COKING COAL AND COKE IN THE SOVIET BLOC 1960 AND PROSPECTS FOR 1965

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• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: July 15, 2013
• Sequence Number: 2
• Publication Date: December 1, 1961
• Content Type: REPORT

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N? 93
Economic Intelligence Report
COKING COAL AND COKE IN THE SOVIET BLOC
1960 AND PROSPECTS FOR 1965
CIA/RR ER 61-54
December 1961
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
Office of Research and Reports
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SECRET
Economic Intelligence Report
COKING COAL AND COKE IN THE SOVIET BLOC
1960 AND PROSPECTS FOR 1965
CIA/RR ER 61-54
WARNING
This material contains information affecting
the National Defense of the United States
within the meaning of the espionage laws,
Title 18, USC, Secs. 793 and 794, the trans-
mission or revelation of which in any manner
to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
Office of Research and Reports
SECRET
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FOREWORD
The purpose of this report is to assess the resources of coking coal
in the Soviet Bloc' (USSR and European Satellites) and to determine the
supply and demand for coking coal and coke in individual countries dur-
ing recent years and in 1965. Only a very smAll part of the tremendous
coal reserves in the USSR and of the lesser but significant reserves in
the European Satellites consists of prime coking coals, and problems
associated with the supply of such coals are chronic. As a consequence,
the Soviet Bloc, in order to meet its requirements for oven coke, is
dependent to a considerable degree on coals that lack the desired prop-
erties for coking.
The scope of this report is restricted to coals that are used in the
manufacture of oven coke, which is essential for metallurgical purposes,
primarily in the smelting of pig iron, and does not cover the use of
lower quality coals suitable for the manufacture of coke by medium-
temperature and low-temperature carbonization. The report does not
deal with the important and broad range of primary and derivative
chemicals obtained as byproducts from high-temperature carbonization
(9000 to 1,0000 C).
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Summary and Conclusions
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CONTENTS
I. Introduction
II. Supply of and Demand for Coking Coal and Coke in the
USSR
Page
5
6
A. Resources and Mining Conditions 6
B. Production of Coking Coal 11
1. Raw (Run-of-Mine) Coal 11
2. Prepared Coal 14
3. Coal, by Type 22
C. Production of Coke and Byproducts 25
1. Coke 25
2. Byproducts 33
D. Consumption of Coke 34
E. Costs of Coking Coal and Coke 39
1. Coking Coal 39
2. Coke 42
F. Foreign Trade 43
1. Satellite Countries 44
2. Western Europe 50
3. Far East 50
III. Supply of and Demand for Coking Coal and Coke in the Euro-
pean Satellites 52
A. Czechoslovakia 52
B. Poland 58
C. East Germany 59
D. Hungary 60
E. Rumania 61
F. Bulgaria 62
G. Albania 62
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Appendixes
Page
Appendix A. Classification Of Coals in the USSR 63
Appendix B. Methodology
65
Tables
1. Production of Coking Coal in Relation to Production of
Bituminous and Total Coal in the USSR, Selected Years,
1940-60, and 1960 and 1965 Plans 12
2. Construction of New Mines and Annual Capacity in Major
Coal Basins of the USSR, 1952-58 and 1959-65 Plan . . ? ? 15
3. Volume of Coal Cleaned and Construction of New Cleaning
Plants in the USSR, 1952-58 and 1959-65 Plan 19
4. Volume of Coking Coal Processed at Cleaning Plants in the
USSR, 1940 and 1950-58 21
5. Coal Cleaned and Production of Concentrates for Coking
Purposes in the USSR, 1958 and 1965 Plan . . .... 23
6. Production of Coking Coal for Use at High-Temperature Coke
Plants in the USSR, 1955, 1958-59, and 1960 and 1965
Plans 26
7. Production of Coke in the USSR, by Selected Economic Re-
gion, 1950, 1955-60, and 1965 Plan 30
8. Volume of Coal Utilized by High-Temperature Coke Plants in
the USSR, Selected Years, 1950-60, and 1965 Plan . . . . 31
9. Coefficients of Consumption of Coal at Coke Plants in the
_USSR 32
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Page
10. Estimated Supply-Demand Balance for High-Temperature Coke
in the USSR, Selected Years, 1955-65 35
11. Average Costs of Producing Coal in the Major Basins of
the USSR, 1955-57 4o
12. Average Delivered Prices of Coal to Coke Plants in the
USSR, 1954-55 and 1958 42
13. Exports of Coal from the USSR, 1955 and 1958-60 45
14. Estimated Exports of Coking Coal and Coke from the USSR,
1959-60 and 1965 47
15. Estimated Availability of Coking Coal and Oven Coke in the
Soviet Bloc, 1959-60 and 1965 53
16. Reserves of Bitiminous Coal and Coking Coal in the Euro-
pean Satellites 57
17. Estimated Consumption of Coke in Production of Lead, Zinc,
and Copper in the USSR, Selected Years, 1955-60, and
1965
18. Estimated Consumption of Coke in Production of Synthetic
Ammonia and Calcium Carbide in the USSR, Selected Years,
1955-65
Map
Soviet Bloc: Coking Coal Fields and Coke Plants, 1961
inside back cover
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COKING COAL AND COKE IN THE SOVIET BLOC*
1960 AND PROSPECTS FOR 1965
Summary and Conclusions
In 1960 the Soviet Bloc produced 77.4 million metric tons** of oven
(or high-temperature) coke,*** or 27.7 percent of the world output of
about 279 million tons.t Among all nations the USSR ranked first (as
it has since 1958) with 56.2 million tonsItt Poland was seventh with
11.0 million tons, and Czechoslovakia was ninth with 7.9 million tons.
East Germany, Hungary, and Rumania each produced less than 1 million
tons, and neither Albania nor Bulgaria produced any coke for metallur-
gical purposes.
In spite of the present high level of production, Bloc planners
anticipate that providing for adequate supplies of coke will remain a
problem throughout the remainder of the Seven Year Plan (1959-65).
Consequently, the major emphasis in the expansion of the coal industry
is placed on increasing the output of coking coal. In the USSR, pro-
duction of coking coal is to increase by 59 to 65 percent during the
Seven Year Plan, whereas the total production of coal is to increase by
only 21 to 23 percent. Production of premium-quality coking coal in
Czechoslovakia is to be 56 percent more in 1965 than it was in 1958, and
production of gas-coking coal is to increase substantially in the same
time period, whereas the total production of bituminous coal in Czecho-
slovakia is to increase by only 31 percent. Poland also is attempting
to increase production of premium-quality coking coal by 150 percent dur-
ing 1959-65, although the plan calls for an increase of only 20 percent
for the total output of bituminous coal. In the other Satellites, pro-
duction of coking coal is severely handicapped by inadequate reserves,
and none possesses a satisfactory base for a coke industry.
* The estimates and conclusions in this report represent the best
judgment of this Office as of 1 October 1961.
** Tonnages are given in metric tons throughout this report.
*** Oven coke is produced by heating coals to high temperatures in a
slot type of oven that is hermetically sealed and designed for recovery
of valuable byproducts. The Soviet Bloc apparently does not produce
beehive coke, which is obtained by an older and simpler method without
the recovery of byproducts.
t The world production figure includes minor quantities of beehive
coke.
tt The US, in second place, produced 51.9 million tons in 1960, al-
though capacity exceeded 76 million tons.
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According to the plans of the individual countries, production of
oven coke (in million tons) in the Soviet Bloc in 1965 will be as fol-
lows: USSR, 76.0 to 80.6; Poland, 13.1; Czechoslovakia, 11.3; Rumania,
1.6; East Germany, 1.1; Hungary, 0.8; and Bulgaria, 0.7. It is estimated
that the total output of oven coke in these countries, including a small ex-
ceeding of the plan in the USSR, will be approximately 110 million tons,
representing an increase of 59 percent in comparison with 1958 and 42 per-
cent in comparison with 1960. Of the total production, it is estimated
that about 93 million tons will Consist of sizes that are classified as
metallurgical coke -- that is, larger than 40 millimeters (m).
Out of an estimated production of about 122 million tons, the USSR
will consume about 118 million tons of prepared coking coal at coking
plants in 1965.* The USSR will require about 48.3 million tons of metal-
lurgical coke for production of 70 million tons of pig iron. In the
event that production of pig iron reaches 72.5 million tons in 1965,
which is possible, supplies of coke should still be adequate for all
essential needs. Among the European Satellites, only Czechoslovakia is
now self-sufficient in coking coal, producing both coking coal and coke
for export. Certain types of coal for energy purposes must be imported,
however, to permit exports of coking coal. Even Poland, in spite of
large reserves of other types of coal, is dependent on imports for a
considerable part of its requirements for the best quality of coking
coal. Poland, however, has a surplus of inferior quality gas coals that
can be used in blends to a limited degree. With the exception of East
Germany, which probably will continue to cover part of its requirements
by imports from West Germany, all deficits in the supply of coking coal
and coke in the other European Satellites probably will be covered through
1965 by surpluses in the USSR, Czechoslovakia, and Poland. Both Czecho-
slovakia and Poland will be in better position to supply coke than coking
coal, although they will not be in a position to supply much foundry coke,
which is the best quality of coke.
Czechoslovakia and Poland will each be capable of furnishing the other
European Satellites with 2 million to 2.5 million tons of coke, and Czecho-
slovakia should be capable of exporting nearly 2 million tons of coking
coal. Poland will export considerable quantities of gas coals that will
be used for coking purposes. In spite of the possibilities for intra-
Satellite trade,, the Satellites as a whole will have an estimated net im-
port requirement for about 2 million tons of coking coal and 1.5 million
tons of metallurgical coke in 1965. The USSR may be able to export as
much as 4 million tons of coke and possibly more than 4 million tons of
coking coal in 1965. Although a considerable part of these surpluses in
* Production of raw coking coal in 1965 is planned to reach 150 million
to 156 million tons, or about one-fourth of the total production of coal.
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the USSR probably consists of sizes and qualities unsuitable for metal-
lurgical use, it is probable that the estimated requirements of the
Satellites can be covered from production now planned. Should the
demand for coking coals in the Satellites exceed the levels estimated,
the USSR, if necessary, could increase its production of coking coals
considerably above the levels now planned by employing more workers or
by increasing the hours worked. In any case, poor quality and high
cost p will continue to be serious problems in producing coking coal in
all the Bloc countries.
With few exceptions, all the coals produced for coking purposes in
the Soviet Bloc are high in impurities (rock and sulfur), and cleaning
is essential. Because of the high content of impurities, the yield of
concentrates after cleaning averages only about 70 percent in the USSR.
Yields of less than 50 percent are realized in some of the European
Satellites. Donets coals, which provide about 58 percent of the coals
used for coking in the USSR, have a sulfur content averaging more than
2 percent, and considerable quantities contain 3 to 3.5 percent. As a
result, the sulfur content of the coke made from Donets coals averages
about 1.7 percent. More than 1 percent sulfur in coke is considered to
be excessive by Western countries because of the undesirable effects on
the operation of blast furnaces and the quality of pig iron produced.
To conserve the relatively scarce high-quality coals in the Bloc
countries, these coals are blended with less desirable coals, usually
gas coals that are not very satisfactory for making coke. Effective
blending presents particular problems because of the wide variety of
coals available and the difficulty of obtaining complementary coals.
Soviet coke plants are forced to mix coals of different types from 10
to 90 mines, in contrast to the practice in the US and Western Europe
where blending usually can be limited to coals from 2 or 3 mines.
Scarcity of high-quality coking coals forces Bloc countries to use
large quantities of weakly caking and noncaking coals, which result in
much coke that is too small and weak for satisfactory use as metallur-
gical coke, particularly in large blast furnaces.
The coke industry of the Soviet Bloc is a high-cost industry because
of its dependence on coals produced under difficult conditions and, in
some cases, in widely separated regions, necessitating long-distance
transport. Currently, more than 90 percent of all coking coal produced
in the USSR comes from four basins -- Donets, Kuznetsk, Karaganda, and
Pechora. The Urals Region (VIII),* which accounts for about 29 percent
of the total production of coke in the USSR in 1960, is almost entirely
dependent on coals hauled from the Karaganda Basin, a distance of 1,200
kilometers (km), and from the Kuznetsk Basin, a distance of 1,800 to
* The term region as used in this report refers to the economic regions
defined and numbered on the map, inside back cover.
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2,300 km. Coking coals are hauled a distance of 2,400 km from the
Pechora Basin to Leningrad. Because of the depth, pitch, and thin-
ness of the seams, mining conditions in the Donets basin are as bad as,
if not worse than, those found in any major coal basin in the world.
Efforts in the USSR to reduce the costs of coal may not be realized,
particularly in the important Donets Basin, because of unsatisfactory
progress in the construction of larger, more efficient mines as well as
in the introduction of better methods of mining. Gains in labor pro-
ductivity at the underground mines, which account for almost all of the
coking coal, have not been significant and will continue at low levels.
Costs actually may increase because mining will be conducted at in-
creasingly deeper levels with the consequent necessity of contending
with greater rock pressure and more gas and water. In the western parts
of the USSR, and in most of the Satellites, coking coal could be imported
from the US at less cost per ton than it can be supplied to the cokeries
from domestic mines. When comparative quality is considered, imported
coal would be even cheaper.
In modern high-temperature coke plants in Western nations, byproducts
and the products derived from them have a higher unit value than the coke.
In the Soviet Bloc, however, production of coke has been of dominant im-
portance, and the recovery and upgrading of byproducts have received far
less consideration than in the West. Steps are being taken, however,
particularly in the USSR, to expand the chemical sector of the industry.
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I. Introduction
In spite of tremendous reserves of coal in the world, there is,
nevertheless, a dearth of certain types of bituminous coals that are
required to produce good metallurgical coke. The best type of coking
coals, which can be carbonized without blending, is rare in most coun-
tries. Such coals have an unusual combination of physical-chemical
characteristics and are distinguished by a medium content of volatile
matter, strong caking capacity, and the ability to form a strong, porous
coke when heated to high temperatures in hermetically sealed ovens. To
conserve these particular coals and to broaden the raw material base, it
is common practice in most countries to blend them with other types of
bituminous coals that ordinarily are strongly caking and contain more
or less volatile matter. In some cases, coals are used that are weakly
caking or even noncaking, but these inferior coals cannot be used success-
fully in significant quantities. Coals that complement each other are
essential for blending in order to yield coke with the proper strength
and size (larger than mm) required for smelting ores, especially iron
ores, in blast furnaces. The efficient operation of the furnaces and
production of good steel require the use of coke that is low in ash,
sulfur, and phosphorus. The distribution of supplies of coking coal in
the Free World, in general, is indicated by the fact that millions of
tons of these coals each year are shipped thousands of miles from the
US to Western Europe, South America, and Japan to be used at coke plants.
Even West Germany and, on occasion, Poland, each of which produces more
than 100 million tons of bituminous coals annually, have found it ex-
pedient to import coking coal from the US because only a minor part of
the bituminous coal produced in these countries is suitable for coking.
In the Soviet Bloc, problems connected with the supply of coking
coals serve to handicap, in varying degrees, the expansion of produc-
tion of pig iron. Because their resources are inadequate, each of the
Bloc countries except the USSR and Czechoslovakia must import coal to
support its coke industry. Although Czechoslovakia is self-sufficient,
it imports coal for energy purposes from Poland in order that coking
coal can be exported. In the long run the Satellites gradually will
become more dependent on the USSR as a source of supply for coking coal.
Although the USSR has huge reserves of coal that can be used in blends to
produce coke, the country, nevertheless, is compelled to utilize large
quantities of coal that are very inferior in quality. Only a minor part
of the Soviet coals are sufficiently low in ash and sulfur to meet the
high standards that exist at coke plants in the US. Furthermore, quality
probably will continue to deteriorate because of the economic necessity
of using coals containing more volatile matter in the blends. This trend
results from an imbalance in reserves and the necessity for deeper mining
to get the better coals. Almost without exception, coking coals are very
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expensive to mine in all parts of the USSR and in the Satellites. The
USSR also is faced in some cases with high transport costs, especially
in supplying the coke plants in the Urals.
The coke industry is large and important in the Soviet Bloc because
coke is essential in producing pig iron and ferrous castings and also
because there is a growing demand for the valuable byproducts obtained
in the coking process. An indication of the importance of coke to the
ferrous metals industry of the USSR is the fact that coke represents,
on the average, about 50 percent of the costs of producing pig iron and
in the Urals alone about 70 percent. 1/* There is heavy dependence on
coke gas as a fuel, especially in heating the iron and steel furnaces.
Other primary byproducts of coking -- tar, raw benzene, and ammonia
water -- are sources of numerous intermediate chemicals that are used
to produce many end products, such as liquid fuels, fertilizers, ex-
plosives, plastics, solvents, dyes, resins, anticorrosion agents, in-
secticides, and pharmaceuticals.
II. Supply of and Demand for Coking Coal and Coke in the USSR
A. Resources and Mining Conditions
According to the latest (1957) estimates, the USSR claims to
have 8.7 trillion tons of coal reserves (geological). This figure is
about five times the size of US reserves of 1.7 trillion tons.** 2/ Of
the Soviet reserves, almost 2 trillion tons (22.5 percent) consist of
types K, PS, and PZhl which are classified as strongly caking coals,
most suitable for coking purposes.*** Significantly a major part of
these coking coals -- about 1.5 trillion tons -- is situated in almost
inaccessible parts of East Siberia, far from any railroad. The re-
mainder of the reserves is largely concentrated in four basins -- the
Donets Basin, located mainly in the eastern part of the Ukrainian SSR
(Region III)t; the Pechora Basin in. the far northeastern part of Komi
ASSR (Region Ib); the Karaganda Basin in.the central part of Kazakh
SSR (Region Xa); and the Kuznetsk Basin in West Siberia (Region IX).
Minor deposits under exploitation exist in the Georgian SSR (Region V);
in the Kizel Basin, located in the Urals (Region VIII); at Noril'sk in
East Siberia (Region XI); and at Suchan and on Sakhalin Island in the
Far East (Region XII).
50X1
** The bases used in estimating the reserves
believed to be fairly comparable.
*** For a discussion of the classification of Soviet coals, see Appen-
dix A.
t For locations of Soviet coal deposits, see the map, inside back
cover.
in the US
and USSR are
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In spite of the tremendous size of its reserves of coals suitable
for coking purposes, the USSR has serious problems in supplying its ex-
panding requirements for these particular coals. The chief difficulties
in achieving the required supply are an imbalance in the reserves ac-
cording to types of coal, problems of quality, and, probably most im-
portant, difficult mining conditions. All of these factors have some
influence on the supply of coking coals in each of the areas where such
coals are mined, and some of the deposits that are mined are not well
situated with respect to deposits Of iron ore.
The most important producing area is the Donets Basin, which ac-
counts for approximately 58 percent of the total output of coking coal.
Coke plants in the Western Regions (I-VII) are almost entirely dependent
on this basin, where geological reserves total about 240 billion tons,
of which 190 billion tons (so-called "conditional" reserves) are in seams
exceeding 0.45 meter in thickness. The estimate of "conditional" re,-
serves, however, includes only 25.2 billion tons that are classified as
strongly caking coals. The balance consists mainly of anthracite and gas
coals and lesser quantities of lean, long-flame, and subbituminous coals
that, with the exception of some of the gas coals, are not satisfactory
for making coke. IV
Although the reserves of Donets coking coals will last far beyond
the present century, the USSR is confronted with formidable obstacles in
this basin, not only in mining but also in supplying varying types and
grades of coals in the proportions required for blending purposes. Mining
conditions in the Donets Basin generally are as bad as, if not worse than,
in any major coal basin in the world. Almost all of the coal seams are
thinner than 1.2 meters, and the average thickness of the seams mined is
only about 0.9 meter. 2/ In some cases, mining is conducted where the
thickness is less than 0.5 meter. g The thinness as well as the gener-
ally considerable dip of the seams contributes to low labor productivity
and impedes mechanization. V Besides these disadvantages, excessive
quantities of gas and water are encountered as operations descend to
deeper levels. About 10 tons of water are pumped to the surface for
every ton of coal mined. A large percentage of the mines in the coking
coal districts are highly gaseous. g This condition not only represents
a serious safety hazard* but also necessitates more expense and attention
to ventilation and the use of safe electrical equipment. In the deeper
mines, temperatures have increased to the point where it is necessary to
supply precooled ventilation.
Current operations in the Donets Basin are at depths where the 50X1
rock pressure is tremendous, which results in sudden outbursts of rock
* Official Soviet sources almost never mention mine accidents, but
that the rate of accidents from various causes is 50X1
high.
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and coal and creates very difficult problems of roof support,* 2/ and
these problems will become even more serious. Of 580 shafts in the
Donets Basin in 1956, 227 (39 percent) were operating at depths of more
than 300 meters, including 50 shafts at depths of 500 to 800 meters and
1 shaft at more than 800 meters. 12/ Since 1956, even greater depths
have been reported. Some coal is now mined at a depth of 1,200 meters,
and new shafts are being sunk to 1,400 meters. 12/ Such deep operations
are necessary to obtain coal for coking purposes.
As a conservation measure, the USSR follows a general policy of
mining each seam that meets minimum standards** as it is encountered in
descent from the surface. This policy results in advanced extraction of
a seam before an underlying one is removed. Otherwise, caving usually
results in fracturing of the overlying strata and prevents recovery of
seams at higher levels. Under these conditions, less desirable coals
are mined along with better coals, and there is wide variation in types,
grades, and quality of the coals produced. About 8 percent of the Donets
production is from mines that are working four seams or more. 12/
Significantly, most of the reserves of Donets coking coals are
heavily concentrated in a few districts near the west and southwest
borders of what is known as the "old!' Donets Basinl*** an area of about
23,000 square km including the Stalino-Makeyevka district, a major center
of production of coking coal. Mining has been carried on in these dis-
tricts since the early part of the last century. On the northern border
of the basin, seams of coking coal are overlaid by seams of noncoking
coals that normally would be mined first. Thus immediate expansion of
the base for production of the better types of coking coal in the Donets
Basin is limited mostly to development of deeper seams in the old mining
districts.
Soviet authorities have become increasingly concerned about the
difficulties in producing the more desirable types of coking coal in the
Donets Basin and about the more rapid exhaustion of these coals in rela-
tion to over-all reserves. Consequently, considerable attention is being
* The mines have been converting from wood props to ferroconcrete and
massive steel supports. Losses of supporting material, according to re-
ports, are large and are caused by caving as well as by the difficulties
of recovery.
** The minimum thickness varies from 0.6 to 0.7 meter in all coalfields
except in the Donets Basin, where apparently it is 0.45 meter. Seams with
an ash content exceeding 40 percent usually are not mined.
*** During the postwar period, new coal deposits have been discovered
that surround many parts of what were long considered to be the limits of
the basin's coal measures. These new deposits, however, contain little
coal of the types that are classified as strongly caking.
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given to the use of less desirable types of coal in the blends of coal
charged at the coke ovens. The proportion of gas coals has been in-
creasing steadily, and minor quantities of lean and long-flame coals
also are included in some of the blends.
Donets coals have one very serious disadvantage for use in
metallurgy, for nearly all of these coals have a high content of sul-
fur, averaging more than 2 percent even after cleaning. As a conse-
quence, Donets coke averages about 1.7 percent sulfur, whiCh contrib-
utes to lower efficiency at blast furnaces and has a deleterious effect
on the quality of pig iron.
With the exception of the Donets Basin, the only other coal
basin in the Western Regions with important reserves of coals suitable
for coking purposes is the Pechora Basin in the extreme northeastern
part of the European USSR. Remoteness and severe climatic conditions
are major disadvantages, and mining is handicapped by faults, 21/ ex-
cessive quantities of gas, 1,L1/ and the necessity for leaving large
pillars of coal for roof support. 12/ Currently, coals from the Vorkuta
and Khalmer-Yu areas of the Pechora Basin are being supplied to coke
plants at Cherepovets (1,900 km) and Leningrad (2,400 km).11.6/ When a
railroad is built to the Urals, coking coals from the Pechora Basin will
displace much of the coal that has to be imported by the large coke and
metallurgical combines in the Urals from the Karaganda Basin (1,200 km)
and the Kuznetsk Basin (1,800 km to 2,300 km). 11/ It is unlikely, how-
ever, that Pechora coals will be delivered to the Urals during the pres-
ent Seven Year Plan (1959-65).
Significantly the Urals Region (VIII) has no coals that can be
used to produce coke for ferrous metallurgy. Although reserves in
the Kizel Basin are estimated at 1 billion tons, mining conditions are
exceptionally difficult, and the deposits consist mainly of steam-fat
coals that are very high in sulfur (up to 6 percent). 12/ Coke pro-
duced locally from these coals at the Gubakha coke plant is used to
smelt copper. ESV
East of the Urals, huge reserves of coking coals are found in
the Karaganda and Kuznetsk Basins. The latter basin probably is second
only to the Appalachian coalfields in the US as a potential source of
coking coals. In 1955 the reserves in seams of minable thickness
("conditional" reserves) were estimated at 804 billion tons in the
Kuznetsk Basin and 47 billion tons at Karaganda. 21/ In the Kuznetsk
Basin, however, strongly caking coals represent a very minor share of
the reserves to a depth of 300 meters -- 2.8 percent for coking (type K),
10 percent for lean-caking (type PS or OS), and 5.6 percent for steam-fat
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(type PZh) coals.* 22/ The imbalance in the reserves of steam-fat,
coals has forced the coke plants to use considerable quantities of
weakly caking (type SS) coals. 2Y It is notable that coke made from
Kuznetsk coals is much weaker than that obtained from Donets coals. 25/
In ash and sulfur content, however, Kuznetsk coals are, in general,
lower than other Soviet coals, but their phosphorous content is ex-
cessive. 2?/
In the Prokopyevsk area, the major source of coking coals in the
Kuznetsk Basin, mining conditions are very difficult. Although the seams
usually are thick, they are steeply pitching (averaging about 70?), and,
consequently, the efficiency of operations is considerably reduced. The
coals are extremely friable and easily subject to spontaneous combustion.
In addition, working conditions are so hazardous as to require special
safety precautions because of the large quantities of gas in the mines. 22/
In the Karaganda Basin the USSR also must contend with some seri-
ous operating problems, in spite of the generally favorable thickness of
the seams (2 to 8 meters), the relatively minor dip of the beds over
large areas, and the nearness to the surface. 2g./ Operations are handi-
capped by weak roof conditions and gas, which have prevented the USSR
from obtaining a high level of productivity. It is notable that almost
three-fourths of the Karaganda mines are rated as highly gaseous in com-
parison with 26 percent for all underground mines in the USSR. 22/
Karaganda coals generally have a high content of incombustible matter
that is difficult to remove in cleaning plants.
The other deposits of coking coals that are mined currently will
continue to have only minor importance. In the Georgian SSR (Region V)
the mines at Tkvarcheli and Tkibuli supply, respectively, steam-fat and
gas coals that can be used only to a very limited degree in blends with
Donets coals at the coke plant located at Rustavi. 12/ Reserves in the
Georgian deposits are relatively small, the coals are extremely high in
ash, and mining conditions are unusually difficult. 11/
Deposits in the Far East, at Suchan and on Sakhalin Island, are
relatively small and among the most expensive to mine in the USSR. Only
a minor part of the Sakhalin coals are suitable for coking. 12/ The
limited potentialities of these deposits are indicated by the need to
send large quantities of coking coals from the Kuznetsk Basin to satisfy
export quotas to Japan. It is notable that the Japanese have complained
about the quality of all the coking coals from the eastern deposits and
are willing to pay much higher prices for US coals. 31/
* Another source furnishes the following distribution: 2.5 percent of
type K, 5 percent of type PS (OS), and 3.8 percent of type PZh. 21/
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The deposits near Norilisk, located in a remote area in East
Siberia, are of local importance and are a source only of minor quan-
tities of coking coal for the coke plant of the Norilisk Metallurgical
Combine (a smelter of copper-nickel-cobalt ores).
Of future interest will be the South Yakutian deposits in East
Siberia, which have sizable reserves, now estimated at 40 billion tons
of strongly caking coals (types K, PS, and PZ11). These deposits are
near large deposits of high-grade iron ore, but they are situated about
400 km from a railroad. 2/ Only a small production of coal in the
area was reported in 1960.
B. Production of Coking Coal
1. Raw (Run-of-Mine) Coal*
According to the directives of the Seven Year Plan, the total
production of coal in the USSR is to be increased about 22 percent, or
from 496.1 million tons in 1958 3j./ to between 600 million and 612 mil-
lion tons in 1965.** Output of coking coal, however, is scheduled
to jump from 94.4 million tons in 1958 to 150 million to 156 million tons
in 1965, a gain of 59 to 65 percent. 32/ By 1965, coking coals will re-
present about 25 percent of the total production of coal in comparison
with less than 20 percent in 1958. Data on the growth in Soviet produc-
tion of coal are given in Table 1.***
In 1960, production of coking coals reached 110.2 million
tons, about 9 percent more than in 1959 (100.8 million tons). 2/ The
plan called for an increase of only 7 percent112/ indicating overful-
fillment by 2.2 million tons. Although the 1961 Plan calls for the
total production of coal to decline to 511.7 million tons )22/ from
513 million tons in 1960,121/ indications are that production of coking
coal will continue to increase. The cutback in production will be in
energy coals, as a result of the planned shift in the national fuel
balance from coal to oil and gas. The prospects for exceeding the 1965
goal for coking coals are considered to be favorable, although more man-
power and longer working hours may be required than were planned.
Of the total output of coking coal in 1960, 92 percent was
provided by the Donets, Kuznetsk, and Karaganda Basins -- the remainder
(8.4 million tons) came from the Pechora and Kizel Basins, the Tkvarcheli
* Data in this section represent production before,processing.
** It is possible that the total production of coal in 1965 may not
reach this objective, inasmuch as original targets for 1960-61 have been
lowered substantially but apparently have involved only energy coals.
*** Table 1 follows on p. 12.
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Table 1
Production of Coking Coal in Relation to Production of Bituminous and Total Coal in the USSR
Selected Years, 1940-60, and 1960 and 1965 Plans
Total Coal (Thousand Metric Tons)
Year
Of Which
Coking Coal as a Percent of
Bituminous Coal
Coking Coal
Total Coal
Bituminous Coal
1940
165,923 2/
103,572 2/
35,333 2/
21.3
34.1
1945
149,333 2/
81,815 2/
29,773 22/
19.9
36.4
1950
261,089 2/
143,452 2/
51,697 12./
19.8
36.0
1955
391,259 2/
215,857 2/
77,440 12/
19.8
35.9
1956
429,174 2/
236,763 2/
82,966 2/
19.3
35.0
1957
463,47o 2/
255,970 2/
87,551 2/
18.9
34.2
1958
496,112 2/
274,902 2/
94,407 2/
19.0
34.3
1959
1960
506,557 2/
513,194 2/
285,862 2/
296,920 2/
100,805 2/
110,198 2/
19.9
21.5
35.3
37.1
1960 Plan
515,000 El/
295,000
108,000 1/
20.9
36.6
1965 Plan
600l00o to 612,000
2/
LA.
150,000 to 156,000
2/
25.0 to 25.5
N.A.
a.
b. 3
c. /
d. Estimate based on planned
with 1959.)22/
e. 4j/
increases of 1.7 percent for total coal and 7 percent for coking coal in comparison
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and Tkibuli deposits in the Georgian SSR, and the deposits near Noril'sk
in East Siberia.* Production in the four major basins was as follows
(in million tons): Donets, 64.9; Kuznetsk, 28.5; Karaganda, 8.3; and
Pechora, 3.8.)11/ According to the Seven Year Plan, production of
coking coals will rise to between 78.3 million and 84 million tons in
the Donets Basin, to 41.5 million tons in the Kuznetsk Basin, 14-..c.V to
19.7 million tons in the Karaganda Basin, 142/ and to 5.4 million tons
in the Pechora Basin.**
The emphasis on production of coking coal in the USSR and in
the four major basins that provide bituminous coal can be seen from the
following percentage increases in planned growth during the Seven Year
Plan (1958 = 100) 22/:
Percent
Area
Total Coal
Coking Coal
Energy Coal
Donets Basin
24.0
43.6 to 54.1
11.0
Kuznetsk Basin
36.8
61.3
3.9
Karaganda Basin
58.8
198.8
6.8
Pechora Basin
13.0
112.0
4.9***
USSR
20.9 to 23.4
58.9 to 65.2
12.1 to 13.6
Significantly, production of coking coals in the Donets Basin
is heavily concentrated in the Stalino economic area (Stalinskaya Oblast),
which is reported to account for about 50 percent of the entire Soviet
production of these coals. The Stalino area supplied about 50 million
tons in 1959, or 85 percent of the total quantity of coking coals mined
in the Donets Basin. In 1959 the total production of coal in the Stalino
area amounted to 89.04 million tons, 21/ 56 percent of which consisted of
coking coals. The remainder of the coking coal produced in the Donets
Basin came from the Lugansk economic area (Luganskaya Oblast) in the
Ukraine (5.5 million tons) and from Rostovskaya Oblast in the RSFSR
(3.4 million tons).
With few exceptions, currently exploited deposits will con-
tinue to provide the bulk of the coking coal produced during the Seven
* Soviet statistics usually do not include minor production at Suchan
(near Vladivostok) and on Sakhalin Island in the Far East, which is ex-
ported to Japan.
** Soviet statistics on production of coking coal represent the raw
coal destined for use at coke plants and include minor quantities of
types not classified as coking coals.
*** Decrease (800,000 tons).
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Year Plan. In 1965 the Ukrainian parts of the Donets Basin are expected
to produce a minimum of 75.5 million tons of coking coal, or about one-
half of the total output planned for the USSR. This production includes
9.5 million tons from the Lugansk area. An estimated total of 5.6 mil-
lion tons will be mined in Rostovskaya Oblast. In the Pechora Basin,
expansion will occur in the vicinity of Khalmer-Yu in order to obtain
type K coking coals. In the Karaganda Basin the major new developments
are in the Tentek, Churuhay-Nural and Shakhan areas. 22/ The Tom-Usinsk
area in the Kuznetsk Basin is another new source of coking coal. Zi
The planned expansion for output of coking coal depends greatly
on the successful completion of new mine construction and on modernization
of the old mines. According to the Seven Year Plan, 149 new mines with
an annual capacity of 108 million tons are to be placed in operation by
the end of 1965 for production of coking coal. In contrast, only 98 new
mines with a capacity of 48 million tons were placed in operation during
the previous 7-year period (1952-58).511/ As in the past, construction
of new mines will be predominantly in the Donets, Kuznetsk, and Karaganda
Basins. Elsewhere, only 16 mines with an annual capacity of about 7 mil-
lion tons are scheduled to be built. In view of the lag in mine construc-
tion that has existed throughout the postwar period, there are good rea-
sons to believe that over-all plans for new mine construction during
1959-65 may not be met. By concentrating construction efforts on mines
for coking coals, however, this part of the mine construction program may
be attained. Data for mine construction in the major basins during
1952-58 and 1959-65 are given in Table 2.*
The USSR is entirely self-sufficient in production of coking
coal and has gradually increased exports of these coals, although ship-
ments have represented a relatively minor part of supplies. In the event
that there are marked increases in the demand for coking coal in the Euro-
pean Satellites whereby those countries are compelled to depend more
heavily on the USSR, the USSR, if necessary, can increase production of
coking coals considerably above planned levels simply by employing more
workers or by increasing the working time. Because the average workweek
has been reduced from 48 to between 35 and 4o hours, there is some leeway
for raising production above planned levels through an increase in the
hours of employment. There is a problem, however, relating to quality.
It is believed that the USSR may have some difficulty in furnishing
foreign countries with the types of coal that they require.
2. Prepared Coal
The objectives of the preparation of coking coal are to im-
prove the quality of the coke and pig iron as well as the efficiency of
both the coke plants and the blast furnaces. Except for minor quantities,
* Table 2 follows on p. 15.
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Table 2
Construction of New Mines and Annual Capacity in Major Coal Basins of the USSR 2/
1952-58 and 1959-65 Plan
Area and Type
of Coal
1952-58
1959-65 Plan
1959-65 as a Percent of 1952-58
Number of New Mines
Total Annual Capacity
(Million Metric Tons)
Number of New Mines
Total AnnuAl Capacity
(Million Metric Tons)
Number of New Mines
Total Annual
Capacity
141
17
36
150
43
74
200
25
130
160
47
51
152
31
47
229
51
97
191
67
142
266
107
245
225
105
110
222
80
118
Donets Basin
Coking coal
Energy coal
Total
Kuznetsk Basin
Coking coal
Energy coal
Total
Karaganda Basin
Coking coal
Energy coal
Total
Other Basins
Coking coal
Energy coal
Total
Total USSR
Coking coal
Energy coal
Total
58
326
384
18
44
62
12
8
20
10
251
261
727
18.9
514.0
72.9
17.1
11.2
28.3
9.2
1.4
10.6 ,
3.2
69.8
73.0
48.4149
82
55
137
27
19
46
24
2
26
16
117
133
193
342
43.2
27.6
70.8
32.7
7.5
40.2
24.5
1.5
26.0
7.2
73.0
80.2
107.6
I5Tb
136.4
184.8
217.2
a. 22/. Excluding mines operated by local industries.
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Soviet coals require preparation, including screening,* mechanical clean-
ing,** drying (in some cases), and crushing, before they are suitable for
coking. Mechanical cleaning refers to cleaning raw coal with mechanical
devices*** that not only reduce the natural impurities in the coal --
rock and sulfur -- but also eliminate extraneous matter, such as iron
and wood, that may be mixed with the coal during mining. The general
practice of cleaning coal in washeries increases the moisture in the
coal, especially in the fine sizes, to an extent that most of the coal
should be dried to prevent freezing and to improve the operation of the
ovens and the quality of the coke.t Crushing facilitates the blending
of dissimilar coals for obtaining uniformity in the mixture and contrib-
utes to an increase in the mechanical strength of the coke. As a rule,
about 90 percenttt of the coal in the charge at coke ovens is composed
of sizes not exceeding 3 mm.
In order to produce metallurgical coke of high quality, the
USSR strives to utilize coal with a maximum ash content of 7 percent and
a minimum of sulfur. Only the Kuznetsk coals, however, may be classified
as low in sulfur -- averaging about 0.5 to 0.6 percent. Some of the Kara-
ganda and Vorkuta coals also are low in sulfUr? but their average is
closer to 1 percent. Generally speaking, more than 1 percent sulfur con-
tent in coal is considered excessive. Donets coals, however, average
about 2.3 percent sulfur, which is reduced to slightly more than 2 per-
cent by cleaning -- the average was 2.04 percent during 1956-58. 2.Y Con-
siderable quantities of Donets coals are used that contain more than 3.5
percent sulfur in the raw coal, and much more of these coals could be
used for coking purposes if it were possible to reduce the sulfur suf-
ficiently. Cleaning serves to eliminate some of the free sulfur in the
form of pyrites and sulfates, but it is impossible to eliminate organic
(inherent) sulfur, which is high in many of the Donets coals. In spite
of the undeniably high sulfur content of Donets coals, the USSR is forced
* Screening, or the sizing of coal, is referred to as sorting in Soviet
usage.
** The cleaning of coal is commonly called concentration in Soviet usage,
but the use of the term sometimes implies that the processing includes
crushing and drying. References to concentration in this report will be
in the restricted sense to mean cleaning only.
*** In 1958 the total quantity of coal handled in cleaning plants was
processed by the following methods: 64 percent by wet methods, 30 per-
cent by pneumatic methods, and 6'percent by a combination of wet and dry
methods.
t In spite of the advantages of drying, it seems that the Soviet prep-
aration plants have extremely limited facilities for this process.
tt At the Ukrainian plants that use Donets coals, the proportion of
sizes less than 3 mm in the charge has been as follows: 1940, 75 to 80
percent; 1948, 82 to 87 percent; and 1958, 90 to 91 percent.
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to use them to make coke because better coals are not available. Kizel
coals contain an average of 6 percent sulfur and are therefore unsuitable
for making metallurgical coke.
In the process of mechanical cleaning at Soviet plants, three
types of products result: concentrates (cleaned coal), which are low in
ash; intermediate products, or middlings, which generally have an ash con-
tent of 40 to 50 percent; and refuse, which consists mostly of rock and
has an ash content of 80 to 90 percent.* The refuse contains some coal
that is wasted. The middlings generally are suitable only for use at
power stations, although further cleaning can provide a product with lower
ash, which is more satisfactory as an energy fuel for other consumers but
involves an additional loss of coal. The yield of concentrates varies
widely, depending on the content of impurities in the raw coal, the dif-
ficulty of cleaning, the ash content desired, and the efficiency and type
of facilities for cleaning. Coals with a high content of organic impuri-
ties are difficult to clean and contribute to low yields of concentrates.
Because of the generally high content of ash in the Soviet
coals, the yield of concentrates is relatively low, except for the Kuz-
netsk coals. Moreover, only minor quantities of the concentrates meet
the standard for 7 percent ash content 22/ because the USSR has had nei-
ther the necessary basic quality of raw coal available nor the cleaning
facilities to attain this standard of quality. A comparison of ash con-
tent and yields of concentrates at coking plants operated in the three
major coal basins in 1956 is as follows 2/**:
Percent
Donets Kuznetsk Karaganda
Basin*** Basin Basin
Ash content of raw coal
20.2
12.5
18.8
Yield of concentrates
61.5
85.0
55.2
Ash content of concentrates
7.3
8.1
9.8
* In the US, because of the high ash content of the other products,
only the concentrates would be used.
** Data for subsequent years would be approximately the same as for
1956.
*** Because of the high sulfur content of Donets coals, it is necessary
to obtain a lower ash content than with Kuznetsk and Karaganda coals.
The 1960 Plan called for an ash content of 7.2 percent at cleaning plants
operated in the Stalinskiy Sovnarkhoz. 22/
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The lack of adequate cleaning facilities represents an im-
portant economic deficiency that has restricted the supply of coal avail-
able for the coke plants. In 1958, the latest year for which data are
available, the USSR processed 136.1 million tons of raw coal, including
86.2 million tons (91.3 percent of the output) of coking coal. .0.,1.92/ The
volume of concentrates available for coking purposes is estimated at only
60 million tons in 1958, representing a yield of about 70 percent. Ac-
cording to the 1965 Plan, the volume of coking coal to be processed at
cleaning plants will increase to about 149 million tons, a gain of
about 72 percent. Practically all of the output of coking coal, there-
fore, is planned to be processed. The program calls for the construction
of 63 new plants to process coking coal, with a total capacity of 88 mil-
lion tons. Fulfillment of the plan will necessitate the construction of
more than twice as many of these plants as were built during 1952-58, and
their total capacity will increase by 125 percent. It is notable that the
USSR has contracted with French companies to build five plants, including
three plants in the Donets Basin. In addition, West Germany will fur-
nish two plants. Data on coal processing and construction of cleaning
plants are given in Table 3.*
The USSR in 1960 planned to process an estimated total of 100
million tons of coking coal with a yield of concentrates of approximately
70 million tons. Significantly the yield of concentrates has been de-
clining because of the increasing quantities of impurities in the coal,
resulting mainly from mechanical loading. The average ash content of all
hard coal now exceeds 16 percent. During 1952-55 the yield of concen-
trates of coking coal declined from 76.4 to 72.2 percent,/ and it is
doubtful that the yield exceeded 70 percent in 1960. By 1965, however,
some improvement may be expected because more attention is being given
to installation of flotation equipment, which will permit better recovery
of the very smnAl sizes (less than 0.5 mm) that are lost in the sludge,
especially at the plants that process Donets coals.
In order to realize the 1965 Plan for processing 149 million
tons of coking coal, the annual rate of growth will have to average about
9 million tons, contrasting with about 7 million tons in recent years.
If the Soviet authorities encounter too many difficulties in the construc-
tion of cleaning facilities, it is probable that more emphasis will be
given to coking coal and that any shortfall will be with respect to energy
coals. It is estimated, therefore, that the quantity of clean coal avail-
able for coking in 1965 will amount to about 110 million tons, assuming a
yield of 74 percent.
Coking coals are processed both at plants operated in con-
junction with coke plants and at plants situated in the vicinities of
* Table 3 follows on p. 19.
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Table 3
Volume of Coal Cleaned and Construction of New Cleaning Plants in the USSR 21*
1952-58 and 1959-65 Plan
New Cleaning Plants
Area and Type
of Coal
Million Metric Tons
of Coal Cleaned
1965
as a Percent
of 1958
1952-58
1959-65 Plan
New Capacity
to Be Installed
1959-65 as a Percent
of 1952-58
1958
1965
Plan
Number
Capacity
(Million Metric Tons)
Number
Capacity
(Million Metric Tons)
Ukrainian SSR
Coking coal 12/
47.4
74.2
157
12
18.1
29
31.6
175
Energy coal
16.1
64.4
400
13
9.1
25
29.0
319
Total
63.5
138.6
218
25
27.2
54
60.6
223
Kazakh SSR
Coking coal s/
5.5
12.8
233
2'
1.3
5
9.8
754
Energy coal
1.7
6.4
376
o
1.2
4
10.2
850
Total
7.2
19.2
267
2
2.5
9
20.0
800
RSFSR
Coking coal si/
30.9
58.9
191
15
18.1
27
46.1
255
Energy coal
32.1
88.4
275
15
18.3
13
34.4
188
Total
63.0
147.3
234
30
36.4
4o
80.5
221
Footnotes for Table 3 follow on p. 207
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Table 3
Volume of Coal Cleaned and Construction of New Cleaning Plants in the USSR 2/
1952-58 and 1959-65 Plan
(Continued)
Million Metric Tons
of Coal Cleaned
Area and Type
of Coal 1958
Other Republics
Coking coal 2/ 2.4
Energy coal
Total
Total USSR
Coking coal
Energy coal
Total
2.4
86.2
7:7
136.1
1965
1965 as a Percent Capacity Capacity
Plan of 1958 Number (Million Metric Tons) Number (Million Metric Tons)
New Cleaning Plants
1952-58
1959-65 Plan
2.7
2.7
112
0
112
148.6 172
159.2 319
307.8 226
1
30
58
1.6
1.6
39.1
7876
67.7
2
0
2
63
7
105
0.3
0.3
87.8
TTT
161.4
New Capacity
to Be Installed
1959-65 as a Percent
of 1952-58
19
0
19
225
257
238
b. Donets coals.
c. Karaganda coals.
d. About 70 percent of the volume cleaned in 1958 consisted of Kuznetsk coals; the remainder included Donets coals (Rostov Oblast),
Kizel coals, and possibly some Pechora coals.
e. Georgian coals.
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the mines. In 1958, about two-thirds of the coal was processed at mine
plants, as indicated by data in Table 4. In 1958, Donets coals for cok-
ing were cleaned at 32 preparation plants, 12 of which were integrated
into coke-chemical works; 6 were central washeries; 9 served a group of
local mines; and 5 were individual operations, each serving one mine.
Nearly 46 percent of the total output of concentrates from Donets coals
was produced at plants located at the coke works. The maximum capacity
of the preparation plants located outside the coke works is about 400
tons per hour, whereas inside these works the capacity generally ranges
from 500 to 800 tons per hour. In 1958, about 50.5 million tons of
Donets coking coals were processed, and the yield of concentrates is
estimated at 34.4 million tons. L5i
Table 4
Volume of Coking Coal Processed at Cleaning Plants in the USSR 2/
1940 and 1950-58
Million Metric Tons
Year
At Coke Plants
At Mine Plants
Total
1940
16.4
6.8
23.2
1950
17.7
20.6
38.3
1951
18.7
23.9
42.6
1952
19.4
28.5
47.9
1953
19.5
32.8
52.3
1954
20.3
40.4
60.7
1955
21.5
47.7
69.2
1956
23.3
51.4
74.7
1957
25.2
55.2
80.4
1958
28.6
57.6
86.2
Of 28 coal preparation plants in the Kuznetsk Basin, 27 proc-
essed coking coal (21 million tons), and their production probably was
less than 17 million tons of concentrates in 1958. At Karaganda, five
plants with a total capacity of 4.05 million tons of raw coal LV prob-
ably supplied about 2.2 million tons of concentrates in 1958. The yield
of concentrates in Georgian plants is very low (30 to 50 percent). Of
2.4 million tons of coking coal processed in that region (V) in 1958,
the yield of concentrates was only about 1.1 million tons. The coal, as
mined, averages from 43 to 47 percent ash content. 2/ The balance of
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the coking coal in 1958 was processed mainly in the Urals and consisted
for the most part of coals imported from the Kuznetsk Basin. Some Kara-
ganda and Kizel coals also are processed for coking purposes. It is esti-
mated that the preparation plants in the Urals (Magnitogorsk, Nizhniy Tagil,
Gubakha, and others) processed about 5 million tons and that the yield of
concentrates amounted to 3.2 million tons.i
It is estimated that approximately 80 million tons of Donets
coking coal will be processed in 1965 and that the yield of concentrates
will amount to 60 million tons, a gain of nearly 75 percent in comparison
with 1958. This estimate is based on Soviet expectations of much better
yields of concentrates. Production of concentrates from Kuznetsk and
Karaganda coals is estimated at 34.3 million tons and 7.7 million tons,
respectively, representing increases of 95 and 157 percent in comparison
with output in 1958. In the Urals it is expected that, about 9.5 million
tons of coking coal concentrates will be produced. According to Soviet
authorities, about 5 million tons of Karaganda coal will be processed at
Ural plants in 1965. ?.2/ Expansion at Georgian plants will be minor.
Data on the processing of coking coal and on estimated yields of concen-
trates according to the sources of coal for 1958 and 1965 are given in
Table 5.*
3. Coal, by Type
The most valuable coals for coking purposes are bituminous
coals with a low to medium content of volatile matter, in the range of
18 to 27 percent, that form a strong, dense coke when carbonized at high
temperatures. Such coals are designated as type K in the USSR, and
generally they can be transformed into high-quality metallurgical coke
without the need for blending with other types. The relative scarcity
of these coals in the USSR, however, precludes their use exclusively,
and they are always blended with other types.
In contrast with coke plants in the US and Western Europe
that generally are required to blend coals from only 2 or 3 mines, a
Soviet plant is forced to mix coals of different types from 10 to 90
mines. The Kuznetsk Coke Plant in West Siberia, for example, uses coal
from 10 local mines. 22/ The blending situation is especially critical
in the Ukraine, where it is necessary to use coals from many more mines
than planned, as indicated by the following data on the number of mines
furnishing coking coal to certain Ukrainian cokeries 11/:
* Table 5 follows on p. 23.
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Plant
Planned Actual
Kadiyevka 14 25
Gorlovka 13 19
Alchevsk 25 36
Dnepropetrovsk 17 90
Dneprodzerzhinsk 25 77
Zaporozh'ye 24 48
Table 5
Coal Cleaned and Production of Concentrates
for Coking Purposes in the USSR
1958 and 1965 Plan
Coal Cleaned 2/ Production of Concentrates
1965
1965 1958 Plan
1958 Plan
(Million (Million Million Percent Million Percent
Metric Metric Metric of Metric of
Source of Coal Tons) 'Ton) Tons Yield Tons Yield
Donets Basin
Pechora Basin
Georgian SSR
Kizel Basin
Karaganda Basin
Kuznetsk Basin
Total
50.5 79.8 34.4 68 121 60.0 75 2/
3.3 7.2 2.5 76 .2/ 5.4 75 2/
2.4 2.6 1.1 46 2/ 1.2 46 2/
2.2 '2.2 1.4 64 sj 1.4 64 Ej
5.5 12.8 3.0 55 2/ 7.7 60 si
22.3 44.0 17.6 79 f/ 34.3 78 ../
86.2 148.6 60.0 70 110.0 74
50X1
b. Estimate based on the 1957 yields of 79.5 percent at plants oper-
ated by ferrous metallurgical combines and of 60.7 percent at plants
operated in the coalfields. 12/ The latter plants account for two-
thirds of the coal cleaned.
c. 714/
d. Estimate based on yields of 50 percent at Tkibuli and 30 percent at
Tkvarcheli. 12/
e. The yield was 55.2 percent in 1956. 1.?./
f. Estimate based on the 1957 yield of 79.4 percent. 22/
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The superior grades of coking coals (type K) represent only
a minor part of production in the Donets and Kizel Basins, and none is
produced in the Georgian SSR or at Norilisk. There has been no produc-
tion of type K coals in the Pechora Basin until the recent commencement
of operations at Khalmer-Yu. On the other hand, most of the coal pro-
duced at Karaganda and a substantial part of the Kuznetsk coals consist
of type K.
Although the higher volatile (type PZh) and lower volatile
(type PS) coals are less desirable for coking purposes, each type can
be used to make good coke when blended with other types. A major part
of the coal produced for coking in the Donets, Pechora, and Klzel Basins
and at Noril'sk and Tkvarcheli (Georgian SSR) is type PZh.
In recent years, almost 32 percent of the Kuznetsk coals
produced for coking needs also have been of type PZh. At Karaganda,
most of the expansion in production of coal will consist of type PZh.
The lower volatile coals (type PS) are produced only in the Donets and
Kuznetsk Basins, where they represent a minor share of production. Avail-
able data on production of coals, by types, in various parts of the USSR
during recent years and that planned for 1960 and 1965 are given in
Table 6.*
Inasmuch as the supplies of the preferred types of coking
coals have been inadequate, it has been necessary to use minor quantities
of wenkly caking and noncaking coals in blends. Insofar as the eastern
coke plants are concerned, supplies of the better grades of coking coal
are not a serious problem, but there has been a trend to the greater use
of high-volatile gas coals (type G) at western cokeries during the post-
war period. Not only do gas coals present problems in blending and plant
operation, but also their use lowers the yields of coke and results in
weaker coke. Such coals represented 19 percent of the output of Donets
coals used for coking purposes in 1958, but it is expected that, in time,
the figure will exceed 25 percent. Significantly, 39 of the new mines,
nearly 60 percent to be constructed in the Donets Basin during the 1961-65
period, will produce gas coals. The relative importance of various types
of coal in the total output of bituminous coal in the Donets Basin is in-
dicated by the following data for 1957 and the 1960 Plan AY:
* Table 6 follows on p. 26.
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Type of Coal
Percent
1957
1960 Plan
Long-flame (D)
9.0
8.1
Gas (G)
26.1
27.0
Fat (PZIO
25.9
25.3
Coking (K)
12.0
11.4
Lean caking
CPS or OS)
9.0
9.8
Lean (T)
18.0
18.4
Total
100.0
100.0
C. Production of Coke and Byproducts
1. Coke
The USSR has been expanding its coke industry at a rapid pace
and ranked first in world output during 1958-60.* During the decade
1550-59, production of coke in the USSR increased from 27.7 million tons
to 53.4 million tons,** or 92.8 percent. .?91./ The 1960 Plan called for
production to reach 57 million tons, ?.1/ but actual production amounted
to only 56.2 million tons. .?.2/ It is estimated that 81 million tons will
be produced in 1965, or slightly more than that called for by the Seven
Year Plan -- 76 million to 80.6 million tons. 141/
In 1960, production of coke in the Western Regions (I-VII)
amounted to about 35 million tons, of which about 30 million tons were
produced in the Ukraine. During the Seven Year Plan, more emphasis will
be given to expansion of coke production at plants in the Eastern Regions
(VIII-XII), which are expected to account for 43 percent of the total
production in 1965 Li/ compared with 39 percent in 1960, representing an
increase from 22 million to about 35 million tons. The major development
will be construction of coking facilities at the Kazakh Metallurgical***
* US production of oven and beehive coke (excluding breeze) was as fol-
lows (in million metric tons): 1955, 68.3; 1956, 67.6; 1957, 68.9; 1958,
48.6; 1959, 50.7; and 1960, 51.9. The low rate of operations in the iron
and steel industry during 1958-60 caused production of coke to drop far
below capacity. 12/
** Soviet figures are reported for gross coke having a moisture content
of 6 percent. The figures apparently do not include breeze. Breeze con-
stitutes the sizes of less than 10 mm in Western Europe and less than 0.5
inch in the US. Such sizes have limited use and usually are not included
in production.
*** Text continued on p. 28.
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Table 6
Production of Coking Coal for Use at High-Temperature Coke Plants in the USSR
1955, 1958-59, and 1960 and 1965 Plans
1955 1958
Thousand
Area and Type of Coal Metric Tons 21*
Donets Basin
1959 1960 plan 1965 Plan
Percentage Thousand Percentage (Thousand (Thousand (Thousand
Distribution Metric Tons -Distribution Metric Tons) Metric Tons) Metric Tons)
Type K 10,700 24 12,702 12/ 23 N.A. N.A. N.A.
Type PZh 19,160 43 22,515 12/ 41 N.A. N.A. N.A.
Type PS 6,220 14 8,34012/ 15 N.A. N.A. N.A.
Type G 7,580 17 10,35812/ 19 N.A. N.A. N.A.
Type D 330 1 27312/ 1 N.A. N.A. N.A.
Type T 410 1 327 12/ 1 N.A. N.A. N.A.
Total 44,400 loo 54,515 s/ loo 58,852 2/ 63,000 1/ 81,100 2/
Kuznetsk Basin
Type K 6,390 30 6,038 17 23 N.A. N.A. N.A.
Type K2 4,060 19 5,930 1/ 23 N.A. N.A. N.A.
Type PZh 6,790 32 8,200 1/ 32 N.A. N.A. N.A.
Type PS 980 4 1,785 1/ 7 N.A. N.A. N.A.
Type SS 1,050 5 818 I/ 3 N.A. N.A. N.A.
Type G 2,130 lo 2,955 1/ 12 N.A. N.A. N.A.
Total 21,400 loo 25,726 1/ loo 26,904 s/ 28,000 5/ 41,500 y
Karaganda Basin
Type K N.A. N.A. 3,594 1-/ 54 3,800 1/ N.A. 6,100 1/
Type K2 N.A. N.A. 2,500 1/ 38 2,700 1/ N.A. 6,600 1/
Types PM and KZh N.A. N.A. 500 1/ 8 565 1/ N.A. 7,000 1/
Total 6 7oo loo 6,594 y loo 7,065 2/ 8 600 1/ 19,700 1/
* Footnotes for Table 6 follow on p. 27.
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Table 6
Production of Coking Coal for Use at High-Temperature Coke Plants in the USSR
1955, 1958-59, and 1960 and 1965 Plans
(Continued)
Area and Type of Coal
1955
1958
1959
(Thousand
Metric Tons)
1960 Plan
(Thousand
Metric Tons)
1965 Plan
(Thousand
Metric Tons)
Thousand
Metric Tons 2/
Percentage
Distribution
Thousand
Metric Tons
Percentage
Distribution
Pechora Basin
Kizel Basin
Georgian SSR
East Siberia
Total USSR
930
2 7:0(7)
J./,
EV,
Ei
2,547 2/.1!/,
Ei,
24
9/
3,206 2/
3,700 1/
5,400 1/
2.2.21. 2/
2,p4 2/
2 121 2/
2,100 2/
2222 2/
2 600
1 930
2,252 2/
2..3.22 LI/
2/
108,000/
0
_
77,110
435 2/
94,407 2/
li22 8/400
100,805 2/
500
153,000 2/
..___
a. 85/
U. Planned increases in comparison with 1959: Donets, 7 percent; Karaganda, 22 percent; Pechora, 14.5_percent. 2E11
e. Estimate based on the goal of the Seven Year Plan of 78.3 million to 84 million tons. In the Ukrainian part of the Donets Basin, produc-
tion will be 75.5 million tons. L32/ In Rostovskaya Oblast, production of coking coal will increase 2.5 million tons above 1958, representing
an increase of 83 percent. 22/
g. Estimate based on the total production of coal increasing only 4 percent.
h.
i. Estimate based on the 1959 Plan, which called for production of the following amounts of different types of coal (in million tons): type
K, 3.5; type K2, 2.5; and types PZh and KZh, 0.5. 23/
j. 214/
k. Nearly all type PZh from the area of Vorkuta.
1.22/
m. Nearly all type PZh coal.
n. Estimate based on 1959 production.
o. Estimate based on the total output at Kizel being only 98 percent of the 1958 level.
p. The total output of bituminous coal is about equally divided between Tkvarcheli (type PZh) and Tkibuli (type G) fields.
q. Probably type PZh.
r. A 7-percent increase above 1959. 2g
s. Midpoint of the range of production for the 1965 Plan of 150 million to 156 million tons. 21/
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Combine near KSraganda (Region Xa) and the Zapadno-Sibirskiy Metallur-
gical Combine in the Kuznetsk Basin (Region IX). Data on selected
regional production of coke in the USSR are given in Table 7.*
With the exception of two low-temperature carbonization
plants,** all of the Soviet coal utilized to produce coke is carbonized
in high-temperature (900? to 1,0000 C) installations. The industry com-
prises 42 plants, which are large, modern in design, and equipped with
the coutrentional slot type of byproduct ovens. There are 38 major plants
producing metallurgical coke. Most of these plants are operated in con-
junction with iron and steel works, but there are others, generally lo-
cated in the coal mining districts, that are referred to as coke-chemical
plants. It is believed that the coke-chemical plants probably are pri-
marily interested in the chemicals that can be obtained from the coke-gas,
tar, benzene, and ammonia water. In addition to the 38 major coke plants,
there are four plants, located in Moscow, Leningrad, Kaliningrad, and
Odessa, that are essentially gas works furnishing some metallurgical coke
as a byproduct. In 1958, 71 percent of the 50X1
coke was produced in plants that were a part of metallurgical combines,
10 percent came from plants that were combined with enterprises of the
chemical industry, and 5 percent was from gas works. 22;/ The balance of
the coke (14 percent), presumably, came for the most part from plants con-
trolled by the ferrous metallurgical industry but operated separately from
the steel works.
The average capacity of the Soviet coke plants is nearly 1.5
million tons annually, which is to be compared with less than 1 million
tons for plants in the US. 22/ The largest Soviet plant, at Magnitogorsk
in the Urals, has an annual capacity of about 6 million tons, which is
larger than any plant in the US with the exception of the Clairton Works
(7.5 million tons) of the United States Steel Corporation. The distribu-
tion of production of coke in the USSR in 1958, the latest year for which
comprehensive data are available, according to the annual capacity of the
plants, was as follows 100/:
* Table 7 follows on p. 30.
** Insofar as can be determined, there are only two low-temperature
(450? to 550? C) carbonization plants -- one in the Kuznetsk Basin and
another near Cheremkhovo in East Siberia. Both of these plants, ap-
parently, produce synthetic fuel. There have been no indications that
the USSR produces medium-temperature coke (600? to 750? C).
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Annual Plant Capacity
(Thousand Tons)
Percent of 1958
Production
Up to 100
0.2
101 to 400
2.9
401 to 1,000
4.3
1,001 to 2,000
36.8
2,001 to 3,000
30.8
More than 3,000
25.0
Except for some plants in the central Ukraine; the plants in
the Urals; the Cherepovets, Novo-Lipets4, and Rustavi plants; and the
four gas works, most of the plants are situated in close proximity to
the coal mines. Nearly all of the western plants depend exclusively on
Donets coals. These coals are hauled 400 to 600 km to plants in the
central Ukraine, 1,200 km to Rustavi, and 1,700 km to the Leningrad gas
works. Vorkuta coals move 2,400 km to Leningrad and 1,900 km to Chere-
povets. The plants in the Urals, except for the plant at Gubakha, de-
pend entirely on coals hauled long distances from the Karaganda Basin
(1,200 to 1,500 km) and the Kuznetsk Basin (1,800 to 2,400 km). 101/
At those plants that depend on coal hauled long distancesl-the USSR at-
tempts to maintain coal stocks sufficient for a month's operations, but
the plants located near the mines usually have less than a week's supply
on hand. It is notable that oxidation causes coking coal to deteriorate
in quality, so that efforts are made to minimize the storage period. 102/
Although data on actual consumption of coal at the ovens have
not been available since 1956, it is possible to provide reasonably good
estimates for subsequent years. Reported data for 1950 and 1955-56 and
estimates for 1957-60 and 1965 are given in Table 8.*
The consumption of dry coal per ton of dry coke produced aver-
ages about 1.3 tons for most coals -- the factor increases to between 1.36
and 1.4 on a wet basis.** The factors for the consumption of coal as well
as the yields of coke, including breeze, on a dry basis are given in
Table 9.*** The amount of breeze included in the coke yields is generally
about 4 to 5 percent.
Metallurgical grades of coke (furnace coke) comprise the sizes
larger than 40 mm, which are required in smelting ores in tall blastt
* Table 8 follows on p. 31.
** The moisture content of the coals Charged at the ovens normally
ranges from 8 to 10 percent.
*** Table 9 follows on p. 32.
t Text continued on p. 33.
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Table.7
Production of Coke in the USSR, by Selected Economic Region 2/
1950, 1955-60, and 1965 Plan
Thousand Metric Tons
Economic Region
1950
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1965 Plan
Western Regions
Ia Northwest
Ib North
ha Baltic
III Ukraine
V Georgia
VII Central
Subtotal
Eastern Regions
VIII Urals
IX West Siberia
Xa Kazakh SSR
XI East Siberia
Subtotal
Total USSR '
216
o
0
15,032 2/
0
0
15,2148
220
86
0
23,661 2/
586 2/
1,142 2/
25,695
250
585
180
24,690 21/
721
1,167 2/
27,593
250
1,021
180
25,557 .q./
748
1,163 2/
28,919
275
1,250
215
27,20112/
759
1,164 2/
30,8614
275
1,505
270
29,161 12/
739
1,255
33,205
275
1,550
270
30,078
750
1,600
34,523
400
5,600
400
36,000
1,000
2,500
145,900
8,448 2/
3,857 2/
o
175
12,1480
12,990 2/
4,716 2/
o
192 2/
17,898
14,023 2/
4,741 2/
o
243
19,007
144,720 2/
4,745 2/
o
250
19,715
15,032 2/
4,742 2/
o
256
20,030
15,100
4,820
o
275
20,195
16,122
5,180
loo
275
21,677
21,300
9,400
4,000
400
35,100
.(a:=.1.'
!=1414.121 2/
_
1,62.0_Ei
g3_,63_4 11/
50,894 e
53,400 g/

LI.L2 1/
81,000 1/
___
.
a. Estimated unless otherwise indicated.
b. 14C. 10 /
d. 11,/
e. 10 /
f. 14/
g. lo /
h. 109/
i. 110/. The plan called for 57 million tons. 111/
j. Upper limit of the range of the goal of the Seven Year Plan for 1965 of 76 million to 81 million tons. 112/
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Table 8
Volume of Coal Utilized by High-Temperature Coke Plants in the USSR
Selected Years, 1950-60, and 1965 Plan
Million Metric Tons
Source of Coal
Western Regions
Donets Basin
Pechora Basin
Georgian SSR
Subtotal
Eastern Regions
Kuznetsk Basin
Karaganda Basin
Kizel Basin
Subtotal
Total USSR
1950 2/
1955 2/
1956 2/
1957 12/
1958 12/
195912/
196012/
22.4
36.0
37.0
39.0
40.5
43.5
46.2
0
0
1.0
1.5
2.2
2.4
2.6
0
0.5
0.6
0.7
1.1
1.1
1.2
22.4
36.5
38.6
41.2
43.8
47.0
50.0
12.7
17.9
20.1
20.1
20.5
21.0
23.0
1.7
3.5
3.5
3.6
3.8
4.1
5.0
1.8
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.1
2.1
2.0
16.2
23.4
25.6
25.7
26.4
27.2
30.0
38.6
59.9
64.2
66.9
70.2
74.2
80.0
1965 Plan 12
55 to 62
3.5
1.5
60 to 67
38
10
2
50
110 to 117
a. 113/
b. Estimated. In some cases the estimates are based on production of coke and yield of coke per ton of coal
charged at the ovens and in other cases on the quantity of cleaned coking coal available. The yields of coke
based on the source of the coal have been reported and show little variation from year to year.
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Table 9
Coefficients of Consumption of Coal at Coke Plants in the USSR 2/
Source
of Coal
Donets
Kuznetsk
Karaganda
Pechora
Kizel
Consumption
of Dry Coal
per Ton
of Dry Coke
(Metric Tons)
1.310
1.300
1.290
1.300
1.435
Consumption of Coal
per Ton of Coke
of Normal Moisture 12/
(Metric Tons)
1.398
1.380
1.360
1.380
1.520
Content of Natural
Low-Ash Coal
in the Charge
(Percent)
5.0
21
.2/
si
.21
Requirements
of Raw Coal
per Ton
of Dry Coke
(Metric Tons)
1.833
1.760
2.270
1.840
2.323 21./
Average Yield
of Dry Coke
from Dry Coal
Charged at Ovens
(Percent)
76.3
76.7
77.7
76.7
69.7 21/
a. 114/. Data probably are for 1958.
b. Normal moisture content is 6 percent.
c. Data are not available, although probably no such coals are used, except for Kuznetsk coals.
d. Mixture of Kizel and Kuznetsk coals.
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furnaces. At the Chelyabinsk plant* in the Urals, approximately 87 per-
cent of the coke produced consists of sizes exceeding 4o mm but the
yield of these larger sizes is only 76 percent at the Kuznetsk plant
(Region IX); which utilizes blends of coal from local mines. Inasmuch
as Donets coals provide stronger coke, it is assumed that the yield of
furnace coke from these coals is close to 90 percent. Although precise
data are lacking, it is probable that about 85 percent Of the coke pro-
duced at Soviet coke plants consists of the sizes suitable for metallur-
gical purposes (larger than 4o mm).
2. Byproducts
It is estimated that in addition to coke the Soviet plants
produced about 22.2 billion cubic meters of coke gas, between 2 million
and 3 million tons of tar, 0.75 million tons of crude benzene, and a
large quantity of ammonia in 1960.** These estimates are based on the
assumption that all of the gas that is utilized, or 99 percent of the
output, 117/ is stripped of tar, crude benzene, and ammonia liquor after
it leaves the coke ovens. From these raw materials and the residual gas,
the Soviet coke-chemical industry produced more than 60 products. In
1960, raw materials from the coke-chemical industry were used to produce
more than 60 percent of the total output of plastics, chemical fibers,
synthetic detergents, and other synthetic materials. Nevertheless, pro-
duction of coke-chemicals falls far short of the potential yield of these
products, and, in addition, the purity of some of these products is in-
adequate for production of certain valuable end products. In the next
few years the USSR expects to be producing up to 100 items and more than
180 varieties of products based on raw materials from the coke plants. 118/
Significantly, before 1958 production of coke gas exceeded
that of natural gas.*** Of approximately 20 billion cubic meters of coke
* This plant blends six grades of coal; about 65 percent consists of
Kuznetsk coal, and the remainder comes from Karaganda. Such blending is
considered to be typical of the other three plants in the Urals using im-
ported coals exclusively. The size distribution of the Chelyabinsk plant
is as follows: larger than 40 mm, 87 percent; 25 to 4o mm, 4 percent;
10 to 25 mm, 5 percent; and 0 to 10 mm, 4 percent. 115/
** In carbonization, each ton of dry coal charged at the ovens yields
70 to 80 percent (averaging about 77 percent) of coke, 14 to 20 percent
of coke gas, 3 to 4 percent of tar, 1 percent of crude benzene, and 0.22
to 0.3 percent of ammonia liquor. 116/ The crude benzene, or light oil,
contains benzene, toluene, xylene, and a number of solvents. The yield
of coke gas is about 375 cubic meters per ton of coke, including breeze,
that is produced.
*** In 1957, production of coke gas and natural gas were, respectively,
19.7 billion 119/ and 18.6 billion [footnote continued on p. 34]
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gas produced in 1958, 57 percent was used at the iron and steel works,
chiefly in heating the blast furnaces and open-hearth furnaces, and 27
percent was consumed at the coke plants, mainly to heat the ovens. The
remainder of the gas, except for 1 percent that was lost, was distributed
to other consumers/ including about 5 percent of the total that was proc-
essed for chemicals. Ea/
In contrast with the coke industry in the US and most Western
countries, the USSR has lagged in production of end products that can be
derived from intermediate chemicals that are obtainable from residual coke
gas, tar, and crude benzene. The residual gas contains 55 to 60 percent
hydrogen, 24 to 28 percent methanel.and 2 to 4 percent of unsaturated com-
pounds such as ethylene and propylene. 124/ Soviet technologists claim
that hydrogen produced from coke gas is about 12 percent cheaper than that
extracted from natural gas. 125/ The limited quantities of residual coke
gas that are now processed are used to obtain hydrogen for the synthesis
of ammonia. 126/ Apparently, there is no production of acetylene, which
could be obtained from the methane, and the yields of other products that
could be derived from the residual gas are very small. Some ethylene is
used/ mainly in production of ethylbenzene. 127/ In 1965, some 4.1 bil-
lion cubic meters of coke gas, about 14 percent of the total output (30
billion cubic meters), are to be processed into ammonia and other chemi-
cals. 128/
Coal tar and benzene are valuable raw materials for organic
synthesis, particularly for producing polymers, naphthalene, phenolic
products, coumarone-indene resins, and benzene hydrocarbons. In the USSR,
benzene takes first place in both importance and tonnage among the primary
byproducts of coking and is a source, directly or through intermediate
products, of resins used in producing plastics, lacquers, enamels, and
other products. Naphthalene, for which coal tar is the principal economic
source, is extremely important, particularly in the manufacture of poly-
mers, and also is used to manufacture many other products, including de-
tergents, dye intermediates, insecticides, and wax substitutes. Phenol
is used mainly in making synthetic resins and fibers. The coumarone-
indene resins are used in producing artificial leather, linoleum, dyes,
and varnish. 129/
D. Consumption of Coke
The pattern of consumption of coke in the USSR, based on re-
ported use at iron smelters and estimates for other purposes, is shown
in Table 10.* It will be noted that the supply-demand balance includes**
cubic meters. 120/ Production of natural gas, however, is in a sharply
rising trend, amounting to 45.1 billion cubic meters in 1960, 121/ and,
according to plan, will reach 150 billion cubic meters in 1965. 122/
Table 10 follows on p. 35.
** Text continued on p. 38.
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Table 10
Estimated Supply-Demand Balance for High-Temperature Coke in the USSR
Selected Years, 1955-65
Thousand Metric Tons
Supply 21*
1955
1958
1959
1960
1965
Metallurgical (larger than 4o mm)
39,000
45,534
47,780
50,400
70,700
10 to 40 mm
4,593
5,360
5,620
5,800
10,300
Total (larger than 10 mm) 12/
50,894
53)4.00
56,200
81,000 sj
Breeze (less than 10 mm)
.43,593
2,307
2,706
2,800
3,000
5,200
imports 2/
oo
_
o
_
o
o
Total supply
11.5,900
53,600
56,200
59,200
86,200
Demand
Smelting iron ore
29,307 2/
311445 I/
33,111 1/
331854 Bi
48,300 11/
Sintering iron ore 1/
2,307
2,706
2,800
3,000
5,200
Iron foundries 1/
21400
3,500
3,750
4l000
5,800
Smelting nonferrous ores kJ
318
336
340
344
410
Chemical industry 1/ -
798
814.11.
798
821
1,061
Other 2/
9,589
13,030
13,580
15,335
22,729
Footnotes for Table 10 follow on p. 36.
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Table 10
Estimated Supply-Demand Balance for High-Temperature Coke in the USSR
Selected Years, 1955-65
(Continued)
Thousand Metric Tons
1955
1958 1959
Total 4i,719 51,861 54,379
Exports 1,181 1,739 1,821
Total demand ,112422.2 2.1a2 ......22.
1960
1965
57,354
83,500
a. 846
2,700
59,200
86,200
?....
a. Except for the total of sizes exceeding 10 mm, which represents reported output, all other figures for dis-
tribution by size are estimates. These estimates are based on the following distribution by size of the total
yield of coke at the plants': (1) for 1955-60: larger than 40 mm, 85 percent; 10 to 40 mm, lo percent; and less
than 10 mm, 5 percent, and (2) for 1965: larger than 4o mm, 82 percent; 10 to 4o mm, 12 percent; and less than
10 mm, 6 percent. The reduced percentage of metallurgical sizes in 1965 is based on the expectation that the use
of more gas coal will result in weaker coke and more breakage.
b. For sources, see Table 7, p. 30, above.
c. Upper limit of the range of the goal of the Seven Year Plan for 1965 of 76 million to 81 million tons.
d. Excluding coke, reportedly imported from Poland, as follows (in tons): 1955, 345,000; 1958, 630,000; and
1959, 678,000. 130/ This coke was reexported to other countries.
e. l31/
f. 132/
g. 133/
h. Based on production of 70 million tons of pig iron in 1965 and a rate of consumption of coke per ton of pig
iron of 690 kilograms.
i. Estimated consumption of breeze.
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Table 10
Estimated Supply-Demand Balance for High-Temperature Coke in the USSR
Selected Years, 1955-65
(Continued)
j. Based on US plant practice (where the weight of finished iron castings averages about 62.5 percent of the
materials charged at the furnaces and where coke accounts for 17.5 percent of the weight of materials) and on
Soviet production of iron castings as follows (in thousand tons): 1955, 6,900; 1958, 10,100; 1959, 10,800; 1960,
11,550; and 1965, 16,300. Estimates include additional coke for heating.
k. See Table 17, Appendix B, p. 66, below.
1. See Table 18, Appendix B, p. 67, below.
m. Most of this coke presumably is used to manufacture producer gas and water gas.
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breeze, all of which presumably is utilized in sintering iron ore.* Sup-
plies of coke have been ample in recent years to satisfy all essential
requirements and still leave sizable quantities for export.
In 1960 the blast furnaces of the iron and steel works consumed
about 34 million tons of coke, or about 60 percent of the total produc-
tion (excluding breeze) and about two-thirds of the coke of metallurgical
grade. Significantly, the rate of coke consumption per ton of pig iron
produced declined during the decade 1950-59 from 914.14. kilograms (kg) to
771 kg and showed a sharp drop in 1960 to only 724 kg. The reduction in
the rate of consumption of coke in 1960 resulted mostly from the use of
natural gas and oxygen at a considerable number of blast furnaces, al-
though other factors such as higher top pressure and better moisture con-
trol also were an influence. The use of natural gas saves from 10 to 15
percent in the quantity of coke required for producing each ton of pig
iron. In recent years the rate of consumption of coke at Soviet blast
furnaces has been lower than in the US.**
During the Seven Year Plan the USSR expects to reduce the rate
of consumption of coke at blast furnaces by 12 percent, 134/ indicating
consumption of about 690 kg per ton of pig iron. At this rate, about
48 million tons of coke would be required for production of 70 million
tons of pig iron in 1965. If production of pig iron should reach 72.5
million tons in 1965, a possible achievement, blast furnaces may require
about 50 million tons of coke. This demand would not strain capabilities.
The foundry industry is another important consumer of coke, which
is essential in melting pig iron and scrap for production of castings.
It is estimated that Soviet foundries melted nearly 23 million tons of
material in 1960 and will melt about 33 million tons in 1965. On the
basis of consumption of coke in US plants, where it represents about
17.5 percent of the furnace charge, Soviet requirements of foundry coke
amounted to about 4 million tons in 1960 and will increase to about 5.8
million tons in 1965.
It is known that the USSR utilizes coke in smelting ores contain-
ing lead, zinc, copper, and nickel in shaft or blast furnaces. The trend,
however, is to construct reverberatory furnaces, so that requirements for
coke in nonferrous metallurgy may decline. Consumption of coke in produc-
tion of lead, zinc, and copper is estimated at only 344,000 tons in 1960
* In 1959, production of iron sinter amounted to 56.8 million tons. .135/
The rate of consumption of coke ranges from 4 to 6.8 percent of the total
weight of material burned, 1_3g indicating that this processing takes
about all of the breeze that is available.
** At US plants the rate of consumption of coke per ton of pig iron aver-
aged 785 kg in 1959 and 749 kg in 1960.
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and 4101000 tons in 1965. Where coke is used in smelting and refining
'nickel, the rate of consumption of coke is rather high, amounting to 50
to 55 tons of coke per ton of refined nickel, 137/ but information is
not sufficient to permit reliable estimates. All of the coke produced
at Norillsk? about 200,000 tons annna3ly, has been used to smelt local
ores containing copper, nickel, and cobalt.
The Soviet chemical industry consumes coke in the manufacture
of ammonia and calcium carbide. For these particular uses, it is esti-
mated that requirements amounted to 821,000 tons in 1960 and that the
figure will rise to about 1.1 million tons in 1965.
After allowance for the foregoing items of consumption, there
remains a large volume of coke that cannot be distributed. Thus about
15 million tons of coke were available in 1960 that probably were used
mainly for heating purposes and for gas generation. No information is
available as to the disposition of this coke. By 1965 the amount of
coke available for purposes that cannot be determined will amount to
about 23 million tons. It is believed that a considerable part of this
coke will be of metallurgical grade, although transportation and hand-
ling results in breakage and thus in a sharp reduction in the quantities
that can be used for metallurgical purposes.
E. Costs of Coking Coal and Coke
1. Coking Coal
Coking coals are very expensive in the USSR, especially in
the western areas, where the costs of mining are generally more than
twice as much as in the eastern fields. In 1957, each ton of raw coking
coal mined in the Donets Basin cost, on the average, 133 rubles* per ton,
which was 15 rubles more than in the Pechora Basin. In contrast, the
cost of Karaganda and Kuznetsk coking coals averaged about 63 to 64 rubles
per ton. 138/ The upward trend in the costs of mining coking coals during
1955-57 is shown in Table 11.** Further increases in costs occurred in
1958-59 as a consequence of the change to shorter working hours and to
higher rates of pay. In the Donets Basin, for example, the costs of min-
ing coking coals increased 7.9 percent in 1959. 139/ In 1960, however,
costs declined from the 1959 level as a result of improvements in labor
productivity but were still higher than in 1957. At the official rate
of exchange that existed before 1 January 1961 (4 rubles to US $1), it
can be seen that the cost of producing the cheaper coals would exceed
* Except for data on foreign trade, ruble values in this report are
given in old rubles (ruble values in use before the Soviet currency re-
form of 1961) and may be converted to US dollars at the rate of exchange
of 4 rubles to US $1. This rate does not necessarily reflect the value
of the ruble in terms of the dollar.
** Table 11 follows on p. 4o.
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$15 per ton and that Donets coals would cost $33 per ton. Such high costs
are to be compared with only $4 to $7 per ton of cleaned coal in the US,
where quality generally is much superior to the Soviet product. The poor
quality of Soviet coals results in even higher costs because of the large
losses in cleaning. Thus cleaning can add from 5 to 50 rubles per ton to
the mine costs.
Table 11
Average Costs of Producing Coal in the Major Basins
of the USSR 2/
1955-57
Current Rubles per Metric Ton
Basin
1955
1956
1957
Donets
All coal
90.96
96.58
110.66
Bituminous coal
105.66
114.58
127.89
Coal used for coking
109.00
119.70
133.00
Kuznetsk
All coal
57.55
56.29
56.62
Coal from deep mines
61.07
60.75
60.78
Coal from deep mines
used for coking
64.00
63.80
63.85
Karaganda
All coal
44.54
42.34
52.68
Bituminous coal
from deep mines
58.63
59.41
59.85
Coal used for coking
61.56
62.41
62.85
Pechora (Vorkuta only)
All coal
93.93
106.00
112.69
Coal used for coking
98.08
111.64
118.00
a. 140/
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Insofar as can be determined, the mine prices of coking coals
have remained substantially unchanged since the present price schedule
became effective on 1 July 1955. Because of the high costs of mining, no
turnover taxes are applied to coal. Prices, at the time they were estab-
lished, were intended to reflect the current costs of production with an
allowance for a small msrgin of profit. The trend to higher costs results
in substantial losses on Donets and Pechora coals and possibly minor losses
on Karaganda coals, but prices for Kuznetsk coals permit some profit at
current costs. Mine prices for various types of coking coal listed in the
price schedule of 1 July 1955 were as follows 141/:
Rubles per Ton
Type of Coal
Donets
Basin
Pechora
Basin
Karaganda
Basin
Kuznetsk
Basin
Raw coal
111.00
78.30
K2
69.00
PZh
110.40
86.50
66.20
78.30
PS (OS)
112.00
60.20
62.00
Concentrates
K
157.80
95.00
K2
83.00
PZh
152.00
128.80
118.00
90.80
PS (OS)
158.80
118.00
83.00
As indicated in Table 12,* the delivered price of coking coal
averaged 136.5 rubles per ton at all Soviet coke plants in 1958 and 118.7
rubles per ton at eastern plants. 142/ The average cost at western plants
is estimated at approximately 148 rubles per ton, on the assumption that
these plants utilized about 60 percent of the coking coal. These data re-
flect higher prices for a large portion of the coal cleaned at the mines
as well as lower prices charged for coals that are not classified as cok-
ing coals.
According to the Seven Year Plan, the cost of producing coking
coals in 1965 will be reduced in comparison with 1958 by about 13 percent
in the Donets Basin and 3 percent in the Kuznetsk and Pechora Basins but
will rise slightly at the Karaganda mines. In 1965 the average costs of
* Table 12 follows on p. 42.
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raw (run-of-mine) coal at the mine and of concentrates at the cleani
plants in the important coal basins are expected to be as follows 143
Rubles per Ton
Basin
Raw Coal
Concentrates
Donets
116.00
153.30
Kuznetsk
62.00
84.6o
Karaganda
63.00
97.50
Pechora
(Vorkuta only)
114.00
157.30
Table 12
Average Delivered Prices of Coal to Coke Plants
in the USSR LI/
1954-55 and 1958
Current Rubles per Metric Ton
1954
1955
1958
Delivered cost to all plants
List price at mines
121.5
122.9
120.3
Freight
13.2
12.8
12.8
Other costs
7.1
6.0
3.4
Delivered price
141.8
141.7
12L2
Delivered cost to eastern plants12/
List price at mines
89.0
87.5
86.4
Freight
27.8
29.2
32.3
Other costs
0
0
0
Delivered price
116.8
116.7
118.7
a. 1Wii
b. Including the Urals.
2. Coke
In the Dnepr area of the Ukraine the cost of producing coke
ranged from 199 to 210 rubles per ton in 1959 2L-12/ and may have been as
low as 180 rubles per ton at some plants in the Donets Basin because of
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savings in freight charges. The cost of converting coal to coke is
about 27 rubles per ton. 146/ At the Cherepovets plant in Region Ib,
coke can be produced for 209 rubles per ton on the basis of Kuznetsk
coals, hauled 3,487 km (transport costs are 55 rubles per ton of coal),
whereas the coke costs about 268 rubles per ton using Donets coals and
293 rubles with Pechora coals. 147/ In the Georgian SSR (Region V) the
Rustavi plant produces coke for about 310 rubles per ton, utilizing
equal parts of Donets coals and local coals, but the quality is very
poor (18.5 percent ash). If the coke were produced solely from Donets
coals, the cost would be about 280 rubles per ton. 148/ The most ex-
pensive coke in the USSR probably is made at the Leningrad Gas Works
(Region Ia).
In. the Urals the cost of making coke probably is a little
less, on the average, than in the Ukraine and varies according to the
location of the plant as well as the source and quality of the coal.
Kuznetsk coals are a little cheaper than Karaganda coals at the Nizhniy
Tagil and Chelyabinsk coke plants, where the cost of the coke is be-
tween 180 and 195 rubles per ton. At Magnitogorsk the cost is in the
range of 185 to 200 rubles per ton. 149/ In West Siberia, coke is pro-
duced for about 145 rubles per ton. 150/ The cost of coke can be re-
duced in accordance with allocation of a part of the expenses to the
byproducts.
In production of pig iron, coke accounts for 40 to 70 per-
cent of the cost at western plants, about 70 percent in the Urals, and
about 26 percent in West Siberia. 151/
At an approximate average cost of producing oven coke in
the USSR of 185 rubles per ton' in 1960, the total value of finished
coke amounted to about 10.4 billion rubles. When byproducts are con-
sidered, it is probable that the total value of output of the coke-
chemical industry exceeded 13 billion rubles.
F. Foreign Trade
Until recent years the USSR was a net importer of both coal and
coke, all of which came from Poland. According to official Soviet sta-
tistics,* Poland supplied 4.52 million tons of coal and 0.66 million
tons of coke in 1960 compared with 4.12 million tons of coal and 0.68
million tons of coke in 1959.** However, most, if not all, of this
coal, which was not of coking quality, and probably much of the coke
were reexported, mainly to East Germany. It is estimated that the
total exports of coal from Soviet mines amounted to 6.9 million tons
Soviet statistics include reexports of commodities, which in many
cases never enter the USSR but are included in export and import data.
** The USSR also imports about 200,000 tons of coal annually from Com-
munist China, but it is not for coking purposes. 152/
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in 1959 and about 7.7 million tons in 1960. The foregoing figures in-
clude approximately 1.8 million tons of anthracite each year, the bulk
of which was supplied to Western Europe from Donets mines. The re-
maining coal shipments conksted of bituminous coal, including coking
coal. Data on exports of anthracite and bituminous coal, by country,
during 1955 and 1958-60 are given in Table 13.*
Of approximately 6 million tons of bituminous coal exported
by the USSR in 1960, it is estimated that 3.2 million tons consisted
of types that were suitable for coking purposes. All of this coal,
with the exception of 542,000 tons supplied to Japan from eastern
mines, came from the Donets Basin. Available evidence indicates that
exports of coking coal probably will reach 4.3 million tons in 1965.
Shipments of coke amounted to 1.85 million tons in 1960, and were
slightly higher than in 1959. Future deliveries, however,, probably
will increase considerably. By 1965 it is expected that the USSR will
be exporting at least 2.7 million tons of coke and will have the capa-
bility to supply much greater quantities. The volume of exports of
coke to Western Europe will depend largely on Soviet willingness to
make prices sufficiently attractive to compete with those of other
sellers. Data on approximate exports of coking coal and coke in 1959-60
and estimates for 1965 are given in Table 14.**
1. Satellite Countries
Exports of coking coal to the Satellite countries are esti-
mated to have been 1.36 million tons in 1960 in comparison with 0.79
million tons in 1959, an increase of about 70 percent. Coking coal is
shipped to East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Rumania, whereas coke is
furnished to Bulgaria, East Germany, Hungary, and Rumania. Poland has
received most of the coking coal. The only countries that are inde-
pendent of Soviet supplies of both coking coal and coke are Albania and
Czechoslovakia. Exports of coke to the Satellite countries amounted to
1.47 million tons in 1960, slightly higher than in 1959. A reduction
in shipments to Bulgaria tended to offset most of the increases in ex-
ports of coke to East Germany, Hungary, and Rumania.
On the basis of plans for production of coke and pig iron as
well as on the basis of capabilities of supply in individual countries,
it is estimated that Soviet exports to the Satellite countries in 1965
will be about 1.3 million tons of coking coal and 1.7 million tons of
coke. Additional quantities of both commodities could be made available
to these countries, if necessary. (For a discussion of the supply and de-
mand for coking coal and coke in individual countries, see III, below.)***
* Table 13 follows on p. 45.
** Table 14 follows on p. 47.
*** Text continued on p. 50.
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Table 13
Exports of Coal from the USSR
1955 and. 1958-60
Thousand Metric Tons
1955 21*
1958 12/
195912/
1960 31
Recipient
Anthracite
Bituminous
Anthracite
Bituminous
Anthracite
Bituminous
Anthracite
Bituminous
Non-Bloc Countries
Western Europe
Austria
5
o
0
292
o
513
o
731
Belgium
107
8
69
o
44
o
20
0
413
Denmark
0
Negl.
0
16
0
193
0
Finland
149
61
264
525
172
557
241
498
o
France
549
0
703
0
719
0
795
66
West Germany
0
85
0
124
0
171
0
Greece
2
33
4
20
1
12
7
44
-
Iceland
1
7
1
o
2
0
1
0
Italy
209
2
253
5
331
34
370
105
Netherlands
125
0
39
2
57
6
22
10
Sweden
19
87
24
43
21
82
36
105
Switzerland
12
0
0
0
0
0
6
o
Yugoslavia
70
183
91
634
93
808
132
795
Subtotal
1,248
466
1,448
1,661
1,440
2,376
1,630
2,767
Far East
Japan
0
67
0
437
13
362
31
511
Middle East
Pakistan
0
Negl.
0
50
0
o
o
o
Egypt
0
4
o
4
o
6
o
24
Total
1,2148
537
1,14148
2,152
1,453
2,744
1,661
3,302
* Footnotes for Table 13 follow on p. 46.
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Table 13
Exports of Coal from the USSR
1955 and 1958-60
(Continued)
Thousand Metric Tons
Recipient
1955
195812/
1959 12/
19601/
Anthracite
Bituminous
Anthracite
Bituminous
Anthracite
Bituminous
Anthracite
Bituminous
Bloc Countries
European Satellites
Albania
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Bulgaria
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Czechoslovakia
15
o
3
1,007
7
1,029
8
1,046
East Germany
Hungary
150
1
39
o
422
1
850 21./
89
356
1
570 1/
66
102
o
445 1/
204
Poland
19
0
14
376
17
598
20
774
Rumania
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
133
Subtotal
185
39
44o
2,322
381
2,263
130
2,602
Far East
Mongolia
o
o
o
77
o
74
o
53
Total
1.L
39
440
2,399
381
2,337
130
2 655
Grand Total
.-.2.2q2
576
1
888 -
4 551
1
834
5 081
1 791
5,957
a. 12a/
13' 12/
c. 155/
d. Estimate based on official Soviet figures, which include Polish coal.
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Table 14
Estimated Exports of Coking Coal and Coke from the USSR
1959-60 and 1965
Thousand Metric Tons
Coking Coal
Coke
Recipient
1959 2/*
1960 12/
1965 .2/
1959
1960 11/
1965 2/
Non-Bloc Countries
Western Europe
Austria
513
731
900 2/
54
64
500 2/
Denmark
0
0
0
103
76
N.A. 1/
Finland
0
0
0
120
99
N.A. 1/
Italy
34
50
100
0
0
0
Sweden
0
0
0
102
125
N.A. 1/
Yugoslavia
808
795
1,000
o
o
o
Other
0
0
0
2
10
N.A.
Subtotal
1,355
1,576
2,000
381
374
1,000 1/
Far East
Japan
345
250 5/
1,000
0
0
0
Total
1,700
1 826
-4---
3,000
381
374
1:_____ 000
...
* Footnotes for Table 14 follow on p. 48.
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Table 14
Estimated Exports of Coking Coal and Coke from the USSR
1959-60 and 1965
(Continued)
Thousand Metric Tons
Coking Coal
Coke
Recipient
1959 2/
1960
2/
1965
2/
1959 51/
1960 12/
1965
2/
Bloc Countries
European Satellites
Albania
0
0
0
0
0
0
Bulgaria
o
o
o
141
103
200
Czechoslovakia
0
0
0
0
0
0
East Germany
125 12/
250
200
316 1/
368
20Q
Hungary
66
204
160
564
594
500
Poland
598
774
400
o
o
o
Rumania
o
133
500
419
407
800
Total
789
1,361
_
1,260
1,44o
1,472
1,700
Grand Total
A4T22
3,187
4,260
...a=
1,821
1,846
2,700
c. Figures for European Satellites are based on calculated requirements, indigenous supplies) and probable im-
ports from other countries.
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Table 14
Estimated Exports of Coking Coal and Coke from the USSR
1959-60 and 1965
(Continued)
d. 158/
e. A trade treaty signed in October 1960 calls for delivery of 900,000 tons of coking coal and 500,000 tons of
coke annually through 1965. 159/
f. Increased shipments are believed to be probable, and the total shipments to Western Europe should be at least
1 million tons.
g. The total imports of anthracite and bituminous amounted to 263,004 tons. 160/
h. The USSR reported exports of 4.7 million tons to East Germany in 1959, but this amount is practically all
Polish coal. In 1958 the USSR reported imports of 3.6 million tons from Poland, although only 53,000 tons actually
were received.
i. The USSR reported exports of 946,000 tons to East Germany in 1959, but it is estimated that two-thirds of this
coke came from Poland.
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2. Western Europe
In 1960 the USSR sold coal in 13 countries of Western Europe,
although coking coal was supplied only to Yugoslavia, Austria, and Italy.
Coke was shipped mainly to Austria, Denmark, Finland, and Sweden, with
minor quantities to Greece and Iceland. Of approximately 4.4 million tons
of coal sent to Western Europe in 1960, it is estimated that coking coal
totaled only about 1.6 million tons, including 0.8 million tons to
Yugoslavia, 0.7 million tons to Austria, and a minor quantity to Italy.
These exports were about one-quarter of a million tons higher than in
1959, and practically all of the increment went to Austria, which re-
ceived 513,000 tons in the previous year. Shipments of coke were rel-
atively sms11, amounting to 381,000 tons in 1959 and 374,00 tons in 1960.
Significantly, none of the countries in Western Europe is
especially dependent on Soviet supplies of coking coal or coke. There
apparently are some advantages for Yugoslavia and Austria to use Soviet
coal because of barter arrangements. The same condition probably applies
to coke in some other countries, notably Finland, which now obtains a
substantial part of its coke from the USSR.
It is impossible to make any reliable forecasts of Soviet ex-
ports to Western Europe, although somewhat larger shipments of coking coal
and coke may be expected. The USSR should be in a better position to sup-
ply coke, especially in smaller sizes than before, but the more desirable
types of coking coal that Western countries want (such as types K and PS)
probably will not be generally available for export, because of indigenous
requirements in the USSR.
3. Far East
The USSR does not export coke to countries in the Far East,
and shipments of coking coal are limited to Japan. Because of its small
resources of coking coal, Japan has been forced to increase the total
imports of such coals in order to satisfy the expanding needs of its iron
and steel industry. Imports of coking coal have risen from 3.9 million
tons in 1958 to more than 7.0 million tons in 1960.* During 1959 the
iron and steel industry required about 8.9 million tons of coking quality
coal, of which approximately 4.5 million tons was imported. According to
Japanese estimates, the iron and steel industry of Japan will need from
14 million to 16 million tons in 1965. Of that amount it is estimated
.* In 1960, Japan imported almost 8.3 million tons of anthracite and bi-
tuminous coals, 161/ of which probably more than 80 percent was coking
coal.
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that imports must supply between 9 million and 11 million tons by 1965,
as indigenous supplies probably will not exceed 5 million tons.* 162/
The US has been the major source of coking coal for Japan,
accounting for nearly 80 percent of the total amount imported by that
country during 1958 and 1959 and at least 65 percent in 1960. The US
coal supplied, which is mined in southern West Virginia and shipped
from Hampton Roads, is of exceptionally high quality and costs around
$18.50 to $19.00 per ton at Japanese ports. The high cost is an induce-
ment for the Japanese to seek cheaper coal, and they are making efforts
to develop other sources of supply closer to Japan.
Because of the inferior quality of Soviet coals supplied
from Sakhalin Island and the Kuznetsk Basin and the lack of adequate
docking facilities at Soviet ports, Soviet offers to supply more coking
coal to Japan at attractive prices have met with considerable resistance.
Shipments from the USSR amounted to only 319,000 tons in 1958 and 344,835
tons in 1959. 164/ Shipments in 1960 declined to about 250,000 tons. 165/
The USSR has agreed to build a second port to supplement the inadequate
facilities at Nakhodka and, presumably, has furnished some guarantees of
quality, particularly with regard to the ash content and friability of
Kuznetsk coals. A new longer term contract signed j_n November 1960 calls
for shipments of 1.5 million tons of Kuznetsk coals in addition to 690,000
tons of Sakhalin coal during 1960-62. 166/ It is not known, however,
whether all of the tonnage consists of coking coal.** Prices were set at
$12.00 to $12.25 per ton for Kuznetsk coals 167/ and from $8.75 to $10.50
per ton f.o.b. for Sakhalin coals. With freight costs of about $2.25 per
ton, the most expensive Soviet coal at Japanese ports probably is not more
than $15.00 per ton, which probably is less than the price of any other
foreign coals at the present time.
The USSR has attempted to interest the Japanese in trade that
would promote development of the tremendous deposits of iron ore near
Chulman in East Siberia. These deposits are close to large deposits of
coal that Soviet technologists claim have superior coking qualities. 168/
Development of these deposits is underway, and when about 400 km of rail-
road construction are added to the main line of the Trans-Siberian Rail-
road, the USSR should be in an even more competitive position with re-
spect to the Japanese market for iron ore and coking coal. Construction
* Production of coking coal amounted to only 656,000 tons in 1958 and
630,000 tons in 1959, but large quantities of semicoking coal are mined
and used in coke ovens. Output of these types amounted to nearly 9.6
million tons in 1959. 163/
** Minor quantities of Soviet coals of other types were imported in 1958
and 1959. These noncoking coals represented more than half the total in
1960.
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of this railroad is under consideration. Even if this new source of iron
ore and coal is not ready by 1965, Soviet exports of coal to Japan may
rise to at least 1 million tons in that year. Soviet offers to buy much
greater quantities of Japanese products, especially steel, represent a
strong inducement for the Japanese to increase their trade with the USSR.
III. Supply of and Demand for Coking Coal and Coke in the European
Satellites
A. Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia, the only country among the European Satellites
that is self-sufficient in supplies of coal for coking purposes, has ample
reserves, as indicated by data in Tables 15* and 16.** The Ostrava-
Karvina Basin accounted for more than 80 percent 169/ of the total output
of about 26.4 million tons*** of bituminous coal mined in Czechoslovakia
in 1960, 1/2/ although only about 3.7 million tons were of types classified
as premium coking coals.t Because mining is handicapped by unfavorable
geological conditions -- resulting in low labor productivity, restricted
output, and high costs -- the supply of bituminous coals has not been
adequate to meet both the country's domestic needs and those for exports.
To make some coking coal available for export to other Satellite coun-
tries, other coals have been imported from Poland and the USSR for steam
purposes.
Imports of bituminous coal totaled 2.57 million tons in 1958 and
2.36 million tons in 1959. 172/ Shipments to foreign countries amounted
to 1.5 million tons in 1958 and 1.6 million tons in 1959, including about
1 million tons of coking coal each year. Between 70 and 80 percent of
these exports went to East Germany, Hungary, and Rumania. Except for
minor deliveries to West Germany, the balance was shipped to Austria. 173/
In 1960 the supply available for export probably exceeded 2 million tons,
including 1.6 million tons of coking coal.
Of the 21.8 million tons of coal mined in the Ostrava-Karvina
Basin in 1960, 174/ more than 50 percent was required to produce about
7.9 million tons of oven coke. tt Possibly as much as 6.8 million tonsttt
Table 15 follows on p. 53.
** Table 16 follows on p. 57.
*** Data on Czechoslovak production are in net tons -- that is, after
elimination of reject material at the cleaning plants.
t Estimate based on data in source 171/.
tt Minor quantities of coal from the Kladno Basin also are used for
coking purposes. Oven coke is produced at 10 plants, including 9 in the
Ostrava-Karvina area. 175/
ttt Text continued on p. 57.
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Table 15
Estimated Availability of Coking Coal and Oven Coke in the Soviet Bloc
1959-60 and 1965
Thousand Metric Tons
Coking Coal
Total production 21*
Production (premium quality) 2/
Consumption at oven-coke plants 2/
Imports (metallurgical) di
Exports (metallurgical) 2/
Albania
Bulgaria
Czechoslovakia
East Germany
Hungary
Poland
Rumania
USSR
Total
1959
0
0
0
0
o
0
o
0
0
0
12,000 12/
3,570 1/
10,350
0
1,019 2/
300 s/
300 2/
1,335
1,450 2/
o
350 di
o 2/
563
216
o
18,900 si
1,970 1/
13,724
800 2/
o 2/
700 1/
o .11/
870
192
o
78,000 E./
66,000 1/
74,200
0
2,489 2/
110,250
71,840
101,042
2,658
3,508
Oven Coke
Production (excluding breeze)
0
0
7,231 I/
935
394
10,579 2/
609 E/
53,400 E./
73,148
Production (metallurgical)
0
0
6,287 x/
745 2/
362 221
7,259 122/
400 22/
47,780 22/
62,833
Smelting iron ore 22/
0
250
4,340
2,560
1,270
4,040
1,060
33,111 II/
46,631'
Imports (metallurgical)
Exports (metallurgical)
11 Ed
0
327
0
0
982 LI/
2,131 22/
0
1,018 221
0
0
1,647 .kki
700 11/
0
0
1,821 2/
4,187
4,450
1960
Coking Coal
Total production 2/
0
0
13,000 2/
300 2/
450 d/
18,000 11/
875
83,000 g./
115,625
Production (premium quality) 2/
0
o
3,675 1/
300 2/
o 1/
2,300 1/
o h/
70,500 1/
76,775
Consumption at oven-coke plants 2/
o
o
11,200
1,350
785
14,600
1,175
80,000
109,110
Imports (metallurgical) 2/
0
0
0
1,300
350
800 2/
325
o
2,775
Exports (metallurgical) si
0
o
1,600
o
o
o 2/
o
3,187
4,787
Oven Coke
Production (excluding breeze)
9
o
7,870 22/
945
560
10,970
820 22/
56,200 22/
77,365
Production (metallurgical) ii/
Smelting iron ore 22/
0
0
0
265
6,780 22i
4,835
750 22/
2,595
499 221
1,310
7,712 212/
4,130
560 22/
1,215
50,400 Ad/
33,854 II/
67,701
48,2o4
Imports (metallurgical) 2s/
12
296
o
2,250
971 22/
o
656
o
4,185
Exports (metallurgical) gs/
0
0
950
0
0
1,655
o
1,846
4,451
* Footnotes for Table 15 follow on p. 54.
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Table 15
Estimated Availability of Coking Coal and Oven Coke in the Soviet Bloc
1959-60 and 1965
(Continued)
Thousand Metric Tons
Coking Coal
Total production 2./
Production (premium quality) h/
Consumption at oven-coke plants E/
Imports (metallurgical) ag/
Exports (metallurgical) 2s/
Albania
Bulgaria
Czechoslovakia
East Germany
Hungary
Poland
Rumania
USSR
Total
1965
0
0
0
0
0
620 1"/
620 Er./
1,000 LE/
38031/
0
18,500 1.2/
5,425 1/
16,100
1,700
300 E./
300 s/
1,600
1,300
800 1/
o
1,060
360
23,680 ss
4,500 j
18,350
600
o
1,500 /-
08/
2,285
800 II/
122,000 E./
98,000 1/
117,000
4,260
167,400
108,845
157,395
3,440
5,960
Oven Coke
Production (excluding breeze)
O
730 ELI/
11,270 Ey
1,100 Lay/
Boo
13,100 17/
1,600 Li
81,000 aaa/
109,600
Production (metallurgical) 2s/
0
550 al/
9,720 Ey
820 yyj
64o Ey
9,750
1,04o
70,700
93,220
Smelting iron ore 22/
o
1,380
5,500
2,580
1,775
5,540
2,200
48,300
67,275
Imports (metallurgical) z/
15
830
o
2,200
1,300
0
1,160 II/
o
5,505
Exports (metallurgical) 29/
o
o
2,000 to 2,500
o
o
2,000 to 2,500
0
2,000 to 4,000
6,000 to 9,000
a. The figures represent an approximation of production of prepared coal and of such raw coal as is suitable for charging at the ovens. Furthermore, they
include for all countries, except East Germany, large quantities of coals, especially high-volatile gas coals, that ordinarily are not classified as coking
coals
c. Approximately 10 percent of the hard coal produced. 177/
d. 178/
e. 179/
f. Based on requirements. Production was reported to have been 465,000 tons in 1957. 180/
h. Strongly caking coals but excluding gas coals used in blends. These coals are represented by types 35 to 38 (coking and low-volatile coals) in Poland
and Czechoslovakia and by types K, PZh, and OS in the USSR.
i. 182/
j. 183/
k. Minor quantities have strong caking characteristics but contain excessive quantities of ash and sulfUr. Raw coal contains 30 to 40 percent ash. 184/
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Table 15
Estimated Availability of Coking Coal and Oven Coke in the Soviet Bloc
1959-60 and 1965
(Continued)
1. Approximately 85 percent of the coal produced for coking consisted of types K, PZh, and PS in
1959-60, but these types will account for only about 80 percent in 1965.
m. Based on production of oven coke and yields of about 70 percent, excluding breeze, in the Satellites and about 72 percent in the USSR.
n. Based on numerous sources for published trade statistics and information as to the type of coal involved in the trade. The figures are approximations.
East Germany and Poland have imported coking coal from the Free World, amounting to 1.4 million tons in 1959 and about 650,000 tons in 1960.
o. Estimate of quantity used for oven coke. The plan called for imports of 2.96 million tons of coking coal, 186/ about 50 percent of which would be used
in gas works.
16/
q. 1 /
r. Excluding gas coals, some of which are used to produce oven coke and gas coke in other countries.
t. Production of hard coal coke, including gas coke, amounted to 7.9 million tons. 190/
u. 1.91/
v. 192/
w. 193/
x. Sizes that exceed 4o millimeters.
Y. 194/
z. Reported as 995,000 metric tons 195/ but including an estimated total of 250,000 tons of brown coal coke and some gas coke.
aa. 196/. Production in 1959-60 evidently includes some gas coke.
bb. 197/
cc. Estimate. The yield is low.
dd. Estimate. The yield is about 85 percent of total coke, including breeze.
ee. Based on production of pig iron and consumption of oven coke as follows:
Bulgaria
Czechoslovakia
East Germany
Hungary
Poland
Rumania
USSR
ProduCtion of Pig Iron
(Thousand Tons)
Consumption of Oven Coke (Larger Than 4o mm)
(Tons of Coke per Ton of Pig Iron)
1959
1960
1965
1959
1960
1965
177
4,245
1,898
1,104
4,08o
846
42,986
1891,00
4,695
1,995
1,249
4,26o6,4o
1,014
46,800
4
7,650
2,150
1,775
4
2,000
70,000
1.41
1.02
1.35
1.15
0.99
1.25
0.77
1.40
1.03
1.30
1.05
0.97
1.20
0.72
0.99
0.72
1.20
1.00
0.86
1.10
0.69
Because of rounding of data on consumption of oven coke, data for smeltering iron ore may differ slightly from calculations based on these figures.
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Table 15
Estimated Availability of Coking Coal and Oven Coke in the Soviet Bloc
1959-60 and 1965
(Continued)
ff. 198/
gg. Received from Poland 199/ but possibly not of metallurgical grade.
hh. Plan. Actual imports for 9 months (January-September) were about 1.6 million tons. 200/
ii. Based on 419,000 tons from the USSR, 111,700 tons from Poland, and the balance from Czechoslovakia. 201/
jj. 202/
kk. Total exports of coke were 2,068,000 tons. 203/
11. 204/
mm. Plan. 205/ Total hard coal coke, including gas coke, was about 8.4 million tons.
nn. 206/
on. 207/
pp. Plan. 208/
qq. Estimated, unless otherwise indicated.
rr. Plan. 209/
ss. Plan. 210
tt. Based on requirements and indicated imports. During 1961-65 the USSR will supply 950,-000 tons of coking coal and 2.8 million tons of coke. 211/
In order to supply the cokeries with 1.5 million tons of cleaned coals from indigenous sources in 1965, it will be necessary to process about 3.7 mil-
lion tons of raw coals because the yield.of concentrates is only about 40 percent. 212/
uu. the total yield of coke will be 78 percent of the charge, and the yield of metallurgical coke will be 707,000 tons. These
figures have been adjusted for the breeze and sizes less than 4o millimeters.
vv. 214/
ww? The new battery at the August Bebel Plant will have capacity of 370,000 tons (70 percent metallurgical) and will
replace the old battery of ovens.
xx. On the basis of the information of a 70-percent metallurgical yield, the replaced new battery at Stalinvaros will have a maximum capacity of 260,000
tons.
YY. 216/
zz. 217/
aaa. Upper limit of the range of the goal of the Seven Year Plan for 1965 of 76 million to 81 million tons.
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Table 16
Reserves of Bituminous Coal and Coking Coal
in the European Satellites 2/
Million Metric Tons
Country
Bituminous Coal
Coking Coal
Preminum
Gas-Coking
Albania
Bulgaria
Czechoslovakia
East Germany
Hungary
Poland
Rumania
N.A.
43
6,15042/
20 2/
250 1/
18,000 hi
150 1/
0
N.A. 2/
2,250
N.A.
N.A. B/
522 1/
N.A.
12/
N.A.
2,050'
2
50
846 1/
N.A.
a. It has been reported that Czechoslovakia and Poland have about 99
percent of the reserves of coking coal. Presumably the statement re-
fers to the premium grades.
b. Small, if any.
c. Minor reserves of low-volatile coals occur in the Balkan Basin, but '
no high-volatile, strongly caking coals, such as are required for blend-
ing, are present.
d. Recoverable. Possible geological reserves total 11 billion tons in
the Ostrava-Karvina Basin. 218/
e. Zwickau and Lugau-Oelsnitz Basins. Only 10 percent of these re-
serves consists of coals that are suitable for coking. 219/
f. 220/
g. Minor quantities, high in ash and sulfur, that are included in esti-
mate for gas-coking coals.
h. Recoverable. Possible geological reserves total 76 billion
tons. 221/
i. It is estimated that 2.9 percent of the reserves are in premium
grades, and that 4.7 percent are of gas-coking coals. 222/
j. Estimate for the Jiu Valley. The quality is very poor.
of the coke produced in 1960 could have been classified as metallurgical
grade (larger than )-i-0 mm), of which an estimated total of 4.8 million
tons was used in domestic blast furnaces. The remainder, about 2 million
tons, was available for other domestic consumers, mainly iron foundries,
and for export. The bulk, of the oven coke exported in 1960, estimated
at 1.4 million tons, Ii-robably was of metallurgical grade. During 1955-59,
exports of coke ranged from 1.05 million tons to 1.25 million tons an-
nually, more than 90 percent of which was furnished to Bulgaria, East
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Germany, Hungary, and Rumania. The remainder, usually less than 100,000
tons per year, was shipped to Austria, West Germany, and Sweden. 223/
In 1965, oven coke plants in Czechoslovakia will require about
16 million tons of cleaned coking coal to produce 11.3 million tons of
coke. 224/ Hence about one-half of the net output of bituminous coal,
wHich is planned to reach 31.4 million tons* in 1965, 226/ will be used
for the domestic manufacture of oven coke. The Ostrava-Karvina Basin
will account for all of the increase and 85 percent of the total produc-
tion of bituminous coal in 1965. 227/ At the Czechoslovak coke plants,
at least two-thirds of the coal used in the blends consists of gas-coking
and gas coals.
For production of about 7.7 million tons of pig iron in 1965, 228/
it is estimated that only about 5.5 million tons of metallurgical coke
will be needed, provided that the rate of consumption of coke can be re-
duced from an average of 1.03 tons of coke per ton of pig iron, the rate
in 1960, to 0.72 ton in 1965 as planned. 229/ It is estimated that the
available supply of coke of metallurgical grade may amount to approxi-
mately 10 million tons, 230/ leaving a large balance for use in domestic
foundries and for export. It is believed that at least 2 million tons
and possibly more than 2.5 million tons of metallurgical coke should be
available for export in 1965.
B. Poland
In spite of the fact that Poland has huge reserves of bituminous
coals and produced 104.4 million tons in 1960,** 232/ only 2.9 percent
of the reserves and about 2 percent of the output of bituminous coals
are classified as coking coals.*** 234/ These coking coals of good
* Gross tonnage was set at 35.5 million tons, 225/ but more than 4 mil-
lion tons will be eliminated in preparation. The net production of 31.4
million tons represents an increase of 31 percent in comparison with the
net output of bituminous coal in 1958. The 1965 Plan, however, calls for
production of the prime types of coking coal to increase 56 percent during
1959-65, or to an estimated total of 5.5 million tons. Production of gas-
coking coals will increase substantially during the same period, and the
quantity available in 1965 will exceed 13 million tons.
** Reserves in 1957 were estimated at 76 billion tons to a depth of
1,000 meters and comprised about one-third of European reserves, exclusive
of Soviet reserves. Approximately 80 percent of the Polish reserves of
bituminous coals and 83 percent of the output consist of long-flame coals
that cannot be used to make oven coke. 231/
*** These coals consist of types 35 to 38, according to the Polish sys-
tem of classification. Of 36 mines providing coal for use in coking in
1957, only one mine furnished type 35, which is the best quality. Lower
volatile coals (types 36 to 38) were produced at three mines. 233/,
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quality constitute only about 15 percent of the blends used at Polish
coke plants, and the country actually has to import some of these coals.
The necessity of using high proportions of gas-coking coals (type 3)4)
and gas coals (type 33), now constituting about 40 percent and 45 per-
cent, respectively, in the blends, results in a weak coke and a low
yield of metallurgical grades, or of the sizes larger than 40 mm. 235/
In 1960, production of coals (coking, gas-coking, and gas coals)
that could be used to manufacutre oven coke amounted to approximately
18 million tons, including only about 2.3 million tons that are classified
as of prime coking quality. 236/ These supplies were augmented by imports
of good coking coals from non-Bloc pountries and the USSR -- needed for
blending -- which have ranged from 0.75 million to 1 million tons annually.
On the other hand, Poland exports 16 million to 17 million tons of bitu-
minous coal annuR11y, although none is of the superior types for coking
purposes.
Out of a total of nearly 11 million tons of oven coke produced in
1960 at 21 plants in Poland, only 7.7 million tons could be regarded as
satisfactory for use in blast furnaces. In 1965, production of oven coke
in Poland is scheduled to reach 13.1 million tons, 237/ possibly 9.8 mil-
lion tons of which will be of metallurgical grade. The Polish surplus of
coke, as indicated by exports, has ranged from about 2.0 million tons to
2.3 million tons annually since 1955. Shipments to non-Bloc countries
have been about 200,000 tons annually. During 1959-60 a total of about
1.7 million tons of coke was exported each year to the European Satel-
lites, although there were no shipments to Czechoslovakia. East Germany
alone received about three-fourths of this coke, including quantities
charged to Soviet account. By 1965 it is expected that Poland will be
able to furnish between 2 million and 2.5 million tons to the European
Satellites, including 1.4 million tons to East Germany. It is estimated
that domestic use for blast furnaces will require only about 5.5 million
tons. The apparent surplus, however, may be substantially reduced if
the consumption rates at blast furnaces fail to decline as expected and
if foundry requirements expand.
C. East Germany
East Germany suffers from an acute shortage of indigenous supplies
of coking coal. The proved reserves of bituminous coals in the Zwickau
and Lugau-Oelsnitz Basins are estimated at less than 20 million tons, of
which only 10 percent is considered to be of metallurgical coking qual-
ity. 238/ Mining conditions are extremely difficult, and production is
held to a fairly constant level of between 2.7 million and 3 million tons
annually. 239/ Most of this coal possibly is consumed at approximately
200 gas works that produce gas and gas coke. 240/ Output of gas coke in
1960 is estimated at 2.8 million tons, possibly 0.4 million tons of which
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could be used in blast furnaces. Metallurgical coke is produced at four
plants, which include two gas works -- Lichtenburg (East Berlin) and
Magdeburg. These gas works utilize, for the most part, coking coals
that have to be imported. Only about 300,000 tons of native coals are
available each year to make oven coke, which is produced at the August
Bebel and Karl Marx Plants, near Zwickau. Both plants are approximately
the same size, and their combined capacity is about 350,000 tons of coke
of metallurgical grade annually. 241/
In order to satisfy its requirements, East Germany is forced to
import large quantities of coking coal for the gas works as well as coke
for metallurgical needs. There is some evidence, however, that imports
of coking coal may have declined from about 1.5 million tons in 1959 to
about 1.3 million tons in 1960. A shift to greater use of brown coal at
the gas works has started and possibly will serve to hold imports to the
1960 estimate for some years. Significantly, about two-thirds (970,000
tons) of the imports of coking coal in 1959 came from West Germany, 242/
but these shipments probably fell sharply in 1960. Czechoslovakia became
the major source of supply in 1960 and may furnish about 1 million tons
in 1965. Imports from the USSR are estimated at 250,000 tons in 1960 and
200,000 tons in 1965.
Production of pig iron will increase moderately during 1959-65,
but requirements for blast furnace coke will show little change, as there
should be some reduction in the rate of consumption. The requirements
for metallurgical coke for blast furnaces are estimated at 2.6 million
tons in 1965, based on production of 2.2 million tons of pig iron 243/
and on consumption of 1.2 tons of coke per ton of pig iron. Imports
of coke will remain close to the level of recent years, or approximately
2.2 million tons. Consumption of indigenous supplies of metallurgical
coke in 1965 should amount 'to about 850,000 tons, including approximately
400,000 tons from the gas works. The total capacity of the August Bebel
and Karl Marx Plants will be about 450,000 tons of coke suitable for use
in blast furnaces. East Germany expects to have in operation a new coke
installation at the August Bebel Plant to replace the existing plant, which
is more than 45 years old. The new plant will have a capacity of 370,000
tons, including about 70 percent in the metallurgical grades. 244/
D. Hungary
The deposits of coking coal in Hungary, with reserves estimated
at approximately 50 million tons,* provide a poor base for the country's
coke industry. The only coals that can be used for making metallurgical
* Proved reserves of hard coal, which consist almost entirely of bitu-
minous coals, were established at 250 million tons in 1955, but only 21
percent were considered to be of coking grade. 245/
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coke are found in some of the seams of the Mecsek area in southern Hungary,
but even these require extensive and costly preparation because of their
high contents of ash and sulfur. The yields of cleaned coal for coking
are relatively low (23 percent for Komlo coals), and the product requires
blending with imported coals. The Danube Iron Works, for example, used
blends in 1958 consisting of 71 percent domestic coals and 29 percent im-
ported coals. 246/ The total output of raw bituminous coal amounted to
2.85 million tons in 1960, 247/ but only about 45ol000 tons of processed
coal could be used at the coke plants. It is believed that production of
bituminous coal may not exceed 3 million tons in 1965, although strong
efforts are expected to be made to increase substantially the quantity
that can be coked.
According to plans, production of pig iron in Hungary will in-
crease from 1.25 million tons in 1960 248/ to nearly 1.8 million tons in
1965, 249/ and the rate of consumption of coke at blast furnaces will be
reduced from 1.05 tons to 1 ton. During the same period, indigenous sup-
plies of metallurgical coke should increase from 500,000 tons to about
650,000 tons. 250/ In 1958 the standards for coke had to be lowered to
permit the use of more domestic coal. The ash content of dry coke is
now about 14 to 15 percent, and the yield of metallurgical grade (larger
than 4o mm) has been reduced from 79 to 75 percent. 251/
Imports of coke are expected to increase from about 1 million
tons in 1960 to 1.3 million tons in 1965. On the other hand, imports of
coking coal, which amounted to 350,000 tons in 1960, may not increase,
provided that the indigenous supply of prepared coals, suitable for
charging at the ovens, can be increased to 800,000 tons as planned.
E. Rumania
Althouel Rumanian reserves of bituminous coal are sizable,* ef-
forts to develop an indigenous supply of coking coal have been only par-
tially successful, and growth of iron smelting above current levels will
be dependent to a large extent on imported coal and coke. This situation
exists because reserves of strongly caking coals are very limited, and
all of the coals that can be used in the blends contain excessive quan-
titles of ash and sulfur, creating a difficult problem of preparation and
a low yield of cleaned coal. Of approximately 4.3 million tons of bitu-
minous coal mined in 1960, only about 0.9 million tons could be used at
coke plants. Such coal has to be blended with imported coal to mske sat-
isfactory coke for blast furnaces. The 1960 Plan called for an output of
coking coal sufficient to make only 40 percent of the coke required.
* It was stated in 1958 that the reserves of the Jiu Valley, Rumania's
largest and best coal basin, would alone insure the fuel supply of the
country for 150 years. 252/
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Rumania's blast furnaces consumed about 1.2 million tons of coke
in producing 1 million tons of pig iron in 1960. Assuming that 2 million
tons of pig iron are produced in 1965 as planned and allowing for increased
efficiency in coke consumption, the requirements for coke will rise to
about 2.2 million tons. Deficiencies in indigenous production in 1960
were met by importing about 0.7 million tons of coke and 0.3 million tons
of coking coal. By 1965 it is expected that production of coke of metal-
lurgical grade will approximate 1 million tons, contrasting with only 0.6
million tons in 1960, and that imports will rise to nearly 1.2 million tons
of coke and about 0.8 million tons of coal. The USSR apparently will be
the major supplier of these fuels. According to the trade agreement signed
in November 1960, the USSR will ship about 3 million tons of coke and about
1 million tons of coal to Rumania during 1961-65. 253/
F. Bulgaria
During the past decade, Bulgaria has produced between 10,000 and
25,000 tons of coke annually from coals mined in the Balkan Basin, al-
though the quality is not satisfactory for usein large blast furnaces.
In 1960, imports of coke, mainly from Czechoslovakia and the USSR, are
estimated to have amounted to 327,000 tons, but the requirements will in-
crease substantially, as production of pig iron is scheduled to increase
from approximately 189,000 tons in 1960 254/ to 1.4 million tons in
1965. 255/ Assuming that the rate of coke consumption drops from 1.4
tons per ton of pig iron in 1960 to about 1 ton in 1965, the require-
ments for metallurgical coke (larger than 4o mm) will amount to about
1.4 million tons, about 0.8 million tons of which are planned to be im-
ported. Such imports may have to be increased considerably in view of
the necessity of constructing a cbke plant and developing production of
coking coal in order to meet domestic goals. Present plans call for con-
struction of two batteries of coke ovens at the new Kremikovtsi Metal-
lurgical Combine near Sofia. These installations will utilize about
620,000 tons of concentrates from the Balkan Basin and 380,000 tons of
gas coals imported from Poland. 256/ Significantly, Bulgarian coals
have poor caking capacity, and reserves are relatively small in the Balkan
Basin.*
G. Albania
Albania produces no coke and apparently has no deposits of coking
coal. Future needs for coke, as in the past, will be satisfied by imports,
which have amounted to about 10,000 tons annually.
* The total reserves of bituminous coal were estimated at 43 million tons
in 1958. 257/
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APPENDIX A
CLASSIFICATION OF COALS IN THE USSR
The classification of coals is based mainly on the content of volatile
matter in terms of dry, ash-free coal; heat values; and caking capacity.
Bituminous coals in the USSR are divided into 6 categories or types for
the purpose of estimating reserves, but there are now 10 categories of
these coals based on the degree of caking capacity. Thus the so-called
steam-fat coals (type PZ,h), ranging from medium to high content of vola-
tile matter, have been divided into coals of three types -- GZh, Zh, and
SS -- and the old standard classification for low-volatile coals (type
PS) apparently has been discarded or at least is little used. This par-
ticular type (12 to 18 percent volatile) has been largely superseded by
a new class of so-called lean-caking coals (type OS) with a volatile con-
tent of 14 to 22 percent and includes some of the coals formerly included
in type K (coking). Certain other coals formerly classified in type K
(18 to 27 percent volatile) have been reclassified as types KZh, K2, and
SS. The volatile content of type SS, or the class of weakly caking coals,
may range from 17 to 37 percent, spanning the range from low to high vola-
tile coals. Any bituminous coals with a relatively low content of volatile
matter which, after coking, provide a residue that is pulverulent, sticky,
and weakly sintered are referred to as type T.
The characteristics of the various classes of bituminous coals in the
USSR are as follows:
Long-flame coals (D dlinno-plamennyy) are characterized by low
caking capacity and a very high content of volatile matter (more than 42
percent). The nonvolatile residue is either a weak cake or powder, de-
pending on the yield of volatile matter. ,
Gas coals (G gazovyy) are characterized by average or reduced
caking capacity and a high content of volatile matter (35 to 44 percent).
The coke of these coals has a larger number of cracks.
Gas-fat coals (GZh gazovyy-zhirnyy) are characterized by aver-
age to high caking capacity with medium to high content of volatile matter
(30 to 37 percent). The coals are fusing, but the coke is weak.
Fat coals (Zh zhirnyy) are characterized by very high caking
capacity with medium to high content of volatile matter (27 to 35 per-
cent). The coke of these coals has relatively little strength.
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Coking-fat coals (K:Kh koksovyy-zhirnyy) are characterized by
strong caking capacity with medium to low content of volatile matter
(18 to 27 percent) and provide coke that is tough or stable but with
cracks.
Coking coals (K1 koksovyy) are characterized by average caking
capacity with medium to low content of volatile matter (18 to 27 percent)
and provide dense, strong coke without cracks.
Secondary coking coals (K2 koksovyy vtoroy) are characterized
by somewhat lower caking capacity than type K1 with medium or somewhat
low content of volatile matter and provide dense, strong coke.
Lean-caking coals (OS otoshchennyy spekayushchiysya) are char-
acterized by low caking capacity with low to medium content of volatile
matter (14 to 22 percent). The coke consists of a weak cake that is
easily subject to abrasion.
Weakly caking coals (SS -- slabospekayushchiysya) are character-
ized by low caking capacity with medium to high (SS1 -- 25 to 37 percent)
or low to medium (SS2 -- 17 to 25 percent) content of volatile matter.
A definite yield of volatile matter provides a nonvolatile residue that
consists either of a weak coke or of powder but that is more carbonized
than the coke obtained from coals of type D.
Lean coals (T toshchiy) are characterized by an absence of
caking capacity and a very low content of volatile matter (9 to 17 per-
cent). Sintered coke is not obtained from these coals.
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APPENDIX B
METHODOLOGY
The derivation of estimates shown in Table 10* for the consumption
of coke in production of lead, zinc, and copper and of synthetic am-
monia and calcium carbide are given in Tables 17 and 18, below.
* P. 35, above.
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Table 17
Estimated Consumption of Coke in Production of Lead, Zinc,
Selected Years, 1955-60, and 1965
and Copper
in the USSR
Thousand Metric Tons
Year
Production
of Refined
Lead 2/
Consumption
of Coke
for Lead 12/
Production
of Distilled
Zinc 21
Consumption
of Coke
for Zinc 2/
Production
of Blister
Copper 2/
Consumption
of Coke
for Copper 1/
Total
Consumption
of Coke
1955
258
163
30
120
125
35
318
1958
288
181
30
120
125
35
336
1959
294
185
30
120
125
35
340
1960
300
189
30
120
125
35
344
1965
4o4
255
30
120
125
35
4lo
a.
cent larger than in 1959.
b. Approximately 630 kilograms of coke are consumed per ton of lead produced. 259/
c. Coke is used in production of distilled zinc but not in production of electrolytic zinc. Output of distilled
zinc represents approximately 10 percent of the total output of zinc, or about 30,000 tons. It is assumed that
capacity for distilled zinc will not increase significantly by 1965.
d. In production of distilled zinc, 4 to 5 tons of coke are consumed per ton of zinc produced. 260/ The lower
figure is believed to be more correct.
e. Including only output of the Ural plants. Other plants are not believed to be large consumers of coke.
Output of the Ural plants is assumed to be fairly constant throughout the period.
f. Based on very rough calculations and anAJogies with practice at a smelter in the former Belgian Congo. 261/
For 1960, production was estimated to be about 2 per-
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Table 18
Estimated Consumption of Coke in Production of Synthetic Ammonia and Calcium Carbide in the USSR
Selected Years, 1955-60, and 1965
Thousand Metric Tons
Year
Total Production
of Synthetic
Ammonia 2/
Synthetic
Ammonia
from Coke 1.)/
Consumption of Coke
for Synthetic
Ammonia 2/
Production
of Calcium
Carbide 2/
Consumption of Coke
for Calcium
Carbide 1/
Total
Consumption
of Coke
1955
753
301
542
410
256
798
1958
967
290
522
515
322
844
1959
1,007
252
454
550
344
798
1960
1100
253
455
585
366
821
1965
2,420
242
436
1,000
625
1,061
a. Estimated.
b. the percent of the total synthetic ammonia produced from coke was planned to decrease5oxi
from 40 percent (apparently in 1955) to 16 percent in 1960. It is estimated that 40 percent of the total syn-
thetic ammonia in 1955 was produced from coke, 30 percent in 1958, 25 percent in 1959, and 23 percent in 1960
and that about 10 percent will be produced in 1965. ?
c. In US practice, about 1.8 tons of coke are required per ton of synthetic ammonia.
d. About 0.625 ton of coke is required per ton of calcium carbide. This amount is an average of the consump-
tion coefficients of 6.60 to 0.65 50X1
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COKING COAL FIELDS AND COKE PLANTS
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