INTELLIGENCE HANDBOOK SPECIAL OPERATIONS GUATEMALA

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP80-01444R000100090001-9
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 215
• Document Creation Date: December 20, 2016
• Document Release Date: July 31, 1998
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: June 1, 1967
• Content Type: CH

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C'm
DIRECTORATE OF
INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence Handbook
Special Operations
GUATEMALA
HSO No. 9
June 1967
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WARNING
This doc nt contains information affecting the national
defense of the tWWd States, within the meaning of Title
18, sections 793 and of the US Code, as amended.
Its transmission or revelatio its contents to or re-
ceipt by an unauthorized person i ohibited by law.
GROUP I
ERduded from automatic
downgrading and
declawiflcation
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 TED STATES
562295-67 Approved For Release 2007/03/03: CIA-RDP80-01444R000100090001-9
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RET
INTELLIGENCE HANDBOOK
FOR
SPECIAL OPERATIONS
GUATEMALA
ET
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Page
Foreword .......................................... xi
I. Introduction ................................. 1
II. Historical Background ........................ 3
A. Chronology .............................. 3
B. History ................................. 6
Reading List ................................. 12
III. Physical Geography ........................... 13
A. Introduction ............................ 13
B. Central Highlands Region ................ 14
1. General ............................ 14
2. Subregions ......................... 14
a. Sierra de los Cuchumatanes .... 14
(1) Terrain and Climate ...... 14
(2) Vegetation and Land Use 15
b. Sierra de Chama' - Sierra de
Santa Cruz .................... 17
(1) Terrain and Climate ...... 17
(2) Vegetation and Land Use 17
c. Sierra de Chuacus - Sierra de
las Minas - Montanas del Mico 18
(1) Terrain and Climate ...... 18
(2) Vegetation and Land Use .. 20
d. Western Sierra Madre .......... 20
(1) Terrain and Climate ...... 20
(2) Vegetation and Land Use .. 22
e. Central Sierra Madre .......... 24
(1) Terrain and Climate ...... 24
(2) Vegetation and Land Use .. 28
f. Eastern Sierra Madre .......... 28
(1) Terrain and Climate ...... 28
(2) Vegetation and Land Use 30
g. Highlands of the Honduran
Frontier ...................... 30
(1) Terrain and Climate ...... 30
(2) Vegetation and Land Use 31
3. Factors Affecting Land and Air
Operations ......................... 31
C. Pacific Coastal Lowlands Region ......... 32
1. General ............................ 32
2. Subregions ......................... 33
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a. Western Pacific Lowlands ..... 33
(1) Terrain and Climate ..... 33
(2) Vegetation and Land Use . 34
b. Eastern Pacific Lowlands ..... 34
(1) Terrain and Climate ..... 34
(2) Vegetation and Land Use 36
3. Factors Affecting Land, Sea, and
Air Operations .................... 36
D. Caribbean Lowlands Region ............... 37
1. General ........................... 37
2. Subregions ........................ 37
37
a. Rio Sarstun Basin ............
(1) Terrain and Climate ..... 37
(2) Vegetation and Land Use 38
b. Rio Dulce - Lago de Izabal -
Rio Polochic Basin ........... 39
(1) Terrain and Climate ..... 39
(2) Vegetation and Land Use . 39
c. Rio Motagua Basin ............ 42
(1) Terrain and Climate 42
(2) Vegetation and Land Use 43
3. Factors Affecting Land, Sea, and
Air Operations .................... 43
E. Peters Lowlands and Hills ............... 45
1. General ........................... 45
2. Subregions ........................ 45
a. Peten Lowlands ............... 45
(1) Terrain and Climate ..... 45
(2) Vegetation and Land Use . 46
b. Peten Hills ... ............ 50
(1) Terrain and Climate ..... 50
(2) Vegetation and Land.Use 50
3. Factors Affecting Land and Air
Operations ........................ 50
Reading List ................................ 52
IV. Population .................................. 53
A. General ................................ 53
B. Density and Distribution ............... 53
C. Ethnic Composition ..................... 55
D. Cultural Contrasts ..................... 59
1. Indians ........................... 60
2. Ladinos ........................... 70
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E. Religion ............................... 71
F. Housing ................................ 75
G. Education .............................. 77
H. Health ................................. 80
I. Attitudes and Loyalties ................ 84
J. Paramilitary Potential ................. 85
Reading List ................................ 86
V. Politics and Government ..................... 87
A. Current Problems ....................... 87
B. Structure of Government ................. 88
1. Central Government ................ 88
a. The Executive ................ 88
b. The Legislature .............. 88
c. The Judiciary ................ 89
2. Regional and Local Government ..... 90
C. Political Parties ...................... 91
D. Current Administration ................. 92
E. Foreign Relations ...................... 94
F. Subversion and Insurgency .............. 96
1. General . .... ................. 96
2. Communist Subversion .............. 96
3. The Guerrilla Movement ............ 97
a. General ....... ............ 97
b. Organization and Strength .... 98
c. Support Facilities and
Mechanisms ................... 99
d. Fighting Capability and
Tactics ...................... 99
G. Counterinsurgency ...................... 99
Reading List ................................ 101
VI. Economy ..................................... 103
A. General ..... ........ ................. 103
B. Income Distribution and Labor .......... 104
C. Agriculture ............................ 104
D. Industry and Electric Power ............ 106
E. International Economic Relations ....... 107
F. The Government in the Economy .......... 108
G. Prime Economic Targets ................. 109
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Reading List ................................ 111
VII. Transportation .............................. 113
A. General ................................ 113
B. Roads and Trails ....................... 113
1. Road Net and Serviceability ....... 113
a. Inter-American Highway ....... 114
b. Pacific Highway .............. 116
c. Interoceanic Highway ......... 118
d. Secondary Roads .............. 119
2. Cross-Country Movement ............ 125
3. Trails ............................ 125
4. Vehicles .......................... 126
C. Railroads .............................. 130
D. Air Transport .......................... 132
E. Water Transport ........................ 135
1. Inland Waterways .................. 135
2. Seaports and Shipping ............. 138
F. Cross-Border Movement .................. 142
1. General ........................... 142
2. Movement across Mexican Border .... 142
3. Movement across British Honduras
Border ............................ 143
4. Movement across Honduran Border ... 144
5. Movement across El Salvador Border, 147
G. Targets ................................ 148
Reading List ................................ 151
VIII. Telecommunications .......................... 153
A. General ................................ 153
B. Telephone and Telegraph ................ 153
1. Domestic .......................... 153
2. International ..................... 154
C. Broadcasting ........................... 155
D. Specialized Networks ................... 155
E. Prime Targets .......................... 155
Reading List ................................ 157
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IX. Military and Internal Security Forces ....... 159
A. General ................................ 159
B. Ground Forces .......................... 160
C. Naval Forces ........................... 162
D. Air Force .............................. 163
E. Police and Intelligence Services ....... 164
1. General ........................... 164
2. National Police ................... 165
3. Judicial Police ................... 166
4. Border Police ..................... 166
5. Intelligence Organizations ........ 166
F. Small Arms Found in Guatemala .......... 167
1. Arms Held by Civil and Military
Forces ............................ 167
2. Arms Held by Insurgent Forces ..... 168
Reading List ................................ 169
X. Survival Factors ............................ 171
A. General ................................ 171
B. Food and Water ......................... 171
1. Animals ........................... 171
2. Fruits and Vegetables ............. 172
3. Water ............................. 172
C. Environmental Hazards .................. 173
1. Plants ............................ 173
2. Animals ........................... 173
3. Insects ........................... 174
4. Climate ........................... 175
D. Cultural Factors .......... 176
E. Principal Diseases Encountered in
Guatemala .............................. 177
Reading List ................................ 190
Appendixes
Appendix A -- Recommended Maps ................... 191
Appendix B -- Recommended Films .................. 193
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Table 1 -- Area and Population by Departments ..... 54
Table 2 -- Selected Edible Plants ................. 179
Table 3 -- Poisonous Plants ....................... 187
Maps
Following
Page
56206 Guatemala: Geographic Regions .............. 52
56127 Distribution of Indigenous Languages in
Guatemala ...... .... ........... ...... 86
56128 Distribucion Geografiia de la Poblacion
Urbana y Rural .... ......... ..... ... ..... 86
56443 Guatemala: Airfields and Seaplane Stations 151
56141 Communications Services of Guatemala, HF
Radio Network ................ ............. 157
56142 National Police HF Radio Network ............ 157
56143 Border Police HF Radio Network .............. 157
56144 Bank of Guatemala HF Radio Network .......... 157
56145 AVIATECA HF Radio Network ................... 157
56146 Principal Telecommunication Facilities, 1966. 157
Texaco Road Map of Guatemela (inside rear cover)
Photograph
s
(Abbreviated Titles)
Figure No. Page
1 Rio Selegua valley ...................... 16
2 Mountain cornfield in Alta Verapaz ...... 19
3 Planting seed with dibble sticks ........ 19
4 Volcanic peaks of Sierra Madre range .... 21
5 Terrain near southern Lago de Atitla'n ... 23
6 Terrain of central Sierra Madre ......... 25
7 Terrain of central Sierra Madre ......... 26
8 Dissected plateau outside Guatemala City. 27
9 Fields and woods on high plateau ........ 29
10 Sand beach on Pacific coast ............. 35
11 Cottonfield in Escuintla department ..... 35
12 Rio Dulce above Livingston ............. 40
13 Limestone bluff along Rio Dulce ......... 40
14 Village of El Estor, Lago de Izabal ..... 41
15 Forest in northern El Peten ............. 47
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Figure No.
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Tapping chicle tree in El Peten ......... 47
Chicle collector's shack in El Peten .... 48
Ruins of Tikal in northern El Pete'n .. 49
Indians of Chichicastenango, El Quiche' .. 56
Group of rural Ladinos .................. 57
Black Caribs of the Caribbean coast ..... 58
Girl of Mam tribe of San Marcos ......... 61
Indian woman and child in Alta Verapaz .. 62
Indian women weaving with hand looms .... 63
Market at San Francisco el Alto ? ...... 64
Market at Santiago Atitlan, Solola...... 65
Indians carrying pottery on a frame ..... 66
Indian with load of firewood ............ 67
Beasts of burden - men, women, & donkeys. 68
Principales in town of Solola ........... 69
Upper class Ladinos in Guatemala City ... 72
Lower class Ladinos in Guatemala City ... 72
Rural Ladino ............................ 73
Group of rural Ladinos .................. 73
Indian worshipping at shrine ........... 76
Shrine on shores of Laguna de Chicabal . 76
Adobe and thatch Indian homes ........... 78
Cooking stove in Indian home ............ 78
Typical rural Ladino home ............... 79
Makeshift home of Indian migrant worker . 79
Indian woman with goiter ..... ........ 82
Water supply for Santiago Atitla'n ....... 83
Water supply for Totonicapan ............ 83
Inter-American Highway .................. 115
Road to Lago de Atitlan ................. 115
National Route 19 ....................... 117
National Route 7W in Alta Verapaz ....... 121
National Route 7W in Alta Verapaz ....... 121
National Route 15 in El Quiche .......... 122
Road connecting Flores with Modesto
Mendez .... ........ ............. ... 124
Vegetation along Poptun - Flores road ... 124
Guatemalan buses and trucks ............. 127
Ladino bullock cart ..................... 127
Indians carrying goods to market ........ 128
Indians leaving church in Esquipulas .. 128
Indians carrying heavy loads near Solola. 129
IRCA-GD train crossing bridge near Palin. 131
Passenger train near Retalhuleu ......... 131
Diesel engine locomotive ................ 133
Steam locomotives at IRCA-GD terminal ... 133
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Figure No. Page
62 Gravel-surfaced airfield at Chinaja ..... 136
63 DC-3 at Tikal airfield, El Peters ........ 136
64 Canal de Chiquimulilla on Pacific coast . 139
6S Harbor facilities at Puerto Barrios ..... 139
66 Port of Matias de Galvez ......... ..... 141
67 Dock and barges at port of San Jose 141
68 Guatemala-Belize border, Melchor de
Mencos ....... ... .............. .... 145
69 DC-3's at Melchor do Mencos airfield .... 145
70 Customs post on Honduran border ......... 146
71 Telecommunications building, Guatemala
City .................................... 156
72 Maranon.or?Cashew ....................... 183
73 Nispero or Sapodilla .................... 184
74 Papaya .................................. 185
75 Yuca or Manioc .......................... 186
76 Jabillo or Sandboxtree .................. 189
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The Handbook for Special Operations is designed to
meet the needs of those engaged in planning operations
relating to insurgency situations. The Handbook is not
designed for support of any specific operation. It is
intended to supply basic essentials to which can be
added more specific and more current details immediately
prior to any operation. Although the Handbook stresses
knowledge needed for special operations, it will also
prove valuable as a basic guide to Guatemala.
The information included emphasizes geographic and
ethnographic data which would affect small land, air,
and maritime groups. Related information concerning
survival, transportation, and communication facilities
is covered in some detail. Background data on politics,
history, and military forces is given for the reader's
orientation.
The NIS General Survey, Guatemala, August 1965.and
current reports were used in preparation of the Chronology
and Chapters V and IX (Politics and Government, and Military
and Internal Security Forces); it and other NIS chapters
should be referred to for additional background information.
For NIS chapters available, see the NIS Production Status
Report.
The cutoff date for material contained in the Handbook
is 31 May 1967.
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Guatemala, currently confronted with guerrilla warfare
in the countryside and terrorism in its capital, has been a
prime target for Communist subversion for over a decade. It
is the most populous Central American country, is located on
Mexico's southern border, and has coastlines on both the
Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. This location places
it close to vital American sea lanes.
Except for brief periods, Guatemala in its international
posture has been a strong supporter of the United States. It
has been one of the most outspoken countries in Latin America
against Castro-Communism, so much so that in 1961 its govern-
ment permitted Guatemalan bases to be used for the abortive
US-backed invasion of Cuba.
Guatemala's relations with the other Central American
republics are normal, but recurring difficulties with Mexico
over border incidents and violations of territorial waters
stimulate tension from time to time. Guatemala's traditional
claim to British Honduras also causes friction with Great
Britain. Once the seat of the Spanish colonial government
in Central America, Guatemala has had pretensions to leader-
ship in Central America. It has led the movement for isthmian
federation and economic integration and has been active in
the Organization of American States and the United Nations.
Guatemalan politics have been characterized by a continuous
oscillation between conservatism and liberalism, between dic-
tatorships and revolutions. The people are lacking in know-
ledge about or experience in political processes and are gen-
erally apathetic; their willingness to follow a demagogue
encourages opportunism and unscrupulousness among Guatemalan
politicians.
The inexperience and venality of Guatemala's leaders
aided Communist penetration and ultimate control of the 1944
popular revolution. From 1951 to 1954 the Communist party
in effect ran the country. Although they were removed in
June 1954, their influence has not been eliminated.
The armed forces number about 9,750, and the national
police agencies about 5,000. Although inadequately trained
and equipped, they are capable of maintaining order under
normal conditions but are incapable of controlling large-
scale prolonged guerrilla operations. They have become
increasingly effective in their efforts to eliminate the
small-scale insurgency that has plagued the government for
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several years. The army and police sponsored clandestine
counterterrorist campaign waged against both urban and rural
insurgents was particularly effective in mid-1967. The armed
forces are strongly anti-Communist, and its higher ranking
officers appear to be working for general social progress.
The major social characteristic of Guatemala's 4.5
million people is the cultural division between two ethnic
groups, Indian and non-Indian, and two classes, poor and
wealthy. The Indians, bound by religious practices and
social custom to a backward traditional way of life, are a
subservient majority without political capability or in-
fluence. The wealthy, concerned almost exclusively with
the preservation of their status, show interest mainly in
exploiting a working class that is poorly organized, is on
the defensive, and lacks the time, energy, or ability to
do more than struggle for survival. This cultural and
social pattern, which disregards public interest, is a
major deterrent to economic progress.
The country, well-endowed by nature, has realized little
of its potential and is becoming overpopulated. Heavy foreign
aid and investment, primarily from the United States, have
improved facilities necessary for development, although
growth is retarded by shortages of human skills, electric
power, and communications. Most Guatemalans, both Ladinos
and Indians, remain illiterate, malnourished, poorly housed,
and unemployed or underemployed.
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II. Historical Background
A. Chronology
This chronology is essentially the chron-
ology to be found in the NIS General Survey,
Guatemala, August 1965.
1524 Pedro de Alvarado conquers the territory of
Guatemala for Spain.
1542 Audiencia of Guatemala is established and,
during the colonial period, becomes a captaincy
general including all of Central America.
1821 Guatemala declares independence from Spain and
joins the Mexican empire.
1823 Guatemala breaks from Mexico and becomes part
of the Central American Federation.
1839 Guatemala becomes an independent state; officially
declares itself a republic in 1847.
1839- Guatemala is ruled by dictatorships, principally
1944 by: Rafael Carrera (1838-1865), Justo Rufino
Barrios (1873-1885), Manuel Estrada Cabrera
(1898-1920), and Gen. Jorge Ubico (1931-1944).
1944 Dictator Ubico overthrown.
1945 Juan Jose Arevalo inaugurated as Guatemala's
first freely elected president.
1950 Col. Jacobo Arbenz elected president; inaugurated
March 1951.
1952 Communist party changes name to Guatemalan Labor
Party (PGT) and registers officially as legal
party.
1954 On 15 May, 2,000 tons of weapons arrive from
Soviet Bloc. Anti-Communist group of about
200 men, led by Col. Carlos Castillo Armas,
invades Guatemala and ousts Arbenz in June.
PGT and Communist fronts outlawed. Armas
inaugurated as President in November.
Constitutional government is restored with installa-
tion of Congress and promulgation of a new constitu-
tion.
-3-
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1957 President Castillo Armas assassinated in July;
Luis Arturo Gonzalez succeeds to presidency.
In October, mob action forces Gonzalez's resigna-
tion; military junta takes over; mobs force junta
out; Congress names second presidential designate,
Guillermo Flores Avendano, as interim president
and annuls October elections.
1958 Miguel Ydigoras Fuentes is elected president in
January.
1959 Guatemala in December accuses Cuba before OAS
of helping the Communists to prepare an invasion
of Guatemala.
1960 Guatemala severs diplomatic relations with Cuba
in April.
1961 Guatemalan bases used for abortive US-backed
invasion of Cuba.
1963 Government declares state of siege in March
following a wave of terrorism; return of Juan
Jose Arevalo precipitates a military coup; Col.
Enrique Peralta Azurdia heads provisional military
government. Peralta government breaks relations
in July with the United Kingdom over Guatemalan
claims to territory in British Honduras.
1964 State of siege is lifted in March. Constituent
Assembly is elected in May and charged with writing
a new constitution and preparing complementary laws.
In July the Constituent Assembly abrogated the 1956
constitution and legalized the military government.
1965 Members of Rightist National Reformist Movement
(MRN) arrested in January for alleged plotting
against government. Following urban terrorist
attacks in February a state of siege is reimposed.
Numerous leftists exiled. Approximately 30
Communists arrested in March. Schedule for return
to constitutional government announced in June and
the state of siege ended in July.
1966 National elections take place in March in calm
atmosphere. Julio Cesar Mendez Montenegro
inaugurated as president on 1 July. Amnesty
decree of 27 July covering all political crimes
committed between 1 November 1960 and 26 July
1966 rejected by Communist guerrilla groups.
Guerrillas resume terror campaign in August.
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Government begins large-scale field operations
against guerrillas in October. State of siege
reimposed on 3 November because of extent of
terrorist activity and sabotage of electric
power plant near Guatemala City. Vice Minister
of Defense and three other army officers exiled
on 12 November for attempting to stage a coup.
1967 Rebel Armed Forces (FAR) increase urban terrorism
in February.
In midyear special counterterrorist squads operating
clandestinely under army and police sponsorship were
taking a heavy toll among insurgents and leftists in
general.
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B. History
Since the European conquest of the new world, Guatemala
has been a colony of Spain (1524-1821), a part of the Mexican
empire (1822-23), a state in the Central American Federation
(1823-47), and an independent republic (since 1847).
The territory which is now Guatemala was inhabited at
the time of the European conquest by a sedentary, agricultural
highland people of Mayan stock organized in tribes headed by
"kings" who frequently warred on each other. For reasons not
definitely established, the brilliant Mayan culture, which
once flourished in the tropical forests, had already declined,
and the magnificent cities were deserted.
Guatemala was conquered (1524) by Pedro de Alvarado,
one of the principal officers of Hernan Cortes, who was
sent from Mexico in command of a force of Spaniards and
Indian allies. The conquest completed, Alvarado was appointed
the first captain general of an area which included modern
Central America and the adjacent portions of contemporary
Mexico. The colony was organized in the typical Spanish
pattern. The conquerors were assigned lands and Indians to
support them. The capital was eventually established at
Antigua, and Spanish officials, subject in some matters to
the Viceroy of Mexico but in local affairs independent, were
appointed to administer the area. The capital achieved a
certain magnificence and the major towns acquired some
aspects of Spanish culture, but the outlying areas were
only lightly affected by Spanish domination. When Antigua
was razed by an earthquake in 1773, the capital was moved
to the site of modern Guatemala City.
The colony developed no great degree of economic
prosperity, internal transportation was difficult, and
pirates harassed the coasts and preyed on shipping. The
cultivation for export of agricultural staples, principally
cacao and indigo, by Indian or Negro labor was the major
economic activity. Commerce was not extensive and a
satisfactory port was not developed.
Successful termination of the war for independence in
Mexico led to a declaration in Guatemala City of Central
American independence from Spain on September 15, 1821.
Shortly thereafter, the former captaincy general, which
included the territory of the modern republics of Guatemala,
El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Chiapas
state (Mexico), joined the empire which Agustin de Iturbide
proclaimed in Mexico. When Iturbide fell from power in 1823,
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,.-An 1i 0 1-
Central America determined upon separate nationhood, and the
Republic of the United States of Central America (Central
American Federation) was formed with its capital in Guatemala
City.
The federation had a brief and stormy life. Manuel Jose
Arce, the first president, came into conflict with liberal
groups in Guatemala and El Salvador and was overthrown (1829)
by a military force under Francisco Morazan. Morazan's gov-
ernment attempted to carry through a reform program, one
feature of which was subordination of the church to civil
authority. The rapid and drastic changes produced a reaction
which threw the union into civil war, and by 1838 the federa-
tion had, for practical purposes, ceased to exist. The
Guatemalan government functioned independently after 1839.
Morazan was defeated decisively and exiled in 1840, and his
attempt to regain power in 1842 ended in his execution.
The principal factor in the overthrow of_Morazan was the
back-country uprising in Guatemala of which Rafael Carrera
assumed leadership. This astute but illiterate rustic
established himself as the military arbiter of the state
(1838) and controlled policy until his death in 1865. The
formality of elections was dispensed with in 1854 when the
presidency was conferred upon him for life. He completely
dominated the political life of Guatemala during the mid-
nineteenth century.
Carrera, with the support of conservatives, returned
Guatemala to a regime similar to that which had prevailed
during the colonial period. He restored the church to its
position of privilege and power and catered to the aristocracy.
He followed a nationalistic policy and in March 1847 formally
declared Guatemala an independent and sovereign nation. In
1859 he made a treaty with Great Britain defining the status
and boundaries of British Honduras (Belize), the interpreta-
tion of which is still an issue between the two governments.
In 1871 a revolution headed by Miguel Garcia Granados
and Justo Rufino Barrios overthrew Gen. Vicente Cerna,
Carrera's successor in office, and inaugurated a period of
liberal ascendancy that extended almost unbroken to 1944.
After a brief period in the presidency, Garcia Granados ceded
to Barrios (1873), who became known as "The Reformer" because
of the sweeping changes he introduced.
With the approval of the assembly, Barrios broke the
power of the aristocracy; brought the church under civil
control and confiscated its properties; instituted lay
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education; promulgated a new constitution (1876); fostered
the construction of improved means of communication including
roads, railways, and telegraph lines; encouraged development
by private initiative of the resources of the country; and
opened the country to foreign capital. He stimulated the
cultivation of coffee to replace the declining trade in
cochineal, and tightened labor laws to assure producers of
a ready supply of labor. He was an ardent exponent of the
idea of Central American union and, when persuasion failed
to produce the ends he desired, invaded El Salvador and
lost his life at the battle of Chalchuapa (1885).
After the death of Barrios, Manuel Lisandro Barillas
occu~ppied the presidency. He was succeeded in 1892 by Jose
Marra Reina Barrios, nephew of "The Reformer", who was
assassinated in 1898. Manuel Estrada Cabrera became
provisional president, regularized his status by an election
and by repeated re-elections (1904, 1910, 1916) maintained
himself in power until leaders of the opposition party
forced him from office by having the assembly declare him
insane (1920).
During his long tenure in power, Estrada Cabrera
fostered economic development and progress along the lines
established by Barrios. He encouraged improvements in
agriculture, continued to build roads, supported railroad
construction, and had the satisfaction of seeing the rail-
road to the Atlantic completed. His political policies
were less admirable. He persecuted political opponents,
disregarded individual rights and liberties, muzzled the
press, and summarily disposed of his enemies.
After the fall of Estrada Cabrera, the presidency
was held for periods ranging from a few days to nearly
a full six-year term by half a dozen men whose tenures in
office were undistinguished .
In 1931 Jorge Ubico was elected president and began
the fourth of the extended dictatorships that covered a
century of Guatemalan history. Ubico stressed economic
development and, in particular, improvement and diversifica-
tion of agriculture and the construction of roads. He
balanced the national budget and transformed a deficit
into a surplus. In part his financial achievement was due
to economies, in part to the efficiency and. honesty of his
administration. Although his vagrancy law (1934) made
workers, especially Indians, liable to periods of forced
labor at critical seasons, Ubico's paternalistic policies
toward the natives established him as their patron.
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During his motorcycle tours of the country, or in his office,
he listened to their complaints and dispensed immediate
"justice".
Latent sources of opposition were solidified and focused
by the increasing disregard which the dictator showed for
individual rights and liberties. The familiar trappings of
military dictatorship became increasingly evident, and the
reorganized national police came to be regarded as a secret
police. Protests were answered by sterner restrictions and
violence. Discontent was increased by economic dislocation
during World War II and by the unfavourable contrast between
the idealistic pronouncements of Allied war leaders and condi-
tions in Guatemala. Guatemala declared war on Japan on
December 8, 1941 and on Germany and Italy on December 11, 1941.
In June 1944 a general strike forced Ubico to resign.
Labor was allowed to organize, political parties were formed,
and a presidential electoral campaign was begun in which Juan
Jose Arevalo emerged as the most popular candidate. When Gen.
Federico Ponce Vaides, head of the interim government, gave
indications that he intended to maintain himself in power, he
was ousted in October by a popular uprising headed by students
and teachers, workers, and younger elements of the military.
A revolutionary junta presided over the drafting of a new
constitution, the electoral campaign, and the inauguration
in March 1945 of Arevalo, the successful candidate.
The Are'valo administration consolidated the social
revolution of which the October uprising had been an
expression. An equitable labor code was enacted, and a
social security system was inaugurated which promised
progressive extension of benefits. Under this legislation,
urban labor increased in strength and organization of
agricultural workers began. Public school education was
expanded and improved, teachers' salaries were increased,
and the university was granted autonomy. These measures
were tangible evidence of the intent of the administration
to place the instruments of culture within reach of the
masses.
In many respects Arevalo manifested the nationalism
inherent in the revolution of October. He pressed the
Belize issue with Great Britain, subjected foreign enter-
prises to regulation, and attempted to guarantee to Guatemalan
laborers a larger share of the benefits produced by their
toil. The policies followed by Arevalo consolidated the
revolutionary elements of 1944 into a politically effective
group prepared to support any government of like orientation.
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Thus, the revolution and the Arevalo regime accomplished the
transfer of political power in Guatemala from the military to
a popular group dominated by labor.
Guatemalan Communists turned this development to their
advantage. Lack of labor leaders from the rank and file
allowed Communists to organize the labor movement and use
it for their own ends. Arevalo was not friendly to their
activities, but his nationalistic bent gave them an oppor-
tunity to establish themselves as his most enthusiastic and
reliable backers. In this fashion they won a degree of
toleration which permitted them to operate.
The most likely candidates to succeed Arevalo were
Francisco Arana and Jacobo Arbenz Guzman, but Arana was
assassinated. Arbenz Guzman became the official candidate,
was elected with Communist support over Gen. Miguel
Ydigoras Fuentes, and assumed office in March 1951. Arbenz
Guzman made agrarian reform the central project of his
administration. With strong Communist support, the assembly
passed a measure providing for the expropriation of unused
portions of landholdings in excess of a specified acreage
and the distribution of the land, title to which remained
with the government, among landless peasants. Most sober
observers admitted that land reform was necessary, but many
criticized specific details of the Arbenz Guzman law and
the fact that administration officials made it less an
instrument for achieving reform than a weapon against the
interests and the classes they wished to destroy.
The growth of Communist influence in Guatemala became
the most controversial issue of the Arbenz Guzman regime.
The president's toleration allowed the party to operate
openly and individual Communists to hold key posts in
government, official agencies, and organized labor. In
the minds of many individuals, the crucial issue was not
social reform but Communist domination of Guatemala.
Internal opposition to the trend was eventually stifled
by terrorism, but exiles and foreign recruits headed by
Col. Carlos Castillo Armas planned outside the country to
overthrow the government. When they struck, military officers
informed Arbenz Guzman that the army would not fight in his
defense and forced him to resign (June 1954).
Castillo Armas emerged from a military junta as
provisional president in September, and a plebiscite sub-
sequently regularized his status. His attempts to extir-
pate Communist influence, moderate the extreme social reforms
inaugurated by his predecessors, and restore the confidence
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-T
of foreign investment capital were cut short when he was
assassinated in the presidential palace by one of his guards
(July 26, 1957). After two temporary governments and an
election which was nullified by the assembly, Ydfgoras
Fuentes (National Democratic Reconciliation Party) was
elected president and took office March 2, 1958.
Ydigoras'tenure was beset with civil disorders,
attempted coups, and the beginning of guerrilla warfare.
Political exiles were permitted to return to Guatemala.
Serious trouble arose with the possibility that Juan Jose
Are"valo might take advantage of the amnesty to return to
Guatemala and run for the presidency. Widely circulated
and accurate reports of Arevalo's return so alarmed the
military that it seized control of the government on
March 30, 1963.
Col. Enrique Peralta Azurdia, the new chief of govern-
ment, had served as Minister of Defense since 1960. Upon
ousting Ydigoras, Peralta suspended the constitution,
dissolved the congress, and ordered all political activity
halted. Peralta ruled the country by decree and the state
of siege was frequently invoked during his three-year
tenure. Elections for constituent assembly were called in
May 1964, and the assembly was charged with writing a new
constitution and complementary laws.
On March 6, 1966, national elections were held, and
on July 1st, Julio Cesar Mendez Montenegro and Clemente
Marroquin Rojas of the left of center Revolutionary Party
were inaugurated as president and vice president respec-
tively.
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1. Jensen, Amy Elizabeth, Guatemala: A Historical Survey,
New York: Exposition Press, 195S. U.
2. Rosenthal, Mario, Guatemala: The Story of an Emergent
Latin American Democracy, New York: Wayne Publishers,
Inc, 1962. U.
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III. Physical Geography
A. Introduction
Guatemala, the third largest of the six Central American
Republics, occupies slightly more than 42,000 square miles.
Its maximum dimensions are about 280 miles north to south
and about 250 miles east to west. Located in the northern-
most part of the Central American Isthmus, it is bounded by
British Honduras to the northeast, by Mexico to the north
and west, and by Honduras and El Salvador to the southeast.
The country has both a Caribbean and a Pacific seacoast.
The short Caribbean coast -- 85 miles -- is quite irregular
and characterized by deep embayments; in contrast, the longer
Pacific coast -- 165 miles -- is relatively straight.
Within a small area Guatemala exhibits an exceptional
degree of physical diversity. Its major geographical divi-
sions -- the Central Highlands Region, the Pacific Lowlands
Region, the Caribbean Lowlands Region, and the Pet6n Lowlands
and Hills Region -- include rugged mountains, volcanoes, high
plateaus, arid hills, and rain-drenched lowlands. See Map
56206 for the delimitation of geographic regions in Guatemala.
The Central Highlands Region constitutes roughly one-
half of the country; within it are mountains, volcanoes,
plateaus, and intermontane valleys. The southwestern part
of the region is crossed by a chain of volcanoes, located
about 30 miles inland from the Pacific coast. Peaks in this
chain rise to 12,000 feet and more. A high plateau is sit-
uated toward the interior from the line of volcanoes. The
more important urban settlements, including Guatemala City,
are located here in a series of fertile basins and valleys.
The plateau is drained by short, swift streams flowing to
the Pacific and by longer streams of more gentle gradient
to the Caribbean. It is separated from the east-west trend-
ing ranges to the north by the Rio Motagua Basin.
Broad, gently sloping plains stretch from the foot of
the Sierra Madre range to the ocean in the Pacific Lowlands
Region. On the opposite side of the country, in the Caribbean
Lowlands Region, the coastal plain is narrow and rimmed by
hills; however, it opens inland along river valleys that
reach far into the interior.
The Peten Lowlands and Hills Region occupies the northern
part of the country. It is a vast undulating plain, with
scattered hills and extensive forests.
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B. Central Highlands Region
1. General
The Central Highlands of Guatemala, viewed broadly,
are a link in the great mountain chain that extends along
the Pacific side of the Americas. They constitute one of
the most physiographically complex landmasses in the entire
Western Hemisphere and include the highest and most rugged
terrain in Central America. The fertile valleys and high-
land basins of the region are the most densely populated
areas of Guatemala.
The highlands consist of two major mountain systems
separated by the valley of the Rio Motagua -- the Antillean
to the north and the Pacific Cordillera to the south. The
Antillean system forms two great concentric mountain arcs
swinging across Guatemala from west to east. The northern-
most of these arcs is bisected by the northward-flowing Rio
Salinas (also known locally as the Rio Chixoy or Rio Negro).
The western sector, the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, mostly
in the department of Huehuetenango, is very high and rugged;
the eastern sector, including the Sierra de Chama in the
departments of El Quiche and Alta Verapaz and the Sierra de
Santa Cruz in the department of Izabal, is lower and some-
what more subdued. The southern arc of the Antillean system
consists of the Sierra de Chuacus, the Sierra de las Minas,
and the Montanas del Mico -- an almost continuous chain of
rugged mountains extending from the department of El Quich4
eastward across the country to the department of Izabal.
The other major mountain system of Guatemala, the Pacific
Cordillera, is the backbone of the country and the water
divide between Pacific and Atlantic drainage. It includes
the volcanic Sierra Madre range in which the Tajumulco
Volcano reaches 13,845 feet, the highest elevation in Central
America.
Subregions
a. Sierra de los Cuchumatanes
(1) Terrain and Climate
The Sierra de los Cuchumatanes includes the most
extensive high areas in the country. Isolated peaks in
the Sierra Madre range to the south reach higher elevations,
but the elevation of the Cuchumatanes as a whole is greater.
Most of the high, bleak plateau areas of the Sierra de los
Cuchumatanes are at elevations in excess of 7,000 or 8,000
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feet, and the mountain peak of Xemal (Chemal) in the depart-
ment of Huehuetenango reaches 11,870 feet.
The Sierra de los Cuchumatanes is cut by deep gorges
and steep-sided valleys. It is drained northeastward by
the Rio Cocola, Rio Xalbal, Rio Cotzal and other tributar-
ies of the Rio Usumacinta and northwestward by the Rio
Nenton and other tributaries of the Rio San Miguel in
Mexico.
Karst topography, characterized by sinkholes and under-
ground drainage in limestone, is developed extensively on
the northern flanks of the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes. The
southern margin of the Sierra drops off sharply to the valleys
of the Rio Salinas and its tributaries, which flow to the east,
and to the valleys of the westward flowing Rio Selegua and
Rio Cuilco.
A roughly triangular mountainous tract, the Montanas
de Cuilco, although a part of the subregion, is separated
from the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes proper by the valley of
the Rio Selegua (see Figure 1). The southern face of the
Montanas de Cuilco presents a steep slope of some 7,000 feet
down to the valley of the Rio Cuilco. The highest peak in
the Montanas reaches an elevation of 11,140 feet.
Except for the lower valleys, most of the Sierra de los
Cuchumatanes experiences cool temperatures the year round
because of the high elevation; freezing occurs occasionally
above 5,000 or 6,000 feet during the dry season, November
through April. July is usually the rainiest month for most
of the subregion; Todos Santos Cuchumatan, at 8,000 feet,
receives about 20 inches during this month alone. Average
annual precipitation for the area overall is roughly 80
inches, with the greatest concentration falling on the
valley of the Rio Cocola to the north and considerably less
toward the west. Rain falls in the subregion about 150 to
180 days per year.
(2) Vegetation and Land Use
Coarse grass and rather thick stands of pines cover the
lower slopes of the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes. At higher
elevations, in the cool, foggy, undulating summit areas,
scattered pines or other trees are interspersed with rolling
meadows. Small farms are located on any reasonably level
valley lands at lower elevations, and sheep grazing is
important throughout the subregion; therefore chance
encounters with farmers or herdsmen are common.
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Figure 1. Steep slopes along Rio Selegua valley. Note
the typical suspension footbridge.
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b. Sierra de Chama - Sierra de Santa Cruz
(1) Terrain and Climate
The Sierra de Chama, an eastward continuation of the
Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, stretches across the department
of Alto Verapaz. It is separated from the Sierra de los
Cuchumatanes by the Rio Salinas which flows northward to
form part of the Guatemala - Mexico boundary. The highest
elevation in the Chama range is an 8,600-foot peak located
near Pancajche in the southern part of Alta Verapaz. The
concave side of this crescent-shaped range faces the low-
lands of El Peten to the north and consists of a vast karst
area with underground drainage, sinkholes, caves, and -- to
the north -- numerous rounded, knoblike hills. The southern
flanks of the range are drained to the east by the Rio
Cahab do which joins the Rio Polochic flowing into Lago de
Izabal.
Farther to the east lies the Sierra de Santa Cruz, the
easternmost extension of the northern range of the Antillean
mountain system. It stretches across the whole northern half
of the department of Izabal. The highest point in the range
is about 8 miles north-northwest of El Estor and reaches an
elevation of about 3,967 feet. As is the case throughout
much of the Antillean system, the northern face of the
Sierra de Santa Cruz is characterized by karst topography.
Surface drainage is better developed along the southern face
of the range where it flows into Lago de Izabal.
Cold temperatures are less common in the Sierra de
Chama and the Sierra de Santal Cruz than in the higher
mountains to the west, and the annual precipitation, per-
haps 100 inches, is slightly greater. Usually about 180
days out of the year have rainfall. Rainfall is heaviest
in July when warm moist airmasses flow into the area from
the Caribbean. Most of the area has a dry season from
January through May and a wet season from June through
December, with a period of somewhat decreased precipitation
in August.
(2) Vegetation and Land Use
Typical rai-n forest, with broadleaf trees including
mahogany, palms, tree ferns, and many other species, once
covered practically the entire subregion. Much of the
original forest cover has long since been removed from
areas that are now under cultivation, but in the remaining
areas of native forest the canopy of the dominant trees is
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very dense. Many trees in the forest stand well over 80 feet
high and support an abundance of parasitic vegetation and climb-
ing vines. In many places the underbrush is almost impenetrable.
All but the most precipitous slopes and rocky peaks have been
cleared for cultivation, and forests on the steep-sided hills
contrast sharply with the surrounding cultivated slopes and
valley bottoms. In the less humid parts of the Sierra de
Chama, pines are the dominant trees, and the underbrush is
much less dense. The central section of the valley of the
Rio Cahabon, 15 to 30 miles downstream from Coban, is covered
with tall grass and scattered pines. Many large coffee planta-
tions are located in the subregion in the vicinity of Coban and
Pancajche'. The Indians grow maize and other crops for local
consumption on small farms, some of which are located on
incredibly steep slopes (see Figures 2 and 3).
c. Sierra de Chuacus - Sierra de las Minas
- ontanas del--Mlco
(1) Terrain and Climate
This subregion, one long mountain chain that arcs across
the central part of the country, is divided into three sections.
The Sierra de Chuacus extends across the southern part
of the department of El Quiche, south of the Rio Salinas,
and across the department of Baja Verapaz. Peaks in this
part of the range rise to 8,000 feet or higher.
Continuing eastward, the range is known as the Sierra
de las Minas. The crest of the Sierra de las Minas forms
part of the boundary between the department of Zacapa to the
south and the departments of Alta Verapaz and Izabal to the
north. This is the highest and most rugged part of the long
mountain chain. Mountains in this section rise to elevations
of over 9,000 feet, and the highest peak is about 10,300 feet;
slopes are cut by numerous steep-sided valleys. The depth
of these valleys, the steepness of their slopes, and the
usually damp clay and lime soils make much of this area
impassable and the construction of even simple paths very
difficult. Coffee grown on the small fincas that occupy
the slopes midway between the crest of--thee Sierra de las
Minas and the Rio Polochic can be brought out only on
muleback.
The third range -- the Montafias del Mico -- lies between
Lago de Izabal and Rfo Dulce to the northwest and the valley
of the Rio Motagua to the southeast. The highest point in
the Montafias del Mico is the peak of Cerro San Gil, which
rises to about 4,157 feet.
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Figure 3. Farmers planting
seed with dibble stick on
steep slope.
Figure 2. Precipitous
cornfield above small
Indian village in Alta
Verapaz.
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Annual average temperatures for the subregion range from
about 60?F in the higher elevations of the western section to
about 80?F in the lower eastern section. Throughout the sub-
region temperatures vary with altitude, and the higher slopes
of the Sierra de las Minas, for example, are quite cool. Rain-
fall also increases from west to east, with less than 40 inches
falling annually in the extreme west to over 80 inches in the
east. The western section has a pronounced winter dry season
from November through April, whereas the eastern section is
rainy the year round with precipitation decreasing only slightly
in February, March, and April.
(2) Vegetation and Land Use
The Sierra de Chuacils has a relatively thin forest cover
of pine and oak. Moving downslope northeastward to the valley
of the Rro Salinas and southeastward to the valley of the Rio
Motagua (Rio Grande), the forest grades into drier types of
vegetation, with scrub and cactus at lower elevations. In
the Sierra de las Minas, dense forest is almost continuous on
the higher slopes, and at a distance trees mask the steep
escarpments and ravines that make movement so difficult in
this area. The woods also cover many of the higher peaks
and isolated knolls that rise here and there above the ridge-
line. At these higher elevations, thick cushions of moss
cover the ground, hiding rock fissures and depressions and
making walking difficult and dangerous. On the lower slopes
of the northern side of the Sierra de las Minas the vegeta-
tion grades into the rain forest of the valley of the Rio
Polochic, whereas on the southern slopes it grades into the
dry scrub and cactus of the Rfo Motagua valley. The Montanas
del Mico are covered almost entirely by dense rain forest
although there are occasional fields of shifting cultiva-
tion. Small farms are scattered throughout the subregion at
all but the highest elevations.
d. Western Sierra Madre
(1) Terrain and Climate
Towering volcanoes are the dominant feature of the
Sierra Madre, and the volcanoes of the western section are
the highest in the range. Tajumulco Volcano, not far from
the Mexican border, reaches 13,845 feet. Volcanoes rise
in file along the southwestern margin of a broad, high
plateau, the general elevation of which is about 7,000 to
9,000 feet (see Figure 4). The northern flanks of the
plateau consist of lower, more rounded mountains. The
high plateau itself is partially dissected by deep canyons,
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Figure 4. Chain of volcanic peaks of Sierra Madre range.
View west from near Guatemala City.
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and there is little flat terrain; most of the surfaces are
rolling to steep. An exception is the fairly extensive and
level basin around the town of Quezaltenango in the center
of the subregion. At the southeastern end of the subregion,
set among soaring volcanoes, is a deep lake, Lago de Atitlan,
the second largest in surface area in the country (see Figure
5).
Temperatures in the subregion are generally fairly cool,
except on the lower slopes of the mountains facing the hot
Pacific lowlands. At higher elevations, above 8,000 feet,
freezing temperatures may occur during the dry season, November
through April. In general, annual precipitation ranges from
about 175 inches on the higher Pacific slopes to 50 inches
or less in the interior. Sea breezes moving up the steep
slopes account for the concentration of precipitation on the
Pacific side of the mountains. Considerable fogginess occurs
above elevations of about 5,000 or 6,000 feet along the Pacific
slopes and down to approximately 8,500 feet along the lee side
of the mountains. Interior basins are frequently filled with
fog in the early morning hours.
(2) Vegetation and Land Use
The very highest slopes and peaks within the Western
Sierra Madre are barren. Downslope from these barren areas
scattered scrub vegetation grades into open pine forest at
about 11,000 feet. Trees at this level are widely spaced
and provide little concealment. Passage through them presents
no problems. Farther downslope pines become mixed with oaks
and herbaceous undergrowth, which becomes thicker with lower
elevation. Between 10,000 and 9,000 feet, dense tropical
rain forest, with tree ferns and an abundance of lianas and
vines, grows on rain-drenched southfacing slopes. Elsewhere,
at the same elevations, the forest growth is not so luxurious.
The rain forest is difficult to penetrate but provides excellent
concealment. Bamboo thickets are common in the small valleys
and gullies. They are exceptionally dense growths that re-
quire considerable hacking to penetrate; consequently travel
up or down the narrow valleys is very difficult. Numerous
small fields of maize and wheat are found at elevations as
high as 8,500 feet. At lower elevations, between about
5,500 feet and 2,000 feet or a little lower, much of the
Pacific slope is devoted to coffee growing. Viewed from
above, this area appears to be a vast forest, but most of the
cover consists of shade trees for the coffee plants; only on
the most precipitous slopes are stands of true forest found.
On the plateau highland, inland from the row of volcanoes,
much land has been cleared for agriculture, and only
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Figure 5. Southern part of Lago de Atitlan. VolcIn San
Pedro in foreground; Volcan Atitlan in left background.
View south. Note the cultivated fields on slopes.
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small patches of forest remain. Fields are cultivated at quite
high elevations on surrounding mountain slopes. Small forests
at elevations above 9,000 feet provide firewood and wood for
charcoal. Indian trails crisscross almost the entire sub-
region, including even many of the higher slopes. Herdsmen
drive their sheep up the steep and slippery paths to high-
land grazing areas.
e. Central Sierra Madre
(1) Terrain and Climate
The volcanoes of the central section of the Sierra
Madre are somewhat lower than those to the northwest (see
Figures 6 and 7). Acatenango Volcano, at 13,045 feet, is
the highest of this group. The cone of Fuego, an active
volcano, rises from the lower flank of Acatenango. In
succession, to the southeast, Volca"n de Agua and Volcan de
Pacaya rise to over 12,000 and 8,000 feet, respectively.
They stand like giant sentinels to either side of the narrow
corridor which gives access to Guatemala City from the Pacific
coast. The other volcanoes of the group, Cerro Redondo and
Tecuamburro, still farther to the southeast, are considerably
lower.
The plateau surface inland from the volcanic range is
also somewhat lower than the corresponding section to the
northwest, and it is more severely dissected. Most of the
area is drained by entrenched streams flowing northward to
the Rio Motagua.
Guatemala City is located on a flat but rather restricted
plateau surface near the center of the subregion. The margins
of this small plateau are indented by deep ravines (see Figure
8), and streams drain either northward to the Rio Motagua or
southward into Lago de Amatitlan, a sizable lake at the foot
of Volcan de Pacaya.
General climatic conditions for the Central Sierra Madre
are much the same as those prevailing to the northwest,
although it is somewhat warmer and, as a whole, the area
receives less precipitation. Guatemala City enjoys mild
temperatures the year round. May, with an average high of
68?F, is the warmest month, and December and January, with
average lows of about 61?F, are the coolest. Daily tempera-
tures drop from a high of about 85?F at midday to a low of
about 50?F at night. The average annual precipitation is
about 50 inches, and the rainy season extends from May to
October.
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Figure 6. Central Sierra Madre. Volcan de Agua to the left;
Volcan de Pacaya near cloud-covered Lago de Amatitlan.
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Figure 7. Central Sierra Madre. Volcan Acatenango and Volcan
de Fuego to the left; Volcan de Agua in the center. Cloud-
covered Lago de Amatitlan is in the right background.
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Figure 8. Dissected plateau surface on outskirts of Guatemala
City. Note the dense vegetation in the ravines.
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(2) Vegetation and Land Use
The pattern of vegetation on the Pacific slope of the
Central Sierra Madre is similar to that of the area immedi-
ately to the west, but the extent of high mountain barrens
is considerably smaller. Forests mask the higher slopes,
and extensive coffee plantations are located at lower
elevations. Corn patches, grassland, scrub, and scattered
oak forests cover the elongate basin which trends north-
east - southwest across the subregion from Lago de Amatitla'n
to the upper Rio Motagua valley. Along the Rio Motagua, in
the northeastern periphery of the area, the vegetation
grades into a dry scrub type with scattered low trees and
cactus. Pastures and cultivated fields extend over fairly
broad areas in the vicinity of Antigua Guatemala and Chi-
maltenango. Most of the remainder of the high plateau is
covered with a patchwork of small fields and evergreen and
deciduous woods (see Figure 9).
f. Eastern Sierra Madre
(1) Terrain and Climate
The Eastern Sierra Madre occupies most of the area
eastward from the vicinity of Laguna de Ayarza to the border
with El Salvador, northward to the valley of the Rio Motagua,
and southward to the Eastern Pacific Lowlands. In contrast
to the Central and Western Sierra Madre, where volcanoes are
arranged almost in file, the distribution of volcanoes here
is more irregular; some volcanic cones are located far inland
and others are quite near the coast. None of them are as high
as 8,000 feet. This subregion is somewhat lower than those
to the northwest. It lies at an elevation between 3,000 and
4,000 feet, with scattered small hills and an occasional
volcanic cone rising perhaps 2,000 feet above the general
surface. It has been so eroded that little of the high
plateau surface remains. In general the area is one of
moderate relief.
The climate of the Eastern Sierra Madre is warmer and
drier than that of the Western and Central Sierra Madre.
Lowest mean annual temperatures are about 640F or 68?F in
the area extending from Jutiapa northwestward to Laguna de
Ayarza. The warmest section is to the northeast, around
the town of Chiquimula, where mean annual temperatures are
over 77?F. Annual precipitation is much greater in the
south than in the north; Jutiapa receives about 78 inches,
whereas Chiquimula receives only 19 inches or less. The
rainy season extends from May through October, with September
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Figure 9. Cultivated fields
interspersed with wooded patches
on the high plateau.
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usually the rainiest month. During the remainder of the
year there is relatively little precipitation.
(2) Vegetation and Land Use
The vegetation of the Eastern Sierra Madre reflects
the major physical factors that distinguish it from the other
Sierra Madre subregions -- lower elevation and decreased
precipitation. Patches of maize, grassland, scrub, and small
oak forests cover almost the entire subregion. The large
coffee plantations, characteristic of the Pacific slopes of
the other parts of the Sierra Madre, are absent. Vegetation
provides only scattered concealment and presents no problems
for movement, except in limited areas.
g. Highlands of the Honduran Frontier
(1) Terrain and Climate
This subregion includes almost the entire zone along
the Honduran border. Cerro Montecristo, located in the
triborder area of El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras,
is the highest point in the area. It rises to an eleva-
tion of about 7,710 feet. Other mountains along the
Honduran border reach elevations of about 4,000 to 6,000
feet, except in the extreme northeast where they do not
exceed 800 feet.
Most of the subregion is drained to the northwest by
tributaries of the Rio Motagua. The southeastern part of
the department of Chiquimula, however, is drained by
tributaries of the Rio Lempa of Honduras and El Salvador.
Esquipulas, an important pilgrimage town surrounded by
wooded hills and fertile valleys, is located in this south-
eastern area.
High mountains and steep escarpments characterize the
southwest. To the northeast the terrain is rugged but not
so high. The crest of the mountain chain lies across the
border in Honduras. Most of the southwestern part of the
subregion is fairly thickly settled country, and numerous
trails give direct access to the border. The northern part,
on the other hand, is very thinly settled and is almost
entirely covered with a heavy growth of tropical vegetation.
The few trails in this section become impassable in the
rainy season.
The average annual temperature for the subregion is
over 77?F, making this area the warmest in the Central
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Highlands. May is generally the warmest month with an average
maximum temperature of about 850F. The southwest receives con-
siderably less rainfall than the northeast, about 50 or 55
inches annually for the former and 75 to 80 inches for the
latter. The southwest has a pronounced winter dry season,
November through April, and a midyear wet season, May through
October, whereas the northeast has rather heavy precipitation
the year round, with somewhat less falling in March and April.
(2) Vegetation and Land Use
The vegetation of the highlands along the Honduran
frontier may be divided into two groups: that of the higher,
drier southwest and that of the lower, moister northeast. In
the southwest it consists mainly of open evergreen, deciduous
forests, and many cultivated fields, including a number of
small coffee fincas. In the northeast the vegetation is
mostly dense evergreen forest. Only occasional patches of
cleared land support primitive slash-burn agriculture.
3. Factors Affecting Land and Air Operations
The rugged terrain of the Central Highlands Region makes
travel in many places, even on foot, extremely difficult.
Cross-country movement in the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes is
difficult in general, and in some areas impossible, because
of the steepness of the slopes of the high mountains and deep
canyons. The road net in the Cuchumatanes is extremely sparse,
and over wide areas simple trails are the only practicable
routes of movement. In the Sierra de Chama' and the Sierra de
Santa Cruz steep slopes also impede cross-country movement,
but perhaps to a lesser degree than in the very high Sierra
de los Cuchumatanes. Roads in this area, as well as in the
Sierra de Chuacus, are also scarce and serve only to link the
main towns; the rural areas are served only by trails. The
Sierra de las Minas is even more isolated and, partially
because of this, has been a favorite hideout for guerrilla
bands. Much. of the Sierra Madre is extremely rugged and
difficult of access. The slopes of the volcanoes are
precipitous and dangerous to traverse, and the deep canyons
are formidable barriers to movement. Roads are few, but
footpaths crisscross much of the area. Many trails are
extremely steep and tortuous, and movement on them is slow
and dangerous. Conditions for movement are somewhat better
in the lower eastern part of the Sierra Madre range. Along
the Honduran frontier movement is difficult because of the
steepness of the terrain in the southwest and because of the
forest and lack of trails in the northeast.
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A great part of the forest cover of the Central Highlands
has been cleared for cultivation -- even on some of the steeper
slopes -- and there are relatively few extensive areas of thick
natural vegetation that can provide adequate protection from
air and ground observation. The barren to sparsely covered
higher areas of the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes offer little
in the way of natural concealment, although the lower slopes
and valleys provide numerous excellent places of concealment.
The forests of the Sierras de Chama', de Santa Cruz, de Chuacus,
and de las Minas also provide excellent, but limited, places
of concealment. On hill and mountain slopes throughout the
region, where the ground is too steep for cultivation, there
are patches of forest, and many of these conceal stills which
are operated by the Indians. These wooded patches would be
of only marginal value to guerrillas, however, as they are
relatively thin and contain numerous trails. In the limestone
areas, such as those of the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes, many
caves, some quite large, could serve as excellent places of
refuge, shelter, and concealment.
Violent afternoon thunderstorms frequently preclude
most types of air operations over the area. The best time
for aerial observation is during the dry season, but haze
and smoke from brush fires often reduce visibility even
during this period. Most potential drop zones in the high-
lands are located on isolated, sparsely settled high plateau
surfaces in the vicinity of Huehuetenango, Totonicapan, and
Quezaltenango. Many potential drop zones are also located
along the lower Pacific slopes of the Sierra Madre and in
the open country of northern Jutiapa department and southern
Jalapa department. The high, rugged mountains are a handicap
to light aircraft air operations since an aircraft requiring
a 1,000-foot run for takeoff at sea level requires a run
about three times as long at an elevation of 8,000 feet and
sites for emergency landings are few.
C. Pacific Coastal Lowlands Region
1. General
The Pacific Coastal Lowlands consist of the level to
rolling coastal plain and the lower foothills of the Sierra
Madre range. The region varies in width from about 25 to 30
miles in the northwestern and central sections to about 10
miles in the southeast. It is part of a long, narrow coastal
lowland that extends southeastward from Mexico through
Guatemala to the Gulf of Fonseca in El Salvador. Popula-
tion density is not as great as in the highlands; however,
there are numerous large plantations, several large inland
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towns, and the important port of San Jose on the coast. Two
subregions can be discerned, one to the west of San Jose, and
the other to the east.
2. Subregions
a. Western Pacific Lowlands
(1) Terrain and Climate
Below an elevation of approximately 1,500 feet, the
Pacific slope of the Sierra Madre range merges into a zone
of spurs and foothills. Slopes become less steep, generally
less than 30 percent, and a gradual descent is made to the
nearly level coastal plain which begins at an elevation of
about 350 feet and continues to the ocean.
Numerous rivers and streams, some of them quite broad
and deep, flow across the lowlands from the mountains to
the ocean. Tidal lagoons, marshes, and swamps border much
of the coast, all forming serious barriers to movement. The
middle reaches of the streams have cut deep valleys and gulches
in the rolling foothill zone and the coastal plain. Many of
these broad streams are swift, deep, and unfordable in the
wet season, April through October, but are easily crossed
during most of the rest of the year when the volume of flow
is reduced. The lower courses of the streams are bordered
by swamps and~marshes. The more important rivers are the
Rio Samala", Rio Sis,,Rio Ican, Rio Madre Vieja, Rio Seco, and
Rio Colojate. The Rio Samala is particularly broad in its
lower course, but its mouth, like that of the smaller streams,
is encumbered by sandbars. Many long sand beaches fringe
the whole coast (see Figure 10) and are broken at widely
spaced intervals by the mouths of the larger rivers. Behind
the beaches, movement inland is restricted by the swamps,
marshes, and long tidal lagoons. Offshore and nearshore
approaches are mostly clear to the beaches, but heavy surf
is a danger for small boat operations. Some of the better
landing beaches are located near Ocos, Champerico, and San
Jose and near the mouths of the Rio Samala and Rio Sis.
The Western Pacific Lowlands subregion is hot and humid;
the average annual temperature is over 77?F and the average
annual relative humidity is over 80 percent. April through
September is the hottest, most humid and unpleasant period;
the remainder of the year, although quite warm, is less
humid. Most of the rain falls in the period April through
October, and the other months are relatively dry. The sub-
region receives considerably less precipitation than the
moist slopes of the Sierra Madre farther inland. Average
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annual precipitation at San Jose is about 58 inches.
(2) Vegetation and Land Use
The subregion is covered by a patchwork of cultivated
fields, scrub, pasture, cutover forest, swamps, and marshes.
From the air, trees appear to dominate the landscape because
of their conspicuous spreading crowns, but they are actually
quite widely spaced in most places and form dense thickets
only along the larger streams. Coarse grass interspersed with
brush and scrub and small groves of hardwoods and palms cover
much of the lower coastal sections. Swamps and marshes are
widespread immediately behind the sand beaches and along the
lower courses of many of the larger rivers and streams.
Extensive stretches of mangrove swamp are located in an area
extending from near the Mexican border to about 10 or 12 miles
southeast of Ocds and from a location near the center of the
subregion to about 25 miles southeast of the mouth of the Rio
Madre Vieja. These swamps, with their dense tangle of roots
and branches, are extremely difficult to penetrate and are
formidable barriers to movement inland from the beaches.
The most extensive cultivated areas are in the moist
sections of the foothills, especially in the zone adjacent
to the rail line from the town of Escuintla to the Mexican
border. Sugarcane is grown on well-drained sites in the
foothills, and cotton is grown on the outer lowlands (see
Figure 11). Cattle are grazed on large haciendas in the
coastal plain.
b. Eastern Pacific Lowlands
(1) Terrain and Climate
This small subregion is considerably narrower than the
coastal area to the northwest. It is only about 15 miles
across at its widest point. The foothill zone found in the
Western Pacific Lowlands is almost entirely lacking here;
the highlands of the interior slope directly down to the
coastal plain in most places. Few of the larger highland
rivers reach the coast; of those that do, the most notable
is the Rio Paz which forms part of the border with El Salvador.
There are fewer gorges and steep-sided valleys in the flat-
lands of this subregion than in the one to the northwest, but
the streams are swift and form barriers to lateral movement.
The Canal de Chiquimulilla, located within a mile or two of
the shore, extends across nearly the entire length of the
subregion. This canal and most of the coast is flanked by an
extensive swamp. A long sand beach fronts most of the coast;
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Figure 10. Sand beach on Pacific coast near Champerico.
Figure 11. Cottonfield in Escuintla department. The cotton
is over 6 feet in height and would hinder cross-country move-
ment on foot.
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it is unbroken because most streams from the interior empty
into the Canal de Chiquimulilla.
Climatic conditions here are similar to those in the
coastal area to the northwest. However, temperatures are
somewhat higher, and the atmosphere is less humid. Annual
rainfall is slightly less, and the dry season (October
through March) is more distinct. Downslope winds from the
interior highlands often bring warm, dry air into the area.
(2) Vegetation and Land Use
The vegetative cover is similar to that of the Western
Pacific Lowlands, although the scrub and dry brush reflect
the more arid conditions prevailing in this subregion.
Most of the interior presents an open, parklike appearance,
with only a few small wooded areas scattered here and there.
Extensive swamp forests occupy low-lying areas along the
coast. Cattle grazing is important, but there is proportion-
ately less land under cultivation, and there are few large
plantations.
3. Factors Affecting Land, Sea, and Air Operations
The major barriers to lateral (northwest - southeast)
movement through the Pacific Coastal Lowlands are the deeply
entrenched rivers that cut across the region from the mountains
to the sea. In the wet season, April through September or
October, the depth and velocity of flow of many of these rivers
make them unfordable, especially in their swifter sections in
the foothills. The steep-sided valleys that these streams have
cut are also obstacles to lateral movement through the area
even during the dry season. The chief obstacles to movement
across the region from the interior to the sea are the exten-
sive swamps, marshes, and tidal lagoons that occupy the low-
lying zone directly behind the line of sandy beaches that front
the coast.
The dense vegetation of the coastal swamps offers the
best concealment against ground and air observation in the
region, but inhospitable physical conditions -- the water,
deep mud,and insects -- make the areas unsuitable for any-
thing but temporary occupancy. Trees and underbrush along
the rivers afford concealment for movement inland from the
beach zones. Elsewhere, most of the land is either open
pasture or under cultivation and offers little good concealment.
Heavy surf conditions along the coast frequently make
small boat handling difficult and dangerous, and strong
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undertows are a hazard for swimmers. Tides are semidiurnal;
the mean tidal range at the port of Champerico is about 5 feet.
The ocean currents off the coast are unpredictable. At Champ-
erico during the dry season the longshore current usually sets
to the east-southeast at about 1 knot or more during spring
tides; occasionally it may alternate for 3 or 4 days to the
west-northwest. Similar conditions prevail at San Jose.
There are few reefs or other obstructions in the approaches
to the long line of beaches. The most important criteria in
selecting landing sites are access inland and avoidance of
settlements.
Flying conditions are generally better in this region than
anywhere else in Guatemala. The dry season, October through
March, is the most favorable time for visual air operations,
although they are usually feasible during the early morning
hours even during the rainy season. Violent storms frequently
preclude flying in the period from April through September.
Good drop zones and helicopter landing areas are located in
the relatively open and level places along the inland margin
of the region.
D. Caribbean Lowlands Region
1. General
The Caribbean Lowlands Region consists of a small coastal
plain, facing the Gulf of Honduras, and three elongated basins
extending inland to the southwest. Much of the region is den-
sely forested and only sparsely settled, but its ports, high-
way, railroad, and waterways provide access to the more populous
interior. The northernmost basin is that of the Rio Sarstun
and its tributaries; the central basin includes the Rio Dulce,
Lago de Izabal, and its major tributary, the Rio Polochic; the
southernmost basin is that of the lower two-thirds of the Rio
Motagua. In the following discussions subregions bear the
names of these basins and include the coastal plains onto
which they open.
2. Subregions
a. Rio Sarstun Basin
(1) Terrain and Climate
The Rio Sarstun Basin extends inland for about 50 miles
from the Bahia de Amatique. It is bounded on the north by
British Honduras and the low hills of southeastern El Peten
department and on the south by the Sierra de Santa Cruz. The
Rio Sarstun forms the short east-west, natural boundary with
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British Honduras. The mouth of the river emerges from a narrow
plain bounded 2 miles inland by low hills. Extending southeast-
ward from the river mouth is a 3- or 4-mile-long sand beach
backed by mangrove swamp. Much of the lower 20 miles of the
Rio Sarstdn is also bordered by swamp and marsh, and a number
of large creeks drain the flanks of the Sierra de Santa Cruz
and flow northward to join the river. This section of the
Rio Sarstun is very deep, averaging 25 to 60 feet, with min-
imum depths of about 5 feet over the bar at its mouth; it is
therefore easily navigable by small craft even during the dry
season. The village of Modesto Mendez is located at the head
of navigation for all but very small shallow-draft boats. It
is connected by road to Poptun and Flores and serves as a minor
outlet for the department of El Peten. Farther inland and up-
stream from Modesto Mendez, the subregion consists of an area
of low limestone hills. The small tributary streams of the Rio
Sarstun draining this area are swift flowing, and small craft
navigation on them is interrupted by rapids in several places.
The subregion is hot, humid, and very rainy. Average
annual temperature is about 80?F, relative humidity is over
80 percent, and annual precipitation is up to 180 inches.
February, March, and April are slightly drier than the other
months of the year.
(2) Vegetation and Land Use
Practically the entire subregion is covered with dense,
semitropical rain forest which provides excellent concealment
but also seriously impedes movement. Mangroves choke the
tidal flats behind the one long beach, and high swamp forests
occur along the lower course of the Rio Sarstun halfway up-
stream to Modesto Mendez. Palm swamps occupy the low-lying
areas immediately adjacent to the river. On the higher, in-
land portion of the subregion, the rain forest begins to give
way to the low savanna of Alta Verapaz department, and move-
ment on foot becomes easier although the chances of detection
are increased because of the lack of concealment. Only in
this higher, more open inland portion of the subregion has
any appreciable area been cleared for agriculture. A number
of small farms are located in.the vicinity of Chahal in the
northeast corner of Alta Verapaz department; they are served
by a tenuous network of trails.
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b. Rio Dulce - Lago de Izabal - Rio
Polochic Basin
(1) Terrain and Climate
Long, straight, sandy beaches fronting on the Bahia de
Amatique lie to either side of the mouth of the Rio Dulce.
The small port of Livingston occupies a slight ridge on the
north bank of the river mouth. The beaches are backed by a
level plain that extends inland for about a mile to a line
of low hills. Departing from Livingston and going up the Rio
Dulce (see Figures 12 and 13), one passes through a narrow
limestone gorge which then broadens to form a small, sea-
level lake, about 3 miles wide and 9 miles long, known as
El Golfete. Continuing upstream, the Rio Dulce opens onto
Lago de Izabal, the largest lake in Guatemala. It is
about 12 miles wide and 25 miles long. A narrow plain
skirts the lake (see Figure 14), back of which the terrain
rises steeply northward to the Sierra de Santa Cruz and south-
ward and eastward to the Sierra de las Minas and the Montanas
del Mico. A swampy, wedge-shaped tract fronts the entire
southwestern end of the lake. This is the extensive delta
of the Rio Polochic, chief tributary of the lake. About 25
miles upstream from the delta, the valley of the Rio Polochic
narrows sharply between the foothills of the Sierra de Chama'
and the Sierra de las Minas.
The depth of the Rio Dulce, including El Golfete, varies
from about 16 to 100 feet, and average depths of Lago de
Izabal vary between 36 and 48 feet. These waterways are
easily navigable the year round by small craft. The Rio
Polochic reaches depths of 16 feet in some places; it is
navigable downstream from Panzo's for boats of 8 foot draft
in the rainy season and by boats of 2- to 3-foot draft in the
dry season. In very dry years, portions of the Rio Polochic
may not be navigable during April and May.
The entire subregion is hot and humid and receives
abundant rainfall. The higher inland section, in Baja
Verapaz, is slightly less humid. Livingston receives more
than 180 inches of rainfall annually.
(2) Vegetation and Land Use
Semitropical rain forest covers most of the subregion.
The plains area immediately behind the beaches supports a
relatively open growth of brush, grass, and scattered trees,
but this grades into the dense forests which cover the hills
farther inland. Almost impenetrable swamp forests border the
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Figure 12. Rfo Dulce looking upstream above
Livingston.
Figure 13. Steep limestone bluff along Rio Dulce.
-40-
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Figure 14. Village of El Estor on narrow plain at western
end of Lago de Izabal. Sierra de Santa Cruz is in the back-
ground.
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main streams and occupy the extensive low delta of the Rio
Polochic. Comparatively little land has been cleared for
agriculture. Small cultivated plots are associated with
the tiny fishing settlements that ring Lago de Izabal, and
numerous banana trees, palm trees, and small fields of rice
and yuca are found in the vicinity of Livingston. Upstream,
on the banks of the Rio Polochic in Alta Varapaz and Baja
Verapaz departments, cultivated plots become more numerous,
and small coffee plantations are found in the foothills of
the Sierra de las Minas. Opportunities for undetected move-
ment are reduced in the vicinity of these more densely
settled areas of the subregion. Preparatory work is currently
underway on a large nickel mining operation to be located
near the village of El Estor at the western end of Lago de
Izabal; the ore reportedly will be transported on barges
from the lake to the port of Matias de Galvez via the Rio
Dulce. Increased population and activity related to these
operations may reduce the opportunities for undetected
movement in the vicinity of the lake.
c. Rio Motagua Basin
(1) Terrain and Climate
This subregion includes the entire lower valley of the
Rio Motagua upstream to El Rancho in the department of El
Progreso, a distance of approximately 180 miles in which
the river drops less than 1,000 feet. It includes the swampy
delta to the northwest of the mouth of the Rio Motagua. The
area is bordered by sandy beaches facing the Gulf of Honduras;
one long sandspit jutting to the northwest partially separates
the Bahia de Amtique from the Gulf of Honduras and affords
protection for Puerto Barrios, Guatemala's principal port.
Broad swamps and tidal lagoons border the portion of the low-
land facing the Bahia de Amatique north of Puerto Barrios.
The valley of the Rio Motagua is rather restricted in its
lower section between the Montanas del Mico and the highlands
of the Honduran frontier. It broadens between the towns of
Morales and Los Amates, and much of this section is occupied
by large plantations of the United Fruit Company. The valley
narrows and then broadens again in the vicinity of the town
of Rio Hondo in Zacapa department. Farther inland, in El
Progreso department, the valley narrows sharply as it pen-
etrates the interior highlands. Numerous small, swift
tributaries draining the adjacent hills and mountains join
the Rio Motagua at right angles throughout its course in this
subregion and form obstacles to movement along the valley.
Seasonal variations in the flow and depth of the river are
large, but in general the depth varies from about 6 to 15 feet.
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Lowest water levels occur in April and May, and the river is
easily forded in a number of places in the upper sections of
the subregion during these months. During the rainy season
the river is largely unfordable, and much of the delta and
lowlands adjacent to its lower course are flooded.
The climate of the subregion varies from hot and humid
in the northeast toward the mouth of the Rio Motagua to
extremely hot and dry in the southwest. In May, maximum
temperatures around 100?F are experienced in the upstream
areas. The lower part of the valley receives abundant and
well-distributed precipitation the year round, whereas the
upriver sections experience distinct seasonal variations;
May through October is the wet season, and November through
April is the dry season. Puerto Barrios receives about 114
inches of rainfall a year; Zacapa about 81 inches.
(2) Vegetation and Land Use
Dense rain forest covers practically all of the sub-
region within the department of Izabal except for the planta-
tions of the United Fruit Company and scattered small sub-
sistence farms. Mangrove swamps lie at the mouth of the
Rio Motagua and along the inner side of the sandspit that
juts into the Gulf of Honduras. Moving up the valley into
the department.of Zacapa, the character of the. landscape
and vegetation changes markedly, first through a transitional
zone of broadleaf deciduous forest and then into a semidesert
of scrub, cactus, and grassland.
The large banana and abaca' (hemp) plantations of the
United Fruit Company are located in the broader section of
the Rio Motagua valley between Morales and. Los Amates.
As in most other sections of the country, maize is the
principal crop on the small subsistence farms, but in this
subregion it is relatively less important than elsewhere.
Pineapples and citrus fruits are also grown. In Zacapa
department sugarcane, tobacco, and cattle raising are of
some importance. Cattle are grazed in the valley during?
the wet, season but.are driven up to mountain pastures
during the drier periods.
3. Factors Affecting Land, Sea, and Air Operations
The three depressions of this region include the only
practical routes for movement from the Caribbean coast inland
to the important interior highlands of Guatemala. With the
exception of a few low hills, there are no landform obstacles
in the region; rivers, swamps, and natural vegetation are the
serious barriers to movement.
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The extensive marshes flanking much of the lower course
of the Rio Sarstun make movement on foot along this river
difficult to impossible. Small boats can navigate most of
the Rio Sarstun itself, but the smaller upstream tributaries
are unnavigable because of rapids. The Rio Dulce, Lago de
Izabal, and Rio Polochic are navigable by small craft, but
movement on foot along their margins is impractical in many
places because of swamps and marshes. Much of the northern
shore of El Golfete, for example, is extremely difficult to
traverse because of an extensive area of marsh laced with
wide creeks and lagoons. In the huge swampy delta of the
Rio Polochic, at the southwestern end of Lago de Izabal, the
only practical means of movement is by small boat on the
meandering streams. Movement on foot in the valley of the
Rio Motagua is relatively easy except during floods, when
much of the lower valley is impassable, or in places where
one bank or the other is bordered by marshes or swamps. The
possibility of undetected movement along this route is reduced,
however, by the numerous small settlements that follow the
highway and rail line. Farther up the valley, the lack of
natural cover makes concealment difficult, but abundant
natural vegetation throughout most of the lower part of the
region affords excellent concealment from both ground and
air observation.
Several. long sandy beaches are suitable for large-scale
amphibious landings, and many other sites are suitable for
small-scale, undetected landings on the Caribbean coast.
Most of the latter are located along the swampy coast north
of Puerto Barrios on the Bahia de Amatique.
Tidal ranges along the Caribbean coast are not great;
for instance, Puerto Barrios has a tidal range of only about
10 inches. Onshore or offshore winds sometimes tend to
influence the tidal effect slightly. The longshore current
at Puerto Barrios reportedly sets northwestward at a rate
up to about 2 knots or more in the morning and southeastward
in the afternoon at a rate of less than 1 knot. The highest
breakers along the Caribbean coast occur in the period from
September through February. The approaches to the beaches
and landing sites are partially obstructed by rocks, reefs,
and sandbars. Exit from the beaches and other landing sites
is difficult because of extensive swamps and marshes.
Flying conditions are generally good in the region --
better than in the interior highlands -- although smoke from
brush fires and haze often restrict visibility in April.
Good potential helicopter landing areas are located a few
miles southeast of Puerto Barrios and along the lower course
of the Rio Motagua near Tenedores.
T T
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E. Peten Lowlands and Hills
1. General
The Peten Lowlands and Hills Region of northern Guatemala
is part of a vast limestone plain that extends northward over
the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. The region includes prac-
tically all of the department of El Peten and, in addition,
small portions of the adjacent departments to the south.
Although by no means absolutely level or physically homo-
geneous, only two parts of the region are sufficiently exten-
sive and distinctive to warrant treatment as subregions --
the Peten Lowlands and the Peten Hills.
2. Subregions
a. Peten Lowlands
(1) Terrain and Climate
The Peten Lowlands slope gradually from an elevation
of about 1,000 feet in the extreme south to an elevation
of about 150 feet in the extreme north. Small rounded lime
stone hills occupy an extensive transitional zone adjacent
to the highlands of Alta Verapaz department, and similar
knobby hills are scattered in a number of places throughout
the region. A distinct range of high limestone hills,-,, the
Sierra del Lacapddn,extends into Mexico between the Rio
Usumacinta and the Rio San Pedro. The highest elevations
of the Sierra del Lacando'n range between 1,500 and 2,200
feet.
Underground drainage and sinkholes are characteristic of
the entire subregion. As a consequence, surface drainage is
maintained by only a few large rivers, the most important of
which are the Rio Usumacinta and its tributaries, the Rio
San Pedro, Rio de la Pasion, and Rio Salinas, all flowing
northwestward into Mexico. Lesser streams flow northward
into Mexico or northeastward into British Honduras. Many
larger rivers, especially the Rio Salinas and the Rio de
la Pasion, have extremely meandering courses and their
valleys contain numerous remnant, oxbow lakes. Many other
small lakes and thousands of water-filled sinkholes are
found throughout the subregion. The largest and most notable
lake in the area is Lago Peten Itza, located near the center
of the subregion; Flores, the capital of El Peten department,
is situated on a small island near the southeastern end of
the lake. Extensive swampy areas are scattered throughout
the region, especially along the large rivers and in the
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lowlands to the north of Lago Peten Itza.
The climate of the Peten Lowlands is hot and humid.
Average annual precipitation is a little less than 80 inches.
The rainy season extends from April through October or November
and is excessively humid and hot. The mean monthly tempera-
tures range between 80?F and 86?F._inthe rainy season and
between 74?F and 85?F in the dry season. Traces of hurricane
winds, which are rare, can be found in the broad swaths of
uprooted trees.
(2) Vegetation and Land Use
The greater part of the subregion is covered by sub-
tropical rain forest. The thickest growth is in the southern
part of the subregion, and consists mostly of broadleaf ever-
green species. The trees form continuous canopies, with some
trees reaching 150 feet in height. An abundant undergrowth
seriously impedes movement. Dense stands of spiny palms are
especially common along the river courses. Much of the area
north of the latitude of Lago Peten Itza' is covered by semi-
deciduous forest. Here the trees are lower, about 30 to 70
feet tall, and not so dense (see Figure 1.5). Their canopies
are discontinuous, and the undergrowth of grass and shrubs
is less dense so that movement is easier although.conceal-
ment is not as good. Evergreen trees bordering the water-
courses provide better cover. South of Lago Peten Itza, in
an area of roughly 300 square miles extending around and to
the east of Libertad, is an isolated tract of open grass-
land with scattered pines.
Little of the forest has been cleared for agriculture;
small plots are found around Flores and some of the villages
along the major rivers, but there are no large plantations.
Chicle-bearing trees are scattered in a natural state through-
out the forests, and small camps of chicle collectors are
moved about from one place to another to exploit the untapped
trees (see Figures 16 and 17). Because of the scarcity of
good roads, many of the small airfields of the Peten Low-
lands were constructed by firms engaged in the chicle trade..
In addition to chicle, the forests.?are rich,in valuable hard-
woods.such as mahogany. Large rafts of logs are floated.down
the major rivers during the flood season. Many are floated
down the Rio de la Pasion, and then northward through. Mexico
to the Gulf.of Campeche. Other rafts are floated out through
British Honduras. Archeological sites of the ancient. Maya
civilization.are scattered throughout the Peten Lowlands., and
the more spectacular ones, such as Tikal. (see Figure 18)
northeast of Flores, attract many tourists- as well. as scien-
tists.
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Figure 16. Cutting slashes I
to tap chicle tree in El Peten
department.
Figure 15. Forest
near Tikal in northern
El Pete`n department.
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Figure 17. Abandoned chicle collector's shack
in El Peters department. Note the thorny vines
and scrub in the foreground.
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Figure 18. Ruins of Tikal rising above jungle in northern
Peten Lowlands.
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b. Peten Hills
(1) Terrain and Climate
This subregion is part of the Montanas Mayas chain of
limestone hills and mountains that extends northeastward
across the border into British Honduras. The highest point
in the subregion is a 3,320-foot peak near the border north-
east of the town of Poptun. Poptun is at an elevation of
about 1,600 feet and is located on a small nearly level
plain surrounded by rounded limestone hills that rise to
heights of about 150 to 250 feet above the plain. The Rio
Machaquila drains the area in a westerly direction. The
small lakes characteristic of the Peten Lowlands are lacking.
Because of the higher elevations, the climate is considerably
less hot and humid than it is in the lowlands.
(2) Vegetation and Land Use
Rain forest covers most of the lower parts of the sub-
region, and the higher hills support dense stands of pine.
Grassland and open pine forests are found on the plain around
Poptun.
3. Factors Affecting Land and Air Operations
Movement on foot through this region is very difficult
because of extensive areas of rugged limestone topography,
dense forests, extensive swamps and marshes, and a lack of
roads. Most of the small, steep limestone hills are easily
circumvented, but in areas where they are closely spaced,
travel on foot is arduous. Most sinkholes and small lakes
present no serious problems for movement, and they are good
sources of potable water. Because of the almost total lack
of roads through much of the region, travel by small boats
on the streams and rivers is, in many places, the most
practical means of movement.
Dense forests, especially in the southern part of the
region, provide excellent concealment from ground and air
observation. Adequate concealment is available throughout
most of the northern part of the region as well, although
the forests are not so dense, and many of the trees shed
their leaves during the dry season. The only extensive area
lacking adequate concealment is the isolated savanna located
to the south of Lago Peten Itza. Much of the region is
honeycombed with caves which provide excellent places of
concealment.
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Flying conditions are best in the dry season, October
or November through March, although haze and smoke from
brush and grass fires during the latter month tend to
restrict visibilities. There are numerous small airfields
throughout the region, but most of them are unserviceable in
wet weather. The forests and hilly terrain surrounding many
airstrips make landing difficult. Potential drop zones are
located in the grassland south of Lago Peten Itza and in the
small plain at Poptun. Scattered clearings in the northern
forests offer more secluded drop sites.
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READING LIST
1. CIA. NIS 71, Guatemala, "General Survey," Aug 1965.
S/NFD.
2. CIA. NIS 71, Guatemala, sec 21, "Military Geographic
Regions," Feb 1958. NFD.
3. CIA. NIS 71, Guatemala, sec 23, "Weather and Climate,"
May 1957. C/NFD.
4. CIA. NIS 71, Guatemala, sec 24, "Topography," Oct 1.957.
C/NFD. 25X1
6. McBryde, Felix Webster, Cultural and Historical Geography
of Southwest Guatemala, Pub no 4, Washington: Smithsonian
Institution, Insti of Social Anthropology, 1945. U.
7. Whetten, Nathan L., Guatemala -- The Land and the Peo le,
New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961. U.
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