CONSTRUCTION OF NEW HOUSING IN COMMUNIST CHINA 1953-57

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP79R01141A001200090002-6
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• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: August 28, 2013
• Sequence Number: 2
• Publication Date: October 24, 1958
• Content Type: REPORT

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ECONOMIC INTELLIGENCE REPORT
N? 65
CONSTRUCTION OF NEW HOUSING
IN COMMUNIST CHINA
1953 - 57
CIA/RR 151
24 October 1958
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
OFFIU OF RESEARCH AND REPORTS
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WARNING
This material contains information affecting
the National Defense of the United States
within the meaning of the espionage laws,
Title 18, USC, Secs. 793 and 794, the trans-
mission or revelation of which in any manner
to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
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ECONOMIC INTELLIGENCE REPORT
CONSTRUCTION OF NEW HOUSING IN COMMUNIST CHINA
1953-57
CIA/RR 151
(Project 47.1965)
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
Office of Research and Reports
S -E-C -R -T
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CONTENTS
Summary
Page
1
I. Introduction
2
II. Scope of the Housing Problem
3
III. Performance in New Housing Construction During the First
Five Year Plan (1953-57)
7
A. National Construction
7
1. General
7
2. Selected Economic Sectors
9
B. Expenditures for Housing
10
C. Private Housing Constructed by Workers
12
TV' Housing Characteristics
13
A. Types of Housing
13
1. Family
13
2. Single Workers
14
B. Quality of Housing
15
1. Design
15
2. Construction
17
3. Materials and Techniques
19
V. Outlook for Housing, 1958 and the Second Five Year Plan
21
Appendixes
50X1
Appendix A. Components of Estimated Construction Cost
23
Appendix B. Methodology
25
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Table
Page
Estimated Cost and Estimated Life of Housing in
Communist China, 1955-57 - 18
Illustrations
Following Page
Figure. . Communist China: New Housing for Workers
in Selected Economic Sectors, 1957
(Graph) '10
Figure 2. Communist China: Two-Story Housing for
? Workers at State Cotton Mill No. 1 in
? Wu-han, Hupeh Province (Photograph) . ? ?
Figure 3. Communist China: Single-Story Housing
for Coal Miners at Huai-ning, Anhwei
Province (Photograph)
Figure 4. Communist China: Multistoried Housing for
Workers at State Automobile Plant No. 1
at Ch'ang Ch'un, Kirin Province (Photo-
graph)
Figure 5'. Communist China: Multistoried Housing for
Workers at An-shan, Liaoning Province
(Photograph)
Figure 6. Communist China: Interior of a Model
Dwelling for Workers at An-shan, Liaoning
Province (Photograph)
Figure 7. Communist China: Multistoried Dormitory
for Family Housing, Suitable for North
China, Plan 1 (Design)
Figure 8. Communist China: Multistoried Dormitory
for Family Housing, Suitable for North
China, Plan 2 (Design)
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14
14
14
16
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Figure 9.
Figure 10.
Figure 11.
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Following Page
Communist China: Single-Story Dormitories
? for Nonfamily and Family Housing, Suit-
able for North China (Design.) 16
Communist China: Light Bamboo Wall Con-
struction Before Plastering (Photograph)
Communist China: Population of Urban
Areas, 1954 (Map)
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22
Inside
Back Cover
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(Project 47.1965)
CONSTRUCTION OF NEW HOUSING IN COMMUNIST CHINA*
1953-57
Summary
During the First Five Year Plan (1953-57) in Communist China the
goal for the construction of new housing was exceeded by 74 percent.
Expenditures for the 80 million square meters (sq m) of new housing**
constructed by the state for wage and salary workers during the plan
amounted to 4.26 billion yuan,*** or about 8.7 percent of the total
investment of 48.78 billion yuan in capital construction. The new
housing constituted 40 percent of the total floorspace constructed
during the period. Even though the amount of housing constructed was
substantially in excess of the plan goal of 46 million sq m, new
living quarters were provided for only about 7 million of the 24 mil-
lion wage and salary workers in China at the end of the plan period.
The construction of housing, therefore, did not keep pace with the
steady influx of workers and their dependents into the industrial and
urban areas. In addition, excessive migration of rural inhabitants
to these areas and the state policy of confiscation of private housing
reduced the amount of living space available. Official measures to
relieve the resulting shortage included (1) attempts to stem the rapid
growth of cities by the control of migration from rural areas and -
(2) attempts to increase the total amount of housing constructed by
lowering standards and thereby effecting savings in the cost of con-
struction.
In 1958, therefore, Communist China began the first year of the
Second Five Year Plan (1958-62) with the problem of adequate housing
for workers only partially met. Although there have beeh no official
* The estimates and conclusions in this report represent the best
judgment of this Office as of 1 August 1958.
**. Measurements of housing in Communist China are given most fre-
quently in terms of total floorspace and only rarely in terms of
living space. There is no indication that the Chinese have attempted
to categorize measurements of housing as has been done in the USSR.
The Asian standard of living is such that differentiation in these
terms is almost meaningless. In this report, therefore, total floor-
space and living space are to be considered as interchangeable,
*** Yuan may be converted to dollars at an exchange rate of 2.46 yuan
to US $1, which is not necessarily an accurate reflection of the dollar
value. A more realistic ratio for construction work is estimated to be
about 4 to 1.
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announcements concerning the amount of housing construction planned in
the Second Five Year Plan, it is estimated that approximately 160 mil-
lion 'sq m of new housing can be constructed without increasing the
percentage of total capital construction investment devoted to housing.
It is probable that measures will be used to save state investment by
aiding private housing construction and repair and by exercising
stricter controls over private property in order to increase housing
stocks. Even then, the state will need to allocate additional funds
for new housing construction, or housing will remain a serious problem
in 1962.
I. Introduction.
Housing in the economy of Communist China suffers as a result of
conflicting values placed upon it by the state and the individual. The
state concentrates its resources and energy on the sectors of the
economy which create producer goods, especially heavy industrial items,
rather than consumer goods and services. Such an economy, however,
cannot be sustained unless at least a minimum standard of living is
made available to its labor force. Thus housing must be made available,
conveniently located with respect to industrial enterprises and con-
struction sites, if the state is to be assured of an adequate labor
supply and an efficient level of labor productivity. Fundamentally,
however, the type of housing thus provided by the state often meets
only minimum shelter requirements, frequently at the expense of the de-
sires and needs of the individual. The state considers the worker only
as a tool to further production and feels required to provide better
living conditions only to the degree of assuring his productivity.
When the Communists came to power in China in 1949, their intent to
transform gradually an ancient agricultural nation into an industrial
state necessitated the creation of a labor force to construct and
support the expanding economy. Many of these workers came from cities,
towns, and villages and often from the same urban area in which the
construction site or enterprise to which they were assigned was
located. From years of neglect, existing housing in these areas was
squalid and crowded. According to official Chinese Communist estimates,
more than 50 percent of all urban housing in 1949 was in a state of
complete disrepair.* In Peking, for example, it was estimated that
two-thirds of the housing was in this condition. The state considered
it necessary, therefore, at the beginning of the First Five Year Plan
* Based "On estimates from 166 of the largest cities which would in-
clude cities with a population of 100,000 and larger.
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to construct new housing adjacent to enterprises as part of the over-all
welfare plans for the workers. Only the "wage and salary workers,"*
totaling about 24 million at the end of the Five Year Plan 1/** and
constituting about 8 percent of an estimated total labor force of 300
million workers, have benefited from these amenities. Since the effort
in new housing construction has been limited to wage and salary
workers, this report is concerned only with this group and touches on
private and urban housing only insofar as they affect this segment of
the working population.
It is believed that the amount of new housing constructed by the
state between 1949 and 1952 was negligible. 2/ Although the Communists
claim that large sums of money were appropriated for the building of
workers housing during this period, it is believed that most of this
money was spent for repairs. In 1952 a start was made in housing con-
struction with concentration in the industrial.areas of the Northeast.
In that year a total of about 5 million sq m were constructed in the
5 cities of Peking, Tientsin, Mukden (Shen-yang), An-shan, and
Shanghai. 3/ For the most part, however, the reconstruction period,
1949-52, saw little concerted activity in new construction of housing
because the major effort was in the direction of the rehabilitation of
public utilities. 4/
II. Scope of the Housing Problem.
Because the majority of workers in CoMmunist China were attached to
construction sites and enterprises located in urban areas, the problem
of housing workers during the First Five Year Plan was closely related
to the total problem of urban housing. Two important aspects of the
problem of urban housing are a too rapid increase in the urban popula-
tionXxx and a wide area of poor urban housing.xxxx
This group, hereafter referred to as workers, is roughly similar
to the group designated workers and employees in the USSR except that
until recently the Chinese have included in this category "non-social-
ized" workers. Most of the workers in Communist China have been
"socialized," so that the two designations now are quite similar. This
category of workers, along with industrial workers, includes workers in
transportation, communications, commerce, banking, and the like, con-
sidered nonindustrial by the Chinese Communists. The common denomina-
tor of this group of workers, both industrial and nonindustrial, is the
fact that they receive wages and salaries.
50X1
*** Obviously the most congested urban areas were those where the old
industrial bases were being expanded or where new bases were being
established.
xxxx It must be remembered that urban housing is privately owned and is
one of the few forms of capitalist /footnote continued on p. g
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The great increase in urban population, in addition to natural in-
crease, has been attributed by the regime to several factors. With the
industrialization of cities during the First Five Year Plan, there was
a steady influx of workers into urban areas, and this labor often was
allocated irrationally in time and space. Construction workers were
sent to future construction sites earlier than they were needed or were
retained too long after construction was completed. 6/ Workers were
brought in from remote areas rather than being drawn from the local
labor supply. The number of workers families migrating into urban areas
greatly exceeded the amount planned. In addition, rural inhabitants,
attracted by better living conditions in the cities, further swelled the
urban population. (For a map showing the population of urban areas, see
Figure 11.*) As a result, the excess population created overcrowded,
squalid living conditions in the cities since it could not be accommo-
dated in
housing
creases
Peking,
the amount of housing available. The lack of adequate urban
is shown in the comparison of increases in population and in-
in housing stock in 1956 above 1949 reported for Shanghai,
and Wu-han as follows 7/:
Population Housing Stocks
(Millions)
(Million Square Meters)
Total Average
Floorspace
Increase
in 1956
Increase
In 1956
Per Capita
(Square Meters)
Above 1949
Above 1949
City
1949
1956 (Percent)
1949
1956
(Percent)
1949 1936
Shanghai
5.74
7.0 24
23.59
26.82
14
4.1 3.8
Peking
2.09
4.14 98
13.74
20.46
,49
6.6 4.9
Wu-han
0.897
1.45 62
3.64
4.44
22'
4.0 3.0
The increased urban population, reported to have reached 92 million in
1957, 8/ was so large that solution of the urban housing problem was still
considered a remote possibility. 9/
The other important aspect of the housing problem in Communist China
is the condition of the urban housing. In 1957 the Communists estimated
that urban housing in 1949 consisted of about 220 million sq m, more than
ownership that has been allowed to remain by the Communist regime. A
recent announcement stated that all houses which are leased would be
nationalized by September 1958. Information as to what is involved in the
implementation of this new policy is not known, but the policy implies a
"distribution" of housing space. Apparently, if a family owns what could
be called a large house, other people will be moved in with them to occupy
the "excess" apace. 5/
* Inside back cover.
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half of which were in a state of complete disrepair. They estimated
further that more than 100 million sq m of inadequate housing still
existed in 1957, a figure which implies that practically no urban
housing in China is up to adequate standards.* 10/ After 1949 and
throughout the First Five Year Plan, privately owned housing stocks
suffered in urban areas. Houses in good condition were confiscated for
state use as offices, warehouses, or reception centers, a procedure
which cut deeply into the amount of available housing. House owners
were reluctant to invest in repair and maintenance of their houses for
fear they would be requisitioned. Houses, which could easily be re-
paired and rented, were left vacant by their owners. In Wu-han it was
reported that in 2. streets alone 53 houses could be readily occupied
with only minor repairs. 11/ As a result of the state policies toward
landlords, a sizable portion of privately owned housing stocks were old
and left unrepaired. In Wu-hsi, a city in Kiangsu province, for
example, it was estimated that in 1957 the proportion of old housing to
total housing was as follows 1E/:
Age of Housing
(Years)
Proportion of Total Stock
(Percent)
Over 100 11
50 to 99 34
30 to 49 30
10 to 29 18
Under 10 7
Total 100
This tabulation implies that over three-fourths of the houses were
dilapidated and in need of major capital repairs.
Since the worker is an integral part of the expanding economy, the
state considers it necessary to construct new housing for workers as a
measure to insure production. Because of higher priority requirements
in the productive sector of the economy, only limited amounts of funds
and materials can be allocated for the construction of this housing.
In 1953, attempts were made to plan urban construction. One designing
department in each city was to be given the responsibility of coordi-
nating urban construction, especially with relation to the construction
of housing by the various construction units. 12/ Residential areas
were to be built near plants, and public structures, consisting of
boiler rooms, stores, bath houses, schools, nurseries, and recreation
halls were to be constructed adjacent to living quarters in order to
economize on land use and to reduce construction costs and administra-
tive expenses. Distances from the center of the city to the outlying
areas where enterprises were usually located were to be kept within
* Based on estimates from 166 of the largest cities which would include
?cities with a population of 100,000 and larger.
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limits so that public utilities, such as sewage, water supply, and com-
munication lines could be fully utilized with a minimum investment.
The implementation of these plans, however, fell far short of the
intended goal. Instead of making headway toward the solution of the
housing problem, inexperience in planning, lack of coordination and
cohtrols in construction, and a policy of expediency have succeeded
only in contributing to the continued existence of this problem. Old
sections of cities were indiscriminately destroyed to make way for the
construction of roads, plants, and public buildings. In Peking,
Wu-han, Tlai-yuan, and Lan-chou, about 2,080,000 sq m of old housing
were reported torn down between 1949 and 1957. In Kuei-yang, 138,000
sq m of residential construction was razed in 1956, two and one-half
times as much as was newly constructed. 14/ The selection of indus-
trial sites was poorly coordinated with available housing, a mistake
which caused workers to travel long distances to work. Such new in-
dustrial cities as T'ai-yuan, Sian, Lan-chbu, and Lo-yang were too
extensive in scale and overextended in design. 15/ When living
quarters in the Chien-hsi industrial area of Lo yang were completed,
for example, the waten supply, drainage, and service facilities were
still under construction, leaving the workers without water and food
supplies. 16/ Individual enterprises were given the responsibility of
providing housing for their workers, but in implementing construction
plans, some enterprises used housing funds for other types of construc-
tion, so that the workers had to provide housing for themselves as best
they could. Other enterprises attempted to raise the living standards
of the workers too rapidly by construction of high-cost housing, thereby
depleting their funds before enough housing had been constructed.
Workers, therefore, were often crowded into buildings designed to accom-
modate at least half the number of persons assigned to them.
In the long run, much of the new housing Constructed for workers
may add to the housing problem and cause losses to the state. Most of
the flew housing constructed for workers before 1955 consisted of
multistoried, permanent structures of brick and tile, with an estimated
life of about 50 years. Since 1955, when economy in construction was
stressed, the trend has been toward construction of a temporary and
simple type of housing, with an estimated life expectancy ranging from
5 to 20 years (see the Table*). Not only has the average life ex-
pectancy of housing been decreased by the type of housing constructed
but the over-all quality of construction, even of permanent housing,
has been poor. Inferior construction materials have been used and
inept techniques employed. The new housing constructed, therefore,
must be properly maintained or it will merely contribute more inadequate
* P. 18, below.
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housing to the inadequate housing stocks already existing in urban
areas and eventually prove costly to the economy as a whole.
III. Performance in New Housing Construction During the First Five Year
Plan (1953-57).
A. National Construction.
1. General.
In December 1957 the Chinese Communists announced that a
total of 80 million sq m of new housing had been constructed for
workers during the period of the First Five Year Plan, 17/ thus over-
fulfilling the original goal by 74 percent. Even with this accelerated
construction, only about 7 million workers and their dependents,* out
of the total of 24 million workers in 1957, were provided with new
.housing. Although the volume of housing constructed during the period
was about 40 percent of the total volume of capital construction, the
80 million sq m of floorspace provided housing for little more than ?
the equivalent of the increase of 5.2 million workers added to the
labor force during the same period. 20/
The First Five Year Plan called for the construction of
46 million sq m of housing for workers. 21/ Performance during the
first 3 years of the plan was as follows 22/:
Year
Housing Constructed
(Million Square Meters)
1953
12
1954
13
1955
14
Total
39
* This estimate probably Overstates the number of workers housed during
the First Five Year Plan. The Chinese Communists estimate that there
was an average of It sq m of floorspace per capita in urban housing in ?
1957. 18/ Based on this average of It sq m of floorspace per capita, the
80 millioh sq m would provide housing for 20 million persons. Assuming
that for each worker there is an average of 2 dependents, the 20 million
persons can be equated to about 7 million workers. The number of
workers and dependents provided with new housing, however, undoubtedly
would be much smaller than 7 million if the actual distribution of
living space were known. It was reported in 1958, for example, that
each railroad worker in Peking was footnote continued on p. y.
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By the end of 1955, about 85 percent of the plan goal had been com-
pleted. Even with this accelerated construction, adequate housing
could not keep pace with the growth of the economy and the steady in-
flux of workers and their dependents into the urban and industrial
areas In Mukden (Shen-yang), for example, it was reported that by
1956 the number of workers had increased 217 percent* whereas the total
area of new housing construction had increased only 31.2 percent. 23/
The poor situation in respect to housing threatened to become worse in
1955 when the construction industry cut back on nonproductive construc-
tion and stressed economies in construction. The need for additional
housing was so serious, however, that the state felt required to con-
struct substantially more housing.
In 1956, about 27 million sq m of housing were constructed,
not only greatly exceeding the annual plan goal of 13 million sq m but
also overfulfilling the First Five Year Plan goal 1 year ahead of
schedule. 24/ Throughout 1957, there was an increasing ambiguity in
official announcements on the amount of housing constructed by the end
of 1956. Apparently some of the announcements were cumulative and
included housing constructed during 1957. Regardless of the ambiguity
of announcements on performance in 1956 and 1957, the final announce-
ment that 80 million sq m of housing had been constructed during the
First Five Year Plan indicates that the greatest amount of housing was
constructed during the last 2 years of'the plan.
The obstruction of 41 million sq m during 1956-57 is a
feasible increase compared with the period 1953-55, when 39 million sq m
were reported constructed. 25/ In 1955 the annual plan of 11 million
sq m 26/ was overfulfilled by 3 million sq m, or about 27 percent. It
is possible that lowering construction standards and reducing construc-
tion costs in 1955 enabled substantially more housing to be constructed
with but a slight increase in expenditure during the remainder of the
plan,period.**
Even though the regime may construct 160 million sq m of,new
housing during the Second Five Year Plan,*** the amount will not be
allotted space in new housing according to rank as follows: directors,
60 sq m; "high functionaries," 40 sq m; and "ordinary" employees,
20 sq m. 19/ Although the number of directors and high functionaries
is much smaller than the number of ordinary employees, this uneven dis-
\ifibution of floorspace would reduce the number of workers that could be
housed in any given total of square meters of housing constructed.
* This percentage undoubtedly included workers dependents.
** See III, B, p. 10, below.
*** See Appendix B, Methodology.
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enough to provide housing for the total number of workers, which is
planned to be increased to nearly 31 million by 1962. Continued lower-
ing of construction costs and standards, the means by which the volume
of housing construction was nearly doubled during the First Five Year
Plan, would enable more workers to be housed, but it would only con-
tribute to the further deterioration of housing stocks.* Even by
exercising stricter controls over private housing and migration of
rural population into urban areas, the state cannot gain a large area
of adequate housing unless capital repair is made on existing housing
stocks.** Thus the Communist planners will buy time in their attempt
to meet the housing problem but will necessarily continue to prolong
the period during which the housing problem will remain acute.
2. Selected Economic Sectors.
The expanding economy of Commnist China requires that
large numbers of workers be housed near industrial plants, mines, and
construction sites. Each ministry or bureau is responsible for
housing the workers in its employ. Implementation of this responsi-
bility is left to individual enterprises under the jurisdiction of the
central state organization. Statistics on the amount of workers
housing constructed at,the national level has been reported by a few
of the ministries and bureaus. These housing figures usually duplicate
a portion of the amount of housing reported as constructed in urban
areas where units of the particular enterprises were located.
In January 1957 the Ministry of the Metallurgical Industry
announced that from 1952 to 1956 new housing for metallurgical workers
had a total floorspace of more than 5.6 million sq m. 27/ In June of
1956 the Ministry drafted a workers welfare plan with emphasis on
housing. 28/ It provided for the construction of 3.7 million sq m of
housing during 1957 and 1.5 million sq m to be added annually during
1958 and 1959. During the same 3 years, between 500,000 and 1 million
sq m of living quarters Vere to be reconstructed or repaired. Part of
the workers living quarters which had been taken over for such things
as business offices and hospitals were to revert shortly to their origi-
nal use.
The amount of housing reported as constructed for workers
in other economic sectors by the end of the First Five Year Plan period
(see the Graph, Figure 1***) is as follows 29/:
* See IV, B, 2, p. 17, below.
** See II, p. 3, above.
*** Following p. 10.
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Economic Sector
Amount of Construction
(Million Square Meters)
Railroads
5
Coal mining
2.9
Electrical
1.726
Chemical
1.48
Petroleum
0.61
Post and telecommunications
0.4
Housing constructed for railroad workers was financed by state invest-
ment and loans. Financing of part of this construction by loans indi-
cates that some of the 5 million sq m of housing were constructed by the
workers themselves.* Before 1956, most of the housing constructed for
petroleum workers was only of a very temporary nature. In 1956, perma-
nent housing amounting to some 610,000 sq in was constructed, and, in
addition, 490,000 sq m were planned for 1957. 3o/ Early in 1957, one
of the economy measures adopted by the Ministry of the Petroleum Indus-
try provided that no workers housing was to be built in areas where
petroleum was the only industry but, instead, that living quarters were
to be provided in nearby localities. 31/ Coal miners were probably
among the first groups of workers to be provided.with state-financed
housing before 1953. Even with the completion of 2.9 million sq m-of
housing by the end of 1956, housing was still one of the most urgent
problems of the coal industry. It was planned, therefore, to add
1.3 million sq m of housing for miners during 1957. 32/
B. Expenditures for Housing.
In December 1957 the Chinese Communists announced that a total
of 4.26 billion yuan had been invested** for the construction of 8o mil-
lion sq m of new housing for workers during the First Five Year Plan. 33/
Investment in housing construction was about 8.7 percent of the total ?
investment of 48.78 billion yuan in capital construction. 34/ Of the
11 billion yuan invested in nonproductive construction, housing accounted
for about 37 percent. XXX
* See C, p. 12, below.
** The First Five Year Plan did not give a figure for planned invest-
ment in housing construction, either in an actual amount of yuan or as a
portion of nonproductive capital construction investment. Nonproductive
construction covdrs fixed assets which contribute to the wellbeing of the
people but which do not directly influence the production of goods; in-
cluded under this heading are workers housing, cultural and educational
facilities, health institutions, and public installations.
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Figure 1
COMMUNIST CHINA
NEW HOUSING FOR WORKERS IN SELECTED ECONOMIC SECTORS, 1957
METALLURGICAL
RAILROADS
COAL MINING
ELECTRICAL
CHEMICAL
PETROLEUM
POSTAL AND
TELECOMMUNICATION
26873 9-58
0 2
Million Spare Meters
4 6
8 10
0.6
0.4
1.7
1.5
2.9
5.0
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In the first 4 years of the First Five Year Plan, 1953-56, the
total investment in housing construction reportedly amounted to 3.7 bil-
lion yuan, leaving 560 million yuan as the investment for 1957. 36/
Using the anhual investment figures announced earlier for 1954 through
1956, a distribution of investment for the Five Year Plan can be made as
follows
Year
Investment
(Million Yuan)
Housing Constructed
(Million Square Meters)
1953
1,540* .
12
1954
735
13
1955
570
14
1956
855
27
1957
560
14
Total
14,260
80
Although the tabulation above is an estimate, it illustrates
that considerable cost reductions have been made since 1953. At the
beginning of the First Five Year Plan, inexperience and an unrealistic
attitude of raising the housing standards of workers too rapidly led to
high construction costs. Some actual costs of housing constructed
before 1955 were reported as follows 38/:
Cost per Square Meter
Enterprise (Yuan)
An-shan Iron and Steel Company 163
Dairen Petroleum Research Office 100
Harbin Electric Meter and Instrument
Plant 102
Liaoning Machinery 100
In 1955 the construction industry cut back on nonproductive in-
vestment projects and stressed economies in construction. Construction
unit costs for housing were reduced from 90 yuan per square meter to
between 20 yuan and 60 yuan per square meter, depending on the geographi-
cal location and design of the intended structure. 39/ The standard
construction cost of 90 yuan per square meter implies that an initial
investment of more than 4 billion yuan was needed to construct the
46 million sq m called for in the First Five Year Plan. Reduction of
* The annual investment figure for 1953 was derived by adding the invest-
ment figures for 1954-57 and subtracting the sum from the total invest-
ment of 4.26 billion yuan.
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costs, therefore, was substantial enough to enable 8o million sq m of
housing to be constructed at approximately the same amount of invest-
ment initially required for the construction of 46 million sq m of
housing.
?
In 1958, there have been indications that reductions will be
made in the nonproductive sector of the economy. If a reduction in the
total investment for nonproductive capital construction is made, it is
probable that the portion of investment allocated to public structures*
and public utilities will be decreased. Investment in housing appar-
ently will retain the same percentage relationship with relation to the
total investment in capital construction as it had in the First Five
Year Plan. Continued accumulation of savings through reduced construc-
tion costs probably will be the main source of additional funds, as
there is no indication that the proportion of capital investment allo-
cated to housing will be increased in the immediate future.
C. Private Housing Constructed by Workers.
During the last years of the First Five Year Plan in Communist
China there was increasing pressure on workers to build their own homes
in order to relieve. the housing shortage more quickly and to save on
investment and construction materials. Reportedly, 100,000 workers had
provided new homes** for their families in this way during the plan
period. 4o/ By encouraging workers to use discarded materials and
their own labor, housing could be constructed at very low cost. This
program of "self-construction with public aid" provided workers with
ihousing without any investment by the state. The capital required re-
portedly could be borrowed by the enterprise from the State Construction
Bank or could be advanced from welfare funds belonging to the enter-
prise. 41/ The worker repaid the loan over a period of from 3 to 5
years at a low interest rate. If a worker was required to move to
another locality because of work, he was to be compensated for his
house on the basis of a standard depreciation rate. 42/
During 1955 a total of about 17,984 sq m of self-constructed
housing reportedly was built by railroad workers. 43/ The Hankow Trans-
portation Bureau of the Cheng-chou Railroad Administration, for example,
planned to assist in the design of 2,000 housing units and to furnish
the construction materials. Each housing unit, consisting of 1 room of
19 sq m and a kitchen, was estimated to cost under 200 yuan per unit. 44/
During the same year, coal miners built a total of 381,522 sq m of
self-constructed housing. 45/ In 1956 the Pao-t'ou Engineering Company
* For what is included in public structures, see II, p. 3, above.
** These homes probably totaled more than 2 million sq m of floor-
space. This is based on an estimated 22 sq m of floorspace per family.
(See Appendix B, Methodology.)
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furnished its workers with discarded materials, and about 36,730 sq m
of housing were constructed with a total investment of 200,000 yuan,
or about 5 yuan per sq m. 46/
Occasionally, however, this method of solving the housing
problem did not have the desired results. For example, the Fu-shun
Bureau of Mining Affairs in 1955 furnished its workers with in-
feriorly mixed adobe brick) so that the houses crumbled within a few
days after construction. Other brick was improperly protected from
the elements and became a pile of mud with the first rain. 47/ In
1957 it was reported that about 90.000 en m of self-constructed
housing in Fu-la-erh-ch'i built by the construc-
tion workers under the Ministry of Construction and Engineering were
disintegrating as a result of rain. These houses were only simple
mud-and-thatch houses but reportedly caused a loss in state property
estimated at 70,000 yuan. 111/
IV. Housing Characteristics.
A. Types of Housing.
, The type of new housing constructed by the state for workers
during the period of the First Five Year Plan in Communist China con-
sisted of multistoried and single-story types of dwellings. (See
Figures 2-5.*) Multistoried dormitories from 2 to 4 stories in
height were constructed for both single workers and workers with
families. Workers were housed also in two-story and single-story
dwellings. Generally, the ratio 'of multistoried dwellings to single-
story dwellings was high. In some urban areas it may have amounted to
between 8o and 90 percent of the total housing constructed. 49/ In
1955 the number of multistoried dormitories constructed was reduced
when an economy drive was initiated in an attempt to lower construction
costs and save on construction materials. The tendency in the last '
years of the First Five Year Plan was for the construction of a greater
proportion of two-story and single-story dwellings. Early in 1957,
for example, the T'ai-yuan City Construction Administration planned to
reduce the number of residences of three Or more stories from 70 percent
to 30 percent of the total number constructed. 50/
1. Family.
For. many centuries the greater proportion of Chinese fami-
lies have lived in crowded quarters. The traditional form of Chinese
housing was a series of rooms built around a central courtyard which
Served as a work, play, and dining area. These houses were usually one-
story dwellings, but as the family grew in numbers or in prosperity
* Following p. 14.
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rooms could be added as a second story or around new courtyards adja-
cent to the side or rear of the house. These added courtyards sometimes
were rented to other families. At least 3 generations of 1 family or
several families were often housed under I roof. In later years a
new type of housing in the form of apartment buildings was constructed
in urban areas. The majority of the housing, however, was of the court-
yard type.
The "average" type of housing for a family in Communist
China is difficult to describe because the type of housing varies widely.
The climatic variations within the country, the construction materials
available, the size of the family, the priority for housing accorded
workers, and the policies of individual state enterprises toward housing
are all determining factors in the type of housing. Some generaliza-
tions can be made, however. Workers employed by state enterprises are
usually better paid and better housed. (See Figure 6.*) In state-
constructed housing a small family** lives in 1 room and a large family
in 2 rooms. In some instances, light, water, and heat are provided.
Most of the family quarters consist of one room plus a kitchen or the
use of a kitchen in both dormitories and in houses. Internal hallways
and closets are nonexistent, and toilet facilities, if they exist in-
doors at all, are usually shared by several families. In the Northeast,
rent for such accommodations ranges from 3 to 5 percent of the workers
wages. 51/ The majority of workers, however, live under less favorable
conditions. Even in state-constructed housing, water is obtained from
a single tap outdoors, and cooking is done on a portable stove which is
also the only source of heat during the winter. Living space for
families averages about 22 sq m per household. XXX As housing shortages
became more acute during tue First Five Year Plan, allotments of living
space were reduced. In some state-constructed housing the number of
families in the building is twice that for which the building was
designed.
2. Single Workers.
The major type of housing constructed by the state for single
workers, both men and women, has been multistoried dormitories. In
general, each floor has a series of bedrooms, shared toilet facilities,
and a small vestibule with a heating stove. The rooms are about the
* Following p. 14.
** The estimate that for each worker there is an average of two de-
pendents applies to workers in the aggregate, including both married and
single workers. It is believed, however, that the "average" family or
household has more than three members. Apparently a small family has
up to 5 members, and a large Family has more than 5 members.
XXX Reports of actual occupancy indicate that this figure is realistic.
(See Appendix B, Methodology.)
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Figure 2. Communist China: Two Story Housing for Workers at
State Cotton in Wu-han, Hupeh Province.
Figure 3. Communist China: Single-Story Housing for
Coal Miners at Huai-ning,.Anhwei Province.
27150.1 9-58
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Figure 4. Communist China: Multistoried Housin
Workers at State Automobil
Ch'ang-ch'un, Kirin Province.
for
at
Figure 5.
Communist China: Multistoried Housing for
Workers at An-shan, Liaoning Province.
27150.2 9-58
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Figure 6. Communist China: Interior of a Model Dwelling
for Workers at An-shan, Liaoning Province.
27150.3 9-58
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same size as the rooms in family dormitories, excluding the kitchen,
with a floorspace of from 18 to 20 sq m. From it to 5 workers share a
room. Dining halls and bath houses are usually constructed adjacent
to these dormitories. Better paid workers are housed in these accommo-
dations and are charged a low rental. The less fortunate workers, and
even well-paid transient workers, are hbused in temporary wooden
barracks, tents, and huts. The attitude of some state enterprises,
especially those in charge of construction projects, is to house
workers only sufficiently to protect them from wind, rain, and damp-
ness. 22/
B. Quality of Housing.
On the whole the quality of housing constructed during the
First Five Year Plan in Communist China was poor. In many instances,
inferior construction materials were used, and inept techniques em-
ployed. A lack of interest in civil construction and in proper housing
inspection resulted in a low qualitative level. 21/ With no definite
control system, uniform construction norms, or strict supervision by
higher level construction organs, serious waste resulted. It is're-
ported that at 1 plant 47 percent of the total investment was wasted. 211/
Although waste often resulted from the use of higher standard designs
and improper allocation of funds, lack of coordination in all phases of
construction was the dominant contributing factor.
1. .Design.
During 1955, with the cutback on nonproductive investment
projects and the stress on economy in construction, the standards of
construction costs* for dwellings were lowered from 90 yuan to from
between 20 and 60 yuan per square meter of floorspace. 55/ This meant
that the designs for workers housing would have to be changed and
certain structural features eliminated to meet the new standards.
Each enterprise was to have the continuing responsibility for adapting
blueprints from the central designing office to its own particular
circumstances of locality, climate, and availability of construction
materials, within the range of cost set by the state. The coal
industries, for example, set construction costs per square meter of
housing at 45 yuan for areas north and 30 yuan for areas south of the
Yangtze River. 56/ The Northeast Construction Design Office of the
Ministry of Construction and Engineering set the following cost norms
per square meter of floorspace for three different types of workers
dormitories: low-standard, 21 to 26 yuan; medium-standard, 28 to 37
yuan; high-standard, 43 to 47 yuan. 57/
For what is included in estimating construction costs, see Appendix A.
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At the beginning of the First Five Year Plan the plans and
designs of workers housing were ambitious by Asian standards Resi-
dential areas were to be built adjacent to enterprises. They were to
fit into an over-all urban plan so as to utilize land and public
facilities such as water supply, sewage, and roads. Schools, nurseries,
,stores, bath houses, and other public buildings were to be constructed
within each residential area to service the workers living there.
Workers housing was to be a permanent, dormitory type of structure of 2
to 4 stories, usually of brick. Each family was to be provided with a
kitchen, running water, electricity, and toilet facilities. Housing of
this type reportedly was constructed in Shanghai, Tientsin, and Mukden
in 1953. 58/ Apparently, only model workers were allowed accommodations
in this better housing. Wherever this type of housing was constructed,
however, it usually ran well above the standard cost of 90 yuan per
square meter of floorspace.*
In 1955 the General Bureau of Design of the Ministry of
Construction and Engineering had the responsibility for drawing up new
designs and plans for housing. 59/ It was considered possible to
design and construct dormitories 2 to 4 stories high within the limit
of 6o yuan per square meter, except for regions with temperatures
below freezing. In accordance with climatic conditions and the prices
then prevailing in the Peking area, a building equipped with water,
electricity, and heat and toilet facilities could be constructed at a
cost of 52 yuan per 'square meter, providing certain structural changes
were made. By reducing the thickness of outside walls 13 millimeters,
a saving of more than 6 yuan per square meter could be made. By filling
in cracks around windows and by using single-barreled heating pipes
along corridors only, the total building cost could be cut 3.5 yuan per
square meter. In addition, by reducing the thickness of floors,
economizing on construction materials, limiting each story to 3 meters
in height, and adopting shared kitchens and toilet facilities, con-
struction costs could be reduced even more. .9J Illustrations of three
of the new designs made up by the General Design Bureau are shown in
Figures 7-9.** These dormitories were especially designed for the
area of North China. 61/
The front elevation of a three-story family dormitory and
a cutaway view of the floorplan are shown in Figure 7.** Each complete
unit contains 2 suites; 1 has 3 bedrooms and the other 4 bedrooms. A
possible arrangement of furniture is shown for the four-bedroom suite.
The unit can provide living quarters for several families or for about
18 persons and is designed for workers with fairly high incomes. The
floorplan of each suite includes a kitchen, a storeroom, which may be
* See III, B, p. 10, above.
** Following p. 16.
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riga!
Figure 7 Plan 1. Communist China: Multistoried Dormitory for
Family Housing, Suitable for North China.
27150.4 9-58
Key:
1. Bedroom
2. Kitchen
3. Toilet
4. Stair Well
5. Corridor
6. Balcony
7. Storeroom
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Figure 8 Plan 2. Communist China: Multistoried Dormitory for
Family Housing,Suitable for North China.
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1. Bedroom
2. Kitchen
3. toilet
4. Stair Well
5. Corridor
6. Balcony
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a
. .1/24
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Nonfamily
1. Bedroom 2. Vestibule
Family
1. Bedroom 2. Kitchen
Figure 9. Communist China: Single-Story Dormitories for Nonfamily
and Family Housing, Suitable- for North China.
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converted intp a shower stall, and toilet facilities. Each suite is .
equipped with electricity, running water, steam or hot-air heat, and a
kitchen sink. The estimated construction cost for this type of dormi-
tory is about 60 yuan per square meter.
A cutaway view of an entire floor for another type of.
three-story family dormitory is shown in Figure 8.* Each unit in this
design has 11 bedrooms. Most small families would occupy 1 bedroom,
and large families would occupy up to 3 bedrooms depending on the size.
of the family. There are 4 kitchens in each unit serving 2 to 3
families each. The unit is equipped with electricity, running water,
and kitchen sinks and can be heated either by hot air or by individual
stoves. If hot-air heating is used, the estithated construction cost is
about 47 yuan per square meter; if stoves are used, it is about 44 yuan
per square meter. This type of housing is considered suitable for
so-called average employees and would provide living quarters for 30 or
more persons.
The designs shown in Figure 9** are for two types of single-
story dormitories. The toilet facilities and plumbing are located
outside the buildings. The estimated construction cost for both dormi-
tories averages from 34 to 35.6 yuan per square meter. In the family
dorMitory (on the right),, each suite has a 16-sq m bedroom, which can
accommodate 4 persons, and a 4-sq in kitchen. If a nursery is desired,
or if separate rooms are required for older children, the bedroom area
can be reduced and the kitchen enlarged so that extra beds can be set
up in the kitchen at night. In the dormitory (on the left) for single
workers, each complete unit has 3 bedrooms totaling 56 sq m, enough
living space to accommodate 16 persons. The vestibule at the entrance
is equipped with a large stove which provides heat for the entire unit
during the winter.
2. Construction.
. The quality of construction, together with the design and
materials used, determines the life of a building. Obviously, the
better the quality of construction and materials the less need for
maintenance and repair and the longer the life of the building.
According to official statements, the estimated cost and the estimated
life of housing in Communist China for the period 1955-57 are shown in
the Table.***
One of the major problems affecting the quality of con-
struction which confront the Chinese Communists in solving the housing
Following p. 16.
Following p. 16.
-x-x-x- The Table follows on p. 18.
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Table
Estimated Cost and Estimated Life of Housing in Communist China
1955-57
Description of Housing
Location
Estimated Life
(Years)
Estimated Cost per Square Meter
(Yuan)
Three to 4-story dormitory
More-than-one-story house
Single-story bungalow
Single-story house
Brick and wood house with tile roof
Bamboo and wood house with tile roof
Bamboo wattle and mud house with
straw thatch or oil-felt roof
Lo-yang
National
Peking
National
Wu-han
Wu-han
Wu-han
50 2../
4o to 60 12/
15 2/
10 to 15 1/
15 to 20 2/
8 to 10 2/
3 to 5 2/
52 to 60
48
22
29
Estimated Cost per House
(Yuan)
150 to 240
120 to 150
60 to 100
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shortage is the construction of permanent versus temporary housing.
Depending on the requirements for housing, this problem involves con-
siderations of design, cost, life of the structure, availability of
funds, and land. Apparently, early in the plan period it was decided
by many of the enterprises to build permanent multistoried housing of
brick and tile with higher standards of design at a fairly large
initial investment. By building multistoried buildings, less land is
required, and the tie-in with public utilities is more economical per
person housed. The construction of multistoried buildings, however,
used more construction materials and equipment and required skilled
labor to construct. The use of construction equipment increased
proportionately to the number of stories built. It was stated that in
constructing structures of more than three stories such equipment
would be transferred from use on other construction projects for as
long as 9 months. 67/ This permanent type of housing, even though of
better quality, construction and longer structural life, was costly to
the economy as a whole. Moreover, it was not an expedient solution.to
the housing shortage. Even with overcrowding, too few workers could
be housed in relation to the need for housing.
With the economy drive in 1955 and in the face of the
continually increasing pressure of the workers needs for adequate
housing, construction standards were lowered, buildings intended for
other purposes were hastily converted to living quarters, and workers
were encouraged to construct their own housing.*' The result of these
decisions tended to increase the construction of temporary housing.
Probably the number of single-story houses and low-standard two-story
houses increased by two-thirds above the number constructed in the
first 3 years. The construction of small dwellings enabled more
people to be housed in a shorter period of time at a much lower initial
construction cost, with the additional advantages of utilization of
local construction materials and unskilled labor. On the other hand,
excessive construction of small dwellings used a greater amount of land
and spread low-quality construction over a wide area. Unless funds are
allocated for the extension of public utilities and capital repairs,
slum conditions are imminent within a few years in areas where the
construction of small dwellings predominates.
3. Materials and Techniques.
The construction material most widely used for the construc-
tion of multistoried housing during the First Five Year Plan in Com-
munist China was kilned brick. Red brick dorMitories with tile roofs
were constructed for workers in many areas, especially in the Northeast.
Together with brick dormitories, multistoried housing of reinforced
* See III, C, p. 12, above.
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concrete also was constructed. It is reported that more than 1 million
sq m of reinforced concrete housing were constructed at An-shan before
1955. 68/
To comply with the reduction in construction costs and to
save on construction material in 1955, new construction techniques
were introduced, and less expensive materials were employed. In the
construction of multistoried dormitories, consumption of steel and
cement was cut in half by using brick instead of reinforced concrete
for a portion of the floorwork. Brick beams were substituted in upper
floors for reinforced concrete beams where feasible. Bamboo was
substituted for steel rods in reinforced concrete walls and floors.
This method was used widely by the construction industry in 1956 and
was reported to have reduced costs of reinforcement 45 percent. 69/
Bamboo-reinforced concrete housing reportedly was constructed for
workers in Mukden (Shen-yang), Dairen, Canton, and Wu-han. 12/ The
prefabrication of structural parts, another technique introduced by
the construction industry, was applied incidentally to the construc-
tion of housing. Prefabricated, concrete cinder blocks reportedly
were used in the construction of a bungalow type of house in Peking
-during 1955. It was claimed that these houses could be assembled by
31 workers in 8 days at a cost of 22 yuan per square meter. 22/
There is no indication, however, that this method of housing con-
struction was used widely. Another type of prefabricated housing was
reported to be manufactured in Harbin for use as temporary housing for
workers in the Karamai. and Tsaidam oil-prospecting areas. This
portable type of housing could be made from fiberboard at a cost of
20 yuan per square meter of floorspace. 72/
In 1955 the decision to restrict the, amount of multi-
storied housing constructed brought a change in the composition
of residential buildings. After 1955 the proportion of brick and
wood structures and other simple housing increased in general and the
proportion of concrete structures decreased. 73/ The demand for
housing was still so serious it was felt that single-story houses and
low-standard two-story houses could be constructed in a shorter time
at a savings in construction materials and initial cost., In 1955 the
Pao-t'ou Iron and Steel Combine effected a savings of more than
50 percent per square meter in construction costs by abandoning a plan
to construct multistoried dwellings of brick and tile and instead
constructing single-story dwellings with the same materials. 74/
During 1956, a year of accelerated construction throughout
the economy, widespread shortages of cement became noticeable 75/ and
necessitated the use of less expensive construction materials in
housing. The Bureau of Light Industry, faced with a shortage not
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only of cement but of brick and tile as well, used a mortar of natural
cement,* second-grade tile, and chipped or cracked fired brick for
construction of workers housing. It was estimated that with such ma-
terials nearly twice the quantity of housing could be constructed with
the same amount of expenditure. 1?/
In the construction of single-story and other simple housing,
local materials could be utilized readily. The geographical location
and climatic conditions determined the nature of the materials used.
Mud was used for adobe brick, for a plastering material, and for walls.
Bamboo wattle was woven for walls, on which mud plastering was later
applied, or was used alone for wall construction. (See Figure 10.**)
In forested areas, rough timber was used for construction of log houses.
Roofing materials consisted of straw, oiled felt, and various grades of.
ceramic tiling. ,Such local materials could provide livable housing at
low cost and could be handled by semiskilled labor.
V. Outlook for Housing, 1958 and the Second Five Year Plan.
Communist China in 1958 began the period of the Second Five Year
Plan (1958-62) with the problem of the housing shortage for workers
only partially solved. The 80 million sq m of new housing reportedly
constructed by the state during the previous 5 years provided housing
for only 7 million workers out of the total of 24 million workers in
the labor force at the end of the First Five Year Plan. The Communists
claim that 6 million to 7 million workers will be added to the wage and
salary worker group during the Second Five Year Plan. II/
Even though confronted with this growing labor force, there are
indications that further reductions will be made in the nonproductive
sector of the economy. There has been no official announcement of the
amount of new workers housing planned to be constructed during the
Second Five Year Plan, but it is estimated that approximately 160 mil-
lion sq m can be constructed without any increaie in investment in
housing with relation to the total investment in capital construction.***
If a reduction in the total investment for nonproductive capital con-
struction is made, it is probable that the portion of investment
allocated to public structures and public utilities rather than to
housing will be decreased. 78/ The investment for housing apparently
will retain the same percentage relationship with relation to the total
capital construction investment as it had in the First Five Year Plan,
since there is no indication that investment in housing will be increased.
**
XXX
Natural cement is a mixture of lime and clay.
Following p. 22.
See Appendix B, Methodology.
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Measures to reduce the urban population are considered of paramount
importance by the Chinese Communists. This is done by mobilizing the
surplus labor force for work in rural areas and controlling the influx
of rural inhabitants. 79/ Since about 1955, forced return of the
transient urban population to agricultural area has been a continuing
policy. The Communists have gradually perfected and tightened the
techniques of population control since that time, and it is believed
that in the future they will be successful in reducing the flow of
population into the urban areas.
In an effort to increase the housing stocks, more attention may be
given to repair and maintenance of existing housing and tighter con-
trols exercised over private housing. Workers will probably be
encouraged further to build their own houses as this has helped to
relieve the housing shortage with a minimum amount of public aid.
Undoubtedly the construction of single-story and low-standard two-story
housing will continue with some multistoried housing in congested
urban areas or in industrial areas where land is scarce. Continued
construction of low-quality housing with a shorter building life,
however, will require constant maintenance and renewal.
Even by exercising tighter controls over the population and private ,
property, the state cannot solve the problem of adequately housing its
workers quickly. It will need to allocate considerable funds for both
new construction and capital repair, or housing will remain a problem
in 1962.
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Figure 10. Communist China: Light Bamboo Wall
Construction Before Plastering.
27150.7 9-55
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APPENDDC A
COMPONENTS OF ESTIMAitill CONSTRUCTION COST
In Communist China, construction standards were issued in 1955 for
use in estimating the cost of housing. The estimated construction cost
is for materials and labor only and does not include miscellaneous
costs. 80/* The costs of materials and labor are estimated separately
for each component of the construction cost so that a percentage distri-
bution can be made. The estimate of construction cost for a single-
story, brick and wood family structure of under 1,000 cubic meters (eave
height 3.5 meters; net room height 3 meters) is estimated to be 92.391
yuan** per square meter or 25.935 yuau per cubic meter. Using the
figure of 25.935 yuan per cubic meter for such a structure, the per-
centage distribution of material and labor costs-within the construction
cost is as follows p2/:
Components .
of Construction Cost***
Per Cubic Meter Materials and Labor
(Yuan) (Percent)
General building costs .20.332 78
Water supply and drainagexxxx 1.948 8
Heating**** 3.416 13
Electric lightingt 0.239 1
Total
25.935 100
* In the US, miscellaneous cost is included in the estimated construc-
tion cost and covers such things as final grading, design, land purchase,
and insurance. The percentage relationships of the components of the
total estimated construction cost vary from 90 to 95 percent for ma-
terials and labor and from 5 to 10 percent for miscellaneous costs under
optimum conditions.
** Base prices are given on the basis of the JMP (Jen-min P'iao --
Peoples Currency) yuan; material prices are given on the 1955 budgeted
prices of materials in Peking. 181/
*** Generally, basements are not included and must be estimated
separately. 83/ Simple foundations, however, are included.
**** Drainage includes connecting the interior drainage system to the
main exterior underground drainage system; water supply includes intake
pipes but does not include pressure pumps, reserve-water tanks, air com-
pressors, and the like; heating is estimated on the basis of a double-
pipe hot-water heating system. Also included are excavation and back-
fill of trenches for sewer and water lines and the necessary painting and
insulation of lines. 84/
t Electric lighting includes the entire light fixture. 85/
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APPENDIX B
METHODOLOGY
1. Floorspace per Family, First Five Year Plan.
The First Five Year Plan called for the construction of 46 Million
sq m of housing to meet the needs of about 2 million families, 86/ or
an average of 23 sq m per family. By the end of 1956, a total of 66 mil-
lion sq m of housing had been constructed 87/ for about 3.2 million
families, 88/ or an average of 21 sq m per family. At the national level,
therefore, space per family averaged about 22 sq m. Reports of actual
space allotted to families are as follows 89/:
Mate
Floorspace
Description (Square Meters)
1955 Floorspace allotted by the textile industry
to each worker's family 25
1956 Floorspace available to each family in
Shanghai, based on a limited survey 22.5
? 1956 Average floorspace per family constructed by
the Wu-han Metallurgical Construction Company 13.5
/
1950-56 Average floorspace of family housing con-
structed in Liaoning province 25
1956 Floorspace allotted to each family in Pen-
ch'i, on the basis that 98,000 sq m of ?
housing was constructed for 4,500 families ' 22
. 1956 Floorspace allotted to'each family in
Pao-t'ou, on the basis that the Pao-t'ou
Engineering Company constructed 36,700
sq m of housing for 2,000 families
1956 Floorspace allotted to each family by the
Ta-tung Engineering Company
1957 Average floorspace of family housing for
the coal miners in East China, on the
basis that 1 million sq m were constructed
for 50,000 families
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2. Floorspace To Be Constructed, Second Five Year Plan.
Total investment in capital construction during the First Five Year
Plan was 48.777 billion yuan, 90/ of which investment in housing was
4.26 billion yuan, 91/ or about 8.7 percent. Although the Second Five
Year Plan has not been published, preliminary announcements have
stated that investment in 'capital construction will be doubled. Assum-
ing that investment in capital construction will be doubled and that
the percentage for housing construction will not be increased, a total
of approximately 8.487 billion yuan will be invested in housing con-
struction for the years 1958-62. Using the average construction cost
of 53 yuan per sq m (80 million sq m of housing at an investment of
4.26 billion yuan for the First Five Year Plan), a total of about 160
million sq m of housing can be constructed during the Second Five Year
Plan.
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COMMUNIST CHINA
POPULATION OF URBAN AREAS
1954
POPULATION
SHANGHAI j Over 2,000,000
CHUNGKING ? 1,000,000-2,000,000
K'un-ming (D 500,000-1,000,000
Chin-chou 0 200,000-500,000
Wenchow 0 100,000-200,000
Tung-t'ai 0 50,000-100,000
100 200
TIENTSIN
CHUNGKING
International boundary
International boundary, indefinite
Internal administrative boundary
(April 1956)
Administrative seat of centrally-
governed municipality (shih)
Administrative seat of other
municipality (shih)
NOTE: On this map, "Urban Areas" applies both to municipalities and to other cities with
sizeable populations. A municipality (shih) is an administrative unit that consists of one or
more cities and adjacent areas. The municipalities are indicated on this map by naming and
underlining only their administrative seats; population figures, however, apply to the entire
administrative areas of the municipalities. ?
000
609
STATUTE MILES
400
600
KILOMETERS
01' ao-Yan
4, Hsi c ang
e:Lifin 40 Yu-lin
0 .-"' (1199_2:1_3191
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(Port)
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Kong, Macao, an Nationalist-held
the C
islands Ore not included in mmunist
China study area.
102
108
114
Boundaries and names are not necessarily
those recognized by the U. S. Government,
1,20.
42
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25357 10-56
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SECRET
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