AGRICULTURAL LABOR IN THE USSR

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP79R01141A000300120002-2
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 121
• Document Creation Date: December 23, 2016
• Document Release Date: April 2, 2013
• Sequence Number: 2
• Publication Date: August 31, 1954
• Content Type: REPORT

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SECRET
ECONOMIC INTELLIGENCE REPORT
AGRICULTURAL LABOR IN THE USSR
CIA/RR 39
31 August 1954
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND REPORTS
SECRET
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WARNING
This material contains information affecting
the National Defense of the United States
within the meaning of- the espionage laws,
Title 18, USC, Secs. 793 and 794, the trans-
mission or revelation of which in any manner
to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
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ECONOMIC INTELLIGENCE REPORT
AGRICULTURAL LABOR
IN THE USSR
CIA/RR 39
(ORR Project 45.268)
Office of Research and Reports
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CONTENTS
Page
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
I. Introduction . . . . . . 2
II. Changes in Labor Inputs in Soviet Agriculture
in 1951 Compared with 1938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Changes in Labor Inputs in Husbandry . . . . . . .
1. Changes in Total Inputs in Husbandry . . . .
2. Changes in Man-Day Requirements Per
Hectare and Per Head . .
14
16
B. Changes in Labor. Inputs by Type of Work
and Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1. Total .Agriculture . 34
2. Socialist Agriculture 35
a. Kolkhoz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
b. Sovkhoz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3. Individual Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4. Comparative Changes in Inputs by 42
Type of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Changes in the Labor Force in Soviet Agriculture
in 1951 Compared with 1938 . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 43
A. Problems in the Estimation of Workers . . . . . . 43
B. Changes in the Agricultural Labor Force
by Type of Worker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
C. Changes in Specific Sectors . . . . . .. . . . . . . 45
1. Kolkhoznik Labor
2. Machine Tractor Station Labor . . . . . . . .
3. Sovkhoz Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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45
46
49
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IV. Changes in Soviet Agricultural Labor
Since 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Changes in Labor Inputs in Husbandry . . . . . . .
B. Changes in Labor Inputs by Type of
Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Changes in the Total Agricultural
Labor Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Page
49
51
60
60
V. Capabilities, Vulnerabilities, and Intentions . . . . . . 63
Appendixes
Appendix A. Methodology . . . . . . . ._. . . ... . . . 67
Tables
1. Man-Day Inputs in Field Husbandry in Soviet
Agriculture, 1951 Compared with 1938 . . . . . . . . 6
2. Man-Day Inputs in Animal Husbandry in Soviet
Agriculture, 1951 Compared with 1938 . . . . . . . . . . 11
3. Man-Day Inputs in Soviet Agriculture, by Type
of Work, 1951 Compared with 1938 . . . . . . . . . . 21
4. Man-Day Inputs in the Socialist Sector of Soviet
Agriculture, by Type of Work, 1951 Compared
with 1938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5. Man-Day Inputs in the Kolkhoz Subsector of
Soviet Agriculture, by Type of Work, 1951
Compared with 1938 . . . 26
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Page
6. Man-Day Inputs in the Sovkhoz Subsector of Soviet
Agriculture, by Type of Work, 1951-Compared with
1938 .......................... 27
7. Man-Day Inputs in the Individual Sector of Soviet
Agriculture, by Type of Work and by Individual
Subsector, 1951 Compared with 1938 . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9. Distribution of the Soviet Agricultural Labor
Force, by Type of. Agricultural Labor and by
Sector, 1951 Compared tirith 1938 . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. Percent Increase in Man-Day Inputs in Soviet
Agriculture, by Sector and by Type of Work,
1951 Compared with 1938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
38
10. Man-Day Inputs of the Kolkhoznik Labor-Force
in Soviet-Agriculture, by Type of Kolkhoznik
Labor, 1951 Compared with 1938 . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 47
11. Man-Day and Mari-Year Inputs of the Machine
Tractor Station Labor.Force in Soviet Agri-
culture, by Type of Machine Tractor Station
Labor, 1951 Compared with 1938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
12. Man-Day and Man Year'Inputs of the Sovkhoz
Labor Force in Soviet Agriculture, by Type
of Sovkhoz Labor, 1951 Compared with 1938 . . . . . . . 50
13. Man-Day Inputs in Field Husbandry in Soviet
Agriculture, 1953 Compared with 1951 . . . . . . . . . . 52
14. Man-Day Inputs in Animal Husbandry in Soviet
Agriculture, 1953 Compared with 1951 . . . . . . . . . . 56
15. Man-Day Inputs in Soviet Agriculture, by
Type of Work, 1953 Compared with 1951 . . . . . . . . . 61
16. Man-Day and Man Year Inputs of the Total
Labor Force in Soviet Agriculture, 1953
Compared with 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
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Page
17. Computation of Total Man-Days in Horse-and-
Hand Work in Soviet Agriculture, 1938 and 1951 . . . . . 68
18. Computation of Average Man-Days of Horse-and-
Hand Work per Hectare, Expended on Plowing in
Kolkhozy in Soviet Agriculture, 1938 . . . . . . . . . 70
19. Computation of Total Man-Days of Horse-and-
Hand Work Required for Souring and Harvesting
Kolkhoz Winter Wheat in the USSR, 1938 . . . . . . . . . 72
20. Computation of Total Man-Days of Horse-and-
Hand Work Required for. Plowing, Sowing, and
Harvesting Kolkhoz Winter Wheat in the USSR,
1951 (Based on 1938 Average Rates of Man-Day
Inputs Per Hectare) . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . 73
21. Computation of Total Man-Days of Horse-and-
Hand Work Required for Plowing, Sowing, and
Harvesting Kolkhoz Winter Wheat in the USSR,
1951 (Based on 1938 Average Rates of Man-Day
Inputs Per Mechanized and Non-mechanized Hectare) . . . 74
22. Distribution of Labor Savings Due to Increased
Mechanization by Major Crop Group in the USSR,
1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
23. Computation of Labor Savings on the Kolkhozy
in the USSR Due to Increased Mechanization, 193'7 . . . . 77
Computation of the Distribution of MTS Workers in
the USSR by Occupational Group, 1937 . . . . . . . . . 78
25. Computation of the Distribution of Man-Day
Expenditures in Mechanical Operations of MTS
Workers in the USSR by Occupational Group, 1937 . . .
26. Computation of the Total. Man-Day Expenditures
in Mechanical Operations by Permanent and
Seasonal MTS Workers in the USSR, 1937 . . . . . . . . . 84
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Page
27.
Computation of the Total Man-Day Expenditures
in Mechanical Operations by Permanent, and
Seasonal MTS Workers in the USSR, 1938 . . . . . . . .
.
85
28.
Computation of the Total Man-Day Expenditures
in Mechanical Operations by Sovkhoz Workers
in the USSR, 1938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
87
29.
Computation of the Total Man-Day Expenditures
in Mechanical Operations by All Workers in
Soviet Agriculture, 1938 . . . . . . . . . . . .
'.
88
30.
Coefficients for the Conversion of.Soviet
Tractor Work to Soft-Plowing Units by Crop, 1938 . .
.
90
31.
Computation of the Distribution of Labor
Additions Due to Work in Mechanical
Operations in the USSR, by Major Crop
Groups, 19,38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
91
32.
Computation of the Total Man-Day
Expenditures in Mechanical Operations
by Permanent and Seasonal MTS Workers
in the USSR, 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
93
33.
Computation of the Total Man-Day Expenditures
in Mechanical Operations by Permanent and
Seasonal Sovkhoz Workers in the USSR, 1951 . . . . . .
?
94
34.
Computation of the Total Man-Day Expenditures
in Mechanical Operations by All Workers in
Soviet Agriculture, 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
35.
Computation of the Total Man-Day Expenditures
in Mechanical Operations in Field Husbandry
in Soviet Agriculture, 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
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Chart
Following Page
USSR: Agricultural Labor Force, 1951 (in Million
Man-Days Expended by Agricultural Sector)... . 4
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CIA/RR 39
(ORR Project 45.268)
S-E-C-R-E-T
AGRICULTURAL LABOR IN THE USSR*
Summary
Total man-day inputs in Soviet agriculture in 1951 are estimated
to exceed 95 billion man-days. These inputs are over 200 million
man-days, or 2.3 percent less than those in 1938.E Labor inputs
by 1953, however, were above both the 1938 and the 1951 levels.
Total 1953 inputs are estimated to exceed 9.8 billion man-days.
Field and animal husbandry combined consumed the great propor-
tion of the required labor. Thus., in 1951, total husbandry required
7.9 billion man-days, about 3 percent below the 1938 level of 8.1
billion. Labor inputs in husbandry in 1953, however, had mounted to
the 19% level.
f Labor efficiency in sown crops in 1951 was slightly below the
level of 1938._1A total of 24.98 man-days per sown hectare was
required in 1951 compared to 24.89 man-days in 1938. By 1953 labor
efficiency was slightly above the 1938 level. In 1953 24.76 man-days
were required per sown hectare. Despite the apparent stability of
labor efficiency in total sown crops there have been gains and losses
as between crops. Total labor savings in.1951 over 1938 amounted to
about 158 million man-days, because of increases in mechanization.
Gains in efficiency registered by labor for most grain crops, potatoes,
cotton, hemp, sunflowers, and hay crops were offset by losses of labor
efficiency (labor added) for corn, rice, fruits, sugar beets,.flax,
the minor oil crops (including soya beans), and the silage crops and
feed roots. LApparently the achievement of increased production among
these latter crops was regarded as more important than the reduction
of man-power.
The estimates and conclusions contained in this report represent
the best judgment of the responsible analyst as of 1 July 1954.
All references in this report to Soviet agricultural statistics
for 1938 are in terms of the area included within the postwar
boundaries of the USSR.
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rof the total 9.5 billion man-days expended in 1951, 7.2 billion
man-days were expended in the socialist sector (6.2 billion on the
kolkhozy and 1 billion on the sovkhozy) and 2.3 billion man-days
were expended on the individual plots (1.8-billion on the plots of
the kolkhozniki and 0.5 billion on the plots of workers and employees).
In 1938, labor expenditure in Soviet agriculture included almost
1.5 billion man-days spent by about 9.6 million private peasant
farmers. By 1951 these farmers and their farms had been collectiv-
ized. The decline in this sector of individual agriculture was
largely offset by increases from 1938 to 1951 of 15 percent in kol-
khoz labor inputs, of 29 percent in sovkhoz labor inputs, and of
47 percent in the part-time farming (on plots) of about 17 million
workers and employees.
By converting man-days to man-years, a total labor force of
54.8 million man-equivalents can be estimated for Soviet agriculture
in 1951 as compared with about 56.3 million man-equivalents in 1938?
By 1953 the total had surpassed the 1938 level to reach 56.6 million
man-equivalents. When the part-time operations of workers and
employees are excluded from these figures, the labor force proper for
1951 is estimated to be 51.4 million compared with 54 million in 1938.
By 1953 the labor force proper had increased to 53.1 million workers.
(Permanent salaried staff workers on the sovkhozy numbered almost
2 million workers and employees in 1951 compared with 1.5 million
in 1938. Similar machine tractor station (NETS) workers totalled
almost 1 million in 1951 compared with 817,000 in 1938. The kolkhoz-
niki numbered 48.1 million in 1951 compared with 41.7 million in 1938.
I. Introduction.
The agricultural labor force in the USSR is a subject about
which little has been published in the postwar period. The readi-
ness of the'Soviet press to boast of the extent and the capabilities
of the industrial labor force contrasts markedly with its reluctance
to release data which might reveal total numbers of agricultural
workers or of man-days worked per year per worker.
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Scattered references in newspapers and journals to labor force
data for agriculture apply to limited areas, often within an
oblast, or more often to a single collective or state farm.
This report makes two major contributions in data on agri-
cultural labor for 1938 and 1951 which are of intelligence value.
It provides, first, detailed distributions of man-day inputsfor
all the major agricultural activities. Second, it presents a
detailed distribution of the persons employed in agriculture.
Both of these contributions arp new in the area of intelligence
research.
These contributions are useful in several ways. By comparing
man-day inputs per activity (labor required per hectare of wheat
or per head of cows), an answer can be provided to the question
of what changes in efficiency have taken place in agricultural
labor in the USSR since the prewar period.
It is also possible to determine changes in labor productivity
(yield per man-day or per man). With additional research effort
it would be possible to derive the labor cost factor for a study
of costs of production in agriculture. It is easier to evaluate
future Soviet progress in agricultural efficiency and productivity,
the urgency of which was emphasized in the August and September
speeches /* of Malenkov and Khrushchev, in the subsequently adopted
farm programs of the Soviet republics, and in frequent progress
reports since late 1953.
This report is also useful in providing a more positive esti-
mate of the total agricultural labor force than has been heretofore
available for the USSR. The method used in determining currently
published estimates is to derive agricultural labor as a residual
of the total labor force, the latter being derived from age and
sex estimates of the Soviet population. / Since data on industrial
labor are published in the Soviet press, total agricultural labor
may be estimated by subtraction.
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The more positive methods employed in this study are based
on man-day input requirements. They yield estimates both of the
total agricultural labor force and, more significantly, of labor
by agricultural sector and type of worker. The complexity of
the organizational inter-relations.of the labor force in Soviet
agriculture, measured in man-days, may be observed in the chart.*
The problem of estimating from man-day data the number.of
persons employed is complicated by the fact that the same man
might work at various activities on the same. day. For example,
he might.milk cows, drive a tractor in the field, cultivate his
private garden plot after supper, and tally up after dark his
month's labor expenditures, all on the same day. From summaries
of man-day inputs for all activities, total personnel may be
determined by agricultural sector. The determination is accom-
plished in terms of man-years. One man-year is equivalent to the
number of man=days k worked per year per worker.
Explanations of two terms are desirable at this point. The
first term is the "year." For the most part data apply to 1938
and 1951. Exceptions are noted. The 1938 data are in terms of
the area included within the postwar boundaries of the USSR.
The cut-off date of the agricultural year, 1938 or 1951, is the
end of the year (December). The agricultural year, of course,
begins with fall plowing in the preceding year. Labor force
data in this study apply to the end of the year. This is contrary
to the usual practice in population research of using first-of-
the-year figures. Recording to the usual practice the labor force
data of this study would be denoted 1939 and 1952 figures (first
of the year).
The second term is the agricultural "sector." ,This is a farm
sector, or a sector of agricultural organization in which work is
accomplished on a type of farm. In the USSR there are two major
sectors, the socialist and the individual. The socialist sector
includes two subsectors, the kolkhoz or collective farm subsector
and the sovkho.z or state farm subsector. A third type of organi-
zation might be described as a subsector but not as a farm.
# The chart follows p.4 .
A "man-day" is a 10-hour day.
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USSR
AGRICULTURAL LABOR FORCE
(Million Man-days Expended by Agricultural Sector.)
1951
TOTAL AGRICULTURE
9,539
MACHINE TRACTOR
STATION
(Permanent Staff)
228
KOLKHOZ LABOR
(Permanent Staff)
6,276
MACHINE TRACTOR
STATION
(Seasonal)
199
KOLKHOZ LABOR
(For the Kolkhoz)
5,741
KOLKHOZ SECTOR
SOCIALIST
AGRICULTURE
7,182
INDIVIDUAL
AGRICULTURE
2,357
SOVKHOZ LABOR
(Permanent Staff)
566
SOVKHOZ LABOR
(Seasonal)
336
SOVKHOZ LABOR
(Seasonal
Worker-Employee)
112
KOLKHOZNIK
PLOT LABOR
1,844
SECRET
WORKER EMPLOYEE
PLOT LABOR
513
SOVKHOZ SECTOR INDIVIDUAL SECTOR
13185 CIA, 8-54 SECRET
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This is the machine tractor station (MTS), which was designed as
a state device to play a leading role in the mechanization of
the several kolkhozy in the vicinity of which it was established.
The MTS,.therefore, is included in the kolkhoz subsector. The
individual sector includes the kolkhoznik plots, the worker-
employee plots, and, before the war, the private peasant farms.*
II. Changes in Labor Inputs in Soviet Agriculture in 1951 Compared with 1938.
This section is divided. into two parts. The first describes
changes in labor inputs per crop and. per type of livestock. The
second analyzes changes in labor inputs by type of work per sector.
The first part deals with one major category of work, husbandry,
while the second deals with all categories.
A. Changes in Labor Inputs in Husbandry.
The labor inputs for each crop and. type of livestock, 1938
and 1951, are shown below in Table l,* and Table 22 respectively.
These inputs are composite labor inputs. The usual practice of
Soviet accountants in determining labor inputs for crops and live-
stock is to determine the inputs of only one type of labor. 4/
This is the labor of the kolkhozniki engaged in "horse-and-hand"
methods for a particular crop or type of animal. Labor inputs
for a. crop or an animal which are associated with mechanical
operations, such as tractor driving, are customarily regarded
as MTS work. This accounting practice was adopted to distinguish
clearly between kolkhoznik work for the kolkhozy and kolkhoznik
work for the SITS.
The inputs in these tables are composites of inputs both
in horse-and-hand work and in mechanical operations per crop or
type of animal. They make allowance, furthermore, for the effect
These were negligible in number after 1950.
48~ Table 1 follows on p. 6.
~-~ Table 2 follows on p. 11.
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Man-Day Inputs in Field Husbandry in Soviet Agriculture
1951 Compared with 1938 ,*
Man-Day Inputs. Based on Hectare Requirements
1938 1951
Percent Increase
Total Man- Total Man- in Man-Days
Hectares Man-Days Days Required Hectares Man-Days Days Required per Hectare
Type of Field Crop (Thousands) per Hectare (Thousands) (Thousands) per Hectare (Thousands) from 1938 to 1951
Grains
Winter Crops
Wheat
15,000
14.80
222,057
15,000
14.71
220,623
- .65
24,600
14.90
366,439
26,800
14.33
383,934
-3.83
Total Winter
Crops
39,600
14.86
588,496
41;800
14.45
604,557
-2.77
Wheat
27,100
13.26
359,428
27,900
12.34
344,303
-6.95
Barley b/
10,760
12.37
133,074
8,800
12.64
105,921
-2.68
Oats
20,030
12.66
253,633
17,300
12.27
212,320
-3.08
Corn
4,050
16.82
68,127
2,900
17.43
50,556
+3.64
Rice ,
155
23.66
3,667
180
24.09
4,336
+1.82
Other
12,005
15.03
180,391
7,320
14.80
108,356
-1.49
Total Spring
Crops
74,100
13.47
998,320
64,400
13.82
825,792
-4.82
Total Grains
113,700
13.96
1,586,816
106,200
13.47
1,430,349
-3.50
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Man-Day Inputs in Field Husbandry in Soviet Agriculture
1951 Compared with 1938
(Continued)
Man-Day Inputs Based on Hectare Requirements
Percent Increase
Total Man- Total Man- in Man-Days
Hectares Man-Days Days Required Hectares Man-Days Days Required per Hectare
Type of Field Crop (Thousands) per Hectare (Thousands) (Thousands) per Hectare (Thousands) from 1938 to 1951
Orchard
Other e/
Total Fruits
Potatoes
Vegetables
1,292
225
1,517
9,001
1,462
Cucurbits J
627
Total Fruits
and Vegetables
12,607
Sugar Beets
1,289
Tobacco
208
8.00 10,336 845 8.00 6,760 0.00
10.00 2,250 540 10.00 5,400 0.00
8.30 12,586 1,385 8.78 12,160 5.82
66.27 596,535 9,470 65.54 620,682 -1.11
241.40 352,930 1,400 241.37 337,922 - .01
181.40 113,740 600 181.37 108,823 - .02
85.33 1,075,791 12,855 83.98 1,079,587 -1.58
138.56 178,608 1,336 142.06 189,795 2.53
53.05 11,034 206 53.00 .10,918 -0.09
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Man-Day Inputs in Field Husbandry in Soviet Agriculture
1951 Compared with 1938
(Continued)
Type of Field Crop
Oil-Bearing Crops
Cotton J
Flax
Hemp
Sunflowers
Soya Beans
Other Oil-Bearing
Crops ~/
Total Oil-Bearing
Crops
Total Technical
Crops
Silage Crops
Feed Roots
Sown Grass
Hectares
(Thousands)
Man-Days
per Hectare
Total Man-
Days Required
(Thousands)
2,083
143.49
298,883
2,503
85.12
213,051
691
83.87
57,957
3,302
16.26
53,695
282
73.71
20,787
74,802
9,876
72.82
719,175
11,373
79.91
908,817
828
17.06
14,129
972
133.22
129,488
16,300
10.004
163,066
Hectares
(Thousands)
Man-Days
per Hectare
Total Man-
Days Required
(Thousands)
2,687
15..25
363,412
2,100
85.52
179,597
6o8
83.72
50,903
3,913
15.77.
61,720
274
74.11
20,306
1,023
74.06
75,767
10,605
70.88
751,705
12,147
78.41
952,418
1,059
.17.15
18,160
1,275
133.48
170,188
20,366
9.50
193,477
S-E-C-R-E-T
Percent Increase
in Man-Days
per Hectare
from 1938 to 1951
-5.74
.47-
- .18
-3.00
.54
-1.88
.50
.20
-5.04
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Man-Day Inputs in Field Husbandry in Soviet Agriculture
1951 Compared with 1938.
(Continued)
1951
Total Man- Total Man-. in Man-Days
Hectares Man-Days Days Required Hectares Man-Days Days Required per Hectare
Type of Field Crop. (Thousands) per Hectare (Thousands) (Thousands) . per Hectare (Thousands) from 1938 to 1951
Fodder and Forage
(Continued)
Meadow Hay
58,300
5.005
291,780
66,506
4.80
318,916
-4:19
Pasture
348,000
1.00
348,000
348,000
1..00
348,000
0.00
Total Fodder
and Forage
424,400
2.23
946,463
437,206
2.40
1,048,741
7.56
Total Sown
Crops j
155,780
24.89
3,878,107
153,902
24.98
3,844,179
?33
Total Crops
562,080
8.04
4,517,887
568,408
7.94
4,511,095
-1.26
a. The method for deriving the man-day data for this table is generally as follows: (1) Published figures (1937) on man-days-per hectare.
were assembled for most crops. (/ CIA estimates were used for rice, fruit crops, and for fodder and forage crops. The method involved
in the use of Soviet figures for vegetables and cucurbits is a special problem which is explained in Appendix A, Part 2, Problem 1.
(2) Savings of labor (in horse-and-hand work) per crop, due to increases in mechanization on the kolkhozy from 1938 to 1951, were then
determined and subtracted for each crop for 1951. (See Appendix A, Part 1). Labor r savings on the sovkhozy were assumed to be negligible
from 1938 to 1951, since most sovkhoz.operations were mechanized before the war. J (3) Labor inputs per crop in work associated with
mechanical operations were then calculated and added to derive the total man-days, both for 1938 and 1951, shown for each crop in this
table. (4) Total inputs as determined by the preceding three steps were then divided by the, total hectares per crop, for both 1938 and
1951, to derive the columns of figures on man-days per hectare in this table. The estimates for fruits and fodder and forage crops are
probably less reliable than those for other crops. See Appendix A, Part 2, Problem 2 and Problem 3.
-9
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Man-Day Inputs in Field Husbandry in Soviet Agriculture
1951 Compared with 1938
(Continued)
b. About 10 percent of the barley crop is winter barley. As far as can be determined the error in.lumping all barley as spring barley
is very small.
c. Rice in the USSR is primarily dry field rice.
d. "Other" spring crops include grain legumes, millet, buckwheat, and similar crops.
e. "Other" fruits include vineyard crops and subtropical crops (tea, citrus, tung, and aromatics). Vineyard crops predominate, particularly
since the war.
f. Cucurbits are field vegetables such as squash, pumpkins, cucumbers, melons, and similar crops which are grown on more extensive land
areas than the usual truck garden varieties.,
g. Allowance has been made for the different labor requirements of the hectares assigned to irrigated and nonirrigated cotton. (See Appendix A,
Part 2, Problem 4).
h. "Other" oil-bearing crops include castor, mustard, camelina, and other similar crops.
i. Total sown crops include all crops listed, except meadow hay and pasture.
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Man-Day Inputs in Animal. Husbandry in Soviet Agriculture
1951 Compared with 1938
Man-Day Inputs Based on Head Requirements ,*
Percent Increase
Total Man-Days ays Total Man-Days in Man-Days
Head Man-Days Required J Head Man-Days Required per Head
Type of Animal (Thousands) per Head (Thousands) (Thousands) per Head (Thousands) from 1938 to 1951
Work Horses 12,875 30.00 386,250 8,864 30.00 265,920 0
Others 7,025 21.00 147,525 4,836 21.00 101,556 0
Total.Horses 19,900 26.82 533,775 13,700 26.82 367,476 0
Cows 26,640 46.00 1,225,440 24,200 45.937 1,111,672 - .14
Others 32,560 21.00 683,760 33,000 21.00 693,000
Total Cattle 59,200 32.25 1,909,200 57,200 31.55 1,804,672 -2.17
Swine
Adults (9 months or older) 7,332 21.70 159,104 5,591 21.70 121,325 0
Shoats (4 to 9 months) 10,396 16,70 173,613 7,929 16.70 132,414 0
Piglets 13,872 11.20 155,366 10,580 11.20 118,496 0
Total Swine 31,600 15.45 488,083 24,100 15.45 372,235 0
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Man-Day Inputs in Animal Husbandry in Soviet Agriculture
1951 Compared with 1938
(Continued)
Man-Day Inputs Based on Head Requirements _a
Percent Increase
Total Man-Days Total Man-Days in Man-Days
Head Man-Days Required b Head Man-Days Required per Head
Type of Animal. (Thousands) per Head (Thousands) (Thousands) per Head (Thousands) from 1938 to 1951
Sheep and Goats
Adults (9 months or older) 46,053 4.00 184,212 62,370 3.995 249,165 -?13
Lambs and Kids 27,047 3.00 81,141 36,630 3.00 ..109,890 0
Total Sheep and Goats 73,100 3.63 265,353 99,000 3.63 359,955 0
Poultry c
Chickens 183,000 2.00 366,000 207,730 2.00 dl 415,460 0
Others 55,000 1.00 d/ 55,000 62,270 1.00 62,270 0
Total Poultry 238,000 1.77 J 421,000 270,000 1.77 477,730 0
Total Animals 3,617,411 3,381,168
a. Animals in each category of livestock, except in cattle and poultry, are distributed by age for both 1938 and 1951 according to con-
stant percentage relationships prevalent in 1938. The data for the numbers of poultry may be regarded as being less reliable than those
for other types of livestock. ~
b. All the data on 1938 man-day requirements, except those for poultry, were taken from published sources for 1937. 2/ Since
mechanization in animal husbandry was at a very low level before the war, man-day inputs on animals in 1938 are regarded as labor only in
horse-and-hand work. the types and numbers of facilities which were regarded as elements of mechanization in
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Man-Day Inputs in Animal Husbandry in Soviet Agriculture
1951 Compared with 1938
(Continued)
animal husbandry, 10 and which were employed on kolkhoz livestock fermy on 1 January 1940. These include motor-driven windmills and
pumps, water supply lines, automatic milkers, overhead trolleys (for manure), automatic water fountains for cows, and electroshearing
apparatus for sheep shearing.
After the war, slight advances in mechanization occurred in animal husbandry, primarily for dairy fermy and for sheep. Labor savings
because of increased mechanization totalled 1,528,000 man-days for cows, and 315,000 man-days for sheep. See Appendix A, Part 2, Problem 5
c. The numbers of poultry for 1938 cites 183 million chickens for 19,40 11 and about 55 million other
poultry (principally ducks and geese) for 1939. 12 Poultry -numbers for 1951 depend on a Soviet report for 1951 of a 14-percent increase
in chickens over the number in 1940. 13 This percentage applied to the 1940 chicken figure yields about 208 million chickens. The number
of try in the poultry population in 1939-
a. 14 Requirements for other poultry were estimated as
half those for chickens.
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of labor savings* arising from increases in mechanization** in
1951 over 1938.
1. Changes in Total Inputs in Husbandry.
The two major branches of husbandry apparently experienced
changes in labor inputs, 1951 as compared with 1938, which were
at variance with each other. Table 1 shows that inputs in field hus-
bandry in 1951 were slightly less than those in 1938, with over 4.5
billion man-days being expended for each year. The decline was only
about 6 million man-days. In animal husbandry, according to data in
Table 2, there was a larger decline of about 240 million man-days.
Thus the labor expended in animal husbandry in 1951 was less than
3.4 billion man-days while in 1938 it was over 3.6 billion.
In field husbandry, a large decrease in inputs on grain
crops was counterbalanced by increases in inputs on technical crops,
and fodder and forage crops. These changes reflect in part corre-
sponding changes in the hectares*` of these broad crop groupings.
Thus only 106 million hectares of grains were sown in 1951. as compared
with 114 million in 1938. For fruits and vegetables,the number of
hectares sown increased to about 12.9 million in 1951 as compared with
about 12.6 million in 1938. For technical crops, the number of hec-
tares sown advanced to 12.1 million in 1951 compared with 11.4 million
in 1938. Finally, for fodder and forage crops, the total number of
hectares rose to 437 million in 1951 as compared with 424 million in
1938.
Labor savings signify
reductions in man-days required per hectare or per animal in the use
of horse-and-hand methods which are accomplished through the intro-
duction of machinery. 5J The amount of labor saved in 1951 over
requirements in 1938 totalled 158 million man-days. (See p. 75 below).
*' Soviet use of the term "mechanization" usually means in practice
the employment of tractors and associated machines in agricultural
operations such as plowing. Practically all Soviet statements of the
percentage of mechanization involve the use of tractors. J The use
of electricity, however, is also included under the term.
**' One hectare is equivalent to 2.47. acres of land.
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By crops, increases in total man-day inputs occurred
for rye and rice among the grains; for vineyard crops* and for
potatoes among fruits and vegetables; for sugar beets, cotton,
sunflower, and other (minor) oil-bearing crops among the techni-
cal crops; and for silage crops, feed roots, and hay crops among
the fodder and forage crops. These input increases, in part, result
from increases in the numbers of hectares planted to these crops.*
The above increases in labor inputs may reflect Soviet
concern for increased production of these crops, although increases
in concern do not automatically result in increased production.
The increased labor inputs for rye would certainly reflect the need
of the growing population for more bread. Increased inputs for vine-
yard fruits, potatoes, sugar beets, cotton, sunflowers, and the minor
oil-bearing crops would undoubtedly be due to Soviet interest in
increasing the production and use of these crops for industrial
and.military purposes. Vineyard products, potatoes, and sugar beets
are processed into industrial alcohol. Products derived from oil-
bearing crops may be used for paints. Increases in labor inputs on
fodder and forage crops probably. reflect the government's interest
in increasing the production of these crops for use in feeding the
rapidly expanding kolkhoz herds. L5/
The declines in total man-day inputs in animal husbandry
in 1951 as compared with 1938 reflect declines in the numbers of horses,
cattle (notably cows), and twine. These declines outweigh the effects
of large increases in numbers of sheep and goats and of poultry,. pri-
marily because labor inputs per head for these,animals and fowls and
small compared with those for horses., cattle, and swine..
Animal husbandry in the postwar USSR must have been a
costly enterprise for socialist agriculture. World War II devas-
tated a large, proportion of this agricultural enterprise. 16 The
restoration of animal numbers, while rapid, has meant large invest-
ments (in the maintenance of young stock) and heavy sacrifices in
# Vineyard crops. constitute the major portion of "other" fruit crops.
For some. of these crops, such as rye, sugar beets,.minor oil crops,
and the silage and feed root crops, part .f the increases in inputs are.
due to increases in man-days expended per hectare.
In reality, the 1951 production of vineyard fruits, potatoes, sun-
flowerssand fodder and forage crops. was below that of 1938.
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the supplies of current meat and milk products. Slaughterings, at
the behest of state pressure, must have been kept at a minimum
throughout the postwar years. But they could not have been kept at
too low a level because the demands of a growing population, espe-
cially for beef and pork, probably would not permit it. The result,
undoubtedly influenced by other causes* -- for example, low real
wages for animal husbandry work -- has been that cattle and swine
numbers, in particular, are not yet up to the 1938 level.
2. Changes in Man-Day Re uirements.Per Hectare and Per Head.
Certain important changes have occurred in labor-input
efficiency38; since 1938 in Soviet husbandry. These changes, which
may be observed in the final columns of Table 1 and Table 2, reflect
labor savings or labor losses in inputs per hectare or per head, as
a result of increases in the use of machinery in work operations.-YHHk'
Labor savings and an increase in efficiency are implied wherever a
decrease in man-days per hectare or per head is observed in the table;
listed above. Losses in efficiency are implied where an increase in
man-days is observed.
Few increases in labor-input efficiency have apparently
occurred in animal husbandry, and these have been minor advances.
Increases in the mechanization of dairy fermy** (in water supply
and the milking of cows), and in the electroshearing of sheep have
resulted in slight reductions in man-days per head of cows and of
sheep respectively.
# The decline in horse numbers since 1938. normally should have
made more grain feed available for beef, dairy, and pork animals.
This apparently has not occurred, however. The numbers of hectares
of feed grains such as barley, oats, corn, and "other" spring grains
have actually declined'while numbers of hectares in food grains and
technical crops have increased.
** In economic terms, "efficiency" is a relative concept referring
to the allocation of cost factors including labor costs, over a period
of time. By an increase in "labor efficiency" is meant a reduction in
man-days per hectare of crops or per head of animals.
'. It should be made clear that labor savings apply to reductions
in man-days required per hectare or per head of animals in horse-and-
hand work as a result of the increased use of machinery. They are
calculated principally for the kolkhozy.
A "ferma" in Soviet agriculture is a livestock section to which
usually a brigade of workers is assied. 18
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Most of the changes have occurred in field husbandry.
The effect of these changes has not been great enough, however, to
reduce the average man-days required per hectare of sown crops.
Although there was a slight reduction in total man-days expended on
total sown crops in 1951 compared with 1938, this reduction was
caused by a corresponding reduction of about 2 million in the number.
of hectares sown. There was actually a loss in efficiency. Thus the
average for 1951 was 24.98 man-days per hectare required for sown
crops, while that for 1938 had been 24.89 man-days.
The 1951 average of man-days per hectare of sown crops
appears to be only slightly below that required before collectivi-
zation,* when the peasants farmed without the numerous heavy tractors
currently in use in agricultural areas.**
The large number of man-days required per sown hectare
in Soviet agriculture since 1938 -- around 25 -- compares unfavorably
with the number required on farms in the US. In the US the average
for 1935-39 was less than 8 man-days per hectare of sown crops. This
average was reduced by 1945-48 to less than 6 man-days. 21
Shifts in efficiency between crops are the important
changes occurring in labor efficiency in field husbandry. Savings
in labor have been made for 12 of the 26 crops listed, losses for 8
crops, while little change was registered for six.
All types of grains, except corn and rice, required less
labor per hectare in 1951 than in 1938. Labor savings were greatest
among the spring crops, especially spring wheat. These savings were
A recent Soviet publication 19 states that in 1922-25 the number
of man-days spent per hectare on private peasant farms was 20.8 per
year. It is clear that this figure refers to labor on grain hectares,
however. Since in 1938 the number of man-days per hectare of grain
per year was about 14 (including labor by mechanical methods as well
as horse-and-hand methods), the number of man-days expended in 1922-25
was, on the average hectare of sown crops, probably about 30 per year.
^# According to Soviet data, the average tractor used in agriculture
in the USSR had a draft of about 28 horsepower in 1951 compared with
about 20 in 1940. 20
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primarily accomplished through the increased use of combines.*
Decreases in labor inputs per hectare of winter wheat were achieved
despite increases in deep plowingi~* on land fallowed .for fall winter
wheat sowirrg.''c* Increases in the mechanization of plowing and
sowing of corn,' and of plowing, sowing, and harvesting of rice
apparently did not result in reductions in man-days required per
hectare of these crops.
Labor savings in the category of fruits and vegetables
were accomplished primarily for potatoes, as a result of the increased
mechanical plowing, sowing, and harvesting of potatoes.'S`% * Labor in
fruits as a group seems less efficient in 1951 than in 1938. Almost
6 percent more labor-per hectare was required in 1951. This loss in
efficiency is a reflection of the fact that a larger. proportion of the
hectares of fruit crops were in 1951 "other" fruit crops -- notably
vineyard crops. These required.25 percent more man-days per hectare
than the orchard. fruit crops.
Labor in technical crops generally was more efficient in
1951 than in 1938. Thus, 78.1 man-days per hectare were expended on
these crops in 1951 as compared with 79.9 in 1938.. The increase in
efficiency was due primarily to over-riding input reductions (per
hectare) in cotton and sunflowers, almost 6 percent for cotton and
3 percent for sunflowers. The size of the savings for cotton is
somewhat deceptive, because postwar cotton production in the USSR has
been marked by a proportional increase in the hectares of nonirrigated
* About half the man-days expended per hectare of grain crops are
spent during harvest. See data provided in Appendix A. It is clear
that advances in the mechanization of the harvesting processes for
almost any type of crop are most important for reducing labor.require-
ments. This is especially true for grains.
%t* Deep plowing is regarded in Soviet agriculture as plowing to a
depth of 22-25 centimeters (8.7 to 9.8 inches) 22
' A Soviet monograph claims that deep plowing was carried out on
16.4 million hectares in 1951 compared to only 2.5 million hectares
in 1950. Before the war, hardly any deep plowing was done in the
USSR.
In the USSR the mechanization of corn harvesting is in its
infancy. /
'H Mechanical harvesting has been introduced only for potatoes,
and then only on 6 percent of the kolkhoz potato hectares.
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cotton.* These hectares require only half the man-days per hectare
required for irrigated cotton.-* The mechanization of. sunflowers
resembles that possible for grains -generally, although there are more
problems in their harvest mechanization.--rc
Mechanization of sugar beets and flax, particularly in
harvest, apparently is at a lower level than it was before the war.
Deep plowing has also increased for these, crops and for soya beans
and for other minor oil-bearing crops. These changes have been
responsible for larger man-days inputs per hectare of these crops
in 1951 than in 1938.***
Among the fodder and.forage crops, input reductions
per hectare of 5 percent were accomplished for sown grass and 4.2
percent for meadow hay. The savings were due primarily to large
increases in mechanized hay-cuttings in 1951 over those in 1938.3;3'
Apparently the large increases in kolkhoz herds of recent years and
the resultant increase in feed requirements for the herds inspired
the MTS to increase the hay areas cut by tractor-drawn mowers.
Although labor savings were effected in hay crops, labor
was generally less efficient for total forage and fodder crops in
1951 than in 1938. Thus 2.4 man-days were required per hectare of
these crops in 1951 as compared with 2.23 in 1938. This amounts to
a loss in efficiency of 7.6 percent.
The size of the loss in efficiency among fodder and
forage crops would seem to be due to the mathematical peculiarities
of averaging. The average man-days. required per hectare of fodder
and forage are few for both 1938 and 1951. The absolute increase
of .17 man-days per hectare of fodder and forage from 1938 to 1951
I tractors in 1938 participated in
haying and the harvesting of flax and potatoes to the extent of less
than 1 percent. By 1951 the MTS was cutting 27.7 percent of the.
natural and tame hay on the kolkhozy. 26
See Appendix A.
See Appendix A, Part 2, Problem 4.
* in 1940 the kolkhozy used 160
man-days per hectare of irrigated cotton and that in 1937 the
kolkhozy used 81-76 man-days per hectare of nonirrigated cotton. 25
%38' Harvest of sunflowers in the USSR presents the problem of
collecting the heads in baskets. Use of a regular grain combine
would prematurely crush the seed from which oil is later extracted.
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is also small, but it constitutes a relatively large increase as a
percentage. An increase of .26 man-days per hectare of feed roots, on
the other hand, represents a proportionately small increase because the
total number of man-days required per hectare in both years is so large.
Nevertheless this relatively small increase in man-days required per
hectare of feed roots not only outweighs the labor saved for hay crops
but is also responsible for the large loss in efficiency among total
fodder and forage.
It follows that, while important advances in the labor ef-
ficiency on fodder and forage crops may be achieved by the increased
mechanization of hay crops, much larger and probably more important
advances could be achieved by mechanizing to a greater degree the vari-
ous operations for feed roots. So far the USSR has made but little
progress in mechanizing its labor-consuming crops such as potatoes,
vegetables, cucurbits, sugar beets, and feed roots.*
B. Changes in.Labor Inputs by Type of Work and Sector.
This section describes changes in inputs in Soviet agriculture
by type of work and by sector. See chart above, for a pictorial descrip-
tion of the organization of Soviet agriculture by sector. Six tables**
are used in this section. Table 3 provides changes for total agriculture;
Tables 4-6)changes for. the subsectors in socialist agriculture; and Table
7, changes for individual agricultural subsectors. Table 8 provides a
comparison of the changes for all sectors.
There are three major types of work, as shown in Table 3 and
subsequent tables. The first is labor in husbandry by horse-and-hand
methods. This type does not include work involved in tractor or combine
operations for husbandry. Labor in horse-and-hand methods may include
labor in the use of kolkhoz-owned equipment and instruments. The use of
the threshing machine may be regarded as the use of horse-and-hand methods.
* These are all vegetable-type crops that do best with deep plowing, a
technique which is more labor-consuming than ordinary plowing. The culti-
vation of these crops in the USSR has required large inputs of hand labor.
Harvesting machines apparently do more damage than good for most of these
crops. The mechanization of these crops -- even in the US -- is at a rel-
atively low level. Most of the harvesting, cultivating, and. sowing ma-
chines for these crops are in experimental stages in the USSR.
** Table 3 follows on p.21; Table 4 on p.24; Table 5 on p.26;
Table 6 on p.27; Table 7 on p.29;-Table 8 on p.32.
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Table 3
Man-Day Inputs in Soviet Agriculture,
by Type of Work, 1951 Compared with 1938
Man-Days Expended
in Soviet Agriculture
Type of Work
1938
1951
Percent Increase
from 1938 to 1951
Horse-and-Hand Work
in Husbandry a/*
Field Husbandry
Animal Husbandry
4;,123,064;;000
3,617,411,000
4,048,775,000
3,381,168,000
- 1.80
- 6.54
Total Horse-and-
Hand Work in
Husbandry
7,740,475,000
7,429;943,000
- 4.01
Other Work
Farm Administration,
Maintenance, etc. b/
1,590,233,804
1,601,916,315
.73
Work for Mechanical
Operations c/
Operations for
Husbandry
Tractor-Combine
296,827,115
347,571,542
17.10
Work Auxiliary to
Tractor-Combine
97,995,659
114,748,621
17.10
Total Operations
for Husbandry
394,822,774
462,320,163
Footnotes for Table 3 follow on p. 22.
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Table 3
Man-Day Inputs in Soviet Agriculture
by Type of Work, 1951 Compared with 1938
(Continued)*
Man-Days.Expended
in Soviet Agriculture
Type of Work
Percent Increase
1938 1951 from 1938 to 1951
Slack-Season,
Communal Operations 38,793,539 45,425,534 17.10
Total Work
for Mechanical
Operations 433,616,313 507,745,697 17.10
Total Other Work 2,023,850,117 2,109,661,697 4.24.
Total Work 9,764,325,117. 9,539,604,697 -2.30
a. The data for husbandry in this.table are different from those in
Table 1 and Table 2, in which the data include man-days associated with
mechanical operations as well as work in horse-and-hand methods. The
data for husbandry in this table do not include man-days associated with
mechanical. operations.
b. "Farm Administration, Maintenance, etc." includes in addition to man-
days expended in administrative and maintenance work, man-days expended
in cultural services, subsidiary enterprises (such as blacksmith shops),
road repairs for the state, conservation work, and other types of
activities not related to husbandry. 27
c. In Soviet accounting practice, mechanical labor for kolkhoz work is
calculated separately from that for work directly related to horse-and-
hand methods. The main purpose for this procedure is to determine the
work productivity of the MTS workers supporting the kolkhozy. The
work productivity or output of the MTS is determined on the basis of
"soft-plowing" units, and .not in terms of agricultural yield.or value
of the yield which might be attributed to mechanical. operations. The
soft-plowing unit is a common measure for comparing various agricultural
operations in terms of the fuel expended by tractors on these operations.
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Table 3
Man-Day Inputs in Soviet. Agriculture
by Type of Work, 1951 Compared with 1938
(Continued)
One hectare of plowing of old land plowed year after year) is taken
as the standard. One hectare of. sowing, for examples is normally
equivalent to .3 soft-plowing hectare, because the fuel required is
only .3 as much for the hectare of old-plowed land. 2$ Mechanical
labor for. the kolkhozy by the MTS apparently includes (1) all the
work of permanent MTS staff members (salaried workers and employees)'
and of seasonal kolkhoznik tractor and combine operators; (2) all
seasonal kolkhoznik labor in auxiliary support of tractor and com-
bine operations (such as water and fuel hauling); and {3) other work
by permanent MTS staff members which occurs during slack seasons
(such as tractor overhauls, canal and road work, afforestation, and
the like). The amount of this labor totals approximately 40 man-days
per year per permanent staff worker. (See Appendix A for explanation
and derivation.) It is not known just how the.sovkhozy calculate work
associated with mechanical operations. However, it is believed they use
the same procedure as the MTS. Some of the..work for the sovkhozy is
performed by seasonal workers and employees. It is-estimated that in
1938 such "seasonal" workers for the sovkhozy numbered 600,000, and
"temporary" workers, in addition, numbered 400,000 more. 29
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Table 4
Man-Day Inputs in the Socialist Sector
of Agriculture, by Type of Work
1951 Compared with 1938 a/*
Man-Days Expended
in Socialist Agriculture
Percent Increase
Type of Work 1938 1951 from 1938 to 1951
Horse-and-Hand Work
in Husbandry
Field Husbandry
3,170,030,800
3,423,044,000
7.98
Animal Husbandry
1,.181,709,580
1,649,690,000
39.60
Total Horse-and-
Hand Work in
Husbandry
4,351,740,380
5,072,734,000
16.57 b/
Farm Administration,
Maintenance, etc.
1,374,233,804
1,601,916;000
16.57
Work for Mechanical
Operations
Operations for
Husbandry
.Tractor-Combine
296,827,,115
347,571,542
17.10
Work Auxiliary to
Tractor-Combine
97,995,659
114,748,621
17.10
Total Operations
for Husbandry
394.,822,774
462,320,163
17.10
* Footnotes for Table 4 follow on.p.25-
. * 24
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Table 4
Man-Day Inputs in, the Socialist Sector
of Agriculture by Type of Work
1951 Compared with 1938.a/
(continued)
Man-Days Expended
in Socialist Agriculture
Percent Increase
Type of Work 1938 1951 from 1938 to 1951
Suck-Season,
Communal Operations 38,793,53.9 45,425,534 17.10
Total Work for all
Mechanical
Operations 433,616,313 507,745,697 17.10
Total Other Work 1.,807,850,115 2,109,661,697 16.69
Total Work 6,159,590,497 7,182,395,697 16.61
a.- Socialist agriculture includes the kolkhoz and sovkhoz sectors. Data
for individual agriculture are shown in Table 7-
b. The .percent of increase in the man-day inputs in Total Horse-and-Hand
Work in, Husbandry is the same as that of the man-day inputs in Farm
Administration, Maintenance, etc., because, as explained in the text,
man-days for the latter are computed for both years at a constant per-
centage relationship to man-days for the former.
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Table 5
Man-Day Inputs in the Kolkhoz Subsector of Soviet Agriculture,
by Type of Work, 1951 Compared with 1938
Man-Days Expended
in Kolkhoz Agriculture
Type of Work 1938 1951
Horse-and-Hand Work
in Husbandry
Percent Increase
from 1938 to 1951
Field Husbandry
2,873,222,700
2,996,021,000
4.27
Animal Husbandry
943,722,500
1,367,544,000
44.91
Total Horse-and-
Hand Work in
Husbandry
3,816,945,200
4,363,565,000
14.32
Farm Administration,
Maintenance, etc.
1,205,351,116
1,377,968,000
14.32
Work for Mechanical
Operations
Operations for
Husbandry
Tractor-Combine
241,881,868
291,960,096
20.70
Work Auxiliary to
Tractor-Combine
79,855,822
96,388,841
20.70
Total Operations
for Husbandry
321,737,690
3 88..348,,937
20.70
Slack-Season, Com-
munal Operations
31,612,522
38,157,448
20.70
Total Work for Me-
chanical Operations
353,350,212
426,506,385
20.70
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Table 5
Man-Day Inputs in the Kolkhoz Subsector of Soviet Agriculture,
by Type of Work, 1951 Compared with 1938
(Continued)
Man-Days Expended
in Kolkhoz Agriculture
Percent Increase
Type of Work 1938 1951 from 19.38 to 1951
Total Other Work 1,558,701,328 1,804,474,385 15-77
Total Work 5,375,646,528 6,159,590,497 14.58
Table 6
Man-Day Inputs in the Sovkhoz Subsector of Soviet Agriculture,
by Type-of Work, 1951 Compared with 1938
Man-Days Expended
in Sovkhoz Agriculture
Percent Increase
Type of Work 1938 1951 from 1938 to 1951
Horse-and-Hand Work
in Husbandry
Field Husbandry
296,808;100
427,023,000
43,57
Animal Husbandry
237,987,080
282,146,000
18.56
Total Horse-and-
Hand Work in
tiusbandry 534,795,180 709,169,000 32.61
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Table 6
Man-Day Inputs in the Sovkhoz Subsector of Soviet Agriculture,
by Type of Work, 1951 Compared with 1938
(Continued)
Man-Days Expended
in Sovkhoz Agriculture
Percent Increase
Type of Work 1938 1951 from 1938 to 1951
Other Work
Farm Administration,
Maintenance, Etc.
168,882,688
223,948,000
32.61
Work for Mechanical
Operations
Operations for
Husbandry
Tractor-Combine
54,945,247
55,611,446
1.21
Work Auxiliary to
Tractor-Combine
18,139,837
18,359,780
1.21 f
Total Operations
for Husbandry
73,085,0$4
73,971,226
1.21 a/
Slack-Season, Com-
munal Operations
7,181,017
7,268,086
1.21
Total Work for Me-
chanical operations 80,266,101
81,239,312
1.21 J
Total Other Work
249,148,789
305',187,312
22.49
Total Work
783,943,969
1,014,356,312
29.39
.a. Increases in.inputs on all types of mechanical operations are the same
because relationships between all these types are held constant, 1938 and
1951. See Appendix A for an explanation of the methods used for deriving
man-day inputs in t,o rk associated with mechanical operations.
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Table 7
Man-Day Inputs in the Individual Sector'of Soviet Agriculture,
by Type of Work and by Individual Subsector, 1951 Compared with l93 8
Man-Days Expended
in Individual Agriculture
by. Individual Subsector a/*
Type of Work
1938
1951
Percent Increase
from 1938 to 1951
Kolkhoznik Plots
Horse-and-Hand Work
in Husbandry
Field. Husbandry
510,402,025
489,649,000
-4.07
Animal Husbandry
1,304,452,915
1,354,921,000
3.87
Total Horse-and-
Hand Work in
Husbandry
1,814,854,940
1,844,570,000
1.02
Worker-Employee Plots
Horse-and-Hand Work
in Husbandry
Field Husbandry
98,398,662
136,082,000
38.30
Animal Husbandry
251,481,018
376,557,000
49.74
Total Horse-and-
Hand Work in
Husbandry 349,879,680 512,639,000 46.52.
* Footnote for Table 7 follows on P. 31.
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Table 7
Man-Day Inputs in the Individual Sector of Soviet Agriculture,
by Type of Work and by Individual Subsector, 1951 Compared with 1938
(Continued)
Man-Days Expended
in Individual Agriculture
by Individual- Subsector a/
Type of Work
1938
1951
Percent Increase
from.1938 to 1951
Private Peasant Farms
Horse-and-Hand Work
in Husbandry
Field Husbandry
344,232,513
-100.00
Animal Husbandry
879,767,487
-100.00
Total Horse-and-
Hand Work in
Husbandry
1,224,000,000
-100.00
Farm Administration,
Maintenance, etc.
216,000,000
-100.00
Total Work on Pri-
vate Peasant Farms
1,440,000,000
-100.00
Total Individual
Agriculture
Horse-and-Hand Work
in Husbandry
Field Husbandry
953,033,200
625,731,000
-34.34
Animal Husbandry
2,435,701,420
1,731,478,000
-28.91
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F
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Table 7
Man-Day Inputs in the Individual Sector of.Soviet Agriculture,
by Type of Work and by Individual Subsector, 1951 Compared with 1938
(Continued)
Man-Days Expended
in Individual Agriculture
by Individual Subsector
Type of Work
1938
1951
Percent Increase
from 1938 to'1951
Total Horse-and-
Hand Work in
Husbandry
3,388,734,620
2,357,209,000
-30.44
Farm Administration,
Maintenance,. etc.
216,000,000
Total Work
3,604,734,620
2,357,209,000
-34.61
a. See Appendix A, Part 2, Problem 7.
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Percent Increase in Man-Day Inputs in Soviet Agriculture,
by Sector and by Type of Work
1951 Compared with 1938 J*
Socialist Sector
Individual Sector
Kolkhoz
Agriculture
Sovkhoz
Agriculture
Total
Socialist
Agriculture
Kolkhoznik
Plots
Worker=
Employee Plots
Private
Peasant Farms
Total
Individual
Agriculture
Total
Sectors
Horse-and-Hand Work
in Husbandry
Field Husbandry
4.27
43.87
7.98
-4.07
38.30
-100.00
- 34.34
-1.80
Animal Husbandry
Total Horse-and-Hand
44.91
18.56
.39.60
3.87
49.74
-100.00
- 28.91
-6.54
Work in Husbandry
Farm Administration
14.32
32.61
16.57
1.02
46.52
-100.00
- 30.44
-4.01
Maintenance, etc.
Work for Mechanical
Operations
Operations for Husbandry
14.32
32.61
16.57
N.R. b
N.H.
-100.00
-100.00
.73
Tractor-Combine
Work Auxiliary to Tractor
20.70
1.21
17.10
N.R.
N.R.
N.R.
N.R.
17.10
to Tractor-Combine
20.70
1.21
17.10
N.R.
N.R.
N.R.
N.R.
17.10
Total Operations for Husbandry
for Husbandry 20.70 1.21
.17.10
N.R.
N.R.
N.R.
N.R.
17.10
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Percent Increase in Man-Day Inputs in Soviet Agriculture,
by Sector and by Type of Work
1951 Compared with 1938 a/*
(Continued)
Slack-Season, Communal
Operations
Total
Kolkhoz Sovkhoz bocialist Kolkhoznik Worker-
Agriculture Agriculture Agriculture Plots Employee Plots
Total Work for Mechanical
Operations
20.70
Total Other Work
15.77
Total Work
14.58
Total
Private Individual Total
Peasant Farms Agriculture Sectors
1.21 17.10 N.R. N.R. N.R. N.R.. 17.10
22.49 16.69 N.R. N.R. 100.00 -100.00 4.24
29.39 16.61 1.02 46.52 -100.00
- 34.61 -2.30
a. This table summarizes the. percentages of increase contained in Tables 3-7.
b. N.R. means not relevant."
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In recent years there are references, however, to increases in mechan-
ized threshing and in mechanized threshing floors.*
The second type of work is the labor involved in "farm admin-
istration, maintenance, etc." This type of labor is credited only to
the kolkhoz, sovkhoz, and private peasant farm subsectors. It is
derived as a percentage of a total of inputs which includes this
type of labor and labor in husbandry work using horse-and-hand methods.
The percentage is 24 percent for the kolkhozy and sovkhozy and 15
percent for the private peasants.
The third type of work is associated with mechanical operations
and breaks down into several different types. The method by which this
type of labor is derived is explained in Appendix A.
1. Total Agriculture.
In 1951 the number of man-days expended in Soviet agri-
culture as a whole totalled about 9.5 billion, about 200 million -- or
2.3 percent -- less than the input figure for 1938. The decrease in
man-days, as shown in Table 3, reflects the influence of decreased
inputs of labor in horse-and-hand methods in field and animal husbandry,
particularly in animal husbandry. There was an over-all decline for
total horse-and-hand work-in husbandry of about 4 percent, but in
animal husbandry the decline was about 6.5 percent. The over-riding
influence of declines in husbandry is due to the fact that inputs in
husbandry constitute dominant proportions of the total inputs in
agriculture for both years compared -- about 78 percent in 1951 and
about 79 percent in 1938.
Labor inputs in mechanical operations in 1951 increased
17 percent over those. in 1938, but these inputs were minor proportions
of total inputs in both years -- 5.3 percent in 1951 and 4.4 percent
in 1938. Total inputs in farm administration, maintenance,. and simi-
lar work remained fairly stable over the compared years, with those
in 1951 showing less than a 1-percent increase over those in 1938.
in use in the USSR in 1951. - v
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Although there were sizable increases in inputs in this type of work
for both socialist subsectors, there was a complete disappearance of
inputs in it on the part of the individual subsectors, with the com-
plete collectivization of all private peasants. The influence of
these changes tended to balance out in the total.
2. Socialist Agriculture.
Changes in labor inputs in socialist agriculture may be
observed in Tables 4-6. Those for total socialist agriculture are
shown in Table 4, those for kolkhoz agriculture in Table 5, and
those for sovkhoz agriculture in Table 6.
Labor inputs in total socialist agriculture in 1951
increased 16.6 percent over those in 1938. The increases in inputs
in mechanical operations were slightly larger than average at about
17 percent in all the various categories. The greatest increase in
inputs, however -- about 40 percent -- was registered in horse-and-
hand work in animal husbandry, while the increase in inputs in field
husbandry was only about 8 percent. It is clear that socialist
agriculture, in particular the kolkhozy, has been expanding its em-
phasis on labor-consuming activities. Although inputs of the kolkhozy
in grain crops have increased only slightly, inputs of the kolkhozy
in technical crops and in silage and feed root crops have. gone up more.
These crops are more labor-consuming than grain crops. There has been.
a slight decrease in the number of horses on the kolkhozy (which
require larger than average labor inputs among livestock) and only a
slight increase in the number of sheep and goats (which require small
labor inputs), but there has been a doubling of the number of cattle
and swine (which require large labor inputs). Kolkhoz poultry numbers
have doubled also, but these require little labor per head.
a. Kolkhoz.
On the whole, as may be seen from the data in Table
5, labor inputs in the kolkhoz subsector of socialist agriculture
increased for the years compared -- from 5.4 billion man-days in 1938
to 6.2 billion in 1951,.or 14.6 percent. The largest-increase occurred
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in animal husbandry, a 400-million-man-day increase or an increase
of 45 percent. This contrasts with the 4.3-percent increase regis-
tered in horse-and-hand work in field husbandry. Mechanical (MTS)
operations for the kolkhozy required a labor input for 1951 almost
21 percent greater than that for 1938.
b. Sovkhoz.
The sovkhozy expanded their labor inputs more rapidly
than the kolkhozy. The former increased total inputs from about 784
million man-days in 1938 to over 1 billion in 1951, or about 29.4
percent. Contrary to the trend for the kolkhozy, the sovkhozy expand-
ed their inputs most in horse-and-hand work for field husbandry -- an
increase of 44 percent, compared with only a 19-percent increase for
animal husbandry. This expansion in labor inputs in horse-and-hand
work in sovkhoz field husbandry contrasts sharply with only a 1.2-
percent increase in labor inputs in mechanical operations. Like the
kolkhozy, the sovkhozy, particularly those outside the Ministry of
State Farms', are turning their attention to the production of labor-
consuming crops, in particular to the production of potatoes, vege-
tables, and cucurbits.* This trend has been confirmed by reports
of greater diversification in enterprises among the sovkhozy J and
of the use of sovkhoz farm land for experimentation.~*
3. Individual Agriculture.
Labor inputs, 1938 and 1951, are shown in Table 7
below for the three subsectors in individual agriculture. It is
characteristic of all subsectors of individual agriculture that
husbandry operations3HH~~ almost completely predominate. It is also
characteristic that animal husbandry assumes well over 70 percent
* Sovkhozy outside the Ministry of State Farms, which are connected
with industries, are termed "subsidiary economies" in FBIS translations.
They might better be called subsidiary farms.
* A Soviet publication reports that in 1944, 1,317,000 hectares
were sown to potatoes and vegetables in "state economies." 222 This
figure, cut to 1,310,000 hectares, is carried for 1951 for sovkhozy.
A Soviet official document specifically speaks of sovkhozy as
.centers at which new agrotechnology is tested before it is channeled
for productive use on the kolkhozy.
''* Horse-and-hand work in husbandry.
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of the total man-days expended in all sectors.
The labor inputs of two subsectors of individual agri-
culture -- the kolkhoznik and worker-employee plots -- are expended
entirely on husbandry operations. In 1938, however, there were
almost 10 million private peasants in the USSR.* These peasants
were credited with over 200 million man-days expended on farm admin-
istration, maintenance, etc., an amount which is 15 percent of their
total man-days.
Individual agriculture has experienced a great decline
since 1938. Thus labor inputs totalled about 3.6 billion man-days
in 1938 compared with 2.4 billion in 1951, a decrease of 34.6 percent.
Nevertheless individual agriculture is still a large part' of the
total labor in Soviet agriculture, about 25 percent of the total man-
days spent compared with about 37 percent in 1938.
The primary factor in the decline of the individual sector
is the disappearance of the private peasant farm sector from 1951
Soviet agriculture. 262 This subsector in 1938 required an input of
almost 1.5 billion man-days in 1938. Labor inputs on the kolkhoznik
plots increased from 1,815 million man-days in 1938 to 1,845 million
in 1951, or an increase of about 1 percent. More attention is appar-
ently being given to animal husbandry by the kolkhozniki at the present
time than in 1938. There was actually a 4-percent decline in inputs
in field husbandry, compared with a 4-percent increase in animal
husbandry. This change in emphasis is apparently a reflection of the
relative scarcity of meat and meat products for the Soviet population. 7
The severity of the declines in individual agriculture was
partially offset by large increases in labor inputs in husbandry oper-
ations on the worker-employee plots.3 The increase totalled about
46.5 percent. Thus inputs totalled only 350 million man-days on these
plots in 1938, but 513 million in 1951. This increase was largely ef-
fected by the 50-percent increase in inputs in animal husbandry.
-F See Table 9 below, p. 38.
** This percentage is based on the experience of individual farmers
in the US. 25/
See Table 3, for the total man-days spent in Soviet agriculture
for 1938 and 1951.
See Appendix A, Part 2, Problem 7.
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Distribution of the Soviet Agricultural Labor Force,
by Type'of Work and by Sector,
1951 Compared with 1938
Distribution of Soviet Agricultural Labor Force
Type of Labor per Sector
Socialist Agricultural Sector
Kolkhoznik Socialist Labor
Man-Days
per
Man-Days Year
Man-Days Percent Increase
per / in Labor Force
Man-Years Man-Days Year a Man-Years from 1938 to 1951
Seasonal MTS Labor
164,648,650 b
N.R.
N.H.
198,737,580 J
N.H.
N.R.
Seasonal Sovkhoz Labor
260,113,172 /
N.H.
N.R.
336,118,871 /
N.R.
N.H.
Kolkhoz Labor
5,022,296,316 /
N.R.
N.R.
/
5,741,533,000 d
N.R.
N.R.
Total Kolkhoznik
Socialist Labor
5,447,058,138
130.54 ,
41,727,000 J
6,276,389,451
130.54
48,o8o,oo6
15.23
Sovkhoz Permanent Staff Labor
437,126,407 J
288.00
1,517,800
566,197,818
288.00
1,965,965
29.53
Sovkhoz Seasonal Worker-
Employee Labor
86,704,390 J
288.00 J
301,057 /
112,039,623 J
288.00
389,026
29.22
MTS Permanent Staff Labor
188,701,562
231.10 J
816,536 /
227,768,805 J
231.10
985,585
20.70
Total Socialist Agri-
cultural Sector Labor
6,159,590,497
138.85
44,362,393
7,182,395,697
139.68
51,420,582
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Distribution of the Soviet Agricultural Labor Force,
by Type of Work and by Sector,
1951 Compared with 1938
(Continued)
Distribution of Soviet Agricultural Labor Force
Man-Days Man-Days Percent Increase
per / per in Labor Force
Type of Labor per Sector Man-Days Year =1 Man-Years Man-Days Year J,, Man-Years from 1938 to 1951
Kolkhoznik Plot Labor
1,814,854,940
/
J
1,844,570,000
5/
J
Worker-Employee Plot Labor
Private Peasant Farm Labor
349,879,680
150.00
2,332,531
512,639,000
150.00
3,417,593 /
46.52
Total Individual Agri-
cultural Sector Labor
3,604,734,620
J
J/
J
9,764,325,117
173.45
56,294,924
9,539,604,697
173.96
54,838,175
Agricultural Labor Proper
(Total Agricultural Labor
less Worker-Employee
Plot Labor)
9,414,445,437
174.46
53,962,393
9,025,965,697
175.53
51,420,582 ,
- 4.71
a. In the absence of data to the contrary, the number of man-days worked per year is assumed, in this case, to remain constant for both 1938
and 1951. The totals, however, are derived by division.
b. The length of the work year for seasonal kolkhoznik labor for the MPS varies according to type of work. Seasonal combine operators and
their auxiliary help probably work about 23 days per harvest. The seasonal tractor drivers and their auxiliary help apparently work about
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Distribution of the Soviet Agricultural Labor Force,
by Type of Work and by Sector,
1951 Compared with 1938
(Continued)
116 days per year. (See Appendix A for more extensive explanation of the derivation of these data). Although data were available in 1938
on the number of seasonal workers of these types, there were none for 1951. Seasonal labor in 1951 was therefore derived on the basis of
man-days expended in mechanical operations per tractor that year. (See Problem 9, Appendix B for the number of workers working per day
per tractor).
c. Seasonal labor for the sovkhozy was determined in this report for both 1938 and 1951 on the basis of man-days per year associated per MTS
tractor. It was then distributed among the kolkhozniki and the workers and employees (seasonal) on the basis of a 3 to 1 ratio. (See
Problem 10, Appendix B).
d. Kolkhoznik labor for the kolkhoz consists of the sum of husbandry labor using horse-and-hand methods and of work in farm administration,
maintenance, etc.
e. The total number of man-years (workers) in socialist kolkhoznik labor, 41,727,000, apparently includes all kolkhozniki participating in
the work of the kolkhozy who are 12 years old or older. This figure may be broken down into 2 age groups, 5,'1e744,000 children aged 12 to 15,
and 36,553,000 adults 16.and older. The figure for the total number of kolkhozniki is dated 1 January 1939?
The average number of man-days worked per year is derived by division. It compares favorably with a published figure of 129 man-days
worked per kolkhoznik per year for 1937 in socialist agriculture. 39
f. The total number of man-days worked by permanent staff workers of the sovkhozy is derived from the multiplication of the number of per-
manent workers, 1,517,800, 40/ by the maximum number of man-days which able-bodied workers could work in the year. 41/ Sovkhoz workers,
probably more than other types in agriculture, are expected to approach the limit of 288 man-days worked per year. The number -of seasonal
workers and employees working for the sovkhozy is calculated at the full-year rate of the permanent staff worker or employee. , The number of
these workers is therefore somewhat fictitious. The same may be said of the number of workers and employees shown to be working on individual
plots. This number is figured at the rate of 150 man-days per year (as ex~lained in footnote a for Table 7).
g. The derivation of the number of man-days expended in 1951 by workers of the sovkhozy is explained in Appendix A.
h. The number of permanent staff workers and employees for the MTS in 1938 is calculated on the basis of the distribution of man-days
expended in 1937 in mechanical operations, according to type of operation, for permanent and seasonal workers. In 1937 (end of the year)
there were 758,304 permanent MTS workers and employees. 42/ More extensive explanation of the data for these workers, including that for
the man-days rate per year, is given in Appendix A.
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Distribution of the Soviet Agricultural Labor Force,
by Type of Work and by Sector,
1951 Compared with 1938
(Continued)
i. Total man-days by the MPS permanent staff for 1951 is calculated, as indicated in footnote b above,, on the basis of man-days worked per
tractor per year.
j. No data are filled in at this point because to do so would result in double-counting the labor force. For example, the kolkhozniki who
on the average work 130.5 days a year in socialist labor are the same kolkhozniki who cultivate their garden plots.
k. The agricultural labor force "proper" does not include the labor of workers and employees on their garden plots. Man-year units of such
labor are quite fictitious. The practice of omitting or including workers of this type in the labor force is variable in the US. The Bureau
of Census is more likely to omit such labor in the agricultural labor force,while the Department of Agriculture is more likely to include
it. For the most part, these workers are better classified as industrial workers who have garden plots.
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4. Comparative Changes in Inputs by Type of Work.
Comparison for all sectors of the. changes in man-day
inputs in agriculture may be summarized as in Table 8. It is seen
that the subsectors showing the greatest expansion are the worker-
employee plots and the sovkhozy, the former expanding by 46..5
percent and the latter by 29.4 percent.* Both of these subsectors
registered great expandiois in field husbandry, the worker-employee
plots about 38 percent and the sovkhozy about 44 percent from 1938
to 1951.
In animal husbandry, the worker-employee subsector
increased labor inputs since 1938 by 50 percent, followed by the
kolkhoz subsector which increased inputs by 45 percent. The sovkhoz
subsector registered a moderate increase of about 19 percent ins
animal husbandry.
The decline of labor inputs in husbandry on the private
peasant farms is responsible for the slight total decline in inputs
affecting total Soviet agriculture. Inputs on the kolkhoznik plots
increased 1 percent, but those on the private peasant farms disap-
peared entirely.
The tenacity by which the kolkhozniki maintain their
labor inputs in animal husbandry is significant in view of a great
drop in animal numbers. 44/ This tenacity undoubtedly reflects (1)
a trend toward intensification of effort by the kolkhozniki to
produce good-quality animal products and (2) a better demand on
the kolkhoz market for animal products than for crop products.
The subsector with the greatest expansion of inputs in
mechanical operations is the kolkhoz subsector (which includes the
MTS operations). Inputs in mechanical operations on the kolkhozy
by the MTS increased by 21 percent, whereas those in the sovkhoz
subsector increased by only about 1.2 percent. This difference
probably reflects the fact that sovkhoz mechanization, according
to Soviet definition, was already near completion before the war; 45/
whereas kolkhoz mechanization was recognized as being far from
complete, and therefore could show greater progress.
* Both of these subsectors receive state approval for their expansion.
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III. Changes in the Labor Force in Soviet Agriculture.
A. Problems in the Estimation of Workers.
On the basis of the foregoing data, changes in the agricul-
tural labor force are estimated in this section. The nature of the
data, however, requires that (1) persons must be measured as man-
year equivalents in units of man-days worked per year per worker,
and (2) the number of man-days worked per year per worker must be
recognized as variable with the type of worker.
The.variation in the composition of the man-year is seen in
Table 9 in which the kolkhozniki are shown to average 130.5 days per
year in socialist work for the kolkhozy, the MTS, and the sovkhozy;
the sovkhoz workers and employees to average 2,88 days per year in
sovkhoz employment; the PMTS workers and employees to average 231 days
per year in MTS work; and the private peasants to average 150 days
per year on their farms.
Table 9 also shows the extent to which the Soviet agricul-
tural labor force is an interlocking structure. This structure must
be taken into account to avoid the problem of double-counting the
workers. Many workers are employed in different subsectors during
the same year. Thus the kolkhozniki are employed on their own plots,
on their kolkhozy, and seasonally for the MTS and for the sovkhozy. 46
MTS workers consist of permanent staff. workers and employees, plus
seasonal kolkhoznik labor engaged directly in mechanical operations.
Sovkhoz workers comprise permanent staff workers and employees, plus
seasonal kolkhozniki and seasonal workers and employees from towns
and villages.
Worker and employee labor which is either seasonal or occurs
on plots is difficult to fix in terms of persons. Those who worked
their own plots in 1950 numbered around 17 million, and consisted
primarily of urban industrial workers with family gardens.* Some
of these undoubtedly were personnel on the permanent staffs of the
MTS and of the sovkhozy who were allocated plots by these organiza-
tions. The seasonal sovkhoz workers and employees-may include some
of the 17 million urban workers, but also will include other entirely
See Appendix A, Part 2, Problem 7.
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different people, who live in rural areas working for local govern-
ment agencies or in the handicraft trades. The use of the man-year
measure helps to reduce these types of labor to useful proportions,
and also helps to facilitate the approximation of total agricultural
employment.
Double-counting the workers, which might occur because of the
interlocking of the structure, is avoided by organizing the data as
in Table 9. The last column on the right contains the mutually exclu-
sive labor staffs of the various agricultural subsectors.
B. Changes in the Agricultural Labor Force by Type of Worker.
The total agricultural labor force in 1951, including labor
on worker-employee plots, was almost on a par with the force in 1938.
Thus there were about 54.8 million total worker equivalents in,1951
as compared with 56.3 million in 1938. This is about a 2.6 percent
decrease.. If we exclude the labor on worker-employee plots as non-bona
fide agricultural labor we obtain a larger decrease in the labor force
of about 4.7 percent. The total number of workers in agriculture proper
stood at 51.4 million in 1951 as compared with almost 54 million in 1938.
As shown in Table 9, the
estimate of the present report is 48.1 million collective farmers
(kokhozniki) for 1951.
The two largest changes in the labor force, by type of labor,
involve the labor on private peasant farms and on worker-employee plots.
The former disappeared entirely, of course, by 1951, from a total of
9.6 million in 1938. The. number of man-year equivalents on worker-
employee plots, on the contrary, increased from about 2.3 million in
1938 to 3.4 million in 1951, or about 46.5 percent. The great decline
of private peasant labor is responsible, however, for the size of the
decline in the total labor force, over-riding influences of increases
for all other types of workers.
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50X1
50X1
50X1
50X1
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The labor force in socialist agriculture increased from 44.4
million workers in 1938 to 51.4 million in 1951, or about 16 percent.
(All workers in agriculture proper were, of course, in socialist agri-
culture). Within socialist agriculture the work force in state-owned
agriculture increased more rapidly than did that in the kolkhoz sub-
sector, although the latter must be recognized as the predominant
socialist force, constituting 94 percent of the total socialist force
in 1938 and 93 percent in 1951. Thus the sovkhoz permanent staff
workers and employees increased from 1.5 million to almost 2 million,
or 30 percent; the seasonal sovkhoz worker-employee man-years
increased from 301,000 to 389,000, or 29 percent; and the MTS
permanent staff workers and employees increased from 817,000
to over 985,000,or 21 percent. The kolkhozniki increased rela-
tively the least among the socialist subsectors, from about 41.7
million in 1938 to 48 million in 1951, or about 15 percent.
These data seem to indicate that the USSR, despite large
increases in the amount of machinery in use in Soviet agriculture,
has made only nominal progress toward reducing the total labor force.
C. Changes in Specific Sectors.
As indicated above, the agricultural labor force is an inter-
locking structure, many workers being employed in more than one sub-
sector of the agricultural economy. The discussion above has centered
on analysis of changes in the numbers of workers of the mutually
exclusive staffs. This has been done to avoid the possibility of
double-counting.
It is also important, however, to describe changes affecting
kolkhoznik, MTS, and sovkhoz labor, each regarded independently and
disregarding the fact that the labor forces of all three sectors are
interrelated.
1. Kolkhoznik Labor.
By the method adopted in this study, the number of
kolkhozniki in the USSR is determined on the basis of the 1938 rate
of 130.5 man-days work per year per kolkhoznik in socialist agri-
culture. This rate, applied for 1951, gave 48 ,zillion kolkhoznik
man-equivalents for 1951 agriculture.
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On this basis it may be deduced that the kolkhozniki
equalled 74 percent of the total agricultural man-equivalents (and
77 percent of the agricultural force proper) in 1938, but 88 percent
of the total'man-equivalents (94 percent of the total force proper)
in 1951. These figures would demonstrate (1) the numerical predom-
inance of the kolkhoznik labor force in Soviet agriculture, and (2)
that this predominance has increased since 1938. It seems logical
that any effort, such as recently initiated in the USSR, to tighten
control over agricultural labor and to lead it forward toward more
rational methods of work and of organization, must begin with steps
that will affect positively the motives and sensibilities of the
kolkhozniki.
The data in Table 10',.also indicate certain changes in
the work effort of the kolkhozniki. The most important change is a
decline of 5.1 man-days labor on the kolkhoznik plots; in 1938 the
kolkhozniki put in 43.5 man-days per worker on the plots as compared
with only 38.4 in 1951. This decline is reflected in a similar decline
in the total man-days,of labor per year, from 174.0 in 1938 to 168.9 in
1951, since the number of man-days in socialist agriculture is held
constant. The decline of labor on the plots seems consistent with (1)
state pressure on the kolkhozniki that they maintain or increase their
kolkhoz participation 49/; (2) the increased proportion of women in
the kolkhoznik labor force, 202 who, of course, work a shorter work-
year than men, al/ and (3) state measures reducing the number of
kolkhoznik livestock. L2/
2. Machine Tractor Station Labor.
The total labor force for the Machine Tractor Stations
(TATS) increased from about 1.5 million man-equivalents in 1938 to
over 1.8 million in 1951, or about 21 percent. (See Table 11%,'?~ below,
in which workers are measured in terms of 231 man-days per year per
worker). At the same time the work output of the MTS had increased
from 206 million to 382.5. million soft-plowing hectares--",* or by about
Table 10 follows on p. 47
Table 11 follows on p. 4g.
'3I The soft-plowing unit is a common measure for comparing the work
output of machines in various , operations, based on fuel expenditures
in these operations. See p. 22 for further explanation.
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Table 10
Man-Day Inputs of the Kolkhoznik Labor Force in Soviet Agriculture,
by Type of Kolkhoznik Labor, 1951 Compared with 1938 a/*
Type of
Kolkhoznik
Labor
Socialist
Agricultural
Labor
198 __ 1951
Man-Days
Worked Per
Year Per
Kolkhoznik
(for
Total Man-Days 41,727,000 Total Man-Days
Worked Kolkhozniki) Worked
Man-Days
Worked Per
Year Per
Kolkhoznik
(for.
48,080,006
Kolkhozniki)
Kolkhoz
Labor
5,022,296,316
120.36
5,741,533,000
119.42
Seasonal
Labor
424,761,822
10.18
534,856,451
Total
Socialist
Agricul-
tural
Labor
5,447,058,138
130-54
6,276,389,451
130-54
Kolkhoznik
Plot
Labor
1,814,854,940
43.49
1,844,570,000
$3 .36
Total
Kolkhoz-
nik
Labor
7,261,913,078
174.03
8,120,959,451
168.90
Footnotes for Table 10 follow on p. 48.
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Man-Day Inputs of the Kolkhoznik Labor Force in Soviet Agriculture,
by Type of Kolkhoznik Labor, 1951 Compared with 1938 J
(Continued)
a. Most of the data for this table are taken from Table 9.
b. This estimate of man-days per year per kolkhoznik is less than that
published for 1939 because this estimate includes the labor of youth 12
to 15 years old, whereas the published figure, about 49 man-days per year,
refers to the labor only of able-bodied kolkhozniki. rt
Man-Day and Man-Year Inputs of the Machine Tractor Station Labor Force
in Soviet Agriculture, by Type. of Machine Tractor Station Labor,
1951 Compared with 1938 a,
Man-Days
Man-Years
Type of
Percent Increase
MTS Labor
1938
1951
1939
1951
from 1938 to 1950
Permanent
Staff
188,701,562
227,768,805
816,536
985,585
20.70
Seasonal
Kolkhoznik
164,648,650
198,737,580
712,457
859,964
20.70
Total
Labor
353,350,212
426,506,385
1,528,993
1,845,549
20.70
a. Most of the data for this table are taken from Table 9.
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86 percent from 1938 to 1951. / Of the total force, almost 47
percent was seasonal kolkhoznik labor for both 1938 and for 1951.
The seasonal force (at 231 days.per year) totalled 712,000 man-years
in 1938 and 860,000 in 1951.
3. Sovkhoz Labor.
The total labor force in the sovkhozy increased from 2.7
million man-equivalents in 1938 to over 3.5 million in 1951. (See
Table 12* below, in which workers are measured at the rate of 288
man-days per year.) At the. same time, the soft-plowing work output
of the sovkhozy had increased by about 56 percent, an increase not
quite as large as that in the MTS. (See Appendix A, Part 2, Problem ll.)
Seasonal labor for the sovkhozy constitutes about 44 percent of the
total.sovkhoz force. (See Appendix A, Part 2, Problem 12.) This sea-
sonal force totalled about 1.6 million man-equivalents in 1951, as
compared with only 1.2 million in 1938, increasing therefore by 29.4
percent. Of this seasonal force, 75 percent is kolkhoznik labor; the
remainder is worker-employee labor. (See Appendix A, Part 2, Prob-
lem 10.)
IV. Changes in Soviet Agricultural Labor Since 1951.
The analyses in the two major sections above make it possible to
determine changes in labor expenditures from 1951 to the end of the
agricultural year 1953. In this section the focus of. our attention
is on these changes for agriculture as a whole and for the total
agricultural labor force. No attempt is made to determine man-day
inputs by agricultural sector.
The. method employed is to start with CIA estimates of the number
)f hectares per crop and the number of animals by type for 1953? Next,
using the 1951 composite hectare and head requirements** of man-days
(including both horse-and-hand labor and labor associated with mechan-
ical operations)., man-day expenditures in field and animal husbandry
are determined for 1953. Then on the basis of the 1951 distribution
of man-days expended by type of work,"-H` the 1953 distribution by type
of work is determined. Upon completion of these steps the 1953 labor
force in agriculture can be derived.
#
Table 12 follows on p. 50.
'
See Table 1 and Table 2, pp. 6,
See Table 3, p. 21.
11.
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Man-Day and Man-Year Inputs of the Sovkhoz Labor Force
in Soviet Agriculture, by Type of Sovkhoz Work,
1951 Compared with'l938 a/
Amount of Sovkhoz Labor
Type of
Alan-Days
Man-Years
Sovkhoz
Percent Increase
Labor
1933 1951
1938
1951
from 1938 to 1951
Permanent
Staff
437,126,407 566,197,818
1,517,800
1,965,965
29.53
Seasonal
Kolkhoznik
260,113,172 336,11?3;871
903,171
1,167,079
29.22
Seasonal
Worker-
Employee
86,704,390 112,039,623
301,057
389,026
29.22
Total
Sovkhoz
Labor
783,943,969 1,014,356,312
2,722,028
35, 22,071
29.39
a. Most of the data for this table are taken from Table 9.
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A. Changes in Labor.Inputs in Husbandry.
Changes in labor inputs since 1951 in field and animal
husbandry may be determined from Table 13* and Table 14-x' respec-
tively. The first observation is that total hectares, principally
sown hectares, have increased by about 3.7 million hectares. As
a result there has been an increase of 57 million man-days which is an
increase of less than 1 percent. At the same time livestock numbers,
except those for cattle, have also increased so that total man-days
in animal husbandry registers an increase of 190 million or about
5.7 percent. Inputs in field husbandry in 1953 are above the 1938
level, while in animal husbandry they are slightly under the 1938 level.
In field husbandry, certain shifts between crops are noticeable,
some of these being part of the continuous shift. The postwar shift
toward wheat crops is accelerated, with a 1.9 million increase in hec-
tares in winter wheat and a 3.4 million increase in hectares of spring
wheat. The acreage in rye, however, has fallen by 4.8 million since
1951. The expansion in wheat is responsible for the .4 million increase
in grain hectares and means that, with drops in barley, oats, and corn
hectares, there has been a trend away from the production of feed grains
in favor of the better types of food grains (wheat).
Labor efficiency, in both winter and spring grains declined
slightly from 1951 to 1953. There was, however, little change in labor
efficiency for total grains. This stability is due to the fact that
spring grains were increased by 3.3 million hectares while winter grains
were decreased by 2..9 million hectares, on the one hand, and to the fact
on the other hand that spring grains require less labor, on the whole,
than winter grains. The shifts had a counter-balancing effect for labor
efficiency in total grains. ,
The postwar shift toward, increases in fodder crops is also con-
tinuing, there being in 1953 about 25.7 million hectares of sown fod-
der j/ which is about 13 percent above the 1951 level. It may be that
increases in sown fodder hectares are meant to replace, with coarse
feed, the declines in feed grain hectares. At any rate the result of
this exchange is to make total agriculture slightly less efficient than
in 1951 but slightly more efficient than'in 1938 when over 8 man-days
were required per hectare of total crops.
Table 13 follows on p. 52.
3 Table 14 follows on p. 56 .
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Man-Day Inputs in Field Husbandry in Soviet Agriculture,
1953 Compared with 1951
1951 J 1953
Percent Increase
Man-Days Number Total Number Total Percent Increase Man-Days in Man-Days
per Hecre of Hectares Man-Days of Hectares Man-Days in Total Man-Days per Hectare per Hectare
Type of Field Crop 1951 .J (Thousands) (Thousands) (Thousands) (Thousands) 1951 to 1953 1953 1951 to 1953
Grains
Winter Crops
Wheat 14.71 15,000 220,623 16,900 248,569 12.67 N.R. J N.R.
Rye 14.33 26,800 383,934 22,000 315,170 -17.91 N.R. N.R.
Total Winter.
Crop 14.45 41,800 604,557 38,900 563,7399 - 6.75 14.49 .28
Spring Crops
Wheat
12.34
27,900
344,303
31,300
386,261
12.19
N.R.
N.R.
Barley
12.04
8,800
105,921
8,200
198,699
- 6.82
N.R.
N.R.
Oats
12.27
17,300
212,320
16,100
197,592
- 6.94
N.R.
N.R.
Corn
17.43
2,900
50,556
2,800
48,813
- 3.45
N.R.
N.R.
Rice
24.09
180
4,336
180
4,336
N.C. ,
N.R.
N.R.
Other
14.80
7,320
108,356
9,120
135,000
24.59
N.R.
N.R.
Total Spring
64,40o
825,792
Crop
12.82
64,400
825,792
67,700
870,701 /
5.44'
12.86
.31
Total Grains
13.47
106,200
1,430,349
106,600
1,434,440 /
.29
13.46
-.07
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Man-Day Inputs in Field Husbandry in Soviet Agriculture,
1951 Compared with 1951
(Continued)
1951 g/ 1953
Type of Field Crop
Man-Days
per Hectare
1951
Number
of Hectares
(Thousands)
Total
Man-Days
(Thousands)
Number
of Hectares J
(Thousands)
Total
Man-Days
(Thousands)
Percent Increase
in Total Man-Days
1951 to 1953
Man-Days
per Hectare
1953
in Man-Days
per Hectare
1951 to 1953
Fruits and Vegetables
Fruits
8.78.
1,385
12,160
1,385
12,160
N.C.
N.R.
N.R.
Potatoes
65.54
9,470
620,682
9,308
610,0;64
-1.71
N.R.
N.R.
Vegetables
241.37
1,400
337,922
1,330
321,026
-5.00
N.R.
N.R.
Cucurbits
181.37
600
108,823
570
103,382
-5.00
N.R.
N.M.
Total Fruits and
Vegetables
83.98
12,855
1,079,587
12,593
1,046,632 d/
-3.05
83.11
-1:04
Technical Crops
Sugar Beets
142.06
1,336
189,795
1,500
213,093
12.28
N.R.
N.R.
Tobacco
53.00
206
10,918
210
11,130
1.94
N.R.
N.R.
Oil Bearing Crops
Cotton
135.25.
2,687
363,412
2,687
363,412
N.C.
N.R.
N.R.
Flax
85.52
2,100
179,597
2,100
179,597
N.C.
N.R.
N.R.
Hemp
83.72
608
50,903
608
50,903
N.C.
N.R.
N.R.
Sunflowers
15.77
3,913
61,720
4,200
66,247
7.33
N.R.
N.R.
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Man-Day Inputs in Field Husbandry in Soviet Agriculture,
1953 Compared with 1951
(Continued)
1951 J
Type of Field Crop
Man-Days
per Hectare
1951_a/
Number
of Hectares
(Thousands)
Total
Man-Days
(Thousands)
Number
of Hectares b/
(Thousands)
Total
Man-Days
(Thousands)
Percent Increase
in Total Man-Days
1951 to 1953
Man-Days
per Hectare
1953 -
Percent Increase
in Man-Days
per Hectare
1951 to 1953
Oil Bearing Crops
(Continued)
Soya Beans
74.11
274
20,306
300
22,233
9.49
N.R.
N.R.
Other (minor)
crops
74.06
1,023
75,767
1,100
81,470
7.53
N.R.
N.R.
Total Oil
Bearing Crops
70.88
10,605
751,705
10,995
763,862 J
1.62
69.47
-1.99
Total Technical
Crops
78.41
12,147
952,418
12,705
988,085 J
3.74
77.77
- .82
Silage Crops
17.15
1,059
18,160
1,199
20,561
13.22
N.R.
N.R.
Feed Roots
133.48
1,275
170,188
1,446
193,012
13.41
N.R.
N.R.
Sown Grass
9.50
20,366
193,477
23,055
219,023
13.20
N.R.
N.R.
Meadow Hay
4.80
66,506
318,916
66,506
318,916
N.C.
N.R.
N.R.
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Man-Day Inputs in Field Husbandry in Soviet Agriculture,
1953 Compared with 1951
(Continued)
1951 J
Percent Increase
Man-Days Number Total Number Total Percent Increase Man-Days in Mar-Days
per Hect 'e of Hectares Man-Days of Hectares Man-Days in Total Man-Days per Hectare per Hectare
Type of Field Crop 1951 J (Thousands) (Thousands) (Thousands) (Thousands) 1951 to 1953 1953 1951 to 1953
Fodder and Forage
(Continued)
Total Fodder
and Forage
2.40
437,206
1,048,741
440,206
1,099,512 /
4.84
2.50
4.17
(Total Sown
Cropg)
(24.98)
(153,902)
(3,844,179)
(157,598)
(3,901,753) J
(1.50)
(24.76)
- (.88)
Total Crops
7.94
568,408
4,511,095
572,104
4,568,669 d/
1.28
7.99
.63
a. The data for 1951 are taken from Table 1, pp. above. Man-days required per hectare include labor associated with mechanical operations, as well
as labor in horse-and-hand methods, for field crops.
b. Meadow hay and pasture hectares are carried from 1951 to 1953 without change. The number and distribution of hectares of sown fodder crops for 1953
was calculated by applying the percentage distribution of sown fodder crops in 1951 to the published total (a residual) of 25.7 million hectares for
1953. 55
c.
N.
means
not relevant."
d.
e.
This
N.C.
number
means
is a total
"no change."
derived by summation.
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Man-Day Inputs in Animal. Husbandry in Soviet Agriculture,
1953 Compared with 1951
Man-Day Inputs Based on 1951 Head Requirements
1951 J
1953
Man-Days
Required J*
Total
Total
Percent Increase
Type of Animal
per Head
1951
Head
(Thousands)
Man-Days
(Thousands)
Head
(Thousands)
Man-Days
(Thousands)
in Total Man-Days
1951 to 1953
Work Horses
30.00
8,864
265,920
9,899
296,970
11.68
Others
21.00
4,836
101,556
5,401
113,421
11.68
Total Horses
13,700
367,476
15,300
410,391
11.68
Cattle
cows
45.937
24,200
1,111,672
24;300
1,116,269
.41
Others
21.00
33,000
693,000
32,300
678,300
-2.12
Total Cattle
57,200
1,804,672
56,600
1,794,569
- .56
Swine
Ad
ults 9 months or older)
21.70
5,591
121,325
6,611
143,459
18.26
Sh
oats (4 to 9 months)
16.70
7,929
132,414
9,377
156,596
18.26
* Footnotes for Table 14 follow on p. 58.
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Man-Day Inputs in Animal Husbandry in Soviet Agriculture,
1953 Compared with 1951
(Continued)
Man-Day Inputs Based on 1951 Head Requirements
1951
1953
Man-Days
Required a
Total
Total
Percent Increase
Type of Animal
per Head
1951
Head
(Thousands)
Man-Days
(Thousands)
Head b/
(Thousands)
Man-Days
(Thousands)
in Total Man-Days
1951 to 1953
Swine (Continued)
Piglets
11.20
10,580
118,496
12,512
140,134
18.26
Total Swine
24,100
372,235
28,500
440,189
18.26
Adults (9 months or older)
3.995
63,370
249,165
69,237
276,602
11.01
Lambs and kids
3.00
36,630
109,890
40,663
121,989
11.01
Total Sheep and Goats
99,000
359,055
109,900
398,591
11.01
Poultry
Chickens
2.00
207,730
415,460
230,700
461,400
11.09
Other
1.00
62,270
62,270
69,300
69,300
11.09
Total Poultry
270,000
477,730
300,000
530;700
11.09
Total Animals 3,381,168 3,574,440 5.72
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Man-Day Inputs in Animal Husbandry in Soviet Agriculture,.
1953 Compared with 1951
(Continued)
a. These data are taken from Table 2. The man-day data include only labor using horse-and-hand methods, as in
Table 2.
b. The numbers of animals according to age were distributed for each type on the basis of 1938 percentages.
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The postwar shift toward more technical crops is also
continuing, with about 560,000 more hectares in these crops in
1953 than in 1951. Total inputs have increased but labor effi-
ciency has improved. The decline in man-days required per hectare
of technical crops from 1938 to 1951 has continued to 1953. This
continuance of improvement in labor efficiency is due principally
to shifts toward more sunflowers, soya beans, and other minor oil
crops while the area in the labor-consuming crops, sugar beets and
cotton, has remained stable from 1951 to 1953.
The postwar increase toward more potatoes, vegetables, and
cucurbits, evident in 1951, seems to have been reversed by 1953.
No firm data as to the source of this decline by sector since 1951
are available. It may be, however, that the decline which has been
evident since 1947 in the numbers of workers and employees with
garden plots may have continued past 1951 into 1953.* The Khrushchev
report seems to place much of the blame for decline in these crops
on the kolkhozniki. 57
The largest absolute increase in labor inputs in animal
husbandry since 1951 is registered for swine, an increase of about
70 million man-days out of the total increase of 190 million man-
days. Horses, which are more labor-consuming than swine, have con-
tinued to increase in number in 1953, requiring about 40 million
more man-days than in 1951. Sheep and goats, which have increased
by over 10 million head since 1951, are also the least labor-consuming
of the four major groups of animals, and therefore register only 40
million man-days more than in 1951. Cattle, which are the most labor-
consuming of the animal groups,, seem to have changed but little in
number, actually requiring fewer inputs in 1953 than in 1951. This
decline seems to have been caused by the increased slaughtering of
cattle other than cows, and possibly by a sharper competition than
existed in 1951 for the use of feed grains.
At this point, it is pertinent to evaluate the effects of
recent changes in mechanization in Soviet agriculture since 1951. 281
The method employed in the above analysis assumes that these recent
changes in mechanization have resulted in only minor amounts of labor
saved. Labor savings from 1938 to 1951 totalled only about 158 million
* Appendix A, Part 2, Problem 7.
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man-days because of increases in mechanization.* These savings were
effected during a period when increases in mechanization were much
larger than they were from 1951 to 1953.
Increases in tractor power seem comparatively large since
1951.3** Increases in the mechanization of the cultivation of row
crops such as corn, sunflowers, sugar beets, cotton, and vegetables
are probably important. 60 On the other hand, the amount of deep
plowing has continued to increase, 61 and the hectares in techni-
cal crops and in sown fodder (especially feed roots) have also
increased faster than hectares in other crops. These increases,
because they involve large labor consumption, would seem partially
to offset labor savings due to increased mechanization.
B. Changes in Labor Inputs by Type of Work.
Table 15%* summarizes changes in man-days expended in Soviet
agriculture by type of work. Total input in 1953 exceeded 9.8 billion
man-days and was 300 million more than the total in 1951, an increase
amounting to 3.2 percent. Most of this increase. was contributed by
labor in husbandry which required 8.1 billion man-days in 1953 compared
with 7.9 billion in 1951 (including both inputs in horse-and-hand
methods and inputs in mechanical- operations). Labor inputs in farm
administration and maintenance and in slack-season,. communal work with
machines were calculated to increase at the same rate as labor in
husbandry.
C. Changes in the Total Agricultural Labor Force.
An approximation of the number of the number of agricultural
workers is shown in Table 16,E which indicates that the number of
man-equivalents in total agriculture increased by about 1.7 million.
workers from 1951 to 1953. Thus there were 54.84 million man-equi-
valents in 1951, and 56.58 million in 1953. The 1953 total is about
280,000 greater than the 1938 figure of 56.3 million.
# See Appendix A.
In-mid-1951 the MTS had 790,000 tractors of 15 horsepower (hp)
each while at the end of 1953 they had 959,000. 59
Table 15 follows on p. 61.
Table 16 follows on p. 62.
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Table 15
Man-Day Inputs in Soviet Agriculture,
by Type of Work, 1953 Compared with 1951
Man-Days Expended
in Soviet Agriculture
Type of Work
Husbandry
1951 a/
Thousands)
1953 a/ Percent Increase
(Thousands) from 1951 to 1953
Field Husbandry
4,511,095
4,568,669 J
1.28
Animal Husbandry
3,381,168
3,574,440 J
5.72
Total Husbandry
7,892,263
8,143,109 k/
3.18
Farm Administration,
Maintenance, etc.
1,601,916
1,652,831 s/
3.18
Slack Season, Com-
munal Activities
with Machines
45,426
46,869
.18
9,539,605
9,842,809r/
.18
a. Data for 1951 are taken from Table 3. The data for husbandry for both
1951 and 1953 include labor associated with mechanical operations, which
was assigned to husbandry.
b. Data for 1953 husbandry are taken from Table 13 and Table 14.
c. These data are derived on the basis of 1951 percentage relationships.
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Man-Day and Man-Year Inputs of the Total Labor Force
in Soviet Agriculture, 1953 Compared with 1-951
Man-Days
Man-Years
1951
1953
1951
1953
Total
Agriculture 9,539,605,000 ,
9,842,809,000 j/
54,838,175 a/
56,581,137
Agriculture
Proper 9,025,966,000
9,312,845,000 LI
51,420,582 a
53,054,921
a. From Table 9, p. 38.
b. From Table 15, p. 61.
c. Derived on basis of 1951 relation to total.
d. Derived on basis of 173.96 days per man-equivalent in 1951.
e. Derived on basis of 175.53 days per worker (in agriculture proper)
in 1951.
Workers in the agricultural labor force proper increased from
51.4 million in 1951 to about 53.1 million in 1953, or about 3.2 per-
cent, or an absolute increase of about 1.6 million workers. If we
assume that increases in mechanization since 1951 effected labor
savings amounting to 300,000 man-equivalents,. the labor force.proper
in agriculture would have increased by 1.3 million by the end of 1953.*
* No attempt is made in this report to assess the significance of
recent changes of policy which undoubtedly, have resulted in addi-
tional increases in agricultural labor.
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V. Capabilities, Vulnerabilities, and Intentions.
Soviet intentions for agricultural labor seem broadly encompassed
in the objective of rapidly improving its efficiency -- that is, of
reducing the quantity of labor inputs required per hectare per crop
and per head of animals. The principal means adopted to promote this
objective is the progressive substitution of machine methods in place
of manual methods in the work operations of various agricultural
enterprises. The desired results of this substitution are the release
of agricultural workers.for work in industry, the decrease in labor
costs for agriculture, and the increase in the work productivity of
the remaining farm workers -- that is, increase in output of agricul-
tural products per man.
The USSR has not apparently accomplished this substitution on a
large scale at present. In 1951 the use of mechanical methods.prob-
ably saved about 158 million man-days from the amount of labor which
would have been required had the work been performed. according to
practices in effect in 193g. This saving would represent a reduction
equal to the labor of about 1.2 million kolkhozniki when calculated at
the rate of 130 man-days per year.
Progress in the substitution of machine for manual methods has been
most pronounced in grain crops (except corn and rice) and in hay crops..
Machine methods seem to be most easily adapted to these crops. It is
also true, however, that these crops, when compared with vegetable and
row-type crops and with swine and dairy enterprises, required relatively
small quantities-of labor even before the substitution of machine meth-
ods. Some further improvement in the efficiency of labor in grain and
hay crops is undoubtedly possible, especially in harvest operations,
but great quantities of labor savings would be achieved if the substi-
tution of machine for manual methods could be successfully applied in
the vegetable and row-type crops and in swine and dairy enterprises.
Despite the labor. savings achieved in Soviet agriculture in 1951,
labor efficiency per hectare of sown crops was apparently below the
level attained in 1938. That is, the average number of man-day inputs
per hectare of sown crops in 1951 was slightly higher than the average
in 1938. This fact occurred because the USSR expanded acreages in
certain technical crops, especially sugar beets and cotton, and in
feed roots and silage crops, while they reduced acreages in grain crops.
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Since the former crops require much more labor inputs than grain
crops the effect was to increase the average labor inputs per hectare
of sown crops in 1951 over those in 138. It is likely that the
effect of the recent expansion in grain acreage in the USSR east
of the Urals and in the Central Asian Republics will in 1954 and
1955 reduce average labor requirements per hectare of sown crops
considerably below those in 1938.
There are certain important obstacles which may seriously
limit progress in the reduction-of labor requirements in Soviet
agriculture. The first is the climate. The limitations imposed
on agricultural operations by this factor are of such considerable
scope that it will probably require much more machinery in the USSR
per unit of acreage to achieve timeliness in farm operations than
it has in the US where mechanization has aided in great reductions
in labor requirements. The climate is ideal in the US for fanning,
compared to what it is in the USSR.
The USSR. also lacks adequate types and amounts of machinery for
the mechanical farming of vegetable and row-type crops, although
there has been continual experimentation with machines for these
crops. Existing types of machines have frequently been damaging
to yields. Certain types of farm operations in these crops will
probably never be mechanized.
Similar observations seem applicable to the mechanization of
livestock enterprises. Reductions in labor requirements in dairy
and swine fermy will undoubtedly be achieved by machine milking,
by water fountains for cows and hogs, by overhead trolleys for
manure disposal, and by the mechanical preparation of feed. But
the fact remains that labor requirements in dairy and swine fermy
will still be high after these improvements have been successfully
fulfilled.
Finally, the problem.of the mechanization of on-the-farm trans-
portation seems an important limitation to progressive reductions
in labor inputs, especially in the activities of harvest, in
which -- for most crops -- the dominant proportion of labor inputs
are expended. At the present time carts and wagons are relied on
as the principal means of transporting the harvest in Soviet agri-
culture. The mechanization of transportation in harvest operation
(and in other field operations as well) would undoubtedly be an
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important means for reducing labor requirements. Progress in the
substitution of truck for horse-and-wagon methods of transportation
would, however, depend on increasing the supply of trucks, truck
parts, and petroleum products for on-the-farm transportation purposes.
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APPENDIX A
PART I
METHODOLOGY
I. Method for Determining Labor Saved in Horse-and-Hand.Work*
on the Kolkhozy. -Y R The problem of determining the amount of labor saved in
horse-and-hand work due.to increases of mechanization from 1938 to
1951 involves the use of percentages, averages, and ratios. These
are applied to each crop in field husbandry. Since increases in the
mechanization of animal husbandry are so minor, our interest is
primarily in savings for crops.** While this method is used for each
crop, it is illustrated in this appendix for one crop only, winter
wheat, and on a step-by-step basis.. The procedure is. the same for
each crop, but different percentages, averages, and ratios are
applicable.
A. Step One: To Determine Total Man-Day Inputs in Soviet Winter
Wheat in 1938 and 1951, Assuming No Changes in Mechanization.
The first step is to determine the man-days expended on winter
wheat in total agriculture. This step involves the assumption that
the rate of inputs per man-day per hectare of winter wheat is the
same for 1938 and 1951, and that the rate of mechanization is also
the same for each year. These data are tabulated in Table 17***:
B. Step Two: To Derive Average Man-Days per Hectare Per Field
Operation in 1938.
Savings of labor in horse-and-hand work in plowing, sowing,
and harvesting have been determined. The evidence indicates that
# "Horse-and-Hand Labor Savings" denotes savings of human labor
using horse-and-hand methods.
** Mechanization of dairy fermy and electroshearing of sheep and
the resultant labor savings are discussed in Appendix A, Part 2,
Problem 5 and Problem 6.
* * Table 17 follows on p. 68..
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Computation of Total Man-Days in Horse-and-Hand Work
in Soviet Agriculture
1938 and 1951
Y
a
Number of Hectares
Winter Wheat
i
Average Man-Days
per Hectare
in Horse-and-Harid,Work
(1937 Data)/
Total Man-Days
in Horse-and-Hand Methods
r
e
n
1938
15,000,000
11.7 /
175,500,000
1951
15,000,000 a/
11.7 j/
175,500,000 h/
a. See Table 1, p.
b. The total man-days employed in horse-and-hand methods in this table
and for all crops and animals in this report are based on rates (man-days
per hectare or per animal) most of which were reported in official Soviet
studies conducted under the jurisdiction of Gosplan for 1937. The data
in these studies were obtained from investigations of 430 kolkhozy sampled
in 10 oblasts and kray.
advances were greatest in the mechanization of these operations for
the kolkhozy from 1938 to 1951. 64/
1. Average Man-Days Required per Hectare of Plowing for
Winter Wheat on the Kolkhozy in 1938.
There are 3 kinds of plowing stressed in
Soviet reports. The first is fallow plowing, which is defined as the
plowing of land which is left idle from crops for a varying period of
time, but which usually undergoes cultibation in the interim in prepa-
ration for seeding of such winter crops as winter wheat and ryE.* The
several types of fallow plowing are distinguished by the season of the
year when the soil is lifted by the plow. They all have in common the
fact, however, that the crop is usually sown in the fall of the year. 66
# This report assumes all winter crop hectares are fallow plowed.
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plowing and .70 man-days per hectare for fallow plowing.
and spring plowing because in 1938 more man-days per hectare were
expended on fall'and spring plowing than on fallow plowing. The
averages are .85 man-days required per hectare for fall and spring
The other 2 kinds of plowing are fall plowing and spring plowing, the
crops for-which are sown in the spring. There are other types of
plowing, such as deep and shallow plowing,* but these are not of primary
interest in a study of the mechanization of plowing.
It is important to distinguish fallow plowing from fall
Ion the average, 2.04 man-days labor in horse-and-hand work
are required per hectare of plowing which is nonmechanized, and .41.
man-days are required per hectare which is mechanized. The labor
ratio is 5 to 1. That is, five times as much labor is required on the
first type of hectare (in horse-and-hand work) as on the second type
of hectare.
The derivation of the general average of .70 man-days per
hectare of fallow plowing was developed by obtaining the percentage of
winter wheat hectares plowed mechanically in 1938, on the kolkhozy,
which is given as 82.5 percent. 67 With this percentage the kolkhoz
winter wheat hectares may be divided into those which are mechanically
and those which are nonmechanically plowed. These figures may then be
multiplied by the average man-days required for these two types of
hectares, the totals (in man-days) added and the grand total divided
by total hectares. This procedure provides the data in Table 18.x'#
50X1
50X1
2. Average Man-Days Expended Per Hectare in Sowing and Harvesting
in 1938.
The derivations of (1) the general average of man-days in
horse-and-hand work required per hectare on the kolkhozy for the seeding
of winter wheat, and (2) the general average for the harvesting of winter 50X1
absolute rather than relative (percentage) numbers, are cited
creases in deep plowing or shallow lowing, usually given in
as evidence of progress in agrotechnology, not in mechanization. 50X1
unlike ordinary plowing, is more like discing or harrowing (spring-
toothing) the stubblefields.
## Table 18 follows on p. 70.
Deep plowing is defined on p. 18 (footnote ,* ). Shallow plowing,
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Computation of Average Man-Days of Horse-and-Hand Work per
Hectare Expended on Plowing in Kolkhozy in Soviet Agriculture
1938
Number of Hectares
Average Number
of Man-Days
Per Hectare
Total Number
of Man-Days
Required
Mechanized Hectares
9,869,000
.41
4,046,000
Nonmechanized. Hectares
2,093,000
2.04
4,270,000
Total
11,962,000
.70
8 316,000
wheat were processed differently from the derivation of the general
average for plowing. For sowing and harvesting both the labor ratios
and the rates per mechanized and per nonmechanized hectares were lacking.
Use of US experience was therefore relied on. According to US data
about 8 percent of the time spent on winter wheat was occupied in seed-
ing, and about 50 percent in harvesting. 68 These percentages, applied
to the total average (for all agricultural operations) of 11.7 man-days
in horse-and-hand work per hectare of kolkhoz winter wheat, yield an
average of .94 man-days per hectare required for seeding, and 5.85
man-days for harvesting. The average for harvesting lies about midway
between a range of from 4 to 7 man-days
required per hectare of wheat in harvesting-.~kV
C. Step Three: To Derive Average Man-Days per Mechanized Hectare
and per Nonmechanized Hectare per Field Operation in 1938.
From Step One, above, the averages given for plowing are:
.41 for mechanized hectares and 2.04 for nonmechanized hectares.
Similar averages are needed in this step for sowing and harvesting.
The averages for sowing may be derived from US experience. It was
found that in winter wheat farming areas of the US the input of labor
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in sowing, using horse-and-hand methods, on nonmechanized hectares was
1.75 times as great as on mechanized hectares. Soviet experience for
harvesting indicates that in 1938 the ratio of man-day inputs in
horse-and-hand work on kolkhoz grains was 2.542 on the nonmechanized
hectares to 1 on the mechanized hectares, that is, man-days per
hectare expended in horse-and-hand methods on the nonmechanically
harvested hectares were 2.542 times as great as on the mechanically
harvested hectares.*
Completion of the process of the derivation of the general
averages of labor inputs in seeding and harvesting operations per
hectare requires obtaining the percentage of mechanically seeded
hectares and that of mechanically harvested hectares in winter wheat
on the kolkhozy. These are given for 1938 in sowing as 50.3 percent
of the kolkhoz winter wheat hectares, and in harvesting as 45 per-
cent. _U/
It is now possible, on the basis of the following algebraic
formula, to determine how much labor in horse-and-hand methods is
required per mechanized and per nonmechanized hectare for each of the
sowing and harvesting operations in kolkhoz winter wheat in 1938:
A Ht = Hm X + Hn-m Y
Where A = the average man-days required in horse-and-hand work per
hectare of winter wheat,
Ht= the total hectares in winter wheat,
the mechanized hectares in winter wheat,
%-n = the nonmechanized hectares in.winter wheat,
X = the labor in horse-and-hand work on the mechanized hectare
in man-days,
Y = the labor in horse-and-hand work on the nonmechanized
hectare in man-days,
and where Y = 1.75 X in the case of sowing, and
Y = 2.542 X in the case of harvesting.
The application of these procedures and factors yields the data
tabulated in Table 19** for sowing and harvesting of kolkhoz winter wheat:
See Appendix A, Part 2, Problem 15.
## Table 19 follows on p. 72.
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Table 19
Computation of Total Man-Days of Horse-and-Hand Work Required
for Sowing and Harvesting Kolkhoz Winter Wheat in the USSR
1938
Number of Hectares
Average
Man-Days
per Hectare.
Total Man-Days
Required
Sowing Operation
Mechanized Hectares
6,017,000
..6847
4,120,000
Nonmechanized Hectares
5,945,000
1.1983
7,124,000
Total
11,962,000
.94
11.244..000
Harvesting Operation
Mechanized Hectares 5,383,000
3.1654
17,040,000
Nonmechanized Hectares 6,579,000
8.0464
52,938,000
Total 11,962,000
5.85
69.978.000
D. Step Four: To Determine Labor Savings Due to Increased
Mechanization, from 1938 to 1951.
1. Use of Average Man-Days Required per Hectare DerOperation.
If it is assumed that there had been no change in the
percentages of hectares mechanized for all three field operations from
1938 to 1951.3. and if the 1938 general averages* of man-days in
horse-and-hand work required per hectare of winter wheat for the three
* These are from Table 18 for plowing, and from Table 19 for sowing
and harvesting.
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operations are applied, the following distribution of data results
for the 13,571,000 hectares of kolkhoz winter wheat in 1951.*
Computation of Total Man-Days of Horse-and-Hand Work Required
for Plowing, Sowing, and Harvesting Kolkhoz Winter Wheat
in the USSR (Based on 1938 Average Rates of Man-Day
Inputs per Hectare)
1951
Average Man-Days?Required
per Hectare
Total Man-Days Required
Plowing
.70
9,500,000
Sowing
.94
12,757,000
Harvesting
5.85
79,390,000
Total A.R.
1010647,000
2. Use of Average Man-Days Required per Mechanized and Per
Nonmechanized Hectare for Each Operation.
The assumption in the first part of Step Four that there
had been no change in the percentage of hectares mechanized for all
three field operations from 1938 to 1951 is not correct, of course.
Mechanization of fallow plowing had advanced from 82.5 percent to
* The proportion of winter wheat hectares which were sown on the
kolkhozy in 1938 was used to determine the number of kolkhozy,14inter
wheat hectares in 1951. This percentage is 90.47 percent. 72/
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to 95 percent;* / mechanization of sowing from 50.3 percent to 85
percent; and mechanization of harvesting from 45 percent to 63
percent. / Application of the 1938 averages for mechanized and
nonmechanized hectares to the hectares in kolkhoz winter wheat in
1951 results in the data in Table 21.
Computation of Total Man-Days of Horse-and-Hand Work Required
for-Sowing., Plowing, and Harvesting Kolkhoz Winter Wheat
in the USSR (Based on 1938 Average Rates of Man-Day Inputs
per Mechanized and Nonmechanized Hectare)
1951
Number of Hectares
Average Number- Total
of Man-Days Man-Days
Per Hectare Required
Plowing Operation
Mechanized Hectares
12,892,000
.41
5,286,000
Nonmechanized Hectares
679,000
2.04
1,385,000
13,571,000
6.671.000
Sowing Operation
Mechanized Hectares
11,535,000
.684?
7,898,000
Nonmechanized Hectares
2,036,000
1.1983
2,440,000
13,571,000
10,338,000
Harvesting Operation
Mechanized Hectares
8,550,000
3.1654
27,064,000
Nonmechanized Hectares
5,021,000
8.0464
40,401,000
Total
133571,000
67,465.000
Total Man-Days
Required
84,4742000
* The percentage mechanization of fallow plowing used in this study
for 1951 is actually cited for 1950. No indication was discovered in
the preparation of this study that 1951 mechanization was either
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Labor Savings
If, now, the total man-days derived in substep 2 just above
are subtracted from the total derived in substep 1, a total reduction
of 17,173,000 man-days is obtained. These 17 million man-days are the
labor savings due to increased mechanization of winter wheat from 1938
to 1951. There is one major assumption. This is that the number of
man-days required in horse-and-hand work in kolkhoz winter wheat on
the mechanized hectare, and the number required on the nonmechanized
hectare, have remained unchanged from 1938 to 1951 for each of the
plowing, sowing, and harvesting operations. As already indicated,
it is also assumed that changes in the percentage of hectares
mechanized for other operations have been minor.
These savings may now be subtracted from the hypothetical
for 1951 (based on 1937 man-day requirements) obtained in Table 17,
to derive the actual total man-days expended in Soviet winter wheat
areas. This total is 158,327,000-man-days labor in horse-and-hand
work in 1951, instead of the 175.5 million which would have been
used had there been no change in mechanization. The major assumption,
in this subtraction, is that changes in mechanization on the sovkhozy
are negligible.*
Similar methods were employed for all other crops. The
total man-days in horse-and-hand work saved as a result of increases
in mechanization were 157,655,000, which were distributed among the
major crop groups as shown in Table 22.**
For the most part, the data below are almost self-explana-
tory. Labor savings were obtained principally from grain crops and
from hay crops. There were no labor savings for total technical
crops primarily because nan-day inputs per hectare were increased
from 1938 to 1951 in sugar beets to such an extent that total
additional inputs in horse-and-hand work in sugar beets outweighed
the labor saved due to the mechanization of other technical crops.
The total additional labor required for sugar beet production in
1951 is calculated at 5,243,000 man-days.
* Most of the important operations on the sovkhozy were apparently
mechanized both in the prewar era 26/ and in 1951. 77/
** Table 22 follows on p. 76.
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Distribution of Labor Savings Due to Increased
Mechanization by Major Crop Group
in the USSR
1951
Type of Crop
Subtraction of Man-Days
Due to Mechanization
Winter Grains
- 49,634,000
Spring Grains
- 64,100,000
Total Fruits and Vegetables
- 8,986,000
(Potatoes )/
(81665,000)
Total Technical Cro s
648,000 (Labor. Added)
(Oil-Bearing Crops/ ?
(4,532,000)
Total Fodder and Forage
35,583,000
(Hay Crops )./
(34,162,000)
(Total Sown)
-.(136,110,000)
Total Crops
- 157,655,000
a. Potatoes are included also under total fruits and
vegetables.
b. Oil-bearing crops are also.included under total technical
crops,
c. Hay crops are also included under total fodder and
forage.
The additional labor required for sugar beets seems due to
a decline in the percentage of mechanization of the harvesting of
sugar beets from 1938 to 1951. While the percentage of mechanization
of the plowing and sowing of sugar beet hectares increased,* (only
slightly for sowing, from 95 percent / to 98 percent),** the
* In this report, the percentage mechanization of the plowing of
sugar beets is regarded as the same as the percentage mechanization of
plowing for all spring crops.
Data are available for mechanized
plowing of sugar beets for 1938, however. 78
# The percentage of mechanized sowing of sugar beets for 1951
actually is cited for 1952. 80/' - 76 -
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percentage of mechanization of the harvesting of sugar beet hectares
fell from 79.5 percent 81 to 70 percent.* For most.erops, slight
advances or regressions in the mechanization of harvesting are much
more significant for changes in the labor required in horse-and-hand
work than advances or regressions in the mechanization of other
operations.
II. Method for Determining Additional Labor (Required for Machine
Operations.
In order to determine the labor associated with machinery and to
distribute this labor by crops it was first necessary to analyze 3
published tables. The first of these deals with the labor savings
accomplished on the kolkhozy in 1937 by the use of tractors and
combines. / This published table has been re-worked and presented
(in essentially the original form) as Table 23.
Computation of Labor Savings on the Kolkhozy in the USSR
Due to Increased Mechanization
1937
Million
Man-Days
Worked
Million
Man-Years
A.
Labor in MTS Tractor Work
220.8
1.9
B.
Labor,.if Work Done by Horse-
and-Hand Methods-, 1937
1,070.6
9.1
C.
Labor, if Work Done by Peasants
of 1925-26
1,505.8
12.8
D.
Labor Saved:
A Compared with B
849.8
7.2
A Compared with C
11285.0
10.9
* Soviet statements indicate that by 1950 the level of mechanized
sugar beet harvesting was below 70 percent mechanization. Other state-
ments indicate that the level attained in 1951 is still considerably
below the level achieved in 1938. 82
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The second and third tables deal with distributions of MTS workers
for 1937. / These were re-grouped (they deal with the same numbers
of workers) as Table 24.
Table 24
Computation of the Distribution of MTS Workers
in the USSR by Occupational Group
1937
Number of MTS Workers
Agronomists 32,592
Administrative 98,488
Engineers, Mechanics 40,026
Repair Shop Workers 99,423
Truck, Auto Drivers 56,079
Combine Operators 82,413
Tractor Brigadiers 95,832
Tractor Drivers 40,371
Other Workers 213,080
Total Permanent MTS Workers 758.304 a/
Kolkhoznik Tractor Drivers a/ 644,645
Total PATS Workers 1,402,949
a. See Appendix A. Part 2, Problem 16.
A. Step One: To Distribute Nan-Days Expended by the MTS
for 193
.
Analysis of Table 23 above shows that when the 220.8 million
man-days worked by the MTS in tractor operations are divided by the
number of man-years, we obtain an average work year of 116.2105 days
worked per man-year. Since this table was intended to show the labor-
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savings effects of machine operations and of the POTS over horse-and-
hand methods in 1937 and over peasant methods prior to collectivization,
it seems obvious that the MTS labor is cast in terms of kolkhoznik
labor for the MTS, and in particular of_kolkhoznik tractor-driver labor
for the MTS. / In other words, the 1.9 million man-years of Table 23
represent IVTS work translated into kolkhoznik tractor-driver man-years.
It is certain, from Table 24, that the 1.9 million workers are not the
total labor force on the MTS. The total in Table 24 is 1.4 million.
The man-year for the kolkhoznik tractor driver (seasonally for the
TITS) is therefore assumed to be 116.2105 days per year. And the total
labor worked by the 644,645 kolkhoznik drivers is about 75 million
man-days.
Assuming that the average permanent MTS worker worked 231.1
man-days per year in 1937,* the distribution, as shown in Table 25,**
can be computed.
The grand total of days worked, using the averages just
described, is 250.2 million man-days worked. This total is 29 million
more man-days than indicated above. We may assume 50X1
that these additional man-days represent the labor of permanent 1"ITS
workers in slack-season, communal activities in mechanical work not
associated directly with agriculture.
The number of man-days worked per year by the permanent salaried
workers of the MTS for agriculture may now be derived as well as the
number of man-days worked per year by these workers-in slack-season,
communal activities in nonagricultural work. This calculation is done
by subtracting the number of man-days.worked by the kolkhozniki, about
75 million, from the published number of man-days worked by total 1-ITS
workers. This subtraction leaves exactly 145,885,556 man-days worked
by the permanent salaried PITS workers. Since there were 758,304 of
them, a rate of 192,384 man-days per permanent MTS worker in agricul-
tural work on the kolkhoz is indicated. If we subtract this 192.384
from 231.1 (total permanent MTS worker year) we obtain 38.716 days
per permanent MTS worker in slack-season, communal activities in
nonagricultural work.
kolkhoznik on his plot from 280 man-days,
# This average was obtained by substracting 48.9 man-days per
the standard man-year. 86
** Table 25 follows on p. 80.
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50X1
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Table 25
Computation of the Distribution of Man-Day Expenditures
in Mechanical Operations of MTS Workers in
the USSR, by Occupational Group
1937
Number of Workers
Number of Man-Days Worked
Permanent Kolkhozniki
Permanent
Kolkhozniki
Agronomists
32,592
7,532,011
Administra-
tive
98,488
22,760,577
Engineers)
Mechanics
40,026
9,250,009
Repair Shop
Workers
99,423
22,976,655
Truck, Auto
Drivers
56,078
12,959,857
Combine
Operators
82,413
19,045,644
Tractor
Brigadiers
95,832
22$146.,755
Tractor Driv-
ers
Permanent
40,371
9,329,738
Kolkhozniki
6hL,645
74,914,451
Other Workers
213,080
49,242,788
Total Permanent
758,304
175,2 42054
Workers
Total Permanent
and Kolkhozniki
Workers
1402,949
2501, 58,505
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B. Step Two: To Distribute Nan-Days Expended by'Workers
Associated with Mechanical Operations in 1U8.
1. Distribution of Total MTS Work in l9 .
Further analysis of the data above suggests the omission
of great amounts of seasonal labor. For one thing, only 82,413
combine drivers are included in the list of workers. These cannot be
all, for there were about 105,000 combines in the MTS in 1937. 87
It was estimated, therefore, that in all probability there were at
least two kolkhoznik combine operators for every MTS operator.* Thus,
164,826 kolkhoznik seasonal combine operators should be added to the
list.
The addition of these workers made it necessary to derive
the work-year for seasonal combine operators.
the combine works about one-fifth as long as the tractor in the
field. 88 One-fifth applied to the kolkhoznik seasonal tractor-driver 50X1
work year yields a seasonal combine-operator work year of 23.2421
days per harvest.
In addition, there were omissions of auxiliary helpers from
the list of workers introduced above. These workers would be helpers
for tractor drivers and for combine operators. The determination .of
the number of the these workers requires the following types of data:
(1) the number of helpers auxiliary to the combine operator; and (2)
the number of man-shifts worked per day per tractor.**
The first of these types of data is the easier to derive.
A recent evaluation of Soviet the labor associated with
a harvesting brigade i indicates the enormous 50X1
amount of men working per combine-harvester. / For this better-
than-average brigade, a total of 44 men were busy with 2 combines. In
addition there was a tractor brigade consisting of 15 men. According
to this report 8 men could be considered working in direct support of
the combine operators. There were 2 sackers, 2 checkweighmenJ, and 4
weighers. On this basis, it was adjudged there were 4 auxiliary help-
ers for each combine operator.
* This assumes at least one assistant operator per kolkhoznik
operator.
** A man-shift is a 10-hour shift worked by one man in work associated
with tractors.
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The second of the required types of data is more difficult
to derive but more necessary, because of the greater absolute number
of man-days involved. The number of man-shifts.worked per day per
tractor evolved out of the following findings for the MTS:
1. In 1938, the number of tractors, all sizes,
was 394,000. 9.Q/
2. In 1938, each tractor, all sizes, averaged 134
tractor shifts of 10 hours each or 1,340
hours per year. 9-11
3. In 1938, the number of tractors of 15-hp was
496,000. / They therefore averaged
1,064.4355 hours per year.
4. In 1938, the number of soft-plowing hectares
averaged by 496,000 15-hp tractors was 447.
/ Each soft-plowing hectare therefore
required 2.3813 hours; and each 15-hP
tractor averaged 4.1994 hectares of soft-
plowing per 10-hour -shift.
5. In 1937, the average hectares of soft-plowing
per shift per 15-hp tractor was 3.8. %l/
Each soft-plowing hectare required therefore
2.6316 hours per 15-hp tractor. 5/ Each 15
hp tractor averaged 488 soft-plowing hectares
per year and therefore averaged 1,284,21 hours.
2W
6. In 1940, each 15-hp tractor averaged 411 soft-
plowing hectares per year .and, at 1937 rates
averaged 1,081.58 hours per year.
If the number of tractor shifts per year per tractor for
1938, 134, is divided by the number of man-days averaged by the
seasonal kolkhoznik tractor drivers, 116.2105 days per year, a figure
of 1.1531 man-shifts per day per tractor in 1938 is obtained. The
number of auxiliary workers per tractor per shift is still needed.
This is 1.2 men per
tractor per shift.* Multiplying 1.1531 by 1.2, a figure of 1.3837 men
See Appendix A, Part 2, Problem 17.
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in auxiliary labor per tractor per tractor day (the whole day) is
obtained.
The number of kolkhozniki who served as auxiliary help
to combine operators and to tractor drivers in 1937 can now be
determined. By multiplying the number of kolkhoznik combine operators
(164,826), by 4, a figure of 659,304 auxiliary combine helpers is
obtained for 1937. In 1937 the number of tractors was 365,900. j/
If this number is multiplied by 1.3837, a product of 506,296 tractor
auxiliary helpers working per day is calculated.
If respective man-years rates are applied to these
additional workers and to those found in Table 25 above, the
distribution of man-days worked for the NITS in.1937 as shown in
Table 26* is obtained:
2. Distribution of Total MTS Work in 1938.
It is now possible to distribute MTS work for 1938 on
the basis of the distribution for 1937 (Table 26), using percentage
relationships. The starting point is the total of man-days worked
in 1938 by skilled workers--that is, by kolkhoznik and MTS combine
operators, kolkhoznik tractor drivers, and by the permanent MTS
worker staff. This total is important because it can be directly
related to the number of tractors and is found for 1937 to be
224,630,901** (by adding 218,884,548 and 5,746,353 as shown in
Table 26). This sum, divided by 365,900 tractors in 1937***
yields 613.913367 man-days work by skilled workers per tractor.
Since the MTS had 394,000 tractors in 1938, a total of
241,881,868 man-days of skilled labor can be computed for 1938 by the
use of this rate. Then, on the basis of 1937 percentage relationships,
the distribution of 1938 man-day inputs of all MTS workers in
mechanical operations can be determined as shown in Table 27.****
* Table 26 follows on p. 814.
** This number is similar to the total given in Table 23, p.77
above.
*** This figure is for tractors of all sizes, as of 1937.
**** Table 27 follows on p. 85.
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Table 26
Computation of the Total Man-Day Expenditures
in Mechanical. Operations by Permanent and Seasonal
MTS Workers in the USSR
1937
Man-Days Allocated _toHusbandry_a
Auxiliary Work
All Other
Combine
Work for
Total Wotk
Operators
Combine
Tractor.
Husbandry
Other Work
of the MTS
Permanent
Staff
1,915,451
143,970, 030
29,357,923
175, 243, 404
Seasonal
-
Staff
31830,902
15,323,610
58, 836, 911
74, 914, 518
152,914,941
Total
5, 746, 353
15,323,610
58, 836"911
218P884, 548
2%357,923
328,149, 345
a. Combine operator man-days are calculated by multiplying the number of combine operators (164,826
kolkhoznik and 82,,4, 13 'MTS combine operators) by 23.2421 days per man. Total man-days in auxiliary
combine work are found by multiplying 659,304 by the same rate.
Man-days in auxiliary tractor fork by the. seasonal staff is found by. multinlying. 506,296 auxiliary
tractor workers by 116.2105 man-days per year. Man-days in all other work for husbandry by the
s'easonal' staff is derived by multinlying 644,645 kolkhoznik tractor drivers by the same factor.
Man-days in all other work for husbandry by the permanent staff is found by multiplying 758,304
permanent 1TS staff workers by 192.384 man-days per year, and subtracting the man-days put in by
MTS combine operators from the product.
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Computation of the Total Man-Day Expenditures
in Mechanical Operations by Permanent and Seasonal
MTS 1orkers in the USSR
1.938
Man-Days Al ocated to Husbandry
Auxiliary Work
All Other
Combine
Work for
Total Work
M
S
mbi
C
tor
Tra
Husbandry
Other Work
T
of the
Qperators
ne
o
c
Permanent
Staff
2,062,552
155,026,488
31,612,522
188,701,562
Seasonal
48
164 6 6
50
Staff
4,125,105
16,500,416
63,355,406
80,667,723
,
,
6
8
416
500
16
406
63
355
235,694,211
31,6122522
353;350.212
.Total
57.
6,1
7,
,
,
,
,
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3. Distribution. of Total Sovkhoz Man-Days for 1938.
A similar disposition of man-day expenditures for mechanical
operations can also be made for the sovkhozy in 1938. The assumption
is thatsovkhoz workers work with the same efficiency and at the same
rates in mechanical work as workers for the.MTS. Since there were
89,500 sovkhoz tractors in 1938,* man-day inputs in sovkhoz mechanical
work.are distributed as shown in Table 28.**
49 Distribution of Total Man-Days in Mechanical Work for Total
Soviet Agriculture for 1938.
The total man-day expenditures for mechanical work in Soviet
agriculture expended in 1938 may now be determined from Table 27 and
Table 28. The data are distributed as shown in Table 29.***
C. Step Three: To Distribute Man-Days Required for Mechanical
Operations in 1938 by Crops.
Since the goal was to determine the amount of labor used in
mechanical operations which was to be added for each crop, the next
step was to assign the labor distributed in Table 29 to the field crops.
Assuming that the mechanization of animal husbandry was in its infancy,
both in 1938 and 1951, it was decided to assign all labor in mechanical
work to field husbandry. This procedure is subject to an indeterminate
error. For one thing, the labor of zootechnicians and of veterinarians
and their helpers (who are on the MTS permanent staff) should properly
have been subtracted. The amount of labor involved in the work of these
officials, however, was not large compared with the total labor expended.****
# See Appendix A, Part 2, Problem 18.
## Table 28 follows on p. 87.
*## Table 29 follows on p. 88.
#### there were, at the end of 1938, about
92,00 agrotechnicians and zootechnicians, 17,000 veterinarians and
65,400 veterinarian technicians and helpers, 29/ in all agriculture.
Many of these were undoubtedly. placed in the agricultural organs in
official capacities above the level of the kolkhozy or the sovkhozy.
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Table 28
Computation of the Total TLn-Day Expenditures
in T'Jlechanical Operations by Sovtchoz Workers
in the USSR
1938
Man-Days Allocated to Husbandry
Auxil iary Work
All Other
Combine
Work for
T'otai. Work of
bi
C
Tractor
Husbandry
Other 'Work
he Sovk oz9
Operators
ne
om
-
Permanent
Staff
468,52/+
35,215,408
7,181, 017
42,364,949
Seasonal
Staff
937-048
3,748,191
14,391,646
18,324,267
37, 401,152
tal
T
405 572
3 646 53,539,675
19114
3
748
7,181,017
80,266,101
o
h
2.
9
2
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Table 29
Computation of the Total Man-Day Expenditures
in Mechanical Operations by All 'Jorkers
in Soviet Agriculture
1938
Man-Days Allocated to Husbandry
Auxiliar)t Work
All Other
Total Work
Combine
Work for
in Mechanical
Operators
Combine
Tractor
Husbandry
Other Work
Operations
Permanent
Staff
2,531,076
190,241,896
38,793,539
231,566,511
Seasonal
Staff
5,062,153
20,248,607
77,747,052
98,991,990
202,049,802
Total
7, 593, 229
20248, 607
77, 747, 052
289, 233, 886
38, 793,539
433,616,313
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The method adopted to distribute labor in mechanical operations
to the field-crops was to use the percentage distribution of soft-plow-
ing hectares performed by the MTS in 1938. Since the.hectares which
were mechanized per crop for each of the three field operations--plowing,
sowing, and harvesting--are already determined (See section I above on
labor savings), the soft-plowing hectares performed by the MTS for these
operations can be computed. The coefficients of tractor work for
measuring soft-plowing hectares are given for each crop as follows in
Table 30.* 100
The hectares mechanized for each crop in these operations
were multiplied respectively by the coefficients for each crop. The
products for each of the three operations were then summed by crop to
achieve a distribution of soft-plowing hectares for 1938. This
distribution, converted to percentages, was then used to distribute 3
types of labor in Table 29. These types of labor were auxiliary tractor
work, "all.other work for husbandry" by the permanent staff, and "all
other work for husbandry" by the seasonal staff.** Likewise the
distribution of.soft-plowing hectares for combining the grains was
used to distribute the inputs in the combine work of combine operators
and of auxiliary combine workers.
The labor additions due. to work in mechanical operations were
then totalled for each crop. The distribution of labor additions in
1938 is, shown for the major crop groups in Table 31.***
This table shows that 342 million of the total 395 million
man-days spent in mechanical work in 1938 were required for grain
crops. These crops required 87 percent of the total labor inputs.
These crops, in hectares, were only 73 percent of the total sown crops.
It is clear that the mechanization of crops other than grains was
considerably behind the mechanization of grains.
These data could now be, added to the total determined as
in Table 17 for 1938. Labor additions for winter wheat were
46,557,090 man-days. Total labor from Table 17 is 175,500,000
man-days. The total labor expended on winter wheat for 1938 was
therefore 222,057,090 man-days.
# Table 30 follows on p.90.
## This "all other work for husbandry" by the seasonal staff consists
entirely of kolkhoznik tractor driver man-day inputs.
** Table 31 follows on p. 91.
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Table 30
Coefficients for the Conversion of Soviet
Tractor Work to Soft-Plowing Units,
by Crop
1938
Plowing
Sowing
Harvesting
Winter Wheat
Deep Plowing
1.4
Regular Plowing
1.0
Rye
1.0
0.3
0.5
Spring Wheat
1.0
0.3
0.5
Barley
1.0
0.3
0.5
Oats
1.0
0.3
0.5
Corn
1.0
0.36
N.R.
Rice
1.9
0.36
0.5
Other Spring Grains
1.0
0.3
0.5
Potatoes
1.4
0.9
1.0
Vegetables
1.4
N.R.
N.R.
Cucurbits
1.4
9. R.
Sugar Beets
1.4
0.9
0.9
Tobacco
1.4
N.R.
N.R.
Cotton
1.4
0.36
N.R.
Flax
1.0
0.36
0.9
Hemp
1.0
0.36
N.R.
Sunflowers
1.0
0.3
0.5
Soya Beans
1.-0
N.R.
N.R.
Other Oil Crops
1.0
NO R.
N.R.
Silage Crops
1.4
N.R.
0.9
Feed Roots
1.4
N.R.
N.R.
Sown Grass
N.R.
N.R.
0.23
Meadow Hay
N.R.
NOR.
0.23
a. These coefficients, it will be reciled, are used to compare in
measurable terms the work required of tractors for each operation. They
are based on fuel input costs.
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Table 31
Winter Grains
Spring Grains
Fruits and Vegetables
(Potatoes);
Technical Crops
(Oil Bearing Crops)
Fodder and. Forage
(Silage and Feed Roots)
Total Crops
(Total Sown Crops)
Computation of the Distribution of Labor
Additions Due to Work in.Mechanical
Operations in the USSR, by Major
Crop Groups
1938
Man-Days. Added
125,176,173
217,460,705
13,499,953
( 10,570,240)
35,666,628
( 26,394,273)
3,019,215
( 2,673,139)
394,822,774
(394,542,333)
D. Step Four: To Distribute Man-Days Expended in Mechanical
Operations in 1951.
The problem of determining labor additions for 1951 due to
mechanized operations depends on the derivation.of a series of factors
which are pertinent for 1951 mechanized operations. Obviously many
of the rates applicable in 1938 should have been changed by 1951
because of increases in the use of mechanical equipment. For the most
part, the rates had been boosted upward. The series of factors upon
which the derivation of labor additions depends are as follows:
each. 101
1. In 1951 the MTS had 790,000 tractors of 15. horsepower
2. The number of soft-plowing hectares accomplished per
15-hp tractor per. 10-hour shift was 6.000 hectares. 102 Each hectare
required 1.6667 hours work.
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3. The number of soft-plowing hectares per 15-hp tractor
accomplished in 1951 was 484. 10 The total hours per 15-hp tractor
was, therefore, 806.6667 (484 times 1.6667). And the total hours
worked by 790,000 tractors of 15 hp was 637,266,667.
4. The number of tractors, all sizes, in 1951, was 420,000.
104/ Each tractor averaged 151.3016 hours per year, or 1517.3016
shifts per year.
5. Since in 1937 there had been 613.913367 man-days
expended per tractor in work associated with tractors and combines,
not including auxiliary work and.since in 1938 each tractor averaged
134 shifts per year, the number of man-days of skilled work per shift
in 1938 was 4.58144.
The foundation on which to.determine total man-days in
mechanical operations.for 1951 can now be computed. If the'1938
number of man-days per shift in labor associated with tractors and
combines, 4.58144 (not including auxiliary labor), is multiplied by
the 1951.number of shifts per year, 151.73016, we obtain 695.14309
man-days per tractor per year in such work in. 1951. This number
multiplied by the number of tractors, 420,000 all sizes, gives
291,960,097 man-days skilled labor in 1951 for the MTS.
Since there were also 80,000 sovkhoz tractors in 1951, Loll/
the figure of 55,611,447 man-days skilled labor associated in such
work on the sovkhozy is obtained.
On the basis of prewar percentage relationships,the.dis-
tribution in Tables 32-34* of man-days in I4TS mechanical operations is
obtained.
The assignment of man-days in mechanical operations by
crops can be accomplished for 1951, as in 1938, on the basis of the
distribution of soft-plowing hectares** The distribution of soft-
plowing hectarep usedyhowever, is a 1951 distribution. Like the
1938 distribution, the 1951 distribution made allowances for the
different types of operations, used different coefficients of tractor
work for different crops, and the man-day figure used applied only
to work in field husbandry.
# Tables 32-34 follow on pp. 93, 94, and 95 respectively,
See the discussions for Table 30 and Table 31, Step Three, pp. 86-91.
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Table 32
Computation of the Totallian-Day Expenditures
in Mechanical-Operations by Permanent .and Seasonal
MTS Workers in the USSR
1951
Man-Days Allocated to Husbandry
Auxiliary Work
All Other
Combine
Work for
Total Work
0nerators_
Combine
Tractor
Husbandry _
Other Work
of the BATS-
Permanent
Staff
2s,4893,575
187,121,782
38,157,448
227,768,805
Seasonal
Staff.
4,979,149
19, 916, 593
76, 472, 248
97,369,590
198, 737, 580
Total
7,468, 724
1%,916,593
76, 472, 21,8
284,491j372
38,157,448
426,506,385
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Table 33
Computation of the Total awn-Day Expenditures
in Mechanical Operations by Permanent and Seasonal
Sovkhoz Workers in the USSR
1951
Man-Days Allocated to Husbandry
Auxiliary Work
All Other
Combine
Work for
Total York of
Ooe tors
Combine
Tractor
Husbandry
Other Work
the Sovkhozy
Permanent
Staff
474,205
35,642,387
7,268,086
43,384,678
Seasonal
Staff
948,409
3,793,637
14,566,143
18,546,445
37,854,634
Total
1,422,61/+
3,793,6 37
14 566,143
54,188,832
7, 268,086
81,239,312
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Table 34
Computation of the Total Man-Day Expenditures
in Mechanical Operations by All Workers
in Soviet Agriculture
1951
Man-Days Allocated to Husbandry
Auxiliary Work
All Other
Total Work
Combine
Work for
in Mechanical
00Derators
Combine Tractor
Husbandry
Other Work
Operations
Permanent
Staff
2,963,780
222, 764,169
45,,425, 534
271,153,483'
Seasonal
Staff
5..9271.558
23,710, 230 91, 038, 391
115,916,035
236,592,214
.23,710,230 91,038,391
338,68 0,204
45,42 5, 534
507, 745, 697
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Using this method the distribution in Table 35 is obtained.
Table 35
Computation of the Total Man-Day Expenditures
in Mechanical Operations in Field Husbandry
in Soviet Agriculture
1951
Total Man-Days in Mechanical
Work for Husbandry
Winter Grains,
165,130, 94+1
Spring Grains
222,106,356
Fruits and Vegetables
15,916,048
(Potatoes)
( 12,849,991)
Total Technical Cro
43,493,409
r
(Oil-Bearing Crops
(.34,422,683)
Fodder and Forage
15,673,409
(Silage.and Feed Roots)
( 5,308,616)
Total Crops
462,320,163
(Total Sown Crops)
(454,389,099)
Table 35 shows. that grain crops in 1951 received the overwhelm-
ing proportion of man-days expended in mechanical operations, in fact
a disproportionate amount relative to the number of hectares involved.
Thus grain crops required 387 million man-days of the total 454 million
devoted to sown crops. This number is 85 percent of the total sown
crops. At the same time. only 106 million out of the 154 million
hectares of sown crops, or 69 percent, were devoted to grains.-'These
proportions' are similar to those for 1938 (see Table 31) when grain
crops received 86 percent of the man-days devoted to mechanical
operations and occupied only 73 percent of the sown, hectares.
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APPENDIX A
PART II
SPECIAL METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
Problem 1. Determination of the Man-Day Inputs in Vegetables
and Cucurbits..
In the vegetable-growing regions of the Central European part
of the USSR from 1.5 to 2 man-days, on the average, are expended per
centner of vegetables. 106 If, according to CIA estimates, 120
centners are produced per hectare, then from 180 to 240 man-days in
horse-and-hand work per hectare are required for production of
vegetables. For the purposes of this report, it was estimated that the
lower figure (180 man-days) could be used as the labor input required
for cucurbits and the higher figure (240 man-days) for vegetables.
These input data were used for. both 1938 and 1951.
Problem 2. Determination of the Acreage in Fruit Crops.
For 1938, the determination of the number of hectares in fruit
crops (a) the 50X1
orchard area in 1941 totalled 1,292,000 hectares, and b the total
area in fruits at the start of the war was about 3,750,000 acres or
1,517,000 hectares. 107 support for the 50X1
assumption that this latter figure represents the total hectares by
stating that 600,000 hectares, or about 40 percent of the total fruit
area, was in the private plots of the kolkhozniki and the workers and
employees in 1940. 108 If 1,292,000 hectares were in orchards, about
225,000 hectares remained as the number of hectares in other fruits.
These other fruits were probably mostly vineyards. It has been shown
that in 1929, out of a total of 1,261,000 hectares in fruits, 217,000
were in vineyards. 10 The 1941 distribution of 1,292,000 hectares
in orchards, and 225,000 hectares in other fruits, was applied to 1938
fruit crops.
The estimation of productive fruit hectares for 1951 had to allow
for the almost complete destruction of the collectivized orchards during
the war. 110 If we allow 45,000 hectares as the remnants of the
collectivized orchards, and if we add to these hectares, 300,000 hectares
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of new orchards and berry patches planted since the war in collectivized
areas, 111 420,000 hectares of vineyards (by 1948) on the kolkhozy,
112 120,000 hectares in subtropical crops (tea,.citrus, tung, and
aromatics) on the kolkhozy, 11 and 500,000 hectares in the private
orchards (in 1945), 11 a total figure of 1,385,000 hectares in pro-
ductive fruit crops is obtained.
This derived figure contrasts with a recently published figure of
2.18 million hectares in fruits in 1953. 11 However, the accompanying
statement admits that much of the area in fruits will not come into
production for several years. It is, furthermore, probably difficult
for Soviet officials to determine the exact area in fruits since at
least half of the acreage is in the tiny plots of the kolkhozniki and
the urban workers.
Problem 3. Determination of the Acreage in Fodder and Forage Crops.
Data as of 1940 were used for 1938 sown fodder crops, and data as
of 1935 were used for 1938 meadow hay and pasture. The breakdown of
sown fodder is given as follow: 116_ perennial grasses (alfalfa,
clover, timothy, and other tame hays), 12.1 million hectares; annual
grasses, 4.2 million hectares; and silage and feed-root crops, 1.8
million hectares. The total is 18.1 million..117 Silage crops
and feed roots were distributed on the assumption that prewar
hectares in silage crops were about 45.4 percent of the total acreage
of silage crops and feed roots. 118
Land in meadow hay totalled 53,274,000 hectares in the USSR in
1935. 112/ To this figure must be added 5,054,000 hectares in 1938
from the acquired territories. The result is about 58.3 million
hectares of meadow hay for 1938. There were 344,050,000 hectares
in pasture in 1935. In addition the acquired territories contributed
3,961,000 hectares. The total number of hectares in pastures in
1938 would thus amount to 348 million hectares.
The data for the hectares in fodder and forage for 1951 are very
scanty. The starting point for differentiating these hectares by crops
is a statement late in 1949 that the kolkhozy sowed nearly 700,000
hectares in 1949 to silage crops. 120 This figure is used for 1951.
On the basis of the percentage relationship of silage crops to feed
crops for the kolkhozy in 1938, 121 kolkhoz feed root hectares were
calculated to be 745,000 hectares. Total silage crops (1,059,000
hectares) and total feed roots (1,275,000 hectares) were calculated
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on the basis of the percentage of these crops in the kolkhozy in 1938.
122 The acreage in sown grass was then obtained by subtracting total
silage and feed roots from the total estimate of sown fodder crops for
1951. 12 This sown-grass acreage was thus calculated to be 20,366,000
hectares for 1951.
The derivation of the total Soviet meadow hay hectares for 1951
involves two necessary factors: (1) the total kolkhoz hay hectares fd-
1951, and (2) the percentage that this total is of the total Soviet
hay hectares. The first factor is derived in the following manner.
(1) that over 18 million hectares of hay 50X1
field had been cut by the MTS for the kolkhozy in 1951 and (2) that
over 19 million hectares had been cut. 12 it is 50X1
assumed that 18.5 million hectares had been cut for the kolkhozy by
the MTS in 1951. in 1951 the 11.TS had 50X1
cut 27.7 percent of the natural grasses and tame. hay on the kolkhozy.
12 If this percentage is applied to 18.5 million hectares, a total
of 66,787,000 hectares of hay (natural and tame) is obtained for the
kolkhozy in 1951.
The second factor is obtained from crop acreage relationships
existing in the USSR in 1938 (using postwar boundaries). In 1938
the total sown grass hectares in the USSR numbered 12,685,000
hectares. .126 To this.number add the total meadow hay hectares of
5,3,274,000 hectares, and a total of 65,909,000 hectares is thus
obtained for 1938. Of this total 41 million hectares were in kolkhoz
meadow hay and 9,709,000 hectares were in kolkhoz.sown grass, 127
which add to a total of 50,709,000 hectares on the kolkhozy in hay.
This number of kolkhoz hay hectares. is 76.9 percent of the total hay
hectares in 1938.
If this percentage is applied to the 66,787,000 hectares of
kolkhoz hay in 1951, a total of?86,872,000 hectates of hay is obtained
for the USSR as a whole. Finally, if the 20,366,000 hectares of sown
grass for the USSR in 1951 is subtracted from this total, 66,506,000
hectares of meadow hay is obtained for the USSR(as a whole.
Problem 4. Determination of I'ai-Day Inputs in Cotton.
The derivation of total man-day inputs in cotton did not involve
great difficulty for either 1938 or 1951. The number of hectares is
estimated to be 1,570,000 hectares of irrigated and 513,000 hectares of
nonirrigated cotton, for 1938; and 1,723,000 hectares of irrigated and
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964,000 hectares of nonirrigated cotton for 1951. Man-day inputs per
hectare in-1938 were officially reported as about 160 man-days for
irrigated cotton.128 and about 82 man-days for nonirrigated cotton. 12
The principal question was to decide.whether the quantity of man-day
inputs per hectare had changed by 1951. This question was resolved by
deciding that little change had actually occurred.
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the load area of cotton per able-bodied
50X1
worker (aged 16 to 59
in irrigated areas near the Turkmen Canal was
from 1.1 to 1.2 hectares per worker in 1951. 1 0.
50X1
the average number of man-days worked per year by
50X1
able-bodied workers (aged 16 to 59) in the prewar era for socialist
agriculture was 185 man-days. 12L1 If this number is divided by
1.2 hectares (the load area per man), about the same number of man-days
per year per hectare of irrigated cotton is obtained for 1951 as in
1938, or about 160 man-days in horse-and-hand methods. It is also
assumed, therefore that the man-day requirements for nonirrigated
cotton in 1951 were. also the. same as in 1938, or about 82 man-days
per year per hectare.
Problem 5. Determination of Labor Savings in Dairy Feriy Because of
Increased Mechanization.
The determination of labor savings for dairy ferny on the basis cf
increased mechanization, 1938 to 1951, involves determining several
types of data. The first are the total numbers of cows on the kolkhozy
and on the sovkhozy. These were found in 1938 to be 4,207,000 on the
and in 1951 7,900,000
kolkhozy and 1,351,000 on the sovkhozy; D2
on the kolkhozy and 1,178,000 on the sovkhozy.
The second types of data required were the numbers of cows subject
to mechanization. These are estimated as approximate numbers. On
1 January 1940, automatic water fountains for cows had been established
on 327 kolkhoz dairy fermy and milking machines on 44. At the
same time the average cattle ferhia had 35 cows. If we assume that
mechanized dairy fermy had larger than average numbers of cows, we may
estimate that as. many as.2,000 kolkhoz cows were subject to mechanization
in 1938.. Assuming that the rate of mechanization for sovkhoz dairy
fermy was 3 times as fast as on the kolkhozy, about 6,000 sovkhoz cows
were subject to mechanization in 1938. In the postwar era, it is
estimated that, on the basis of recently published reports, about
100,000 cows were subject to mechanization in 1951. Of these the
sovkhozy would have 75,000 cows and the kolkhozy about 25,000.
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The final types of data required are the number of man-days required
per milk cow per dairy maid under (1) average conditions, (2) mechanized
conditions, and (3) nonmechanized conditions. Before the war, it was
officially reported that one milk cow required on the average, 28.3
man-days of work by milkmaids per year. Q_6/ in 1946 50X1
in the mechanized fermy one milkmaid could serve 27 50X1
head of cows, while in the nonmechanized fermy she could serve only
10 or 12 cows. 127J About 2.25 times as much labor is thus required
in the nonmechanized fermy as in the mechanized fermy per head of cows.
By algebraic means, explained in Appendix A, Part I, the labor
savings for 1951 over 1938 in dairying totalled 1,528,000 man-days.
Problem 6. Determination of Labor Savings in Sheep and Goat Fermv
Because of Increased Mechanization.
The determination of labor savings for sheep and goat fermy on the
basis of increased mechanization from 1938 to 1951 was accomplished
using data for sheep ferny similar to those used for dairy fermy. The
number of sheep and goats on the kolkhozy and on the sovkhozy was
first determined. These were found to be 15,240,000 on the kolkhozy
and 4,707,000 on the sovkhozy for 1938, 118
and 45,600,000 on the
kolkhozy and 5,963,000 on the sovkhozy for 1951.
The number of sheep subject to mechanization was then determined.
On 1 January 1940, apparatus for the electroshearing of sheep was in
use on 204 kolkhoz sheep fermy. 119
The average kolkhoz sheep ferma
contained 216 sheep, about two-thirds of which were adults. The
average sheep ferma in the prewar era contained 168 adults which could
have been sheared. 1 40 The total number of kolkhoz sheep subject to
mechanization is calculated, then, to be about 33,600 in 1938. If the
ratio of sovkhoz sheep to kolkhoz sheep subject. to mechanization is
assumed to be the same as for cows, 3 to 1, about 100,000 sovkhoz sheep
would have been subject to mechanization in 1938.
Large increases in the numbers of sheep subject to electroshearing
are apparent for 1951. During this year about 4.1 million sheep on
the kolkhozy had been electrosheared by the MTS and the machine livestock
stations (MZhS). / The 1954 Plan includes the prospect for the
electroshearing of 9 million head distributed almost equally between
the kolkhozy and the sovkhozy. 1 2 On the basis of this Plan the
total sheep sheared in 1951 in both the kolkhozy and the sovkhozy would
have been 7,850,000, of which 3,750,000 would have been on the sovkhozy.
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The determination of labor savings because of the increase in
electroshearing of sheep now requires 2 additional factors. The
first factor is the time required to shear one shee b manual
methods, which would be
about 3G minutes. the manual shearing
of 580 sheep takes up to 30 working days, or 19.3.sheep per day
per man. One shee would thus require about 30 minutes time by
manual methods. electroshearing
increases labor productivity 5 to 6 times. If the lower figure
of 5 times is accepted, about 6 minutes per sheep is calculated as
required for electroshearing. Using algebraic methods (see Appendix
A, Part I) the labor savings for sheep due to increased mechanization
may now be calculated.
Problem 7. Determination of Data on the Individual Plots.
This problem may be divided into 4 parts.
1. The Labor Force and Hectares of the Urban Workers
and Employees.
In 1938 the workers and employees held about 1,133,000
hectares of sown land in garden plots.
Meadow hay of the workers and
employees is estimated to be 14 percent of the total nonsocialized
meadow hay or about 549,000 hectares. Using this same. percentage,
worker-employee pastures are estimated to be about 482,000 hectares.
Since the start of World War II the activities of
the workers and employees in garden plots increased considerably.
Estimates of this study include a total sown acreage of over 2 million
hectares for 1951 for the workers and employees, in addition to which
they held about 1.2 million hectares of meadow hay and about 831,000
iectares of pasture. The sown hectares include about 537,000 hectares
of grains, 55,000 hectares in fruits, 62,000 hectares in technical
crops, about 1,292,000 hectares in potatoes and vegetables, about
1,000 hectares in silage, about 43,000. hectares in feed roots, and
about 27,000 hectares in sown grass. Most of these data were determined
on the basis of prewar relationships or on the basis of residual
analysis.
The important crops for which, independent estimates
were made for 1951 are the potatoes and vegetables. Determination
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of the hectares of the workers and employees in these crops involves data
for several years. / Beginning with 1942, the data published are
that in this year 5 million workers and employees had 500 000 hectares
in potatoes and vegetables. .) 6 in 1943, 50X1
11.6.million workers and employees had 768,000 hectares in these'crops.
In 1944 about 16.5 million workers i/ had sown 1.4 million hectares
in potatoes and vegetables. j In 1945, the estimates were that 18.5
million workers and employees had sown 1.6 million hectares in these
crops. LQ1 The same estimates were made for 1946,. 1501 the last year
when estimates of numbers of hectares. are given. However, it was
reported that in 1947 about 19.5 million workers and employees had
garden plots, 1 1 and that in 1950 over 17 million had plots. 1521
If, now, the 1942-46 average of hectares in potatoes
and vegetables is divided by the 1942-50 average of workers and
employees, an average number of about 0.75 hectares per worker for
`potatoes and vegetables is obtained. This average when applied to the
1950 number of workers and employees yields about 1,292,000 hectares
in potatoes and vegetables as an estimate for 1951. This acreage is
about 50 percent more land held by workers and employees than the
amount held in 1938, when they had less than 900,000 hectares in
these crops.
2. The Hectares of the Kolkhozniki.
The kolkhozniki are reported to have about 5,8 77,000
hectares of sown acreage in 1938, including less than 600,000 hectares
in fruits and berries plus about 2.5 million hectares in pasture,
i/ and about 2,846,000 hectares in meadow hay. The estimate for
meadow hay is determined for 1938 on the basis of an.estimate that 75
percent of the nonsocialized meadow hay hectares were held by the
kolkhozniki. It is certain the kolkhozniki had access to this hay. 156/
Kolkhoznik hectares for 1951 are derived principally
on the basis of prewar relationships, with certain exceptions. Potatoes
and vegetables are one of these. The individual sector as a whole is
estimated to have sown a residual amount of hectares of 5.7 million
hectares in these crops. This was determined on the basis of the
estimates that the sovkhozy had sown 1.3 million hectares in these
crops, and that the kolkhozy had sown not more than 3.5 million
hectares of potatoes. 1,282 With vegetables-and cucurbits held at a
constant relation to potatoes since 1938, about 4,1+54,000 hectares of
all these crops are calculated for the kolkhozy for 1951. The. workers
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and employees were shown above to have sown 1.3 million hectares in these
crops in 1951. Since the total hectares in potatoes, vegetables, and
cucurbits in Soviet agriculture was 11.5 million hectares in 1951, the
kolkhozniki must have sown a residual of about 4.4 million hectares in
these crops.
The second exception is the number of hectares in
pasture. The figure, 2.5 million hectares, is carried over from 1938
to 1951 for the kolkhozniki.
The estimates for number of hectares used by the
kolkhoznik.i in 1951 are as follows: grains, 1.6 million hectares;
fruits, 499,000 hectares; potatoes and vegetables, 4.4 million
hectares; technical crops, 211,000 hectares; silage, 12,000 hectares;
feed roots, 304,000 hectares; sown grass, 225,000 hectares; meadow
hay, 3.4 million hectares; and pastures, 2.5 million hectares. The
total acreage amounted to about 13.2 million hectares, including about
7.3 million sown hectares. The number of sown hectares in 1951 is
about 24 percent greater than the number sown in 1938 by the
kolkhozniki.
3. The Emphasis of the Kolkhozniki on Animal Husbandry
The emphasis of the kolkhozniki on the production
of animal products before the war was very great. / The total
agricultural production of the kolkhozniki in 1938 (measured in
1926-27 ruble values) amounted to about 3.6 billion rubles. Of this
amount 2.3 billion rubles or about 65 percent were in "livestock
products" and "increase in herds."
4? The Labor Expenditures of the Kolkhozniki.
The prewar figure of from 1.9 to 2.0 billion man-days
worked by. the.kolkhozniki was
undoubtedly obtained by multiplying the average man-days per year per
person worked by able-bodied kolkhozniki (aged 16 to 59) on their
plots-=48.9 man-days 161.--by the number of kolkhozniki, 40,716,000,
162/., as of 1 January 1938.
the number of man-days estimated for
the.kolkhozniki for 1938 and 1951 is estimated in each case to be
slightly over 1.8 billion. This estimate is based on changing rates
of man-day inputs per hectare of sown crops, in particular, for the
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kolkhozniki. These workers are estimated to have averaged about 306
man-days per hectare of sown crops in 1938 as compared with about 251
man-days per hectare in 1951.
The labor spent on animals is included in these
figures. Because kolkhoznik livestock numbers declined in 1951 below
the 1938 levels, the drop in-labor inputs on the kolkhoznik plots
from 1938 to 1951 may be due largely to declines in animal numbers.
Another reason, however, may be the increased number of women in the
kolkhoznik labor force. in 1939, 52
percent of all able-bodied workers in agriculture had been women,
but that by 1943 this percentage had climbed to 71 percent. 16
According to CIA estimates this high female percentage during the
war years had fallen by 1947 to about 56 percent of the kolkhozniki.
16 Women, of course, are less able to work consistently than men.
It is possible also that current requirements that all youth attend
school as far at least as the 7th grade and encouragement that they
attend higher grades may also influence the decline of kolkhoznik
man-day inputs per hectare on individual plots.
Problem 8. Derivation of the Labor Force of Independent Peasants
in 1938.
In the USSR (prewar boundaries) there were about 1.3 million
independent peasant families who in 1938 had not yet been collectivized.
16 On the basis of 2 workers per peasant. family, an estimate of
2.6 million peasant workers is obtained for the USSR proper for 1938.
To this number is added an estimated 7 million private peasant workers,
acquired later from territory added to the USSR. According to the
official census for 1939, the total Soviet population numbered
170,467,186 people. 166 Postwar statements estimate that the 1940
population (postwar boundaries) totalled about 193 million people. 16
Thus about 22.5 million people had been added from the'acquired
territories. CIA estimates that of this number, 14.7 million. were
rural people, and of this latter number about 7 million were peasant
farm workers.
Problem 9. Derivation of the Number of Workers per Tractor per Day.
In 1938, this report estimates that 5.3 skilled workers were
required per day per tractor to keep it operating during the agricultural
seasons, as compared with about 6 skilled workers in 1951. These
figures refer.to tractor drivers, their assistants and brigadiers,
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repair workers, combine operators and. assistants, and TITS administrative
and service workers. The estimate for 1938 was obtained by dividing
the total number of man-days skilled labor for agriculture for 1937,
which was about 244.6 million man-days, by the number of tractors,
365,900, thus obtaining about 614 man-days skilled labor per tractor
per year.* Division of this number by the tractor work year of 116.2
days yields about 5.3 skilled workers per day per tractor.
The estimate for 1951 was obtained similarly by dividing 695
man-days skilled labor per tractor per year by the tractor work year.**
The result was 6 skilled workers per day per tractor.
Problem 10. The Labor of Kolkhozniki for State and Cooperative
Organizations.
It has been stated that each able-bodied kolkhoznik (aged 16 to
59) worked 22 days for state and cooperative organizations in 1939. 168
the kolkhozniki average
22 man-days per year for the sovkhozy, and using his-estimate of
38,103,000 able-bodied kolkhozniki for 1 January 1938, arrives at a
total estimate of 846 million man-days worked by these workers for the
sovkhozy in seasonal work in 1938. 16 This interpretation would
seem erroneous in view of our estimate that both the kolkhozniki and
the workers and employees together contributed only 350 million man-
days in 1938 and 448 million in 1951. The term "state and cooperative
organizations" probably includes state agencies other than sovkhozy
(state farms), for example, the "leskhozy" sometimes referred to as
forestry sovkhozy.
Problem 11. Determination of the Work Output of Sovkhoz Tractors.
The tractor work output of the sovkhozy is calculated at the same
rate as for the MTS, that is, on the basis of the performance of MTS.
tractors, all sizes. At the end of 1938 the MTS had 394,000 tractors,
all sizes, the sovkhozy,.89,500. 1201 Since the ZITS performed 206
million soft-plowing hectares of work in 1938, 1 1 each tractor, all
sizes, averaged 523 soft-plowing hectares. The sovkhoz tractors,
therefore, totalled 46,795,000 hectares of soft-plowing work in 1938.
# See Appendix A. Part I, p. 83.
## See Appendix A, Part I. p. 92.
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In 1951 the 420,000 tractors, all sizes, in the MTS 172 performed
382.5 million hectares of soft-plowing work, 17 or 911 soft-plowing
hectares per tractor. At this rate the 80,000 sovkhoz tractors, all
sizes, in 1951, / performed 72,857,000 hectares of soft-plowing work.
The increase in the tractor work output of the sovkhozy in 1951 over
the output in 1938 would be 56 percent.
Problem 12. The Proportion of Seasonal Workers on the Sovkhozy.
about 30 percent to 40 percent of all workers of the sovkhozy are
seasonal workers. 17 The context of the discussion apparently refers
to the worker category of the workers and employees. About this, it
is stated that from 87 percent to 90 percent of the sovkhoz laborers
are workers. Most of the rest are employees, while a small proportion
are junior employees. The estimate of our report that 44 percent of
the laborers on the sovkhozy are seasonal would not seem at variance
with this Soviet report.
Problem 13. Estimate of the Mechanization of Row-Crop Cultivation.
It has been estimated that in 1937 about 35 percent of the corn,
27 percent of the sunflowers, 40 percent of the nonirrigated cotton,
and 35 percent of the sugar beets on the kolkhozy were cultivated
with tractor power. 126/ These row crops require extensive cultivation
after planting. Other row crops are largely the vegetable varieties.
Since the war, very little mention has been made of progress
in the mechanization of row crop cultivation. The plan of mechanization
for 1955, however, indicates that the cultivation of potatoes according
to the square nest, inter-row, and criss-cross methods is to be increased
up to 55 percent to 60 percent. 17 in 1951, 50X1
however, only 300,000 hectares of potatoes had been planted by the
square nest method. In 1952,almost 1.7 million hectares of corn and
over 1 million hectares of sunflowers had been sown by this method.
No mention is made as to how much acreage was covered or what the output
was in soft-plowing hectares in the actual postplanting cultivation
of these crops.
Problem 14. Labor Requirements for Mechanized and Nonmechanized
Plowing.
the data for determining the averages of 50X1
man-day inputs in horse-and-hand labor in plowing on the mechanized and
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on the nonmechanized hectare. comparisons in
terms of percentages. 1 8 Thus if labor inputs for plowing by the
private peasants in 1922-25 are taken as 100, the inputs required for
the kolkhozy in horse-and-hand methods of 1937 was 80 percent, and for
kolkhozy using wheel tractors 16.1 percent. The ratio between labor
inputs in horse-and-hand methods on kolkhozy in 1937 on the nonmechaniz-
ed hectare and labor inputs in horse-and-hand methods on the mechanized
hectare was 5 to 1.
it took 2.55 man-days per hectare for
plowing by the individual peasants of 1922-25 but only 0.41 man-days per
hectare for plowing on the,kolkhozy,using the wheel tractor, in 1937.
If, therefore, 2.55 is taken as 100, then 80 percent is 2.04 man-days
per nonmechanized hectare in 1937, while 16.1 percent is 0.41 for the
mechanized hectare in 1937.
Problem 15. Determination of the Labor Ratio for the Harvesting
of Grains.
The ratio of labor requirements in harvest on the nonmechanized
grain hectare to those on the mechanized grain hectare was obtained from
analysis of the following discussion. it
required (presumably under the peasant economy of 1922-25 about 20 days
to harvest one hectare of grain with simple tools--that is, to mow, tie
in sheaves, to shock, to stack. to transfer to the threshing floor for
threshing, to thresh, and to clean the grain. 180 In 1937 in the kolkhoz
harvest without the combine, the kolkhozy were 4.09 man-days per
hectare of grain more efficient than the private peasants. They expend-
ed 4.09 man-days less. But in the harvest with the combine they saved
13.74 man-days per hectare. By methods of subtraction, the rate of
input for the kolkhozy of 1937 without the combine in harvest is
calculated to be 15.91 man-days per hectare, and with the combine 6.26
man-days. 181 The ratio of labor in the grain harvest on.the
nonmechanized hectare to labor on the mechanized hectare is 2.542 to 1
man-days. While these rates are not the ones used in this study--they
seem extremely high in man-day inputs--the labor ratio is applied. This
ratio is not only repeated but also seems to agree
with the ratio from comparable agricultural areas in the US.
Problem 16. The Number of Kolkhoznik Tractor Drivers in 1937.
The figure of 1,402,909 workers is often cited for the MTS labor
force in 1937. 182 This number includes 6",,645 kolkhoznik tractor
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drivers. This number is found by subtraction. In 1937 the MTS employed.
758,304 permanent, salaried workers and employees. 18 01 the total
number of 685,016 tractor drivers cited as being in the MTS labor force,
40,371 were paid by the MTS. Therefore~644,.645.must have been
kolkhoznik drivers. This number, furthermore, subtracted from the
total, 1,402,909, leaves 758,304.
Problem 17. Determination of the Auxiliary Labor Requirements per
Tractor per Shift.
the labor requirements for water and
fuel hauling for 100 soft-plowing hectares of work for the STZ-NATI
tractor are 10 man-days.of auxiliary labor. 18 This number undoubtedly
includes the work of cooks. 18 The total man-days required of all. men
associated with the tractor are about 51 per 100 hectares of soft-plow-
ing.. Since the tractor example is probably a model tractor--it
accomplished 7.7 hectares of soft-plowing per shift--these data cannot
be regarded as important figures in their absolute numbers. They may
be used, however, to establish relationships. It would seem that the
inputs of auxiliary labor are about 20 percent of the total labor inputs.
From Appendix A, Part I. it is observed that 4.6 man-days in skilled
labor were expended in 1938 per tractor shift. Dividing 80 percent into
this number yields about 5.8 man-days total labor requirements per tractor
shift. It follows that about 1.2,man-days per tractor shift are required
in auxiliary tractor work, such as hauling water and fuel and cooking.
Problem 18. Sovkhoz Tractors in 1938.
In 1938 the sovkhozy actually had 85,000 trantors. 186In
addition to 394,000 other tractors in the MTS, 4,500 tractors are
listed as in "other" organizations. These are residual. They may have
been on the kolkhozy; but more probably they were on the koopkhozy,
a type of.sovkhoz more prevalent in the early 1930's. This residual
number has been allocated to the sovkhozy in this study.
Problem 19. Derivation of the Daily Work Productivity of 15-HP
Tractors.
in 1948 the average daily productivity of a
15-hp tractor was.from 4 to 5 soft-plowing hectares, and that (luring
the spring of 1949 the average productivity had risen 20 percent above
this level. i8 If we take 5 hectares as the output per day for 1948,
then the output for 1949 may be estimated as 6 hectares of soft-plowing
per day per 15-hp tractor.
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This figure is used in this report for 1951. It would seem that
since 1949 the average productivity by 1951 had not increased above 6
hectares per day. 188 During the second half of field work for 1952,
output per 15-hp tractor averaged 6 to 7 hectares of work per 24-hour
period, while during the spring, output was from 3 to 4 hectares.
the average
shift output per 15-hp tractor was from 3.4 to 3.8 hectares of soft-
plowing in 5 oblasts--Voronezh, Kharkov, Odessa, Stalingrad, and
Penza. 18 This performance presumably occurred in the spring of
1952. The fact that the size of tractors had advanced from 20-hp to
30-hp from 1938 to 1951 is regarded as influential in the estimate
that the average output of 15-hp tractors had-advanced from 4 to 6
soft-plowing hectares during this period. This estimate of tractor
performance in the USSR is probably not low.
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