TECHNICAL PROGRESS OF SOVIET POWER ENGINEERING

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• Collection: General CIA Records
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• Original Classification: R
• Document Page Count: 19
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: September 22, 2011
• Sequence Number: 202
• Publication Date: March 24, 1952
• Content Type: REPORT

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SECURITY INFORMATION
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INFORMATION FROM
FOREIGN DOCUMENTS OR RADIO BROADCASTS CD NO.
COUNTRY
SUBJECT
HOW '
PUBLISHED
WHERE
PUBJJSHED
DATE
PUBLISHED
LANGUAGE
Scientific - Electricity, power engineering
Pamphlet
Moscow
DATE DIST, .tJ/ liar 1952
1950
Russian
SUPPLEMENT TO
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THIS IS UNEVALUATED INFORMATION
Tekhnicheeki Pro ess Otecheatvenno Ener etiki,(Technioall -pro
of Domestic Power Engineering), Izdatel!stvo `Pravda,'!
TECRNICAL PROGRESS OF SOVIET POWER ENGINEERING
V. I. Veyte
Corr Mem, Aced.8c1 USSR
Figures referred to are appended,]
Significance in National Economy
Technical progress in power engineering and, more specifically, in elec-
trification plays an exceptionally important role in building the economic and
technical foundations of a socialist and Communist society. Electrification
is the keystone it the technical reconstruction of all branches of the Soviet
economy, including its foremost branch, heavy industry, with its main compo-
nent, machine building. The introduction of automatic, single-motor and multi-
motor drives, electrification of assemblies and plants, extensive mechanization
or large-scale operations and their widespread automatization, development of
power engineering on the most modern principles, wide electrification of trac-
tion, extensive electrification of the rural economy-and homesteads, all con-
tribute to raising the national economy to a higher level.
The creation of a highly dependable and. economical network for country-
wide distribution of abundant and cheap electric power is a .prerequisite for.
an even wider application of electricity in industry, transportation, rural
economy and daily existence.
It should be remembered that electricity is still the costliest form of
energy insofar as initial investment mud production costs are concerned. For
-txample, in many high-temperature industrial processes which, due to produc-
tion conditions involved, can be operated either with electricity (electric
furnaces) or with gas (gas furnaces), the initial investment per megacalorie
is from two to ten time greater in electrically operated installations than.
in those utilizing gas. It is double if we compare a highly efficient steam-
electric.power station with a gas-generating plant; it is tenfold if we compare
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having or natural gas.) In many areas
having sources of cheap gaseous fuel, such as coke gas or natural gas, and where
condensing units are used in the generation of power, production cost per mega-
calorie derived from gas is also lower than that for electricity. Technical
progress, in the power economy, through improvements in production and distri-
bution and reductions in production costa, has a direct sad beneficial effect
in rapidly solving basic problems relating to the electrification of the country.
This lecture is limited to a review of fundarental technical achievements
in the power field, i.e., at electric power stations uId in distribution systems.
Problems pertaining to technical progress in the electrification of industry,
agriculture, transportation, and households should be taken up in other lectures.
Power Eineering in Prerevolutionary Russia
The power industry in prerevolutionary Russia was"hopelessly lagging. The
total installed capacity of power stations amounted to 'one million kilowatts;
the total electric energy production, to 2 billion kilowatt-hours; and the total
fuel balance (including fuel for household use), to 100 million tons of referr,
ence L-standar7 fuel. These figures show the power capabilities of prerevolu-
tionary Russia.
Comparisons with corresponding data from countries such as the USA and Ger-
many demonstrate that Russian capabilities had been less than one tenth-those
of the USA, and one fifth those of Gerwany.
The technical level of power engineering in prerevolutionary Russia is
further illustrated by the following facts. The power supply of great national
centers was derived solely from many small power stations. I. V. Elizarov, in
a work published in 1916, gives results of a survey showing that in Petrograd
some 105 small power stations were in operation. The foirr district stations in
Petrograd (111886," "Gelios," "Belgiiskaya," "Tramvaynaya") operated independ-
ently with different voltages, number of phases, and frequencies. Furthermore,
cables and circuits of different stations intersected within the same district.
Steam power stations were ooperated at pressures of the order of only 8-14
atm and temperatures of 300-3500C. Boiler output was limited to 10-20 tons of
steam per hour; boiler efficiency was less than 65 percent. The maximum power
of the turbines then in operation was 10,000 kw, and there were only two of
these.
Each of the district power stations at Petrograd, Moscow, and Baku had more
than ten water-tube boilers and a great number of steam engines and turbines.
All were fueled either with oil or high-grade Donets or imported coal. The
maximum efficiency of power stations was 11-12 percent.- In 1913, the average
fuel consumption per kilowatt-hour produced at the larger power stations was
1.15 kg; in 1917, this figure dumped to 1.35 kg of reference fuel per kilowatt-
hour.
The coefficient of industrial electrification in Russia was o
group drives being prevalent. Use of electric power in'technological processes
on a large scale w6s unknown.
The entire rural economy of Russia was served by power stations having a
total -if 2,000 kw installed capacity. In cities, the annual power consumption
was 15 kw-h per.capita.
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Of thFinally, it should be remembered that practically all the maij equipment
power stations was imported, and the stations themselves were
foreign capitalists. owned by
But even this legacy in the field of power production was largely destroyed
by the time it came into the bands of the Soviet state. This was a result of
World War I and the periods of civil war and foreign intervention. The Soviet
state had to recreate the very power foundations of the national economy.
Basic Power-Enaiaeeri Problems as Reflected in
c~uEl o Pfau and Stalin Five-Year Plans
The GOELRO (State Commission for the Electrification of Russia) plan of
Lenin superbly outlines the trends and characteristics in the development of
power engineering in a socialist economy.
Among the principal novel technical trends of power engineering advanced
and formulated in t:.,; GOELRO plan were the following:,
1. Creation of large regional power plants (30 stations with a total
installed capacity of 1,750,000 kw) as the power production framework for the
economy of the main regions of the country.
2. Successful utilization of inferior fuel resources as the determining
factor in recasting the distorted fuel balance of prerevolutionar,, Russia.
3. Utilization of water-power resources by ^onstruction of large hydro-
electric stations.
4. Utilization of high-voltage transmission and the creation of district
power systems with an eye to their future integration.
In the Stalin Five-Year Plans, these fundamentals were expanded, with con-
sideration of new tasks in the establishment of the socialist economy. These
included:
1. Construction of additional power networks within, various areas of the
country, based on Stalin's plan for relocating industry and creating new in-
dustrial centers.
2. Establishment of a well developed power-equipmP.ht industry utilizing
the most up-to-date technical methods and capable of meeting all the require-
ments of a vigorously growing power economy and standardization of power equip-
ment with respect to power, types, and parameters.
3. Development of district heating fombined steam and power supplyj as
one of the basic trends of socialist power engineering.
4. Development of gasification, particularly with respect to methods for
underground gasification of coal deposits.
5. The use of highly productive boilers and turbines operated with steam
of high initial parameters.
6. Extensive automatization of power generation a nd'distribution processes.
The law relating to the
n6 postwar Five-Year Plan fo} period 1946 - 1950
especially provides for the following: :i
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Extensive introduction of the most modern power engineering develo
Power stations
t
s in
-- utilization of steam at high p p,n
ressures and temperatures, uti-
lization of modern extraction turbines, and utilization of the most recent models
Of boilers, generators, and high-voltage transmission equipment. Extensive e-
velopmental work on automatic control of production operations in power stations
and Power systems, with first priority being allocated to complete automatic
control of hydroelectric stations.
Conducting scientific research and practical tests on long-distance power
transmission by means of high-voltage dc; production of (1) modern types of
electric machines, transformers, and power distribution equipment, (2) protec-
tive and automatic relays, and (3) hidh-voltage equipment; and continuation of
and achieving underground coal gasification (Law on the Five-Year Plan
for the Reconstruction and Development of the Rational Economy of the USSR Dur-
ing 1946 - 1950, 19th Edition, 1946, pages 21-24.
The rate of development of the Soviet power industry has no equal in the
world. In actual power production, the Soviet Union has already reached second
Place in the world and first in Europe. The power engineering equipment of our
country is also the newest in the world. During the prewar Stalin Five-Year
Plans (1928 - 1940), the installed capacity of our power stations increased
more than fivefold; the schedule for the postwar 5-year period is to double this
figure. From the standpoint of engineering, Soviet power industry leads the
world.
Steam-Electric Power Stations
Steam-electric power stations art the principal source of electricity in
the Soviet economy. In 1940, about 90 percent of the country's total power pro-
duction was generated at steam-electric power stations. In 1950, in accordance
with the postwar Five-Year Plan, and taking into consideration a much higher
development rate of hydroelectric installations, steam-electric power stations
will still be producing more than four fifths of the country's total power.
Eventually, even with further increases in power production and with continued
increased development of hydroelectric power, the steam power stations will
still produce, according to our estimates, approximately two thirds of the to-
tal power output.
Hence, engineering progress in the field of steam-generated power is of
special importance in solving basic problems of improving dependability and ef-
ficiency of electric power supply.
1. Utilization of Local Fuel Resources
The utilization of local fuel resources, one of the noteworthy achieve-
ments of Soviet power engineering, was attained through developing several re-
liable and efficient methods for producing and using fuels of various types and
grades.
The Lenin-Stalin GOELRO plan considered this problem in connection with
the proposed construction of new power plants utilizing coal of the Moscow area,
coal from the Ural deposits, peat, and shale. The task of discovering and uti-
lizing regional fu-1 supplies is prominent in the Stalin Five-Year Plans for
the development of the national economy.
Stalin, in Problems of Leninism, page 445, states: "Expand to the ut-
most production from all known coal-bearing areas, and exploit new coal-producing
regions." This was one high-priority assignment put forward by Stalin in his
report to the 17th Congress of the VKP(b).
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The postwar Five-Year Plan also stresses the need for "developing by
every means new local sources of coal supply in every region of the country."
Power stations pioneered in the consumption of new low-grade forms of
fuel, and were the mainstays of progress in this field. During the Stalin Five-
Year Plans, efficient methods of burning over 60 types of fuel were developed
and successfully used. Soviet power engineers have also solved a series of com-
Plex scientific and technological problems concerning the preparation and com-
bustion of various types of fuel having widely dissimilar characteristics:
high moisture content (up to 55 percent), high ash content (up to 60 percent
on the dry basis), low volatile matter (3 percent of the fuel mass), low ash
fusion temperature, diverse clinkering characteristics, high sulfur content,
poor crushing characteristics, etc. Many of these problems were solved for
the first time by Soviet power engineers. Prominent foreign concerns, which
during the first years of the Soviet regime were called upon to supply power
equipment for our power stations suitable for utilizing local fuel resources
(Shterovka, anthracite culm; Kashira, Moscow-area coal; Berezniki, Kizel' coal),
were unable to develop a successful method for the utilization of such types
of fuel. Soviet power engineers solved these problems independently.
Anthracite culm was formerly considered waste, and dumpel. The calm
banks of the Donets coal region have yielded many millions of tons of .his fuel.
With an increasing rate of coal production and mechanization in coal mining,
the anthracite-culm output increased tremendously (even in the early thirties,
the yield of calm reached the 3-4 million ton mark, some 20 percent of the
anthracite production of the Donets oasin). The very low volatile content
(3-3.5 percent of the fuel mass), excessive hardness, and low ash fusion tem-
perature made the use of this form of fuel extremely difficult. Soviet power
engineers pioneered the design and successful operation of power stations fueled
wit anthracite culm.
In 1927, the Shterovka power station of the Donets region started to
use pulverized anthracite culm as a fuel. Early in the First Five-Year Plan,
the installed capacity of stations using this kind of fuel exceeded one million
kilowatts. Soviet power stations are equipped with the world's largest anthraeite-
culm-burning boilers, which are manufactured by the Soviet industry, and produce
200 tons of steam per hour. Systematic work on improving the efficiency of
anthracite-culm combustion has increased the over-all boiler efficiency from
about 68-75 percent to 80-82 percent. More than one third of the total prewar
output of power generated at the regional coal-burning power stations was pro-
duced from anthracite calm. Anthracite culm, a formerly discarded form of fuel,
has thus become a basic type of fuel for power plants located in the South,
Central, and Volga areas.
The Moscow area coal is high in moisture (32 percent) and ash (25 per-
cent) content, contains relatively large amounts of sulfur (2.4 percent), and
has a low heat value (2,540 calories per kilogram). All this greatly compli-
cated the efficient use of this fuel. These difficulties were nevertheless suc-
cessfully overcome by Soviet power engineers. The Kashira and Stalinogorsk
regional electric power stations are outstanding examples of the progress of
the Soviet power industry in the utilization of low-grade coal of the Moscow
area. Experience gained in attaining consistently productive use of Moscow coal
contributed to the efficient utilization of other types of lignite, e.g., those
of Bogoslovka and Chelyabinsk in the Urals, of Angren in Middle Asia, etc.
The Soviet power industry attained world-wide leadership in the uti-
lization of peat. The Soviet Union has established priority in, and develop-
ment and efficient utilization of, milling and hydraulic mining methods for the
production of peat.
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For the efficient combustion of lump peat, Soviet power engineers have
created the original chain-shaft stoker system of Makar'yev. Operating meth-
ods for the Joint combustion of milled and lump peat in conventional fireboxes
designed solely for lump peat, and also new burners for milled peat (Shershnev
system, VTX_Mosenergo chamber shaft-pulverizer type) were developed.
Prior tto h
e development and introduction of the Soviet methods, com-
bustion of milled peat in the furnace chamber had not been achieved in any capi-
talist country.
The Soviet power industry has the world's largest peat-buring power
e`ltions, with a capacity of about 200,000 kw, and boilers prodi?cing 200 tons
of steam per hour. The efficiency of the best peat boilers reaches 90 percent
and can be maintained at 85 percent over prolonged operating periods.
The decision, formulated in the law on the postwar Five-Year Plan, to
undertake large-scale coal enrichment, has posed the problem of providing ef-
fective methods for the combustion of the residual tailings having a high ash
content. At present some of our power stations are successfully using such by-
products of coal enrichment as fuel.
Considrable Intro-
duction of fuel-combustion emet odsbwitharemoval of the slag in liquiand . In
1946 and 1948, two developments in this field earned the Stalin Prize.
by In sults oLtecchhnnic l progress in the use of local fuel supplies
are iadicThedre
have occurred in the allocation of various types cofifuel tresources tosupportat
l
the output of regional power stations.
In the postwar years, more than three fourths of the total power gener-
ated at the regional steam power stations was derived from local fuel resources.
From standpoint of national economy, the significance of technical pro-
gress achieved by the Soviet power industry in the use of local fuel resources
was demonstrated during the war years when Donets coal was excluded temporar-
ily from our fuel balance, and it was necessary to shift swiftly and effec-
tively a substantial portion of our power economy to other types of fuel. Sov-
iet power engineers met this emergency. Power plants that were hastily con-
verted to the use of local fuels during the first months of the war were soon
operating reliably and economically.
Further improvements in the degree of local fuel utilization pose new
problems for power engineers. These include development and introduction of
improved methods of ash and sulfur recovery, methods for combined chemical and
power utilization of various types of fuel by the power stations, with the aim
of separating out valuable chemical gases and tars; new methods for making use
of the ash derived from various types of fuel as an industrial raw material, etc.
2. District Heating
District heating, the utilization of fuel for the joint production of
electric power and steam heat, can be considered, from the standpoint of the
national economy, as a major achievement of Soviet power engineering. None of
the attainments of modern steam engineering yields greater over-all power ef-
ficiency than that securEl. by applying the district heating principle.
District heating, ensures very high fuel economy. Each megacalorie ex-
tended for heating purposes or for low-temperature industrial processes can
yield an additional 240-320 kw-hr of power (the former figure refers to medium-
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pressure plants, the latter to high-pressure, plants). Specific fuel consump-
tion per kilowatt-hour produced in heat and power plants is about two and a
halt times less than for the equivalent amount of power generated in a modern
steam power plant. Moreover, the change from individual heating plants to cen-
t-alized heat supply from a heat and power station (TEfs) saves (due to higher
boiler efficiency) about 0.3 megacalorie for each megacalorie of heat produced.
Under actual operating conditions, the annual mean efficiency of power genera-
tion by TETs exceeds that of steam power stations by about 40 percent in the
case of industrial TEfs (where heat is utilized primarily for manufacturing pur-
poses) and by about 25 percent in the case of urban stations (where heat is
used mostly for heeting buildings), other conditions being equal.
District heating makes possible the use of local low-grade 'uel re-
sources for heating purposes. The combustion of such fuels in individual fur-
naces is uneconomical and also inadmissible for sanitary reasons. District
heating lowers the cost of power, and is more flexible in meeting the everyday
needs of the population.
The extent of development 1940) is indicatedbythefollowing o data: the during
number ofeTEfs decade 3 from
14 to 100 and their installed capacity reached 2.5 million kw, about 70 per-
cent of which was derived from extraction turbines. The length of district
heating networks increased 30 times during this period (from 20 to 600 km), and
the annual heat output of TETs increased 17 times to 27 million megacalories.
One c.iaracteristic feature of Soviet district heating is the integra-
tion of TEN with the regional power systems, a scheme which effects increased
economy for both the stations and the systems.
The law relative to the postwar Five-Year Plan provides for the con-
struction of 37 new regional steam power plants, 21 of which are to be of the
TEfs type. The TETs installed capacity has already reached about 30 percent of
the total installed capacity of oteam power stations (as compared with 22 per-
cent in the prewar period), and their heat output is more than double the maxi-
mum prewar level. At present, 2 million tons of reference fuel a year are saved
as a result of district heating.
A remarkable achievement is the series production at Soviet plants and
the putting into operation of heavy-duty extraction turbines with single or dual
controlled extraction. The first extraction turbine of 25,000 kw operating at
29 atm and 400 C and yielding 100 tons of steam per hour at 1.2-2.0? atm pres-
sure was produced as early as .1933 at t:.= Leningrad Metal plant imeni Stalin.
At that time it was the world's most powerful extraction turbine.
Before the war, a steam-extraction turbine yielding steam at 7 atm
pressure was widely used in industry. In 1939 the world's largest and most
efficient turbine, a 50,000 kw, 3,000 rpm extraction type, was put into opera-
tion. This was designed to deliver 200 tons of steam per hour. Since the war,
Soviet power engineers made further progress in the production of extraction
turbines. In particular, they produced and put into operation extraction tur-
bines which delivered steam for industrial heating applications, developed tur-
bines with high initial pressure and temperature (90 atm and 480-500? C) and
introduced a high-pressure 25,000-kw dual-extraction turbine yielding 60 tons
of steam at 1.2-2,5 atm and 80 tons at 8-13 atm.
Postwar extraction turbines include very efficient types with va^ying
back pressures and initial and final steam parameters. The Leningrad Metal
Plant imenf'Stalin has attained world-wide leadership with regard to production
techniques for series production of extraction turbines.
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Soviet power engineers have developed the theory of heating networks
and solvtd practical problems pertaining to distribution of superheatea water
(temperature of 110-1500 C). Extensive hot-water heating networks have been
installed. Soviet methods of computing the
heating networks were developed. hydraulics of long and intricate
During the postwar years, automatic regulation of essential controlild
operations in municipal heating networks (whereby the temperature within bu-
ings is automatically maintained at a set level and the pressure kept constant)
was likewise developed. In Moscow, several score automatically controlled heat-
ing mains are now in operation. At TETs and industrial installations, steam-
Jet compressors are widely used. These heat transformers make possible a re-
duction of the live-steam output of Loilers and tnus increase the output of
electric energy produced at heat and power stations.
Today, the S.- et power industry is faced with new scientific and tech-
nical problems, the solution of which will raise the quality of our district
heating methods to still higher levels First of all the efficiency of the
operating TETs must be increased. This can be effected by (a) better utiliza-
tion of steam extracted from turbines, thereby increasing electric power pro-
duction, (b) electric power production at efficient condeoaing-type stations
near fuel bases instead of at TETs in cities, and (c) by the introduction of
comprehensive automatization. Estimates indicate that fuel economy can be in-
creased approximately one and a half times by drawing upon unutilized reserves.
The expenditures necessary to increase the efficiency of operational
TETs can be rapidly amortized. This is apparent from the following example:
one ton of metal used for heating systems to increase utilization of steam ex-
tracted from the turbines of operational TETs can yield an average annual sav-
ing of about 25 tons of reference fuel.
Further development of district beating in cities with difficult fuel
supply conditions involves certain difficulties. Placing the TETs within city
limits and burning of low-grade fuel having high ash and frequently high sulfur
content would be disadvantageous from a hygienic viewpoint. A satisfactory
solution of this problem requires the transfer of TETs outside city limits and
the selection of sites having a water and fuel supply. This will improve sani-
tary conditions in the city and ensure maximum fuel economy by providing the
best operating conditions of the TETs. However, on the other hand, it involves
switching to distant neat distribution within a radius of 20-30 kilometers in
lieu of maximum effective heat distribution -- by hot water -- within 8-10 kilo-
meters. Investigations have demonstrated the technical feasibility and, under
certain conditions, the economic advantages of heat distribution remote from
the so-called suburban TETs.
Concurrently, a number of localities are faced with the problem of
adopting joint parallel operation of different sources of steam-heat supply
(TETs and steam boilers), i.e., of developing heat supply systems similar to
electric power systems. This would make possible a further increase in dependa-
bility and economy of heat supply.
Investigations have shown the potentialities of district heating in a
number of industrial fields with respect to high-temperature processes such as
the utilizatiou of gas, air, or mercury turbines in power systems, i.e., utili-
zation of fuel to obtain both high-temperature heat carriers (at temperatures
in excess of 2500 C) and electric power, instead of their separate production
in furnaces or special burners and electric power plants. High-temperature
district heating also ensures substantial fuel savings and, under certain con-
ditions, lower capital investments (for instance, in replacing the Cowper system
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Ono turboblowers in the preheating and compression admitted into blast
furnaces with a new composite power system, using gas, air, or mercury turbines
and suitable heat exchangers).
A number of the fundamental problems listed above were first formulated
and solved in Soviet scientific-research work.
3. Steam at High Pressures and Temperatures
A substantial increase in the efficiency of steam power plants results
from the operation of turbines at high initial steam pressures and temperatures.
The change-over in steam power stations from in',ial steam parameters
15 atm and 350' C to 30 atm and 400? C results in a 25-30 percent fuel sav-
ing, A change from 30 atm and 400? C to 90-100 atm and 480-500? C gives a fur-
ther fuel saving of 13-14 percent as compared with operation at 30 atm and
400? C. Of great importance are high initial steam pressures in TETs, since
they increase electric power output per megacalorie produced for heating pur-
poses. This is shown in Fugure 2.
During the years preceding the First Five Year Plan, typical equip-
ment of USSR power stations had initial steam parameters of 13-16 atm and 325-
350? C. The first prewar stage in the development of the power industry was
the large-scale conversion to operational standards of 29 atm and 4000 C. As
a result of the first two Five Year Plans, the Soviet power industry reached a
world-wide position of leadership with respect to the ratio of the contribution
of high-pressure installations to the total installed capacity of steam power
plants.
A few installations which operated at high initial parameters were
built in the USSR before the war. Among these was the high-pressure installa-
tion at the steam power plant of the All-Union Thermal Engineer.ng Institute,
operating at 140 atm and 500? C.
A valuable contribution of Soviet power engineering was the creation
by L. K. Ramzin, of a uniflow boiler of original design, which was awarded a
Stalin Prize in 1934.
The contribution of the 100-atm installations to the total capacity of
steam power stations was quite negligible during the prewar period (1-2 percent).
Even under the difficult wartime conditions; our scientific-research institutes
and plant design departments continued their work on the production of high-
pressure power equipment. For example, a number of uniflow boilers of the
Ramzin type were built and put into operation in record time at power stations
in the Ural Mountains.
During the postwar Five Year Plan, a basic charge in the utilization
of high-pressure installations has taken place. Soviet plants have produced
high-power boilers and turbines (both the condensing and the heat and power type)
which operate at 90-100 atm initial pressure and 500-480? C (the first figures
refer to boilers and the second to turbines).
In 1950, in accordance with the Five-Year Plan, the installed capacity
of high-pressure installations will reach approximately one third of the total
installed capacity of steam power plants. In the USA, this ratio was only about
one to six before the war.
Concurrently with efforts to increase further the dependability and
efficiency of installations operating at 100 atm and 500? C, theoretical and ex-
perimental investigations are being conducted on the utilization of steam
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b12 the very high initial parameters of 170-250 atm and 550-500? C
that
. Estiratea
the use of steam at these pressures and temperatures resul in a fuel
osaviag amounting to 10-14 percent compared to fuel consumption of ints stallations
Aerating at 100 atm and 5000 C.
30 atm to he problem of converting existing steam-turbine power stations from
100 atm is also being successfully solved by coupling high-pressure
turbines (90 atm, 5000 C and back pressures of 29-33 and 15-21 atm) with low-
pressure units.
The ssame
installations developed
Power u Engineering solve Institute mof thefAcademynoo
Sciences USSR, making use of existing medium- and low-pressure boilers. This
new engineering method for the production of high-pressure steam by means of
binary two-component boilers can be applied to various types of lov-pressure
boilers.
Successful utilization of steam at high pressures and temperatures is
one of the remarkable attainments of Soviet power engineers in the poitwar period.
4. High-Output Units
Increased output by boiler and turbine units is not only a means c:f
boosting efficiency (fuel economy) but is also of utmost imtortance in lower-
ing capital investment per kilowatt of power, in raising the power production
rate, and in scaling down operational costs, mainly by a reduction in personnel.
Figure 3 shows capital investments and metal expenditures per kilo-
watt of installed capacity in relation to units of power and number of units
(machines) in a condensing-turbine steam-power plant.
Usually the selection of a particular capacity of a TETs and of the
individual units is limited by the magnitude, the nature, and the distribu-
tion of heat loads within a radius of a few kilometers from the station. The
selection of total and unit capacities for a condensing-turbine steam-power
plant located at a fuel supply base is determined mainly by the size and type
of the electric power system that includes the power station. Naturally, im-
portant consideration is also given to other factors, such as fuel supply etc.
Electric power systems covering large industrial areas, extending over hundreds
of kilometers, have total capacities of millions of kilowatts. This figure
tends to increase as power systems combine.
Low-power units can be economically justified in TETs installations.
However, at the regional condensing-turbine power stations, single units of
50,000 kw capacity, and, in isolated instances, even of 100,000 kw capacity can
be economically justified.
Technical progress of Soviet power engineering in the field of pro-
duction and use of high-output boilers and turbines is illustrated by the fol-
lowing figures. In 1917, the largest unit in a power station had a power of
10,000 kw. In 1925, a 16,000-kw unit was put into operation; in 1927 - 1928,
44,000- and 50,000-kw units were introduced.
In prerevolutionary Russia, boilers which produced a maximum of 10
tons of steam per hour were manufactured; the maximum output of turbines built
at the St Petersburg Metal Plant, now the Leningrad Metal Plant (LMZ), was only
1,200 kw. Thu rotire prerevolutionary production consisted of 26 turbines with
a total capacity of 9,000 kw.
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During the years preceding the First Five-Year Plan, the maximum ca-
pacity of turbines and power generators manufactured in Soviet plants was 10,000
kw. In the prewar years, the first 100,000-kw turbogenerators were built and
put into operation. The l00,000-kw turbine built in 1938 - 1939 at the I1TL was
then the only two-cylinder, high-speed (3,000 rpm) machine in the world. Its
initial parameters were 29 atm and 4000 C.
A 50,000-kw extraction turbine built at the LMZ has been in operation
since 1940. This is the only one of its kind in the world. The individual out-
put of the boilers mass-produced in Soviet plants reaches 230 tons per hour,
that of the condensing turbogenerators. 100,000 kw.
An 'mportant achievement of Soviet power engineering in the course of
the postwar rive-Year Plan was the production in 1946 at the LMZ and "Elektro-
sila" plants of the record-breaking 100,000-kw, 3,000-rpm, single-shaft turbo-
generator unit. The initial parameters are 90 atm and 480? C. Its weight is
265 tons, the same as that of a 29-atm turbine of the same power. With reepect
to speed, weight, dimensions, and other characteristics, this turbine outstrips
the best foreign models of this type.
A 100,000-kw hydrogen-cooled generator was built for this unit at the
"Elektrosila" Plant. Cooling with hydrogen instead of conventional ai-cooling
results in better heat dissipation at the generator windings, lower ventilation
losses, increased efficiercy, and lower materials costs.
5. Automatization
Automatic control of production processes is of especially great im-
portance in making more economical and dependable the operation of power plants,
particularly steam power plants.
The power industry, unlike other industrial enterprises, cannot store
its finished product (electrical energy). Under the changing conditions of
power consumption, automatic regulation must be widely used.
Automatic control of power-generating processes keeps damage to equip-
ment and breakdowns to a minimum. It decreases the number of service personnel
and raises efficiency (for instance, automatic control increases boiler effi-
ciency by 2-3 percent, which in a 200,000-kw station amounts to a yearly saving
of about 10,000 tons of reference fuel).
The Soviet power industry has at its disposal many excellent ser:es-
produced complete units of automatic control equipment for use In steam ;over
stations (VTI, TsKTI, Teploavtomat, and other systems). The comprehensive au-
tomatization of boiler pla??`.s includes automatic regulation of feedwater, com-
bustion, superheat temperature, fuel preparation etc., in combination with re-
mote control. Two groups were awarded the Stalin Prize in 1946 and 1948 for
the construction and industrial adaptation of automatic boiler control devices.
Automatic regulation has been developed extensively in the electrical
part of power plants (protective relays, automatic repeated reclosing, au-
tomatic emergency-power switches, etc.).
In the course of the postwar Five Year Plan, remarkable results have
been obtained in the automatic control of steam power stations. However, the
full use of automatic control at all steam power stations still remains one of
the most acute and urgent problems of the Soviet power industry.
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 6. Efficiency
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Technical progress in steam power stations is measured mainly by the
specific fuel consumption per kilowatt-hour. Figure 5 shows the correlation
of average efficiency and specific fuel consumption per kilowatt-hour in USSR
regional steam power stations.
It can be seen that efficiency has been increasing steadily, as specific
fuel consumption becomes lower. During the years of the Soviet regime, the aver-
age efficiency of our steam power stations has more than doubled. During the
period of the Five-Year Plans, it has increased approximately one and a half
times.
Soviet power stations have considerable unutilized resources for fur-
ther increasing efficiency and decreasing specific fuel consumption. Fuel con-
sumption can be reduced to about 0.45 kg of reference fuel per kilowatt-hour
(approximately 27 percent efficiency) by enlarging the heat load extracted at
heat and powe. stations and raising the combined output of heat and pc'or, by
improving operational conditions, by raising the proportion of high-pressure
equipment, and by comprehensive automatization.
Great potentialities for increased efficiency in producing power at
steam power stations are revealed by modern rower production techniques. The
potentialities are:
a. The development and installation of high-output boilers and steam
turbines operating at initial steam pressures of 170-250 atm and temperatures
of 550-600 C. The efficiency of such power plants could reach 38 percent.
b. The development and adaptation of new systems of comprehensive
automatization of steam power plants.
C, The introduction of mercury-steam turbines as the central heat
supply for high-temperature processes in industrial enterprises as well as in
existing power stations in order to modernize both types of plants.
d. The introduction, at low- and medium-output power stations, of
gas turbines operating on solid fuel (with preliminary gasification or by di-
rect combustion). The use of gas-turbine power plants in conjunction with
underground coal gasification will pruvide operational conditions and auto-
matic control potentialities for steam pov!r stations approximating those ex-
isting at such advantageous power-supply sources as hydroelectric stations.
e. The wide use, in power plants, of fuel for the production of both
power and chemicals, particularly in accordance with methods developed at the
Power Engineering Institute imeni Krzhizhanovskiy of the Academy of Sciences
USSR. By these methods, it is possible to produce power, steam, hot water,
high-calorific gas, and resins in a heat and power plant.
f. Introduction of new methods for obtaining electric power, such as
those developed at the Power Engineering Institute imeni Krzhizhanovskiy of the
Academy of Sciences USSR, which would salvage waste industrial heat. The aim
is to develop the so-called "fuelless"power stations for a number of manufactur-
ing enterprises, where power is generated not from special fuel but by utiliz-
ing secondary power resources.
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Rydroelectric Power Stations
From the viewpoint of engineering economics, hydroelectric power stations
(GES) are the most satisfactory sources of power. The desire to develop GES to
the utmost is prominent throughout all the Five-Year Plans and originated with
the GOELRO plan. In 1940, 39 GES installations with an annual output equaling
10.5 percent of the total power generated in this country were already in opera-
tion. GES operation was then saving more than 3 million tins of reference fuel
per year.
The first Soviet GES was the Volkhov station which began operations in
1926. The subsequently established Dnepr (May 1932) Svir, Rybinsk, and other
GES are outstanding examples of Soviet technical progress.
The magnitude of the job of constructing the Dnepr station is illustrated
by the following figures. Workers excavated 2.8 million cubic meters of earth
anddcrooc ck, poured 1.2 million cubic meters of concrete, and manufactured and
35,000 tons of structural stee.i. Between 1 May 1932 and 18 August 1941
the Dnepr GES provided the country with approximately 16 billion kw-h of energy,
thereby saving approximately 10 million tons of high-grade fuel. The power
station had only 290 personnel; 8 million kw-h per annum were produced for each
worxer, approximately 8-10 times the corresponding figure in regional steam
power stations.
The Svir GES was built under extremely difficult geological conditions.
Erected on settling ground, its foundations had to be slanted at such an angle
as to gradually assume a vertical position upon subsequent settling during the
course of completion. A construction enterprise of this nature was achieved
for the first time.
During the prewar years, the Soviet power-equipment-machine-building indus-
try had created hydraulic, turbines of original designs (in particular for the
Rybinsk and Uglich GES). Outstanding progress was made by the "Elektrosila"
Plant in producing generators for GES.
Under trying wartime conditions, GES construction continued in the eartern
regions of the country. GES installations were built in Central Asia in record
time.
The Germans inflicted tremendous damage to the country's hydroelectric
plants; they destroyed and crippled a number of stations with installed capaci-
ties of more than one million kw, including the Dnepr GES. The scope of GES
construction during the postwar Five-Year Plan can be judged from the law rela-
tive to this plan, which provides for reconstruction of six GES destroyed during
the war, for the completion of 30 GES, and for the building of 13 new GES. In
5 years, large GES with a total capacity of 2.3 million kw and small rural sta-
tions with a total capacity of one million kw had to be put into operation.
The greatest achievement of Soviet power engineers in the postwar period
was the complete reconstruction of the Dnepr GES. On 3 March 1947, the first
hydrogenerator of the new Dnepr GES began feeding power to the industrial instal-
lations of the Dnepr area. The Leningrad Metal Plant built a unique, 102,000-
hp turbine for the Dnepr GES. The hydraulic turbines originally installed in
the old Dnepr GES developed 91,000 hp and had an efficiency of 90.3 percent.
The Leningrad Metal "!ant provided a 102,000-hp hydraulic turbine with the same
installation dimensions, and with an efficiency of 93 percent. Considerably
improved also, as compared with the prewar equipment, are the generators manu-
factured for the Dnepr GES by the "Elektrosila" Plant.
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1W
One of the important achievements of postwar power engineering is the de-
velopment of a uniform scale of hydraulic turbines having a minimum number of
types and dimensions within the power range from 600 to 125,000 kw and pressure
heads ranging from 3 to 250 meters.
Many of the GES built after the war are unique in some of their technical
features. The original construction of the Kama GES is important as a model
for a number of other stations. At the Mingechaur GES, under construction as
a part of the Azerbaydzhan Electric Power System, an earth dam with a 70-meter
pressure head was built. The technical characteristics make the dam unique.
Even before the war, there were some fully automatic GES in the Soviet
Union. One of these, a two-unit GES in the Moscow power system, operates en-
tirely without attending personnel; in fact, the main station area is usually
restricted. Machines are started and stopper? by push buttons from a central
contrc,l board quite remote from the station itself. All disturbances in opera-
tion are signaled instantly on this board. In the postwar period, extensive
work has been done on automatization of Soviet GES, and the automatic control
systems themselves have been improved considerably.
An unprecedented expansion during the postwar period was experienced also
in the construction of small GES in farm areas. As a part of the Five-Year
Plan, 18,000 small GES will be built.
Electric Power Systems
Planned development of electric power systems is one of the main founda-
tions of our technical policy, as enunciated in the GOELRO plan that was evolved
and put into effect during the Five-Year Plans.
An electric power voltage network, havingsassingle consists power
fdispatchin5 linked
control center and
common power reserves.
Electric power systems afford substantial advantages over isolated power
stations. These are: most effective 4se of water power resources, TETs: and
condensing-turbine power stations operating on local fuels; considerable fuel
savings and lower capital investments, and power production costs; more rapid
development of the power production base due to the faster expansion of capac-
ity; and increased reliability and flexibility of the power supply.
Soviet power engineers did not fall heir to any appreciable experience in
the development and operation of power ,ystems. The development of a power
base during the Five-Year Plans therefore had as a primary aim the construction
of electric power systems. During the first Five-Year Plan, about oue third
of the total installed capacity was in electric power systems; in the prewar
years, this figure had increased to three quarters, and about four fifths of
the total energy output (kw-h) was developed in electric power systems. About
50 power systems have been built and are in operation in various parts of the
country. By the beginning of the third Five-Year Plan, seven power systems
each had a yearly output in excess of a billion kw-h. The Moscow power system
is the largest system with steam-electric pcder stations in Europe and the sec-
ond largest in the world. Power system4 extend over several hundred kilometers,
in some cases over 12,000 km.
Figure 6 shows diagrammatically the different types of power systems as
they exist in various regions of the country. The first type is essentially a
single chain of high-voltage lines. The second type is a grid, the junctions
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of which are the generating power stations and the large substations of consumer
cent-_rs. The third type is a centripetal flow system directed toward a main
consumer center.
The electric power systems of the USSR differ substantially from those
abroad due to the peculiarities inherent in a planned socialist economy. The
capitalist system creates insuperable obstacles to the development of power
systems.
Creation and expansion of socialist power systems is correlated with a
Planned development end distribution of the productive forces within the zone
serviced by the system and with efficient utilization of individual types of
Power resources. The Soviet power systems further differ from those of other
countries in their structure because of the joint operation of heat-and-power,
condensing-turbine, and hydreelectric stations.
The outstanding features of our electric power systems were strikingly
displayed during the war years. The planned construction of systems in the
eastern areas of the country ensured an uninterrupted supply of electric power
to industrial enterprises evacuated to the east. Installations evacuated to
the Urals were dispersed over 1,000 kilometers -- from Solikamsk to Magnito-
gorsk -- and resumed operation at the new sites in record time, primarily due
to the highly developed Ural power system. Under the trying wartime conditions,
the regional power systems provided power to the national econc,my without inter-
ru')tion.
In the years following the war, the development of power systems in the
USSR resumed with new force. Construction and development of power systems con-
tinued, as did the work already begun during the Third Five-Year Plan, of inter-
connecting regional systems by means of high-voltage networks. These inter-
connections are opening a new phase in the development of the Soviet power in-
dustry.
High-voltage networks are the basic links which make up power systems.
Even in the last years of the Second Five-Year Plan, the Soviet power industry
had introduced high-voltage transmission with voltages ranging up to 200 kv.
This is illustrated by the graph in Figure 7, showing the development of indus-
trial utilization of high-voltage networks in Tsarist Russia and in the USSR.
The diagram clso includes the corresponding data for the USA (in 1936 the USA
put into operation a 287-kv transmission line connecting the Boulder Dam hydro-
electric station with Los Angeles).
In the introduction of high-voltage networks, the Soviet power industry
has done in 10 years what it took the USA three decades to do. The total length
of high-voltage lines in the USSR increased twelvefold during the prewar period.
A number of original solutions nave been provided for various basic prob-
lems pertaining to construction of high-voltage networks. Extensive use has
been made of wooden supports for 110-kv transmission lines (and for 220-kv lines
in certain cases) and metal towers of new design have been constructed, includ-
ing those used in the long spans over the Dnepr and Neva rivers. In their
characteristics, many of these Soviet structures are superior to those of for-
eign design.
Soviet engineers are successfully conducting studies on industrial utili-
zation of high-voltage power transmission at 400 kv ac using compensating de-
vices. This permits effective transmission over one circuit of up to 550,000-
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600,000 kw power over distances of about 1
000 k
Th
,
m.
e problem of indus-
trial utilization of high-voltage dc transmission is under study.
will provide economical transmission of even its solution
1?Gnger distances, greater amounts o of f power over
The Soviet power industry has made very substantial progress in increas-
ing the reliability of power supply. Theoretical and experimental investiga-
tions by Soviet engineers of basic problemc pertaining to power system sta-
bility are universally recognized as outstanding.
Our power systems have solved the pr-blew of increased stability in paral-
lel operation of power stations by the practical application cf new techniques
along the following three lines- Cl) introduction of high-speed protective
devices, which ensure rapid power cutoff in emergencies; (2) introduction of
special devices for boosting excitation of synchronous machines (automatic regu-
lators, high-speed excitation) to eliminate breakdowns due to static stability
disturbances and, in conjunction with other measures, to increase the dynamic
stability of the system; (3) the use of devices for automatically d the
load in response to frequency changes, whereby some of the lowerpriority con-
sumers are automatically cut off if the frequency drops below the lowest per-
missible level.
Soviet power systems make wide use of automatic repeated reclosing de-
vices (APV) which rapidly reconnect the line following a disconnection due to
breakdown. These devices helped greatly in providing uni.,terrupted power sup-
ply to industrial installa.ions during the war. A substantial achievement of
postwar years is the use of APV in conjunction with repair by phases of cir-
cuits with a grounded neutral. The group responsible for his work was awarded
the Stalin Prize.
The list of outstanding achievements honored by Stalin Prizes in 1950
includes two relating to improvements in the reliability of electric power
systems. These were the development and installation of new protective re-
lays which increased the reliability of power systems and the development and
introduction of a compounding system for power station generators to increase
the stability of power systems.
Figure 8 illustrates the decrease in the number of breakdowns due to elec-
tric storms in Soviet power networks during the period 1934 - 1946. The number
of breakdowns and the resulting power loss in 1934 are taken as 100 percent.
Even before the war, these failures had been reduced more than tenfold by the
application of new protective equipment.
The Soviet power industry has entered a new phase of development, namely,
the interconnection of the regional power systems into future components of an
integrated high-voltage network (YeVS). Such interconnection of regional sys-
tems will further increase reliability and flexibility of the power supply,
with system reserves lover or identical to those required in separate operation
of individual systeris. This interconnection will ensure the fullest utiliza-
tion of water-power resources, improvement of fuel balance, and reduction of
operating costs.
A central power system which has the Moscow power system as its core, and
which includes the Gor'kiy, Ivanov, and Yaroslavl' power systems, has been under
development during, the postwar years. A higher stage of development is being
attained by the interregional Urals power system, due to the construction of
the huge Molotov GES. The Southern interregional power system, which includes
the Donets, Dnepr, and Rostov power systems, is also being further developed.
Foundations are being laid for a future Transcaucasian interconnected power
system.
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saiRM
The large GES on the Volga will be of great importance in the formation of
the integrated high-voltage network in the main regions of the European USSR.
The formation of interregional electric power systems will go hand in hand with
the electrification of the principal railroad lines.
Technical progress in the use of high-voltage dc and ac transmission will
greatly facilitate the development of an integrated high-voltage network.
It is not possible in a single paper to review fully the technical pro-
gress of our national power industry. Most significant is the steady increase
during the postwar years of the number of Stalin Prizes awarded for outstand-
ing creative work in the field of power engineering. On considering only those
Pertaining to power stations and networks, the followi:.g figures are obtained:
in 1945, two contributions received the Stalin Prize; in 1946, three; in 1947,
seven, and in 1948, eight. The pub'ished list of outstanding works which earned
the Stalin Prize in 1949 includes nine relating to electric power stations and
power networks.
fFigures follow]
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Peo/
".7 ;A40 /pf 7-/91B
Figure 1. Conversion to local fuels: Change in the structure of power
production by regional power stations in USSR with respect to
power production sources
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KurHrf.y Keroyondo, end eNrr. car/
Figure 2. Effect of initial steam pressure on power production at TETs
(F1 = 20 atm equals 100 percent)
Figure 3. Relationship between station and unit powers and specific
capital investments and metal expenditures per kilowatt
installed capacity of condensing-turbine power stations.
Data on a 12,000-kw station is taken as unity. Installed
capacity of two-unit power stations in 1,000 kw, increments
are plotted on abscissa
6qp
~
i.a aim
p
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l
~
o
n
era
high
view of 103,000- 3/000-rpm
presaure
tu bine
document in CIA] Cot reproduced; available in original
Figure 5. Average efficiency (1) and fuel consumption (f) per kilowatt-
hour produced at regional steam-electric power stations in
Figure 6. Three basic types of configuration of electric power systems
0 Electric power stations
Substations
Direction of current flow
uIII i.1!II1
1/M MK I/J/ 'N, IJN I /! .J2/ / k
II/I I/ f
Figure 7. Development of indus-
trial utilization of
high-voltage networks
Figure 8. Decrease in number of
breakdowns due to elec-
tric storms and result-
ing power losses in
USSR electric power
- E N D - systems
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