SOVIET MANUAL ENTITLED WELDING IN THE REPAIR OF AIRCRAFT

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP80-00247A001300300001-2
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 217
• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: January 9, 2014
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: September 3, 1964
• Content Type: REPORT

4
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CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
This material contains information affecting the National Defense of the United States within the rnea5 v 000v o.opLuiege Laws, Lime
18, U.S.C. Secs. 793 and 794, the transmission or revelation of which in any manner to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
50X1
S-E-c-R-E-T
NO FOREIGN DISSEM
50X1
COUNTRY USSR
SUBJECT
DATE OF
INFO.
PLACE & ,
DATE ACQ.
Soviet Manual Entitled Weldin
in the Repair of Aircrajt
REPORT
DATE DISTR. 3 September 1964
NO. PAGES 1
50X1-HUM
50X1-HUM
T14IC lc I IMCVA 1 inTpri INFARAAATICIN CrillRrP CI:femur:A ADP IIFFIMITIVF ALIDDAICAI retl?ITCLIT IC TCOJIT A Tn/C
1.
/
A ti
2. The manual describes oxyacetylene and electric arc wedding
equipment and instructs in techniques of welding, steel,
stainless steel, aluminum, and magnesium alloys/.//
211-page, English-language Soviet manual
entitled Welding in the Repair of Aircraft
The 50X1-HUM
manual, published by the Ministry of Foreign Trade, is intendec,
fat use of technical personnel of mobile aircraft-repair shops.
S-E-C-R-E-T
NO FOREIGN DISSEM
STATE I DIA I ARMY 'NAVY I AIR I NSA la4 NIL
(Note: Field distribution indicated by "#".)
50X1-HUM
GROUP I '
Excluded from automatic
downgrading and
declassification
5
4
3
2? I
1
50X1-HUM
FORMATION REPORT INFORMATION REPORT
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WELDING
IN THE REPAIR OF AIRCRAFT
Manual for technical personnel
mobile aircraft-repair shops ?of the Air Force
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'
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? WELDING
IN TI R REPAIR' OF AIRCRAFT
Manual for technical.pereonnel of mobile
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? aircraft ? repair 01100 of the Air Force
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ITV XVILedivit
1
CHAPTER
GENERAL INFORMATION ON THE vmpoG OF METALS 50X1
[71 j 1. Welling of MetalFt s
The prete4t stage of modern technical development le
?chareeteriSaf by a wide applicetion of welding in the fabri-
cation of achine parts and other articles.
Amon i; the various metal welding techniques, electric
welding has become most widely used, since, ir ha rA with attain-
ment or decreased manufacturing costs and si-,eed-up of fabrica-
tion procedures, it can, in many instances, bc used instead
tl
?
of riveting, casting and ,;as welding.
Cutstanding fabricating and technc-sconemica;
'of electric welding have contributed to i4;s widespread inculca-
tion into almost all branches of indutry.
? 2lectric welding is widely united in transport, a;,-rt-ultu-
? ral, power and chemical machine-building, as well as in air-
craft construction and shipbuilding. alectric veliia le
Coming a basic fabricating technique in the conetruCtion of'
bridges, ships, , hoisting and conveying,eqUJpment, sky-.sera:!.
frame-works, pipelines, etc.
Academician V.V.Petrov, an outstanding physiciet s.rd
? the first of the Russian school of electro-phynicista, in 18;
discavered and investigated the phenomenon of arc dischargs.
By passing an electric current through two carbon rode, and
. later through two metal rods, he discovered that an electric
.arc possessing a temperature high enough to easily cause melt-
Ana of any kind of metal can be set up across thn ends of the
rode.. .")escribing these experiments, V.V.Petrov pintnd out
the poasibility of utilizing electric-arc heat for t
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.ing of Various metals. ?.
. It should be .pointed out here. that academician V.V. Petrov
.-discOvered and 'described this electric-arc phenomenon several
.years . before this' was done by. the .Britsh physiciet Davy (in 1812
4 For this_reason,-:the deep-rooted term of ."Violt arc" is now re-
'placed by the term "Petrov :arc", in honour 40 the man who made
'this great discovery, ?
The discovery of .the electric-arc discharge formed the basis
for subsequent development of electric lighting engineering,
? electric welding of metals and stimulated the general development
" of .electrical engineering.
Several decades later, a Russian scientist P.N. Jablotchkov
gave prac ti cal application to the discovery made by P. V. Petrov,
.by creating the world's first electric Incandescent lamp.
In the 80,-ies of the last century, Russian engineers
.N.G.Slavianov and N.N.Benardos used the Petrov arc for the
melting and welding of metals.
? 2. Kinds of Weldlng_
?
Welding is defined as the process of insephrably joining
. metal arlieles, performed by locally heating' them .to a molten
. (liquid) or, pasty Condition, seither without or w:th the appli-
cation of mechanical forging effort.
At present, . many ki s of welding are being used in indust-
ry.
To facilitate studies, volriouS; welding techniques are
grouped together on the basis of the similar:1:ty of their, me-
thods.'The classification ..of welding- techniques is based on
the condition of the metal at the point of welding, at the
moment of joining of the detal, and upon the source of energy,
.
Or the method 'of heating the metal 'during welding. goider= Lim=
S E?
C R .E T. Agar
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INYgEIGN
Ao to metal condition.At the point of joining, all-the
existing welding, techniques are subdivided into two major'
groups=
a) fusiOn welding,. and
b)i pressure welding ?
: Depending upon the souroe Of energy.uSed for .heating the.
1
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workpieces, the following kinds of Welding are distinguished: ?
a) chemical welding, ,
b) electric welding, and
-0) electro-Chemical welding.:
In fusion welding the edgee.of the pieces to be joined
are heated to the' melting point. No meohanical_pressure is re-,?
quired in this case, since joining of:the.pieces takes?place
as a result.of.spOntaneptio mixing of. tha molten metal in.a
mon -welding puddle: Whenmetal..cools off, .a welded seam results..
For this reason, fuSion welding is' often terOed- utogenous:
welding", that is "self-originating" welding.
Note. Unfortunately, the term "autogenous Welding" is very
often identified *with the term "oxp,acetylehe, welding"
.and is Used in. this restricted sense, which la wrong.
'As can be understood 'from the above, description; and
in accordance with standard technical terminology;
the term "autogenous welding" actually is synonymouo.
to efusion welding". Consequently, electric welding.
also comes under thedefinition. of autogenous Welding.
In pressure welding thesedges-of the parts to be Joined,.,.
as a rule, are heated to a plastic (pasty) state, after which
they are joined together by applying a mechanical pressure
(upsetting). '
Intensely high preheating temperatures are not required
for pressure welding, and in *some cases this kinliof welding.
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(can be
?ing").
In
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performed without preheating ( the so-called "cold wA1d-
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Fig.1. may be Seen a general weld/lig classification diagram.
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Rptiev.
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. Fig. 1. WeldiaralttWication Diagram,
?
Welding of Metals; 2. Chemical welding; 3. Electric welding;
Ilk. Electro-chemical welding; 5, ChemicO-mechanical welding;
I-1 6. Electro-mechanical welding; 7. Gas 'welding; 8. Thermit welding
by fusion; 9. Electric-arc welding 10. ess-electric welding
11. Atomic-hydrogen welding; 12. Forge welding 13. water-gas
!-4;welding; 14. Thermit welding by pressure; 15. Combined thermit.
.;welding; 16. Resistance welding; 17. Oxy-acetylene welding;
18. Hydrogen welding; '19. Henzol welding; 21. Lighting-gas
welding; 22. Blaugas welding123. Shielded-arc welding;
L 24. Open-arc welding.
r
L.4 In aircraft repair, the most widely used kinds of welding
Lare oxy-acetylene (gas) welding ,and manual electric-arc welding,
"
I:tall other, kinds of welding, as a rule, are practically not used.
.11t1
O' For this reason, the present look deals mainly with these
wo kinds of. welding.
a)OXY-adetylene w.elding.
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In oxy-acetylene welding, use is made of heat producPd
50X1
by the combustion of the oxy-acetylene mixture. Acetylene is
fed to the tach from an acetylene generator or, sometimes,
from a cylinder; the oxygen is always supplied from a cylinder.
Shoun in Fig.2 is a schematic set up of an oxy-acetylene welding
plant.Gaseous oxygen iB fed through a hose from oxygen cylinder
1 via reducer 2 and further into torch 5. Acetylene is supplied
-
.21 from acetylene generator 1through hose 4 to torch 5. Mixing of
the two gases takes place inside the torch. At the torch orifice
the gas mixture is ignited, thus producing an oxy-acetylene
flame. The edges pieces to he welded and the filler metal are
? heated by the flame until melted; at this stage the molten
metal fills the gap between the edges of the work pieces, and
a welded joint is produced.
o Fig. 2.- Schematic Set up_af_an,Ssatiolylene Welding_Elant=
1-oxygen cylinder. 2-oxygen reducer; 3-acetylene generator;
4-rubber hoses; 5-torch; 6-filler metal:
b)Electric-arc welding.
yi . In electric-arc welding the melting of the edges of the
pieces to be welded and of the filler metal is achieved IT
;
4 the heat produced by the electricarc.
? -
A .ICis well known' that, as a result of the breaking of an
? ,
i4 electric circuits a iipirk will jump across ',;he point where
?
NO FOREIGN
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the circuit is broken, this phenomenon being the passage 015IK1
the electric current through thr air space. Then the gap between
two electric current terminals is kept to small enough a value,
continuous sparking takes place, and anarcing discharge termed
the Petrov are is produced. The temperature of this arc is as
high as 6000?absolute, which makes possible its application
.for the welding of metals.
-1
' ? ? ,Fig 3 Schematic Diagram of
f{
1
Fig.4. Electric-Arc welang
Electric-Arc WelliEg Process,
Circuits
11-electric welding generator; 1 electrode; 2)crater; 3)are length;
j12-cable; 3-electrode holder. 4 penetration; 5)base metal;
4-metal electrode; 5-electrc 6 bead heaght; 7)welded metal.
,. larc;. 6-corOpiece.
.z,..
4
Shown in Fig.) is a schematic diagram of the electric-arc
--.egwelding circuit. From. electric welding generator 1, current
?/
/is fed through cable 2 to workpiece 6 and electrode 4. When
.'metal electrode 4 secured in electrode holder 3 contacts
1, ..., -, . _
4the workpiece, the electric circuit Closes with subsequent
'Illaesage of an electric (short circuit) current through it.
1 Should the electrode, thereafter, be moved 2 or 3 mm away
from the workpiece, an arcing discharge will be setup between
; the workpiece and the electrode, and the Petrov electric are
H will be obtained. The heat originated by the electric arc causes
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: . ? ? 7
malting of the edges. Of the work leceu aim uue ClUQVit.eUG, Gan
? -crater is.also:produced in the molten metal puddle (see
?'Drops.of molten,electrode metal are deposited in the puddle
a
:1 where they mix with the molten _base metal. Following the electrode ?
.movement, the puddle also moves 'along the joint. so that as the
? :t
:molten metal cools, a continuous weld seam is obtained.
.Since, as a result of melting, the electrode becomes over
, shorter, it should be brought nearer to the-workpiece so that
conatant clearance of 2 to 4 mm is maintained.
Owing to the simplicity of the equipment, high efficiency
and e number of other reasons, the electric-arc process has
,1
I..now become the most widely used industrial welding technique.
'ij ? ? .
C)Atomichydr.ogenweldin g.
-? atomic.
TWEgrogen welding the pieces to be welded are
heated by means of an electric are, Contrary to electric?arc
4 i welding; here the aro flame is set up between two tungsten or
carbon electrodes placed in an atmosphere of hydrogem.
During welding, the molecules of hydrogen, under the in.
1
fluence of the electric arc flame, are it into atoms which
? I?simultaneously absorb large quantities of heat produced by the
electric arc. The atoms of hydrogem, on coming into contact
with the cold surface of the workpiece again form hydrogen mo?
g lecules and emit theformerTabsorbed heat. This results in a
. .4 rise. in electric arc temperature to 3700?C. The entire welding
???
process takes place without oxygen participation. Fora schema?
tic diagram of the atomic hydrogen welding process see Fig.5.
1
The working technique of atomic hydrogen welding is as
follows. A mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen or pure hydrogen is
i
fed thrOugh two pipes into the torch; to the ends of tungsten
k
or carbon electrodes. By contacting and sepexating the two
electrodes at the ends, the operator draws an electric arc
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ri
. RO PORtION bISSEW
- and under the action of the hydrogen flow preemie the arc assuf,,e0
? a fan7ahaped form, ii,elting' of the edgee of the workpieces anl of th(,
' ? filler Metal takes. place under the influence of the - heat pro diced
by the electric
? . ? ?_"'.
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. ? .
:?,?? Schematic..Dia ram?of Atomic Hydrogen .welding process:
1-hydrogen from cylinder.. 2-?cables to welding machine;
' 37 tungsten electrodes, -44=atom1c hydrogen,: 5-electric arc;
6-molecular hydrogen; 7-filler metal, ?
The advantage of this welding process lies in that the
hydrogen shields the ,otie of the joint, protects melted weld
:1! metal against the influence of atmospheric- oxygen, and thus
prevents the formation of metal oxides in the welding puddle,
in which case the Weld Strength would otherwise have been, in-.
evitably reduced and the process of welding hampered._ . ?
:57 Owing to the high quality of the 'Weld produced by the atomic. :
?
?, "--41 hydrogen process, th.i.s tecb.nique is used in ?t;ne fabrication Of the
moat vital ja' Of Machinery, 9 irrespective of: the _
? 5.1E ri.16t that the process is relatively complieated.
r?
In aircraft repairing? this technique is not yet widely
applied, since it involves the use of intricate equipment, and,
"besides, no easy access can bqproVidell ,for welding cracks in
various corner joints of aircraft elements and parts.
d)Argori7arc welding."
".?-?'J?
,
Argon-ar," welding has recently acquired wide application
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SEch15 1
110 F0REIG11 Dissrm
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the fabrication of thin-walled structures of stainless and -50X1
_
41r neat-resisting steels.
49am8membili
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Otwookyl
mcgiaan .
Sonnottooleva
wielempoo
0e0/706'
-.ouch being the case, close the cylinder valve and warm the
;
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:reducer by the use of hot water or steam. After warming, th?
- ? r ? ?
reducer should be blown off, and only after this the work may
be resumed.
WelditLi2g_:y2z2h2Land j.z1?atoros Tools
The mixing ofacetylene and oxygen and the producing of
:the. welding'flame is performed by the welding torches.
'According to their principle of-operation, the welding
torches are divided into two groups, i.e. low-pressure (inject-
or-type) torches and high-pressure (non-injector-type) torches.
An. injector torch can be operated at an acetylene inlet
:.. ? - 2
Pressure of o.02 to 0.08 kg/cm g.p. and an oxygen pressure.
:71
Of about 3.0 to 3.5 kg/cm g.p., irrespective of the tip being
us? ed. In high-pressure torches the oxygen and acetylene are
? 2
Admitted at an equal pressure of 0.5 to 0.7 kg/cm g.p.
In aircraft repair, the commonly used torches are those
?of the low-pressure injector type, i.e. models c rm-47, CIJ and
?
? "Iiliput".
1 ?
The welding torch (see Fig 37) Consists n the main, of
the body tip and end piece. .
A?he body is that part, of the torch which' contains passages
. . .
:fOr the acetylene and oxygen. The body is provided with 'two
. ?
.nipplea for, connection to the flexible rubber hoses. The body
:se^ rves simultaneously as the torch handle.
The torch tip comprises the injector and the mixing chariber.
-
-loch torch is furnished with a complete set of 'tips. By 'hanging
-_th? e tips, a flame of required intensely can be obtained.
The end part of the tip through Which the stream of work?
.
lAg mixture is discharged is termed the end piece. The end
.Pieces may be of an interchangeable type, or may be made in-
*.
1Tpal with the tip
-v.-v.:
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? ,s_.
-.57-
-
:Fig.57 - Model n Welding Torch,
.,1oxygen nipple; 2-acetylene nipples 3-pipe; 4-handle;
? 5 & 6-valves; 7-intermediate pipe; 8-coupling nut; 9-injector;
10-mixing chamber; 11-pipe; 12-end piece.
The Model Cy universal welding torch (see Fig.37) i
r designed for the Oxy-acetylene welding of metals of o.5 to
_ .
30-mm thickness. The torch is provided with a set of inter
Chanzeable tips and a cutter, all these tools being made of
:-brass or red copper.' The torch is termed universal since it
.Ia suitable for welding metals of different sections, as well
as for gas cutting.
.In this torch oxygen admitted into the torch through the
- -
-rubber hose attached to nipple 1 passes further via pipe 2
Into the central opening of injector 9. The acetylene fed
-.through the hose via nipple 2 and hollow handle 4 enters the
. ,
Intermediate pipe torch from which it flows into the circular
_ .:passage ? of the injector. Oxygen, on leaving the injector nozzle
,
tOre at a high velocity, creates a vacuum inside the circular
*nieCtor Passage and thus sucks in the acetylene. The quantities
of gases admitted into the injector are controlled by means of
--,,Valves 5 (oxyge valve) and 6 (acetylene valve). The tip is
attached to the torch body by means of.coupling nut 8, which
is screwed down on the threaded length of intermediate pipe 7.
.4
Stamped on each tip is a figure indicating the acetylene
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? consumption (1/hr) for which the particular tip is designed.
. The "'input" torches differ from Model CY torches both
n weight and intensity of the welding flame.
For the principal Specifications of the injector torches
.manufactured in the 'USSR; see Table 5.
Table 5
lir611-117pTi
IT:
H. Maximum thick- 0.5 0.2 to 0.5 2.0 0.2 2.0 0.2 to
ness of metals to to to to to
welded 0 .0 6. 0 20.0 4. 0 20.0 1.0
?
Number of tips 8 4 2 4 4
. End :pieces, Ito 00 to 0 to 2,3,5 00to 2, 3, 5& 00 . to
numbers 7 - 2 3 - & 6 2 . . 2
-The gas welder' is required to wear goggles with blue
or dark glasses when working. On the work site he should be
-proided with hoses for gas supply, a wedge-pointed hammer
- ,for?chipping scale from the' welds, steel brushes for weld
6 chiesel-type hammer for cutting away solidified
-t-drops of deposited metal, pliers for handling light workpieces
during welding, a piece of cnalk used for plotting or marking,.
.:and 'a. box for storing filler rods and studs.
2.5.7
-
_ ? " .117' .1 . - ,1
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.:CHAPT`EFI V
X!-ACETAEREA1ELDING' TECHNIQUES AND PRACTICES :
,
? 10. Gas Flame, and Practical Methods
of Operating the Torch
;AI
s..During welding, complete Combustion of acetylene in the
atmosphere .Of oxygen takes Place in two stages :namely: pr-
tial combustion Of the acetylene by the oxygen fed from the
torch which taken place according to the reaction,
CHf 0
I. 22 2 "'2
and combustion of the acetylene bv the aid
gen, according to the reactions
ii-go.= 2.11 = 30 4C0 211 0
2' 2 '?...2
n order to obtain a neutral flame, taking into conside-
iAtiOn that a certain quantity Of H 0 is also produced during
' -the first stage of combustion, about t 15 volumes of oxygen
, . ? . ? .
are introduced into the torch per volume of acetylene.
. y -
To ignite the gas mixture discharged from the torch tip,
proceed as fOilows.
?
i) .take ? the torch by theleft.handi
2) by the .right 'hand . first, turn the Oxygen valve :1/3 Of
- - .
aT. full turn,and then. the acetylene valve, 3/4 of a 'full turn,:
?
quickly Strike a' matd.h.and- ignite the oxy-acetylene
mixture t
4 adjust the flame',
-
Immediately After the torch .is ignited, its flame may he
? :?? .
pf three different .kinds (Fig. 38),.- depending upon' the proper-
''tion of the. gaseS, namely. 1) A neutral flame,' 2).a carboniz-
;14 'flame (with :acetylene .surplus), and 3) an oiidizing 'flame
_ .
,0ith oxygen surplus), Ferrous metals. are, as a rule, welded-
. ,
, = r 4 - 77('` r
, ,,,r7t7777 1! 4
? ? -?
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60 -
,vdth a neutral flame. Non-ferrous metals and alloys are noiN-
Cattily welded with a flame ..containing a small acetylene surplus.
-The use of an oxidizing flame for the purposes of welding is
,not allowed.
7 . d
Pig. 38 - Kinds of acetylene flames,
i'neutral flame; 2-reducing flame; 3-oxidizing flame.'
.The flame is adjusted on the basis of its external appear,..
?
ancev In 'Order to be able to adjust the Welding flame, one
,ahould be familiar with its composition and shape.
The neutral flame consists of three zones. a central daz-
t . .
,zling white nucleus of round-nose shape, a middle or reducing
?zone and the outer enveloping zone of full combustion in the
. ?
-form of:yellow6.red flame.
The carbonizing flame is produced when a surplus of ace-
tylene exists. It is longer than the neutral flame. A thin
.T4.4er of free carbon having the shape of a tongue can be seen
.1
! ? .
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- 61 -
to separate from the central nucleus of the earbonizing
Should the acetylene surplus increase still more, the flame
becomes noticeably extended. The central nucleus merges with
the flame and has an orange-red colour. The oxidizing flame is
0
obtained when the proportion of the gases
tr2Ti2.- 1. 2. The
oxidizing flame is shorter than the neutral flame. The central
nucleus is somewhat shortened and hao the form of a sharp
cone. The oxidizing flame is of a violet colour.
?
, .Fig. 39. - Temperature zones of an acetylene flame,
--1?eentral nucleus; B- middle reducing zone; C - full combustion
.sone; 1) Temperature, deg.C.
.7. The temperature of the neutral flame alters along its
1' length as shown ba the curve in Fig. 39
7The highest temperature, approaching 3100?C, is produced
?
-
in the centre of the middle reducing zone of the flame, at a
distance of 2 or 3 mm from the edge of the central nucleus.
S:To ensure obtaining of a neutral flame, at the beginning
of welding, adjust for a small surplus of acetylene in the .
flame, bearing in mind that in the process of work, owing to
ir:ff
- the;heating of the torch, the proportion of the gases being
?
- ,
_ .
3 1 - ? ^ n I .?
-- 7
---r-77-77:77-? , ; - - - ? 1
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. - 62 -
admitted may alter so that the percentage of oxygen will In-
crease. .
- ' It -should also be remembered that, when the flame is ad-
Usted as required, the acetylenevalve should not be fully
opened, as otherwise there will be no possibility to elimi-
nate a surplus Of okygen resulting from heating of the torch.
To adjust welding flame; proceed as follows.'
1. ;Take ihOorch in the left hand.
2.13y the right hand open the acetylene valve so that
definitely carbonizing flame is produced.
3 Gradually open the. oxygen valve until the flame nucleus
----lecomes sharply distinguishable and dazzling white id colour.
Operating the Oxy-Acetylene Torch
Prior to starting work, check the condition of the torch.
.Proceed as follows. Slip the oxygen-hose on the oxygen nipple.
eying adjusted oxygen pressure in the reducer, open the oxy-
gen valve of the torch.
.kdaep vacuum should be produced.in the acetylene side
-,.
Of the torch, which can be easily detected by pressing the
? finger to the. acetylene nipple. After making sure that the re-
quired vacuum exists in the torch bore, connect the acetylene
-,.hose to the corresponding nipple and start work.
Should there be no vacuum inside the torch, or should
?
he vaeuum be too weak, remove the tip and inspect the torch.
?
?
The following reasons May account for the absence of
_ .
. ,
. 1). The Joint between the injector and the nozzle on to
. . -
Whieh the injector is fitted when the tip is placed in posi-
*on.16 not sufficiently air-tight. To eliminate this 'defect,
' . ?
,.C]ean-the'injector and the nozzle, and grin&them in, if ne--
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2)The end piece,. injector or mixing chamber are obstruct-
'.ed, which hampers oxygen discharge. To eliminate this defect,
-- clear the corresponding bore inside the torch.
.. 3) The joint between the acetylene and oxygen passages
s not air-tight. To detect the leak, close both adjusting
. .
,?.. ?. ? ? ?
,Nvalves of the torch and apply pressure through the oxygen nip-
ple. Should gas bleed through the acetylene nipple, it shows
?
...that the oxygen pipe is leaky. In this case the torch should
-ite turned over for repairs. .
'Should shot-like cracking occur when the torch is ignit-
ed, or When no surplus of acetylene is attained when the?acety-
lene valve is fully opened, tighten the coupling nut of the
or raise oxygen presuure.
r .
The torch should he ignited as quickly as possible, as
otherwise a considerable quantity of the inframmable gas mix-
ture, which can explode on ignition, will accumulate. around -
,ithe.eirld piece.
.To extinguish the tcrph, first close the acetylene; and
then the oxygen valves of the torch.
If, thThugh the valve has been closed, gas continues to
-,:tiss in the hoses,. without looSing a second, bend the hoses
%as far from the torch as possible, or, still better, close,
If
pnssible, the reducer valve and the acetylene cock on the
waterseal.
4 . .
bo.not.dip a torch with open or untightly closed valves
,4nto. water, since this is dangerous as an explosion May Occur.
, ?
'If ? back-fires occur repeatedly and often, extinguish the
orch and cool the end piece in water.
After.cOoling,. clear the torch end piece with's brass or.
copper needle. Should the end piece happen to be badly obstruct-
ed, remove it from the torch. and Carefully clear it With. a need-
:.
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? -
10 from the-inside.-
jjj Flukee and. Filler Eetal
.A11:Maial0 are covered with an oxide film When a piece.
is :heated:in:the-PrOCessiorwelding, the oxide film
? ?
?
_Ascomes.)leaVier.:Asa_general-tule, theexidesare'less.fusiblt
than the bate metal, and therefore prevent its welding. For
-
instance, melting point of aluminium 650?C, while that
_ .
of aluminium oxide (A160,3) is 2050?C.
,
.To produce high-quality ivelded.joint,i, it iS necessary,
n the first place, to decttloy and remove the oxide film from
the surface of'thebaseand-fillet metals, and, in the second
place., to .040te6t the surface of the molteiketal against the
formation of new oxidee.. This canbe achieved by using Special
- _ , ? .
.powders or paties. which UreintrOduced.dUring-weldinginto the
weld and are termed fluxes.
-
The oxides may be removedfrom molten metal by two differ-
::ont methods, i.e. by dissolving them or by forming:easily.melted
_
yefiemiaal compounds.
'4'-.4f" ? :
- To.the.gtoup of 'solvent fluxes belong sodium and potap,"
siuM.ChlOtidts,.. with a 10 -per cent addition of SodiuM and
?? ? ?. ? ????? . . . . ? . . ?
4ilitasSiUm fluoride's and .a small .quantity of.sodium.bisulfate.
? ? . ?? ? ? . ? , ? ? .
The main ditadvantagein'using these fluxes consists in
-their hydtoscopicity, I e the ability 10 activettabsorb-
The-tolvent fluxes aremainly used in the welding of a10-
.:. minium:Parts.-
. _
$ost:Vddely.Used in the welding of various metals are:
ithe-fluxes which form easily melted compounds with the oxides
the corresponding metals, and whieh do-not.dissolve An the.
molten metal and 'rise to the Surface of the molten puddle.
Accolding to their Chemical properties and composition,
_ ,
. ,
..; - ?
" '
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??.
za
65
' ? ?
these fluxes are subdivided into acid and basic fluxes.
'To the group Of acid fluxes belong those which, in react- ? .
ing with oxides, possess the. prppertiee of' acids. Silicon Oxide,
boric anhydride, Ortho-'boric acid 'and' borax are in this group.
These fluxesure used in cases where the oxides formed during
Welding are basic in nature, that is, are much that on reacting
? . ,
with-acids they form salts. Almost all" the metal oxides. belong .
to the basic Oxidet. ?
.?
The action of an acid flux can behest :understood from
. ?
the following example. Let the surface' of'a zinc article be
covered With an 0.xiAe. film (zno), to remove which an acid.?
'flux, and namely - boric acid'.(H3B03).should be used. The re-
action results in the formation of borate.zno .. B203
? _ _Zn0.1 2H3 ZnB203 4 3H20.
The action of silicon oxide S102' used in the capacity
of an acid flux Can be seen from the 'following reaction;
FeO'1
. . .
SiO2 FeO . - . ?
. .
ere'YeA n'olag which easily to the slur-
- .
face of the liquid metal. * ?
-;
I -To the group of booie fluxois belong lhoee which pope:tee:
. the properties of bases on reaction with oxides. Used in ihe'.
is?
, capacity of' basic fluxes are sodium carbonate Na2CO3 and po-
? .
A--
T'tash K2CO3. The basic fluxes are used chiefly in the welding
of cast-iron,
?The composition and methods of application of different
I. fluxes 'vary with the type of metal and will he described below.
I
t 11 In a high-quality weld the mechanical Properties of the
7-deposited metal should be identical to those of the base metal.
-
.To-meet this requirement, the filler metal should be selected ?
,
-ontne grounds of the following considerations;
?
1. The filler Miiia)have a definite chemical corn- .
,- t : .5-t- ?-r,=::::,:?
r_....., -
;-_-_-_,----!---v4.-
.?, 1 ? ?D:=
-,---
_,,e,-, - ?ffr-P-= _ _.;-,Y-it-ci... : .:: l'i.'rt 2 ,. ,7117-71--',,.r.V 1 -i, ; I ' '-
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position corresponding to that of the base metal.
2. Filler wire or filler rod diameters should correspond
to the thickness of the parts to. be welded.
3. The filler wire surface, should be clean and smooth,
free of scale, rust, cuts and dents. ?
. melting
4. Duriiiirthe filler metal should not spatter,or boil, or -
evolve gases..
5. The. melting points of.the base and filler metals
should be the same.
6...-The deposited metal should possess good machinability.
. .
..To improve the mechanical properties of the weld, filler
metal with an increased content as compared to that in the
tbase metal) of mangarrese, chromium, silicon and other elements
ki.sometimes.used in the welding of steel. Resides this, an
LinCreaSed manganese content reduces spattering during welding.
' In 'addition to the above, additional properties are required
r ? . ? ?
[
of-the filler metal, depending upon the characteristics of
the base metal,
?
.iz).T7r1Filler vire is notmally stored in coils. Prior to lding,
.
filler wire of up to 1.5-mm diameter is wound in coils, each
; ?
e:.1.of5 to 30 meter length.Filler wire thicker than 1.5 mm is
,
eut4into rods,. each approximately 1 meter long.
lot of filler wire is tested for its melting proper-
ties . No flux is .used during these tests. If in the course of.
;depositing of the welded ad; the wire melts'euietly, without
!noticeable slag formation and spattering, and the welded bead
-
Y. taf+ir cooling has a uniform sealy'strueture, free of overflows
(f
it,nk.porosity, the quality of the particular lot of vire As
,
? 7
colididered satisfactory.
. ?
--Piller metal grades used in gas welding are
_ below.
venin Table
'7477171I-Z77777777777
:41 s?.
H?if
rrrr-7- - r
c ? ? ?
!
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P.
-
-- 67 -
. Table 6 ?
se ea
ra
e rase o seel used
for wire manufacture
-10Ai 20A, 10r2At 10r2A,
25,6-0A# 3oxrcA, with tem.
:ale strength .of up to
90 kg/me
3oxrcA, with tensile
? strength of over 90 kg/mm2
?
IV or V
20XrCA or
20XMA
1: Good results. are obtained. when wire made of Grade (/1/400,
T14403:and 30934 steel is used as filler metal. In this ease
? ? .. . P-- '
? it becomes possible to avoid the-Trmation of cracks during
,welding.-
?
;
;When different grades of steel are joined by welding,
for example, Grade 10A and Grade 3oxrcA Steel, to increase
the:strength'of the weld, filler wire Grades IV and should
be used.
-
f edgei to be joined and of the filler metal by means of the
4 .
ox-acetylene flame, in the subsequent thorough intermixing
of .the molten Metal and the formation after cooling, of the
- .
weld seem tFig.40).
12, Techniques and Methods of Gas Weldin
47! The process of gas welding consists in the melting of the
The melting of .the ?base and filler metal results in the
ore tion of a.liquid metal puddle. The size of the puddle and,
consequently, the size of the future weld seam depends upon
TJ
thkamount of filler, metal added to the puddle. After a puddle?
of. a Sufficient size is formed, the torch flame and the filler
,rrod,are slowly moved further along the gelded joint, to that
?eh newly formed molten metal puddle overlaps the formerly
:44-1n-t7
- . - .. .
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- ?
bouring puddle at least to 1/3 of its length.
AS C)1'
A 0
o ef:
? a.441 .
-
- 7 .4t231X0t
o
bits 011.-
r? .*.-0)Filler rod; 2) Molten puddle; 3) Torch; 4) Base metal; 5) Weld
4metal.
' -
Fig. 140 -? Schematic view of oxy-scetyleneVielding process:
- t
? ? ,When depositing a weld, the :operator holds the torch in
11-16 notO y.his right hand, and the filler rod in his left hand. The torch
. 4 ?
ticio,33*-17; '!(1. '.may be moved either from right to'left,(the right-to-left me-
)
? '
? ?7Io B.:Ili-Len ariT ? F-
?
? . biLID 11 'S 'ii, (10 ti
?
-tP 4
bSie A.D.'ffeijc:373-
,.-_-- L
/sun .1.0.z!.1.tilon2S1,' molten metal puddle, as well as towards the newly formed
? .i
sale. 1-1.61311103 et ?,'In this case the molten metal of the weld remains shielded by the
? ? ?
ihod) or from left to right (the left-to--L--right Method).*
? :
In
the right--to-left method Of welding (Fig 41) the weld-
. .
;Pr flame follows the filler rod and is directed on the un-
eob*.i.-pifT Molten edges, As the torch is Moved on, the molten metal 're-
- 1- ? ? ?
??
Carl --mains unshielded against the noxious influence of atmospheric
917,0ons-ii. .oxygen and, in addition, cools too quiekly. Irrespective of
j
-;these drawbacks, the common
1. ,
tY maximum thickness by the right-to-left method, which should
',be considered as wrong.'
In the left-to-right method (Fig.,42) the torch flame
prectice is to weld.parts of 5-mm
ahead'of.the filler wire and is directed towards the
weld.
,tsvous xivio.te .9'15
torn berszol tiwoo
-
'reducing zone of the flame, and the newly formed weld cools slowly.
-7These conditions are more favouf'able for the obtaining of a
_ ? .
!' I . ?
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_ . ?
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%\.
?
..%
?
?
? ,,4.%;??
-
727
?
' better-quality weld 14 addition, the leftto-right method ensl4res.
higher productivity and -involves smaller acetylene consumption as
compared to,theright-io-left method. The o eratara shel;ld aim at
HaflpabeyroCeapxy
?
mayofiro
? ilgoonexo%
.......JOW.vvv%--copeima .3
go.
. Fig.: .6.
? ?
;:.1) .DiPection.of
FMer.wire; 3) lorch.
J St.
a.
-!? :-A 3e of torch incline.
-?
0.11Aipendence upon Metal
ithickaesa= ?
7 T
. ?
151:111i 2/ 800 15mM &over;
206,1mm under ;? 4) 1mm;
3mm. '
?
gae.welding, the angle of tori incline increases
? :
101111*\ ,.irl.' 4--=4-ei- ."Allic
Op.
doni
?
60-70*
/1005.9flege/
. ibeined
Fig. 42, - Left-to.-right'
Direction of welding;2)Filler -
wire; 3) Torch.
:44*.
111.0
Fig.44-.. Patterns of torch
. .
Event duriner weldlng.
7fropY:120 to 80.(Fig.43), with the increase'in metal thiokness.
tit
I, ?
1
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\ . .
The angle of incline of the filler wire slwuld. in all cases,
between 140 to 5e .
To obtain a high-quality weld, the position of the -aame
relatively to the molten metal, as well as the direction of
movement of t'ne torch and filler rod should be strictly uni-
form and should remain constant until the depositing of the ?
weld is completed. There are several different methods of
moving the torch in the process of deposi.i.2.:-g a weld (Fig. 44).
The selection of -a particular pattern of torch movement de--
4 pends upon the thickness of the pieces to be welded, type
of joint and method of Welding. When. Metal sheets with flang-
ed edges are being welded, the torch moves along a straight
line or with but minor fluctuations to both sides(Fig.44!..a).
.Whep welding butt joints of perts of over 2-mm thickness,
zigzag movement of the torch is preferable (Pig.4-14-b). When
thin-metal parts are being weldecl, the pattern shcwn in
Fig. 44-c is commonly made use of; however, here the flame is
moved to one side of the joint, thus allowing the molten me-
tal of the weld to come in contact with the atmospheric oxy-
gen and to become oxidized. Consequently, this method should
.-7?' be avoided.
In welding thick-metal perts (over 5 mm), good-quality
welds are obtained when the torch describes a spiral (Fig..1414-d)
The following rules should be adhered to when using gas
welding for joining machine parts;
1. Welding condition specifications (i.e. tIp number,
pressure of' oxygen and filler, wire diameter) are selected
from Table 7.
-
2. Welding should be performed by the reducing zone
Ea neutral flame. The flame nucleus should be held at a dis-
tance of 2 or 3 iam from the molten metal (Fie,:45)?
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r.)
- 71
1. ?
f NenpaeanblioJjX1?UflbHO pienpaunamo
1
Pig 45. - Distances from flame nucleus edgILIELEmttpitsa
1) Wrong; 2) .Correct; 3) Wrong; 4) 2 to 4 mm
h . 3. The intensity of the flame and the speed of welding
.should be accurately coordinated. Insufficient flame intem-
sity-and excessive welding speed result in lack of penetra-
ii
ition, while in the opposite case burning-through occurs.
I 4. To avoid lack of penetration and the formation of
i
1 ' -
cracks, the zone about the joint should be preheated.
I
5. The selection of a correct angle of torch incline
,sinci of filler-rod incline is of major importance.
6. The base metal should melt without spattering and
evenly over the entire surface. The filler metal should melt
!tin the mass of the molten base metal.
iDue to the movements of the filler rod and the torch,
4 more intensive mixing of the base and filler metal is
7
;secured. Early melting of filler metal results in lack of
Tenetration.
When parts of different thickness are being welded,
Ahe flame of the torch should be directed on the thicker of
the.two parts.
_
.18. During raiding, the flame of the torch should not
-
be moved away from the molten metal. When welding is completed
OI t4porari1y discontinued, the torch should he slowly moved
. ? 't U?1 ? 1
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\4
t
. 9
upwards,with obligatory heating of the surroaiiig metal.. Avoid a second heating of the weld by the flame of
the torch, as this may result in the formation of Cracks.
10. The welding of horizontal, vertical and overhead
' joints is complicated ba the fact that the moltEn metal of
, the weld flows downwards due to its own weight. To obtain a
/ normal weld in these positions, follow rules given below:
, a) Use a torch tip one size (one numbr) smaller than
:.that used in welding a similar joint in the downhand position.
. T
b) The joint should be made by the welding of short
sections (15 to 20 mm).
c) When welding horizontal joints, first heat the bottom
edge, and then direct the torch flame towards the top edge.
a
? Fig.46, - Welding of EthoritoRrfloint.
1: 4 The torch Should be held slightly inclined towards the top
edge (Fig.46), so that the pressure of the gas stream acts to
prevent the molten metal from flowing downward.
d) Vertical joints are
r?-`
I method, from below upwards (g.47). To weld thick-metal parts,
to be welded by the right-to-left
-1)19V 81:1-1Lia
'fc?,:q3
-61-113^.1:0-6 ? I
twb or more passes are required, each layer of the weld on
completion being forged.
e) Overhead joints kFig,48) are welded at reduced gas
? 1 "" 1
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.?
- 73 -
pressure, in thin layers, with subsequent forging o
Fig.47 - Welding of a vertical
,lacb. layer
Fig.48. - Welding of an ow-rhead
joint.
:-.When welding carbon steels by oxy-acetylene flame, to -orge
_
-
the4yeld,Use a peening hammer and deliver first light and then
? .
?eVert increasingly strong blows.
-7Forging of .welds should be performed when the metal is
? heated to a light-red colour. The forging of metal which has
already cooled to a dark-red colour is not allowable, as the
4
metal will then be subject to cold-hardening and lose its duo-.
tility-To.meet this requirement, welding is performed over
,
- 4
comparatively short sections. When the length of a section of
. ?
!I.j4nt.has been completely filled with deposited metal, it
4.6.heated'by the torch flame and forged.
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?
Low-Cart;on teel- Cxy-Acet,ylene welding and Tacking
Specifications
ntal
Type of Joint
thick- tutt joints Tee oints
zhAti'exar
Filler?Vrrlr?) Oxygen
Filler --
wir dia. pres- wire dia.
san . sure ? ur.q .
? (kg/cm'
? ?
3 3
.54-0.5 00 1.5 1 00 1. 5
.5?1 00 1. 5 1 0 1. 5
.8+0.8 C 1. 5 1 0 1. 5 1
? 1.5 0 1.5 1-1 0 1. 5 1-1. 5
1+1 0 1.5 1-1.5 0 1.5 1. r
1+2 0-1 1.5 1.5 0-1 1. 5 1. r
1?3 1 2 1. 5 1 2.0 1. 5
1.5i-1. 5 1 2 1. 5 I 2 1. 9
1.5-3 1-2 2. 5 2 2. 5
2.2 1-2 2.5 2. 5
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Tr7".??
?
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?
it-
?
eiller.
wire lia.
1
1 ?
1-1.5
1. e:
1.r
1.5
1.5
2
2
2
2.5
- 2.5
2.5
2b5
- 3
'3
Via
, _Qxygen
(kg/
'Table. 7
. .. . _
Side Joints
It] W IMCV MX* r
leargaidgehl
Tip No.
wire dia.
pres- wire dia.
?sir 'ram
?(kg/ an-
y. )
0.5+0.5
0.5+1
0.8+0.8
0.8+1.5
1+1
1+2
13
1.5+1.5
1.5:3
2.t2
2+3
2+4
2.5+2.5
2.55
31:3
? 345
?00 1.5
0 1.5
0 1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
2
2
2.5
2.5
2.5
1-2
f-2
2
1 ?
3
3
3
3.5
3.5
_
,;LI
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? 75 ?
8 ,
CHAPTER VI
ELACTRIC:-ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT
? During welding, current is supplied
for the electric arc
by aspecial source of electric power. Both direct and alter
7
noting current may be used to produce the arc. For welding with..
,'direct current, welding generators are used, and for welding
1.with alternating current - welding transf.,:ns.
? ? 13. Welding Generators
Welding generators should meet the following requirements.
1. Idling or no-load voltages should be high enough to en-
t'sure arc striking, but should not exceed 80 v.
2. Generators should automatically maintain the arc and
.1.irestrict the short-circuit current.
3. Generators should quickly alter the arc Voltage in ac-
cordance with the arc length. They should possess a drooping?
-
?
'external characteristic, that is current increase should result
; ? .
;in voltage decrease.
? 4. Generators should have a power capacity sufficient for
.s
-,:supply of the arc,
? lotion of the welding current.
Direct current welding generators are classified as single-
t .,:tpost or single-operator units ( designed to supply current for
?
f
VIITIZone welder) and multi-post units (designed to supply current
?to several welders).
[.?
5. Generators should provide a means for continous regu-
? r`
F
rz: - -T772:17:77-T77777'77-1":-"' r -
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For welding generator bpecifications see Table 8 below.
. The Ur -1 welding generator unit Fig.49) consists of a
welding generator and an electric motor, both mounted on
common base frame. The generator shaft is connected to
the
- - -
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- 76-.
1
13. Aosembled unit
a) average efficiency 0.3-0.5
Characteristics
Table 8
lreTaTiii"MrT'eizaFFIZBTer--7
zsr=r--wrza?cfer2s---0" r -rnSr:727
1. Generator
a) rated voltage, v 25
b) rated current under
continuous load, a 150
c) range of current
adjustment, a
2. Three-phase electric
? drive motor
a) voltage, v
*-b) power rating, kw
a) speed, Lata.
d) average power factor
40-250
220/380
6.82 14.5 14.5 11.6 11.6
or 10
1430
;?
40
25
40
25
250
250
250
250
75-400
75-400
75-400
75-1:00
;
f:
220/380
220/380
220/380
220/380
0.6-0.8
I, 'overall dimensions, , ',.,)
mm:
1 ; ?length
; width
(
. t
1 1 height
1 i
e) total weight, kg
or 16.5
or 16.5
1430
1430
1430
1430
0.64.85
0.6-0.85
0.6..0.85
C.6-085
0. 35-0. 63
0. 35-0.
63 0. 4-0.
65 0b-065
1565
1780
1540
1270
1270
710
690
575
664
664
r,d
705
710
880
900
900
570
750 ..
750
550
550
t.?.Lec,?tric motor shaft by means of a coupling.
Fig 50 shows the circuit diagram of the mar-1 generator.
[This generator is of a doublepole type, since the poles of
The same sign are arranged close to one another, and the unit
? -is-therefore termed a "split-polo generator".
? The working ourrent is adjikated by moving brushes on the
'iollector by mesas of a handle. To decrease the current, the
? !rushes should be moved in the direction of &mature rotation,
? to increase the current in the reverse direction.
?
ler other w-srdei to adjust the working current, proceed
. --t ; I
1
. i ?rm"--17-7-17-7r'' r
,
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- -
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? 77?
:as follows=
? a) to increase the current, rotate the handle clockwise;
. -
b) to decrease the current, rotate the handle' counter
Clockwise.?.
exmpsdthare
kmvainw
- qtar-1 welding Fig.50.- W-1 generator circuit -
.generator unit. diagraf,A.
electric motor; 2) generator;
welding current adjustment;
to increase current.
.To obtain currents under 90 a from the CMI-1 generator,
? .
ballast rheostat should' be included in the circuit.
_ . .
-The C11-2 welding generator unit differs from the amr-1
-tinit in that the former is provided with an additional eXc4"--
,
?Ivinding which increases the slope of the drooping external
1 ?
icharacteristic.
?4,Z
In the amr-2 generator current adjustment is performed
46 two methodsiocoarse adjustment is by shifting.of the brushes,
and.finendjustment by means of the rheostat located on the
*);) of the generator.
To increase the current, the rheostat hand-wheel should
rotated clockwise; to decrease the currSrit.- counter -clock-
?_ r- " -',71-7771-
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-78-..
?
-
The cmr-2 generator units are manufactured in two modi-
fications,
? The el1r-2a generator - for a working voltage of 40 v
the Chir-2egenerator - for a working voltage of 25 V.
The c9r-2 'welding unit (Fig.51) is a portable welding
,--Iset equipped with a d. c. generator having the circuit of the
generator.The c9r--2 welding unit is available in two mo-
3.
? difications, that is, with the Chir-2a and the 1r-2 generators.
4 Thyme pezymtpeareue
canal molter
[11
Fig. 51. - CY r-2 welding un,i_to
) fine adjustment of current; 2) coarse adjustment of current
Adjustment of the welding current in the c9r-2 smading
-"iinit is achieved both by shifting of the brushes and by means
q1.
-of the rheostat. The brushes may be fixed in three alternative
:--:?'positions on the commutator, namely,
extreme left position (from the generator side) - to
deliver currents of 70 to 100 a;
intermediate position - to deliver currents of 115 to
230 a;
extreme right position to deliver currents of 200 to
!
it
11.
,
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-
.779.-
Fine current adjustments are made with the rheostat The
rheostat hand wheel is brought out on the hood of the welding
unit and is provided with a poirter. When the hand
rotated, the pointer moves over a dial marked with
indicating the values of the current.
. The CK-2 welding unit Fig 52) consists of the
TA'
generator and an: internal Combustion engine k kerosene engine
.The engine is equipped with a speed governor ,allowing the
. ?
sieed to rbe.malntained.ln a range of 1880 to 1510 r.p.m.
-
during welding.
An advantage of this .welding unit* is that it .requires
industrial power supply.
Proper operation of welding units ensures their reliable
and long service life, ilihe welders .should be required to..
?adfier'to the following rules of .welding unit operation and
ot4ziteaance.
%
clean the unit of cittst and cart;
?
?
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?
- 80,-
3)'refill the bearings with clean oil;
4) 'check the condition of the commutators and the brushes,
5) check connections and contacts,
?
6) check .smoothness .of armature rotation .by manually..
turning it into both directions,
After the Unit has been prepared for its first start,
At-is required that it be started by an electrician well
aquainted with this type of equipment and possessing the ne-
ceeisary knowledge and experience enabling him to make the star or
delta connections of the electric drive motor winding in accordance
with-.the voltage of the power 'supply source.
4. During welding, the generator should not be overlOaded:
(.-in,excess'of rated value of current given on the name plate
LXneases of sparking of the commutator, switch off the unit and
eliminate the defects. Do not operate the unit if the hearings
are out of repair, which can be judged by the presence of axial
4
.pleT, knocking and noise.
Two or three times a day wipe the generator commutator
off with dry rags. Prior to starting and after the day's work-
with rags slightly moistened in gasoline. At the start of each
day's work, blow off the generator with dry compressed air.
This is of a special importance in operating the welding unit
under field conditions.
?
'At least once a month the commutator should be given
a
If a welding unit has been stored for
a considerable
ength? of time in damp premises or in the open in wet weather,
_44 should be dried in a warm dry room or with .a stream of
-[-earq air.
? ?2?-1 . e
'
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?
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A,
? welding transformers. To adjust the welding current and to
:?:
increase are stability, a regulator or a reactor is series-
connected in the welding circuit.
. A voltage of 220 or 380 v is fed from the supply system
into the primary winding of the welding transformer(Fig.53).
- 81 -
14. Welding Transformers
Welding posts are supplied with alternating current by
- Elementary circuit of an a.c. welding device
.11-welding transformer; 2-chocke coil (reactor);
?k ?
. --:3-Petrov arc.
h,
? 'hi
'A voltage of 55 to 65 v.is produced in the Secondary winding.
ir
i
Prom the transformer secondary winding one cable is lead
--i4directly to the electrode, the other to the current regulator
l(reactor). The second terminal of the reactor is connected
by a cable to the workpiece through the worktable.
-
^ The current regulator (reactor) consists of an iron core
?
-4w? ith a moving armature (yoke) and a choke coil.
Current is adjusted by altering the air gap between the
, core and the armature. Current increases with increase in
.this gap.
. ?
tll The. single-post welding transformers are manufactured
two modifications, i.e. with a separate reactor and with
? -.-
7 ? -1- .
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- 82 -
' the reactor contained in a common housing (Fig. 5k). The trans-
,- w
formers of the first type are deoigned as CTS-24 and CT3-34
(Fig.55), and have PCT-..3k regulators (reactors). They are
simple in design and convehient in operation. The value of
,the welding current is adjusted by rotating the regulator
.41
kandle. either clockwise, to increase the current, or counter-.
-7
1- ?
clockwise, to reduce the current.
t
.1. .05
a at
I.
Fig. 5k.
1.4 4
-g,ST c
.?
LAt
r
? ? r
. ..., .:i.z. I
,
.a. f-.
1
1
_ --I &.
I,
114..5.5. - ,C23 -34 welding transformer
....r.1
(reactor)'
.... ..?
V-
I.1-.trans form er 1 2-reactor.
-?,
..c.-,..3, ?
, -
[ --a,
. . 4 Prior to connecting the transformer to a power circuit,
, cmi ".-it'..-.:- 4,--
, itp housing should be grounded by a wire of 10 to 16-sq-mm
?
'4
?
- CTH-500
welding transformer.
and
PCT -34 regulator
t
_ -
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I I
I '?
1
i I
'
ir
11!
i
I
i I
ti? I
h
!
F.
ii

r
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2014/01/09: CIA-RDP80-00247A001300300001-2 .
? cross section.
For specifications of single-post welding transformers
Table 9.
:
j'. When- a welding .transformer is available, Model. An air-
. ..
?
? " ' ?
?';??.*-
?' field lighting; station units may be used, if they are connect-
-'ed:to.the 10-kW terminals. During welding, all. electric. cur,-
rent consumption should be cutoff, except the local -lighting
-
load. A voltage of 55 to 65 v should be adjusted for by means
of .a rheoetat.
To adjust the current, a water rheostat may be used,
?
which is in tffecta barrel of three-to-five-pail capacity
. ;Allied with Balt water, in which metal plates are suspended.
rThe adjustment of the elding current is achieved by lifting .
oraowering the, plates.
r.14 When using a.water rheostat, wear rubber gloves end rub-
-'bet footgear, since the voltage in the circuit presents a
Fr-dangerous'shock hazard. If a water rheostat is stationed in
.8ed.1)1'emi6e8, adequate ventilation should he provided for.
-
The maintenance of welding transformers consists in obp?
-Aerving the following rules.
1. See that the cables of the primary and secondary cir-
eAts are securely connected to the corresponding terminals
bylmeans of soldered-on connecting lugs.
c 2. See that the welding transformer is
clOse to a source Of heat.
t.. 3. .Protect the transformer and the regulator against
-
x
moisture,'especially.when working in the open.
4, See that all the screws and nuts are kept properly
tiahtened.'
-5. To move the transformer and its reactor to a new po--
_1
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Table 9
Welding Transformers
?
Primary? 5pec1tications' : .overai*. Dimenelle-nT3.71ei? t
iTYP-67" voltageit onsunr--iwa-74-ty 71e-leaci_maxiniu.a_ fiUt )
.
. (v) power. factor voltage.
.??? ? (kva). (per cent ? (v). ?
value o
-Welding
current
(a).
.--?
...
,
? ICTA11-.0
220 or
380
:220 or
.380
-
a7. 4
8.7
65
65
65
63-80
350
135
I ?
:CT34- y-t?
220 or
t
280
37?:;"
65.
,63,-.8.).
:590
or
.220
380
21
65
65-70
330
:.CA-2 ?
220 or
_
38
65
70
600
PADE-2 .220 or.
80. ?
70
70
, 700
-
^
?
?:i?
1.? 316.
320.
420'
370.
:! 32o
? ?.
transfer- ' 650 140
iner, 625
regulator, 560' 90.
594. ..' :?.. ?
698:.485. -80
transfor- 660 195
mer, 690 ?
regulator, 545 125
609
I,;
520
870: ? :800 185
360
tiori, use the handles, but do net by tugging the cables.
-Should a welding Unit fail to switch on, or should it
fail to answer to adjustments, - as :Well as in cases of over-.- .
-
6.eating, switch it off and send for an eleCtrician.
.? 15. 100 Welding Unit and Welder's Pole
The. 1-4-100 welding-unit is designed for the electric-
irc welding of thin elements, with the use of electrodes of
mm maximum diameter and at currents from 20 to 115 a (kg. 56
'The: fic,:400 unitiis.a portable set consisting of a
E0c.1-10 single-phage increased-frequency generator and a type
3.id:1-1/2 three-phase asynchronous motor rated for 220/380 v
. .
supply,- .both the generator and the electric motor being ,
w; ???1'
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t
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--lr . ?
4 , .
,
1-
?
(;)
?
c?
Welding Transformert
Primary5 eciticatrons1
Type voltage onsume
iv) i power factor voltage:
(kva) (per cent (v)
;
?
?
r?TAII-0
?
0?
? ?
220 or
380 27.4 65 65
220 or
380 8.7 65 63-80
CT- 3'+ 220 or
280
Table 9
0verea*lia.inertiff5lre."715
I g i : . g)
value of...; .
welding
current ,
(a) 1 1
1
,fiire
31611
, 320
135 420
transfor-' 650 140
350 mer, 625 "
regulator, 560! 90
, 5914-
698 1485 80
? 370 transfor- 660 195
37.0 65 . 63-80 500 ' mer, 690 ,
13201 regulator, 545 125
609
? CTA9-1 220 or
380 21 65 65-70 , 330 520
2200r
380 38 65 70 600
C/11-2 220 or.
380 40 70 70 700
870 !800' 185
270
360
.eition, use the handles, but do not by tugging the cables.
Should a welding unit fail to switch on, or should it
fail to answer to adjustments, as well as in cases of over-
,' heating, switch it off and send for an electrician.
i12L,L3-100 'Welding. Unit and Welder's Tools
?The 1:c-100 welding-unit is designed for the eleatriC-?
ire welding of thin elements, With the use of electrodes of,:
makimum diameter and at currents from 20 to 115 a (Pig. 56
The !1C-100 unit is a portable set consisting of a
r -i0 single-phase increased-frequency generator :and a type
-4-1/2 threechatte aavriehronoue motor ratiwi mu 220/AS1n v
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11
.?????- ? ? - ?????????????.
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2014/01/09 : CIA-RDP80-00247A001300300001-2 ?
f
2 841 51 61
71 81 91 110 1
AT ? '
-Ao??????=????????????????+??.-
- 85 -
Arrangc,d on a common frame. The generator and electric motor
rotors are
i ..1.,..A
i
t., .
?1
. by meons
,I
start ,?:.d
i
I j
1
1.1
4
1 't
L
1
L i
rl
t ? :4
1:
r
? 1,
assembled on a common 'shaft.
Smooth adjustment of the welding current is accomplished
of a 'epecial Model PT-1Ci; regulator. The unit is
and stopped 1:.y turning the handle of the rotary switch.
lei/me/nog fel- 100
kk,
4:1
Ceiremloal
Ilempqoamecn 11C4
? 255; Pe
flare/m/31i
gObfloiNNiarlleitt NO 216,
0
-/ii
Agatameno
Tc-s 443-4)
Coelmeme
NJ/ran/ea Ala 3808
i3
Fig.5G. - 11 (.7-1_.:.) welding unit circuit diagram:
r 1 80 v, A90 c.p.s. ; 2) to current regulator; 3) to electrode;
rial.--wo generator; 5) 1-st starter; 6) exciting coil r!grmct griaTtel?
selenium rectifier-25 v; 32 v. ; 9) 25-a totary switch;
3-wir supply circuit020 v; 11) TC-5 (A,r1,3 -4 1/2)
electric motor; 12) Electkic motor connections, for380-v supply;
11) Stipply circuit.
tv-1
i':-.47loaf4 voltage 80 v
rent at a duty factor of 100 per cent
,.- I ? 80 a
r
I, . ? .. ,, 75 et te .- 92.a
. 50 " es 11C a
n1-100 Welding unit SpecifiCations
a) Generator;
1 a,-
A90 o. p. s.
. ? ? ? ? . 2900 r, p.m.
?
?!'
. .?
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,
21 31 41 51 ei 7 Si 91 110 1
41.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.0,1,1,1.1.1.1,1.1.1
5 5 ? .
-'-
-
b) Electric motors
Rating . 0 ? ? , ?
Voltage
Current ? .
?
-
86 -
?
? ? ? ? ? it k\V
22(/3Pu v
13. 5/7 .8 a
Speed 2900 r. p.m.
Frequency
The PT-100 current regulator has the form of a choke
coil or reactor. Its core consists of a stationary ani
moving part. The moving part is shifted by means of tile
wheel. The reactor winding consists of two toils. The regulat-
or allows for switching in of either both coils in series - for
low-duty currents, or only one coil-for medium-duty currents,
or for complete cut out of both coils - for heavy-duty currents.
? The low- and medium-duty current values can be adjusted
with a greater degree of accuracy by changes in the 8.5 r gap,
as a result of hand wheel operation. To increase the current,
the hand wheel should be turned clockwise. Secured to the re-
gulator housing is a fixed linear scale along which t-ie point-
er rigidly connected to the moving core travels to ir.licate
Core position on the scale of the ruler, The scale is gratluatel
in values of welding current; Actua711y, the scale has two ranges
corresponding to the two switchrsitions, allowing ?117srPnt to re
adjusted by means of the core.
The unit is to be started with the we: ding circuit open,
therefore, prior to starting the unit, make sure that a short
circuit does not exist. To start the unit after it has been
connected to the electric supply circuit, turn the switch
handle into the "fl LI:3Tel position ("Start") stamped on the ,,?asing.
Since the electric motor as no protective devices, see
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50 c. p. 0.
? "???:;..
Declassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2014/01/09 : CIA-RDP80-00247A001300300001-2
nr ? . .
21 ' 31 41 51 0 --
71 91 110 111
4
''.1.11.1".1.1..."1"1.0,,,Li.I.I.I.:1.1.i.l.i.1.1.1.t.i . ., . I . ..I.o.110,,,L0,,,LE,LI,,,L,JA.,.1.111.1.?1.1.i.l.o.,1,1.1.1,,,I.i.I.,,I.o.i.1.,.1.,.1.hi,i.l.,.i.,.1.,38.,.10.1.0.1.1.1,1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1.0.t.120.1,i,hid.1.1.1.1...1.1.1.1.1.id.1.1.1.1.1.1,10.1,0
?
-87-
..Whsan the motor is started voltage is applied to the
4rectifier, and, at the moment at which the rated speed of ro-
.J.1i -
Atation is obtained, rated no-load voltage is also attained on
7?X
the generator? .
Whenever the electric motor is in operation, the generator
s under excitation.
On having adjusted the required current by means of the
? - . ? .
iiregulator and hand wheel, the operator may begin welding.
41ShoUld it occur that the current required for a given job lies
beyond the 'limits of the scale, the operator should set the
switch in the required position and then make final adjustments
f the current by means of the hand wheel.
TO stop the unit, turn the handle to the "cam" ("Stop")
position.
'For r1C-100 welding unit Circuit diagram see Fig 56
Welding may be Performed by electrodes with a chalk or
special coating. For conditions for the butt welding steel
+-Imo
714elements see Table 10,:
?Tatle 10
It'
, .
t
R, -I-II?al? ---Leci-d-Fprei.on
"-- Hthickness ..diameter (a) , 3
-I (MM) ' (MM)
s.41g.
,?;? ,vi.!
1 .: 1,5 . ? 20-30 . Closed butt 'joint-
. . .lii
1 ... .20730* 'Flanged edge joint
1.5 2 30-45 -. Closed butt joint ,
2,0 2 40-60. : :Open butt joint,
0.5-tam gap
t";if;til 3") 70-115 ? Open butt joint,
1 to 1.5 mm gap
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1
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2
. . ? 41 ?
? ?
. .
7 9i? ? 110
.
88 -
ltinner elements to 'r_e wel(led,
A particular element of welding unit vaint-nance is
.0are Of :the bearings. ' In the' course Of time, the bearing
ease .solidifies and. becomes dirty; therefore, to protect '
, .
-
the. -bearings from possible: damage, . the grease sholAJ.3 be re-
- - _
Ailaced-. once or :twice a year, -Proceed as follOws: Take off
Jacking 'glands; remove the .old grease. and' thoroughly. Wash
-hOusinerWith gasoline, using -a squirt gun, so that none
. ? . ?
Of. the (:)1d grease is .left. Then stuff ' the bearings to 1/3 or
2 of the fre,? volume with clean grease, wash the pea-kinm
gland covers with gasoline and fit them back in posi tion.
The insulation resistance decreases, in most cases, as
result of penetration of moisture if the unit has been
Stored idle in dump premises for a long time. When the in-
shlatiOn resistance becomes reduced, the It may he in danger
'1
en switched on, as a breakdown of the winding insulation may occur
en. the unit is to be started after a long period of standstill,
'first check the condition of the insulation, using an inductor or
. .
e,gger. The minimum allowable insulation resistance is 0.5 ,negohms.
- Should the value of resistance be below this figure, the
-nit should be dried . by one of the generally employed metheris
e. removal to a' warm dry room, subjecting to a jet of warm
'111.14, etc. ),. To prevent the Insulation from being damaged during
- . . .
Watch to see that the temperature of the winding does
f ,;, 11? t ' rise above 90?C:'
f..?--- . .. . . ..
.'511 ..Ovetheating of windirr, as a result of power overloading
. . . -: .,... .
. .
'leo :deteriorates the insulation, for this reason see that
-. _
- :
unit. is not loaded to above. the power rating indicated on
p7,-.Tuhe .name plate.
A.._ ?4 el Vi 1; 11 direct current, different
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. .
? .
8 -4 5 7 -8 9 310 111
I 11111111
_
- 89 -
of the heat is liberated at the positive pole (anode), 35 per
cent ? at the negative pole (cathode), and 20 per cent?between
the electrodes. Therefore, thick elements are to he welded
with straight polarity, that is, the positive terminal (anode)
is to be connected to the workpiece, and the negative terminal
(cathode) to the electrode; on such an arrangement more heat
is liberated at the workpiece, and less at the electrode. Thin
elements, on the contrary, are welded with reversed polarity,
?:44t
- 1 i.e. with the wOrkpiece connected to the negative terminal,
and the electrode to the positive terminal.
? When welding with alternating current, polarity loses
its significance, since the current alters its direction with
considerable frequency and the quantity of heat liberated at
both poles (i.e. on, the electrode and the weldment) is equal.
If no polarity signs for positive, and ? for negative)
are to be found on the generator terminals, to establish the
corresponding contacts, use one of the methods described
1. lower the ends of wires connected to the generator ter?
minals into a weak solution ofsulphuric acid. As a result of
.sulphuric atoll decomposition, intense evolution of hydrogen*
bubbles will take place at one of the immersed ends. This is
the wire connected to the generator negative terminal.
2. Connect a metal article to one Of the generator termi?
nale,. and a.carban eleCtrode to*the.other terminal. Strike an.
electric arc between .the carbon electrode. and the metal article.
If the electric arc is quiet, this means that the carbon elect,:
rode has been connected to the negative terminal, and the ne;,-
tal article to the positive one. If the arc is unstable and
1- -4-? _ . . . .
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81 41 51 ? 71 81 ? 9 110 111
? " 2i
' . .
.1.1,1.i.1.0.0.0 ? ? ?i it I 0,0,0.4,1.00,1,f.1.0.1L.I.i.t.0..i.t.1.0.0,0.1.1,01,00,10.010,1.1.0.1.1.0,1. :0.1.1,0.1.1.0.i.1.0.4
. .
?
? '90 ?
L. rti.:tj:ve terminal,. and the metal article to the negative termi7
:.-. ..d._? ' ;.',;'- :.,-i? : : ? 11
t..1f-Li 7. '' ::: V" ? . ----
'!-211-laving established the polarity of the genexh.tor terminals,
; --,,-
mark accordingly the positive (+) and the negative (.- ) terminal.
-? 4
? ":1. ??????;?.-i -?''' iLt.j.!;. .4-'4Weldez"t3 tools. For use in the process of work, the welder
" L -0:-'?CIII0r? '? Cit bt should have the following tools available at the place ote,work,
?,!?':;.-? o;!. i.. : :ic f7413.') 11. Fitter's hammer and chisel..
I -,
-I
,I: ,, :1 !:,;? 7.1- 6 71::.) :I if.12. Pliers.
1
oj'cr...r . .?:..i..: _ - .1 7:0 Steel wire b.rush. 9.., . , .i,. - . ,
.
ti r-fli 1j- -. - i.4. Electrode holfters (Fig..57) for holding the electrodes
--truPfeeding electric current to them.
1
liTi:S?_....e'.' .0 - . I - 'i:
' 1
1? E.
i:2
.t.
r_f: ? .:1 ?.1,i: Si -..t.....:;.),:::-::: t
i
or:. ..1-1:
-
; ? 1.53W 0
Iii??????.
o?rcIr!(IU Fig.57.- Electrode holders,
?- - ,
? 1) :alectrode holder, 2) cable terminal.
s?
,to -1The handle of the electrode, holder is made of some insulating
[ma.t,irial, while the clamping cheek.s. should provide a good
licontact with ,the .electrode and should securely hold it.
The cable .(or Wire) for supplying welding current from the
r
. yielding mac.hine to the electrode holder should be proviaed with
er0.? ?
? 4-
verm3,nal .1u.gs or connectors, to 'facilitate connection to welding
:-L+ ? httl41,4.ne terminals.
. 7
electric
:11
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-A 21
4i 5i el 71 81 91
,
Welder's shield (a) and helmet (b)
A.magnifying:glass, for weld qualit*ontrol. ?
A set of templets (Pig.58), for weld size control.
-.8. A piece of chalk, for marking- and 'plotting.
.9. A box. for electrode storage.
10...A welder's helmet or mask (Fig. 59).
In working with the electric arc, the operators
?itellse a T4C grade protective glass which *absorbs the ultra-vi-
. ? . . ? , _ . ?
let and infra-red rays which are harmful to the eyes and skin.
In are welding, the following numbers of Tn.,: glass are used,
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I
AAJ ? ada2" 1. ? ? ? 31 ? . ? . ? 71 81 110 111
a0aulabodJAJAAAJdW:1.1.1.1a0bloaldnAhadabialalltLI?1.040dWatlItt?1??1
0-TZ-- ? :
? 92 ?
Tio3 ? for currents of up to 100 a.
? ?
On the helme at the Outer side, the WC glass is protect?
ed by an ordinary white glass.
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1.1
I
r
?';.;
i?
el
r: ,
1
!I
I
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. ? 4'.`,?:?1
71i
... ?
:
t'
n.
. '
3 -
:.CHAPTER.VII
..111ANUAL SJ7ECTRIO-AHC 'gELDING
--..1
..Eleetrodes.0Sed in manual electriearc welding have the
L. ? form of metal rods covered vrith a layer of ,-"ating.
Unimportant parts and. elements. may be welded by direct
current; th uncoated rods which are called bare electrodee,.
At present, electri.c-are welding as a rule is performed
-Iv coated electrodes only.. In cases When elements of Minor
importance are being welded, use is made of electrodeg with
at a very thin (Joni...zing) coating which facilitatea are strik-
-g and iiinr?s.dees the stability of arc turning This coating
a termed "tnirl" because its thickness varies between 0.05 and
mm (Jr, a si.;1.e. When more important parts are to be welded,
-electrodes with a thicker coating (termed highwquality coating)
are used,. The thi.ckness of this coating varies between 0.3 and
? . . .
mm on a...side of the electrode, depending upon the rod dl.a-.
A 1 .
-water .keee .Table 11). -
C7IV '. ? -'
--e-f?-, Electrode Coating Thickness'
Table 11
r-
ec ro ? e
meter,
MM
c nees oi .oating on a
??irlienT7E5WEI ng
6. 5 .to .0.10
007 1-,,p
O. 10 to 0,1
0.15 to 0:20
2..5
3.o
4.0
O. 3 to 0.4
U. 4 to 0.5
0.6 to 0.7
0.9 to 1.1
In the process of welding with thin-coattiti, electrodes
!4;g, drops of molten electrode metal and the molten metal pud-'
not shielded against the influence of atmospheric air.
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.
? ??-? -
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1._
?
.;
-e
.;w1joAl?
. ? -
.0
- 94 -
As a result, the metal acquires a high oxygen
content, while carbon, silicon, manganese and
elements present in the alloy are burned out.
and nitrogen
other chemical
The mechanical
properties of the weld are thus considerably lowered. Impact
'4--strength and ductility sharply fall in value. For the above
1
reasons the thin-coated electrodes are used fpr the welding
r .
'of machine parts working under static stresses.
The cheapest types of electrode coatings are made with
water solutions of potash and chalk. The former is prepared
-in the following way.
Fill a metal vessel having a depth equal the length of
the electrodes to be coated full of a 15 to 20 - per cent
. water solution of potash, and then stand a bunch of bare rods
ifl it. During work, the welder picks an electrode from the ves-
-t.
q7-..A3e1 and, when it is still wet, inserts it into the electrode.
r
'holder. These electrodes are not intended for storage since
:tthe thin layer of potash easily crumble, and the wire, attack-
ed. by the potash, quickly rusts.
-
The composition of the chalk coating is as ?follows (by
-pure chalk 80 to 85 per cent
water glass 20 to 15 per cent
The chalk intended for the coating is first ground and
-4.
77:Fg771,011-.?4
-screened through a screen having 1200 holes per one sq.cm.
.After screening,the chalk is mixed with water glass and dilut-
..:d with water to a cream-like consistency': Further, metal rods of
"
,711equired length are dipped into this substance and then
,
L.. Pulled out so that a thin layer of coating is left on the
F- 4'
;surface.- The electrodes thus coated are then dried in the
,f air or inside a drying cabinet,
1P 869t)01q 110.
65 _
Ls nelioni
_
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rod
open
at a temperature of ?0 to 50?C.
To produce a weld having high mechanical properties, thick-
_
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? 95 ?
-,r5 erit ? OS;.::-:, s ,,., ...
-:130 el.L: ,Sile7.f:V ?-,coated electrodes are used. Thick coatings are sublivided into
. ?... protective (slagforming and gas-generating) and alloying coat-
.1 J 1 ,.... :7! Z. 1..i : ? ; 1!., :1151 ,
ings. The main purpose of the protective coatings is to shield
,, .7-,Lizr. *1i. 0 0.5.::.t.-.?'4.31: ';' .
the molten metal against the harmful influence of the air. The
... i-3-3.4 bii.6 ri,;iirit:::r,
, :Purpose of alloying coatings iES to replenish the molten weld .
-.-?1-. , .
? ? -1 --i-_:..,-,..ow.te.1 with the chemical elements most subject to active burning
o-,,,.?cri-i-zg. ..n.:--_-f'..i.:::-;.1:.i.,
r-- .-,..,-.-1.'" ._
i tbe p... 'F. welding in order that the initial chemi-
;--;' ..oiAt n
. -?,-1 Js,.-3(..i.st--no :-_1:;1 I
. I ? ....Leal composition of the metal be maintained or even improved.
1 "to enc.,1-1 filoa .3.:)-is4 [
_
. . . . i --,.it,.ti. zu sla-forzning coating, in the process of electrode'
1,,,,,,,8i-....t.wo.140I ..ilffsn., ' ?
. . .. i v,:-?elting, produce a considerable amount of slag which envelopes
s-;.r latem a .C.1.0.1
r ? -,t--z-,-the drops of molten metal in the form of a thin layer and also
- ? 1
of 2;e1;,..-,-::_;1?,,,I.:: ?: r? ? " .
? - t forms a heavy layer on the surface of the. puddle, thus prevent-
17(31::17-t;:;':: -:::.3. Liing the molten metal of the weld against being saturated with
1 ?CfiV 'a:7E i".;:p--:. .. -. F.I?.. .
- . F.n
e.oxygen and nitrogen from the ambient air. Besides this,
.,... .
I F.?, i- :.1-1-.. rieriw ?,:-.:1.1, ;-:,
? ...,..,_the slag-forming coatings increase arc burning stability. In
- ? 1 -
fri-3?9.1e es r3fiT. -?1'1".' i-, .::.4ddition, the slag slows down - the process of cooling of the.
1
iCq 10 .719x31 ..rdriS - deposited metal which also contributes to the improvement of ,
,.
---4 ?it,
1-...,..-:he weld-metal structure. OT
. . r- ? . a, ? i!;[1
,., ..,,,,"' ;. .:-Ir2 P,
"1:1?3YCI ''''' E ..%.' -; - The slag-forming coatiyigs are composed of titanium ore. - I!
L. ,
?
'(''?-?-z":. I:.
manganese ore, feldspar, chalk, kaolin, quartz and some other 111
I fT.,
- Iti
S'1%-ic .7.-comp.ounds .
1
,1
. .
. ? ..
?i-i-1
ait_aftzguer&ting.....cagaings, in the process of welding, 11--
r. . .. ? .i!,,.-
tA1,1-13-cti-lidO T [ ..'generate a considerable volume of gases which protect the molten ;
08 a ..rizsioirit .:1::-LT.rrietal against .the influence of the ambient air, Many organic
,,, ? . -
? ..... , . . 4,...f..-..?.
-) f.;!.;;I:.T..?-;?:-..:-:::-.;.cqos `)`)?'' ,---.---8pUbstances, such as starch, wood flour, cellulose,. charcoal, .
10 s .0j- ?:,,,;,;,;',/i1. grain flour, etc., are used to make gas-generating coatings.
1.3 ?I,:., ri:IrrIE,S, t:0"). eDP , ' :. The alloying coati., on Melting, .introduce into the
.; '---
,?3;'-y-F,-----tholten metal various alloying additions such as nickel, chro-
..i...
:::r..-7.,t.2o!?,7 ,..:;g2 ....i;o13-- ? ,,.._ alium, molybdenum, carbon; etc. The principal alloying compo- t!
;,;? '14.- '
nents of these coatings are ferroalloys (ferromanganese, fer- ii r
t t-
-,7.? r'-'-'?-'4-r-C-silicon, ferrotitanium and ferromolybdenum), or metal cxides.
, [
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?
- 96 -
ys serve simultaneously as reducing agents used to
' ferrOallo
Sxpell oxygen from the deposited metal.
.7-In addition to the above, each coating contains certain
a_
'- bonding agents which impart pastiness to the coating and make
T 1
it stick to the metal rods.
4
. 1 . By applying various coatings to electrodes, a wide range
f
fdeposited-metal properties can be attained. At present, a
great number of coatings is used in the welding industry of
f
i the USSR. For the compositions of the most widely'used coat-
t
? -'11% 1 ings see Table 12.
Composition of Thick Coatings
C0111. porteats
,r
L'.....y. 4...'
, rw' Z-1 ?-? Z1 . ? i r'ti
? : ..: ? ' ,. ' .; ... i: r [ -1
?
- ...,..
I 141.:f.
-- '-,-
?L J
3:1.4
1. Manganese ore (pyrolusit
2. Ferromanganese
3. Starch or wood flour
4. Titanium concentrate
5. Feldspar
Table 12
Weight Content
Auer cent
20
9
37
1
Total 100
6. Water glass mixed with 30 to 35 per cent of
water in proportion 2=1 dry component weight
of coating__
r 1-1-11?1,7
A!"' r
urfT
,
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1. Red hematite
2. Granite
3. Ferromanganese
4. Starch
5. Water glass
.4
33 jt
32
30
5
Total 100
25 to 30 per cent
of dry component
ht of coatin
I
V. I
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? 97
ating
Grade . Components
10111/.'
4
w eighton er="7.1-
per cent)
13/45 1 'garble 52
, 2. Fluorite 56
?
3. Quartz 7
4. Ferromanganese 5
5. Ferro si li con 10
Total 100
6. Potassium water glass 25 to 30 per cent of
dry cOmponent4 weight
of coating
,
t t-
?
L.
i . IrsZt?-:..t:t-T''.' ti ?
1 .,-.
? , "! 't,
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.. ?
- 98 -
Table 13
Electrodes for Electr
77(77-76-47T-1
Grade, ..'joint ;pci
ai ti on
ecomieEna
current & Gredep of steel WelZWEItl:
:polirit
1ttrode
,
Any posi-
D.c'
:CT 1, di it, to USSR
tb chalk-
tion in
polarity). &
Standard rocT 380-41; and
Coating
space .
a. c.
steels 0.8,1O, 15, 25, to USSR
Standard OCT 3.!1050-41 . 15
-7
Do wnhand
Rit-9- 6 Any position
apace
1
r
?
.01-111H 13
10-6 Downhand
and semi-
vertical.
B - 12- 6 Downhand
v
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CT. 1, CT . 2,C 3, Of . 4 to USSR
Standard 0,.'T 380-41; and
steels 0.0,10, 15, 20, 25 to
USSR Standard ion B. io5c6-41 23
C.T. 1, CT . 2, Cr. 3, Cr. 4 to USSR
Standard r OCT 3?441; and
ateele O. 8; 10, 15, 20, 25 to '
USSR Standard FOCT B-1050-41 .23
cf .19 CI. 2; CT. 3, c-r. 4; to USSR
Standard rocT 380-.41; and
steels 0.8, 10,15, 20, 25 to
USSR Standard rOCT B-1050-41 30
D. C. (etrai- 20A, 25xrcA and 30XFCA
ght
ty), a. c. al-
lovable
D.C. (rever-i. 10-and medium-Carbon low-al
se polari- loy steels 25
ty)& ac.
With oscil-
lator
D: C. (reverse 25X r cA and 30X r CA
polarity).'
JOT,. V1402; 3V1403, :-/s1,1-?-417 ?
6i1T, 14O2. 31,44030. . '30107
ze,
22
27
28
. . if
1-tE
1-
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,
99-
vlectrode Coating
Ihe working or ter in ti preparaior. of
as follos,
1..Wirepreparation.
2. Preparation of coating components.
3. Nix preparation.
4. pplying of coating. .
5. Electrode drying
1. Wire preparation. Clean the wire
-'aid -Wash it. ,..tth a hot 5-vr 'cont water
of dirt and
solution of
grease
soda ash.
Then cut the wire -into rods. 300 to 450 mm longs. depenling upon
:its Aismeteri and .straighten the rode. The prepared rd.
7,should be stored in a wooden box located in a dry room:
? 2 Preparation of oating components. The components. of
4-coating (i.e. chalk, ferroalloys, starch, etc.) are first
4110a in ball mills, dried in a drying cabinet at alenperature
,;'.120 to:1500C and then passed through a Screen having 3600.
o 4000 openings per sq. cm. Organic substances (for example;
iatarch and flour) may be screened with a screen having 1000 to
.21:2000vnings per' sq,em, Each component should be treated sepa-
,,
.41itsly, as described above.
WoiGh out the screened components in
Ohe required proportion and thoroughly mix them in a mixer. To
?
repare a mix, dilute soluble water glass with water to a spe-'
;eine density of 1.1 or .1.21 and then strain it through the
treen.
The mixing of dry compounds and the water glass solution -
,
abould be preferably performed 'immediately before applying the
:66ating:to. the rods. Yake sure that the mix. has been thorough-
ly stirred to obtain a uniform mixture,: free of lumps and
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air bu hb; Qs.
-100-
'.
In th, course of mixing, the ferroalloys (ferrosilic
sneferroManganese) may ratt.. with water glass. To prevent
I
bats, prior to mixing the ferralloys?subject them to liati.:-43
- '-i
. on pans in ovens, for a period of one hour. This process is
[
-trmed the possivating of the ferroalloys.
V----i
1 .'it:11.0JIMZL.2120211ng,In electrode-manufacturing work,
. .
, v
1 the' ?.oationg is applied OA elctrode wire undi,,:r pressure will
Ethe aid? of speal?machines. Under the conditions of fi.ld
?
...
re.air-slops, thP coating A* the wire surface may be
r
11- 4preared coating solution is poured into a deep tank
-?
A=tYto Alir3 Vie rods, fastened in a frame, are then dipped.
the frame, together w7:th the rods, is careful-
.1?yi?nd .lo 'l pulled out of the tank. :f several layers of
coatin6 ar to be applied, after each dipping the electrodes
[ artd in he air and then dipped in again. This procedure
r ici7recateI until a coating of deoired thickn000 to obtaineci,
at ttie coating is of even thieknIss aleng the entlre
rrA lengtn: to achieve this, in extraction from the solution
F--Ot
f4,;.and on sal:11,1uent drying, the rods should be bald strictly
r:vertical.
1
14,.L. 5. _1_31rode_dilxing... The coated electrodes should be
-43'fed. To prevent cracking of the coati, the electrodes
7
rQwuld be preliminarily dried in the ovn air for a period
r
to 4 hours, after which they should be dried in a drying
v-611--fih at a temPerature of 200 to 300?C for a period of one
'...0two hours. Drying at temperatures above 300C may cause
burn7.n&.out of certain coating compommts. Organic components
.c.!.-; ?
jeotroles with dampened coatings should also be dried
61.19,uld be d-eied ata maximum temperature of 20?... C
.;
? ;
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- 101?
at'a temperature of 180 to 200?C, for a period of one hor.
Remember that electrodes with damp coatings cause unstable
are 'burning.
L._qcjn.17.TechniuesandWoriisofFlectric
y
-1
-Arc Welding
_. A normal welding arc is an electric discharge at atmos-
pheric pressure of gases. Electric discharges of different
4 . . .
character and intensity are used in welding. In the Slavianov
c
.welding method, an electric arc is drawn. between a metal el?.ct-
-
0
? r,',=.Y.,,ide and thcc metal to be welded (the base metal). This type
4
[ .of;arc is termed a direct-action arc, since the base metal
1 1e ,ere included in the welding circuit and plays the role
. ?
- ofcan electrode.
4 ?
_ 31,121_11z the arc,, The striking of the arc is performed
1
by,lightly contacting the base metal with the electrode and
, -
- .
Iiie.lowly moving the electrode away to a distance equal to
r : ,
the arc length (2to 4 mm). This method of arc striking is
L.
q
i.1009m as the short-circuit method (Fig.60).
I.; '? A
&-,1-
-electrode against the surface of the workpiece ( in the way
r ? -
I. . a matA is struck).
t '
When welding is performed by direct current, the welding
[! 1
-.=q,a1Z6 has a. tendency to deviate due to the influence of the mag-
I? netic field, the character of this deviation depending upon
V- th-f workpiece design and the method of current supply (Fig. 61).
v _...._:..
phenomenon is termed magnetic blow or draft..
t?4. dAignetic draft hinders the process of welding. The pimp-
-- ---.v
w lest way to elimlnate magnetic draft is to alter the angle :
ofeletrode incline in the course of welding.
When:welding 1.1 alternating current, such deviation of the
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second method of arc striking consists in striking th-.
I.
rct
i
kr -
?
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_
I 1.?
-
kirc q.)t occur.
? ?
Diegram of electy.--ode movement .11),:r--i-c.g arc strikin::
- 102 -
1) slowly; 2) quickly.
- Influence
of magnetic blow
upon electric arc.
- The arc should be extinguished only in order to replace
co-,islAm6d electrode or when a seam has been completed. If
has not yet gained enough experience, breaking of tlie
as a result of short circuiting or due to excessive are
16ngt)-).
occur. At the pinta of breaking of the arc a weaken.-
weld is r,roduced. In order to obtain a high-grade weld ir-
1, r
L4ispect.tve i)f arc breaking, .the arc should be restruck on the
r,---.tlase metal snmel,That ah'f of the point of breaking; then the
arc should be worked backwards so that the place of breaking
,fia welded anew, after which arc travel should be continued
? An the direction of welding.
t
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? -
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?
?Diagrai of a stable Welding arC
rode and ?base metal.;
orate7.; 2) length; 3) puddle; 4) base
'6) flame; 1) metal electrode. : ?
The .base metal and the electrode under the influence of
6 hest developed by the burning arc are melted: The molten
ectrode metala in the fr.)tsm of separate drops of various size,
s transferred into the puddle of molten .base metal. ?
Shown iu Fig b2 is a diagram of a stabilized welding arc
,e'StabliShed br-3.tween? the ele:-..,trode and the base metal. A molten
metal puddle fQrmed,?with a Crater in its surface iMmedia?
.. .
tely ,Under the el,ectrode, The arc length is the
the electrOde end ,e.Y.;e: the bottom of the crater. The depth
1,1f I: he paddle :or, the depth of penetration is the distance
the base metal surfaCe?to. the bottOm of the crater.
. ? .
-
In wf..;14in?,?-', t ength (If the are and the rlepth of
:.-- ... .
ddle should be of a definite val-a.. When electrodes of up
,
6 mkt .In dismeter are Used, aro length should not exceed
?-to 4 cmr .since only Under this conAition ean arc stability
a ensured. 'Men: the -arc Is- of such short length, .the drops
af,:tolten':electrode metal on their way to the puddle are
!I
P.i.tenced by the, Oxygen and nitrogen of the air to a lesser
Mlf.tent than when the arc I a of greater length.,
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?
-. .
sLaUe, ...deviates. to the ides and. often breaks; in addition,
.;?,: - . . .
. . .
? ?
. . ? . ? ? . ?
iinteneive spattering and oxidattontake_placa.A. formless
When the aro length.is.tOo great, the arc becbmeS?un-
and low-grads weld is normally, when the arc. ? . . ?
a exCessiV.e.cineequettlY,' the operator should always aim
? ?
q?welaing with a.Short arc
When_al.ternating.cAarrept is used, thaerc is more difficult
,..stmck and Iurna with lees stability as Compared to .a d.c. arc*
J?%creas. arc stability, the frequency and voltage of the .
.-.,Iternattlig current are increased by Connecting an oscillator in
. . .
,...par61Ael-:wtth-the welding transformer, The oscillator produces
current of
hq:-,:ardous
!,50000 c.c.s. at 3000 v...This high voltage is not
o life, i,dnce the frequency.is very'high,and
s insignificant.
When is high, the interval of time during
,which.le,c'urrent drope ici'zero in the gap between the pleCtro-
Ade krd *nrk.pieca. is extremely short This .period being
auCh short duration, Abe electrode. is unable to cool down
cons1derab7; degree before theare is struck again., Which ?
. .
iH ai-if It hsd.not been extinguished at all
!!"1',Ie'1e1 .pf.penetration is another important factor of
jte *1.11pg-proes.- to produce a high-grade, weld, it Is re.,
trial the mpiten electrode :metal should fully miX,with
Ahe molten base me.l.a.L'OOnsequently,.the:base metal should be
-7,7..mektto a sufficient :depth.- Should .the lase metal be heated
ElitinBufficiently, the .depth of penetration is also small. In
rt7--.140t1,,e some of the Molten electrode metal will be deposit-.
? r?pon:the immoiten surface of the workpiece and no weld will
be
pro41.14. This phenomenon is iermed."lack ofi)enetraAion".
To obtain a high-gra44 *eld the minimum depth of penetra-
-Aion.should be 1 or 2 mm.
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,
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?La
1'
-105-
The depth of penetration can be estimated by the depth
of the crater. By observing the crater through the protective
? glass, the operator can easily see the depth of melting of
the base metal.
Lack of penetration may result under two conditions, na.
mely, when the welding current is too low, or when the speed
? %f electrode travel is excessive.
Methods of deposition. In the process of welding, the
'electrode, while being melted, is simultaneously moved in
Shree directions (Fig.63),
a) it is being constantly brought closer to the workpiece,
to maintain a constant arc length;
A
b) it travels at constant speed along the joint;
c) it performs transverse movements of oscillatory nature.
The electrode should be inclined towards the direction
of movement, forming an angle of 15 to 30 deg. to the verti-
The? 15-deg. angle is used in welding with thinly
r 4 - ?
? -electrodes, while the 30-deg. angle is recommended for welding
.z
thickly coated electrodes.
f
':Pigt63. - Schematic view of electrode end movement during
. .
A welding.
1-electrode; 2-direction of welding; 3-transverse oscillations
-
,-
of electrode.
4 To obtain a weld of the required width, the electrode
N 1.8 given oscillatory movements across the joint; if not, a
' 1 '
?
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stir*
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?
-
1?
q lo rfqo1., ra
; .q.0s?T3 3iiJ10
o*&I,z.lcio era ,eeztz
..Eatern "ad Nil ?
-aterieq 10 /foal
- 106 -
weld with a very narrow cross section would otherwise
be pro-
,duced. The oscillatory movements of the electrode increase
? puddle size, since a greater quantity of heat is produced by
.the arc per unit of weld length. This also results in the slow-
er cooling and solidifying of the molten metal, 'which, in turn,
LOW OIas& 1,1so, ,serves to reduce
eboaioslo lo ?gas bubbles
Aeb lo eborct9:,1 weld.
d sliAw oboo1s
,.,-..
,effolt o el lb sel_rit
sn?ed 81 (a
1
enoo s oi
le
aisvsi Li (d
eariollsq (o
Lj
4
e sbo^aoslo enT
-4
,Inocnvom lo
Ins .ziob-1' erg .12 r'
t
elidw boqfooD
rig.64 - Diagram of optional patterns of electrode end
I ,eo'
1 movement=
bolsoo
j192,3 -with normal heating of joint; 4,5 - with intense
heating of both joint edges; 6-with intense heating of one
1oint edge.
?"In practice, many different patterns of electrode end
movement are used, the most characteristic of them
!-Aeing shown in Fig, 614. None of these patterns may he recommend-
.
in preference to the others, on the grounds of all edged
4et t er weld quality.
H
differernELL When a weld is
?? ---'aeposited in the dovnihand position, the molten electrode me-
tantblew
1.0.4
drips into the puddle due to its own weight. The joint
;sbol.toe.
.ebolJ-osle being welded can be conveniently observed by the operator.
? -
!blew s So oT 'This is the most advantageous welding position, and the ope-
?s..?
_
1
the quantity of non-metallic inclusions and
and decreases possibility of crack-forming in the
3.tt8merf3/3
I
E
?-
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a
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?
L t
.; ?
1
,1 y,leV s k-s?? 1 -
,f1,112o 6AT j
- 107-
ra? tor should always endevour to arrange the workpiece so that
il? may be welded in the dowohand position.
--1";.41
4
;
0E3 1.1r1r. :2.
Lft
-Fig. 65. - Welding of vertical joints.
2t
? b - correct; c, d - wrong.
1 It is more difficult to deposit a weld inthe vertical
I (Fig.65), since the molten metal tends to flow down-
' ,*rd. For this reason, the vertical joints are welded from
? below and upwards, ba a short arc. The electrode should not
t ? *7
be retained in a given position, -but should be slowly moved
'4o C
II
1 i
h ' !side, thus allowing the metal to solidify. This facilitates ..
the obtaining of high-grade welds.
._ ..
rz1 di
,f
1.-.5:--,a 2:11 li/i -- ? :-? . 1. ? ?'
.i.o t, ri.i-?:..?1 'I.' ;,;.?1 i. -1' .. i --,-.1 - The welding of horizontal joints (Fig 66) does not dif- .1"!
+,., `r
.--31,?.be ?:to- il I
i
_ L. i_fer essentially. from vertical joint welding.
?
..3.c?, ,9-.. il :?13'10 l
. ri .,-.2
, To facilitate depositing of horizontal welds, only the
;.1..14.;:raeY Cat ?'):".27t.k3 .'-.1' i ? ''' L ,.i. I 1
-top plate edge is .bevelled while the bottom plate edge is
111/JC,rie: ?&nr-- ,i I
left square and thus forms a kind of 'shelf on to which the l'
(-4. 6,..::?,-,-;.:;I:eqg r..= v.1,,, - ,
. I , welding metal is deposited. ti
-
t1-11.agr, .L.1.3w 1:::.?1?1,,, ',i: . .1'
? I 1 Overhead Joints are difficult and inconvenient to weld
?;.,,
ti,:..f..i 5111141224,2::d:;?1 J: .
1_,-.,..? fl 7
. ., !,tcPig.67). The molten metal strives to ow out of the puddle,
,. ,..;',. .,:j.J . -., j: 1.??! .1,,A.:? r .7:---: 1
the operator must always hold it back with the electrode.
!.1
'.:?11,3- :,..tiri. c4-1:?11.' 1:.; -, .1-? !,
. .
Ovarhead ? welds, even when they have been made by skilled ope-
A'. : - ,,i0:, _,:. z
I' c'c-1 1.146 1).6::'.-17934'-.':.;..- '-..------'rlitors., as a rule are of insuffictintly. high quali.ty. Th.,,,::3,v..,,.
.. -..
't'- ? . '? tic ?.:-. L - ' ? E._ . _ A: ? .
..,,, ? '''...-'::','F,-";.",.- ? ,
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- 108 -
'due,.tO the inconvenience of :welding and contamination of
. the' WeldAv .non-metallic inclusions (slag) Which are lighter*
than' the metal and therefore 'deeply penetrate into the molten
, *
-Metal (into the root of the weld),
'
;1:4-",17-4111
\ 0;
Pig. 66. - Welding o 4horizontal Fig. 67. - Welding of overhead
j ?tuts.
? joints= .
1) Diagram of electrode. -
. movement.
.?
,. .-..? L . ,
1 . . .. . .,..., - - -......,.
) r--- - ,
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I A
?
- 109 -
CHAPTER VIII
? TECHNIQUES OF V1ELDING STEELS USED IN AIRCRAFT
-m---
-operations,
CONSTRUCTION
". Lki-sts for weld
Preparing parts for welding comprises the followini
1. Machining of the edges of joints and the removal of burrs.
2. Cleaning edge surfaces of paint, dirt and oxide films.
-3. Assembling and fitting up of the parts according to
templets or in jigs, etc.
- --n-------,,
I ? ,14 Li-. The tacking of parts..
?...,
-,,
- :I 5. The straightening of parts after tacking and checking
.14f gaps.
1
? The gaps left between the edges of the parts tio be weld-
', ?
should be of equal width along the entire joint length.. For
. ?
dge shapes, sizes and machining tolerances, and for gap width
-
_
? See Tables 14,15,16. when the edges of joints are to be nre-
I? ,-,-.pared. for manual welding, the values contained in the tables
C-..s.11,1ay be increased by 50 per cent.
11,
Irrespective of the method of welding, the parts may be
-lacked both by gag and by olootrio-aro woldins.Gaa taeking
? _
recommende& for parts Of 1. 5min maximum thickness, and
r1ectrio-arc tacking - for parts over 1. mm thick. For tack-
4 n
--A?ng, use Grade 10 A filler wire and Grade 10 A electrodes.
F' After the edges of the joint are bevelled, cleaned, fife-
r-
-;,ed up and assembled, they are tacked. Tacking should be per-
t-
4ormed,by short welds (10 to 15 mm) spaced at 20 to 60 min
ntervals, the tacking techniques and working conditions being
-mit_ -Li lar to those of welding. The maximum 'height of the tack
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:
: ?.,..,.z:,.01- I ,.:',..4Long butt joints are first tacked at the ends and in the
.? - - ". . ? iraidli,it.'
1.,.,?? _ 0, ,i,i i ,.4.._ ._ 0, and then from the mlddle tonards the ends, an sho
. wn
11 7
. . ' iVI'lli s' " . li ?
t
: --:5 . f' ? i ? - S? 68. Stiffening ribs should be tacked in a s_t...77..7ed,,,
.. -. 'i '[.?;-7.7j
.-,-..,?---
? ?
. ?r.,... . ? . % ..,,,...T., . ? .
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- 110-
weld should not exceed 70 per cent of the normal seam to be
obtained as a result of the welding. The tacking of parts is
performed in a definite sequence, to avoid warping. A thicker
t eleilient is heated first at point of tacking. When lap joints
. t
L'or Tee-joints are being made, the thicker of the two elements
J. 1
i is preheated on the reverse side of the tack pount.
?Pr orki t o ao ng, the elements should be reliably. coeur-
t
ed in jigs, clamps, eta., to prevent them from shifting.
;During tacking, the fo11owin6 rules should be adhered to,
--0?1;:a) tack welds should be spaced at 20 to 35 mm intervals,
for'tmetal thicknesses of 0.5 to 1.0 mm, and at 40 to 60 mm in-
t.
i_tervals, for metal thicknesses of 2mm and over. When tacking
? :7
I, elements which are intended to be welded by the electric arc
1 I
[ proCess, the spacing of tacks may be increased by one and
?:half times
the extreme end tacks should be spaced 10 mm from the
L'
E put edge, and no tacks should be made on the ends and in the
coiters of workpiece bends. In electric-are welding, the tacks
1
should be preferably located on the edges of the workpieces;
r e) if a workpiece is provided with holes, the tacks should
f
Luw_placed at least lo mm from the hole edges;
any part should be tacked from the middle towards its
011
: r.-irlie) when tacking washers or tubular elements, the successive
t.
sh.ould be symmetrically arranged8
1f) in case? of double-side tacking, the tacks should be
t, ',Staggered;
1'
;1.
I
?
,
1 i
SI
!
_
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?
_ ? , ? .;< ?
1.4
I. 111 a.
? ?
?
Edge preparation and gap:tolerances for butt joints
rSrar-Tire?EMenls ?Tfor gesffo-rereilTiqrri
.ticknee we1din.
. .(mr1 ) a ; b
Joints
(mm) (un) (deg..)
1..0-1. 5
.--..,,.-
t
?
1. 5-2.5 1 0-1. 5 0.5-1.0
?
2.5-6.0
46- 10
Kerecl-'?
1. ? 1-2 7010
0.5-1.5!1.5-3 70110
i ? -:1-' ? ,
.'. 6 - 10
L. -741 : 0.5-1.5 1.5-3 70? 10
r-7,N
--..,----lio - 20 1-3 . . 2-4 70110
- .-..... ?
-1fa- bid -15
Edge preparation and gap tolerances for. Tee-Joints
ee ?
c nes
LYPe
joints
ens one o
or
ga
? 114
44.t.
INN
RN
Jj
? ?
r 5-1.5
O. 5. 1.
0
. 5
?
'
3-6
g--Ae
,2 6
2 -1
;$ ?
g5;;-Z4
WA* ,741W
6-10
2-10
10-20
540
4IfW#
_?---
tr74
I
? ?
?
.17
. . ,
kikft.
or e ec r 7.rreart.
? ..
rwaximi ird6, t
0.5-1.0
0.5--1.0 0.751.545?1O
0.5-1.0 1.5-3.0 55z10
0.5-1. 5 2-4 5C?10
0.5-1.0
0.75-1.
1. 5-3. 0 145110
2,4 '; 45110
?
?,
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I
?
- I _
I ?
.
- ; 4 Edge preparation and gap
- 112 -
Sir ft: Crir-iii:e.773.7)7e
ee5tt:'?
91(11?1:: .
..-_,Ii . . ( art, 1 ,..4
I.- . . ,-.:,E , -
' ?.'-').? -7-2
01
1 , 6-10
? ?
:?
.
?. ?? -
-
":
-? ? :
,
? ? ,
. Or. ??:, A- ? ?
*
- Table 16 ?
tolerances for lap joints. "
c neon
) ?
3
Type & Dimensions
joints
or gas e ec
of arc welding
c-
.
s2
. I
- 1-3
2-6
3.10 ?
?
.5-20
o. 7
1.0-2.0
i
i
?
45
45
45
45
1
.I
IN'
i
MOMMONSMNINO 2.0-3.5
?
?
3.0-6.0
?
; ? " ? order (Fig. 69 ).
i ?
? ; 7 :'3 E? (.1.
? ? . .
? 0;?.. a, ? ? ?
? .. ? ?
rd?B'Isqelq sT,f-JE.
2 1
SCIa? PPC,M71,171.37T-tnl.:
?
. .
? ?i
4
? ;..! .6 ??. ,F .
...J
a c: ![
? (A..
GS - t
:
0e)??;:rs, 05;1
?
04
-
, t:-' ;$-,-1.1
-4* ?E. 'r-7--- 's :--?::?^,? 4,
f
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?
:1ig.68.
joint tacking; tacking
1 10mm 2) 20 to 35 mm for 1) Wrong 2) Correct
-Aheet thickness below 2care ; .)
-40 to 60 mm for sheet
Viickness above 2 mm.
-
- In tacking connection pipes, washers and other circular
Solements, proceed as shown in Fig. 70.
C.
Sequence of butt
, ? 1
I 'c
I p
'
.jA
I
Fig. 69. - Sequence of stiffening rib
- 4-
4. .
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-
Connection pipe tacking
1) Correct 2) Wrong
? 19. Oxy-acetylepe welding of etajnle88
chromium-nickel
the course of aircraft repairs and aircraft engine
repairoo a necessity often arise fox joining by welding of
-chromiuM, nickel stainless steels.) grades S.i and 31T, com.
taming 17 to 19.percent of chromium and 8. to 9.5.per.cent...
of nickel. The welding of these- steelaia hempered by the fact.
that they possess a highcoeffisient of. linear expansion and,
r-k-717
besides, Ilave
a tendnz;z; to form ChroMiuM:cerbide and high..
heat:_okide film. The following rules should be Observed, when
welding these steels.
_1. .The prepared .edges should
gap should be even along the entire
being,
? .
:for parts of 1.5-mm thickness . . . -0.5
for parts of over 1.5-mm thickness 1 0 mm Max.
r.110
2. ,For filler metal, use thoroughly Cleaned rods or strips
1.5 mm wide, 'cut from a sheet of Grade 51.1T steel, 1.5 thick.'
3.. To melt the high-heat oxides and to improve weld qua--
- ?
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M;Oii??????????
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-"""'
?
L
lity, it is advisable to cover the filler rods with a thin
? coating, or to apply a flux to the edges being welded.
One of the compositions given below may be used as an
L.
Nlectrode coating (percent by weight).
? No.1 Composition
Feldspar 80
Potassium bichromate . ? ? .. ......
Ferromanganese
. 10,
,...2.1 Ferrotitanium . . . . . ........ ..e . . 6
iNo.2 Composition .
? 1
Feldspar 40
L...4-.
I ?
Chalk 15
Potassium bichromate .
. ? ? . ..... Ai -
\
5
r197:' 1
Ferromanganese 15 Ferrotitanium '1O
' 4
-t. Ferrochrome ? . 15
-.;1 1.16 LC. j JO!,14
? -
Trru
z7To% e
T.Tryor, Tnc;
'1r;:;?1 oT-74..otxITJ
14;TITI7CZ te bey!'
4777^' ?
_
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, , tltat7o.i Alb[re.1!)
...:1..? . . .
.. , . 2. 4,....,4 ..?:k, :i4.:...
',id.? r.l.i7. ir,V4:,;:.? - ' i.ir
. .
Sf..01 .X5ISAT,4-404.1a'
,L.Ltm:".ko vc.ft'...1q...c.',
L.,.1.....,y$1 .tri
...i.n !:!1.1.S . :..:.r.;.; ?,-,?:.J. .
9(..f .1.4finEz,1
?
111a .ton`iit: tit:. -?:;1
- scii. slicinfq EL.ceo
nc .e)!.c.:-..97.:.
13. bolorf f;vo t-...Irtnof:?,
*i..ItA; ..Nfl: 1:?-?,`.1.1;51.4:-...1 1!
ttoP: .t.';',
nriiti ien.P.?ti
B 15.)C1 iftd,..si7..1!-JG?
rtilecif ,.?... :
004JtA5
1..)1.ton
06.?1.1
ne3t,
?.10.111.9tfi0
LnIco 4"
t f ktr!r.
- 16k..
1/4.108. - Flanging tank hole edges.
Uw hole and the patch, the flanging should be performed by
light hammering. After patch shaping and fitting have been final-
Allycompleted, the tank interior should be cleaned of shavings
and filings and thoroughly washed. See that no ahvinga, fil-
inut or dirt remain inside the tank since their removal after
Um patch f welded into position is very complicated.
ng.109
1
? - Patch and corrugated shell surface
1) patch
The patch
entire
?
Periphery. The v.-e14 should have dood penetration, free
et Considerable meltings-through. See that no molten metal
Ps fall into the tank.
In eases when the patch diameter is over 100 an, the
401e and
patch edges are corrugated, to reduce internal stree-
in then tacked in place and welded along its
"
(!'t.109). Besides this, corrugation contributes to tank
sea
,-? ?
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I
.
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. .
wall strength. .
- Metal-corrugating device
1) Detail A
Cernigation can be. performed-. with the help of a siiIple
devie (Fig. 110)9: prior ? to 'edge .flangrag, ':#3 do so, ? slip th-
j2W Of the device over the tank shell edge or the patch edge.
And turn the 'Screw down; then, by striking 'with a hammer- at
the .hase of the deviee, drive it along the.?etige.until:ite '?
t;Te. periphery is corrugated.; to facilitate 'this -work., the
Patch should be cielliped. in a 'vice having soft metal jaws.
The. tanks welded of an aluminium-- magnesiura alloy normally
bay.
partitions. which increase tank rigidity and sonetimes ?
accomodate valves, etc. -These 'partitions. are secured to the
tank bottom by means Of rOurid-.head rivets. made of the sane
llc.y. .The riveted .down heads. , after 'the rivets are 'fixed
a iii
Position, are additionally Vieldeci.. These rivets, are road* in
P-cc.'"dunce with. lio.853A 'Specification: ; .the 'figures
trig riVet 'diameter and shank' length are added to the number .
of the Specificationsl. Thus, if a drawing con.taine instruC- ?
Eid
1 ti53A3i5 rivet should be fitted, it means that
c,ne that 853A33
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1 -166-
n aluminium-magnesium alloy round heat rivet; 3 mm in dia- ? .
etcr and 8 mm long should be used.
Should a rivet break occur, to.repair it procee
lows:
a) .Cut the tank protector if present) by slanting euts:
stank
BO that. wail area of 200 mm around the rivet is exposed.
To facilitate release of the protector from the tank wall, the.
? glued joint is moistened with gasoline.
b) Plot and cut out an access port of 100-mm diameter_ .
adjacent to the broken rivet, to provide access to the rivet
for the operator's hand holding a dolly.
?
II
r -
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111 - Access ports for tank repairs
? , 1) Section_ BB
. c) At a distance of 15 to 20 mm to bath sides of the
- u
-roken rivet drill two holes, insert new rivets made of the ?
.114faillium-magnsium alloy, having first placed 1-mm thick
wgelhers (type 223A) made of Grade Ali alloy under the rivet
Itemds; then set up the rivet to form the closing heat which
- Project above the tank well by 3 or 4 mm.
Srm.?
4
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1
- 167 -
d) Using a No.0 torch, melt the projecting rivet heads,
having first preheated the metal around the damaged rivet.
The torch flame should be directed at the rivet head, paral-
lel to its axle, and should not be removed until the set up
rivet is completely molten; only then proceed with the melt-
ing of the shell surface around the rivet, and with the intro-
duction of the filler wire. When welding is completed, the
torch flame should be gradually moved away. Flux should he
used during the welding.
All the three rivet heads should be welded at the same
time. The rivet head with the welded-up metal should be sym-
metrical relative to the rivet shank.
After welding-up, the height of the rivet heeds sheeld
be within a range of 2.5 to 4 ram, their new diameter being
12 to 16 tam. It is recommended that the minimum values of
the above limits be observed.
g.112. Wiiii-Welded,round rivet.
?
ti) After the rivets are welded up, remove all foreign
Objects from the tank interior, wash the tank and then fit in
P?eition and weld the access port cover.
Should cracks appear besides the welded-up rivet head on .
rl dualet'er
.?m shell, bore out the rivet head and cut a 40 to 45-mm
hole in this place. Then flange the edges of this
the
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? i,1
- 165
bole, prepare, fit in position and secure by welding a patch,
ri
then fit a new rivet and weld in the closing heat of the ri-
vet ( Fig.112).
? 36. Repairs of tank fittings,
Should fittings require repairs, such as a damaged inlet
connection, a broken thread, etc., they may be repaired by
welding. For instance, cracks on a pipe-union may be welded
up or repaired by the use of a strap.
1
IjJ
.4 ?
1.4
Piz,e 113. - Cracks on a tank outlet or inlet
If the crack on an inlet connection (Fig. 113) does not
reach out to the shell proper, make a bore using a 2-win drill,
then cut the crack edges by a chisel or file so that a V-shaped
groove is formed, after which weld up the crack without the
use of straps. The surplus of deposited metal should be re-
moved by scraping or filing.
When the crack on the inlet connection reaches out to
the tank shell, it is repaired with the used
or Patch which is accurately fitted over the
paired and is than lap-welded.
? 37? ankSll
in long service, corrosion may appear.
the tank shell. In this case large see-
are to be replaced. Proceed. as follows'
When an aircraft is
z'a separate sections of
tions of the tank shell
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of a shaped strap
place being re-
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A
A
- 169
Using a spherical milling tool fitted to a pneuaatic
drill remove the welded rivet heads, then bore out the rivets
roper on the shell section to? be removed.
b) Plot and cut out the damaged settion of the shell, then
corrugate and flange the edges as described above; the height
of th, flanged edgea depend upon tank wall thickness but should
not be below 2.5 to 3 mm. The edge of this hole should be lo-
cated at a minimum distance of 30 to 35 tom Iron the nearest
row of rivets or from partitions.
c) Cut a patch from a sheet of rolled aluminium-magnesiu.n
alloy, to fit the seize and shape of the hole,. with allowances
for flanging. Corrugate the patch edges and the tnetal along
the future rivet rows. It is desirable to use a sheet bending
machine to perform this work. See that a 0.5-mm gap is left
between the flanged patch edges and those of the hole.
Using a corner drill inserted into the tank through the
access ports, bore the required number of rivet holes in the
tank. yit.:11s, to correspond to the holes in the tank partitions
and the patch. Simultaneously prepare the covers for the ac-
ports.
d) After the patch is prepared, secure it by aluminium-
slaZnesium alloy rivets to the partitions, then tack it to the
Shell edge, weld up the closing heads of the rivets and final-
1Y weld the paten to the tank shell over the entire contour.
e) When the welding is completed, thoroughly clean the
tank of all foreign objects, wash it and weld the covers to
the access port?.
Tbe dencriptiono of aircraft tank repairs by welding
Aich
Psosible caaes.
have been given abbve sai.arally do rot cover all the
es e are but the basic techricUeB and methods
rePaira
?;.,`?;.;-,f ?
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? ? ?
. ? .
. _
- 170 -
? Welder repairing "aircraft tanks of wele,eresgsji4::
endevoni . to . deposit: -a: are/d, uniform as ? to heierA, vi d ?Va and
stocithness.. For ? recommended weld dimensions ter,11-4 afre,44.-
selected' for the 'welding see Table 2.9.
Title
Dimensions of .Tields for Re o.irin Ta a t5? Veldtra
"Trer.:
12e138
a
rEsdeMt7-77.111Zir. 27-177?"Thrade Ak filTer wire
-
1-1.2
1.5-2.0
2.5-3.0
. ?
3.0-3. 5
dXTflr.-7%TM:11=er
wire
,1?91111110.
.? . 3-4
? 5.5-8..5 ,
.8.5-10.0 ? 4-5 ?:
,
on.W.ash?i:n.g fl.u.x off the welde?.d.seame
Completion'of welding,. the welds are to be cleaned of flux
by washing.
The washing- of. Welds is a very ? important operation which ?
ilould.
be performed with a high degree of thoroughfulness,
tiO ince . ? . ? .
.1411X? if left ? inside the tank, causes intensive ?cor-
e-t. in turn, may become a cause for an aircraft
. ??
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-nail. For this reason, inusediately after the welding of tanks
t!'
or other elements made of aluminium alloys is completed, pro-
ceed as follows'
1) thoroughly wash the weld workpieces With hot rater
(60 to 80?C) on both sides, using hair brushes;
2) wash the workpieces with a water solution of chromium
trioxide or, in final ease, with potassium bi-
chromate solution (20 gm per litre of water);
3) wash the workpiece with het water, of the same
ture for the second time,
After washing, the welds should have a clean bright our-
face, To. check the quality of weld washing, proceed as followC.
Spill a drop of 2-per cent silver nitrite on. the weld and
welt for a white sediMent to he produced as 6 result: of-the
reaction; should such sediment appear, it 'means that the weld
Is not yet properly Cleaned and the washing :of the tank 'should
be continued until positive results are obtained.
CAUTION. The petrol tanks which have been repaired by
welding, Prior to being installed in Position in the aircraft
should be thoroughly inspected by techniCal 'personnel, with
the aim of .enzaiing that there are no shavings, molten metal
flaws and solidified drops inside the .tanks. A tank should
0
--.4._aceount be mounted in position until all foreign otts.--r
p .
are completely removed and the tank is thoroughly checked.
If a...tank itt equipped with 'steel fittings,- for the post-
"lding washing use only a potassium bichromate solution , sinee-
/11???. zit= trioxide may cause intensive corrosion of steel parts-.
o m gq, m
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1 ?
,1
! m
3
3
3
Declassified
- 172 -
CHAPTER XII
DEFECTS OF WELDS AND THEIR ELIHINATIOW-
I 38. Weld external defects
As a result of dsviating from recommended techniques in
the course of welding of metals, certain defects which reeluce
the strength and reliability of welded joints originate in
the welds.
The most common causes of defects ere,
a) Poor quality of preparing the workpieces for welding;
h) Improperly selected welding conditions;
c) Deviations from welding techniques,';
The external defects of welds and the causes of their
originatiOn are described below.
1)Weld of wrong shape and
eomet-
rical dimension s. The defects of this group are
normally caused by faulty and careless edge preparation, un-
even movement of the electrode or torch and that of the filler
Wire. These defects worsen weld general appearance and cause
weld weakening due to the difference in dimensions which should
be similar,
Besides, uneven destribution of the deposited me-
?L
tel. along the weld and the difference in deposited iaetal
Shrinkage may also cause crack formation, both in the deposit-
ed metal of the weld and in the base metal of the adjoining
weld them
this reason, thoroughly cheek such welds for cracks,
t
hem up, if any, and deposit reinforcing welds in the
Placea which have been weakened.
2)Bx-ternal cradkamay be encountered both
lon0i-eudinally and transversally relative to weld direction,
A 4
and
maY be found uoth in the weld proper and in the weld sone.
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in Part - Sanitized Collip
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(,--
tr '
1, .
- 173-.
%NI
uneven metal heating and cooling during welding, as well as
by Weld shrinkage. Cracks are more often formed in metals
characterized by poor weldability, and also as a result of
a wrong working order in weld depositing, Cracks are a dange-
roue defect. Sections of weld with cracks should be cut out
and revel:tea.
3)Undercuts. The undercut is the thinning of
metal at the point of juncture between the base metal and the
weld metal. This defect results from using excessive currents
or a torch of excessive power. In both cases too much heat
is produced at the weld edge, resulting in the over-melting
of the base metal. To eliminate this defect, clean the under-
cut and deposit a reinforcing bead here.
4)Lack of penetration. Thelackofpe-
netration means that the base metal has not merged with the
deposited metal. Due to the lack of penetration the cohesion
Of particles of metal is not strong enough and the weld at this
point is weakened. Consentration of stresses in the places
Where there is a lack of penetration additionally weakens the
weld and deprives it of any strength at all.
The lack of penetration results from welding with a low
current or with an unsufficiontly powerful torch, from an ex-
ti
L
cessively high travel speed of the elecrodc or torch .p, from
the angle between the bevelled edges being too small, from in
preparation of workpiece surfaces prior to welding,
metal
etc' To eliminate the lack of penetration, the deposited
should be cut out and the defective place rewelded.
- 5) Cony e z I t y This defect reeulte from the elect-
ti ?? rode or filler wire melting too rapidly wle the base metal
,.;
lin:, no: yet eufficiently heated. Thus an overpflow of liquid
en to the workpiece surface at the joint takes place,
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;
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7-J
jth simultaneous lack of penetration. These metal excrescen-
ces should be cut off, and the welds thoroughly checked for
poeeible lack of penetratien.
39. Weld internal defects
1)Porosity of weld . Porosity may result
. .
because of the following reasons,
a) Aboorption of gases by the molten metal, fer inetance
absorption of hydrogen, oxides of carbon, etc., which fail
to exude from the molten metal puddle due to quick metal so-
lidification and which remain in the metal in the form of
gas bubble?.
b) Poor quality of joint edge degreasing and inadequate
cleaning of dirt rust, etc.
o) Itetal shrinkage during its crystallization. To detect
the internal porosity of a weld, it is tested by kerosene.
In gao welding, the elimination of porosity is achieved
by fPrging. Porous wed s detected invital aircraft parts
should be cut out and rewelded.
2)Lack of penetration at the
J ?lot edge G. lit 'a point of weld fracture the lack
f penetration car. be seen in the shape of a dark line between
the base and the deposited metal. The lack of penetration may
rilluit from-using an unsufficiently powerful arc or torch,
16 ell ao from exaormive travel opeed of the electrode or
torch along the joint being welded. The lack of penetration
deteetod only by X,-ray control. The defective places
al4lad be cut out and rewelded.
3iInt mai er tick o are due to the COMO
s. Vhen cracks are detected, the. de-
"ne act external creek
Place should be cut out and rewelded.
cl
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?
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4)0verheating of metalconsistsin
1 an excessively rapid growth of grain site . The larger the
1, -
grain size,. the higher .is metal brittleness and the:lower its-.
impact strength Overheating of deposited metal occurs. after :
the weld .is heated above a certain temperatUre.. This pheno-
menon ith.more often encOuntered iri.gas..welding, when theme-.
tails subjected to high and prolonged heating.
geld overheating can he remedied by heat-treatment.
5) Burn:i ng o f.::m e t. a 1 is accompanied by the
burning'out of carbon and the appearance of metal oxides at
the grain boundaries of the metal.
Burning is caused by using an oxidizing fleMe or an e-Y-
cessively long arc during welding. The burnt metal is charac-
terized by high brittleness; therefore the defective places
should be cut out and rewelded.
. Poi. the classification of defecte originating it welds
In oxyacetylene and electric-arc welding Bee Tables tO and
31 respectively:
- 0
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. 176 -
Defects of welds in.Oxy-Atetylone Weld.lz
Table 30
j?iry5=-Trel=TharE?Ts:t7f-Tartre-g?TiTr-ba?'a Lause eciriFay
? of defect
11.Weld of irregu-
1 ler shape
?
4
I-
120xidution of
deposited metal
tcrietal turning).
Convexity ?weakened
portions of weld,
unwelded length,
unwelded bead ends
Faulty welling
technique
Welding up.
and removal
of flows
a
Oxide and slag in-
clusions inside
weld.Uneven weld-
eurface,with fine
pir.holes and ,
sores. ?
f4trbonization bmooth, compact and
.of deposited wide weld. Large
weld metal, pin holes on weld
? surface.
4 Lack of penetra- Lack of molten-
tion, metal mixing in
bottom part of
joint.
OCT..
5:Undercutting' Ease metal molten
adjacent to welch
Welding by oxi- Beyond reme717
dizing flame. Shoull be cut
out ani rewe13ed. ?
Welding by ear-
bonizirg
Torch tip size
knumberj is too
'small; excessive
speed of welding
small angle of
edge. bevelling.
Bevelling of
edges und weld-
ing on work- ?
piece opposite
side.
Wrong angle of Depellitirs c5f
iorch,or exces- eupplomerl-tarv
- ,
sive flame power. bead.
6. Overheating
7. lUrn-through
1
18. Crack
Intensive grain
. growth in weld
metal or in beat
affected zone.
Heating of molten Heat-treatment. -
metal or weld zone
during excessively
lerriod or by
exce-00*sly high
--1-i,.
Burning-through - Low weldieed,
of a hole when - or excessiv
.,
welding thin large torch ?v -
, 9
metal. .. or excessive-
. ? ? . % angle of tor
.411 ? incline,
..,.e
Destruction of
metal at the
grains or at
their boundaries,
Faulty weldOg
technique, over
heating of me-
tal.
edge preparat-
ion ana repair
by welding
Beyond remedy.
Should be cut out
and rewelded.
?
i?H
4
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- 177 -
Defects of Welds in Electric-Are Weltifina
Ciaracteristi
um
? of defect
EM
Scheirc
wie w of
defect
117 rFir--Pax?rErstTk
r?
?Nen Of proper pe...
weld inetration. ? 1.
Mak- f
- - -
111M-
AiIi
e I
ten !weld shape.
sive Solidified
spat,- drops of spat- '
ter, tered metal
large in weld zone
crater
Table 31
MZesslve are lengta To he cut
or low current : out and rewelded
erring current
too
? Defect:Tye por-
..tion to he cut
out and reweld-
. :ed L.
." .
3.1Tar- .1Teld is nar-
row rower than
weld normal,Weld
? ;surface un-
even. Poor
? ..,penetration
?
?Excessive welding Entire weld
length to te
:cut out and re-
welded
--7- 'sr eed
?
? ???????????P.N2?W..........(
Conxcessive bead
vexi- .heightolletal
? ty, overflow at
over sides of weld.
high Uneven well I
bead surface
- ? ,Low welding speed
eXteSsively long
ZEN .are, small electro-
de diameter ?
?
Same
5.Lack Lack of merging
of between depo-
pene- sited and base -
tra- .metal or in-
tion sufficient
? depth of pene-1
tration of de-1
posited metal I
:into base me-
6. BurnaPresence of
!oxide films at
:grain boundaries
.and appearance
of !foreign par-
ticles in depo-
sited weld me- L.
t
?
Barn-:Hole molten
through through in
!base metal
? ? i
'Low welding current; Defective
high welding speed; portion to
:large electrode die- be cut out
meter; wrong edge be- and
veiling rewelded
? Excessively long
.arcatigh current
Defecti7e
portion to he
cut out and
rewelded
.nigh current;
excessively low
,arc
1
Edges to Fe
bevelled
again and
rewelded
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f.'" ?177
Minder; Melting of
outing base metal
at weld
sides
-178-
Impropf:r mtve-
ment and.in-
cline of &lett-
rede;high vur-
? rent
Undercuts to
be ?#elded up
sicarTmow.mrarld...-
9Cr9cks Metal broken
in the seam
or close to
prong welding
order
BoTelliz_gcf
,?dges v.nd re
-
welding
Methods o
weld :7 ntrol.
Wel.d.control .by ?e.xt:ernel inspe!,.=
t i o n. To .eneure the required degree of woltied joint rolia-
ga bility,. the quality of welding should he thorcushly eontrellr:d.
Depending upon the purpose und 1mport4Ine of wlded jeillt,
verieus methoas of weld control, differing ..sn oinpliear and
accuracy, may be used. The simplest rceillod of wAd
checking by external er.:::-?mination and with the help
fying glass, This methol allows surfsee dofeoto to
and for the checking of weld shape dimenoionn.
uniero.utting,slug lnolunteor,
?It.7tect,.??1 iyox te.rnel
c.ontrol is
or a marl=
be deteetsd,
.Such defecte as roughnero4
mirface porosity and
lapPection, A sound weld ht e a u!f'il ppearence,s olesn
smooth surface, ewen edgr.,e, gradusl ohAngt! in nectlor frtym
1f2 froo from shfollsw Prertionnp
r;rAf.l'kn tar('
P"ited to
bane fa- C 1.114 0
hare and undercutting*.
h Before inspection, a weld should ho thoroughly cleaned
4 eel brush. Ths Weld should te preferable inspeoted
wit -
r-laruifying glas4. since the unoldod oy6 may fail
tu'ou,%
fine cracks. To 6h0).cfe Weld liMensione and' shape,
of templates (rAg,58).
to .detect
UB
e a
Por thesame-1 weld size titplste hes? twei tentourS,
th6 66=
l'nem 10,ot-try theoflow6bla enimum size,
one or
corm _ -44,4 &1st the Wt?ld aos8 ;65-
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'119
lc, 'a tion is smaller* than rated,. the strength of the welded struc-
ture in also reduced.? dia:er,14tt.saive increase in Criviie section
of a we'd May. cause 'warping of ? the workplace during-welding
and its faulty performance after repairs.
.ire l?cl control by process tests.
No
special equipment iS required to perform. precese or tech-
nological*tests which allow for the praetical evaluation of
weld quality directly under field conditions. These tests
.are etpecially desirable when training welders, since they
clearly demonstrate the influence of weld quality upon weld
strength. The methods of weld. control by the process testa
deEtribed below can be used in practically any aircraft-
repair shop.
Pig? 114. -
F74 al
Sample for bend ' Fig .115. - Schematic view of bend
test
bead core
test
Weld ras+nl.-.
:Veld Ei +
? e -al ductility test.Tocheck
An! ductility?.. bend tests are perforated. For this
Plate (Fi9 ag . sample p hof a definite size in cut from a vtelded
Purpoue
II distance equal to the fivefold thickness of
--e sample is placed on cylindrical supports
a
-Paced e.t.a, the
pli 84mpis144 A4 pu
I nch locti6te
i ? The t-ft-4ns, is performed by means of a
;
I
--
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" ?180
-I in the middle of the sample and midway :between supports
(Fig.115). The load, applied to the punah should be removed
after the first crack appears in the maple. The greater the
angle dy Of the bend? the greater the ductility of the metal.
For instance, the angle of bending for weld's in low-carbon
Steel may be as large:. as 80 to 100" if :these Welds spossess
high ductility For the same vields, when they are poorly weld-
ed or when bare electrodes are used, the angle of bending
nay be be *reduced to from 5 to -10?.
.Checking the depth''of penetra-
t i o n. Th check the depth of penetration, the tearing.:off
test and the method of weld boring are used. Ts perforth a ?
tearing-off test, two plates Of 100X1.50-Mre size are made of
the same metal of which the welded werkpiece has been amptifiac-
turede The plates are then lap-Welded (Fig 116) After the
weld has cooled off, a wedge ia driven between the two plates
from the bide opposite the weld until the weld is broken.
Fa-z
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14'116. - Tearing-off test
1) 10 to 15 . ?
-
Should the Joint fail along the deposited metal and a great
depth of penetration be revealed, theulit1 of welding is
considered oatiefactory. However, if the destruction of the
Joint occurs on the boundary between the Woe and deposited .
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N
i.
IT-
4.
I gati seal and a distinct lack of penetration is revealed,
T 2, the
iity of welding is considered unsatisfactory. The exathi-
nation of the fracture also permits checking for weld poroei-
ty, the presence of slag inclusions and cavities;.
The method of checking penetration depth by boring con-
sists in cutting a bore in the weld with a drill of 2 or 3-mm
larger diameter than the weld width. The weld should so be
bored that the boundarie of the deposited metal are seen.
Then the walls of the bore are ground with emery paper and
? pickled with a 10 or 12-per cent water solution of double
cuprous and ammonium chloride salt. The tain coating of
1 copper which is left after pickling should be removed by
? a eoft napkin. The contours of the base metal,' deposited
weld metal and zone of penetration may then be distinctly
Iseen on the pickled atrzfa::e.
:Luminescence method of weld
centro 1. Prior to commencing the check, the weld to
- 181--=
?
Ibe checked and the adjoining zone of the vorkpiece surface
Should be cleaned and therouely -wiped with waste soaked
gasoline. Then the cleaned surface, with a brush, is coat-
e ent liquid consisting of a mixture
d with a film of fl uo re str
aircraft engine oil (15 per cent of total volume) and ke-
1 in
Nm-ne 0 v. 5 per cent). Ten e fifteen minutes later the remain-
1a
r2 g
liquid is removed from the metal surface With the help
?t a hair brush and a developer is applied to the surface
being checked. For the developer, burnt magaesia or reactive
'?:.
oxide in the form of dry and clean powder may be
-4agneolum
11144' The powder is then rem-'ed by shaking the workpieee and
05 ks/ ard2E. p 12xiamm air pressure being
bic7ing it off with dry air ( the e
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I I
01.
-
1
513
- 182 -
The surface thus prepared is then irradiated by a violet
ray lamp in a dark chamber or under a tever protecting the
Ostplece against the surreencling light. Under. the ultrasies
let light of the lamp the cracks will appear as bright
luminous linee. After the 'cheek is completedethe workpiece
Is rinsed with gasoline and wiped off with dry waste.
Checking weld tightness in tanks
and pipes. TO ?check weld tightness in tanks an pipes,
hydraulic or pneumatic tests are performed. In a hydraulic
test, the tank is filled with water and, by using a pusp,
Is subjected to a pressure which is one end a half times
highee than the tank working pressure. Utica or sweating
of the eeam discovered in places stieh are not adequately
tight will reveal the defective portions ef the. weld.
In a pneumatic test, an air pressure amounting to
045 per cent of the working pressure is set up inside the
tank which is. either submerged in water or has its welded
joints coated" with soap water? The leaky places it the seam
will be detected by the appearance of soap buSsIess
If the air pressure in the tank being checked is. raised
above i kg,cm2gep,, safety precautions should he taken, to
prevent accidents in case of tank destruetiore To perform
pneumatic checks of welded tanks, use a pump equipped sits
a reservoir, and cheek the pressure by pressure gauge. On no.
!=unt. is compressed air from airfield cylinder to be used.
The most-perfect method Of weld quelity centrol
In =or the detection of internal defects is radiography. In
radiovaphyg use is made' of X-ray radiographs and radioactive
4 salts. The results of radioSTaPhi c control are recorded on
ri a f417,1 erevided the or e the neceesary
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operator possesse
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j'
R1
nr1
3
- 183 -
degree of ekill and experience, permit such inside defects
as porosity, .slag inclusions, creeks, etc., to be accurately
detected. In all eases when vital aircraft parts are repaired
by welding they should be preferably, if possible, radiograph-
ed. Radiograph or X-ray unite are normally available in sta-
tionary repair bases, industrial works or scientific establish
ciente.
?
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- 184 -
CHAPTER XIII
FUNDAMENTALS OF CALCULATION
F WELDS
? ? 41. General information on tresses in welds
Every operator performing practical welding should re-
sesber that a welded joint is dee.igned to communicate stres-
ses from one structural element to other elements. The qua-
lity of welding has a great influence upon the value of
stress which can be. safely communicated by a given weld
without?danger of its destruction.
The slain principle which is usually employed as the basis for
^nleulation and ? design of welded joints is that the weld strength
. . .
.?lould approach the strength
for the-workpiece proper. This principle is also accepted as a guide
in selecting the methods of repairing a damaged part. The aim
?
is that the strength of a part repaired by welding be equal
to that of a newly manufactured part.
It is true, that this requirement can not always be sa-
tisfied, but calculations help to evaluate the degree of
ttrength. reduction and to take a correct decision as to the
imethod of repair to te chosen.
.i A welder employed in an aircraft repair shop should. be
. ili:kain general, and
t. h
ansdomwietohfcathlec'ule:
calculation , 1, ? . elements
f equ
tosofsatrl trensgthengt inl
calculationhweded
.1.i?iSts in particular. To begin?with, he ehould become aequaint-
1 awe pertaining to stresses.
I:I ...with tome of the general
thena rod (Fig.117) is stretched (subjected to tension)
ll t?
-- (7ct?ial and opnositely directed forces; P, certain stree-
, :i
are
forces
i set up inside' the rod. The greater are the
-
'
ilaPPlied to the rod, the ligher are the stresses.
of
ro? -
i A stress is the internal force applied to 1 sq.mm,
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-&-g; to the action of outoide forces.
. _
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? ? -
. ?
1) Pten. 2) G.
2
..?If a rod having a sectional ares .of P iri? 100 mm is
.stretched by -a force P 3,000? kg, the.stress'ineide this
? rod will. be.
-
,
mu
..?
When oUteide .forces reach a certain value, the rod
f4a1l to withstand the stresses set up by there forced and
will be. ruptured.' Therefore, by. Comparing the. .value. of the:
acting stress.- with the -Value .of..the strain which .will ? -result.
u,..
h!sqsAv4.--
e Of a given material, One may judge whether a given
in r
/the stress .resulting ?
Pert is .actoquate17 strong. The value of
--PwAre of O
It te?
gi.ven material eto a result of tension arid the
value Of the allowable stress are?usually?knove fer..all the
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EIS
- ? -
t.
TT
?
- 186 -
If it is known that the material of which the rod has been
?'
je ruptured by a stress (:)c, 90 kstrem2 (this stress is termed
Waste tensile strength or simply tensile strength), the safety
tor possessed by this rod can be easily calculated.
The safety fector n shows how many times the acting
..ess is lower than the ultimate stress.
In fact, in the example given above, the safety factor
which meant= that the value of the
?
tress acting in the rod is three 1 ..es 1Peti
te strength.
$o far we have been discuseing tensile stress onl.y.
Suppose now that the same rod is compressed by forces
VIP' Here the nature of the stress is different. The
Us sute.d .o a compression stress: The value of the
t:rie as in the case
thain
ess, if the forces are
tensions
c acts pr.
(2)
ye.. Consider now a third ease, that iS when the rod cross
Et
etio is subjected to the action of two forces directed so
n
e if to cut the rod (rig.119 ). In this case, in the rod
l
ere originate shearing stresses, 1? e. the inter-J..1 forces
eh resist the shearing of the rod. These shearing forces,
-ndgsitress, applied to a unit of rod cross sectional
are es
sheari
per eq.= (kwigr?, ),
2 measur-
au
Iglated by the Greek letter ''At) and are
Irea
kr
;
?? (3)
CTea ......4*.. .....
r-1 ?-7 't -.!:.: Q ''' ? a ..
r
------4 ,.
:.--....t...,?
, ,z-,:- ,,,,T,
.r.-P-.'. with.
,,-....
Part, cases of rod bending,
The methods of
to the above cases of application of mfoarycet:
will varY .
; 1
la addition
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cEilcuist:ne7i:se 0
.11 s.?,
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_
?
? 187 ?
accordingly, bu t the nature of the stresses inside the part
remains always the some, that is, either the normal stresses
of tension or compression (6'), or the tangentilll stresses
of shearing cr),
three stresses.
1 1
1 4
Pcs I Pot'?L14.
4
--,,,
? 119
?i.118. -Compressing a rod Fifg.. - Shearing a rod
Pah. kg
SI
, 111 1)Pcompr. 2)5s Ir
?-iy-- ( -1M2..) 1)Pss. 2) ',-, - -t--4---2-)
il? cam . .1 n
ii. J.2:_c_al cu 1 s ti-ore 1 d s
con:ilid it eenredealthcualt s
atuinga the strength of welded joints, it is
resu of welding the -base metal becomes
weaknened, irrespective of t
t steel
he fact whether the workpieces
g welded are made of hardened or sof
bei .
study of welded
SPaciall7 performed tests as we e.s the
ll
--9-1---"en which haw. .failed for some reason show that, when a
fl
:ield has beenproperly deposited, the workpiece breaka not
..?along the welded joint proper, se the weld, in the
but clo to
'To ? heatr'affeeted zone. For this reason, the calculation of the
strength of a workplece is based not upon the strength of the
Sanitized Cowpeyld Approveditself for
upon t? he strength of the weakened sone of
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001300300001-2
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or, more
combinations of these
e
4_117:7=777?:
1 I- ? 2.
-
1,-i-r 1)
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t
-188-
near the 'gel&
The ratIoq of material weakening due to welding is not
and is normally accepted in accordance with weld
?
quality, the. nature of the welding process being used and
c?the7? fat-tors. As a rule, this ratio is e4ual to from o.7 tc0.9.
The. type of weld has a relatively .m4111 influen:-.e upon
weld strength.
SO020 examples of calculating weld strength are given ),e-
1. It is required to rind the value of tensicn force l
whi ch c:in be vrithstc,,od t',..3 V. stcel strip v:elded of two pieces
Fig.120); thikness of strip fer- -ik- mea, -width b .? 50 un,
Ill tituate strength cp,- 70 k&/ r..uf " , , safety factor E ? 2.5,
-. /..
ntif, of weakening due to welding k 12 0..75.
Strip sectional area is F .. b. 67'and F -
, 50.4 ? 200 curt2.
tzl
Example Nool
The all,nrat-le stress for the portion of the atrip weaken-
C-4 k
,
ed due to welding is R s' I-17--
'od kis ..,700:75 a 21 kg/11"24 tut
R.
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Approved for RelePa:e22101.4/207/0.6..4:1;11c.":
'4-, W:ience the tension force la P ? s
. -RDP80-00247A001300306061-2 ---.'
of length 1)1 of
el
? ,
1
g; and
1
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f
A?
117.
- 189 ?
sileld used to connect two steel sheets (Fig.121); thickness
5mia, - 60 kg/mm2, safety factor n 3; ratio of
reekening due to welding k - 0.8; and a tension force applied
a the sheets P '!.. 8,000 kg.
?
.?.Rz ....) / k 60.0.8
4..,
? ..--11--- - ? - 16 kg/A=2;
3 ' -
? -7-- I L.. whence P ? . . 5()Q mm2, but
? P 8000
. . Rz 16
. F ? b.ir..t): $ whence b.1 ? -7:- ? -5#-- ? 100 ram
10
0.
,
Z??????,-
j'
p
Declassified
Pi121. - Example No.2
Consequently, bi is the required weld length atich is
gaal 1 er than the sheet width b 240 Do. This means that the
two sheets may be welded by en interrupted weld having a to-
T
jai' inintzum length bi - 100 mm.
L. Nelda subjected to compre stresses are
ssing calculated
i
1
: ?
1.
?
1. In the practice of welded-structure designing and repair-
,v.,:.
U in a similar way.
in'awb-i- the workpieceo etre subjected to gest stresses, joints
r.
Fr ?on the weld is subjected to tensile stresses should
4,
avoided?
p because the weld, when under tension, does not
in Part - Sanitized Copy A-pp'airotvhedpfloareRteilecasfelo2w018411: ill
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ruptured almost instanteneous-
0247A0013003000
1 ',..nm welds subjected
01-2 _&?-7-7-7
? be
I. neld
lYt ELA n Vvw4 +41A. materii0
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?.190.?
?:-_,E.e4-ting because here, plastic flow takes place. For? this
in designing or repairing an aircraft part it is alwa,-,-s
to communi cafe stresses thrOugh welds az,1?-j ecteito
? stresses that is flank welds); or ttirough
. .
. ?
that: is tangential welds) subjected simultaneously to
and tensile stresSes,
Like it the cage of tensile *stress*, the calculation
- _
:r ellearing stresaes is made not for the 'weld proper but fcr
miacer!lal weakened due to welding. The area of shnaring
--.alc-ulated by multiplying the weld length .1-y tre thikt?.ss
- being:
tne thinne-r of* the two piecelFrivelded. This can be
?eri from the example below.
1
??
.3.. It :is required, to, calculate the allowable value of ?
P? Whi.oh?can be withstood by the weldment .shown in Fig.
If' G-1.- 70 kg/0312; safety factor n 2.5; ratio of
and an allowal,le
ter'191 weakening due to welding k 0.75,
-?11eAring stress Rah.I OA Run*
? The area of shearing is F ?
ry')t: .the weld area.
--- -------
- 21
2
-Rnu - 0.8 . 21 16,8 kilugli
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?
2
cfn
but no S2 . b and
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- ? .8. ? ? .91.. ? ? 110
_ c. b 6.50.... ? 300Az
F. 16-.8 . 300 - 5050 kg
Like in the previous examples,. the Weakest zone of the
weldment is considered .the .zone. of annealing caused by the ..
? welding heat In Fig. 122 this. is the zone of. the thihner?.ele-
.ment (section a 7 a)- where a .rupture is more .likely to occur.
Below 1 is _another. example, in which the .direction of force
application does not coincide vrith .the weld direction.
It is required to calculate. the value of .the force P.
which . can be withstood by a. strip of the size shown in . Fig. 120
(Example .No.2) hit welded with.a diagonal seam as shown In
.
Fig.. 123(a).
? .!
E.123.
such casee it is the general rule to take the weld
length as equal to the length of the projection of the weld
on a line parallel to the direction of force application,
that is in Fig.. 123(a) the weld length is not 1, but 11. The
4ctual value of 11 can be found by plotting the welded parts
ffl. on1.
Faze. or by trigonometric calcula-
;.1
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, -
1
110
tit,114,
- 192 -
The weld total length 1 inkz- ; 1 - sin 30,
Sin 30 ? 0.5; 1 ? 52-- ? 100 mm
0.5
The projection of the weld length 11 - ;
tg 304 ? 0.58 (as found from a table);
50
11 -------- u. 86 mm
0.58
4rea of shearing fish. ? 11 ? C.) ;
Fsb., 86. 4 3144 mm2
Using the data accepted for the previous examples, and
Renitming that 70kg/me.12, the stresses are,
Rten.t 21 kg/mm2 and Rah. s 16.8 .kg/mm2
? ? Yoh.e.Rgh. ? 344 . 16.8 ? 5450 kg
Comparing this result with that obtained in example
No.1, it can be seen that the same strips when welded by a
diagonal weld tExample No. 4, Fig. 123 (a)) can communicate
I
54 force of 5450 kg, instead of 4200 kg, that is, an increase
IOf 50 per cent is obtained.
1 The closerthe direction of the weld to the direction
Ic't the force applied, the greater the force which can be
communicated by the weld, because in this ease pure shearing
1 tresses will be met with; in example No.4, however, a tensile
6 tr e s s is else present, although it was neglected in the cal-
culation.
ill
es Nor, let us attempt to evaluate the error which has been
'4%de due to the accepted approximations and as a result of i
"Electing the tensile stress. To do so, first calculate the
? :, .7,:,
? :,-?-:;.:, -:,-:-
'4U.Aiti stresses tio4eh originate if the aeldment is subjected
)eclassified in Part - Sanitized Copy Approved lor-Rele"as-e 62405?14/0kg (as found
8DP8hcOv-nen);A7L nn 'W-Inont-v-In.,
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2 8
51 61 1.1 0
-
- 193 -
Proceed in accordance with the general practice adopted
In making calculations. After the sample Jo cut along the
weld, let us take away its right-hand part and shift the force
P along the direction of Ito application up to the joint
itself (Fig.123,b). In accordance viith the loo of mechanic?.
force P can be reoolved into trio component forces. P2 acting
along the joint and Pi acting across the joint. The first
force develops shearing stresses and the second e- tensile
stresses.
The values of Pi and? P2 can be found by plotting to a
scale, or by trigonometric calculations.
Pi ? P vin; 30.; sin 30? 0.5;
5450 . 05 ? 2725 kg;
p2 - loces1 ; Cos 30? ? 0.85;
p2 ? 5450. 0.87 ? 4720 kg
F IS? ; F- 100 4- 400 mm2;
_Qr.. kd=2,
cc:- -4722-- - 11.8 kg/ma2
Thus, we find that in the same place, namely at the point
A, two stresses act simultaneously, i.e. the tensile streos
6.9 k5/mm2 and the shearing stress crs 11.8 kg/Mm2.
The summing up of the stresses acting in the same place
? may be performed in accordance with various theories of the
strength of. materials.
In our case the 'total stress '
may be found from the
formula ft
11
2 -
GC
a -
?
5.0 t (3. 11.82) ? 21.6 kg/mm2
approximate calcul?ation we,: a:cepted Ron - 21 kg/rom r
_4...+ 4n5 lt idgree7-4 -
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-194-
21.6-21
- 3 per cent
1110 error in calculation bac no practical importance;
eensequently, the diagonal welds may be calculated in accor6.
dance With the simplified formula, that is, without taking
. :
Into consideration the tensile strecaee, and by assuming
that .the weld length is equal to its projection upon the line
of direction of the actisn force.
calculations in repairs
In making calculations, especially when it is necessary
to check whether a part has been properly repaired, and when
the value of the force acting upon this part is not known,
the accepted procedure is as follows. First, a control calcu-
lation of the welds made on the part in question is made, and
*the value of the force which can be communicated by the un,..
Id--,ogaA part is found; then a control caloulation is made or
? the dimensioni of the welds for the part being repaired are
calculated.
In making such calculations special attention should he .
. Paid to do nature of the loads acting upon the repaired part,
especially if separate rod members are subjected to compression,
-rio illustrate this, let us take a wooden ruler 250 to
300 umi long and compress it with the fingero as shown in
Fig.124. Until .a definite value of the acting force is exerted,.
.thsIraler will be compress& but will not be bent. Now let us
try to comprese, with the same forqe,41 a sesond ruler of am
equal cross eoction but 600 to 800 mm long (Fig,125), This
? -ruler will fellto withstand the force, will be bent and may
even be broken.
..177
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it's?- ?
Fi .124.: Faample Fig.125.
The copression stress rJ . ? : in both cases is equal.
. - ? .
. .
because' the cross-sectional' areas and the acting forces are
equal. Vevertheiess, .for leng rods there is a danger of the
iso -called longitudinal bending which occurs when the compres
sing force is increased f0.-3 a certain critical value Per. . For
? this reaeon the calulation of long rods for 'column action
(bending) is made ac,:ording.to special formulae.
,21-41;..211
. . ?
df Tpyfa 26-.23
AMP ?
_(fciF446.
L=260
1=36
024i,
Fig. 126!
1) Pipe 26X23k 2).2rated s. 80100 kg
.3) ca. 120t 10 kg/mm2; 4) Fmean 4?11c;
. .
5. It is required to find the value of the safety factor --f
possessed by the repaired strut shown in Fig. 126,
if Rrated
s
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alf""
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?
?
-?196
g. he number of welds subjected to
26-23
The thickress of the pipe will is
weld length should be taken the projection of
'Shearing m
? d6 mm: For
the Weld full-
length 1- in the direction of the. acting Three that is. the..
. value .11:- 36.mm.
The total area of..shearing F= . 36.1.5 -216 mm2
The shearing :stress Is V- 'Prated.: ?. _?200 _: 37 kg/infl=
?
134 ? 216-
? F-
-After heat-trearment thealaterial of thelipe :obtained
an ultimate tensile strength of 120 is. 10 kg/mm
2
-6
.The ratio 'ofweakening due to welding is taken as k a.0.71
srlt?; .R8h 0.8 'Rten
?Consequently,. Rah.. .0.8 .
? 10
?cj. 110 - 61.5
kg/mm4
'The safety. factor Is then
Rab - 61,6'
m 1.67, or 67 per Cent,
? ? 37' -
Since the strut being repaired has a'considerable length,
in addition to the Compression check,it should also. he 'check-
ed for 'column action, and the value of the Critical force
Pere' should be found (i.e. the force under 'which the rod loses
_J
stability and begins to be bent when compressed).
. _
tion is made by the formula 'Per.
section area of' the tube;'
Jprz t
fv,utlq
Cr. 4
? j(-T-), where
f - is a factor depending upon the ration
of
The Calc!.11a-
Where F is the cross-
of upon the method
securing of the tube ends and other factors; this ratio may
either be calculated or found from special diagrams given in
designer's handbooks.
.1 la the radius of gyration which depends upon the dimensions
of tube section; it can'allinbe calculated or found from
Imean S6111;
J
tables.
El 3.14
/*I eXAM?le a
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.1
Ed
dmean a
g.
.- 197
--_23
72
26 ? 3
2
24.5 mm
1.5 mm
F - 3.14 . 24.5 . 1.5 - 115 am
For a 23 x 26 tubes 1.. 8.6 mm
For
-r
260
... 30.2, the value of 502..
as found on a diagram
is 79 kg/II2
Consequently, the erltical.stress for this tube, per'
p cr r-er p und p 79 . 115 - 9100 kg;
cr
.the safety factor being n1
Per
-Prated
9100
--------- 1.14, or
8000
14 per cent.
Thus we have found that, after the repairs have been made,
the safety factor for celemn action (or longitudinal bending)
of this rod is considerably lower than the safety factor for
compression.
? The above examples and eome of the fundamentals of weld
strength calculation hare been given' here in a most eleeentary
form; however, even euch approximate ealculations are of groat
assistanee.in evaluating the possibilities of the chosen me-
thod of repair of-streeeed structural elements. A qualified
airforce welding foreman is expected. to understand and use
these fundamentals. Especially is this true in regard to the
technicians who are directly in charge of aircraft repairs.
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,
LIE
- 198
CHAPTER XIV
SAPETi kEASURES IN WELOING
.All welding operations should be performed with strict.
cibaertrance of labour protection and safety regulation reeuire-
ments. When these rules are adhered to, the electric-arc and
oxyLaeetylene processes are not dangerous or harmful to the
welder's health. For this reason, only those who have thorough-
ly mastered welding equipment andafety first rules may be
allowed to perform welding.
The drops and spattering of the molten metal may be the
cause 617 a fire or of burns suffered by the welder. Scattered
to a considerable range, drops of molten metal can set inflam-
mable mate,rials on fire, this danger -being further aggravated
by the fact that the fire may break out several hours after
the completiontf welding. This is the reason why the floors
and partitiona of welding ehope should be made of non-comtus-
title materials. Accumulation of inflammable materials in weld7
ing shops and in the vicinity Of welding areas should not be
tolerated.
'When working close to wooden structures, protect the wooden
elements and other parts made of inflammable materials ty
sheets of asbestos moistened with water, or by metal sheets.
To protect himself against burns, the welder should wear
a jacket, trousers and gloYes made of dense tarpaulin; a leather
*Troll is also desirable. The trousers should be long enough
..to be worn over the boots and should cover the latter. The
J4cket should not be tucked into the trousers, and it pockets
Should. be always closes with flaps. The foot-gear should
closely fit the welder's feet and be laced up The welder's
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_
A
-199-
head should be (loitered with a -brimleie cap, .
During welding, the air becomes polluted With dust,
gases and vapours which are a result of the burning of oil,
paint, dirt, electrode metal, filler material, fluxes and the
workpiece metal.
The quantity of noxious gases increase When dirty, paint.
ed or greased articles are being welded. The dust and gaaes
originated during welding are harmful to the human organiem.
Especially harmful are the duet and gases produced in the
process of. welding alloys containing lead and copper.
? To reduce the harmful influence of dust and gases upon
the welderidorganium, the welding shops should be provided
with adequate ventilation facilities.
The accumulation of gases may also become a cause of
explosions and fires.
. In this connection, an especially high degree of care
should be exercised in the repair of aircraft gasoline and
kerosene tanks when welding is used. As a result of heating
of the metal during welding, even the smallest quantities of
gasoline or keroseneleft produce vapours which may cause an
explosion.
. For this reason, prior to welding, the tanks should be
thoroughly washed until all the remaining inflammable liquid
-is fully removed, as instructed above. It is also recommended
to'blow the tanks off with air during the welding.
To reduce fire hazards, electric-arc and oxy-acetylene
welding equiPment should not be accommodated in the same
premises, and, more so, should they not be used simultaneously.
?AT
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NO A DI SSEB
?...44.* Safety Measures in electric-arc weldin 50X1
The main faCtors producing harmful effect upon the human
'organism during 'electrio-are gelding may he the arc radiation,
electric current, and dust produced. by the aro.
The vielding'arc eradiates. visible light rays and invi-
sible infrared and ultraviolet rays.
The visible light rays .cause injury to the iris and re-
-Ulla Of the human eye. These injuries occur due to the fact
that -the brightness of the welding arc la several thousand
'tides greater .than the brightness which can be endured by
unprotected eyes..
Ihe?short tie action of visible arc rays is to cause
temporary .blindness; their-prolonged action upon unprotected
eyes results' in injuries to the retina and impair keenness
of eyesight.
? The .prolonged. action of infrared rays upon unprotected
human eyes may result in dimming of the crystalline eye lens
-
? .1*-4
.,!..tAt.
?
and in reduction of keenness of eyesight.
The ultraviolet rays cause reddening of the skin and its
pigmentation (the so called electric-arc tanning). As a result
of prolonged ultraviolet ray exposure, painful burns of the
skin may be experienced.
To protect the welder's eyes against electric-arc rayc,
??protective glasses of a dark colour should be used; these
glasses are :fitted in welder's helmets, masks or shields.
.Tha shield, helmet or task aro designed to protect the
._ welder's .faes 'against the harmful influence of elentrio.ere
'rays, so yell as against spatter of notal.
. ? t
The USSR .1114119t7
REzaIG13:
fDaiest_suErffes TVO coloured glasses of
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? .
? NO F0I3EIG
E. i
-2
?
No.1 - the darkest glass used for welding at currents 050X1
?
over 350 amperes;?
No.2? medium-dark glass used for currents of 100 to 350 ?
amperes'
3 - for currents_ up to 100 amperes.
TheTI4C glasses fully absorb inviSible arc rays and
Li
,duce the. brightness of Visible rays.
To protect the TW C *glSases against spattered metal they
are covered, on.. the outside., .by ? Common .white? glasses. As the ?
atter become dirty, they are wiped clean or replaCed..
?
To ? protect ...other personnel? working in the vicinity. or
....? ? .
passing through the -weldinp,.. area:, 'portable: screens made of ?
, ? ? .
? ply;-wood ,or thin . boards Should. be.used.??The screens are to be
psinted. black or *gray, and are arranged *around the area in
? Whiph..the faec.tric-arc-:. welding ia performed.
. ,
It ?is .8d:disable to plaue.warning in the 'vicinity of weld-
ing area, -where they ..can ? be: well .seenti. these warnings are.
:4.
"DO NOT LOOK .AT TRE 11.7PCTRIC ? .ARC", "GUARD. YOUR t;YS ?AGAINST?
THE' ELEC.TRIC ARC",' etc*.
To reduce the 'harmful action 'of eleotricarc_rays, the
?? walls of the welding shop should be painted in dark. dull ca.-
lours,;
.1.31eCtric current on -passing through the human :body may .
? Clause harmful consequences, and, in some instances, even 'death: ?
? For thio reason. the welder is required to 'closely watch the.
condition of the welding. equipment and on. no account to. :corn-
ence welding until he is absolutely sure that the work is
safe.
? U*4
welder should 'check the
Prior to commencing work, the
I condition of thnesiss.ovItT " welder
lrfril,c,
1 QW1.1.4
on the cableo. If cables? with
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- ? -:
NO FOREIG/
1 I
r
- 202 -
50X1
tIle defect himself, or should report it to Ms superiors. On
no account should angle iron, pipes or other pieces of metal
be used as current conductors.
Before starting work, the welder is required to reliably
ground the welding apparatus housing. Special conductors
should be used ;to ground the apparatus, and no machine or
structural elements may be used for this purpose.
? The electric cables connecting the welding apparatus
?to the control board and to the workpiece should be well
insulated and protected against the action of hifh tempera-
tures and against mechanical damage. The knife-switches,
awitchesi end fuses should be protected by hoods or be in en-
closures.
? In the course of welding, regularly check the condition
of the cable insulation. Do not touch the current-carrying
parts with the bare hand when the supply switch is not yet
switched off.
? klig.127,. -
The electrode-holder grip should be securely insulated.
A circular. shield (Fig.127) protecting the welder is hand
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I WO FORETGN
/
? 2C
on the electrode-holder grip. The electrode-holder grip may
50X1
be made of fiber9 presebtl,ard, a moulded plastics or of hare
wood.
45? surf t ..it_Lojtice_tykne welg
The specific requirements of safety measures in oxy-ace.:-
tylene welding are connected with the uee of acetylene and
_oxygen, as well us with the design features of gas welding
equipment.
It has already printed out that even a small content
of acetylene in the ar produces an explosive sixture. There-
fore, if there is a strong smell of acetylene in the welding
room,, work should be discontinued at once, the premises thorough,'
ly ventilated and the ca,.;ises of gas leak eliminated.
when operating the rBB-1.25 and ecord generators, it
should be borne in mind that this equipment is designed for
use In the open. For temporary erection work, these generators
may be temporarily insta7,1ed in living-house premises or work-
shops, provided the prewl'ses are well ventilated and have a
minimum volume of 300 v2, 111
Gas generators may on no account be operated in premises
where substances producing explosive mixtures with acetylene
are present (for instance, in boiler rooms and close to the
air-intake ducts of air-compressors and ventilating fans).
Gee generators should be installed at least 10 meters from
.the place of welding or from any other source of open flame
or intensively heated equipment, etc.
'.Prior to commencing generator operation, check the water
level in the water seal. Such checks should be made at least
three times per working shift, as well as after each backfire,
adding water whenever resiairs0,c; E T
NO.
FOREIGN DISSEM
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! NO FOREIGN
Wasan
- 204
Or?I no account. should, the safety diaphragms of the if4W-25
generator water seal and l'iqrling be replaced by fibre, rubber,
wooden or other gaskets, or by plugs,
-Undeoize granulations of carbide should not be used to
charge the generator; the uee of carbide Just is extremely
langerous sine it inevitably distrubs normal generator ope-
tion andlmay cause an explosion resulting in accidents. For
- this reason, prior to being charged into the generator, car-
.bide should be screened.
Do not overcharge the generator basket with carbide.
: Carefully Watch that there are no gas leaks from cracks,
-plugs and other joints. If a leaky plug or cock is detected,
tighten it up. Should a more serious gas leak occ"ur (for in-
stance, through a weld or a threaded joint), first exhaust
the remainder of the carbide charge, then wash and inspect
_
the generator, and only after this proceed with elimination
of leaks, using tools which produce no sparks (brass or alum4-
? niUm tools). ?
Prior to igniting the torch Lor cutter), blow off the
--water seal and hoses with acetylene, to remove the air in them.
_ Do not attempt to obtain a greater than rated capacity
from a generator, because this mayresult in acetylene over-
heating.
Prior to charging the generator retort, make sure that
the chamber is filler with water.
? On' ne account open a retofthich contains carbide that
has not yet decompoeed. Should there arise a need to take
the basket out with live carbide in cm of an insufficient
supply of feed water), this may be done only after the generator
. retort has been allowed to cool off during a minimum period
, E T
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Aoolmorinhnni
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own.
To clean the aencrator chamber of slime, use brass scrapers.
No steel tools should be used for this purpose.
50X1
? when working in b. cold room cr in the open, in winter,
see that water in the generator housing and in the water seal
'does not freeze; to prevent water from freezing, drain water
in anticipation or e lergetime idle period.
To prevent the water seal from freezing, it is recoMmerel-
ed to. till it with a 15-per cent solution of common salt.
Should water.freeeirg occur in the generator or water
.6l. warm them only by means of hot water or steam., without
ethe use of 'n open flame (torches, heated metal, etc.).
eDo net chip ice out of the generator. To remove ice,
the generator should be brought into a warm room.
Oxygen t.en coming in contact with grease or oil sets them
on fire; Metal in an atmosphere el* oxygen begins to turn, which
eae. imeiediately.:eo.lse a cylir:ler expleeien. For this reason,
'there. should. !ot Le elreh the slightest signs of grease or oil
i ?the..eylinder .,ralve, its thread, on .the surface of the cylind-
leA
4
er proper, on the oxygen pressure relucer or hoses.
Acetyleee gerenato7a b..111 vis-welding equipment sheuld
-Icept:&lean. ::.arAd tidy. .2,..taxmllatioh of pediments .containing
eearbide.earticles inside the generator may result in aczemu-
lation of ace..tylen. When air eriters the generator, the ace-
talehe thus aacumulated may cause an explosion.
:Water sOuldlot be used to extinguiah a fire in a gene-
-raor. The fire shOuLd be smothered with sand, or ter means of '
a turpaulin, or a fire-extinguisher should he used.
The hiAndling of177::11
1::srs dematds special care.
Careittsn s aa
sosy result Ln a cxlinder explosion, normally in-
10 FOREIGN DISSEV
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. . ,. -,de,z - .y,,.1.1f1._-__e.r.,..-- . ? _ --,..i ? -
S E c
I . ' ?- . NO FOREIGT
t
? ? 205
. .
?rol yri rig large-- thcale destruction ? ar.4. 'damage... ? ? 50X1
.c usiona of Oxygen cylinders may be caused by,
I.. 'Falling,. shaking - and .-jolting Of a cylinder. ..In .suCh
cates a *sharp .increase in ..the stresses On the.-Cylir.Ider body.
.o.:?-cs,..1.re,.?and: the cylinder :may be ruptured?lf the metal of tie....
iy possesses low irapaet ductility or is badly rasted.
Cylinder pollution by grease or. Oil. When grease or oil
1:nside th.8 cylinder, :they are. rapidly, oxidized by compree;;-
se,1 o;ygen, this'.process being accompanied by. heat discharv..:
3 a result of temperate rise, :the oil or grease are igiiite.d,
the oxygen fat4litating and intensifying the hiarning. This
cawl?-1:ii?a*:',ressure riae-?insi tylinder and may result in a
?=y1i.nder explosion... ?
.
..The following rules -should 'be strictly: ad.hered to when*
. .
?ndling oxygen ,....ylinderm,
- I. Do not subjested cylinders o shocks or jolting.
2. To transport cylinders over short distanceo, use
rows or carriages.
Inside wlrking premises cylinders may be moved by careful?
turning thein On the shoe edge (Pig. 128). On no account should
e.linders be carried in the hands.
3. If a cylinder is being used in a lying position, it
eiwuld so be arranged that the valve at the top is somewhat
? ul
11
Ui
i'....k.gher than the ?shoe (Fig. '129).
Li.. If a cjlinder is being used in a vertical position,
;should be secured to the wall by means of a chain or clamp*
to p'vent it from falling,
5.. One cylinder only should be stored at the Welder's
?
. PoNe .16 a sa.uirc7 of fire as
. . - S.11 "C .R
- E. Do not Piaca V411.?"lietifSSE ?
IS ? ..
J I. tx
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??
- NO FOREIGT
L. !
I
1 1
t,
a heating system.
Fig. 128. - Moving 91 cylinder by turn i!
Fig. 129. - Arranging a cylinder in lying position
Fig.130. -
7. See that oil and grease are not allowed to get on the
SECREZ
1 oylinder and its valz
ePOREIGN DISSEDI
v,
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5-16-FORiror
-
-20
1
1,1
8. Do not stand oppo.Ate the discharge outlet when
Ing off the cylinder valve (Fig. 130).
9 In cases of freezing, cylinders should be warmed by
Lot water only.
10. Do not use up all oxygen contained in the cylinder;
discontinue work as soon as the oxygen pressure inside the
cylinder drops to 5 ?kg/mm2 g. p.
Carefully' protect oxygen pressure reducers, hoses and
torches against contact with oil.
Should the reducer become frozen during work at sub-zerc
temperatures in the open, it should not be warmed I-5, torch
flame or by open fire. Wrap the reducer in a clean rag and
?our hot water over it.
?
When handling acetylene cylinders, 'observe the rules given
above in connection with oxygen cylinders. In addition, the
following rules should be adhered to=
? 1. Do not subject cylinders to violentolts end shocks,
to prevent the porous mass from being packed down and to
avoid cavity formation.
2. Do not subject cylinders to considerable heating
(over 30?0), since this results in decrease in acetylene
solubility in acetone, with subsequent rise in acetylene
pressure.
3. When working.in the open, cover acetylene cylinders
with a tarpaulin wetted with water, to protect them against
? heating by sun rays.
v_L
4. Contrary' to oxygen ealindere, acetylene cylinders
during welding should be positioned only vertically; if a
1.1LfiljiVLV cylinder is laid down,srin rtylene may occur.
NO FOREIGN DISSEM
tr-R'
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?
'
NO FOREIGN
-
Vt Chapter II. Types of Welded Joints and Kinds of Welds . .11
Types of Welded joints 11
Kinds of welds 15
ChapterIII. Gases for Oxy-Acetylene Welding . . 17
?5. Oxygen 17
?6. Acetylene . 18
Chapter
All
- 209
CONTENTS
50X1
1242
General Information on Welding of Metals 1
?1. Welding of metels
?2. Xinds of welding .
ChapterIV. Oxy-Acetylene Welding Equipment .. 21
?7. Acetylene generators 21
?
?8. Cylinders, valves and reducers z;4 '
Welding torches and operators tools 56
Chapter v. Oxy-Acetylene Techniques and Practices . . . 59
00. Gas flame, and practical methods of
.
operating the torch 59
?11. Fluxes and filler metal 64
? ?12. Techniques and methods of gas welding 67
Chapter /T. Electric Arc Welding Equipment
03. Welding generators . .. 75
114. Welding transformers 81
?15. nC-100 welding unit, and w.slderic tools 84
Chapter -VII. Manual Electrio-Arc Welding 93
06. Electrodes and coatirge 93'
07. Techniques and working conditions of elect-
rio-arc welding
Chapter VIII. Techniques of Welding Steele Used in Air-
craft Construction 109
o? ? 118. Preparinglpartt for welding ? ? . A
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19:?Oxy7acetylete welding of stainless
:chromiUmnickol :Of:eel! . .
: ... ?
?20. Oxy..41010.ens welding of ebinWiui-
maybdentith ateel:and:ChrOmanoil
steels .(chrimito-pilicon-thangspese
? ? . ? . 115. ,
i21, ,Bleqtrio.arc welding Of Grade I and
, .
.9,1T Stainless steels' ? ? . ?? ? ? 116 ,
Electric-arc Welding of Grade 10A,
261.9: 12 1-1,4steels : and . ObrOmansi 1
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, 113
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Chapter IX. TeehniqueS of Welding Aluminium and -Mali.
nesium Alloys
?ChapferX.--
- ?
?
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Oxyacetylene welding of alUminium:
and ifs alloys
-.Mee trio-4re _welding
land its alloys, .
?25.Oxyacetylene Weldin
. .
alloys..
? ? ?
IlepairO of Aircraft Parte
i26, ':Preparing .the parte
welding
. .
f
??? ? ?."
of. magnesium
by Welding . .
for repairs by
Welding proqess . . .
Steel sheet and tubular?
? 1271 :Selection of
la.- Welding of
element! ,
?29. geldingof
Repairs. of
?31.
cracks .
0, ? ? ? : ? ?
?
tubular structures .
?
Elimination of ttrese- coneentro-
?
? tion ?atvriniurtmirs by Welding
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. 118
. .122.
126
. 129
. 131
134
142 -.
144
152
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32.. Straightening of steel Ifts . 156
ihtipter XL Repairs of Aircraft Petrol Tanks by
Welding . ? ? ? 159
Ci33. ?rowing the tanks for repairs . . .
4
.434..Welding of pin holce on.1-.cracks,
'Repairc of tank 'bottom platea arid
- . elimination of leaks .on'welded-roUn'd
- rivets . . .
Repairs of tank fittings.... . .
'437? Pe4.) ire of tank shell ? ,
???
. . ? ?.
Chapter ?XIT. A!fec.ts of%WelJs and Their rlimination .
A38. Weld Oitnnel defects
39. lield internal defects .
O. Methods of weld control
Fundamentals.of:CalcUlatin
.1.uaiAen
?41. General information on stresses
in welds. .... . .
Calculation of welds . ? . .. .
;43. Calculation of equal etren th co..3
control calculationc in ?reraircl .
.. . ,
..?45. Safety measures in Oly-acetylcne
welding .
S E T
140. 'V.OREIO. DIS-$Em
. .
174
178
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4(41.1
_ .
XIV; SafetCt
y MeaStir03 in Welding ... .. .
44. Safety- measures An electric-arc.
welding 2q0
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