SCIENTIFIC - GEOPHYSICS

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP80-00809A000600220389-7
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: C
• Document Page Count: 11
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: June 28, 2011
• Sequence Number: 389
• Publication Date: April 21, 1949
• Content Type: REPORT

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NO. OF PAGES 11
SUPPLEMENT TO
REPORT NO.
THIS IS UNEVALUATED INFORMATION
Vestnik Akadea11:Nmuk BR, No 1, 1948. (Fm Per Abe 66T67 -.. Translation
requested.)
COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF THE STRATOSPHERE AND IONOSPHERE
The histeay of the study of the higher strata of the earth's atmosphere is
rich in remarkable diecoveriee and daring hypotheses which were later confirmed,
bnt for a great many years seemed very remote from practical affair-- Tt_ vas
thought, few example, that stratospheric processes were not important to weather
service. But some time ago, geophysicists were called upon to answer many quee
tions on the oomposStion of the upper strata of the atmouphera.which proved portent both for meteorology and for weather bureau purposes.
Soviet geophysics was not taken by surprise by this "sudden" demand. Even
15 years ago an energetic movement had started in this brencL of Soviet science,
and soon our scientists occupied a prominent place among the well-]mown etrelto-
sphere explorers. Soviet scientists have invented end applied the radiosonde,
which is now an important means of stratosphere study used in all countries. In
1933, the "USSR" stratosphere balloon established a world record for utratoenhere
flight (19 kilometers); during the flight valuable experiments were sale. in
1934, the Commission for Stratosphere Study, Academy of Sciences USSR, under di-
rection of Academician S. I. Vavilov, laid the groundwork for training highly
qualified stratosphere experts and for systematic development of scientific re-
as-rah. Ac present Soviet geophysics has achieved important renu'.ts on funda-
mental uhyeieal problmm of the stratosphere and Ionosphere which are of an
ahead of the eahiera_ante of foreign science.
Stratosphere
The existence of the stratosphere long remained a mystery which outs banding
scientists endeavored to explain. And, even though now much of the theory on
the origin of the stratosphere eppeare indisputable, the problem as a whole is
still a long way from being solved.
The invention of radiosonde made it possible to manure the air's tempera-
ture at altitudes of 25-30 kilometers. It appeared that the temperature of the
ataoepherc even rinse a little with increasing altitude, a'.though very slightly.
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CLASSIFIC"""ON
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
INFORMATION FROM
FOREIGN DOCUMENTS OR RADIO BROADCASTS
1-1
REPORT
COUNTRY USSR
SUBJECT Scientific - Geophysics
HOW
PUBLISHED Monthly periodical
WHERE
PUBLISHED Moscow
DATE
PUBLISHED Jan 1948
LANGUAGE Russian
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TP- tropopausP (somtt!mer calls the Buhr atospherc) was also dizccvered. This
intermediate zone between the troposphere ant the stratosphere, extends 1-3 kilo.
meters, and has such distinctive temperature conditions as temperature inversion.
The 41titude of the tropopause (and therefore, the beginning of the stratosphere)
derende on the geographic latitude. Near the equator it rises up to 16-18 kilo-
meters, near, the poles It is as low as 3-6 kilometers, and In the middle lati-
tudas it extends to 9-11 kilometers. Above the equator the stratosphere is much
colder (-70 to -80 degrees) than in the middle latitudes (-45 to -55 degrees),
and above the polar regions the stratosphere is warmest. The altitude of the
tropopauee shows regular seasonal changes. It is lowest in spring and highest in
autumn.
To explain temperature conditions in the stratosphere, certain factors were
studied which influence air temperature at high and low altitudes. A study was
made of atmospheric absorption of ultraviolet, visible, and infrared rays of the
sun. laboratories studied the absorption spectra for nitroger oxygen, carbon
dioxide, water vapor, ozone and other gases in the air. Since these spectra are
often related in a very complicated way to the gas pressure and temperature, they
acquire a different aspect at different atmospheric levels. Theorists have de-
veloped the mathematical theory of radiation equilibrium and other thermal atmo-'
spheric processes. This Intensive scientific work continued steadily for 40 years
with a variety of results, ore of them very important, and a systematic theory
of the stratosphere has been developed. Bowever, an we shall see later, this
theory requires a great deal of Improvement.
Stratosphere Theory
Briefly, the present theory describes the troposphere as the region where
the temperature is regulated mainly by turbulent movements of air, and the strato-
sphere as the region where an exchange of the beat or radiation (radiation equi-
librium) regulates temperature conditions.
The main source of the heat entering the atmosphere is always the sun, but
sometimes this beat enters the atmosphere indirectly. The radiatior of the sun,
the surface temperature of which Is around 6,000 degrees, contains the maximum
amount of energy in the visible part of the spectrum; the curve of energy distri-
bution according to the spectrum reaches a maximum In the green, and in the ultra-
violet and infrareds regions the curve descends abruptly. But eibee the e.zth'e atmo-
sphere is transparent for rays of the visible spectrum, the i?eye reach the earth's
anrfaoe almost without attenuation. The greater part of these rays is absorbed
by the earth's surface, or by the ocean, respectively. Only a small portion of
the rays is reflected (the sea reflects about 10 percent of the falling light,
the land from 3 to 25 percent, and the snow 50 to 70 percent); all the rest is
absorbed. The sun's rays give almost no beat to the air; they give nearly all
their heat to the earth. The main source of heat in the air is the ear`th's sur-
face which bob boon warmed by the sun's rays.
The earth, like any other heated object, radiates; but due to th3 earth's
low temperature, its reradiation consists only of infrared :aye. This radiation
is actively absorbed by the air, which has strong absorption zones in the infra-
red region. Since the earth's surface in relation to the atmosphere my be com-
pared to a hot stove, the temperature of the air decr:,aeee with the increase of
altitude near the earth's surface, in the troposphere.
The temperature gradient caused by the absorption of reradiation from the
earth is so considerable that it creates powerful vertical movements, equaliz-
ing the temperature, due to the rising of warm air from below to the eoluer up-
per strata. The cooling-off p ocess of the air with simultaneous eipensi7n in
moving upward causes the temperature gradient of 6 degrees per kilometer, which
is characteristic, on the average, for the troposphere.
The vertical air action occurs in the form of turbulent movements. Beat
progress in the study of atmospheric turbulence has been made through the work
WNF VIAL
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r and aia o"pil, Professor A. M. Obukhov. Their.
of Academici ,.ar A. N. Kolmdgcrow a
research vorL?, concentrated in the Geophysical Institute of the Academy of Sci-
-rces USSR, is far ahead of that rf foreign authors (the and up new perspec-
tives an other fundamental problems of geophysics theory of precipitation,
etc.)
In the stratosphere, as we know, the temperature does not fall with a gain
in altitude, and therefore, there are no vertical movements of air comparable
In force to those In the troposphere;. In the stratosphere the air temperature
does not depend on its inter-mixing, but isdeterm'ned by radiat'_-on equilibrium.
Any volume of air of a certain temperature, radiates Inallll. diA ctiionss, theiquo -
tity of the rad.iatitm increasing the higher tha temperature.
the air absorbs part of the radiated energy, passing through it in the form of
reradiation from the earth's surface and radiation from all its surrounding vol-
umes of atmospheric air. If the radiated energy is greater than the absorbed
energy, the given volume of air, constantly losing part of the inner energy,
cools off; if the procedure is reversed, it is heated. A stable temperature in
a state of equilibrium is one at which the loss of energy through radiation will
equal the intake of energy through absorption. In the development of this theory
of radiation equilibriums, the works of Professor E. S. Kia etsov in
im-
the Geophysical Institute of the Academy of
portance. The methods of solving equations for transfer of radiated energy in a
diffusion and absorption medium, worked out by the well-known Soviet astrophysi-
cist, V. A. Aabarteumayan, president of the Academy of Sciences Armenian SSR, have
been very successful. His work has been awarded the Stalin prize. The Wtici-
pation of astrophysicists in developing similar geophysical problems is not acci-
dental. The power and light eon"i%ions in stellar atmospheres are being investi-
gated with the aid of a similar theory of radiation equilibrium.
Therefore, in the troposphere the turbulent vertical movement of the iir
acts as temperature regulator, whereas in the stratosphere the temperature is
regulated by reflation equilibrium.
Rut why does a change in the temperature-regulating mechanise occur at a
-e_, ti- the +.hwrm
certain altitude - in the tropopause? Is it posse lb to explain by _he --e-v
of radiation equilibrium the increase of air temperature with altitude in theme
stratosphere, the decrease in altitude of the tropopause when approaching the
poles and. its higher altitude near the egaator? Why Is the stratosphere coldest
above the equator? As veshall see later, these questions force us to seek red
ical improvements in the existing theory.
Water Vapor in the Stratosphere
The absorption of radiated enercv by the different gases of which the at-
-is composed revea]a one interestint faift, ll the smaller the quantity of a
certain gas in the atmosphere, the greater ana more important is the absorption
process. Lo: us consider the .oproximnte content by volume of five gases which
are always present in the airs nitrogen (7P-4%. oxygen (20%), water vapor (2%),
and ozone (0.000 "%). Nitrogen, the volume of which is
c2rbon forur time grereatter er t0, than the total of the remaining 8asee' does not absorb 'either
four
in the infrared, the visible, or the ultraviolet zones), and has no influence on
n absorbs radiation, but not excessively.
Abs bsorp yorption of radiated ofe in the ede atmosphere. energy by vt ~e and 002 is very strong, and by ozone
..g
is exoeedinRly higi.
Ozone is a remarkable gas and ve shall have to pay particular attention to
Its importance in stratospheric processes. But the properties
es the zone have been
investigated only recently, and all through the developman
theory the principal significance has been ascribed to water vapor. One became
accustomed to the role of water vapor; it was treated as a fetish. Although this
attitude must be overcome soon by geophysicists, there is no doubt that the im-
portance of water vapor is very great.
-3
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Water vapor, which has strong absorption zones in the infrared region of the
spectrum, obtains the greatest quantity of abcorbed energy through reradiation
from the earth. 'iris determines its great influence on the heat balance of the
troposphere. The founders of the theory fhradiationn ouiliberuvain the 4urato-
sphere proceeded from the assumption
important and that it represents the main absorbing element inntthee er attar sphere.
va-
It now appears that this is not quite correct, that the e importance of w
por was overestimated and the importance
The determination of the quantity of water vapor in the upper layers of the
troposphere and in the stratosphere was so difficult that up to 1946 it was not
possible to obtain reliable data. The difficuieswere due vapor ttotwoo reareasons. At
low temperatures of the stratosphere the quantity s fwateiove or a m erygins per
nificant, even in air which is saturated by vapo'
cubic meter of air), and the vapor itself assumes complex properties at such low
temperatures, which makes it very difficult tomeasuterits qr npity. It uasuas-
sumed that in the upper layers of the troposphere agreement in tcaapera-
tion. In the absence of definite data and for the sake of ?er
taat there in to Mich
ture calculations for the stratosphere, rswumedt that
water vapor in the stratosphere that it approaches as
Only In 19745e1946 was it possible to use sufficcitlyatliable methodsdfo~*
measuring water vapor in the stratosphere. It appeared,
the stratosphere than had been assumed, and that the
ably lees ;eater vamps in
`transition from troposphere to stratosphere +B+.ohn? water Z vapor in the btrato-
crense of the water vapor con""" - :..- __ its absorption of radiates en-
sphere is entirely insufficient to ffiiinntain, by
Does this mean that the Lneory va ---- -_
But~
the Per in the stratosphere is incorrect? otnabeibrnaoot so.ed to another-
regulator
apparent l ,
or meet
a
,
p
tioular Importance of water v
element of the air - ozone.
Ozone in the Stratoe ere
it has long been observed that the spectrum of the sun and of any star
0.3 r'1
off in the ultraviolet end at a certain point near the wave lengt
breaks _ sued At the ease time there
not the s of the .-n and r inuthetdire tionOftshort wave lengths.heEvery-
deal farthe
must extend a gr eat for i
s not
trans thing pointed to
ve the theet roblem wasnco plicaated by the fact that n not one of the
]cknov rays. Herever, s~ atmospheric see absorbes the rays in question abd the dtmoephere moat be
transparent for them.
v?absor ption
P1rrther laboratory experiments discloser that ozone has a the strong
quality, beginning at the wave length O.3r But In measuring
ozone it appeared that the air near the earth's am -fact contains only nlmal
quantity of ozone (0.000001 percent), so that the absorption of light by
spheric ozone cannot ocaple?iely out off the sun's spectrum near the above-men-
tioned wave length.
But is there, perhaps, a much greater quantity of ozone in the upper layers
-,f the atmosphere?
The study of the upor atmospheric strata by indirect methods is an outstand-
ing achievement of contemporary geophysics. Academician V. G. Fesenkov, pioneer
in this fiald, published a scientific work in 1915 shOwa~ hate it wasibn ossi le,
by measuring the luminosity of the sky at twilight,
density in the air up to a considerable altitude,o100-00 kil~ters, In 1923,
V. G. Fesenkov published the mathematical theory
the past years the twilight method, which we shall describe further, has been
widely used in the USSR and in foreign co-antries. But soon after the twilight
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CONiIAt
method, oti:er c ptlcal meLho1ie -0r ctud/iik pje1 ' "l-c La of the atmosphere were
de?t^lop^d, in connection with observation of meteors, luminosity of the sky by
night, etc.
It appeared that ozone was contained, principally, in the upper layers of the
stratosphere. The greatest ..one content is at an altitude of 22-25 kilometers;
abov- and below that level the quantity of ozone decreases.
During every flight of a balloon into the stratosphere, carefti; Aeaeura s
were made to verify the distribution of ozone at high altitudes. All. indirect
measurements in the stratosphere, the last of which was made in 1947, have fully
confirmed the above results.
It has been shown that the ultraviolet radiation of the sun, with a wave
length of 0.l~to and shorter, aide the process of ozone formation. Hare we encoun-
ter an important modern scientific problem, the "earth - sun" problem. The effects
of the sun on terrestrial phenomena are varied. This is one of the great problems
of geophysics and astrophysics, which is now the subject of extensive study.
It has recently been proved that ozone has such a strong absorption band in
the infrared regiau of the spectrum, near the wave-length 10/M', that in spite of
the fact that the total quantity of ozone in the atmosphere is one fifty-thousandth
of the quantity of water vapor, the energy absorbed by ozone from the reradiation
of the earth is only slightly less than the energy absorbed by water vapor. But
the differences in the vertical distribution of these two gases also determine
their different functions with regard to the temperature of the troposphere and
stratosphere. In the troposphere there is a great quantity of vapor, and not much
atone, so the function of ozone as compared to water vapor is insignificant. How-
ever, the greater the altitude the lees water vapor and the more ozone we find.
The tropopause, i.e., the beginning of the stratosphere, must be the critical zone,
where quantity changes over into quality. The transition to the stratosphere is
accompanied by a sudden decrease in quantity of water vapor and increase in quan-
tity of ozone, so that in the stratosphere the function of principal temperature
regulator is taken over by ozone.
There are many reasons to assume that this view will influence further de-
velopment of the stratosphere theory, but being _1ev, it must be verified and de-
veloped, 'What factors are in favor of this opinion and what aspects of it must
be carefully and critically studied?
It is not only a question of a small quantity of water vapor being present
in the stratosphere. Since there is a great amount of water vapor in the tropo-
sphere, nearly all the earth's radiation of the wave lengths absorbed by water
vapor remains in the troposphere, and it reaches the stratospheric water vapor
only in a very reduced form. On the other hand, the earth's radiation of waves
of the length lC P', which is absorbed by ozone, passes freely through the tropo-
sphere and reaches the stratospheric ozone with almost undiminished force.
It is possible to calculate the balanced temperature which one or the other
gas would have if it were the only component of air in the stratosphere., It ap-
pears that in the case of water vapor it is -80 to -85 degrees, and for ozone,
-35 degrees, that is,50 degrees higher. Therefore, the higher the proportion of
ozone to the quantity of water vapor to the air, the higher will be the tempera-
ture of the air. Bu`. toils propLn ti.on in the stratosphere increases with altitude,
and therefore the temperature rises also. The theory which did not take into ac-
count the function of ozone was unable to explain this basic tact.
It has been determined by optical measurements that the quantity of ozone in
the stratosphere depends an the geographic latitude and on the season of the year.
Near the equator the quantity of ozone decreases, near the poles it increases.
In spring, the quantity of ozone Is greatest; in the autumn, least. If we take
this into consideration, it will not be difficult to explain, on the basis of the
theory of radiation equilibrium, the decrease in temperature of the stratosphere
-5-
CONAI
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TIM.
autumn. These basic facts could not be explained by theory until quite recently.
ani. incre^.se in altitude of the t-or--,-:sc from poles to the equator, as
sr_11 c_ Lh.c decrease _. _'t'tud, cf the '.;?.rpopause in and increase in
to 20 (kilometers. "xisting netheds do not enable us to obtain systematic data for
separate, sufficiently thin layers, or to measure changes in the content of ozone
through the tropopaiise, but we have seen that thin phase is of the greatest impor-
We have. r.1reaC.y mentioned the difficulty of measuring water vapor content in
the stratosphere. Data on ozone are particularly lacking for the most interesting
To develop the stratosphere theory further, more definite data are necessary
on the vertical. distribution of water vapor and ozone up to an altitude of 14-18
kilometers.
perature in the stratosphere with increasing aitituOe, were made up to 25-?0 kilo-
meters. But during the last decade important results have b,en obtained by indi??
Measurement[, with the aid of radiosonde, disclosing a slight increase of tem-
meters, then follows a zone of 30-50 kilometers where the explosion is not heard;
but beyond this, at a greater distanc3 from the point of explosion, Vie sound is
aga" heard. It was proved theoretically that a return of sound waves occurs by
refraction in the air strata at an altitude of 35-60 kilometers. Such sound re-
fraction with its subsequent return to earth can occur if the air temperature in
the refraction layers, on which the diffusion speed of sound waves is dependent,
rises with increasing altitude. The phenanena under observation can be explained
if we assume that at an altitude of from 25-110 kil-cmmeters up to 60 kilometers the
sir temperature rapidly increases with altitude, reaching around +30 degrees at
an altitude of 40 kilometers, around ? 60 degrees at an altitude of 50 kilometers,
and approximately ?75 degrees at an altitude of 60 kilometers. It ii. impossible
to penetrate to en altitude above 60 kilometers by means of acoustic sounding,
beeaus.i In the higher strata sound waves are very strongly absorbed.
The continuous temperature rise with altitude in these strata is confirmed
by twilight observations. As we mentioned before, Academician V. G. Fesenkov de-
veloped a theory, which was Improved by N. M. Shtaade, permitting the calculation
or air density in different strata at altitudes of 20-30 kilceaetere up?to 150-250
kilometers according to the extent of twilight luminosity of the sky at different
stages of cv,
by the method of radio impulses. Several reflecting layers were found: layer
E at an altitude of 100 kilometers, layer F at 250-300 kilometers, which Is some-
times divided into two layers, Fl and F2. as addition, there is a weakly re-
flecting layer D at an altitude of 50-60 kilometers, which reflects only the
very long (kilometer) radio waves. The exirfe?nce of conducting layers results
in the propagation of radio waves above the earth as in a spherical condenser, i.R.,
between ounoentrio conducting layers (the surface of the earth or ocean and the
ionosphere). As a result, the distance of roception grows.
The conductivity of reflecting la,eru is determined by the presence of free
electrons and ions, i.e., the air in these layers is ionized. The determination
of ion and electron concentration at different altitudes in the ionosphere,
which greatly influences the long-distance propagation of radio waves, constitutes
the fundamental problem of physics of the ionosphere and radiophysics.
however, in determining the concentration of charged particles the*e is one
principal difficulty. Radic methods do not enable us to distinguish free electrona
free lone (we are not spearing here of the influence of the earth's magnetic field).
The effect of N electrons (the number of nertloles in one cubic centimeter) on a
radio wave is the same as the effect of Ni s NM ions, where M Is the proportion
of the '_on maes to the electron mass. The ion mace of nitsa;en or oxygen is ap-
proximatelj 30,000 times greater than the electron mass; tnerefore, the action of
one electron to equivalent to the action of 30,000 ions. This diecrepano# is a
sttmebling block in rad.iophysius, and enormous efforts have beer wade to erata
it. Although now (by indirect criteria) one may consider as sufficiently estab-
lished that the F layer has an electronic nature, and that in the E layer both
electrons and ions influence the propagation of radio waves, the problem has not
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yet been solved in its entirety a?nd remains the principal problem of modern radio-
nh;sics. In particular, it is rcceseerz to obtain accurate data on the concentra-
tics of electrons and tone in the E layer. If the conductivity of the E,layer had
a purely electronic nature, N would be 2X105 per cubic centimeter. If time prop,.
erties of the E layer are, in fact, determined by ions, then Ni- *109. The con-
centration of electrons in the F layer constitutes around 2.6 X109 per cubic centi-
meter.
The ionosphere represents an ionized mediums (plasma), consisting of molecules,
atone, ions and electrons. This medium is quasi-neutral, the number of positive
particleq equaling the negative. Even in the F layer the degree of ionization is
very limited. From the data of twilight methods, which are considered most reli-
able, it is known that the air densit at an altitude of 250 kilometers is 10-11
grotme per cubic centimeter, or 2X10" molecules per cubic centimeter. Therefore,
in the F layer there is only one electron per 105 molecules. In the E layer the
share of electrons is correspondingly less. But such a degree of ionization is
sufficient to create the remarkable phenomena which makes possible long-distance
radio oommunication.
Composition of the Air in the Ionosphere and the Problem of Vertical Mixing
Thus, strictly speaking, at an altitude of around 1.00 kilometers the strato-
sphere ends. Above that we find the ionosphere.
Nature gives us a wonderful opportunity to determine the chemical composition
of layers above 100 kilometers by studying the spectra of aurora borealis and lUmai-
nosity of the nocturnal sky. By photographing polar lights simultaneously from
two points, 10-50 kilometers apart, it is possible to determine the altitude of
the lights. Tt appeared that +.he lower rim of the lights never Roes below 300
kilometers, the upper rim: extends 14* to an 6)t7400'e9 250..400 ki etemey an4
aagarn'o ?msoa*igae irraa no' t/ 800?i,-WO Mldaraont ',. k Aby!-< at the epeelra? at
a=uras hari.O t. It meaatbZa to, IA the eaaloefClon~; eff fora also at'as
ai4it~ s!, i k3lMaai~?o matt.- 31d. _ __ .f ? a
ThirAy years ago another interesting phenomenon, luminosity of the night sky.
Was discovered. The brilliance of the sky on a clear Loss nos" aa.'ehdUm
by imal o.t l i t i p # e and-measurements, is two or three times greater than it
should be, i.e., greater than could be explained by the light of all the stars.
It was proved that the high layers of air, particularly in the layer at 130-180
kilometers, are continuously giving out light. The study of spectra of this light,
the nature of which is not entirely clear, enables us to determine the composition
of the higher layers of the atmosphere above any part of the world, and not only
above the polar regions as in the case of polar lights. Ihveatiga'.ionu have shown
that the air, even in the highest layers, Is made up of the same nitrogen-oxygen
ocmponente as in the lower strata. This result was unexpected, as it had pre.
viouil$r been as.voa-i, from the basic condition of hydrostatics which are the
foundation of the barometric formula, that in the higher strata the lighter gases
should predominate and t1'9 ionosphere should be almost entirely hydrogenous. It
has now been proved that there in no hydrogen in the stratosphere and ionosphere,
at least not as a cunatant and noticeable component. Therefore, the atmosphere
at all altitudes is "mixed." Thi.m result is not trivial, for accordt.ng to the
stratosphere theo:?y here should be no vertical movemert in the etrratosphere, the
region of stable vertical equilibriwnn.
The problem of mixed atmosphere is important in contemporary geophysics.
During the past few years, complicated analye.,n of air samples have been taken at
different levels, up to an altitude of 29 kilometers, in different Arts of the
world. Principal attenVxi was g'-ven to the oxygen content (heavy gas) and helium
(light see). Up to an altitude of 20 kilometers the oxygen content remains etr..oL1y
uncbaegen -- 20.9 percent by volume. Above 20 kilometers a slight decrease in
oxygen content has been determined, up to 2C 1 percent at an altitude of 28.5 kilo-
meters. The helium content nerr the earth is 0.00052 percent, and at an altitude
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because there are constant air currents of great velocity in the stratosphere and
ionosphere,
The spectra of polar lights and of night-sky luminosity show that in the
ionosphere oxygen In completely d".seooiated. IAsring the past 3-5 years, there
have been indications of a parttal dissociation of nitrogen, but this question
still urd^.r discuesion.
What agent maintains the constant dissociation and ionization of air in the
ionosphere? The radiation of the sun acts as such an agent. During the periods
when large spots pass throught the central meridian of the sun, the ionizations of
high layers is suddenly increased, accompanied by distiMbances to radio communi-
cations, magnetic etorme, And particularly bright polar lights. But what kind of
solar radiation - ultraviolet or corpuscular - causes ionization and dissociation?
This is one of the chief problems of contemporary astrophysics and geophysics un-
a result, the moment of optical eclipse is removed by 24 hours or more from the
rents, rushing at a speed of 400-600 ktlometers per second and more.
To determine the air temperature in layers located above 100 kilfinetere,
one must use primarily three indirect methods. All of them give certain infor-
mation regarding the vertical distribution of air density, out of which it is
possible to reach conclusions regarding temperature distribution. The basic
physicist was published, on, determination of air density by measuring the bril-
liance of polar lights at different altitudes.
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50X1-HUM
 re ued
l r ape, rlinrt,l5' above ''?3 kilomters . emoeatt o methods shov250Ckili Me-
ise of temperature up to 4- i 2) 7 deV al of
terc.
We have good reason to assume that the twilight data are closest to reality.
The future will show how correct this is.
The more recent and exact theory of Ye. L. Al'pert and V. L. Ginzburg (Phys-
ical Institute of the Academy of Sciences USSR), which takes into account the in-
crease in number of collisions as ^_ result of increase in effective cross section
of ions, also gives the moderate temperature of +30 degrees for the highest r2
lager.
In 1947, the American press and radio, in particular the notorious "Voice of
America" radio broadcasts, raised a great to-do abopt the "overwhelming" results
of temperature measurements in the upper strata of the air, supposedly obtained
during experimental flights to the stratosphere b;r the V-2 rocket-projectile.
However, it appeared that no results had been obtained which would alter the pic-
ture of temperature distribution as previously established and described above.
The same applies to other questions, such as the vertical distribution of ozone.
Wind in the Stratosphere
The study of air currents in the upper atmospheric strata is a problem of
great practical and theoretical importance. The development of the theory of
general atmospheric circulation, the principles of a general study of movements
in the atmosphere, and theoretical principles of weather forecasts, as well as
the aemande of long-range artillery, rocket aviation, and sound ranging, require
exact information regarding the speed and direction of air movements at different
altitude levels and at different global points, depending on the time of the day
and the season. The information available to geophysics is not yet sufficient,
and it is imperative that -tore complete data be obtained.
To study the problem of wind in the stratosphere several methods have been
used* First, observations of luminous clouds, sometimes visible after sunset and
She fra t?+o points a
ogra
a e been --'c ?f.Yalteneous phot
sufficient distance apart, together with exact measurement of the sighting angles
of the camera, has shown that luminous clouds are found almost invariably at an
altitude of 80-83 kilometers (apparently, the constant altitude level is connected
with the existence of a constant powerful temperature inversion, beginning at this
level; see above). The same kind of measurement shove the::xigtenoe of fast move-
ments of luminous clouds and makes it possible to measure their speed.
We should further point to the study of meteor trails. A meteor often leaves
behind a luminous trail, sometimes visible for a long time. Usually there is a
drift of the meteor trails, which are gonicmetrically photographed from the ends
of a determined base to determine the velocity and direction of wind at different
altitudes.
Quite recently, results hav Seen obtained by radio observations regarding
the marement of "clouds" of high ionic concentration in th.e ionosphere,
Important information may be obtained from eonometric measurements of zones
of abnormal audibility in the case of heavy explosions, a field that has not been
sufficiently developed up to the present. An exact theory on this complicated
phenomenon has been developed by Soviet geoph;fsicist9, including Professor S. V.
Chibieov.
Finally, in 1946, a number of observations were made in England on the drift
of smoke forced by firing special smoke-projectiles up to an altitude of 30 kilo-
meters.
It has been determined that there are powerful and regular air currentu at
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d'.fferent atmospheric levels. Here, for veriple, is one of tha typical. schemes:
The wind -relocity in the troilosphero increases with altitude, reaching a maxi-
mum. of 20-25 meters per second below the tropopause, and there is a prevailing
wind direction at this altitude. In the stratosphere the wind velocity at First
decreases rapidly with increasing altitude, reaching a minimum of 6-8 meters per
second it a level of 19-22 kilometers, but in higher strata we observe a very
rapid increase of wind, up to 70 meters per second at an altitude of 40 kilome-
ters and 140 meters per second at an altitude of 60 kilometers. A strong tem-
perature inversion, beginning at a level of 80 kilometers (see above), possibly
plays the part of a "second tropopause" in some respects. At any rate, the wind
velocity here apparently reaches its maximum (up to 160 meters per second), and
in all probability, it decreases at higher altitude levels.
The prevailing wind direction in the second tronopause is directly opposed
to the direction in the real tropopau-d. It is possible that these two trope:
pauses constitute an important element of a closed circulation scheme in the
stratosphere, the greater velocltiee in the upper tropopause being necessary to
balance the masses, as the air density decreases with altitude.
Stratosphere and Weather
There have long been attempts to connect the phenomena in the stratosphere
with the weather-forming processes in the troposphere. Although certain correla-
tions have been definitely established, we do not yet have a complete picture of
the influence of the higher layers of the stratosphere on the weather. But there
are many reasons to believe that in developing our knowledge of the stratosphere,
the Important role of stratospheric processes in the theory of weather forecasts
will be more definitely outlined. At any rate, during the last few years impor-
tant signs have been observed. We shall not go into this extensive subject as a
whole, but will only mention a few examples.
Interesting data have been obtained in England and America regarding measure-
ments of ozone content in the stratosphere as an indication of impending change
of air masses and the approach of d synopric front. The great importance of ozone
measurements in the study of general atmospheric circulation Is now definitely
established, but research in this field has not been given ouL'fioient at:.eiition
by Soviet geophysicists. We should devote ourselves seriously to this na& lion,
particularly since we have highly qualified personnel who can conduct We re-
search efficieAtly if properly organized.
The influence of the stratosphere and ionosphere on tropospheric meteoro-
logical processes is becoming more and more evident in connection with the in-
fluence of solar ultraviolet and corpuscular radiation on the ionosphere. We are
thinking not only of the highly publicized discovery of the Australian scientists
who established a distinct parallelism In the changes of degree of ionization in
the E layer, on one bans, and the atmospheric pressure at ground level, on the
other band (far-reaching correlations have also been establishes by Professor E.
N. Hessen and his collaborators)! but we are thinking espeaiallyof the organized
and premising rea'arch work on the connection between processes on the sun and
phenomena in the troposphere. The various and powerful effects of the aim on the
Ionosphere are, apparently, transmitted through the stratosphere to the tropo-
sphere. Interesting correlation have been f=-id between phenoclenr. visible on
the surface of the sun and certain meteorological processes. The mechanism of
transmission of these influences through the stratosphere is not yet clear. The
development rf tt- prcblen as a whole depends, we believe, mainly on the measure
of success IL gaining an understanding of this mechanism.
16
(OV Th
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