SOVIET FISHING IN INTERNATIONAL WATERS

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• Collection: General CIA Records
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• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 37
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: August 12, 2013
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: August 1, 1963
• Content Type: REPORT

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NI? 3
Economic Intelligence Report
SOVIET FISHING IN INTERNATIONAL WATERS
CIA/RR ER 63-25
August 1963
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
Office of Research and Reports
GROUP 1
Excluded from automatic
downgrading and
declassification
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SECRET
Economic Intelligence Report
SOVIET FISHING IN INTERNATIONAL WATERS
CIA/RR ER 63-25
WARNING
This material contains information affecting
the National Defense of the United States
within the meaning of the espionage laws,
Title 18, USC, Secs. 793 and 794, the trans-
mission or revelation of which in any manner
to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
Office of Research and Reports
SECRET
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CONTENTS
Page
Summary and Conclusions 1
I. Introduction
II. Postwar Expansion of Soviet Fishing
3
A. Soviet Fish Catch 4
B. Soviet Fishing Fleet 5
C. Scientific Research Fleet 14
D. Port and Shore Installations 15
E. Some Economic Aspects 17
III. International Fishing Regions Exploited by the USSR . . . 20
t7.
A. General
B. Atlantic Ocean
20
20
1. Northeast Atlantic
22
2. Northwest Atlantic
24
3. Central and South Atlantic
24
C. Pacific Ocean
25
D. Antarctic Whaling
27
E. Indian Ocean
27
IV.
US-Soviet Competition in High Seas Fisheries
28
A. Impact on US Fishing. Interests
28
B. Soviet Relations with Underdeveloped Countries
?
?
?
29
V.
International Treaties
30
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Tables
Page
1. Comparison of Soviet and World Fish Catches,
1938, 1948, 1953-62, and 1965 Plan
2. Soviet Fish Catch, by Species, Selected Years, 1948-61
6
3. Comparison of Soviet and World Whale Catches, Whaling
Seasons of 1937/38, 1947/48, and 1952/53 - 1960/61 .
10
4. Composition. of the Soviet Fishing Fleet, 1940,
1948, and 1953-56
.12
5. Soviet Fish.Catch, by Methods Used, 1950 and 1959 ? ? ?
?
14
?
6. Landed Catch at Soviet Fishing Ports, 1958 and -
Original 1965 Plan
16
2
7. Disposition-of the Soviet Fish Catch, 1958, 1961, and
Original 1965 Plan
18
8. Soviet Foreign Trade in Fish and Fish Products, 1957-61
21
9. Soviet Fish Catch, by Region, 1958 and Original
1965 Plan
.23
Map
World and Soviet Fish Catch in International Waters
following page
20
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SOVIET FISHING IN INTERNATIONAL WATERS*
Summary and Conclusions
Since the end of World War II the USSR has made a determined effort
to expand its fishing. on the high seas. One of the world's best fishing
fleets -- the -nucleus of which consists of large fish-factory trawlers --
and a modern scientific research fleet have been built or acquired, and
the USSR has aggressively expanded or is planning to expand fishing op-
erations into almost all the major fishing regions in the world. The
fisheries of the North Atlantic are the most important for the USSR, but
the waters of the North Pacific are becoming increasingly more important.
New fishing areas off the west coast of Africa are being developed by
the USSR, and some exploratory research is being conducted in the Indian
Ocean preparatory to surveying the fishing potential of this area. The
construction of a fishing port in Havana harbor will give the USSR an
excellent base for fishing in the waters of the Caribbean, the Gulf of
Mexico, and the east coast of the United States as well as in the rich
tuna grounds of the East-Central Pacific.
Expansion of Soviet fishing on the high seas has seriously disturbed
the fishing industries of other nations. The USSR has become a net ex-
porter of fish products, a situation that has had some repercussions on
traditional suppliers such as Iceland and Norway. Further expansion of
Soviet activities into areas traditionally fished by US fishermen -- the
northeast Pacific, the Gulf of Mexico, off the east coast of the US, and
the northwest Atlantic -- could have some deleterious effects. Further-
more, the USSR is in a position to gain influence and respect in under-
developed countries with the use of its fishing and research fleets by
aiding such countries in the development of their fisheries.
The USSR surpassed the US in 1960, and in 1961, with a total fish catch
of 3.72 million metric tons,xx it ranked fourth after Japan, Peru, and
Communist China among the world's fishing nations. During 1948-61 the
Soviet fish catch increased at an average annual rate of about 7 percent.
The annual rate of increase during the first 4 years of the Seven Year
Plan (1959-65), however, was about 8.8 percent. Continuance of the cur-
rent pace during the remaining years of the Seven Year Plan would assure
easy fulfillment of the goal of 5 million tons set for 1965.
* The estimates and conclusions in this report represent the best
judgment of this Office as of 15 July 1963.
** Unless otherwise indicated, tonnages are given in metric tons
throughout this report.
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Fish is an important source of animal protein in the USSR, and
the per capita consumption of this food increased from about 5.5
kilograms (kg) in 1938 to about 10.5 kg in 1961. Not only has the
consumption of fish increased, but also, as a result of changing
technology in fish processing, the assortment of fish products has
changed considerably with the present emphasis on fresh, frozen,
and canned fish products instead of salted products as before. The
latter will constitute only about 11 percent, excluding salted
herring, of total edible fish products by 1965, compared with about
52 percent in 1950.
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I. Introduction
Within the past decade the USSR has moved vigorously to expand its
fishing activities on the high seas. In 1961, with a total catch of
3.72 million tons* of fish, whales, and other sea animals,** the USSR
ranked fourth after Japan, Peru, and Communist China among the world's
fishing nations. As shown in Table 1,*** the USSR in 1961 was respon-
sible for 8 percent of the world's fish catch (excluding whales)
and about 18 percent of the world's whale catch. Although the Soviet
share of the world's fish catch, excluding whales, is only slightly
above the level of 1938, the USSR in 1961 ranked behind only Japan
and Norway in the catching of whales.
The Soviet fishing industry ranked sixth in importance among the
branches of the food industry in 1960, when it provided about 7.2 per-
cent of the total output of the industry 1/t or about 1.5 percent of
gross industrial output. The Soviet fishing industry employs about
500,000 persons, of which about one-third work on fishing ships (in-
cluding kolkhoz fishermen). 2/ In comparison, in the same year the
US fishing industry employed only about 220,000 people and provided
less than 0.1 percent of gross industrial output. In 1961 the USSR
produced about 1.7 million tons of commercial edible fish products, ],./
with fish accounting for about 36 percent of the total marketed fundtt
of fish and meat products. 4/ The consumption of fish in 1961 was
10.5 kg per capita, 5/ and It is planned to be about 15 kg annually
by 1965. 6/ An important source of animal protein, fish and other
sea anima's contribute about 15 percent of the total animal protein
consumed in the USSR. Included among the numerous products, other
than food, resulting from the processing of fish and other sea animals
are vitamins, medicines, valuable furs, livestock feed, and fertilizer.
In addition, exports of fish and fish products have increased to the
point where the USSR has reversed its former position as a net importer
of these products, and exports in 1961 exceeded imports by more than
$25 million.
* This figure is in terms of live weight.
** The term other sea animals refers to seals, porpoises, crusta-
ceans, and certain sea plants.
*** Table 1 follows on p. 4.
tt The total marketed fund does not include total production but
only that which passes through commercial channels.
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Table 1
Comparison of Soviet and World Fish Catches
1938, 1948, 1953-62, and 1965 Plan
0
Thousand Metric Tons Live Weight
Year
Soviet Catch
World
Catch
Soviet Catch
as a Percent of
World World Catch 12/
Excluding Whales
Including Whales
and Other Se,a.
Animals 21
1938
1,523
1,542 .
20,500
7.4
1948
1,485
1,575
19,090
7.8
1953
1,983
2,195
25,24o
7.8
1954
2,258
2,505
27,010
8.4
1955
2,495
2,737
28,330
8.8
1956
2,616
2,849
29,910
8.8
1957
2,531
2,761
30,910
8.2
1958
2,621
2,936
32,240
8.1
1959
2,756
3,075
35,740
7.7
1960
3,051
3,541
38,020
8.0
1961
3,250
3,724
41,160
7.9
1962
N.A.
4,100 E/
N.A.
N.A.
1965
Plan 5,000 1/
a. 1/
b. Excluding whales. 8/
c.
d. 12/. The original 1965 Plan called for a catch of 4,624,000
tons. This figure was later corrected to 4,640,000 tons, and in
June 1962 it was increased to 5 million tons.
II. Postwar Expansion of Soviet Fishing
A. Soviet Fish Catch
As shown in Table 1, the Soviet fish catch (according to Soviet
statistics) in 1938 was about 1.5 million tons. By 1961 the catch had
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increased to 3.7 million tons, an amount almost 150 percent greater
than the level of 1938. A major reason for this increase can be at-
tributed to a vast expansion in whaling operations, with more than
11,000 whales caught in 1961 compared with only 265 in 1938. The in-
crease in the fish catch exclusive of whales and other sea animals --
although not quite so spectacular as the whale catch -- was slightly
greater than the increase in the world catch, which doubled during
this period.
As a result of the wartime destruction of a large part of the
fishing fleet and other facilities of the fishing industry, the 1938
catch was not equaled until 1948. Since that time, however, the fish
catch increased steadily at an average rate of almost 7 percent an-
nually during 1948-61.
The increase in the Soviet fish catch in the postwar period
is the result primarily of expansion in fishing on the high seas.
Whereas only 45 percent of the catch was obtained on the high seas in
1946, 11/ the figure rose to about 80 percent in 1962. The catch of
freshwater fish from 1956 to 1961, the latest year for which detailed
statistics are available, has been declining (see Table 2*). (The whale
catch is presented in Table 3.**) On the other hand, the catch of most
marine fish species has increased markedly since 1953. The species
groups that include (1) cod, hake, and haddock and (2) herring, an-
chovies, and sardines are the most important of the marine fishes.
In 1961 these two groups accounted for about 57 percent of the total
fish catch, exclusive of whales, and about 65 percent of the catch
from the high seas. In June 1962 the goal for 1965 was increased
from 4.64 million to 5.0 million tons, a move apparently prompted by
the successes achieved during the first 3 years of the Seven Year
Plan.
B. Soviet Fishing Fleet
The basis for the expansion of Soviet fishing since World War II
has been the vastly expanded and modernized high seas fishing fleet. In
1940, 40 percent of the fish catch was obtained from the high seas. 1E/
Postwar plans for expansion of the fishing industry, as stated above,
have been predicated almost entirely on the increased exploitation of the
international resources of the high seas. Several reasons can be offered
for the Soviet decision to expand this type of fishing operation. First,
a depressed and generally inefficient agriculture that had suffered great
losses during the war was incapable of providing a nutritionally balanced
diet for the Soviet populace in a short time with the meager resources***
**
***
Table 2 follows on p. 6.
Table 3 follows on p. 10.
Text continued on p. 11.
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Table 2
Soviet Fish Catch, by Species a/
Selected Years,
1948-61
Thousand Metric Tons Live Weight
Species Group
1948
1953
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
Freshwater fishes
N.A.
473.2
489.0
1+75.5
460.2
465.4
431.6
420.4
Common bream
N.A.
58.4
56.3
55.8
65.1
60.8
51.2
46.4
Common carp
N.A.
36.3
51.0
49.9
31.6
27.9
50.3
57.0
Perch pike
N.A.
37.1
34.8
29.8
36.3
27.6
33.5
33.1
Pike
N.A.
23.3
31.1
30.9
29.4
30.5
32.4
29.5
Roach
N.A.
69.7
95.1
82.6
93.4
93.1
93.4
71.7
Sheatfish
N.A.
9.1
15.0
14.5
11.6
12.9
8.7
7.8
Sturgeon
N.A.
16.7
15.8
13.7
13.5
14.2
12.3
15.4
Other
N.A.
222.6
189.9
198.3
179.3
198.4
149.8
159.5
Salmons, trouts, and smelts
157.6
230.9
230.9
196.0
116.8
142.2
120.5
128.2
Pacific salmons
133.8
190.8
166.6
150.8
76.0
94.8
73.8
82.6
Chum salmon
62.5
34.0
77.8
32.4
29.4
38.4
44.3
38.5
King salmon
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
0.7
1.0
0.7
0.7
Pink salmon
52.2
142.3
72.4
106.7
36.9
47.5
19.7
30.7
Red salmon
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
1.3
4.0
4.3
7.6
Silver salmon
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
2.7
3.9
2.0
4.7
Other Pacific salmons
19.1
14.5
16.4
11.7
5.0
N.A.
2.8
0.4
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Table 2
Soviet Fish Catch, by Species
Selected Years, 1948-61
(Continued)
Thousand Metric Tons Live Weight
Species Group
1948
1953
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
Other salmons, trouts, and smelts
23.8
40.1
64.3
45.2
40.8
47.4
46.7
45.6
Capelin
N.A.
1.1
16.7
5.0
1.4
3.0
4.5
1.8
Smelts
N.A.
10.4
18.5
14.5
14.5
15.0
15.3
15.1
Other salmons
2.8
3.3
2.5
2.6
2.2
3.2,
2.2
4.2
Whitefishes
21.0
22.6
26.6
23.1
22.7
24.2
24.7
24.5
Other
N.A.
2.7
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
2.0
N.A.
N.A.
Flounders, halibuts, and soles
122.1
63.6
154.1
146.9
203.0
203.8
241.7
273.1
Barents Sea species
1.7
4.8
3.1
5.3
6.0
8.6
17.7
19.8
Baltic Sea species
1.9
2.4
3.2
3.2
2.4
2.6
4.1
2.5
Black Sea and Azov Sea species
2.3
2.6
2.1
1.0
1.1
1.4
0.9
1.2
Pacific Ocean species
33.6
53.8
145.7
137.4
193.5
191.2
219.0
249.6
Cods, hakes, and haddocks
255.7
341.0
737.3
422.6
367.6
414.7
672.5
767.3
Barents Sea, White Sea, and other
Atlantic species
173.5
286.8
627.2
313.9
268.8
293.7
486.8
613.0
Alaska pollack
22.2
5.4
9.1
9.4
20.6
51.6
109.2
97.6
Baltic cod
17.8
28.5
62.0
64.6
50.4
40.5
44.4
25.1
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Table 2
Soviet Fish Catch, by Species
Selected Years, 1948-61
(Continued)
Thousand Metric Tons Live Weight
Species Group
1948
1953
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
Pacific cod
22.9
13.3
22.0
18.4
12.3
10.3
12.0
9.8
Wachna cod
19.3
7.0
17.0
16.3
15.5
18.6
20.1
21.8
Herrings, sardines, and anchovies
325.5
670.3
777.1
983.8
1,093.1
1,056.3
1,083.5
1,075.6
Anchovy
52.7
49.2
9.4
18.0
25.9
42.6
33.2
71.7
Atlantic herring
6.8
121.0
277.0
346.4
432.2
464.3
523.4
396.7
Baltic herring
20.3
64.2
84.8
68.3
63.9
72.1
60.0
63.8
Caspian Sea and Black Sea shads
58.5
48.7
42.0
43.6
70.6
54.6
56.5
32.5
Caspian Sea, Azov Sea, and Black Sea
sprats
67.2
209.6
200.5
196.1
147.9
154.3
179.0
211.0
Pacific herring
116.6
170.9
154.2
296.5
332.6
235.3
193.0
272.8
Sardines
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
0.2
2.8
8.6
17.6
4.1
Other sprats
2.8
4.3
9.2
14.5
17.2
23.5
20.8
23.0
Other
0.6
2.4
N.A.
0.2
N.A.
1.0
N.A.
N.A.
Tunas, bonitos, and mackerels
N.A.
20.5
5.8
9.3
5.9
3.5
5.9
5.1
Atlantic bonito
N.A.
N.A.
5.1
8.5
3.9
0.2
0.2
0.3
Pacific mackerel
6.6
18.3
0.6
0.1
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
Other mackerels
N.A.
2.2
0.1
0.7
2.0
3.3
5.7
4.8
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Table 2
Soviet Fish Catch, by Species
Selected Years, 1948-61
(Continued)
Thousand Metric Tons Live Weight
Species Group
1948
1953
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
Mullets jacks, and sea basses
N.A.
48.8
128.1
211.5
291.2
342.6
280.8
259.3
Mullets
N.A.
4.2
1.8
2.0
2.0
1.2
1.3
1.4
Horse mackerel
N.A.
3.1
15.1
12.4
4.1
6.6
23.8
56.4
Redfishes
14.6
22.4
45.0
112.1
174.1
243.5
183.9
123.7
Sculpins
N.A.
5.6
12.0
10.8
15.7
13.3
15.0
N.A.
Gobies
N.A.
13.5
54.2
74.2
95.3
78.0
56.8
77.8
Unsorted and unidentified fishes
N.A.
99.8
45.3
45.4
40.3
81.2
145.1,
222.1
Crustaceans
15.1
29.1
37.4
30.7
31.7
32.8
37.4
39.4
King crab
14.5
28.4
36.1
29.8
30.9
32.2
36.7
38.7
Other
0.6
0.7
1.3
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.7
0.7
Miscellaneous aquatic animals
? 24.5
5.8
11.0
9.3
11.2
13.5
32.0
59.6
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Table 3
Comparison of Soviet and World Whale Catches 2/
Whaling Seasons of 1937/38, 1947/48, and 1952/53 - 1960/61
Number of Whales Caught
?
Whaling
Season
Soviet Catch
World Catch'
Soviet Catch
as a Percent
of World Catch
Antarctic
Kamchatka
Kurile Islands
? Total
1937/38
1947/48
1952/53
1953/54
1954/55
1955/56
1956/57
1957/58
1958/59
1959/60
1960/61
0
824
2,726
?3,086
3,290
2,773
2,600
4,037_
3,687
7,031
7,182
265
820
1,061
1,112
1,116
1,119
1,351
1,500
1,881
2,472
2,317
0
46o
1,818
1,633
1,915
2,179,
2,162
2,875
2,265
1,931
1,647
265
2,104 ?
5,605
5,831
' 6,321
? 6,071
- 6,113
8,412
7,833
11,434
11,18412/
54,902
43,431 ?4.8
45,009
53,642
55,075
58,126
59,056
64,586
64,489
63,616
63,484
0.5
12.5
10.9
11.5
10.4
10.4
13.0
12.1
18.0
17.6
a. 147
b. Including 38 whales caught in the pelagic region of the South Atlantic.
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allocated to it. Second, a rapid and sustained increase in fish output
required new sources of supply because Soviet coastal waters not only
are already extensively fished but also are severely handicapped by
the prevalence of fog and ice for a large part of the year. Third, a
chronic lack of port handling and processing facilities indicated the
desirability of employing very large, mechanized fishing vessels sup-
ported by factory ships and transports to exploit distant waters ef-
fectively. Fourth, modern vessels and gear were quickly and cheaply
available from Western Europe and the more industrialized Satellite
countries, thus leaving Soviet shipyards free for naval construction
and providing advanced foreign designs for subsequent copying.
During the war the USSR lost about 200,000 gross register tons
(GRT) of fishing craft. As a means of rapidly rebuilding the fleet, the
first postwar (Fourth) Five Year Plan (19)-i-6-50) provided for standardiza-
tion of ship construction with the addition of 150 trawlers, 3,500 motor
craft (undescribed), and 10,000 sail and motor boats. 15/ As shown
in Table 4,* the Soviet fishing fleet numbered 44,332 craft in 19)--8, of
which 3,158 were powered, with a total rating of 243,000 horsepower (hp).
By 1956, the latest detailed accounting given by the USSR, the number
of powered craft had increased by nearly four times -- to 12,387 craft,
with a total rating of 983,000 hp. During this period the number of
trawlers increased from 329 to 1,785, and a similar increase was regis-
tered in the number of seiners.
It is planned that during the Seven Year Plan (1959-65) about
$2.7 billion will be invested in the construction and import of new
fishing ships. 16/ During this period the fleet is to increase by about
10 percent in numbers and 90 percent in engine power., 17/ Since 1955
the construction of large fishing craft used for fishing on the high
seas has been emphasized. In 1960, for example, the large ships of the
fishing fleet caught 76 percent of the fish catch of the entire fishing
fleet in spite of the fact that large ships of 300 hp and above com-
prised only 6 percent of the total numbers of the motorized fleet. 18/
The goal for 1965 for these large ships calls for a catch of 3 million
tons, which is to comprise about 80 percent of the planned catch for
the entire fleet. 19/
In recent years the expansion of the Soviet fishing industry
has been dominated by the fish-factory trawler program. Large re-
frigerated trawlers (BMRT's) catch and mechanically process the fish
into frozen fillets, canned products, fish meal, and oil. These large-
stern trawlers are in the Pushkin, Mayakovskiy, and Leskov series.
* Table 4 follows on p. 12.
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Table 4
Composition of the Soviet Fishing Fleet
1940, 1948, and 1953-56
Powered Craft
Year
Trawlers
Seiners
Other
Total
Nonpowered
Craft
Total
(Units)
Total
Units Horsepower
Units
Total
Horsepower
Units
Total
Horsepower
Units
Total
Horsepower
Units
Total
Tonnage
1940
107 62,500
376
18,900
2,244
42,500
2,727
123,900
33,679
103,600
36,406
1948
329 88,000
407
29,200
2,422
126,000
3,158
243,200
41,174
83,300
44,332
1953
1,184 303,200
1,221
147,200
5,898
160,300
8,303
610,700
46.,,292
131,700
54,595
1954
1,379 362,-1-OO
1,395
175,800
7,151
187,100
9,925
725,300
45,912
125,800
55,837
1955
1,598 451,800
1,517
194,200
7,757
188,200
10,872
834,200
47,752
126,100
58,624
1956
1,785 549,300
1,724
225,700
8,878
207,600
12,387
982,600
48,056
127,40o
60,443
a.
20/. This table presents the latest official statistics on the subject and is included as an indica-
tion of trends and for purposes of comparison with other countries.
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A new large trawler of 3,300
hp with double the capacity of the present large trawlers is expected
to be in service in 1964. 22/ The Tropik is a smaller version of the
fish-factory trawler designed to operate in tropical waters especially
for fishing for sardines and tuna. The Okean and Atlantik are medium-
size refrigerated trawlers (SET'S), the latter being designed to can
and package fish and to deliver its catch directly to ports. 23/
In addition to the vastly enlarged trawler fleet, the Soviet
fishing fleet is being supplied with refrigerated transports, floating
fish-processing ships, crab-canning ships, whale-factory ships, and
whale catchers as well as numerous smaller vessels. Fish-factory
ships of the Andrey Zakharov class (10,700 GRT), which are used for
canning crab and fish, have an annual capacity of 20 million cans. 2)1/
A new fish-processing parent ship, the Vostok, with a displacement of
35,000 tons, is now being designed. 25/ Refrigerated transports in-
clude ships of the Sevastopol', Bratsk, Skryplev, and Tavriya classes.
Series production of a new refrigerated transport designated as of the
Sibir class is to begin in 1963. 26/
A program to modernize and expand whaling operations was under-
taken in 1955, when a series of three 32,024-GRT factory ships was begun.
Two of these ships, the Sovetskaya Ukraina and the Sovetskaya Rossiya,
are operational, and the Sovetskiv Soyuz is to be commissioned in 1963.
The Yuriy Dolgorukiy, a converted German liner, began operations in 1960.
In addition two ships, the Vladivostok and the Dal'niy Vostok, each of
17,000 GRT, will operate as whale-factory/fish-factory ships in the Far
East. 27/ Construction of whale-catcher ships, chiefly of the Mirniy
class, has proceeded concurrently with the increase in mother ships.
The USSR has relied heavily on foreign shipyards in its postwar
buildup of the fishing fleets. East and West Germany and Poland, in
particular, have been important suppliers, but Denmark and Sweden also
have been involved in the development of the Soviet fishing fleet. A
contract with Japanese shipbuilders was signed recently, and negotia-
tions are underway with firms in other countries to supply specialized
fishing vessels.
The magnitude of development of the Soviet fishing fleet has
been unparalleled in the postwar period. Although inadequate data on
the composition of this fleet make comparisons difficult, the number
of powered vessels almost quadrupled during 1948-58, increasing from
3,158 to an estimated number of 12,500 vessels, with the total tonnage
increasing from 243,000 GRT to about 1.1 million GRT. During this
same period the Japanese fleet increased from 104,000 to 162,000
vessels (853,000 GRT to 1,230,000 GRT); the US fleet increased from
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q.500 to 11,600 vessels (188,000 GRT to 235,000 GRT);
In terms of gross register tons, only the Japanese fleet is
comparable to that of the USSR, and as of 1963 it is estimated that the
Soviet fleet =passes that of Japan in tonnage.
With the expansion and modernization of the Soviet fleet, methods
of fishing have likewise changed. As shown in Table 5, from 1950 to
1959 the percentage of the catch resulting from "active" fishing more
than doubled.
Table 5
Soviet Fish Catch, by Methods Used 2.1
1950 and 1959
Percent of Total
Method
1950
1959
Active fishing
35.8
74.0
Trawling
19.2
31.6
Drift netting
5.1
18.3
Purse seining
4.2
7.5
Use of electric lights
0,1
5.2
Catching whales and sea animals
7.2
11.4
Passive fishing
64.2
26.0
Beach seine
16.4
6.5
Trap net
22.8
9.0
Fixed gill net
10.7
7.5
Other
14.3
3.0
a. 22/
C. Scientific Research Fleet
In addition to having one of the largest and most modern high
seas fishing fleets in the world, the efforts of the USSR in oceano-
graphic research have established it among the world leaders in this
field. As revealed by Soviet participation in the International Geo-
physical Year (IGY) program (1 July 1957 - 31 December 1958), the USSR
has a larger oceanographic fleet than the US. Not only is 'the rate of
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growth of Soviet oceanographic science greater than that of the US,
but also the USSR probably leads in the field of exploratory surveys of
the oceans. ..E/
Soviet oceanographic studies are organized under 22 fishing re-
search organizations headed by the All-Union Scientific Research Insti-
tute of Fishing and Oceanography (VNIRO), which employs about 100 ves-
sels. Many of these ships are converted trawlers, but others are spe-
cially designed research ships such as the Y.M. Shokalskiy, which con-
tains the latest equipment for studying sea currents, marine biology,
and weather conditions. A converted submarine, the Severvanka, also is
used in underwater research. A large combination research and commerical
fishing vessel, the N.M. Knipovich, is currently under construction.
In extending their high seas fishing industry into new areas,
the Soviet authorities follow a general pattern of activities. An
oceanographic expedition conducts broad-scale observations on marine
biology, including the location of various sources of food for the
different kinds of fish in a defined area. Research vessels follow
up to conduct intensive explorations of the fishstocks, after which
fishing begins. 2/
At present the USSR is engaged in oceanographic research in all
the major fishing areas of the world as well as in areas such as the
Gulf of Aden and Tonkin Bay, where the fishing potentials have yet to
be determined. Undoubtedly the scientific research fleet will play
a major role in the future expansion of Soviet fishing on the high
seas, both in the development of new fisheries and in the better ex-
ploitation of existing fisheries.
D. Port and Shore Installations
50X1
Soviet fishing is centered on very few ports, almost all of
which are undergoing extensive improvements. Kaliningrad in the Baltic
is being reorganized as the second largest base (after Murmansk) on
the western side of the continent and will control fleets in the Baltic
and the North and South Atlantic and a whaling flotilla in the Antarctic.
A large mechanized fishing harbor is being built as well as associated
canning factories, refrigeration and processing plants, and shipyards.
Similar, although less extensive, improvements are being made at Klaypeda,
Riga, Tallin, Leningrad, and Murmansk. In the Far East the Vladivostok
port is being expanded and will serve not only as the center of the
Primorskiy Kray fisheries but also for the fisheries of the entire Far
East. Other important fishing ports in the Far East include Nakhodka,
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Nevel'sk, Petropavlovsk, Mago, Okhotsk, and Rybnovsk. The most im-
portant fishing ports in the USSR are presented in Table 6.
Table 6
Landed Catch at Soviet Fishing Ports
1958 and Original 1965 Plan
Thousand Metric Tons Live Weight
Original ,
Ports 1958 1965 Plan 12/
USSR
Of which:
2,936 4,64o
Murmansk
509
850 to 88o
Kaliningrad
140
450 to 550
'
Estonia: Tallin and others
59
130
Latvia: Riga and others
95
200
Lithuania: Klaypeda and
others
93
155
Leningrad
45
N.A.
Primorskiy Kray: Vladivostok
and others
340
667
Kamchatka: Petropavlovsk
and others
204
348
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Sakhalin: Rybnovsk and others
179
249
b. A revised breakdown of the new goal of 5 million tons has not been
published to date.
As a result of the improvement of shore facilities, along with
the growth of the fish-factory fleet, the proportions of the components
of the processed fish products have changed considerably in recent
years. The commercial output of fish products for food in 1961 was
1,682,000 tons,* of which about 778,000 tons, or 46 percent, were live,
chilled, or frozen compared with only 594,000 tons, or 37 percent, of
* This figure for commercial output of edible fish products is only a
part of the total production of edible fish products shown in Table 7,
p. 18, below.
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the total commercial output in 1958. 34/ By 1965, 1.4 million tons*
of live, chilled, or frozen fish products are to be produced. 35/ In-
strumental in attaining this goal will be the planned growth in refrig-
eration facilities that will have a daily freezing capacity of 19,860
tons (5,920 tons at shore installations and 13,9)40 tons on ships) com-
pared with a daily freezing capacity of only 7,740 tons in 1959 (3,800
tons on shore installations and 3,9)40 tons on ships). In 1958 the re-
frigerated hold capacity of ships of 80 hp and above was 189,300 tons,
or 31 percent of their total hold capacity. By 1965 it is planned to
increase refrigerated hold capacity to 675,900 tons, or 65 percent of
the total. Output of quick-frozen fish is planned to increase from
430,000 tons in 1958 to 1,230,000 tons** in 1965 -- an increase of
66 to 88 percent of the total output of refrigerated fish and fish
products. 36/
Output of canned fish products was 760 million cans in 1961
compared with 632 million cans in 1958. E/ The goal for 1965 calls
for more than 1 billion cans of fish to be produced. 38/ With the
emphasis on fresh, frozen, and canned products, the share of salted
fish (excluding salted herring) will decrease to about 11 percent of
the output of edible fish products by 1965 compared with about 20 per-
cent in 1958 and 52 percent in 1950. 39/ As shown in Table 7,*** pro-
duction of inedible fish products has almost doubled in recent years.
E. Some Economic Aspects
As is the case with Soviet industry in general, the fishing in-
dustry can fall back on state subsidies when losses occur. It should
be pointed out that the high seas fishing industry serves as cover for
intelligence operations to some extent, and that, therefore, there are
certain joint costs of operations. Some Soviet fishing operations un-
doubtedly are uneconomic, however well organized and efficient as far
as the harvesting of fish is concerned. 40/ For instance, in some
areas of the Northwest Atlantic where the Soviet catch is primarily
herring, Soviet fishermen have referred to the fish (herring) as "golden
fish" because of the expense of the operation. 41/ The fisheries in
the Far East, admittedly, have not been profitable as a whole, 42/ but
an economic evaluation of these fisheries would have to take into con-
sideration the loss of foreign exchange if the USSR resorted to imports
in preference to high-cost domestic production.
* According to the June 1962 revision of the goal for 1965. The
original plan called for a total production of 1.2 million tons.
** According to the June 1962 revision of the goal for 1965. The
original goal for 1965 for frozen fish as a separate category is not
available.
*** Table 7 follows on p. 18.
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Table 7
Disposition of the Soviet Fish Catch a/
1958, 1961, and Original 1965 Plan ?
Thousand Metric Tons Net Weight
Product
1958 12/
1961 2/
Original
1965
Plan b/
Total edible fish products
1,796.8
2,018.5
2,669.0
Canned d/
214.1
269.8
338.2
Fish products
1,582.7
1,748.7
2,330.8
Live, chilled, or frozen
651.0
797.1
1,238.0
Smoked, dried, balik,
and culinary products
75.7
140.2 e/
113.0
Salted, excluding
herring
371.0
349.9
284.0
Salted herring
460.0
461.5
668.0
Other (residual)
25.0
N. A.
27.8
Other fish products c/
120.1
222.6
N.A.
Whale oil
37.2 f/
59.5 g/
N. A.
Sperm oil
22.2 f/
25.3 -g-/
N. A.
Fish body oils
12.0
20.7 E/
N. A.
Whale meal
4.8 f/
16.5 i/
N. A.
Fish meals and solubles
43.9
100.6
N. A.
a. Figures by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the
UN 43/ for 1958 for edible fish products differ slightly from those of
Mikhaylov, 44/ probably because of differences in definitions. The
total is comparable to that given in Mikhaylov.
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C.
d. Including all types of fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and caviar.
e. Including spiced and marinated herring.
f. Data are for the 1958/59 whaling season.
g. Data are for the 1960/61 whaling season.
h. Data are for 1960.
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In spite of the very considerable growth in their fishing in-
dustry in the past decade, the Soviet authorities have been highly crit-
ical of the over-all performance of the fishing fleet. The growth in
the fish catch has been due primarily to the expansion of the fishing
fleet and not to the better utilization of the fleet. Special studies
of fleet use in 1961 indicated that the large fishing trawlers (BMRT's)
and the medium trawlers (SRT's) were occupied in fishing operations
for only 39 to 43 percent and 25 to 37 percent of the calendar year,
respectively. Idle time, spent chiefly under repair or waiting for re-
pairs, amounted to 25 to 30 percent of the total time.)11/ Also, con-
siderable unproductive time is spent waiting to transfer fish catches
to transport or base ships, a shortage of which has handicapped the
industry.
Part of the inefficient use of the Soviet fishing fleet is at-
tributed to poor mechanization of some of the heavy operations on board
ship. The lack of adequate port facilities, which have been greatly
neglected in the past, however, has been a distinct handicap to the
fishing industry. Indeed, inadequate port facilities were an important
factor in the decision to operate fish-factory trawlers, which require
fewer shore facilities. On the other hand, many Soviet fishing bases
are located in largely underdeveloped areas of the North and Far East,
and expansion of the fishing industry has stimulated the industrial de-
velopment of these regions while at the same time supplying food in
food-deficit areas.
The Soviet authorities point out that under existing conditions
the fishing industry not only can be developed as a more economic al-
ternative to the development of the livestock industry in the short run
but also can be developed in less time.)1./ The Soviet writer S.V.
Mikhaylov, citing a comparative study of fish and meat production, main-
tains that 1 million calories of food production are obtained from 1.0
to 1.5 tons of raw fish or from 2.8 standard head of cattle, each weigh-
ing 370 kg. He states that only 15 to 20 man-days of working time are
required to catch the fish but that 56 man-days are expended on the
cattle. L2/ Furthermore, the timespan needed to raise cattle to maturity
makes livestock raising even more disadvantageous compared with fishing.
Mikhaylov further points out that in terms of capital investment,
20 million to 25 million rubles are needed to organize a state farm with
4,500 to 5,000 head of cattle. With a marketable production on such
farms of approximately 1,000 tons (live weight) per year, total capital
investment per ton of marketed production will be 20,000 to 25,000 rubles.
On the other hand, a catch of 1 ton of fish (roughly equivalent to 1 ton
of beef in protein food value) in the seas and oceans requires a total
investment of only 15,000 to 17,000 rubles, or 25 to 30 percent less. 50/
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It should be further pointed out that the expansion of the
fishing industry is coincident with the determination of the Soviet
authorities to make the USSR as self-sufficient as possible in the
production of food. Soviet reliance on imports of fish has decreased
substantially with the increase in the fish catch. As indicated in
Table 8,* the USSR has reversed its former position as a net importer
of fish and fish products. Trade with Norway and Iceland, in partic-
ular, has been sharply reduced, partly because of expanded Soviet
production and partly because of political considerations. From 1956
to 1961, imports of fish fillets from Iceland fell from 31,500 tons to
8,200 tons and those from Norway from 8,100 tons to 1,900 tons. Im-
ports of salted herring from Iceland during the same period fell from
16,200 tons to 8,600 tons, and those from Norway fell from 32,800 tons
to none. 21/ It would appear that further reduction in these levels
of trade is a likely prospect as the Soviet fishing operations con-
tinue to expand.
III. International Fishing Regions Exploited by the USSR
A. General
With the development of a modern high seas fishing fleet and a
scientific research fleet second to none, the USSR in the postwar period
has expanded its fishing operations into most of the principal fishing
regions of the world. Furthermore, the Soviet authorities have been
vigorously conducting exploratory research in their efforts not only to
discover new fishing grounds but also better to exploit those already
established. International fishing areas exploited by the USSR are
shown on the map. XX
Published Soviet data, although incomplete and at times contra-
dictory, make it possible to determine to some degree the extent of
Soviet regional fishing operations in 1958 and in the original 1965 Plan.
These data are presented in Table 9.***
B. Atlantic Ocean
The fisheries of the Atlantic are by far the most important in
the world. In 1961 the Atlantic provided about 35 percent of the world
fish catch, exclusive of whales and other sea animals. Of the 14.3 mil-
lion tons of fish caught in Atlantic waters in 1961, about 80 percent
were obtained in the Northern waters. 52/
Table 8 follows on p. 21.
** Following p. 20.
*** Table 9 follows on p. 23.
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WORLD AND SOVIET FISH CATCH
IN INTERNATIONAL WATERS
7,460
9,320
1 266
629 NORTHEAST'
ATLANTIC
121)
NORTHWEST
ATLANTIC
NORTH PACIFIC
110
1,Are'41
CENTRAL
ATLANTIC
Thousand Metric Tons
270
INDIAN OCEAN
CI 1958 World total *
P 1958 Soviet catch**
[Ea 1965 Soviet plan**
37537 7-63
SOUTH ATLANTIC
* Not including wholes.
**Total catch.
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Table 8
Soviet Foreign Trade in Fish and Fish Products 1/
1957-61
Fish - fresh,
chilled, or frozen
Fish - dried,
salted,or smoked
Fish products and
preparations,pre-
served or canned
Crustacean and mol-
lusk products,
cooked or canned
Oils and fats, crude
or refined, of
aquatic animal
origin
Meals, solubles, and
similar animal
feedstuffs, of
aquatic animal
origin
Total
Unit of Measure
Thousand metric tons
Thousand US $
Thousand metric tons
Thousand US $
Thousand metric tons
Thousand US $
Thousand metric tons
Thousand US $
Thousand metric tons
Thousand US $
Thousand metric tons
Thousand US $
1957
1958
1959
1960
1961
Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports
52.6
13,846.0
69.3
10,180.0
O 56.1
O 13,856.0
O 53.1
o 13,591.0
O 58.1
O 13,675.0
O 18.7 0
O 5,117.0 0
1.3 55.1 13.4 52.7 34.3 28.1 43.1 8.6 31.3
570.0 7,751.0 3,074.0 7,166.0 6,807.0 3,986.0 8,159.0 1,922.0 5,928.0
0.1 7.8 Negl. 16.5 0.1 18.6 0.1 22.3
584.0 10,375.0 534.0 18,120.0 880.0 18,429.0 806.0 22,004.0
0.1 7.8
625.0 10,529.0
O 3.8
O 7,568.0
33.6
10,754.0
O 4.1
O 8,449.oO
4.1
8,659.0
3.7
8,598.0O
3.7
9,435.0
4.8 27.8 5.0 35.5 8.0 23.6 35.4 28.9 17.4
1,139.0 7,673.0 1,366.0 9,654.0 2,138.0 6,288.0 7,282.0 7,415.0 4,101.0
3.2
O 422.0
3.8 o 4.8
494.0 o 631.0
14.0 4.9
538.0 0 623.0
Thousand metric tons 155.6 20.9 139.1 34.1 141.3 67.7 109.9 104.8 56.3 79.6
Thousand US $ 35,405.0 .20,228.0 29,684.0 23,758.0 30,945.0 36,355.0 24,769.0 43,006.0 15,260.0 42,091.0
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Before the 1950's, Soviet fishing in the Atlantic was confined
primarily to the Barents Sea, where the catch was mainly bottom fish. 54/
In 1940, only 218,000 tons of fish were taken from Atlantic waters. 55/
Since 1948, when Soviet ships began fishing for herring in northeastern
waters, exploitation of this area proceeded rapidly. In 1950 the Atlan-
tic catch was only 290,000 tons, but by 1958 it had increased to 970,000
tons, or about one-third of the entire Soviet catch. .56/ According to
the original Seven Year Plan goal for 1965, the catch from the Atlantic
is to increase by 120 percent above that of 1958. About 30 percent of
the planned increase will be in the herring catch, while the remaining
70 percent will result from bottom fish -- sea perch and cod in the
Northwest and sardines, tuna, and other types of fish in the central and
southern regions. 21/ In view of the increased goal for 1965, it would
appear likely that the Atlantic probably will provide more than two-
thirds of the additional increase.
1. Northeast Atlantic
As indicated in Table 9,* the Northeast Atlantic, which in-
cludes the waters of the Barents, White, Baltic, Norwegian, and North
Seas, is the major source of fish for the USSR and provided about 87
percent of the Soviet catch from the Atlantic and 40 percent of the
Soviet high seas catch in 1958. In 1960 the catch from the Northeast
Atlantic was about 1.1 million tons. Am/ Although the relative share
of the Northeast Atlantic fisheries is declining because of expanded
operations into other regions, these fisheries will continue to be the
most important in the Atlantic waters.
Fishing in the Northeast Atlantic is a year-round operation,
and this area is rarely devoid of Soviet fishermen. The intensity of
Soviet operations in this area is apparent from the fact that the sight-
ing of 300 to 400 trawlers and support ships in this area is common,
with the number exceeding 800 on occasion. 59/ In the winter months,
heavy concentrations are sighted constantly in the vicinity of the
Faeroes, with operations gradually moving northward. By mid-summer,
operations are usually concentrated in the general vicinity of Jan Mayen
Island, but with the approach of autumn the trend is toward the south-
ern part of the area. 60/
In the Northeast the Soviet vessels fish primarily for
herring, sea perch, cod, and other bottom fish such as flatfish and
redfish. Herring is the most important fish in this area. The de-
velopment of herring fishing for the entire North Atlantic is to pro-
vide 30 percent of the planned increase in the total Atlantic catch
during the Seven Year Plan. 61/ The tremendous expansion of the Soviet
* Table 9 follows on p. 23.
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Table 9
Soviet Fish Catch, by Region 1/
1958 and Original 1965 Plan
Thousand Metric Tons Live Weight
Total fish catch (including
1958
Original /
1965 Plan 121
whales and other sea animals)
2,936
4 64o
Inland and coastal
813
928
High seas
2,123
3,712
Atlantic
970
2,135
'4?
Northeast
844
1,266
Of which:
Baltic Sea
168
113
Northwest
121
629
Central
5
110
Southern
0
130
Far East
851
1,396
Primorskiy Kray
336
662
Kamchatka
202
343
Sakhalin
177
245
Other Far East areas
136
146
Other E/
302
181
a. A reliable and complete regional breakdown is not available for
recent years. Some data for 1960-62 are included in the text.
b. The original 1965 Plan called for a catch of 4,624,000 tons. It
was later corrected to 4,64o,000 tons, and in June 1962 it was in-
creased to 5 million tons.
c. These are residuals and do not appear to be entirely consistent
with the expansion of activities in other areas, especially Antarctic
whaling.
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herring catch in the Northeast Atlantic in recent years is well il-
lustrated by the Soviet catch in Norwegian waters. In 1951 the com-
bined Soviet/Norwegian catch of adult herring in Norwegian waters was
930,000 tons, of which the Soviet catch was only 4o,000 tons. By 1960
the Soviet share was 500,000 tons of the combined catch of 800,000
tons. .L./ An indicated in Table 9,* the fish catch from the Baltic
Sea, an important source of sprats, is planned to decrease by one-
third during the Seven Year Plan.
2. Northwest Atlantic
Soviet fishing in the Northwest Atlantic dates from 1954,
when initial fishery research was undertaken by a single trawler.
Actual exploitation, however, did not begin until 1957. Until June
1961, fishing operations were largely centered on the Flemish Gap and
Grand Banks fisheries. With discovery of rich herring concentrations
on the Georges Bank, operations were extended into this area.
The Northwest Atlantic fisheries will play a significant
role in the expansion of Soviet fish production during the Seven Year
Plan. As seen in Table 9,* the 1958 catch was only 121,000 tons, but
the goal for 1965 calls for a catch of about 629,000 tons -- an increase
of about 420 percent. 21/ In 1961 the catch in the Northwest Atlantic
which consists primarily of herring, cod, redfish, sea perch, and
other bottom species, was about 340,000 tons. L5/ The success of the
Soviet fishing vessels in the Northwest Atlantic, where the catch was
almost tripled from 1958 to 1961, could have been the main reason for
increasing the goal for 1965 to 5 million tons in June 1962.
Because of the great distance from Soviet fishing ports,
the fish-factory trawlers, with their great range of operations, form
the nucleus of the fleet in this area. During a peak season, it is
estimated, as many as 450 large and medium trawlers and their support
ships operate in this area. 66/
3. Central and South Atlantic
As indicated on the map,XX the Central and South Atlantic
are not important fishing areas. The USSR did not engage in fishing
activities in these areas before 1958. However, the combined catch
from these areas is planned to be about 240,000 tons by 1965. Soviet
operations to date are still on a fairly small scale but promise to
increase substantially as soon as the Tropik-class trawlers, which are
designed for tuna and sardine fishing, become operational in sufficient
numbers.
* P. 23, above.
** Following p. 20, above.
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In 1957, exploratory operations were begun along the west
coast of Africa in an area extending from the Cape Verde Islands south
and eastward into the Gulf of Guinea. The following year a small fleet
of fish-factory trawlers began limited operations, principally in the
Gulf of Guinea, with their catches of tuna, sardines, and bottom fish
being sold in coastal markets. Further exploratory work in 1960 led to
the discovery of rich sardine grounds off Southwest Africa in the region
subsequently called the Walvis Ridge area. It is reported that 17,000
tons of sardines were taken from this area in 1961. 67/ The fleet op-
erating in the West African waters will be based primarily at Ports
along the Black Sea. The largest fishing port on the Black Sea is cur-
rently under construction at Kamyshovaya Bay near Sevastopol and will
process the bulk of the catch of tuna, sardines, and sea perch ex-
pected by the end of the Seven Year Plan. _!3_,/
Soviet fishing operations in Caribbean waters, the Gulf
of Mexico, and along the east coast of the US and Brazil are not very
extensive at present but with the construction of port facilities
(such as refrigeration and repair) in Havana harbor the Soviet author-
ities will have an excellent base of operation for exploiting not
only these waters but also possibly the rich tuna grounds of the East-
Central Pacific.
C. Pacific Ocean
Soviet fishing operations in the Pacific are confined mainly to
the waters of the Northern Pacific. As shown in Table 9,* the Soviet
Far East fisheries provided about 29 percent of the total Soviet catch
in 1958. During the Seven Year Plan the Far East catch is to increase
by 64 percent above 1958 and will comprise about 1.4 million tons, or
30 percent of the Soviet catch. By 1961 the Far East catch had in-
creased to about 1.0 million tons. 69/
Of the total Soviet catch, at present the Far East fisheries
provide about 90 percent of the salmon, 100 percent of the crabs, more
than 90 percent of the flounder, 35 percent of the whales, 4o percent
of the herring, 55 percent of the mollusks, 100 percent of the trepangs,
and 90 percent of the sea plants. 70/ The Soviet Far East fisheries
embrace several regions, the most important of which is the Primorskiy
region. In 1958, the last year for which a reliable and complete break-
down can be established, this region produced 40 percent of the Far
East catch, and by 1965 it is planned to increase to 47 percent of the
total. The ports of Vladivostok and Nakhodka in the Primorskiy region
are the most important in the Soviet Far East because almost all of
the Far East catch passes through them. The extensive repair,
* P. 23, above.
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refrigeration, and processing facilities that are located in these
ports are being expanded considerably. The Eastern Fish Refrigera-
tion Fleet, which services the entire Soviet Far East, is based at
Vladivostok, as are the crab and whaling fleets. In addition, the
construction of a large base has begun in Preobrazheniya Bay on the
Japan Sea coast, which will be important in expanding operations into
more southern waters, including the Indian Ocean. 11/
Kamchatka is the next most important fishing region in the
Soviet Far East, followed by Sakhalin. In 1958 these two regions pro-
duced 24 and 21 percent, respectively, of the Soviet Far East catch.
The catches from these two regions in 1965 are planned to increase
by 70 and 38 percent above their respective levels in 1958. Fishing
operations in the Okhotsk, Magadan, and Lower Amur regions consist
mainly of offshore fishing for spawning salmon and herring. The com-
bined catch from these regions is expected to be about 11 percent of
the Soviet Far East catch in 1965.
In order to carry out the planned expansion in the Far East,
high seas fishing operations are being expanded in the Bering Sea,
the Okhotsk Sea, and the Sea of Japan and in more southern waters,
including the Indian Ocean. The Bering Sea, in.particular, will play
an important role in the Soviet Far East fishing industry. Following
the exploratory surveys of the All-Union and Pacific Scientific Re-
search Institutes of Fishing and Oceanography in 1957-59, development
of this region has been proceeding rapidly. By 1961 the catch had
increased to more than 300,000 tons. 12/ Future development of this
region is expected to provide an annual sustained catch of about
500,000 tons. /2/
Fishing operations in the Bering Sea are conducted in the
Olyutorskiy Gulf area on the west side of the Kamchatka Peninsula as
well as in the vicinity of St. Lawrence Island and in a triangular
area formed by Unimak and the Pribilof and Nunivak Islands. In 1961
the Soviet fishing fleet began operations in the waters south of the
Aleutians and eastward into the Gulf of Alaska below Kodiak Island.
Herring, salmon, flounder, sea perch, king crab, and other bottom
varieties are taken from this region. 74/ The necessary expansion
of the Far Eastern fleet to effect the planned increase in the fish
catch will include the addition of about 50 fish-factory trawlers,
more than 100 medium and large trawlers, and 9 parent ships of var-
ious types.
The Far Eastern whaling industry is to be expanded considerably
to produce an additional amount of 200,000 tons or more of whale prod-
ucts from this source. 50X1
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The number of whaling vessels is to be trebled, and
new expeditions are planned for the Bering, Chukchi, and Okhotsk Seas.
Instrumental in the expansion of the whaling industry will be the re-
equipping of the Aleut, the original whale-factory ship in the Far East,
and the addition of two dual-purpose fish-whale factory ships, the
Vladivostok and the Dal'niy Vostok.
D. Antarctic Whaling
Soviet whaling operations in the Antarctic have been developed
exclusively since World War II. The expansion of Antarctic whaling has
provided a quick and relatively cheap source of supply to ease the
postwar shortage of animal and vegetable fats. Since 1946, when op-
erations were begun with only a single floating base, the Slava, and
several attendant catchers, the USSR has expanded to 4 flotillas of 4
factory ships and approximately 75 catchers. 76/
As seen in Table 3,* the USSR caught only 3,687 whales in the
Antarctic in the 1958-59 season. In 1958, however, the International
Whaling Conference sanctioned the additional flotillas that the USSR
planned to put into operation, and that country was allocated 20 per-
cent of the total Antarctic catch. Thus the Soviet catch since the
1958-59 season has ranged from 17 to 24 percent of the total world
Antarctic catch compared with only 9 percent in 1958-59. The future
of Antarctic whaling, however, is in jeopardy because of the failure
to establish strict international control of the catch.
E. Indian Ocean
At the present time, Soviet activities in the Indian Ocean are
limited to exploratory expeditions designed to survey potential fish-
ing grounds. Under the auspices of the International Indian Ocean
Expedition (1'0E), a Soviet expedition was studying marine biology of
the Indian Ocean in January 1963. 77/ With the past pattern of ac-
tivities as a guide, this biological study probably will pave the way
for more intensive explorations to determine the potential fisheries
in the Indian Ocean.
In September 1962, one Soviet tuna boat was operating in the
Gulf of Aden, on the northwest periphery of the Indian Ocean. Perhaps
it is significant that the Soviet authorities are building a new tuna
cannery for the Somali Republic, Ig.1 the completion of which probably
will be tied in with an expansion of Soviet activities in that area.
* P. 10, above.
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IV. US-Soviet Competition in High Seas Fisheries
Soviet competition on the fishing grounds of the Atlantic, Pacific,
and Antarctic has already seriously disturbed the fishing industries
of the other nations that have established fishing operations in these
areas. With its expanded, modern deep sea fishing and scientific re-
search fleets, the USSR is in a position to place an even greater strain
on the fishing industries of other countries as the pressure increases
to fulfill increasingly ambitious goals. The decision in June 1962 to
increase the Seven Year Plan goal from 4.64 million to 5.0 million tons
of fish is a direct reflection of the expanded capabilities of the Soviet
fishing fleet. During the first 4 years of the Seven Year Plan the
average annual rate of increase in the fish catch was about 8.8 percent
compared with an increase of 7 percent needed to fulfill the original
goal for 1965. Fulfillment of the revised goal for 1965 is assured if
an annual increase of 7 percent can be maintained over the next 3
years -- a pace that should not be too difficult for the USSR to maintain.
The expansion of Soviet fishing activities presents a direct threat
to US fishing interests as the USSR expands its activities into those
fisheries currently fished by US fishermen. Soviet fishing activities
in international waters near the underdeveloped countries, especially
along the African coast, have served as a convenient means of entry
into those countries for the purposes of possible economic or political
penetration to further the aims of Soviet foreign policy.
A. Impact on US Fishing Interests
As pointed out above, Soviet fishing operations are being
rapidly expanded into several areas where US fishermen have tradition-
ally fished -- the Northwest Atlantic, the Northeast Pacific, off the
east coast of the US, and in the Gulf of Mexico. Although there have
been numerous cases where Soviet actions on the high seas have led to
the destruction of crabpots, the fouling of screws and gear, and even
the coercion of individual fishing boats, such incidents are more in
the nature of irritants to US fishermen. A serious threat may be posed
to the US-Canadian halibut industry in the eastern Pacific, where stocks
have been rigidly controlled for several decades, if the USSR decides
to enter the halibut industry in that area.
With the construction of a fishing port in the Bay of Havana
the USSR will have a base for expanding fishing operations in the
Western Hemisphere. Expansion of Soviet activities can be expected
not only in the Gulf of Mexico but also along the eastern coast of
the US. Although the Soviet fish meal industry is not of great im-
portance at present, Soviet negotiation to purchase fish meal ships from
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the UK may presage considerable expansion of menhaden fishing on the
US east coast. The Cuban base will serve as a base for expanding fish-
ing operations in tropical waters, especially for catching tuna and
sardines. Serial production of the Tropik, a ship designed especially
for catching tuna and sardines, was to have begun in 1962, and the
USSR has contracted for more than 60 ships of this class that are to
be completed during the Seven Year Plan. With the completion of the
Havana fishing port the USSR will be in position to exploit the rich
tuna grounds in the vicinity of the Galapagos Islands -- an area cur-
rently exploited by US fishermen.
B. Soviet Relations with Underdeveloped Countries
The USSR is in a favorable position to render aid and thereby
gain respect and influence in underdeveloped countries that have a
critical need for a relatively cheap source of animal protein such as
can be supplied by fish. Because of the high cost of developing fish-
eries, outside aid is often welcomed by the underdeveloped countries.
The USSR has undertaken exploratory research in coastal and offshore
waters along the west coast of Africa in an effort to establish new
fishing grounds and to participate in their exploitation.
Ghana serves as a particular example to illustrate the potentials
of the Soviet fishing industry as a weapon for economic penetration of
a strategic underdeveloped country. Under an economic aid program ini-
tiated in August 1960 the USSR has provided Ghana more than $95 million
in economic credits. /2/ To help develop the Ghanaian fishing industry,
the USSR in December 1960 agreed to build shore facilities -- fish proc-
essing, refrigeration, a fish meal plant, repair, and the like -- as
well as provide some trawlers and seiners. The agreement also called
for the training of Ghanaian specialists in the USSR. 80/ The recent
rapid development of the Ghanaian fishing industry probably reflects
the investment of Soviet funds.
The sale of Soviet fish in markets along the west coast of Africa
has been a cause of some concern for foreign investors in those coun-
tries. In Sierra Leone, for example, the Soviet authorities have offered
fish for sale at prices well below the world price for frozen, cleaned,
packed "bottom" fish. However, the Soviet product is said to have been
of poorer quality. 81/ The Van Camp Company, which ships its entire
catch of tuna taken off Sierra Leone to Puerto Rico for packing, is re-
ported to be hesitant about opening a cannery in Freetown because of
the unpredictability of the Soviet authorities and their activities in
the area. 82/
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V. International Treaties
The rapid expansion of the world fishing industry in the postwar
period has raised some serious questions in relation to international
fisheries. The aggressive expansion of Soviet fishing operations in
international waters in recent years has served notice that the USSR
is determined to increase its share of the world's fish catch. In
1927, defying the historically accepted 3-mile limit, the USSR declared
a 12-mile territorial and fishing limit around its coasts, thereby
reserving these waters for its own fishing industry. As illustrated
by the USSR-Norway agreement of April 1962, however, fishing riEllts
within the 12-mile limit can be negotiated with the Soviet author-
ities. :LV On the initiative of the Soviet government in 1956, a bi-
lateral agreement was entered into by the USSR and Japan that limits
Japanese fishing activities in the Northwest Pacific by placing quotas
on the quantities of salmon and crab which can be taken by Japanese
fishermen.
At the present time the USSR is participating in 27 international
fishery treaties and 13 international commissions for high seas fishing
and fishery research. 84/ Included are the International Council for
the Exploration of the Sea, the Permanent Commission of the Inter-
national Convention for Fishing, and the International Commission for
Fishing in the Northwest Atlantic as well as the International Whaling
Commission and the North Pacific Fur Seal Commission. A number of com-
missions in which the USSR participates include only the Communist
countries. These include the Joint Commission for Fishing on the Danube
River (the USSR, Bulgaria, Rumania, Hungary, and Yugoslavia), the Joint
Commission for Fishing in the Black Sea (the USSR, Bulgaria, and Rumania),
and the Commission for Fishery Research in the Western Pacific (the
USSR, Communist China, North Korea, Mongolia, and North Vietnam). An
agreement was signed in 1962 with East Germany and Poland for cooperation
in the field of high seas fishing. In addition, the USSR has agreements
with some of the underdeveloped countries such as Ghana and Cuba to help
in the development of their fisheries.
Statements by Soviet officials suggest a willingness to cooperate
with other countries in the rational exploitation of marine resources.
With the huge investment that the USSR now has in its high seas fishing
industry, it behooves that country to cooperate to prevent depletion of
world fishing resources. Soviet actions have not always reflected a co-
operative attitude, but the aggressive expansion of high seas fishing in
recent years may be explained, in part, by the fact that the USSR, as a
relatively new competitor, must establish certain "rights" in anticipa-
tion of stricter international controls in the future.
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