HYDROLOGICAL STUDIES IN THE USSR

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• Document Page Count: 8
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: September 26, 2011
• Sequence Number: 270
• Publication Date: January 9, 1951
• Content Type: REPORT

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CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY REPOR11
INFORMATION FROM
FOREIGN DOCUMENTS OR RADIO BROADCASTS CD NO.
COUNTRY USSR
SUBJECT Scientific - Geophysics, hydrology
HOW
PUBLISHED Bimonthly periodical
WHERE
PUBLISHED Leningrad
DATE
PUBLISHED Sep 1948
LANGUAGE Russian
THIS DOCUMINT CONTAINS INFORMATION AFFICfIM TWO NATIONAL DIFOOSI
OF THS OIITID STATUS WITHIN TNI ABASING OF 1SPI00AII ACT SO
I. I. C.. 11 AHo SS. AS AHIRDID. ITS TRANSMISSION OS INS SITUATION
OF ITS CONTINTS IM AST HARRIS TO AN ONAOTHOIILID POISON Y PRO'
NIRITI0 ST LAW. IIPIODOCTION OF THIS FORM IS PRONIIIIT0.
DATE OF
INFORMATION 1948
DATE DIST. 9 Jan 1951
NO. OF PAGES 8.
SUPPLEMENT TO
REPORT NO.
THIS IS UNEVALUATED INFORMATION
SOURCE Meteorologiya i Gidrologi a No 5, 1948, pp 3-13.
HYDROLOGICAL STUDIES IN THE USSR
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The 30-year development of Soviet hydrology can be divided into he fol-
lowing four periods: (1) from the Revolution to the first years of the Sta-
lin Five-Year Plans; (2) from the years of the Stalin Five-Year Plans to the
beginning of World War II; (3) during World War II; and (4) the postwar years.
A. 'First Period of Soviet Hydrology (1917-1923).
The most important event of the first period was the organization in
1919 of the State Hydrological Institute (GGI), which was the first complex
scientific institution in the field of hydrology. Even now, the GGI remains
almost the only scientific institution of its kind in the world. The initia-
tive in the creation of the GGI was taken by the Academy of Sciences and GGI
activity began on 6 October 1919. t1
Many important problems were set up in the first years of GGI activity.
These include the development of methods of forecasting spring floods (V. 0.
Askinazi, A. A. Kaminskiy, V. N. Lebedev, B. P. Mul'tanovskiy, and S. A. Sove-
tov); the development of the theory of formation of bottom ice and study of
its harmful effects (V. Ya. Alotberg); the study of floods and the winter
regime of the Neva River (V. Ye. Lyakhnitskiy); the development of the theory
of movement of ground waters (N. N. Pavlovskiy); and the selection of effi-
cient methods of hydrometry.
The GOI was not detached from practical problems even in the first years
of its activity. For example, the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the Na-
tional Economy entrusted the GGI with the hydrological work required in the
electrification plans of 1920. The staff of the GGI grew rapidly and its ac-
tivity expanded. Systematic forecasts of the spring high-water and on the
freezing and debacle o rivers of the European RSFSR.were initiated in 1922
under the direction of V. N. Lebedev. These forecasts were of great practi-
cal and methodological importance. .Lebedev?s:-method" was:the.finstLtbst.vas:not
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ba-ed on purely hydrological processes inasmuch as it also took into considera-
tion the so-called index of atmospheric circulation established by B. P. Mul'-
tanovskiy. Thus, the Lebedev-Mul'tanovskiy forecasts served as a starting
point for the development of many of the more recent methods of hydrological
forecasting, including that now employed.
Another important development in the history of the GGI during the first
period, and in the history of hydrology in general, was the development by
M. A. Velikanov of the first scientific theory of floods. This theory served
as a basis for genetic studies of floods and was a prerequisite for their prac-
tical calculation in advance.
The GGI did a great deal of work in collecting and processing data from
river stations which had been discarded or left unprocessed up to the Revolu-
tion. This data made it possible to analyze formation processes and to make
scientific generalizations on the hydrological regime of rivers and lakes.
These were only rought attempts at broad generalizations, but some of them
were useful in the solution of practical problems. These include a formula
for calculating yearly runoff devised by M. A. Velikanov and D. L. Sokolov-
skiy, studies of the water balance of Lake Ladoga, and others.
Field investigations made up a large part of the works of the GGI. Out-
standing examples of these were the investigations of Lakes Onega, Ladoga,
Issyk-.Kul', Sakskiy, etc., directed by L. S. Berg, I. V. Molchanov, V. K.
Davydov, G. Yu. Vereshchagin, B. V. Perfil'yev, and others.
In the first period, hydrological studies were still not unified in a
single center and a number of studies, many of which were of great practical
importance, were carried out by organizations other than the GGI. Among these
works, the following should be mentioned:
1. Hydrological works connected with implementation of the electrifica-
tion plan by the Volga, Svir, and Dnepr hydroelectric power plants.
2. In the 10 years following the Revolution, the Peoples' Commissariat
for Productive Forces (I. F. Mclodykh, B. V. Zonov, and others) and the Acad-
emy of Sciences, in cooperation with the GGI, conducted large-scale hydro-
graphic surveys and studies which covered almost all the previously unstudied
large rivers of the USSR (the Kolyma, Yana, and Vilyui rivers and the Aldan,
Kazakh, and Bashkir expeditions of the Academy of Sciences).
?. The Administrations of the Water Economy of Union and Autonomous
Republics, organized under the Narkomzem (People's Commissariat of Agricul-
ture), conducted large-scale hydrological surveys and studies. The most ac-
tive organizations of this system included the Hydrometeorological Service
of the Ukrainian SSR (A. V. Ogiyevskiy and V. A. Nazarov); the Hydrometeoro-
logical Service of Central Asia, which was one of the first in the USSR to
produce regular forecasts of the amount of water in rivers in order to plan
irrigation (E. M. Ol'dekop and L. K. Davydov); the Sevan Hydrometeorological
Bureau of the Armenian Water Economy Administration (V. K. Davydov and B. D.
Zaykov); hydrological works in Transcaucasia (B. A. Apollov and M. A. Lukashin);
and others.
The hydrological network continued to be under the jurisdiction of offi-
cial organizations (People's Commissariat for Productive Forces, People's Com-
m.*-;sariat of the River Fleet, and the People's Commissariat of Agriculture).'
By the begiriini3 of the five-year plans, the number of river posts and sta-
tions exceeded 2,200 and had more than doubled in comparison with 1917.
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Of the studies on generalization of the hydrological regime, the work
of D, I. Kocherin on norms of yearly runoff for the European USSR deserven
special mention.
Two all-union congresses, organized by the GGI in 1924 and 1928, played
an important role in the development of Soviet hydrology. At these congresses,
the results of previous studies were summarized and future trends of develop-
ment were outlined.
The rapid development of hydrological studies required many trained hy-
drologists. In connection with this, the training of specialists with a
higher hydrological education was initiated in the first period of Soviet
hydrology. The first Hydrology Chair, headed by S. A. Sovetov, wan organized
in 192: in the Geographical Institute, Leningrad. When the Geographical In-
stitute was combined with Leningrad University in 1925, it continued its work
as the Geography Faculty of the latter. At the same time, hydrologists with
hydrophysical interests were trained at the Geophysical Department of the Phy-
sicomathematical Faculty of Leningrad University.
B. Prewar Stalin Five-Year Plans
An important event in this period was the establishment in 1929 of the
Hydrometeorological Committee, affiliated with the Council of People's Com-
missars, which became in 1933 the Central Administration of the Unified Hy-
drometeorological Service and, in 1936, the Main Administration of the Hy-
drometeorological Service. The State Hydrological Institute became part of
the Hydrometeorological Service as an All-Union Scientific Research Insti-
tute.
The first important measure of the Hydrometeorological Committee was
the unification of the network of hydrological stations, which had been ad-
ministered by individual official organizations, and the creation of local
administrations of the Hydrometeorological Service to supervise this network
Its second important measure was the organization and development, in conform-
ity with a GOSPLAN decree of 9 July 1931, of works by GGI on the Inventory
of Water Resources of the USSR.
For direct hydrological service to economic problems, hydrological and
water economy units, were maintained in planning and building organizations
of the People's Commissariat of the River Fleet, Transportation, Agriculture,
in the Supreme Council of the National Economy, and in a number of other of-
fices.
Among the most important official 'hydrological works of this period were
the surveys undertaken in connection with the drawing up of plans: (a) for
water-power utilization and sluicing of the Volga River, (b) for power sta-
ticns on the Kama and the Oka rivers and on the Altri rivers, and (c) irriga-
tion of the Transvolga. Others include the surveys on the lower Dnepr, the
extensive hydrological works undertaken in connection with the construction
of the Moscow:-Volga and White Sea-Baltic navigable canals and the planning
of the Volga-Don and other navigable canals.
Considerable progress was made in the works of the Expeditionary Section
of the GGI, which by order of the planning and construction organizations,
conducted large-scale surveys and expeditions and compiled hydrological' data
for hydrotechnical, railroad, and industrial constructions, among which the
following should be mentioned: the Turkestan-Siberian Railroad, the Karaganda,
and Kuznets fields, the Gor'kiy Automobile Plant imeni Molotov, large-scale
surveys in the Far East, and the Ukrainian and Belorussian SSRs.
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The increasing volume of hydrological works required the attraction of
large numbers of hydrological specialists, and the two chairs (hydrology and
geophysics) of Leningrad University could no longer meet this requirement.
Therefore, the first Hydrometeorological Institute (now the Leningrad Hydro-
meteorological Institute) was created in Moscow in 1930, and several years
later a second was established in Kharkov (now the Omsk Hydrometeorological
Institute). The Hydrological Faculty of the Moscow Hydrometeorological In-
stitute, under the direction of M. A. Velikanov, B. P. Orlov, B. A. Apollov,,
Ye. V. Bliznyak, B. V. Polyakov and others, trained and graduated several hun-
dred hydrological engineers in t.3 prewar years.
So many hydrological works were completed during the three Stalin Five-
Year Plans that it is impossible to list them all here; therefore, we mention
only the main divisions of hydrological studies.
1. The hydrological network; which had approximately 2,200 stations in
1928, grew to 2,700 stations in 1936 and to 4,250 stations in 1941. The work
of the network was greatly broadened, e.g., more than half the stations meas-
ured water discharge and estimated runoff; ice-cover thickness was measured
at all stations, while at some stations water samples were taken for hydro-
chemical analysis and alluvial deposits were determined; finally, more than
two-third of the hydrological stations were drawn into the operational ser-
vice of reports and forecasts. Local administrations of the Hydrometeorolog-
ical Service played an important part in the development of the network and
the orientation of its work.
The following accomplishments should be listed as'among the more out-
standing: (1) the hydrological network began to operate according to unified
programs and instructions developed under the supervision of V. V. Ukhanov,
N. A-. Garillovich, and others. The leadership and courses of B. A. Apollov,
M. A. Lukashin, A. V. Ogiyevskiy, and B. V. Polyakov also played an important
role in the development of measurement methods and in the training of person-
nel for the network of hydrological stations; (2) domestically produced in-
struments began to `ie used exclusively in the network. Production of these
instruments was developed by V. V. Kuznetsov, N. N. Sysoyev, N. Ye. Zhestov-
skiy, and others.
2. Hydrographic studies of rivers continued to develop but obtained a
slightly different content in the second period. Rydrographic work was con-
ducted by the GGI and the People's Commissariat of the River Fleet on large
rivers in order to draw up detailed navigation guides. At the same time,
the GGI and transportation organizations began to study average-size and
small rivers and also made extensive investigations of swamps.
The main handbook for hydrographic studies was Ye. V. Bliznyak's
repeatedly republished work Pro zvudstvo isaledovaniy rek, ozer, i vodovazdelov
(Production of Investigations of Rivers, La'.tes, and Water Divides).
Many works were completed by the GGI and the Academy of Sciences
USSR on the study of lakes. Among the most important were the studies of the,
following lakes: Baykal (G. Yu. Vereshchagin), Balkhash and'Issyk-Kul' (L. S.
Berg and V. P. Matveyev), Onega (I. V. Malchanov and V. K. Davydov), Telet-
skiy (0. A. Alekin), and Seven. (V. K. Davydov and B. D. Zaykov).
3 The inventory of water resources of the USSR, which eras completed
in 194', constituted an entire epoch in hydrology and played an outstanding
role in. hydrological service to the economy. Important data on the hydrologi-
cal regime of rivers and lakes, which had been stored in various archives in
unprocessed form for many years prior to 1936, became accessible for both hy-
drological investigations and generalizations, as well as for planning and
construction organizations, due to the extensive inventory work done by the
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GGI under the direction of L. K. Davydov, D. L. Sokolovskiy, A. A. Sokolov,
S. Yu.. Belinkov, and A. V. Fedorov, jointly with a large collective associa-
tion of hydrologists of local admirtstrations of the Hydrometeorological Ser-
vice.
The inventory of river resources alone contained more than 7,000
authors sheets. M. S. Protas'yev, T. N. Kochukova, A. M. Norvatov, A. M.
Gavrilov, D. A. Danovich, Z. P. Bogomazova, and many others participated
in the editing of this valuable data. Of the inventory data, the series
Saravochniki o vodn resursam SSSR (Handbooks on the Water Resources of
the USSR , in which there was collected, systematized, and generalized all
available hydrological data, played an especially important role in satis-
fying the practical problems of the prewar Stalin Five-Year Plans.
4. Studies and calculations of runoff developed rapidly owing to the
inventory of water resources and to the solution of several theoretical and
practical problems by M. A. Velikanov and D. I. Kocherin.
Along with regional runoff characteristics, D. I. Kocherin studied
the maximum runoff of the spring high water of the European USSR. These stu-
dies together with a generalization of the average yearly runoff, served is
the main source for runoff calculations in the First Five-Year Plan and part
of the Second Five-Year Plan. The investigations of Kocherin, who can be
called the founder of the Soviet school of hydrological calculations, were
continued by B. D. Zaykov and S. Yu. Belinkov on mean perennial runoff and
by D. L. Sokolovskiy on maximum runoff. Similar works were conducted by
A, V. Ogiyevskiy and V. A. Nazarov in the Ukrainian SSR. We should also
mention, the method of calculating "safety" curves for yearly runoff which
had Sokolo-
was first affety"dcaby V. A. lcul tions foreyearlyeanmethod d maximum runoff devised
skiy of s
fluence on the development of hydrological calculations.
The Dubelier norms, used for a number of years for calculations
of the spans beneath small bridges, were subsequently replaced by M. M.
Proted'yakonov's norms. The method of devising norms for calculations of
bridge spans based on field studies was first used in 1928. This method,
which was discussed in the works of P. P. Kokin and P. V. Pokoovskiy, was
devised when information had to be provided for the construction of rail-
roads in previously unstudied regions (Turkestan-Siberian, Emba, and others).
This method produced positive results and is still important at present.
Norms and a method of calculating showers were devised by Z. P.
Bogomazova and Z. P. Petrova in connection with calculations of rain runoff.
Among the more important works on hydrological calculations
nsadonne V.
by official. organizations were those by S. N. Kritskiy, M. F. Polyakov, and others.
Some credit for the large volume of field experimental works in this
period on runoff study at special runoff stations should be given to M. A.
Velikanov, who first advanced the idea of studying runoff formation processes
under typical physicogeographical conditions. More than 20 years ago, Velika-
nov opened the first runoff station on the P,-"orka River near Moscow; and, in
1930, he published a program of studies for runoff stations. Since that time,
runoff stations have gradually been developed in the Hydrometeorological Ser-
vice and in other offices. The results of these investigations have been pub-
lished by S. I. IZebol'sin, G. R.E tingen, A D. Dubakh, bA. I. y I. ReBhetnikov, D.. Zaykov on
0. A. Spengler, V. I. Rutkovskiy, and others. The works the runoff of European rivers and by M. I. L'vovich on the runoff of world
rivers were important as generalizations of the runoff regime.
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5. Hydrological forecasts are of great importance in the planned economy
and this branch of hydrology developed so rapidly during the Five-Year Plans
that no other country can compare with the USSR in this field.
The main results obtained by the Soviet scientific school (the GGI
group) and the operational service for hydrological forecasts (the GGI and
local administrations of the Hydrometeorological Service) in this period were:
a. A methodological basis for hydrological forecasts was created
which made it possible to establish how long in advance forecasts can be made
and to verify them objectively. This basis helped to eliminate unrelia le.and. nkov, incorrect forecasting methods. G. R. Bregman, S. Yu. 0. A. Spengler, and B. S. Pushek took an active part in the organization and
development of the service for hydrological forecasts.
b. Long-range forecasts were developed extensively.
c. The method of basic long-range hydrological forecasts of the
water and ice regime of rivers was developed and used in practice. This me-
thod was of great practical importance, since it enabled the forecaster to
predict or evaluate exp"ted phenomena for rivers or sections on which sta-
tionary hydrological observations has not been made.
d. A Central Service of Hydrological Forecasts waz organized, de-
veloped, and equipped. This has been directed since 1943 by the Central
Forecasting Institute, to which the forecasting subdivisions of the GGI were
transferred.
e. The entire service for hydrological forecasts, headed by the
Main Administration of the Hydrometeorological Serivce, produces an enorm-
ous volume of operational work, as is amply illustrated by its more than
60,000 forecasts per year, with an over-all verification of about 85 per-
cent
6. Hydrophysical investigations were developed along three main lines:
a. Studies of the physical and mechanical properties of ice and
snow, developed by the works of R. P. Veynberg.
b. Studies of heat-exchange and water-exchange processes between
the water-air and snow-air media, i.e., investigations of processes of evap-
oration and condensation from soil and water surfaces and ice-formation proc-
esses. Important works in this field were completed in the GGI by V. Ya.
Al tberg on formation processes of under-water ice, (ice forming below water
level), by V. V. Piotrovich on the selective capacity of underwater ice and
on evaporation from a water surface, by P. P. Kuz?min on heat exchange be-
tween water and air, and by V. Ye. Sochevanov on condensation of moisture in
soils. Although the hydrophysical studies made by V. V. Shuleykin were re-
lated to sea coalitions, they were of great importance for hydrophysical stu-
dies of inland waters. The,methods of thermal calculations devised by B. V.
Proskuryakov are now used widely in engineering practice.
c. The third line includes a number of works on geographical gen-
eralization of elements of heat and water balance. These studies include
works of A. A. Kaminskiy on transfer of atmospheric moisture, the work of
P. S. Kuzin on evaporation from the soil surface in the USSR, the work of
Ye. M. Sokolova on the moisture deficit, and that of V. K. Davydov on evap-
oration from the water surface of the European USSR.
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The Main Geophysical Observatory also produces many hydrophysical
investigations.
7. Investigations on the dynamics of the flow and beds of rivers were
developed in the following fields:
a. Studies of the kinematic structure and velocity field of flow.
b. Study of a_luvial movement and transport by the flow.
c. Investigations of deformation of river beds.
d. Investigation of flood movements.
The first three fields are inseparable parts of a general problem
which grew, due to the works of M. A. Velikanov and V. M. Makkaveyev, into
an independent field of study. Their works on. turbulence of flow and the
structure of the velocity field of flow were of great importance.
Alluvial movements in a flow and the formation of river beds were
also studied by N. M. Bernadskiy, A. I. Losiyevskiy, B. V. Proskuryakov,
A. P. Zegzhda, M. V. Potapov, and others.
The prolonged investigations of the dynamics of river flow and river
beds were summarized in three works; namely, Dinamika rusiov kh notokov (The
Dynamics of River Flows) by M. A. Velikanov, Rechna a gidravlika River Hy-
draulic4 by N. M. Bernadskiy, and Gidravlika Hydraulics) by V.. M. Makkaveyev.
Investigations of flood movements were conducted by S. A. Khristiano-
vich, V. M. Makkaveyev, and N. M. Bernadsk=_y.
Hydrochemical studies of rivers and lakes were furthered by the de-
velopment of methods for hydrochemical determinations and their standardiza-
tion for the hydrological network (0. A. Alekin, P. P. Voronkov, S. A. Shchu-
karev, and others) and in the generalization of hydrochemical observations
in the hydrological network (0. A. Alekin and P. F. Martynov).
C. World War II
From the first days of World War II, the Hydrometeorological Service
devoted all its work to defense problems. The successful solution of hydro-
logical problems advanced by the war was possible through the efforts of a
large collective association of hydrologists, some of whom worked under the
difficult conditions of the Leningrad blockade. Much important work was done
by hydrologists directly at the various fronts.
D. Postwar Period
Hydrology-in the USSR has been confronted with two new problems in the
postwar period:
1. Restoration of Hydrological Network Destroyed in Occupied Areas
This work was initiated by the Main Administration of the Hydrome-
teorological Service and local administrations of the Hydrometeorological
Service before the irar ended and, ?for the most'. part, 'is;now 'completed..
To automatize and to increase the accuracy of river station observations,
the GGI designed and partially put into production special instruments and
improved the design of measurement units. A great deal of work lies ahead,
however, particularly in re-equipping and restaffing the network.
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2. Development in Conformance With New Requirements of Fourth Stalin
Five-.Year Plan
A number of practical problems have already been discussed in pub-
lications, and therefore we touch only upon two of the most important: (a)
the investigation of small rivers, mainly in connection with the development
of rural electrification, and large-scale irrigation work in semidesert re-
gions; and (b) improving the accuracy of hydrological forecasts and calcula-
tions in connection with problems of hydrotechnical constructions (hydroelec-
tric stations, irrigation and navigation canals, water supply, and bridges)
and with the requirements for economic and cultural development of the USSR.
Further refinement of the theory of formation of hydrological phenomenh
and development of experimental studies is required to increase the accuracy
of hydrological calculations and forecasts.
Theoretical and experimental studies of snow and rain floods and the
factors accounting for them have been developed extensively to solve the
main problem in hydrology, i.e., flood prediction. Flood studies are con-
ducted by the GGI, the ^?ntral Forecasting Institute, and the Kiev Hydro-
logical Observatory. In the postwar years, the Central Forecasting Insti-
tute has devised a number of new methods of hydrological forecasts and has
organized an operational forecasting service in the USSR.
Construction of an experimental base of the GGI has already begun, but
a great deal of work lies ahead in equipping the laboratories and field sta-
tion and in the training of personnel. A number of hydrophysical investiga-
tions, including investigations of the physical properties of ice and develop-
ment of methods and instruments to combat interference from underwater ice in
the exploitation of hydrotechnical constructions, have been carried out in
some GGI laboratories. These laboratories, built since the war, were con-
structed as models of the laboratories in the base now under construction.
The general trend of hydrological investigations which was adopted in
the first years of the Soviet power has completely justified itself. It
was impossible to develop hydrology in the direction accepted and still re-
tained in a number of Western European countries (Germany, Austria, France,
Sweden, etc.). This measurement science is based upon the mistaken idea that
it is necessary to organize such a thick network of stations for observations
on the hydrological regime that almost all applied problems can be solved dir-
ectly from this observational data.
Soviet hydrology rejected this Western European example and pursued
another path: a comparatively small but representative network of hydrologi-
cal stations was organized and the'problem of interpolating the elements of
the hydrological regime in space and time ?.ras solved by theoretical studies.
In other words, the development of theoretical and empirical studies of geo-
graphical and physical processes of formation of hydrological phenomena not
only supplemented the sparse network of stations, but sharply raised the level
of hydrology as a science.
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