SALIENT FEATURES OF CHINESE AGRICULTURE

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP80-00809A000500390020-4
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: C
• Document Page Count: 12
• Document Creation Date: December 14, 2016
• Document Release Date: September 5, 2000
• Sequence Number: 20
• Publication Date: February 3, 1954
• Content Type: REPORT

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CENTM WiTtLUOD" AGENCY
IM 11 ~! 1 1111 MIS ON
CCUrdTRY China
SUBJECT ;,client Featured of Chinese Agriculture
PLACE ACQLU REo25X1A. - ?
fir sousce: )
DATE ACQUIRED
(s
r souiecouacs)
winter wheat.ltsolianf, ref;ion, the Yrnctze rioa.wheat region, the lice-tea
ration, the 8sechuan ride region, the double.oropping rice region, and the
southwestern rice rof;ion. In addition, agricultural ragiona .ln l4engolia,
Manchuria, 'T'ibet, and Sinkiang may also be noted. They nay ba doeignstad
as the 8oybesn?K,moliang region in Manchuria, the Mongolian pastoral region,
the posture land of Tibet and the oasis farming region in Otnkiong, I
regional c aracaro~ioe. Among them are the two fundamental, dominant
types of the rioo zone in South China and the wheat no in North.China.
J.L. Huck has further divided those two major zonoa into eight region&,
namely: the spring wheat realon, the winter wheat?n;illat region, the
ro ions: The pattern of Chinese aGriculturo !me broad
1. Agricultural
2. The urrinWwheat ro ion consists of the northern parts of Hopei, 8bonsi,
Sbsn t "a Mau ar is southern parts of Johol, Chnhsr, 3utyr4sn 'and
Ningxia. The acreage of cultivated land of the region evourita to
18 percent of Ito total mr?a. About 15 percent of the oultivstod Ile-rxI Is
irrigated, 18 percent terraced, asad 6 peroant droiaed. Tlae crop ereeiper
farm is 7,3 sores, and the farm population per square mild of crop area
amounts to 8558. Rainfall averages 14 inches per &:=xm, andtli the growin
season lent, about 198 days. The prllncipal cropu in the region tholuda
millet, Irish potatoes and spring wheat, with barley, kaoliang,fiold peas,
and llroso millet no supplements. arcps,
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The winter wheat-millet region embrace-a large pert of Shansi, Shenei, and
Kansu an corners of pan and Ro_rz;i.~ This region has only 22 percent of
its total area under c~iltivation. Of the cultivated land, over one-third
has been terraced and 0.0 percent is un..er irrigations. The crop area per
farm is 3.7 acres, andthe farm population per square mile of crop area
amounts to 1,234. Rai all averages about 17 inches per annum. The climate
in this region is siml ar.ito that in the spring wheat region, being dry, cold
and windy in the winte , with, hot :era slightly higher temperature and,
hence, longer growing eason of 225 days. The principal crops of the
region are winter wheat, millet, cotton and kaoliang, and. the secondary
crops include barley, corn, small green bean, and soybean.
The winter wheat-kaoli.an region includes the whole province of
Shantung, a large par to Honan and Hopei, and the northern part of
Itiangsu and Anhwei. Four,-fifths of the region lieslin the North China Plain.
Tt is the most important agricultural region in China, having 68 percent of
its total area under cultivation, the highest percentage of all the
agricultural regions ' the country. IIn fact, the acreage of cultivated
land of the region conlstitutes 35 percent of all the cultivated land of
China proper. About 1,0 percent of l the cultivated land in the region .a
under irrigation, largOlylby wells, The crop area per fame is 5.1 e.rea,
and the farm population pe.' sc'uarelmili of crop area amounts to 1,165.
Rainfall averages 211. inches per annum, and growing season lasts about
241 days. The principal crops include winter wheat; kaoliang, cotton,
millet, corn and soybean,, while the secondary crops aoresesame, peanuts,
sweet potato, and small. green bean.
l
the lands along the Yangtze River
5. The Yangtze rice-wheat regior. embraces
ua t he prov nceod3" ftu ois vai~,, "A Rt$igsu vita 35 n n$ (got
its area under cultivation. The region abounds in Takeo and ponds
scattered here and there thus affording irrigation wcilities and malting it
especially, adoptable t rice plantation. As much as 'l percent of the
cultivated 'eland in the7region is irrigated. The or;,p area per farm is 3+5
acres, and the farm population per square mile of crop area is 1,360-1 The
annual rainfall average 42 inches, and is far more evenly distributed than
that in the wheat belt in North China,. The growing season lasts about tan
months. The principal crop of the region is rice, with winter wheat,)
cotton, and barley as secondary crops,( in the delta, situated in the lower
Yangtze where silkwormp are rained; m )berry trees aI a grown extensively.
The rice-tea region includea a large part of the four provinces of Hunan,
Kiang , Chekiang, and) Fukien, with only 18 percent of its area under
cultivation'. Irrigati n is provided for as much as 7b percent of the
cultivated'-4aud +.n the7region. The crop area per farm is 2.2 acres, and
the farm population per square mile of ,crop area is 1,738. Rainfall
averages 59 inches perlannixu, and i6 distributed quite evenly thus making
the land suitable for rice and tea' plantation. The growing season lasts
more than ten months; I.n the coastal areas there is ..practically no frost
during the year. The riricipul crops are rice and rapeseed. in the
mountainous and foggy areas of the reli!on, particularly those in Chelciang,
Fukien, and Hunan, teal is produced on large scale. The mountain ridges
are also planted to corn, wheat, sweet potatoes, and tung trees.
The Szechuan rice me ioon covers the whole province of Szechuan and a (small
part of 1; e pros nevi eo Pf Hupei, Shensi, and Kansu, with 32 percent of its
area under lcultivation. Of the cultivated in the region, no less than
70 percent is irrigated, especially the rice fields. in all areas in the
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region, except the Cherigtu Plain which is under irrigation, water is
stored in the terraced fielcis n he winter for rice plantation in the
following year. The crop area per fare: is 3.1 acres, and the far.i
population per square mile of crop area is 1,610. Rainfall in the
region averages !, 39 inches per car, and the humidity is very high. The
,growing season is more than 1.1 months long; in fact, there is practically
no frost in the Basin throughout the year. Rice is the moot important
crop of the region; net come corn, wheat, and rapeseed. In the mountainous
areas of the region, sweet potato, kaoliang, soybean, and the like are
planted. In the central Dart of the region sugar cane is extensively
grown. The region also abounds lei tung trees and fruit trees.
b. The double-cropping; rice region includes the whole province of Kwangtung,
the eastern and'i central parts of 1.wangsi, and the southern parts of
Fukien and Kiangoi, with only 13 percent of its area under cultivation.
Of the cultivated land in the region, 69 percent is under irrigation. The
crop area per farm s 2.3 acres, and thh. farm population per square mile of
crop area is 2,072. The a.ur.ual rainfall averages as high as 69 inches, and
its distribution it' even. The region !is free of frost, and therefore
crops can grow at aiy time of the year. The principal crop is rice, which
is used in double cropping. Sweet potatoes and sugar cane are also
extensively grown. Fruits grown iii subtropical regions, such as citrus
fruits, banana,', pear, litchi, longan, and olive are special products of
the region.
9. The southwestern ride region comprises the whole province of Yunnan, a larg(:
parto Kweic ow, ai the western part of Kwangsi, with only seven percent
of its area under cultivation. The proportion of irrigated land to
cultivated area in *he region amounts to 32 percent, the highest to be
found in any oflagricultural regions in the country. The crop area pe.,
farm is two acres, and the farm population per square mile of crop area is
2,636. The annual rainfall averages 46 inches, and is evenly
distributed. The growing season lasts almost throughout the year. The
principal summer crop is rice; corn ranks second in importance. The winter
crop consists of barley, wheat, broad bean, field peas, and rapeseed.
Trees and grasses make good growth on the mountain ridges and highlands
which are largely utilized for tea plantation, except in Kweichow, where
they are used mostly for growing tung trees.
3.0. The solbean-Isaolian region embraced the central Manchurian lowlands known
various y as the Matt urian plain, the eastern highlands, the west
Ianchurian plain, the eastern highlands, the west Manchurian plateau, and
the Liaotung PeninsMla, with about 20 percent of its area under cultivation.
Only five percent o the cultivated land is irrigated. In addition to
the cultivated land bout one-third of the total land area is in forests,
and the remainder consists of pasture and wasteland. The crop area per
farm is eight acres, and the farm population per sugar mile of crop area
is 800. Rainfall averages 25 inches per annum, and thL crowing season
lasts five months longs The principal crop in the northern Manchurian plain
of the region is soybean with Harbin as the collecting center, while that in
the southern Manchurian plain of the region is Kaoliang. Other crops of
the region include millet, corn, wheat, rice, and cotton.
11, The Mongolian pastur,al reAon embraces the vast grassland to the north and
northwest of the loeps i`;hlands of China proper, lying next to the Great.
Wall and extending to the south of thb Gobei Desert. It covers the lour
provinces of Nin;gsial, Su:iyuan, Chahar) and Jehol, excluding their southern
portions which form large part of the spring wheat region. The soils of
a large part of the 1ongolian pastural region are considered fertile, but the
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aridity permits ,very little stable ag;ricu].ture. The annual rainfall
averages less than 10 inches, and is concentrated almost entirely during
the short summer months. The temperature varies e.-trernely from a brief,
hot summer to a long, bitter, cold winter, thus making the growing season
very short. The region is known as the home of the nomads whose livelihood
depends on flocks in constant search of grass. In some sections of the
region where irrigation is possible, however, food crops such as spring
wheat, oats, and Irish potatoes are grown.
12. Tibet is a rugged, and barren highland plain. Idosi of the country consists
of wasteland, and the rest of the meager grazing lands of the nomads known
as the Tibet pasture lands. The very limited agricultural sections are
found in some of E'e valleys in the two provinces of eastern Tibet,
namely: Sikang;and Chinghai. Annual precipitation in Tibet decreases from
about 30 inches in the south to approximately 10 inches in ..he north. The
temperatures are low, with snow covering the top of the mountains prac-cically
all the year round. On acciunt of the sparsely scattered vegetation,
shepherds move their flocks up and down the slope with the season. The
principal diet of the people in the region is "milk-tea".
13. The oasis farmmingregiionn is located in Sinkiang, or Chinese Turkestan
which, however,' consists largely of barren plains and rugged mountains
with only some small oases at the bases of the highlands, particularly
those of the highlands that surround the Tarim Basin on three sides.
These small oases in Sinkiang constitute the estimated one percent of the
total area under cultivation, with the remainder largely in wasteland and
partly in pasture land. Crops grown in the oasis farming region in
Sinkiang include' wheat, millet, corn, Irish potatoes, barley, oats,
cotton, melons, 'and grapes.
14. In spite of the regional differences due to topography, climate, and
soil conditions,IChinese agriculture presents salient features
characteristic of the country as a whole. These features take their
stamp essentially from the prevalence of the minute units of cultivation
which, in turn,, owes its origin to the overwhelming pressure of population
on farm land. The large population in relation to the arable land acreage
in China has necessitated the production of the greatest amount of food
possible per it of land within the limits of the present technological
development and social-economic organization. This has teen accomplished
by growing crops for their seeds or tuber products directly for human
..onsumption instead of indirectly through livestock production, for land
devoted to grain' or grain and tuber products, produces six to sev n times
as much food energy as land raising dairy cows while the return from poultry
farming is less than one-third of the calories from milk per one ache of
crop land. (Buck: L.U. PP257-256). The predominance of grain farming and
the unimportance, of animal husbandry, therefore, feature conspicuously in
Chinese agriculture throughout the entire country.
15. Predominance of grain farmin : in his sample study of 16,476 farina in the
29 prov aces o ua for the period 1929-1933, Buck has estimated that
crops raised chiefly for their seed products, such as grain, constitute
85.44 percent ofj the total crop area; fibers, 3.6 percent; tubers and roots,
3.3 percent; vegetable, 1.1 percent; fruits, 0.9 percent; and, all others,
4.4 percent. Recent official estimates confirm Buck;o conclusion. As of
the pre-war period 1930-1937, the proportion of the acreage for food crops
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Percentage distribution of the acreage of
crops in
hina rro er
l
30-1937
1911.3
Food crop
s :
95.15%
96.35%
Wheat
22.44,
24.64%
Rice
22.02%
21.28%
Millet
7.78;6
7.1+3%
Maize
5.25%
5.72%
Barley
7.50 6
7.23%
Kaolia
ng
5.72%
4.94%
Soybee
5.83%
5.28%
Potatoes
2.6-%
It .62%
Other food, crops'
16.0
15.21,
crops
to the total area of1:ultivati.on averages 95.15 perreit, whereas to 1948
it r,eachea the high level of 96.35 percent. i Among the various food crops,
wheat ranks the first and rice ranks the second both for the pre-war and
post-war periods. The acreage for commercial and industrial crops is
invariably small,'' only 4.85 percent and 3.65 percent for the pre-war and
Grand Total
100.
Acreage of seven
C ins Proper If
Wheat
Rice
Millet
Barley
Kaoliang
Soybeana
Maize
Total
principal crops,lwhich constitutes almost three-fourths of the total area
of cultivation, falls below that of the prewar average by appro:cimately
four, percent. In fact, ?11:1ie acreage for rice in 1948 falls below that for
the pre-war average by 6.6 percent, while for Kaoliang and Soybeans it is
less by as much 46 16.6' percent and 12.6 percent respectively. In terms of
Since the end of
China proper has
n C i na proper or
(Unit -
1000 me r c tons)
1930-1937
1946
1947
1948
Wheat
21,743
22,736
23,647
23,990
Rice, (Paddy)
50,064
46,007
4.6,507
46,524
Millet
8,229
9,165
7,050
8,316
Barley
7,8i'1
7,015
7,574
7,428
Kaoliang
7,016
5,488
5,581
6,386
Soybeans
6.093
5,351
5,479
6,043
Maize
5,497
6,950
6,724
7, 497
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1930-1937
Acreage
50,385,000
49,423,ooo
17,460,000
l6 311.8, 000
12,030, 000
13,090,000
11,780,000
tine second World War, the vecovery of food production in
n
bee
slow. As of 1948, the crop acreage for the seven
Production of the seven princi
53,438,000
106.1
46,153,000
9304%
16, 117, 000
92.3%
15,688,000
92.1%
10,703,000
33.4j
11,443,000
87.4%
12, 270, 0.00
105.4;0
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Rice
Wheat
Millet
Maize
Kaoliang
Soybean
Beane
Other food crops
Total food crops
Commercial & inaustx'ial Crops
Taiwan
1930-1936
62.1%
-.f V
Grand Total 00.
maize (10.0 percent). Taiwan hash 74.8 percent of its total culti Iated land
for food crops which are the least diversified, consisting only of two
crops, namely: rice, 62.1 percentl, and beans, 12.7 percent. Commercial and
industrial crops occupy 9,4 percent of the total cultivated land in Manchuria
and 25.2 percent of the total cultivated land in Taiwan.
Unimportance of animal husbandr : China is a land practically devoid of
pasture arm ng a sense o ndustry or as part of arable rotation.
The proportion of farm land' devoted to this purpose amounts only to
1.1 percent of 4'1e total acreage of land under cultivation ir. China proper
as compared with 47 percent in the United States of America. In fact, the
percentage of crop area de'roted to hay as fodder in China proper is
0.1 percent,' whereas in the' United States it is 21.9 percent, and in Great
Britain, 53.E percent. Only in the frontier regions of the northwest, such
as Chinghai and western part of Kaneu, one may find flocks of sheep and
goats, herds of yak, or droves of horses dotting the hillsides or grazing
on the grasslands. These hillsides and ;rasalands, however. constitute
the nomadic pastures in the frontier; they are in no sense cultivated,
nor are they owned by farmers individually or collectively. Their condition
is determined by annual precipitation; no human effort, such as seeding,
manuring, or irrigation is ever applied.
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metric tons, food production in China proper during the post-war years also
falls short of the pre-war level. As shown in the table, we find a
reduction of production in most of seven principal crops during the
post-war years as compared with the pre-war level-. An exception should be
noted, however, in the case of wheat. The production of wheat in China
proper has shown an increase in 1948 as compared with the pre-war level both
in its acreage of cultivation and in the tonnage of harvest. In fact, the
trend of wheat production in China proper since 1938 has been steadily
rising, due primarily to the increasing area sown to wheat in the rice
regions. This would mean an increase of wheat co:'_sumption in the diet of
the people - a change definitely for the better from the viewpoint of
nutrition value as well as stability of food suppI,y because the crop is
more subject to weather with, therefore, a greater variation of the supply
of i th
r
t
cultivation is for food crops the most important of which are soypean
(26.3 percent), Kaoliang (22.4 percent), millet (19.4 percent) and
ce an
hat of wheat.
Grain farming also dominates in the agriculture Of Manchuria and
In Manchuria, as of 1935, 90.6 percent of the total acreage under
Percentage of acreage of crops in
Manchuria and Taiwan
Manchuria
1935
1.9%
7.9%
19.4%
10.0%
22.4%
26.3%
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19. The livestock population in China, both perf'axm and. per capita, is
probably the lowest in the world., It consi;~ts a.arge'ly of water buffaloes,
oxen and hogs in .,outh China and of horses, oxen, mules, donkeys, and
sheep in northChina. Invariably, cattle and water buffaloes are draft
animals for poser purposes on the farm, and hogs, sheep, and poultry are
raised in small flocks by the farm families ae a subsidiary employment.
Rough estimates onlthe livestock in China:(22 provinces) have been obtained
by the National Agricultural Research Bureau for 1937, and are summarized
as below:
Horses 3,260,000
Sheep',
12,411,000
Cattle 22,981,000
Swinel
59,704,000
Goats
15,744,000
Chicken
241,850,000
Donkeys
9,018,000
Ducks
55,396,000
Mules
3,624,000
Geese'
9,516,000
Water buff aloes
11,574,000
On the average, there ark' approximately 20 water buffaloes, 39 oxen,
6 horses, 6 mules, 17 donkeys, 20 goats, 21 -heep,.112 hogs, 409 chickens,
93 ducks, and 3.8 geese per one hundred farms.' Not all these animals are
found on any one farm; usually two or more farmers own one draft animal
in partnership.
20. In terms of animal units, China has a pre-war', total number of
44,700,000 animal units and a pre-war per capita number of 0.11 animal
unit. The per capita animal unit in China during the post war years is
lower than that of the prewar average. The per capita number of animal
unit in China is tower than that of the United States and Canada by
seven fold, lower than that of the average for Aeia.by three fold, and
lower than that of the average for the world by almpat four fold. As of
1949, water buffalo and cattle comprise 62.4 percent .f the total animal
units in China, sheep 22.7 percent, hogs 31.2', percent, and goat 3.7 percent.
Poultry which is not included in the present analyaXa of the animal units
occupies, however, an unimportant position in, China. ~-e it averages about
15 percent of the total animal units in the country.l(**)
Total number and per capita number of
animal units in China (22p
Pre-war
1947',.
1948
1949
Total number 44.7
37.3
36.4 ?
38.3
(in million)
Per capita no
0.13.
0.09,
0.09
0.09
Per capita number of animal' units
in China and other regions compared
1949
China (22 provinces)-----------0.09
USA and Canada------------------0.66
Asia (excluding USe)-----------0.27
~urope (excluding USSR)--------- 0.29
South America-------------------- 0.17
Oceania -----_-------. ----------- 2.66
Africa------?--------- -------0.47
World average------- -----------0.31
**Factors used for the conversion of the livestock population in China and
other regions into animal units are; buffalo 1.0; cattle 0.8; hogs 0.2;
sheep and goats 0.1.
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 not only means a reduction in the meat and egg consumption of the people
out also a reduction in the export of animal products abroad. The four
important items of anima]. products for export from China, namely:i egg and
egg-prods.}cti9 bristle, goat and sheepskin) and sheep wool, which accounted
for 20 percent of the five year average of the total export value) during
the .pre-w period, 1933-1937, constituted only 12::5 percent of the tote).
export va ue in 19)37.
Number of productive animals in China (22 provinces)
Pre-war
1947
1948
1949
'Hogs
99,704,000
53,758,000
59,510,000 59,550,000
Sheep
12,411,000
9,191,000
10,450,000 10,500,000
Goat,
1),744,000
13,609,000
13,976,000
Poultry
3o6,762, 000
246, 360,000
261, 500, 000
23. Previous to the war, China was among the leading exporters of eCgsand
egg products. The annual average export of. shell ego, from China for the
period fro+n 1933 to 1937 ryas 21 thousand tons out of a world tot?.'y 'I Vf
367 thousand tons, and that of egg products 56 thousand tons out of a world
total of 6~ thousand tons. After 1941, due to war destruction and shipping
difficulties, China e.Lrnost disappeared from the world. egg market, but she
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the greater proportion of the livestock population in China consists
211 By fa
of labor animals, such as water buffalo and oxen, because theyl provide the
princibal,source of power on the farm.j Buck has estimated that labor
anirnal form as much as 75 percent of I the i:otal animal units in China,
with o.en ranking the first (34 percent) and water buffalo thelsecond
(22 percent), other working animals being donkeys (9 percent), mules
(6 percent), horses (1. percent), and camels (0.1 percent). The proportion
of labor animals to the total livestock population in United States is
22.1 percent, and in Great Britain 9.91percent. Thee labor animal units per
crop acre lin China is 0.29, whereas in United States it is 0.07, and in
Great pritain, 0.05, presetting, therefore, a contrast which depicts vividly
the difference in the sources of power for agriculture in the respective
courtr>tee.l The reduction of work animals in China since the wax- has been
an important factor in the slow progress of her post-war agricultural)
recovery. ~ The number of both cattle ana water buffalo has i nvariabl;rl
fallen elow the pre-war average during the post-war years of 1947, 1948,
and 194;.
Pre-war 22,981,000 11574,000
1947 18,996,000 9,320,000
1946 13,200,000 9,460,000
1949 18,000,000
22. Products e animals which consist of those raised mainly for their meat,
hides, e,ge~ and ether products, constitute a minor proportion of the total
livestoc population in China, namely: 25 percent at compared with '78 percent
in Vnite Sates of America and 90 percent in Great Britain. As cattle is
kept morg for working purposes than food, only hogs, sheep, and goats, land
poultry are the principal productive animals in China. Since there had been
a great eetjease in the number of productive animals ;ring the war, the
post-war level is in all cases :such below the pre-war average. This decrease
Number of cattle and water buffalo in.
China (22 provinces) , for the pre-war
and post-war years compared.
Cattle Water buffalo
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reappeared as an exporter since 1946 on a moderate scale,, In 1946 and
1947, only! four thousand and 15 thousand tons of eggs and egg products
were exported respectively.
24. With the high degree of localization in food consumption, especially among
the rural population. the',predominanc', of grain farming and unimportance
Calorie and protginoontent oi CQQd I1o6
ova a e or wean consu On na.
provinces)
Pre-war 1947 -48 1948-49 1949-;o0
Calorie supply
per 'capita
2226
2115
2172
2020
% from cereal
rind tuber
76.4%
77.0%,
77.0
77.0%
Daily supply of
protein per
capita:total
70.8(Gramms)
65.7(GM)
66.5(GM)
61.8(GM)
Animal
5.'(
4.5 "
4.8
4.8
%
of animal pro-
tein to total:
8.05%
6.84%
7.22, 7.76%,
the pre-war average, as shown by the table, has caused a further deterioration
of the already deficient diet of the Chinese people both qualitatively and
quantitatively.
25. Under-ca italization and high ratio of labor intensity: Chinese agriculture
To at once a aracter zed .y un er -caps a iza on and a high ratio of labor
intensity. Restricted by', tL:P small size and fragmentation of farms and by
the availability of limited capital outlay at his disposal, a Chinese peasant'
suffers seriously from the inadequacy of farm equipment and scientific
application. Sample studies show that the average capitalization per farm in
China never in any case exceeds eight hundred dollars United States currency,'
of which nine-tenths goes to land and building thus leaving a practically
negligible amount, if any, for the provision of equipment and scientific
application. A survey of'the cost of production of rice and wheat in China
by the National Agricultural Research Bureau in 1943 reveals that the cost
attributed' to the use of farm implements and fertilizer forms a very
insignificant proportion*of the total.
26. Chinese farm implements are hand tools or animal-drawn tools and carts; they
are primitive, crude, and clumsy. For instance, a Chinese plough does slow
work, turns up the soil to the depth of only few inches and ldoes not break the
earth properly. Again, with regard to the planter used in North China, not
only is iti,slow in sowing', but also the distribution and the depth of the seeds
U.S. OFFICIALS ONLY
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of animal husbandry in Chinese agriculture bears most immediately on the
qualitative deficiency of, the great mass in China, For one thing, calories
derived from cereals and tubers exceed three-fourths of the total
calorie-intake which, as of the pre-war average, falls below the standard
minimum intake of energy value for an adult male by more than 20 percent.
(Bucks estimate - 2800 calories) For another, protective foods of high
nutritive value, especially those of animal origin, are most inadequate,
Although the protein intake per day, as of the pre-war average, slightly
exceeds the standard minimum of 70 grams, the proportion of animal protein
to the total is only eight percent. With low calorie intake and unbalanced
let, China ranks nutritionally as one of the poorest in the world. A lower
level of food supply in china during the post war period in comparison with
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,noun are no* ,...i4QA., A test by thQ Rational ieaelurah !)assn
in 1947 on the relativYe efficiency of the Chinese hoe T'su-tur) and the
US wheel hoe in the cu'ltivation of eggplant and tobaceo..giveslan efficiency
ratio of l?10 for the (former and of 1:5 for the latter. (Shen: p. X118).
In terms of area covered per day, measured in 1/15 hectare, the output of
Chinese farm implements has been found to be as follows:
Plough
Harrow
Hoe
Caterpillar
water wheels,
Sickle
Yangtze Valley
3.1
J.9
3.8-5.3
1.3
North China
4.1
17.0
2.5
2.5
J'udg,ad by western standards, therefore, the efficiency of farm implements
in China is conspicuously low. Nevertheless, however,'a wheat crop as large
as the pre-war crop ins the United States and e, rice crop nearly double that
of wheat are harvested each year with hand sickles.
27. 1'he contro . of was er aid maintenance of soil fertility are the) two important
tasks for prop procluct~.on in which a Chinese peasant, In the absence of
capital outlay for ads uate shipment to aid his work, has to rely solely on
detailed v.gilance and heavy physical labor. China is noted for her
celebrated cana1sr reservoirs, embankments, and irrigation, some of which,
such as thgae in Ningxia and on the Chengtu ?lain in Szechuan,' have) been
developed for over two thousand years. These devices have been developed
originally by physical labor organized under the state to protect the cultivable
areas from flood or drought, but they have to be kept in repair annually by
the individual or cooperative labor of the poa~i,antary. Crops under well
irrigation in North China and those under pond #rxjgation in South China
require constant care and infinite toil, lest the be acorched',to death ors
reduced in yield by droughtiFromday break till evening and not infrequently
even at night sometimes during the growing season, water has to be hauled up
from wells so in North China in buckets by men or women or raised by a water
wheel turned by o.b.lindfolded donkey, or from,pondi as in South China by means
of a caterpillar water wheel -perated by bond or by the.feet of the (peasants,
23. Soil fort4ity had been maintained for centuries in China, not by an
extensive se of chemical manures, but by a careful conservation and
application of all loce4l refuse - nature, vegetable, animal, and
human - for plant nutrients. Human feces and feces of animals; ashes from
burning straw, crop stems, root crowns, wood scrap, and charcoal; ashes
from waste vegetable burned for the purpose a;-,a from burned hillsides -,lashed
down by rain and from burned soil. of turves or of mixed heaps of soil and
weeds; the earth bricks) from heated beds or k'ang common in North China;
green-manurle crops grown for the purpose and stubble, straw, stems,
or other reIsidues If harvested crops; water weeds grown in ponds, lasses, and
rivers in the ricelregion; oilseed cakes from soybeans, rapeseed, co'ttonsee'
d
peanuts, tung soed!, teal seed, walnuts, castor beans and sesame seeds); muds ,
from ponds, ditches, streams, le';es and rivers which are either accumulated!
t:sough erosion from higher lands or contain organic matters from dead fish,
shells and creeds; bonesland bone products - all these waste products and
the like are made in one way or another, irrespective of the labor requirements,
to find their way onto land either as they occur or through some process of!
fermentation. Essentially, therefor,, soi.1 fertility is maintained in
China by what has been described as "farmi.ng in a circle" - the' conservation
of waste and it's restoration to the soil.
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29. Land in China .is an article manufacturled by man without much: aid from
capital equipment. The lavish use of :labor in crop production, necessitated
by the smallness of holdings, has raises Chinese agriculture to the artGf
gardening. There is probably more modification of land by man in China than
any other country modification by irrigation,' drainage, terracing, and
what not with the objectives ofi making it more productive. Largely by an
economy of time as an alternative to inereace'of acreage which is impoeaible,
tko-thirds of the cultivated land in :;mina producca two or more cro7a a iear?
The usual practice is for the farm to plant one' crop between the rows of
another, so that the first is being harvestedwhile the second is still
Growing* Kioo to tirst rown in hoed biode} and later trenep3,anted by hand In
order to extend the period dur' ng whieh the t'te1.do. a's to usoe ftus, by an
:! ntencive use of labor, a Cliine'ae 'farmer is able to maintain a fairly high
level of output in terms of land acreage. The yield of rice and wheat
Crop yields in 100 1t s per hectare
Whea ce
MMY)
China
'
ewar
10.8 25.3
19~F8
1142 25.12
Japan
PiFewar
l,8.8 3603
1948
15.8 37.2
India
rc-rar
1
6.9 13
1948
1
6.6 11.7
us
prewar
6.7 24.
7
1946
12.1 23.5
World Avcruse
ewar
10.1 ' 17.1
7
1948
1
11.1 16.8
are izo Millet
111-7 13.8 11.8
11.6 1510 1^1.9
20.4 14.6 12.3
17.8 13.4 10.8
8'.4 7.4 5.0
6.8 5.9 3.7
11.6 14,Q 1510
141.2 26.8 14.6
111.6 13.0
11,9 18.0
per hectare is higher in China than the world average, and hit3her In China
than in India and in the United States but lower in China than in Japan
The yield of barley, maize and.milletper hectare,though higher in China. than
in India, falls below that both in Japan and United States. Stated in terms of
labor, however, the agricultural productivity per capita is extremely low in
China. In wheat equivalents, the productivity per capita Is lower in China
than the average. for the world and much lower than the average for Europe,
I I
icultural roductivit er ca its
w e a a nu va len 11 n. me c tone.
China
Average for:
Asia
Europe
North and
Central America
South America
Africa
Oceania.
World average
North and Central America, South
the average for Africa and, to a
0.25
0.24 0.42
1.04 0.88
1.80 2.57
0,56 0,148
0.12 0.12
1.94 2. 8
0.1~2 0.142
America and Oceania, although It is above
3.0110 degree, fort Asia. ' The basic canoe
U.S, C"ICIAZS O 4I.Y
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-12-
for the low productivity per capita as well ae for the relatiae high
productivity per unit of land acreage is the high ratio of labor intensity
in crop cultivation due primarily to the abuudanae of lmnor a.tpply in
robstmM %c S newelt vt >aa mid, otw afth rues ae ST "Awoke in t1se
30, The heavy labor requirements involved in the existing methods of cultivation
result in a high proportion which labor coat forma of the total coat of
agricultural production despite the prevalence of low wages paid to
farm laborer. Recent surveys show that labor constitutes 33 percent of the
total cost of rice production, 41 percent of the total coat of wheat
production, and 38 percent of the total coat of cotton production. High
labor coot means low efficiency. It takes four out of every five workers
in China to support the populations and still there in a deficit which has
to be met annually by net imports of rice and wheat; whereas in the United
States only one worker out of every six suffices to feed the population while
producing a huge surplus for export.
31. The diatributi.:m of farm work in China is no uneven throughout the year an to
result either in an over ?upply of labor or a shortage of labor. The latter
occurs .usually at harvest time, planting time, and during the period of
irrigation. A shortage of labor delays farm operation and, thus, ban the
effect of reducing the yield of crops. On the other hand, there is always
the redundance of farm labor in China in the winter and early,apring. Thin
redundance of agricultural labor finds expression not no much in the
exiatance of mass unemployment as in the phenomenon of chronic under-employment.
Buck's study bhowe that the winter months from November to February account
for 80 percent of the idle', time on the farm and that farm idleness averagea
l.T months for the country as a whole, with more idleness in North China than
South China and more idleness in small farms than in large ones. Since the
size of farina in China is so small that the income it yields is not sufficient
to provide a minimum subsistence, the economic well-being of a Chinese peasant
family is ? Itally affected' by the extent to which fit can find eub.?idiary
employment to earn a suppl.einentary income during the slack season.
721.1 IL/C 4/724.19 IL/c
722.5 31L 4/724.17 IL/C
724.11 1L 4/724.1 1L/C
792.5 81L 4/724.11 IL/C
72'+. 19 8 t L k/725.41 I L/C
721.1 81L 723.21 193L
721.1 31L 727.13 IL/C
724.19 131 IL 727.23 IL/C
721. I L 727.43 I L/C
722.5 41L 727.34 1L/C
723.21 41L 727.54 IL/C
621.01 IL/C 7/727.6 IL/c
621.8 1L/C 723.1 IL/C
723.21 IL/C 723.5 IL/C
4/724.11 IL/C 723.6 1L/C
723.9 IL/C
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i