THE WRITING OF REPORTS

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP79S01046A000400090001-8
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 142
• Document Creation Date: November 9, 2016
• Document Release Date: July 14, 1999
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: August 31, 1956
• Content Type: REPORT

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?SteMr? N? 1203
RESEARCH AID
THE WRITING OF REPORTS
CIA/RR RA-8
31 August 1956
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND REPORTS
-IFE@RIET-
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WARNING
This material contains information affecting
the National Defense of the United States
within the meaning of the espionage laws,
Title 18, USC, Secs. 793 and 794, the trans-
mission or revelation of which in any manner
to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
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RESEARCH AID
THE WRITING OF REPORTS
CIA/RR RA-8
(ORB Project 00.1052)
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
Office of Research and Reports
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FOREWORD
This research aid is designed to assist analysts of the Economic
Research Area of the Office of Research and Reports (ORR) in the
writing of intelligence reports. Only those matters pertinent to the
organization and actual writing of reports and to the preparation by
the analyst of the final draft copy are covered. The principles and
methods of research, though implied, are not discussed.
In stressing the organization and actual writing of reports, this
research aid does not purport to be a complete style manual on rhetoric,
grammar, syntax, and the mechanics of writing. Rather, it is concerned
with some of the immediate problems of writing that confront the intel-
ligence analyst and with matters that, on the basis of experience, are
judged to be the most troublesome.
Although this research aid is intended primarily to reflect the
standards which govern the writing of intelligence reports by analysts
of the Economic Research Area, those standards are applicable, with
minor exceptions, to the publications of the Geographic Research Area
and to those reports of the Economic Intelligence Committee (EIC)
published by the Coordination Area. In a general way the principles
of effective writing discussed in this research aid should be of
interest and value throughout CIA and the intelligence community as a
whole.
As a prerequisite to writing good reports, the intelligence analyst
must realize that good writing alone will not make a good report but
that a combination of sound research and good writing is necessary. He
must also realize that intelligence writing affects national security
and that no other type of writing is more serious in intent and purpose.
Intelligence writing seeks to provide a basis for planning, and the
decisions of US policymakers often hinge on its evidence, analysis, and
conclusions. The analyst himself must -inject the ingredient of intel-
ligence into what might otherwise be simply a collection of information.
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CONTENTS
Page
I.
Introduction
1
1.
Types of Reports
3
2.
Organization of Reports
5
a.
Title Page
5
b.
Foreword
5
c.
Table of Contents
6
d.
Summary
6
e.
f.
Introduction
Divisions of the Body of the Report (Headings
7
and Subheadings)
7
g.
Footnotes and Documentation
8
h.
Tables and Graphics
9
i.
Appendixes
9
II. The Working Outline
III. The Summary
IV. The Appendixes
V. Mechanics of Writing
10
14
17
19
1.
Capitalization
20
2.
Punctuation
20
3.
Abbreviations
28
4.
Signs and Symbols
30
5.
Numerals
30
6.
Dates
31
7.
Tables and Tabulations
31
8.
Footnotes and Documentation
33
9.
Foreign Words, Phrases, Names, and Terms
36
10.
Graphics
38
11.
Technical Terminology
4o
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VI. Some Writing Problems and Pitfalls
1. Style and Levels of Language
a. Style
b. Levels of Language
Page
41
42
42
42
(1) Provincialisms 44
(2) Anglicisms 44
(3) Archaisms 45
(4) Idioms 46
(5) Improprieties 47
(6) Colloquialisms 47
(7) Slang 48
(8) Vulgarisms 48
2. Objectivity 48
3. Active and Passive Voice 49
4. Sentences and Paragraphs 50
5. Compounding 54
6. Clear Modification and Reference 59
7. Common Troublemakers 61
8. Jargon and Triteness 75
Appendixes
Appendix A. Tabular Presentation 87
Appendix B. Translation and Transliteration 93
Appendix C. Source References 103
Appendix D. Editorial Checklist 123
Appendix E. Bibliographical Aids 127
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Tables
Following Page
1. Labor Productivity and Estimated Number of Wage
Earners at Boiler Plants in Slobovia, Selected
Years, '1940-50, and 1955 Plan 36
2. Production and Cost of Turtle Food in Selected Counties
of Ruritania (Excluding Cottage Production), 1938 and
1946-53
Illustrations
Page
89
Following Page
Figure 1. Sample Page Illustrating the Use of Footnotes
and Source Identifications LIncluding a Sample
Table and a Sample Tabulation7 36
Figure 2. Transliteration Table: Russian -- Other Slavic
Languages -- English (Chart) 102
Figure 3. Transliteration Table: Russian -- Miscellaneous
Foreign Languages -- English (Chart) 102
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(ORR Project 00.1052)
TBE WRITING OF REPORTS
I. Introduction.
The purpose of the reports of the Economic Research Area of the
Office of Research and Reports (ORB) is to provide finished economic
intelligence for the use of US policymakers and the intelligence
community.' Intelligence reports are used by a number of people in a
number of ways. At one extreme a report may be accepted without
question, and at the other it may be subjected to the most searching
examination. One consumer may read only the summary of the report
and base decisions upon the summary. Another consumer may study the
report in detail and use it as a basis for an extensive research
project in an allied area. In addition, a report not only may be of
immediate significance but also may stand for years as a definitive
document on its subject.
Intelligence reports, like all other research reports, gain in
effectiveness and usefulness, both immediate and eventual, if they
follow an established pattern in organization, style, and technical
practices. Certain standards of uniformity have been adopted, there-
fore, and all economic intelligence reports are expected to conform
to those standards -- insofar as the nature of the material of the
individual report will permit.
The accepted standards in the writing of economic intelligence
reports have a sound basis in editorial and publications practice.
There are other standards which are equally acceptable, but they
apply to other kinds of writing. Newspapers and newsmagazines,
for example, have developed excellent standards of reporting with-
in their media. The mission of the newspaper and the newsmagazine,
however, is different from that of the intelligence report, and
different standards govern.
The maintenance of standards in the writing of economic intel-
ligence reports is a divided responsibility. The responsibility of
the analyst is to know the standards and be guided by them in the
preparation of his report. But the analyst is a specialist in his
own field and in research methods and is not always a specialist in
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editing and publication. Editing and publication belong to the edi-
torial staff, which bears final responsibility for solving problems
in its own field in cooperation with the analyst.
The responsibility of the analyst might be more precisely defined.
in his awn mind if he examined the attitudes and procedures of the
editor. The primary objective of the editor is to assist the analyst
in the production of intelligence which maintains a high order of
accuracy and clearness. This objective governs the entire editorial
function.
The editor assumes the technical competence of the analyst in his
own field. The editor also assumes that the complexity of the analyst's
job makes possible the presence of substantive and structural error.
The editor is inclined, therefore, to scrutinize the substance and
structure of the report for weaknesses, inconsistencies, and contra-
dictions. The editor's eye is an Objective one. His point of view is
closer to that of the consumer than is the analyst's. The editor may
detect gaps which are bridged in the analyst's mind by the analyst's
intimate knowledge of the subject.
The editor is responsible first for a careful review of the substan-
tive and structural elements of the report and then for the editing of
the actual language of the report. Although this latter phase of
preparation for publication is no more important than review, it is
more time consuming and is responsible for a considerable part of
the timelag between the cutoff date and publication. The analyst, by
improving his competence in written expression and by carefully ob-
serving the accepted standards of uniformity, can reduce the time re-
quired for "mechanical" editing and thus speed the publication of the
report.
One aim of this research aid is to outline briefly what is expected
of the analyst in the written presentation of his work. The analyst
is responsible for the accuracy of the data and calculations included
in the report. He must also check the tables and graphics to insure
that titles, footnotes, and other details are.correct and up to date.
Documentation must be complete and correctly designated. The report
must follow the standard format and must be properly organized, cor-
rectly and clearly written, and consistently developed in all its
parts.
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1. Types of Reports.
The formal intelligence reports of the Economic Research Area
are of the following types: Economic Intelligence Report, Provisional
Intelligence Report, Intelligence Memorandum, and Research Aid.*
a. Economic Intelligence Report (CIA/RR).
An Economic Intelligence Report (CIA/RR) is a definitive,
comprehensive, and timely intelligence study of selected economic
aspects of a specified geographic or political area. It should deal
with all important aspects of the subject. The depth of research and
reasoning should approach that of a scholarly monograph.
* See CIA, ORE, OCh/E, Comments on the Organization and Preparation
of Economic Intelligence Reports, 4 June 1954, CONFIDENTIAL, pp. 1-3.
The Working Paper (WP) no longer exists as a category of ORE re-
ports. Three other categories of issuances are not publications in
the usual sense: the Internal Project (IP), the Miscellaneous Pro-
ject (MP), and the Current Support Memorandum (CSM). The IP is pre-
pared in direct response to internal CIA requests -- for example, ORB
contributions to the Office of National Estimates (ONE). The IP is
usually issued to the requester only, except when the subject matter
is of sufficient interest to warrant distribution to others. The MP
is usually prepared in response to requests from outside CIA. It is a
brief study or comment designed to fill a particular but limited need
and is transmitted, usually in typescript only, directly to the re-
quester. The CSM is prepared to provide timely evaluation and analysis
of current economic developments. Any one of these issuances may be
later reworked into a formal report.
This research aid does not deal with contributions by analysts of
the Economic Research Area to the National Intelligence Surveys (NIS's).
These contributions are covered adequately in the NIS Standard Instruc-
tions, gune 195g, CONFIDENTIAL (see especially "Editorial Instructions"
and Chapter I, Section 16, and Chapter VI, Sections 60 through 65).
The principles and standards of writing discussed in this research aid,
however, except for minor variations in format, layout, and general
mechanics, should help ORB analysts in the preparation of their contri-
butions to the NIS's as well as in the preparation of the issuances
mentioned above that are not publications in the usual sense.
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The RR should serve as an authoritative reference. To
guarantee accuracy in every detail, it must be written and reviewed
with special care. Detailed documentation is required, as is coordi-
nation within CIA and with other interested US Government agencies.
b. Provisional (Economic) Intelligence Report (CIA RR PR).
A Provisional (Economic) Intelligence Report (CIA/RR PR)
is a preliminary version of an Economic Intelligence Report. It may
be based on research which is, in some important respects, incomplete
but which has reached a logical stopping point and will not reach
another logical stopping point for some time. The PR is areport which
is published in recognition of the fact that _postponement of publica-
tion until all intended research is complete enough to permit an RR to
be written on the subject would not be in the best interests of the
intelligence community.
The PR may include much that is tentative and exploratory,
especially in the methodology employed. Like the RR, however, it is
a finished report, designed both to undergo careful scrutiny by
specialists and to be read on a policy level. Detailed documentation
is required, as is coordination within CIA.
c. (Economic) Intelligence Memorandum (CIA/RR IM).
An (Economic) Intelligence Memorandum (CIA/RR IM) is a
brief, timely, interpretive statement on an economic subject of
current importance. It is initiated either in response to an external
request or by an ORB analyst. Documentation and coordination are re-
quired to the extent that time permits. High standards of accuracy
and clearness must be maintained despite the timeliness of the sub-
stance and the urgency of the need.
d. (Economic Intelligence) Research Aid (CIA/RR RA).
An (Economic Intelligence) Research Aid (CIA/RR RA) is a
publication designed to-assist analysts in ORB and sometimes analysts
throughout the intelligence community in the preparation of economic
intelligence. Although substantive rather than operational or admin-
istrative in nature, the RA usually differs from other intelligence
reports in that it may not contain conclusions usable in formulating
policy affecting -national security. The format, tone, and content of
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the RA are dictated by the nature of the subject itself and by the
character of the consumer, who will normally not be a policymaker
but an intelligence analyst.
Because the RA is designed to influence and to aid economic
research and thereby the resulting intelligence, it should be as care-
fully prepared as an intelligence report. Usually the RA will present
an evaluated methodology and one or more examples demonstrating the
application and validity of the methodology.
2. Organization of Reports.
Economic intelligence reports must maintain a general uniformity
of organization if they are to fulfill tneir purpose of both immediate
and eventual usefulness. The consumer can more readily read and use
a group or a sequence of reports if all are, to a considerable extent,
uniform in structure. The structure of any one report, however, may
differ in some respects from that of any other. Different subject
matter may require different treatment.
The solution of the problem of uniformity of organization lies
in compromise. All ORB reports should follow a pattern, but the
pattern should be flexible enough to accommodate the structural re-
quirements of individual reports. With the principle of compromise
in mind, certain essential components of the general organizational
pattern can be indicated. (Some of these components will be discussed
in more detail in II, III IV, and V, below.)
a. Title Page.
The form of the title page of a report is determined by
standard editorial practice and presents to the analyst no problem
except the careful wording of the title, which' should be both defin-
itive and brief.
b. Foreword,
A foreword is required in a report when it is necessary
to convey to the reader certain information which cannot properly be
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included in the summary or in the body of the report. At times
a detailed statement of the purpose and scope of the report
is necessary to a proper evaluation and use of the material
which the report contains. A foreword may also be used to
clarify the relationship of a report to other reports on the
same or a related subject or for the introduction of a sta-
tistical report which does not lend itself to summation in the
usual way. Again, a foreword may be used to acknowledge
contributions from other offices or-agencies or to explain
security problems or any other matters relating to the report
that do not logically fall within the province of the body of
the report.
The foreword is a special device to be used only
if it serves a specific purpose. The foreword, which precedes
the table of contents: should always be brief and to the
point.
c. Table of Contents.
The table of contents: an essential part of every
report, serves a twofold purpose. It provides a semigraphic
representation of the organization and content of the report,
and it provides a key for easily locating any particular part
of the report. To be completely effective, the table of con-
tents must be more than a mere listing of the headings and sub-
headings of the report and of the corresponding page numbers.
The table of contents must have a close organic relationship
to the body of the report. If the table of contents is: as it
should be: a development of the working outline of the report
(see II, "The Working Outline," p. 10, below), it will have this
organic relationship. (See also f, below.)
d. Summary.
The summary is an end product of every good report.
The purpose of the summary is to state concisely and clearly the -
findings of the report and the significance of those findings. A
summary should be so written that the reader can learn in a few
minutes what conclusions are reached in the report and what those
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conclusions mean in terms of useful intelligence. Every report
except the very shortest should have a summary. (See III, "The
Summary," p. 14, below.)
e. Introduction.
Many reports do not need an introduction, but there
are situations in which an introduction may be valuable. For
example, a report may be improved by certain historical or
technological information which does not warrant inclusion
as a separate section of the body of the report or as an appendix.
An introduction might serve the purpose by providing this in-
formation. The introduction, like the foreword, should be used
only if it serves a specific purpose. ,The introduction should
never be a convenient catchall for odds and ends but should
be brief and should consist only of information absolutely es-
sential to the understanding of the report.
f. Divisions of the Body of the Report (Headings
and Subheadings).
The organization of the body of the report is largely
determined by the nature of the material covered. No set pattern
can be established and applied to all reports. The organization
of a plant analysis should not be the same as that of a commodity
study. Perhaps the best criteria for the organizational struc-
ture of any report are logic and precedent -- in that order of
importance. Usually an analyst may organize his material ac-
cording to the pattern followed in similar reports already pub-
lished. At times, however, the analyst may find that the pattern
does not provide for the logical juxtapositions which would make
his report more effective. In such situations the pattern must
give way to the dictates of logic.
Careful attention must be given to the structural
system used in dividing the report into headings and subhead-
ings. Such a system is designed to guide the reader through
the report -- to make clear the organizational pattern of the
material and to show the relationship of each part of the body
of the report to all other parts and to the whole.
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Not only are .the headings and subheadings in the body
of the report organizational labels and signposts for the reader,
but also they must be closely related to the table of contents
(see c, p. 6, above), which, in turn, is a development of the work-
ing outline. Headings and.subheadings in the body of the report
should follow those in the table of contents in matters of labeling,
spacing, and actual wording, and the table of contents should contain
no entry which does not have a counterpart within the body of the
report.
It is not necessary, except occasionally for clear-
ness, to use the definite, or indefinite articles (the, a, or an)
at the beginning of a heading or subheading (see II, III, and IV)
below). The wording of headings and subheadings should be clear
and fully descriptive, but an effort _should be made to make them
brief and nonrepetitious while, at the same time, avoiding "cook-
book" or "telegraphic" English.
Major headings (designated by roman numerals) of the
report are called sections; subheadings (designated by letters
of the alphabet and arabic numerals) are called subsections or para-
graphs. A report is not divided into parts (except in the casual
use of the term) unless it is made up actually of parts, as, for ex-
ample, when another office or agency contributes a separate part
to an ORR report and the part is published as such. Then the two
(or more) parts are called Part I, Part II, and so on. (For the
mechanics of representing headings and subheadings, see II, 'The
Working Outline," p. 10, below.)
g. Footnotes and Documentation.
Several methods of treating the mechanics of foot-
notea and documentation are accepted as standard in research
writing. The particular method follawed depends upon the nature,
purpose, and ultimate use of the particular piece of research
and also upon the practice accepted as standard in an organiza-
tion or institution. The practice followed in ORR reports is
based upon the assumption that footnotes and documentation serve
different purposes and should keep their separate identities;
that footnotes should be used sparingly; and that footnotes
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and documentation, essential though they are, should not inter-
fere with the reading and comprehension of the report.*
h. Tables and Graphics.
Most reports of the Economic Research Area include tabular
material, and many of them include graphic material of several kinds:
maps, cartograms, and charts. Tables and graphics should be used
whenever they serve a useful purpose. Frequently they can substitute
in part for textual material, at other times they complement the text,
and at still other times they effectively summarize the conclusions
of the report. The analyst must be sure, therefore, that contem-
plated graphics not only are of the most appropriate type but also
contribute to the significance of the report.
Aside from the obvious necessity for absolute accuracy
and clearness in tabular and graphic material, no specific require-
ments can be established. The nature of tables, maps, Charts,
photographs, and other types of illustrations will vary with the
requirements of each report, and blanket rules would be of little
value.
Tables and graphics can be presented in appendixes or
in the body of the teport depending upon whether or not they are
required to clarify the written text on a specific page. (See V,
10, p. 38, below.)
i. Appendixes.
The number and kinds of appendixes in a report will
depend upon the requirements of the report, but three appendixes
are required in most reports of the Economic Research Area --
Methodology, Gaps in Intelligence, and'Sourde References. The
* The practice of the Economic Research Area in the use of footnotes
is discussed in detail in V, 8, p. 33, below. Source identifications
are also discussed in detail in V, 8, p. 33, below, and the prepara-
tion of the Source References appendix is fully exemplified in Ap-
pendix C.
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form and content of these appendixes are fairly well standardized and
should present few major problems (see IV, "The Appendixes," p. 17,
below).
II. The Working Outline.
The importance of the outline in the preparation of reports
cannot be overstressed. The finished report is often a clear re-
flection of the care and skill exercised in the construction and
use of the outline.
The outline is a device by which the material of the report is
arranged in an orderly and logical fashion, and when it appears as a
table of contents, it is a semigraphic representation of that arrange-
ment (see I, 2, c, p. 6, above). The term working outline may properly
be used to describe the outline during all stages except the final
one, when _it becomes the table of contents. The outline is actually
the plan from which the analyst works, but it is not, during any of its
various "working" stages, a set, completed plan. It is a plan which
changes frequently as the writing of the report progresses, and at
different times during the writing process the plan serves different
purposes.
The outline in its initial form may be a broad survey of the
problem, an estimate of the job to be done. It may then -serve as a
guide to research and a key to the classification and filing of the
results of research. It may also serve as a guide to actual writing.
Finally, it will serve as a guide to the review and the revision of
the report before submittal.
With each of the functions that it performs, the outline may
change in either form or content or in both, and the flexibility
of the outline is one of its most Important aspects. The analyst
should never feel compelled to conform to the outline when there
Is a conflict between the plan and its practical application.
For example, the analyst may have planned to discuss a number of
factiirs according to a sequence which seemed logical before the
actual writing began. The outline, then, would list the factors
in that sequence. Actual disoussion of those factors in the
written text, however, might show that logic and clearness would
be better served by an entirely different sequence. In that situa-
tion the outline would be changed. The plan would change to fit
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the practical application. Such changes may occur at any time dur-
ing research and writing, and the final outline, as it appears in
the table of contents, may be very different from the original one.
The broad framework of working outlines for most GRE reports is
well established by the nature of the material to be covered.
Precedent and practice will dictate the major divisions of plant,
commodity, equipment, and raw materials studies.* Within the
broad framework, however, the detailed organization may vary with
each report, and it is in this organization that the working outline
is an essential aid.
Because the analyst is both producer and consumer of the working
outline, he may feel that the mechanical form of the outline is un-
important. This assumption might be valid if the human mind were a
perfect instrument capable of total recall, but then there would be
no need for an outline in the first place; The outline serves the
analyst as a record of his organizational planning, and it must re-
veal carefully reasoned relationships and juxtapositions long after
the individual steps of the thought processes have faded from memory.
The mechanical form of the working outline is essential to its basic
function, even though producer and consumer are the same.
The mechanics of the outline consist largely of labeling, inden-
tation, and equality and parallelism of levels. Labeling and inden-
tation are visual devices to show relationships of parts to one
another and to the whole. Equality and parallelism of levels are
necessary to the logical maintenance of the relationships established
by the visual devices.
There are no Immutable laws governing the use of labels in an out-
line, but practice has set a convenient precedent which is suggested
here. Normally, major headings are designated by roman numerals; sub-
headings of the first degree, by capital letters; of the second degree,
by arabic numerals; of the third degree, by lowercase (small) letters;
of the fourth degree, by arabic numerals in parentheses; and of the
fifth degree, by lowercase letters in parentheses. Thereafter, if one
needs to go so far, lowercase roman numerals are used. Seldom need an
outline be carried beyond the fourth or fifth degree of subdivision.
* See CIA, GRE, OCh/E, Comments on the Organization and Preparation
of Economic Intelligence Reports, 4 June 1954, CONFIDENTIAL, pp. 7-14.
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In a long report in which the subheadings under roman numerals
are few, it may be preferable to proceed from roman numerals to
arabic numerals and to omit capital letters altogether. Also in short
reports it may be preferable to proceed from arabic numerals to lower-
case letters. In very short reports, depending upon the methodology
of presentation, it may be preferable not to use headings at all.
Examples of the types of breakdown that may be used in reports are
as follows:
Long Reports Short Reports
Summary Summary Summary
1.
A.
1. a.
1. 2. b.
2. a. 2.
a. b. 3.
b. II. a.
B. 1. b.
1. 2. c.
a. a-
b. b.
c. (1)
(1) (2)
(2) (3)
2. 3.
1.
A. a.
1. b.
2. (1)
a. (2)
(1) (a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)
2.
3.
B.
1.
2.
C.
(2)
b.
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All the subheadings in the report need not be listed in the table
of contents. The details of the table of contents are purely a matter
of individual preference and editorial judgment.
The indentation of labels and subheadings needs little comment.
Indentations/ along with labels/ show relationships, and they must
be consistent. All capital-letter labels should be indented to the
same extent, all arabic-numeral labels to the same extent/ and so
on. The outline will be more effective graphically if multiple-line
headings and subheadings are blocked -- that is, if second and sub-
sequent lines are started directly beneath the beginning of the first
word of the first line of the heading or subheading.
Equality and parallelism of levels in the outline are achieved
by making certain that all headings bearing the same label, and
consequently indented to the same degree, are equal in weight and
parallel in form. A simple example will clarify this basic point.
Let us assume that the second major division of the outline is
Operational Aircraft and that the following sectional outline is
developed:
II. Operational Aircraft
A. .Combat Planes '
1. Bombers
B. Planes used as Fighters
1. MAG 27
2. GAM 72
C. Transport Planes
1. Cargo Planes
2. Passenger Planes
This fragment of outline violates both equality and parallelism.
Subheading B is not equal in weight to subheadings A and C/ nor
is it parallel in form with them. Subheading B should be reduced
to the level of Al 2, with a corresponding reduction of the present
subheadings 1 and 2 to a and b, and should read "Fighters." Then
subheading C would become B.
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To this discussion of the mechanics of the outline might be added
the caution that division into one part is impossible -- a single
heading or subheading should be avoided. For every "I" there should
be a corresponding "II," for every "A" a "B," for every "1" a "2," for
every "a" a "b," and so on. Usually an item which seems to be a log-
ical single subheading can be incorporated into the next higher level,
can be broken into two or more equal parts, or can be eliminated. Al-
though this principle may seem to be inconsequential when applied to
the mechanics of the outline, it becomes very important to the report
itself, and disregard of it may result in a serious organizational flaw.
The Summa.
The summary, as has already been stated, is an end product of every
good report. The content of the report will be evaluated and the qual-
ity judged largely on the basis of the summary. Some consumers of the
report will read only the summary.
The main purpose of the summary is to state in a few words ex-
actly what useful intelligence the report contains. A summary is not
to be confused with a precis, which is much longer than a summary and
must give a faithful account of the complete text of the original in
a somewhat shorter form, nor with an-abstract, which is usually shorter
than a summary, more _objective, and more descriptive of the organiza-
tion and structure of the report.
The writing of the summary may seem to be relatively easy -- a mere
transfer of certain sentences from the body of the report to the sum-
mary -- but actually is very difficult. Not often can sentences or
paragraphs be transferred bodily. Usually it is necessary to conduct a
sort of distillation process in which a number of sentences, paragraphs,
or sections are reduced and refined to yield a clear, concentrated re-
sult, free of evasions, omissions, and unnecessary repetitions.
The summary must be as brief as possible, as clear as possible, and
as accurate as possible. It must include every important finding of
the report, and it must not include information which does not appear
elsewhere in-the report. The effectiveness of the summary -- and,
indeed, the entire usefulness of the report -- will depend upon the
analyst's ability to achieve brevity, clearness, and accuracy and to
make sound judgments of what is absolutely essential to the summary.
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Facts and figures are essential to the summary to the extent that
they contribute to the intelligence significance of the report. The
job which the analyst faces in the preparation of a summary is the
specific one of selecting from the entire body of facts and figures in
the report those few which the consumer will find most useful. Some-
times the presentation of statistical data in the summary may be con-
densed by the insertion of a special-purpose table, a tabulation, or
a graph.
A definite pattern for a summary cannot be established, but some
specific suggestions can be offered. Usually the first paragraph of
a summary is a statement of the significance of the problem analyzed
in the report, stressing the importance of a fiscal factor, an eco-
nomic trend, an industry, a commodity, or a service to the economy of
the particular area under discussion and to the Sino-Soviet Bloc as a
whole. This statement should be brief but should establish, at least
by implication, the importance of the subject of the report.
The subsequent paragraphs in the summary should state the signifi-
cant findings of the report and should give the essential data on which
those findings are based. The reliability of the data should be qual-
ified as necessary, and the relative weights of evidence should be
clearly expressed. Whenever possible, all figures and estimates should
be given perspective by comparison with other figures. For example,
production figures for the area under discussion could be compared with
production figures for other areas within the Sino-Soviet Bloc, for
the USSR, or for the Sino-Soviet Bloc as a whole. Also, production
figures for the area under discussion -- for example, the USSR -- could
be compared with production figures for the US, for the UK, for the
US and the UK, or for any other non-Bloc country; and production fig-
ures for the Sino-Soviet Bloc as a whole could be compared with produc-
tion figures for the NATO countries or for any other grouping of non-
Bloc countries. All figures and estimates should be the most recent
available and should be clearly dated. If US production figures are
given, US firm names and proprietary information should not be used.
Statements of capabilities, vulnerabilities, and intentions are
also essential to the summary when they are a significant part of the
report. Conclusions about capabilities, vulnerabilities, and inten-
tions, however, must be as carefully refined for the summary as are
other sections of the report.
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The chronological arrangement of the elements in the summary need
not follow that of the body of the report. There must be a close
organizational relationship between the summary and the body of the
report, but priority is given in the summary to those findings which
are of greatest intelligence significance.
In some reports tlie most important findings consist of information
developed by research, and the summary is concerned primarily with the
presentation of that information. At times, however, the major sig-
nificance of the report lies in the conclusions to which the information
leads -- for example, in a report devoted to the analysis of known
conditions or readily available data. To emphasize, the importance of
the conclusions, the analyst may use the label Summary and Conclusions
instead' of Summary. In that event, the information and data contained
in the report are reviewed briefly, and the section is devoted largely
to a concise presentation of the conclusions reached in the report.
There are a few devices which analysts may find useful in the
preparation of the summary. One of these devices is the drafting of
a tentative summary and the revising of this tentative summary in the
light of further information while the writing of the report progresses.
In conjunction with an early draft of the working outline (zee II, p. 10,
above), the tentative summary of the report serves as an architectonic
device and helps to define the purpose of the report, to keep constantly
before the writer the main points of the report to be stressed, and
to provide 4 flexible framework within which the summary itself may
finally be written. Another useful device is the writing of the sum-
mary statement of findings for each major section of the report im-
mediately after the writing of that section has been completed. This
device has the advantage of immediacy of conversion, and the full
development of the finding is still fresh in mind when the summation
of the finding is made.
Any part of the summary which is prepared before the completion of
the body of the report must be reviewed and revised in the light of the
finished report. The summary, like the outline, must be flexible. It
can become firmly fixed only when the body of the report is completed
and ready for submittal:.
Once the summary has been written in what the analyst feels is its
final form, it should be read by another person, preferably one who is
not a specialist in the subject covered by the report. The analyst, un-
like the reader, is so familiar with the subject that he may be unable
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to detect gaps, apparent contradictions, and misleading connota-
tions. His mind may unconsciously bridge the gaps, supply the key
to the contradictions, and eliminate all connotations except those
which suit his purposes.
The summary must be completely understandable to all readers of
the report. The analyst is well advised to labor long over the
summary -- to make it not only possible to understand but also im-
possible to misunderstand.
IV. The Appendixes.
The three appendixes which are required in most reports of the
Economic Research Area -- Methodology, Gaps in Intelligence, and
Source References -- are given in the order named. The number of ap-
pendixes in any report -- whether these three or more -- will
vary with the subject matter and be determined by the analyst. In
making that determination the analyst should be guided by an under-
standing of the functions of appendixes. In general, an appendix has
one or more of three functions: to offer valuable supplemental infor-
mation, to substantiate data, and to provide guidance for future re-
search. For example, an appendix on technology to a report on commodity
production would normally be designed to furnish supplemental informa-
tion, and an appendix devoted to statistical analysis might be in-
tended solely to substantiate estimates. The Source References
appendix, however, usually includes both substantiation and future
research guides, and the Methodology appendix may provide supple-
mental information -- negative information, perhaps, but valuable in-
formation. The appendix should never be used as a "file-emptying"
device to drag in extraneous or irrelevant material which the analyst
may have accumulated during extensive research.
The Methodology appendix serves three functions. First, it pro-
vides for the analyst himself a device by which he may assure the
logical development of his conclusions and estimates. Working with
the knowledge that his methods and procedures must be accounted for
in detail, he is less likely to cut corners in research. Second,
this appendix offers to the reader of the report a means whereby
he may check and verify the conclusions and estimates in the report.
Third, it provides other analysts with methods of research :which may
be useful in similar or allied studies.
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Relegating the methodology to an appendix sometimes gives the
erroneous impression that it is less important than the body of
the report. If anything, the methodology is more important. One
-widely used technique of review is to make a preliminary evaluation
of a report on the basis of the summary and the methodology alone.
The summary states the major estimates and conclusions; the method-
ology tells how they were derived. To many the "how" is as im-
portant as the "what."
The Gaps in Intelligence appendix also serves several functions.
For the analyst, the preparation of a statement on gaps in intel-
ligence serves as a final check on source coverage before the draft
report is submitted. For the reader this appendix provides an
indication of what the report would have included under ideal cir-
cumstances and indicates exactly where the coverage was thin. For
other analysts this appendix provides a permanent record of the types
of intelligence required for further work and serves as a guide to
collection requirements.
Comments on the lack of information should be reserved for the
Gaps in Intelligence appendix, not written into the body of the
report. If the analyst consistently noted each gap as it arose,
his report would be primarily a complaint about too little in-
formation. A report should deal with what has been found, not
with what is still missing, and the writing should be positive
in character. Chronic noting of gaps is a common form of wordiness
that obscures rather than clarifies the positive findings.
The Source References appendix provides both a general appraisal
of the accuracy and completeness of the source materials and a de-
tailed identification of the individual sources. The evaluation
describes areas of strength and weakness and in so doing suggests
both cautions and opportunities for further exploitation. The
source references not only substantiate the statements, conclusions,
and estimates of the report but also provide valuable bibliographi-
cal material to other analysts who may work on the same subject at
a later time. (See Appendix C.)
Any additional appendixes which may be required should be ar-
ranged in the order in which they are referred to in the body of
the report. And they must be referred to -- in the running text,
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in the footnotes to the text, or in the footnotes to the tabular
material. The three required appendixes -- Methodology, Gaps in
Intelligence, and Source References -- should follow any other
appendixes. Each appendix begins on a new page, and each bears
an alphabetical label -- Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix CI
Appendix D, and so on -- which appears only on the first page of
the appendix. Material in the appendixes should be documented if
substantiation is advisable, and source identifications in appen-
dixes should follow the sequence of numbering of source identi-
fications established in the body of the report.
V. Mechanics of Writing.
The usefulness of ORB reports, as stated before, is increased
by the maintenance of uniform standards in organization, style, and
technical practices. Particularly is this true of what may be called
the "mechanical components" of the written report -- capitalization,
punctuation, abbreviations, signs and symbols, numerals, and similar
basic elements of construction. The standards themselves have been
determined by the acceptance of certain printed authorities and by
procedures and practices recognized as effective.
The primary printed authorities for ORR analysts are the United
States Government Printing Office Style Manual (known as the GPO
Style Manual), revised edition, January 19531* and Webster's New
Collegiate Dictionary (latest edition**). The GPO Style Manual is
* A convenient abridgment of this full edition has been issued
in paper covers -- an offprint of the first 20 chapters (229 pages)
together with the index.
** Ultimate authority is represented by Webster's New International
Dictionary of the English Language, second edition, unabridged, Spring-
field, Massachusetts: G. & C. Merriam Company, Publishers, 1934
(reprinted several times, with additions, through 1955). The diction-
ary may be supplemented to great profit by reference to the following:
Webster's Dictionary of Synonyms, Springfield, Massachusetts: G. & C.
Merriam Company, Publishers, 1942; Fowler, H.W.? A Dictionary of Modern
English Usage, New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1926
(reprinted, 1952); and Horwill, LW., Dictionary of Modern American
Usage, second edition, New York and London: Oxford University Press,
1944.
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the accepted guide for style and the mechanics of writing and
complements the dictionary in matters of spellingand usage.*
(See. VI, 1, p. 42, below.)
Both the primary printed authorities and the recommended books
on the writing of technical reports (see Appendix E) should be used
intelligently and not slavishly. Many times the problems of mechani-
eal components to be settled will not be questions of right _or wrong,
correct or incorrect, but rather questions of usage and consistency.
If the analyst is in doubt in the use of mechanics, it is better for
him to be consistently wrong than inconsistently right.
1. Capitalization.
All normal problems of capitalization are covered by the
GTO Style Manual (Chapter 3, "Capitalization," pp. 17-26, and
Chapter 47-7TEUe to Capitalization," pp. 27-50). Probably the
only questions not specifically answered there for ORB analysts
are those concerning capitalization in tabular material and source
references. (See Appendixes A and C, below.)
The use of capital letters in source references is clari-
fied by the examples of source references which are given in
Appendix C. The use of capital letters in tabular material is
more difficult to exemplify, but the samples given in Appendix A
will be helpful. There is always a tendency to use too many
capital letters, and if any general policy can be stated in this
connection, it is Nhen in doubt, don't."
2. Punctuation.**
A full treatment of the rules and practices governing punc-
tuation is beyond the scope of this research aid. The GPO Style
* Guides for the usage of military terms are furnished by the Depart-
ment of the Army, SR 320-5-1, Dictionary of United States Army Terms,
November 1953, UNCLASSIFIED, and by the _joint Chiefs of _Staff, AR
320-1 (OPNAVINST 3020.1A, AFP 5-1-1), Dictionary of United States
Military Terms for Joint Usage, May 1955, UNCLASSIFIED.
** The punctuation of source references is illUstrated in Appendix C.
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Manual provides and illustrates all the rules of punctuation ap-
plicable to ORR reports (see Chapter 9, "Punctuation," pp. 127-
139). A brief discussion of some of the major problems of punc-
tuation, however, with a few examples, will be helpful to the
analyst.
In basic terms the purpose of punctuation is to make writ-
ing clear. There are those rhetoricians who insist that the sole
function of punctuation is to show the grammatical relationships
of elements in the written language, and there are those theoreti-
cians who are convinced that punctuation is merely the graphic
representation of oral phenomena. From a practical point of view
neither is wholly right and to what degree each is wrong is of
little consequence.
(To illustrate the how-many-angels-on-the-point-of-a-pin
argument which can develop, consider the last sentence of the pre-
ceding paragraph. The rhetorician would insist on a comma after
"view" to set off an introductory adverbial element and a comma
after "right" to separate clauses connected by a coordinating con-
junction. The oral theoretician might insist on both of these
commas and, in addition, a comma after "wrong" to show a pause
in speech. The writer of the sentence might defend an omission
of all three commas by pointing out that the sentence is perfectly
clear and impossible to misunderstand without them and that the
usual comma to separate coordinate clauses must be omitted to make
it clear that the introductory qualifying phrase is intended to
apply to both main clauses and not to the first one only.) (To
draw an illustration from an illustration, the preceding sentence
shows that it is possible to write an extremely long and clear
sentence with no punctuation except the period.)
The length of a sentence has nothing to do with the punc-
tuation of a sentence, any more than the volume of breath exhaled
in uttering it or the amount of time required to write it. Punc-
tuation is based upon meaning, grammar, and syntax, and the trend
should always be toward less punctuation,. not more. A clear and
sensible explanation of the purpose of punctuation is that given
in the GPO Style Manual:
Punctuation is a device to clarify the
meaning of written or printed language.
Well-planned word order requires a minimum
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of printed punctuation. The trend toward
less punctuation calls for skillful phrasing
to avoid ambiguity and to insure exact inter-
pretation.
The general principles governing the use
of punctuation-are (1) that if it does not
clarify the text it should be omitted, and
(2) that in the choice and placing of punc-
tuation marks the sole aim should be to bring
out more clearly the author's thought. Punc-
tuation should aid in reading and prevent mis-
reading.
ORR analysts are expected to follow certain rules and prac-
tices of punctuation based upon the principles described in the
paragraphs quoted above. In the following pages, only a few of
these rules and principles will be considered:, the few which seem
to be more honored in the breach than in the observance.
The comma is the most frequently used mark of punctuation
and the most frequently misused. Although there is a general ten-
dency to use too many commas, the sin of omission is almost as
common as the sin of commission.
The following rules and cautions are offered-as practical
aids in improving the use of the comma.
a. The comma is used
(1) To separate two words or figures that might
otherwise be misunderstood:
Of the total, production was the greatest
single item.
Instead of thousands., hundreds were built.
In 1953, 500 units were completed.
To replace Nalenkov, Bulganin was appointed.
(2) To separate from each other the members of
a series of coordinate modifying words:
short, swift streams
long, slender, brittle stems
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If the modifying words are not coordinate -- if one modi-
fies another or a unit of which another is a part -- the comma is
not used:
dark brown color
hard-drawn 19-strand copper cable
short tributary streams
(3) To set off nonrestrictive words, phrases, or clauses:
Actual production, however, was lower.
The work was, in fact, completed.
The plant manager, who was dismissed in 1952,
was reappointed in 1953.
His brother, Joseph, was appointed.
Whether or not the element is nonrestrictive, or nonessential,
is determined by the intent of the sentence. Note that in the fol-
lowing sentences each of the elements which are nonrestrictive in the
sentences above is necessary to the meaning of the sentence in which
it appears, is therefore restrictive, and is not set off by commas:
However difficult it may be, the job must
be done.
The work was completed in fact as well as
in theory.
The plant manager who was dismissed in 1952
was reappointed in 1953. (The who clause
is used to identify the particular plant
manager being discussed.)
His brother Joseph was appointed. (He had more
than one brother.)
()i) After each element within a series of three or
more words, phrases, clauses, letters, or figures used with and or
or (provided that none of the elements contains internal commas):
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copper, lead, zinc, and tin
The ore will be transported by truck,
railroad, aircraft, or ship.
The figures were examined, the data were
collected, estimates were made, and con-
clusions were drawn.
Figures a, b, c, and d show the trend.
If one or more of the elements in the series contains inter-
nal commas, the semicolon instead of the comma is used between the
elements:
Production for the 3 years was 25,627;
28,201; and 32,642 metric tons.
The chief exports were brass, which is
an alloy; platinum, which is a precious
metal; and tin.
Although there is little need for such a construction, a writer may
be confronted with a series of three or more elements each of which
is joined by a conjunction to the following element. In that situa-
tion, no commas are used:
copper and lead and zinc
Figures a and b and c and d show the trend.
(5) Before the coordinating conjunction in a compound
sentence (a sentence which contains at least two independent
clauses):
Production figures were available, and they
made possible an estimate of inputs.
me country imports copper, iron, and lead,
but domestic tin is available.
The ore is of low grade, but it has been
worked. .
In a simple sentence with a compound predicate the comma is not used
before the coordinating conjunction: '
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The ore is of low grade but has been worked.
If a compound sentence contains three or more independent
clauses, the rule of commas in series applies:
The figures were verified ones, the data
were supported by other sources, the
estimates were firm, and the conclusions
were fully justified.
(6) To separate thousands and millions in numbers of
four or more digits:
1,206
250,000 5,750,000
In built-up fractions, in decimals, and in serial numbers the comma
is not used:
1/2500 3.1416 Motor No. 1976432
The semicolon is much abused. Perhaps the most frequent
misuse is the substitution of the semicolon for the colon. For
that reason, it may be expedient to review the major uses of the
colon before discussing the semicolon.
b. The colon is used
(1) Before a final clause which summarizes preceding
matter:
Food, clothing, fuel, and building materials:
these are the critical items.
Nitric acid is much more than a raw material
for explosives: it is a basic commodity in
a peacetime economy.
(Both of these sentences could be recast and improved.)
(2) To introduce formally any matter that follows:
The following question must be answered:
What is the policy now in effect?
In. June of that year, Premier Gooch stated:
"The Plan figure was realized."
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The major factors to be weighed are as follows:
peacetime production, present capacity, mobili-
zation capacity, and probable wartime production.
If the matter to be introduced is made a grammatically related part
of the sentence, the colon is not used:
The most critical raw materials are copper,
iron, and-tin.
The most critical raw materials are items
such as wheat, corn, and rice.
In June of that year, Premier Gooch stated
that "the Plan figure was realized."
The colon has other uses -- in expressing time, ratio, and proportion
(see 4, p. 30; below) and in tabulation and bibliography.
There is a tendency not only to confuse the function of the
.semicolon with that of the colon but also to use too many semicolons.
The semicolon has two legitimate uses, only one of which is essen-
tial.
c. The semicolon is.used*
(1) To separate the elements in a series which cannot be
clearly separated by commas:
Iron ore, which comes from Poland; nitric
acid, which is imported from Czechoslovakia;
magnesium, which is supplied primarily by the
USSR; and nickel, which is furnished in ade-
quate quantities by domestic producers, are
the major inputs.
Wildlife in the area is limited to reptiles,
amphibians, and predatory mammals; waterfowl
are rarely seen; and domestic animals, common
in adjacent areas, are never present.
See also a, (4), p. 23, above.
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The area is characterized by hard, impervious
subsoil; short, swift streams; and long,
tedious spells of dry weather, particularly
in February.
(2) To separate the clauses of a compound sentence when
a coordinating conjunction is not used:
Guns are important; butter is essential.
This use of the semicolon is rarely effective. A compound sentence
is more effective when a coordinating conjunction is used.
The dash is also much abused, but it fills a definite need.
The dash (--) is not the hyphen (-), and the hyphen should never
be used as a dash.
d. The dash is used
(1) To set off parenthetical matter:
The additional equipment was supplied, but --
contrary to official claims -- the production
goals were not reached.
The original production plan -- later revised
downward -- was announced on 30 June.
Five countries -- England, France, Germany,
Italy, and Spain -- were included in the
agreement.
Some of the major products -- sulfuric acid
and soda ash, for example -- are consumed
within the plant.
(2) Before a final clause that summarizes a series of ideas:
Greater labor productivity, increased effort
by the local cadres, and closer control of
distribution -- these were the objectives
of the propaganda effort.
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The dash should be used only when it is needed. Excessive use ofthe
dash presents a visual barrier to the reader and interrupts the flow
of thought. Within the scope of (1), above, the pair of dashes is
often used interchangeably with parentheses; within the scope of (2),
above, the dash is often used interchangeably with the colon. The dash
should never be used itmediately after a comma, a colon, or a semicolon.
Other rules governing the use of the comma, the semicolon, the
colon, and the dash and other marks of punctuation (the period, the hy-
phen, parentheses, brackets, braces, the exclamation point, the question
mark, quotation marks, omission marks, and so on) are adequately illus-
trated in the GPO Style Manual.*
3. Abbreviations.
Most questions about the proper use of abbreviations can be
answered by the GPO Style Manual (Chapter 10, "Abbreviations,"
pp. 141-154). The index helps to locate the applicable rules.
There is always a tendency to use too many abbreviations/ and if
any general policy can be stated in this connection/ it is again
"When in doubt/ don't."
Some familiar abbreviations must be used frequently -- US/
UK) UN/ CIA/ ORR/ and USSR/ for example. When less well-known
abbreviations are used several times in a report/ they should be
spelled out the first time that they appear, with the abbreviations
being given in parentheses immediately following the terms. Some-
times it may be more appropriate to give the abbreviation first, with
the full identification given in parentheses immediately following.
Examples of these devices are as follows: Air Technical Intelligence
Center (TIC), uniform target file (EinheitsoNektkartei
the (Soviet) Ministry of Internal Affairs (Ministerstvo Vnutrennikh
Del -- MVD), the Central Committee (lsentral'nyy Komitet TsK),
the Main Administration of Workers' Supply (Glavnoye Upravleniye
Rabochego Snabzheniya Glavurs), the (Hungarian) Ministry of Heavy
Industry (NMA), and SEK (Greek State Railroads). (See also Appendix B.)
ORR reports use periods with abbreviations much less frequently than
the GPO Style Manual.
* The GPO Style Manual also adequately covers the use of the apos-
trophe, which is properly an element in the spelling of words (see
pp. 60-61)/ and the use of underlining to indicate italics (see
Chapter 12, "Italic.," pp. 161-162). The use of the hyphen in cm-
pound words is discussed in VI, 5, p. 54, below.
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The use of abbreviations of technical terms often presents
problems which are not covered by the GPO Style Manual. If the
technical term is used frequently throughout the report or any part
of the report, the parentheses device for full identification should
be used the first time that the term appears, and thereafter the
abbreviation alone should be used consistently -- for example,
kilograms (kg), and thereafter, kg; kilowatt-hours (kwh), and there-
after, kwh; and gross national product (GNP), and thereafter, GNP. If
the technical term appears only a few times in the report, or if it
is a short word like hour, day, or mile, it should always be spelled
out.
One notable exception to this policy of abbreviation i6 the use
in the text of "T" for tons and "int" or "MT" for metric tons, which is
prohibited by practice. If tonnages are given in metric tons through-
out the report, the full term metric tons (followed by an asterisk)
should be used at the first reference, and the footnote should state:
"Tonnages throughout this report are given in metric tons." There-
after the word tons should be used consistently throughout the text, and
in tables and tabulations the full term metric tons should be used (ex-
cept that sometimes the abbreviations "nit" or "MT" or other abbreviations
are used in tables to conserve space) (see 7, below, and Appendix A).
If tonnages in a report are not all given in metric tons, provision must
be made, either in a footnote CT by consistent identification, for the
clarification of each tonnage reference. For example, unless the term
is otherwise identified, the footnote should state: "Tonnages through-
out this report are given in metric tons unless otherwise indicated."
This footnote will then cover any references to other types of ton-
nage, such as gross register tons (GRT) or standard displacement
tons (SDT).
Certain Latin remnants should be scrupulously avoided, as
follows: etc. (et cetera), i.e. (id est), (exempli gratia)?
Cf. (confer), and viz. (videlicet).* The abbreviation etc. is db-
noxious and can usually be replaced by the simple English phrases
nand so on," "and the like,'" or "and so forth." Often it is preferable
to avoid both etc. and an omnibus phrase by using a more definite but
still inclusive phrase. For example, instead of writing "copper,
* Occasionally, however, especially in the list of sources in the
Source References appendix, ibid. (ibidem), op. cit. (opere citato
or opus citatum), and et al:77T aiETT-gi:e used. (SeeAppendix C.)
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iron, tin, and the like," it would be better to write "copper, iron,
tin, and other primary metals." The abbreviation i.e. means "that
is," and the English phrase is preferable, just as-9or example" or
"for instance" is preferable to e.g. and "compare" to cf. (which
never means "see"). The abbreviation viz, is even more obnoxious
than etc. -- it is meaningless and as useless as its English
equivalent "namely."
4. Signs and Symbols.
The GPO Style Manual (Chapter 13, "Signs and Symbols,"
Tp. 163-166; see also pp. 154, 186, and 215) lists most of the
signs and symbols used in scientific and technical work. Some
of these signs and symbols have become standardized, but it is
preferable not to use them in formal writing.
Signs and symbols should not appear in the text of a re-
port except in mathematical and chemical formulas and equations,.
in geographic coordinates, and in other narrowly defined situa-
tions depending upon the context of the subject matter.* For
example, the percent (%) and number (#) marks, the nongeographic
degree symbol MI the foot (t) and inch (") symbols, and so on
should not be used. The hyphen (-) should never be substituted for
"to" or for "through" (except in dates) (see 6, below), the mathe-
matical signs should not be substituted for the equivalent words,
and the ratio (:) and proportion (::) symbols should be avoided.
The dollar mark ($), however, may be used in referring to US
dollars, the accepted form of which is US $.
5. Numerals.
Most -reports of the Economic Research Area are concerned
with quantities, measurements, and estimates. The problem of writing
numbers and numbers in series is therefore important to analysts.
There is no universally accepted standard or practice in
writing numerals. The standard or practice varies with the subject,
the publisher, and the institution. For example, almost all publica-
tions in the field of engineering require that the comma be omitted
* For the practice in the use of signs and symbols in tables, see
Appendix A.
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in figures of four digits, but ORB reports require that the comma be
used -- for example, 1,000, not 1000 (see 2, a, (6), p. 25, above).
In the GPO Style Manu7s7?(5hapter?I17 "Numerals," pp. 155-160; see
also pp. 130 and 135) the practices in writing numerals are well
defined, and most contingencies are provided for. (See Appendix A.)
6. Dates.
CIA has adopted military usage in the writing of dates. The
only difference between military and "civilian" usage in the writing
of dates is in the relative positions of the day number and the
month name and the consequent omission in military usage of the
comma before the year when a full date is used. Military usage/
for example, calls, for "17 March 19541" whereas civilian usage would
call for 'March 171 1954." In almost all other respects the GPO
Style Manual (pp. 130/ 1321 146/ 156, and 157) is an excellent guide
for the use,of dates. When it is necessary to abbreviate the names
of the months/ ORB reports also depart from the usage of the GPO
Style Manual in respect to the months June/ July, and September:
Junl not June; Jul, not July; and Sep/ not Sept.
The writing of month and year dates is illustrated by the
following examples: 19491 to indicate a single year; May 1949/
to indicate a single month; May-June 1949 or May-September 1949/
to indicate consecutive months; 1936-37 (ba 1899-1900)1 to indi-
cate 2 consecutive years; 1936-40 (but 1895-1910), to indicate more
than 2 consecutive years; selected years/ 1940-50/ to indicate
scattered years within a period; and 1895, 1900, and 1940-49, to indi-
cate widely scattered years. Fiscal years, crop years, trade years,
or averages of consecutive years should be presented as follows:
1945/46/ not 1945-46. The type of year used/ if other than a calen-
dar year/ should always be indicated.
7. Tables and Tabulations.
Tables and tabulations are basic devices used in statistical
analysis to present significant data clearly and concisely. A table:
with its title/ should be Completely self-explanatory. Properly
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constructed tables. make possible logical presentation of data in a
manner designed to facilitate comparisons and to emphasize specific
relationships. One brief table may save the writer several pages
of text and at the same time make it much easier for the reader to
understand the data presented. The accompanying text should in-
terpret the table, direct attention to important tlgures, or focus
attention on significant comparisons and relationships but should
not attempt to read the table for the reader. ?
The use of tables and tabulations, like the use of other
extraverbal aids, should be governed by need and by the contri-
bution made to the usefulness of the report. Tables should be
introduced into the body of the report at logical points and
should be referred to by number at these points. As stated pre-
viously, tabular material should be confined to an appendix when-
ever possible -- especially general-purpose tables designed to
present original data for reference purposes or tables used in
construction of other tables. Special-purpose tables which empha-
size specific relationships, present selected materials, or sum-
marize conclusions may be used in the body of the report but must
be closely integrated with it.
Proper arrangement of the material in a table is basic to a
ready comprehension of the data shown. For example, certain cate-
gories of information should be placed along the top (in the caption,
or column headings) and other categories along the side (in the stub,
or row headings) of the table. Direction of movement in the table
should conform to conventional reading practices. For example, when
categories suggest time sequence, they usually should be arranged to
read from left to right or from top to bottom. (An exception to this
practice occurs when the latest figures are of primary inte,-est and
it is desired to direct attention to these figures. In this situation
the latest figure may be listed before the others and then separated
from them by a double line.) Clear designation of the information
should always be included. Confusion is often caused by uncertainty
as to what the figures represent, what the terms mean, what the units
of measurement are, and what periods of time are covered.*
* For further discussion of tabular presentation, with examples,
see Appendix A and also 8, below, especially Figure 1, following
p. 36.
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8. Footnotes and Documentation.
The primary responsibility for the form and accuracy of the
mechanics for presenting footnotes and documentation rests with the
analyst.. He should strive to be as clear, as consistent, as com-
plete, and as accurate with these details as with any other part
of the report.
Footnotes and documentation in ORR reports should not be
confused with each other. Footnotes in ORR reports are not a
part of the documentation but are devices to provide information
of supplemental value to the text. This footnote information may
be comment, qualification, explanation, or guidance.
Documentation in ORR reports has two parts: source identi-
fications and source references. Source identification numbers
appear in the body of the report (and may appear in the appendixes),
whereas the sources themselves are listed, with the correspond-
ing source identification numbers, in the Source References
appendix. Usually no source, classified or unclassified, is
identified in the text.
Footnotes are of two kinds: text footnotes and table foot-
notes.
The footnote identification device in the text is the asterisk:
a single asterisk (*) for the first footnote on a page, two asterisks
(**) for the second, three (XXX) for the third, and so on through the
page. The asterisk is placed after the word, phrase, clause, sen-
tence, paragraph, heading, subheading, title, or other unit to which
the.footnote refers. The asterisk in the text follows a comma or
period and precedes a semicolon or colon. The text footnotes them-
selves, bearing the number of asterisks corresponding to the iden-
tifications in the text, appear at the bottom of each page, separated
from the text by a 15-space solid line. Rarely will more than 3 or 4
text footnotes be needed on one page. (Note the use of asterisks
in lines 2, 3, and 34 of the sample page, Figure 1, following p. 36,
and the corresponding footnotes at the bottom of the page.)
The footnote identification device in tables* is a lowercase
letter within a half-box formed by an underscore and a diagonal: la/
* See also Appendix AL, especially Table 2, p. 89, below.
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for the first footnote identification in a table,12/ for the second,
2/ for the third, and so on through the table. The lowercase letter
is placed after the title; caption (column headings); stub (row
headings, or side entries); or other part of the table to which the
footnote refers. Table footnote identifications are placed in order
in the table, left to right, row by row--- not down and up, column
by column. If the letters of the alphabet should be exhausted, the
letters are repeated (22/21212/1 22/, and so on). The table foot-
notes themselves, bearing the lowercase letters corresponding to
the identifications in the table, appear at the bottom of each table
(whether or not it covers one page or more), separated from the tabular
material by a solid line running the width of the table. The half-box
is not used with the letter labels in footnotes -- the letters alone
are used, followed by periods. (Note the use of lowercase letters in
lines 9, 13, 14, 16, 17, and 18 of the sample page, Figure 1, following
p. 36, and the corresponding footnotes at the bottom of the table.)
Footnotes to tabulations within the text should be considered as text
footnotes and treated accordingly. (Note the use of asterisks in
line 31i of the sample page, Figure 1, following p. 36.)
The source identification device is an arabic numeral within
a half-box formed by an underscore and a diagonal (l/, 2/, 3/, and
so on) following the word, phrase, clause, sentence, paragraph,
heading, subheading, title, or other unit involved, for the purpose
of referring the reader to the documentary sources of information
in the Source References appendix. The numeral within a half-box
follows a comma or a period and precedes a semicolon or colon. (Com-
pare lines 3 and 32 of the sample page, Figure 1, following p. 36.)
The numeral should never be placed at the beginning of a line but
should always follow the referenced item.
Source identification numbers are consecutive throughout the
entire report into and through the appendixes. They do not begin
anew on pages or in sections of the body of the report or in the first
appendix or in subsequent appendixes. Each source identification
number appears once in the body of the report and again in the Source
References appendix as a label of identification. The summary need
not contain source identification numbers, because all statements made
therein may be documented elsewhere in the report.
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Source identification numbers are never repeated in the report
even though two or more identifications, whether consecutive or not,
refer to the same source. If two or more sources are needed to support
a statement, the proper procedure is not to use two or more source
identification numbers but to use a single identification number and
then list in the Source References appendix the several sources under
a single corresponding number. (For example, source identification
number 2 in line 19 on the sample page, Figure 1, following p. 36,
may well refer to more than one source.) Often one source may be used
to support more than one statement. (For example, source identifica-
tion numbers 4, 5, 6, and 8 in lines 23, 24, 25, and 27, respectively,
on the sample page may all refer to the same source.)
Source identification numbers should not appear in the table
proper but only in the table footnotes. (See the table footnotes
on the sample page, Figure 1, following p. 36.) All footnotes should
be read at the time of the footnote identification, and source identi-
fication numbers should follow each other in the order in which the
report is read. (See lines 32, 35, and 41 of the sample page, Figure
1, following p. 36. Note especially that the footnote in line 41 is
read before line 35.)
A statement or other item in the text may be followed by both
a footnote identification and a source identification. In that case
the source identification usually applies to the statement or item
Itself and has no bearing on the footnote, but meaning and logic will
always determine the relative position of the two. In most instances
the asterisk should precede the arabic numeral in a half-box. The
first source identification in every report should always be followed
by an asterisk, and the corresponding footnote refers the reader to
the last appendix in the report: "For serially numbered source
references, see Appendix Lpapital letteg." (See lines 3 and 4o of
the sample page, Figure 1, following p. 36.) The first footnote
identification in every report should always follow the full title
of the report on page 1, and the corresponding footnote, indicating
the cutoff date of the report, should read as follows: "The esti-
mates and conclusions contained in this .5.4ort? memorandum, or re-
search aig represent the best judgment of ORB as of Elatg." (For
further discussion of documentation, see Appendix C.)
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9. Foreign Words, Phrases, Names, and Terms.
Foreign words and'phrases -- certainly those not yet made a part
of the English language -- should be used sparingly. English has always
"borrowed" extensively from other languages. Sometimes the borrowed
words and phrases become completely anglicized, sometimes they become
only partly so, and sometimes they remain alien in both appearance and
sound. In general, words and phrases not completely adopted into Eng-
lish should be avoided if an English equivalent is in current use, but
if such words and phrases are used in sentences, underlining (to indicate
italics in printing) is required, as exemplified by the following list:
ad nauseam
affaire d'honneur
agent provocateur
ancien regime
Anschluss
carte blanche
cause cenbre
coup d'etat
emigre
en passant
ex parte
expertise
franc-tireur
hoi polloi
idee fixe
Inter alia
ipso facto
lettre de change
literatim
magnum opus
modus operandi
mot juste
mutatis mutandis
nolo contendere
nam de guerre
nota bene
par excellence
pari passu
per se
persona non grata
raison d'ftre
reductio ad absurdum
sic
sine die
sine qua non
sotto voce
suiggneris
vrai semblance
Welt schmerz
Zeitgeist
Underlining is not required, however, as exemplified by the
following list, for words and phrases completely naturalized:
abatis
ad hoc
ad infinitum
ad lib
apropos
blitzkrieg
bona fide
bon mot
charge d'affaires
cheval-de-,frise
communique
corrigenda
de facto
en route
errata
ersatz
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Figure 1
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Sample Page Illustrating the Use
of Footnotes and Source Identifications
The number of wage earners employed in Slobovia can be estimated
with some precision.* In 1950 there were about 8,900 wage earners at
boiler plants in Slobovia,** compared with about 5,700 in 1940. 17***
Labor preductivity and the estimated number of wage earners at boiler
plants in Slobovia for selected years, 1940-50, and the 1955 Plan are
shown in Table 1.
5amp1e Tab127
Table 1.
Labor Productivity and Estimated Number of Wage Earners
at Boiler Plants in Slobovia a/
Selected Years, 1940-50, and 1955 Plan
(11) Production Production
(12) of Boilers per Worker Number of,
(13) (Metric Tons) (Metric Tons)
Year Workers 12/
R
(16)
(17)
(18)
1940
a/
1,234,50o
217.4 2/
5,678 2/
1945
2,345,600
345.5
6,789
1949
3,456,700
1/
438.1
7,890 E/
1950
4,567,800
1/
513.2 h/
8,901 1/
1955
Plan
5,678,900
630.1 Ji
9,012
(19 a. 2/
(20 b. Between the ages of 18 and 65.
2.1. c. Eleven months only.
22) d. Computed on average monthly production. 3/
(23) e. 11/
(24) f.
b
(25) g.
(26) h. Computed from weekly report figures. 7/
27) i?
(28) J. Increased 12 percent over 1950. 2/
(29)
(30)
32)
(33)
(31
(35
(36)
(37)
(38)
(39)
(40)
(41)
Boilermakers receive the highest earnings in the Slobovian national
economy. The monthly average earnings of a boilermaker in Slobovia in
1950 were 1,234 rubles. A breakdown of Slobovian boilermakers by type
of worker and'average monthly earnings in 1950 is as follows 10/:
/Sample Tabu1atioE7
Type of Worker Rubles per Month
Cuttersxxxx 890
Benders 901 12/
Welders 1,234
Finishers 2,345
* For methodology, see Appendix F.
** For a detailed list of Slobovian boiler plants, see Appendix A.
*** For serially numbered source references, see Appendix H.
xxxx There is an oversupply of cutters in globovia. 11/
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esprit de corps nom de plume
expose non sequitur
flak per capita
incognito prima facie
in absentia pro forma
junker rapport
kriegspiel schnorkel
mandamus status quo
melange verbatim
nol-pros vice versa
Many words and phrases, as exemplified by the list below, have
become only partly anglicized, and the writer is often in doubt as to
how to treat them. The only safe rule to follow when in doubt is to
underline. The writer's choice is purely a matter of accepted usage.
aide-de-camp hara-kiri
a posteriori in toto
a priori kamikaze
ex post facto laissez faire
fait accompli quid pro quo
faux pas savoir-faire
In addition to foreign words and phrases which have been
absorbed into the English language or whose meaning is understood,
ORB reports frequently include names and terms from foreign
languages, including the names of persons, places, plants, and
organizations and terms designating commodities, processes, types,
and practices. These names and terms either have not been absorbed
into the English language or, although absorbed, remain foreign to
unspecialized readers and frequently must be defined. These names
and terms must be correct in spelling and application, and the
responsibility for accuracy rests with the analyst.
The sources with which the analyst works supply the foreign
names and terms, and accurate copying may seem to be the limit of
the analyst's responsibility. Because the sources cannot always be
relied upon, however, and because they are often wrong, these names
and terms should be checked in the proper dictionaries. For further
discussion of the proper use of foreign words, phrases, names, and
terms, particularly RusSian? see Appendix B (see also 3, p. 28, above).
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The natural tendency is to use maps as final authorities for
place names. Care must be exercised, however, in the use of maps.
Although cartographers are extremely careful, maps are not intended
to be gazetteers and should not be used as such. Place names change
faster than maps, and what was Beriagrad on last year's map may
now be Khrushchevsk. Because several different readings of the
same place name may appear, all place names should be 'checked
with the appropriate NIS Gazetteer. (See Appendix B, Section 5.)
The Soviet and Satellite systems of governmental and eco-
nomic agencies and controls change in terminology from time to
time, and reports must keep up with the changes. Misspelling,.
particularly of words in foreign languages, creates "ghost" words
that are frequently unidentifiable, and some plant and place
names may be so nearly like other plant and place -names that a
single misplaced letter may produce a serious substantive error.
The CIA Industrial Register will serve as the final authority on
plant names, as will the CIA Biographic Register on names of
persons.
10. Graphics.
Graphics as used in the reports of the Economic Research Area
include maps, photographs, charts, graphs,* schematic diagrams, flow-
sheets, drawings, sketches, and any other illustrations that serve a
purpose which cannot be adequately served by verbal exposition alone.
Tables and tabulations are not usually considered to be graphics.
Mention has already been made of the function and the effec-
tive use of graphics (see I) 21 h, p. 9, above). Graphics should
not be used merely as devices to embellish the report. Nor is the
initial determination of the need for graphics necessarily final.
When a_project is initiated, graphics may not seem to be needed, but
as the research progresses and the report begins to take form, it may
become apparent that some graphics are necessary to the effectiveness-
of the finishedreport. It may also happen that graphics which
* Graphing is a useful analytical tool and should be employed
whenever productive, even though the graphs may not be included
in the final report.
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initially seemed necessary no longer seem necessary in the finished
report. Insofar as graphics are concerned, the analyst should not
feel bound by the terms of the project action memorandum issued by
the Planning and Review Staff (St/PR).
Once the need for graphics is determined, the analyst of the
Economic Research Area should consult St/PB, which will, if' necessary,
arrange for an initial contact with the Cartography Division (D/GC) of
the Geographic Research Area, where the requirement can be discussed
in detail. The analyst must at that time indicate clearly what the
purpose is and how he believes it can be achieved.
A basic principle governing the use of graphics is "Don't
show too much at one time." Graphic material will lose its effec-
tiveness if it attempts to do too much. For example, a flowsheet
illustrating the beneficiation of taconite ores probably will be
useless to a nontechnical reader if it attempts to show all the der
tails of the process. Likewise the effectiveness of a map designed
to show the location of mineral deposits in a'certain area will be
impaired if the map Includes unnecessary geographic and topographic
details of the area. Only such basic geographic data as help to
orient the reader are required in addition to the substantive data
that are to be featured.
All graphics must have titles. In selecting the title the
analyst should be consistent and exact in phraseology and should rec-
ommend as short a title as possible to the person in D/GC. All graph-
ics should be specifically introduced or referred to in the body of
the report and numbered consecutively (Figure 1, Figure 2, and so on)
in the order in which they appear. The reader should never be left
in doubt as to what the graphic material means, what it illustrates,
or when the analyst wishes the reader to consult it.
The titles of all graphics in reports of the Economic Research
Area are entered as the last section in the table of contents. If the
graphics are all maps or all photographs, the section is labeled "Maps"
or "Photographs," respectively. If the graphics are all charts (which
include graphs, schematic diagrams, flowsheets, and so on), the sec-
tion is labeled "Charts." If the graphics are of two or more types,
the section is labeled "Illustrations."
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The final form of graphics used in ORB reports is deter-
mined by the members of D/GC, and the analyst should consult them
before and during his determination of the general design of his
:graphic material. Initiation of and final arrangements for graphics
to be used in the reports of the Economic Research Area are made
through St/PB.
11. Technical Terminology.
Technical terminology involves words and expressions peculiar
to a particular trade, profession, science, art, or occupation.
Sometimes a technical term finds its way into popular speech, but
the analyst should always assume that even the highly intelligent
reader will need definitions of some of the technical language in
a report. The analyst might justifiably assume that all of his
readers would understand the meaning of automation and Even of
beneficiation of ore, but he could not safely assume that hift
reaaers would understand the meaning of such terms as heavy-media
separation, wilfley table, and pelletization without definitions
of these terms, either in the text or in a footnote, at the
time that they are first used. The argument of a report often
hinges on both the proper use and the understanding of such tech-
nical terms.
The analyst should use technical terminology to increase
the knowledge of his reader rather than to display his own erudi-
tion. The terms penicillin and plutonium, for example, must be
used if those products are being discussed, for there are no
suitable synonyms. The use of the term comminution to mean
"crushing" or "grinding," however, is an inexcusable substitution
of the technical term for a familiar word which is equally accurate
and more descriptive.
There are two basic rules governing the use of technical
terminology in reports: the terminology must be accurate, and it
must be consistent in form. Accuracy can be achieved more easily
than consistency. Accuracy is a matter of substance. Consistency
is a matter of leveling.
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Few reports can avoid the use of such esoteric terms as
gross freight-ton-kilometers, heavy-media separation, man-hours-
per-unit analysis, room-and-pillar method, and two-high mill.
Technical terminology, properly defined when necessary, is often
more effective than monosyllabic circumlocution. The need for
definition is a matter of judgment and usually can be determined
by the joint effort of the analyst and the editor. The editor
should be a good judge of what terms need defining, and the ana-
lyst should be the better judge of the accuracy of the definition.
Lack of consistency in technical terminology is often not
apparent to the writer. If, for example, the analyst uses the
phrase "Slobovian steel industry" on one page and changes it to
"the steel industry of Slobovia" on the next, there is little like-
lihood that any misunderstanding will result. But if he uses
secondary metal and scrap interchangeably, the reader may become
puzzled or misled. To avoid the possibility of misunderstanding,
therefore, the analyst should strive for complete consistency in
terminology. He may or may not use "the steel industry of Slobo-
via" throughout the report (though the prepositional phrase is better
form than is the adjectival use of the proper noun), but he must
not use secondary metal and scrap to designate the same thing. A
change in terminology should always signify a change in meaning.
(See also VI, 8, p. 751 below, and Appendix B.)
The consistent use of the same technical word or phrase
throughout the report naturally raises the question of repetition.
The best answer to that question is that repetition, when there
is a reason for it, is not bad and need not be avoided. Synonyms
are a luxury in the language, and like other luxuries they often
have a weakening effect.
VI. Some Writing Problems and Pitfalls.
Although it is not the purpose of this research aid to give a
detailed analysis of grammar, syntax, and rhetoric, a discussion
of a few of the more common problems and pitfalls encountered in
writing may be of practical value to the analyst. For those who
wish to review more completely the fundamentals of writing, a num-
ber of excellent reference works are available. A few books on
the writing of technical reports are listed in Appendix E.
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1. Style and Levels of Language.
?a. Style.
The concept of style in writing is often confusing. Style
may be a term applied critically to the rhetorical techniques, manner-
isms, and peculiarities of an author, or it may be a term applied to
a body of standards, rules, and regulations governing the mechanics
of writing and typography. It is in the latter sense that the term
is used in the GPO Style Manual and is applicable to ORR reports.
At times the GPO Style Manual and the dictionary may seem
to conflict, but actually they complement each other. The GPO Style
Manual serves essentially as an authority on style and the mechanics
of writing (see V, p. 19, above) and also to a limited extent on spell-
ing and usage. The dictionary likewise serves as an authority on
spelling and usage and also on meaning (see V, p. 19, above). In
addition, the dictionary is a historical record of the words in
the language and of how they are spelled, pronounced, divided into
syllables, and used idiomatically. Variant spellings and pro-
nunciations reflect the historical development of the language.
The spelling or pronunciation given first in the dictionary is
not necegsarily preferable but is merely more often used than that
given second. The' dictionary is often cited as aUthority for de-
parting from the standards of formal usage, but the analyst should
never appeal to the dictionary as an excuse for introducing the
unusual.
b. Levels of Language.
Another confusing. concept, in the writing of reports is
levels of language. In both speaking andwriting there are two
level 6 of language -- formal and informal. Within each level there
are several gradients, and there is no clear line of demarcation
between the levels. For the purpose of this discussion, however,
a distinction can be made.
The formal level of language is that on which the lan-
guage follows strictly the formal rules of grammar and syntax-. The
use of language on the formal level is conservative, observing
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long-established rules and practices which are generally accepted
as being "correct," even though departures from themare widely
recognized and used. Contractions, colloquialisms, and pro-
vincialisms are rare; anglicisms, archaisms, improprieties, slang,
and vulgarisms must never appear; and the idiom must always be
correct. The tone of formal language is impersonal, and the writer
maintains between himself and the reader a definitely formal rela-
tionship.
The informal level of language maintains a personal
approach, a first-name relationship between the writer and the
reader. The informal is no less "correct" than the formal. Con-
tractions, colloquialisms, and provincialisms are common, and
anglicisms, archaisms, and slang are often used without the apology
of quotation marks.
The language of ORR reports is formal. Because ORR
reports are designed to serve different purposes and different
types of readers, informality of approach would not be appropriate.
The very nature of formal reports calls for anonymity of author-
ship, an anonymity which can be preserved only on the formal level
of language.
The writer of ORR reports must therefore strive not only
for standard usage but also for current, idiomatic, reputable, exact,
and appropriate usage. Standard usage means using words that are
national -- that is, words that are understood in all sections of the
country -- and avoiding provincialisms, unnaturalized foreign words and
expressions (see V, 9, p. 36, above, and Appendix B), inexact or ex-
cessive technical terminology (see V, 11, p. above), and anglicisms.
Current, or present-day, usage means using words that are intelligible
today and avoiding archaisms. Idiomatic usage means using words and
expressions that are in accord with English idiom. Reputable usage
means avoiding the use of improprieties, colloquialisms, slang, and
vulgarisms. Exact usage means using words and expressions that are
precise, specific, and concrete rather than vague, general, and
abstract -- and avoiding trite, or hackneyed, expressions; harsh or
unpleasant combinations of sound; and needless repetition. Appropriate
usage means using words and expressibns that are suitable not only
to the subject but also to the occasion and to the audience for whom
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the analyst is writing -- words and expressions that are proper from
the point of view of both denotation (or literal meaning) and connota-
tion (or suggested meaning). For example, the word home is not the
same as the word house, but either may be appropriate to the context,
and the words contempt and insult are safer _for most contexts than
contumely.
Various categories of words and phrases that should
not appear in ORE reports are listed below. In the case of idioms
the correct expression is indicated.
(1) Provincialisms.
?Etovincialisms, or localisms, are words and expres-
sions peculiar to one part -of the country. The careful writer will
not use allow for think, suppose, or expect; calculate for think,
expect, or plan; guess, reckon, suspect, or expect for think or
suppose; gather Tor think, suppose, or conclude; Claim for say,
assert, or maintain; recollect for remember; treacle for syrup or
molasses; and wheel _for bicycle. Note that provincialisms sometimes
may become colloquialisms (see (6), p. )47, below) and once may have
been vulgarisms (see (8), p. 48, below).
(2) Anglicisms.
Anglicisms are words and expressions peculiar to
British English. During and since World Wars I and II the British
and the Americans have interchanged many words and expressions,
especially in combined staff functions. Increased travel and ease
of communication have brought about further similarities between
the two major branches of English, not to mention the contribution
of Canadians, Australians, and New Zealanders to English as the
lingua franca of the modern world. British English is more con-
servative and more traditionally "correct"; American English tends
to indulge in more coinages and borrowings and to flaunt the rules
in favor of more color and vigor and tends to be less "correct."
American writers of reports, who frequently draw upon British sources,
should remember that there are more resemblances than differences
between the two forms of English, but they should follow American
usage whenever possible, particularly in the choice of technical
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terms, where the differences are more pronounced. No serious damage
will be done if shop is used for store, preference stock for preferred
stock, van for covered truck, motor car for automobile, or gear-box
for transmission, but petrol or motor spirit for gasoline, lift for
elevator, cistern wagon for tank car, wireless for radio, or whilst
for while are as affected and as much out of place in American writing
as is a strange accent, supposed to be British, in American speech.
And if paraffin is used for kerosine or coal oil, hoarding for bill-
board, metalled for paved (ra71)777rge for shoulder (of a road), or
permanent way for fixed line facilities (of a railroad), the writing
becomes incomprehensible to an American audience.
(3) Archaisms.
Archaisms are old-fashioned words and words which
once were current but which now are not in general use. Such words
are also called obsolete. Some words have become completely obso-
lete, many are obsolescent, others have lost earlier meanings,'and
still others have changed completely in meaning. Some archaic
words survive only in poetic usage. A few examples of archaic words
are listed below:
albeit must needs
amid oftentime
amongst olden
anent peradventure
betimes perchance
betwixt plaint
bounden quoth
deem selfsame
erstwhile tarry
fain to wit
in fine yesteryear
morn weal
meet (fitting) wont
Some archaic words, however, have survived in set
expressions that are in standard usage, such as much ado, stand in
good stead, for the nonce, the twain, wherein, and whereupon.
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(4) Idioms.
Idioms are expressions peculiar to a language --
expressions that are acceptable even though they may seem to
violate the rules of grammar. The surest test of a person's
mastery of a language is his use of idioms, which can seldom
be translated literally into another language. Observe the fol-
lowing lists, and note especially how much trouble is caused by
prepositions:
Unidiomatic Idiomatic
accord to
acquitted from
adverse against
aim at proving
all the farther
among one another
as regards to
authority about
center about
center around
comply to
doubt if
equally as good
free of
identical to
in accordance to.
independent from
inferior than
in regards to
in search for
lest it becomes
out loud
plan on staying
providing
superior than
to tome
treat on
unmindful about
accord with
acquitted of
adverse to
aim to prove
as far as
among themselves
as regards
authority on
center on
center on
comply with
doubt whether
equally good
free from
identical with
in accordance with
independent of
inferior to
in regard to
in search of
lest it become
aloud
plan to stay
provided -
superior to
at home
treat of
unmindful of
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(5) Improprieties.
Improprieties include errors in grammar and errors
resulting from the confusion of one word with another. A common
error in grammar is caused by a misunderstanding of both the
meaning and the structure of the strong verb sit (sit, sat, sat!
and the irregular weak verb set (set set, seT)T the strong verb
lie (112., lay, lain) and the irregular weak verb lay (lay, laid,
laid); and even the strong verb fly (fly, flew, flown) and the
Irregular weak verb flee (flee, fled, fled)7-1 safe rule to follow
in avoiding another type of error resulting from the confusion
of one word with another is not to interchange the accepted parts
of speech until such transference has become sanctioned by good
usage -- for example, write to lend (not to loan) and to suspect
(not to suspicion). Improprieties also sometimes result from
confusion of meaning alone, such as to raise for to rear or to
learn for to teach, but more often from failure to distinguish
between words alike or similar in sound but different in meaning,
such as capital and capitol, council and counsel, and ingenious
and ingenuous. (See other examples in 71 p. a, below.)
(6) Colloquialisms.
Colloquialisms (which include contractions and some
abbreviations) are conversational or informal expressions which are
appropriate to informal writing but which should be avoided in
formal writing except to reproduce actual speech. A few colloquial-
isms that sometimes slip into formal writing are listed below;
alongside of get away with
a lot of go in for
any place (anywhere) gumption
auto have got to
bamboozle hotfoot
cannot help but hunch
do in inside of
every place (everywhere) kind of
every which way know-how
funny (queer, odd) lots of
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mighty (very)
muchly
nowhere near
off of
outside of
_overly
posted (informed, well
quite a few
real good
show up
some place (somewhere)
sort of
still not yet
take it easy
this far
Informed) this much
thusly
whopper
Note that colloquialisms once may have been provin-
cialisms (see (1), p. 44, above) or vulgarisms (see (8), below).
(7) Slang.
Slang is almost a language unto itself comprising
certain widely current but usually ephemeral words and expressions
which are coined or which are used in special senses and have a
forced or grotesque meaning. Last year's slang is ususlly anti-
quated today/ and the careful writer/will avoid corrupting his
writing by resorting to it. Such words as cab chiseler, blurb,
bunk, gimmick, high-brow, jinx, low-brow, mob, and sham may have
found their way into respectable use, but many other words and
expressions that are used informally have not, such as beef it
up, E.g.....Es.1.11 go-getter, hoosegow, hornswoggle, nifty, nriVEET-
phony, plug (for commercial talk), take the rap, and shebang.
(8) Vulgarisms.
Vulgarisms are words and expressions (sometimes
called barbarisms) used by some uneducated people. The careful
writer hardly needs to be warned against the use of irregardiess,
nohow, could not hardly, howsomever, still and all, in back of,
anyways, anywheres, everywheres, every so often, and every since.
Note that vulgarisms sometimes may become provincialiems (6ee (1),
p. 44, above) or colloquialisms (see (6), p. 47, above).
2. Objectivity.
The formal level of language in ORR reports contributes
to objectivity in the presentation of the subject. Objectivity
Is closely related to impersonality and anonymity of authorship,
but it is not the same. Objectivity is the ability to observe,
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evaluate, and present facts and their significance without reference
to personal preferences, prejudices, or convictions. Objectivity
applies to both manner and matter.
In every good report the analyst includes considerable ma-
terial which is the product of judgment and interpretation. The
analyst shoad be careful, however) to attribute the product to
the facts upOn which the judgments and interpretations are based.
The analyst's process of evaluation, the intermediate step between
evidence and conclusion, is omitted. The report should not say,
"These data, upon interpretation and evaluation by the analyst,
yield the conclusion that ... ." Rather, the report should say,
"These data show that ... ." In maintaining objectivity, the
analyst should remember that once the ORB report leaves the ?Mae
of origin and goes into intelligence channels, it becomes an
"institutional" publication. It is no longer identified with a
specific writer, and its analyses, judgments, and conclusions
become those of CIA.
3. Active and Passive Voice.
Writers of reports often use the passive voice to achieve
objectivity. If the analyst cannot say, "The writer concluded on
the basis of these data ... ," the natural alternative is "It can
be concluded on the basis of these data ... ." There is nothing
wrong with the passive voice. The passive voice is effective if it
is used as needed, but it becomes objectionable if used as an
evasive measure.
A weakness resulting from the use of the passive voice is
wordiness. For example, "It can be concluded on the basis of these
data means no more than "These data show ." "Twenty
thousand machines were produced by this plant" uses more words than
"This plant produced 20,000 machines" but says no more.
Another weakness resulting from the use of the passive voice
is its vulnerability to confused reference. The passive voice usually
employs more pronouns than the active voice, particularly pronouns of
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the dummy-subject type. For example, the pronoun in "It can be con-
cluded ..." has no antecedent and is not the real subject of the sen-
tence. The pronoun it in this sentence is a dummy, thrown in as a
mere mechanical device. The that clause (understood) which would
logically follow the verb is the real subject of the sentence and
might be considered the postantecedent of the pronoun it.
Still another weakness resulting from the use of the passive
voice is the frequent recurrence of the wandering which clause. For
example, one of the preceding illustrations might be expanded to "Twenty
thousand machines were produced by this plant, which constituted the
entire national production during that year." But while the sentence
Is being read, the which seems to refer to plant. When the sentence
is finished, the antecedent of which becomes machines -- unless, of
course, the writer misused constituted. If the sentence _reads, "This
plant produced 20,000 machines, which ... ," there is no question of
antecedent or usage.
The active voice is preferable to the passive voice when a
choice is possible. The active voice is more direct, more economi-
cal, and less liable to misunderstanding. The best rule to follow
is to use the active voice unless conversion to the passive voice
will add to clearness or avoid awkward phrasing. Although this rule
leaves much to the judgment of the writer, it will serve to coun-
teract the tendency toward overuse of the passive voice. At the
same time, the ORR analyst can hardly avoid the occasional use of
such phrases as "It is estimated that ..." or "Production is esti-
mated at ... ," because he is forbidden by impersonality and ano-
nymity of authorship to use pronouns of the first person.
4. Sentences and Paragraphs.
The major problems which confront the writer of reports in the
construction of sentences and paragraphs are those involving length.
Most writers are aware that sentences must not be too "simple," and
In the avoidance of that fault they sometimes lean too far in the op-
posite direction. Likewise, writers understand that a paragraph is
supposed to be a unit of subject matter, and they are reluctant to
end a paragraph for fear of failing to include the whole unit. The
tendency is to use too many overlong sentences and paragraphs.
Sentences which are overlong are not effective. The purpose of
a _sentence is to convey to the reader a complete and unified piece of
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information of immediate significance. The piece of information may
be small, but it must be integral. A sentence may be compared to
a section of a jigsaw puzzle. The section is only a fractional part
of the whole, but it has a definite shape and size and can be treated
as a unit. Unity rather than number of words should determine the
length of a sentence, and the flaws which result in lack of unity pro-
duce overlong sentences. Most of these flaws result from overloading
sentence structure with and, but, so, and then and from hitching long
phrases and clauses to a sentence that has logically ended.
Overloading sentence structure destroys the unity of a sen-
tenbe by crowding into the sentence more than can be conveyed or
comprehended as a single piece of information or by combining dis-
similar or noncoordinate elements. For example, the following wholly
grammatical sentence commits both of these faults: "Copper is mined
by the open-pit method, and then it is moved to surface level by
diesel electric locomotives, but from there the ore is transported by
belt conveyors to the loading docks, and these docks are owned by the
Slobov Shipping Combine, so actual shipments from the mine are con-
trolled by the shipping combine." Not only is there much more infor-
mation in this ?sentence than can be comprehended as a unit, but also
there are three separate significant elements. The material might
be better expressed in three sentences, as follows: "Copper ore is
mined by the open-pit method. Diesel electric locomotives move the
ore to surface level, from where belt conveyors carry it to the
loading docks. The Slobov Shipping Combine owns these docks and con-
sequently controls the actual shipments of ore from the mine." (In
retrospect, note that in the revised passage only 1 of the 5 uses of
the passive voice in the original is retained.)
The flaw which results from hitching long phrases and, clauses
to a sentence that has logically ended often takes the form of trailing
phrasea introduced by thus or thereby: "In Siberia the weather is very
cold in winter, thus requiring more heat for workers, thereby reducing
available fuel for production." This flaw may also take the form of
the house-that-Jack-built fault, or overlapping dependence: "The
machines are made in a factory which is on the bank of a river which
is used to generate the power which is used in the factory." Although
neither sentence is too long in number of words, both are too long in
terms of unity of content and should be recast.
Setting a categorical word limit to the length of sentences is
both difficult and up:false, but a general policy may be suggested. Most
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sentences should contain fewer than 30 words, many should contain
fewer than 20, and some Should contain only 8 or 10.
The textbooks on rhetoric place considerable stress on
variety of length and structure of sentences, but the writer of
reports need not strive laboriously for variety. A degree of
variety is a natural product of clear exposition.
Many of the basic principles governing the length of the sen-
tence also apply to the length of the paragraph. A paragraph is a
unit in itself -- a unified block of integrated fragments dealing with
a single theme. A. paragraph, like a sentence, may be compared to a'
section of a jigsaw puzzle composed of several individual pieces tightly
fitted together. Again, unity rather than word count is the best cri-
terion. The purpose of the paragraph is to present to the reader a
block, or section, of information. The paragraph indentation is more
than a mechanical device to provide a brief resting period in the read-
ing process -- it is a sign to let the reader know that a unit of infor-
mation, digestible as a unit, has been completed and that another unit
is about to begin.
The amount of information which constitutes a paragraph unit
will depend upon the detail in which the subject is being discussed.
The following paragraph, for example, is a complete unit, but a more
detailed study of the subject might require a dozen paragraphs to
develop the same material:
"The airport has 3 concrete runways, each 6,000 feet long and
150 feet wide; 1 turf runway 4l000 by 150 feet; and 15,000 feet of
concrete taxiway 50 feet wide. An additional concrete runway will be
available when construction now in process is completed. This con-
struction includes, in addition to the new runway, buildings for re-
search and administration and hangars for the storage and maintenance
of commercial and military flight equipment."
Analysis of unity in paragraphs _will provide the best clues in
detecting exeessive length. Paragraphs of more than 300 words are too
long, and most paragraphs should contain fewer than 200 words.
Paragraphs which are too short may also violate the principle of
unity. Although one-sentence paragraphs may be written/ the development
of a unit of material will usually require more than one sentence.
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Careful scrutiny of one-sentence paragraphs will determine whether
or not the paragraph has unity. Perhaps it is a fragment which
should be fitted into the preceding or the following paragraph, or
perhaps it is an idea which needs further development.
Along with unity, coherence is another quality necessary to
good, clear exposition. Applied to writing, coherence retains its
literal meaning -- "a sticking together)" or cohesion. Coherence in
writing is that quality of clear interrelationship of the thoughts
expressed which permits immediate and complete understanding. Reduced
to the level of practical application, coherence means simply that
sentences within a paragraph must stick together. The reader must be
led from one sentence to another and from one paragraph to another
without being expected to jump gaps or to puild his own bridges.
Coherence in sentences usually presents no great problem. In
the normal process of writing, the cohesive elements will be supplied
without too much conscious effort on the part of the writer. These
cohesive elements consist largely of pronouns, repetitions, and other
transitional words and phrases. The preceding sentence, for example,
contains a cohesive pronominal adjective, "these," and a repeated
phrase, "cohesive elements"; this sentence contains a transitional
phrase, "for example." Other common transitional words and phrases
are however, therefore, thus, hence, for instance, furthermore,
moreover, in addition, consequently, on the contrary, and other
conjunctive adverbs.
The writer must exert considerably more conscious effort in
achieving coherence in paragraphs than he exerts in achieving co-
herence in sentences. The writer often tends to go from one para-
graph unit to another without providing the cohesive element necessary
to bridge the gap between units. The useful transitional devices are
the same -- pronouns, repetitions, and other transitional words and
phrases. Note, for example, that this paragraph begins with a near
repetition of the beginning of the preceding paragraph and that the
first sentence of this paragraph repeats the phrase "conscious effort"
used in the second sentence of the preceding paragraph.
At times, these simple transitional devices may not be enough
to achieve the degree of coherence necessary for clear exposition.
Such situations may occur when one phase of a subject has been completei
and another, quite different phase is to be begun. In most reports the
gap will be at least partially bridged by headings or subheadings, but
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frequently these labels are not present, and they should not be relied
upon even if they are present.
Consequently, the writer must have at his command some bridge-
building equipment. In constructing paragraphs he must be able to
supply cohesive elements of a somewhat more complex nature than transi-
tional words and phrases.
These complex cohesive elements are transitional sentences and
paragraphs. An example of a transitional sentence is provided by the
first sentence of the preceding paragraph, beginning "Consequently."
This sentence links the idea of "bridgebuilding" to the idea of coherence.
The paragraph begun by the example of a transitional sentence is itself
an example of a transitional paragraph, linking the idea of simple
transitional devices discussed in earlier paragraphs with the idea of
complex cohesive elements discussed in this paragraph.
The transitional sentence may also serve as the topic sentence
the sentence which expresses the central idea of the paragraph. Every
paragraph should have a topic sentence. Although the topic sentence
may be found anywhere in the paragraph, it is most effective as the
opening sentence -- which should always be made independent of any
heading or subheading.
All the elements of a report, having been unified and having
attained coherence, must be arranged logically and so placed that
the writer achieves the emphasis which he desires. Emphasis gives
prominence to those words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs to be
stressed. Growing naturally out of the preceding paragraph or para-
graphs, the ideal paragraph reflects unity, coherence, order, transi-
tion, and proper emphasis and conveys to the reader the natural, logi-
cal growth of the paragraph idea.
A more detailed study of the rhetorical principles and struc-
tural problems involved in writing sentences and paragraphs would be
helpful to ORR. analysts. Several of the books listed in Appendix E
provide the material for such a study.
5. Compounding.
Compounding is the process of combining two or more words
to express a unit idea which cannot be expressed so well by individ-
ual words in sequence. This combining may be done by writing the
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words solid, with no space between, or by joining the words with hy-
phens.*
The GPO Style Manual lists and illustrates almost 50 separate
general rules governing compounding (Chapter 6, "Compound Words,"
pp. 63-69) and also supplies a "Guide to Compounding" (Chapter 7,
pp. 71-120). This considerable body of information would seem to
settle almost every conceivable question about compounding. But be-
cause there are so many exceptions to the rules and so many deviations
from the practices, the writer must often rely upon his own good sense
for a solution to a particular problem of compounding.
Probably the most common problem involving compounds is that
which arises when two or more modifying words immediately precede
the word that they modify. The first part of the question is whether
or not the words constitute a unit modifier, and the second part is
what to do with them if they do. The first part of the question can
be answered by a rule-of-thumb application.
If the modifiers are coordinate -- that is, if each could logi-
cally serve as a single modifier -- they do not constitute a unit modi-
fier. For example, in "short, swift streams" the adjectives are co-
ordinate; either short or swift alone could logically modify streams.
In "40-horsepower engine," however, neither 4o nor horsepower could
logically serve as a single modifier, and in a "carefully prepared
report" only the second word could modify report. In these examples
the first phrase does not contain a unit modifier, and the other two
phrases do.
That part of the question which concerns what should be done if
words constitute a unit modifier cannot be answered by a blanket rule.
The best way to answer the question is to examine some of the major
rules Applicable to the compounding of unit modifiers.
* The use of the hyphen as a line-end division to indicate the contin-
uation of a word is fundamentally a problem of proper syllabification.
Both the GPO Style Manual and the dictionary provide guides for
word division,. In addition, Word Division, fifth edition, October
1952, a pocket-size supplement to the GPO Style Manual -- which lists
more than 20,000 words most commonly used -- should be helpful to the
typist. The principle for the typist to follow is the avoidance of
any kind of word break at ends of lines that interferes with ease and
continuity in reading.
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a. Words combined to form a unit modifier immediately preced-
ing the word or words modified are usually hyphenated:
40-horsepower engine
blue-green clay
fire-tested material
national-defense appropriation
2-inch-diameter pipe
fine-grained sandstone
well-defined line
drought-stricken area
2-inch pipe
4-percent increase
b. The hyphen is not used in a two-word unit modifier if the
first word is an adverb ending in nly":
heavily laden ship
recently designed plan
carefully prepared report
frequently mentioned policy
c. The hyphen is not used in a three-word unit modifier if
the first word is an adverb that modifies the second word:
unusually well preserved specimen
very well defined line
longer than usual period
fairly well known person
If, however, the first word of a three-word unit modifier modifies the
other two, the hyphen is used between those two:
a nearly right-angle bend
thoroughly dirt-impregnated material
a formerly well-known person
a virtually self-educated man
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d. The hyphen is not used in a two-word unit modifier if the
first word is a comparative or a superlative:
higher level decision (but high-level decision)
best liked books (but well-liked books)
lower income group (but low-income group)
highest priced model (but high-priced model)
e. The hyphen is not used in a unit modifier which is a predi-
cate adjective:
The effects were far reaching. (but far-reaching effects
and The effects were far-reaching ones.)
The shale was oil bearing. (but oil-bearing shale)
The area is drought stricken. (but drought-stricken area
and The area is a drought-stricken one.)
The paper is fine grained. (but fine-grained paper and
The paper is of fine-grained stock.)
If, however, the unit modifier follows and reads back to the word or
words modified -- as frequently occurs in listing and tabulation --
the hyphen is used:
1 motor, alternating-current, 3-phase, 60-cycle, 115-volt
2 belts, 2-inch and 1-1/2-inch
f. The hyphen is not:used between proper nouns used as a unit
modifier, in either their basic or derived form:
Latin American countries
US laws
North Dakota oil
World War II period
The hyphen is used, however, if the proper'noun is normally a combined
form:
Afro-American program
French-English descent
Franco-Prussian War
Moscow-Prague axis
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In unit modifiers made up of two or more unit modifiers composed of
proper nouns, whether or not normally combined forms are included,
the hyphen is used between the parts but is spaced for clearness:
North American - South American sphere
Novosibirsk - Anzhero-Sudzhensk area
Alma-Ata - Frunze sector
Ulan-Ude - Chita - Ulan-Bator triangle
g. The hyphen is not used in a unit modifier composed of
chemical terms:
carbon monoxide poisoning
iron carbonate water
sodium chloride solution
ethyl alcohol content
This rule does not apply to all scientific and technical terminology.
The hyphenation of petrographic terms, for example, depends upon the
technical classification of the terms used.
The seven rules given above are the major rules affecting the
uSe of compounds as unit modifiers. Following are some of the more
frequently applicable rules governing compounds in other usages:
a. Prefixes (except ex, self, quasi, and vice) and suffixes
(except elect) are not usually hyphenated when forming a compound:
antedate
antiaircraft
biweekly
cooperate
partnership
self-control
lifelike
counterintelligence
president-elect
isometric
hydroelectric
semiofficial
subcommittee
microphone
twentyfold
nonferrous
northward
vice-president-elect
multicolor
turbogenerator
postscript
unofficial
transship
outlet
clockwise
quasi-academic
ex-vice-president
b. The hyphen is used with prefixes when forming compounds
if mispronunciation or misunderstanding is possible without the hyphen:.
re-cover (cover again)
re-form (form again)
mid-ice
re-treat (treat again)
co-op (but cooperative)
un-ionized
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Prefixes are usually hyphenated when forming compounds
with proper nouns:
anti-Arab
pro-British
un-American
pre-World War II
d. The hyphen is used in all written-out cardinal numbers
from twenty-one through ninety-nine and in all corresponding written-
out ordinal numbers.
e. Compounds of two words designating compass points are
written solid. When the compound is composed of three words, a hyphen
is used after the first word:
northeast southwest
north-northeast south-southwest
f. Compounds of technical terms designating units of measure-
ment are usually hyphenated:
kilowatt-hour light-year board-foot
passenger-mile ,kilovolt-ampere foot-pound
In addition to all the rules and practices governing the use of
the hyphen in particular instances, the writer must be aware that many
other compound words are normally hyphenated regardless of whether or
not they are used as modifiers, such as hard-grained, machine-forged,
and off-sloping. The writer must also be aware that some words, de-
pending upon meaning, are sometimes hyphenated and sometimes not re-
gardless of their position in the sentence. For example, there is a
decided difference in meaning between up to date and up-to-date.
6. Clear Modification and Reference.
Writing is a means of communication which depends upon the
placing of individual words in sequence, and frequently the sequence
of words rather than the words themselves causes a breakdown in the
communication process. The major problems affecting the sequence
of words are those which arise in matters of modification and reference.
Modifying elements are words, phrases, and clauses which limit,
identify, qualify, or expand the meaning of a sentence. Reference ele-
ments are usually pronouns which refer to, or "stand for," another ele-
ment. The fundamental principle of modification and reference is a
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simple one: a sentence should be so written that it is impossible for
the reader to misunderstand the modifying or reference function of any
element in the sentence. Exactly what is modified and what is referred
to should be immediately and unmistakably clear.
Perhaps the most useful guidance can be provided by examples
of unclear modification or reference:
"Their presence can only be determined by qualitative analysis."
(Only is in the wrong place.; it modifies the la phrase, not the verb.
The modifier should be placed as close as possible to the element which
is modified.)
Note the misplaced modifiers in the following sentences:
"Production is mainly estimated on the basis of inputs."
(Mainly belongs after estimated.)
"The plant chiefly relies on subassemblies." (Chiefly belongs
after relies.)
"Men who make such tests often tend to prejudge the results."
(Often here is a "squinting modifier." Does it modify make or tend?
The answer depends upon the meaning, and the position of often must be
shifted accordingly.)
"Care should be taken to see whether such wells are contami-
nated by frequent testing." (Either the sentence does not say what
it means or the tester has been careless.)
"The steel is of the standard gauge used by most manufacturers
with a highly polished surface." (This sentence needs recasting; re-
arrangement will not improve it much.)
"In 1960 it is probable that the pipeline will be completed."
(The in phrase belongs at the end, and the sentence should read "The
pipeline probably will be completed in 1960.")
"In this area it is reported that shortages exist." (Probably
the reporting was not done in this area. The in phrase belongs at the
end of the sentence.)
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"Power supplied to the plant which came from a nearby hydro-
electric station was inadequate." (This sentence needs recasting to
eliminate the ambulatory plant.)
The misplaced modifier in the last sentence produces a pronoun
of doubtful reference. In the following sentences, note the examples
of unclear pronominal reference:
"The plant manager dismissed the production superintendent. He
accused him of favoritism toward his relatives and neglect of his duties."
(The major question is, Who did what and to whom?)
"The basins receive much of the runoff of the adjacent mountain-
ous areas, in which many streams arise, but which discontinue when
they reach the margin of the desert." (The reference of the first
which is clear -- its antecedent is areas. The grammatical antecedent
of the second which and the they is also areas, but the logical ante-
cedent of both is streams. The last clause should be changed to read
"but these streams carry water only as far as the margin of the desert.")
"There is a nine-span steel highway bridge, three of which are
over the normal river channel." (The grammatical antecedent of which
is bridge, but the sentence should be rewritten so that the antecedent
would be nine spans.)
In using a pronoun the writer should not assume that the ante-
cedent of a pronoun exists in the adjectival use of a noun. The fol-
lowing sentence is a simple example:
"There were many moose tracks visible, but none of them could be
seen." (Moose is used as an adjective and cannot serve as the antece-
dent of them. The but clause should read "but no moose could be seen.")
7. Common Troublemakers,
In the English language there are a number of words and groups
of words which commonly get iii the way of understanding. Because they
are not of the "ain't got no" error category, they frequently go unde-
tected. Some of the most common of these troublemakers are discussed
below.
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adapt -- adopt
These words are different in meaning. Adapt, means "to make
suitable," "to cause to conform," "to adjust"; adopt, "to take by
choice ab one's own." One may "adapt a method" if he changes that
method to fit the circumstances. Be may "adopt a method" if he
takes a method and applies it to the circumstances. He may also adopt,
a method and then adapt that method to the circumstances.
affect -- effect
. These words are different in meaning. Effect used as a verb
means "to accOmplish" or "to bring about": "They hope to effect a
change in the plan." Effect used as a noun means "influen77-7re-
sult," "accomplishment7-17-aent": "They tried to bring the plan into
effect"; "The statement was to that effect." Affect is a verb only,
with the exception of its use as a noun in the technical terminology
of psychology. Affect usually means "to alter" or "to influence":
"The changes will not affect the result." It also may mean "to assume"
or "to pretend": "He affects a British accent."
agree to -- agree with
One agrees to a plan and with a person.
Allusion -- illusion
Allusion means "an Indirect reference"; illusion, "an unreal
image or false impression."
alternate -- alternative
Both alternate and alternative may be either adjectives or
nouns. As adjectives, alternate means "taking place by turns" or
"every other one"; alternative, "taking the place of another." One
may write "production in alternate years" and "the alternative method,"
but he may not write "alternative years" or "the alternate method."
As nouns, alternate means "one who takes the place of another"; alter-
native, "something that must be done or taken instead of something else
if the latter is rejected." One may write that 'he served as an al-
ternate" and "the alternative was closing the plant," but he may not
interchange the words.
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an additional or an estimated (and similar expressions)
The indefinite article a (an) should alwayS modify a singu-
lar noun or pronoun. "An additional labor force of 500 men" is
correct; "an additional 500 laborers" is not correct. "An esti-
mated increase in production" is correct; "an estimated 25,000 tons
will be added" is not correct.
Because of the liability to error introduced by the use of
a and an with an intervening modifier "an additional," "an
.estimated," "a reported," "a claimed," "a planned," and so on -- it
Is wise to avoid the usage. For "An estimated 500 more trucks will
be needed," write "It is estimated that 500 more trucks will be
needed." For "a claimed 50,000 tons will be added," write "The
government claims that 50,000 tons will be added." For "a planned
50 million rubles will be invested," write "Plans call for the
investment of 50 million rubles."
Even when the indefinite article is used correctly with the
Intervening modifier, there is danger of the piling up of modifiers.
"An estimated additional 500-man labor force will be needed" is
correct grammatically, but it is awkward to read. It is better
even to use the passive voice and write "It is estimated that
500 more laborers will be needed."
and/or
This term is condemned in formal writing, but it may be
used with certain restrictions. Such a term is needed, and and/or
is concise as well as ,serviceable. The writer should be careful in
using the term, however, not to give an alternative that is not
intended.
ante -- anti
These prefixes are distinct. Ante means "before"; anti,
"against."
apparently -- obviously -- seemingly
Apparently is so often used to mean either "obviously" or
"seemingly" that both meanings are generally accepted. The best
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course for the writer to follow, however, is avoidance of apparently
whenever misunderstanding is possible. Actually, apparently means
something which is visible or something which can be inferred and
connotes likelihood, whereas obviously means not only something which
is seen or inferred but also something which is readily accepted and
connotes certainty. Seemingly is closer in meaning to apparently
than to Obviously.
around -- about
Around does not mean approximately and should never be
used as a synonym for it. To write of producing "around 2 mil-
lion tons" when "about 2 million tons" is meant is as wrong as to
write of talking "around the subject" when "about the subject" is
meant.
as -- because
When used as an equivalent of because, as is not incorrect
but sometimes is ambiguous.
balance -- remainder -- rest
The use of balance to mean that part of a whole which is
left after another part, or other parts, have been removed is a
colloquialism and should be avoided in formal writing. The correct
word is remainder: "Of total output, 70 percent was consumed by
the armed forces, and the remainder Lnot the balanc,27 was consumed
by the civil economy." There is a tendency, however, to use_re-
mainder when more specific wording would be better: "Of total out-
put, 50 percent was consumed by transportation, 30 percent by the
chemical industry, and 20 percent 56t the remaindeilby households."
The noun rest meaning "that which is left" is a loose syno-
nym for remainder and may be used, on an informal level, as a col-
lective noun that takes a plural verb: "The rest of them are not
going." In the writing of formal reports, rest in this sense should
be avoided and should never be used to mean -a quantitative re-
mainder: "After 76 percent had been exported, the-remainder Lriot
the resq was stockpiled." Usually others is a better word than
rest: "Nine of the 26 plants were closed, and the others Lnot the
rest. of thel.7 were forced to curtail production."
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because -- for
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Because means "by the cause of" and gives the reason or cause
for something; it has to do with what went before. For has to do
with the evidence as to why a thing was done and is concerned with
the result rather than the cause; it has to do with what comes after.
Compare "The man took the money because he needed it" with "The man
took the money, for we found his fingerprints on it."
beside -- besides
These words are different in meaning. Beside, a preposition,
designates a place or position: "One plant is beside 5ext t.97 the
other." Besides, an adverb or a preposition, means "in addition"
or "in addition to" and seldom needs to be used in formal writing.
between -- among
Between should be used in reference to two elements; among,
in reference to three or more: "between the two of them"; "aMong
Lot between7 the three of them."
both -- each
Both applies to two persons or things considered jointly;
each applies to one of two or more persons or things considered
separately.
can -- may
Can and may are often misused. Both can and may imply pos-
sibility, but can more often implies the ability or the capability
to do something, and may more often implies permission granted:
"He can do it if he wishes," implying that he is able or capable
of doing it; "He may do it if he wishes," implying that he has
permission to do it. In the following sentence, depending upon
the meaning intended, can implies possibility based upon ability
or capability, and may implies possibility based upon chance with-
out reference to ability or capability: "The enemy can /or ma
attack at a moment's notice."
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case -- instance
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These words should be avoided whenever possible, and usually
avoidance is possible. Following are a few examples of the muddy
writing which the indiscriminate use of case and instance can pro-
duce: "Si in some cases show structural defects"; "In some
cases the conglomerate i8 composed of fragments of shale, and in
such instances it is gray or greenish gray"; "It is seldom the
case that one department or bureau is enabled to render a service
with such potential possibilities of the results being of value
to so many departments or bureaus as is believed is the case in
this instance."
compare to -- compare with
Compare to suggests that two things may be comparable;
compare with, a detailed comparison in which resemblances or lack
of resemblances are pointed out: "An electric power plant may be
compared to a pumping station"; "Production of trucks in 1955
compared with that in 1954 shows an increase of 15 percent."
comprise -- constitute -- consist
These words are overused, particularly comprise in the
passive voice. Comprise and constitute do not mean the same
thing. Comprise means "to include' or "to be made up of." The
meaning of constitute that causes confusion is "to make up as a
constituent element or elements." Thus it is correct to write
"The finished output comprises Zpot constitutef drill presses
and machine lathes" ZT-751711 presses and machine lathes con-
stitute 5ot comnrisil the fini8hed output." Consist of is
generally synonymous with comprise and can be substituted for
it. Too often, however, consist of is used when the simple verb
are would serve. For example, "The products made in this plant
are 5ot consist of radio tubes and transistors."
continual- continuous
Continual and continuous are not synonyms. Continual
means "occurring regularly but with interruptions"; continuous,
"occurring without interruptions either in time or order of suc-
cession." One may write "There were continual shortages of raw
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materials" if he means that the shortages were recurrent. If, how-
ever, he means that the supply of raw materials was never adequate,
he should speak of "a continuous shortage."
credible -- creditable -- credulous
Credible means "believable"; creditable, "praiseworthy";
credulous, overtrustful" or ."easily duped."
data
Data means "facts"; it should not be used to mean "records" or
"documents. Data, like criteria (singular criterion) and phenomena
,
(singular phenomenon), takes a plural verb and plural modifiers.
definite -- definitive
Definite means "precise" or "exact"; definitive, "decisive"
or "final": "The information was definite"; "The decision was
definitive."
dilemma -- difficulty
Dilemma, which implies a situation demanding a choice be-
tween alternatives, should not be used loosely for difficulty.
direct -- directly
Direct means "straight" or "in a straight line"; directly,
"immediately, "promptly," "in a short time."
due to -- owing to -- caused by
These phrases should preferably follow some form of the verb
to be. Due to is much overused and is frequently misused for owing to.
Grammatically, due to may be used as an adjective and owing to may be
used adverbially or as an adjective. In actual practice, due to, owing
to, and caused by should be avoided when because of, on account of, or
the result of is meant.
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each other -- one another
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Each other should be used in reference to two elements; one
another, in reference to, three or more: "The two countries shipped
commodities to each other"; "The three countries shipped commodities
to one another5ot each otheil."
equivalent -- equal
Equivalent should be used only to describe two or more things
which have a qualitative similarity -- an equality in power, signifi-
cance, or effect. Equal has a definite quantitative connotation --
an equality in number or magnitude.
except -- excepting
Except is preferable to excepting: "All machines except
LTOt excepting and not with the exception of the drill presses
are of good quality." In the sentence "The coast line is, with
few exceptions, rocky" it is actually the rockiness, not the coast
line, to which there are exceptions. It would be better to write
"Except in a few places the coast is rocky."
farther -- -further
The word farther refers to a spatial relationship: "Gorsk
is farther than BITTOT-"After the train reached Birsk, it traveled
farTg177- Further refers to a degree or quantity relationship:
"The plan was further developed"; "No further steps are necessary."
The distinction between the two words is often disregarded without
catastrophic consequences, but farther is correctly used to indicate
actual space or distance.
fewer -- less
Fewer concerns number; less, amount: "Fewer laborers worked
in the factory in 1955, and total output was less than that of 1954."
following -- after
Following used as a preposition is a vulgarism. Substitute
the shorter and unambiguous after.
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former -- latter
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Former and latter are so often used ambiguously that it is
- better not to use them at all. Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause
is preferable to misunderstanding resulting from indefinite reference.
gotten -- got
The principal parts of the verb get are aLLI g2,-.L, got.
Gotten, a somewhat archaic form of the past participle, is permis-
sible only in certain phrases, such as "ill-gotten gain."
imply -- infer
Imply means "to hint at"; infer, "to deduce from evidence."
The writer or the speaker implies; the reader or the listener infers.
incredible -- incredulous
Incredible means "too extraordinary to admit of belief";
incredulous, "inclined not to believe on slight evidence."
latter -- last
Latter should be used only in reference to the second of
two persons or things, and not to the last when'three or more are
mentioned. Last should be used in reference to the final one of
three or more persons or things mentioned.
liable -- likely -- apt
Both liable and likely imply probability. Liable connotes
that whin is unfavorable:-7e was liable to arrest." Likely
connotes that which is favorable or, at least, not unfavorable:
"The plant is likely to begin production." Apt means "suited for"
or "appropriate to," or a person is apt if he has a tendency to do
something or is ready to learn. Liable and apj.L. are sometimes im-
properly used for likely.
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like -- as
Like is not in good usage as a conjunction. Use like before
a substantive; use as or as if when a clause follows.
like -- such as
These terms axe different in meaning. Like used as a prep-
osition means "similar to." Such as introduces an example or examples;
"Some machines, like drill presses, ..." means that the "some machines"
are similar to drill presses but that drill presses are not included
in the term. "Some machines, such as drill presses, ..." means that
drill presses are mentioned as an example of the category covered by
"some machines."
limited (for small, slight)
Limited should not be used when the shorter, simpler words
small or slight are actually meant. For example, it makes little sense
to write 77177617ction of these items during 1953 was limited because of
quota regulations." It is wise, then, to avoid such phrases as limited
knowledge, limited amount, limited price, and limited extent unless
the limiting factors themselves are clearly stated or implied.
mutual common
Mutual means "reciprocal" or "interchanged"; common, "belong-
ing tip or shared by more than one," "joint," Igenera17-717dinary."
Mutual should be used only when the element of active interchange is
present; "a mutual agreement," but "a common belief."
output -- production
Strict formal usage would demand a clear distinction in the
use of output and production. Output refers to the amount of a com-
modity or commodities produced in a period of time; production refers
to the process of creating commodities, goods, or values. Custom and
usage, however, have sanctioned the use of production to mean output,
and the two words are generally used interchangeably in ORR reports.
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over (for more than)
Over (and also under) should always be used to denote position,
never gligarty. The following sentence illustrates what can happen if
this principle is ignored: "The ore body usually lies under over 20
feet, and sometimes over 100 feet, of overburden." It is Correct to
write "The ore body usually lies under more than 20 feet, and in some
places more than 100 feet, of overburden.
partially -- partly
Partly is usually preferable to partially. Fastidious writers
save partially to mean "with partiality."
percent -- percentage
These words are not synonymous. Percent is An abbreviated form
.of the Latin per centum, meaning "by the hundred." Percentage is a more
general term and means'nthe rate of interest" or "a part of the whole."
Percent is usually preceded by a number or by a quantitative adjective.
personnel
Personnel means "a body of persons employed in some service" ard
is incorrect when used for individuals, persons, or employees.
portion -- part
Portion, properly used only to mean "a part of a whole set a-
side and thought of as an independent unit," is rarely needed for part..
practical -- practicable
Practical usually describes something proved to be useful or
serviceable -- something based on practice. Practicable means,
"feasible" or "possible." A "practical method" is one that experience
has shown to be useful or serviceable; a "practicable method" is one
that can be performed. A practicable method, however, is not neces-
sarily a practical one. It may prove to be impractical. An imprac-
ticable method, of course, is an impossible one.
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principle -- principal
Misuse of these two words is not always a result of confused
spelling. Principle is always a noun, never an adjective, and means
tta fundamental truth" or "a basic doctrine or law": "The decision
was based on the principle of equality among men." Principal may be
either a noun or an adjective. As a noun it means "chief," "leader,"
"head," or it may refer to a capital sum: "The principal in the
negotiations was the Prime Minister"; "He insisted that the principal
be invested." As an adjective, principal means "main," "leading,
"chief," "major," "primary": "The principal character was the presi-
dent"; "His principal source was a classified document."
prior to (for before) and subsequent to (for after)
Prior to and subsequent to are circumlocutions and usually
mean neither more nor less than before and after. Prior to, however,
is not always incorrect, as is illustrated by the following sentence:
"He made his report prior to 5efore would be ambiguoug the com-
mittee meeting." Both prior and subsequent have legitimate functions
as adjectives -- "prior agreements" and "subsequent events," for ex-
ample -- but even as adjectives they are often less effective than
earlier and following.
proven -- proved
The principal parts of the verb prove are prove, proved,
proved. Proven, an archaic form of the past participle, is not in
good usage.
quite (for very, somewhat, or rather)
Quite means "entirely" or "completely" and should be used only
in that sense. In any other usage it is virtually meaningless. For
example, quite a few and quite a distance are vague, colloquial, and
informal phrases that convey little or no specific information.
range 7- vary
The verb range when pertaining to estimates implies one lower
and one upper limit, and these two limits should be given; otherwise
vary should be used.
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reason is because
The clause reason is because, which is redundant and illogical,
is too frequently used in both speaking and writing for reason is that.
secure -- obtain -- procure
The verb secure means "to make safe," "to protect," "to
close," "to confi:77?Irto fasten"; obtain means "to get possession
of," "to acquire," "to procure"; procure means essentially the
same as obtain. Although the dictionary indicates that the verbs
secure and obtain are sometimes used interchangeably, these words
are not to be used as synonyms in formal writing. One does not
"secure the information from a reliable source" -- he gets or
obtains the information. One "secures the documents" by putting
them in a safe place, but he "procures Lor obtainA7 the documents"
from the library and "obtains information" from them.
similar -- the same
These terms are_not synonymous and should not be used inter-
changeably. "Similar &ot the samil installations were reported at
Birsk."
since -- because
When used as an equivalent of because, since is not incor-
rect but sometimes is ambiguous.
sum -?-? amount
Sum means "a simple addition of two or more items" and is
not an exact equivalent of amount, which means "a combination of
all the sums under consideration."
than -- from
Than should not be used as a preposition for from in the idi-
om different from: "His answer was different from 5.0t thalgthe
kind of re ly that I had expected"; "His answer was different from
/Eot 1thJ what I had expected." Than is always used to express a
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comparative concept. It is correctly used as a preposition in the
following sentences: "He was fond of any drink other than coffee";
"This workman, than whom no man has ever been more industrious,
should be, promoted." It is correctly used as a subordinating con-
junction in the following sentence: "I like this more than LT
likil that."
type
meaning "a particular kind or class" and used alone
is a nOun, not an adjective. The correct idiOmds type of:
"The Browning was the type of gun requisitioned." In compounds,
however, type is sometimes used as a modifier: "The Browning-
type gun was requisitioned," but "The Browning type of gun was
requisitioned" is -better English.
value -- valuation
Value is an attribute, not a substance. Valuation is a
value artificially set.
various (for several or many)
Various is not a synonym for several or many and should be
used only when differehce or variety is the quality to be described.
verbal -- oral
These words are not synonyms. Verbal refers to words,
whether written or spoken. Oral refers to spoken words only. "The
difference between the two sources was purely verbal" means that
the two sources agreed in all essentials but differed in the actual
words used. "The document was based on an oral report" means that
the report on which the document was based was made by word of mouth.
verify -- confirm
Verify means "to provide proof, on the basis of one's own
effort, of the truth or accuracy of a claim or statement which, before
verification, may or may not be true or accurate"; confirm "to pro-
vide support for a claim or statement that is accepted as true or
accurate on the basis of relatively little evidence" or "to provide
support for a claim or statement on the basis of corroborative evi-
dence obtained from another."
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while (for and, but, although, whereas)
While as a subordinating conjunction denotes duration of
time and should not be used indiscriminately as a general-service
conjunction. It is correct to write "Nitric acid was being pro-
duced at Birsk while fertilizer was being produced at Gorsk" if
the production was going on at the same time. But it would be
incorrect to write "Nitric acid was being produced at Birsk in
1952 while fertilizer was being produced at Gorsk in 1953." Fol-
lowing are additional examples of the misuse of while: "In
plant A, steady production was maintained for 20 days, while in
plant B steady production was maintained for only 13 daF7T?
Nhile,water power is economical, it is dependent on water supply."
"At some places the river is very deep, while at others there
are shallows." A safe rule to follow is never to use while unless
it means "at the same time that."
with (for and or but plus a verb)
With is frequently misused for and plus a verb: "At
Birsk the average rainfall is 3.97 inches, with the minimum 1.05
Inches"; "Production is highest in August, with the minimum pro-
duction in February"; "Ore iS transported to the river by rail,
with barge transportation from there to the plant at Gorsk."
With is also misused for but plus a verb: "The ore is
mostly of low grade, with some deposits of high grade present";
"The power station is generally dependable, with some failures
during the winter months."
8. Jargon and Triteness.
The word jargon originally meant "chattering." The
essence of that meaning is retained when the word is applied to
confused, unintelligible language -- gibberish -- and to trite
cliche-cluttered writing. The word jargon now has a second
meaning -- the highly specialized language of a trade, profession,
science, art, or occupation (see V, 11, p. 40, above). Good intel-
ligence reports scrupulously avoid jargon of the first kind and
minimize jargon of the second kind.
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Some technical terminology is necessary in ORR reports, and
the analyst is not expected to reduce his language to the level of
words of one syllable. He should remember, however, that the use
of too many technical terms in reports results in turgid prose,
which not only is, in bad taste and obscures meaning but also may
produce a ludicrous or unconsciously humorous effect. Excessive
use in reports of any kind of jargon is bad -- pomposity and
bombast are worse.
A kind of pseudojargon, consisting of ordinary words or
phrases used unnecessarily and meaninglessly, may be even more
detrimental to good writing than either the jargon of gibberish
or the jargon of specialization. This kind of jargon is almost
-always circumlocution, and often it is trite circumlocution.
When one says, "The answer is in the negative" instead of "No,"
he is using a trite grouping of words that blurs meaning. The
same is true of an abstract phrase like "the fact that," which
should be avoided when the same idea can. be expressed more directly.
Even certain words, such as factor (which means "that which pro-
duces a result") or basis or asset, are used loosely or too fre-
quently. Why write above-mentioned or the archaic aforementioned
when mentioned above is better? Any word or expression may smack
of jargon or become trite through overuse.
Following are some examples of sentences infested with jargon
and triteness, with each example purified stylistically:
a. There are many data available which lend support to
the aforementioned conclusion. (Available data support this con-
clusion.)
b. In the case of the steel plants there is another instance
of increased production. (The steel plants also increased production.)
c. The Birsk mines are highly mechanized, but along these
lines the Gorsk mining operations are lacking. (The Birsk mines
are highly mechanized, but the Gorsk mines are not.)
d. There is present in this deposit some amount of free
silver. (This deposit contains some free silver.).
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e. Gorsk is situated near Birsk. (Gorsk is near Birsk.)
f. Upon analysis the sample was found to contain some
traces of tungsten. (Analysis revealed traces of tungsten in
the sample.)
g. On the basis of these data the following conclusions
can be derived. (These data lead to these conclusions)
h. The nature of the metal does not lend itself to fabrica-
tion purposes. (The metal is not suitable for fabrication.)
i. The surface is of a very uneven character. (The surface
is very uneven.)
j. With proper drainage conditions the land could be made
suitable for farMing purposes. (With proper drainage the land
could be made suitable for farming.)
Following are further examples of words and phrases to be
used with discrimination or avoided altogether. (The words or
phrases in parentheses are not always to be used as substitutes,
but they are simpler and frequently either preferable, or more
effective.)
a. Roundabout Prepositional Phrases.
along the lines of (like)
by means of (with, by)
fOr the purpose of (for)
in accordance with (with, by, according to)
in a number of cases (often, frequently, some)
in case of (if)
in connection with (of, with,
in order to (to)
in (with) reference to (with,
concerning)
in (with) regard to (of, with,
in (with) relation to (toward,
concerning)
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on, in, about
toward, to, on
on,
to,
concerning)
in, about,
in, about, concerning)
with, oni in, about,
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in (with) respect to (of, with, on, in, about, concerning)
In the amount of (for, about, to)
in the ease of (on, in, about, conberning)
in the event of (if)
in the majority of instances (usually)
in the matter of (on, in, about, concerning)
in the neighborhood of (about)
In order of (in)
in the timeof (during)
in view of (because)
In view of the fact that (as, because)
on behalf of (for)
on occasion (occasionally)
on the order of (about)
on the part of .(for, among)
b. Crutch Words That Should Not Be Leaned upon Too Heavily.
apparently
as a rule
as a usual case
as such
as
commonly
considerably
especially
generally
in a word
incidentally
indubitably
in general
in many instances
in most cases
in other words
in short
it appears
It cannot be said
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it is believed
it is generally accepted that
it is thought
it is well known that
it seems
naturally
normally
obviously
on the whole
ordinarily
particularly
presumably
seemingly
seems to indicate
substantially
to sum up
undoubtedly
usually
c. Words and Phrases the Use of Which Requires Precise Analysis
of the Context.
accompanied by (with)
accomplish (do)
acquaint (tell, inform)
advise (tell, inform)
ameliorate (improve)
anticipate (expect)
approximately (about)
are not in a position to (cannot)
around (about)
as a basis for (for)
ascertain (learn)
as regards (on, in, about, concerning)
assistance (help)
as to (on, in, about, concerning)
at all times (always)
at an early date (soon)
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commence (begin, Start)
commencement (beginning)
commitment (promise)
conclude (close)
conduct (do, make)
consequently (then)
considerable (much)
consummate (complete, bring about)
contribute (give)
demonstrate (show)
determine (decide, find out)
due to the fact that (because)
during (in)
effect an improvement (improve)
effect (make, take)
effectuate (bring about)
employ (use)
employment (job, work)
encounter difficulty (find it hard, have trouble)
endeavor to ascertain (try to find out)
expiration (end)
-finalize -(end, conclude, complete)
following (after)
foregoing (preceding)
forward (send)
furnish (give)
give consideration to (consider)
implement (carry out)
Inadvertency (error, mistake)
in a, satisfactory manner (satisfactorily)
inasmuch as (as, since, because)
inaugurate (begin, start)
indicate (show, tell)
initial (first)
initiate (begin, start)
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in lieu of (in place of)
in order to insure (make sure)
interpose no objection (do not object, approve)
in the event that (if)
in the meantime (meanwhile)
in the near future (soon)
lengthy (long)
locality (place)
locate (find)
majority (most)
make provision for (do)
meet with approval (be approved)
modification (change)
nominal (small)
notwithstanding the fact that (although even though)
objective (aim)
obligate (bind)
optimum (best, greatest
participate (take part)
party (person)
place (put)
practically (almost, nearly, virtually)
preclude (prevent)
present (show)
presently (shortly, in a short time)
previous to (before)
procure (get)
pursuant to (under)
rarely ever (seldom)
reflect (show)
regarding (about)
render (give)
reside (live)
retain (keep)
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seldom ever (seldom)
still remains (remains)
submitted (sent)
subsequent to (after)
substantial (large)
substantially all (almost all)
sufficient (enough)
terminated (ended)
the present time (now)
this time (now)
transmit (send)
until such time as (until)
utilize (use)
utilization (use)
very complete (complete)
vis-a-vis (in, on, about, concerning, compared with,
contrasted with)
d. Words and Phrases That Should Be Discarded Altogether.
abreast of the times
absolutely essential
acid test
after all is said and done
after due consideration
after weighing all the evidence
all in all
as a matter of fact
at all costs
benevolent despot
be that as it may
beyond the Shadow of a doubt
bitter end
brink of disaster
brought to a head
by and large
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checkered career
Complete the picture
complete the scene
considered opinion
conspicuous by its absence
dynamic personality
doomed to disappointment
doomed to failure
drastic action
each and every
epic struggle
evidence to the contrary notwithstanding
exception proves the rule
explore every avenue of approach
fall by the wayside
familiar landmarks
few and far between
first and foremost
first, last, and always
for better or for worse
force of circumstances
foreseeable future
for some time to come
for that matter
fraught with danger
fund of knowledge
give free rein
go against the current
go against the grain
gOes without saying
goodly number
highly significant
hit an all-time low
hold no brief for
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if the worst comes to the worst
imposing array
impressive figure
in dire straits
indissoluble ties
in great profusion
in the last analysis
in the light of recent developments
It is interesting to note that
it is the consensus of opinion that
it stands to reason
last but not least
life-anddeath struggle
long-felt want
make every effort
more or less
more than meets the eye
never before in the history of
news leaked out
one of the most unique
optimum benefit
order out of chaos
other side of the coin
other things being equal
paramount issue
,potential possibility
powers that be
predicated on the assumption that
psychological moment
ruthless dictator
sheds light upon
speculation .was rife
successfully achieve
suffice it to say
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take concrete steps
teeming millions
that being the case
this day and age
tide of events
too numerous to mention
to the bitter end
undercurrent of excitement
unexpected turn of events
unimpeachable source
unprecedented activity
untiring efforts
up?to-the-minute ideas
usually reliable source
venture an opinion
without question
In his reading, the analyst should grow conscious of the
stifling effect resulting from the use, the too frequent use, or
the misuse of words and phrases of the types listed under a, b,
c, and d, above. In his writing, the analyst should strive to cull
these words and phrases to the ultimate improvement of his reports
and his own satisfaction and pleasure in preparing good reports.
This effort is the least that he can afford to make. If the
analyst will become language-conscious and severely critical of
every word that he writes, eventually he may hope to make his
language as much a tool of his profession as he makes his knowl-
,edge of a particular field of research.
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APPENDIX A
TABULAR PRESENTATION*
The comments on tabular presentation which follow should be con-
sidered in conjunction with sample Table 2.**
1. Numbering.
a. Tables are numbered consecutively in order of physical loca-
tion. When tables appear in appendixes, the first appendix table
bears the number following that of the last table in the body of the
report.
b. The table number should be placed above the title and centered
on the page.
c. Tables should be intrOduced (parenthetically, if necessary)
and referred to by number in textual commentary. (When textual refer-
ences are widely separated from tables, page numbers should be given
In footnotes.)
d. Small tabulations within the text are not numbered (see 11,
p. 92, below).
2. Title.
a. The title of a table should be in topic form, briefly indicat-
ing what, where, and when, in order of importance. For example, if a
report deals with the harmonica industry of East Germany, a table em-
phasizing production might be headed "Production of Harmonicas in East
* See also V, 7, p. 31, above.
** Table 2 follows on p. 89. Note that this type of footnote should
be inserted when the table does not follow on the same page as the main
reference thereto. All other footnote references to tables should be
by page number, with "above" or "below" added (for example, see p. 92,
below). See also sample Table 1 in Figure 1, following p. 36, above,
and CIA/RR RA (ORR Project 11.3), The Presentation of Statistical Data,
11 March 1955, FCR OFFICIAL USE ONLY, which for analysts of theEco-
namic Research Area is superseded by the discussion of tabular presen-
tation in this research aid.
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_Germany, 1930-52." If, on the other hand, the report is on production
of musical instruments in East Germany, a table on production of har-
monicas might be headed "Harmonica Production in East Germany, 1930-
52." If the place is to be emphasized, in a report on world produc-
tion of harmonicas, the table might be headed "East German Production
of Harmonicas, 1930-52." Whichever order or emphasis is chosen, it
should be used consistently throughout a single report, or, in some
instances, throughout a section of a report having a specific emphasis.
b. Dates (see V, 6, p. 31, above) showing the period covered should
be placed on a separate line beneath the descriptive part of the title.
The type of year used, if other than a calendar year, should be indicated
in the title of the table or in a footnote.
c. Titles should be given with initial capital letters, should not
be underlined, and should not be followed by a period.
d. When a table covers more than one page, the word Continued in
parentheses should appear under the title on all pages except the first.
3. Prefatory Note.
A prefatory note may be placed directly beneath the descriptive
part of the title and before the date(s) for the purpose of clarify-
ing or limiting the title, provided this explanation can be given in
a brief phrase. Such brief notes should be of a general nature, apply-
ing to all or most of the table. Longer explanations or explanations
of specific items in the table should always be given in footnotes.
4. Spacing.
There should be a double space between the title (including the
word Continued in parentheses, when used) and the beginning of the
table. The unit of measurement, placed as indicated under 5, a,
below, marks the beginning of the table for this purpose.
5. Units.
a. When the unit of measurement is the same throughout the table,
it should be placed at the extreme right, not in parentheses, on the
solid line marking the beginning of the table.
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[TITLE]
Table 2
Production and Cost of Turtle Food in Selected Counties
(Excluding Cottage Production)
of Ruritania a/ r
LPREFAToRY Nan]
.APTION-ll
1938 and 1946-53
[UNITS]
Year
\ County X /2/
County Y
County Z
"Total
ction
ProduProduction
(Pounds)
Cost c/
(Dollars)
Production
(Pounds)
Cost
(Dollars)
Production
(Pounds)
Cost
(Dollars)
Production
(Pounds)
Cost
(Dollars)
1938
1947
////1946
194 8
1949
1950
400
210
260
300
300 g/
320
1 400
82
60
loo
120
130
150
6o
i/
120 11
30
35
55
70
90
280
100
120
130
630
22
9-5
12
19
25
35
100
Negligible
Negligible
2.2
4 .o
2.0
Negligible
8.2
0.1
0.1
0.9
1.9
1.4
0.2
4.5
2/
520
240
300 E/
360
370
410
1,700
100\
70 \
121-011 \\
1
160 \
190 \ \
\
-\,
660 pDEPYI
210
260
270
/
1 400 /
[s][1.1 Total, 1946-5o
\ 1951 12
\ 1952
\ 1953 11/
\\Total, 1946-53
Average, 1946-53
350
koo
410
2,600
160
200
210
1,100
- 43
52 2
58
250
3.3
4.1
4.2
20
2.5
3.0
3-9
3-9
15
1.9
450
520
540
3,200
320
140
79
31
400
170/
a. Except where Indicated otherwise, all data contained in Table 2 are from source 103/. All data are rounded to two
significant figures. Totals and averages are derived independently from unrounded figures and do not always agree
with rounded data shown.
b. As of 1 July.
c. Except where indicated otherwise, cost data for County X are from source 104/.
d. 105/
e. 176/
f. 107/
g. ITU/
h. 109/
i. TIU/
j. 111/
k. Data for 1953 are from the following sources: County X, 112/; County Y, 113/; County Z, 114/.
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amealaikaialiso
b. When there is more than one unit of measurement and the data
are arranged in columns, units should be indicated in parentheses in
the caption, below column headings. When the data are arranged in rows,
a units column may be used to designate the unit of measurement for
each row. Units in a units column should not be enclosed in parentheses.
6. Caption (Column Headings).
a. Column headings should be brief and in the singular.
b. Comparable column headings should be consistent -- for example,
value is comparable to quantity, not tons:
c. Units of measurement should appear in parentheses under the
appropriate heading (see 5, b, above).
d. Underlining of column headings or subheadings should extend
to the limits of all columns under the heading.
7. Stub (Row Headings).
a. Stub entries (side entries), or row headings, should be listed
in the order best suited to the data -- for example, geographically,
alphabetically, according to importance, and so on.
b. When a second line is required for a stub entry, the second
line should be indented, and related column entries should be placed
opposite the bottom line of the stub entry.
c. Subheadings should be double-spaced below main headings and
indented two spaces. Items subordinate to subheadings should be
double-spaced below the subheadings and indented two spaces.
d. Totals and averages should be double-spaced. below the entry
which they follow, and the designation should be indented two spaces.
e. Stub entries should not be underlined.
8. Body.
a. A cipher (0) should be entered when data have values of
zero.
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b. When data have values equal to or less than one-half of the
minimum unit being carried, the word Negligible should be entered.
c. When data are not available but the phenomenon which the data
would represent is known to exist, the abbreviation N.A. (not avail-
able) should be entered.
d. When data are not available and it is not known whether any
item or activity exists to be represented, the word Unknown should
be entered.
e. In figures of four or more digits the comma should be used.
f. Totals should be underlined with a single line, grand totals
with.a double line.
g. Ditto marks, hyphens (except in dates), and dashes should
never be used in tables.
h. Signs and symbols, like abbreviations, may sometimes be
used in tables to conserve space.
9. Footnotes.*
a. Lowercase letters are used to identify table footnotes.
b. In making footnote identifications, each line, or row, should
be considered in its order, with more than one identification on a
given line lettered consecutively from left to right.
c. Footnote identifications should be placed after an entry.
When there is no entry, the footnote identification should be placed
in the position of the entry.
d. When a table is more than one page
should appear at the end of the table. In
footnote identification should be followed
and the asterisked reference at the bottom
read, for exam le, as follows: "Footnotes
on p. 5Umber ."
* See also V, 8, p. 33, above.
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long, footnote entries
such cases the first
by an asterisk (2/*),
of the first page should
to Table ffiumbeE7 follow
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10. Source Identifications.
Source identification numbers should be kept out of tables. Lower-
case letters, arranged alphabetically, are used to footnote all material
in tables. When the footnote identification is to a source, the source
identification number should be given in the table footnote following
the lowercase letter representing the footnote identification. All
footnotes should be read at the time of the footnote identification,
and source identifications in table footnotes should follow each other
in the order established in the text as well as in the order in which
the report ts read (see Table 2*). (See V, 7 and 8, pp. 31-35, above.)
11. Small Tabulations Within the Text.
a. Small -tabulations within the text are considered to be part of
the text and may have the format of a table.
b. Small tabulations should be introduced with a statement, such
as "Production of electric power during the 4-year period was as
follows:"
Year
US Production
of Electric Power Index
(Billion KWH) (1950 = 100)
1950
389
100
1951
433
111
1952
463
119
1953
514
132
c. Footnotes to small tabulations within the text are considered
to be text footnotes and are treated accordingly.**
P. 89, above.
** See the sample tabulation in Figure 1, following p. 36, above.
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APPENDIX B
TRANSLATION AND TRANSLITERATION
1. Translation.
Translation may be defined as a roughly equivalent rendition from
one language into another. Words and phrases from foreign languages
which have not been absorbed into English or which, although absorbed,
remain foreign to unspecialized readers and must be defined will be
underlined and followed by an Englist translation in parentheses the
first time that the foreign word or phrase appears in an ORB report.
On subsequent appearances the foreign word or phrase will be neither
underlined nor followed by an English translation. Certain foreign
words in this category are exceptions to this rule and are neither
underlined nor defined. Because Russian is the foreign language most
frequently encountered by ORB analysts, Russian words will be used
as examples. The rule for translation of foreign words and phrases,
however, applies equally to translations from all foreign languages.
Examples of Russian words neither underlined nor defined are given
In a and b, below. Examples of Russian words and phrases that must
be defined are discussed in c, below. The rules for the treatment
of names of foreign organizations are exemplified in d, below.
a. Russian Words Absorbed into the English Language.
Certain Russian words have been absorbed into the English
language:
artel (artel') menshevik
bolshevik (bol'shevik) podsol (podzol)
chernozem ruble (rubl')
chervonets sovkhoz
commissar (komissar) steppe (step')
feldsher (felldsher) suslik
kolkhoz taiga (tayga)
kopeck (kopek) tundra
kulak ukase (ukaz)
kvass (kvas) vodka
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b. Russian Territorial-Administrative Designations.
Russian words for which there are no precise English trans-
lations are frequently used to designate territorial-administrative
areas:
guberniya okrug
kray rayon
oblast (oblast') uyezd
Words in the category of the examples noted here and in a,
above, are treated as English words, will take the English plural in
-s or -es (kolkhozes, krays), and are neither underlined* nor followed
by their translations in parentheses. All other Russian words are
treated as foreign words and take the appropriate Russian plurals.
For example, the plural of kolkhoznik (collective farmer) is kolkhozniki
(collective farmers), although the plural of kolkhoz (collective farm)
is kolkhozes.
c. Russian Words and Phrases That Must Be Defined.
The usual procedure in using a Russian word or phrase that must
be defined is to underline the? word or phrase and follow it with an Eng-
lish translation in parentheses the first time that it appears -- for
example, "Facilities are financed in part from the kul'tfond (social-
cultural fund)." Depending upon the context of a particular statement,
however, it may be preferable sometimes to give the English designation
first, followed by the term in the foreign language, underlined and in
parentheses -- for example, "Facilities are financed in part from the
social-cultural fund (kul'tfond)."
Wherever possible, foreign words appearing in ORR publications
will be given in the nominative case, singular CT plural depending
upon the context, of the particular foreign language involved -- for
example, "outlines of the proyekty (projects)," not "outlines of the
proyektov (projects)." Oblique cases may be used, however, when the
context demands such use, as in the translation of a quotation from
a foreign language -- for example, "Produced by contract (podryadnym
sposobom)" is preferable to "Produced by contract (podryadnyy sposob)."
* Words of any language, including English, treated as words are alWays
?underlined for example, "The word the is a definite article"; "The
plural of kolkhoz is kolkhozes."
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Oblique cases must be used for words in a phrase dependent
upon other words in the same phrase if demanded by the rule of
grammar of the foreign language -- for example, Ministerstvo Vodnogo
Khozyaystva (Ministry of Water Transport) and upravlyayushchiy
delami (director of affairs or business manager). In these examples,
Ministerstvo and upravlyayushchiy are in the Russian nominative case;
Vodnogo Khozyaystva is in the genitive case modifying Ministerstvo;
and delami is a plural noun in the instrumental case following
upravlyayushchiy.
d. Names of Foreign Organizations.
Names of foreign organizations are usually translated into Eng-
lish and followed at their first appearance by the foreign form and its
abbreviation, if any, in parentheses. Thereafter the abbreviation may
be used (see V, 3, p. 28, above). Examples are as follows: Committee
on State Security (Komitet po Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosti -- KGB); Min-
istry of the Aviation Industry (Ministerstvo Aviatsionnoy Promysh-
lennosti -- MAP); Main Administration of the Metallurgical Industry
(Glavnoye Upravleniye Metallurgicheskoy Promyshlennosti -- GUMP); Young
Communist League (Kommunisticheskoy Soyuz Molodezhi KSM or Komsomol);
Institute of Economic Research (Institut Ekonomicheskikh Issledovaniy --
IEI). Sometimes, as with English abbreviations (see V, 3, p. 28, above),
when the foreign abbreviation is well known, it is used throughout the
report without explanation -- for example, SSSR, RSFSR, SSR, Gosbank,
Gosplan, Gossnab, Gosizdat. Names of foreign organizations, like
names of organizations in English, are not underlined in either their
full or abbreviated form.
2. Translation Aids.
In the absence of an Agency-wide or IAC list of standard trans-
lations for Russian words or phrases, the decisions of the Ad Hoc
Committee on Standardization of Translated Russian Terminology will
be acceptable as translations of Russian organizational and adminis-
trative terms.
Useful publications furnishing translations of difficult Russian
words and phrases appearing in the Soviet press and on the Soviet
radio are as follows: State, Moscow, Review of the Soviet Press
Annex No. 1, Translation Guide January 1950,RESTRICTED*
STATSPEC
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1 September 1950, UNCLASSIFIED; and Department of the Army, Corps
of Engineers, Army Map Service, Russian Glossary, December 1951,
UNCLASSIFIED.
CIA, FDD, Reference Aid No. 39, Foreign Language Serial Publica-
tions Exploited by Foreign Documents Division, 10 June 1955, SECRET,
gives the titles of all foreign-language newspapers and periodicals
exploited by the Foreign Documents Division (FDD) and is recommended
to ORR analysts as a guide to proper transliteration (see 4, below) and
translation of titles.
A useful guide to Soviet personal names is CIA, FDD, Reference
Aid No. 30, Key to Soviet Personal Names, 12 April 1955, FOR OFFICIAL
USE ONLY.
The CIA Library carries dictionaries in virtually all languages
likely to be encountered in OFR research. These dictionaries may be
used in the library and in some cases borrowed for a period of 2
weeks. In addition, it is recommended that ORR analysts obtain for
retention dictionaries of those languages most frequently encountered
in their own research -- Russian; German; French; and, in special'
circumstances, Chinese.
Consultants in foreign languages end area experts are available
in FDD, and time spent-with them in checking translations from for-
eign documents and transliteration of non-English words, phrases,
names, and terms will be time well invested.
3. Standard Usage.
Certain practices have been established in ORB reports for han-
dling troublesome words and phrases. It is recommended that ORB
analysts follow the practices noted below.
The phrases "new course" and "new lands" will be enclosed in
quotation marks.
The initial letters of the words state and government will not be
capitalized when reference is made to the Soviet state or the Soviet
government or to the states or the governments of the other countries
of the Sino-Soviet Bloc. The terms state loan and state reserves will
not be capitalized unless reference is made to them as parts of the
Soviet budget or the budgets of the other countries of the Sino-Soviet
Bloc.
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References to Soviet ministries will be, for example, to the Minis-
try of Defense rather than to the Ministry for Defense.
The term machine tractor station will not be capitalized unless
the term occurs as part of a title -- for example, the Stalin Machine
Tractor Station. The abbreviation will be MTS, which may also be
used adjectivally as in the MTS program. The plural of MTS is MTS's.
The word Soviet (Sovet), which means "council," may not be used
as a noun to mean an inhabitant of the USSR but may be used as an ad-
jective in this sense. For example, "The Soviet government and the
Soviet people participated in World War II" is acceptable, but "The
Soviets participated in World War II" is not acceptable. The use of
the noun Soviets should be limited to certain administrative bodies
in the USSR designated by the name Soviet. As a noun or an adjec-
tive, Russian may be used to refer to a particular ethnic group with-
in the USSR as opposed to Ukrainians, for example, or to a Slavic
language. The word Russian may not be used as a synonym for a Soviet
citizen, nor the word Russians as a synonym for the Soviet people or
the USSR.
4. Transliteration.
Tranbliteration (for speakers of English) is the process of convert-
ing into the roman, or Latin, alphabet languages which use a system of
writing other than the roman alphabet. Transliteration consists in as-
signing some letter of the roman alphabet, some group of letters, or some
artificial symbol to each character of the original alphabet,-,thus re-
producing the traditional orthography in roman letters.
Numerous systems have been set up for the transliteration of for-
eign alphabets. For example, at least six clearly defined systems and
several haphazard amalgams are in daily use for the transliteration
of the Russian language, which uses the Cyrillic alphabet. To elimi-
nate the confusion inherent in the random use of several systems of
transliteration, it is essential that ORE analysts use a single system
of transliteration.
A system of transliteration should be based upon the principles of
uniformity and simplicity. A single letter or a digraph (a group of two
letters representing a single speech sound) in the roman alphabet should,
if possible, always stand for the same symbol in the foreign alphabet.
The use of symbols or diacritical marks to supplement the roman alphabet
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should be kept to a minimum. A system of transliteration should
facilitate the recognition of the transliterated word and, if
necessary, the reconstruction of the original text.
Although reports of the Economic Research Area will not use dia-
critical marks for languages written in the roman alphabet, French
and Spanish are so widely known that the omission of diacritical marks
in these languages would tend to confuse the reader rather than sim-
plify the text. Consequently, for French, the grave accent (`), the
acute accent (l), the circumflex accent (0^), and the c cedilla (9)
will be shown; and for Spanish, the n tilde (A). In place of the
German umlaut over a vowel, the umlauted vowel will be followed by an
e (ae for a, oe for o, and ue for Languages of the Soviet Bloc
written in the roman alphabet for Which diacritical marks will not
be shown include Czech, Polish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Rumanian,
Albanian, Hungarian, and Estonian.
CIA, HB 50-15-1, Transliteration Handbook, January 1954, UNCLAS-
SIFIED, provides transliteration tables based upon the principles of
uniformity and simplicity for various widely used languages employing
writing systems other than the roman alphabet. In accordance with
CIA Regulation No. 50-150, Transliteration of Foreign Languages,
6 January 1954, SECRET, the systems of transliteration given in this
research aid are approved for CIA Use and will be followed by ORB
analysts.
.Forl' the transliteration of Russian and other languages using the
Cyrillic alphabet, the CIA system of transliteration is that pre-
scribed by the Board on Geographic Names (BGN). For conversion from
other systems of transliteration for the Cyrillic alphabet to the
-BGN system, the analyst is referred to the following three publica-
tions of the Geographic Research Area of ORB: Russian Alphabet,
GR 1304, January 1953, UNCLASSIFIED; Transliteration Table, 13173,
April 1954, UNCLASSIFIED (see Figure 2*); and Transliteration Table,
13301, June 1954, UNCLASSIFIED (see Figure 3*).
* Following p. 102.
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In transliterating from the Cyrillic alphabet into the roman
alphabet, the analyst must pay special attention to the Cyrillic
letters and combinations noted below and their roman equivalents:
soft sign, transliterated by the symbol of the apostrophe
? hard sign, transliterated by the symbol of the quotation
marks (")
? ye used initially, after vowels, and after the soft and
the hard signs; elsewhere e
be tye
-be "ye
3 always e
6
? always g
EL y
Lie yye
ECIA yy
Chinese will be transliterated in accordance with the revised
Wade-Giles System with certain exceptions as noted in CIA, HB 50-
15-1, Transliteration Handbook, January 1954, UNCLASSIFIED, p. 15.
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5. Place Names.
The latest editions of the various NIS Gazetteers, as supplemented
by current decisions of the_BGN on place names, will be accepted as
the final authority for all place names given in ORR reports.*
If the NIS Gazetteer gives only one form of a place name, this will
be the form appearing in ORR reports. If more than one form of a place
name is given by the NIS Gazetteer, the ORR analyst may use the accept-
able conventional form or the preferred original-language form, depend-
ing upon which form he feels will be most familiar to his readers. The
first time that the place name appears, however, any alternate forms
given by the NIS Gazetteer will follow in parentheses. On subsequent
appearances of the place name, any alternate forms will be omitted.
If a place name does not appear in the NIS Gazetteer in any form,
it will be transliterated according to the BGN system of translitera-
tion for the particular language involved. If coordinates are avail-
able for this place name, the coordinates should be given in paren-
theses after the first appearance of the place name in the report.
According to the NIS Gazetteer for the USSR, names of autonomous
republics, oblasts, autonomous oblasts, krays, national okrugs, and
rayons in the USSR will be given in their adjectival forms, followed
by their respective geographic designation, as illustrated by the
following examples:
Mbrdovskaya Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR)
Astrakhanskaya Oblast
Adygeyskaya Autonomous Oblast (AO)
Khabarovskiy Kray
Taymyrskiy National Okrug (NO)
Kozhvinskiy Rayon
* For the use of the hyphen in place names that are unit modifiers
made up of two or more unit modifiers, combined or not combined, see
VI, 5, f, p. 57, above. Place names are not underlined.
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Cities, towns, and villages will be given in their noun forms,
as follows:
Moscow (note that Moscow rather than Moskva is preferred)
Tbilisi
Gor1kiy
Kiev (preferred to Klyev)
Arkhangellsk
Kharlkov
The preferred forms of the 16 Soviet Socialist Republics are
given below:
Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR)
Azerbaydzhan SSR
Belorussian SSR
Estonian SSR
Georgian SSR
Karelo-Finnish SSR
Kazakh SSR
Kirgiz SSR
Latvian SSR
Lithuanian SSR
Moldavian SSR
Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (RSFSR)
Tadzhik SSR
Turkmen SSR
Ukrainian SSR
Uzbek SSR
The English definite article precedes all of the above Soviet
republics used in the anglicized adjectival form ending in -ian.
The English definite article is not used for any of the other Soviet
republics.
of Azerbaydzhan SSR of the Estonian SSR
In Kirgiz SSR in the Moldavian SSR
One feature of Soviet toponymy relates to suffixes. As a locality
rises from a small village to a large village and then to a workers'
settlement, town, or city, the suffix of the name (if such a suffix
exists at all) may change successively from skaya to skoye to skiy and
to o or sk. A hypothetical small village named for Stalin would thus
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be successively known as Stalinskaya, Stalinskoye, Stalinskiy, and
Stalino or Stalinsk as it passes through the phases of growing urbani-
zation. These changes in suffixes are due to changes in gender of the
words signifying village (feminine derevnya, neuter selo), workers'
settlement (masculine rbochiy poseia)TOT city (masculine gorod). It
is therefore not uncommon to encounter different spellings for the same
place depending upon the recency of the source.
Place names which lack suffixes are also encountered and are
generally applied to sizable cities. Suffixes signifying "town" or
"city," such as Russian grad (a variant of gorod), Armenian akan,
and Iranian abad, also occur frequently.
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PROVISIONAL
TRANSLITERATION TABLE
Russian?Miscellaneous Foreign Languages?English
Figure 2
RUSSIAN
ALBANIAN
GREEK
ITALIAN
RUMANIAN
TURKISH
B.G.N.*
EXPLANATORY NOTES
A a
a
A a
a
a
1
"e" used initially, after vowels (a, e, e, H, o, y, IA, 8,10, H), and after
j
s and is; elsewhere "e".
2"h" normally used, although "kh" is occasionally used.
3Sometimes omitted entirely.
4When used initially.
5When used initially.
6,When used initially.
?itfs" used in final position; "a" used elsewhere.
8 cgs" used in final position; "a" used elsewhere.
s"s" used in final position; "o' used elsewhere.
10 ctg, ,,
h used before "e" or "i."; "g" used elsewhere.
11 g,, used for the Russian digraph "g az" before "e" or "i"; "ge"
12,, and "gi" used for the digraph before "a", "o" and "u".
ch" used before "e" or "I"; "k" or "e used elsewhere.

13"c"__ used before "e" or "i"; "ci" and "ce" before "a", "o" and
"u"; "ci" in the final position.
14 ?se, used before "e" or "i"; "sci" and "sce" before "a", "o" and
,i),
11?
I used after consonants and in the final position; sometimes
omitted entirely.
16"V" and "f" normally used interchangeably, although "f" used in
final position in place names of non-Russian origin.
17 tgye" used initially, after vowels (a, e, 6, II, o, y, m, 3, 10, Ii), and after
% and E.; elsewhere "e".
189?c" used for the Russian digraph "Tk at".
Turkish undotted letter "i".
20 gg ,,
u used in place names of non-Russian origin, particularly
German and Turkish names; "yu" used elsewhere.
21 "ye" used initially, after vowels, (a, e, e, 11, o, y, m, a, so, H), and after
7., and is; elsewhere "e".
ggye used initially, after vowels (a, e, e, H, o, y, m, a, to, H) and after
is and E.; elsewhere "e".
GENERAL: This table and other tables to be issued in the
future are designed to facilitate the direct conversion to the
B.G.N. system of such Russian place names as appear in
transliterated form in other foreign languages. In order to
achieve uniformity, it is of utmost importance that foreign
transliterations from the Russian be converted to the B.G.N.
system, even though the original transliteration uses the
Roman alphabet. This table gives foreign language trans-
literations of the Russian, which can then be directly equated
to the B.G.N. system.
*United States Board on Geographic Names
UNCLASSIFIED
B 6
b
mz 4
b
b
b
b
B B
y
B 0
v
v
v(01
v
r
g
r K 5
gh
g(gh)io
g
g
.21 ,31
d
NT 6
d
d
d
d
E e
e(je)
jo
E g
Ilio, Io
e ie
io
e ie
__i_
io
e_bre)1
yo
e(ye)21
e(ye) 22
t 8
AC at
zh
Z C
zh
i(g,ge,gi)"
j(c) 1
zh
3 3
2
Z t
Z
Z
2
Z
H H
I_LH t ,7)
i
i
i
n R
i
1 c
?
i
Y
Y
It It
k
K K
k
k,c(ch)12
k
,11
m
11A
m
A
M ti?
1
m
1
m
m
M
m
H H
n
N v
n
n
n
n
0 0
0
0 o
o
o
o
0
II n
P
II IC
P
P
P
P
P P
r
P P
r
r
r
T
C c
s
E a, s7
S
S
S
TJII TA].
t
T T
t
t
t
t
Y Y
u
0 u
u
u
u
u
CD ii)
f
ii)
f
f
f
f
X x
h,kh2
X x
kh
h
h
kh
I-1 Ac
Ta
ts
t
ts
ts
q Li
C
Ta
ci
(c,ci,ce)13
c
ch
III m
sh
E CY, S8
sh
?
sh22
1.11 IA
shc
E a,s9
shci
(sc,sci,sce)14
gc
shch
7:1 'TD
_
_
___
?
?
LI 14
i
I 1
i
i
119
_
_
? 1
?
1
9 a
e
E, Ai
e,a."
e
e
TO lo
ju
UtOu, IoU
i u
iu
yum 20
yu
ja
rt, Ir c
ia
ia,ea
ya
ya
Adjectival Endings
singular
plural
hift
tt
?
ii
iy
YY
HA
ij
t t ,
?
ii
iy
iy
me
ije
16
?
lie
iye
yye
He
ije
16, 7) 6
?
lie
iye
iye
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PROVISIONAL
'TRANSLITERATION TABLE
Russian?Other Slavic Languages?English
Figure 3
RUSSIAN
BULGARIAN
CROATIAN-
SLOVENE
CZECH-
SLOVAK
MACEDONIAN-
SERBIAN
POLISH
B.G.N!
EXPLANATORY NOTES
A a
a
a
a
a
a
a
1
This letter has the sound value (sht) in Bulgarian.
2 In Croatian, "je" used initially, after vowels (a, e, E, 11, o,y, Ea, 3, 10, H),
and after a, and 1,, elsewhere "e".
3 "i" and "y" are used interchangeably in Croatian.
4 "ir and "yr are used interchangeably in Croatian.
5 "ije" and "yje" are used interchangeably in Croatian.
6 "ie" used in Slovene.
7 "ije" used in Croatian.
8 "ie" used in Slovene.
9 "6" does not occur in Slovak.
10 gcll
j used initially, after vowels (a, e, 8, H, o, y, LE, a, TO, H), and after as
and E.; elsewhere "e".
11 Sometimes omitted entirely.
12 Sometimes omitted entirely.
13"t" used before all vowels except "a" and "e" when "zi" is used;
"i" before consonants.
14"e" used in the final position; "i" normally used elsewhere, al-
though "y" is occasionally used.
15 "1" used before "H" or "L"; "T" used elsewhere.
16 'ctn.')
i used occasionally.
..
17 "ii" used frequently to indicate softening of "n"; "ni" used be-
fore "e" and "a".
18 "ye" used initially, after vowels (a, e, e, H, o, y, Ea, a, to, sr), and after
I. and 1=.; elsewhere "e".
19 "ye" used initially, after vowels (a, e, e, H, o, y, Li. a, to, H)0 and after
'I. and L; elsewhere "e".
GENERAL: This table and other tables to be issued in the
future are designed to facilitate the direct conversion to the
B.G.N. system of such Russian place names as ,appear in
transliterated form in other foreign languages. In order to
achieve uniformity, it is of utmost importance that foreign
transliterations from the Russian be converted to the B.G.N.
system, even though the original transliteration uses the
Roman alphabet. This table gives the Russian equivalents
for transliterating other Slavic languages according to the
B.G.N. system.
*United States Board on Geographic Names.
UNCLASSIFIED
B 6
6
b
b
6
b
b
V
B B
B
V
V
B
W
I' r
r
g
g
r
g
g
A A
A
d
d
g
d
d
E e
e
e(je) 2
e(6,9 je)
e(je)i?
e(je,e)
e(ye)18
E 8
8
jo
jo
jo
jo
e(ye)19
zh
A- 7ic
Hi
2
I
.7-R
2,i,z113
3 3
3
Z
Z
3
Z
Z
11 H
H
i
i
14
i(v,e)14
i
II ft
A
j
j
j
J
Y
K it
IC
k
k
k
k
k
II a
II
1
1
a
1(1)15
1
M B4
3,1
m
m
ivi
m(mi)16
III
ii H
H
n
n
H
n(ft,n017
n
0 o
o
o
o
o
o,6
o
II 11
n
P
P
II
P
P
P p
P
r
r
P
r
r
C c
c
s
s
c
s
s
T, III T. III
T, Ill
t
t
T
t
t
,J 3r
Y
u
u
Y
u
u
4:1) ii?
4)
f
f
4)
f
f
X x
x
h
ch
x
ch
kh
A
A
c
c
g
c
tS
li xi
Li
.6
6
ti
cz
ch
IlEr HI
DI
S'
g
ILI
SZ
sh
111 iik
LA 1
?
g
urq
szcz
shch
'B %
?
?
--?

J 11
?
II
III LI
H
i(y)3
Y
14
Y,e
Y
b L
_
i
?
? 12
j
?
,
9 a
e
e
e
e
e
e
10 BD
lo
ju
JU
ju,u
yu
SI H
a
ja
ja
ja
ja
ya
Adjectival Endings
singular {
EJ ti
Hit
(Yi) 4
Yj
i
YY
HA
IIIii
ii
ij
H
i
iy
ourai
Lie
He
(ije,yjer (ie)6
Yie
Hje
e
yye
He
He
(ije)7 (ie)8
ije
He
e
iyef
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APPENDIX C
SOURCE REFERENCES
This appendix, which discusses the Source References appendix of
ORR economic intelligence reports, supplements the information on docu-
mentation and source identifications given in the text (see 'V, 8, p. 33
above). The most pertinent principles and practices are described, and
a sample list of source references is given below. In the discussion
of principles and practices, reference is made to the sources listed in
the sample appendix. Some of the source references are based on actual
documents, and other source references are based on fictitious documents
which are used to illustrate valid principles and practices.
1. Introduction.
Source references in ORE reports will be made according to the
procedures given in CIA, OCD, CIA/CD/17, Research Aid, How to Docu-
ment Intelligence Reports, February 1955 jssued on 14 March 1955/,
CONFIDENTIAL (see CIA, DD/I Notice No. 50-100-4, Documentation of
Research Intelligence Reports, 8 February 1955, SECRET, and CIA, ORE,
OCh/E, Publications Instruction No. 5, Documentation of Reports in the
Economic Research Area, 17 March 1955, SECRET). The main details of
documentation prescribed by CIA/CD/17 are discussed in this research
aid.* A few minor exceptions have been permitted for clearness and
consistency, and they will be rioted as they occur. Particular atten-
tion is called to paragraph 5a, page 4, of CIA/CD/17, which directs
that page numbers be given for all references if the source cited
"contains four or more pages
* This research aid also includes materials from the following CIA 25X1C4000c
publications: ORE Office Re ulation R 0-10 Documentation of Re orts,
1 Au ust 1 2 SECRET.
and DD P, CSI No. 210- , Reporting and Dissemination of Positive
Intelligence Information, 23 January 1953, SECRET. When variations
in usage among publications occur, analysts of the Economic Research
Area will follow the procedures given in this research aid.
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The evaluation of sources used in ORE reports will be made accord-
ing to the procedures given in CIA, ORE Office Regulation R50-10, Docu-
mentation of Reports, 19 August 1952, SECRET, with an additional qual-
ificationjagreed to orally) on original documents of foreign govern-
mental organizations (see 5, p. 113, below). For a discussion of the
procedures involved in evaluating field reports, see CIA, ORE Office
Regulation R50-611, Evaluation of Information Reports, 23 September
1954, SECRET. The analyst should remember that there is no relation-
ship between the validity of the information contained in a document25xiA
and the classification of the document.
Information reports in the
series will be treated according to the procedures given
in CIA, DD /I Notice No. 50-100-4, 8 February 1955, SECRET. The Source
References appendix of draft reports submitted for publication to St/PB
of ORE will contain the reference numbers of all documents used as
sources. When necessary, these reference numbers will be deleted after
the draft has reached the ORE staffs, and a supplementary list of source
references containing them will be issued. Classification of sources
is discussed in 4, p. 113, below.
A draft report submitted for publication should be documented cor-
rectly. Correct documentation (including evaluation), which is useful
and necessary to any informative report, also will save time in publi-
cation. It is more efficient for the analyst to copy a citation cor-
rectly and to evaluate it when he has the document before him than to
have to locate the document a second time in order to correct the
citation. Incorrectly or incompletely documented .draft reports will
be returned for correction.
Each line in the source references should -be triple-spaced to
facilitate editing.
2. Identification of Sources,
a. Intelligence Documents.
(1) Example.
48. Army, USAREURIC, 513 MIG. RV 941-54, 11 Oct 54,
Muehlhausen Electronic Tube Plant, p. 4, info
Dec 52, CIA C35587. S. Eval. Field C-3 (RR 4).
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(2) Breakdown.
(a) Source reference number: 48.
Followed by a period.
(b) Office, agency, or department of origin: Army,
USAREURIC, 513 MIG.
Organizational elements are listed in order of Subordi-
nation from top to bottom and are separated by commas. The last or-
ganizational element is followed by a period.
(c) Identification of the document given by the originat-
ing organization.: RV 941-54,
Followed by a comma.
(d) Date of the document: 11 Oct 54,
In source references to official publications (ex-
cluding periodicals) which do not represent finished intelligence, the
date precedes the title of the source (see source references 4 and
52). In source references to finished intelligence, the date follows
the title and volume nuMber (if given) of the source (see source refer-
ences 20 and 33). Most ONE, ORE, XI, and OSI publications will be con-
sidered finished intelligence (see source references 16, 18, and 22).
Field publications and most 00 pulo.lications (such as FBID and FDD docu-
ments) will not be considered finished intelligence (see source refer-
ences 1, 12, and 30). The date of the document is followed by a comma.
(e) Title or subject of the document: Muehlhausen Elec-
tronic Tube. Plant,
The title of the document is always underlined, whether
published or to be published, and is followed by a comma.
(f) Pagination: p. 4,
Page numbers, followed by a comma, will be given for
all source references if the source cited contains four or more
pages.
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(g) Date of information: info Dec 52,
The date of information is included when it is
available, and it is -followed by a comma.
(h) Number assigned by CIA: CIA C35587.
The CIA number is included when it is available and
advisable, and it is followed by a period.
(i) Classification*: S.
Periods follow thelast item before the classifica-
tion and also the classification.
Evaluation**: Eval. Field C-3 (RR 4).
b. Books.
(1) Example.
110. Abramovich, S.F., Moiseyev, C.F., and Kurzon A.A.
Parovyye turbiny (Steam Turbines), 1st ed,
Moscow, 1949, p. 16. U. Eval. RR 1. (encl. to
Air, Paris. IR-238-51, 23 Feb 51. R)
(2) Breakdown.
(a) Source reference number: 110.
(b) Author: Abramovich, S.F., Moiseyev, C.F., and Kurzon,
A.A.
If 1 to 3 names are listed as authors of a particu-
lar book, all these names may appear in the source reference. A
period follows the author's name. If more than three names are
listed, the firstname appearing in the listing may be utilized in
* see 4, p. 113, below.
** see 5, p. 113, below.
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the source reference followed by et al. (et alii, "and others")
in place of the names of the additional authors. The term et al.
is underlined and followed by a period (see source reference 111).
If no author is given for a book, the country of
origin, followed by the originating agency within this country, is
listed (see source references 102, 103, and 108). If the name of
the originating agency is not available, the country of origin is
followed by the title of the book (see source reference 116).
(c) Title: Parovyye turbiny (Steam Turbines),
Titles of books in foreign languages are given in
a transliterated form of the original (approved by the Board on
Geographic Names), followed by the English translation of the title
enclosed in parentheses (see source references 102 and 111). If
a translated version of a foreign book has been used, the foreign-
language title is not given (see source reference 103).
The first letter of the first word in the foreign
language version of the title is capitalized. With the exception
of proper names in all foreign languages and nouns in German, all
other words in this version begin with lowercase letters (see
source references 8 and 84).
The title of the book is always underlined and
followed by a comma. If a translation of the title in parentheses
is included, the comma follows the parentheses.
(d) Edition: 1st ed,
This entry is included when it is available, and
it is followed by a comma.
The word edition is abbreviated ed and is to be
distinguished from the word editor, abbreviated edr. The phrase
edited by is spelled out in full.
(e) Place of publication: Moscow,
The place of publication is given by city without
country (or state) unless the name of the country is necessary to
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distinguish between cities of the same name in different countries.
The place of publication is followed by a comma.
The name of the publisher is not included.
(0 Volume number:
This entry is included if the source consists of
more than one volume.
(g) Date of publication: 1949,
(h) Pagination: p. 16.
Page numbers are given for all source references
to books.
(i) Classification*: U.
Periods follow the last item before the classification
and also the classification.
(j) Evaluation**: Eval. RR 1.
(k) Notes: (end l to Air, Paris. IR-238-51, 23 Feb 51. R)
If the citation requires an explanatory note, this in-
formation is enclosed in parentheses and follows the evaluation. The
first letter of the first word of the note is not capitalized, and no
punctuation follows the note (see source references 102 and 103).
c, Periodicals -- Governmental.
In a sense, all periodicals published by the Sino-Soviet Bloc
are governmental publications. A distinction, however, will be made
between governmental periodicals published by the various governments
acting as governments (see source references 101, 115, and 117) and
all other periodicals, which will be considered nongovernmental.
* See 4, p. 113, below.
** See 5, p. 113, below.
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(1) Example.
101. USSR, Embassy, Washington. "Oil Workers Fulfill
Five Year Plan Ahead of Schedule," by N. Baibakov,
Information Bulletin, vol 11, no 1, 12 Jan 51,
p. 6. U. Eval. Doc.
(2) Breakdown.
(a) Source reference number: 101.
(b) Country of origin: USSR,
The country of origin is listed if other than US
(compare source references 43 and 71 with source reference 97), and
It is followed by a comma.
(c) Office, agency, or department of origin: Embassy,
Washington.
If the name of the originating agency is not avail-
able, the country of origin is followed by the title of the article
(see source reference 117).
(d) Title of the article: "Oil Workers Fulfill Five
Year Plan Ahead of Schedule,"
The title of the article is followed by a comma and
enclosed in quotation marks. Note the position of the comma inside
the closing quotation marks.
If the title of the article (set off by quotation
marks) is in a foreign language, the English translation of the
title, enclosed in parentheses, must always be given (see source
reference 117).
the word by.
(e) Author of the article: by N. Baibakov,
The name of the author, if given, is preceded by
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(0 Title of the periodical: Information Bulletin,
The title of the periodical is underlined and is
followed by a comma.
Titles of newspapers-and periodicals in foreign
languages are not translated into English (see source references
117, 122, and 125).
(g) Serial number of the periodical: vol 11, no 1,
(h) Date of the periodical: 12 Jan 51,
(0 Pagination: p. 6.
Page numbers are given for all source references
to periodicals.
(j) Classification*: U.
Periods follow the last item before the classifica-
tion and also the classification.
(k) Evaluation**:
(1) Notes.
Eval. Doc.
If the citation requires an explanatory note, this
information will be enclosed in parentheses and will follow the
evaluation. The first letter of the first word of the note is not
capitalized, and no punctuation follows the note (see source
references 94 and 95)
In the case of foreign-language materials translated
or summarized by FDD or other US translating services, the trans-
lating service will be given as the source, and the original foreign-
language document will follow the source reference in parentheses
(see source reference 8).
* See 4, p. 113, below.
** See 5, p. 113, below.
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d. Periodicals -- Nongovernmental.
The procedure for nongovernmental periodicals is similar
to that employed for governmental periodicals, with the exception
that no originating agency or office is given. If the article has
an author, the name of the author is given first, followed by the
title of the article (see source references 98 and 109).
If no author is indicated, the source reference begins with
the title of the article (see source references 9)-i- and 95).
If neither the name of the author nor the title of the
article is indicated, the source reference begins with the title
of the periodical (see -source references 122, 125, 128, and 130).
3. Source Identification Problems.
a. Repeating Source Identifications.
It has been pointed out in the text that no source identi-
fication number is ever repeated and that consequently it is often
necessary to identify the same source several times. To avoid the
laborious repetition of the complete identification of sources,
the documentation devices ibid. (for ibidem, "in the same place")
and op. cit. (for opere citato, "in the work cited," or opus
citatum,"The work cited") are used. Ibid. indicates repetition
of the immediately preceding source or group of sources.
The notation a. cit. will be used only to refer to a pre-
vious citation if the author's name is the first item given in the
original citation. Q. cit. will be followed by the source refer-
ence number of the original citation (followed by a comma) and by
the word above, both enclosed in parentheses (see source references
91 and 93, 109 and 11)-i-, and 110 and 112).
If the author's name is nOt the first item given in the
original citation, the notation op. cit. will not be used. The
source reference number of the previous citation (followed by a
comma) and the word above, both enclosed in parentheses, will
follow the first item in the subsequent citation (see source ref-
erences 9)-i- and 96, 97 and 99, and 117 and 121).
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Repeated references to official sources will list the
originating office and project numbers or designations (see source
references 4 and 6, 24 and 26, 41 and 46, and 75 and 77).
Repeated references to books or periodicals will list key
words previously noted in the first reference to the particular
source in the parenthetic phrase hereafter referred to as (see
source references 94 and 96, 95 and 97, 102 and 104, and 103 and
106).
The use of an ER. cit. or -a "( Tource reference numbej?
above)" notation such as urc above)" ?e source references 93
and 6) indicates repetition of all items in the particular source
reference occurring after the initial items (originating office
and project numbers or designations-for official documents; author's
name or key words for nonofficial books or periodicals). If the
subsequent source reference is to the same page as the previous
reference, nothing follows the 2E? cit. or the "(4, above)" type
of notation (see source references 52 and 54, 91 and 93, and 94
and 96). If the pages cited in subsequent source references
differ from those of the original source reference, the changed
page numbers, classification, and evaluation are all written out
after the al. cit. or the "(4, above)" type of notation (see source
references 110 and 112, 7 and 9, 24 and 26, 95 and 97, and 102 and
104). The classification and evaluation may differ for different
pages from the same source. If there is a difference, it must be
indicated (see source references 4 and 6).
The first use of ibid. is in source reference 10, where it
serves to indicate a repetition of the CIA, FDD Translation referenced
in 9. Note that ibid. may follow an 22.. cit. identification or a
"(4, above)" type of notation (see source references 10, 115, 119,
133, and 135).
An a.. cit. may never refer to an ibid., but it may follow
immediately after an ibid. to which it does not refer (see source
references 132 and 134). Note also that one ibid. may follow
another (see source references 11 and 120).
b. Grouping Source Identifications.
Often a single source identification will refer to two or
more sources (see p. 35, above). In that situation, all the sources
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referred to are grouped under a single number in the Source References
appendix (see source references 7, 38, 50, 51, 97, and 115). A group
of sources may be listed under a single source number if all these
sources were used in writing a particular section or part of the
report.
4. Classification.
All source references must include the classification of the
sources identified or an indication in nonofficial sources that
the source is unclassified.* Classifications are indicated by the
following abbreviations: U (UNCLASSIFIED), C (CONFIDENTIAL), S
(SECRET), and TS (TOP SECRET). Any special limitations on distribu-
tion of the document must be stated in full as a part of the classi-
fication. Among the more commonly used of these limitations are
NOFORN (NOT RELEASABLE TO FOREIGN NATIONALS) (see source reference 27),
which for current publications has superseded UB ONLY (FOR US OFFICIALS
ONLY) (see source reference 28); LTD (LIMITED) (see source reference 3);
CONT CONTROL (CONTINUED CONTROL) (see source reference 27); CIA ONLY
(CIA INTERNAL USE ONLY) (see source reference 29); and OFF USE (FOR
OFFICIAL USE ONLY) (see source reference 12).
5. Evaluation.
An evaluation** must be given for every source reference, with the
exception of finished CIA intelligence reportsxxx and outgoing cables
(compare source references 39 and 41 with source reference 50).
The field evaluation is given when available. If the ORR evalua-
tion agrees with the field evaluation, no ORB evaluation should be
shown in the source reference (see source reference 49).
If the ORB evaluation differs from the field evaluation the ORB
evaluation is given in parentheses after the field evaluation.
* See CIA Regulation No. 10-6, Security of Classified Documents,
28 January 1952, FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY; CIA Regulation No. 51-700,
Control of Dissemination and Use of Intelligence and Information,
I March 1956, CONFIDENTIAL; and CIA, CCD, CIA/CD/17, Research Aid,
February 1955, p. 6, CONFIDENTIAL (see 1, p. 103, above).
** See CIA, ORB Office Regulation R50-101 Documentation of Reports,
19 August 1952, SECRET, and CIA, ORB Office Regulation R50-611,
Evaluation of Information Reports, 23 September 1954, SECRET (see 1,
p. 103, above).
xxx See 2, a, (2), (d), p. 105, above.
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If both a field andan ORR evaluation are included, the word
Field follows the abbreviated word Eval. (see source reference 52).
TETE abbreviated form of the word evaluation is always followed by
a period.) If the field evaluation is given without reference to
an ORR evaluation, the word Field is omitted (see source reference 49).
.ate analyst is not expected to give a. letter evaluation to a
source unless he is familiar with the source and not merely with
the particular item of information that he is using from the source.
The actual list of source references following any discussion
of sources and source material in the Source References appendix is
always preceded by the following explanation of the method of evalua-
tion:
Evaluations, following the classification entry and designated
"Eval.," have the following significance:
Source of Information
Doc. - Documentary
A - Completely reliable
B - Usually reliable
C - Fairly reliable
D - Not usually reliable
E -Not reliable
F - Cannot be judged
Information
1 - Confirmed by other sources
2 - Probably true
3 - Possibly true
4 - Doubtful
5 - Probably false
6 - Cannot be judged
"Documentary" refers to original documents of foreign govern-
ments and organizations; copies or translations of such documents
by a staff officer; or information extracted from such documents by
a staff officer, all of which may carry the field evaluation "Docu-
mentary."
Evaluations not otherwise designated are those appearing on the
cited document; those designated "RR" are by the author of this re-
port. No 'RR" evaluation is given when the author agrees with the
evaluation on the cited document.
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5amp1e List of Source Referencej
25X1A
1.
2.
3.
4. CIA. FDD 1.1-6623, 11 Oct 54, Information on the Iron and Steel
Industry in the GDR, p. 6. C. Eval. RR 2. (tr of Europa-
Archly, Frankfurt, 20 Jun 54. U)
5. CIA. FDD q=4E8, 30 Jul 52. S/US ONLY. Eval. RR 3.
6. CIA. FDD U-6623 (4, above), p. 8. C. Eval. RR 3.
7. CIA. FDD Summary no 372, 4 Feb 55, Data on USSR Extractive
Industries (No. 3), p. 54. C. Eval. RR 2.
CIA. FDD Translation no 289, 19 Oct 50, Proposed Czechoslovak
1949 Operational Plan for Railroad Transport, p. 25-27. . S.
Eval. RR 2.
8. CIA. FDD Summary no 274, 30 Nov 54, Construction of Major USSR
Electric Power Stations, 1953-54, p. 34. C. Eval. RR 2.
CIA. FDD Translation no 37/49, 14 Jun 49, Yearbook of the
Industry of Regenerated Poland, chap 5, pt 3. C. Eval. Doc.
(tr of Rocznik przemyslo odrondzonej Polski, 2d ed, Warsaw,
25 Mar 48. U)
9. CIA. FDD Translation no 289 (7, above), p. 30. S. Eval. RR 2.
iOJ Ibid., p. 28. S. Eval. RR 2.
11. bis.
12.
STATS P EC
13.
15.
CIA.
OCI,
Current Intelligence Weekly, no 2923, 2 Dec 5
p.
2.
S.
,
16. CIA.
OCI,
Handbook: Czechoslovakia, 28 Dec 54, p. 7. S.
17. CIA.
53.
OCI,
S/US
Current Intelligence Digest, no 1416, 19 Jan
ONLY. (quoting State, Rome. Dsp 3152, 16 Jan
53.
S)
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18. CIA. NIE 65, Soviet Bloc Capabilities Through 1957,
16 Jun 53, p. 4. TS.
19. CIA. CIA/RR IM-411, Soviet Plan Fulfillment? 1954,
5 Jul 55, p. 5. S.
CIA. CIA/ORE 42-48, Rolling Stock in the USSR, 1 Sep 48,
p. 41. s.
20. CIA. CIA/RR 39, Agricultural Labor in the USSR,
31 Aug 54, Table 3, p. 21. S.
21. CIA. CIA/RR RA (ORR Project 25.186), Civil Consumption
of Petroleum Products in the USSR, 1945-55, 27 Sep 54,
17-557-77us ONLY.
22. CIA. CIA/RR CSM 270, Organization of Construction Minis-
tries for USSR Heavy Industry, 20 Apr 55. C
CIA. CIA/RR PR-107, Soviet Bloc Trade in Petroleum, 1947-53,
6 Apr 55, p. 12. S/NOFORN.
23. CIA. CIA/RR 39 (20, above), Table 7, footnote a, p. 31,
and Table 9, p. 37. S.
CIA. ORR Project 10.714, Unit-Cost Index for Capital
Investment in the USSR, 1952-54 (to be published).
C.
24. CIA. CIA/RR IP-385, Soviet Capabilities and Probable
Soviet Courses of Action, 1954-60, 7 Mar 55, p. 12. S.
25. CIA. ORR Project 22-52 (WP), The _Dependency of the Soviet
Bloc Electrotechnical Industry on Western Sources of
Supply, 27 Jan 53. Sibs ONLY.
26. CIA. CIA RR IP-385 24 above . 10 . S.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31. CIA. EIC-R1-S , Communist China's Imports and Exports,
1954: Trade and Trans.ort Involved (to be published). S.
32. CIA. Photos 48734AC-48736AC, 13 Nov 53. S.
CIA. OCR/GR, E 7139, Der Augenzeuge (The Eyewitness), 31/1953,
1953. OFF USE. Eval. RR 2. (motion picture film)
33.
34.
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35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
4o.
41.
NIS 14, Poland, sec 1, 1953, p.
.1-1, 61-13. C.
25X1X7
42.
NIS 26 USSR supplement V Oct 52 2-2. S.
43.
44.
45. ?Eas 26 (42, above).
- 25X1A
46. NIS 14 (41, above), fig 63-14, p. 63-33, 63-34. S.
47. Army/Navy. JANIS 118, 23 May 45, p. 34. S. Eval. RR 2.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
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73
74.
75.
76.
77.
78
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79.
80. UN, FAO. European Timber Statistics, 1913-1950, Geneva, 1953,
p. 61. U. Eval. RR 3.
81. UN, ECE. "Standards of Health and Education in Eastern
Europe," Economic Survey of Europe in 1954, Geneva, 1955,
p. 117-118, 121-122. U. Eval. RR 2.
82. UN. Treaty Series, vol 1, 1946-47, p. 74. U. Eval. Doc.
83. UN, Secretariat. Statistical Yearbook, 1954, 1955,
p. 359-362. U. Eval. RR 1.
84. Bank of International SAtlements. Press Review, no 11, 17 Jan
55. U. Eval. RR 3. (citing Nachrichten fuer Aussenhandel,
Berlin, 12 Jan 55. u)
85. International Institute of Agriculture. International Yearbook
of Agricultural Statistics, 1938-39, Rome, 1939, p. 52.
U. Eval. RR 1.
86. National Committee for a Free Europe, Inc., Mid-European Studies
Center. The Hungarian Oil Industry, New York, 1954, p. 64-76.
U. Eval. RR 4.
87.
88.
89.
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90. Joint Committee on Slavic Studies. "American-British
Struggle for Markets," Current Digest of the Soviet
Press, vol 5, no _37, 24 Oct 53, p. 34. U. Eval. RR 2.
(t17-17f N. Torsuyev. Pravda, 11 Sep 53, p. 3. U)
91. Bergson, Abram, and Heymann, Hans, Jr. Soviet National
Income and Product, 1940-48, New York, 1953, p. 109.
U. Eval. RR 2.
92. _Shreve, R.N. The Chemical Process Industries, New York,
1945, p. 224. U. Eval. RR 1.
93. Bergson and Heymann, a. cit. (91, above).
94. "The Soviet Fifth Five Year Plan," New York Times,
23 Aug 52, p. 2. U. Eval. RR 2. (tr from Pravda,
20 Aug 52. U) (hereafter referred to as "The Soviet
Fifth Five Year Plan")
95. "Hydroelectric Developments," Pakistan Fair, vol 6,
no 58, Mar 52, p. 834. U. Eval?RR 2. (hereafter
referred to as "Hydroelectric Developments")
96. "The Soviet Fifth Five Year Plan" (94, above).
97. Couressional Record, vol 97, no 145, 8 Aug 51, p. 9758-
9759. U. Eval. Doc.
"Hydroelectric Developments" (95, above), p. 832. U.
Eval. RR 3.
98. Daniel, Clifton. !.'Soviet Assessing Its Land Program,"
New York Times, 13 Sep 54, p. 4c. U. Eval. -RR 2.
99. Congressional Record (97, above).
100. Daniel, 22.. cit. (981 above), p. 5C. U. Eval. RR 2.
101. USSR, Embassy, Washington. "Oil Workers Fulfill
Five Year Plan Ahead of Schedule," by IL Baibakov,
Information Bulletin, vol 11, no 1, 12 Jan 51, p. 6.
U. Eval. Doc.
102. USSR, Gosplan. Slovari-spravochnik po sotsial'no-
ekonomicheskoy statistike (Dictionary Handbook for Social
and Economic Statistics), Moscow, 1944, American Council
of Learned-Societies Reprint, Russian Series, no 19,
Baltimore, 1949, p.123-125. U. Eval. Doc. (hereafter
referred to as USSR, Gosplan. Slovar'-spravochnik)
103. USSR, State Planning Commission. Socialist Construction
in the USSR, Moscow, 1936, p. 52. U. Eval, Doc.
(hereafter referred to as USSR, State Planning Commission.
Socialist Construction)
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104. USSR, Gosplan. SlovarT-spravochnik (102, above), p. 122.
U. Eval. Doc.
105. Ibid., p. 124. U. Eval, Doc.
106. USSR, State Planning Commission. Socialist Construction
(103, above).
107. USSR, Gosplan. Gosudarstvennyy plan razvitiya narodnogo
khozyaystva SSSR na 1941 (State Plan for the Development
of the National Economy of the USSR in 1941), American
Council of Learned Societies Reprints, Russian Series,
no 30, Baltimore, nd, p. 86. U. Eval. Doc.
108. USSR, Gosudarstvennyy Nauchnyy Institut. "Olenevodstvo6
(Reindeer HUsbandry)? Bollshaya sovetskaya entsiklopediya
(Great Soviet Encyclopedia) (in 1 vol), Moscow, 1947,
American Council of Learned Societies Reprints, Russian
Series, no 18, Baltimore, 1949, p. 930-931. U. Eval. Doc.
109. Aristov, N. "Organizovannyy nabor raboChey sily"
(Organized Recruitment of the Labor Force), Planovoye
khozyaystvol no 111 Nov 39, p. 88-99. U. Eval. Doc.
110. Abramovich, S.F., Moiseyev, C.F., and KUrzon, A.A.
Parovyye turbilaz (Steam TUrbines), 1st ed, Moscow,
1949, p. 16. U. Eval. Doc. (encl. to Air, Paris.
IR-238-51, 23 Feb 51. R)
111. Poroshin, K.M., et al. Spravochnik po proizvodstvu
zhestyanoy konservnoy tary (Handbook for the Production
of Tin Can Materials), Moscow, 1949, p. 78, 82-84, 86.
U. Eval. Doc.
112. Abramovich, Moiseyev, and Kurzon, a. cit. (110, above),
p. 22. U. Eval. Doc.
113. Poroshin, et al., a, cit. (111, above).
114. Aristov, 22.. cit. .(1091 above).
115. Ibid.
USSR, Verkhovnyy Sovet SSSR. Zasedaniya verkhovnogo soveta
SSSR) chetvertogo sozyva, pervaya sessiyal stenograficheskiy
otchet (Proceedings of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, )-t-th
Meeting, 1st Session: Stenographic Report), Moscow, 1955,
p. 39. U. Eval. Doc. (hereafter referred to as USSR,
Verkhovnyy Sovet SSSR. Zasedaniya)
116. USSR. pRisok abonentov Mbskovskoy gorodskoy telefonnoy seti
(List of bucstr1bers, Moscow City Telephone System),
pt 2, Moscow, 1954. U. Eval. Doc.
117. USSR. "Ukazy" (Decrees), Vedomosti verkhovnogo soveta SS,
no 2, 19 Jan 46. U. Eval. Doc. (hereafter referred to as
USSR. "Ukazy")
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118. USSR, Verkhovnyy covet SSSR. Zasedaniya (115, above),
p. 25. U. Eval. Doc.
119. Ibid., p. 64. U. Eval. Doc.
120. Ibid.
121. USSR. "Ukazy" (117, above).
122. Pravda, 2 Nov 54, p. 22. U. Eval. RR 3.
123. Ibid., p. 3. U. Eval. RR 3.
124. Ibid., 7 Dec 54, p. 1. U. Eval. RR 2.
125. Mbskovskaya pravda, 15 Nov 51. U. Eval. RR 2.
Leningradskaya pravda, 15 Nov 51. U. Eval. RR 2.
126. Krasnaya zvezda, 12 Oct 47. U. Eval. RR 2.
127. Izvestiya, 21 Sep 47. U. Eval. RR 2.
128. Rude pravo, 12 Dec 53. U. Eval. RR 2.
129. China, Mukden (Shen-yang) Locomotive and Rolling Stock
Manufacturing Company. The Railroad Equipment Industry
in Northeast China, Mukden, 191, p. 107-135. U. Eval. RR 2.
130. Problene economice, Bucharest, 1 Mar 48, p. 4. U. Eval. RR 2.
131. Ibid.
132. Poroshin, et al., op. cit. (111, above).
133. Ibid.
134. Aristov, 2E. cit. (109, above).
135. Ibid.
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APPENDIX D
EDITORIAL CHECKLIST
The following editorial checklist used by editors in St/PB is
offered as an aid to analysts in making certain that a draft report
is ready for submittal.
1. General.
a. All parts of the report complete, in proper order, and ready
for editing.
b. Any limitations in scope of report explained.
c. Entire report coordinated as necessary with appropriate
analysts in CIA and other agencies.
d. Three minimum appendixes included (Methodology, Gaps in Intel-
ligence, and Source References).
e. All problems of security and classification settled.
f. Technical terms defined or explained as necessary and used
consistently throughout.
g. Place, plant, biographic, and other proper names checked for
accuracy and used consistently throughout.
h. Translations, transliterations, and titles of foreign organ-
izations and publications checked for accuracy.
i. Ministries, main administrations, and other organizations
correctly identified as of present date, checked for accuracy, all
relationships clearly stated, and used consistently throughout.
j. Abbreviations explained as necessary and used consistently
throughout.
k. Units of measurement consistent in kind and form throughout.
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1. Data and calculations checked for accuracy.
m. Graphics consistent with text.
n. Pages of text in order and numbered consecutively beginning
with the Summary.
o. Classification at top and bottom of each page.
p. Complete text proofread for typographical errors and cor-
rections indicated.
2. Title Page (unnumbered).
a. Title of report brief but fully descriptive of contents.
b. Agency and Office designations complete.
3. Foreword (if any).
a. Begins on page iii.
b. Properly labeled -- FOREWORD -- center of page.
4. Table of Contents.
a. Begins on page v (on page iii if no FOREWORD).
b. Properly labeled -- CONTENTS -- center of page.
c. FOREWORD (if any) not listed.
d. Summary first entry -- not preceded by a numeral.
e. Labeling accurate and consistent.
f. Indentation accurate and consistent.
g. Appendixes included under center head -- Appendixes.
h. Appendixes identified -- Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C,
and so on -- and full title of each given.
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i. Tables (if any) included under center head -- Tables
listed 1, 2, 3, and so on, in proper order and full title of
each given.
j. Illustrations (if any) included under center head --
Illustrations (or Charts or Maps, as the case may be) -- listed
Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, and so on, in proper order and full
title of each given.
k. All entries agreeing in. form and relative position with
their counterparts in the body of the report.
5. First Page of Report.
a. Agency and Office designations at upper left.
b. Full title identical with that on title page in solid capital
letters, underlined, centered at top of page, with asterisk following.
c. Asterisk and footnote at bottom of page, under 15-space solid
line, indicating cutoff date or equivalent.
d. Summary centered under title.
6. Summary.
a. All essentials included.
b. All nonessentials excluded.
7. Body of the Report.
a. All sections (headings, subheadings, and so on) properly
numbered and labeled.
b. References made to all appendixes, tables, and illustrations.
8. Footnotes.
a. Asterisks properly used in text and coordinated with entries
at bottom of page.
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b. Footnotes set off from text by 15-space solid line.
c. Table footnotes (in lowercase letters) properly designated
and placed following tables
9. Tables.
a. All tables in text properly introduced.
b. All tables correctly numbered and titled.
c. Titles consistent in wording and punctuation.
d. Form of individual tables consistent with form of similar
tables.
e. Units of measurement clearly stated and consistent among
tables.
f. All entries checked for accuracy.
10. Source Identifications.
a. Numbered (in arabic numerals) consecutively throughout.
b. Asterisk following number 1/ and proper footnote at bottom
of page, under 15-space solid line.
c. No number repeated.
d. All numbered in agreement with the listing in the Source
References appendix.
11. Source References Appendix.
a. All sources numbered in agreement with the sequence of
-source identifications in the text.
b. All sources complete, with page numbers, classification,
and evaluation.
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APPENDIX E
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL AIDS
The books listed in this appendix are only a few of the good texts
in the general field of technical reports. They are offered as aids
for those analysts who feel the need for more extensive and intensive
review of the principles of effective writing than is provided in
this research aid. (See also CIA, OCD, CIA Library, Report Writing:
An Annotated List of Selected Aids, revised edition, March 1955,
UNCLASSIFIED.)
1. Gaum, Carl G., Graves, Harold F., and Hoffman, Lyne S.S.
Report Writing, third edition, New York: Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 1950 (reprinted, London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd.,
1951).
This is a general book on technical writing designed for under-
graduate engineering students. Of particular interest are Chapter 3,
"Fundamental Forms of Composition," and Chapter 4, "Some Matters of
Style." Chapter 3 contains some discussion of summaries and of
methods and types of definition.
2. Johnson, Ellen. The Research Report: A Guide for the
Beginner, New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1951.
This book, though elementary, contains valuable discussions of
the major principles and problems of research, with illustrations of
research papers and cautions on documentation.
3. Kent, Sherman. Writing History, New York: F.S. Crofts
& Company, 1941.
This book is not directed primarily toward the writing of re-
ports, but it contains helpful material on style and usage and
valuable discussions of the elements of research and the methods
of organizing material.
4. Linton, Calvin D. How to Write Reports, New York: Harper
& Brothers, Publishers, 1954.
This book contains valuable discussions of the types of research
reports and the principles of effective writing.
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5. Nelson, Joseph R. Writing the Technical Report, third
edition, New York, San Francisco, Chicago: McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc.; London: McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company, Ltd.; Toronto; McGraw-Hill Company of Canada,
Ltd., 1952.
This book, on an undergraduate level, contains in Chapters 5,
6, and 7 a discussion of the purposes and functions of introductions.
This discussion is also applicable to summaries.
6. Rautenstrauch, Walter. Industrial Surveys and Reports,
New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; London: Chapman &
Nall, Ltd., 1940.
Although aimed specifically at industrial reports, with consider-
able emphasis on fiscal analysis, this book contains in Chapter 1 an
excellent discussion of the general principles of effective writing.
The entire book would be of considerable interest to ORB analysts.
7. Rhodes, Fred H. Technical Report Writing, New York, San
Francisco, Chicago: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.;
London; McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Ltd.; Toronto:
McGraw-Hill Company of Canada, Ltd., 1941.
This excellent general book on technical writing contains some
useful material on mathematical and graphic methods.
8. Rose, Lisle A., Bennett, Burney B., and Heater, Elmer F.
Engineering Reports, New York: Harper & Brothers,
Publishers, 1950.
Several chapters of this book are of value to amalysts. Chapter
5, "Getting and Preserving Facts," discusses aids in research methods
and makes suggestions on the evaluation and use of sources. Chapter
6, "Reinterpreting and Reevaluating Your Data," extends the discussion
to source evaluation. In Chapter 8) "Using Language Efficiently,"
problems of unity, clearness, conciseness, and emphasis are treated
at some length. Those parts of Chapter 11, "Digests," which deal with
the precis, the abstract, the outline, and definitions are of particu-
lar value. In Part IV, "Written Reports," there is a sensible dis-
cussion of the various kinds of written reports
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9. Stewart, John L. Exposition for Science and Technical
Students, New York: William Sloane Associates, Inc., 1950.
This is an excellent book on expository writing in general and
especially on the structure of paragraphs in scientific and technical
reports.
10. Sypherd, Wilbur 0., Fountain, Alvin M., and Brown, Sharon 0.
The Engineer's Manual of English, revised edition, Chicago,
Atlanta, Dallas, New York: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1943.
This book is precisely what the title implies. Chapter 2, "The
Elements of the Whole Composition," and Chapter 3, "Mechanical
Details," contain useful basic information for both study and ref-
erence. Chapter 5, "Report Writing," gives a fairly comprehensive
survey of the problems of report writing.
11. Trelease, Sam F. The Scientific Paper, How to Prepare It,
How to Write It: A Handbook for Students and Research
Workers in All Branches of Science, second edition,
Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Company, 1951 (re-
printed, London: Bailliere, Tindall & Cox, Ltd., 1952).
As its title indicates, this book is slanted toward the preparation
of scientific reports. It is a good general reference text and contains
a useful section on proofreading.
12. Ulman, Joseph N., Jr. Technical Reporting, New York:
Henry Holt and Company, Inc., 1952.
This book, design d for the undergraduate in science and engineer-
ing, is on a rather b,sic level. The most Immediately useful section
is Chapter 10, "Writ/ng: Style."
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Memorandum FOR THE RECORD
TO
FROM :
SUBJECT: Destruction of CIA/RR RA-8, Writing of Reports, Secret
DATE: 19 May 1965
All copies now being held by Records Center may be destroyed.
This report has been revised by OTR.
per
Acting Chief, Publications Staff
nb
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Rpto No. RA-8 Pub. Date 3
Distrioution to RC:
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Number in RC:
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