MILITARY - TRAINING

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP80-00809A000600150026-6
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 23
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: June 16, 2011
• Sequence Number: 26
• Publication Date: September 10, 1952
• Content Type: REPORT

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CI ASSIFICATI N URUT WOR&TION
CENTRAL 5NTEWCENCE AGENCY
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REPORT
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DATE OF
INFORMATION Not indicated
DATE DIST. An Sep 1952.
NO. OF PAGES 23
SUPPLEMENT TO
REPORT NO.
THIS IS UNEVALUATED INFORMATION
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THE TPAINISC, OF :AGE UNITS IN THE SOVIET ARMED) FORCES
This report includes information on the planning, methods, and
types of training of large units in the Soviet Armed Forces.
0
'Combat and political training of 'troops of the Soviet Army is thoroughly
planned. The system of planning covers all fields of troop training and pene-
trates down to the company level
-1-
COIT OL/L OFFICIALS OILY
CLASSIPCATION B-s-C-R-E-T.
The initial document for planning is the annual order of the Minister of
War "on combat and political training," which places before the troops the
general assignments in combat and political training for tLe year. The order
is prepared by the General Staff in compliance with existing military doctrine,
taking into consideration the achievements and failurec in combat training for
tbot past year, as well as experiences learned f.om the war. This order is
studied in the army by officers of all ranks and given them a basic directive
for the combat training of subordinate unite which they must follow in heir
day-to-day work. The order published in a year when some radical change has
taken place in some of the doctrine's lave remains the basic order for several
years (until the next radical change). For example, prior to the last war,
Order No 113, issued in 1938, remained the basic order for many years.
On the basis of the order of the Minister of far, army inspectorates and
administrations of all branches drew up programs for the combat tralairg of
their type of troops (en axample of such a program for infantry for the year
1940 is on hand at the school library). As a rule, the program starts off with
instructions on organization and methods of instruction; the.. give directions
on bow the various types of training should be organized and the best method
to use. A prog,aa for any type of troops provides material for whatever type
of weapons are o-'ganir to that unit. For example, a preen for infantry
training includes progr&ma -cr the training of caveiry (for mounted reconnaJ5-
sance platoons), of mortarmen (for subunits of battalion and regimental
mortars), of combat engineers (for the combat,eugineer platoon of the unit),
?etc,
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The urograsn is divided into two training periods--winter and summer--and
provides for training on the post during the winter, and training in the field
during the summer. The material is divided up into training stages for the
consecutive training, first, of the individual soldier, then, of small subunits
(sections, platoons), then of sureh large subunits to the company and battalion,
and, finally, the training. stage wherein whole units of the given type of troops
in maneuvers involving these units.
As a result of putting this program !.nto effect, by the end of the year
trrops receive sufficient combat training plus an ability to wage combat on a
large unit scale. In the second year, troop training follows the'same program
and consists of consolidation, through conditioning, of habits acquired during
the first year of training.
Commanding officers of each of the military districts or group of forces
issue their annual and semiannual (for winter and summer periods) orders for
r mhat and nclitical training, with training programs attached, on the basis
of the documents previously mentioned. These orders and training progrwma ,..-c
into consideration conditions of terrain and climate of the area in which troops
of the district are located. Thus, for example, the commander of the Turkestan
Military District, requires of his troops special mountain and desert training,
and this will be reflected in the order. Special training exercises will be in-
troduced, or the exercises provided for in the program of the Miristry of War
will be changed. The order and training program of the commander of the West
Siberian Military District will take into consideration the presence of vast
stretches of foresto, of waov cover, and of low winter temperatures. The factor
affecting combat training i.n the White Sea and Belorussian military districts '.s
the presence of large stretches of water, swamp, forests, etc.
As a result, almost every military district trains its troops according
to its own particular program, founded, however, on the general principles
and directives c.^ the Minister of War.
The staff of the military district works out a plan for the joint train-
!.ng of the various types of troops within the district, to a supplement to the
order and program r.f the Minister of War. This is done to train units of all
types in the establishment of coordinat'.on during the joint execution of a combat
m1osion:
In the army units, the plan of combat training fully copies that of the
military district; orders for the combat training of units are issued, with
unit commanders then drawing up training programs for their individual units
and subunits (battalions). These differ from military district programs in
that they are more detailed, take into consideration such things as living
conditions of troops, and deal with the combat training of specific units only;
also they do not call for as long a period of training as do the orders and
programs of the higher staffs. in large units planning is done on 3-month
basis, with additional orders being issued at the beginning of each stare of
training as the progress of combat and political training is checked upon. In
the regiment, the plan of training is for one month only, with additional orders
issued as the training progresses; these orders frequently are not written, but
are delivered orally directly to subordinate officers at conferences.
Subunits such as the battalion and company are the final instances of-par-
ticipation in the planning of combat training. But at those levels no innova-
tiV{i,f WC ._s__,,..ce in the tralnirv proa_ram. The battalior commander is re- quired to break the monthly training plan for the regiment down into three (by
1o-day) or for (by weekly) periods, with the company commander being required
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to work out either a 10-day or weekly training schedule for his company. In-
dicated in the latter are the date and hours of study of specific material,
topic, training director, place, method of training, apd the training aid's
which must be made by company personnel prior to the beginning of training.
The schedule is posted in the quart ra of the company (usually on the company
bulletin board), accessible to all personnel, who are then held responsible
for knowing it.
This method of planning combat training adopted by the Soviet Army al-
lows the Sigh Command to maintain combat training of the army at the required
level, but, at the same time, permits specialization by individual army units.
Such specialization is indispensable to the execution of combat missions in
theaters of operations, as anticipated by mobilization plans.
Experinenta~ and demonstrative methods of training have wide application
in the system of`FCombat training of Soviet Army units.
The purpose of experimental methods of training is to teat a now technique
or some tactical, or operational innovation, in a setting as close to combat
conditions as possible. As a rule, such training is conducted on the initiative
of commanders of military districts and, sometimes, on the initiative of tb>
Minister of War himself. Such training was particularly frequent In the period,
en Timoshenko was People's Commissar of Defense, with most of the exercises
Jnducted either with his personal participation or under his personal direction.
Tests of new types of weapons, including artillery, are conducted oy firirg
live ammunition, not under firing range conditions, b,.,t in the field, after the
a.-^rleticn of a long march and the establ,ishmnnt of firlig positions and a system
:of observation and command posts. Pot only is the technical data on the new
'veapon (which already has been checked earlier) tested, but a check is thereby
OL-dd.e on the efficiency of the weapon in combat.
Permanent defense fortifications (sufficiently removed from the border)
are tested: with live ammunition and by having the garrison remain for a lengthy
stay, carrying out all of its prescribed work under combat conditions.
The idea of Wetting up an "outpost" line consisting of engineering and
chemical obstructions in front of the main defense line led to a series of
experimental training exercises, during which real obstructions were created
(by actually blowing up bridges and railroad track). During such exercises,
standards were established as to the time, number of men, and the means neces-
sary for the creation of obstructions, and methods for their erection and de-
fense. Conversely, the elimination of fix'd obstructions provided material
for setting standards for clearing such obstacles.
Maneuvers held in the Delorussian Military District in fail 1935 were
conducted as experimental training exerciser for the airborne forces. The
organization and execution of a mass jump by airborne forces were tested.
This was a new operation for the Soviet Army, which it that time had just
btgun to increase its air force.
Particularly intensive experimental training exercises are being conducted
in search of more !ffective means of establishing coordination between various
types of forces. SUPcial attention is being devoted to combined operations of
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the infantry, artillery, tanks, and air force, as the basic types of combat
forces. This is done during combined training exercises, using live ammunition
in bombing and firing.
Practice training exercises are very carefully organized. The plan is
worked out by higher staffs, who also direct the conduct of training. Field
units are always used tor the training exercises, with units in various stages
of combat training being brought in for a repetition of their training. The
setting during such training exercises is as close to combat conditions as
posbible. The use of false or make-believe situations is allowed only in the
most extreme cases, and even then they are made as real as possible. For
example, a contaminated, area is created by spreading various compounds with
small admixtures of war gases (in concentrations not harmful to the human
organism) over the area. Artillery fire is conducted with live ammunition,
with the edge of the line of fire 150-200 meters from the area occupied by
troops, and with shell bursts within their :midst imitated by real explosions
of demolition charges (a practice used widely in the Soviet Army); mine fields
are created by putting small charges of gunpowder in bags equipped with a fuse,
etc.
Prolotged training in the field is conducted with a complete breal froc
regular bsees of supply; rations and ammunition reach units on their 1wr
In winter, training exercises are conducted with bivouacs outside popul.aa.en
points; troops are obliged to take cover from the cold by using prescribed
equipment and whatever material is clone at hand. In hot summer weather, a
strict water discipline is observed, even though there is enough water availat-e
in the training area.
Observations of umpires and training directors are summarized and deductions
made regarding the training are checked during the repeated exercises; after that,
they proceed as recommendations to the corresponding ;ommissions for insertion in
regulations and manuals.
In the Soviet Army, one of the methods used to train officers anti staffs,
as well an troops, is the demonstration method, during which a subunit or unit
demonstrates for observers the ideal combat technique in carrying out a tactical
mission.
Demonstration tiainiog is usually given units and such large subunits as
the battalion anc company, and is synchronized to coincide with the beginning
of some troop training assignment. For example, before the before the beginning
of that stage of training which involves a platoon working in coordination with
the rest of the division, a ser!.es of demonstration training exercises involving
the platoon will be given, first, for officer personnel from battalion commanders
upward, then, for the remaining officer personnel, then, for noncommissioned
personnel, and, finally, for the entire enlisted personnel of the battalion.
The preparation of demonstration training is no less complex and detailed
than is experimental training. The commander planning such training must choose,
first, an e?rea most characteristic for the carrying out of the contemplated
mission and, second, the best-prepared subunit or unit to carry it out. The
troops are given the technical equipment called for by the table of organization
and then carry out the mission several times over the same terrain. When such
training brings troop actinna up to the level of speed and accuracy desired by
the director, the training is then conducted in the presence of persons for
whom it must be "demonstrated."
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In view of the fact that t:;e aim of such training is mainly methodological
(to teach commanders how to train their subunkts), con tinders seek to create a
setting during actual training that is within the power of the commanders of
even smaller units to create in future operations. For example, if the commander
of a division fiaads it feasible during. the execution of a trai.nina exercise on
the subject "A Platoon in the Attack," actually to add one tank to every platoon,
then, during the "demonstration" on the same subject a real tank will also par-
ticipate. Conversely, if during a "demonstration" a duay tank is used, then
battalion personnel are expected to construct such a lock-up prior to the begin-
ring of platoon training.
Demonstration training, which is aimed solely at demonstrating technique
to familiarize troops with the effects of its actions (for example, on the sub-
ject "Artillery Support of the Regiment's Advance" or "Capture of the opposite
River Bank by a Tank Force," etc.), is conducted in the presence of the entire
enlisted personnel of the unit being trained. In the course of the training
and from specially detailed instructors from the technical units (artilleryp
to.nazs),
As a rule, demonstration training ends with a "critique." This consists of
conclusions reached by the senior commander regarding the demonstrated training,
a pointing out of defects and qualities, and :onclwies with brief instructions
to subordinate commanders about the organization of stellar training for their
subunits, The experiieaces of the demonstration training are, taken into consider-
ation by command personnel and Staffs and serve as a basis for the establishment
.3f temporary stancaards and for the determination of methods for working out
future troop assignments.
Particular study must be given the umpire system, used widely in the Soviet
Army for the organization and execution of experimental and demonstration Train-
ing in the organization and conduct of training: The experience of many years
of unia,g wspireb during training exercises has led to the development of a
definite system. Umpires are appointed by the unit ,.hich will participate in
the training (unit umpires); there are also umpires appointed for the individual
zones of the area (zone umpires) over which the training exercise will be carried
out in accordance with the training director's plan.
"introductory data" which they will hand to unit commanders at the proper time.
(the director of training), and to the commanders of subunits, from whom complete
Upon completion of the training ex:?rcise, the training director gathers
together all his umpires and hears their reports on the troop actions; he
then arrives at definite conclusions, which are announced to all participauts
of the training exercise at the critique.
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up in accordance with a plan worked out in advance, and which are marked with
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white flags. The umpires themselvs are Provided ed with ooze o e me~lofftra one
tati.or (horse, motorcycle, car), which allows
spot to another and to watch carefully the progress of the exercise.
This system of umpires is an integral part not only of experimental and
demonstration training exercises, but of all troop training in general. It is,
at the same time, one of the methods used for training officers; the use of
officers as umpires inevitably increases their knowledge, because of the ad-
vanced preparation required in the directing of training exerciser.
The guiding rule in the postwar training of the staffa of military units
nay be forcaulated as follows; "to train staffs and troops in settings as close
to actual combat conditions as possible.."
As an issue of the !rasnaya Zvezda points out: "Staffs must acquire in
peacetime, habits necessary in time of war With this alm in mind, staff work
must be carried out using methods resembling as much as possible those used
under field conditions. Particularly, it is necessary to attain a high level
in the execution of any type of staff work, to develop In staff officers speed,
precision, and a businesslike manner in the execution of any task or service
assignment, reduce the amount of daily paper work and. free staff offi-ers
frog such work, and, finally, train tec:,nical staff personnel in the carrying
out of simpler tasks, thus freeing staff officers from such work."
In keeping with the above requirements, much attention is now being de-
voted to thp- nr.oblem of keeping the staff in complete readiness for work in
the field.
General aims in the training of officers and staffs are as follows:
1. The acc?.imulation, by every officer on the staff, of the knowledge
necessary to the execution of Ms official duties
2. T'?e development of qualities or capabilities in staff officers which
would permit their mutual replacement within the imn+ediate limits of the staff
3. The attainment of smooth coordination between all officers on the
staff in the performance of their duties
4. The attainment of coordination in work involving various sections and
se-vi=es of the staff
5, The "knitting together" of the staff as a whsle, into aw administrative
organization.
Regulations and manuals emphasize the fact that the commander of the unit
bears direct and immedtate responsibility for the training of his staff; he
must train his staff. However, this does not relieve higher staffs of the re-
sponsibility for the training of such a staff.
Before the war, the new training year for the staff began first with the
individual training of officers; then followed the "knitttiing together" ofhthe
various sections of the staff, and, finally,
staff as a whole.
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At present, the staff is not only required to carry out its various types
of individual assignments and the knitting together of its separate admin?stra-?
tiona and services, but must, from the very beginning of the training year, be
taken out fir training as a whole to attain an over-all coordination in its
work.
If, previously, staff training was usually conducted without means of signal
cosmuriication and the support of smaller units, no;: the following units are re-
quired to participate in staff training: communications, supply, and supporting
units (antiaircraft, antitank, reconnaissance, etc.)
Previously, staff training normally went on for 6-8-10 hours; now, such
training is required to continue fcr not less thr:n 24 yours.
Twee and Forms o, 'Praising
1. Individual Assignments
All officers receive personal (individual) assignments falling within
the scope of their duties. These may be such assignments as the preparation
of a report, paper, the working out of a plan for staff training, the study of
a theater of operations, the study of foreign armies, etc.
2. Individual Training of Each Officer in the Duties of His Position
This type of training is conducted by the commanders of the correspond-
ing staff divisions and services.
3. General Staff Training
This is staff training in which all staff divisions and administrations
narticipate at the same time. A certain day in the week or certain hours, when
staff workers do not have other service responsibilities, are designated for
such training.
These are designated "staff" because they embrace a series of problems
characteristic of the work of a staff, in contrast to "command games," where
problems involving the work of unit commanders are worked, out. Such training
'is given both in classes and Us the field. The director of training (sometimes
the commander of the division, more often the chief of staff) "plays for every-
body,": for his own troops, for the enemy's troops, for higher and lover staffs,
for adjacent troops, etc.
s, Two-Stage Staff War -games
These differ from staff war gems in that the ataifa of suboriinate
units as well as, say, the staff of s, division, also participate in the train-
ing. Such training is conducted in a given locality, with communications
facilities and supporting units. The director of training, for example, the
commander of a aivxsicn, playa the roles of both the train.,,- director and the
commander, and also that of umpire on the division's staff. He "plays" for
adjacent unit, for the higher staff; his assistants are coosa,aders of =its
and staffs undergoing training.
6. Command-Staff Training in the Field
This is the highest fora of training for unit staffs. It can be one-
aided, two-sided and, as a rule, is many-aided.
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In essence, such training represents imaneeuuvers forgstaffs. The duration
n
of such training is a minimum of 2-3 days
given oftener than once in 2 months; the staffs ofrcarppstand staffs of military
districtd, however, are given such training more. cq
7. Training of Staffs With Troops and. on Troop Maneuvers
This is the final form of staff training, when the staff operates as
the integrated organ of administration. Army mRneuvc?rs do not take place every
provision
year and do not take place in every military diisstrictt;;s there is
for maneuvers within the district that year,
ends with "small army maneuvers" of 8-10 daye.
8. Seminars and Refresher Training Courses
v seminar is a training course only 3-5 days in duration; a refresher
training course lasts 10-15 days. Seminars %re more often conducted along the
line of political training, for example, a seminar of secretaries of regimental
party bureaus, a ecminar of senior regimental propagandists, etc. Refresher
training courses are conducted primarily by commanders and by staffs, for ex-
mmple, a refresher training course for commanders of regimental communications
units, a refresher oretca RResher
training
fresher training courses for regimental personnel are given by staffs of di-
visions, while refresher courses for large unit personnel (divisions, comps)
are given by the staffs of military districts.
As an example, the order for the working out of a command-staff re-
course is given below. Preparation for such training requires
considerable time and the expenditure of much materiel.
uchettraining consists of
The work of directing the preparation
nfor n such
defining and working out the following q'ii
a. The training topic (provided beforehand in accordance with the
general plan, by the staff of the military district).
b. General and specific training aims:
(1) The general ain is. for example, "to give the staff practice
in the organization of uninterrupted administration of thetroops, and iin the
organization of coordination under conditions of engagement the ."
(2) Specific aims:
(a) To train regimental and battalion commanders to take
decisive stepo upon engaging the enemy
(b) To train staff?iinttthe he arts of or aiz inn n a ~inf the active leadership of units during the
battle
,.....,,sera and staffs practice in the proper
(c) To give --- ,t,e, o.oenent and in the proper
use of artillery and tanks during the in ..- engag--=- within a
organization of coordination between those units and the infantry
.port period of time.
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choose a training area which, because of its special features, would help in
the successful achievement of the training aims.
c. The composition of the over-all plan of training, including the
organization of sides, the determination of their jump-off positions, areas
or points of contact, etc.
d. The composition of the over-all plan of training and the selection
of umpires,
e? Conducting the training over the terrain together with the umpires,
going into a detailed analysis with them of the parUcuiar situations which
might arise through the possible variatlo.nb in actjuns open, to both, sides.
f, The working out. of a detuiled plan f,r the training course; the
drafting of a plan for a neutral colamur.icationo network; the formulation of
general and specific assignments for both sides; the working out of detailed
of rateriil and technical supply:
calculation rf thr farces and ,c,+.-ar.s ne:essary for the simulation of fir'; the
arrangement of obstaolee,, etc..
Trainin? - drn,om rt?? and lnstruetionh an the organ A n or tho
sides are issued sufficiently in advance so that r.?:ii?fh and units participating
in the training may prepare themselves for it_ The instructions for taxing up
the jump-off positions, and the instructions depicting the combat tting :Are.
issued to the r_?specr;ive :,ides either immediately bc:fcre the beginning of
training (for veil-tralcod staffs) or 2-3 days in o:ivan-e (fcr poorly integrated
staffs) so that offi-ers may study them.
The training is concluded with a critique, very often hold ri.gt.t in tilr.
fisld, but often ret?arni.-w.. from training.
At the end of the sunme.? trainin& period, so-called combat-team training
is used widely in the Soviet Army to complete the stage of training of the unit
(regiment). Combat.-team training is the training of infantry units together
with troops of other branches, who are either attached to the unit for that
purpose or conduct their training independently while cocrdirating their actions
with that of the infantry. i, typi^.al exampie of such a combat team woulu ne
a rifle regiment with one or two battalions of artillery, one or two tank
battalions, and an air squadron attached, or an infantry division with ono or
two artillery regiments, a tank- brigade or division, and air group (polk)
attached.
The purpose o, combat-team training is the kl:itting together of units made
up of various types of troops, and training in them habits of coordinated action
and interaction. This problem is the stuabling block in joint actions of units
of various types of troops and, therefore, receives the most serious attention
in the concluding stages of troop training.
As a rule, combat-team training lasts 2-3 days. For this, units completely
abandon their area of quartering (barracks or camp) and work out an entire
series of tactical protlems. it locality ur-sf ;liar to the troops is chosen for
the training The usual training topics are: "Route march of a reinforced
??egimen,t. (division) and engagement. with a change-over to the offensive," or
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An offensive by a reinforced infantry regiment (division) against a strongly
fortified enemy." If the training is two-sided, then the other side during
the training will have a counter topic, that is: "Route march and engagement.
"
or
with a change-over to the defeneive" and "Defense on a stationary front
"I'efense by an infantry regiment (division) in a fortified area system."
Much attention is paid. to preparation for training. The time and the
topic for training are alvayn indicated in the pans for to=ut training.
The training director (usually the senior commander; less often, the unit
commander) prepares in advance all the documents dealing with the planning
of the training. The most important of these documents is the "elaboration,"
which specifies the scope that the training in expected to encompass, aLd the
stages into which it is to be divided; the "elaboration" contains a whole
series of "introductory data'"-- a description of the situation at a specific
hour and in a specified area. All this is kept secret from the participants
in the training.
In preparing the elaboration of his plan, the nirector must be personally
tcr,ain over which the training is to take place. Detailed
on-the-spot instructions are given to the umpires; in these the director -are-
fully explains what the situation should be and how, in his opinion, the 'course
of Action should develop. All these instructions will be carried out by the
umpires durin6 the conrse of the training exercise
The training, as a rule, begins with an "alert" being announced to the
unit by the training director, either personally- or through an umpire. As
the unit prepares for action, the umpires check on the unit's warning system,
its speed of assembly, the status of its organic equipment and property (down
to that belonging to the individual soldier), the time of arrival by subunits
in assembly areas, and their combat readiness. At the same time, the unit
commander receives notice of the units combat mission, usually in the form of
an order from ~,ib senior commander. With that, the umpire assigned to the staff
and the training director--at the unit commander's side--check the quality of
the commander s decision, the speed with which this decision is carried out,
and the quality of the orders worked out by the staff (the decision of the
commander is taken down by the umpires, while copies of orders are delivered
to his staff). In the subunits, most of the attention of umpires is devoted
to sectwity measures: security, reconnaissance-, communications, and antiaircraft
and antitank defense..
All remaining units making up the detachment are also al'.rted (by the
umpires) and, on the basis of the combat-.Assions assigned them, send out
their representatives to the infantry. From that moment on, all units act-
only in acc:,rdance .rith orders received from the training director, who, in
the course of the games, always ts.keb upon himself the role of the senior
operations officer,
During the course of the training exercise, the units carry out a series
of interrelated tactical missions. Nor do rest periods such as overnight
bivouacs or halte take these units out of the exercise even temporarily. The
part of the enemy is played either by subunits (according to the plan of the
director, from neighboring units) or by an entire unit (where the training
exercise is tvo-e led). Where neither of these methods is used, all data on
the enemy is given the troops by the umpires. The latter adhere strictly to
the plan of the director in the pl-eyicg out of particular phases and episodes,
but, at the same time, are not supposed to hamper the actions of the troops;
where actions occur that were not foreseen by the director, the umpires are
under instruction to let them develop fully and to notify the director through
the neutral communications facilities. The director is then required to make
other dec`sions while the games are still in progress and to renev his in-
btruS-tlOne to the uump,'?re;.
.? - ... y... .- S?.-:.7;.*.,a:.?..~ -.:w-f"::e4r?'++~r ,!e ..nrav:.:. .;; s -+s -aa. ri, .. ; .?i{:~~r,. ~: .. j~S. r-i
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During the training, the entire umpire system observes the activities of
the troops and pays particular attention to the correspondence of actions to
regulations, and to the teamwork shown between the various typee of troops, The
matask othe training is to maKc various types of troops coordinate their
activities and direct those a;tivi ies toward a specific goal. This is what the
,
director pays particular attention to
The end Of the training exercise is usually announced by the "cease fire"
signal, transmitted by all means of communication, and signifies the order of
the director to end the games and to assemble in the designated areas.
The results of the training are transmitted to the director at a conference
of the: umpires, =here conclusions are reached as to the actions of the detach-
ment as a whole as well as those of individual subunits. The director then
transmits his findings on the training to an assembly of command personnel (a
""critique" of the training, under field conditions). Using the director's
findings as a basis, the umpires attached to subunits conduct before the
personnel critiques in which the actions of the subunits against the general
background of the training are gone over.
After this series of "critiques," the training is considered ended, and
units return to their regular stations :here, depending or the intensity of the
training undergone, they receive a short re.t period beforo resuming their
regular programs of combat training.
During the pxemaneurer period, such training is given weekly.
Command and staff training in the SOVieT Army is one of the most widely
-a .-t ffc _i= oltnneou iy. The purpose of
used methods of :rdlr,ing cv=m- LU= i; ouu ,, ,,...-., -----------
such training is to verify the degree of preparedness of command and staff
personnel to carry out their duties. This is not a primary, but a more advanced
stage of training.
Depending or. how many staff levels are involved in the training, it can
be either one-stage (involving the staff and commander of a'division, or regiment,
or battalion), two-stage (involving the staffs and commanders of divisions and
regiments, or regiments and battalions), or three-stage (.involving the staffs
and commanders of divisions, regiments, and battalions?. Command and staff train-
ing is never given beyond the three-stage level necause of the complexity of organ-
ization involved and in view of the small benefit to the individual echelon. Such
training can be conducted in the form of war games on paper, or over actual terrain;
in the latter case, all or part of the headquarters element and even small combat
subunits (to represent troops, particularly those troops l+hich a staff would be
most likely to encounter under combat conditions: troops in reserve, security
troops, reconnaissance troops, etc.) may be drawn into the training.
Command and staff training an all echelons is planned; as a rule, by the
next higher staff, but often there are instances when such training is undertaken
on the initiative of a unit commander.
The latter type of training always bears the character of a training session;
the former, the character of an inspection. The training is worked out, prepared,
and directed by the. ors::, z.ls..nninc it.. Particinatintt in the preperation of the
it.,
training are the director of training himself, and several of his aides, all of
whom are officers of the next higher staff. To help the director in carrying out
the tra ntnv, officers of higher staffs are either drafted for tar purpose or
chosen from among the officer personnel of the unit being trained; these officers
are then used in the capacity of umpi:ts.
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As a rule, those in charge of the training keep secret both the training
topic and the probleas being worked )ut; for the organization of the initial
period of training, last:'uctiona are issued to the particular staff which
indicate the approximate time, the duration of training, the degrees of read!..
ness expected of the staff, the participants in the training, the location and
condition-of the staff at the moment the train...ng begins.
The most complex and widely used method of conducting such training is
war games conducted in the field together with the staffs of subunits and
designated troops. Into the training are drawn the unit commander, together
with his administrative staff, all of the staff personnel, and both the sub-
units subordi.nate to the staff and those attached to it under combat conditions
writs used for the defense of the staff, antiairca-aft and antitank units, etc.).
The use of the remaining troops of subunits is kept at a minimum, with those
troops being used only in cases where the director wishes to verify the practi-
cability of instructions issued by commanders and staffs (for example, a march
schedule, the schedule for setting up defense in depth, the speed of delivery
of aaemunition, etc.).
Training begins either from the place where the staff is permanently
quartered, or with a preliminary movement to an area near where the garses will
be played, upon instructions 'f the director. The latter case gives the staff
an opportunity Lu locate and equip their working quarters, and to set up their
security, their communications with their higher staff (usually made up of the
director himself plus a small group of his technical aides), and radio communi-
cations with staffs and commanders below them. The games begin thr moment the
communications system begins to function.
The games consist of the director's issuing orders or requests for infor-
mation in the role of a senior commander, or issuing information in the role
of the commander of an adjacent unit, and directing the activities of those
under training into the necessary channels, thus compelling them to make
decisions, to formulate those decisions on paper, to get them to the persons
who will carry them out, to control the execution of those orders, and to
inform their next higher commander. If the aim of the training 's only h~
inspect or verify, the director sometimes interrupts the games to explain
mistakes made at 'hat particular moment, and then compels the participants
to repeat that part of the training.
Assistants to the director play a role similar to the director's. In
playing out a particular opisode of the training, they must be guided by
the general plan of training and the specific instructions of the director
governing that episode; but they are not deprived of the right of independent
action during the episode and may play it as they think best under the Partic-
ular situation which has been created.
Staff umpires play a.less responsible role. Basically, they are delineators
and observers of the activities of staff officers. Their actions coincide
strictly with the director's plan, and every phase of the games is played ac-
cording to their notes, both from the view point of the time required to carry
it out, and from that of the method of Its execution, quality, and accuracy.
Documents worked out by the staff are collected by the umpires and later serve
ag illustrations in the umpires' estimates of the staff's work.
Subordinate (lover unit) umpires are those assistants to the director who,
during the training, fulfill the duties of unit commanders subordinate to the
staff. Theirs is a double role. On the one hand, they play unit commanders
subordinate to the staff, which obliges tb.m to carry out all orders ' the
Malt Undergoing training (where actual troops participate n the training, these
umpit`ed remain with them); on the other hand, the plan of training is made known
i. :ff they are nbliand to create
to them in advance, and in their repvrta to tic- o st.
for the staff he situation required by the director in order to play througb
the particular phase. Their joint rule of player and director has led te. the
troops' dubbing them "supporting players."
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principally of carrying aut the duties celled for by their position. This
menus that all the c-_us^"d*rs and staff officers carry out all the work
required for the prep $tiO ) organization, and control of one or another
form of combat. Reconnaisbwace is actually carried out, decisions are made,
the prescribed instructions at* issued, written and verbal orders are given,
a check i6 made on their ful.ifil1lmsrt by subordinates, and adjacent and
higher staffs are kept informed.
The eat :e staff and all subunits subordinate to it are all trainees
during the games, and actually carry out all work assigned to thew in a
combat setting. Quarters for the staff (as a rule, shelters) and observation
security and defense of the command post are organized, as
set u
p,
points are
are its antiaircraft and antitank defense, with actual installation of weapons
in firing positions and their preparation for action. The signals communi-
native command
lt
er
cation system is an integral part of the command post; an ea
post and a rear echelon staff are then organized.
u,,uing the entire period of the games, the staff functions in a combat
setting.
On the completion of training, the director collects all the reports of
his assistants and staff umpires on the actions of those being trained (or
h I. ives st certain definite conclusions about the quality
err
checked), a en
of work accomplished by commanders and staffs, as to bo?=h positive and negative
qualities. In his detailed study, the director studies the field documents
worked out by the staff (or staffs) during the training. This process usually
takes several hours, and, during more important training exercises (inspections),
may even take longer than 24 hours.
Conclusions about the training, together with charts illustrating the
different situations plus the field do;uments which were worked out, are made
'hers
known 'co the trainees (by the director) at the critique. it io
that an evaluation of the staff's preparedness (if the training is in the form
of an inspection) as a whole, as well as of its sections and individual members,
is made. In addition, it is then considered obligatory to place before the
staff routine training assignments for the strengthening of its training and
for the elimination of defects in its work.
Similar critiques are given by assistants to the director before all
subunits participating in the training.
Lee diagram on following page
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VI. T TRAIRIRG OF SERVICE UNITS
The training of service units and rear area troops has been allotted
a separate chapter because such training is planned separately from that of
combat troops. It is very difficult to take the entire service apparatus
and all service establishments and "lift" them into staff or comswnd-staff
training. During command-staff training, service elements and establishments
are only "token" forces, that is, are nave:: brought into the training in
force.
The staff of the military district, on the basic of instructions from
the General Staff, plans special training exercises for service troops and
staffs in which rear area organizations are brought out in force. Such ex-
ercises are conducted rarely, never more than twice a year, and then in the
form of a demonstration, where commanders and staffs of other divisions are
brought in to observe divisional service unit training.
Thc,rarious types of service unit staff training include the following:
1, The training of troops together with designated service elements
2. The training of staffs together with servj,ce organizations
3. Demonstrative training exercises for service troops
4. Routine training, particularly of service elements and establishments
5. Training exercises involving officers of staffs, service adminis-
trations, and officers of other sectionj and services.
The aims and functions of service unit staff training are:
1. The carrying out of funeticnsl (that is, official) duties by officers
of the administrative service
2. The formulation, by each service and section, of plans for the
organization of rear service establishments in accordance with its
particular activity
3. The atudy of the rear services by staff officers unconnected with
service organizations
4. The "knitting together" of service elements and establishments.
Such questions as the following, for example, may be worked out during
service unit divisional staff training exercises: lines of supply and
evacuation, supply schedules and tables, the work of divisional supply relay
points, the organization and duties of a road maintenance battalion, etc.
Training may be conducted both in the classroom and in the field. In
the first, the emphasis ii on the production of documentation; and in the
second, on the practical voik of staff officers: the layout of the division
distributing point, organization of the road traffic control head,luarters
company and area, layout of raia:heads, esta'bl4ahsent of a divisional hospital,
etc.
Routine combat- training of service units and organizations is regularly
carried on :::A s c rda ice with special prc3rsms, as in any other military unit;
for example, a divisional bakery is trained in the speedy setting up, closing
Yorkers study the nomenclature
dour.. end transfer or its equipment; as-% per--
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of their depot, the order of setting up a depot, methods of storing equipment,
keeping :ecords of stores, etc. An army transportation battalion, in addition
to routine training, will be trained in the woviment of freight from railheads
to forward army depots or to divisional distributing points, the return of
empty vetEcles, the regulation of traffic, etc. Thus, the training of service
units and subunits fol.lowr, the aim of preparing these units for combat.
Training in conducted either by the commanders of units and organizationas,
or by officers of higher sei,rice units to which those units are subordinate.
The preparation for the training of service units does not differ sub-
stantially from preparation for similar staff or command-staff training.
Military district maneuvers, as the final and concluding phase of the
year's combat training, are not held every year, nor are they held in all
military e?tatricts. More often, such maneuvers take place in the border
military districts, while sowcal.l'l "district troop exercises" involving
not a1= of the unite in the district are held in the interior military
districts.
Cases may occur when two training exercises (maneuvers) are held in
various areas of the same military district.
If district maneuvers are not held, then large units within the district
conduct "troop training exercises," in which only those units will participate.
The main functions of these maneuvers and troop exercises may be defined
as follows:
1. To give general training to troops and staffs
2. To provide practice in organizing operational and tactical coordina-
tion between the various types of troops
3. To check existing standards, for example, for service units, for
staffs, the standards for artillery saturation, etc.
11. To demonstrate and check new types of weapons, materiel or to check
new tactical methods
5. To check the practicability of plans for the concentration and
deployment of troops (such proi;lems may be posed only in the border military
districts).
The possibility of csnducting maneuvers near the borders, with the aim
of applying pressure or. neighboring governments', is not excluded.
The training instructions of the General Staff set down, well in advance,
the location, date, and dtration for maneuvers or district troop exercises.
very often the Ceneral Staff it3elf plans and conducts maneuvers in the
border military districts. These are cases where the General Staff wishes to
itary
r -lon-? Where
verify the operational plans for a given theater of _. t
no such broad air exists, the planning and direction of maneuvers are turL.ei
over to the commander and staff of the military districts, with representatives
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either case, the General Staff fixes the topic of training, the general train-
ing aiau:,, the area for the maneuvers, composition of the various sides, duration
of traijing and, finally, the director of the maneuvers.
Preparation of the maneuvers involves the following steps:
1. Composition of the general preliminary plan, in which are defined
the aims and tasks of training, Jump-off positions, composition of the sides,
and the approximate order of events during the maneuvers.
2. A reconnoiter of the area of the maneuvers. To carry out the recon-
noitering, the director farms reconnoitering groups made up of stiff officers
and specialists. The director will then, in accordance with a special plan,
cover the ground together with the reconnoitering groups and go over in more
detail with them the future course of the maneuvers.
3. Simultaneously, a general calculation is made of the troops to be
used ire-the maneuvers, the equipment to be used in establishing a neutral
communications system, field messes, etc.
With that ends the preliminary work in the preparation of a plan for the
maneuvers.
Upon returning from the reconnoiter, the staff of the director proceeds
to work out a detailed plan for the conduct of the maneuvers; the plan that
is worked out must then be approved by the General Staff.
This final plan may consist of the following elements:
1. The plan proper for carrying on the maneuvers, in which arc indicated
the probable location of the various sides at a given time during each phase
of training, the directional measures to be taken to elicit the desired actions
from both aides
2. The order of organization of tie jump-off positions and areas, the
order for concentration of troops in those areas
3. The composition of the umpire system, consisting of the following
elements:
b. Chief umpires aad the staffs of the various sides
c. Zone umpires and their staffs
d. Umpires attached to troop units and to their staffs
e. Junior (lower unit, "supporting") umpires.
During military district maneuvers, the staff of the distr.'i.et does not
appear in the role of the "operational" staff. The comaAnder of the solitary
district and his staff become the chief directors, and, for the purpose of
running the maneuvt , the staff of the chief director becomes the operational
higher staff. The ,;:ief umpires 3ud the staffs of the various sides, an
well as the zone umpires and their staffs are made up of officers from staffs
and units not participating in the maneuvers. Lower unit umpires. that is,
umpires attached to units and their staffs, are chosen from senior officers
not taking part in the maneuvers. The system of umpires for military district
maneuvers is a large one, with a vast supply and administrative network behind
im.
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b. A plan for the layout of a "neutral communications system"; this
system 1_ set up well in advance, in any case, not later than 3-4 days
before the troops begin to take up their jump-off positions
5. A plan of wasurea to be takeu for the security and control of the
maneuver area, for the maint.sance of a definite regime in the training area
6. A plan for the organization of a system of material and technical
equipment supply for the maneuvering forces
7. The compilation of organizational instructions for the simulation of
fire and its designation as such, etc.
6. A compilation of various subsidiary training documents, such as
information on service units and organizations, a military geographical. de-
scription of the maneuver area, additional data on the materiel of the prob-
able enemy, etc.
In the preparation for the maneuvers a great deal of attention is paid
to the question of political security. Into the system of political security
measures enter questions of a cultural-educational and agitation and propaganda
nature, but the system consists mainly of measures for preven'ing contact
bet-weeu t km troops on naneuvsrs and the civilian population.
The duration of the maneuvers may vary. On an average, they last from 10
to 15 days, and are normally conducted in September or early October.
Upon completion of the maneuvers, as upon completing any other type of
training, a critique is held. Units which participated in the training are
given a special order to assemble in a given area where, on the day the
maneuvers ent or the day after, unit commanders and umpires attached to the
units conduct a critique for the enlisted and noncommissioned personnel. A
separate critique in held for platoon and company commanders and the like.
during which an analysis is made of the tactical situations involving units
of that particular size.
Following that, on either the same or the following day, a parade is
held which is reviewed by the commander of the military district. After the
parade, the various units disperse to their regular stations.
On the evening of th, day of the parade or on the day following, a
critique is arranged for senior officers and generals, during which the
director foregoes a general evaluation to give in detail an evaluation of
the actions of the troops, the work of the staffs, the work of service units,
and the political security work.
Sometimes, ir. conclusion, a banquet is held, to which only the senior
commanders are invited.
The concluding document is a written account-report of the raneuvers
which is presented to the General Staff; very often, the General Staff uses
these reports from the various military districts to formulate new training
and operational instructions. These instructions then serve as the basis
for further work.
Demonstrative and inepective training exercises for senior and higher
commanders are sometimes held after such maneuver,i.
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VIII. COK= POST a CISES (POL ATA FOTFZDKA) FOR MILIWY DISTRICT STA7FS
One of the forms of higher staff training is the command post exercises
for military district staffs. Such exereises are arranged not only by the
military district staffs, but also by the General Staff, military academies,
etc.
In form and method o? exe..ution, command post exercises are a one-sided
game carried out over the actual terrain involved.
Command post exercises do not involve the use of troops in the field,
but use only those unit. and installations necessary for the maintenance of
the staff.
Command pool exercises are usually held once a year, during the summer
training period (July -August), that is, prior to the beginning of military
district maneuvers or district troop exercises.
In alms, the command post exercises held in the interior military
districts differ sharply from those held in the border districts.
In the border military districts, the command goat exercises are based
on the actual operational plans of those districts. in other words, the
command poet exercises are not based on an abstract operational background
but on the specific background of the theater of operations in which the
staff would operate during the initial perioa of a war.
Command post exercises are used to verify not only operational calcnla-
tione, but all mobilization plans.
In the interior military districts, which have no operational plans,
ennnaand poet exercises are based on an imaginary locality and are not
connected with the verification of operational calculations.
However, regardless of whether an interior or border military district
is involved, in every case it is the General Staff which determines the a+.m
of the command post exercise, the composition of the sides, and the area in
which such exercises will take place.
Tber~ are often instances where the General Staff itself organizes a
command post exercise.
There may be cases when the Ceneral Staff summons the staffs of interior
military districts for command pest exercises in a border district. Thus,
for example, in 1940 the staffs of the Ural and Volga military districts
were summoned to command post exercises in the Leningrad Military District,
and the staff of the West Siberian Military District to exercises in the
lo.:ussian Military District.
The staff of the military district works out the comtaend post exercises
in accordance with the instructions of the General Staff (if the lati.r is
not conducting the exercises itself). As it does during district maneuvers,
the military district staff playa the join` roles of the "operational" and
"directional" staffs (as the staff undergoing training, and as the staff in
charge of the exercises).
The military district statt makes the preliminary calculations for the
command staff exercises, including calculations for the material resources
involved; these figures must then be confirmed by the General Staff.
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ular difference between planning a command
ti
c
In the in, there is no par
post exercise and planning military district ea neuvero or a command-staff train-
cisr is essentially a large command-staff
ing exercise. A co a+d post exer
training exercise with cor.mnicfttiOnB facilities added. The plan for comsuaind
exercises consists of the total of the following documents:
The special features in the conduct of this type of training exercise are:
4. The organization of supply 'rases
y. The plan for political security for the command post exercises, etc.
The plan for the JAY-out of the field and neutral communications
1. The training plan proper (the plan for the co=and post exercises)
2. The make-up of the umpire syateffi
operational and tactical situations ML,-r, j?-j'_ that the training director, together with part of his staff (specialists mostly),
rides out into the jump-off area of one of the field staffs and there plays out
the first move; the field staff then works our, the necessary documentation f,)r
t1b on to t
d
d
e
r
o
r
of its
the fiel
troo n
of
all
covered
hss
the ext dstaff,odome his workptheree,aetc.,euntil he
staffs.
Raving returned to the first staff, the director then makes the next move,
meanwhile, the General Staff will be at some other point in accordance with the
tor will also, without fail, make a check of
operatievaat situation. The direc
the service units and installations, with whom he will also work out a few
episodes in each phase of the training ex,nrcise, using the "bounds" method.
--??^a post. exercises. a field critique, as a rule,
Upon completion of yrrru......~ r--- -- ---
is not usiually held. That is given troops by their commanding officers at
their permanent stations. A critique for the ofricers id usu tIly given the end of tiqu
isyfocusedton the the Principal attention during t
and not on theiworke
of the unit commumders.
Using the critique as a basis, the commander then and there issues
practical instructions on questionb of troop training and mobilization.
Sometimes, during the course of the exercises, demonstration trainings
by one of thA units involved will be given for the benefit of those pgr-
ticipating in the command poet exercises.
Upon completion of the command post exerciseq, the staff of the military
district also submits a report-account of the training to the General Staff.
It must be noted that more practical benefit may be derived from command
post exercises held in border military districts; simi) ar exerr ssesheld'in staff
interior districts are usually in the nature of regular, aough exercises.
IX. KILT RY DISTRICT OPERATIONAL WAR GA14
District o_nerational war games, as well as district command post exer-
cises, are one of the forms of training for higher atoifn.
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Whereas the military district coAnand post exercises are conducted in the
field., the district operational ' r gemes are conducted in the classroom, and
it is only seldom, in the final stages of the games, that the participants go
out into the field (That is, of course, if the war games are based on maps
of that particular area.)
There is little difference between operational war ;sus held in border
districts and command post exercises. There, as a rule, only the concluding
phase is played in the field, and the war games follow the same aim: to verify
the operational and mobilization plans for the district, to check on the varied
mobilization documentation, to wake a more precise definition of plans, etc.
In the. interior military districts, operational war gams are conducted
on the basis of strict instructions from the General Statff, instructions which
deterai"a not only the general and specific size of the games, but fix the
theater of military operations, the composition of the enemy's forces, the
composition of friendly forces.
For example, the West-Siberian Military District will be instructed to
prepare and to condret such operational war games on maps of the Transcaucasus
theater of operations, and other war gags on maps of the Carpathirn theater
of operations, etc.
The distinctive feature of the military district operational wer games
is the fact that they are, as a rule, two-sided rather than one-sided, even
though the opposite side is set up in an abbreviated form.
The following usually participate in the war games:
1. The military district staff, froth whose personnel the staff of the
army is formed
2. The staffs of corns within the military district
3. The staffs of divisions and units subordinate to the commander of
the district
4. Reserve officers slated to become members of those staffs in accord-
ance with mobilization plans
These district war games, since they are costly affairs, are also conducted
not more than once a yerr, usually at the end of the wtoter training period
(March-April).
The director of training is the comaaader of the military district, who
is assisted by a staff glade up of the chief of staff, the chief of the operations
and training section, the chiefs of arms and services, and the chief of the
administrative forces.
The field staff is ..he up of the remaining district staff workers, with
the role of chief of staff being taken over by one of the deputy chiefs of
staff of the military district, that of chief of t.s operations and training
sections by one of his assistants, that of the chiefs of arms and services by
their assistants or deputies, etc.
Drawn into the war gums in a both, are the staff commanders and the principal
staff personnel,' chiefs of ale@ and services of divisional and corps staff c.
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The conaerxs v: vy?F~- ~- -? the roles of field coasnand-
in the nature of a staff training. exercise, play
era and 'umpires attached to their own staffs'
participating in the working out of the plan tor the operational war games
-"d-4- se..4.4 1n_ the communications
i
--
OO, -1
officer, chief of the supply and evacuation eec
general direction of the chief of staff.
The plan that is worked out for the war gasses is then approved by the
General Staff.
The training material fox the operational war games consist of the
folinwing:
1. The plan proper for the war games
2. General and specific assignments for the various sides
Organizational instructions: the organization of the communications
system, the organization of the system of supply, the headquarters cryptographic
service, etc.
4. Training instructions: data on the enemy, the theater of operations,
the supply and evacuation services, the organization of both friendly and
enemy troops, etc.
i the war games is similar to that used in
t
ng
The suethod used in conduc
the command post exercises, that is, "in bounds." The gaps in the "operational
times" are much smaller since all of the players are locc.ted in either the
same quarters or in adjoining quaff:ers.
The operational war games begin with the director listening to a reps.rt--
from one side, for example: the evaluation of a situatiou,itsewdecingvquarters,
the orders issued, etc. After ttis, that side eturns
and the other aide is then called in to see the chief director; or the basis of
the decisions taken by the first side, the director then makes a move for the
other side. That side's decisions, orRera, eLc., are heard. Following that,
the first side is summoned again, and a new phase (a new bound) worked out
with it, and so on.
T ,e operational games themselves usually last 3 days; on the first 2 days,
regular breaks are taken for meals and rest, but on the third day the games
are played at an "accelerated tempo," when the astronomical time almost coincides
with the operational time.
The main emphasis during the military district operational war games is on
the work of the staffs: planning of the operation or battle, providing for its
successful outcome, directing operations as events unfold, etc.
All operational and fie calculaations, etc. out in
cuments?edthe,principal
amessages, sketches, , graphs, and &nePa of the staffs; special
material used d for et-e.luatixrg the activity an., p: spax'e-
attention is paid to whether these documents were cads out in time, and in ac-
cordance with existing standards met down in manuals end instructions.
Upon completion of the war games, all 3art:i:ijan:s, whether maw or few,
remain on for ore or 2 days longer; a conference is then held with them on
current questions of combat training AV.a mobilization; scmetimea a demonstration
training is conducted for them or raw m t iel. shown them. In such a tv .r, the
district operational war games arc tran;f,rmed into a a --
course.
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At after any such large training exercise, the commander holds a
"critique," which is attended by all perticipantn in the gen.ea. A thorough
evaluation of the actiasas of the staffs participating in the games is then
given, and general instructions for the future are issaed.
The results of the training are then presentee to the General Staff in
the form of a report.
Sr+ametimes, representatives of the General Staff participate in the war
games, but even then they do not usually interfere with the progress of the
games or take part in an evaluation of them. he coaeesnder of the military
district continues to remain the director for the games?
Since such. training exercises do not occur very often, the commander
of the district almost invariably gives a banquet upon conclusion of the
games. Only senior officers are invited, however.
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