LABOR PRODUCTIVITY IN SOVIET AGRICULTURE 1938, 1951, AND 1953

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP79-01093A001000020002-4
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 92
• Document Creation Date: November 9, 2016
• Document Release Date: July 6, 1999
• Sequence Number: 2
• Publication Date: October 17, 1955
• Content Type: IR

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PROVISIONAL INTELLIGENCE REPORT
LABOR PRODUCTIVITY
IN SOVIET AGRICULTURE
1938, 1951, AND 1953
CIA/RR PR-124
17 October 1955
d b-16-?f
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND REPORTS
120
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WARNING
This material contains information affecting
the National Defense of the United States
within the meaning of the espionage laws,
Title 18, USC, Sees. 793 and 794, the trans-
mission or revelation of which in any manner
to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
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PROVISIONAL INTELLIGENCE REPORT
LABOR PRODUCTIVITY IN SOVIET AGRICULTURE
1938, 1951, AND 1953
CIA/RR PR-121+
(ORR Project 1+5.587)
The data and conclusions contained in this report
do not necessarily represent the final position of
ORR and should be regarded as provisional only and
subject to revision. Comments and data which may
be available to the user are solicited.
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
Office of Research and Reports
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FOREWORD
This report examines changes in the productivity of labor in Soviet
agriculture from 1938 to 1951 and 1953. It is dependent on a preced-
ing report, CIA/RR 39, Agricultural Labor in the USSR, 31 August 1954,
SECRET, which provided the man-day inputs expended on the various
agricultural enterprises which were used in the present report. In
field husbandry these enterprises consisted of grains, fruits and
vegetables (including potatoes), technical crops (oil-bearing, sugar
beets, and the like), and feed crops (including meadow hay and pasture
as well as silage and feed roots). In animal husbandry these enter-
prises consisted of dairy cows and beef cattle, swine, sheep and goats,
poultry, and horses.
CIA/RR 39 also included inputs of labor for administration, cul-
tural services, construction, and other types of farm work not
directly assignable to field and animal husbandry enterprises. The
labor inputs on these types of work comprised about 17 percent of
total labor inputs in agriculture. These inputs were not included
in the calculation of labor productivity in the present report. It
is possible, therefore, that the absolute levels of labor produc-
tivity may be higher than would be the case.if the omitted labor
inputs could be assigned. The procedure used, however, is standard
practice -- that is, to relate production only to that labor which
is engaged in direct production work.
It is important to note that this report 'on labor productivity
is subject to the same weaknesses which are inherent in CIA/RR 39.
These weaknesses stem primarily from the methodological procedure of
holding certain rates of labor inputs constant from 1938 to 1951.
These rates apply to two varieties of operations, mechanized and
nonmechanized, and were used to measure labor savings resulting from
increases in the mechanization of various types of agricultural work,
such as plowing, seeding, and harvesting. The methodology assumes
that no change in efficiency had occurred between 1938 and 1951 in
Soviet agriculture in these two types of operations.
The estimates for the 1953 agricultural season, covered in-this
report, also are dependent on the 1938 mechanized and nonmechanized
rates,, but the procedure used for 1953 differs from the procedure
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adopted for calculating labor inputs for 1951 in that the average labor
inputs applying in 1951 were used to derive total inputs for 1953?
Although it may be legitimate to question the validity of the
methodology of CIA/RR 39, analysis of available postwar Soviet studies
bearing on labor inputs would in fact seem to support the thesis that
little improvement in the efficiency of either mechanized or nonmech-
anized operations had occurred. Analysis of labor force data also
indicates that it is doubtful that efficiency between 1951 and 1953
in these operations had reduced the number of workers required in
agriculture by more than 300,000 workers by 1953, as suggested in
CIA/RR 39.
In this report, labor productivity is measured by relating phys-
ical volume of output in the major agricultural enterprises to labor
inputs in man-days expended in these enterprises. Indexes of labor
productivity (1938 = 100) are constructed to measure changes from
1938 to 1951 and 1953. This report does not attempt to weight produc-
tion with price values or labor inputs with wages.
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CONTENTS
Page
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
II. Changes in the Production and Use of Crops, 1938 to 1951 5
A. Grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
B. Other Agricultural Commodities . . . . . . . . . . 10
III. Changes in Labor Inputs in Total Agriculture,
1938 to 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
A. Field Husbandry Enterprises . . . . . . . . . . . 15
B. Animal Husbandry Enterprises . . . . . . . . . 17
IV. Changes in Labor Productivity in Agriculture,
1938 to 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
A. Measures Used for Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
B. Changes in Labor Productivity in Animal Husbandry,
1938 to 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 21
1. Output of Animal Husbandry Enterprises . . . . . . 21
2. Labor Productivity
in Animal Husbandry Enterprises . . . . . . . . . 26
C. Changes in Labor Productivity in Field Husbandry,
1938 to 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1. Non.feed Output of Field Husbandry Enterprises . . . 27
2. Labor Productivity in Field Husbandry Enterprises . 28
D. Analysis of Changes in Labor Productivity in Agriculture,
1938 to 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
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Page
1. Labor Productivity per Enterprise Group . . . . . . 31
2. Evaluation of Soviet Indexes of Agricultural Labor
Productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
V. Changes in Labor Productivity in Agriculture,
1951 to 1953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
A. Output per Agricultural Enterprise Group . . . . . . . 41
B. Labor Productivity per Agricultural Enterprise Group . 42
VI. Vulnerabilities, Capabilities, and Intentions . . . . . . . 43
A. Vulnerabilities and Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . 43
B. Intentions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Appendixes
Appendix A. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Appendix B. Gaps in Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Appendix C. Source References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
1. Comparison of the Uses of Soviet Crop Production, 1938 (Postwar
Boundaries) and 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2. Comparison of the Use of Man-Days Expended in Soviet Field
Husbandry, 1938 (Postwar Boundaries) and 1951 . . . . 13
3. Distribution of Man-Days Expended in Soviet Animal Husbandry,
Including Man-Day Inputs on Feed Production, by Type of
Animal, 1938 (Postwar Boundaries) and 1951 . . . . . . 18
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Page
4. Production, Man-Days Expended, and Production per Man-Day
in Soviet Animal Husbandry, 1938 (Postwar Boundaries)
and 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5. Yields and Labor Productivity in Soviet Animal Husbandry,
1938 (Postwar Boundaries) and 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6. Production for Nonfeed Uses, Man-Days Expended,
and Production per Man-Day in Soviet Field Husbandry,
by Crops Produced for Nonfeed Uses, 1938 (Postwar
Boundaries) and 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7. Yields and Labor Productivity of Field Crops for Nonfeed Uses
in Soviet Field Husbandry, 1938 (Postwar Boundaries)
and 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . 30
t
8. Comparison of Labor Inputs, Actual and Required (at 1938 Work
Capacity), in Soviet Agriculture, by Type of Production,
1951. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
9. Indexes of Production in Soviet Agriculture, by Enterprise
Sector, 1951 and 1953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
10. Indexes of Labor Inputs and Labor Productivity in Soviet
Agriculture, 1951 and 1953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
11. Feeding Rates in Soviet Animal Husbandry, by Type of Feed,
1938 (Postwar Boundaries), 1951, and 1953 . . . . . . . . 56
12. Distribution of Feed Allocated to Soviet Livestock,
by Type of Livestock, 1938 (Postwar Boundaries), 1951,
and 1953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
13. Distribution of Sown Hectares in Soviet Field Husbandry,
by Crop, 1938 (Postwar Boundaries), 1951, and 1953 . . . . 66
14. Output per Man-Day of Soviet Agricultural Production,
by Productive Enterprise, 1938 (Postwar Boundaries),
1951, and 1953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
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CIA/RR PR-124
(ORR Project 45.587)
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LABOR PRODUCTIVITY IN SOVIET AGRICULTURE*
193 1951, AND 1953
Summary
At the end of 1953, labor productivity in Soviet agriculture was
still below the level achieved in 1938. In 1951 the index of labor
productivity was only 94 percent of the 1938 level. By 1953 the
index had risen to 96. These findings would seem to cast doubt on
the credibility of Soviet claims that the productivity of agricul-
tural labor in 1951 and 1953 was considerably above the levels
achieved in 1937 and 1940.
It is estimated that in 1951 almost 7.9 billion man-days were
expended in field and animal husbandry production. At 1938 rates
of labor productivity, however, 1951 production would have required
only 7.4 billion man-days. The excess use of about 500 million
man-days spent in 1951 is equivalent to the nonproductive employ-
ment of 2.8 million extra workers for 1951 agricultural production.
Although declines in yields and in production were generally
prevalent in both field and animal husbandry from 1938 to 1953,
associated declines in labor productivity apparently occurred
principally in animal husbandry Indexes of labor productivity
for 1951 in field husbandry among the 3 major crop groups (fruits and
vegetables, grains, and technical crops) ranged from 99 percent (fruits
and vegetables ) to 103 percent (technical crops) of the 1938 levels. In
1953 these indexes ranged from 96 percent (fruits and vegetables)
to'107 percent (technical crops).
In animal husbandry the indexes of labor productivity for 1951
for all livestock enterprises except poultry were below the 1938
levels, as follows: cattle (dairy and meat products), 85 percent;
horses, 88 percent; sheep and goats, 89 percent; and swine, 95 per-
* The estimates and conclusions contained in this report represent
the best judgment of ORR as of 1 September 1955.
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cent. By 1953 the indexes for swine, poultry, and sheep and goats
had risen to 1938 levels of labor productivity. In cattle enter-
prises, however, labor was still only 87 percent as productive in
1953 as in 1938; and in horse enterprises, only about 88 percent.
The index of labor productivity for 1951 in animal husbandry as a
whole was about 89 percent of the 1938 level; the 1953 index, about
92 percent. Thus about 4.6 billion man-days were spent in animal
husbandry in 1951. Only 4.1 billion man-days, however, would have
been necessary at 1938 rates of labor productivity. The subsector
which most heavily depressed the general level of labor productivity
in animal husbandry was that of cattle (dairy and meat products).
In this subsector the excess of labor inputs totaled about 378 million
man-days. This excess utilization would be the equivalent of the
nonproductive employment of about 2,250,000 extra workers in cattle
enterprises.
Soviet capabilities for improving labor productivity in agri-
culture depend partly on the degree to which Soviet management can
increase mechanization of work operations in field and animal hus-
bandry. Many, if not most, farming operations remain nonmechanized.
Even within the relatively advanced sectors of grain farming, many
operations are still done by labor-consuming "horse and hand" methods.
In field husbandry, increased numbers of machines should speed up
seeding and harvest operations, thus reducing losses and increasing
yields (in the barn). At present, however, increased mechanization
appears associated with declining yields for about half the crops.
Improvement in labor productivity in animal husbandry may depend
on whether or not Soviet management can increase the production of
feed grains and succulent fodder (especially potatoes) at a rate
faster than the increase in the number of livestock. It appears
that feeding rates are below the levels prevailing in 1938. Large
increases in electrification and the resulting mechanization of
fodder preparation, water supply, and other operations in animal
husbandry would undoubtedly serve to red-ace the excessive labor
inputs currently required for the care and maintenance of animals.
Recent steps in the reclamation of virgin and fallow land will
undoubtedly increase total grain production in the long run. Al-
though it is expected that long-run average yields in these areas
will fall below the level prevailing in spring grain areas of the
older agricultural regions, there may, nevertheless, be large
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increases in labor productivity in these areas (as compared with rates
in older areas) because of the almost total mechanization of operations
practiced in the new areas. Animal husbandry output may conceivably
increase per unit of labor input because of increases in the total
output of feed grain and reduced requirements for labor in the produc-
tion of feed grain.
It is clear that Soviet agricultural production has not improved
much since 1938. The USSR is far from achieving its double goal of
saving labor and of increasing yields. Timeliness of operations has
been improved, but not by great amounts. Soviet agriculture is still
undermachined. Moreover, the situation in animal husbandry has
deteriorated considerably compared with 1938. The significance of
the failure of Soviet agriculture to expand appreciably since 1938
becomes obvious in light of the fact that at the present time the
Soviet population is growing at the rate of over 3 million persons
per year, and the total population on 1 January 1954 was at least
20 million people above the 1938 level.
This report deals with changes in the productivity of agricul-
tural labor in the USSR from 1938* to 1951. Trends from 1951 to
1953 are also discussed. Attention is focused on changes in the
relation between man-day labor inputs and production in field and
animal husbandry.**
This focus should not convey the impression, of course, that
labor is the only significant element in agricultural production.
* All references in this report to Soviet agriculture in 1938 are
in terms of postwar boundaries unless otherwise specifically noted.
** Certain labor inputs in agriculture were not included in this
analysis. These were man-days expended in farm administration,
maintenance, slack-season and communal activities, and other simi-
lar work. They constituted 16.7 percent of total inputs in 1938
and 17.3 percent in 1951. / (For serially numbered source refer-
ences, see Appendix C.) The comparable percentage in US agricul-
ture is about 15 percent. /
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Other influential factors are (1) land,* (2) climate and weather con-
ditions, (3) availability and use of machinery, (4) managerial skill
and efficiency, and (5) incentives and morale of the workers.
The major purpose of this report is to establish an analytical
basis for evaluating Soviet statements of intentions and progress in
achieving higher productivity in agriculture.** Heretofore it has
not been possible to evaluate Soviet statements because, while
including indexes presumably pertaining to labor productivity in
agriculture, they fail to specify the methods and data used in their
construction. J
The basic data in this report are analyzed in four steps. Section
II is a study of changes in crop production from 1938 to 1951 and
includes the allocation of crops to feed and nonfeed uses. This
allocation is made because labor expended on crop production that is
fed to animals should properly be assigned as inputs expended on the
production of animal products.xxx Section III discusses, therefore,
the distribution of the labor expended for feed and nonfeed uses
for each crop and the, allocation of these labor inputs on feeds among
the various livestock enterprises. Sections IV and V consist, respec-
* A study of the relation between land and production is a study
of yields. Investigation of grain yields in the US (not including
corn yields) would suggest that yields for many crops are fairly
constant over a long span of years.
** The assumption that labor productivity in Soviet agriculture
must improve with increased mechanization does not necessarily
follow in fact. This assumption is based on the logic that less
labor is required for the same amount of production after machinery
has been introduced. The flaw in this theory is that yields do not
necessarily rise with increased use of machines. They may actually
decline.
*** The allocation of labor inputs in this report is subject to
error. In the first place, error stems from the fact that some of
the feed used for 1 year's livestock production was produced in the
previous year. In the second place, the increase in the total live-
stock herd may be larger in one year than it was in the previous year.
Labor inputs on feed used currently might more properly have been
derived from feed production in the preceding year. In the same way,
inputs on animal husbandry production for livestock such as cows and
horses, which take longer to mature than poultry or swine, might more
correctly have been derived from feed production produced for in-
creases in herds several years back. In any event, the error involved
would not be great.
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tively, of an analysis of changes in labor productivity in field and
animal husbandry from 1938 to 1951 by crop and livestock enterprise*
and of an analysis of changes in labor productivity by broad aggre-
gates of enterprises from 1951 to 1953.
II. Changes in the Production and Use of Crops, 1938 to 1951.
Data on production per crop and its use for feed and nonfeed pur-
poses are included in Table 1.** The table shows that the production
of most crops declined from 1938 to 1951. Declines in the production
of certain crops can be accounted for by declines in the number of
hectares planted to these crops. More important, however, were signifi-
cant declines in yields for 14 out of the 20 crops whose production is
used primarily for nonfeed purposes.*** Poor weather conditions were
not apparently the principal cause of the declines for most crops.****
The production years 1938 and 1951 are taken as average agricultural
years which are reasonably comparable for purposes of comparing the
growth of most crops. J
A. Grains.
The downward trend in production which was characteristic of
most crops between 1938 and 1951 applied as well to grains. Total
grain production fell from 940 million centners***** it 1938 to about
820 million in 1951, or about 13 percent. Since the decline in the
number of grain hectares was only 7 percent,. yields must also have
* Included in this step is the analysis of animal husbandry produc-
tion.
** Table 1 follows on p. 7.
*** See pp. 7 and 8, below.
XXXX Lower yields in 1951 may have been caused principally by lower
efficiency in management and by an apathetic response on the part of
the peasants. Increased mechanization in itself could also have
caused reduced yields for certain crops.
***** One centner equals 220.4 pounds, 100 kilograms, or one-tenth
of 1 metric ton. Tonnages are given in metric tons throughout this
report.
. The number of hectares per crop for 1938, 1951, and 1953 is
shown in Table 13, p. 66, below.
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fallen during the same period. Although poor seasonal conditions de-
pressed yields of winter wheat, barley, and corn in the Ukraine in
1951, J the weather was not responsible for declines in yields fbr
other grain crops.
The decline in grain production, however, may be partly
statistical. The 1938 data for grain production are 5-year averages
(1935-39) and have an upward bias because of the high yields achieved
in 1937, which was an exceptionally good agricultural year. Increased
collectivization may also have lessened the "material interest"
(materialnaya zainteresovannost') of farmers in using good husbandry
practices for the kolkhozy collective farms) and for the sovkhozy
(state farms). _1 About 9.6 million private peasant farmers who were
not yet collectivized worked in the USSR in 1938. ?/ By 1951, however,
practically all such farmers in the USSR had been collectivized. 10
The general decline in grain production intensified the problem
of whether to use grains for direct human consumption or to feed them
to animals to obtain animal products. It would seem that two changes
occurred in the allocation of grains. First, relatively less grain
was used for feed in 1951 than in 1938, or 18 percent in 1951 compared
with 22 percent in 1938.* Second, great declines in the production
of the most important feed crops (oats and barley) caused reductions
in the proportional amounts of oats and barley used for feed. These
reductions were partially offset by compensating increases in the
proportional amounts of the better grains (wheat, corn, and other
grains) used for feed.
On the basis of these findings, it seems clear that the grain
situation in the USSR is not as bright as it was pictured at the XIX
Party Congress, when it was stated that the "grain problem is finally
and irrevocably solved."** ll
* As shown in Table 11, p. 56, below, grain feed rates per animal
in 1951 and 1953 are below rates in 1938.
** Continued on p. 10.
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Table 1
Comparison of the Uses of Soviet Crop Production
1938 (Postwar Boundaries) and 1951
(Continued)
a. Most of the production data in this table are estimated. L2/ The
footnotes explain estimates specifically provided by this report. Grain
production estimates for 1938 are 1935-39 averages.
b. The figures on the use of various crops for feed in 1938 are based
on feeding rates (kilograms per animal) prevalent in 1928. 13 Grain
feed rates for most animals in 1938 were above those of 19271-
92 , as were
also the roughage rates (for potatoes and fodder and forage). Live-
stock numbers and feed rates are given in Tables 11 and 12, pp. 56
and 61, respectively, below. (See also Appendix A, Problems 3 and
4.)
c. The figures on the use of various crops for feed in 1951 are
based on changes in livestock numbers and in the numbers of animals
in kolkhoz and sovkhoz herds, 14 and on changes in feed rates which
occurred between 1938 and 1951. On the whole, it was estimated that
feed rates for grain and feed rates for potatoes fell between 1938
and 1951 for most animals. Roughage rates (except for potatoes)
were held constant. (See also Appendix A, Problems 3 and 4.)
d. See Table 13, p. 66, below.
e. "Other grains" include millet, buckwheat, grain legumes (peas,
beans, and lentils), and similar crops.
f. Fruits.include orchard crops, grapes, berries, and such sub-
tropical crops as tea, citrus fruits, and aromatics. Derivation
of the production of fruit is given in Appendix A, Problem 1.
g. Cucurbits are field vegetables such as squash, pumpkins, cucumbers,
melons, and similar crops which may be grown on extensive land areas.
Like truck garden crops, however, they are grown primarily for human
consumption. (see Appendix A. Problem 2.)
h. "Other minor oils" include such crops as castor beans, camelina,
mustard, peanuts, and similar crops which are primarily used for
vegetable oil rroduction.
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Comparison of the Uses of Soviet Crop Production
1938 (Postwar Boundaries) and 1951
(Continued)
i. The best of the silage crops in the USSR are corn and sunflowers for
silage. It is customary practice, however, to use weeds and the waste
or refuse of other crops (especially technical crops) for silage. Pre-
war estimates of the amount of sugar-beet tops annually used for silage
range from 3.0 million to 3.5 million tons. Derivation of the production
of silage is explained in Appendix A, Problem 3.
j. The term feed roots is usually applied to vegetables of the root and
tuber varieties, such as beets (mangels), turnips, and similar crops.
Soviet data concerning feed root hectares probably are restricted to
these types. Production data, however, may also include succulent vege-
tables such as cabbage and pumpkins which, because of low quality,. have
been converted from food to feed use. (See Appendix A, Problem 3.)
k. Hay crops include sown grass and meadow hay. (See Appendix A,
Problem 4.)
1. Pasture production is estimated in terms of animal unit factors for
roughage-consuming livestock fed annually in North Dakota. 15 (See
Appendix A, Problem 4.)
B. Other Agricultural Commodities.
As shown in Table 1, fruits and vegetables (except potatoes)
and technical crops are not used for feed purposes* -- these are
nonfeed crops.
In general, production and acreage declined for fruits, vege-
tables, and cucurbits from 1938 to 1951.** Potato production espe-
cially deteriorated, because of reduced potato yields. Although
potato acreage probably increased by 5 percent, potato production fell
* This assertion must be qualified by the fact that Soviet farmers
use the wastes and byproducts of vegetable crops and technical crops,
particularly sugar-beet tops, as silage and succulent feed. 16
** Data for yields of fruits, vegetables (except potatoes), and
cucurbits were unavailable for postwar years. Yields for 1938 were
held constant.
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off by about 4 percent. The lower yield would seem to be caused by
increased collectivization of potato hectares, which may have lessened
the "material interest" of kolkhoznik5 (collective farmers) in effi-
cient potato husbandry for the kolkhozy. 17
The decline in the use of potatoes for feed was much greater
than that in total potato production (29 percent as compared with 5
percent). Because feed rates per animal were lower in 1951 than in
1938, more potatoes in 1951 were in fact being used for nonfeed pur-
poses than in 1938 (560,000 centners as-compared with 532,000 centners).
Apparently the increased use of potatoes for food was intended partially
to offset the declining availability of total grains for food.
Among the technical crops, declines in production were generally
prevalent from 1938 to 1951, although increases occurred for cotton and
minor oil crops. Despite the attempts to raise the production of tech-
nical crops by increased use of machinery,* the yields per hectare of
all these crops, except those of flax and minor oil crops, fell from
1938 to 1951.**
Fodder and forage crops are by definition feed crops and,
except for small amounts wasted, are fed to animals. The Soviet press
has long indicated that production of these crops continues to be
unsatisfactory. 19 Despite probable large increases in the areas
devoted to silage crops and feed roots, and stability in the area
devoted to pastures, production fell for all these crops. The declines
ranged from about 2 percent for pasture to about 13 percent for feed
roots.*** It would seem clear that yields must also have declined
for these crops.
* Machinery is being applied especially to the plowing of technical
crops, to the seeding of cotton, and to the seeding and harvesting of
sugar beets and sunflowers. 18
** See Table 7, p. 30, below.
*** In view of official data published in a January 1955 Soviet
Plenum report 20 to the effect that silage production in 1953 totaled
32 million tons, the estimate in Table 1 for 1951 may be low. On the
other hand, wastage may have increased.
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III. Changes in Labor Inputs in Total Agriculture, 1938 to 1951.
Data for the analysis of changes in the amount of labor expended
in field and animal husbandry are shown in Table 2* and Table 3.**
Table 2 distinguishes between labor inputs on crop production for
feed and for nonfeed purposes. The total man-days required in field
husbandry are derived from two figures in this table. The first
figure*** gives the man-days expended in the use of horse-and-hand
methods (principally by the kolkhozniki) and the man-days expended in
the use of machinery (principally by the Machine Tractor Stations --
MTS's). 21 The second figure gives the man-days required for the
care and maintenance of horses. These man-days are assigned as labor
input costs to the various crops**** inasmuch as the primary purpose
of horses in agriculture is to serve in crop operations.
Table 3 shows how labor inputs on feeds are distributed among
the various livestock enterprises. To these inputs are added the
labor inputs expended on the care and maintenance of animals (except
horses) to show total inputs per enterprise. The qualification
should be noted that the total labor inputs presented in Table 2
and Table 3 may be subject to error because the 1938 labor input
rates (man-days per hectare and per animal) taken from an earlier
CIA report,on agricultural labor in the USSR 22 were averages
of input rates established by an official Soviet source for 430
kolkhozy in 1937, sampled from 10 krays, oblasts, and republics of
the USSR. 23. These averages purported to be representative of
input rates for Soviet agriculture as a whole, although they may
have been inadequately weighted by regional differences. The
1938 rates are crucial because the 1951 rates are based on them.
Although the 1951 averages bear the influence of labor savings achieved
through increased mechanization since 1938, component rates of inputs
* Table 2 follows on p. 13.
** P. 18, below.
*** This figure includes the total inputs of all workers and types
of farm organizations in Soviet agriculture.
*XXX See Appendix A, Problem 8, for the method used to allocate
labor expended on the care and maintenance of horses to crop enter-
prises.
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Comparison of the Use of Man-Days Expended in Soviet Field Husbandry a/
1938 (Postwar Boundaries) and 1951
Man-Days
-
Man-Days
Required
Required
Man-Days in Horse-
for Main-
Total
Man-Days Required
Man-Days in Horse-
for Main-
Total
Man-Days Required
and-Hand Work and
tenance 9f
Man-Days
Man-Days Require
d for Production
and-Hand Work and
t-nanca 9f
Man-Days
Man-Days Required
for Production
Field Husbandry Mechanical Operations Horses b
Required
for Feed Production for Nonfeed Uses
Mechanical Operations
Horss b
Required
for Feed Production
for Nonfaed Uses
Winter wheat
222,057
22,720
244,777
5,006
239,771
220,623
14,370
234,993
6,161
228,832
Rye
366,439
37,262
403,701
7,706
395,995
383,934
25,513
409,447
7,114
402,333
Total winter grains
588,496
59,982,
648,478
12,712
635,766
604,557
39,883
644,440
13,235
631,165
Spring wheat
359,428
34,382
393,810
11,756
382,054
344,303
22,206
366,509
12,740
353,769
Barley
133,074
13,651
146,725
93,087
53,638
105,921
7,037
112,958
68,224
44,734
Oats
253,633
25,412
279,045
177,030
102,015
212,320
13,850
226,170
130,253
95,917
Corn
68,127
8,127
76,254
24,809
51,445
50,556
4,007
54,563
21,597
32,966
Rice
3,667
401
4,068
4,068
4,336
305
4,641
4,641
Other grains
180,391
19,116
199,507
31,737
167,770
108,356
7,387
115,743
20,525
95,218
Total spring grains
998,320
101,089
1,099,409
338,419
760,990
825,792
54,792
880,584
253,339
627,245
Total grains
1,586,816
161,071
1,747,887
351,131
1,396,756
1,430,349
94,675
1,525 24
266 614
1,258,410
Fruits
12,586
1,630
14,216
14,216
12,160
1,104
13,264
13,264
Potatoes
596,535
75,860
672,395
188,271
484,124
620,682
55,168
675,850
140,441
535,409
Vegetables
352,930
45,425
398,355
398,355
337,922
30,476
368,398
368,398
Cucurbits
113,740
14,611
128,351
128,351
108,823
9,794
118,617
118,617
Total fruits and
vegetables
1,075,791
137,526
1,213,317
188,271
1,025,046
1,079,587
96,542
1,176,129
140,441
1,035,688
Sugar beets
178,608
21,994
200,602
200,602
189,796
16,458
206,254
206,254
Tobacco
11,034
1,357
12,391
12,391
10,918
936
11,854
11,854
Oil-bearing crops
Cotton
298,883
37,951
336,834
336,834
363,412
32,032
395,444
395,444
Flax
213,051
26,798
239,849
239,849
179,597
15,790
195,387
195,387
Hemp
57,957
7,344
65,301
65,301
50,903
4,513
55,416
55,416
Sunflowers
53,695
5,472
59,167
59,167
61,720
4,305
66,025
66,025
Soya beans
20,787
2,636
23,423
23,423
20,306
1,788
22,094
22,034
Other (minor) crops
74,802
9,487
84,289
84,289
75,767
6,674
82,441
82,441
Total bil-bearing
719,175
89,688
80,8 863
808,863
751705
65,102
816,807
816,807
crops
Total technical crops
903,817
113,039
1,021,856
1,021,856
952,419
82,496
1,034,915
1,034,915
Silage crops
14,129
1,662
15,791
15,791
18,160
1,384
19,544
19,544
Feed roots
129,488
16,585
146,073
146,073
170,187
15,229
185,416
185,416
Hay crops
454,846
58,840
513,686
513,686
512,393
45,565
557,958
557,958
Pasture
348,W0
45,052
393,052
393,052
348,000
31,585
379,585
379,585
Total fodder and forage
946,463
122,139
1,068,602
1,068,602
1,048,740
93763
1,142,503
1,142,503
a. J?
Is. For the method employed to distribute these man-days by crops, see Appendix A, Problem 8.
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on both mechanized and nonmechanized operations were held constant
from 1938 to 1951. While criticism of the use of this method may be
valid, it is doubtful, on the basis of critical study of postwar
Soviet research in agricultural labor, that much increase in labor
efficiency on mechanized and nonmechanized work had actually occurred.
A. Field Husbandry Enterprises.
According to'data in Table 2, the amount of labor used in
field husbandry operations declined from about 5.1 billion man-days
in 1938 to less than 4.9 billion in 1951, or about 3.5 percent. This
small decline was caused principally by the decrease in inputs on
the maintenance and care of horses (assigned to field crops) from
about 534 million man-days in.1938 to about 367 million in 1951, or
about 31 percent.* Labor expenditures in the use of horse-and-hand
work as well as in mechanical operations on the whole remained
stationary at about 4.5 billion man-days in both 1938 and 1951.
Comparison of the following percentage distributions of the
labor inputs for the four major crop groupings shows that labor
inputs in Soviet agriculture were shifting slightly from grains to
other crops -- especially to technical crops and fodder and forage
crops. a
Percentage of Total Labor Inputs
Type of Crop
1938
1951
Grains
34.60
31.26
Fruits and vegetables
24.02
24.11
Technical crops
20.23
21.21
Fodder and forage
21.15
23.42
Total
100.00
100.00
* This decline is paralleled by a 31-percent decline in the
number of horses. See Table 11, p. 56, below.
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These shifts probably reflect (1) labor saved on grain crops
through increased mechanization, (2) increased emphasis on technical
crops to meet industrial and military requirements, and (3) the demands
of a growing population for animal products.*
Changes in labor inputs on certain crops account for most of
these shifts. The decline in inputs on grains may be assigned princi-
pally to spring grains (except for rice), which fell by about 20 per-
cent.
The increases in labor inputs on technical crops were mostly
for sugar beets, cotton, and sunflowers. These three crops in 1951.
were grown on about 65 percent of the total hectares devoted to
technical crops.** All categories of forage and fodder crops except
pasture received increases in inputs of labor from 1938 to 1951.
Labor inputs on the crop production used for feed constitute
about 32 percent of the total inputs on crops. In 1938 about 1.61
billion man-days out of the total 5.05 billion man-days expended
on crops were allocated to feed production, whereas in 1951 about 1.55
billion man-days out of the total 4.88 billion man-days were thus
expended.
The crops which assume the heaviest labor inputs for the
production of feed are the fodder and forage crops. These crops
required 1.07 billion man-days in 1938, or about 66 percent of the
1.61 billion man-days expended on total feed production. They re-
quired 1.14 billion man-days in 1951, or about 74 percent of the 1.55
billion man-days expended. As shown above, over 21.2 percent of the
total labor inputs on crop production in 1938 and 23.4 percent in
1951 were expended in the production of fodder and forage -- inputs
which must be assigned properly to livestock enterprises.
While labor inputs in feed production were being concentrated
increasingly on forage and fodder production, the proportion of labor
inputs in grain and potato production for feed to total labor inputs
* The population apparently increased from about 193 million at
the end of 1938 to about 207 million at the end of 1951. 25
** See Table 13, p. 66, below.
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on feed production declined from 1938 to 1951. Labor inputs for grains
fed declined from about 351 million man-days in 1938 -- about 22 per-
cent of the total labor in feed production -- to about 267 million
man-days, or about 17 percent of the total. Labor inputs for potatoes
fed declined from 188 million man-days in 1938 -- about 12 percent
of the total labor inputs in feed production -- to about. 140 million
in 1951, or about 9 percent of the total.
B. Animal Husbandry Enterprises.
The labor expended on the production of feed, shown in Table
2,* is transferred in Table 3** to animal husbandry. The method used
to transfer these inputs from crops to livestock enterprises is based
on estimated rates of feeding (kilograms per type of feed per animal)
applicable in 1938, 1951, and 1953.*** One-third of the total man-days
assigned to livestock for both 1938 and 1951 were expended on the
production of feed. These figures amounted to 1.6 billion man-days
expended on feed production out of the total 4.7 billion expended
on animal husbandry as a whole in 1938, and 1.55 billion out of the
total 4.56 billion in 1951. It seems clear that analyses of the
costs of animal husbandry in the USSR are incomplete without consid-
eration of the costs of production of feed for livestock.
Cattle enterprises (especially dairy husbandry) constitute
the most significant consumers of labor inputs as indicated in Table
3. These enterprises required over 60 percent of the total labor
inputs on maintenance and care in.both 1938 and 1951 (2.6 billion
man-days in 1938 and 2.5 billion in 1951). They also required about
half the inputs on roughage production in 1938 and over half in 1951.
P. 13, above.
Table 3 follows on p. 18.
The only available study on feed rates by a Soviet authority is
based on 1928 data. 26 The methods used in the application of
adjusted rates from 1928 to 1953 are given in Appendix A, Problems
3 and 4. In general, the rates are estimated as having fallen
somewhat from 1938 to 1951. Rates for 1953 are estimated to have
been fairly stable compared with 1951 except for potato feeding,
which had fallen 50 percent below the 1938 rates. 27/
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Distribution of Man-Days Expended in Soviet Animal Husbandry,
Including Man-Day Inputs on Feed Production, by Type of Animal
1938 (Postwar Boundaries) and 1951
For Feed Production J
For Feed Production J
For Care and
Total
For Care and
Total
Type of Animal
,
Maintenance J
Grains
Roughage
Total Feed
Man-Days
Maintenance J
Grains
Roughage
Total Feed
Man-Days
Cattle
Cows
1,225,440
47,889
400,177
448,066
1,673,506
1,111,672
37,623
431,425
469,048
1,580,720
Other cattle
683,760
20,564
207,904
228,468
912,228
693,000
17,936
228,780
246,716
939,716
Total cattle
1,909,200
68,453
608,081
676,534
2,585,734
1,804,672
55,559
660,205
715,764
2,520,436
Swine
Hogs /
332,717
87,694
143,468
231,162
563,879
253,739
58,009
114,363
172,372
426,111
Pigs J
155,366
22,020
31,365
53,385
208,751
118,496
14,352
24,806
39,158
157,654
Total swine
488,083
109,714
174,833
284,547
772,630
372,235
72,361
139,169
211,530
583,765
Sheep and goats
265,353
4,266
134,448
138,714
404,067
359,055
5,128
195,610
200,738
559,793
Poultry
421,000
42,699
23,525
66,224
487,224
477,730
49,740
26,825
76,565
554,295
Horses
125,999
315,986
441,985
441,985
83,826
261,135
344,961
344,961
t
i
l
l
T
083
636
3
131
351
256
873
1
608
004
1
4,691,640
3,013,692
266,614
1,282,944
1,549,558
4,563,250
a
ma
s
o
an
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
a. These data are derived from Tables 11 and 12, pp. 56 and 1, respectively, below. The derivations are explained in Appendix A, Problems 3, 4,
and 9.
b. L8/ .
c. Hogs are swine which are 4 months old or older; pigs are swine younger than 4 months.
d. See Table 2, p. 13, above, in which the labor inputs on the maintenance and care of horses are assigned to field crops.
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Cattle enterprises did not, however, lead in labor requirements
for grain fed. In this category, they ranked third below horses and
swine, and required only 21 percent of the labor inputs for grain fed
in 1938, and 24 percent in 1951. In 1951, horses were still the
principal consumers of grain and, therefore, of labor inputs on grain
fed, despite decreased estimated feeding rates* and decreased animal
numbers from 1938 to 1951.**
IV. Changes in Labor Productivity in Agriculture, 1938 to 1951.
The reallocation of labor inputs, achieved in Sections II and III,
above, now makes it possible to calculate the productivity of agricul-
tural labor in the USSR and to examine changes since 1938. Attention
is directed in this section to a comparison of labor productivity in
Soviet agriculture in 1938 with that in 1951. The discussion of
changes from 1951 through 1953 is to be found in Section V, below.
A. Measures Used for Analysis.
Two types of measure are used to show changes in labor produc-
tivity per crop and per livestock enterprise. The first of these is
the index of labor productivity for the current year (1951, with the
base year 1938 = 100). The second is the percentage of increase in
output (production) per man-day. These measures are opposite sides
of the same coin. For example, if the 1951 labor productivity index
for a given crop is 98 percent of the 1938 rate, the percentage
change in labor productivity would be minus 2 percent.
These measures are calculated on the same basis -- the rate
of output per man-day in 1951 in relation to the rate of output in
1938, by crop or livestock enterprise. Output is given in physical
volume -- usually kilograms.
* In this report, it is estimated that horses were being fed total
grains in 1938 at the 1928 rate, other animals above 1928 rates. In
1951, however, grain rates for horses were held'constant, while for
other animals except poultry they were reduced to 1928 rates. All
rates were held constant from 1951 to 1953 except those for poultry,
which were reduced to the 1928 level. See Appendix A, Problems 3
and 4.
** See Table 11, p. 56, below.
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The derivation of the index of labor productivity for a group
of enterprises -- for example, grain crops -- was achieved by the use
of labor weights for the individual enterprises. Three steps were
involved, as follows: the 1951 index of labor productivity for each
enterprise was multiplied by the 1951 labor inputs for each enter-
prise, the products were added, and the sum was then divided by the
1951 sum of labor inputs for all enterprises in the group involved.*
This procedure avoids the problem of attempting to add
together in one sum the total volume of physical production for all
enterprises in a group. 29 The index of labor productivity for a
group of enterprises merely expresses the percentage relation of
(1) the amount of labor expended for 1951 agricultural production
for that group to (2) the amount of labor which would have been
required for 1951 production at 1938 rates of output per man-day.**
The index of labor productivity for an enterprise group
can be used, within limits, to estimate an index of production, in.
physical volume. This is done by multiplying the index of labor
productivity for the aggregate of enterprises by the index of
man-day inputs for the same aggregate. This procedure follows
mathematically from the fact that an index of labor productivity is
theoretically the result of the division of the index of production
by the index of labor inputs.
It is well to emphasize at this point, however, that an
index of production calculated in this manner is an imperfect sub-
stitute for an index determined through the use of proper price
weights. The indexes of aggregate production for various enter-
prise groups, as calculated in this report, can be used only if
certain limiting assumptions are kept in mind, not the least of
which is that they make no pretense of approximating value indexes. 30
These assumptions are more fully discussed in Section V, below.
Because of these assumptions there has been no attempt to present
aggregate indexes of production for field husbandry, for animal
husbandry, or for total agriculture, as inclusive enterprise groups.
* This procedure assumes that labor inputs in 1951 constitute the
same proportion of total costs of production as in 1938 for each
enterprise in the group. Although the enterprises in a given group
may be regarded as fairly homogeneous in costs, changes in relative
costs may have occurred for some crops in the group.
** See Table 8, p. 32, below, and Appendix A, Problem 10.
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The methodology discussed above is referred to in Tables 4
and 5* for animal husbandry and Tables 6 and 7** for field husbandry.
B. Changes in Labor Productivity in Animal Husbandry,
193 to 1951.
Most of the pertinent data for a study of changes in labor
productivity in animal husbandry in the USSR, 1938 to 1951, are given
in Tables 4 and 5. Table 4 gives the data on changes in output per
man-day, while Table 5 gives the data on changes in yields per animal,
indexes of production, man-day inputs, and labor productivity.
1. Output of Animal Husbandry Enterprises.
The production situation in Soviet animal husbandry in
1951 contrasts unfavorably with that for 1938. As shown in Table 4,
the total production of meat, fats, wool, and eggs (all evaluated as
meat products -- see footnotes e and f) was about 48 million centners
in 1938, but only 44 million centners in 1951. Milk production fell
from 341 million centners in 1938 to 259 million centners in 1951.
Over 2.6 billion 10-hour work-shifts were obtained from horses in
1938 as compared to 1.8 billion in 1951.
Animal husbandry production was on the rise between 1938
and 1951 only for the two minor branches, sheep and goats and poultry.
The 1951 index of production for meat and fats and wool and mohair,
evaluated as meat products,* for the sheep and goats sector was
approximately 124 percent of 1938 production, as shown in Table 5.
The 1951 index of production for poultry meat and eggs, evaluated as
meat products,** was about 114 percent of 1938 poultry production.
On the other hand, production in the major livestock branches in
1951 was considerably below that in 1938, especially for dairying,
swine, and horses. The fall in cattle production (1951 was 83 percent-* *
Tables and 5 follow on pp. 22 and 24, respectively.
Pp. 29 and 30, respectively, below.
HXX Total sheep and goat production is expressed in meat products
equivalents. See Appendix A, Problem 5.
*** Total poultry production is expressed in poultry meat equiv-
alents. See Appendix A, Problem 6.
** Continued on p. 25.
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Production, Man-Days Expended, and Production per Man-Day in Sovi?t Animal Husbandry
1938 (Postwar Boundaries) and 1951
Production a/*
Man-Days Expended
Production per
Man-Day cp
Production a
J
Man-D
d
d
Production per
Percent Change
in Production
Type of Animal
Type of Product
(Thousand C
nt
?
)
) bf
(Th
ays
den
b
Man-Day
per r Man-Day
_
n:
rs
ousands
(Kilograms)
(Thousand Centners)
(Thousands) J
(Kilograms)
1938 to 1951
Cattle
Cows
Other catty
Whole milk
Meats and fats
341,020
1,673,506
20.378
259,000
1,580,720
16.385
-19.59
Beef and veal
14,200
13,600
Animal fats
770
700
Total meats and fats
14,970 /
912,228
l
1.641 ,
14,300 J
939,716 ;
1.522 J
- 7.25
Total cattle
2,585,734
2,520,436
Swine
Pork
16,140
11,600
Fats, fat cuts, and bacon
4,040
2,900
Total meats and fats
20,180
14
500
20,180
772,630
2.612
,
14,500
583,765
2.484
- 4.9o
Wool and mohair
751 J
895 J
Mutton and goat meat
4,300
5,350
Animal fats
350
450
Total sheep
and goats
Eggs
4,820
5,470 J
Meat
2,600
2,900
Total in meat products
7,420
8,370
Total poultry
7,420
487,224
1.523
8,370
554,295
1.510
- 0.854
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Production, Man-Days Expended, and Production per Man-Day in Soviet Animal Husbandry
1938 (Postwar Boundaries) and 1951
(Continued)
Production per Production per in Production
Production / Man-Days Expended Man-Day J Production / Man-Days Expended Man-Day / per Man-Day
Type of Animal Type of Product (Thousand Centners) (Thousands) bJ (Kilograms) (Thousand Centner^I (Thousands) b/ (Kilograms) 1938 to 1951
Total horses Farm power 2,615,115 Y/ 441,985 5.917 1,800,417 344.961 5.219 f -11.797
Total
animals 4,691,64o
a. The production data supplied in this table, except where otherwise noted, are estimated. 31 Data on the production of hides for all categories of livestock are
not included.
b. Labor input data are obtained from Table 3, p. 18, above.
c. One kilogram equals 2.2 pounds, or one-hundredth of 1 eentncr.
d. It was believed possible in this report to assign differential labor inputs to dairy and to meat and fats production, on the theory that all cattle meat products
always come from "other cattle." Most milk cows are eventually slaughtered for meat. It is assumed that by January of each year the young heifers (other cattle),
freshening as milk cows for the first time, will have replaced the old discarded cows slaughtered for meat.
e. Wool and mohair production is expressed as the equivalent of meat production from sheep and goats in order that a measure of output per man-day might be obtained
for sheep and goat production. The equivalence is based on price relations between wool and mohair products and sheep and goat meat products. See Appendix A,.
Problem 5.
f. Egg production is expressed as the equivalent of poultry meat production. See Appendix A, Problem 6.
g. Thousand 10-hour shifts. See Appendix A, Problem 7, for the method of derivation of the number of shifts worked by horses in the USSR.
h. Ten-hour shifts.
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Yields and Labor Productivity in Soviet Animal Husbandry
1938 (Postwar Boundaries) and 1951
Yield per Animal
(Kilograms) J
Type of Animal
Type of Product
1938
1951
Percent Change
in Yield 1938-51
1951 Index of Produc-
tion (1938 = 100) J
1951 Index of Man-Day
Inputs (1938 = 100) J
1951 Index of
Labor Productivity
Cows
Whole milk
1,280.030
1,070.248
-16.388
75.953
94.456
80.407
Otiier cattle
Meats and fats
45.977
43.333
- 5.750
95.524
103.013
92.730
Total cattle
82.855 eJ
97.475 J
85.001 J
Swine
Meats and fats
63.861
60.166
- 5.786
71.853
75.556
95.100
Sheep and goats
Meat products
7.389
6.763
- 8.472
123.959
138.540
89.475
Poultry
Meat products
3.118
3.100
- 0.577
112.803
113.766
99.154
Horses
Work horses
Farm power
203.116 J
203.116 J
68.847
78.048
88.211
a. Yields per animal are calculated by dividing the production data in Table , p. 22, above, by the corresponding animal numbers in Table 11, p. 56, below.
b. The index of production for specific enterprises is obtained by dividing 1951 production by 1938 production. Thus 1938 = 100.
c. The index of man-day inputs is derived by dividing total man-day inputs for 1951 by total man-day inputs for 1938. Thus 1938 = 100.
d. The index of labor productivity for 1951 for individual enterprises is obtained by dividing the index of production by the index of man-day inputs
per enterprise.
e. The aggregated index of productivity for cattle enterprises is the weighted average of cow and other cattle enterprises, using the 1951 man-day
inputs as weights. The production index for total cattle enterprises is calculated by multiplying the aggregated productivity index by the aggregated
man-day inputs index, thus weighting the cow and other cattle enterprises production indexes with labor inputs. This procedure may, of course, produce
a different aggregate from one obtained by using prices as weights.
f. Ten-hour shifts.
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of 1938) was caused especially by the marked decline in dairying --
the 1951 index of beef production was 95, but the index of milk produc-
tion was only 76. The 1951 index of swine production was 72 percent
of 1938 production, and the index of horse work production was only 69
percent of 1938 production.
The general decline in animal husbandry production is
apparently the result of a decline in numbers of the heavy grain-con-
suming animals* -- cows, swine, and horses -- as well as scarce
supplies of feed grains and potatoes in,1951** and a general decline
in yields per animal (except for horses***).
The scarcity of supplies of grain for feed probably
retarded the growth of the numbers of cows and swine and hence the
growth of dairy and swine production. But the decline in the number
of horses was in part due to the substitution of tractor power for
farm-produced draft power.**** Scarce grain supplies, however, were
not wholly responsible for the decline in yield per cow from 1,280
kilograms per year in 1938 to 1,070 kilograms in 1951 and the decline.
in yield per hog from 64 kilograms in 1938 to 60 kilograms in 1951 --
other factors must have been operating. Although the grain feed
rates in 1951 were below rates in 1938, they are estimated to be as
high as the 1928 rates which prevailed prior to collectivization-when
yields per animal in animal husbandry were high. 34
The fact is that the yields of all animals fell* *
between 1938 and 1951, in kilograms per animal, according to the data
in Table 5. The outstanding decline in yields was exhibited by cows --
over 16 percent less milk was produced per cow.in 1951 than in 1938.
The yield in meat products per sheep or goat fell from 1.34 kilograms
per animal in 1938 to about 1.2 kilograms in 1951, or about 8.5 percent.
See Table 11, p. 56, below.
See Table 1, P- 7, above.
The yield of farm-produced draft power per horse was held constant
from 1938 to 1951, principally because yield data were unavailable for
1951-
**** The increase in tractor horsepower in Soviet agriculture, from
9 million horsepower in 1938 to 12 million in 1951, 32 relieved draft
animals of the heavier farm work, such as plowing. 33
Except horses, for which the yields of farm power were assumed
to be constant.
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The decline in production in Soviet animal husbandry may
have resulted from the fact that there was a much greater degree of
collectivization in animal husbandry in 1951 than in 1938. Apparently
the depressing controls of the bureaucratic apparatus of socialized
management on Soviet animal husbandry and the official reduction of
the agricultural labor force about 1951 35 lowered the efficiency
of labor. Livestock yields were therefore lower, even though grain
feed rates were maintained at 1928 levels. Thu depressing effect
of these controls was evident in (a) the apparent unwillingness of
Soviet planners to invest in laborsaving machinery for animal hus-
bandry, 36 (b) the admittedly insufficient prices used by the state
for obligatory deliveries of animal husbandry products, 37 and (c)
the relatively low earnings probably accruing to kolkhozniki for
work in kolkhoz animal husbandry.
2. Labor Productivity in Animal Husbandry Enterprises.
The general decline in animal husbandry production from
1938 to 1951 is also reflected in declines in labor productivity for
all the component enterprises. The declines in production per man-day
ranged from about 1 percent for poultry to as much as 20 percent for
cows, as shown in Table 4.* Labor productivity in farm-produced draft
power in 1951 was about 12 percent lower than that in 1938; in sheep and
goat enterprises, about 10.5 percent lower; in swine enterprises, about
5 percent lower; and in cattle enterprises (meat), over 7 percent lower.
As shown in Table 5,** the index of man-day inputs for 1951 was greater
for every enterprise than the index of production for 1951. The index
of labor productivity for total animal husbandry in 1951 was about 89
percent (1938 = 100).
The single enterprise most responsible for the general
decline in labor productivity is dairying. Recent criticisms and
complaints about the status of production in dairy enterprises in
the USSR would seem to be justified. 38
C. Changes in Labor Productivity in Field Husbandry, 1938 to 1951.
In the analysis above, the labor expended on crop production
used for feed has been assigned to animal enterprises. It is now
possible to analyze changes in the productivity of agricultural labor.
P. 22, above.
P. 24, above.
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crop production, including that part of production used only for non-
feed purposes. The data for analysis are included in Tables 6 and 7*
and correspond to those included in Tables 4 and 5** for animal husbandry.
1. Nonfeed Output of Field Husbandry Enterprises.
Tables 4 and 5 and also Tables 6 and 7, in conjunction
with Table 1*** and Table 13,**** show that since 1938 the USSR has,
in its production of grain for nonfeed purposes, emphasized production
of the better food grains, wheat and rye. This is demonstrated first
by the distribution of sown hectares shown in Table 13. Hectares sown
to wheat (winter and spring) and rye constituted 59 percent of the
total 114 million hectares sown in grain in 1938, as compared with 66
percent of the total 106 million hectares sown in grain in 1951.
The trend of concentration is similar for production. In
1938, wheat (winter and spring) and rye for nonfeed use constituted
about 74 percent of total grain production for nonfeed use (736 million
eentners), while in 1951 they constituted about 79 percent of the
total (673 million centners).*****
Indexes of nonfeed grain production by crops show some
variation, according to data in Table 7. The 1951 index of total
nonfeed production of grain (1938 = loo) is about 91 percent. The
index for rye is 104 and for spring wheat 97, both above the index
for total grains. The index for winter wheat is below the total index,
about 88, however, because of poor winter wheat yields in 1951, accord-
ing to data in Table 7.
If production of spring wheat is added to production of
winter wheat and rye, and a 1951 index of production is calculated
for total wheat and rye (1938 = 100), and if a 1951 index is calculated
* Tables 6 and 7 follow on pp. 2.9 and 30, respectively.
** Pp. 22 and 24, respectively, above.
*** P. 7, above.
*** P. 66, below.
***** See Table 6, p. 29, below.
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for all other grains, the results are as follows: (a) the 1951 index
of wheat and rye production for nonfeed use is about 97 percents while
(b) the 1951 index of production for all other grains is only about
74 percent.
It thus appears that the 1951 production of wheat and rye
generally is comparatively close to the production level in 1938. This
achievement may not necessarily be regarded as successful, since the
Soviet population at the end of 1951 was probably about 16 million
greater than in 1938 (postwar boundaries). 39 The situation probably
has not improved since 1951, because the rate of production of grain
has not increased at a rate greater than the increase in population.. 40
It is clear that both the 1951 population and the current population
of the USSR had less wheat and rye for nonfeed purposes per capita
than in 1938, and, similarly, there was less production of other grains
for nonfeed purposes than in 1938.* The grain problem, contrary to
Soviet pronouncements in 1951 and 1952, has' not been "irrevocably
solved." 41
2. Labor Productivity in Field Husbandry Enterprises.
Despite the declines in yields shown for most crops in
Table 7, labor productivity in Soviet field husbandry (for nonfeed
purposes) in 1951 was slightly above the 1938 level (1938 = 100), the
1951 index of labor productivity being about 101 percent. Variations
for the three major crop groups were rather minor. The index for
grains was almost 101 percent, for fruits and vegetables 99 percent,
and for technical crops 103 percent. While labor in animal husbandry
production in 1951 generally was considerably less efficient than in
1938, labor in field husbandry production (for nonfeed purposes) in
1951 was slightly more efficient than in 1938.
Too much labor apparently was employed in the production
of soya beans, sunflowers, hemp, tobacco, and winter wheat. Accord-
ing to yield data in Table 7, improvement in labor productivity
among these enterprises undoubtedly will depend primarily on increasing
the yields of these crops. From 1938 to 1951 the declines in yields
for these crops ranged from 39 percent for soya beans to 11.5 percent
No attempt is made in this section to discuss production for nonfeed
purposes for crop enterprises other than grains.
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Production for Nonfeed Uses, Man-Days Expended, and Production per Man-Day
in Soviet Field Husbandry, by Crops Produced for Nonfeed Uses
1938 (Postwar Boundaries) and 1951
du
d f
r
C
P
Production for
Nonfeed Uses
Man-Days
Expended
Production
per Man-Day
Production for
Non?' Uses
Man-Days
Expended
Production
per Man-Day
rops
ro
ce
o
Nonfeed Uses
(Thousand Centners)
(Thousands)
(Kilograms)
,,~
(Thousannd Cent--Is) J
(Thousands) J
(Kilograms)
Grains
Winter grains
Winter wheat 152,775 239,771 63.717 134,382
Rye 219,724 395,995 55.487 228,952
Total winter grains 372,499 635,766 58.591 363,334
Spring grains
Spring wheat 174,262 382,054 45.612 168,917
Barley 33,815 53,638 63.043 27,676
oats 61,784 102,015 60.564 55,556
Corn 29,145 51,445 56.653 16,917
Rice 2,820 4,068 69,322 3,700
Other grains 61,775 167,770 36.821 37,267
Total spring grains 363,601 760.990 47.180 310,011
Total grains uk~100 1,396,756 52.701 673,367
Fruits and vegetables
Fruits 26,466 14,216 186.171 24,163
Potatoes 531,633 484,124 109.813 560,245
Vegetables 175,476 398,355 44.050 168,000
Cucurbits 35,095 128,351 27.343 33,600
Total fruits and
vegetables 1,025,046
Technical crops
Sugar beets 24,500 200,602 12.213 24,500
Tobacco 2,381 12,391 19.216 - 2,041
Oil-bearing crops
Cotton 24,640 336,834 7.315 30,390
Flax 14,239 239,849 5.937 13,020
Hemp 4,660 65,301 7.136 3,350
Sunflowers 21,300 59,167 36.000 19,950
Soya beans 2,000 23,423 8.539 1,180
other (minor) crops 3,770 84,289 4.473 4,660
Total oil-bearing 808,863
crops
Total technical crops 1,021,856
Percent Increase
in Production
Per Man-Day
(1938 to 1951)
228,832
58.725
- 7.835
402,333
56.906
2.557
631.165
57.566
- 1.749
353,769
47.748
4.683
44,734
61.868
- 1.864
95,917
57.921
- 4.364
32,966
51.317
- 9.419
4,641
79.724
15.005
95,218
39.139
6.295
627.245
49.428
3.449
1,258,410
53.509
1.533
13,264
182.170
- 2.149
535,409
104.639
- 4-712
368,398
45-603
3.7 12
118,617
28.326
3.595
1 035,6e8
206,254
11.879
- 2.735
4
31,85
8
17.
1 98
444
395
685
7
058
5.
,
195,387
.
6.664
245
12.
55,416
6.045
-15.289
66,025
30.216
-16.067
22,094
5.341
-37.452
82,441
5.653
26.381
816,807
1 0 4 1
Grand total 443, 3,658 011
Production data used in.this table are obtained from Table 1, p. 7, above.
labor inputs were obtained from Table 2, p. 13, above.
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Yields and Labor Productivity of Field Crops for Nonfeed Uses
in Soviet Field Husbandry
1938 (Postwar Boundaries) and 1951
Per Hectare
1951 Index
(Centners)
Percent
1951 Index
of Man-Day
195:L Index
Field Crops
1938
1951
Increase
1938 to 1951
of Productions
(1938 = 100) 1/
Inputs
J1938 = 100) c
of Labor
P
d
t
J
ro
uc
ivity
Grains
Winter wheat
10.398
9.200
-11.521
87.961
95.438
92.166
Rye
~ 1-1
- 4.524
104.200
101.601
102,559
Total
- 7.493
98.076 J
99.276
98.791 J
Spring wheat
6.628
6.272
- 5.371
96.933
92.597
104
683
Barley
8.597
7.941
- 7.630
81.845
83.400
.
98.136
Oats
8.437
7.572
-10.252
89.920
94.022
95.637
Corn
10.667
9.655
- 9.487
58.044
64.o8o
90.581
Rice
18.194
20.556
12.982
131.206
114.086
115.007
Other grains
6.119
6.741
10.165
60.327
56.755
106.294
Total
spring grains
7.566
7.098
- 6.186
84.413 J
82.425
102.412 J
- 5.682
90.632 J
90.095
100.596 J
Fruits
17.446
17.446
91.298
93.303
97.351
Potatoes
82.033
74.678
- 8.966
105.382
110.593
95.288
Vegetables
C
bi
120.025
120.000
- 0.021
95.740
92.480
103.525
ucur
ts
55.973
56.000
0.048
95.740
92.416
103.597
Total fruits and
vegetables
100.232
101.038
99.202 J
Technical crops
Sugar beets
19.007
18.338
- 3.519
100.000
102.818
97.260
Tobacco
11.447
9.908
-13.445
85.720
95.666
89.604
Oil-bearing crops
Cotton
11.829
11.310
- 4.388
123.336
117.400
105.056
Flax
5.689
6.2oo
8.982
91.439
81.463
112.247
Hemp
6.744
5.510
-18.300
71.888
84.862
84.712
Sunflowers
6.451
5.098
-20.973
93.662
111.591
83.933
Soya beans
7.092
4.307
-39.270
59.000
94.326
62.550
Other (minor) crops
3.714
4.555
22.644
123.607
97.807
126.378
Total oil-bearing
crops
Total technical
crops
105.719 J
104.354 J
100.982
101.278
104.691 3/
103.037 J
Grand total
96.671
100.921 J
a. Yield is the result of division of production data in Table 1, first column for 193 and 1951, p. 7,
above, by the hectares shown in Table 13, p.66, below.
b. The 1951 index of production is the result of division of the 1951 production data by the 1938 produc-
tion data per crop. See Table 1, y. 7, above.
c. The 1951 index of man-day inputs is the result of division of the 1951 labor inputs by the 1938
inputs. See Table 2, p. 13, above.
d. The 1951 index of labor productivity for an individual enterprise is the result of division of the
1951 index of production by the 1951 index of man-day inputs.
e. The 1951 index of production for an aggregate of crops is the product of the 1951 index of man-day
inputs multiplied by the 1951 index of labor productivity. See explanation on p. 20, above.
f. The 1951 index of labor productivity for an aggregate of crops is derived as explained on p. 20, above.
See also Appendix A, Problem 10 for examples of derivation.
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for winter wheat. Other crops with large declines in yields are oats,
over 10 percent; corn, almost 10 percent; potatoes, about 9 percent;
and barley, almost 8 percent. The indexes of labor productivity in
1951 for these crops were all below the 1938 level, as follows: oats,
96 percent; corn, 91 percent; potatoes, 95 percent; and barley, 98
percent.
Wide-scale efforts currently being applied to mechanize
all these branches of field husbandry may improve labor productivity
by reducing the amount of labor required for production, assuming
that further declines in yields do nbt occur. Although field hue-
bandry enterprises seem to be carried on more efficiently and produc-
tively than animal husbandry enterprises, it is clear that there is
much room for improvement among many crop enterprises in Soviet
agriculture.
D. Anal sis of Changes in Labor Productivity in Agriculture,
193 to 1951.
Changes in the productivity of Soviet agricultural labor from
1938 to 1951 are summarized in this section from two points of view, as
follows: (1) the influence of changes in labor productivity of the
various sectors as aggregates of enterprises is determined in relation
to changes in total labor productivity in Soviet agriculture as a whole.
For this purpose the aggregate indexes in Tables 5 and 7* are organized
in Table 8** as a group of sectors, along with other clarifying data.
(2) Soviet indexes of labor productivity published in official releases
on agriculture are critically evaluated.
1. Labor Productivity per Enterprise Group.
The Soviet agricultural labor force in total husbandry, as
shown in Table 8, was about 94 percent as productive in 1951 as in 1938.
Labor inputs in 1951 totaled about 7.9 billion man-days as compared with
more than 7.4 billion man-days required if the workers had been as
productive in their work in 1951 as they were in 1938. The excess of
labor expended above requirements in 1951 (at the 1938 productivity
level) was about 480 million man-days.
Pp. 24 and 30, respectively, above.
* Table 8 follows on p. 32.
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Table 8
Comparison of Labor Inputs, Actual and Required (at 1938 Work Capacity)
in Soviet Agriculture, by Type of Production
1951
Type of Production
Index of
Labor
Produc-
tivity
in 1951
(1938 =loo)
Expended
19,51.
Required
1951 b
Excess
Man-Days
Expended
over Man-Days
Required 1951
Man-Days
Expended
in 1951
(Actual)
Man-Days
Required in
1951 (at 1938
Work Capacity)
Field Husbandry
(Nonfeed uses)
Winter grains
98.791
631,165
623,529
7,636
7.997
8.412
Spring grains
102.412
627,245
642,376
-15,121
7.948
8.667
Total grains
100.596
1,258,410
1,265,895
- 7,485
15.945
17_079
Fruits and vegetables
99.202
1,035,688
1,027,417
8,271
13.123
13.862
Technical crops
103.037
1,034,915
1,066,364
31,449
13.113
14.387
Total
field husbandry
100.921
3,329,013
3,359,676
-30,663
42.181
45.328
Animal Husbandry
Horses
88.211
344,961
304,307
4o,654
4.371
4.105
Cattle
85.001
2,520,436
2,142,388
378,048
31.935
28.904
Swine
95.100
583,765
555,101
28,664
7.397
7.490
Sheep
and goats
89.475
4
559,793
500,881
8
4
58,912
4
6
7.093
02
6.758
415
Poultry 99.15
554,295
9
5
9,5
,70
7.
3
7.
Total
animal husbandry 88.8o4
4,563,250
4,052,266
510,984
57.819
54.672
93.915
7,892,263
7 411 42
480,321
100.000
100.000
a. Man-day inputs for field husbandry were taken from Table 6 p. 29, above, and those for animal
husbandry from Table 4, p. 22, above.
b. The derivation of these data is explained in Appendix A, Problem 10.
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It is estimated that in 1951, kolkhozniki averaged about
169 man-days per year per worker L2/ in collectivized agriculture
and on their individual plots.* If this annual rate of labor inputs
is applied to the excess of 480 million man-days, an excess of about
2.8 million kolkhozniki is calculated as having been employed in
Soviet agriculture in 1951.
This excess may not be unduly large, because the kolkhozy
in 1951 may have hired as many more workers from off-the-farm sources
during the peak agricultural seasons at planting and harvest time.
During the prewar period the kolkhozy reportedly hired 3.5 million
workers in 1935, 2.5 million in 1937, and 2.2 million in 1938. 45
In 1937 these workers, primarily from the town and city labor force,
contributed about 34 man-days-per worker to kolkhoz production. The
excess of kolkhozniki in 1951 would therefore consist primarily of
labor idle during seasons when the pressure of kolkhoz work activity
had slackened off.
Table 8 shows the agricultural sectors having large
excesses of labor inputs. When a comparison is made of changes in
1951 over 1938 in the two major sectors of field and animal husbandry,
it is clear that animal husbandry is the principal laggard in the
productivity of labor. Labor in field husbandry in 1951 was generally
more efficient than in 1938, by about 31 million man-days. But in
animal husbandry, labor was much less efficient, working an excess
of 511 million man-days above 1951 requirements at 1938 rates.
According to the findings of this report, if the USSR
expects success in improving labor productivity in animal husbandry
production, it must either increase yields or reduce labor inputs in
animal husbandry, or both. As shown in Table 6,** the USSR has failed
thus far to increase yields, particularly for cattle and swine, the
heavy meat and dairy producers. On the other hand, it has increased
* This rate is to be compared with 174 man-days averaged by all
kolkhozniki in 1938 L3/ and about 180 man-days averaged by able-
bodied kolkhozniki (aged 16 to 59) in 1938. 44
- P. 29, above.
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the labor force in animal husbandry. Concomitant with the growth of
the livestock herds, 46 in 2 years alone* the number of kolkhozniki
occupied in animal husbandry was reported as increasing by 800,000
men / for the country as a whole. Thus far, retrogression rather
than progress has characterized developments in Soviet animal hus-
bandry.
The achievement of success in the double goal of increasing
yields and reducing labor requirements would be significant in animal
husbandry production because of the fact that animal husbandry, as a
production sector, requires more labor inputs than field husbandry.
In 1951, over 4.5 billion man-days were invested in animal husbandry
production. This quantity of labor, as shown in data in Table 8,**
constitutes 58 percent of the total 7.9 billion man-days expended in
total Soviet husbandry in 1951.#* If labor in animal husbandry had
been as efficient in 1951 as in 1938, about 55 percent of the total
husbandry inputs would still have been expended in animal husbandry.
The single sector in animal husbandry most responsible
for the excess of labor inputs in 1951 was the cattle enterprises
(dairy and meat). These enterprises required 378 million more man-days
than 1951 enterprises would have called for at 1938 rates of labor
productivity.
End of the year, 1950 and 1951.
** P. 32, above.
NNN This is to be compared with an estimate made by a Soviet
academician that labor inputs in animal husbandry are expected to
constitute over 50 percent of total labor inputs in agriculture,
including inputs in productive animal and poultry husbandry and in
feed production and preparation. 48 He also estimated that current
labor inputs in the maintenance and care of animals constituted over
one-third of total labor inputs in agriculture. This percentage is
to be compared with about 38 percent calculated in this report -- see
the inputs in Table 3, p. 18, above, and in Table 8 for 1951.
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2. Evaluation of Soviet Indexes of Agricultural Labor
Productivity.
Published Soviet indexes of agricultural labor productivity
show greater increases than the indexes given in this report. The
Soviet indexes which are apparently most authoritative are given as
follows 491,
Gross Kolkhoz Gross Production
Agricultural per Able-Bodied
Year Production Kolkhoznik
1937 = 100
1940
log
138
1949
115
172
1950
124
180
1940 = loo
1949
106
125
1950
114
130
The study from which these indexes are taken probably is
the only major report in Soviet sources which includes indexes on
labor productivity. Several other reports state that labor produc-
tivity in 1953 was about three times higher than in prerevolutionary
Russia. One report gives labor productivity in 1937 as 159.8 percent
of 1913 and productivity in 1953 as about 300 percent of 1913. 50
Converting to 1937 as the base, an index of labor productivity of
about 63 is obtained for 1913 and about 180 for 1953.
It is clear that these indexes are prepared from data
different from those used in this report. On the basis of official
sources, it is probable that gross production is measured not
according to physical volume but in comparable prices (1937 as the
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base year, with 1926-27 prices). Furthermore, the units of labor inputs
are persons, rather than man-days worked. This fact does not necessarily
reduce the validity of these indexes for purposes of comparison.
Questions are raised, however, about the relationship between the indexes
of production and of labor productivity above, and the resulting impli-
cation for changes in labor force requirements. Indexes of labor inputs,
derived by dividing the index of production by its corresponding index
of labor productivity, give the following changes in manpower require-
ments: 1937 = 100, 1940 = 80, 1949 = 67, and 1950 = 69. Indexes given
in the Soviet source thus imply that the labor force of able-bodied
kolkhozniki must have declined 31 percent from 1937 to 1950. This
estimate varies widely from estimates carried by CIA for these years.
If attention is directed toward changes between 1937 and
1940 rather than those between 1937 and 1950, the probable errors
in these figures become clearer. It does not seem possible that a
20-percent decline in manpower utilization occurred in the USSR
between 1937 and 1940. According to a reliable estimate, 51 the
number of kolkhozniki participating in kolkhoz work remained fairly
stable between these years, increasing, if anything, from about 40.8
million in 1937 to about 41.2 million in 1940. Furthermore, during
these years the absorption of territory and peasants from the Baltic
states, Poland, Rumania, and Finland probably added about 7 million
peasant workers to the Soviet labor force. If the total labor force
in the USSR (postwar boundaries) was about 53 million farm workers
in 1937, including workers and employees, kolkhozniki, and private
peasant farmers, a reduction of 20 percent by 1940 would give a 1940
labor force of only 43 million workers in Soviet agriculture. This
would mean the complete elimination of the private peasant labor
force from agriculture between 1937 and 1940, particularly in the
acquired territories. Since full-scale collectivization in these
areas was not carried out until after the war, there seems to be no
evidence that the complete elimination of private peasants in the
acquired territories could have occurred by 1940.
Another possible source of error along this line is that
the acquired farm lands were considerably more productive than those
within the prewar boundaries of the USSR. Because acquisition occurred
after 1937, labor force data may have been manipulated to make the
1940 labor productivity situation appear more attractive than in 1937.
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The year 1937, however, is generally regarded as being the most produc-
tive year in Soviet agriculture since before World War I. It is therefore
difficult to understand how production and labor productivity could have
been greater in 1940 than in 1937.
In view of the inconsistencies inherent in the base years
used in the Soviet indexes, there seems to be good reason to believe
that the Soviet indexes do not invalidate the labor productivity
indexes presented in this report.
V. Changes in Labor Productivity in Agriculture, 1951 to 1953.
The changes which occurred between the 1951 and 1953 agricultural
seasons for the major enterprise groups are shown in Tables 9 and
10,* using 1938 as the base year for comparison, Table 9 gives the
indexes of production for the major sectors of agriculture, and Table
10, the indexes of labor inputs and of labor productivity.
The method by which indexes of production were aggregated for the
enterprise groups or sectors was to multiply the index of labor pro-
ductivity for the enterprise group by the corresponding index of
labor inputs. This method of aggregating indexes of production for
enterprises within the group is the equivalent of weighting production
per enterprise with labor inputs instead of with prices. This
procedure, although used by competent scholars 52 for international
comparisons of national production, involves assumptions which should
be clearly understood. When applied to a group of fairly homogeneous
enterprises these limitations are probably not so critical. In such a
case, the relationships between costs of production; such as investment,
rent, and labor, for all enterprises of an enterprise sector are likely
to change in the same direction over a period of time. When applied to
enterprise sectors this is not necessarily true.
It is clear that in the USSR machinery investment in technical
crops increased from 1938 to 1951, so that the proportion of costs
of production for machine use increased as compared with the proportion
of costs for labor. At the same time the proportional costs of
machinery and of labor in animal husbandry enterprises remained fairly**
Tables 9 and 10 follow on pp. 38 and 39, respectively.
* Continued on p. 41.
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Indexes of Production in Soviet Agriculture, by Enterprise Sector
1951 and 1953
1938 = 100
Index of Production J*
Enterprise Sector
1951
1953 b
Field husbandry
Grains
Winter grains
98.08
86.59
Spring grains
84.41
90.42
Total grains
90.63
88.67
Fruits and vegetab
les 100.23
98.48
Technical crops
104.35
113.41
Animal husbandry
Cattle
Cows 75.95
76.24
Other cattle 95.52
98.20
Total cattle 82.86
83.99
Swine 71.85
84.74
Sheep and goats 123.96 151.45
Poultry 112.80 125.07
Horses 68.85 76.89
* Footnotes for Table 9 follow on p. 39.
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Table 9
Indexes of Production in Soviet Agriculture, by Enterprise Sector
1951 and 1953
(Continued)
a. Production for nonfeed uses. The index of produc-
tion for a particular enterprise sector is derived as
the product of the index of man-day inputs multiplied
by the corresponding index of labor productivity. See
Table 10 for the indexes of man-day inputs and of labor
productivity.
b. 53/-
Indexes of Labor Inputs and Labor Productivity in Soviet Agriculture
1951 and 1953
1938 = loo
Man-Day Inputs Labor Productivity
Enterprise Sector 1951 -a/* 1953 1 1 ~/ 1953 Field husbandry
Grains
Winter grains
99.28
92.98
98.79
93.12
Spring grains
82.43
86.29
102.41
104.78
Total grains
90.10
89.34
100.60
99.26
Fruits and vegetables
lol.04
102.75
99.20
95.84
Technical crops
101.28
105.92
103.04
107.08
Total field husbandry
96.67
98.25
100.92
100.69
Footnotes for Table 10 follow on p. 40.
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Indexes of Labor Inputs and Labor Productivity in Soviet Agriculture
1951 and 1953
(Continued)
1938 = 100
Man-Day Inputs Labor Productivity
Enterprise Sector 1951 1953 1951 1223
Animal husbandry
Cattle
Cows
94.46
94.39
80.41
80.78
Other cattle
103.01
100.27
92.73
97.93
Total cattle
97.48
96.46
85.00
87.07
Swine
75.56
85.00
95.10
99.69
Sheep and goats
138.54
152.71
89.48
99.18
Poultry
113.77
124.26
99.15
1x.65
Horses
78.05
87.38
88.21
88.00
Total animal husbandry
97.26
101.45
88.80
92.18
Total agriculture
97.01
100.10
93.92
95.72
a. The indexes for 1951 are taken from Tables 5 and 7, pp. 24 and
30, respectively, above.
b. The indexes for 1953 are derived from agricultural data for
1953, calculated in the same manner as the data for 1938 and 1951.
Animal numbers and feeding rates for 1953 are given in Appendix A,
Problems 3 and 4, and in Table 11, p. 56, below, while the number
of hectares in the various crop enterprises in 1953 is given in
Table 13, p. 66, below.
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stable between 1938 and 1951. The calculation of an aggregate index
for total agricultural production with labor weights, as compared with
the calculation of an index involving cost analysis, might, therefore,
underweight the influence of the more heavily machinery-endowed sectors
(technical crops, for example) in the total index and overweight the
influence of such labor-consuming sectors as animal husbandry enter-
prises. 54
For these reasons, no attempt is made in this report to present
indexes of aggregate production for total field husbandry, total
animal husbandry, or total agriculture.
A. Output per Agricultural Enterprise Group.
Changes in the indexes of production from 1951 to 1953, as
shown in Table 9, indicate that the USSR has during this period
improved its agricultural economy as a whole, although only for
three sectors -- technical crops, sheep and goats, and poultry --
were the indexes of production above 1938 levels of production.
All three of these enterprise groups had already in 1951 surpassed
1938 production levels and in 1953 were still rapidly increasing
their production. Thus the 1953 index of production for technical
crops was 113 percent of the 1938 level of production, as compared
with 104 percent in 1951. The 1953 index for sheep and goats was 152
percent of the 1938 production, as compared with 124 percent in 1951.
The 1953 index of production for poultry was 125 percent of the 1938
production, as compared with 113 percent in 1951.
The 1953 indexes of production for total grains and for fruits
and vegetables were fairly stable, although slightly below the 1951
levels. The 1953 index of grain production was 89 percent of 1938 as
compared with 91 percent in 1951, while the 1953 index of fruit and
vegetable production was 99 percent of 1938 as compared with 100 per-
cent in 1951. This latter decline was due to the poor potato harvest
in 1953. 55 Production of winter grains fell between 1951 and 1953,*
but this decline was almost offset by increased spring grain production.
* As indicated in Table 7 (p. 30, above), winter wheat yields in 1951
were 11.5 percent below the 1938 level. By 1953 they had fallen 18
percent below the 1938 level. 56
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All branches of animal husbandry increased livestock production
between 1951 and 1953, although changes for dairying and beef production
were only slightly upward. Swine production increased considerably,
from 72 percent of 1938 levels in 1951 to 85 percent in 1953. Horse
work production climbed from 69 percent of 1938 levels in 1951 to 77
percent in 1953.
Finally, it is clear from Table 9 that the enterprises that
were lagging in 1951 behind 1938 production were still lagging in 1953?
These are the very important agricultural enterprises -- grains, cattle,
swine, and horses. Recent reports indicate that grains were still
lagging in 195+ 57 and were at about the same level as in 1953.
B. Labor Productivity per Agricultural Enterprise Group.
Labor productivity in 1953 tended to improve generally above
the 1951 level in a manner similar to that of production. Labor
productivity in 1953, according to Table 10, was about 96 percent of
the 1938 level in Soviet husbandry as a whole, as compared with about
94 percent in 1951.
Labor in animal husbandry was responsible for the 2-percent
rise in labor productivity in total husbandry, as it increased from
89 percent in 1951 to 92 percent in 1953 of the 1938 level of pro-
ductivity. Labor productivity in field husbandry in 1953, on the
other hand, remained on a par with labor productivity in field
husbandry in 1951, and on about the same level as in 1938.
Labor productivity had increased by 1953 to about the 1938
level in "other cattle" enterprises and in swine, sheep and goats,
and poultry enterprises. In 1951, however, labor in all these
enterprises except poultry was 5 or more percent less productive
than in 1938. Labor productivity in dairying has not improved since
1951, the index remaining at about 81 percent of the 1938 level.
This lack of improvement is undoubtedly related to lack of improve-
ment in milk yields from 1951 to 1953, which remained over 16 per-
cent below yields in 1938. 58
Declines in yields also tend to explain declines in labor
productivity from 1951 to 1953 for winter grains (wheat) and for
fruits and vegetables (especially potatoes). Labor productivity
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in these enterprises dropped from about 99 percent of the 1938 produc-
tivity level in 1951 to between 93 and 96 percent in 1953.
VI. Vulnerabilities, Capabilities, and Intentions.
A. Vulnerabilities and Capabilities.
One of the most important vulnerabilities of the position of
Soviet agriculture is the attempt to achieve two,goals simultaneously --
(1) to save labor through increased use of machinery and electrical
equipment and (2) to increase yields per enterprise.
In field husbandry, only slight success was achieved in the
reduction of labor inputs between 1938 and 1951 -- between 3 and 4
percent,* while acreages were increased about 5 percent,** and produc-
tion for nonfeed purposes was reduced between 2 and 3 percent.***
The result is that only about 31 million man-days were saved in field
husbandry production (for nonfeed purposes) in 1951 over 1938.****
These labor savings in field husbandry production were not
accompanied by increases in yields per hectare in 1951 over 1938.
The yields for most crops declined from 1938 to 1951 and to 1953.
Part of the reason for the Soviet inability to save labor and to
increase yields in crops at the same time may lie in the fact that
increased use of machinery may actually waste the harvests. 59
It is also probable that the kolkhozniki are not as careful with
the kolkhoz crops as they are with their own garden plot crops. 60
One of the most important obstacles to the attainment of the
double goal in Soviet agriculture is the unfavorable climatic conditions
prevailing over much of the agricultural zone.***xx It is clear that
these conditions are so depressing that an extremely high degree of
timeliness in field operations, particularly during the harvest, is
* See Table 2, P- 13, above.
** See Table 13, p. 66, below.
*** See Table 9, p. 38, above.
** See Table 8, p. 32, above.
***** The Ukraine, which is south of most of the rest of the USSR,
lies in about the same latitude as Minnesota and North Dakota.
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necessary in order to get the harvest in good yield into the barn.
In the US, on the other hand, the harvests, especially of grain, may
lie in the fields without great loss for comparatively long periods
of time.
The fact that yields declined from 1938 to 1951 while
mechanization of operations increased, in conjunction with the important
problem of timeliness, suggests the following conclusions: (1) if the
achievement of timeliness in field operations will increase yields (in
the barn), then the increased mechanization necessary for timeliness
should increase the yields. (2) The degree of mechanization currently
prevailing in agriculture would seem to be far below the level required
to achieve timeliness of operations, despite vaunted statements in
the Soviet press about advances in mechanization.*
The problem is that under conditions of adverse climate, the
USSR is undermachined. For example, grain harvesters may be used
to cut most of the grain acreage (82 percent in 1954), 62 but there
are still too few combines available in the fields to do the work
quickly before rain or frost. Labor is cheap, and large quantities
of labor must be used to keep the scarce machines in repair and
operating every moment possible for extensive periods. In contrast,
the weather in the US permits farmers to allow some of their abundant
machinery to remain idle during peak periods, because labor costs are
so high that they would rather not hire additional manpower at higher
wages than they currently wish to offer.
In animal husbandry production the attempt to achieve the double
goal of increasing both labor savings and yields was not successful
in 1951 and in 1953. In 1951 an excess of about 511 million man-days
above 1951 requirements at 1938 rates was expended in animal husbandry
production. About 74 percent of this excess was expended in produc-
tion by cattle enterprises, although there were excesses for all live-
stock enterprises.** At the same time, yields per animal were falling
for probably the most important livestock enterprises, cattle (including
dairying), sheep and goats, and swine.***
* Soviet scientific agricultural journals point out that many
operations even in grain farming, such as weighing, transportation,
cleaning, drying, and storing grain, are still labor consuming, being
completed principally by horse-and-hand methods. 61
** See Table 8, P- 32, above.
* See Table 5, p. 24, above.
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One of the most important obstacles to increases in production,
yields, and labor productivity in animal husbandry may be the declines
in the production of grains and potatoes, and in the rates of feeding
per animal, from 1938 to 1951.* It is likely that the production and
feeding rates of good quality coarse fodders have not increased enough
to compensate for declines in grains and potatoes fed to animals.**
It is clear that progress in animal husbandry production is inextricably
tied up with progress in field husbandry.
It is possible also that shelter construction in the USSR is
lagging so badly that the inadequacy of livestock shelters in 1951
may be greater than in 1938. The severe winters in the USSR under
these conditions may have increased livestock mortality and hence
depressed yields in animal husbandry. L3/
One of the principal obstacles to the development of the
national economy of the USSR is undoubtedly the depressing system
which governs peasant incentives. Up to the end of 1953 the price
structure for agricultural deliveries and for goods offered to the
state by peasants was seriously out of balance as compared with the
retail trade price structure. This situation was improved in 1954,
when higher prices offered by the state for meat, milk, and vegetables
and smaller amounts of obligatory deliveries were required, especially
from private plots.
Nevertheless, the bureaucratic institutional system (the
sovkhozy, kolkhozy, and MPS's) in which the Soviet peasant works remains
cumbersome, aggrandizing, and repugnant to his entrepreneurial sensi-
tivities. The peasant remains at the bottom of the occupational
ladder, subject in his work to state-fixed labor-days (trudodni) values.***
See Table 11, p. 56, below.
More than likely, feed rates for coarse fodders have not increased.
See Table 11, p. 56, below.
*** Trudoden (singular) .s a unit value credit for the amount of work
done according to the norm by a peasant. It is used to establish a
scale of values for the different types of agricultural work. It is
also an accounting device for distributing kolkhoz income among the
kolkbozniki after the deliveries to the state, payments to MTS's, and
contributions to indivisible funds (investments) of the kolkhozy are
made. It thus avoids the use of price values for labor and permits
bureaucratic determination of labor credits. 64
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He is forced to spend considerable amounts of time in processing, trans-
porting, and marketing his earnings in kind (natury platy) and the
products of his own private plots. He thus evades the attempts of
consumer cooperatives to appropriate his profits in commission trade.
It is clear that Soviet agriculture, especially animal hus-
bandry, was not managed properly in 1951 and 1953 to meet the needs
of a growing population. The USSR was far from achieving its double
goal of saving large quantities of labor and increasing yields.
Timeliness had not been improved to any great extent in field hus-
bandry, and the situation in animal husbandry had deteriorated to
such an extent as to suggest sabotage. At the same time the popula-
tion was growing at the rate of over 3 million annually. 65
B. Intentions.
It would seem that the Soviet regime since Stalin's death has
at last become aware of the critical obstacles to national progress
presented by agriculture, particularly animal husbandry. Beginning
with the Malenkov speech of August 1953 and placing particular emphasis
during September 1953 and February-March 1954, the Soviet press has
dwelt continuously on agricultural problems.
The program of land reclamation in areas beyond the Urals by
August 1954 !L6/ had envisioned 30 million hectares of additional "new
land" sown annually, principally to spring grains, starting with the
spring of 1956. This drive would seem to recognize belatedly the
fact that more grain, especially more feed grain for animal husbandry,
is needed for a balanced agriculture. Yields of over 9 centners per
hectare were postulated for the new areas. Preliminary estimates for
1954 indicate that the current new lands have higher yields than this. 67
Over the long run, however, it is doubtful that these new lands will
yield as high as the older areas of the country currently devoted to
spring grains (about 6 centners per hectare). !L8/
Increases in production through the new lands program may be
profitable despite low yields. The intention to mechanize all oper-
ations fully in these areas, if carried out, will probably reduce
labor costs considerably. This saving may be greater than the
losses from low yields. The result of these trends, if successful,
should be fairly high labor productivity in the new lands areas.
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The advances in mechanization in the new areas will probably
be offset by increased labor inputs necessary for the construction
of new buildings for storing grain and for housing families, and
also for the construction of new roads, wells, and water facilities.
For several years, labor requirements in the new areas will undoubtedly
remain high. 69
Large increases in labor productivity in the older agricultural
areas of the USSR within the next few years seem doubtful. Savings
of labor may be achieved in the production of specific crops. Labor
productivity on the whole, however, may not be sharply increased along
with the planned increases in mechanization 70 because of shifts in
the crop pattern -- that is, shifts in the use of some of the older
lands from light labor-consuming crops, such as grains or hay crops,
to heavy labor-consuming crops, such as potatoes and vegetables. 71
Furthermore, labor savings through the use of machinery in the
production of row crops, such as potatoes and vegetables, may be
offset by declines in yields (in the barn) caused by improper use
of the machinery.
Evidence of the future shifts in crop patterns is already
available. At the January 1955 Plenum of the Communist Party it was
announced that Soviet agriculture would increase the cultivation of
corn for grain and for silage from a 195 level of about 3.5 million
hectares to about 28 million to 30 million hectares by the end of
1956. 72 By June 1955, almost 17 million hectares had been sown for
the 1955 harvest. 73 It is planned, apparently, to plant about half
this corn hectarage on low-yielding spring grain lands, meadows, and
pastures, and the other half on summer fallow which would be sown
in the fall to winter wheat. It is clear that this development may
create serious difficulties in the management of farming activities
in the seasonal cycle of work. Since labor requirements are at
least 70 percent higher per hectare on corn than on spring
grains,* more labor will be required, especially at the peak
* A recent Soviet publication indicates that labor jreuirements in
corn may be 2.6 times as great as in spring grains. It is esti-
mated on the basis of US experience that labor requirements in corn
may be four times as great as in spring grains. 76 Both of these
estimates assume that no substitution for other crops would be made and
that corn production would be achieved under fairly ideal conditions.
It is more likely in the immediate future that corn cultivation may be
slighted in the USSR, that corn production for silage and for grain will
be low and of poor grade, and that many fields will be neglected.
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seasons for corn cultivation and harvesting. The problems of ensilaging
corn before fall rains set in and in time to sow winter grains will
probably be very difficult. It is highly probable that both corn yields
and labor productivity in corn will decline under these conditions.
Since the corn hectarage is so much larger this year, it is quite likely
that this decrease in labor productivity'will depress labor productivity
in grain crops generally. The outlook for corn production in the immediate
future seems depressing. 77 It is possible in the long run, however,
that corn yields and labor productivity may rise, with more experience
in corn production and with increased mechanization.
Several Soviet agencies during the past year have made gestures
in the direction of extending aid to agriculture which may prove fruitful
in improving labor productivity. The first of these is the organization
of consumer cooperatives which, operating from cities, contract with
the kolkhozniki to sell the surplus farm produce of the latter. 78
The development of this movement on a large scale would undoubtedly
reduce the labor time of the kolkhozniki involved in home processing
of their products for sale, transporting and delivering the products to
kolkhoz markets or sales booths in cities and villages, and selling
them there or through delivery routes to a regular clientele. The
cooperatives would permit the kolkhozniki more time to work on the
kolkhozy and would reduce the number of full-time men required on the
kolkhozy, thus increasing the output of kolkhoz products per man.
Unfortunately for Soviet planning, the kolkhozniki have not as yet
accepted this aid in any great amount. 79 The government has yet
to invest sufficient money in the equipment necessary to process and
handle the contracted products in volume, and the workers and employees
currently engaged in handling and selling them are apparently very
inefficient in dealing with the perishable kolkhoznik plot products.
The second gesture was made by the Ministry of Agricultural Pro-
curement, in the new lands. An effort was made last summer (195+) to send
trucks of the Ministry directly to the fields to the grain combines and
to haul the grain direct to the procurement points. 80 At these points
the grain was handled, dried, and stored. This effort, like the first
above, has so far been quite limited in scope. 81 Storage facilities
were unavailable or in poor repair, not enough trucks were supplied,
the supply of grain-dryers to the Ministry of Agricultural Procurement
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was limited, and probably the Ministry's labor force was kept at a
minimum. L2/ The result is that on the new land areas last year most
of the grains were harvested according to methods prevailing in other
highly mechanized grain areas.'
A third gesture in the direction of increasing the role of
the state in agriculture is in construction activity. In the new lands
during 195+-55 the state will build 425 new sovkhozy. 84 In the
USSR as a whole the state apparently may build several thousand new
MTS's within the next few years. 85 More extensive mechanization
and higher labor productivity undoubtedly will result from the
incorporation of these units -- especially the MTS's -- in agricultural
activities.
* In these older areas the labor inputs of kolkhozniki are about
one-third of their labor inputs when using nonmechanized methods. 83
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APPENDIX A
METHODOLOGY
This appendix presents methods used to derive data which were not
fully explained in the text. These methods apply to three types of
problems, as follows: derivation of production data, assignment of
labor inputs to enterprises, and calculation of labor productivity.
I. Problems in the Derivation of Production Data.
Problem 1: To Determine the Production of Fruits.
The production of fruits was determined on the bases of the 1928
area planted in fruit, 1,261,000 hectares, and-the total average produc-
tion of fruit for 1925-28, about 2.2 million tons. 86 Calculation
of the yield per hectare gives 17.45 centners of fruit per hectare
for 1928. Application of this yield figure to hectares in fruit*
gives the production of fruit as listed in Table 1.**
Problem 2: To Determine the Production of Cucurbits
and Silage Crops.
Production data on these crops are based on yields per hectare
applicable in 1938,*** multiplied by the number of hectares planted.*
Problem 3: To Determine the Production of Feed Roots
and Silage Crops.
The production data for these crops for 1938 were derived by
applying the yield of 10.69 tons of feed roots per hectare prevailing
in 1932 87 to the hectarage for 1938 (postwar boundaries), given
in Table 13. This gives the total 1938 production, estimated at
about 104 million centners as shown in Table 1.
* See Table 13, p. 66, below.
** P. 7, above.
*** See Table 7, p. 30, above.
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Table 1 gives 1938 production data for silage, for the prewar Soviet
boundaries. 88 Since this silage consisted partly of weeds, 89 it
seemed feasible to let this prewar boundary production figure stand as
representing the better quality production for the postwar boundaries
of 1938.
The 1951 and 1953 production data for these two crops were based
on feeding rates (kilograms per animal, as shown in Table 11*) established
for 1938 for the various livestock production enterprises. Only the
rates for 1928 were available. 90 The 1938 rates (which were higher
than the 1928 rates) were derived by applying the 1928 rates to live-
stock numbers in 1938, as shown in Table 11. Then the percentage
distribution among the various animals, based on the 1928 rates, was
determined for each of the feed roots and silage crops. These
percentages were applied to the total feed production data for feed
roots or silage crops. The 1938 feed rates, based on 1938 produc-
tion, were then calculated and applied to 1951 and 1953 livestock
numbers to determine 1951 and 1953 production of feed roots and
silage crops. This procedure assumes constancy of feed rates from
1938 to 1953.
A final consideration has to do with the problem of wastage of
production due to neglect or decay of feed roots and silage in storage..
In 1928 this wastage was estimated as 10 percent for feed crops. 91
This percentage was applied to the production of feed roots and
silage derived from feed rates for 1938, 1951, and 1953, thus increasing
the total production of these crops to include the wastage.**
Problem 4: To Determine the Production of Hay and Pasture.
In determining the production of hay and pasture, feed rates
had to be first calculated, based on the numbers of horses for
1938, 1951, and 1953. Horses of all ages are expressed as adult
horse equivalents for all crops except hay and pasture, in which
cases horses are counted in original total numbers. An adult
horse is usually defined as 3 years old or older. Horses under 3
years old may be converted to adult horse equivalents at the ratio
of 3 to 1, on the basis of the amount of feed grain required for the
P. 56,- -below.
See Table 1, P- 7, above.
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younger as compared with the older horses. 92 The horse numbers listed
in Table 11* are given as adult horse equivalents, but the feed rates
for hay and pasture apply to all horses.
Feed rates of hay for all animals, as given in Table 11, are
derived from revisions of a set of previously published hay production
figures for 1938 and 1951. 93 These figures, when divided by live-
stock numbers, give the following feed rates:
Animals
1938
(Kilograms
per Head
1951
(Kilograms
per Head)
Index
(1938 = 100)
Horses
1,230.00
1,298.54
105.57
Cows
720.00
782.40
108.67
Other cattle
313.42
296.24
94.52
Sheep and goats
76.00
76.00
100.00
These rates yield a 1938 production figure which is considerably
lower than the 1938 production figure used for this report, 750
million centners. 94 Hence the 1938 feed rates for hay were boosted
upward, on the basis of the distribution of hay derived from the
unrevised 1938 feed rates listed above.** This distribution was
converted to a percentage distribution which was then applied to
the estimate of 1938 hay production, 750 million centners. Hay
feed rates could then be approximated by division of the revised
1938 figures for the quantity of hay per livestock enterprise by the
number of livestock per enterprise. These rates are shown in Table
11.
The 1951 rates were determined by adjusting the revised 1938
rates upward on the basis of the indexes of feeding tabulated above.
These rates are also shown in Table 11 and, when applied to live-
stock numbers, give the 1951 hay production data shown in Table 1.**
The 1951 rates were held constant for 1953 to determine 1953 hay
production.
P. 56,, below.
P. 7, above.
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Pasture production for 1938, 1951, and 1953 was estimated on the
basis of pasture units per head of livestock. This unit is based on
the amount of roughage of all types fed to 1 beef cow, 2 years old or
older, in North Dakota* for the 1948-49 feed year. 95 The relative
roughage units required per year per animal in North Dakota are shown
as follows:
Animal Unit Factors
for Roughage-Consuming Livestock
Fed in One Year
Type of Animal
North Dakota
Milk cows 2 years old or older
0.90
Heifers and calves for milkers
0.40
Beef cows 2 years old or older
1.00
0.88
Cattle on feed
0.30
0.33
All other cattle
0.50
o.44
Stock sheep
0.20
0.x:0
Horses and mules 2 years old
or older
0.80
0.75
Horse and mule colts
0.50
o.48
Chickens
0.0012
0.0012
Hogs
0.01
0.01
* North Dakota was selected on the assumption that production and
feeding practices there more than in any other US state resemble
conditions in the USSR.
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This distribution of pasture unit requirements per head for North
Dakota livestock was for the purposes of this report converted to
milk cow unit equivalents -- that is, the milk cow pasture unit was
made the unit basis for application to animal husbandry in the USSR.
The rate for "all other cattle" was made the basis for the pasture
unit rate for "other cattle" enterprises in the USSR, listed in Table
ll.* By multiplying these converted rates by the respective live-
stock numbers, the estimates of pasture production for each year shown
in Table 1** were obtained. The distribution of feed allocated to
livestock, by type of livestock, is given in Table 12.***
The theory on which the use of these units is based depends on the
composition of roughage in the US, in which roughage includes hay,
silage, stover (shredded cornstalks), straw, pasture, range forage,
and other coarser fodders, and excludes such succulent feeds as
feed roots, pumpkins, and other vegetables used as feed in the USSR.
The assumption, therefore, is that in the USSR the amount of pasture
used is probably correlated with the amount of other kinds of coarse
fodders used per livestock enterprise. This theory is probably
tenable. Cows are heavy consumers of hay and also of pasture forage.
Hogs, which use practically no coarse hay, use but little pasture.
The use of the roughage unit to represent pasture requirements thus
facilitates the determination of pasture production.
Problem 5: To Measure Wool and Mohair as Sheep and Goat
Meat Equivalents.
The problem of assigning labor inputs separately for the produc-
tion of wool and mohair on the one hand and of meat products from
sheep and goats on the other seemed so difficult that it was believed
to be more convenient to express wool and mohair production, by means
of farm value relations, as sheep and goat meat products equivalents
(in centners). Total labor inputs to sheep and goats then could be
related to total meat products.****
* Table 11 follows on p. 56.
** P. 7, above.
*** Table 12 follows on p. 61.
** Continued on p. 62.
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Feeding Rates in Soviet Animal Husbandry, by Type of Feed J*
1938 (Postwar Boundaries), 1951, and 1953
Type of Feed Horses
Cows
Other
Cattle
Hogs
Pigs
Sheep
and Goats
Poultry
1938
(Number of livestock J --
thousand head)
(15,217) J
(26,640)
(32,560)
(17,728)
(13,872)
(73,100)
(238,000)
Winter wheat
1.34
Rye J
4.82
2.94
1.25
0.97
Spring wheat
2.25
Barley
35.30
62.47
21.05
131.04
36.49
0.64
Oats
453.70
34.10
11.49
71.51
19.91
3.53
3.08
Corn
13.00
38.27
8.48
1.73
Other grains e/
5.78
3.97
35.33
18.66
Total grains /
502.00
107.162
36.51
279.10
84.79
3.53
10.01
Potatoes E/
55.62
151.82
45.09
605.76
186.39
4.51
2.78
Silage crops J
225.15
40.93
40.93
17.06
17.06
~h
Feed roots
66.10
151.09
37.09
126.30
34.23
3.54
0.06
.
Hay crops y
1,603.28
888.01
386.56
93.74
Pasture units J
(Number of livestock J --
0.72
1.00
0.56
0.01
0.22
0.0013
thousand head)
(10,476) J
(24,200)
(33,000)
(13,520)
(10,580)
(99,000)
(270,000)
Winter wheat J
1.34
Rye tJ
4.09
2.50
i.o6
0.97
Spring wheat
2.25
Barley
32.63
53.05
17.89
111.27
30.99
0.64
Oats
419.36
28.95
9.75
60.73
16.91
3.00
3.08
Corn
12.01
32.50
7.20
1.73
Other grains e/
4.91
3.38
30.00
15.84
Total grains
464.00
91.00
31.00
237.00
72.00
3.00
10.01
Potatoes h/
47.79
130.44
38.75
520.47
160.14
3.88
2.39
Silage crops J
225.15
40.93
40.93
17.06
17.06
~h
Feed roots
66.10
151.09
37.09
126.30
34.23
3.54
0.06
.
Hay crops J
1,692.62
964.97
365.37
93.74
Pasture units J
0.77
1.00
0.56
0.01
0.22
0.0013
(Number of livestock J --
thousand head)
(11,699) J
(24,300)
(32,300)
(15,988)
(12,512)
(109,900)
(300,000)
Winter wheat
1.14
Rye d
4.09
2.50
1.06
0.82
Spring wheat
1.91
Barley
32.62
53.05
17.87
111.27
30.99
0.54
Oats
419.36
28.95
9.76
60.73
16.91
3.00
2.62
Corn
12.02
32.50
7.20
1.47
Other grains e/
4.91
3.37
30.00
15.84
Total grains J
464.00
91.00
31.00
237.00
72.00
3.00
8.50
Potatoes m/
27.81
75.91
22.55
302.88
93.19
2.26
1.39
Silage crops J
225.15
40.93
40.93
17.06
17.06
Feed roots
66.10
151.09
37.09
126.30
34.23
3.54
0.06
Hay crops
1,692.62
964.97
365.37
93.74
Pasture units J
0.77
1.00
0.56
0.01
0.22
C.0013
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Table 11
Feeding Rates in Soviet Animal Husbandry, by Type of Feed a/
1938 (Postwar Boundaries), 1951, and 1953
(Continued)
a. The feeding rates in this table were derived from 1928 data in a
Soviet publication. 96 Other sources and interpretations 97 used here
were also based on this source. The percentage distribution of feed per
crop among the various livestock enterprises was important, especially
in the distribution of grain fed. These percentages are found in Table
12, p. 61, below.
b. Livestock numbers used in computing these data are taken from a
recent publication, 98 except that horses have been converted to work
horse equivalents.
c. Horse numbers were converted to work horse equivalents (practically
all 3 years old or older) for all crops except hay and pasture. (See
Problem 4, p. 52, above.) In 1938 the actual number of horses of all
ages was 19.9 million; in 1951, 13.7 million; and in 1953, 15.3 million.
Of the 1938 total, 12.9 million were work horses, or approximately
5 percent. This percentage applied to 1951 horse numbers gives about
8.9 million work horses and 4.8 million others, and applied to 1953
horse numbers gives about 10 million work horses and 5.3 million others.
In estimating the amount of grain fed, 3 "other horses" are equivalent
to 1 work horse. 100
d. The average amount of wheat and rye fed annually in 1925-30 was
about 7 million tons, or about 16 percent of the total production. 101
It was fed principally as meal or whole grain flour (muki) or as bran
or millfeed (otrubi). Most of the meal apparently was whole rye meal. 102
The predominant part of the rye and wheat fed, however, consisted of
millfeed. 103 Of the total 22.7 million tons of all grains fed in 1925-
30, about Ii. million tons were millfeed. 104
This relatively large amount of millfeed declined greatly, however,
during the 1930's. From 1933-34 to 1396-37 the total millfeed (all
grains) was only about 1.5 million tons, and by 1938 (prewar boundaries),
about 1.3 million tons. 105 On the basis of this development and on
the theory that wheat and rye were desired by Soviet officials for the
growing urban proletariat, the estimated amount of wheat and rye used
as feed was cut drastically by this report to only about 2 to 3 percent,
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Feeding Rates in Soviet Animal Husbandry, by Type of Feed a/
1938 (Postwar Boundaries), 1951, and 1953
(Continued)
as shown in Table 1, p. 7, above. Slight increases above the 193
levels were made in these percentages for 1951 and 1953, due to the
fact that production was cut so low for other grains, especially oats
and barley. Because the amount of wheat and rye in millfeed was small
in 1938 and most of the millfeed was produced from other grains, the
decision was made to consider in this report only grain used whole (or
as meal). Whole wheat fed was based on 1928 wheat-feeding rates to
poultry, and allocated to poultry only. Whole rye (meal) was allocated
to cows, hogs and pigs, and poultry, also on the basis of 1928 feed
rates.
e. "Other grains" fed include buckwheat and millet (groats) -- pre-
dominantly millet -- about 600,0oO tons in 1926-27. This amount is
slightly less than 16 percent of the total buckwheat and millet pro-
duced in 1926-27, less than 3.7 million tons. 106 This percentage
was adopted as applicable, with slight variations, for the years
listed in this report, and applies to all other grains, including
grain legumes such as peas and beans. (See Table 1, p. 7, above.)
f. Total grains (whole) fed to livestock enterprises in 1938 are esti-
mated at over 200 million centners, 107 as shown in Table 1. This
total applies to the postwar boundaries of the USSR and is about the
same as for the 1937 prewar boundaries. 108 The 1938 prewar boundaries
produced about 18 million tons. 109
On the basis of 1928 feed rates, the total grain required would
have been only 185 million centners in 1938 (postwar boundaries).
Thus the 1938 rates shown in Table 11 were raised above the 1928 rates,
except for horses, which were assumed to have been fed at the 1928
levels, on the assumption that under advancing collectivization horses
would become unnecessary in great numbers and probably would not
receive increased feed grain rations, since they probably would not
be required to perform as much heavy labor as before.
The 1938 rates for all livestock except horses were increased.
The total increase of the 1938 rates above the 1928 rates, about
19.3 million centners, when applied to 1938 livestock numbers
had first to be distributed to the various livestock enterprises
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Table 11
Feeding Rates in Soviet Animal Husbandry, by Type of Feed a/
1938 (Postwar Boundaries), 1951, and 1953
(Continued)
(except horses). The distribution was done by subtracting the grain
which was fed horses, 76.4 million centners, from the total grain fed
at 1928 rates (for 1938), 185 million centners. The remainder was
then converted to a percentage distribution by enterprises (excluding
horses). This percentage distribution was then applied to the
increase of 19.3 million centners. This procedure gave the absolute
increases for all livestock categories except for horses.. To obtain the
1938 quantities fed at 1938 rates, these increases in grains were added
to the amounts of grain fed in 1938 at 1928 rates. The 1938 quantities
then were divided by the number of livestock per enterprise to obtain
the rates as shown in Table 12, p. 61, below.
g. Potato production in 1938 in the USSR was so poor 110 that the
purposes of this report required a different estimate, one which would
approach more normal production levels.. Hence the 1933-37 average for
the USSR (postwar boundaries), 738,380,000 centners of potatoes, 111
was adopted as the production figure for 1938.
Potatoes used as feed in 1924-28 averaged about 28 percent of total
production. This percentage when applied to the 1938 production figure
gave less than 207 million centners fed for 1938. 112 (See Table 1,
p. 7, above.) The rates in use in 1928, 113 when applied to 1938
livestock numbers, give a total of potatoes fed of only about 138
million centners. On the basis of the distribution of 1938 potatoes
at 1928 rates, a percentage distribution was determined and then
applied to the 1938 actual production figure, 207 million centners.
Rates were then obtained by dividing the quantities fed various live-
stock enterprises by the respective livestock numbers in 1938. The
resulting 1938 rates were about 50 percent above the rates applicable
in
1928.
114
h.
See
Problem 3,
p. 51, above..
i.
See
Problem 4,
p. 52, above..
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Table 11
Feeding Rates in Soviet Animal Husbandry, by Type of Feed a/
1938 (Postwar Boundaries) 1951, and 1953
(Continued]
j. Because of the reduction in total grains produced in 1951, as
compared to production in 1938, grain feed rates in 1951 were reduced
below the 1938 rates except for poultry, for which the rates were
maintained at the 1938 level. The reduced rates for cattle, swine,
and sheep and goats are essentially the same as the rates which
prevailed in 1928 for these livestock. The 1951 rate for horses is
the 1928 grain ration minus the meal (muki).
k. The 1951 estimate of potatoes fed, 177- million centners, is
approximately 21 percent of total potato production. ' (See Table
1, p. 7, above.) When 192b rates are applied to 1951 livestock
numbers, the total amount of potatoes for feed thus obtained is only
about 114 million centners. The 1928 feed rates for the various
livestock were adjusted upward on the basis of the application of
the percentage distribution of feed based on 1928 rates to the 1951
total feed potatoes. The rates were then determined by dividing
the new quantities of feed potatoes per livestock enterprise by the
number of livestock per enterprise.
1. Feed rates of grains for 1953 were maintained at 1953 levels,
except that the rate for poultry was reduced to the 1928 level.
m. A recent article reports that rates of potatoes fed to live-
stock (per head) had decreased by 50 percent per head in 1953 by
comparison with 19+0 116 and are half the 1938 rates. Since the
1938 rates are in reality average rates for 1933-37, the latter may
also stand for 19+0 rates. It seems clear that 1953 was a poor
agricultural season for potatoes.
The application of these reduced potato rates to 1953 livestock
numbers-gives less than 96 million centners fed in 1953, or less
than 14.4 percent of the total production of potatoes. This
percentage is approximately half the percentage applicable to the
quantity of potatoes fed in 1938.
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Distribution of Feed Allocated to Soviet Livestock, by Type of Livestock a/
1938 (Postwar Boundaries), 1951, and 1953
Distribution of Feed
(Percent)
Total Feed
Sheep
(Thousand
Other
and
Feed Crop
b
Centnera) J
Horses
Cows
Cattle
Hogs
Pigs
Goats
Poultry
Total
Winter wheat
3,190
100.00
100.00
Rye
4,276
30.00
12.19
4.07
53.74
100.00
Spring wheat
5,362
100.00
100.00
Barley
58,685
9.15
28.36
11.68
39.58
8.63
2.60
100.00
Oats
107,216
64.39
8.47
3.49
11.82
2.58
2.41
6.84
100.00
Corn
14,055
14.07
48.27
8.37
29.29
100.00
Other
11,686
13.18
11.07
53.60
22.15
100.00
Total grains
204,470
37.36
13.96
5.82
24.20
5.75
1.26
11.65
100.00
Potatoes
206,747
4.og
19.56
7.10
51.94
12.51
1.59
3.20
100.00
Silage crops
95,400
62.87
13.97
7.60
2.48
13.07
100.00
Feed roots
93,516
10.76
43.04
12.91
23.94
5.08
2.77
1.50
100.00
Hay crops
750,000
42.54
31.54
16.78
9.14
Pasture units
81,463
18.84
32.70
22.21
2.42
19.94
3.90
100.00
Winter wheat
3,618
100.00
100.00
Rye
4,048
24.46
8.32
2.79
64.43
100.00
Spring wheat
6,083
100.00
100.00
Barley
42,208
8.10
30.41
13.99
35.64
7.77
4.09
100.00
Oats
75,444
58.23
9.29
4.27
10.88
2.37
3.94
11.02
100.00
Corn
11,083
11.36
39.65
6.87
42.12
100.00
Other
8,033
14.79
13.86
50.49
20.86
100.00
Total grains
150,517
32.30
14.63
6.80
21.29
5.o6
1.97
17.96
100.00
Potatoes
146,955
3.41
21.48
8.70
47.88
11.53
2.61
4.39
100.00
Silage crops
92,222
59.08
14.65
6.oo
1.96
18.32
100.00
Feed crops
81,523
8.49
44.85
15.01
20.95
4.44
4.30
1.95
100.00
Hay crops
678,780
34.16
34.40
17.76
13.67
100.00
Pasture units
80,201
13.17
30.17
22.86
1.87
27.43
4.49
100.00
Winter wheat
3,414
100.00
100.00
Rye
3,986
24.94
10.01
3.34
61.72
100.00
Spring wheat
5,739
100.00
100.00
Barley
45,783
8.34
28.16
12.61
38.86
8.47
3.57
100.00
Oats
82,217
59.67
8.56
3.83
11.81
2.57
4.01
9.55
100.00
Corn
11,906
11.80
43.64
7.57
36.99
100.00
Other
9,062
13.17
12.03
52.93
21.87
100.00
Total grains 162,107 33.49
13.64
6.18
23.38
5.56
2.03
15.73
100.00
Potatoes
95,716
3.40
19.27
7.61
50.59
12.18
2.59
4.36
100.00
Silage crops
95,359
57.37
13.86
6.86
2.24
19.66
100.00
Feed roots
86,565
8.93
42.41
13.84
23.33
4.95
4.50
2.04
100.00
Hay crops
714,453
36.25
32.82
16.52
14.42
100.00
Pasture units
84,243
14.01
28.85
21.30
2.11
28.99
4.75
100.00
a. The percentages in this table are obtained by dividing the feed fed per livestock enterprise,
per crop, by the total centnere of feed per crop. The amounts of feed fed per crop and per animal
were determined as in Table 11, p. 56, above, and in Problems 3 and 4, pp. 51 and 52, above,
respectively.
b. See Table 1, p. 7, above.
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The expression of wool and mohair production as meat products
equivalents started with the following data for 1951:
Products
Estimated Production
(Centners)
Estimated Farm Value
(1951 Rubles per Kilogram)
Mohair
37,990
20.45
Wool
1,600,000
117
8.34
Sheep
and goat meat
(including fats) 5,800,000
118
15.78
Some additional data were available, as follows: mohair production
in 1938 (prewar boundaries) was about 2,700 tons, 119 wool production
in 1938 (prewar boundaries) about l30,300 tons, 120 and wool produc-
tion in 1953 about 175,000 tons. 121
Mohair and wool production for 1938 (postwar boundaries) was
derived on the basis of mohair yields per goat. In 1938 (prewar
boundaries) there were about 9.3 million goats. 122 The yield in
mohair was therefore about 0.29 kilograms per goat. This yield figure
was applied to the 1938 (postwar boundaries) number of goats --
9,654,000 123 -- to obtain the mohair production of about 2,800 tons.
Since, in the prewar boundaries, mohair production for 1938 was about
2.03 percent of total wool and mohair production, 133,000 tons, i24
this percentage figure could be applied to mohair production fora
the postwar boundaries to obtain total wool and mohair production,
138,074 tons. Wool production subsequently was 135,271 tons.
Mohair production in 1951 and 1953 was obtained by determining
goat numbers and applying the 1938 mohair yields. In 1938 (postwar
boundaries), goats numbered about 13.215 percent of the total sheep
and goats. This percentage applied to the 1951 total sheep and
goats, 99 million, gives about 13 million goats. At the prewar rate
of yield, mohair production in 1951 was 3,799 tons. In 1953, of the
109.9 million sheep and goats, 14.5 million were goats. Mohair
production was therefore about 4,200 tons.
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The next step was to calculate the ratio of farm value of wool
and of mohair to the farm value of sheep and goat meat. The ratio
of the value of wool to the value of sheep and goat meat is esti-
mated to have been about 0.53 and of mohair, about 1.30. The meat
products equivalents of wool and mohair production are as follows:
Centnersof Meat Equivalents
Year
Mohair
Wool
Total
1938 (postwar boundaries)
36,000
715,000
751,000
1951
49,000
846,oo0
895,000
1953
55,000
925,000
980,000
Problem 6: To Measure Egg Production as Poultry Meat
Equivalents.
Egg production for 1938 is calculated as 480,000 tons; for 1951,
550,000 tons; and for 1953, 600,000 tons. 125 The dressed, ready-
to-cook weight production of poultry meat is calculated as about
260,000 tons in 1938, about 290,000 tons in 1951, and about 320,000
tons in 1953. Estimation of egg production is based on the rate of
production of about 52.7 eggs per chicken prevailing in 1928 126
and on the weight of about 50 grams per egg. Estimation of poultry
meat production is based on a 1938 yield figure of about 1.5 kilo-
grams live weight per head of poultry. This figure is derived
from the poultry meat production in 1938 (prewar boundaries), about
299,400 tons, and the total number of poultry, about 200 million. 127
Dressed, ready-to-cook weight is estimated at about 73 percent of
live-weight production, based on US experience.
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Price ratios are necessary for the 3 years in order to express
eggs as poultry meat equivalents. These are estimated as follows:
Average Value per Metric
Ton (1951 Rubles)
Year
Eggs
Poultry Meat
Ratio of the Value of Eggs
to the Value of Meat
1938
16,325
16,250
l.oo46
1951
16,173
16,250
0.9953
1953
16,465
16,250
1.0132
These ratios applied to egg production give 4,820,000 centners
of poultry meat equivalents for 1938, about 5,470,000 centners in
1951, and 6,080,000 centners in 1953. Total meat products equivalents
are shown in Table 4.*
Problem 7: To Measure Farm-Produced Draft Power.
Farm-produced draft power produced by horses in 1938, 1951, and
1953 was determined by estimating the average number of shifts worked
per animal on the kolkhozy.
In 1938 (prewar boundaries) the number of work oxen 2 years old
or older on the kolkhozy is given as 2,713,000 and the number in
total agriculture, 3,551,000. 128 The number of work horses (prac-
tically all over 3 years old) on the kolkhozy is given as 7,820,000
and the number in total agriculture, l0,498,000. 12 The expenditure
of power hours by kolkhoz work stock is reported as 14,668 million
hours. 130 Since each draft ox is equivalent to 0.50 horsepower and
each draft horse to 0.75 horsepower, there were 1,356,500 ox horse-
power and 5,865,000 horse horsepower on the kolkhozy in the prewar
area. The average number of power shifts (10 hours per shift) per
kolkhoz horsepower (for farm-produced draft) was, therefore, 203.3.16
shifts per year.
* P. 22, above.
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This rate may now be applied to the number of draft horses 131
for the 3 years compared in this report. In 1938 (postwar boundaries),
12,875,000 draft horses worked over 2.6 billion shifts; in 1951,
8,864,000 horses worked about 1.8 billion shifts; and in 1953 about
9.9 million horses worked about 2 billion shifts. These data are
found in Table 4.*
II. Problems in the Assignment of Labor Inputs to Enterprises.
Problem 8: To Assign Labor Inputs on the Care and Maintenance
of Horses to Field Husbandry.
In the accounts of Soviet agricultural bookkeepers, labor expended
on the care and maintenance of horses, D2/ like that in the operation
of MTS machinery, 133 is registered separately from the labor assigned
to the cultivation of crops. From the point of view of economics,
however, labor on the care and maintenance of horses should be regarded
as a cost to field crops. Because horses are used on the farm princi-
pally for the production of crops, farmers must trade feed for farm-
produced draft power.
The problem in methodology was to determine the criterion by which
to assign this type of labor inputs to field husbandry enterprises.
No direct data were available bearing on these inputs. The criterion
adopted was the percentage distribution of labor inputs on field crops,
using "horse-and-hand" methods. These inputs consist of all manual
labor in field husbandry, including labor using horses, which is
directly employed neither in the operation of MTS or sovkhoz machinery
(such as the labor of tractor drivers) nor in auxiliary support of
MTS or sovkhoz machinery (such as the labor of water and fuel haulers). 134
A good example of labor using horse-and-hand methods is the worker
cultivating vegetables. Machinery is difficult to adapt to this type
of cultivation.
In 1938 the distribution of labor inputs estimated by these methods
totaled over 4.l'billion man-days as compared with 4.06 billion man-days
in 1951. 135 This distribution depends on the labor inputs required
per hectare per year for each of the crops in field husbandry. The
distribution of hectares in Soviet field husbandry for 1938, 1951, and
1953 is shown in Table 13.**
* P. 22, above.
** Table 13 follows on p. 66.
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Distribution of Sown Hectares in Soviet Field Husbandry, by Crop a/*
1938 (Postwar Boundaries), 1951, and 1953
Type of Crop
1938 1951 1953
Winter grains
Winter wheat
15,000
15,000
16,900
Rye
24,600
26,800
22,000
Total
winter grains
39,600
41,800
38,900
Spring grains
Spring wheat
27,100
27,900
31,300
Barley
10,760
8,800
8,200
Oats
20,030
17,300
16,100
Corn
4,050
2,900
2,800
Rice
155
180
180
Other spring crops
12,005
6,720
9,120
Total
rains
i
74,100
63,800
67,T,700
ng g
spr
Total
ai
s
113,700
105,600
106,600
gr
n
Fruits and vegetables
Fruits
1,517
1,385
:L, 385
Potatoes
9,001
9,470
9,308
Vegetables
11462
1, 400
:L, 330
Cucurbits
627
6oo
570
Total fruits and
t
bl
12
607
12, 855
12, 593
es
a
vege
,
Footnote for Table 13 follows on p. 67.
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Table 13
Distribution of Sown Hectares in Soviet Field Husbandry, by Crop a/
1938 (Postwar Boundaries), 1951, and 1953
(Continued)
Type of Crop
1938 1951 1953
Sugar beets
Tobacco
1,289
208
1,336
206
1,500
210
Cotton
2,083
2,687
2,687
Flax
2,503
2,100
2,100
Hemp
691
608
608
Sunflowers
3,302
3,913
4,200
Soya beans
282
274
300
Other (minor) oils
1,015
1,023
1,100
Total oil-bearing
crops
9,876
10,605
10,995
Total technical
crops
11,373
12,147
12,705
Silage crops
828
1,059
1,199
Feed roots
972
1,275
1,446
Hay crops
74,600
86,872
89,561
Pa
sture
348,000
348,000
348,000
Total fodder and
forage
424,400
437,206
440,206
Grand Total
562,080
568,266
572,104
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These distributions, which allowed for labor savings produced by
the use of MTS machinery, were each converted to percentage distributions.
Each of these was then applied to the total inputs per year involved
in the care and maintenance of horses.* Each resulting distribution
of labor inputs on the care and maintenance of horses as allocated per
crop could then be added to the corresponding distribution of inputs
of labor involved in horse-and-hand methods and to the work employed
in the operation of machinery. Total inputs are shown in Table 2.
The assumption in the above percentage distributions of labor
involved in the care and maintenance of horses to field husbandry
enterprises is that the amount of human labor employed in horse-and-
hand methods of agricultural cultivation is closely correlated with
the amount of horse labor involved. The more human labor employed
in such methods, the more horse labor is used per crop; the less
human labor employed, the less horse labor.
Problem 9: To Assign Labor Inputs on Feed Crops to Animal
Husbandry.
The assignment of labor spent on feed production to livestock
enterprises involved two calculations. The first was to determine
the amount of production used as feed. The percent of production per
crop which was used as feed could then be determined, as in Table 1.**
This percent could then be applied to the amount of total labor spent
on feed production per crop. This calculation assumes that the
quantity of labor expended per hectare per crop for feed is essentially
the same as the quantity of labor expended per hectare for the same
crop for nonfeed purposes.
The second, more difficult calculation involved distribution of
labor inputs on feed production per crop among the various livestock
enterprises which use the feed. This distribution was achieved by
the use of the percentage distributions listed in Table 12. Each
percentage distribution applies to a particular crop and measures the
relative amounts of feed per crop and of labor spent on the amount
that feed required for livestock enterprises using the feed.
See Table 2, p. 13, above.
P. 7, above.
P. 61, above.
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Although the absolute quantities of feed fed per crop for livestock
enterprises have not been given in this report, they may be calculated
by applying each percentage distribution, as given in Table 12,* to
the total feed fed per crop, also listed in Table 12. These absolute
quantities were derived from data in Table 11** by multiplying feed
rates per head of livestock by the number of stock per enterprise.
The absolute quantities of labor expended on feed fed per crop
for the various livestock enterprises have not been given in this
report. They may, however, be determined by applying each percentage
distribution given in Table 12 to the total labor inputs on feed
per crop given in Table 2.XXX
III. Problem in the Calculation of Labor Productivity.
Problem 10: To Determine Indexes of Labor Productivity
by Aggregates of Enterprises.
The calculation of indexes of labor productivity by aggregates
is complicated by the fact that, although it may be feasible to
aggregate labor inputs, it is not economically legitimate to aggregate
production for groups of enterprises. In agriculture this rule some-
times may be violated, as in the case of an aggregate of closely related
products such as total grain production. In industry, however, it is
clearly impossible, for example, to aggregate production for an indus-
try which produces nails and also steel girders. Changes in demand,
in the value of the various products, and in the value of labor inputs
on the various products are not necessarily in the same direction and
at the same rates of change over a period of time. In the case of
those agricultural products which are not closely related, it is also
impossible -- for example, to construct indexes of labor productivity
over a time span for the aggregates 137 by adding physical volumes
of soya bean oil and of grain and then adding their respective labor
inputs.
P . 61, above.
P. 56, above.
P. 13, above. Also see Table 3, p. 18, above.
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The solution of this problem was to use the following formula 138
for the derivation of labor productivity:
L V1951 1 + V1951 2 + n
Formula (A) 1951 = 1 x E1938 2 x E1938 n x E1938
V1938 V1938 V1938
Total E1951
L equals the Index of Labor Productivity.
V equals the production of a particular enterprise, the
number associated with V indicates the enterprise, and
the date indicates the year.
E equals the man-days required for the production of
the enterprise, the number associated with E indicates
the labor required for the production of the same enter-
prise associated with V, and the date indicates the
year.
n is a symbol which when associated with the others
indicates that mathematical operations are to be carried
out for all other enterprises included in the aggregate.
The above formula may be shortened, as follows:
Formula (B) Ll =
Sum E1
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It may be shortened even further, as follows:
Sum y1 J El
Formula (C) L1 =
Sum E1
where
Subscript 0 refers to 1938 and subscript 1 to 1951 for particular
enterprises.
The mathematical steps involved in Formulas (A) and (B) consist
of weighting the 1951 indexes of labor productivity per individual
enterprise by the 1951 labor inputs per enterprise, summing the
results of the weighting, and dividing the weighted sum by the sum
of 1951 labor inputs for all enterprises in the aggregate.
Data for winter grains taken from Table 6* may be applied as
follows:
1938
Winter
Grains
Labor Inputs
(Thousand
Man-Days)
Output per Man-
Day (Kilograms)
Labor Inputs
(Thousand
Man-Days)
Output per Man-
Day (Kilograms)
Winter
wheat
239,771
63.72
228,832
58.73
Rye
395,995
55?49
402,333
56.91
Total
635,766
631,165
* P. 29, above.
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Then 58.73/63.72 times 228,832 gives 210,905, and 56.91/55.49 times
402,333 gives 412,627. The sum of 210,905 and 412,627 equals 623,532.
This sum divided by 631,165 equals 98.79, which is the index of labor
productivity for winter grains as a whole
Table 14* gives output rates per man-day (absolute labor produc-
tivity figures) for 1938, 1951, and 1953 for use in determining
indexes of labor productivity for aggregates of enterprises according
to Formulas (A) and (B). The data are given in kilograms per man-day,
except in the case of horses, when the unit of production changes to
work-shifts (by horses) per man-day.
Although Formula (C) gives the same index as Formulas (A) and
(B), it also allows calculation of the excesses of labor expenditures
shown in Table 8.** Its function is to compare the distribution
of actual labor inputs for an aggregate of enterprises for 1951
with the distribution of inputs which would have been required if
1951 production per enterprise had been handled with the same rate
of output per unit of labor as prevailed in 1938. The difference
between the actual labor inputs and the theoretically required
inputs is labeled "excess."
An example of the calculation of the 1951 index of labor produc-
tivity using Formula (C) for winter grains is as follows:
Production for
Nonfeed Uses
(Thousand
Centners)
Man-Days
Expended
(Thousand)
Production
Man-Days Re-
quired at
1938 Rates
1951 Index
of Labor
Winter
Ratio
of Production
Productivity
4
6
Grains
1938
1
19
8
1
1951
(2) 5 1
+ (3)___
) + :
)
(
Winter
wheat
152,775
5
134,382
3
239,771
228,832
87.96
210,905
92.17
Rye
219,724
228,952
395,995
402,333
104.20
412,627
102.56
635,766
631,165
627,532
98,79
* Table 1 follows on p. 73.
** P. 32, above.
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Table 14
Output per Man-Day of Soviet Agricultural Production,
by Productive Enterprise
1938 (Postwar Boundaries), 1951,-and 1953
Kilograms
Output per Man-Day
Productive Enterprise
1938
1951
1953
Field husbandry
(production for nonfeed use)
Winter wh
eat
63.72
58.73
54.05
Rye
55.49
56.91
55.28
Spring wh
eat
45.61
47.75
49.07
Barley
63.04
61.87
63.25
Oats
60.56
57.92
56.19
Corn
56.65
51.32
48.99
Rice
69.32
79.72
79.26
Other gra
ins
36.82
39.14
39.48
Fruits
186.17
182.17
180.63
Potatoes
109.81
lo4.64
99.13
Vegetables
44.05
45.60
45.22
Cucurbits
27.34
28.33
28.09
Sugar beets
(raw sugar)
12.21
11.88
11.99
Tobacco
19.22
17.22
16.75
Cotton and
cotton seed
7.32
7.69
7.62
Fl
ax fiber and flax seed
5.94
6.66
6.35
He
mp and hemp seed
7.14
6.05
6.13
Su
nflowers
36.00
30.22
32.38
So
ya beans
8.54
5.34
8.20
Ot
her (minor) oil crops
4.47
5.65
7.88
Footnotes for Table 14 follow on p. 74.
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Output per Man-Day of Soviet Agricultural Production,
by Productive Enterprise a/
1938 (Postwar Boundaries), 1951, and 1953
(Continued)
Output per Man-Day
Productive Enterprise
1938
1951
1953
Animal husbandry
Cows (whole milk)
20.38
16.39
16.46
Cattle
(meat products)
1.64
1.52
1.61
Swine
(meat products)
2.61
2.48
2.60
Sheep
and goats (wool, mohair,
and meat products measured
ti
)
d
34
1
1
20
1.33
.
uc
on
in terms of meat pro
.
Poultry (eggs and poultry meat
drawn on the farm measured in
terms of meat production)
1.52
1.51
1.53
Horses 5.92 J
5.22 J
5.21 J
a. These data are derived by dividing the centners of production by
the inputs in man-days. The centners are converted to kilograms, 1
centner = 100 kilograms. The production data for 1938 and 1951 are
shown in Table 4, p. 22, above and in Table 6, p. 29, above. The 1953
data were analyzed in the same manner as the data for 1938 and 1951. 13
b. Ten-hour shifts.
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APPENDIX B
GAPS IN INTELLIGENCE
Three major gaps in intelligence may contribute to error in this
report. First, more adequate production data are needed, particularly
for the detailed schedule of enterprises required for a study of this
character. Data on the production of fruits and vegetables since the
beginning of the war are lacking. Prewar estimates of yields per
hectare had to be used as a basis for determining current production.
Data on the production of fodder and forage in the postwar period are
very uncertain. Announced production data for these enterprises may
be spurious, because of the imperfect quality of the silage and hay
stored. The amount of wastage currently apparent in fodder crops in
the USSR is much higher than in the prewar era. This may be due to
lack of manpower to store the feed before it is damaged by weather.
The data for livestock production in the USSR as a whole are uncertain,
although estimates are available in Soviet reports on socialized pro-
duction. The data on poultry husbandry and farm-produced draft power
are especially uncertain.
Second, current information on feeding practices in Soviet animal
husbandry is noticeably lacking, although there are occasional articles
indicating practices for limited areas, and others which suggest norms
of feeding derived from experience on the best livestock farms. Because
of the lack of current information and because of the dependence in
this report on adjusted prewar feeding practices, estimates of the
distribution of labor inputs to the production of feed for animal hus-
bandry must be considered provisional. This gap in information also
affects the estimates of the distribution of labor inputs in field
husbandry enterprises, since the inputs on feed must be transferred
from field to animal husbandry enterprises.
Finally, adequate price and wage schedules are lacking-for an
analysis of labor productivity in a value frame of reference. It
is possible that such an analysis might produce results at variance,
at least in some respects, from those indicated in this report.
Information on wages and wage costs per hectare, per animal, and
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per unit of production, by regions, would seem desirable. A detailed
price schedule for agricultural commodities at the farm might also
prove to be useful for the determination of labor productivity by
enterprise, by enterprise group, and for total field husbandry, total
animal husbandry, and total agriculture. These prices would need to
be adjusted to account for the influence on production of obligatory
delivery prices, state retail prices, and free market (kolkhoz bazaar)
prices, and for the influence of value added in the processes of
production, processing, and marketing.
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APPENDIX C
SOURCE REFERENCES
Nine major sources were used for this report. CIA/RR 39, Agricul-
tural Labor in the USSR, 31 August 1954, SECRET, provided the labor
input data. CIA ORR Project 21.9.1, The Food Situation in The Soviet
Bloc in 1952, unpublished, SECRET, and CIA ORR Project 21.147, The
195Food Situation in the Soviet Bloc, unpublished, SECRET, pro-
vided most of the production data for 1938, 1951, and 1953. V. P.
Nifontov, Zhivotnovodstvo SSSR v tsifrakh, 1932, UNCLASSIFIED, was the
best source for feed rates for livestock, needed to facilitate the
correct assignment of labor inputs to field and animal husbandry.
The rates given by Nifontov applied to 1928 and had to be adjusted
to 1938, 1951, and 1953 agricultural and governmental conditions.
The adjustments are of course subject to error because of the lack
of current information. CIA/RR PR-28, Livestock Numbers and Meat
Production in the USSR, 17 Jun 1953, SECRET, contributed greatly
to this report by providing information on livestock and supplementary
information on feeding practices. Much of the data on feeding
practices in this report is taken from Nifontov.
It seems impossible to develop an analysis of data on agricultural
economics in the USSR without Naum Jasny, The Socialized Agriculture
of the USSR, 1949, UNCLASSIFIED, and Lazar Volin, "A Survey of Soviet
Russian Agriculture," August 1951, UNCLASSIFIED. These authorities,
especially Jasny, provide a mass of data and analysis which should
always be consulted.
Walter Galenson, Russian Labor Productivity Statistics, 10 May 1950,
UNCLASSIFIED, provides the formula which was adapted for use in this
report. His new book, Labor Productivity in Soviet and American Industr ,
1955, UNCLASSIFIED, was valuable for theoretical orientation. CIA RR PR-68,
Industrial Labor Productivity in the USSR, 9 August 1954, SECRET, gives
explanations, theory, and procedures applicable to the use of labor
productivity indexes.
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Evaluations, following the classification entry and designated
"Eval.," have the following significance:
Doc. - Documentary
A - Completely reliable
B - Usually reliable
C - Fairly reliable
D - Not usually reliable
E - Not reliable
F - Cannot be judged
1
- Confirmed by other sources
2
- Probably true
3
- Possibly true
4
- Doubtful
5
- Probably false
6
- Cannot be judged
"Documentary" refers to original documents of foreign governments
and organizations; copies or translations of such documents by a staff
officer; or information extracted from such documents by a staff
officer, all of which may carry the field evaluation "Documentary."
Evaluations not otherwise designated are those appearing on the
cited document; those designated "RR" are by the author of this report.
No "RR" evaluation is given when the author agrees with the evaluation
on the cited document.
1. CIA. CIA/RR 39, Agricultural Labor in the USSR, 31 Aug 54+,
Table 3, p. 21, S.
2. Agriculture. "Gains in Productivity of Farm Labor," by R.W. ];Hecht
and G.T. Barton, Technical Bulletin, no 1020, Dec 50, p. 4,
U. Eval. R$ 2.
3. Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford,
STATSPEC
Ibid., 21 Aug 52, p. BB 20, 24, U/OFF USE. Eval. RR 2.
Ibid., 7 Oct 52, p. BB 58-59, U/OFF USE. Eval. RR 4.
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STATS P E C 5. CIA. CIA/ORR Draft Paper, Current Developments in the Agriculture
of the USSR, nd (about Nov-53)., unpublished, p.. 5, S-
6.
25X1A
STATSPEC
3TATSPEC
7?
8.
9. CIA. CIA/RR 39, ok. cit. (1, above), Table 7, footnote a, p. 31,
-
11.
and Table 9, p. 37, 7
-
12* CIA. ORR Project 21.9.1, The Food Situation in the Soviet Bloc
in 1952, unpublished, S.
CIA. ORR Project 21.147, The 1953-54 Food Situation in the Soviet
Bloc, unpublished, S.
13. Nifontov, V.P. Zhivotnovodstvo SSSR v tsifrakh (Animal Husbandry
of the USSR in Figures), 1932, p. 128-146, U. Eval. RR 2.
CIA. CIA/RR PR-28, Livestock Numbers and Meat Production in the
USSR 17 Jun 53, p. 45-61, S.
14. CIA. CIA/RR PR-28, op.. cit. (13, above).
1.5. Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Economics. FM 64, revised,
Animal Units of Livestock Fed Annually, 1919-1920 -- 1948-1949,
Washington, Oct 9, Table 4, . 15, U-
16. Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford,
STATSPEC 1949, p. 618, U. Eval. RR 2.
17.
18. Ibid.
19. Khalturin, V. "MTS -- glavnaya reshayushchaya sila v razvitii
kolkhoznogo proizvodstva" (The MTS is the Chief Decisive Force
in the Development of Kolkhoz Production), Planovoye khozyaystvo,
STATSPEC _ no 2, 1954, p. 18-30, U. Eval. RR 2.
21. CIA. CIA/RR 39, ok. cit. (1, above), Table 5, p. 26, S.
22. Ibid., Tables 1 and 2, S.
23. Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford,
1949, P. 3911, 423-43, . Eval. RR 2.
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21+. CIA/RR 39, og. cit. (1, above), Table 1, p. 6-10, and Table 2,
p. 11-13, S.
25. Prokopovich, S.N. Narodnoye khoz a stvo SSSR (National Economy
of the USSR), book 1, p. 104, U. Eval. RR 1.
CIA. CIA/RR PR-32, Postwar Trends in Manpower of the USSR and
the European Satellites, 1947-57., 27 May 53, Table 2, p. 7, C.
26. Nifontov, op. cit. (13, above), p. 128-146, U. Eval. RR 2.
27. Lutsenko, M. "Moshchnoye razvitiye zhivotnovodstva -- nasushchnaya
zadacha v sel'skom khozyaystve" (The Powerful Development of
Animal Husbandry is the Vital Task in Agriculture), Kommunist,
no 15, Oct 53, P. 30-42, U. Eval. RR 2.
28. CIA. CIA/RR 39, off. cit. (1, above), Table 2, p. 11-13, S.
29. State, External Research Staff. "Russian Labor Productivity
Statistics," by Walter Galenson, series 3, no 15, 10 May 50,
U.
RAND Corporation. R-257, Labor Productivity in Soviet and
American Industry, by Walter Galenson, New York, 1955, chaps 1-4,
13, U. Eval. RR 2.
CIA. CIA/RR PR-68, Industrial Labor Productivity in the USSR,
9 Aug 54+, p. 1-4, s.
30. RAND Corporation. R-257, Labor Productivity in Soviet and
American Industry, by Walter Galenson, New York, 1955, chap 13,
U. Eval. RR 2.
31. CIA. ORR Project 21.9.1, op. cit. (12, above), S.
CIA. ORR Project 21.147, 22. cit. (12, above), S.
32. Agriculture. "A Survey of Soviet Russian Agriculture," by Lazar
25X1AGN10 Volin, Agriculture Monograph, no 5, 7 Aug 51, p. 56, U. Eval. RR 1.
33. Agriculture. "A Survey of Soviet Russian Agriculture," by Lazar
Volin, Agriculture Monograph, no 5, 7 Aug 51, U. Eval. RR 1.
Sotsialisticheskoye zemledeliye, 28 Feb 51, U. Eval. RR 2.
34. Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford,
1949, p. 638-654, U. Eval. RR 2.
35. Volin, Lazar. "The Malenkov-Khrushchev New Economic Policy,"
Journal of Political Economy, Jun 54, vol 62, no 3, p. 197-209,
U. Eval. RR 2.
36. Ibid.
3TATSPEC 37
38.
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STATSPEC
39. Prokopovich, op. cit. (25, above).
CIA. CIA/RR PR-32, op. cit. (25, above).
40. CIA. ORR Project 21.9.1, op. cit. 12, above).
CIA. ORR Project 21.147, op. cit. (12, above).
CIA. OCI, Current Intelligencp Digest. no 1055, 10 Nov 54, p. 3, S.
State. Moscow. T 713. 7 Nov 54. C. Eval. RR 2.
41.
42. CIA. CIA./RR 39, ok. cit. (1, above), Table 10, p. 47-48, s.
43. Ibid.
44. Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford,
1949, p. 393-39 , U. Eval. RR 2.
45. RAND Corporation. RM-1248, The Agricultural Labor Force and
Population of the USSR, by W .W . Eason, 4 May 51+, p . 52, 198,
U. Eval. RR 2.
46. CIA. CIA/RR PR-28, op. cit. (13, above).
47. Benediktov, I. "Za dal'neyshiy pod"yem sel'skogo khozyaystva"
(For Further Development of Agriculture),.Xolkh.oznore proizvodstvo,
no 1, Jan 52, p. 1-6, U. Eval. RR 2.
48. Nemchinov, V. "Ekonomicheskiye voprosy razvitiya zhivotnovodstva"
(Economic Problems in the Development of Animal Husbandry),
Voprosy ekonomiki, no 2, Feb 55, p. 14-30, U. Eval. RR 3-
49. Shabalin, N. '"0 znachenii sovremennoy tekhniki dlya rosta sel'-
skokhozyaystvennogo proizvodstva v SSSR" (About the Significance
of Modern Techniques for the Growth of Agricultural Production
in the USSR), Voprosy ekonomiki, no 8, Aug 53, p. 45-56, U. Eval. BR 4.
50. Kal'm, P.A. "Ob intensifikatsii sotaialisticheskogo zemledeliya"
(About the Intensification of Socialist Agriculture),
Sotsialisticheskoye sel'sko e khozyaystvo, no 12, Dec 54,
p. 100-104, U. Eval. RR 4.
51. RAND Corporation. RM-1248, The Agricultural Labor Force and
Population of the USSR, by W.W. Eason, 11. May 54, Table 5,
p. 25, U. Eval. RR 2.
52. RAND Corporation. R-257, Labor Productivity in Soviet and
American Industry, by Walter Galenson, 1955, chap 13, U. Eval. RR 2.
53. CIA. ORR Project 21.147, op. cit. (12, above).
54. CIA. CIA/RR IP-385, Soviet Capabilities and Probable Courses
of Action, 1954-60, 7 Mar 55, S.
55. Lutsenko, op. cit. (27 above).
56. CIA. ORR Project 21.147, op. cit. (12, above).
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STATSPEC
57.
58. CIA. ORR Project 21.147, ok. cit., (12, above).
59. Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford,,
1949, p. 63, 449-450, U. Eval. RR 1.
CIA. CIA/ORR Draft Paper, Current Developments in the Agriculture
STATSPEC of the USSR, nd (about Nov 53 , unpublished, p. 5, S.
61. Demchenko, M. "Reshayushchiye usloviye dal'neyshego pod"yema
narodnogo khozyaystva" (The Decisive Condition for a Further
Development of the National Economy), Sovetskiye profsoyuzy,
no 5, May 54, p. 40-49, U. Eval. RR 3.
Kaplun, S. "Iz opyta MTS Rostovskoy oblasti po mekhanizatsii
obrabotki zerna na tokakh" From the Experience of the MTS's
of Rostov Oblast in the Mechanization of the Handling of Grain
on Threshing Floors), Sotsialisticheskoye sel'skoye khozyaystvo,
no 6, Jun 54, p. 55-59, U. Eval. RR 3.
62. "Za dal'neyshe e povysheniye proizvoditel'nosti truda v sel`skom
khozyaystve" For Further Increase of the Productivity of Labor in
Agriculture), Sotsialisticheskoye sel'skoye khozyaystvo, no 12,
Dec 54, p. 3-10, U. Eval. RR 2.
63. Nosyrev, S. "Organizatsionno-khozyaystvennoye ukrepleniye kolkhozov
i sel'skokhozyaystvennyy kredit" (Organizational and Economical
Strengthening of Kolkhozy and Agricultural Credit)Sotsialisticheskoye
sel`skoye khoz aystvo, no 5, May 54, p. 68-74, U. ~tval ( 2.
64. Agriculture. " A Survey of Soviet Russian Agriculture," by Lazar
Volin, Agriculture Monograph, no 5, 7 Aug 51, p. 56, U. Eval. RR 1.
65. Beriya, L.P. "3 -ya godovshchina velikoy Oktyabr'skoy
sotsialisticheskoy revolutsii" (Thirty-Fourth Anniversary of the
Great October Socialist Revolution), Voprosy ekonomiki, no 11,
Nov 51, p. 3-18, U. Eval. Doe.
Malenkov, G.M. "Otchetnyy doklad XIX s"yezdu partii o rabote
tsentral'nogo komiteta VKP(b)" (The Current Annual Report of
STATS P E C the 19th Congress of the Party on the Work of the Central
Committee of the All-Union Communist Party, Bolshevik),
'shevik, no 19, Oct 52, p. 5-63, especially p. 42, U. Eval. Doc.
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67 CIA. CIA/RR IM-391, 1953 Soviet Agricultural Results, Future Plans
STATSPEC and Prospects 13 Aug 54,,_ C.
69. Daniels, Clifton. Ne YorkTimes, 13 Sep 541, p. 4C, U. Eval. RR 2.
70. Sollertinskaya, Ye. "Rasshirenno a vosproitvodstvo sotsialisti
cheskogo sel'skogo khozyaystva" (The Expanded Production of
Socialist Agriculture), Planovoye khozyaystvo, no 1, 1954, p. 43-57,
STATSP C Eva RR
72.
73.
74. CIA. CIA/RR 39, off. cit. (1, above
75. Nemchinov, op. cit. (46,, above).
STATSPEC 76. CIA. CIA/RR IP 5. Op. Cit. 54, above
Schwartz, Harry. "Corn Neglected, Pravda Charges," New York Times
30 Jun 55, U. Ev.l. RR 2.
78. State, Moscow. Joint Press Reading Service, 16 Jun 54, "Organize
Commission Trade on Collective Farm Markets Correctly," U.
Eval. RR 2. (tr of Sovetskaya torgoylya, no 3, 1954, U)
79. "Improve Organization of Purchases of Farm Products," Current
Digest of the Soviet Press vol 5, no 47, Dec 53, p. 31-32,
25X1A U. Eval. RR 2. (tr of Izvestiya, 24 Nov 53, U)
State, Moscow. Joint Press Reading Service, 16 Jun 54, "Organize
Commission Trade on Collective Farm Markets Correctly," U.
Eval. RR 2. (tr of Sovetskaya for ovl a, no 3, 1954, U)
80. Izyestiya, 25 Aug 54, U. Eval. RR 2.
STATSPEC CIA. OCI, Current Intelligence Digest, no 7229, p. 3, s-
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Ibid., 8 Sep 54, p. CC 1-4, U/OFF USE. Eval. RR 2.
State, Moscow. Joint Press Reading Service, no 260, sec B, 1'i7 Sep 54,
"Why Are Payments in Kind not Coming in Properly," p. 8-9, U.
(tr of N. Karabikhin. Sel'skoye khozyaystvo, 15 Sep 54, u)
82. State, Moscow. Joint Press Reading Service, no 240, sec B, 1954,
"An Indifferent Attitude Toward Construction of Elevators and
Granaries," p. 5, U. Eval. RR 2. (tr of A. Babsev. Sel'sko e
STATSPFC: , , .
83. CIA. CIA RR 39, -P. cit. (1, above), Table 21, p. 74+. S.
84. State, Moscow. Joint Press Reading Service, no 50, sec B, 19 Feb 55,
p. 1-2, U. Eval. RR 2.
85. Ruzin, B. "Voprosy organizatsii sel'skogo stroitel'stva" (Organizational
Problems of Building in Agriculture), Sotsialisticheskoye sell
skoye khozyaystvo, no 12, Dec 54, p. 655U. Eval. RR 3.
86. Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford.,
1949, p. 6o4-605U. Eval. RR 1.
87. Ibid., p. 609, U. Eval. RR 1.
88. Ibid., p. 618, U. Eval. RR 1.
89.. Ibid.
90. Nifontov, op. cit. (13, above).
91. Ibid., p. 127,U Eval. RR 2.
Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford,
1949, p. 607-606., U. Eval. RR 1.
92. Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford,
1949, P. 752, U. Eval. RR 1.
93. CIA. CIA/RR PR-28, op. cit. (13, above), p. 47, S.
94. Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford,
1949, p. 612- 16 7, U. Eval. RR 1.
95. Agriculture, Bureau of Agricultural Economics, 22. cit. (15, above).
96. Nifontov, op. cit. (13, above).
97. Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford,
1949, P. 752-775,, U . Eval. RR 1.
CIA. CIA/RR PR-28, op cit. (13, above), p. 47-62, S.
CIA. ORR Project 21.147, ok. cit. (12, above).
98. CIA. CIA/RR 39, off~. cit. (l, above), Table 2, p. 11-13, and
Table 14, p. 56-58, S-
99. Ibid.
100. Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford,
1949, P. 752, U. Eval. RR 1.
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101. Board of Economic Warfare, Enemy Branch. The Russian Grain Crops
and Their Disposition Since 1925-26, by Naum Jasny, 1 Feb 3,
p. 61-62, U. Eval. RR 1.
102. Ibid.
103. Ibid., p.. 61-63, U. Eval. RR 1.
104. Ibid.
105. Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford,
1949, p. 754-755, U. Eval. RR 1.
106. Board of Economic Warfare, Enemy Branch, og. cit. (101, above),
p. 63, U. Eval. RR 1.
107. Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford,
1949, p? 751, 755, U. Eval. ER 1.
CIA. ORR Project 21.147, off. cit. (12, above).
.108. Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford,
1949, p. 609, U. Eval. RR 1.
109. Ibid., p. 754, U. Eval. RR 1.
110. CIA. ORR Project 21.147, oa.. cit. (12, above).
111. Agriculture. "A Survey of Soviet Russian Agriculture," by Lazar
Volin, Agriculture Monograph, no 5, 7 Aug 51, p. 129, U..
Eval. RR 1.
112. CIA. ORR Project 21.147, op. cit. (12, above).
113. Nifontov, op. cit. (13, above).
114. Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford,
1949, p. 594, U. Eval. RR 1.
115. CIA. ORR Project 21.9.1, op. cit. (12, above).
116. Lutsenko up. ccit. (27, above), U. Eval. RR 3.
-391, ok. cit. (67, above), Table 1, p. 57 C.
25X 1 Ayyyyyy Yko'3 Y ~R n- n- ni t. _ (1q- a.hnve ) _ Table . n. 21. S.
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
YYYYYYYYYYYYY6Y.Y
120. Ibid.
Volin, Lazar. "The Malenkov-Khrushchev New Economic Policy,"
Journal of Political Economy, Jun 54, vol 62, no 3, p. 164,
U. Eval. RR 2.
121. CIA. CIA/RR IM-391, R. cit. (67, above), Table 1, p. 5, C.
122. Volin, Lazar. "The Malenkov-Khrushchev New Economic Policy,"
Journal of Political Economy, Jun 54, vol 62, no 3, p. 159,
U. Eval. RR 2.
123. CIA. CIA/RR PR-28, off. cit. (13, above), p. 43, S.
124. Volin, Lazar. "The Malenkov-Khrushchev New Economic Policy,"
Journal of Political Economy, Jun 54, vol 62, no 3, p. 164,
U. Eval. RR 2.
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125. Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford,
1949, p. 228, 652-6 53, U. Eval. RR 1.
CIA. CIA/RR 39, op. cit. (l, above), Table 2, P. 11-13, and
Table 14, p . 56-58, S .
126. Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford,
1949, p. 652, U. Eval. RR 1.
127. Ibid., p. 624, 646, U. Eval. RR 1.
128. Sautin, I.V., ed. Zhivotnovodstvo v SSSR, 1916-1938 (Animal
Husbandry in the USSR, 1916-38), 194o, U. Eval. RR 1.
129. Ibid.
130. Matskevich, S. "Power Balance in Soviet Agriculture," Planovoye
khozyaystvo, no 12, Dec 40, p. 55-63, U. Eval. RR 3.
Belosar, S. Kolkhoz Mechanization, East European Fund, Inc.,,
Research Program on the USSR, no 33, New York, 1953, p. 17,
U. Eval. RR 3.
131. CIA. CIA/RR 39, O ? cit. (1, above), Table 1, p. 11-13 and
Table 14, p. 56-5ti, T
132. Jasny, Naum. The Socialized Agriculture of the USSR, Stanford,
1949, p. 424, U. Eval. RR 1.
133. Ibid., p. 423-424, U. Eval. RR-l.
134. Ibid., p. 416, U. Eval. RR 1.
135. CIA. CIA/RR 39, off. cit. (1, above), Table 3, p. 21-23, S.
136. Ibid., Table 1, p. 6-10, and Table 13, P. 52-55, S.
137. State, External Research Staff. "Russian Labor Productivity
Statistics," by Walter Gr:Llenson, series 3, no 15, 10 May 50;, U.
RAND Corporation. R-257, Labor Productivity in Soviet and
American Industry, by Walter Galenson, New York, 1955, chaps 1-4,
13, U. Eval. RR 2.
CIA. CIA/RR PR-68, op. cit. (29, above).
138. State, External Research Staff. "Russian Labor Productivity
Statistics," by Walter Galenson, series 3, no 15, 10 May 50, U.
RAND Corporation. R-257, Labor Productivity in Soviet and
American Industry, by Walter Galenson, New York, 1955, chaps 1-4,
13, U. Eval. RR 2.
139. CIA. ORR Project 21.147, og. cit. (12, above).
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