EUROPEAN U.S.S.R. RESOURCES AND TRADE

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 Approved For Re ease 000200010009-0
LIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGES, CHAPTER IX
CHANGE IN
SUBJECT MATTER EFFECT
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Table of Contents, continued, and Imprint (inside back
cover, reverse blank) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Original
PAGE NUMBERS
unnumbered
unnumbered
pp. IX-1 to IX-4
Figures IX-1 to IX-3
pp. IX-5 to IX-10
Figure IX-4
pp. IX-11 to IX-14
Figure IX-5
pp. IX-15 and IX-16
Figure IX-6
pp. IX-17 to IX-28
Figures IX-7 and
IX-8
pp. IX-29 to
IX-104
Figure IX-42
pp. IX-105 to
IX-144
Figures IX-53 to
IX-66
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Note: This chapter is based on data available in Washington, D.C. on the following dates:
Topics 90 to 92: 1 March 1947 Topic 96: 1 January 1948
Topics 93 to 95: 1 January 1947 Topics 97 to 98: 1 April 1947
Page
90. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . IX - 1
91. AGRICULTURE . . . . . . . . . . IX - 1
A. Natural environment . . . . . . . IX - 1
(1) Soils . . . . . . . . . . . IX - 1
(2) Climate . . . . . . . . . . IX - 2
B. Farm system and land tenure . . . . IX - 2
(1) Kolkhozy . . . . . . . . . . IX - 3
(2) Machine-tractor stations . . . . IX - 4
(3) Sovkhozy . . . . . . . . . . IX - 6.
C. Farm practices . . . . . . . . . IX - 6
D. Fertilizers . . . . . . . . . . . IX - 7
(1) Manure . . . . . . . . . . IX - 7
(2) Commercial fertilizer . . . . . . IX - 8
E. Land utilization . . . . . . . . . IX - 8
92. FARM PRODUCTS AND FISHING . . . . IX - 9
A. Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . IX - 9
(1) General crop pattern . . . . . . IX - 9
(2) Grains . . . . . . . . . . . IX - 13
(3) Potatoes . . . . . . . . . . IX - 16
(4) Sugar beets . . . . . . . . . IX - 16
(5) Sunflower seed . . . . . . . . IX - 17
(6) Flax . . . . . . . . . . . . IX - 17
(7) Hemp . . . . . . . . . . . IX - 18
(8) Cotton . . . . . . . . . . . IX -19
(9) Tobacco . . . . . . . . . . IX - 19
B. Livestock . . . . . . . . . . IX - 19
C. Food consumption and distribution . . IX - 20
(1) Consumption . . . . . . . . IX - 20
(2) Distribution system . . . . . . IX - 21
Page
D. Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . IX - 23
(1) General . . . . . . . . . . IX - 23
(2) Caspian Sea . . . . . . . . . IX - 24
(3) Sea of Azov . . . . . . . . . IX - 25
(4) Black Sea . . . . . . . . . . IX - 25
(5) Northern seas . . . . . . . . IX - 25
(6) Fresh water . . . . . . . . . IX - 26
(7) Leningrad District . . . . . . . IX - 26
(8) Lithuanian SSR . . . . . . . IX - 26
(9) Estonian SSR . . . . . . . . IX - 26
(10) Latvian SSR . . . . . . . . . IX-26
93. WATER RESOURCES . . . . . . . IX - 26
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . IX - 26
B. Surface water . . . . . . . . . IX - 27
(1) Lake region . . . . . . . . . IX - 27
(2) Humid region . . . . . . . . IX-27
(3) Poles'ye (Pripet Marshes) . . . . IX - 27
(4) Transition zone . . . . . . . . IX - 27
(5) Semiarid region . . . . . . . IX - 27
(6) Semideserts . . .. . . . . . . IX - 27
C. Ground water . . . . . . . . . . IX - 27
(1) Surficial sediments . . . . . . IX - 28
(2) Bedrock . . . . . . . . . . IX - 28
94. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS . . . . . IX - 28
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . IX - 28
B. Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . IX - 29
C. Sand and gravel . . . . . . . . . IX - 29
D. Building stone . . . . . . . . . . IX - 29
(Table of Contents continued, inside back cover)
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Page IX-1
Chapter IX
RESOURCES AND TRADE
Prepared under supervision of Intelligence Division, General Staff, U.S. Army, by Geological
Survey, Department of the Interior; by Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations,
Department of Agriculture; by Engineer Research Section, Army Map
Service, Corps of Engineers; by Strategic Branch, Intelligence
Division, General Staff, U.S. Army; and by Board
of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
90. INTRODUCTION
The economic structure of European USSR is that of the
Soviet Union, a highly centralized state characterized by
collective ownership of the means of production and by
state planning of economic activity. The land, all forms
of natural wealth, and almost all means of manufacturing
are state property. The economy operates in conformance
with comprehensive, periodic plans, prepared by the State
Planning Commission (Gosplan), and the various sectors
of the economy are under the jurisdiction of Union gov-
ernment ministries whose progressive subdivisions, func-
tional and regional, lead down to the individual Kombinat
(integrated group of plants), plant, farm, store, or other
economic unit.
Soviet officials, in announcing the fourth Five-Year
Plan, for the period 1946-1950, stated that the over-all
economic objective of the USSR is to increase its military-
economic potential to such a degree that the country will
be safe in the future against "any contingencies." Heavy
industry receives the major emphasis, and the goal appears
to be the attainment by 1970 of the aggregate heavy indus-
try output level reached by the United States in 1939.
In this Soviet economic pattern, European USSR has a
key role. The area includes by far the bulk of the Soviet
Union's population, has the most extensive industrial de-
velopment, and is the transportation and communications
hub.
European USSR, with a crop area of 250 million acres,
is normally self-sufficient in most foodstuffs, and before
World War II produced small surpluses. Agriculture em-
ploys over half of the area's population.
Natural supplies of surface or ground water are plentiful
in all parts of the area except in the extreme south and
southeast; in the central and northern parts there is a
close network of perennial streams, and in the northwest
lakes are numerous. Construction materials are abun-
dant. Timber is found in the northern and central parts
of the region; sand and gravel are widely distributed as
surficial deposits; building stone, crushed rock, and cement
materials are generally available.
Iron reserves of European USSR are estimated at ap-
proximately 5 billion metric tons, or 451/, of the total of
the Soviet Union. The area's manganese accounts for
nearly half of the total annual production of the USSR;
reserves are estimated to exceed 400 million tons. Coal
production reached 96 million tons in 1940, and reserves
are approximately 10 of the Soviet Union's total. The
petroleum resources of European USSR, however, amount
only to about 2.51,~ of total USSR reserves.
The area's electric power capacity at the end of 1946
totaled approximately 9.5 million kilowatts, estimated to
be more than 701of total Soviet installed capacity.
Sixty-five percent of prewar Soviet industry was located
in European USSR. War damage and removals resulted
in the loss of approximately 40% of the area's industry.
While there has been a major trend toward development
of industrial capacity eastward beyond the Urals, much
war-shifted capacity has been reestablished in European
USSR and in 1946 the bulk of capital construction took
place in this area.
91. AGRICULTURE
With a crop area of over 250 million acres and more than
half of its population engaged in agriculture, European
USSR not only leads all European countries, in agricul-
ture, but is one of the foremost agricultural areas of the
world. Although considerable industrial development has
taken place, especially in European USSR proper*, agri-
culture continues to be the backbone of economic life in
this area.
A. Natural environment
Soils and climate are the important natural factors
which, in interaction with social and economic institu-
tions, condition the agricultural pattern of European
USSR.
(1) Soils
While a detailed soil map of European USSR would
show a considerable diversity of soils, this area can be
divided into two fairly well defined geographical zones, or
belts: the nonblack-soil belt and the black-soil belt. The
" The larger part of European USSR, which was within the So-
viet frontiers at the end of 1938, is called here "European USSR
proper" as distinguished from the territories acquired since the
beginning of World War II, termed "newly incorporated" or "ac-
quired territories." These include territories acquired from Fin-
land, Poland, Rumania, and the three Baltic Republics: Lithuania,
Latvia, and Estonia.
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JANIS 40 a
belt of relatively infertile, leached podzol, or nonblack
soils, extends over the wooded northern and north-central
parts of the country, and merges in the extreme north
into the tundra. The much more fertile belt of cher-
nozem, or black soils, which are rich in humus, extends
south of the nonblack-soil area, over the forest-steppe
and steppes of the Central Agricultural, Middle and Lower
Volga, and the Southern regions, merging in the east and
extreme south into the soils of the dry steppes (FIGURE
IX-4).
The nonblack soils account for 711/c and the black
soil for 261/c of the total area of European USSR proper.
The proportion of the nonblack-soil area would be even
larger if estimates were available for the newly incorpo-
rated regions, as their soils are predominantly podzolic
except in Bessarabia where there is a considerable area of
black soils. Although the black-soil belt is much smaller
in size than the nonblack-soil belt, it has been agricul-
turally more important because of its greater fertility. It
forms, in fact, the chief natural foundation on which
Russian agrarian economy has developed.
The distinction between the two soil belts is so im-
portant that it has long served as a basis for a broad
economic regional division of the country. The black-soil
belt is often called the producing area, for it has been
the grain surplus region of the USSR. The nonblack-soil
belt on the whole has a grain deficit and is called the
consuming area. Nevertheless, with the proper use of
fertilizers, and, in some cases, with proper drainage, a
large part of the nonblack-soil belt is well suited for agri-
cultural production; except for climate, it is as well suited
as the inferior soils of Denmark and Germany. Because
of adequate precipitation, crop yields fluctuate less from
year to year in the nonblack-soil belt than in much of the
more fertile black-soil area, a considerable part of which
suffers from recurrent droughts. The nonblack-soil belt
is particularly well suited to the growing of flax for fiber,
potatoes, root crops, and hay, and consequently for live-
stock raising. The latter is essential to produce the ma-
nure necessary to maintain the fertility of the soil. A
larger proportion of the arable land must therefore be
devoted to forage crops and less to food crops in the non-
black-soil regions than in the black-soil area.
(2) Climate
Climate does not give the south a great advantage over
the north in agricultural production. In the northern
and north-central regions, low temperatures and some-
times excessive moisture hamper agriculture, but in the
south, and especially the southeast, moisture deficiency
hinders production. In the north, the long daily duration
of sunlight during the growing season compensates some-
what for the low temperatures. Even in the south, how-
ever, the average frost-free period, which roughly meas-
ures the growing season for crops, is short.
In Khar'kov (the Ukraine), for instance, the average
frost-free period is 151 days, or only slightly longer than
in Duluth, Minnesota. As far south as Rostov-on-Don,
it is 184 days, as at Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Only in the
extreme south does the frost-free period exceed 200 days.
In Yalta, on the southern shore of the Crimea, it reaches
245 days, as at Wilmington, North Carolina.
The frost-free period increases not only from north to
south, but also from east to west. Thus Kiev, west and
slightly north of Khar'kov, has a frost-free period 21 days
longer than Khar'kov. L'vov, in about the same latitude
but still further west, has a frost-free period of 186 days.
Whereas the frost-free period in Moscow is only 130 days,
as in northern North Dakota, in Leningrad it is 160 days
and in Riga 173 days owing in part to the moderating
influence of the Baltic Sea.
The data above indicate that the growing season for
crops, or the frost-free period, is relatively short in Euro-
pean USSR. The Russian farmers therefore have less
time in which to do their field work than the farmers in
most farming areas of the United States and Western
Europe, and their seasonal load is heavier. This creates
the problem of employment during the long period not
suitable for field work.
The relatively short growing season limits the selection
of crops.
Citrus fruits cannot be grown even in southern Crimea,
and only the most rapidly maturing varieties of cotton
can be grown in southern European USSR, where this crop
was introduced on a commercial scale in the 1930's. Even
such early varieties of cotton often are injured by fall
frosts. With the progress of plant breeding and develop-
ment of rapidly maturing varieties, the range of crops has
grown, and the limits of cultivation are being pushed
northward. It has proved possible to grow crops, espe-
cially vegetables, even in the arctic region.
More serious than temperature deficiency is the fact that
so much of the fertile black-soil area is in the semiarid
zone (the boundary of which is indicated on FIGURE IX-4
by the precipitation line of 16 inches (400 millimeters).
Here the precipitation is sparse and uncertain from year
to year. Moreover, owing to high temperatures, high
evaporation during the summer months reduces the mois-
ture supply available to crops. Droughts frequently re-
cur, often aggravated by scorching winds that blow from
the deserts of Central Asia and play havoc with growing
crops. Harvests are uncertain, especially in the eastern
part of this zone where spring wheat, vulnerable to spring
and early summer droughts, predominates.
B. Farm system and land tenure
Prior to the 1930's, when agriculture was collectivized,
the USSR was characterized by peasant farming of small
individual tracts of land. Even before the revolution of
1917 the peasants owned 70%, of all land in European
Russia, and they leased a considerable portion of the re-
maining 30% which consisted of large estates. After the
revolution, the estate land, with insignificant exceptions,
was divided among the peasants who continued to till it
on an individual basis but the state kept title to all land,
and private ownership of land was legally abolished.
Most of the peasants lived in villages and not on sepa-
rate farmsteads as in the United States. Cultivated
areas were divided into a number of rather narrow strips,
and the holding of each peasant family consisted of strips
in each field, which were usually intermingled with strips
of other families. The strip system in Russia, as in other
European countries, was a result of the attempt to equal-
ize holdings with respect to soil, topography, and distance
from the village. Over a large part of Russia, such equal-
ization was associated with the communal, repartitional
type of land tenure, under which the land commune (mir)
allotted holdings to its members on some uniform basis
with general or partial repartitions of land at regular or
irregular intervals. Under an hereditary system of land
tenure, which prevailed in the western provinces of Russia,
the strips resulted from successive division of holdings
among heirs in the process of inheritance.
This scattered strip system of farming, although con-
ducted on an individualistic basis, was usually associated
with a common crop rotation, since it was difficult to
plant different strips of the same field with crops of vary-
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el RESOURCES AND TRADE Page IX-3
ing growing seasons and maturities, especially since the
stubble frequently was used as pasture. Such a system
of farming precluded the use of modern power machinery,
involved considerable waste of land in boundaries between
strips (providing a fertile breeding ground for weeds and
pests), and wasted time in traveling from one field to
another. During the decade preceding World War I, a
strong effort was made by the government to promote con-
solidation of the scattered strip holdings into a single tract
but such consolidated holdings were divided again dur-
ing the revolution. Another consolidation of scattered
holdings, on a much larger scale, occurred in the early
thirties when Russian agriculture was collectivized, fol-
lowing a bitter struggle of the Kremlin with the peasants,
in the course of which millions were driven off the land
and many deported to remote regions.
(1) Kolkhozy
As a result of agricultural collectivization, there were
developed two distinct types of Soviet farm units and a
separate farm machine service organization: 1) the col-
lective farm or kolkhoz (plural "kolkhozy"), 2) the state
farm or sovkhoz (plural "sovkhozy"), and 3) machine-
tractor stations or MTS. By far the most important of
these is the kolkhoz, which represents the pooling of the
holdings of formerly independent peasant farmers oper-
ating under tight government control and direction.
Only the land, horses, and other livestock (with some
qualifications discussed in Topic 92, B), and the farm
machinery are collectivized. The elimination of boun-
daries transformed the narrow strips into large fields,
suitable for modern power machinery, especially in the
level steppe country. The peasant families, having thus
pooled their holdings, continue to live in their own dwell-
ings in villages. Each village usually comprises the mem-
bers of one or more kolkhozy, and from these centers the
farmers go out every day to work the collective fields.
The state continues to own the land, but each collective
farm holds the land it occupies for an unlimited period,
"in perpetuity," according to Article VIII of the Soviet
Constitution. The title of the kolkhoz to the land is
secured by a title deed issued after an official land survey
is made.
In addition to their dwellings, each peasant family is
entitled, if land is available, to a small plot for a kitchen
garden and a small number of personally-owned cattle,
hogs, sheep, and goats. But horses, except in nomadic
regions, are collective property. A member of a kolkhoz
who needs a horse for his own use must borrow it from
the kolkhoz.
When their earnings from the kolkhozy were small, the
peasants often found it advantageous to work on their
little plots and tend their few animals rather than to work
in the collective fields, especially if they had the oppor-
tunity to sell their produce at good prices on the limited
private market in a neighboring town. Kolkhozy mem-
bers have a legal right to carry on such trade provided
they do not use the services of a middleman. In 1937 this
personal farming by members of the kolkhozy was esti-
mated to yield over one-fifth of total agricultural produc-
tion. In 1939 the government decided to limit this type
of farming, which competed with collective farming, by
fixing a minimum required time for each member to
devote to collective work. Members of collective farms,
both men and women, who consistently fall below the mini-
mum are liable to expulsion and loss of their plots of land.
The basic law governing the organization, function,
rights, and obligations of the kolkhoz is embraced in a
model charter approved by the government in 1935. Ac-
cording to the charter, the kolkhoz is a self-governing
organization. It elects its officers by majority vote, and
manages its own affairs within limits set by government
plans and regulations. In practice, however, government
officials have been in the habit of appointing, dismissing,
and transferring officers of the kolkhozy at will. The
government concerns itself directly with problems of seed
and forage supply, timely and efficient sowing and har-
vesting, proper care of livestock, crop rotation, internal
organization of the farm unit, and many others. Crop
acreages and even yields per acre, and numbers of live-
stock, are directed by national plans, establishing the goals
for republics and provinces. Local goals are set up by
republic and province authorities.
The state is a partner in collective farming and has the
first claim on production. A kolkhoz must deliver to the
government, at low fixed prices, a specified quantity of
crops and livestock products per unit of land. The kol-
khoz must also pay the state for the field work (plowing,
seeding, harvesting) performed by state-owned tractors.
After the obligations to the state are met, seed supplies
assembled for the next year's sowing, and other required
reserves set up, the remainder is available for distribution
by the kolkhoz to its members. The kolkhoz may sell some
of its produce to the government at somewhat higher
prices than those fixed for compulsory deliveries, and
thereby also secure the privilege of purchasing some manu-
factured products in short supply. It may sell some of
its produce on the free private market in the neighboring
town at uncontrolled prices, which are usually higher than
the prices paid by the state. As no middleman can be
legally employed in this process, such trade is limited
in scope.
The remainder of the kolkhoz output is distributed in
kind among the members, as is the cash income after the
necessary expenses of production are met and required
appropriations to capital are made. Distribution in kind
and in cash is made on a sort of piece-work basis, accord-
ing to the quantity, skill, and quality of work performed.
Work is measured in special units called "labor days."
The greater the skill required in a particular task, and
the.greater the quantity of work done, the larger the pay-
ment assessed in terms of "labor days." Bonuses for bet-
ter quality of work, resulting in higher yields of crops or
livestock products, have also been provided in terms of
additional "labor days." Inferior quality of work is pun-
ishable by reduction in the number of "labor days" as-
sessed. The total number of "labor days" credited to all
members of the collective farms are added up at the end
of the year, and the income to be distributed, in cash and
in kind, is divided by the total number of "labor days."
Each "labor day," therefore, entitles a member of the
collective farm to a certain quantity of the product and
cash, and, since the number of "labor days" credited to
different members of the kolkhoz varies, their earnings
also differ. The earnings of individuals and families show
considerable variation in the same kolkhoz. There are
even greater variations as between different kolkhozy,
since the quantities distributed per "labor day" vary from
kolkhoz to kolkhoz, depending upon such factors as effi-
ciency of management, fertility of the soil, type of equip-
ment, distance to town markets, and weather conditions,
which vary from region to region.
For instance, in 1937, in the Central Agricultural region,
22.2 ~4, of all members of the collective farms were credited
with 50 or less "labor days," 16.1% from 51 to 100, 25.4%
from 101 to 200, 17.8% from 201 to 300, 10.51,/c from 301
to 400, and 8.01/o over 400.
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JANIS 40
NUMBER OF COLLECTIVE FARMS (KOLKHOZY) AND HOUSEHOLDS, ALL LAND AND SEEDED AREA PER COLLECTIVE FARM
(KOLKHOZ) AND HOUSEHOLD BY REGION, EUROPEAN USSR., 1 JULY 1938
European USSR proper:
North ..................................
Northwest ..............................
Central Industrial ........................
Central Agricultural ......................
Upper Volga ............................
Middle and Lower Volga ..................
South ..................................
West.. .................................
Number of
kolkhozv
All European USSR proper ....................'
Number of
households
per kolkhoz
i j
Total land Total land Total. seeded Totalseeded
per per area per area per
kolkhoz* household* kolkhoz household
Acres Acres Acres Acres
In the same Central Agricultural region, the average
amount of grain, which is the most important product,
distributed per "labor day" was four kilograms, or about
nine pounds. But, in 24% of kolkhozy it exceeded 11
pounds.
For purposes of labor management, the members of
a kolkhoz usually are divided into so-called brigades, each
including 40 to 60 workers under a foreman. A definite
area of land to be cultivated or a certain number of live-
stock to be tended is assigned to each brigade. For crops
such as sugar beets or cotton, which require much in-
tensive labor, a brigade is further subdivided into smaller
units, called zveno.
On 1 July 1938 there were over 168,000 kolkhozy in Euro-
pean SSR (TABLE IX-1). The size of the kolkhozy, both
in population and in seeded area (FIGURE IX-1), varies
from region to region.
The number of peasant households or families in a kol-
khoz, and the seeded area per household, are small in the
more northern regions. These regions are not densely
populated, their villages have always been small, and a
considerable area of their land is under forests and per-
manent meadows or is not suitable for agricultural pur-
poses.
The much more densely populated Central Agricultural
region and much of the Ukraine (south) has large collec-
tive farms measured in the number of households, but the
acreage seeded per household is relatively small. The
Middle and Lower Volga region has a large number of
households per kolkhoz and the largest acreage seeded per
household. However, much of this region is in the semi-
arid zone of low and variable crop yields which to some
extent offsets the larger acreage. In 1938 the kolkhozy
accounted for 86.2% of the crop area, varying from 83%
in the south to 92% in the Upper Volga region (TABLE
IX-2 and FIGURE IX-2).
(2) Machine-tractor stations
Tractors, combines, and other important farm imple-
ments are not owned by the kolkhozy, but by state ma-
chine-tractor stations, which supply the necessary power
machinery and operators to the kolkhozy on the basis of
annual agreements. For their services the machine-
tractor stations are paid in kind by the kolkhozy at speci-
fied rates per hectare (2.471 acres). These rates vary
with the officially determined crop yields in a district.
The machine-tractor stations usually have repair shops
for tractors and combines, and also staffs of mechanics,
agronomists, and officials to provide technical assistance
and direction of the kolkhozy. Tractor drivers are paid
by the kolkhozy on the basis of "labor days" earned, as
are other collective farmers, except that minimum
amounts of grain and cash per "labor day" are prescribed
by law. Combine operators are paid by the machine-
tractor stations.
European USSR proper:
North ........................
Northwest ....................
Central Industrial .............
Central Agricultural ...........
Upper Volga ..................
Middle and Lower Volga...... .
South ........................
West .........................
Collective
farms State farms
Percent of total sown area
Collective State farms
farms
1,000 acres 1,000 acres 1,000 acres
3, 688.0 111.2 244. 6
13, 176.4 410.9 1,092.4
21, 428.0 1, 306.7 1, 318. 3
31, 660. 7 2, 216. 7 2, 548. 4
18, 208.3 545. 1 990. 9
26, 935. 6 3, 716. 4 751. 9
63, 865.5 8, 210. 4 5,086.0
7,026.0 150.0 1,069.2
All European USSR proper......... j 185, 988. 5 16,667.4 13, 101. 7
9, 722
47
2, 523
57
381
8
1.5. 1
32, 501
37
1,305
37
405
11
31. 0
34, 146
56
1,324
25
640
11
48. 3
23, 041
94
2, 293
25
1,
280
14
55. 8
21, 828
52
1,576
32
835
16
53. 0
7, 003
136
10, 272
82
4,
090
30
39. 8
30, 436
138
3, 517
25
2,
098
15
59. 7
9, 665
74
1, 977
27
726
10
36. 7
168,342
4,043.8
14,679.7
24, 053. 0
36, 425. 8
19,744.3
31,403. 9
77,161.9
8, 245. 2
91.2 2.8
89.8 2.8
89.1 5.4
86.9 6.1
92.2 2.8
85.8 11.8
82.8 10.6
85.2' 1.8
Percent seeded
area to total
land per kol-
khoz
6. 0
100. 0
7. 4
100. 0
5. 5
100. 0
7.0
100. 0
5. 0
100. 0
2. 4
100. 0
6.6
100. 0
13. 0
100. 0
Q i'4l Original
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 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
AW
FIGURE IX-1
LAND SOWN, COLLECTIVE FARMS, 1938
JANIS 40
Cgy-magm -i1ii~?-
EUROPEAN
USSR: COLLECTIVE
FARMS
PERCENTAGE OF
LAND SOWN PER HOUSEHOLD, 1938
10 15 20 25 30
35 40 45 50
55 60 65 70 75
KA RA SE A
o A Y
r
B A R E N T S S
E A
0/
65
SWEDEN
65
WHITE
SEA
~~ r o
a
l
Ark
FINLAN
14x
NORTH
60 Y I tIAKE ONEGA
60
LAKE
LADOGA
GULF OF FINLAND
BALTIC
57
SEA re Leningrad
/ ESTONIA
.n,
Vologda
L ,1 Riga
~ ^+. T ~ ! ~?~ 703x F ',
A
/.,
50x 50x ~'~
F
55 1 7 (L. \? 4 .; Kalinin
/ Ivg}'ipYq? 44z
b
'
55
\ a t \...~
37
s.
5
Gorky
NORTHWEST Moscow
lMoskval?
J
I- I< Ll
`
,
GERMAN ~
al
nsk
25
U P P E
9 VOLGA ~
~
s- 7
-?~ .~./'y J C
ENTRAL INDUSTRIAL
% x
Tula
?RYaxan'
fj ~~.
Ulyanovsk
63
s
MIDDLE
P L A N D 27 .ores
CENTRAL
WHl
IA
'Pena
AGRICULTURAL
41" 6 K.,by h j
AND
(WEST)
?T? a L
OW R VOLGA
Ku k*
50
44x ':
50
_ Lvov ~?
` ~~ ~ K
366x
25
zecx.'~ Yinnilsa ? Kharkov
40x .;
634x
j
60x SOUTH
Dnepropetrovsk
25
Total land
82
per household
Rosmrna Deno
DdfdSd
45
SEA OF
AZOV
`,
Astrakhan _
Total sown area
45
R
UMANIA
~~~
~
\, rood
CASPIAN
Figures under circles represent
?~.
SEA acres per household
BULGARIA L
BACK
Shi istosI data & na in~wae area. or the USSR beyond the 1937 bo.rd.,
S
BOUNDARIES
~! .
USSR
- ? - International (1937)
?
~////OO/1dl0. JANIS study
T U R
40
~.
NOTE. 0,. so?ne. D, uh_. on tO. ..w do - ?.n.O cen.w-d
;n .n coresro A. ea:nd. r.coq:..dh rh. U S. 6--v
40
U. S Gc...mneet h . not r.noena,,ef. ir:.wywai AE..~a,
1MVa, .nd I.rtnwnu i05 N. Swiee Union.
Y
100 200 300
Miles
0 100 200 300
KI
~
CASPIAN SEA
AL
30 35
40 45
50 55
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 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
FIGURE IX-2
SOWN AREA, 1938
JANIS 40
C iTT" T1k%bw-
EUROPEAN USSR: SOWN AREA BY TYPES OF FARMS, 1938
10 15 20 25
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
XARA SE o
BARENTS S EA
J
j
a ~ 1,
ob,
o
65 /SWEDEN
65
S
O
WNI TE
a
SEA
S
0
Arkhangel'sk
OR
FINLAN
?\
2.ax 60%
60 I)
L1 LACE ONEGA 4.0 60
LA
K
NORTH
LADOGA
BALTIC GULF OF FINLAND
Leningr a
SEA
ESTONIA
2.8% 74%
Vologda
2.Sx 6
L A Riga
5.4 5.5%
=
-. 14
7
.
55 c r T
? \`, NORTHWES
Kalinin. Ivj
T 55
Dorkiy yb. 19.7
?''^
zan
MOSCOW Ka
J/
J
(Moskva)
OLG A
/
V
24,1 U PPER y
GERMAN
j ,~ r?~ 13. Smolensk
~
)
CENTRAL
C
INDUSTRIAL
j
.8%
Ryazan'
~
Tula Ulyanovsk i.
8.2
Z
Kuybyshev
WHITE R SSIA
P L A N D
CEN
Orel61
P za
TRAL AGRICULTURAT
(WEST
. Tambov
MIDDL AND U'.l
so
Kursk. LOWER O L G A
50
Saralov
6.6%
?l'vov I
10.6x
24%
it.
?..
36.4
czecx. Vinnilsa.
? Kharkov
2 x SOUTH
Dnepropetrovsk
31.4 Collective farms
? State farms
Odessa
Rostov no Deno
4 Other farms
45
Astrakhan 45
SEA Of
- Total farms
0
RUMANIA
A Z O V
u.wd.
Figures under circles represent
millions of acres
~.
Yalta
C
CASPIAN
,
SEA Sbdisf I date do not inctode areas of the USSR beyond the 1937 booed.,
BULGARIA BLACK
S E
r1 '"~ ?
A BOUNDARIES
?"
USSR
- ? - International (1937)
WMA, JANIS study
40 T U
NOTE: 76 s...d.d?.r.....a do a,.? ?.Atr -d 40
md.6oi.d.d...~Y~ by di. U S. Goo.n..x.
F, Th. U. S Gonse..o 5..d -add. n..ononnm u/E ,
Ln;y .d Labo... mN U.. .So.;., U.ino.
0 100 200 300
}'
Milan
0 100 200
Kit I
CASPIAN SEA
f R A N IRAN
30 35
40 45 50 55
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 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
FIGURE IX-3
COLLECTIVE FARMS SERVICED BY MACHINE-TRACTOR STATIONS, 1937
JANIS 40
C( rDENT AL
EUROPEAN USSR: COLLECTIVE FARMS
PROPORTION SERVICED BY MACHINE TRACTOR STATIONS, 1937
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
KARA SE O
A
. Y BARENT S S E A
o A
f
^vJ
o
O
Ob'
`5
SWEDEN I j
65
f
o
WHITE
SEA
aV Q
a
Arkhangelsk
04
011
FINLAN
50 , J 42z
LACE ONfGA q.,
i c.. 5 x `a~
'
60
o uK~ ::
LADOGA 9.7 6
BALTIC GULF OF FINLAND 11 NORTH
SEA o Leningrad
ESTONIA
f O I Vologda
L A Riga ?~'?~
L
32s -: 74
7
55 I7 Kallnin. ivanomjk
iy
55
a ~' ? NORTH EST MOSCOW Kaznta a!/
(Moskva)
U P P R VOLGA
GERMA
N
`_ ?y~. Smolensk CENTRAL
34
3
.
IN DUST RI AL
Ryazan'
82% Tula UI'yanovsk
9.6 F
P fA N D 1WHITE R SSIA Orel, Penza d Kuybyshev
(WEST) CENTRAL 7s; AGRICULTURAL
j ? Tambov
Kursk*
50 Saratov
.J
50
~
L'RO 2 MIDDLE AND
/ 230 LOWER VO GA
czECx '~
! Vinnitsa SOUTH ? Kharkov
`
? (Ukraine only.Comparable data not
vailable for Rostov and Crimea)
? 98 98%
ad
Dnepropetrovsk
27.3 6.9
Rostovna Donu Total farms
Odessa
45 Astrakhan Proportion
SEA OF serviced
45
RUMANIA Az?v
O Figures under circles represent
th
d
f
ll
i
f
ousan
s o
co
ect
ve
arms
CASPIAN
alta
SEA slatisucal data -.t Include areas of the USSR beyond the 1937 bounden
BULGARIA BLACK
S
E
"''~ ? A BOUNDARIES
USSR
"`? r -?- International (1937)
JANIS study
40 ? T U R t orE: T4 on d -.6 - -4 ra:.,ppnd
A' ;n.n ~..~ m d. bound de. r.mpr:.d br d. U S Go.?nn,mr.
40
~. rh.
LaU. S. Go wMOmt Rae me ~ogond A. 1....porae7oa d E..*
50 .d LdoaeA. drte d. Swm Union
.
r
100 200 300
Mile
0 100 200 300
Ki J
CASPIAN SEA
ENTIAL I
~ Q,
[ R A N IRAN
)
30 35 40 4 50 55
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 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
Confidential RESOURCES AND TRADE
In 1937 there were over 3,500 machine-tractor stations
in European USSR. Each machine-tractor station, on the
average, served 38 kolkhozy with a seeded area of about
49,000 acres. The number varied from 13 in the Middle
and Lower Volga area, where collective farms are large,
to 80 in the northwest where the farms are small (TABLE
IX-3).
Page IX-5
ALL COLLECTIVE FARMS, AND COLLECTIVE FARFIS SERV-
1(1?D BY MACHINE-TRACTOR STATIONS, 13Y REGION,
EUROPEAN USSR, 1937
Collective farms serviced
by MTS
\I"JIBER OF MACHINE-TRACTOR STATIONS (FITS), COLLEC-
1IVI, FARMS SERVICED PEB FITS, AND NUN113ER OF TRAC-
All collee-
live farms
Compared
to all col-
f
l
i
Sown area to
sown area of
all collective
TORS AND COMBINES PIA1 FITS, EUROPEAN USSR,
1037
European USSR proper:
Thousands
arms
ect
ve
Percent
farms
Percent
North ..................
9. 7
58
65
Num-
Collective
Northwest ..............
32. 6
75
82
h
f
farms
\um-
Mm-
Central Industrial .......
34.3
68
82
er o
MT.,
serviced
tar of 1 her of Central Agricultural. . . . .
23.0
93
97
f raC-
Co111-
tipper Volga............
21. 8
74
85
Num- Sown !
tors
i hind
.Middle and Lower Volga.
6. 9
98
99
her area
South* .................
27. 3
98
99
West ...................
9.6
82
87
l-:uropea.n I SSR proper:
North ......................
126
-15
19. 7 .
37
3
-Northwest ..................
305
80
36.9
46
3
Central Industrial...........
387
61
.16.5
5-1
1 8
Central Agricultural.........
595
36
17.11
55
14
t-pper Volga .......... .....
247
65
61. 0
52
12
Middle and Lower Volga ....
528
13
51. I
76
29
South .....................
I. 148
26
5-1. 2
70
2-1
West ......................
200
40
32. 3
36
3
In 1937 the machine-tractor stations on the average had
60 tractors and 17 combines, but the number ranged from
36 tractors and 3 combines per station in the West, to 76
tractors and 29 combines in the Middle and Lower Volga
area. In the South and the Middle and Lower Volga, 98`("
of the collective farms were serviced at least to some
extent by machine-tractor stations. The Central Agri-
cultural region followed with 93(7, ; the smallest percent
of kolkhozy serviced by machine-tractor stations, less than
60 ; , was in the North (TABLE IX-4 and FIGURE IX-3).
The most mechanized field operation is plowing. Sow-
ing and harvesting are much less mechanized in most
regions. Thus, in the Ukraine, 85(/,' of spring plowing
was done with tractors, but only 40`-' of spring seeding
* t'kraine only. No comparable data are available for Rostov and
Crimea.
was mechanized. The gap in mechanization between
plowing and other field work was much smaller in the
Middle and Lower Volga and Crimea, while in the Ros-
tovskaya Oblast' there was greater mechanization of seed-
ing and harvesting than of plowing (TABLE IX-5).
A serious drawback in the work of the machine-tractor
stations has been the poor maintenance of equipment,
resulting in frequent breakdown and stoppage, and need
for extensive repairs and overhauling. The excessive
turnover of tractor drivers and combine operators, in-
duced by poor living conditions and large arrears in pay-
ment of wages, was another unfavorable factor during the
prewar period. By a decree of the Presidium of the Su-
preme Council of the USSR of 17 July 1940, tractor drivers
and combine operators were prohibited from quitting their
jobs without permission of the management.
World War II had a very adverse effect on machine-
tractor stations. In the invaded zone, the Germans de-
stroyed over 2,600 machine-tractor stations, and destroyed
or removed 137,000 tractors and 49,000 combines and much
other machinery, according to a report of a Special Soviet
Investigating Commission.
Spring
plowing
European USSR proper: Percent Percent
North .................................... 34.I 3. 3
Northwest ................................ 45. 9 4. 2
Central Industrial ....... ............ 59. 2 15. 9
Central Agricultural ........................ 76. 3 30. 7
tipper Volga .............................. 52. 2 19. 0
Middle and Lower Volga.. ................. 9I. -1 75. 5
South:
tikraim .............................. ....85.0 39. 9
Crimea ..... .............................. 89. 6 59.9
Rostov .................................. 83. 0 83. 6
'tVest ..................................... ....I 55.9 9
(;rains
Percent
Fall
plowing
Percent
Fall
sowing
Percent
Total
Percent
legumes
Combines
only
Percent
4. 1
57.5
10.7
2.9
2.7
6.0
40.3
15.2
2.4
2.2
20. 2 1
49.5
27. 4
7. 0
(i.9
37.1
52.5
35.5
16.5
16.3
21. 1
54.0
25.5
9.7
9.7
85. I
84. 9
Ski. 0
74.5
58.9
1-1. 6
71. 6
38. 7
-14. 5
39. 6
75. 4
86.0
68. 1
80.2
78.6
91.0
82. 1
!'8.8
83.
62. 1
Original Confidential
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 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
Page IX-6 JANIS 40
In the uninvaded zone some tractors were withdrawn
for army use, and the stations also lost, through army
mobilization, most of their skilled personnel. The extent
of the decline in tractor work can be gaged from the fact
that, while the total volume of such work for the Soviet
Union as a whole increased by 22 % in 1945 over 1944, it
still was less than half of the prewar volume. For Euro-
pean USSR proper, the decline was probably greater.
Reconstruction of the destroyed machine-tractor sta-
tions began immediately after the expulsion of the enemy
from each region, and is still going on. The postwar Five-
Year Plan, promulgated in March 1946, contemplates in-
troduction during 1946-50 of not less than 325,000 new
tractors, the bulk of which will undoubtedly go to the
machine-tractor stations, and the creation of 950 new
machine-tractor stations, most of which will probably be
located in European USSR.
(3) Sovkhozy
The sovkhoz, or state farm, is a farm entirely owned and
operated by the state, like any factory in the Soviet Union.
The first state farms were organized during the early years
of the Soviet regime from what was left of the estates that
the peasants had not already seized. A new impetus to
the development of state farming was given by the grain
crisis of 1928-29, when the government encountered great
difficulty in collecting grain from the peasants for the
needs of the urban population. The government decided
then to establish large mechanized state grain farms, pri-
marily on uncultivated land in the drier areas of the
Union. Later, during the collectivization campaign, peas-
ant slaughtering of their livestock on a large scale created
a severe livestock shortage. At that time the government
established large-scale state farms to raise livestock. Sim-
ilar ventures in state farming were made in other branches
of agriculture.
The state farms were at first unwieldy and suffered from
excessive specialization and from inefficient utilization of
tractors and combines. These problems led during the
1930's to subdivision, transfer of some land to the kolk-
hozy, and emphasis on diversified farming.
In 1938 the state farms in European USSR accounted
for less than 8`%, of the total crop area. The largest
acreages under state farms were in the south, particularly
the southeast, followed by the Middle and Lower Volga,
the Central Agricultural, and the Central Industrial re-
gions. The acreage under state farms in the northern
regions was small (TABLE IX-2 and FIGURE IX-2).
In the newly incorporated territories, before they were
occupied by the Soviet Union, small and medium-sized
peasant holdings largely prevailed. During the interwar
period all these territories had undergone more or less
extensive agrarian reforms in which some redistribution
of ownership in favor of the peasant farmer took place.
If 50 hectares (about 125 acres) is taken as a rough
dividing line between smaller and larger properties, in
Estonia and Lithuania over 80% of the land was in small
and medium-sized holdings; in Latvia, about 75 %1c ; and, in
the former Polish territories, about 65 percent. Much of
the land in large holdings in the Polish territories was in
forests or otherwise not used or usable for agricultural
purposes. In Bessarabia, where details of distribution are
available only for crop land, holdings up to 50 hectares
occupied 94% of the total crop area in 1931.
A new redistribution has taken place since Soviet occu-
pation, or reoccupation, of these territories. Detailed sta-
tistical data on the results of the new agrarian reform,
however, are lacking.
Confidential
C. Farm practices
The collectivization of agriculture has been accom-
panied, not only by a considerable mechanization of farm
operations, but also by the government's strong emphasis
on the adoption of certain farm practices tending to im-
prove crop yields.
The government has a vital interest in increasing agri-
cultural production, and improvement of yield per acre has
been considered the principal means to this end since the
early 1930's, when the major expansion of acreage took
place.
While the acreage was being increased, during the early
years of collectivization, the yield per acre declined, partly
because of the inferior land brought under cultivation
(extension of farming in the semiarid zone), but largely
because of inefficient management and the poor work of
the peasants on the new collective farms, which they were
forced, as a rule, to join. This, coupled with the fact that
the crop yields were generally lower in the Soviet Union
than in Western Europe and the United States, stimu-
lated governmental effort to increase the yields by adop-
tion of better farm practices.
In comparing crop yields in the Soviet Union with
those of the United States, and particularly Western
Europe, there should not be overlooked, apart from the
respective efficiencies of farm practices, the differences in
climatic and economic conditions which are in no small
measure responsible for variation in yields. Light pre-
cipitation and a short growing season in USSR tend to-
ward low yields of crops. Similarly, until recent years,
relative abundance of land and slight industrial and urban
development, which limited a profitable market for agri-
cultural products, favored extensive farming in Russia,
with its low yields, as compared with the intensive farming
based on high yields per unit of land in the industrialized
western European countries.
A scientific system of crop rotation holds the center
place in this government program of improved farm prac-
tices. This method was intended to replace the tradi-
tional three-field cropping system (winter grain, spring
crop, fallow) in the north and central parts of the coun-
try, and the continuous cropping in the south and east
until exhaustion of fertility.
While the character and number of crops and their ro-
tation under the new system differ from region to region,
usually involving a 7- to 10-year cycle, two features are
considered essential to every cropping system: a sod crop
to improve the soil and provide forage, and a fallow plowed
as early as possible, preferably in the autumn, to conserve
the moisture supply and for weed control. Weed infesta-
tion, as a result of careless tillage during the early years of
collectivization, has become a major problem. Hence,
the emphasis is placed on fallowing as a means of weed
eradication, even if no special measures are needed for
moisture conservation.
However, the effort of the government to introduce crop
rotation in the 1930's was only partially successful. It
was admitted by the Soviet Minister of Agriculture in 1939,
(then, Commissar of Agriculture), that only 12% of the
collective farms had a more or less satisfactory system of
crop rotation. The agricultural planners were often re-
sponsible for this state of affairs by prescribing acreage
goals inconsistent with the observance of the crop rotation
system.
Whatever the improvement in rotation before the war,
the situation, of course, greatly deteriorated with the Ger-
man invasion, not only in the invaded regions but also in
Confidential Original
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 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
RESOURCES AND TRADE Page IX-7
the uninvaded area, where rotation was often neglected.
A new decree of the Council of People's Commissars on
"measures for improvement in the introduction and adop-
tion of crop rotation in collective farms," published in
June 1945, once more set up in detail a comprehensive
government program on this problem.
As was pointed out earlier, conservation of soil moisture
is of great importance in Soviet farming, so much of
which is centered in the semiarid zone. Among farm
practices designed to this end, retention of snow has re-
ceived considerable attention. Similarly fall plowing, for
seeding during the following spring, has been stressed in
the Soviet production program. Fall plowing also has the
advantage of easing the heavy load of field work in the
spring, and has been increasingly practiced in Soviet
agriculture.
Another measure to protect the crops from the effects
of droughts and to control wind erosion, is planting of tree
shelterbelts in the semiarid steppe regions. The Russians
have been pioneers in this field and, by 1940, about 500,000
hectares (1,250,000 acres) of tree shelterbelts were planted
in the Soviet Union, mostly in European USSR.
The war affected this work adversely. There was con-
siderable destruction and neglect of the trees. A new im-
petus to the planting of tree shelterbelts, however, was
given by the considerable emphasis on this point in the
government's agricultural Plan for 1946 and the Five-Year
Plan for 1946-50.
Great strides have been made in improving the quality
of seed, especially since the passage on 29 June 1937 of the
decree by the Council of the People's Commissars, entitled
"Concerning the Measures for Improvement of Grain
Seed."
A system has been developed to provide the collec-
tive and state farms with seed of pure strains. In the
case of grain, it consists of three important stages: first,
a plant-breeding station develops seed of pure strains;
second, such seeds are supplied for propagation to a desig-
nated collective or state farm in each district, which spe-
cializes in seed production; third, this seed is delivered to
a government agency in charge of the stock of seed of pure
strains, and the agency, in exchange for ordinary seed,
supplies the collective and state farms with pure strains
for planting on special plots, to provide the seed supply
for the farm. This system resulted in considerable prog-
ress in the use of seed of pure strains. In 1937, 42of
the total grain acreage was planted with such seed and, in
1940, 841% . Corresponding advances have also been made
in other crops. The war retarded seed improvement, par-
ticularly in the regions invaded by the Germans. A new
decree of the People's Commissar on "Improvement of the
Grain Seed Supply," published in the Soviet press at the
end of February 1945, outlined various measures for post-
war recovery and further improvements in this field.
The progressive farm methods described above, as well
as others, have been introduced on a large scale through
Soviet centralized planning and direction. The beneficial
effects, however, of government planning have often been
offset by poor farm practices at the grassroots.
Extensive weed infestation has required a great deal of
labor in the actual weeding of the fields. According to
one Soviet authority, on some collective and state farms,
the expenditure of labor for the weeding of wheat and flax
fields constituted often more than half of the total labor
required for the growing of these crops. Furthermore,
weed infestation has necessitated much deeper plowing
and consequently increased expenditure of draft power.
Another serious evil of Soviet agriculture is the untimely
field work. Delayed plowing, seeding, harvesting, etc.,
were common during the early years of collectivization.
Untimely seeding is highly detrimental to yields, especially
in the semiarid region where the late crops may not have
time to develop sufficiently to withstand the adverse ef-
fects of a hot, dry spell. Conditions had improved con-
siderably in the later 1930's, but delay in harvesting, with
consequent large crop losses, has been a much more per-
sistent evil, especially in the case of grain and hay.
Much attention has been given by the Soviet Govern-
ment to the problem of improving the efficiency of agricul-
tural labor. The so-called Stakhanovist campaign, for
increased labor productivity and speed-up of work, began
first in industry, in 1935, and was soon extended to agri-
culture. It was carried on among the tractor drivers and
combine operators, and among workers in animal hus-
bandry and production of intensive crops, such as sugar
beets, where individual labor counts for a great deal. The
campaign for increased productivity was spurred by re-
wards to the pace setters.
Although the efficiency of labor on the collective farms
was higher in the late 1930's than in the early days of
collectivization, labor requirements for production of
crops were still very high. According to a sample survey
of collective farms made in 1937, production of winter
grains, including preharvest and harvest operations, and
hauling to delivery points, required 6.24 man-days per
hectare (2.471 acres) in Dnepropetrovskaya Oblast', 8.89
in Odesskaya Oblast' in southern Ukraine, and 6.82 in
Rostovskaya Oblast'-all regions of highly mechanized
wheat production. While comparison with the United
States is hazardous, since corresponding data in this
country are given in man-hours rather than man-days,
and it is difficult to convert Soviet man-days into man-
hours, the superior American efficiency is indicated by the
fact that in the United States the number of man-hours
(not man-days) required for wheat production averages
only 21.5 per 2.471 acres (1 hectare), and is as low as 11.4
in Kansas and 14.6 to 16.1 in the Dakotas.
Before World War II, farm methods in the newly incor-
porated territories (with the exception of the Baltic Re-
publics and Konigsberg) were rather backward. Although
the lowlands of the old Kingdom of Rumania and Bessa-
rabia are in a soil belt of exceptional fertility, crops are
subject to extremes of temperature and precipitation.
During the prewar period, farm practices had not ad-
vanced to include moisture conservation measures or
modern methods of cropping, and farm equipment was
primitive. Farm practices in other newly incorporated
territories, particularly in the former Baltic Republics of
Latvia and Estonia, and the East Prussia (Konigsberg)
district, were generally more progressive than in the for-
mer Rumanian provinces.
D. Fertilizers
(1) Manure
The extent to which manure is used varies markedly.
In the nonblack-soil area with its poor podzolized leached
soils, manure is absolutely essential for satisfactory crop
yields, and is widely used. In the more fertile regions of
the black-soil area it is less, or not at all, essential. In the
whole of the Ukraine, for example, manure applied on the
grain fields in 1934 was only three-fourths of that used in
the Moscow province alone.
In general, the use of manure in European USSR de-
creases toward the south and southeast, where moisture
rather than fertility of the soil is a limiting factor. In
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 Page IX-8
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JANIS 40 Confidential
1934 the Tatar ASSR used 6,365,000 metric tons of manure
to fertilize the grain fields, but the neighboring Middle
Volga region, to the south, with a grain acreage nearly
three times as large, used only 2,890,000 metric tons.
Still farther south, in the Lower Volga region (Saratov
and Stalingrad provinces), about 100,000 metric tons were
used that year.
Manure is used primarily for winter grains and but little
for spring grain. In the Moskovskaya Oblast' for instance,
over a third of winter rye and 60% of winter wheat acre-
age, but less than 5% of the oats acreage (planted in the
spring) were manured in 1934. More manure is used for
potatoes and sugar beets than for spring grain.
In general, the amount of manure used in Soviet Russia
decreased by some 60% during the decade preceding
World War II, and a Russian agricultural scientist has
cited this as the main cause of an unfavorable plant food
balance of the USSR crop area. The situation deterio-
rated still further during the war with the great decline
of livestock and the consequent reduction in the quan-
tity of manure available. For this reason alone, crop
yields in the nonbiack-soil area, where manure is essen-
tial, will also be affected adversely during the postwar
period until livestock numbers are restored.
AVAILABLE SUPPLY OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS, USSR
1928, 1932, 1938
Nitrates (20.5 % N) ...........
Potash (41.0 jo I(20) ..........
Superphosphate (18% P202) ....
Ground phosphate rock........
Thousands of short tons
12.7 24.5 778. 0
4.0 29.8 343. 3
228. 2 526.5 1, 756. 2
13.2 436. 5 667. 9
(2) Commercial fertilizer
The use of commercial fertilizer was greatly increased
in the USSR during the interwar period, as indicated in
TABLE IX-6. No separate data for European USSR proper
are available. The increase in the use of commercial fer-
tilizer paralleled the growth of the Soviet chemical indus-
try and the discovery of phosphate and potash deposits.
Newly incorporated areas:
Commercial fertilizer is used in the USSR primarily for
the so-called industrial or technical crops (sugar beets,
flax, cotton), and only in insignificant quantities for
grains. The situation will doubtless continue during the
postwar period. Whatever the output is of commercial
fertilizer by the war-damaged Soviet chemical industry,
it will be urgently needed for the recovery of the produc-
tion of industrial crops.
E. Land utilization
Data on land utilization are given in TABLES IX-7 and
IX-8. It will be noted from TABLE IX-8 that the propor-
tion of meadows and pastures, and of arable land (except
in Estonia), is higher in the newly incorporated territories
than in European USSR proper; the proportion of forests
is greater in European USSR than in the newly incorpo-
rated territories.
There are also considerable regional variations through-
out European USSR. The proportion of arable land is
higher, and that of meadows and pastures is lower, in the
black-soil area than in the nonblack-soil area. In the
Ukraine, for instance, arable land constitutes 691/c and
meadows and pastures 8.5% of total land, and in the
western part of the Central Agricultural area (Kurskaya
Oblast', 1935 frontiers), 76 % and 8.8 %, respectively. But,
in White Russia (nonbiack-soil area), arable land is 33.9'/
and meadows and pastures 22.3 percent. Still farther
north, in the Leningrad area, arable land is only 12.5 Y and
meadows and pastures 16.4%, but a much higher propor-
tion of land in this area is in forests : 48.5 % as against
31.1%c in White Russia, and 8.4% in the Ukraine. The
great importance of meadows and pastures in the economy
of the nonblack-soil area is due to the need for manure
for crop production on the poor soils of these regions;
hence, the need of livestock and of forage.
Not all of the arable land is occupied by crops in any one
year. Part of the land is lying fallow each year, either as
tilled fallow in a regular system of rotation, or reverted to
sod after continuous cropping exhausts the fertility of the
soil. In European USSR proper, 81 % of the arable land
was under crops in 1938; and in the Baltic Republics,
86 percent. Most of the remaining arable land is occupied
by tilled fallow. As was explained earlier, the practice of
fallowing is considered essential in the USSR for conserva-
tion of soil moisture, which is the limiting factor in pro-
duction in the large semiarid zone, and for weed control,
TABLE IX - 7
LAND UTILIZATION, EUROPEAN USSR
(Thousands of acres)
Area with
farm
buildings
Fruit or-
chards
and vine-
yards
Arable
land
Perma-
nent
meadows
Forests
and Other
brush land
1 stonia *** ................................. .
2,718
2,552
1,
764
2,
294
1,
463
10,
792
Latvia *** ....................................
5, 404
2, 236
1,
856
4,
317
2,
444
16,
257
Lithuania *** ........................
94
6, 778
**1, 720
1,
097
2,
577 1,
490
13,
756
Polish f ......................................
766
16, 940
5, 477
3,
572
10,
040 5,
272
42,
067
Rumanian f .......................... .....
357
8,041
143
1,
076
924 1,
850
12,
391
* Data are for 1935 exclusive of Rostovskaya Oblast'.
** 1935 Census.
Data are for 1938 (exceptions indicated).
f Data are for 1938.
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 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
FIGURE IX-4
CROP DISTRIBUTION, 1938
JANIS 40
CONFIDENTIAL
EUROPEAN USSR: CROPS
PERCENTAGE OF DISTRIBUTION, 1938
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
KARA SE 0
~o A Y ~'t B A R E N T S S E A
j
J
~
65 i SWEDEN t
S ~ 4
65
WHITE
SEA
kP q
a
OA Arkhangelsk
0
O
x3%
FINLANOD 83%
NORTH s.3x3.ex
"w ?7
ip.te odm not ,ri.d mlud
rpwale0 xr.aL m nni al 40
60 to ? / t1ACE OMEGA q X4
IA-
6
GULF OF FINLAND LADOGA
BALTIC
SEA Leningrad ^u/
\,..C SJTONIA
11.9% Vologda. UPPER VOLGA P'/
27.5 44s
593% `?`. 20.3% 9.2z
L 55.12 3.9z 5.9x
1 12.72 ~r 18.0 .Sx
55 LIT B A L ?j" 1. C 1 14.7 Kalinin
~
55
Gq ~?~ NORTHWEST 13.4x Gor'kiY ///
~..` N~ ( .{? x vde. 19
7
.
(tM s6a) Kazan aK'
GERMAN 241
Smolensk
_.~?~ ~.r'~ J 7.4% CENTRAL INDUSTRIAL 6%,,A
RAINFALL LIMIT
10.4
Ryaz 16,nchas
.6 0.5% 20.1% 6 Tula Uiyartgvgk 1
8.2 1
PDPtces xWHITE RU SIA CENTRAL Orerr-: ~Feaz lfuytyshev~
% (WEST) AGRICULTURAL 55%
50 POLISH 10.0% 4usk~ x SaMIDDLE /
rao
50
NORTH
1,Ox / J
41 'L UKRAINE i
2%
10
.
AND
t
% 7.7x
~~~~~ SOUTH ~,+ 54%
' 93 +sk
4
Wheat, other grains, and legumes
P6 UKRAIN
DON 31.4
2.6% DON?TS LOWER VOL
52i 4 Vegeta6lles and potatoes
RaA6nu o Forage crops including tame hay
Odessa
as 80 AND Astrakhan Q Industrial crops sugsgidbeets tobacc spices.
R
A
N
45
IS E A of antl medicinal crops)
UM
NIA
RUMANIA CRIMEA Azov QOther crops
O Total sown area
YaltaCASPIAN Figures under circles represent millons of acres
SEA
Black soils Ichernozem)
BULGA RIA
B L
ACK
S E
rj '~'~ ? A BOUNDARIES
USSR
-?- International (19371
. 1011% JANIS study
40 o T U R NOTE: TO. boo.d-t- dw.. a. Jd. mad. rot .-.ve.;y .-d
K ;o,4 m-s ro 16wo Bond On die U. S. Gn.o o. n.
40
~. Th. U. S. Go..mn~e 6, - -m-d'6 N.9rFOren o I Euo q
lemy.:d LWh.-imoe5.So 0UM..
100 200 300
Miles
0 10D 200 300
Kilometers J CASPIAN S E A
`
CONFIDENTIAL
I R A N IRAN
30 35 40 45 50 55
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RESOURCES AND TRADE Page IX-9
Total land area with
farm
buildings
1.000 o f n s
European USSR proper* .......... ...... 902, 332
\ewlp incorporated areas-
1?stonia*** ........................
Latvia*** ........................
Lithuania*** ..... .................
1'olisht ..... ......................
H.urnaniant ............ ............
10, 7'.12
16, 257
13, 756
42, 067
12. 391
Fruit or-
chardk
and vine-
Yards
0.
1.
2.
Data, except for Rostovskava ()blast', are for 1935.
** 1935 Censru.
.k** Data are for 1938 (exceptions indieatedt.
t Data are for 1938.
rendered even more necessary by the serious weed infesta-
tion in the region invaded during the war.
The arable, or crop, land in European USSR can be in-
creased through land reclamation. During the years
1933-37, over 7.3 million acres were added to the crop land
in the nonblack-soil area (Northern, Northwestern, West-
ern, Central Industrial, and Upper Volga regions). Of
this area, prior to reclamation, 13 `,% was meadows and pas-
tures (presumably of a very poor type), 27 ' brushland,
291;4 small woods, 151% forests, 13'7. cut-over land, and
other land 3 percent.
There is still a considerable area of brushland, marsh-
land, and, in the more northern regions, of forest land,
which could be adapted to crop production. In White
Russia (West) drainage of extensive marshes would pro-
vide a sizable addition to the crop land. A government
decree of 6 March 1941 outlined a plan for draining nearly
4 million acres during the years 1941-47, of which over 1.3
million acres were to be adapted to crops and nearly 2 mil-
lion acres to meadows and pastures. The war interfered
with this program and caused serious damage to the
drainage system.
The drainage operations in White Russia were resumed
after the war, but on a more modest scale. The postwar
Five-Year Plan, 1946-50, specifies drainage of 667,000 acres
of agricultural land in the enlarged territory of White
Russia, which now includes western provinces formerly
under Polish control. In the Ukraine, the plan specifies
drainage of 100,000 acres and irrigation of 75,000 acres of
agricultural land, some of which may have been under
irrigation before the war. Additional land can be brought
into cultivation by irrigation in the Middle and Lower
Volga regions. Irrigation in this area is in its infancy,
and long-range projects for this purpose were being devel-
oped before the war. The postwar Five-Year Plan pro-
vides for an irrigation project in the so-called Volga-
Akhtuba depression between Stalingrad and Astrakhan'.
According to a Moscow press report of 3 March 1945, some
100,000 acres were scheduled to be opened within five
years.
In general, it appears that whatever the theoretical pos-
sibilities, little new acreage will be brought under cultiva-
tion by reclamation in European USSR during the years
1947 to 1950, while the government is preoccupied with
the problem of restoring Soviet agriculture to the prewar
level.
Arable
land
Derma- Forests
neat Pastures and Other Total
meadows . hrushland
25.2
23. 6
16.3
21.3 1
13.6
100.0
33. 2
13.8
1 1. -1
2 6. 6
15.0
100.0
7
11).3
**12.5
**
8.0
18.7
10.8
100.0
8
-10.3
13.0
8. 5
23.9
12.5
100.0
!1
(i-1. 9
1. 2
8. 7
7. -1
11. 9
100.0
92. FARM PRODUCTS AND FISHING
A. Crops
(1) General crop pattern
The outstanding feature of the European USSR crop
pattern is the predominance of grain, which greatly out-
ranks all the other crops (TABLE IX-9, FIGURE IX-4). The
proportion of grains (including grain legumes, such as
peas, lentils, etc.) in the total acreage of European USSR
proper constituted, in 1938, nearly 72 percent. (In
1928, it had been even larger-79 percent.) The Volga
regions have the highest proportion of grain, 80 percent.
It decreases westward, and is least in the northwest with
55'/, of the acreage under grain. In the Baltic Republics,
in 1938, it was nearly 601/,;; in the former Polish territo-
ries, 68' ; and, in the former Rumanian territories, 88 per-
cent (TABLES IX-10 to IX-12),
Among the nongrain crops, forage crops, including tame
hay, hold first place. They accounted, in 1938, for about
12':; of the total acreage in European USSR proper, but
the proportion is higher in the Northwestern and Central
Industrial regions, with about a fifth of the acreage in for-
age crops. It is especially high in the Baltic Republics,
where forage crops occupy more than a fourth of the acre-
age. These crops are considerably less important in the
former Polish territories than in the Baltics, and are insig-
nificant in the former Rumanian territories.
Potatoes and other vegetables occupy between 81/, and
9'4 of the acreage of European USSR proper but they are
much more important in the western and central parts
of the country than in the eastern and the southern. The
region where they are especially significant is White Rus-
sia (West), where a fifth of the acreage is under potatoes
and vegetables, largely the former. In the former Polish
territories potatoes alone account for 15'/,, of the acreage,
but they are less important in the Baltic Republics.
Finally, there are the so-called industrial or, as the
Russians term them, technical crops, which provide the
raw materials for such manufacturing industries as the
textile, sugar, vegetable oil, and tobacco. These crops ac-
counted for nearly 8~/, of the acreage in European USSR
proper, where they were especially important in the north-
west and the south (Ukraine and Crimea). In the former
Rumanian territories, 7V( of the acreage was under these
crops, but less than 4,: in the Baltic Republics and less
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JANIS 40 Confidential
European USSR proper:
North ............................
Northwest .........................
Central Industrial ................. .
Central Agricultural ............... .
Upper Volga .......................
Middle and Lower Volga ............
South: ............................
North Ukraine .................
South Ukraine and the Crimea.. .
Don-Donets Region ............ .
West ..............................
Newly incorporated areas:
Finnish ...........................
Baltic republics ................... .
Konigsberg ........................
Polish ............................
Rumanian ........................ .
254, 701.8
Al,' European USSR .............. .
TABLE IX - 10
CROP AREA, EUROPEAN USSR, 1938
(Thousands of acres)
Winter wheat..........
Spring wheat ..........
Total wheat .........
Rye ..................
Oats ..................
Barley ................
Corn .................
Millet ................
Buckwheat ............
Potatoes ..............
Legumes ..............
Vegetables............
Sugar beets ............
Sunflower seed .........
Flaxseed ..............
Flax for fiber ..........
Total flax ...........
Hemp ................
Cotton ................
Tobacco ..............
Makhorka .............
Tame hay .............
Other forage crops......
Other crops............
215, 757. 6
Total crops........
European
USSR
proper
Estonia
Baltic
Latvia
Republics
Lithuania
-- ---
Total
Finland
Territory a
---
Poland
cquired from
Rumania
: *
East Prus-
sia (Kb-
nigsberg)
Total ac-
quired
territories
Graiicl
total
24, 608. 7
67. 7
166.8
355.6
590. I
3. 0
1, 580.0
1,894.3
63.9
4, 131. 3
28, 740. 0
25,256. 6
104.5
181.6
144.8
430.9
42.7
287.6
442.5
9. 6
1,213. 3
26,469. 9
(49, 865.3)
(172.2)
(348.4)
(500. 4)
(1, 021.0)
(45.7)
(1,867.6)
(2,336.8)
(73. 5)
(5,344.6)
(55, 209. 9)
42, 986. 5
365. 2
709. 2
1, 304. 7
2, 379. 1
58. 6
4, 538. 5
530. 3
282. 2
7, 788. 7
50, 775. 2
26, 699.9
367. 9
859.7
877.4
2, 105.0
105.3
2, 277. 8
152. 7
140.8
4, 781.6
31,481.5
14,455. 1
216.7
439.6
536.2
1,192.5
24.2
1,213.0
1,276. 3
103.1
3,809. 1
18,264.2
3, 268. 6
....
....
....
....
....
204.4
2, 604.9
....
2, 809.3
6, 077. 9
5, 822. 2
....
....
....
....
....
117.4
6. 7
....
124.1
5, 946. 3
4, 137. 2
....
11.9
19.8
31.7
....
500. 1
3.0
....
534.8
4,672.0
14, 892. 0
192. 7
340. 2
459. 6
992. 5
27.9
2, 450. 2
138. 6
110. 6
3, 719.8
18, 611. 8
4,914. 1
23.0
87.7
1.35. 9
246. 6
2. 5
213. 2
59.0
7. 4
528. 7
5, 442. 8
2, 392. 4
21.3
31.4
63.0
115.7
....
....
27. 7
3. 1
146.5
2,538.19
2, 708.2
....
33. 6
21.0
54. 6
....
43.5
32.6
2. 9
133.6
2,841.8
5, 135. 7
....
....
....
....
....
....
327.4
....
327. 4
5, 463. 1
461.6
....
....
....
....
....
....
4,220.2
....
....
....
....
....
(4,681. 8)
(57. 8)
(161. 8)
(192. 5)
(412. 1)
(1. 0)
(246. 6)
(4. 9)
(1. 4)
(666.0)
(5, 347. 8)
1, 255.5
....
....
....
....
....
61. 8
26.2
....
88.0
1, 343. 5
778.6
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
778.6
66.2
....
....
....
....
....
9.4
7. 7
....
17. 1
83. 3
233. 5
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
....
233. 5
23,434. 7
460.9
1,462. 6
1,099. 1
3,022. 6
353.6
....
129.0
48.2
3,533. 4
26,988. 1
2, 563.4
100.8
Ill. 7
269. 3
481. 8
6. 7
2, 156. 7
74.9
326. 7
3, 046.8
5, 610. 2
5, 466.7
285. 9
206. 1
287.4
779. 4
....
193.2
229. 5
322. 6
1, 524. 7
6, 991. 4
2, 264. 4
4, 803. 9
5, 766. 3
12, 834. 6
625. 5 16, 093. 4
7, 968.2
1, 422. 5
38, 944. 2
254, 701. 8
Total
sown area
All wheat
Other
grains and
legumes
industrial
crops
Forage
crops in-
eluding
tame hay
Vegeta-
bles in-
eluding
potatoes
Other
crops
Total
1,000 acres
Percent
Percent
Percent
Percent
Percent
Percent
Percent
4, 043. 8
10. 4
63. 4
7. 3
10. 6
8. 3
....
100. 0
14, 679. 7
7. 9
47. 2
12.0
20.3
12. 6
....
100. 0
24, 053. 0
11. 9
52.8
4. 0
17.9
13.4
....
100. 0
36, 425. 8
17. 4
56. 2
8. 6
9. 0
8. 8
....
100. 0
19, 744.3
it. 9
68. 5
4. 4
9. 2
6. 0
....
100. 0
31, 403.9
39. 3
41.8
7. 7
7. 4
3. 8
....
100. 0
(77, 161. 9)
(30. 9)
(39. 5)
(9.0)
(13. 2)
(7.4)
....
(100.0)
32, 616. 7
18. 5
49. 2
10. 1
12.0
10.2
....
100. 0
26, 051. 7
42. 2
30. 7
9. 3
12. 6
5. 2
....
100. 0
18, 493. 5
36.9
35.0
6. 8
15.9
5. 4
....
100. 0
8, 245. 2
6. 7
55. 4
7. 4
10.4
20. 1
....
100. 0
215, 757. 6
23. 1
48.4
7. 9
12. 1
8. 5
....
100. 0
625. 5
7.3
30. 5
0. 1
57. 6
4. 5
....
100.0
12, 834. 6
8. 0
51.7
3. 6
27.5
8. 6
0. 6
100. 0
1, 422. 5
5. 2
49. 4
0. 3
26.4
8. 0
10. 7
100. 0
16, 093. 4
11. 6
56. 7
2. 6
13.4
15.2
0. 5
100. 0
7, 968. 2
29. 3
58. 3
7. 2
2. 6
2. 6
....
100. 0
38, 944. 2
M. 7
52.8
4.4
17.0
9. 9
2. 2
100. 0
21. 7
49. 1
7. 4
12.8
8. 7
0. 3
100. 0
Confidential Original
Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
 Winter wheat.......... 11.4
Spring wheat.......... 11.7
Total wheat.......... (23. 1)
R.ye .................. 19.9
Oats .................. 12.4
Barlev ................ 6. 7
Corn ................. J. 5
Millet ................ 2. 7
Buckwheat............ 1. 9
Potatoes ..............~ (i.9
Legumes .............. ~ 2. 3
Vegetables ............ ~ 1. 1
Sugar beets............ 1.2
Sunflower seed ......... 2. 4
Flaxseed ..............
Flax for fiber ..........
Total flax.......... .
Hemp ................
Cotton ................
Tobacco ..............
Makhorka .............
Tame hay .............
Other forage crops ......
Other crops............
Original
Total European
USSR. proper..
Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
RESOURCES AND TRADE
PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL SOWN AREA OCCUPIED BY SPECIFIED CROPS, EUROPEAN USSR, 1938
European
USSR
proper
0. 2
1. 9
(2. 1)
0.6
0. 4
0. 1
10. 9
1. 2
2. 6
Total crops ......... 10 .0
Winter
wheat
European USSR proper:
North ................ 46. 7
Northwest ............ 464. 3
Central Industrial ..... 1, 515. 0
Central Agricultural .... 2,812.0
Lipper Volga .....................III. 2
Middle and Lower
Volga .............. 579. 2
........ (18, 897. 7)
South: .......
North Ukraine ...... 5, 206. 4
South Ukraine and
the Crimea ........ 10, 256. 9
I)on-Donets Region.. 3,434.4
\Vest ......... ... ...I 1.82.6
Newly incorporated areas:
Finnish ...............I
Baltic ................ I
Konigsberg...........
Polish ................
Rumanian ............
Total European
USSR..........! 28, 740.0
3. 0
590. 1
63. 9
4,580.0
1, 894. 3
3. 0
4. 6
(7. 6)
16. 1
16. 2
0. 6
8. 5
1. 0
0. 0
20. 4
4. 5
12. 6
Spring
wheat
373. 4
693. 1
1,346. 0
3, 511. 3
2, 246. 9
11, 763.4
(4, 955. (5)
811, 7
740. 6
3, 380. 3
366. 9
42. 7
-130. 9
9. 6
287. 6
442. 5
3. 5
3. 8
(7. 3)
14.8
17.9
9. 2
0. 2
7. I
1.8
0. 6
0. 7
30. 4
2. 3
-1.3
6. 2
2.5
(8. 7)
22. 6
15.2
9.3
0. 3
8. 0
2. 3
1. l
0. 4
19. 1
4. 7
5.0
TABLE IX - 12
SOWN AREA OF SPECIFIED CROPS BY REGION, EUROPEAN USSR, 1938
(Thousands of acres)
936.3
2,979. 5
5,418.9
9,280. 3
6, 392. 7
(1,751.3
(8, 939. 8)
5, 920. 3
1, 296. 0
1, 723. 5
2, 287. 7
58. (i
2, 379. 1
282. 2
4,538. 5
530. 3
9-17.6
2,740.8
5,216.8
5,303.8
.1,632.-1
2, 280. 0
(4, 483. 9)
2,901.7
857. 2
725. 0
1,004.7
42, 986. 5 26, 690. 1)
105. 3
2, 105. 0
140. 8
2, 277. 8
152. 7
4.6
3.4
(8.0)
18.5
16.4
9. 3
0. 2
7. 7
LA
0. 9
0-1
23.6 56.5
3.8 1.1
6. 1 ....
532. 5
611.3
228. 8
1,031.4
745. 5
0. 5
6. 8
(7. 3)
9. 4
16. 8
3. 9
304. 2
1,657.3
2,872.5
2,840.6
1,084.3
1.1, 455. 1 14, 892. 0
24, 2 27. 0
1, 192. 5 992. 5
1.03. 110. 6
1,213.0 2, 450. 2
1, 276. 3 138. 6
9. 8
1. 8
(11. 6)
28. 2
14. 2
7. 5
1. 3
0. 7
3. 1
15.2
1. 3
13. 4
1. 2
Sun-
flower
seed
10.6
1,274.3
63. 5
23. 8
5. 5
(29. 3)
6. 7
1. 9
16. 0
32. 7
0. 1
1. 7
0. 8
0-1
0.4
4. 1
0. 1
1. 6
0. 9
2.9
Sugar
beets
22. 2
685. 9
1, -157. 6 677. 8 1, 331155.. 7 9. 1
(9, 231. 9)1(3, 883.2) (2, 331. 6) (1, 190. 9)
2, 896. 5 2, 636. 6 364. 2 I, 766. 8
3,724. 6 695. 3 955.0 219. 2
2,610.8 551.3 1,012.4 I 4.0
616.0 1, 563.2
54. 6
2.9
32. 6
Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
East Prus-
sia (Ko-
nigsberg)
Flax
fiber
4. 5
0. 7
(5. 2)
19. 8
0. 9
7. 2
7. 8
0. 5
0. 2
0. 2
3. 4
23. 0
22. 7
291. 1
1, 731. 2
727. 0
76.4
596. 0
(278.2)
278. 2
Flax
seed
8.2
47. 7
67.2
150. 7
(187.8)
1. 7
82. 0
104. 0
Total ac-
quired
territories
10. 6
3. 1
(13. 7)
20. 0
12. 3
9.8
7. 2
0. 3
1. 4
9. 6
1. 4
0. 4
0. 3
0. 9
9. 1
7.8
3.9
Total
flax
Page IX-11
Grand
total
11. 3
10. 4
(21. 7)
20.0
12.4
7. 2
2. 4
2. 3
1. 8
7. 3
2. I
1. 0
1. 1
2. 2
0. 5
0. 3
0. 1
10. 6
2. 2
2. 7
291. 1
2. 2
1,731.2
18.8
735. 1
79.3
124. 0
584. 6
663. 2
87.0
150. 7
22. 7
(466. 0)
(403. 5)
279. 9
204. 8
92. 0
107. 0
104.0
1.7
520. 4
57. 3
4, 681. 8 I
1 , 255. 5
1. 0 '
412.2
1.4
246. 6 1
61. 8
4. 9
26. 2
 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
Page IX-12 JANIS 40
than 3 % in the former Polish territories. It should be
borne in mind, however, that the economic value of these
intensive crops is far greater than their relative place in
the acreage indicates. The official value which was placed
on the output per acre of industrial crops in the Soviet
Union, in 1937, was 46 % greater than the official value of
output per acre of all other crops.
The postwar Five-Year Plan contemplates a decrease in
grain acreage as compared with prewar, and an increase
in the area under vegetables, potatoes, and forage crops,
especially perennial grasses. The following planned acre-
age changes in the Ukraine may be considered more or less
typical of the contemplated shifts in European USSR.
Grains are to decrease in 1950 to 48.4 million acres as
compared with 50.5 million acres in 1940, or 4 percent.
The acreage of industrial crops will remain practically
the same. Vegetable and potato acreages are to increase
to a little over 7 million as compared with 6.8 million in
1940, or 4 percent; forage crops are to increase to 13.4 mil-
lion as compared with 10.6 million, or 27 percent. Of these
forage crops, the area under perennial grasses in the
Ukraine is to be increased to 8.3 million acres in 1950 as
compared with 4.2 million in 1940, or to become nearly
double. The contemplated decrease in the grain area is
to be more than offset by increased yields per acre, so that
production is expected to rise substantially. However,
acreage goals are much more easily achieved than yield
goals, since the latter depend greatly on weather condi-
tions, and on good farm practices which Soviet experience
shows are not easily or rapidly adopted on a wide scale.
The emphasis on the seeding of perennial grasses, which
according to the government plan by 1950 should occupy
11 % in the Ukraine and 13.5 % for the USSR as a whole,
compared with 5.7 and 7.2% respectively in 1940, is not
only for the purpose of increasing the available forage
supply but, also, to raise the fertility of the soil. The
physical structure of the soil is improved by perennial
grasses. The leguminous grasses, such as clover and al-
falfa, the seeding of which is recommended in combina-
tion with cereal grasses such as timothy, also enrich the
soil with nitrogen (an essential plant nutrient), both di-
rectly through the roots of leguminous plants and indi-
rectly through the increase in the quantity of manure
resulting from a larger forage supply.
Produc-
tion
ACREAGE, YIELD, AND PRODUCTION OF PRINCIPAL CROPS,
EUROPEAN USSR PROPER, AVERAGE 1933 TO 1937
Winter wheat.......
Spring ' wheat........
Total wheat ....
Winter rye..........
Spring barley .......
Oats ...............
:Millet ..............
Corn ....
...........:
Buckwheat .........
Other grains and
legumes .
OfPi-
cial
yield*
Short
tons
per
acres acre
20, 566.6 0. 49
23, 563. 5 0. 36
(44, 130. 1(0. 42)
47,800.5
13,949.8
28,548.7
9,791.6
4,090.2
3, 954. 6
0.43
0. 45
0.44
0. 24
0. 52
0. 27
0. 30
(0. 41)
Potatoes ............ 13, 746. 2 3. 81
Sugar beets ......... 2.822. 1 5. 53
Sunflower seed ...... 5, 635.4 0. 26
Flax: .............. l 5, 185.9
Fiber............ ....... . 0. 12
Seed ............. 0. 13
lienip :............. 1,078. 3
Fiber............
Seed .............: .......
Cotton**............ 765. 3 0. 21
Tobacco ............ . 67. 5 0. 32
Makhorka.......... 234.5 ..
1,000
short
tons
10, 077. 6
8,482.9
(18, 460. 5)
Esti-
inated
yield
Short
tons
per
acre
0.42
0. 31
(0. 36)
Produc-
tion
1,000
short
tons
8, 638. 0
7, 304. 7
(15, 942.7 )
20, 554. 2 0. 37
6, 277. 4 ~ 0. 39
12, 561.0 0. 38
2, 350. 0 0. 21
2, 126.9 0. 47
1, 067. 7 ! 0. 24
2, 836. 6 0. 20
(66, 334. 7)1(0. 35)
52,373.0
15,606. 2
1, 465.2
579.5
674. 2
17,686.2
5,440.4
10, 848. 5
2,056.2
1,914.2
949. 1
1,863.5
(56, 627. 2)
0. 11 11'8'.'6
160.7 . .
21.6 .. I ......
0.401 93.8
* Official yield data for the USSR as a whole were assumed to be ap-
plicable, and were used where the crop was predominantly grown in
European USSR proper.
** 1937 only. Earlier years are not representative since these are new
cotton-growing regions.
It should also be noted that a considerable increase in
the forage supply could be achieved by better utilization
of natural meadows and pastures. Little has been done to
improve them and they were bypassed in the progress of
agricultural mechanization, which rendered very little aid
to haying. In fact delay in harvesting, which became
common under collectivization, resulted in serious losses
ACREAGE, YIELD, AND PRODUCTION OF PRINCIPAL CROPS, 13ALTIC REPUBLICS, AVERAGE 1933 TO 1937
Winter wheat..........
Spring wheat..........
Total wheat ...... .
Rye ..................I
Barley ................
Oats ..................
Legumes ..............
Potatoes ..............
Sugar beets ............
Flax ..................
Fiber ...............
Seed ................i
1,000
acres
51.1
109. 0
(160.1)
Yield
Short
tons per
acre
0. 65
0. 41
(0.49)
Produc-
tion
1,000 short
tons
33. 2
45. 1
(78.3)
Acreage
1,000 acres Short tons
per acre
183.6
149. 2
(332. 8)
360. 0 0. 61
248.3 0. 40
345. 0 0. 42
15. 8* 0. 39
179. 6 5. 83
62. 8
218. 3 663. 7
100. 4 458. 9
146.2 797. 6
6. 2*1 100. 1
1,047.2 1 287.6
0. 14 9. 1
0.15 9.7
33. 9
144. 3
0. 67
0. 50
(0. 59)
0. 61
0.48
0. 50
0. 44
5. 90
8. 64 1
0.14
0.14
Produc-
Lion
Acreage
Produc-
tion
Produc-
tion
1,000 short
1,000 acres
Short tons
1,000 short
1,000 acres
1,000 short
tons
per acre
tons ~
tons
122. 7
388. 7
0. 55
213.6
623.4 1
369. 5
74.5
1240
0. 45
56. 1
382. 2
175. 7
(197.2)
(512.7),
(0.53)
(269.7)11
(1,
005. 6)
(545.2)
405. 2
1,236.0
0. 54
664. 1
2,
259. 7
1,287. 6
220.7
516.4
0. 53
274. 4
1,
223. 6
595. 5
395. 6
853.7 i
0. 47
404.9 1
1,
996. 3
946. 7
43.8
152. 0
0. 36 1
55.1
267. 9
105. 1
1,
698.2 1
444. 3
5.29
2,350. 4 I
011.5
5, 095. 8
293. 0
15.6
9. 03
140.9
49. 5
433. 9
182.6
..
....
389. 7
20.9:
....
0.16
29.4
59.4
19.6 1
0. 19
34.8.
....
64. 1
Confidential "Original
Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
Confidential RESOURCES AND TRADE
of hay and deterioration of its quality and caused consider-
able concern to the government. For acreages, yields, and
production of principal crops, see TABLES IX-13 to IX-18.
AC'REAGE', YIELD, AND PRODUCTION OF PRINCIPAL ('ROPS,
FINNISH TERRITORY, 11138
1,000 acres Short tons 1,000 short
per acre tons
Wheat. ............. 42. 4 0. 83 35. 1
Rye ....................... 70. 7 0. 67 -17. 6
Barleyy ..................... 23. (1 0. 72 16. (i
Oats ....................... 114. 5 0.79 89. !1
Potatoes ................... 27. 8 5. 97 165, !)
Flax and hemp (fiber)........ 0. 9 0. 14 0. 1
ACREAGE, YIELD, AND PRODUCTION OF PRINCIPAL ('HOPS,
FORMER EAST PRUSSIAN TI7BBITORY (KONIGSBLB(;), 1938
1,000 acres Short tons per 1,000 short
rare tons
Winter wheat ......... 63. 9 0. 95 60. -1
Spring wheat ......... 9. 6 0. 89 8. 5
Total wheat........ (73. 5) (0. 94) (fib. 9)
Be v.................
Barley ...............
Oats .................
Mixed grains ..........
Total grains......
282. 2
103. 1
140. 8
169. 4
(769. 0i
Potatoes ............. 110. 6
Sugar beets........... 2. 9
0. 93 262. I
0. 9(i 98. 8
0. 93 130. .1
0.417 164. 5
(0.94) (724.7)
8. 14 900. I
12. 79 37. I
ACREAGE, YIELD, AND PRODUCTION OF PRINCIPAL ('ROT'S,
FORMER POLISH TEREITORIES, AVEIIAGE 1933 TO 1937
1,000 acres Short tons per 1,000 short
acre tons
Winter wheat ......... 1,457. 1 0. 50 734. 7
Spring wheat ......... 313. 3 0. 44 , 136. 7
't'otal wheat ........ (I, 770. 4) (0. 49) (871. 4)
All rye ............... 1 4, 333. 6 I 0. 44 I, 914. I
Barley ............... 1, 245. 4 0. 46 569. 0
Oats .................. 2, 219. 5 0. 43 964. 1
Buckwheat ........... 535. 7 0. 30 161. 4
Corn ................. 214. 7 0. 45 96. (i
Millet ................ 121. (1 0. 46 55. (i
01 her grains........... 85. 2 0. 40 33. 7
Total grains....... (10, 526. 1) (0. 44) 1 (4, 666. 2(
Legume's .............. 250. 8 0. 35
Potatoes .............: 2, 266. 6 4. 75
Sugar beet s........... . 30. 4 7. 66
Rape seed ............ 38. 5 0. 37
Flax .................. 196.9
Fiber ............... ...... 0. 12
Seed ............... ...... 0.22
Hemp ................. 61.5 ....
Fiber .............. ...... 0. 15
Seed ............... ...... 0. 25
'T'obacco .............. 7. 9 0. 72
[lops ................ 4. 9 0. 22
86. 9
10, 763. 5
233. 0
1-1.2
23. 7
43. -1
9. 3
15.2
5. 7
1. 1
Page IX-13
A('R,EAGE, YIELD, AND PRODUCTION OF PRINCIPAL CROPS,
FORMER RUMANIAN TERRITORIES, AVERAGE 1933 TO 1937
Winter wheat........ .
Sl)rmg wheat.. . . . .... .
Total Zyheat.........
All rye ...............
Barley ...............
Corti .................
Oats .................
Millet ................
Buckwheat ...........
Other grains......... .
'T'otal grains ......
Ieguntcs .............
Potatoes ............ .
Sugar beets...........
Sunflowers........... .
Rape seed............
soybeans***..........
Flax .................
Filer ..............
Seed ...............
ilerup ................
Fiberr ..............
Seed ...............
Tobacco ..............
1,000 acres Short tons per 1,000 short
(Ore tons
1, 4-17. 2 0. 39 559.4
50-1.6 0. 25 126. 2
(1, 951. 8) (0. 35) (685. 6)
398. 3 0. 42 168. 4
1,754. 2 0. 31 549. 0
2, 742. 1 0. 41 1, 112. 7
196. 7 0. 34 66. 1)
21.0 0. 15 3. 1
5.7 0.32 1.8
1.7 0.24 0.4
(7, 071. 5) (0. 37) (2, 587. 9)
169. 8 0. 19 33. 1
172. 5* 4. 06 700. 1
23, 0 8. 10 186. 3
348. It 0. 41 144. 0
72. 4 0. 17 12. 2
48.2 0. 34 16. 6
1-1.3 ....
0. 1 6 2. 3
0. 15 2. 2
25.9 .... ......
0.25 6.6
........ 0. 26 6.8
7.7 0.30 2.3
* Excludes 17.8 thousand acres of intertilled potatoes.
** Excludes 1.6 thousand short tom of intertilled potatoes.
*** Three-year average, 1935-37.
(2) Grains
(a) Wheat.-This grain had forged ahead in the
1930's as the leading crop of European USSR. In 1938
it accounted for 231%0 of the total crop area in European
USSR proper, and for 2911/o in the former Rumanian prov-
inces. In the Baltic Republics and former Polish prov-
inces, it was much less important (TABLE IX-9 and FIGURE
IX-5).
Where winters are mild, as in western and most of cen-
tral Europe, wheat is usually sown in the fall and har-
vested during the following summer. But in regions of
more severe winters, such as eastern USSR, Canada, and
parts of the United States, wheat is sown in the spring for
harvest during the summer of the same year. Thus, the
harvest of any particular year, say 1946, in countries like
the USSR and the United States, where both types of
wheat are extensively grown, includes winter wheat sown
during the fall of 1945, as well as wheat sown in the spring
of 1946. TABLES IX-19 and IX-20 show planting and har-
vesting dates.
The winter and spring wheat varieties are distinct, and
winter wheat sown in the spring does not, like spring
wheat, mature during the same year. Winter and spring
wheats differ in the length of their growing period, their
yields, and their nutritive qualities. . Winter wheat usu-
ally brings higher yields per acre than spring wheat
(TABLE IX-13), the difference being associated with the
greater length of the growing period.
The 1938 acreage in European USSR proper was almost
equally divided between spring and winter wheat. Prior
to the 1930's, however, spring varieties predominated, ac-
counting in 1927 for about 601; of the acreage. In the
newly incorporated territories, winter wheat is grown for
the most part (TABLES IX-10 and IX-11).
Original Confidential
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 Page?IX-14
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JANIS 40 Confidential
APPROXIMATE BEGINNING PLANTING DATES FOR WHEAT,
OATS, AND BARLEY, BY REGION, EUROPEAN USSR
PROPER, AVERAGE 1922 TO 1926*
North ................
Northwest ............
Central Industrial .....
Central Agricultural.. .
Upper Volga......... .
Middle Volga .........
Lower Volga......... .
South:
North Ukraine ......
South Ukraine and
Crimea.
Don-Donets Region
May 16-21 ...
May 7 .......
May 10 ......
April 20......
May 7-13....
April 29......
April 11......
April 7-13....
March 11-26 .
March 25-
April 3
May2.......
May 12-17.. .
May 11 ......
May 7 .......
April 20 ......
May 5-0 .....
April 29 ......
April 14......
April 8-13....
March 17-27 .
March 30-
April 6
May 10 ......
May 16-27
May 17
May 17
April 19
May 12-13
May I
April 14
April 9-14
March 16-27
March 27-
April 4
May 8
* The regions for which the data for 1922-26 were given were arranged
to correspond as closely as possible to the regions used in this study.
It was found desirable to divide the Middle and Lower Volga region into
its two parts because of the great difference in planting dates.
APPROXIMATE BEGINNING HARVESTING DATES FOR
WHEAT, RYE, OATS, AND BARLEY, BY REGION,
.,EUROPEAN USSR PROPER, AVERAGE 1922 TO 1926*
Northwest .....
Spr
wh
Augus
Augus
ing
eat
t 30. .
t 14. .
July 24 .
....
Aug. 30-
Sept I
August 19
..
August 16
Central Indus-
Augus
t 14.
July 29.
....
August 18
..
August 23
trial.
Central Agri-
July 2
9.....
cultural.
Upper Volga ...
Aug.
17-20.
July 22-
30..
Aug. 20-2
2.
Aug. 12-1.0
Middle Volga...
Augus
t 4.. .
July 1.9 .
....
August 4.
..
August 1
Lower Volga... .
July 1
8.....
July 4 ..
....
July 24...
..
July 16
South:
North Ukraine
July 1
.9-28 .
July 8-1
5
July 20-30
.
July 17-22
South Ukraine
July 1
2-13..
June 29
-
July 10-16
..
July 3-1.1
and Crimea.
July 3
Don-Donets
July 4-8
....
Region.
West ..........
* The regions according to which the data for 1922-26 were given were
arranged to correspond as closely as possible to the regions used in this
study. It was found desirable to divide the Middle and Lower Volga
region into its two parts because of the great difference in harvesting dates.
There are distinct winter and spring wheat belts in the
USSR. Most of the winter wheat is concentrated in the
south and southwest (the Ukraine and the Crimea).
Spring wheat is concentrated in the Middle and Lower
Volga and the Central Agricultural region (FIGURE IX-5).
Wheat is primarily a crop of the black-soil area, but there
was a marked expansion of the wheat acreage in the non-
black-soil area during the 1930's. The acreage there in-
creased six- to seven-fold from 1928 to 1938. Nevertheless,
out of a total wheat acreage of 50 million acres, only a
little more than 7 million acres were grown in the non-
black-soil area in 1938.
It should be noted with regard to yields of wheat, as of
all other grains, that official figures since 1933 are esti-
mates of the crop prior to its harvest; harvesting losses,
which are usually large in the USSR, are not taken into
account, and the crop is therefore overestimated. A
downward adjustment of the official figures is therefore
necessary in order to make them at all comparable with
USSR figures prior to 1933, or with those of other
countries.
A classification, according to United States standards, of
samples of 40 varieties of wheat considered representative
of commercially important wheat in the USSR, indicated
that 5 of these varieties were hard red spring wheats, 11
were hard red winter wheats, 9 were soft red winter
wheats, 13 were durum wheats, and 2 were white wheats.
Tests made by the United States Department of Agricul-
ture indicated that :
The hard red winter wheats had the best milling quality
among the five classes of Russian wheats tested. . . . Next in
order of merit were the durum wheats, followed by the soft
red winter wheats and the hard red spring wheats. The
samples of white wheats were not sufficiently large to make
it safe to draw conclusions. . . . Baking strength of the flour
milled from the durum wheats was, individually and collec-
tively, excellent. . . . The baking data associated with the
hard red winter wheat flours show that these flours were lack-
ing in strength. . . . The baking strength of only two of the
hard red spring wheat flours was sufficiently high to call them
of good quality. Of the other three varieties, the baking
strength of two was very poor and that of the third variety
was somewhat below average. The baking qualities of the
two white wheat varieties were above the average for this
class of wheat. The poorest baking quality of all was associ-
ated with the soft red winter wheat flours.... If a com-
parison is made of the baking quality of these Russian varie-
ties and those of similar classes grown in North America, it is
apparent that only the Russian durum wheat varieties had
as great baking strength as those varieties grown in North
America. The Russian spring and winter wheats, in spite of
their very high protein content, displayed weakness in bak-
ing strength too frequently to be called the equals of North
American wheats.*
The important durum type of wheat mentioned above
often also referred to as macaroni wheat because of its use
in the manufacture of this and similar products, is en-
tirely spring-,grown. It is typical of southeastern USSR,
from which it was introduced at the turn of the century
into the United States. No separate statistics, however,
have been available on durum wheat production in Euro-
pean USSR.
During World War II, the USSR winter wheat belt was
almost entirely overrun by the Germans, who also made
some inroads into the spring wheat belt in the direction of
Stalingrad. Therefore wheat suffered especially severely
as a result of the reduction of acreage which followed the
invasion.
Not only in the invaded zone, but in the spring wheat
belt of uninvaded USSR, a reduction of wheat acreage
took place during the war, according to official statements.
Since the end of the war, recovery of the spring wheat acre-
age has been emphasized by Soviet spokesmen and publi-
cations.
(b) Rye.-The crop that rivals wheat in the USSR is
rye, which has always been an important bread grain in
that country. From an historical point of view, it would
be more correct to reverse the order and refer to wheat as a
rival of rye, because prior to the 1930's the rye acreage
exceeded that of wheat in European USSR proper. But
during that decade rye was relegated to second place. In
1938 rye predominated over wheat in all the northern and
central regions, and was nearly equal in acreage in north-
ern Ukraine. There was a substantial rye acreage in the
* United States Department of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin
No. 197, October 1930, Milling and Baking Qualities of World
Wheats, pp. 151 and 157.
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 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
FIGURE IX-5
WHEAT AND RYE, 1938
JANIS 40
CONFIDENTIAL
EUROPEAN USSR: SOWN AREA OF WHEAT AND RYE, 1938
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 7
5
KARA SEA
rr v ~~t B A R E N T S S E A
o 11 /
obi
65 SWEDEN f f /
S O
65
4
WHITE
SEA
SP * 0
A
Y/
t'a 1 2 Arkhangel'sk
FINNISH
S
o
FINLANqD 4
60
tIAKE OMEGA
? q._
1 2 9r
`"KE NORTH
60
cGGA
BALTIC GULP OF FINLAND AD ]
SEA ? Lenin ad
/ EsroN1A
Vologda ?
/ a
L A 7'? Riga
V 1 4 11 i
55 C 1 0 . alinin? 4 ?
i I z lvanovo ~%%
1IV 2~ '4? NORTHWEST Gorki vd,0
y
55
2
% B A L T4 C
i
/
?
osc
J MM scow 0 Kazn' Y
GERMAN U P P R VOLGA4
Smolensk
CENTRAL INDUSTRIAL
?Ryezan'
UI'yanovsk
P/m
Tula?
P
/
4 \ 0 1 2 1
P L A N WHITE .&e- CENTRA ? L Penza M I "' LE Kuybyshe
1
L E
RUSSIA AGRICULTURAL
T
b
am
ov D
(W E S )
0 1 Kask?4 12 LOW VOLGA
50 P O L I S J, h Saratov
50
U?o' NORTH
g
UKRAINE ?
cLECN.?\ Vinnitsa? 0 Khar'kw
12 DON- talin
Dnepropetrovsk D 0 N E T S
4
ACRES
4 ?
1 2
(Millions)
SOUTH UK AINE
8 - 8
0 e AND R.I. KWinter
45 1 2 1 z Astrakhan
Spring
4
45
(
RUMANIA 4 - s SEA OF
R U M A N I A A z o v
CRIMEA ~
a b. 2
\. 1 alts CASPIAN SI '
~~ P
SEA N
BULGARIA B L A C * Winter wheat less than 3000 acres
K
S
~~~ ? E A BOUNDARIES
,~
USSR
-?- International (19371
.~%%/e~///ia JANIS
study
40 rQ T U
s.
R NorE:
-h - m d,. s. ,d.,i.. ws..d br d. U. S. Go...,on.. ,
40
Th. U. S Obn,. a M..mr..rapnrs.d dH ~w.Pm.e I E.ea,:,
Y /e.viy .rd Lahwnu imo eV. S-- Undo.
1 0 00 200 300
Miles
0 100 200 300
Kil?
C A S P I A N S E A
CONFIDENTIAL
I R A N IRAN
30 35 40 45 50 55
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 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
Confidential RESOURCES AND TRADE
Middle and Lower Volga region. Only in the extreme
south was it insignificant (TABLE IX-12 and FIGURE IX-5).
It has always been the leading grain in the Baltic and for-
mer Polish territories, but in the former Rumanian terri-
tories it was less than a fourth of the wheat acreage in
1938.
Just as wheat is the typical grain of the black-soil area,
rye is the leading grain of the nonblack-soil area. But rye
is regionally less concentrated than wheat and, except for
the southernmost districts, is a significant crop in all re-
gions of European USSR.
With insignificant exceptions, rye is a winter (fall-sown)
crop. Usually it can be seeded earlier in the fall than
winter wheat because of its immunity to the Hessian fly,
which damages early fall-sown wheat. Rye is a more
hardy winter crop than wheat, and can therefore be
grown in the northern and eastern regions where climatic
conditions make wheat production hazardous. While rye
is sensitive to excessive heat and is not grown too far south,
it stands spring drought much better than spring grains
do. Rye is also an effective crop for weed control, which
is so important in the USSR. These factors contribute to
its wide use in the Soviet cropping system. Nevertheless,
rye was losing in competition with wheat during the inter-
war period. In accordance with the Soviet policy, the
wheat acreage was increasing, while the rye acreage was
declining during the decade preceding World War II.
Although no definite statistical information is available,
there is reason to believe that rye acreage fared better than
wheat during the war years, but the resumption of the
former downward trend during the postwar period is
probable.
(c) Oats.-The grain crop next in importance to
wheat and rye is oats. Oats acreage is third in European
USSR proper, first in Latvian SSR and the former Finnish
territory, and shares first place with rye in Estonian SSR.
It was second in importance in the former Polish and East
Prussian territories, and only in the former Rumanian
territories was the acreage under oats insignificant (TABLE
IX-11).
In European USSR proper, oats is fairly widely distrib-
uted, except in the more southern and dry regions, where
it is replaced by the more drought-resistant barley. The
most important oats regions, however, are the Central In-
dustrial, Central Agricultural and Upper Volga, account-
ing for nearly 60% of the total 1938 oats area of European
USSR proper. Oats holds second place in the sown area
of the northwest and is the leading crop in the north,
exceeding rye. It is also important in north Ukraine
(TABLE IX-12). Oats is entirely a spring-sown crop.
Oats is predominantly a feed crop and the amount used
for human consumption is normally insignificant. The
great reduction in the number of horses (the principal
consumers of oats), which took place in the 1930's, led to
a decrease in the acreage under this crop, although not to
a great degree, because of the established position of oats
in the system of crop rotation. The acreage under oats
decreased considerably between 1928 and 1938 in the Cen-
tral Agricultural, and Upper Volga regions, and in the
South, but oats held its own in other regions, and even
increased considerably in the Middle and Lower Volga,
despite reduction in the number of horses.
Since the war sizable quantities of oats have been used
for the manufacture of alcohol, and as cereal and flour
for human consumption.
(d) Barley.-Barley was a much more important crop
in Russia before World War I than during the subsequent
years. Before 1914 it rivaled wheat in importance as a
Page IX-15
leading export grain. The acreage, production, and ex-
ports of Russian barley declined considerably during the
interwar period. Only some 20 million bushels were ex-
ported on the average during the five years ending 30 June
1938, as compared with exports prior to World War I of
over 170 million bushels, most of which originated in the
territory of European USSR proper.
The growing of barley is highly concentrated, and most
of the acreage is found in the south (TABLE IX-12). But
barley adapts itself to varying climatic conditions, and is
relatively even more important in the far north than in
the south. Thus, in Odesskaya Oblast' in the Black Sea
littoral, barley, in 1938, occupied 151,v,; of acreage as com-
pared with 39 % for winter wheat, the leading crop in this
region. At the opposite extreme, in Arkhangel'skaya
Oblast' the northernmost agricultural region of the USSR,
barley accounted for 19.1 /c% of the acreage as compared
with 22.4; for oats and 22.8% for winter rye.
With insignificant exceptions, barley is spring-sown in
European USSR (TABLES IX-10 and IX-11). Only spring
varieties of barley show the great adaptability to climatic
extremes, which makes it possible for them to grow from
the Black Sea littoral to beyond the Arctic Circle. Winter
(fall-sown) barley is not hardy enough to withstand se-
vere winters and can be grown only in regions with mild
winters. In this respect it is inferior to rye and even
wheat. Only in the extreme south, in the Crimea, was
there a significant acreage under winter barley before
World War II. Wherever it can be grown, winter barley
is a valuable crop in a rotation system, because it is seeded
later in the fall than winter wheat, and can therefore
follow a late maturing crop such as cotton; it is also the
earliest crop harvested, thus permitting the planting of
another summer crop or of winter grain.
Barley is primarily a feed grain, valuable because of the
high protein content of most of the USSR crop. It is,
however, less exclusively used for feed than oats. Of the
total rural consumption in 1926-27 nearly four-fifths was
for feed and one-fifth for food. But in the more northern
regions the food use of barley exceeds that as feed. No
similar breakdown is available for urban consumption, in
which food, feed, and industrial uses of barley by the
civilian population and the army are lumped together.
Barley is a source of grits (porridge), and in the north
and northwest, bread is made of barley flour, which is
sometimes also mixed with rye and oats.
Uniform and well-matured grain, with a moderate pro-
tein content, is required for beer-making purposes. These
qualities are met by barley grown under sufficiently humid
conditions in the western regions of the country, while
most of the barley grown in the south is unsuitable.
Although barley is grown predominantly in the part of
the country that was invaded by the Germans, its recovery
has been more rapid than that of many other crops. It
was stated by a high Soviet official that the 1946 barley
acreage in the Ukraine exceeded prewar.
(e) Corn.-The minor role which corn plays in the
USSR constitutes, perhaps, the most striking difference
between the agricultural pattern of that country and the
United States. Corn is a major crop only in the former
Rumanian territory (where before the war it accounted
for nearly a third of the acreage and is the staple article
of the population's diet). The small corn acreage of Eu-
ropean USSR proper (about 3.3 million acres) is concen-
trated in the southern part of the country, nearly half of
it in the southern Ukraine and Crimea. Even in the latter
region, corn constitutes only 6 % of the total crop area
(TABLE IX-10 and IX-11).
Original Confidential
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 Page IX-16
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JANIS 40 Confidential
The acreage trend was downward before World War II.
The 1938 corn acreage in the Ukraine was only a little over
40% of that in 1928. The yields were said to have been
increased considerably during the years 1936-40, but a
sharp reduction in yields has been reported since the war,
due to the deterioration of the agricultural technique, a
great decrease of selective seed plantings, and increased
corn diseases and pests. Since the end of the war, effort
is being made to restore corn cultivation. But the large
amount of labor involved in growing corn by hand
methods is a handicap to corn culture during the early
postwar years, when mechanization is at a low ebb and
there is an acute shortage of animal draft power. Even
before the war, an acre of corn in southern Ukraine re-
quired 7.4 to 8.5 man-days of labor, which is much higher
than in any section of the United States except New
England.
(f) Other grains.-Millet and buckwheat play a sig-
nificant part in the Russian diet as sources of porridge
(kasha). In 1938 they occupied in European USSR proper
5.8 and 4.1 million acres, respectively (TABLE IX-10).
Because of its short vegetation period, buckwheat can
be cultivated quite far north, despite its sensitiveness to
spring frosts. It is also not an exacting crop as far as soil
is concerned. Buckwheat is grown primarily in the cen-
tral regions and in the northern Ukraine. Because of its
sensitiveness to drought, the effort to extend it eastward
and southward was not successful. The southern fron-
tier of buckwheat cultivation follows the line Vin-
nitsa-Voronezh-Penza-Kazan'. The yields of buck-
wheat have been rather low and unstable.
Millet acreage is concentrated in the Middle and Lower
Volga and Central Agricultural regions, and throughout
the south, extending into the extreme south. Unlike
buckwheat, it is an excellent drought-resistant crop.
Since millet can be planted late in the season, and requires
little seed, it is considered an important "insurance" crop
in the semiarid zone of the USSR, providing a source of
food and feed when other grain crops fail. A serious dis-
advantage of millet is the necessity of extensive weeding
and consequently large labor requirements. The govern-
ment has paid considerable attention to the millet crop
during the past decade and encouraged its planting and
better farm practices to improve the rather low yields per
acre.
Such leguminous crops as peas, lentils, etc., are included
in Soviet statistics with grain crops. An area of 4.9 mil-
lion acres was occupied by grain legumes in 1938 in Euro-
pean USSR proper. A little over a half of this acreage was
under peas. The Central Agricultural region, Upper
Volga, Middle and Lower Volga, and Northern Ukraine,
are the regions were practically all of these grain legumes
are grown. Very little of the acreage is located north or
south of these regions. Planting of these leguminous
crops, which not only provide valuable food and feed rich
in protein but also enrich the soil with nitrogen, is now
encouraged by the Soviet Government.
(3) Potatoes
Next to wheat and rye, potatoes constitute the most im-
portant food crop in the European USSR. In 1938 pota-
toes accounted for only about 7% of the sown area in
European USSR proper (TABLE IX-11), but they were of
much greater importance in the western and central re-
gions, in which over half of the acreage was concentrated,
and of less importance in the east and south (TABLE
IX-12). In a region like White Russia (West), nearly a
fifth of the acreage was devoted to potatoes. Northern
Ukraine also had a sizable potato acreage, but in southern
Ukraine the potato area was relatively insignificant. In
the former Polish provinces, 15% of the sown area was oc-
cupied by this crop and in the Baltics nearly 8 percent.
Few potatoes, however, were grown in the former Ruma-
nian provinces.
Yields per acre were generally higher in the newly
incorporated territories, particularly in the Baltics, than
in European USSR proper (TABLES IX-13 to IX-17), though
they were increasing in the latter before the war. The
yields were particularly low in the southern regions, where
the high temperature of the soil during the period of
development has an adverse effect on tubers. Widespread
virus diseases, resulting in the degeneration of the potato
culture within two or three years, in the southern steppe
regions makes it necessary to bring seed potatoes from
northern or mountainous regions.
Summer planting of potatoes in the south at the end of
June or the beginning of July was introduced before the
war in order to postpone the period of tuber development
until September when the temperature is lower and the
humidity greater. In 1938 nearly 116,000 acres of pota-
toes were planted in the summer in European USSR
proper.
Although the use of potatoes for feed in the USSR was
less prevalent than in western Europe, particularly Ger-
many, over a fourth of the crop was used for feed in the
USSR, according to the data available for the years 1925-
26 and 1929-30. The per capita food consumption of pota-
toes was much larger in the northern and western parts
of the country, where potatoes are largely grown, than in
the south and east. Thus, the food budget surveys for
the years 1925 through 1927 showed 540 pounds per capita
consumption of potatoes in the so-called consuming, or
grain-deficit area, which includes roughly the Northern,
Northwestern, Western, Central Industrial, and part of
the Upper Volga regions. In the so-called producing, or
grain-surplus area, which included the Central Agricul-
tural, Middle and Lower Volga, and South, as well as
Siberia, the average per capita consumption of potatoes
during the same period was 336 pounds. In Germany in
the 1930's it was 417 pounds.
Before World War I, potatoes were used extensively for
the production of alcohol, but during the interwar period
grain was substituted to a considerable extent for this
purpose. The use of potatoes as a source of alcohol, how-
ever, began to increase again before the war. In 1937
potatoes constituted only 15% of the total raw material
used in the alcohol industry, and grain 70%; the plan for
1938 called for 23% and 57% of potatoes and grain,
respectively.
The war has greatly enhanced the importance of pota-
toes because of the large outturn in terms of calories per
acre. Even in the invaded regions, their acreage decreased
relatively less than that of other crops; in the uninvaded
regions, potato acreage has expanded considerably since
the war. Potatoes became the principal crop on the
numerous victory gardens of the urban dwellers, the acre-
age of which increased from 1,500,000 acres in 1940 to
2,750,000 acres in 1944. Still, in 1946, the potato acreage
of the whole USSR, including the uninvaded European and
the Asiatic regions, was 86% of the estimated 1938 acreage.
The decline was probably greater for European USSR
alone.
(4) Sugar beets
The sugar beet is the only domestic source of sugar in
European USSR, although a little sugar cane is grown in
Central Asia. Since it is also a highly intensive crop with
a large labor expenditure and high return per acre, it is
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FIGURE IX-6
FLAX, SUNFLOWERS, SUGAR BEETS, AND HEMP, 1938
JANIS 40
CONFIDENTIAL
E EUROPEAN USSR: SOWN AREA OF FLAX, SUNFLOWERS,
SUGAR BEETS, AND HEMP, 1938
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 7
5
KARA SE O
A
Y .; B A R E N T S S E A
~
O
/
Ob'
65 1 f
SWEDEN
65
0.5 WHI TE
SEA
1 (Lass acresj 500 Arkhangel'sk
0
0
0
OF 1 4,
FINNISH
FINLAND
0.5
60
/ urE Draw qy
60
UCE .
5
I LADOGA 0
BALTIC GULF OF FIMLA140 1 4
I
SEA Leningrad N O R T H
)
yy
ESTONIA
/ Vologda
0.5
Rig.
E
?
0.5
JALTIC A NORTHWEST CENTRAL o.5
05
y alining INDU TRIAL
55
Goi ki
Vd
-
y
0
1 'i 3 .i
ow Kazan' 2 4
M
J
(Moskva)))
UPPE VOLGA
GERMAN 0
_.-?J ~./ f 0.5 - Sma 1 2 3 4
ula Ryazan'
UI'yanovsk
~
1.0
5 1 4 CENTRAL MIDD Kuybyshev
P L A N D WHITE RUSSIA .0'e1 AGRICULTURA~Penza A D
(WEST) Tambov
1.5
LOWE VOLGA
0.5
0
Kursk
3 0 5
1 - - aro
50
ratov
POLISH
i
B0
/.
Lvov
r i 1.0 -
/ NORTH 0 1 2 4
x
0
czec
~ Vinnit.
1 3 4 Khai kov
UKRAINE
.5 -
0.5 1.0
1.0 SOUTH UK NE Stali ACRES
Dnepropetrovsk
DON - (Millions)
AND
DONETS
? CRIMEA - - 0 1 2 3 4 Seed
0
1 2 3 4 0
RUMANIAN oa Rosto na 0.5
Fiber
45 5 E A OF Astrakhan
45
RUMANIA Azov o
0 1 'Ny 3 4 0
D-6 1 2 3 .? 1 2 3 4
~~~5 ~F}tQ
Yalta CASPIAN ~SF,J
~
SEA
BULGARIA BLACK SJ
SE
A BOUNDARIES
rl "~?
USSR
-?- International (1937)
JAN
r
I
S
d
a T U NOrE.T6b.&
40
x
?
mwdo
,..,,.ab~,~.v~d
;..Roos to t..smd drs -aow+d N#. U S. C -
40
N,. Lj rb. U SC ....e .s .w 1.d A. l.sapantrm d E-,
Y Lee.:., .nd l:dw.l. mro et. Soave U.re..
1 moo 6 300
Miln
0 100 200 300
Kilo.. tem J a CASPIAN SEA
CONFIDENTIAL
l R A N IRAN
30 35 40 45 50 55
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 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
Confidential RESOURCES AND TRADE
of greater importance in the economy than is suggested
by the size of the area on which it is grown. The 2,841,800
acres sown to this crop in 1938 accounted for only 1.11/v
of the total sown area; in European USSR proper the per-
centage was 1.2 and in the acquired regions only 0.3.
More than 90'/o of the sugar beets are grown in the Cen-
tral Agricultural and Northern Ukrainian regions. This
localization is in great part due to the special require-
ments of sugar beet growing (TABLES IX-10 to IX-12 and
FIGURE IX-6).
Fertile soil, or well-fertilized soil, and intensive cultiva-
tion, requiring much labor, are needed to obtain high
yields of sugar beets. The history of sugar-beet culture
in the USSR demonstrates the difficulties which have been
encountered in meeting these requirements. The area
under sugar beets in European USSR proper increased
markedly in the late 1920's and early 1930's, after which
it declined. Sugar-beet yields fluctuated: during the
period 1925-29, the average yield was 5.6 short tons per
acre, but in the next five years, when agriculture was
being extensively collectivized, the yield dropped to an
average of 3.7 short tons per acre. In the middle 1930's,
special efforts were made by the government to improve
cultural practices and increase their mechanization, with
some improvement in the yield. The average for 1935-39
was 6.1 short tons per acre.
The most important sugar-beet regions were invaded
during the war. The devastation by the Germans, the
destruction of machinery and the inability to replace it,
the disruption of crop rotations, the infestation of weeds,
and the lack of necessary manpower during the war, have
had the most serious effects on sugar-beet production.
While in some places in European USSR sugar-beet acre-
ages have been restored to their prewar levels, the over-all
acreage is still below prewar and yields are estimated to
have recovered even less. The estimates for the whole
USSR (1938 boundaries) for 1946 are : 2,584,700 acres, a
yield of 5.1 short tons per acre, and production 13,260,000
short tons, as compared with the 1935-39 averages of
2,970,000 acres, 6.1 short tons per acre, and 18,201,000
short tons total.
The sugar industry also suffered severely from the de-
struction of refineries. Great efforts have been made to
repair the damage. As a consequence, in 1946, 100 sugar
refineries were operating in the Ukraine alone, as com-
pared with 160 before the war. Over all of the USSR, the
total number of refineries in operation at the end of 1946
was 186, as compared with 158 the preceding year.
In the years 1934-38, the USSR was on an export basis
and net exports of sugar and processed sugar products
averaged 105,616 metric tons (116,421 short tons). The
war reversed this situation and necessitated severe ration-
ing of sugar.
During the 1930's sugar-beet production was expanded
in Latvia and Lithuania. In Latvia, the average acreage
for 1935-39 was 33,000 acres with a production of 282,000
short tons of sugar beets. The comparable figures for
Lithuania were 20,000 acres and 168,000 short tons. In
both countries, the yields - 8.5 and 8.4 short tons per acre
respectively - were higher than the average yield for the
whole USSR during 1935-39. Sugar-beet growing in the
Baltics suffered severely during the war. The fragmen-
tary data available suggest that, as in the rest of the USSR,
great efforts are being made to recover these production
losses.
In other territories acquired by the USSR, the sugar-beet
crop was an even smaller proportion of the sown area. In
1938 it amounted to less than half of one rercen~ in flip
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Page IX-17
Rumanian territory, about a quarter of one percent in the
Polish provinces, and only two-tenths of one percent in
the Konigsberg (now Kaliningrad) region of East Prussia.
The yields obtained that year were 8.3 short tons per acre
in the Rumanian territories, 7.9 short tons per acre in the
Polish provinces, and 12.8 short tons per acre in East
Prussia, where agriculture was at a higher level.
In 1938 the total area under sugar beets in the acquired
territories was 133,600 acres with a production of 1,064,100
short tons.
(5) Sunflower seed
Sunflower seed is the principal oil crop in the USSR
which before the war produced almost 80(/,) of the world
crop. Almost the entire crop is found in the Central
Agricultural, Middle and Lower Volga, and Southern re-
gions of European USSR, and it is domestically consumed.
In the newly acquired territories, sunflowers are important
in the former Rumanian provinces, where likewise they are
the chief oil-bearing crop, occupying an even larger pro-
portion of the cropland (TABLES IX-10 to IX-12; also FIG-
URE IX-6).
The plant is well suited to the USSR as it is rather
hardy and drought-resistant. Successful efforts were
made before the war to breed high-yielding, rapidly matur-
ing varieties to avoid the great losses from frost and snow.
In the Soviet Union, sunflowers are profitably used from
stalk to flower. Oil from the seeds is the basic vegetable
oil for food; oil cake is valuable feed concentrate; and
the remaining part of the flower can be used as a coarse
fodder after threshing. The husk of the flower is used for
fuel, and the ashes of the stalk are a source of potassium
carbonate. In the principal producing regions, whole
sunflower seeds are eaten like peanuts and constitute a
popular delicacy.
The 1933-37 average production of sunflower seed in
European USSR proper was nearly one and a half million
short tons (TABLE IX-13), with a yield of only 0.26 short
tons per acre. The 1938 production in the Rumanian
territory was 152,100 short tons, with a yield of 0.46 short
tons per acre. During the war sunflower production in
the USSR was reduced because, to a large extent, the crop
lay in the path of the invasion. Great efforts have been
made to recover these losses. There has been more success
in reestablishing the sown area than the yields. Large
harvest losses were reported in 1945.
(6) Flax
Flax is one of the most important industrial crops in the
European USSR. Fiber for linen fabrics is obtained from
its stalk. Its seed is a source of linseed oil, which is used
as a drying oil and also, after refining, as an edible oil,
or for the manufacture of such products as margarine.
The oil cake remaining after the extraction of oil is a
valuable feed concentrate. Different varieties of flax are
planted, depending upon whether it is grown primarily
for fiber or seed. The fiber varieties, of course, also pro-
duce some seed, but the yield of the latter is considerably
smaller than of the specialized seed varieties. There are
also important differences in climatic conditions required
for the best growth of fiber and seed varieties of flax. The
former require a humid climate with moderate summer
temperature, whereas the latter grow better in regions
with warmer and drier weather.
Unlike the United States and Argentina, where flax is
primarily grown for its seed, European USSR produces it
principally for fiber. In European USSR proper, exclu-
sive of the newly acquired territories, 4,220,000 acres were
sown in 1938 to fiber flax, and 462,000 acres to flax grown
only for its seed (TABLE IX-12 and FIGURE IX-6).
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The growing of fiber flax is centered in the western re-
gions of European USSR (Northwestern and White Rus-
sia), in the Central Industrial Region, and the Upper
Volga. The Middle and Lower Volga and the southern
regions of the country lead in flaxseed acreage. Of the
666,000 acres of flax in 1938 in the acquired territories, a
little more than 60% were in the Baltic republics, which
also specialized in fiber flax. The yields per acre of both
fiber and seed are higher in the acquired territories than
in European USSR proper. The highest yields are shown
by Lithuanian SSR (TABLE IX-13 to IX-18).
It was customary for the Soviet peasant farmers to plant
flax as late as June, but planting early in May is recom-
mended by Soviet agronomists as advantageous to yields
and to the quality of the stalk. It is characteristic of flax,
even more than of many other crops, that growing it con-
tinuously on the same land is detrimental to yields. Even
a generous application of fertilizer does not remedy the
situation, as some of the deterioration in yields may be
due to the prevalence of soil fungous diseases. Rotation
of flax with other crops, therefore, is essential for main-
tenance of yields. Clover is considered one of the best
predecessors for flax as it enriches the soil with nitrogen
in proper proportion, maintains good structure of the soil
and keeps it clean of weeds. The development of flax-
growing, therefore, in the principal regions of the USSR
was accompanied by the expansion of the area under
clover. In 1936, 26 ~4, of the flax-fiber area was preceded
by clover, and 43% by winter grains, which in turn were
usually preceded by a fallow. Successive planting of flax
had become insignificant before World War II.
Considerable effort was made before the war to mecha-
nize various operations connected with flax production
and processing, which require a great amount of hand
labor. Especially was this true of hand harvesting (pull-
ing) of flax. On 1 January 1939, there were over 9,000
pulling machines and 800 threshing machines of Soviet
make being used in harvesting of flax in the USSR. In
1938 nearly 8017o of the flax acreage was seeded with
selected seed. The quantity of commercial fertilizer used
was also increasing from year to year. However, the in-
crease in the yields of flax of about 13%, on the average
during 1933-37, compared with 1928-32, had not been con-
sidered satisfactory by the government. The third Five-
Year Plan, which was approved in 1939, called for an in-
crease of over 75 ~1,) in yields per acre as compared with
the 1933-37 average.
Russian flax was an important article for export during
the 19th and early years of the 20th century. In fact,
prior to World War I, Russia was the leading exporter of
flax and tow in the world. These exports declined greatly
during the interwar period. They averaged only about
5,000 short tons during 1935-38, as against more than
300,000 short tons in 1913. (The figure for 1913 includes
exports from the Baltic States, at that time a part of
Russia. The average for 1935-38 does not include the
Baltic States, which exported on the average over 30,000
short tons.)
Flax production suffered tremendously during the war.
Large stretches of the most important flax-growing re-
gions were invaded by the Germans, who caused great
damage to the collective farms and the machine-tractor
stations. The example of the Smolensk province (North-
western region) shows the extent of acreage decline. In
1940, over 500,000 acres were devoted to fiber flax in that
province, and less than 200,000 acres in 1945, after the
province was liberated and recovery ensued. In the unin-
vaded regions, flax production has been handicapped by
shortages of labor and draft power, fertilizer, and the
difficulties of adequately replacing and repairing ma-
chinery. For all these reasons both acreage and yields of
flax were greatly reduced. The 1946 flax acreage was less
than half of prewar.
(7) Hemp
Before the war the USSR was also a leading producer
of another fiber and oilseed crop-hemp. Hemp seed
yields valuable oil and cake for fodder; the stalk yields a
fiber used in the manufacture of such durable cloth as
canvas, bagging, sailcloth, and rope.
In European USSR, two kinds of hemp are grown : the
middle-Russian, or northern, hemp, accounting in 1938
for two-thirds of the total acreage, and the more recently
introduced Italian hemp, also known in the USSR as
southern hemp. The latter has a longer growing period,
100-110 days, by comparison with 80-90 days for middle-
Russian or northern hemp. The fiber of the southern
hemp is of superior quality and is sometimes used as a
substitute for flax. While the yield of fiber is higher for
southern hemp than for the northern variety, the reverse
is true of seed. The seed of southern hemp, grown in
Central Russia, does not usually mature. Thus, the
middle-Russian or northern hemp can be said to be a dual-
purpose crop, grown both for fiber and for oil, while the
southern hemp is primarily a fiber crop.
The middle-Russian or northern hemp is grown widely
in the European USSR. It is concentrated especially,
however, in the Central Agricultural Region, the Northern
Ukraine (Chernigovskaya Oblast'), and in the southwest-
ern corner of the Ukraine. Southern hemp is grown
largely in the Central Agricultural Region and in the
central and southern Ukraine (TABLE IX-12 and FIGURE
IX-6).
Hemp is entirely a spring-sown crop. The period be-
tween 1 May and 20 May is normally recommended for
planting. June plantings give poorer yields.
Hemp, which is highly responsive to fertilizer, has usu-
ally been grown on abundantly manured plots of land
devoted exclusively to the raising of this crop. Without
application of fertilizer, low yields are obtained even on
the fertile black soil. In addition to the use of fertilizer,
it is recommended that hemp be planted in rotation with
a legume grass, like clover. The need of specially pre-
pared land presents an obstacle to a rapid expansion of
the area under hemp, which, in fact, declined during the
1930's after reaching a peak in the early years of that
decade. Hemp, unlike other crops, continued to be grown
to a considerable extent by farmers individually, even after
collectivization. The old hemp land, which was included
with the individual kitchen garden plots on collective
farms, continued to be used for this purpose.
Before World War I, Russia shared with Italy the lead-
ing place as supplier of hemp fiber to the world industry.
But during the interwar period, Russian hemp fiber ex-
ports dwindled to insignificance. Hemp seeds have not
been exported since 1934.
The Soviet Union, it is estimated, produced, prior to the
war, about three-quarters of the world crop of hemp seed
and between a quarter and a half of the world's hemp
fiber. Both Poland and Rumania were also relatively
large producers. Approximately three-quarters of the
Polish and one-fifth of the Rumanian hemp areas were
located in territories recently acquired by the USSR.
This suggests that, when the ravages of war have been
overcome, the USSR will continue to be by far the largest
world producer of hemp seed and fiber.
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Since the war, hemp production in the USSR, although
apparently somewhat less emphasized than flax produc-
tion, has been the object of efforts toward improvement,
initially toward the reestablishment of prewar acreages
and yields, which were drastically reduced in wartime. In
1945, the acreage goal planned for the crop was increased,
but the plan was not fulfilled, and severe harvesting losses
were reported. In 1946, the acreage plan was again in-
creased and the few reports of both sowings and harvesting
were more favorable. But the 1946 hemp acreage was still
only about 40'/, of the prewar. The Five-Year Plan for
1946-50 envisages hemp acreages and production in excess
of prewar levels.
(8) Cotton
During the 1930's cotton, which up to that time was
grown in the USSR only in the irrigated regions of Central
Asia and Transcaucasia, was introduced into southern
European USSR. In 1938, 564,600 acres (228,500 hec-
tares) were planted to cotton in the southern Ukraine,
123,800 acres (50,100 hectares) in the Crimea, 35,800 acres
(14,500 hectares) in Rostovskaya Oblast', and 4,900 acres
(2,000 hectares) in the lower Volga area (Astrakhanskaya
Oblast').
This innovation meant the movement of cotton north-
ward, and its cultivation under less favorable climate and
under dry-farming (nonirrigated) conditions. The crop,
which requires a long growing period free from frosts, was
often damaged by early frosts in these regions. The cot-
ton yields were very low, the quality inferior, and the cost
high. Practically all this cotton area was in the zone
which was occupied by the Germans during the war, and
little if any cotton was produced during the occupation.
Judging from the production program of the Five-Year
Plan announced in the spring of 1946, there is no intention
to resume cotton growing on the former large scale in
these relatively low-yielding, high-cost regions. Shortage
of manpower in this war-ravaged area may have had an
important bearing on the decision to reduce the acreage
under cotton, which requires considerable labor expendi-
ture per acre.
(9) Tobacco
Two kinds of tobacco are grown in the European USSR,
1) the so-called yellow tobacco, which is predominantly a
cigarette leaf, and 2) a low-grade, coarse, strong tobacco,
high in nicotine content, which is called makhorka. The
latter is used both for smoking and for extraction of nico-
tine for insecticides. In 1938 the total area under yellow
tobacco in European USSR proper amounted to 66,200
acres, of which northern Ukraine accounted for 18,800
acres and the Crimea 21,700 acres. Tobacco culture in
the Crimea is 200 years old, and some fine leaf of the
oriental, or Turkish, type is grown in that region.
In 1938 an area of 233,500 acres was planted to mak-
horka, of which the Ukraine accounted for 94,900 acres,
Middle and Lower Volga for 40,300 acres, and the Central
Agricultural region for 48,900 acres. While most of the
makhorka acreage is in European USSR, some of the most
important yellow-tobacco-producing regions are in the
Caucasus.
The acreage and production of both yellow tobacco and
makhorka were greatly reduced during the war. The
tobacco area in the Crimea in 1944 was only 3,645 acres
as compared with nearly 22,000 acres before the war. The
yield per acre was only 294 pounds as compared with 758
pounds in 1939. An improvement in the Crimea occurred
in subsequent years. Makhorka acreage is being restored
more rapidly than yellow tobacco. In the Ukraine, to-
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Page IX-19
bacco acreage in 1946 was 581/u of prewar and makhorka
nearly 83 percent.
B. Livestock
The livestock industry of European USSR proper has
passed through several phases of decline and recovery
since World War I. Between 1916, when the first Russian
census of livestock was taken, and 1922, livestock numbers
declined. This was the period of revolution, civil war, and
famine.
Between 1922 and 1928, a recovery took place and live-
stock numbers generally exceeded the 1916 level. An-
other decline took place in the early 1930's during the
collectivization campaign, when the peasants (who were
joining the collective farms or who were being liquidated
as independent farmers) slaughtered their livestock on a
huge scale. Poor husbandry in the new collective and
state farms, and shortage of feed, contributed to excessive
mortality of livestock.
In the Ukraine livestock numbers decreased as follows
between June 1928 and 1933: all cattle 481/,, cows 40'/(,
hogs 701/c, sheep and goats 75%, and horses 53 percent.
For White Russia the percentage reduction for the same
period was: all cattle 29%/, cows 24%, hogs 35%, sheep
and goats 52'/,,, and horses 27 percent. After the middle
1930's, with governmental encouragement of individual
ownership of livestock (except horses) by members of col-
lective farms, a recovery again took place. But in 1938,
as far as it is possible to judge from available data, live-
stock numbers were still below the 1928 level in European
USSR proper, except hogs which were substantially above.
The great decrease in the number of horses in the 1930's
was offset by the introduction of tractors, but it was never
part of the government program to permit so serious a
reduction. On the contrary, the need to increase the
number of horses was frequently stressed in government
decrees and pronouncements.
A new decline took place as a result of the war and
particularly of the destructive German occupation. By
the end of 1945, when some recovery already had taken
place, cattle numbers for the Soviet Union as a whole
were 801/,, of the 1938 figure, horses were a little more
than half, and hogs only a third of the 1938 numbers.
For the European USSR alone, which includes the whole
of the invaded area, the decline was probably greater.
Collectivized livestock suffered especially during the Ger-
man occupation.
Horses were collectivized with minor exceptions, but
most other livestock before the war was individually
owned. In the Ukraine, out of 2.9 million horses on 1
January 1938, only a little over a hundred thousand (in-
cluding city horses) were individually owned and the rest
were either on collective or state farms or institutions.
However, of the 7.8 million head of cattle, nearly 5.4 mil-
lion were individually owned; of the 7.7 million hogs, 5.1
million were individually owned. In White Russia, out
of more than 600,000 horses, only about 70,000 were indi-
vidually owned; out of 1.9 million head of cattle, over
1.1 million were individually owned; out of nearly 2 million
hogs, 1.7 million were individually owned. Other regions
would show a rather similar proportion.
Between 1939 and the beginning of war, a strong effort
was made by the Government to increase the communal
herds (collectivized livestock). An important step in this
direction was the change in the basis of compulsory deliv-
eries of dairy and livestock products. After 1940 the col-
lective farms were required to deliver a certain quantity
of livestock and dairy products per unit of land instead of
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TABLE IX - 21
LIVESTOCK NUMBERS, TOTAL AND PER 100 ACRES OF SOWN AREA, EUROPEAN USSR, 1938
Total livestock (thousands)
Livestock per 100 acres of sown area
Region
Horses
Cattle
Sheep
Hogs
Horses
Cattle
Sheep
Hogs
European USSR proper:
North ..................................................
460.1
1,221.4
779.6
220.3
11. 4
30.2
19.3
5. 4
Northwest. . ..............................................
1,135.4
2, 765.9
3, 063.6
1, 885.0
7. 7
18.8
20.9
12. 8
Central Industrial .......................................
1, 312.8
3, 144.8
3,021.3
1,863.2
5. 5
13.1
16.3
7. 7
Central Agricultural. ....... ......:...............
1,451.4
3,480.9
3, 617. 9
2,471.8
4. 0
9. 6
9. 9
6. 8
Upper Volga ............................................
940. 2
1, 968.9
2, 798.9
1, 079.5
4. 8
10.0
14.2
5. 5
Middle and Lower Volga ..........................:......
603.4
2, 824. 1
4, 259. 9
965.7
1. 9
9. 0
13.6
3. 1
South ..................................................
3,242.1
9, 174.4
4, 984.0
8, 422.8
4. 2
11. 9
6. 5
10. 9
North Ukraine ........................................
1, 872.6
4, 647.8
1,033.9
4, 845.8
5. 7
14.2
3. 2
14. 9
South Ukraine and Crimea .............................
895.0
2, 551.9
2, 122. 7
2, 218.9
3. 4
9. 8
8. 1
8. 5
Don-Donets Region ....................................
.474. 5
1,074. 7
1; 827.4
1, 358.1
2. 6
10.7
9. 9
7. 3
West ....................................................
632. 9
1,905.3
1, 055.9
1, 951.0
7. 7
23. 1
12.8
23. 7
All European USSR proper ....................... :...
9, 778.3
26, 485. 7
24, 481.1
18, 859.3
4. 5
12.3
11.3
8. 7
Newly incorporated areas:
Finnish .................................................
43.0
195. 0
1.08.0
68.0
6. 9
31.2
17.3
10. 9
Baltic** .......................
1,168.7
3,049.4
3,251.4
2,384.7
9. 1
23.8
25. 3
18. 6
Konigsberg*** ...........................................
174.0
554.0
39.0
712.0
12.2
38.9
2.7
50. 1
Polish** ................................................
1,629.8
4, 098.3
2,371.6
2, 696.4
10. 1
25. 5
14.7
16. 8
Rumaniant .............................................
602.8
734. 3
2,400.3
610.7
7. 6
9. 2
30.1
7. 7
All European USSR .................................
13, 396. 5
35, 116. 7
32, 651. 4
25, 331. 1
5. 3
13.8
12.8
9. 9
Data are for 1 January 1938.
** Data are for June 1938.
*** Data are for December 1936.
t Data are for summer 1935.
per head of livestock. It was essential.for the collective
farms to increase their communal livestock numbers in
order to comply with this requirement.
As far as regional distribution of livestock in European
USSR proper is concerned, northern Ukraine had, in 1938,
the largest number of horses, cattle, and hogs; it was fol-
lowed by the Central Agricultural Region. In sheep, the
Middle and Lower Volga was leading, followed by the Cen-
tral Industrial Region. A somewhat different picture,
however, is presented. when livestock numbers are related
to acreage. The northern and western parts of European
USSR proper had the largest number of cattle per 100
acres. Here in the proximity of the two largest cities,
Moscow and Leningrad, is the dairy-farming region of
European USSR. Incidentally, the famous Cholmogor
dairy cow is a native of the far north, Arkhangel'skaya
Oblast' (TABLE IX-21).
White Russia (West) had 37% more hogs per 100 acres
than northern Ukraine, which leads in the total number
of hogs. In the number of sheep per 100 acres, likewise
the northern regions led, andnot Middle and Lower Volga
with their largest absolute number. In the case of horses,
relative to acreage, the northern regions are also ahead
of the Central and especially the Southern regions with
their high degree of mechanization. Livestock is essential
for farming in the more northern parts of European USSR
also because without manure crop production is impossible
on the infertile soils of these regions.
The number of animals per 100 acres is considerably
larger for all types of livestock in the newly incorporated
areas (with the exception of the former Rumanian terri-
tory) than in European USSR proper. Dairy farming
and pig raising were of importance in the Baltic republics,
which were substantial exporters of butter, particularly
Latvia, and of hog products and live pigs, especially
Lithuania.
C. Food consumption and distribution
European USSR as a whole is normally self-sufficient
with respect to most foodstuffs and even had small export
surpluses. Before World War II European USSR proper
exported small quantities of wheat, rye, barley, and oats,
oilseeds, and sugar. The Baltic Republics also exported
small quantities of grain and substantial quantities of
butter and hog products. The former Rumanian territory
exported wheat, corn, oilseeds, and some fruit.
As could be expected of an area of the size of the Euro-
pean USSR and with its variety of natural and economic
conditions, there are considerable regional differences with
respect to self-sufficiency in the matter of food supply.
The pattern is most definitely established for grain, which
is the most important article of the Russian diet. The
country is broadly divided into a grain-deficit area, which
roughly corresponds to the zone of nonblack soils, and a
grain-surplus area, embracing for the most part the black-
soil zone. The South, the Middle and Lower Volga, the
Central Agricultural region, and part of the Upper Volga
fall within the grain-surplus area, and so do the Baltic
and former Rumanian territories and the southern part of
the former Polish territories. The rest of the country is
the grain-deficit area.
(1) Consumption
Data on Soviet food consumption were provided by spe-
cial food surveys, the results of which, however, are not
available beyond 1928. At that time the average caloric
intake amounted to roughly 3,000 calories. Breadstuffs
greatly predominated in the Soviet diet, accounting, even
in normal years, for over 80% of the caloric intake. While
no independent statistical data on food consumption were
published in the 1930's, there is good ground for believing,
from both production statistics and reports of observers,
that the Soviet diet deteriorated. . This deterioration was
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especially great during the early 1930's, when the rural
population actually suffered from starvation, while the
urban population was subjected to severe rationing. But
even in the late 1930's, conditions were less satisfactory
than they were in the middle 1920's, especially in meat
and dairy products; the country still felt the adverse effect
on the livestock industry of the agricultural collectiviza-
tion in the early years of the decade. A further deteriora-
tion of the Soviet diet, especially in nonbread components,
has taken place since the war. This subject can be best
dealt with in conjunction with rationing, which will be
discussed in connection with the general problem of dis-
tribution of foodstuffs.
(2) Distribution system
The foodstuffs grown on the three types of farms (col-
lective, state, and independent) reach the ultimate con-
sumer by various complicated routes over which the state
has almost complete control.
(a) Producers' outlets.-Basic to collective and state
farming in the USSR is the entry of the state into the dis-
tribution system as a principal buyer, regulating prices
directly and indirectly. The government is the direct
recipient of farm produce in four ways. First, all farms
are required to deliver to the state, at low fixed prices,
a portion of their crops and livestock produce, based on
the size of their land. Second, the state, as owner-mana-
ger of the machine-tractor stations, receives the produce
paid to these stations by the collective and state farms
which they service. The proportions of the collective
farm produce delivered to the state in these two ways
varies. In 1937, compulsory deliveries of the grain crop
of collective farms amounted to 12.2 `y: and payments
in kind to machine-tractor stations to 13.9 percent. In
1939 the respective shares of a smaller crop increased to
14.3 14 and 19.2 %% of the crop. The third direct means
by which the government obtains agricultural commodi-
ties is through sale to the government, by collective farms
and their members, in excess of their quotas, at prices
somewhat higher than those paid for compulsory deliver-
ies. Finally, the supplies produced by the state farms are
at the disposal of the government.
Collective farms have other, less rigidly restricted out-
lets for their produce on the free, open markets or bazaars
in cities, towns, and villages. Likewise, members of col-
lective farms and the few remaining independent farmers
may sell in such markets the produce from their own
gardens, or the surplus from their wages in kind.
These sales are necessarily limited by such factors as
transportation (since railroads could not be used for food
shipment, except by passengers carrying it as their per-
sonal baggage), by the prohibition of the services of
middlemen who are labeled in Soviet parlance as specu-
lators*, and by state ownership of most processing plants.
Finally, the surpluses available for sale on the free market,
after meeting government deliveries and consumption re-
quirements, are not large.
Prices in these open markets are largely the result of
supply and demand, although the government exercises
some control indirectly by the competition of its "com-
mercial" stores, where food is sold at high prices and
without the requirement of ration coupons. During the
winter of 1943-44, when the deprivations of war were at
a maximum, prices on these open markets were at their
highest and much of the trade was on a barter basis.
? "Speculation" is a criminal offense, and "speculators" at these
markets may be arrested by the police. Nevertheless, there have
been reports of considerable activity by "speculators" in periods
of widespread shortages, such as those of 1946-47.
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Page IX-21
(b) Distribution to consumers.-Since 17 July 1941
the Soviet Union has rationed the basic foods to all non-
agricultural producers. Unrationed self-suppliers have
a less privileged position than that of most agricultural
producers in other rationed countries, because the system
of planned production, compulsory deliveries to the state,
and residual payments to collective farmers, acts as a sort
of rationing.
The rationed population, exclusive of the armed forces,
is divided into the following six categories :
R-1 Card is for workers in heavy industry, such as metallurgy,
machinery industries, etc. It is understood that in many
cases miners receive a super-ration which is larger in terms
of bread than an R-1.
R-2 "Worker's card" is given to outdoor workers doing manual
labor or work requiring considerable amounts of exercise.
It is also given to indoor workers and executives with special
qualifications (such as a higher education), and to students
in higher educational institutions. A special variation of
this card exists for engineering and technical workers.
S-3 "Employee's card" is held by almost all workers not re-
ceiving R-1 or R-2. It is particularly for indoor and office
workers without highly specialized qualifications.
1-4 "Dependent's card" is held by adults (persons over 18)
who are unemployed and at the same time are in one or
more of the following groups: a) invalids of the first or
second categories; b) mothers with children under eight
years of age; c) women over 55; d) men over 60.
IT-4 "Dependent's card" for all unemployed adults, including
housewives who do not receive 1-4 cards.
D-5 "Children's cards" are received by all children under 12
or 15 (the upper age limit is not clearly known) and also,
apparently, by some or all students through the 10th grade
of school.
Prior to October 1946 a large number of persons re-
ceived special supplementary rations, most of which were,
at least theoretically, designed to take the place of meals
served in the institution in which the holder was employed.
There were various categories of these supplementary ra-
tions: "Liter A," "Liter B," Dry Rations, "Abonnementy,"
Scientific Workers' cards, "R-4," etc. In addition, dur-
ing the war, supplementary rations were issued to ex-
pectant and nursing mothers, blood donors, and hospital
patients. The broad categories into which rationed food
is divided indicate the inclusive and differentiated food
rationing in the USSR.
Allowances for each ration category, often unfulfilled
during the war, are shown in TABLE IX-22.
The special categories, which have been greatly reduced
in number since October 1946, formerly allowed the holder
a certain amount of bread, grits, sugar, fats, etc. So far
as is known, all bread and all grits now have been elimi-
nated. In the past, the meat ration has included fish
or eggs when meat was scarce. The sugar ration has often
been met with candy or cookies. At the present time,
potatoes, other vegetables, and fruit are not rationed.
The rationed population obtains its food in so-called
"open" and "closed" shops. "Open" shops, however, are
not open to the general public but rather to the public
of a given ration district. "Closed" shops are those con-
nected with a particular place of work. They may also
have an order department where special customers be-
longing, as a rule, to the more privileged official class leave
their orders to be filled and call for them later, thus
avoiding a long wait in line. These stores are usually
much more adequately stocked than the "open" shops.
. How well one is supplied with rationed food, therefore,
depends upon whether one is able to trade in an "open"
or "closed" shop. There are considerabel differences also
among the latter, depending upon the particular organ-
ization or institution with which the shop is connected.
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JANIS 40 Confidential
Food
Unit
Heavy
worker R-1
Worker R-2
Employee
S-3
Dependent
1-4
Dependent
IT-4***
Child D-5
Bread ............................
Grains per day..........
650
550
450
250**
none
300f
Grits .............................
Grams per month.......
2000
2000
1500
1000
1000tt
1200
Meat and fish .....................
Grams per month.......
2200
2200
1200
600
none
600
Fats ..............................
Grams per month.......
800
800
400
200
none
400
Sugar .............................
Grams per month.......
900
900
500
400
400tt
500
Salt ..............................
Grains per month.......
400
400
400
400
400
400
Tea ..............................
Grams per month.......
25
25
25
25
none
25
Matches ..........................
Boxes per month........
3
3
3
3
3
3
* Only the few major changes indicated below took place in basic ration categories from September 1946 until early 1947. It is quite apparent that.
this ration classification is maintained only for purposes of keeping records straight.
** 1-4 bread ration was reduced from 300 to 250 grains per day.
*** A new category IT-4 was created.
D-5 bread ration was reduced from 400 grains to 300 grams per day. Children in the eighth, ninth, and tenth grades continue to receive 400
grams per day, as previously.
tt In December 1946 there was no sugar given on IT-4 cards, and in January grits were eliminated.
As a rule, the official Party (Communist Party), govern-
ment, technical, and military personnel are best supplied.
As for the general population, its rationed allotment of
bread has usually been available, at least in the larger
cities. Other rationed foods, however, are often not avail-
able in the "open" shops, or substitutes are offered. A
large proportion of the rationed population has to sup-
plement its rationed food allotment from other sources.
Individual gardens have become an important source of
supplementary food, largely potatoes.
Food, both on the rationed and unrationed lists, can also
be obtained without submitting ration coupons on the
private, or open market and in special government "com-
mercial" stores, established in a number of cities in 1944.
On the open market, at the bazaars to which peasants
bring their surplus agricultural produce, consumers may
purchase what foods are for sale. During the war, at
least, much of this trade was on a barter basis, the city
dwellers exchanging second-hand clothing and other con-
sumer goods for foodstuffs. These bazaars are practically
a legalized black market over which the state exercises
police control. The so-called "speculation" or barter trad-
ing, which is not strictly legal, may be overlooked or the
Taw may be strictly enforced, and consequently trading
considerably curbed. Even more important is indirect
regulation by the government of the private market
through the competition of its own "commercial" stores,
where food is sold without the requirement of ration
coupons. These "commercial" stores also granted certain
rather large groups of their customers 10 or 25% dis-
counts, but in September 1946, these discounts were abol-
ished. Since 1944 the government has also opened a few
public restaurants where meals can be obtained ration
free but at high prices.
In preparation for future derationing, the difference in
price levels for food sold with and without ration coupons
was markedly reduced by legislation in September and
October 1946, lowering prices in "commercial" stores and
raising prices in ration stores. Unrationed prices, how-
ever, are still very much higher than the fixed prices in
rationed food stores and restaurants. TABLES IX-23 and
IX-24 illustrate the effect of the changes on the monthly
cost of rations for each category and on the individual
food items in "commercial" stores.
Prices on the open market did not all drop when prices
in "commercial" stores were reduced. The most marked
exception was bread, which instead of dropping increased
as much as 335'/c, for black bread in Moscow. The reason
for this is largely that the downward ration classification
of many people, the discontinuance of special supple-
mentary classifications (Litre A, etc.), and the creation
COST OF ONE MONTII'S RATIONS, IN RUBLES*, AUGUST AND
NOVEMBER 1946
RI-Heavy Worker.......
142-Worker .............
S3-Employee............
I4-Dependent...........
IT-4-Dependent .........
D5-Child ...............
Litre A ..................
Litre B ..................
Abonnement .............
251. 53
255. 88
169.43
95. 45
22. 30
122. 03
244. 45
213. 45
126. 03
* Official exchange rate of the ruble fixed at 18.9 cents United States
currency; so-called "diplomatic" rate, 8% cents.
COMMERCIAL STORE PRICES OF FOOD ITEMS, BEFORE AND
AFTER 16 SEPTEMBER 1946, IN RUBLES PER KILOGRAM*
99. 85
91. 30
59. 60
36. 30
49.25
109. 55
96. 15
58. 10
Beef .......................
Smoked ham ................
Chicken ....................
Sausage ....................
Fresh fish ..................
Cheese .....................
Butter (salted) ..............
Rice .......................
Wheat flour .................
Tea ........................
Sugar (cube) ................
Sugar (granulated) ..........
Raisins (black) ..............
Without
discount
140
470
200
300
80
270
400
70
35
380
150
120
240
With 25%
discount
105
352
150
225
60
220
300
52. 5
26
285
112. 5
90
180
After 16
September
90
220
195
140
40
170
240
45
24
380
70
60
70
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RESOURCES AND TRADE Page IX-23
RISE IN COST OF FOOD FOR VARIOUS FAMILY UNITS
AUCITST-NOVEMBER. 19.16
I
l[
j III
Cost ill
November
Type of family unit and Cost of
Cost of
of same
type of ration cards
rations,
rations,
amount of
held
August,
November
food as
purchased
oil rations
in August*
Relation
of cost. in
Column
III to cost
in Column
increase in the cost of food, the principal item of the
Soviet worker's cost of living.
United States observers believe that these ration, wage,
and price changes would force most families in the USSR
to reduce their consumption of foodstuffs, would require
persons who are employable but unemployed to seek work,
would force the employed to work harder so as to in-
crease their wages (in the USSR mostly piece-work rates
are paid) or to seek additional work, and would compel
those having liquid assets to liquidate these assets, in-,
eluding cash and surplus consumer goods, in order to
purchase food.
D. Fisheries
Single man or woman:
(a) 1 R-2............
91.30
256. 00
256. 00
280
(1) General
(b) I S-3 .............
59.
60
161). 43
169.13
28-1
The most important fish-producing areas of European
I[nsband and wife:
USSR, in the order of importance, are the Caspian Sea
(a) 2 l1-2s.....
182
60
511. 76
51 1
76
280
,
.......
(b) 1 IL-2 & 1 S-3.....
.
150.
90
-125.31
.
125. 31
282
the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov, and the Murman coast.
(c) 1 R-2 & I IT-4....
127.
60
288.18
750. 18
590
Statistics published by Soviet authorities vary widely.
llusland
), wife, one
TABLES IX-26 and IX-27, however, are fairly representa-
child:
tive of published data on the catch, by species and areas.
(a) 111-2; 11-1: 11)-5..
176.
85
173. 36
653. 36
370
TABLE IX-28 gives planned catch, to be achieved by the
(h) I It-2; I S-3;
200.
15
547. 3.1
667
3.1
330
lliishaud, wife, two chil-
dren:
.
end of the current Five-Year Plan (by 1950).
Fishing industries are collectivized in the Soviet Union
(a) 1 11-2; I I-4; 2 D-5 ..
226.
10
397
and organized into large nationally planned trusts. Vir-
(b) 1 R-2; 1 S-3; 2 D-5.1
249.
10
364
tually all fishermen belong to cooperative farms
which
IIushaild, wife, two chil-
dren, 2 elderly de-
pendents:
,
the fishing industry is designed to assist. The coopera-
tives receive assistance from so-called "motor-fishing sta-
2 R-2; 2 D-5; 2 i--1.....
353.
70
tions," which in fishing, play the same role as the machine-
tractor stations play in agriculture. Most of the larger
* It, is assumed that. difference between amount of food allotted oil ra-
tions ill November 111.16 and in August. 19.16, is made up by purchasing
on open market at prices prevailing 1Lore in November 19.16.
of the IT-4 category meant that many people, who had
formerly received more bread than they needed, no longer
received such surpluses and did not trade with them on
the open market. Furthermore, in Moscow "commercial"
stores in the winter of 1946-47 bread became practically
unavailable. The scarcity of bread on the open market
and its high price encouraged speculators who bought
in "commercial" stores for resale on the open market.
To prevent this, bread has been sold in these stores only
in combination with other foodstuffs.
As the result of official wage increases in September
1946, it is estimated roughly that 500 rubles per month,
exclusive of tax deductions, etc., represented the average
wage in the USSR. This average wage can be compared
with the figures in TABLE IX-25 which shows the marked
TOTAL USSII CATCII OF MARINE MAMMALS, BY FISHING
(MOUNT)S AND SPECIES, 193-1
Polar bear.......... .
Whale ...............
Seal ................
Walrus .............
Sea-hare............
Dolphin............
Do. polar........
Other n!alnmals......
TOTAL USSR. CATCH, IIY SPECIES AND
(Metric tons)
Caspian ................
Black and Azov.........
Northern ...............
0W. . . .................
ar East ...............
Aral ...................
Balkhash ...............
l l n classified .............
(52, 900 20.1, 800
5, 300 1 1, 800
11.1,700 .....
132,200
* :Miscellaneous large fish.
** Miscellaneous small fish.
3, 100
1, 500
221, 500
Large Sinall
Chastik* I('hastik
157, 800
(i0, 900
1-1,000
.1, 900
16, 300
19, 700
10, 000
45, 100
,17, 900
48, 800
18,800
5, 600
8, 200
3, 200
3, 200
63, 300
Cas-
pian
3, 200
Cod Salmons Sturgeon
93, 500
9, 200
1, 100 15, 100
-1,500
3,800 ....
7, 000 1, 4100
128, 500 200
Flatfish
700
2, 100
200
2, 000 .
1, 210 .....
, ,
410
7
.....
3,390 ..... .....
..... .....
..... 110 100
..... 20 .....
,
70 70
(.
. 3,390
340 550
140 160
3, 390 4, 340 11 100
9, 920 120, 950
Other
Carp
fish
5, -100
....
11)5, 000
130, 700
....
262, 700
16, 200
....
263, 100
18, 11)00
5, 700
1
2, 600
323, 700
26, 500
13, 200
1, 600 6, 400
123, 000
1, 600 164, 400
1
2, 600
370 9
370
`)
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TOTAL USSR PLANNED CATCH, BY AREAS, 1950
(According to fourth Five-Year Plan)
RSFSR ................................................
1,884,500
Ukrainian SSR .........................................
80,000
White Russian SSR .....................................
5, 200
Uzbek SSR ............................................
22,500
Kazakh SSR ...........................................
97,500
Georgian SSR ..........................................
5,500
Azerbaydzhan SSR .....................................
23,900
Lithuanian SSR ........................................
15,000
Moldavian SSR ........................................
1,500
Latvian SSR ...........................................
20,000
Estonian SSR ..........................................
20,000
Karelo-Finnish SSR .....................................
15,000
Total ............................................
2,190,600
fish-producing enterprises are under the People's Com-
missariat for the Fishing Industry. Secondary enterprises
are under the People's Commissariats for local industry.
It is reported that 130,000 laborers and 220,000 fisher-
men were engaged in fishing in 1941. The only available
figures on the number of fishing enterprises in the Soviet
Union are given in TABLE IX-29.
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JANIS 40 Confidential
Num-
ber
Cold storage plants...
Ice producing plants..
Canneries............
Fish meal and oil
plants.
Motor manufacturing
plants.
Barrel plants.........
Metric tons
393 a day..
8,000 a yr.
Num-
ber
Metric tons
828 a day..
23,000 a yr.
Num-
ber
In 1935, Soviet fishing interests were reported to have
3,150 motor vessels with an aggregate of 230,000 horse-
power. By the beginning of the Russo-German War this
number had increased to 6,700. At that time there were
about 100 trawlers.
During the 1930's it appears that Soviet fishing was
largely dependent upon imports from the United States
and Japan (the latter for the Far East region in par-
ticular) for the more advanced types of equipment, such
as motorized fishing vessels, floating canneries and special
types of nets. Some parts of machinery may also have
been imported from Germany. Beginning roughly with
the second Five-Year Plan, Soviet industry developed fa-
cilities for making more efficient and modern nets, ma-
chinery and vessels. From the outbreak of the Russo-
German War considerable progress seems to have been
made toward self-sufficiency in this respect. At the same
time, official Soviet publications showed great interest in
new developments in fishery technology abroad. Many
of the articles published are descriptions of new machin-
ery, taken from trade journals of American food and re-
frigeration industries.
Most of the vessels of the fishing fleet are small or
average sized craft (presumably sailing vessels). Mo-
tored vessels are for the most part equipped with engines
of 15 to 150 horsepower. In the past, ships were built
in yards belonging to the fishing industry, mainly in ac-
cordance with local design and tradition. In recent years,
however, ship-planning has been reorganized to keep pace
with new developments in the fishing industry. Designs
for new ships are now made by the Central Construction
Bureau only. Standard types of ships have, in the main,
been worked out for the fishing fleets of the Caspian,
Azov-Black Seas and Aral Sea basins. It was planned
to have standard types worked out for the North Basin
by 1945. For the Caspian Sea, 32 types of craft have
been proposed, including vessels for fishing, transport,
and auxiliary service.
It appears that winches for trawlers, seiner's nets, lift-
ing machines, capstans, and similar gear which had for-
merly been imported, were by the beginning of the Russo-
German War supplied by Soviet plants. Production of
metal floats was carried on in a factory at Odessa; me-
chanical lifts for purse seines could be manufactured in
a Vladivostok dock yard. A four-inch centrifugal pump,
similar to the Fairbanks-Morse pump, made in a factory at
Moscow, is mentioned in a Soviet article.
Soviet fishermen adopted pound and purse seine nets
to a large extent and Soviet workers learned to make them
in the dozen years preceding the war. Before the war
the Soviet net industry provided about two-thirds of the
needs of the fishing industry of the USSR. Three im-
portant net-making plants were probably responsible for
most of this production. These are the Reshetikhinskaya
plant at Zhelnino near the city of Gor'kiy on the Volga,
the Astrakhan' plant, and the plant at Kasimov in Ryazan-
skaya Oblast'. One other plant is the Kostroma plant, no
doubt at Kostroma in Kostromskaya Oblast'.
The tabulation of dockyards of the fishing industry
lists shipyards available to the fishing industry for build-
ing wooden boats and repairing metal ones.
DOCKYARDS OF TIIE FISHING INDUSTRY, USSR, FOR
BUILDING
WOODEN
BOATS AND REPAIRING METAL ONES
(Total 18)
Astrakhan' wharf in Kirova
Berdyanskaya dockyard
Astrakhan' metal works
Tobolskaya
do.
Murmansk dockyard
Aral
do.
Sosnovskaya do.
Bolkhash
do.
Arkhangel'sk do.
Strunnoskaya
do.
Soroskaya
do.
Ship repair shop in Fridribha
Azov
do.
Engelsa
Kerch'
do.
Diomid Sudoverf
Kherson
do.
Sakhalin Sudoverf
Klynchevskaya Sudoverf
(2) Caspian Sea
The Caspian Sea is the most important fishing area
of European USSR. The Caspian basin includes the whole
sea plus the Volga (beginning from Saratov), the Ural,
Emba, Kuma, Terek, Kura, and other rivers emptying into
the Caspian. Each year 200,000 to 225,000 metric tons
of fish are caught in the Caspian. Of this quantity, 6517o
to 70% are taken in March, April, and May; 9% to 10%
in June, July, and August; 15% to 20% in September,
October, and November; 4% to 5% in December, January,
and February.
For the spring season 45,000 men are employed; for the
autumn season 12,000 men. Of these numbers, 6,000 men
in the spring and 2,000 men in the autumn are brought in
from other areas especially for the fishing industry.
In the northern part of the Caspian Sea there is frost
and ice in the winter. This is not true in the southern
part. The northern third of the Sea, in a straight line
from Cape Uch to Mys Tyub-Karagan, is much more im-
portant than the southern two-thirds of the sea as a
source of fish. In the north are located the oldest, best-
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RESOURCES AND TRADE Page IX-25
equipped, and richest Astrakhan' fisheries, which operate
chiefly in and off the mouth of the Volga. Conditions
there are very favorable to fish. In the delta of the Volga
are concentrated more than 200 large fishery establish-
ments which account for about one-half the production
of the whole Caspian basin.
While the southern end of the Caspian Sea reaches a
depth of more than 800 meters, much of the northern
end is less than 6 meters deep. This shallow northern end,
which is fed by the tremendous inflow of water from the
Volga, is an exceedingly rich fishing area. The annual
catch here attains about 37 hundredweight per square
kilometer.
The fishery operating from Astrakhan' is most produc-
tive in spring and fall, particularly in the spring. Between
the left bank of the Volga and the Akhtuba the fall is the
most important season.
In the southern part of the Caspian the best-equipped
fishing industries are at the mouth of the Kura where
sturgeon are caught, the better types in April.
The bulk of the catch in the Caspian consists of herring,
pilchard, and cisco. Pilchard fishing was begun there in
1925 in the delta of the Volga and on the coast of Daghes-
tan. In 1928 it was prohibited in the delta of the Volga,
but in 1940 there was a very active fishing season for pil-
chard near the eastern shore of the middle Caspian. It
is estimated that the potential catch of pilchard is at
least 500,000 hundredweight annually. Pilchards are
caught all year round, but mainly in the spring and on the
western shore, incidental to herring fishing. Salting has
been the only method of treating them.
Some seals are also taken in the Caspian, the total
quantity in 1944 being 4,300. This, however, was an ex-
traordinarily good year. These were taken near the river
Zhili and sent to Artema island where they were manu-
factured into oil and lard.
(3) Sea of Azov
The Sea of Azov is connected with the Black Sea by the
narrow Kerch Strait. Fishing in this region is concen-
trated in the delta of the Kuban' and Don rivers. Fish
go through the narrow Kerch Strait early in spring and
into the Azov for spawning. They remain until autumn,
then return well fed and fat to the Black Sea. The Azov
is very shallow, and owing to the many rivers that empty
into it, is not very saline. Nevertheless it is remarkably
rich in fish. The average catch is five tons of fish per
square mile of sea surface. Some 115 species of fish live
in the Sea of Azov and in the lower reaches of the rivers
that flow into it. Among these are marine fishes of Medi-
terranean origin which migrate from the Black Sea only
in the summer, permanent residents of the sea, and finally
fresh-water species that inhabit the rivers and enter the
sea only occasionally. Thirty-seven species are of com-
mercial importance and include various sorts of sturgeon,
herring, anchovy, pike-perch, carp, bream, and chub. The
most valuable are those of the sturgeon family, the various
herrings, carp, and bream.
Every autumn fishermen from the Don and Kuban'
rivers, from the Crimea and the remotest shores of the
Black and Azov Seas used to make the trip to the Taman-
skiy Poluostrov, where they made big catches of anchovies.
Before the war tinned fish was shipped to all parts of the
USSR from Temryuk, the small port at the mouth of the
Kuban' river.
Pound nets (that is, traps) are used in the Azov - Black
Sea basin. Giant pound nets, adapted from Japanese
designs, were first used in Kerch Strait in 1930. In 1944,
the mouth of Kerch Strait was reported to be almost
closed by nets. Mechanical net lifters are used to haul the
net from the water to the fishing boats. Trailing nets are
used in the main sections of the rivers Don and Kuban'.
It was reported in December 1944 that the Azov fisheries
industry was building a cannery, with an annual produc-
tivity of 15 million cans, and also refrigerators and ship
wharves. When the war began the first section of a large
food combine had gone into operation at Nizhne-Dnep-
rovsk. The plant was destroyed by the Germans, but the
Russians report that much of the equipment has been
repaired, and that the enterprise is already functioning.
In 1945 the Sea of Azov had some 100 collective fisheries
and 14 motor-boat stations. The catch in some years has
amounted to 150,000 metric tons. Practically the whole
of the fishing industry on the shore of the Sea of Azov was
ruined by the Germans when they occupied the coast.
All the plants were looted and burned, the fishing fleet
was scuttled, and equipment was removed. According
to Soviet information reorganization has taken place
rapidly.
(4) Black Sea
In the Black Sea, fishing is concentrated along the
Crimean bank and in the Dnieper-Bug estuaries. Because
of the proximity to market and convenient transportation
facilities, two-thirds of the catch is marketed fresh. The
bulk of the catch consists of beluga, sudak, leshch, carp,
and taran. Scouting planes rove over the Black Sea and
Sea of Azov searching for fish and radio the location to
the fishing fleet.
(5) Northern seas
In the White Sea, the Barents Sea, and Kara Sea, there
are very productive fishing grounds. In the Barents Sea
the catch per trawler is between 3,000 and 3,500 metric
tons per year. The most important ports are Murmansk
and Arkhangel'sk. Information on the fisheries located in
these areas is very scanty. Among the more valuable
species in the Barents and White Sea are plaice (Pleuro-
nectes platessa), dab (Pleuronectes limanda), long rough
dab (Hippoglossoides platessoides), halibut (Hippoglossus
vulgaris), cod (Gadus morrhua), haddock (Gadus aegle-
finus), and catfish (Anarrichas minor?). Among those
taken in the Kara Sea are herring (Clupea sp.), various
species of sculpins, polar cod (Boreogadus saida), eel pout
(Lycodes spp.), flounders of various species, salmon, smelt
(Osmerus eperlanus dentex), whitefish (Coregonus sp.),
sturgeon, char (Salvelinus), stickleback (Pygosteus pungi-
tius), and burbot (Lota lota).
The principal Murman fishing regions are the Mur-
mansk and the Finmarken Banks and Nordkin and Bear
(Medvezhiy) Islands. Hopen, an island south of Spits-
bergen, is also well known for its abundance of fish.
The trawler fleet in the Barents Sea, returned to opera-
tions after war duties, has been supplemented with new
units. The Murmansk shipbuilding yard of Markomry-
bprom expected to resume building new vessels in 1946.
The region of the Kara Sea from the shore to a depth of
20 meters is characterized by low salinity and high tem-
perature and is an extremely good feeding ground for
fish. The narrow strip of sea along the shore of Novaya
Zemlya has fewer fish than the other coastal areas, prob-
ably owing to the fact that the water is more saline, is
warmer, and the depth greater.
In the Gulf of Finland, salmon (Salmo salar L) are
captured in Luzhskaya Guba, Narva Laht, and Koporskaya
Guba as they approach the Luga and Narva rivers for
spawning. The main catches are made in May and June.
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 Page IX-26
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JANIS 40 Confidential
In 1933, 335.8 centners (a centner is approximately 220
pounds) of salmon and sea trout (Salmo trutta) were ob-
tained in Luzhskaya Guba, 48.7 centners in Kaporskaya
Guba, and 6.4 centners in the Narva Laht.
In Luzhskaya Guba the great bulk of salmon migrate
along the eastern shore; a few run along the western shore
and the central part of the bay. In Narva Laht salmon
proceed to the river Narva, passing near the northern and
southern shores. In Koporskaya Guba the first indi-
viduals appear at the western shore.
During the winter, fishing is done under the ice of the
White and Barents seas.
At Murmansk is located the Polar Institute of Fishing
and Oceanography. It was reestablished after the war
and was to resume weather forecasting for the trawler
fleet.
Great multitudes of sea mammals abound in various
parts of the northern seas. The drifting ice is thickly
covered with seals in the winter. Airplane sealing is
carried on in the White Sea with planes directing the
ships. In 1936 the ice breaker Georgia Sedov, operating
from Murmansk, opened the way for sealing ships which
caught at least 2,000 animals. From the south, the ice
breaker North Wind lead the steamer Dezhnev, with ex-
perienced seal hunters from Novaya Zemlya and maritime
towns of Arkhangel'skaya Oblast', to a mass of seals.
About Novaya Zemlya 20,000 to 80,000 are said to be
taken annually by Russians; considerably more are taken
there by the Norwegians.
Sharks and white grampus are hunted in the Zapolyarye.
Fishermen operate from Poluostrov Kanin. An average
shark weighs around 500 to 600 kilograms and a grampus
two tons. These are taken for oil, meat, and skins. The
shark meat is sent to the cannery at Shoina. Some of it
is salted and sent to Arkhangel'sk.
(6) Fresh water
(a) Farm pond culture.-Fish are raised in artificial
ponds in various parts of the USSR. In the Ukraine there
are fish ponds aggregating in area 60,000 to 63,000 hec-
tares. Before the war these produced approximately 14,-
000 metric tons of fish annually. Many of the ponds in
the Ukraine were destroyed by the Germans in the war.
Reconstruction is reported. In the region of Leningrad
City, fish farms produced 60 metric tons of fish in 1943.
There are fish farms in the Karelo-Finnish SSR.
(b) Rybinsk reservoir.-This reservoir produced in
1944 over 1,000 metric tons of pike, bream, and other
fresh-water species. Pike-perch from the White Sea region
and Amur carp are being introduced into this large inland
sea. In 1944 there were two motor-fishing stations in
the Rybinsk reservoir and it was planned to establish 11
more. It was also planned to place there 41 special motor
boats of seagoing type. On the shore near Perebory Pier,
at the mouth of the river Yug, a shipbuilding dock was
under construction in June 1944. At that time, three
factories were reported under construction for the manu-
facture of nets.
(c) Danube.-Before the war Russian fishermen took
a thousand metric tons of fish a year from the Danube.
Fishing in this region was resumed in 1945 and catches
shipped to Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev, and cities in the
Donets Basin. Fishing on the Danube continues all year,
but the best catches are obtained in spring, fall, and
winter.
(7) Leningrad District
The main fisheries of the Leningrad District, operating
in Lake Pskov and Peipus Lake, in the Gulf of Finland,
in Ozero Il'men' and Ladozhskaya Ozero (Ladoga Lake)
supply respectively 4717c, 27%, 13%, and 10% of the total
production of commercial fish. Moreover, there are in
this region 1,700 small lakes with a total area of 151, 718
hectares. The most important and valuable commercial
species in the Leningrad region are : smelt, sprat, bream,
sandre, gwyniad (one of the whitefishes), large vendace,
and common vendace (whitefish).
(8) Lithuanian SSR
Lithuanian fisheries are small compared with those of
other Baltic countries, and some fish always must be
imported. Because of the short coast line and lack of
good harbors, Klaipeda is the only good fishing port.
The 1939 catch was 1,271 metric tons, with whiting the
largest item.
(9) Estonian SSR
In Estonia there are 50 fishermen's associations. The
most important fish taken are Baltic herring, lamprey,
anchovy, and pike-perch. Five canneries have been re-
opened in Talinn.
(10) Latvian SSR
Latvia has 520 kilometers of coast line on the Baltic
Sea and the Gulf of Riga, and 250,000 acres of lakes and
ponds, as well as several hundred kilometers of rivers.
From Latvia, fishing is carried on in the Gulf of Riga and
off the shore of Kurzeme. Latvians caught close to 14,000
metric tons of fish in 1938. Almost half this quantity con-
sisted of Baltic herring; next in importance were cod,
flounders, and burbot. It is reported that the Germans
destroyed a large part of the harbor installations and
fishing fleet. In December 1944 it was reported that five
canneries, as well as ship-repair facilities, were operating
in Riga. Salmon, lamprey, and smelt were being canned.
A ship dock has been recently built at Mangali for build-
ing fishing vessels.
93. WATER RESOURCES
A. General
Natural sources of water supply, either of surface water
or ground water, or both, are plentiful in all parts of
European USSR except in the extreme south and south-
east. In the west-central and northern parts, the climate
is humid, precipitation is distributed fairly evenly through
the year, and there is a close net of perennial streams.
In the northwest, lakes are very numerous. To the south
and southeast precipitation gradually decreases and the
severity of summer droughts increases. Near the Black
Sea, in the Crimea, and in the lower Volga River region
all but a few streams go dry in summer and autumn.
Three small areas bordering on the Caspian Sea and Black
Sea are semideserts, where the only streams are dry washes
that flow for brief periods after infrequent heavy rains,
and even the few lakes and most of the ground water are
saline.
Surface-water supply is complicated by the extensive
freezing of rivers and lakes in winter. Over most of
European USSR even the largest rivers are frozen for con-
siderable periods each year. The periods of freezing are
longest in the northeast, shortest in the southwest. The
Dnestr, in the southwest, is ice bound on the average for
70 days; centrally located rivers, for 4 to 5 months; and
northern rivers, for 51/2 to 7 months. Many of the smaller
streams and shallow lakes, and even large rivers in the
far north freeze to the bottom. Average seasonal dura-
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Confidential RESOURCES AND TRADE
tion of ice cover on streams and lakes is shown on FIGURE
IX-53.
Water-bearing rock formations are widely distributed,
although in many places they are only partly developed
by wells. In large sections of the country, moderate to
abundant supplies of good water can be obtained at depths
ranging from 20 to a few hundred feet. In some areas,
however, little or no ground water is obtainable.
All the larger cities obtain their supplies from nearby
rivers or lakes and have modern purification plants and
distribution systems. In some places, wells or springs
are used as auxiliary sources. In the smaller towns, wells
and springs are more commonly used for part or all of the
municipal supply. Many small towns, however, have in-
adequate municipal water systems, and some have none.
As a rule, people living in suburban districts outside the
areas served by the distribution system use private wells.
A tabulation of the sources and other features of the water
supply systems of the principal cities is given in Chapter
VIII, 81.
For village and farm supplies, wells, springs, and ponds
are the most important sources; streams and lakes gener-
ally are used on a small scale. Surface water is important
in some regions, however, where ground water is scanty or
very deep.
Where other sources are deficient, small ponds created
by earthen dams are used to store flood runoff. Although
whole villages may depend on such a source, the water
almost invariably is polluted. Wells are particularly nu-
merous where aquifers are near the surface. The great
majority of wells are dug rather than drilled. Most of
them are less than 50 feet deep, have low yield, and are
commonly badly polluted because of insanitary location
and construction. Drilled wells are much less numerous,
and are totally absent in large areas of the far north and
east; they are most numerous in the more densely settled
areas and in the semiarid south. Springs are preferred
sources wherever they are available, as they are less liable
to become polluted than wells or surface water; the ma-
jority, however, yield only a few gallons per minute.
B. Surface water
On the basis of abundance and regimen of surface-
water sources, European USSR can be divided into six
regions, or zones. Surface water is very abundant in the
northwest, but decreases southeastward, the extreme
southeast being semidesert (FIGURE IX-53).
(1) Lake region
The northwestern part of the country, adjacent to the
Baltic Sea and Finland, is especially well supplied with
dependable surface-water resources. Lakes of all sizes
are very numerous and are connected by a close network
of streams, nearly all of which are perennial and have
much greater constancy of flow than those in other parts
of the USSR. Water levels are highest in streams and
lakes during the spring thaw, but few streams have severe
floods, in contrast to the lake-poor humid region that
adjoins on the east and south. The lakes act as regu-
lators of stream flow by absorbing flood flows so that
flood crests are greatly reduced, and gradually letting out
the water so that flow is sustained over periods of low
precipitation. In many parts of the region, lakes occupy
201/, to more than 50'X of the land area. Lakes are some-
what less numerous in an area near the Baltic Sea south of
Lake Ladoga.
(2) Humid region
The region east and southeast of the lake region also
has a humid climate and a close net of perennial streams.
Original
Page IX-27
Lakes, however, are neither numerous nor large; most of
them are mere ponds on the marshy lowlands of a few
main rivers, and they have little regulating effect on
stream flow. All the streams are in flood, commonly
bank-full or overflowing, during the spring thaw, which
occurs in late March or early April in the south, and as
late as June in the extreme northeast. On several of the
northern rivers, such as the Pechora, Mezen', and Kara,
the spring floods are especially severe because of ice jams.
The period of lowest stream flow is in late summer but
only a few of the smallest streams go dry.
(3) Poles'ye (Pripet Marshes)
In west-central European USSR are extensive marshes,
threaded with many sluggish streams and a few small
lakes. Most of the region is flooded during the spring
thaw in March. The water gradually drains away during
the summer, and in late summer and fall many of the
marshes become dry. Organic contamination from swamp
vegetation and peaty deposits gives much of the water
such a foul stench and taste that it is unfit for most uses.
This contamination is worst during the low-water period
in late summer.
(4) Transition zone
This region has a somewhat drier climate than the
northern regions, and the summer dry season is more
pronounced; the climate becomes drier from north to
south within the zone. Most of the streams are peren-
nial, but some of the smaller ones go dry during late sum-
mer and autumn. The proportion of perennial streams
decreases southward; near the northern margin of the
zone they are rarely more than 3 miles apart, but near the
southern margin they are commonly 5 miles or more
apart. Floods at the time of the spring thaw, in March
or April, are somewhat less severe than in the humid
northern regions, but commonly cause extensive inunda-
tion of the valley lowlands.
(5) Semiarid region
In the southernmost part of the country, the precipita-
tion generally is less than 20 inches a year, and the rain-
fall is so scanty in summer and fall that the majority of
streams go dry. Perennial streams are generally 5 to
10 miles apart near the northern margin of the zone,
and decrease to as much as 20 miles apart near the south-
ern margin. The high-water period is at the time of the
spring thaw, in March or April, but floods are much less
severe than in the northern regions, except on a few main
rivers that head farther north. August and September
are the months of most severe drought.
(6) Semideserts
Three relatively small areas in the extreme south are
so dry that they are totally devoid of perennial streams.
A few of the main drainage channels, heading in border-
ing highlands, flow during the spring months, but the
rest of them flow only for brief periods after the infrequent
heavy rains. The areas have a few permanent lakes, but
all are saline. In parts of the lower Volga region, tempo-
rary ponds of fresh or brackish water collect in depressions
after rains.
C. Ground water
Sources of ground water in European USSR may be
divided into two main types: 1) the unconsolidated sur-
ficial sediments, which are the most easily accessible, and
which in part contain the most productive aquifers; and
2) the bedrock formations (including poorly consolidated
sediments of great thickness), less accessible than the
surficial deposits, and extremely variable in yield and
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JANIS 40 Confidential
chemical quality of ground water. The distribution of
the water-bearing surficial sediments (non-water-bearing
surficial sediments excluded) is shown on FIGURE IX-54;
bedrock, both water-bearing and non-water-bearing, is
shown in FIGURE IX-55.
Permafrost and salinity are two important factors in-
fluencing ground-water supply that are not entirely related
to differences in rock types. In the far north, the ground
is permanently frozen to great depth, thawing only at the
surface in summer; in this region, much of which con-
tains abundant ground water in thick sediments, special
precautions must be taken in the construction and opera-
tion of wells. Areas of salty or brackish ground water,
some quite extensive, are scattered over much of European
USSR (FIGURE IX-7). Most of the salinity, especially in
the north, is caused by salt deposits in the bedrock. In
the southern and regions, climate and proximity to the
Black and Caspian Seas also contribute to the salinity of
ground water. In the semidesert areas (FIGURE IX-53),
the ground water typically contains 5,000 to 30,000 parts
per million of chlorine; small amounts of fairly fresh
water, however, can be obtained locally, especially in areas
of dune sands, where at shallow depth a thin layer of
fresher water floats on the salty water.
(7) Surficial sediments
The most accessible, and in places the most productive,
aquifers are contained in the shallow deposits of uncon-
solidated sediments that partly or completely mantle the
bedrock in most parts of the country. The principal
source of ground water at shallow depth is the sandy or
gravelly alluvium of the river lowlands (Map Unit 1, FIG-
URE IX-54). This is the most easily utilized of all the
water-bearing deposits. Most of the rivers flow in wide,
flat-bottomed valleys underlain by unconsolidated alluvi-
um 10 to 100 feet thick, consisting of sand and gravel
irregularly interstratifled with silt and clay. In most
places, these deposits contain good water-bearing sands
or gravels within 50 feet, in places within 20 feet, of the
surface. Locally, however, they are mainly clay, and the
finding of good aquifers may require considerable ex-
ploratory test drilling.
Of the surficial deposits that mantle the bedrock out-
side the river lowlands, not all are water bearing. A large
part, mostly silt and clay or, in the northern part of the
country, boulder clay, yield little or no water. In places,
however, these deposits contain water-bearing beds of
clean sand or gravel; these water-bearing sediments are
indicated as Map Unit 2 in FIGURE IX-54. Where these
sandy or gravelly deposits are thin and deeply dissected by
closely spaced stream valleys they yield little water, but
where they are thick and only partly dissected by valleys
they are important water bearers. Commonly the depth
to water is somewhat greater than in the river alluvium.
(2) Bedrock
Large parts of European USSR are underlain by sedi-
mentary bedrock formations that contain fair to good
aquifers at depths between 100 and several hundred feet
(Map Unit 2, FIGURE IX-55). In a few regions, however,
the bedrock is mainly non-water-bearing or contains only
salty water (Map Units 3 and 4), and the only source
for ground water is in the overlying surficial deposits.
In some other areas, the bedrock is so deeply buried be-
neath poorly consolidated sediments (Map Unit 1, FIGURE
IX-55) that it is not important as a source of ground
water.
The thick, poorly consolidated sediments that deeply
bury the bedrock (Map Unit 1, FIGURE IX-55) are mostly
favorable for the development of large ground-water sup-
plies. Such deposits are commonly several hundred to
several thousand feet thick, and are thus distinguished
from the relatively thin surficial sediments that mantle
most of the country. The thick sediments are mostly
mixtures of clay and sand, containing irregularly distrib-
uted aquifers. Many of the deeper aquifers are artesian.
The sedimentary rocks (Map Units 2 and 3) mostly
form great structural basins, with thick, nearly horizontal
or very gently inclined strata of interbedded shales, lime-
stones, and sandstones. The water-bearing beds are mostly
limestone, and in places sandstone. Commonly they
are interbedded with large thicknesses of shale, or
dense sandstone or limestone, that yield little or no water.
Many of the water-bearing beds are very extensive, some
persisting for hundreds of miles. They outcrop in bands
roughly parallel to the edges of the basins, and along their
exposures water may be obtained from shallow wells.
Where they dip beneath impervious strata they can be
tapped by deep drilling. In some areas, however, the
aquifers are so deeply buried beneath non-water-bearing
beds (Map Unit 3) as to be beyond the reach of ordinary
deep drilling. Much of the deep ground water is under
artesian pressure and in places deep wells flow at the
surface. However, the deep ground water commonly is
strongly saline and extremely hard. Generally at depths
below 2,000 feet the ground water is so mineralized as to
be undrinkable. In some areas, nearly all ground water
in bedrock is highly mineralized (FIGURE IX-7). This is
true for areas where rocks of Permian age lie near the sur-
face.
In the crystalline rocks (Map Unit 4), mainly granite,
schist, and gneiss, ground water is present only in small
amounts, in fissures and in the zone of weathered (rotten)
rock. Only rarely can supplies for large towns be ob-
tained from wells, and then only by drilling large numbers
of wells.
Data on yields of wells in some of the representative
ground-water areas of European USSR are given in FIGURE
IX-8, and the areas are outlined. The percentage figures
are only approximate, being based on insufficient data re-
quiring much interpretation.
94. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
A. General
European USSR has an abundance of raw materials
suitable for construction purposes. Timber, widely used
both as construction material and fuel, is found in belts
crossing the central and northern part of the region,
although little or none is available on the steppes in the
south, or on the tundra in the far north. Sand and gravel
are widely distributed as surficial deposits. Building
stone, crushed rock, and cement materials are available
in almost every part of the area.
Before World War II, USSR (including both European
and Asiatic) had been foremost in the world's timber re-
sources. Up to 1940, USSR ranked among the first ten
nations in world production of hydraulic cements. It is
difficult to determine the percentage of these materials
actually produced by European USSR as distinguished
from Asiatic USSR. The accelerated building program of
the five-year plans prior to World War II created a short-
age in materials that was due not to lack of raw materials
but to lack of equipment and facilities (such as transpor-
tation) for obtaining the materials. This situation is
probably aggravated today by the great losses of equipment
during the war.
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 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
FIGURE IX-7
SALINE GROUND WATER
JANIS 40
CONFIDENTIAL
EUROPEAN USSR: AREAS OF SAL
INE GROUND
WATER
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
50 55
60 65 70 7
5
A
KA RA 5 0
fA
p Y o-Ati B A R E N T
S S E A
Oh,
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S
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.........................
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i
e
GROUND WATER
VARIABLE IN QUALITY;
;
e i
9
??
SOME AQUIFERS SALINE
.,~ alto
CASPIAN
SEA
Statistical data prepared by the Military
Geology Section, U. S. Geological Survey,
BULGARIA B
L A C K
Department of Interior
SEA
~
e ?
L
)1
BOUNDARIES
_
USSR
-?- International (1937)
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1'Q T
NWA JANIS study
40
U
NWFE Th. b.,dxw. d- w ehh ,..p cb mt mmrnyy d
.,
40
0 100 200 300
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CASPIAN SEA
' CONFIDENTIAL
1 R A N
IRAN
30 35 40
45
50 55
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 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
YIELDS FROM BEDROCK AQUIFERS IN SEVERAL REPRESENTATIVE GROUND-WATER AREAS
Percentage of wells with capacities of the following orders
2. Eastern Black Sea
Coast
3. Southern Dnepr-
Donets Basin
4. Northern Dnepr-
Donets Basin
5. Moscow Basin
Granite, gneiss, schist,
and allied rocks
Tertiary sandstone and
limestone aquifers
Cretaceous limestone
aquifers
Devonian sandstone
aquifers
Mainly Carboniferous
limestone aquifers
5,000 (very g.p.m. g p high) 500 g.p.
(
50 g.
(medium
high)
5 g
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14
45
29
12
57
29
14
11
78
6
5
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FIGURE IX-8
WELL YIELDS
JANIS 40
CONFIDENTIAL
j
BALTIC GULF OF FINLAND
SEA %
WNI TE
SEA
.Orel' J 'Penza
. Tambov
B A R E N T S S E A
Statistical data prepared by the Military
Geology Section, U. S. Geological Survey,
Department of Interior
BOUNDARIES
USSR
-?- International (1937)
REPRESENTATIVE GROUND
WATER AREA
NOTE: SEE MAP APRON FOR
EXPLANATION OF AREAS
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RESOURCES AND TRADE
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CONFIDENTIAL
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,x.o.xx.a
a ~? 54
 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
DESCRIPTION OF BEDROCK
Map Unit 1. WATER-BEARING POORLY CONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS.
Deposits of poorly consolidated sediments distinguished from the thin surficial sedi-
ments (shown in map of ground water from surficial sediments) by their great thick-
ness, 100 to several thousand feet. Fair to excellent water-bearing sands and gravels
generally are present; these are lens-shaped and discontinuous, interbedded with much
non-water-bearing clay and silt, and are very variable in distribution and depth. Water
commonly is hard, otherwise of good chemical quality in most areas. Along seacoasts,
however, and in parts of Crimea and lower Don-Volga regions, much or all ground
water is intensely saline. Few wells in the very saline and far northern areas; elsewhere
wells are numerous, shallow, and have small to large yield. Springs are rare except in
hilly areas.
Map Unit 2. WATER-BEARING SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.
Interbedded hard shale, limestone, and sandstone. Generally fair to good aquifers are
within 1,000 feet of surface, commonly between 100 and several hundred feet. Most
aquifers are limestone, yield is small to large, ranging greatly within short distances;
some sandstones give small to moderate yields. Deeper aquifers are commonly artesian,
and in many areas wells of sufficient depth will flow at the surface. Strata are rela-
tively persistent and in most places nearly horizontal. Water generally is hard, and in
some districts some aquifers are saline. Numerous wells south of latitude 60? north
have yields of a few to several hundred gallons per minute at depths ranging from 100
to more than 2,000 feet. Springs are common in many districts, but few yield more
than 50 gallons per minute.
Map Unit 3. NON-WATER-BEARING SEDIMENTARY ROCKS.
Hard, generally impermeable sediments composed mainly of shale and dense sandstone
and limestone to a depth of 1,000 feet or more, commonly underlain by water-bearing
sediments at great depth. Wells are very few; practically all are deep drilled wells.
Springs are rare and very small.
Map Unit 4. NON-WATER-BEARING CRYSTALLINE ROCKS.
Granite or schist, generally impermeable except along occasional fissures, which locally
may yield small supplies. In northwest, numerous patches of sandy or gravelly surficial
deposits, too small to be shown on map, will yield small supplies. In south, small
yields can be obtained locally from top weathered zone, which generally is confined to
uppermost 50 to 100 feet. In certain districts in the south, crystalline rocks crop out
only in valleys, and in the intervening uplands they are covered by soft sandstone and
gravel with several water-bearing zones; the lowest zone is continuous with the weath-
ered zone in the granite. Wells are very few, except locally in overlying water-bearing
sediments. Springs are rare in north, fairly common in many parts of south, but
mostly small.
Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A0002000106U.TRE IX-55
WATER RESOURCES : GROUND WATER FROM BEDROCK
JANIS 40
22' 26 30` 34' 39 42 46 50 54" 58' 62? 66 70" 74`
U --
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. r~ itdORE (KARA
EUROPEAN USSR 70 1
B A ENT S EI
WATER RESOURCES: 0
GROUND WATER
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See map apron for description of map units.
a~ ~~ ap
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 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A00020('4OIX-57
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS: SAND, GRAVEL, AND BOULDERS
JANIS 40
 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
' SCALE
50 100 300 MILES
RELIABILITY OF QUARRY DATA
10
Fair to good ? Poor
Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0
 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010RE IX-58
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JANIS 40
CONFIDENTIAL
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 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0 FIGURE IX-64
MACHINE BUILDING INDUSTRY
JANIS 40
22 26 30 34' 38, 42 46` 50' 54' 58' 62' 66- 70? 74?
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 Approved For Release 2003/05/14: CIA-RDP79-01144A000200010009-0 FIGURE IX-65
PETROLEUM AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES
JANIS 40
,mbiorliki
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