(SANITIZED)UNCLASSIFIED SOVIET PAPER BY K M BYKOV ON 'NEW DATA ON THE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX'(SANITIZED)

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP80-00926A006600040003-4
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: C
• Document Page Count: 86
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: December 7, 2012
• Sequence Number: 3
• Publication Date: September 30, 1953
• Content Type: REPORT

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ARallemuN H. M. B ft 0 13
HOBLIE ,TIAHHLIE
HO 4)1131I0JOIIIII
F0.40B1I0I10 mo3rit
K. M. BYKOV
Member, Academy of Sciences of the USSR
NEW DATA
ON THE PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY
OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
C. M. BYKOV
Membre de l'Acadentie cies Sciences de PURSS
NOUVELLES DONNEES
SUR LI PHYSIOLOGIE ET LA PATHOLOGIE
DE L'ECORCE CEREBRALE
H3HATEHIXTBO ARAAEMHH HAYR CCCP
Moe R 13 a ?1953
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ealy whole animal organism instead of its halves. And this.
is completely our Russian indisputable contribution to world
science, to common human thought.
Pavlov's method of chronic experiments in physiology made
it possible to pass from an analytic study of separate functional
performances to a synthetic study of all processes taking place
in the body, beginning with primitive reactions and ending
with human speech and thought.
Pavlov was not the only one to set himself the task of studying
the normal performances of a whole organism. Already before
him the great Claude Bernard wrote inspiringly of the importance
of this problem. I. M. Sechenov, the brilliant scientist and father
of Russian physiology, saw the main point of gaining a knowledge
of the activity of the whole organism clearer than other prede-
cessors of Pavlov. l3uL it was only Pavlov who succeeded in con-
verting investigations of the whole complex of processes in a nor-
mal organism during its natural interrelations with its surround-
ings from a task that worried the boldest minds into a subject
of a precise objective scientific method.
Investigations of the organism as a whole attained their cul-
minating point and, in a certain sense, perfection in Pavlov's
teachings on conditioned reflexes.
The Leaching on conditioned reflexes occupies a special place
in natural sciences. On the one hand, it provided us with the
means and possibility of studying all phenomena in the organism
depending on the conditions of the organism's existence in its
surroundings. On the other, the teaching on conditioned reflexes
represented a crossing over from the study of purely physiological
processes to a natural-scientific understanding of phenomena
specified as psychical.
The teaching of conditioned reflexes, as must be distinctly
emphasized, is a farther development of the supreme principle
of determinism ? that there is no action without cause ? to
absolutely all phenomena of life. Pavlov inserted into the very
conception of the reflex primarily the determination of each
reflex act by stimuli producing it and by properties acquired
by the nervous system as it reacts to various agents of external
and internal media. This must be pointed out, as certain of our
foreign colleagues, who have amassed many important facts
on separate sides of the activity of the central nervous system, for
instance, Professor Fulton, Professor Liddell and others, repeat-
edly strove to prove that conditioned reflexes are not reflexes
and that the psychical activity of humans is not reflectory act-
ivity (this was asserted., for instance, by the late professor Sher-
rington).
3 E, M. DT,111013
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Conditioned reflexes have, of course, a number of featurds
distinguishing them from the reflex reactions of spinal and
decerebrated animals. Indeed, if conditioned reflexes possessed
only the property of unconditioned reflexes (or were only copies
of the latter), as was maintained by Professor Konorsky in his
interpretation of facts established by Pavlov, then the activity
of the cerebral cortex would not have been different to the act-
ivity of the spinal cord. But conditioned reflexes are reflexes
because they are responses of the organism to the stimulation of
receptors and, moreover, are reactions (like everything else in
the organism) of a strictly determinated character. Those who
refuse to view the activity of the higher part of the central ner-
vous system as a reflex activity, must, wittingly take up (as
they usually do) a dualistic position. As a matter of fact, a condi-
tioned stimulus is a signal stimulus, and, moreover, this signal
may be connected either directly with a definite phenomenon,
of the external world, or witila another already existing condi-
tioned stimulus. Thus, the superstructure over unconditioned sti-
muli may reach high degrees and, as I will point out further, may
abstract from the real subject or phenomenon that is inevitably
linked to it.
A GENERAL CHARACTERISTIC OF CONDITIONED REFLEXES
In creating a conception of new cortical reflexes, Pavlov
based himself on strictly physiological facts and ideas, rejecting
the admission that mental phenomena are sui generis and that
they are inaccessible for objective investigation. Investigators,
basing themselves on the unstable foundation of a subjective ap-
praisal of psychical phenomena, recognized that it is only the
activity of the lower parts of the brain that is reflectory, and
that it is only this that is subordinate to the principle of determin:-
ism. According to these investigators, the higher nervous activity
and, consequently, all interrelations of the organism with the sur-
rounding medium, must inevitably be recognized as non-determina-
ted, as dependent on the action of ?particular? forces that are
not subject to a physiological analysis. From this, it follows.
that the entire behaviour of humans and the higher animals de-
pends not on properties naturally acquired by the cerebral cor-
tex during various interactions of the organism with surrounding
nature, but on its inherent qualities, on the set of ?goods and
?bad? genes (Alvarez), on the immutable properties of a ?third
personality (Freud), on a ?vital force >> (Dunbar), and so on.
There have been quite a variety of attempts to refute and
criticize the main theses of Pavlov's teaching, but the overwhelm-
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ing majority of these attempts are based on a failure to give
due consideration to and an arbitrary interpretation of the theses
advanced by him and of facts amassed in his laboratories. For
instance, there are assertions that, the behaviour of an animal
be fully studied under conditions of so-called free behaviour
only and not under allegedly artificial conditions, which are
created when the animal is Lied in a stand. However, such an
objection supplants the question of principles that lies at the ba-
sis of the study of conditioned reflexes, the question of the suit-
ability of one particular method or another chosen during the
solving of various concrete tasks. The groundlessness of such
a misinterpretation of the method of conditioned reflex becomes
apparent if one takes into consideration the wealth of data ob-
tained under conditions of Pavlov's classical experiments ? data
that are much more valuable than that received during the study
of ?free behaviour.
We also hear reproaches that Pavlov studied processes taking
place in the cerebral cortex on the basis of a consideration of the
magnitude and character of conditioned reflexes carried out by
effectors in response to stimulation of the receptors. It is surpris-
ing that the authors of such an argument pass unnoticed the fact
that it has a general bearing on all investigations of reflex
processes (for instance, on the investigations carried out by Mag-
nus, Sherrington, Fulton), and that ?this argument could be ad-
vanced with the same logic against investigations revealing the
structure of the atom. It is true that we are still hardly able to
study the chemical, physico-chemical, electrical and structural
changes taking place in the cerebral cortex during various forms
of conditioned reflex activity. However, there can be no doubt of
the dependence of all conditioned reflexes on processes taking
place in the cerebral cortex. It may be contended that it is
namely data obtained by investigating conditioned reflexes that
will lead to the creation of methods revealing to an increasing
degree the inner mechanism of processes taking place in the
cortex.
Who at present can refute the ability of the cerebral cortex
of higher animals and humans to continuously accumulate new
temporary connections ? conditioned reflexes, beginning with
the first days of the life of the organism? It may be considered as
a fact that all reactions of the organism are permeated with con-
ditioned reflexes, that all reactions include a component of a
conditioned reflex character, as, during the repetition of one
and the same unconditioned reflex, various receptors are at the
same time inevitably influenced by different stimuli coming
from external and internal media. Actually, under normal
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conditions of the vital activity of an organism there are no ?purelY,?
unconditioned reflexes, with the exception, perhaps, of the case
when the cerebral cortex is completely in a profound inhibited
state. Thus, it is clear that the so-called spontaneous activity is
by nature a reflex activity. Once formed, conditioned reflexes
leave enduring traces, while an increasing number of new con-
nections form on t hese traces from stimulations coming both
from exteroreceptors and interoreceptors, signalizing processes
of the ?internal organ i zation? of the organism and reflecting in-
ternal so-called organic sensations such as hunger, thirst, urges
to various physiological functions.
The receiving apparatus of the cerebral cortex changes contin-
uously during its action. One cannot represent the process of
excitation in synaptic Structures and in the nerve cells themselves
as a physical process, once and for all One-minded conditioned,
because excitation and the process of inhibition opposing it con-
stantly replace one another. That. is why the latent period of a
conditioned reflex may be extremely variable. It is well known
that as soon as we begin to increase the interval between an uncon-
ditioned reflex and a conditioned one, the latent period begins
to lengthen. I a other cases the latent period of a motor conditioned
reflex can be very short, even shorter than the reflex passing
through the brain stem.
From our investigations we know that cortical impulses can
accelerate the reflex reaction. The conditioned reflex, using
inherent reflex ways, changes the former adequate reactions, adapt-
ing them to the new conditions and tasks of the actual surrounding.
Under the influence of a conditioned stimulus, a cortical
impulse can completely change or inhibit an unconditioned re-
flex. A reflex reaction of an unconditioned character cannot be
regarded as being independent of conditioned reflex influences
as well as vice versa.
As we know, Pavlov established two main mechanisms of
cortical dynamics -- the mechanism of closing of new -connec-
tions, i. e., the formation of a .conditioned reflex and an an.alyti-
co-syntheti zi rig mechanism which permits the analyzation and
simultaneous synthelization of stimulations entering the cortex.
All neuro-dynamics rests on two processes, well known in the
physiology of the nervous system?excitation and inhibition. The
complex interaction of these main processes gave Pavlov the
possibility of establishing new peculiar relations of two sides
of one stimulative process, manifesting itself in the active form
of excitation and in the form of inhibition that opposes it. The
unity of excitation and inhibition, as well as the transitionary
phases between them, were studied on simplest nervous forma-
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?
Lions long ago by Soviet physiologists of the Wedensky school;
this was also established by Pavlov and his pupils in the case
of cellular structures of the cerebral cortex. Tho detection of
transitionary (hypnotic) phases between excitation and inhibi-
tion, has, as we know, become the basis of Pavlov's discovery
of the nature of neuroses.
-
Temporary connections are always extensive, and often they
can occupy a considerable part of the receptory area of the cere-
bral cortex. It is possible to form a new conditioned stimulus
with the help of an already worked out conditioned stimulus.
'fen years ago in Pavlov's laboratory it was convincingly demon-
strated on a dog that ?Lwo indifferent stimulations?, repeated
one after another also connect between themselves and provoke
each other. As Pavlov said: ?The conditioned reflex has become
the central phenomenon in physiology and its use made possible
a fuller and precise study of both the normal and pathologic
activities of the cerebral hemispheres?.
SYSTEMIC PRINCIPLE IN THE FUNCTION OF THE CEREBRAL
CORTEX AND THE CONCEPT OF STEREOTYPE
On the basis of a large number of experimental data Pavlov
created the idea of the existence of a systemic principle in the
function of the cerebral cortex. This idea represents an impor-
tant generalization and comprises a substantial part of our under-
standing of Pavlov's reflex theory. Many critics of Pavlov's
teaching on the higher nervous activity ignore this important
aspect of his physiological conception.
In the USSR, Pavlov's principle of systemic function
is at present being successfully elaborated in physiological exper-
iments on animals and in observations on humans.
Thus, recently, a collaborator of our Institute, Schastny,
established new facts on the selective systemic principle in the
work of the cerebral cortex of dogs. Experiments on conditioned
reflexes were carried out in the following way. A system (A) of
conditioned food reflexes was worked out and stabilized in dogs.
Then, for a certain period, this food system was dropped and
another system (B) of conditioned electro-defensive reflexes was
worked out and stabilized. After thi, a return was made to the
food system (A) and together with food stimuli application was
made of one of the electro-defensive stimuli M (the sound of a
metronome) from system (B), accompanying it with a food rein-
forcement. When this former electro-defensive stimulus M lost
its defensive action, and acquired a stable food action, some other
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stimulus from the electro-defensive system (B) was sometimes
applied at the start of an experiment with the food system (A).
The additional conditioned elec,tro-defensive stimulus was not
accompanied either by a food reinforcement or by current. It
turned out that this additional defensive stimulus did not have
an inhibitory effect on the conditioned reflexes of the food system
(A). Its inhibitory action revealed itself only on the conditioned
food refleN in response to a stimulus M that had formerly been
an electranlefensive stimulus. '
Thus, I he inhibitory action of a substituted conditioned elec-
tro-defensi ye stimulus was of a Clearly selective character.
These experim.ents not only established the fact of the exis-
tence of a selective systemic principle, but also brought to light
its nervous (cortical) mechanism, the latter lying in the action
of a negative induction from the defensive centre to the food
centre.
Mayoroy's observations OR humans established that a condi-
tioned reflex, and the unconditioned reflex following it, are
links of a single functional system. It turned out that the verbal
response of the persons under observation regarding the charac-
ter of the acting stimuli changed in dependence on the distur-
bance in. the system: conditioned stimulation ? unconditioned
stimulation.
The observations were carried on. in the following way.
Use was made of a frequent beat of a metronome (120 beats
per minute) which was always reinforced by a slight stream of
air directed onto the eye. In the beginning this produced a con-
ditioned winking reflex, followed by an unconditioned winking
reflex and a verbal account of the observed person that the beat
was ?frequent?. In these observations use was made also of a
rare rhythm. of the metronome (60 beats per minute), which,
however, was never accompanied by a stream of air. This produces
an inhibitiXe effect (check of winking movements) and a verbal
account that the beat was ?rare?. Such was the usual order
of tests.
If the observer sometimes used a frequent M-120, but did
not give the unconditioned stimulus (reinforcement by a stream
of air), then the verbal account of the person under observation
changed: he said that, the beat -was ?rare? or ?seemed to be rare?.
If the observer sometimes applied a rare M-60 and accompan-
ied it with a stream of air, then the verbal account of the ob-
served person changed: he said that the beat was ?frequent? or
?seemed to be frequent?.
This meal's that the Verbal account of the observed person,
being the result of the systemic activity of the second signal
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?
system (according to Pavlov), reflects the formed neurodynamic
system.
A study of complex conditioned reflexes (Voronin) on dogs
and the working out of differentiations to separate complex sti-
muli showed that this complicated neurodynamic system is rein-
forced by the interrelations between excitation and inhibition of
whole complexes arising as a result of the synthetic activity of
the cerebral cortex.
We picture the work of the cerebral cortex as systemic and
dynami c, and this fully conforms with Pavlov's views. However,
in this question there is evidently an insufficient understanding
among certain investigators in the USA (for instance, Pro-
fessor Lashley).
I do not have here the possibility to discuss specially a number
of critical pronouncements regarding Pavlov's thesis on cortical
dynamics, for instance, the attempts to deny the peculiar features
of cortical conditioned inhibition, and the exaggerated impor-
tance assigned to separate (and often insufficiently strict) obser-
vations interpreted as proof of the possibility of the formation
of conditioned reflexes without the participation of the cerebral
cortex. A detailed analysis of these and other critical remarks
directed against the theory of conditioned reflexes have been
published in our country by Mayorov. On my part, I will gladly
answer questions that may arise here on this point. However,
I think the most effective way of showing all the significance of
Pavlov's physiological teaching is to set forth new facts and
conclusions that were obtained on the basis of this teaching.
Besides, I shall dwell chiefly on the facts obtained by a
group of 'investigators working under my direction. I am doing
this by no means because other scientific workers of the country
I represent gave less valuable data, but because I am naturally
better acquainted with and analyzed in detail the facts obtained
in my laboratories.
THE FUNCTIONAL CONNECTION OF THE CORTEX
WITH INNER ORGANS
In the course of two decades our attention was focussed on
the study of the connections between all the organs of the bocl.:
and the cerebral cortex. These connections are always two-sided:
on the one hand, the cerebral cortex influences the activity of
all the organs of the body, and, on the other, in its own activity the
cortex constantly reflects the influence produced by impulses
arising in the receptors of all the organs of the body.
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The question of the functional connection of the inner organs
with the higher parts of the central nervous system was not deci-
ded either b) physicians or by physiologists. The material basis
of inner organic sensations was not revealed. The subjective con-
ceptions of various types of feelings, sensations, moods and si-
milar subjectively appraised states of human beings, are based
on scientifically unsubstantiated ideas of the ?soul? and the ?psy-
chical world? offered as uncognizable essences to which the meth-
ods of a strictly objective investigation are inapplicable.
The very engender of the ideas about something unconscious,
deep-seated, guiding the inclinations and behaviour of humans,
preached with especial insistence by Freud, and now supported
by Alexander, distracted the thinking of psychologists, led them
away from the path that would have brought them to a genuinely
scientific knowledge of intricate psychological phenomena of
the inner sensations of humans; this resulted in the appearance of
reactionary and mystical ideas about psychical processes.
The general principle of investigations which established
the influence of the cerebral cortex on all functions of the body,
is based on the fact that a stimulation known beforehand to be
indifferent in relation to a given function of the organism, is sev-
eral times (from 3-5 to 10-50) combined with an agent that
changes the corresponding process carrying out an unconditioned,
i. e. inherent reflex. In such a way conditioned reflexes are worked
out on the activity of various organs of the body.
The method of conditioned reflexes gave us the possibility
of proving that the most varied functions of the organism depend
on cortical influences arising as a result of the working out of
conditioned reflexes. This thesis has established itself so firmly
that I shall limit myself to an incomplete listing of processes
which, as we have established, are easily reproduced as a result
of the working out of conditioned reflexes. This includes:
1) the formation of urine by the kidneys; 2) the formation of gall
by the liver and the contraction of the gall bladder; 3) the contrac-
tion of the spleen; 4) deep changes in the work of the cardiac
muscle; 5) heat exchange; 6) various changes in metabolism.
It turned out that in absolutely similar conditions of heat.
exchange of the organism with the surrounding medium, obser-
vations may he made of various reactions of a physical and chem-
ical thermoregulation, depending on conditioned reflexes worked
out earlier, in response to stimuli that always accompany either
cooling or warming (experiments carried on by Slonim, Olnyan-
skaya and others).
Thus, for instance, people who by the character of their pro-
fessions are constantly exposed to the action of cold (conductors
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on freight trains, workers in refrigerator plants), display in con-
dition of their professional work, even during a complete absence.
of any muscle movements, a considerable increase in heat pro-
duction. A completely different picture is observed in those
people under the action of cold but when they are not influenced
by their professional surroundings, i.e., during the exclusion
of stimuli of the external medium, which for the given people
are constant signals of cooling. In this case, the chemical mecha-
nism of heat regulation comes in only a long time after cold be-
gins to exert its influence, while the rise of metabolism (chemical
heat regulation) does not reach magnitudes which are observed
during the same physical influence connected with the partici-
pation of natural conditioned reflexes. This shows the tremendous.
difference between the intensity of chemical heat regulation in
professional conditions (field conditions for animals) and in cham-
ber-laboratory conditions, a phenomenon constantly observed in
our investigations.
By the way, I would be very interested to know how these
facts will be regarded by professors Fulton and Liddell.
. Here is still one more example showing the importance of.
signal stimuli of heat regulation, i. e., stimuli ?that change heat
production and heat loss as a result of the formation of condi-
tioned reflexes. If the organism will be influenced by moving
air (wind) in such a manner that this wind will produce only
a tactile stimulation of the surface of the body without increas-
ing heat loss (by raising the temperature of the external medium
in accordance to necessary ,calculations) then a rise of metabo-
lism may be observed despite the unchanged heat loss under
conditions of such an experiment. A tactile stimulation of a large
surface of the skin by moving air is, in this case, a conditioned
stimulus of the processes of heat regulation, as it is namely the.
receptors of the skin under usual conditions that are constantly
stimulated by the wind, which, at the same time, produces a
considerable cooling as well. It must be pointed out that condi-
tioned reflexes formed in this way are distinguished by great
stability, and i t is with difficulty that they are extinguished. The
mechanism of the stimulative action of wind on the metabolism
of animals and humans also becomes understandable.
Let us take another group of facts. We studied gaseous ex-
change in sheep standing calmly in a pen and, with absolutely
the same meteorological condition, in the field. Gaseous ex-
change under conditions of an open space always turned out to be
higher. These phenomena may be observed in the most varied con-
ditions of surroundings, during the chewing of end and without,
at different times of the day. Thus, for these animals, to whom
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an open space is a signal for the performance of an intensive Muscle
activity (connected, first of all, with feeding in the field), signals
of an open space ? lead to a rising of oxidative processes. The
further study of this question (carried on by Slonim and his col-
laborators), showed that distance and the space around. the orga-
nism can become conditioned stimuli for various physiological
processes, and comprise an important aspect of the influence of
the external medium on the organism. In our opinion, this opens
perspective paths for the study also of the medium of existence
of humans tinder conditions of labour and rest, i. e., new paths
For many hygienic investigations.
But let, its return to our sheep, or as our French friends would
-say ?revencris a nos moutons?. In our country we showed that
.sheep, acclimatized in the mountains of Central Asia to a height
of 2000-4000 metres, spend 20-30 per cent less energy than
sheep living in plains on a height of 600-1000 metres above sea
level. This 4acclimatization of metabolism? develops very slowly;
in breeds living on the plains, it begins only after several genera-
tions of sheep had lived under conditions of a high mountain
climate. But the remarkable thing is that in lambs, even in moult-
Lain breeds, there is no difference in the first weeks of life in.
the level of metabolism in comparison with its magnitude in
lambs living on small heights. That is why we must admit that,
acclimatization is conditioned by influences exerted on tissue
metabolism by the cerebral cortex (possibly one'of the obligatory
links in the carrying out of these changes comprises changes in
the activity of the thyroid gland conditioned by cortical stimuli).
Let us skip to discuss the significance of these facts. They
show that the most general function of each organism ? the
Metabolism constantly influenced by the cerebral cortex.
These influences, arising as a result of the working out of tempo-
rary connections, determine the level of metabolism in accor-
dance with the entire complex of stimulations, reaching the or-
ganism both through exteroroceptors and interoreceptors. The
importance of the dynamic stereotype of stimulations, which
we have mentioned above, manifested itself very clearly in these
-experiments. I shall add now that the dynamic stereotype is a
definite combination and a definite consecutiveness in the cortex
of excitative and inhibitive states arising under the influence of
external and i nternal stimulations in a monotonously repeating
situation.
Every constantly repeating reaction of the animal and human
organism, for instance, food, defensive (protective), a reaction
ensuring herneostasis (particularly heat regulation) must neces-
sarily include natural conditioned reflexes in response to stimu-
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lations entering the stereotype of agents under whose influence
the given reaction is constantly carried out.
In following the carrying out of various reflex acts under
natural conditions, we endeavoured to analyze the importance
of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes that are included in
these acts, and normally always fused together. Besides, despite
the widespread opinion that the magnitude of the effects of con-
ditioned reflexes is always smaller than the effects of an uncon-
ditioned reflex, we regularly observed the opposite in a number
of cases: the action of cortical stimuli arising under the influence
of conditioned stimuli, often turns out to be considerably strong-
er than the effect of a relatively isolated action of an uncondi-
tioned stimulus. Moreover, the effect produced by a conditioned
stimulus can bring about the complete suppression of the effect
which would have taken place during the simultaneous action of
an unconditioned stimulus, if the latter had acted alone. I shall
illustrate this with two examples which I purposely selected from
the highest form of the conditioned reflex activity ? the con-
ditioned reflexes of humans to signals of the second signal system,
i. e. to verbal signals.
In a person under observation the action of a bell was accom-
panied by the application to a skin area of a coil pipe with water
warmed to a temperature of 43? (?warmth* stimulation) (Bogov).
Meantime, a pletismogram was recorded, registering the dilation
of vessels both during the action of warmth as well as during the
action of the bell alone (after 20-50 combinations with the
application of warmth). When the conditioned reflex to a bell was
formed then it was sufficient to tell the patient ?I am going to
ring the bells to start a vessel reaction similar to the one observed
during warmth stimulation; in this case, a word acts as an agent
of the second signal system.
The application to the skin of a coil pipe with water warmed
not to 43? but to 65? produces on its own account not a ?warmth?
reaction, but, to a certain degree, a ?pain? reaction that is cha-
racterized not by the dilation of vessels, but their contraction.
Now give a verbal command: ?I am going to apply warmth?,
but instead of doing so we act with a weak pain stimulation (tem-
perature of 65?). It turned out that, in this case, the usual effect
of a conditioned reflex (in the given case the response to a verbal
signal) was completely preserved, though there was in reality
a pain stimulation and not a warmth stimulation; the vessels,
despite the action of an agent producing an unpleasant sensation
(temperature 65?) did not contract but dilated and the person
under observation later testified that he felt a sensation of warmth
corresponding to the verbal signal and not to the really acting
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?pain? stimulation. The sensation here is completely conditioned.
by the cortical (worked out) reaction to an agent of the second .
signal system*.
Here is another example. A study was made in humans of the
reflex of urination in response to the introduction through a
catheter of warm (37') water into the bladder (these observations
were carried on by Airapetyants and his collaborators). Prcssure
changes in the bladder were registered graphically.At the same time,
in front of the person under observation there was a manometer,
showing the pressure created in the bladder; it was possible to
disconnect this manometer from the bladder cavity. Usually
the urge to urinate is felt at a definite value of pressure in the
bladder, a pressure whose value the person under observation
sees on the manometer.
After several similar combinations it turned out that. an in-
tense urge to urinate is felt just by the calling out (through a
microphone placed in the room) the reading of the manometer
that usually corresponded to the value of pressure producing
the urge to urinate and a contraction of the walls of the bladder.
This urge to urinate (and correspondingly changes of the skin-
galvanic reflex) under the influence of a verbal signal can start.
even when there is virtually an absence of fluid in the bladder.
Conversely, if the manometer indicated zero pressure and the
cortical signals of tension of the bladder worked out in given -
conditions is absent, then it was possible without the appearance
of the urge to urinate to introduce into the bladder far greater
quantities of fluid than those which usually produce urination.
Numerous similar facts convinced us that the very concep-
tion of unconditioned reflexes should be broadened. Under usual
conditions every unconditioned reflex becomes ?covered?, as
it were, with conditioned reflexes of various complexity.
it may be supposed that at early phases of the ontogenetic
formation of each reflex, the impulses entering the cortex from
the receptors of organs carrying out some inherent reflex, pro-
duce in the cortex the appearance of focuses of excitation that
are still not united by temporary connections.
However, the impulsation from the receptors, laid in corres-
ponding effectors, is converted i nto a signal of the given reflex
* It is understood, of course, that here the rupture between the real
reinforcement, of the second signal system agent (verbal stimulation) and the
usual meaning of this agent is possible only because always or almost
always before this the word (ovarnith? was in one way or another, directly
or indirectly combined with a real warmth stimulation. The second signal.
system is linked with the first; schematically speaking, this connection is
approximately the same as the connections of each conditioned reflex of
the first signal system with an unconditioned reflex on which it is formed.
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very rapidly, possibly during the first performances of the given
reflex acts. Then the latter is carried out already under the
influence of cortical stimuli, arising as a result of the compulsory
? interweaving of natural conditioned reflexes into every uncon-
ditioned reflex. Thus, the cortical response to the stimulation
of various interoreceptors must necessarily include itself in the
performance of each reflex act. It goes without saying that this
act is joined by the effect of the stimulation of one exteroreceptor
or another whose excitation coincides with the carrying out of
the given reflex act.
The facts I have set forth here so cursorily and incompletely,
and which comprise only a small portion of the data we amassed,
commit us to conclusions in which we strive to follow the spirit
and essence of the ideas of our incomparable teacher, I. P.
Pavlov.
We see that the teaching on conditioned reflexes is not an
addition, or a superstructure, or a development of the teaching
on reflexes in the form, that, beginning with Descartes, it was
developed by Prohaslca, M. Gall, J. Muller, Freisberg, Philipp-
son, Sherrington and Magnus. The disclosure of the mechanism,
properties and significance of conditioned reflexes will inevitably
lead to a new conception of the reflex. In this new conception facts
relating to the reflex activity of spinal or decerebrated animals,
as well as of whole but anaestheLisized animals, cut off from nor-
mal connections with the external world, must occupy approx-
imately the same place as data amassed by astrologers on the
heavenly bodies occupy in modern astronomy. Reflexes such
as are produced in animals deprived of the cerebral hemispheres
are non-existent in the normal organism.
Impulses entering efferent neurons and transmitted during
every reflex act to effectors along the ultimate common path ?
are not an algebraic sum of impulses arising in spinal, bulbar,
mesencephalic, diencephalic, and cortical neurons, but are the
result of the activity of a functionally indivisible formation,
oven though it includes various morphologic substrates. Every
group of cells, entering a united coherent complex of an undi-
vided reflex centre, acquires upon entering this united centre
new properties which cannot be revealed by experiments on spi-
nal, decerebrated or thalamic animals. The cerebral cortex in-
clues, as Pavlov expressed it, the most reactive cells of the nervous
system, and that is why it primarily determines by its acti-
vity the properties of central formations located below it. Pavlov
wrote that ?the higher the organization of the cortex the more
will it become the manager and distributor of all the functions
of the organism?.,
7 ye,
45
A ,1; ? tr?
Fiz tHi ,A,17
7 1 A/ VS* .D A /:.;
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Examples illustrating this have been given above for reflex'
acts of thermoregulation, urination, for the reflex regulation of
the level of metabolism; there are also numerous similar examples
Showing the refiex regulation of the formation of urine, of the
level of blood sugar content, of the so-called specific-dynamic
action of food, of the regulation of respiration and blood circula-
tion during work, during anoxy, etc. We have, therefore, sugges-
ted to call comple x--r eflex acts all normal reflex acts.
that are the result of the fusion of conditioned and unconditioned
reflexes knit together.
It must be emphasized that complex-reflex acts are never
limited by the activity of any one organ. The expressions ?reflex
of salivation?, ?reflex of bending?, ?reflex of urination? and so
on are only practically convenient designations of the, reflex cha-
racter of the process on which we fix our attention. In reality,
however, the reflex salivation for instance, is a component of
itie undivided food complex-reflex act that includes also gastric
juice secretion, swallowing, chewing and changes in the blood
supply to organs of the digestive tract, with correspondent changes
of the activity of the heart, and tone of blood vessels, and so on.
No matter what reflex on what organ we studied, we always
came across one and the same Pavlov mechanism of the formation
of -temporary connection. In addition to this, we observed an
exceptionally great variety of agents converted, due to the work-
ing out of temporary connections (conditioned reflexes) into
agents participating in different complex-reflex acts.
INTEROCEPTIVE CONDITIONED REFLEXES
Success was achieved in showing that during the stimulation
of internal receptors, it is possible to work out conditioned
reflexes as well (Bykov, Airapetyants). The formed interoceptive
conditioned reflexes have, on the whole, the same properties
as exteroceptive conditioned reflexes.
Airapetyan1 s, Rikkl and others of our collaborators have
obtained a differentiation of two stimuli applied to the receptors.
of the intestines and other organs. At the present, it must be
admitted on good grounds that the interoceptive signalization
in the cerebral cortex is assured by the presence of receptors in
the internal organs. In analogy with external analyzers, they may
be called internal analyzers. Their peripheric part is, of course,
different to the peripheric parts of exteroreceptors. These are
not the five sense organs which are known to us a long time.Sub jec-
Lively, it may not be possible to detect what takes place during
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'the normal run of processes in the bowels and other organs, but
their objective reflex influence and participation in the higher
nervous activity has been revealed.
In a famous piece of Voltaire's satire, an inhabitant of Saturn?
asks a traveller from Sirius: ?II ow many senses do you have??,
?Seventy-two,?the latter replied,?but every time we are
sorry we have so few?.
We can ask how many senses has a human being? Have we
vision, hearing, smell, touch and taste only? In addition to this
we have many other ?obscure? senses. They influence us and
their impulses reach the cerebral cortex. Therefore, they may be
called ?senses? too, but these senses are special, particular.
Thus, it is not only signals from the outside world that enter
the cerebral cortex, but signals from the organism's ?internal
organization ? as well. Further, the signals that pass through
the interoreceptors are far from indifferent for ?the activity of
the cerebral cortex.
Very complicated interrelations arise during the collision
of two signals passing through the external and internal analy-
zers. Some impulses may reinforce others, and, inversely, some
ma_y inhibit others and even suppress them completely. The fate
of each reaction is determined by the juxtaposition in the cerebral
cortex of two informations, one from the external analyzers and
the other from the internal one.
Our collaborators, as well as other physiologists, have proved
now that the striated, so-called voluntary muscles, are always
linked in their activity not only with exteroceptive signals, but
with interoceptive signals as well. This means that the signals
passing from interoreceptors reflectorily influence not only the
?vegetative? side of life, but also control the striated muscles,
e.; the so-called ?animal? side of life (Merkulova).
AFFERENTATION AND TROPHIES OF 1HE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Our investigations are examples of a physiological analysis
of the activity of the cerebral cortex in relation to the influence
of impulses emanating from the ?internal world? of the animal
organism. Nervous impulses from the receptors of the internal
organs are always polyvalent.
In a posthumously-published paper, our brilliant histologist
Lavrentyev described the receptory apparatus in the bowels
which consists of three parts: an afferent single fibre has three
branches ? one to a blood-vessel, the second to a peripheric
nervous cell, and the third to a group of smooth-muscle fibres.
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We are justified to suppose that in the central nervous system'
and, especially, in the cerebral cortex there are similar connections
between the nerve cells and the apparatus supplying -(speaking
in broad terms) them. Whereas it has still not been exactly .estab-
lished whether there are specialized receptors in the nerve cells
of the cerebral cortex, at any rate the large quantity of neurons,
reacting to i allowing impulses, function like the receiving for-
mations, as the central endings of analyzers.
An electrophysiological investigation of the potentials of affer-
ent impulses from the stomach and bowels, reveals the depen-
dence of the afferent impulses on the functional condition of the
digestive apparatus. The greatest amplitude and frequency of affer-
mit impulses is observed during the digestive activity of the gast-
rointestinal apparatus. The presence of afferent impulses connect-
ed both both with, circulatory as well :as with motor and secretory
processes in the stomach and bowels has been established. The
appearance of afferent impulses at definite stages of fasting
gives rise to the thought that these impulses may participate in
the formation of the so-called feeling of hunger. It is important
to note that the influence of afferent impulses from the gastro-
-intestinal apparatus (during its mechanical or electrical stimu-
lation) may; be traced. up to the cerebral cortex and finds its
reflection in definite Changes on the electroencephalogram (Delov
?
and others).
Thus, the cerebral cortex receives impulses that reflect the
state of several functional formations, comprising an integral
system. The :Afferent part of the reflex arc is not simply a conduct-
or of only one group of receptory elements in some organ or
tissue, but of a whole united receptory system. The mechanistic
conception that the reflei arc connects the peripheric part of
the analyzer with the nerve centre, like a- wire in an electric
chain, must be essentially changed. Impulses of a polyvalent
character pass to the centre and unite not only the nerve cells
or group of cells, but also the nerve formations which are connect-
ed with changes in blood circulation and metabolism of the
nerve tissue.
Pavlov's concept on the nerve trophies must be legitimately
applied to the nerve tissue as well. In so far as each reflex arc
is intricately constructed, the nerve trophies must be imagined
as a complex reflex process supporting not only a specific activ-
ity, but also metabolism at the same time. Due to the intricate
structure of the peripheric part, of the analyzer and the complex
character of impulses passing to the central nervous system,
excitation in the centre Arises consecutively in a whole group
of neurons. Simultaneously with this, there is an activization
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of the supply to the nerve tissue of nutritive substances and oxy-
gen. Thus, we must add to our concept of a centre not only a com-
plicated spatial configuration, but also a temporary inclusion
of separate points comprising a ?centre* for the carrying out
of a multiple function.
The study of the chemical dynamics of functioning cerebral
nerve cells by Vladimirov in our Institute in Leningrad and by
Palladin in Kiev, showed that certain components of the intri-
cate metabolism of the nerve tissue can serve as good indicators
of the functional state of the brain.
Investigations by Vladimirov and his collaborators showed
that the excited state of the brain, brought about both by uncon-
ditioned and conditioned' stimuli, leads to a rise of carbohydrate
metabolism and an increased rate of renewal of certain phos-
phorus compounds and to a rise in the ammonia content. A dif-
fused inhibition of the cerebral cortex leads to a decrease of am-
monia content in the brain tissue, the ammonia being bound by
glutamic acid with the formation of glutamine.
Thus, we have full grounds for considering that during the
carrying out of each motor or secretory act there are also reflex
changes in the whole neuron apparatus, ensuring changes
in blood supply ? the supply to the nerve cells of nutritive sub-
stances and oxygen. Consequently, reflex acts that ultimately
ensure metabolism in the organism, originate themselves during
the constant reflex ensurance of nutrition to the central nerve
apparatus.
We consider the further elaboration of this question as impor-
tant for the development of the concept on the intimate mecha-
nisms of the origin and spreading of excitative and inhibitive
processes in the countless number of nerve units of the cortex.
Prior to the creation of Pavlov's teaching on the higher ner-
vous activity, reflexes were thought to be only changes of isola-
ted physiological functions produced every time by one and
the same special stimulus. In this case, there could not be a real
understanding the unification by the nervous system of all func-
tion of the organism, which was only abstractedly designated
as integrative activity of the nervous system. It is the theory
of conditioned reflexes only that allows us to understand the
mechanism of the unification of physiological functions in various
complicated reflex acts, determining both the behaviour of the
organism in the surrounding medium and the activity of all
internal organs that is indissolubly connected with this.
During the last years of his activity Pavlov wrote:
?Thus, in our opinion, the cerbral hemispheres comprise a
collection of analyzers: of the eye, -ear, skin, nose and mouth.
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An investigation of these analyzers brought us to the conclusion
that their number should be increased, that, in addition to the
above-mentioned analyzers which have a relation to external
phenomena, to the external world, we must recognize the exist-
ence in the cerebral hemispheres of a number of special analy-
zers whose purpose is to disintegrate the huge complex of pheno-
mena taking place in the organism itself. There is no doubt that
it is not only the analysis of the outside world that is important
for organism, it also stands in need of signalization upwards as.
well as analyzation of what takes place inside itself. In short,
in addition to the above external analyzers, there must he inter-
nal analyze ro?.
ME REMARKS ON THE REFLEX MECHANISM
We cannot agree with the assertion of certain American in-
vestigators that Pavlov studied the first and last moments of
reflex reactions only:, The scientific system, created by Pavlov
is distinguished from ?objective psychology? or the ?psychology
of behaviourism?, namely, by the fact that it stands on a stable
physiological basis, revealing the mechanism of the dynamics.
of the main_ nervous processes ? excitation and inhibition?
and their interrelations. In this connection it must be said that
Pavlov did not create anew a concept of ?excitation? and ?inhi-
bition?, but took them from the physiology of the nervous system
in which they were established before him. The same concerns.
the concept of ?induction?. Pavlov was the first to see how these
processes in the higher parts of the central nervous system ensure
new qualitative differences between cortical reflexes and reflex-
es of other levels of the .central nervoirs syStem.
Pavlov did not have to step aside from the strictly objective
natural-scientific path, a path that had tested in physiology,
in order to study complex natural phenomena ? the psychical
processes.
The approach of many Western. including American inves-
tigators (they call it themselves a ?psychological aspects) to this.
question, is permeated with the ideological survivals of dualism
and leads Co different psychological ?supplements? to Pavlov's
physiological theory and to its distortion. These ?supplements?
are sometimes of a clearly subjective-psychological and clearly
antropomorphic character. Some investigators do not observe
a methodical accuracy in their experiments, an accuracy that
is characteristic of the Pavlov school, and this often leads them
to false ?denials? or endeavours to destroy the rupture between
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the teaching of Pavlov and the ideas of Sherrington and other
scientists who lapsed into mysticism and even fideism.
The study of the neuro-dynamics of cortical processes by
Pavlov, his pupils and followers, was always carried on from the
standpoint of the theory of evolution. The fruitfulness and neces-
sity of such a standpoint are obvious because, without an his-
torical aspect, it is impossible to understand the conversion of
the energy of an external stimulation into a fact of consciousness.
The solution of problems of sensations as the most elementary
psychical process, reflecting the properties of the objective world
existing outside us and independently of our consciousness, is
possible only in an historical aspect.
As regards human psychics, account should be taken of the
new qualities forming in humans in their interrelations with
a social environment.
The physiology of the organs of feeling, beginning with
J. Muller, considered the problem of sensation metaphysically,
without taking into account the process of evolution, disregarding
all the long phylogenetic path of the adaptation of the animal
to the external medium under whose influence the function of
the organs of senses is formed. According to Pavlov, we cannot
consider the process of the formation of functions with a consi-
deration of only the peripheric part (eye, ear, etc.), but we must
bear in mind the participation in this process of the central part
of the analyzer ? the cells of the cerebral cortex.
The investigations of one of our collaborators, Rogov, showed
that it is during a sufficiently high state of excitability of the
cerebral cortex only that the vascular reactions attain great
intensity and high mobility. Changes in the properties of both
conditioned and unconditioned vascular reactions take place
in all cases when processes of internal inhibition 'originate in
the cerebral cortex. Moreover, vascular reactions acquire a ste-
reotype character, become inert and insignificant in magni-
tude.
We found similarly weak vascular? reactions during investi-
Vations of patients with syringomyelia and hemiplegia. It waa
shown that the vascular reactions of patients with syringomyelia
are distinguished for its automatic character, negligable magni-
tude and sluggishness of development. Meanwhile the vascular
reactions of patients with hemiplegia, as distinct from the vas-
cular reactions of patients with syringomyelia, are less stereo-
typical, have a considerably greater magnitude and are more
varied in their manifestation.
? Apparently, the inclusion in the reflex reaction of nerve cen-
tres, located at a higher level of the central nervous system,
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as has been seen in the case of the patient with hemiplegia, leads
to a further perfection of the vascular reactions.
The character of vascular reactions is conditioned by various
levels of their innervation, this explaining the various vascular
reactions in hemiplegia and syringomyelia.
'IRE SECOND SIGNAL SYSTEM IN HUMANS
On the basis of his clinical observations Pavlov gave in a
clear, though concise form a new conception of the second signal
system that is specific for the higher nervous activity of humans.
As Pavlov said: ?For an animal, reality signalizes itself almost
solely through stimulations and their traces in the cerebral hemi-
spheres, directly passing into special cells of the visual, acoustic
and other receptors of the organism. This is exactly what also
we have in ourselves as feelings, impressions and thoughts pro-
duced by the surrounding external medium, both general-natural
and social, excluding the word, what we can hear and see. This
is a first signal system of reality that we share with animals.
But word comprises the second, our special signal system of
reality, this being a signal of the first signals.
The direct action of various objects and phenomena of the
surrounding world through the stimulation of receptors on the
cerebral cortex is always a concrete signal of reality. Meanwhile,
speech, as l'avloy wrote, ?is primarily kinesthetit.. stimula-
tions passing into the cortex from speech organs and these are,
the second signals; they aye an abstraction from realily and _per-
mit generalization. This is namely what comprises our additional
specially human higher thinking. The second signal system rep-
resents all verbal denotations of objects, and this system of sig-
nals is taken in by our brain thanks to nervous impulses that
arise during the stimulation of receptors during speech, spoken,
auditory and visible, i. e., in the receptors of the organs of speech
(muscles of the tongue, lips, cheeks, soft palate, larynx), in
acoustic receptors and in visual receptors (during reading).
The process of the working out from various words of signals
of real stimulations is achieved by mechanisms of working out
of conditioned reflexes. This has been precisely established by
observations on the formation of speech in babies beginning to
talk. That is the reason why Pavlov pointed out that for man a
word is a real conditioned stimulus like all the others. But here
he added that, as a conditioned stimulus, word, at the same time,
is much more manifold than any of the others and, in this re-
spect, cannot be either qualitatively or quantitaivly compared
with conditioned stimuli of animals.
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Differences between the activity of the second signal system
and the first were revealed, for instance, in observations during
which in cliiid,Len _of 8-10 years the ringing of a bell was accom-
panied several times by a slight electric stimulation of the fin-
ger. After this, a withdrawing of the finger was produced not
only by the real sound of the hell, but also by the utterance of
the word ?bell? or by the showing of the word ?bell? written out,
proceedings that were never connected with the action of the
electric stimulation. At the same time, neither the showing of
other words or the utterance of other words produced the reaction
that followed the utterance of the word ?bell?.
Due to the formation at one time of a cortical connection
between verbal stimulation and the concrete phenomenon ft;
fleets (in the given case, a definite sound ? ringing of a bell),
the verbal stimulation has become a signal of a. concrete event
in the surrounding world. At the same time, this testifies to the
?abstractipn from reality?, spoken of by Pavlov, characterizing
the second signal system. A verbal stimulation produces the same
reaction as the one produced by the absent real stimulation caused
by the bell.
Pavlov said that ?due to the entire preceding life of an adult,
word is connected with all external and internal stimulations
entering the cerebral hemispheres, signalizes all of them, repla-
ces all of them, and for this reason can produce all the reactions
of the organism, which condition these stimulations?.
A characteristic feature of the second signal system is that
an abstraction from reality is attained because the verbal image
of objects and actions replaces their concrete effect on the orga-
nism. An abstraction of verbal stimuli from concrete agents is
attained with especial clarity due to the fact that the second
signal system permits the formation of ver_y eomplicated chains
of combinations built up one over the other of one verbal stimu-
lus with other verbal-stimuli.
A considerable number of speech designations is attained by
an adult not through a combination of verbal stimulations with
the direct influence on us of concrete objects of the outside world,'
but through their combination_with already_ worked out verbal
signals of the action of concrete Objects. These chains can be very
intricate and include a great number of links, each of which may
be based on combinations of one verbal signal with another.
However, the starting link is based on the combination of a
verbal stimulus with the effect, on us of concrete agents of the
?
outside world acting on the first signal system.
The activity of the second signal system obeys the same
basic laws that Pavlov established for the first signal system,
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and which he considered characteristic of the entire teaching on
reflexes. The very close and indissoluble connection between
function and structure will doubtlessly be applied to the activity
of the second signal system, though, as we have already pointed
out, the concept of the presence in the human cerebral
cortex of special #eentresi> of higher intellectual functions is
erroneous.
Tbe pm lormance of the actions of analysis and synthesis is
also very clearly expressed in the activity of the second signal
system. The synthetization of separate words in whole phrases,
characterisi ic of our entire speech, leads to an exact reflection
in the activity of the second signal system of objects and pheno-
mena of tim surrounding world.
Finally, Pavlov's principle of determinism, characterizing
the whole teaching on reflexes, can be said to have received the
highest development in conceptions on the second signal system,
this being the first step in the natural-scientific study of the high-
er sides of brain activity which are connected with phenomena
of consciousfleSS.
This major problem goes far beyond the boundaries of phy-
siology. It concerns a number of other sciences, namely, psych-
ology, linguistics, pedagogics, neuropathology, psychiatry, and,
finally, phi I osophy.
PHYSIOLOGY AND MED HINE
I cannot refrain from speaking even if briefly on the impor-
tance to pathology of the material examined here. I have already
pointed out the importance of a definite stereotype of stimuli
in the carrying out of each complex-reflectory act they produce.
The more complicated the forms of interaction of the organism
with the medium around it and, in connection with this, the more
complicated and differentiated the cerebral cortex, the more
often will there take place a complete or partial change of agents
included in one stereotype of stimuli or another.
Pavlov established that this replacement of one stereotype
by another oiten represents a difficult task for the nervous sys-
tem. The result may not only be a change in the course of the
reflex act, which after a change in the condition of its fulfilment,
is at first accomplished outside the stereotype of agents on which
there have been worked out natural-Conditioned reflexes, correct-
ing, intensifying, speeding Up- the given act and uniting it with
other reflex processes. The breaking up of the stereotype often
also results in a disturbance of the normal balance of the exci-
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tative and inhibitive _processes in the cerebral cortex. This leads
to a more or less essential (depending on the degree of change of
the normal cortical dynamics) disturbance in carrying out also
of those reflex acts whose stereotype of performance has not been
changed directly.
We have observed that in dogs the offering of food unusual
to them (though it was eagerly eaten) like honey, leads to pro-
longed and very sharp changes in the secretion of gastric juice.
Exceptionally acute consequences were observed in cats, it is true,
?after a very considerable disturbance of the stereotype of the food-
getting, complex-reflex act. The experiment consisted of passing
during one second a weak electric current, that did not produce
any visible reaction of the animal, through the head of the cat
at the moment it was seizing a mouse. This single sharp distur-
bance of the stereotype of the food complex-reflex act brought
about profound pathological disturbances of the heart activity;
moreover, the changes registered on an electrocardiogram resem-
bled those which usually set in during grave heart diseases
and were eliminated very slowly, in the course of several
weeks.
These investigations, demonstrating the appearance of path-
ological processes as a result of the disturbance of the normal
activity of the:cerebral cortex,, provide us with facts which had
attracted the attention of -Pavlov himself (these investigations
were carried out by his collaborator Petrova). The method desig-
nated as ?collision ? between the excitative and inhibitive pro-
cesses and producing characteristic, depending on the type of
the nervous system, changes of the higher nervous activity, turns
out to be a method permitting the experimental creation of mod-
els, as it were, of various pathological processes, for instance,
hypertonic disease, ulcerous disease, etc.
These experiments allow us to expect that purposeful influen-
ces on the activity of the cerebral cortex can be essentially impor-
tant also in the treatment of a number of diseases. Substantial
results in this connection have been achieved in our country (for
instance, in the form of application of the so-called sleep therapy
and certain inedicamental treatments of some form of diseases).
The conclusion on the role of changes of the normal activity
of the cerebral cortex in the origination of a number of patholo-
gical processes (here we must mention the investigations carried
on in the laboratory directed by Speransky), based on the teach-
ing on conditioned reflexes is principally different to the inter-
pretation of these questions in so-called ?psychosomatic medi-
cines. In our conception of cortical-visceral connections we use,
as our starting point, the fact that the activity of the cerebral
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cortex (the higher nervous activity) is determined by external
and internal influences experienced by a human organism in its
very complicated interrelations with the surrounding, chiefly
social, medium. Furthermore, we emphasize the fact that the
disturbance of normal cortical activity can produce pathological
changes ?on the periphery?, as a result of disturbances of the nor-
mal course of cortical-visceral regulations.
A purposeful influence on pathological processes must there-
fore be built up with an account taken of the necessity of restor-
ing normal functions in the higher parts of tfie brain. But ?psy-
chosomatic medieine?, permeated with Freud's dualistic and
idealistic conceptions, regards pathological changes as being
dependent on genuine properties of the given person. Sometimes it
explains pathological syndroms as the result of ?anal*, ?erotical?
complexes, sometimes it tries to apply the laws of thermodynamics
to the understanding of the most complex forms of human
activity, or manipulates with the conception of ?vital? forces,
and in this way inevitably closes for itself the path leading to
a real understanding of the mechanism of the origin of patho-
logical processes.
It goes without saying that I cannot stop here to discuss in detail
all the achievements and perspectives of the application in
clinical practice of Pavlov's physiological teaching.
t XINCLUSION
I think that Pavlov's teaching on the higher nervous activity,
based on tho method of conditioned reflexes elaborated by him,
represents a new epoch not only in the history of natural scien-
ces, but in the history of the humanities as well.
Through the entire history of science there have been attempts
to understand psychic activity from the viewpoint of common
laws of nature connecting the material and the ideal worlds.
We cannot forget the fact that consciousness developed in depen-
dence on definite external conditions. Pavlov's monism in regard
to two forms of a single and indivisible nature is expressed by
him in the following words: on ?semblait eLre lent.
Si l'observateur se serval I parfois d'un M-60 lent et le faisait
accompaguer par un ja d'air, le rapport verbal du sujet cbangeait:
ii disait quo le tic-tac haft ?rapide? on semblait iltre rapide?.
Cola vont dlre quo le rapport verbal du sujet qui exprime
le rosultat do E'aclivit?ystematique du deuxieme system? de
signalisatiou (scion Pavlov) refletait nu systOme neuro-dynami-
quo forme.
L' Clink des reflexes conditionnels complexes (Voronine)
sur des chions et la formation des differeaciations pour les stimu-
lants complexes separes out mon tre quo cc systeme neuro-dynamique
complex? Malt plaint:emu par les rapports reciproques entre
"'excitation et l'inhibilion des ensembles tout ontiers qui se
produi seat la suit to de Vactivite synthetique do l'Ocorce cebre-
brale.
Nous nous representions le travail de l'ecOree c,erebrale comme
syst matiq e et dynamiqu e. Ceci correspond
eutliTemein aux conceptions de Pavlov. Cependant, dans colic
question, it exist? Un manque evident de comprehension chez
cortains savants dos Etats-Units (par exemple, chez le professeur
Lashley).
le no poux pas m'arreter id i specialement stir Loute uric seri?
de remarques critiques au sujet des principes de Pavlov concernant
la dynamiquo cortical?, par exemple, sur les tenlatives de
.nier les particularit4s c,aracteristiques do l'inhibition condition-
none corticalo el sur nue valour exageree qu'on attribuo a certaines
bse rva n (souven t insuffi sammenI ri goureuses) interpretecs
Gomm? prenves de la Tossibilite de formation des reflexes condi-
tionnels sans la participation de l'Ocorc,e c,erebrale. Une analyse
detainee de ces critiques et d'autres dirigees mitre la theorie
des reflexes ionditionnels a ete publiee chez nous par Mayorov.
Mei, de mon ceto, je repandrai trOs volontlers aux questions qui
pourront posees ici a cc sujet. Je pens? cependant CIUC le
moyen le pins effic,ace pour montrer tante l'importanco de la
theorie physiologique do Pavlov consiste it exposer de nouveaux
faits et conclusions obternis sur la base do cello theorio. Err fai-
sant ceci, je in'arreterai principalement sur les faits obtenus par
l'ensemble des travailleurs quo jo dingo. Jo le fais non pas pare?
(pie d 'autres travailleurs du pays quo je represent? out fourth
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des donnees moiliS 'node-uses. Mai s ii est tout urel que les
faits constatos dans los laboratoires quo je dingo me solent plus
connus et oat ete minutiousement analyses par moi.
LIAAON FONCTIONNELLE ENTRE L'ECORCE
ET LES ORGANES INTERNES
Noire attention, pendant deux dizaines d'aunees, a 60 fixe?
sur Fetude des relations entre tous les organes du corps et
l'ecorce des grands hemispheres corobraux. Ces liaisons soul;
tonjours bilaterales: d'une part, 1' 6corce cerebral? influe sar
Factivite de tons les organes? du corps, d'aulre part, dans son
activite propre, l'ecorce reflete constamment l'influence des
impulsions qui naissent dans les recepteurs de tous les organes
du corps.
Le problem? do la liaison fonctionnelle eutre les organes
internos et les segments superieurs du system? uerveux central
n'a ?t? resolu ni par les cliniciens, ni par los physiologist:es.
Le fondement materiel des sensations interims, organiques, n'a
pas eL6 docouvert. A la base des conceptions sabjectivistes sur
los differents sentiments, sensations, Otals d'osprit et autres elats
analogues de l'homme subjectivement apprecies on Irony? dos
conceptions non fondees scientifiquement ? de 1' ?ame?, du
?monde psychique?, on taut quo des essences quelconques non
reconnaissables et auxquelles on ne pout pas appliquer les r6g,1es
d'art examen strictement scientifique, objectif.
Les memos idees de l'inconscient, de quelque chose de profond
qui dirigent les passions et la conduit? de l'homme, propagoes
obstinement par Freud et, aduellement par Alexander, out detour-
no la pensoe dos psychologues dune connaissanc,o re:dimwit
scientifique des phenomones psychiques complexes, dos sensations
interieures de l'homme et out angendre iino idee react:ion:naive
et mystique sur les processus psychiques.
Le principe general des recherches qui out Otabli l'influonce
de l'ecorce cerebral? sur toutes les fondions du corps consist?
en ceci: Imo stimulation queloonque, manifestement indifferent?
par rapport a tine fonction donnee de Forganisme se combine
plusieurs reprises (de 3 a 5, jusqu'a 10-50) dans le temps avec
nil facteur qui modal? le processus correspondant, par voie dun
reflex? non conditionnel, cost-a-dire lime. De cette facon on a pa
former des reflexes conditionnels pour radii:rite des organes du
corps les plus varies.
La method? des reflexes c,ondi Li onnels nous a permis de demon-
tier quo les fouctions les plus varioes de Porganisme dependaient
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des influences corticales qui se forment, la suite de la creation
des reflexes conditionnels. Co principe a he prouve d'une facon
tenement evtdente quo je me contente lei d'enumeror d'une Iacoii
incomplete los processus qui, comme nous l'avons Mahn, se re-
produisent facilement par suite de la formation des reflexes
conditionnels. On pent y citer: (I) production de Purine par
les reins, (2) production de la bile par le foie et contractions
do la vesicuk biliaire, (3) contraction de la rate, (4) changements
profonds dans le travail du muscle cardiaque, (5) dopenses calori-
ques, (6) modifications variees du metabolisme.
On a vu lue, dans des conditions parfaitement identiques
d'ochanges caloriques de l'organisme avec le milieu qui l'entoure,
on pent observer des reactions differentos de la therm.oregula-
tion p.hysiquo et chimique en rapport avec les reflexes condition-
Reis elabores prealablement ?flyers les stimulants qui accompagnent,
constamment to refroidissement ou l'echauffement (experien-
ces de Slonim, d'Oluiansky et d'autres).
Ainsi, par exempl.e, les personnes qui, par le genre do lour
profession, sont consta.mment exposees aim11. refroidissement con.si-
derable (conducteurs de trains do marchandises, ouvriers des
refri.gerateurs) presentent, dans les conditions de leur travail
professionnel., Wine en l'absence de tout monvement
re, un.e au.grnoutation consid.erable de la production do chaleur.
Un tout autre tableau est observe chez ces porsonnes lors de Faction
du froid exercoe on dehors de lour milieu de travail c'est-a-dire
on l'absence des stimulants du mi lieu exterieur qui, pour ces person-
nes, sont des signaux constants de refroidissement. Dans cc cas,
la thermoregulation chimique n'eni re en jeu que longtemps
apres le debut, de Faction du froid, et les augmentations du me-
tabolisme (tbormoregulation cbimique) n'atteignent jamais les
valeurs qu'on observe fors d'une action physique analogue mais
nee avec la participation des reflexes conditionnels naturels.
De la, tine di fferenNt enorme dans l'intensite de la thermoregu-
lation chimique dans les conditions prolessionnelles (et pour les
animaux, dans les conditions des champs) et dans cellos de labora-
Wire quo nous avons toujours observees dans 1105 recherches.
'aural ete heureux, a cc propos, de savoir comment seron.t
consideros ces faits par les professeurs Fulton et Liddell.
Encore an exemple montrant l'importance des stimulants
de signal de la thermoregulaton, c,'est-a-dire des stimulants
qui changent la production et la depense de chaleur par suite
de la formation des reflexes conditionnels. Si on agit sur Forga-
nisme par un courant d'air (le vent) d'tme fawn telle que co vent
no provoque qu'une excitation tactile de la surface du corps sans
augmenter la depense de chaleur (en elevant scion un calcul cor-
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respondant la temperature du milieu exterieur), on pout observer
tine augmentation du metabolism?, nonobstant quo Pinten.site
de la pert? de chaleur n'ait pas change dans les conditions de cette
experience. La stimulation tactile d'une grande surface de la
peau par un courant d'air apparait id i comme un stimulant con-
ditionnel des processus de thermoregulation, car, dans les condi-
tions habituelles, cc sent justement les recepteurs de la peau qui
sont constamment stimuli& par le vent qui provoque en memo
temps un refroidissement considerable. Ii faut Ogalement y noter
que les reflexes conditionnels formes de cette facon se distinguent
par leur grande stabilite et no son.t quo difficilement extinctibles.
Cori explique aussi -le moranismo de Faction stimulant? du vent
sur le metabolism? chez les animaux et chez l'homme.
Prenon.s un autre groupe de faits. Nous avons etudie le meta-
bolism? gazeux chez les moutons qui se tenaient tranquillement
debout dans lour enclos, et, dans des conditions moteorologiques
exactement pareilles, lorsqu'lls se .trouvaient aux champs. Le
metabolism.? gazeux dans les conditions d'espace libre se trouvait
toujours plus Cleve. On pouvait observer cos phenomenes dans
les conditions d.e milieu les plus variees, pendant la rumination
on sans elle, a differents moments do la journee. Ainsi, pour
cos animaux pour lesquels Fespace libre est le signal dune acti-
vit6 musculaire intense (116e avant tout aver rallmentation
aux. champs) les signaux de l' ?espace libre? conduisont aun.e inten-
sification des processus d'oxydation. En continuant l'etude de
re problem? (travaux de Slonim et de s( s collaborateurs), on a vu
quo la distance et l'espare qui. s'etend autour de Forganisme
peuvent devenir stimulants conditionnels pour la march? des
differents processus physiologiquesTet representent un cote
important do l'action du milieu extorieur sur l'organisme. 11
nous semble qu'ici on voit s'ouvrir des horizons pour etudier
aussi le milieu d'exisiettre de l'homme dans les conditions de
travail et de repos, Cost-?ire .des voles nouvelles pour de nom-
breuses recherches hygioniques.
Mai.s, ?rovenons a nos moutons?, comme disent nos arais
francuis.Nous avons demontre quo chez les moutons acclimates
dans les montagnes do l'Asie Centrale a l'altitude de 2.000-
4_000 m6tres la dopense de Fonergio est de 20%-30% plus basso
quo chez les moutons qui vivent dans les plaines, a une altitude
de 600-1.000 metres. Cott? ?acolimatation metabolique? s'ins-
talle tres lentement; chez les races do plain.es elle no survient
qu'apres que plusieu.rs generations de moutons aient vecti dans
- les conditions d'un climat de haute montagne. 'Vials re qui est
remarquable, c'est quo chez les agneaux, memo appartonant
aux races de montagne, pendant les premieres semaines de la
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vie, ii try a pas de difference de nivean du metabolism? par rap-
port h co qu'on voit chez les agneaux qui vivent a de petites
altitudes. II faut done conelt ire quo Facclimatation est d etermi-
nee par des influences exercees par recorce cerebrale sur le
metabolism() tissulaire (ii est possible qu'un des liens obligatoires
dans la production de cos changements soil represent:6 par les
impulsions corticales des cbangemonts d'activite de la gland?
thyroide).
Arretons-nous quelque pen sur la signification do ces faits.
us moarem. quo la fouolion la plus generale do tout organism? --
le metabolism? so trouve sous une influence permanent? do
l'Ocorco corehrale. Cate influence qui se prod.uit, a, la suite de la
formation des liaisons temporaires determine le niveau du
metabolisme en rapport, avec tout, rensomblo des stimulations
qui vie-a-new a l'organisme aussi hien du cote, des extero- quo
dos interorecepteurs. Dans ces experiences, so fait setair avec
tout? evidence l'imporlance du stereotype dynamique des
sLimulatioiw dont nous avons deja pane. J'y ajouterai mainte-
nant quo le stereotype dynamique est Imo combinaison et suc-
cession determinees el selon un ordre deli ni des hats d'excitation
et d'inhibition qui se prodasent dans &ore? sous rinfluence
des stimulai ions exterieures ot interieures dans one situation.
qui so repot? tonjonrs de la memo fagot!.
Tonto rood ion do l 'organism? animal on humai 11, par eXeMple,
alimentai re, defensive, cellos qui assurent l'homeostase (on parti-
culler la thermoregniation) Si elle se repote constamment Goin
proud obligatoirement los reflexes conditionnels naturels pour
les stimulations qui font pantie du stereotype de facteurs dont
ii ntervontion est neCessaire pour hi production de cat? reaction.
Ea observant la production de differents axles reflexes dans
los conditions .naturelles, nous avons essaye d'analyser la signi-
fication des reflexes conditionnels et, non condition:11?1s qui sont
compris dans ces aelos, 61,ant a l'etat normal toujours fusionnes
ensemble. En faisant cod:, a l'encontre de l'opinion largement
repanduo que los effets des reflexes conditionnels sont toujours
plus foibles quo los elle' s du reflexe non couditionnel, nous avons
regulierement observe dans nombre de cas on phenomene inverse:
Faction des impulsions corticaux qui apiwraissent, sous Faction
dos stir-nu-lams conditionuels est, souvent considerablement plus
forte quo Fella d'une action relativement isolee du stimulant
non conditionnol. Bien plus, reffet d'un stimulant conditionnel
pout i;ondaire suppression complete de l'effet qui aurait, pu
avoirlieu sur in stimuli:antilop oiiditionnel agissant simultanement
Si cc d.ornior igissait out soul. Je vais l'illustrer par deux exem-
pies quo je choisis expres.pormi les formes snpori cures de l'activite
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reflex? condi tionnelle ? les reflexes conditionnels de l'homme
aux signaux du deuxieme system? da sigitalisation, soit les signaux
verb aux
Chez l'h.omme on accompagn.c l'action de la sonnerie par
Papplication a la peau d'un tube serpentin contenant de Peau
chauffoe a 43? ( ?stimulation thermique?) (Rogov). En memo temps,
on fait enregistrer un pletismogramme qui montre qua la dila-
tation des vaisseaux a li eit aussi biall pendant l'action de la sonnerie
quo pendant l'action de la chaleu.r (apres 20-50 combinaisons
de Faction de la sonnerie avec application da la chaleur).
Quand le reflex? conditionnel a la sonnerie est forme, il suffit
de dire an sujet: ?jc sonne?, pour qu'il y alt une reaction vasculaire
exactement pareille a cello qu'on a lors d'une stimulation ther-
mique; id i la parole agit comma agent du deuxi? sys-
t eme de sign.alisation.
Ayant constate cool et ayant demontre au proalable quo
l'application a la peau d'un tube serpentin contenant de l'eau
chauff Co non pas a 43?, mais a 65? provoque par soi-meme non pas
une reaction ?thermique? mais, dans une certaine mesure, ?don-
1611re-use?, caracterisee non pas par une dilatation, mais par une
constriction des vaisseaux, nous donnons l'ordre verbal: ?j'appli-
qua la chaleur?. Si nous agissous ensuite lion pas par un excitant
thermique, mais par un excitant douloureux faible (temperature
(35?), on volt qua l'effet habitual du reflexe conditionnel (id i pour
un signal verbal) y est entieremeni, conserve bien qu'il s'y agisse
d'u.ne stimulation reelle non pas thermique mais douloureuse.
Les vaisseaux, malgre l'action d'un agent qui provoque une
sensation desagr Cable (temperature 65?) se dilatant et le sujet affix-
me apres q-u'il a oprouve une sensation de chaleur c,orrespondant
an signal verbal et non pas au ?stimulant douloureux? qui a agi
en realite. La sensation, ici , est entierement determinee par la
reaction cortical? ? (furmee) a l'agent du deuxieme system? de
si gnali salon *.
Un autre example: on a OLudie sur l'homme le reflex? de mixtion
qui survienl, en reponse a l'introduction, au moyen d'un catheter,
de l'eau tiede (a 37?) dans la vessie (observation de Nirapetiantz
et ses collaborateurs). Les changements de pression dans la vessie
* On comprend evidemment, qu'ici la rupture entre un renforcement
reel de ragout do deuxieme system? de signalisation (stimulation verbale)
et la signification habi Lucile de cot agent n est possible quo parce quo jusque-
Loujours on presque Loujours, le mot ?chaleuN, d'une fawn on dune
autre, directement ou indirectement, so combinait avec nue excitation thee-
mique reelle. Le denxiorne systeme de stimulation est 110 avec le premier;
en parlant schernatiquement, ()ate liaison est a pen pros la 1118010 quo
cellos qui existent entre lout reflex() conditionnel du premier syst erne de
signalisation et le reflex? non condi lion.nel sur loqiiel il est forme.
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etaient e registres graphiquement. En memo temps, devant re
sujet, se I rouvait un manometre dont l'aiguille montrait le
chiffre de pression creee dans la vessie; ce manometre pouvait
etre separe de la cavite vosicale. Ordinal roment, le besoin d'uriner
surgi ssait oujours qi land la pression vesi cal? atteignai t une valour
del inie. Cel Le valour de la pression le sujel, la voit sur le manometre.
Apres quelques combinaisons de ce genre, on a vu qu'un
bosom violent d'uriner survenait dela quand on pronongait seule-
ment (par le microphone pose dans la piece on se trouvait le sujet)
le chiffre des indications du manometre qui, habituellement,
correspond:lit a la valour de la pression qui determinait le besoin
d'uritter et la contraction des parois vesicales. Cc besoin d'uriner
(et le changement de reflexe cutaneo-galvanique correspondant),
sous l'influence du signal verbal, pouvait survenir memo quand
11 n'y avail pratiquement pas de liquide dans la vessie. Par contre,
Si la pression au manometre se trouvait a zero et les signaux
corticaux de distension de la vessie formes dans des conditions
donnees el aient absents, on pouvait introduire dans la vessie
one quantite de liquid? beaucoup plus grande quo cello qui,
ltabituellement, determinait la mixtion sans qu'il y ait lo besoin
d'uriner.
Les nom breux faits pareils a ceux-ci nous ont convaincu quo
la notion meme des reflexes conditionnels devait etre elargie.
Dans les cqnditions lhabituelles, tout reflexe non conditionnel se
couvre, pour ainsi dire, de reflexes conditionnels de complexite
yariee qui sont enfiles sur lui.
On pout supposer qu'aux phases precoces de la formation
ontogonetiq tie de tout reflexe des impulsions qui parviennent
Fecorce provenant des recepteurs des organes qui effectuent
un reflexe lane quelconque provoquent dans cette ecorce l'appa-
rition des foyers d'excitation qui no sant pas encore unis par des
liaisons temporaires. Cependant, tres rapidement, probablement
des les prenliers accomplissements de l'ac te reflexe donne, l'impul-
sion venant des recepteurs qui existent dans les effecteurs corres-
pondants sc transform? justement on un signal de ce reflexe donne.
Alors ce dernier s'effectue d? sous l'influence des implusions
corticales qui se forment a la suite d'une incorporation obligatoire
des reflexes conditionnels naturels dans tout reflexe non condition-
nel. Ainsi In reponse cortical? a la stimulation des interorecep-
teurs varies se fait inclure obligatoirement dans tout acte reflexe.
II s'y ajoute, bien entendu, l'effet de la stimulation des exterore-
cepteurs quolconques qui coincide dans le temps avec l'accomplis-
sement de I 'acte reflexe donne.
Les faits que nous avons exposes ici d'une facon breve et
incomplete et qui no representent qu'une petite partie du materiel
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clue nous avons accumule nous arnenent a toute une serie de con-
clusions dans lesquelles nous cberchons a nous inspirer de l'esprit
et du fond des idees do notre maitre incomparable ? I. P.
Pavlov.
Nous voyons que la theorie des reflexes conclitionnels n'est ni
complement, ni une superstructure, ni un developpement de la
theorie du reflex? telle qu'elle a ete developpee, en partant de
Descartes, par Prohaska, M. Gall, J. Muller, Freisberg, Philipp-
son, Sherrington, Magnus. L'explication du mecanisme, des
proprietes et de la signification des reflexes conditionnels conduit
inevitablement a une nouvelle conception du reflexe. Dans
cette nouvelle conception, les faits qui se rapportent a Factivite
reflexe des animaux spinaux, decorebres et des animaux integres
mais narcotises, exclus des relations normales avec le monde
exterieur, doivent prendre une place a peu pres pareille a cello quo
les donnees recueillies par les astrologues sur les mondes celestes
ont pris dans l'astronomie moderne. Les reflexes tels qu'ils se
produisent chez les animaux dont les grands hemispheres sant
enleves n 'existent pas dans un organisme normal.
Les impulsions qui arrivent aux neurons efferents et qui se
transmettent lors do tout auto reflex? aux effecteurs par la vole
terminale commune tie rout pas une somme algebrique des impul-
sions qui naissent dans les neurons spinaux, bulbaires, mesencepha-
liques, diencephaliques et corlicaux,? c'est un total de l'acti-
vite d'un ensemble fonctionnellement unique Men qu'il comprenne
des substrats morphologiques varies. Chaque groupe de cellules
qui entre dans un ensemble unique lie du centre reflex? integre
acquiert, en entrant dans cc centre unique, des proprietes nouvelles
qui tie peuvent pas etre decelees par des experiences sur
animaux spinaux, decerobres, thalamiques. L' ecorce cerebral?
comprend, scion tine expression de Pavlov, les cellules les plus
reactives du systeme nerveux et, pour cette raison avant tout,
elle conditionne par son activito les propriotes des formations
centrales situees plus bas. Comme l'Ocrivait Pavlov, ?plus l'orga-
nisation de l'Ocorce est elevee, plus elle devient gerant et repar-
titeur de toutes les fonctions de l'organisme?.
C'ost cc' qui est illustre par les exemples cites plus haut
et portant stir les autos reflexes de thermoregulation, de mixtion,
de regulation reflex? du niveau du inCtabolisme;il existe de nom-
breux examples du memo genre pour la regulation reflex? de la
production de l'urine, de la teneur en sucre sanguin, de Faction
specifique dynamique des aliments, de in regulation de la respi-
ration et de la circulation sanguine pendant lo travail, l'anoxie,
etc. Fleur cotte raison, nous avons propose de designer coname
autos r 6 fl e xes co mpli qu es tons les actes reflexes
6 H, M. ELII1013
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normaux qui resultent d'une fusion des reflexes conditionnelg'
et non conditionnels reunis.
11 faut souligner que les actes reflexes compliques ne se limi-
tent jamais a l'activite d'un soul organ? quelconque. Les expres-
sions ?reflexe de salivation, ?reflexe de flechissement?, ?reflex?
de mixtionA, etc.,ne sont que des designations pratiquement commo-
des du caractere reflexe du processus sur lequel nous fixons notre
attention. Or, en realite, une salivation reflexe prise eomme
exemple nest qu'un composant d'un acte alimentaire reflexe.
complique et integral qui comprend aussi la secretion du sue
gastrique, la deglutition, la mastication, la modification de la
circulation sanguine des organes du tractus gastro-intestinal
avec un changement correspondent du travail du cceur et du tonus
des vaisseaux, etc.
Quel quo soit le reflexe conditionnel que nous etudions, nous
y trouvons partout le meme mecanisme pavlovien de formation
de liaison temporaire. En rneme temps nous y observons une
variete exl raordinaire des agents qui se transforment, grace
a la formation des liaisons temporaires (reflexes conditionnels)
en agents qui participent aux differents actes reflexes compliques.
REFLEXES CONDITIONNELS INTA'ROCEPTIFS
' On a pu demontrer qu'en stimulant los recepteurs interieurs
on ponvait egalement former des reflexes conditionnels (Bykov,
Mrapetiantz). Les reflexes conditionnels interoceptifs ainsi
forth& ont eii general les memos proprietes que les reflexes condi-
tiorinels exteroceptifs.
Nos collaborateurs Mrapetiantz, Rick! et d'autres ont
elabore la differenciation des deux stimulants appliques aux
recepteurs do l'intestin et d'autres organes. On pout actuellement
reconnoitre en toute raison que Ia signalisation interoceptive
dans l' ecorce cerebrate est assure? par la presence des recepteurs
dans les organes internes. Par analogie avec les analyseurs externes
on pout les appeler analyseurs internes. Leur partie peripherique
est, bien entondu, differente de la partie peripherique des extero-
recepteurs. Co ne sont pas les organes des cinq sons que nous
connaissons depuis longtemps. Subjectivement on pent no pas
s'apereevoir de ce qui se passe au cours normal des processus
dans Fintesti et dans d'autres organes, mais leur influence
reflexe objective et lour participation a Factivite nerveuso est.
decelee.
Dens une satire c?bre de Voltaire un habitant de Saturne
demand? h. no voyageur de Sirius: ?Combien avez-vous de sens?,)
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?'72, repond celui-ci, mais chaque lois nous regrettons d'en avoir
si peu?.
Nous pouvons nous demander: combien dc Sens possedo
l'homme? Avons-nous seulement la vue, l'ouie, l'odorat, le toucher
et le gout? En dehors de cela nous avons beaucoup d'autres
sons obscurs?. Et us ont une influence sur nous, leurs impulsions
parviennent jusqu'a l'ecorce corebrale. Done, on pent les appeler
ogalement ?sons*, mais ce sont des sons speciaux, particuliers.
Ainsi, Pecorce corebrale recoit non seulement les signaux du
monde exterieur, mais egalement des signaux du gmenage in-
terieur? de Porganisme. Et co qui est signal() par les interore-
cepteurs est loin d'?e indifferent pour l'activite de l'ecorce
cer Obrale.
Lors ile la collision des deux informations provenant des
analyseurs externes et internes, on voit se produire dans Pecorce
cerebrale des interrelations tres complexes. Parmi les impulsions,
les .unes peuvent renforcer les autres, et, inversement, les unes
peuvent inhiber les stares et memo les opprimer completement. Le
sort de chaque reaction est determine par la confrontation dans
l'ecorce cerobrale des deux informations,? provenant des alialy-
sours externes et internes.
Actuellement, nos collaborateurs et d'autres physiologistes
ont demontre quo la musculature squelettique, dite volontaire,
est egalement hoe dans son activite non seulement avec les si-
gnaux exteroceptifs, mais aussi interoceptifs. Cela vent dike que
les signaux qui vont des interorecepteurs non seulement exereent
facon reflexe une influence sur le cote ?vegetatif? de la vie,
ma's font irruption dans le commandement de la musculature
squelettique, c'est-a-dire dans le ate ?aninaal? de la vie (MerIcOu-
lova),
AFFERENTATION ET TROPHIQUE DU SYSTEME NERVEUX
Nos recherches sont des exemples d'une analyse physiologique
du travail de l'ecorce corebrale portant sur l'influence des impul-
sions qui proviennent du ?monde interieur? de Porganisme animal.
Les impulsions nerveuses provenant des recepteurs des organes
internes sont toujours polyvalentes.
Notro eminent histologiste, Lavrentiev, a decrit, dans un
travail publio apres sa mort, un appareil recepteur dans l'intestin
qui se compose de trois parties: une fibre solitaire afferente donne
trois ramifications ? l'une vers le vaisseau sanguin, l'autre vers
la cellule nerveuse peripherique, la troisieme vers le groupe de
fibres musculaires lisses. Il est legitime de supposer'qu'll existe
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dans le system? nerveux central et surtout dans l' ecorce cerebrale
des traits analogues de liaisons entre les cellules nerveuses et
l'appareil qui les approvisionne dans le sens le plus large de cc
mot. Si pour les cellules nerveuses de l' ecorce cerebrale on n'a
pas encore Otabli la presence des recepteurs specialises, en tout
cas un grand nombre de neurones, en reagissant aux impulsions
qui leur parviennent, fonctionnent comme des formations receptri-
ces, comme les bouts centraux des analyseurs.
L'examen electrophysiologique des potentiels des impulsions
afferentes venant de l'estomac et de l'intestin montre quo ces
impulsions dependent de l' ?t fonctionnel de l'appareil digestif.
Les plus grandes amplitudes et frequences des impulsions all ?
routes s'observent pendant la period? de Factivite digestive de
l'appareil gastro-intestinal. On a etabli la presence des impul-
sions afferentes liees aussi hien avec les processus circulatoires
quo moteurs et secretoires qui se passent dans l'estomac et l'intes-
tin. L'apparition de l'impulsion afferente a certains stades de
l'etat de jean permet de supposer quo cette impulsion pout prendre
part a la formation de cc qu'on appelle la sensation de faim. 11
est important de noter quo l'influence de rimpulsion afferente
venant de l'appareil gastro-intestinal (lors de sa stimulation
mecanique on electrique) pout etre tracee jusqu'a l'ecorce are-
brale et trouve son expression dans des changements determines
de reneephalogramme (Delov et autres).
Ainsi les impulsions qui traduisent les etats de plusieurs for-
mations fonctionnelles qui composent un Systeme integral par-
-viennent au cerveau. La partie afferente de l'arc reflexe n'est
Pas. seulement un simple conducteur servant un soul groupe
d'elements recepteurs dans un organ? ou un tissu queleonque,
mais desservant tout un systeme reeepteur complexe. La concep-
tion mecaniste de l'are reflex? qui reunit la partie peripherique
de l'analyseur avec le centre nerveux comme un fil dans un cir-
cuit electrique dolt etre radicalement modifiee. Les impulsions
qui ont un caractere polyvalent arrivent au centre et reunissent
non seulemen,t les cellules nerveuses ou les groupes de cellules, mais
egalement les formations nerveuses qui sent liees avec les chan-
gements de circulation sanguine et le metabolisme du tissu
nerveux.
L'idee navlovionne de la trophique nervous? doit en toute
justice etre appliquee aussi au tissu nerveux. Etant donne que
tut arc ref lexe a UTIO architecture composee, la trophique nerveuse
doit etre consideree comme un processus reflexe complexe qui
sentient non seulement le travail specifique mais ogalement le
metabolisnie. ,Grace a la complexite de la structure de la partie
peripherique de l'analyeur et le caractere combine des impulsions
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qui se dirigent vers le system? nerveux central, rexcitation
an
centre apparait successivement dans un group? entier de neurones'.
En meme temps on voit se prodaire une activation du transport
des substances alimentaires et do roxygene an tissu nerveux.
Ainsi on inclut dans la notion du centre non seulement une
configuration on espace complexe, mais egalement, a titre
temporaire, les differents points qui composent ce (centre? pour
l'accomplissement d'une fonction
L'etude de la dynamique chimique des cellules nerveuseS
de Pecorce en ?t d'activite, fait? dans notre Institut par Vla-
dimirov et a Kiev par Palladino, a montre quo cerlains composantS
du metabolisme complex? du tissu nerveux peuvent servir de
bons indicateurs de l'etat fonctionnel du cerveau.
Les recherches de Vladimirov et de ses collaborateurs ont
montre que l'etat d'excitation du cerveau provoque aussi Men
par les stimulants non conditionnels quo conditionnels, conduit
a one intensification du metabolisme des glucides, a une augmen-
tation de vitesse de renouvellement de certains composes phospho-
r& et a une augmentation du taux d'ammoniaque. Une inhibition
diffuse de 1' ec or c e des grands hemispheres conduit a un abais-
sement du taux d'ammoniaque dans le Lissa cerebral par
suite de sa fixation par l'aci?de gluLamique avec formation de glu-
tamine.
Ainsi nous avons assez de raisons de croire quo lois de Fac-
complissement de tout act? moteur ou secretoire il so produit des
changements egalement reflexes dans tout l'appareil de neurones
qui assurent les changements de rapprovisionnement Sanguin
et la fournituro du materiel alimentaire et do Foxygene aux cel-
lules nerveuses. Par consequent, les actes reflexes qui assurent,en
fin de compte, le metabolisme de Porganisme, se produisent
eux-mernes par une alimentation assuree et constant?, egalement
reflexe, des appareils nerveux centraux.
Nous envisageons une etude ulterie-ure de co problem? comme
une partie importante de developpement des idees sur les me-
canismes intimes de production et de propagation des processus
d'excitation et d'inhibition dans le nombre incalculable des
unites nerveuses de l'Ocorce.
Avant la creation do la theorie de Pavlov sur Pactivite ner-
vous? supOrieure los reflexes furent consider& seulement comme
des changements de fonctions physiologiques se:pare& provoques
chaque lois par un stimulant special, toujours le memo,
11 no pouvait mem? pas y etre question d'une vrale comprehen-
sion de cette unification par le systeme nerveux de tontes les
fonctions do l'organisme qui n'etaient designees quo d'une facon
abstraite comme activite integrant? du system? nerveux. Soule
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la theorie des reflexes conditionnels permet de comprendre le
mecanisme do reunion des differentes fonctions physiologiques
en des actes reflexes extremement complexes qui determinent
aussi Men le comportement de l'organisme dans le milieu exterieur
quo Vaal vito de tous les organes internes indissolublement
liee avec le comportement de l'organisme.
Pavlov dans les dernieres annees de son travail ecrivait:
?Ainsi, les grands hemispheres, a notre avis, se composent d'un
ensemble d 'analyseurs: oculaire, auriculaire, cutane, nasal et
oral. L'e,xatnen de cos analyseurs nous a amen& a la conclusion
que lour nombre dolt etre augmente, qu'en plus des analyseurs
ci-dessus &flamer& qui se rapportent aux phenomenes exterieurs,
an monde exterieur, ii faut encore reconnaitre l'existence dans les
grands hemispheres des analyseurs speciaux dont le but est d'ana-
lyser tenorme ensemble de phenomenes qui se passent dans
l'organisme n'est, pas douteux que pour l'organisme
non settlement, une analyse du monde ext orieur est importante,
ii lui, faut egalement une signalisation en haut et une analyse de
co qui se passe en lui-mente. En un mot, en plus des analyseurs
externes en um 'eres ii doit exister des analyseurs !internes?.
QUELQUES REMARQUES SUR LE MECANISME REFLEXE
On ne saurait accepter l'affirmation de certains savants
americains que Pavlov n'etudiait que le moment initial et le
moment terminal des reactions reflexes. Le systeme scientifique,
(Tee par Pavlov, so distinguo justement de la ?psychologie
objective? ou de la ?psychologie du behaviourism.e? en ceci
sur line base physiologique solide en expliquant
le mecanisme ,de la dynamique des processus nerveux fondamen-
taux ? excitation et inhibition ? et lours rapports reciproves.
A. ce propos U. faut faire remarquer que Pavlov n'avait pas cree
les notions. d" ?excitation? et d' ?inhibition?, mais los a empruntees
a la physiologic du systeme nerveux on elles ont ete etablies
avant lui., Ii en est de memo en cc qui concerne la notion ?ind-uc-
tion?. Pavlov a su le premier voir comment ces processus dans
les segments superieurs du systeme nerveux central assurent les
nouvelles differences qualitatives entre des reflexes corticaux
et .des reflexes des autres niveaux de cc systeme.
Pavlov n'avait pas besoin d'abandonner la voie scientifique
biologique, rigoureusement objective, eprouvee par la science
physiologique, pour l'etude des phenomenes aussi complexes de la
nature que les processus psychiques. La conception (ou, comme
ils le disent eux-mOmes, ?aspect psychologique?) repandue chez
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tions vasculaires chez les malades atteints de syringomyelie so
distinguent par lour caractare automatique, lour intensite insi-
gnifiante et par l'inertie de lour evolution. Quant aux reactions.
vasculaires chez les malades atteints d'hemiplegie, elles out une
intensite beaucoup plus grand?, Odes sont moms sterootypiques,
et lours manifestations sont ties variees.
11 est evident quo l'inclusion des centres nerveux situes
un niveau plus eleve du system? nerveux central dans la reaction
reflex?, comme cola s'observe chez les hemiplegiques, conduit
un perfectionnement ulterieur des reactions vasculaires.
Le caractere des reactions vasculaires est determine par la
difference de niveau de leny innervation, ce qui explique la dif-
ference de cos reactions chez les hemiplegiques et chez les mala-
des atteints de syringomyelie.
DEUXIEME SYSTEME DE SIGNALISATION DE L'HOMME
Pavlov, on se basant sur ses recherches cliniques, a donne
sous une forme claire mais breve la notion nouvelle du deuxieme
system? de signalisation specifique do l'activite nerveuse supe-
rieure de l'homme ?Pour l'animal, la realite est signalee pros-
quo exclusivement par des stimulations et par lours traces dans.
les grands hemispheres, irritations venant directement dans les.
cellules speciales des recepteurs visuels, auditifs et autres de
l'organisme. C'est ce que, nous aussi, nous avons en nous en taut
quo sensations, impressions et representations du milieu exte-
rieur qui nous entoure, celui de la nature en general comme celui
du milieu social, excepte la parole audible et visible. C'est le
premier system? de signalisation qui nous est commun avec les
aniraaux. Mais la parole a constitue le deuxieme, specialement
Bare, systeme de signalisation de la realite, etant signal des
premiers signaux? (Pavlov).
L'action direct? des differents objets et phenomenes du monde
qui nous entoure par l'intermediaire de la stimulation des recep-
tours sur ecorce cerebral? est toujours un signal concret de la
realite. Or, lo langage, scion Pavlov, ?represente specialement
avant tout des stimulations kinesthesiques allant l'ecorce des
organes du langage, ce sont des signaux secondaires, us represen-
tent une abstraction de la realite et admettent une generalisa-
tion, cc qui est une facon de penser suplementaire, specialement
humaine et superieure?. Le deuxieme system? de signalisation
comprend toutes les designations verbales des objets, ce systeme
de signaux est percu par notre ecorce cerebral? grace aux impul-
sions nerveuses qui naissent lors de la stimulation de recepteur
pendant le langage prononce, audible et visible, c'est-a-dim
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plusieurs savants occidentaux, y compris les savants americains,
penetree de survivances ideologiques de dualisme, conduit a
toutes sortes do ?supplements? a la theorie physiologique de
Pavlov. Ces ?supplements? ont quelquefois un caractere mani-
festement subjectif psychologique. Chez certains savants la net-
tet ?ethodologique caracteristique de 1' Ocole pavlovienne
manque dans les experiences, cc qui les conduit souvent a de faux
?dementis? ou a des tendances a combler respace entre la theorie
de Pavlov et les idees de Sherrington et d'autres savants qui
tombent dans le mysticisme ou memo le fideisme.
L'etude de la neurodynamique des processus corticaux a ote
falto par Pavlov et par FOS eleves et adeptes toujours du point
de vue de la th(iorie evolutionniste. La fecondite et la necessite
de cc point do vue etaient evidents, car, sans aspect historique,
on no pout pas comprendre la transformation de l'energie d'une
stimulation exterieure on un fait de conscience. La solution du
probleme de la sensation en tant que processus psychique le plus
61ementaire qui reflete les proprietes du monde objectif existant
on dehors de nous et independamment de notre conscience n'est
possible que dans l'aspect historique.
Quant a la mentalite humaine, II faut y tenir compte des
qualites nouvellos qui se lorment chez les hommes dans leurs
rapports avec to milieu social.
La physiologic des organes des sons, depuis J. Muller, envisa-
geait le problem? des sensations Inetaphysiquement, sans tenir
compte du processus d'evolution, et en ignorant toute la longue
voie phylognetique d'adaptation de l'animal au milieu exterieur
sous l'influence duquel se formaient les fonctions des organes des
sens. Solon Pavlov, on no pout pas etudier les processus de la
formation des fonctions on tenant compte seulement de la partie
peripherique (coil, oreillo, etc.), mais ii y est indispensable d'y
avoir en vue la participation a cc processus de la partie central?
de l'analyseur les cellules de l' ecorce cerebrale.
Les recherches de notre collaborateur Rogov ont montre que
seulement dans in ?t assez eleve d'excitabilite de l' ecorce
eerebrale les reactions vasculaires atteignent une grande inten-
site et une haute mobilite. Dans tous les cas de production de
processus d'inhibition interieure dans l' ecorce des grands hemis-
pheres il se produit un changement de proprietes aussi Men des
reactions vasculaires conditionnelles que non conditionnelles. Ces
reactions prennent un caractere stereotypique, deviennent inertes
et quantitativement negligeables.
Nous avons decouvert des reactions vasculaires sembla-
lilement faibles lors de l'examen des malades atteints de
syringomyelie et d'homiplegle. Ii a ete demontre que les reac-
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dans les recepteurs des organes du langage (musculature do la
?langue, des levres, des joucs, du palais mou et du larynx), les
recepteurs auditifs et les recepteurs visuels (pendant la lecture).
Le processus de formation des signaux des stimulations reelles
A l'aide des mots difforents se fait scion les mecanismes de for-
mation des reflexes conditionnels. Ceci a Ote oxactement etabli
par les observations sur la formation du 'engage chez les enfants
qui commencent a parlor. C'est pour cola quo Pavlov disait que
la parole pour Phomme est in stimulant conditionnel aussi reel
quo tons les autres. Mais 11 y ajoutait quo la parole en taut quo
stimulant conditionnel est en memo temps tenement vast? quo,
sous cc rapport aucun autre stimulant chez les animaux no pent
aller en aucune comparaison avec elle ni an point do vie qualita-
tif ni au point de vue quantitatif.
Les differences entre l'activite du premier et cello du deuxie-
me systeme de signalisation apparaissent, par exemple, d'apres
les observations sur les enfants de 8 a 10 ans, chez lesquels un
bruit do sonnette se combinait plusieurs fois avec une legere sti-
mulation electrique des doigts. Apr.& cette seri? de combinaisons
in brusque mouvement de doigt est provoque non seulement
par un bruit reel de sonnette, mais memo par la prononciation du
mot ?sonnette ? qui auparavant n'etait jamais associee avec
l'action d'un stimulant electrique, ou bienlorsqu'on montre Pins-
cription ?sonnette?. En memo temps, si on montre des inscrip-
tions avec d'autres mots ou si on prononce d'autres paroles, ceci
no provoque pas la memo reaction quo cello qui survient lorsqu'on
prononce le mot ?sonnette?.
Grace a la formation d'une liaison cortical? qui a eu lieu jadis
entre tine stimulation verbal? et un phenomene concret quo
cette stimulation refletait (le cas echeant ? in son determine,
celui de sonnette), la stimulation verbale est devenue signal
d'un evenement concret dans le monde exterieur. En memo temps
on y voit cette ?abstraction de la realite? dont avait parle Pav-
lov en definissant le deuxieme systeme de signalisation. La sti-
mulation -verbal? provoquait la memo reaction quo cello qui
otait provoquee par me stimulation reelle, absente, par la son-
nette.
?La parole, disalL Pavlov, grace a toute la vie anterieure de
Flaomme adulte, est nee avec toutes les stimulations interieures
et exterieures qui parviennent aux grands hemispheres, elle les
signal? toutes, elle les remplace et, pour cette raison, pout pro-
voquer toutes les actions, les reactions de l'organisme qui sent
provoquees par cos stimulations)).
L'abstraction de la roalite caracteristique du deuxieme sys-
tem? de signalisation est obtenue grace a cc quo l'image verbal?
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des objets et des act es remplace lour action directe sur l'organisme.
Cette abstraction des stimulations verbales partant des agents
concrets est obtenue d'une facon particulierement nett? grace
a
cc quo le deuxieme systeme de signalisation admet la formation
de chains extrhnement compliquees faites de corabinaisons
d'un stimulant verbal avec un autre, ogalement verbal, et eta-
ges les tins sur les autres.
Un nombre considerable de designations verbales chez l'hom-
me adulte est obtenu non pas grace a une combinaison de stimu-
lants verbaux avec tine action directe sur nous d'objets concrets
du monde exterieur, Dials grace a leur combinaison avec les si-
gnauxverbaux d'acti on des objets concrets, signaux anterieurement
formes. Ces chaines peuvent etre tres complexes et comprendre
in tres grand nombre de chainons dont chacun se compose d'une
combinaisoo des signaux verbaux entre eux. Cependant, le chai-
non initial a pour sa base une combinaison d'une stimulation
verbale avec Faction sur nous des agents concrets du monde ex-
terieur agissant sur le premier systeme do signalisation.
L'activi te du deuxi eine sys1 eme de signalisation est soumise aux
memos rapports reciproques fondamentaux que Pavlov avait
etablis pour le premier system? de signalisation et qu'il consi-
derait comme caracteristiques de toute la theorie des reflexes.
line liaison intim? et indissoluble entre la fonction et la structure,
c'est-a-dire le principe de la structuralite, est, sans nul doute, ap-
plicable au fonctionnement dii deuxieme system? de signalisation,
bion quo In conception de l'existence dans Fecorce cerebrale de
l'horame des ?centres? speciaux des fonctions intellectuelles
sup erieures comnae nous avons d? dit soit erronee.
Dans Factivite du deuxieme system? de signalisation on voit
se manif ester avec une tres grande nettete la realisation de l'ana-
lyse et de la synthese. La synthese des differents mots en des
phrases entieres caracteristiques de notre langage conduit a un
relict exact des objets et des phenomenes du monde exterieur
dans le font tionnement du deuxierae systeme de signalisation.
Enfin, le principe pavlovien de determinisme qui caracterise
toute la theerie des reflexes, a eu, on pent le dire, son point cul-
minant dans la conception du deuxieme system? de signalisation
qui constitue le premier pas vers 1' etude naturalistique scienti-
fique des aspects superieurs de l'activite cerebral?, aspects lies
avec les pheuomenes de conscience.
Ce problem immense depasse de beaucoup le cadre de la
science physiologique. 11 concerne egalement toute une serie
d'autres sciences: psychologie, philologie, pedagogic, neuropa-
thologie, psychiatric et, enf in, philosophic.
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PHYSIOLOGIE ET MEDECINE
Jo ne puis, no sorait-ce quo brievement, no pas m'arreter sur la
signification pour la pathologic du materiel quo nous avons exa-
mine ici, J'ai d? indique l'importance du stereotype determine
des stimulations dans la production de tout acte reflex? complique
qu'elles provoquent. Plus los formes d'action reciproque entre
Forganisme et le milieu qui l'entoure sont compliquoes, et plus,
en consequence, est compliquee et differenciee l'ecorce cerebral?,
plus souvent ii so produit un changement complet ou partici
d'agents qui s'incorporent dans tel ou tel stereotype de stimula-
tions.
Pavlov avait etabli quo cc remplacement d'un stereotype
par un autre est souvent une Cache difficile pour le system? nor-
veux. Il pout en resulter non seulement un ehangement du cours
de l'acte reflexe qui, apres le ehangement des conditions do son
accomplissement, se fait au debut- en dehors du stereotype des
agents pour lesquels out ete formes les reflexes eonditionnels
naturels qui corrigent, renforcent et accelerent cot acte et l'unis-
sent a d'autres processus reflexes. Comme consequence d'un
trouble du stereotype on volt souvent aussi un trouble de 1' &mi.-
libre normal entre le processus d'excitation et de celui d'inhi-
bition dans l'ecorce cerebral?. Ceci conduit a un trouble plus
ou ,moms important dans Paccomplissement des actes reflexes
memos dont le stereotype d'accomplissement n'a pas ?ete direc-
tement modifie.
Nous avons observe quo chez les chiens l'administration d'un
produit aussi inhabituel pour OUX quo le mid (bien quo
devore avec avidite) conduit a des troubles durables et tres
prononces de la secretion du sue' gastriquo. Des arriere-actions
exeeptionnellement marquees out ete observees chez les chats
dans les troubles il est vrai tres considerables du stereotype d'un
acte reflex? cornplique, colui de recherche do la nourriture. L'ex-
perience etait pratiquee d'une facon toile qu'on faisait passer
par la tete du chat, au moment on il saisissait UTIO souris, un
courant electrique faibIe qui no provoquait pas de reactions
visibles de la part do l'animal. Co trouble unique mais brusque
du stereotype d'un acte reflex? alimentaire complique ?condui-
sait a des troubles pathologiques profonds de l'activite cardia-
quo; les modifications do l' electrocardiogramme y rappelaient
les modifications qui survenaient dans les affections graves du
cur et no disparaissaient quo tres lentement, en plusieurs so-
maines.
Dans cos recherches qui demontrent la naissanco des proces-
sus pathologiques a la suite d'un trouble de ractivite normale
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de l' ocorce cerebrale nous voyons des faits qui out d? attire'
l'attention de Pavlov lui-meme (recherches de son collaborateur
Petrova). Le procede designe comme ?collision? des processus
d'excitation et d'inhibition qui provoque des changements carac-
teristiques de Pactivite nerveuse superieure dependant du type
du systeme nerveux est celui qui permet de creer experimentale-
ment des modeles pour ainsi dire de processus pathologiques
varies, par exemple, celui de la maladie hypertonique, de l'ulcere
gastro-duodenal, etc.
Ces experiences permettent de penser quo les actions inten-
tionnelles sur le fonctionnement de Fecorce cerebrale peuvent
avoir une gralide importance pour le traitement de toute une
serie d'affections. A cet egard, dans notre pays, on a d? obtenu
des resultats importants (par exemple, dans l'application de
cc qu'on appelle le traitement par le sommeil, ou la therapie
medicamenteuse speciale de certaines forrnes de maladies).
Les conclusions sur le r'Ole des changements de Factivite
normale de Pecorce cerebrale dans la production de plusieurs
processus pathologiques (ici, rant rappeler les recherches du
laboratoire de Speranslcy) reposees sur la theorie de reflexes con-
ditionnels, different par leur principe memo de la fagon dont
sont trait& ces problemes par la soi-disante ?medecine psycho-
somatique?. Dans notre conception des liaisons cortico-viscoraleS
nous partons de l'idee que l'activite de l' ecorce cerebrale, l'acti-
vite nerveuse superieure, est determinee par les influences exte-
rieures et interieures eprouvees par l'organisme humain dans
ses relations extramement compliquees avec le milieu qui Fen-
toure et, surtout, avec le milieu social. En disant ceci, nous
soulignons cc fait qu'un trouble de l'activite corticale normale
pout provoquer des changements pathologiques ??a peripherie?
par suite d'un trouble de la marche normale des regulations
cortico-viscerales.
Une action raisonnee sur les processus pathologiques
done se faire en tenant c,ompte de la necessite de retablissernent,
des fonctions normales des segments superieurs du cerveau.
Or ?la medecine psychosomatique? penetree de conceptions dualis-
tes et idealistes de Freud considere les troubles pathologiques
comme dependant des proprietes innees de l'homme. Elle inter-
prete les syndromes pathologiques tantot comme resultat des
complexes ?anaux?, ?erotiques?, tantOt cherche a etendre les
lois de la thilrmodynamique sur l'explication des formes les
plus compliquees de lactivite humaine, tantot opere avec la
notion de la ?force vitale?, par cola memo en fermant la vole
vers une comprehension reelle du m.etanisnae de production des
processus pathologiques.
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Bien entendu, je no puis pas eclairer id i on detail toutes les
realisations et toutes los perspectives der application do la theo-
rie physiologique de Pavlov en clinique.
CONCLUSION
La theorie de Pavlov sur Factivite nerveuse superieure basee
sur la methode des reflexes conditionnels qu'il a imagine? re-
prosente une epoque nouvelle dans l'histoire des sciences naturel-
los, et memo dans cello des sciences humanitaires.
A traverS toute l'histoire de la science nous voyons des tenta-
Lives do comprendre l'activite psychique du point de vue des
lois communes a toute la nature, lois qui relient le monde reel
au monde ideal. On no pout pas oublier que la raison s'est dove-
loppee en rapport avec les conditions exterieures determinees.
to monisme de Pavlov par rapport aux deux formes de la nature
une et indivisible a ete formule par lui comme suit: ?L'homme
est, bien entendu, un system?, comme tout autre system? dans
la nature, soumis aux lois inevitables et communes pour toute
la nature: mais c'est un systeme, a l'horizon de notre vue, unique
par son auto-regulation superieure?.
Pavlov a fait entrer dans le cercle de ses observations et recher-
dies experimentales Forganisme animal et humain ?indis-
solublement integral?. Pour los physiologistes et psychologues
de la periode d'avant Pavlov, le reflex? est un mocanisme tout
pret en partant duquel on dolt pouvoir expliquer l'action courant?
de Porganisrne. Or, Pavlov a pose un autre probleme, a savoir:
comment s'accomplit un acte reflex? aussi hien sous sa forme
simple et primitive quo sous forme de reflexes extremement
complexes du deuxieme system? de signalisation de l'homme,
reflexes qui assurent la base materielle de la pensee exprimee
par le langage et par l' ocriture. Pavlov s'est love au-dessus des
principes de la pensee cartesienne dominant les sciences naturel-
les, il a pass? la method? historique dans cos sciences, se rap-
prochant des conceptions du materialism? dialecaque.
En traitant les manifestations les plus complexes do l'acti-
vite cerobrale de l'homme, les pensees, les sentiments, les pas-
sions comme les manifestations de l'acaviLe de l'organisme hu-
main, Pavlov a su saisir, dans toute la multiplicite du compor-
Lemont humain, des traits generaux. Il a compris en memo temps
les manifestations les plus complexes des processus psychiques
de l'homme comme une organisation parfait? Hee reciproque-
ment avec le milieu exterieur et la societe humaine. Tout on
restant physiologiste lors de l'eLude de l'activite nerveuse sup ?
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rieure, Pavlov ne se servait pas du terme de ?reflexologie? pour
designer le fond de sa theorie basee sur des notions nouvelles
des processus reflexes. En examinant l'activite reflexe du segment
superieur dit. systeme nerveux central, Pavlov n'employait pas,
les termes artificiels et n 'ayant pas de sens concret, comme par
exemple, cella de ?contre-conditionnement? (phenomenes inver-
ses a la formation des reflexes conditionnels), ?oubli?, ?distrac-
tion?, ?principe d'expectation?, etc.
La theoric de l'activite nerveuse suporieure se sert de tout,
l'arsenal de methodes actuelles raffinees d'electrophysiologie
et de biochimie, mais elle considere qu'en faisant des analogies
entre Factivite cerebrale et le servo-mecanisme et la theorie
de liaison de retour on serait revenu an materialisme du XVIII
si?e qui conduisait a une representation mecaniste grossiere
tous ceux qui faisaiont des tentatives aussi malheureuses quo'
cellos que fail la kibernetique. Le radar et les armes automati-
ques qui sow des exemples de servo-mecanismes ne nous feront
pas decouvrir les lois de l'activite de la creation supreme de la
nature ? ecorce cerebrale -- et no pourront pas expliquer les
lois de pensee et de conduite humaines.
Pavlov sui vait des voies nouvelles, ii partait du principe
evolutionniste en biologie et a revele les bases materielles con-
cretes de l'activite psychique. Les recherches dans un domaine
aussi complex? quo l'etude de l'activite nerveuse superieure
ne peuvent naturellement pas etre considerecs comme terminees.
Pavlov lui-meme ecrivait a la fin de son traite c?bre: 'dei,
la montagne do l'inconnu evidemment restcra pendant longtemps
infiniment plus grando quo les fragments de ce qu'on a pu mi
arracher, connaitre.? II n'est pas facile de creer en principe et
en methode une science nouvelle sur l'activite d'un organe que
la pensee humaine a fade de son etude ii y a vingt-trois siecles.
Jo no douto pas quo, en suivant la voie tracee par I. P. Pav-
lov, nous tous en comrnun avec des investigate-ars puissants et
pleins de talent qui se sont consacres dans tous les pays du monde
l'etude de cos problemes nous pourrons penotrer les lois de la
pensee, de la conduit? et de l'enseignement. Et ce sera un hien,
supreme de la connaissance de soi-meme.
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50X1-HUM
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