes,
.republice, krai(s) and Oblast(s)....(eample table)....
lisbment of quaran
potatoes [5 on o
- quarantine i
* 25
througheut
410, * 26
event of appearance -of loose scab of
r 1 r snd...todee (to all .
. a.. ?,s.s a **** * sea ****** .....p. 26
)Quarantine survey of cotton ....p. .44****s ** * .-*** *ir*.AP* 40.4. 29
'Orn5.zatlon of quarantinesector for potatoes at Leningrad oblants.p. 29
To all senior quarantine inspector (instruCtions on procedure).. ..p. 3044
To connect un St of QBV elth specific quarantine laboratories..
(enumeration ter).......... ******
34-3S -
reference guide on agricultural export by P. IA. Derber and A. Poltavtaeva,
p. 35-36
?1933) issued by
Zelenukhin ODV administrator (subsequently /rector of VIZra)..p. 36
Instruction to ell quarantine inspectors (ray
Aseicning of personal responsibility for the fulfillment of de
MK (Central committee) of YIP (b) and DK of RPI(Regiona
Ions of
cm.)
-140. * * . * 44b,w00.60 0.0,41?44.400,c0,44;464-0 p. 36-31
Typical a form
End of Pamphlet
. ADV- 04.2-51
Or-
*** ? ? * a..p. 37-40
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