SOVIET GEODETIC AND PHOTOGRAMMETRIC INSTRUMENTATION

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP79-01083A000100050001-3
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 115
• Document Creation Date: November 9, 2016
• Document Release Date: September 17, 1998
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: April 1, 1954
• Content Type: REPORT

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Copy No.
PROVISIONAL INTELLIGENCE REPORT
SOVIET GEODETIC AND PHOTOGRAMMETRIC
INSTRUMENTATION
CLVRR-ER-5
APRIL 1954
25X1A5a1
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND REPORTS
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WARNING
aterial contains information affecting
the Na efense of the United States
within the me the espionage laws,
Title 18, USC, Secs. 7 4, the trans-
mission or revelation of which nner
to an unauthorized person is prohibited
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'"MIRIPPED
PROVISIONAL INTELLIGENCE REPORT
SOVIET GEODETIC AND PHOTOGRAMMETRIC INSTRUMENTATION
CIA/RR-ER-5
APRIL 1954
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCT
Office of Research and Reports
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FOREWORD
This report is one of a series prepared for an external research project
entitled ?The Problem of Soviet Capabilities in Geodesy and Cartography,"
which was sponsored by the CIA as an element of the research program of the
2000042' Division, Office of Research and Reports. The project was carried
Inadequate knowledge of the status of Soviet developments in geodesy,
photogrammetry, and cartography has been recognized as an intelligence defi-
ciency, and intelligence reports in these fields are extremely few in number
and limited in topical coverage. For these reasons, the Project was initiated
to assess Soviet capabilities on the basis of a systematic study of all avail-
able published information on Soviet developments in geodesy, geodetic gravi-
metry, geodetic astronomy-, geodetic and photogrammetric instrumentation, and
cartography. The resulting reports are derived almost entirely from an
extensive search for and an analysis of published Soviet scientific source
materials.
The reports of the Project are designed not only to provide provisional
information on the current status of Soviet capabilities in surveying and
mapping but also to serve as a datum for a continuing program of collection
and research that will in the future provide increasingly accurate and timely
intelligence. The opinions and conclusions in ER-5, therefore, do not repre-
sent final CIA evaluation of Soviet capabilities in surveying and mapping.
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Comments by users of the reports are solicited by the Geography Division.
Other types of information resulting from the Project that do not lend them-
selves to publication are available for reference in the CIA Library. Among
these are an extensive bibliographic file, a register of miscellaneous Soviet
institutes and laboratories, and a biographic file.
This report (KR-5) is concerned with an analysis of Soviet capabilities
in geodetic and photogrammetric instrumentation. The study is based largely
on descriptions and claims in open-source Soviet materials. No attempt was
made to consider the relationship of the East German capabilities, particu-
larly in optics, to the overall Soviet capabilities in the field of geodetic
and photogrannetric instrumentation.
Technical personnel interested in additional descriptive details con-
cerning Soviet instruments may request, through established liaison channels,
a research aid entitled Additional References to Soviet Diagrams, Sketches,
and Photographs of Soviet Geodetic and Photogrammetric Instruments CIA/RR-
ER-6, SECRET.
Other publications of the Mapping and Charting Research Laboratory
issued to date in the CIA/RR-ER series are:
Geodetic Gravimetry in the USSR, CIA/RR-ER-1, 18 October 1951. SECRET.
Deformation of the Crust of the Earth and Terrestrial Magnetism,
CIA/RR-ER-2, 18 October 1951? SECRET.
Selected Bibliography of Soviet Studies in the Field of Cosmic Rays,
CIA/SI 7t1-514, 2 March 1954. SECRET.
General Critique of Soviet Gravimetric Data, CIA/RR-ER-3, 15 April
1954. SECRET.
Review of Soviet Photogranmietric Procedures, CIA/RR-ER-hp May 195'
SECRE1r.
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ER's planned for later publication will discuss the organization of Soviet
geodesy and cartography, leveling in the USSR, and Soviet education in geodesy
and cartography, and will analyze Soviet geodesy and selected Soviet maps.
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SUMAARY AND
CONTENTS
ard
CONCLUSIONS ? .j.
I.
INTROrUCTION
1
A.
Soviet Claims
1
(1) Training Centers in Optics
4
(2) Centers of Research
7
(3) Production of Optical Glass
8
(4) Factories of Geodetic and Photogrammetric Instruments
10
B.
Limitations of Present Study
17
II. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 21
III. SOURCES 28
A. Adequacy of Sources 28
B. Sources Examined .. 30
APPENDIX
I.
Photogrammetric Instruments
35
II.
Geodetic Instruments
44
III.
Gravimetric Apparatus
53
IV.
Photographic Lenses and Cameras
59
V.
Radio Instruments
78
VI.
Soviet Astronomical Instrumentation
87
VII.
Photographic Supplement
95
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This report is an attempt almost wholly on the basis of open source
material and without adequate opportunity to laboratory-test equipment, to
arrive at a reasonable conclusion as to Soviet capabilities in this very re-
'strieted subject. Open-source Soviet literature reveals that the Soviets
have at their disposal, not only a large number of well-trained personnel
working in the field of applied optics, but also a corps of outstanding theo-
retical scientists and the laboratory and industrial facilitiee necessary. to
develop an efficient and successful optical industry.
The Soviet claim that they are completely independent of the West with
respect to optical apparatus should be accepted with some reservations.
Nothing very original in the field of optical apparatus has been found in
Soviet technical literature, although some Soviet photogrammetrical lenses
appear to be excellent, perhaps even superior in some ways to the Western
lenses now in use.
Surveying instruments kith as theodolites, chronometers, etc., appear
to be adequate but no great originality is evidenced by the Soviets in this
field. Some Soviet gravimeters, however, deserve careful attention.
The Soviet teChnical literature contains relatively little information
dealing with their equivalents of Shoran, loran, Bader, and other electronic
instruments of Soviet manufacture. Of possible significance, however, is
the fact that the Soviets began to pay attention to the useof radio instru-
ments for surveying purposes earlier than did the Western nations.
The general conclusion is that the Soviet optical industry, in so far as
geodesy and photogrammetry are concerned, is in a state of development com-
parable tO that of the United States, with a difference in emphasis necessi-
tatectlar-different geographical and economic conditions and surveying goals.
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Analysis of construction of geodetic and surveying instruments in the
U.S.S.R. involves study of much of the industry and technological development
of that country and cannot be made intelligible without some attention to the
general problem. This situation becomes clear if we consider the necessary
prerequisitei for the construction of any particular instrument, such as a
camera for aerial photographic work. In order to construct such a camera,
we must have:
a. A designer who is expert in problems of geometrical optics.
This involves considerable training at some scientific center.
b. Availability of glass with very exact physical properties
which can be produced only by a highly developed glass industry.
c. Availability of metals, alloys and plastics required to give
the camera the necessary rigidity and ease of operation. This
involves consideration of much of the metallurgical and plastics
industry.
The availability of factories where all the necessary parts of
the camera can be machined with the highest degree of precision
and in standardized mass production. This involves considera-
tion of Soviet light industry.
Therefore, some attention must be given to these general problems of
Russian industry and technology even in discussing such a narrow subject as
the production of geodetic instruments.
A. SOVIET CLAIMS
In the field of optical instruments, the more recent Soviet publications
contain certain claims which may be summarized as follows:
(1) fts Soviets, starting from a state of complete dependence,
have developed a tremendous optical industry
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oases superior, to those manufactured abroad
(3)
The Scvlets are now independent of foreign countries in
optical instrumentation
(4) There are many original inventions in Soviet optics
As an illustration of this attitude, the following statements are quoted
here in free translation:
V. Ta. mikhayiov in his textbook, "Photography and Aerial Photography",
1.952,(1) says:
In Tsarist Russia optical glass was not manufactured, and therefore
optical systems were not designed or manufactured....,.. The first objective,
iTekhart, was designed by G. G. Slyusarev in 1924. At first the work of de-
signers was limited to imitation of already-known designs, but in a short
time original Soviet objectives began to be constructed
'In the last fifteen years considerably more new and original work has
been done in the Soviet Union than abroad. Among the better-known original
Soviet objectives are a series of vide-angle objectives called %unser% of
which Russar-29 is especially interesting. This lens has considerably less
difference in the degree of illumination between the center and the edges
than is common in other wide-angle objectives, (designed by M. M. Rusinov);
an even wider-angle objective called the %Wined , (designed by.V. S. Rodin);
objectives of the surany type (designed by D. S. Volosov) and the meniscus
mirror objectives of D. D. Maksutov
"At the present time in the U.S.S.R. there are many dozens of photographic
objectives of original construction. There are several plants manufacturing
different sorts of optical glass"..
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P. V. Drobyshev, in his textbook, "Photogrammetric Instruments and
Instrumentation", 1951,(2) has this to say:
,"At the present time all kinds of photogrammetric instruments are menu-
factured in the Soviet Union without the slightest dependence on foreign
countries
"An important role in the development of Soviet aerial surveying has been
played by M. M. Businov, who designed a series of excellent, wide-angle lenses
with focal lengths of 10Ome. and 7m. The 100mm. objective was made in the
U.S.S.R. three years before a similar objective was manufactured abroad. The
70-millimeter focal length objective, using 18 x 18 cm. film and prints,
exists only in the Soviet Union"....
T. P. Brevets, in his review entitled. "Thirty Tears of Soviet Optics.,(3)
says:
"In thirty years the aspect of the Soviet optical industry has change&
beyond recognition. Before 1920, not one kilogram of optical glass was pro-
duced in our country. Nov all demands of industry for this basic material
are satisfied by domestic production. Importation of optical glass ceased in
1925. All needs of our artillery, aviation and nevi for optical instruments
such as binoculars, range-finders, periscopes, aerial photographic cameras,
and aerial Photo objectives are satisfied by our own plants. They are made
by Soviet engineers and workers, designed by Soviet Scientists, put into pro-
duction by Soviet technicians and made from Soviet materials at Soviet plents".
Be should note here that all *Ws* laVist authors quoted above are
Well-known in optical research and are not irresponsible politicians. ben
allowing for the fact that some glorification of Soviet achievements is ex-
pected of every Soviet author, the contrast between conditions of Tserist
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times and those of the present, is still notable enough to permit an old man
like Professor Kravets to make such a positive statement.
In order to verify these Soviet claims we must next investigate the fol-
lowing components of the Soviet optical industry:
(1) Training of personnel
(2) Centers of research
(3) Production of optical glass
(4) Factories of geodetic and photogrammetric instruments
1. TRAINING CENTERS IN OPTICS
a. Universities
Of the 32 universities in the U.S.S.R. in 1950,(4) the following
thirteen had specializations in optics:
Azerbaydzhanskiy (in Deka)
Tillnyueskiy
Dnepropetrovskiy
Yerevanskiy
Irkutskty
Kazanskiy
Kazakhskiy
Kiyevskiy
Latvlyskty (in Riga)
Odesskly
Saratovskty
oTomslciy
Uzbelcskiy (in Samarkand)
In addition to these, Leningrad University specialized in the Theory
of Astronomical Instruments.
It is difficult to ascertain just what Is meant by ?specialization" in
U.S.S.R. universities. The term means more than one or two courses in the
subject and some kind of specialists are supposed to be the final product of
such training. Presumably this training deals with the theory of optics
rather than in the construction of instruments.
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b. Institutes
There are, however, several institutes in which the training of stu-
dents is definitely in the field of construction of instruments. Among these
are:
Leilingradskiy Institut TochnCY Mekhaniki i Omtiki (Leningrad Institute of
Precision Mechanics and Optics), Leningrad, Demidov Per. No. 10. This Insti-
tute has five faculties (departments) of which the following should be noted:
precision mechanics, specialising in gyroscopic, nsvigational and time instru-
ments; optical mechanics, specialising in geodetic and optical instruments for
precision medsurements.
Although the primary task assigned to this Institute is the training of
engineers in precision mechanics and optics, considerable research is carried
on and at least two serials are published there, ("Trudy' (Transactions) and
"Theory and Design of Optical-Mechanical Instruments") in addition to many
monographs. Its staff includes one of the better-known designers of optical
instruments, V. N. Churilovskiy.
Moskovskiy Stankoinstrumentallnyy Institut (Moscow Machine Tool and Instru-
mentation Institute), Moscow, Per. No. 3-a. This Institute has as one of its
specialities the construction of diptical instruments for precision instruments.
MoSkovekoye Tresheze Takhnitheskoye Dthilische (Moscow Higher Technical
School). Moocow, 2-aa Bammanskaya, No. 5. This is one of the older sdhools,
well-known for its excellency, Which has a department of instrumentation, with
one of its specialities being optical and mechanical instruments for precise
measurements.
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(Moscow Institute of Engineers of Geodesy, Aerial Surveying and Cartography)
Moscow, Gorokhovskiy, per. No. 4. In this Institute there is a department of
Optics and. Mechanics, which specializes in geodetic instrumentation.
There are no data available concerning the number of graduates from these
centers of training. It is not unreasonable, however, to assume that at least
five students per year are graduated each year, either from Universities
(theoretical training) or from technical schools (production training). Even
such a low figure would result in an annual output of approximately 90 trained
personnel in optics. This output, repeated over a period of thirty years would
result in hundreds of educated. and. experienced people in the U.S.S.R. who could
be considered as experts in the various field of optics.
Some verification of this estimate may be fOund in the number of copies
printed for each of the treatises issued, in applied optics published in the
Soviet Union. One of these by Professor D. S. Volosov, "Methods of Design of
Complex Photographic Systems", 1948,0) is held in high esteem by specialists
in optics in the United States. A thorough knowledge of geometrical optics,
considerably beyond the knowledge of the average university student in this
country, is required to eompletly comprehend this book. Nevertheleas, it was
published in an edition of 5000 copies.
Another book on the same subject by A. I. Tudorovskiy, "Theory of Optical
Instruments" Part I, 1948 and Part /I, 1952,(6) a veritable encyclopedia of
optical design, (1228 pages) was published in 3000 copies.
Apparently there is no question but that the Soviets have at their dis-
posal at the present time a very large corps of people skilled in the problems
of applied optics.
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Some research in optical instrumentation is done at all teaching centers
described above. However, there are several centers which specialize in op-
tical research only, of which the most important is Goeudarstvenyy Ootiqloskig
Institut OI), (State Optical Institute), Leningrad, Tas. Ostrov, Birzhevaya
Liniya, No. 12-14, which was founded in 1918. A detailed account of the ac-
tivities of this Institute is available for the period of its existence until
1935,(7) but very little detailed information is available for the period
after that time. In 1935 it had no fewer than 264 scientific workers on its
staff, including such outstanding figures in the development of the Soviet
optical industry as
S. I. Tavilov (died in 1951)
D. S. Tolosov
D. D. Neksutov
G. G. Slyusarev
A. I. Tudorovskly
I. V. Grebenshchlkov
The role of Tavilov was especially important since he was also the pre-
sident of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S at the time. The activity
of the Institute includes all aspects of applied optics and is closely coor-
dinated with the needs of military estab1ishments.(8)
Tsentral 11177 R.-I. Institut Goodwin Aaros iiremki I lartoixefil (Central
?
Scientific Research Institute of Geodesy, Aerial Surveying and Cartography),
Moscow. (TtNIIGA1K). Research in optics in this Inititute is directed
toward the development of geodetic and aerial surveying instruments. The most
important personalities here are
M. M. Rusinov
7. T. Drobyshev
)I. D. Konshin
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but a umber of other designers are mentioned from time to time in the lit-
erature, such as 1. V. Viktorov, D. I. Aronov and A. Sh. Shakhverdov.
There are numerous other centers of research in which the prObleas of
optical glass and instrument design are treated. One such center is the
Institut Khimii Silikatov (Institute of the Chemistry of Silicates), Academy
of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., where Professor I. V. Grebenshehikov (also con-
nected with CCI) has been working since 1944 on the physical-chemical proper-
ties and synthesis of transparent plastics for purposes of applied optics.(9)
The development of optical glass also seems to be one of the responsibilities
of the Vsesoyuz. Nauchno-Issled. Institut Stekla (All-Union Scientific Re-
search Institute of Glass, VNIIS). One of the staff of this Institute, men-
tioned in a recent pub11cation,(10) M. A. Tsaritsynp is also connected in
some way with GOIanA is known as -a designer of optical apparatus. In the
Ties. LI. Instrusentallnyy Institut (Al1-Union Scientific Research Institute
of /nstrumentation),. the general problem of instrumentation is pursued.
The most conspicuous gap in our information with regard to both training
and research is the activity of a number of secret institutes in which work in
optics, probably, and in radio methods of surveying is certainly being carried
on.
3. PRODUCTION 07 OPTICAL GUS"
A list of 73 kinds of optical glass manufactured in the U.S.S.R. is given
in a source printei-in 1948(6) and repeated without changes in a 1951 source.
The following table gives a summary of the optical glass availability in the
U.S.S.R., according to these sources:
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Kind
Designation Number of kinds
Crown K il
Barium-Crown BK 10
Crown-hint KF 3
Barium-Flint 17 16
Light Flint If 7
Heavy Crown TK 11
Flint 1 5
Heavy Flint TF 6
Special 0 4
This, of course, is not a complete list of optical glasses manufactured
in the U.S.S.R. In another source dated 1951(2) three kinds of optical glass
not given in the above table are included and Tolosov,(5) in 1948 refers to
experimentation with new lanthanum and thallium glasses. A claim is made by
D. D. Maksutov, one of the best known designers of astronomical instruments,
that the Soviet ultra-violet glasses, K-8, 7-1 and TF-1, surpass in quality
any ultra violet glass of foreign manufacture.(12)
There are several plants in the U.S.S.R. manufacturing optical glass.
There is an experimental plant attached to the Optical Institute, but this
cannot be considered as producing glass for industry.
a. Manufacturing Plants
The plants, ISRZ04, (Leningradskiy &mod Opt icheskogo Stekla:
Leningrad Factory of Optical Glass), and Mg, (Izyumskiy Zsvod Opticheskogo
Stekla:, Izyum Factory of Optical Glass, in /zimm, Ukraine) devote their entire
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facilitiea parsiudjrckal,Aleas2f1M9/04412 OURCIP1.9-01083A000100050001 -3
In regard to metals, alloys and plastics the Russians apparently-have no
lack in facilities or technology. There are dozens of research institutes in
-these branches of industry and constant experimentation with alloys and plas-
tics is going on. In this connection one plant is frequently mentioned in the
literature. This is 4Elekrostalm located in Noginsk (Moskva Rayon). It pro-
duces what might be called precision alloys for various purposes of instrumen-
tation. Drobyshev(0 gives a list of 23 alloys and six types of plastics used
in photogrammetric instrumentation. Ball-bearings, micrometric screws, sup-
ports, cams, etc., eli of vizi& are manufactured in Russia, are described.
Such auxiliary apparatus as special lamps for instruments, levels, micro-
scopes, etc., are all manufactured in the U.S In Short, one gets an im-
pression of complete independence of Russian designers of geodetic and photo-
grammetric instruments of the outside world. At least such a claim is made
very emphatically by Soviet authors.
4. FACTORIES OF GEODETIC AND PHOTOGRAMMETRIC INSTRUMENTS
There are a dozen or more factories in the U.S.S.R. manufacturing various
types of optical inztruments. Specifically, geodetic and photogrammetric in-
struments are manufactured at three plants: AerogeoBribor, Geodeziya and
Gsofizika, all in Moscow. The first two are mentioned in a recent article on
geodetic instruments in the Soviet Encyclopedia of 1951. However, a 1949
catalogue of geodetic instruments(15) MAWS none of these factories. Instead,
we find a whole series of new factories manufacturing the same geodetic instru-
ments. There seems to be no doubt that here is an example of duplication of
name, the historic nano and the name of the ministry to which it is attached.
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It is even possible that these sane factories may have identifying numbers
also. It is impossible to identify each factory positively but with some
reservation the following tentative scheme has been worked out:
Aerogeobribor: Zavod GUGK
Geodeziya: Zavod Ministerstva Vooruzheniya SSSR.
Geofizika: Zavod Ministerstva Geologii
It is to be noted that the names of Ministerstvo Toorushenlya (Ministry
of Rearmament) and of Geology were abolished in the reorganisation of March
15, 1953, so that further Changes in these names should be expected.
(1) "Aerogeopribor" (the name is a combination of three Russian words
which mean aerial geodetic instruments).
A detailed description(16) of this plant as of 1939 is available. It was
an outgrowth of a repair shop at the Main Directorate of Geodesy and Cartography.
It began actual operations as a factory in 1933. As is typical of Russian
reports the author deals with percentages rather than with absolute figures.
Thus, the number of workers in 1939 was 15 times the number of workers in 1929,
but this latter figure is not given. It is known that in 1937 there were 600
workers at this factory, and in 1936 there were 122 people counted as
technicians and engineers(18). The present contingent is undoubtedly- much
larger.
In 1937 the program of construction called for:
125 precision theodolites
25 5* universals
4 10" universals
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By N35$1.9xYag1gOeiRMV Priga7P-41148magti (amigo.' -3
1940, instrument No, 5205 was mentioned. The factory was evidently developing
very rapidly. It is undoubtedly the main factory for the production of
geodetic instruments.
(2) "Geodezin" (Geodesy). Moscow, Zateepa, Malaya Pimenskaya No. 14.
This factory, established in 1923, vas a development of the geodetic shop of
the Corps of Mi1ita:7 Engineers' (Leningrad). The first instruments were
manufactured in 1923. By 1928 it had produced. over 3,000 various instruments,
apparently all of small size, such as levels, theodolites, etc.(13)
In 1927
it had about 300 qualified workers, on its staff.
(3) -*Geofiz.ite (Geophysics). Moscow, Sokollniki, Strownka No. 24.
This factory was organized somewhat later than 1923 (no precise statement to
this effect has been found). First instruments were manufactured in 1927.
This factory is a development of the small Pre-Revolutionary factory of Schwabe
and Tryndin (Moscow).
(4) Zavod Ministeretva Geoloa% (Factory of the Ministry of Geology):
This is a typical example of a factory attached to a ministry or directorate
and which manufactvres apparatus for the needs of that ministry. It is known
that some gravimetric apparatus is constructed at this plant.(20)
(5) Zavod Mixpterstva Voorushennyth Sil (Factory of the Ministry of
Armed Forces): this factory is constructing static gravimeters for the detailed
investigation of the gravimetric field of the U.S.S.R.
(6) Zavod Ministerstva Vooruzhenixa (Factory of the Ministry of Rearma-
ment). As previously mentioned, this is probably another name for the factory,
"Geodeziyan. A recent source(15) Contains a description of a number of geodetic
and photogrammetric instruments, such as optical theodolites, phototransformers
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and stereocomparators, which are produced. here.
(7) Zavod G.U.G.K. (Factory of Main Directorate of Geodesy and Cartography).
In all probability this is the same as the factory, "Aerogeopriborn. The same
# source(15) of 1949 lists a number of instruments manufactured at this factory,
such as stereoscopes, astronomic universals. etc.
(8) Laboratorila G.U.G.K. (Laboratory of the Main Directorate of Geodesy
and Cartography) manufactures the Soviet multiplex and aerial cameras of the
Buzsar type. (Russar-29 is described in Source 15).
In addition to these factories, there are a number of shops and smaller
factories attached to various institutes, ministries, directorates, etc.,
where some geodetic instruments are being manufactured. Sources
(15) and (20)
indicate no fewer than eleven such establishments.
Of especial interest are two factories not mentioned in open sources.
Information concerning them has been obtained from German technicians employed
by the Soviets after the war. They. are:
(9) Kiyev Arsenal where main production is of ordinary photographic
cameras, but some simple geodetic instruments are known to be manufactured.(21)
(10) Zavod 393 (Factory No. 393 in Krasnogorsk, MOSCOW Region) which
appears to be something like the Soviet section of Zeiss(22).
? The above-named factories, (1).to (7), do not appear to manufacture all
of their own optical parts, such as lenses, mirrors, prisms, etc., but depend
in some measure on other factories where such parts are produced. Among such
factories the following are known; (7, 13) GONZ (Abbreviation for State Optical-
Mechanical Plant, Leningrad, Vyborgekaya Strona, Ohugunnaya Ul. No. 2m), 112E
(Abbreviation for Leningrad Optical-Mechanical Plant) and Zavod No, 19 (Plant
MO. 19).
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of our study we must look at it from the historical point of view. The
Russians are proud of their optical industry because their older scientists
remember the time yhen the simplest apparatus had to be imported from abroad.
Their claim that "they are now completely independent of the West in regard to
optical industry" should be accepted in this sense; they can manufacture any
instrument that is necessary for the satisfactory solution of their current
problems in aerial surveying and geodesy but not in sufficient quantity to
satisfy their needa. Perhaps their instruments are not as good as those of
the West, tmt for the time being they are adequate.
There are two arguments against this point of view. First, it is known
that German optical workers (especially from the Zeiss factory) were trans-
ferred to the U.S.S.R. in large numbers. (Plant No. 393). The second is the
extreme avidity with which the Russians pick up any bit of information stout
technological developments in the West. These two facts seem tc contradict
very definitely the Soviet claim of independence of their technology.
It seems-to us that neither of these arguments is decisive. In spite of
their dogmatism the Russians are eminently practical people. They had every
reason to respect German technology and would not pass up a chance to learn
something directly from the Germans. No matter how good Soviet instruments
are, the reputation of the Zeiss factory in optics is so high that im optical
man would be interested in getting first-hand information about this factory.
Moreover, exploita,tion of German technology is by no means restricted to the
U.S.S.R. It is only the scope and ruthlessness of Russian exploitation that
is remarkable. The setting up of the Zeiss factory in the U.S.S.R. indicates
their desire to speed up the impressment of their optical industry in the
interest of military requirements.
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excellent acquaintance with scientific and technological progress of the West.
They have an efficient system of information whereby all papers published An
the West are brought to the attention of Soviet scientific workers and engineers.
They appear to be taking all measures not to allow any new scientific idea or
invention made in the Vest to pass Unnoticed.. This attitude is quite clear in
all Soviet scientific and technical literature and is confirmed by the recent
experience of German engineers working in the U.S.S.231gain, interpretation
of this attitude Should not be attempted without very thorough study of Soviet
social and political conditions. This reaching for knowledge may mean several
things, such as that
(a) The Russians have no originality, and are forever doomed to trail
behind the Western nations in their scientific and technological development.
That is, in this respect the whole Soviet complex is considered to be more like
Japan, than Germany.
(b) The social, cultural and political background of the U.S.S.R. is such
as to prevent originality.
(c) Scientific and technological development in the U.S.S.R. is still in
an imitative stage. With further progress of science and technology, Soviet
originality will assert itself.
A Soviet writer would subscribe to explanation (c) maintaining publically
that the state of originality has already been reached. In private conversa-
tion he would probably admit that it is *Not quite so yet, but it will be so,
and very soon.*
After much deliberation we also accept tentatively the possibility (c) in
spite of the fact that no satisfactory explanation can be offered to account
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for the appearance of original, or nearly original, thinkers in science and
technology in the atmosphere of political and cultural pressure. The Soviet
scientific man somehow develops originality despite the rigid dogma to which
he must adhere. In our own field, the work of Grebenshchikov in coating the
surfaces of lenses, of Rosinov in the design of cameras and of Mandelishtam
and Papaleksi in radiolocat ion are sufficient proofs of incipient originality.
All these developments are said to have occurred years before similar develop-
ments in the West, a claim that is very difficult to either substantiate or
reject. Nevertheless, it is fairly clear that in these cases there was no
direct copying of Vestern inventions."
We conclude, then, that the U.S.S.R. optical industry (in the scope of
our interest) has the necessary scientific personnel and sufficient industrial
base to become one of the best industries in the world. This is merely an
appraisal of potentiality, not a prophesy. There are other factors which may
not allow this indtstry to develop to its fullest extent. Such are, for in-
stance:
(a) Lack of intermediate personnel, highly skilled workers, foremen,
technicians, etc. The Soviets are Conscious of this difficulty and have taken
drastic steps to obviate it, but even in 1952 the situation was bad in this
respect according to German reports.
(b) The political system in which a competent director of a factory can
be dismissed and replaced by a technically ignorant party man.
(c) The possibility of a general purge such as occurred in the years
between 1935-37 when much talent and experience was lost to the Soviets.
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B. LIMITATIONS OF PRESENT STUDY
The limitations of any attempt to appraise the Russian scientific situa-
tion must be clearly understood lest we make very erroneous conclusions from -
the available sources of information. The sources of the difficulties .of re-
search on the U.S.S.R. not sufficiently appreciated bzi many people dealing
with this problem, can be stated this way:
(1) Extreme fluidity of the situation. This fact becomes very obvious
to anyone who has tried-tO follow the history of any particular research insti-
tute. Several institutes merge into one, others split into several independent
institutes, still others simply change their names, and there is a constant
reshuffling of these institutes among ministries, Vureaus, directorates, etc.
The general trend is toward multiplication and fractionalization of effort, and
some recent Russian sources assert that there are now 3,500 such institutions.
This figure is likely to be taken as an example of Russian exaggeration but
we consider it credible if it refers to research units rather than to organiza-
tions known as Research Institutes. There are SORM 1,000 institutions Which
may be properly referred to as research institutes, and there is an undeter-
mined number of secret research institutes. (Nb. 627 has been encountered)
In addition, all large industrial ,plants have laboratories associated with
them, and in some eases a whole network of laboratories is attached to a plant
and employe hundreds of research scientists and engineers. Further, innumer-
able government bureaus, directorates, trusts, etc., have some sort of research
unit attached to them. Soviet sources have stated that since the war the
number of research organizations has increased by 50 percent, and OA number
of scientists engaged by them by 100 percent.
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any particular research group in this country is always in danger of using
obsolete information.
(2) Entreme secrecy of operation. In reading Russian literature since
1950 one is impressed with the obscure language used, language that probably
can be understood by a few initiated people and which is becoming the most
striking characteristic of Russian periodicals. If we take, for instance,
such a seemingly innocuous subject az fuel, we find in recent numbers of the
periodical, *Zs Ekonomiyu Topliva,s (Fuel Economy) factories named only by
abbreviations (such as GAZ, ZIS, etc.), by numbers, by letters of the alphabet
(like factory 10, or finally 1y the name of its director (*factory the director
of Which is comrade Ivanov*!). Such books es Armand's Research Institutes
of Heavy industry,(7) where each institute is described in full detail are no
longer allowed to leave the
In a recent volume devoted to the 'recipients of Stalin prizes in 1950 the
not unusual-entry is: person so and so, a member of a research institute,
aWarded the prize for the development -of a new instrument, Only by painstaking
researdh and collectioa-of other-information on this person is it possible to
arrive at an intelligeat guesseatolhat that instrument or-institute mut-ale.
At the same time, the constant complaint of Russian authors is that the
Vest -does not-appreciate the scientific and technological development in the
U.S.S.R. (conspiracy e silence, etc.)
It seems to us that the only safe principle-in dealing with Russian material
from open sources is this: what we -derive from the study of these sources is
the minimum of RustAan-technological development. The most important discov-
eries and inventions are kept secret. If these discoveries are made independently
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respect are not only possible but absolutely inevitable.
(3) Laci_c_Knov. The rapidly changing situation in the U.S
and the secrecy surrounding the Soviet scientific and technological develop-
ment make it extremely difficult even for a person who is well versed in the ,
language to find the material necessary to form a balanced judgment about
Soviet capabilities. The entire apparatus such as this country had in regard
to knowledge of German capabilities is missing. In 1940, on every university -
campus in the. U.S.A. one could find scientists who had personal acquaintance
with their opposite members in Germany, who followed German developments in
their own fields of interest from year to year and who had no necessity for
interpreters.
Most Western scientists are incredibly poorly informed about the U.S.S.R.
Even in the days when Russian scientific papers were published, either wholly
or abstracted in one of the Western languages, Russian scientific discoveries
were largely overlooked by .the West. Some well authenticated examples can be
quoted, and there is usually a grain of truth in the Soviet extravagant claims
of priority. To Western scientists, Russian and Soviet science has always been
a terra incognita.
Two examples illustrating this in our own fields are of interest. In a
review of lenses used for aerial photography by R. Kingslake (1942 and 1947)
not one word about Soviet lenses can be found (24). In an article by J. C.
Gardner and F. E. Washer, 1948, which dealt with wide-angle, aerial photographic
lenses specifically,(25) the only mention of Soviet work is restricted to a
quotation from a note by G. Slysarev in the same American periodical(26)
y , and
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that on only one problem or geometrical optics. me autnors were eviaently
unaware that Slyusarev was one of the foremost Soviet designer of lenses.
One might think that the Germans would be better informed than this but
such is not the case. Ida recent review,(27) by K. Schwidefsky (1950) Soviet
lenses, Rlissar, Liar and Keonar are mentioned indeed but the information was
derived from the Soviet periadical, "Geodesist", of 1938 and it states that
"nothing is known about the performance of these lenses." No Soviet lenses
are described in the Zeiss Index of Photographic Lenses(28).
In a situation like this there is simply no foundation to build upon, and
every elementary fact about Soviet organization, personnel, methods, etc. has
to be established before an attempt of analysis can be made.
(4) Fragmentary Information. In any effort to unravel the U.S.S.R. situa-
tion one is faced with incomplete information even if the Soviets are willing
to let this information out of their country. They publish so much and on so
many subjects that even with the most efficient system of scanning one is
likely to miss a few important items now and then. The strongest factual part
of this report is the analysis of Russian photogrammetric instruments. Two
books, both printed in 1951, by Drobyshev(2) and Skiridov(29) which we obtained
in June of 1952 are excellent for this purpose. If we had had these books a
year before we would have been spared the immense work of collecting, translat-
ing and analysing innumerable small articles published in various Russian
periodicals.
It is to be rem6mbered that this is not a report on the Soviet optical
industry in general, but only in so far as it concerns the legitimate scope of
interest of the projgict. No attempt has been made to utilize all available
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material on the Soviet optical industry. The problem had to be restricted by
considerations of time and available personnel.
There are evidently many developments in this branch of Soviet industry
that either have never been reported in open sources or simply missed by us.
For example a source(1) of 1952 speaks of many dozens (or rather "many tens"
in Russian) of original Soviet lenses. What does this indefinite statement
mean? To a Russian speaking person it suggests something like 60 or 70, certainly
not quite a hundred. In our investigation we have come across only 18 Soviet
lenses that have Russian names and are presumably either Wholly of Soviet design
or are modifications of previously existing models. A more thorough search
would undoubtedly add more items to our list.
(5) Lack of Tasgible ProOf. In respect to the subject of this report,
instrumentation in geodesy and photogrammetry, we must depend on what the
Russians say themselves about their instruments. If we had at our disposal one
of their cameras for instance, a laboratory test of it would be conclusive
proof of whether or not that it is really an instrument superior to anything of
that sort manufactured in the U.S.A. Since this is impossible at this time, we
must assume that the Russians are telling us the truth about their test of that
particular camera. On the whole this seems to be a safe assumption.
It would be difficult to imagine that in a book like that of Drobyshev,
published in 5,000 copies and officially adopted as a text book for geodetic
institutes, that deliberately erroneous statements concerning performance of
instruments were made. ftrthermore, most of Drobyshevis Statements have been
checked against other articles and books published in the interval between 1930
and 1950 with no evidence of falsification found.
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She only concrete piece of evidence relating to the Soviet level in the
optical industry that has come to our attention is an analysis of the camera,
Zorkiy,(3) believed to have been made in Kharkov in 1950. The lens is not
identified, but from Soviet sources we derive the information that this was
probably Industar-22. The camera was found to be a close approximation to the
German Ieica and compared favorably with similar cameras made in the U.S.A.
and elsewhere. The resolving power of the lens was found to be exactly the
same as given by us in Table 2 (Appendix 1) based on Soviet source information.
(6) Lack of Historicpersuective. In dealing with the problem of evalua-
tion of capabilitiet in the U.S.S.R., we are faced with the deplorable fact
that our informatioL refers to different periods of time. Obviously, If Soviet
optical equipment of 1935 is compared with American optical equipment of 1953,
no useful purpose is served. However, with the increase in secrecy about all
technical and scientific work in the U.S.S.R., much of our information is
obsolete. Use of this information is absolutely unavoidable and necessary in
order to understand developments in the U.S.S.R., but the base for extrapolation
of Capabilities becases too far removed from the present to be of absolute value.
The existence of such a large research unit as the Optical Institute in
Leningrad, of itself, would appear to assure the rapid development in design of
optical instruments and experimentation with optical glass. However, the gap
between research and production may be serious. The Soviets emphatically deny
this and assert that this gap is much less serious with them than in other
countries. At any rate, without a serious study of the material published by
the Optical Institutt and half a dozen other institutes our picture of the
U.S.S.R. optical industry is inadequate.
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In fact, the best that can be done at the present time is to present a
picture, the components of which correspond to the status of the U.S.S.R.
optical industry of different years with an unspecified, but we think rather
large, portion remaining concealed from our view.
?
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General conclusions of this study are as follows:
(a) In a discussion of Soviet instruments of geodesy and photogrammetry
one cannot say merely that this particular instrument is good or bad. Every-
thing depends 2a.a.t.p.msatet for which, At instrument was At:simnel. Most
Russian photogrammetric instruments seem to be designed for small-scale
photography.
(b) Soviet instruments appear to be carefully made and, on the average,
are probably on the 3ame technical level as those made in the U.S.A. and
elsewhere.
(c) Most Soviet instruments are either direct or somewhat modified copies
of well known instruments by Zeiss, Wild, etc. The only truly original instru-
ments identified so far are the Drobyshev Stereometer developed by 1945, the
- Popov Stroboscopic Chronoscope and the Molodenskiy Gravimeter. However, there
is much evidence of Russian cleverness in changing details of instruments to
increase their precision or to adjust them for specific purposes.
(d) Aerial cameras of the Russar type, if their descriptions are valid,
axe extremely good nir small scale mapping. Every effort should be made to
obtain these cameras,
(e) In regard to Russian claims of invention of so many instruments which
are probably copies of Western instruments, two explanations are possible:
either the Russians simply do not know of the existence of such instruments and
developed them independently (which does not seem likely) or their definition
of authorship is so ]oose that a few changes here and there in an instrument
allows them to consider it as their awn invention.
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(f) The development of Russian instrumentation is procee ng ong
more or less parallel with those of other countries with a difference of em-
phasis necessitated by the adherence to different methods of aerial surveying
and surface geodesy. Some innovations and Changes in construction are definitely
Soviet contributions. In at least one case it is possible to show that a clever
device incorporated by Drobyshev in one of his instruments in 1941, was inde-
pendently discovered by Wild Co. and used only since 1947.
(g) The idea that the Russians are cutting themselves off from the tech-
nological development of other countries and are liable to fall into a state of
stagnation should be definitely rejected. There is overwhelming evidence that
the Russians are well aware of their deficiencies and that they are diligently
studying the technology and pure science of the West. This is clearly stated
in many of the official pronouncements of their leaders and should be quite clear
to anyone who has followed the Russian technical literature reaching this country.
A recent compilation(11) of Russian serials published since the war
shows that 47 Soviet technical serials deal exclusively with review of foreign
developments in science and technology. One of these serials is a digest of
foreign patents, consisting of 42 sections and dealing with every branch of
technology. There are many articles in Russian professional periodicals and
many books dealing with foreign scientific developments. Almost every significant
American book on science is immediately translated by the Russians and published
often in a greater number of copies than the original edition in the U.S.A-
Emphasis on the teaching of foreign languages, especially English, in Russian
schools is strong, and the printing of English-Russian dictionaries in every
branch of technology in a large number of copies indicates; the real need of
keeping up with the West. At least ten such dictionaties have been published
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within the Last thrse years. One, for example, on machinery and metal treat-
ment, was printed IL 15,000 copies.
We must assume then that the Russians are very well informed of the
technological development in the West, while we have an exceedingly sketchy
idea of the corresponding development in the.U.S.S.R. In fact, it may be said
that the Russians consider the West as some sort of gigantic laboratory working
for them. They even used to publish a serial frankly called "Foreign Science
in the Service of Socialist Reconstruction.
(h) There is little evidence of the nationalistic attitude toward instru-
mentation which woull compel the Russians to use their own instruments even if
they are inferior to the instruments produced in the West. In pre-war publica-
tions, tests of foreign-made instruments and their comparisons with Soviet made
instruments are very thorough and quite fair. For the more recent period our
information is scant7. The most recent material indicates one interesting
feature: some instrunents by Zeiss or Wild are described and praised, but the
Soviets neglect to say that these instruments are of foreign production. On
the other hand, they do not say that they were constructed in the U.S Many
instruments that the Soviets claimed as their own invention have been traced to
foreign instruments somewhat modified and adapted for some particular problem.
The BussiaLattitude in this respect may be described as follows: they
are sure they can produce just as good or even better instruments than any made
in the West, and they loathe to admit that even now they are compelled to use
some instruments of foreign make.
(i) The Soviet claim of their independence on the outside world in regard
to geodetic, gravimetric and photogrammetric instruments is justified as to
quality but probably not as to quantity. This cannot be ascribed to the fact
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that the Soviets captured the Zeiss factory in Jena. The noticeable development
of Russian optical instrumentation is quite evident since about 1935. In other
words the Soviets' can manufacture satisfactory instruments for the above named
purposes, but the demand for such instruments cannot be fully met by Soviet in-
4Ustry, and it was necessary to transfer such a factory as Zeiss to solve the
problem of adequate supply.
(j) Considering the general status of Russian industry twenty years ago
the development Of optical instrumentation is remarkable.
(k) This rapid development of instrumentation should be ascribed to the
Russian system of training, research and production, especially to the fact that
research institutes and factories are under direct control of government units
which are primarily using the results of research and manufactured instruments.
(1) The interval of time between the invention of a new device and its
mass produCtiOn is claimed by the Soviets to be much shorter in the U.S.S.R.
than anywhere else in the world. These claims out to be seriously considered.
'Reports of research institutes always emphasize the fact that so many of their
inventions were adopted in industry.. This is possible in the U.S.S.R. where they
do not have to consider such problems as the infringement of patents, financial
justification of a new line of instruments, or the state of the market. Undoubt-
edly sometimes hasty decisions can'be made in this respect, but one is impressed
by the thoroughness of tests to Will& a new model is subjected before it is
adopted for mass production.
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A. ADEQUACY OF SOURCES
Something about the availability and reliability of source* bat to be
said in the body of the report as well as in the appendices in order to make
our representation of the situation in the U.S.S.R. logical and coherent. We
can now summarize our conclusions and point out the gaps in our information
in these subjects touched upon in this report.
Obviously on4 a small fraction of all scientific and technical material
published by the soviets is available in the West. This fraction is dimin-
ishing as the timo goes on. A general statement on this subject, without a
-detailed study would be rash, indeed, but the situation in respect to geodetic
and cartographic publications is very definite. If we take as an example,
for instance, the most important geodetic publication, Trudy TsNIIGAilt, of
the 86 volumes published in the period 1931-1952 we have found with the most
intensive search In this country and abroad, only 40 volumes; that is, about
44 percent. Moreover, most of the available volumes were published before
and during the wax. If we separate the coverage into the periods, 1931-1945
and 1946-1952 we have the following data:
Coverage 1931-1945 35 volumes out of 47 75 percent
Coverage 1946-1952 5 volumes out of 35 15 percent
This situation is typical with all Russian material examined in connec-
tion with our project including such associated topics as physics, geophysics,
etc.
It should be remembered that the situation described above applies to
publications, Which from the Soviet point of view are not secret. They are
openly quoted in literature and for most of the missing volumes, complete
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tables of contents are known. There can be little douot mat tne mos; alga-
'
ficant developments in science and technology in the U.S.S.R. never got into
print.
The next question is, then, whethei the estimated 15 percent of Russian
technical literature in our field is representative of the whole or there
are some items that are deliberately withheld from circulation abroad?
Analysis of the subject content of the missing volumes indicates that the
latter is a definite possibility since the withheld volumes, generally deal
with some phase of the application of gravimetry to geodetic problems.
The situation in respect to coverage of instrumentation in this report
can be summarized as follows:
I. Instruments for photogrammetry: Coverage is considered satisfactory
and up to date, dye mostly to recent sources (2) and (29).
II. Geodetic instruments: Coverage satisfactory up to about 1945.
Many instruments are mentioned after 1945, but are very sketchily
described.
III. Gravimetry apparatus: Coverage satisfactory and up-to-date due
mostly to recent sources (47) and (48).
IV. Photographic cameras: Coverage fairly satisfactory but only up to
about 1947. There may be significant developments in recent years.
Y. Radio apparatus: Coverage most unsatisfactory. Description of in-
struments stops in 1939 and obviously the present status of radio
instrumentation bears little resemblance to the situation of 1939.
VI. Astronomic instruments: Coverage satisfactory up to about 1950.
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1. Mikhaylov, V. la.: Fotografiya i Aerofotografiya, Moscow 1952, Geodezizdat.
2. Drobyshev, F. V.: Fotogrammetricheakiye Pribory I Lastrumentovedeniye,
Moscow, 1951.
3. Xravets, T. P, ftidtsats Let Sovetskoy Optiki, Uspekhi Fizidheskikh
Vol. 32, Yip. 1, 1947.
4. Spravochnik dlra Postupayushchikh v Vysehlys Uchebnyys Zavedeniya Soyuza
SSR v 1950 g. - Min. !yeah. Obraz. SSSR, 1950.
5, Volosov, D. S. Metody Rascheta Slozhnykh Potograficheskikh Slate's, GOB.
Id.. Tekhn.-Teoret. Lit., Moscow, 1948, pp. 395.
6. Tudorovskiy, A. I.: Teoriya Opticheskikh Priborov. Akad. lauk SSSR,
Part I, 1948, pp. 661; Part II, 1952, pp. 567.
Armand, A. A.: Nauchno-Issledovatellskiye Instituty Tyazheloy Promyahlen-
nosti, 1935.
8. The State Optical Institute (G.O.I.), Leningrad, D.S.I. Report No. 50,
1952. Secret. Unfortunately this report is almost wholly on personalities
rather than on the organization of Work at the institute.
9. Grebenshdhikov, 'Ilya Vasillyevich, article in Rol. Soy. Nntsikl., Vol. 12,
1952, p. 478.
10. Kitaygorodskiy, I. I.:
Mat? Moscow, 1950.
11. Mikhaylov, A. L., ed.,
1951.
?
Steklo I Steklovarealys, Goa, Izd. Lit. Stroit.
"Kura Astrofiziki i Zvezdnoy Astronomii," Vol. 1,
12. Maksutov, D. D.: IzgotoVleniye I Issledovanlys AstronomiCheskoy Optiki,
Gos. Izd. Tekla6-Teoret. Lit., Moscow, 1948, pp. 279.
13. -Mashinostroitenmaya-Promyshlennosto SSSR, Spravochnik, Vol. 1, 1933, p. 71.
14. Bulharin, N. 1., ed., Nauchno-MekhniCheakoye Obaluihivanlya Tyaiheloy
-Proayshlennosti, 1934.
15, Zakharova, E. 1. and lyatikov, A. P., ed., Katalog-Spravocinalk Iaboratornykh
Priborov i Oborsdovanlya, No. 3k, 1949, Mashgiz.
16. Semin, I. M.: XX-Let Sovetskay Geodezii IKartografti, 1939.
17. Geodezist,19371 No. 5, p. 4,
18. Geodezist, 1936, No. 10, p. 9.
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AppraMeldeftrA44e1WevnototonsicemliVrminvesismaliftgctimilk121)3.
Vyp. 20, 1948.
20. Zakharova, E. I. and Lyutikov, A. P., ed., Katalog-Spravechnik Laboratornykh
Priborov i Oborudovaniya, No. 36, 1948.
25X1A2g
21. Central Intelligence Agency, Information Reports, Secret
25X1A2g
22. Central Intelligence Agency,
Information Deports.
25X1A2g
25X1A2
23? Central Intelligence Agency, Series
Information Reports, Secret.
24, Kingslake, E.: Lenses for Aerial Photography, Journ. Optical Society of
Amer., Vol. 32, 1942, p. 129.
Recent Development in Lenses for Aerial Photography,
Ibid., Vol. 37, 1947. p. 1.
25. Gardner, J. C. and Washer, F. E.: Lenses of Extremely Wide Angle for
Airplane Wapping, Journ. Optical Society of America, Vol. 38, 1948, p. 421.
26. Slyusarev, G., Journ. Optical Society of America, Vol. 36, 1946, p. 707.
27, SYhwidefsky, K.: Die Entwicklung der photogrammetrischen Instrumente,
Allgemeine Vermessungs-Nadhrichten 1950, No. 12.
28. Zeiss Index of Photographic Lenses, W. W. Wert, ATI No. 38399, September
1950.
29. Skiridov, A. S.: Stereofotogrammetriya, 1951.
30. Detailed Examination of Zorkiy Camera, Central Intelligence Agency, In-
formation Report 00-T-00072 of Dec. 27, 1951. Secret.
31. Library of Congress, Serial Publications of the Soviet Union 1939-1951.
A Preliminary Cheek List.
32. Veselovskiy, W. W.: Fotogrammetriya, 1943.
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33. Konahin D
Appiroved.F03Netiheeae finththkff frElvonimileaR80050001-3
Kell, N. and others, Chapter 4 of *Geodeziya," Vol. 4, 1940.
34. Ieliseyev, S. V.: Geodezicheakoye Priborostroyeniye v SS044 lbOrnik
NTIPS, Typ. 20, 1948, P. 71.
35. Begunov, B. W.: Optika Geodezicheskikh Instrumentov Komodo *Aerogeopribor*,
Geodezist, 1937, Na. 6. p. 40 and No. 7, P. 38.
36. Zverev, M. S.: Universallnyy Instrument Zavoda "Aerogeopribor* na
Astronomicheskoy Rabote, Geodezist,1937, No. 9, P. 35.
37. aGeodezist,* 1937, No. 9, p. 72.
38. Lorin, B.A.: 0 RObotakh po Osvoyentyn Geodezicheakikh Mernykh Priborov
iz Sovetskogo Iftvara, Geodezist.
39, Articles *Geodeziyam and *Geodezioheskiye Instrumenty* in Mblishoya
Sovetskaya Entstklopedtya, Vol. 9, 1951.
40. Lorin, B. A.: 3uperinvornyye Provolki, Sbornik NTiPS, Vyp. 21, 1948,
P. 42.
41. Tsvetkov, N. A,: Prakticheskaya Astronomiya, 2nd ed., 1951.
42. Geodeziya, Vol. 9, 1949, P. 377.
43. Pavlov, M. P. Tokhnika Izmerenlya Skorostey S. Vremeni, Mashigiz, 1950
44. Gusev, N. A.: Xnstrumentovedeniye. Marksheydersko-Geodezicheskiye
Instrumenty, 1949.
45. Chebotarev, A. S.: "Geodeziya*, Part 1, 1948, pp. 467-482.
46. Grigor'yev, S. %.1 0 Primenenii Ploskikh Vizirnykh Tseley,etc. Geodezist,
1940, No. 9, p. 28.
47. Sorokin, L. V. ond others: Kure Geofizidheskikh Metodov Razvedki
Neftyanykh Mestorozhdenty, 1950.
48. Sorokin, L. V.: Gravimetriya I Gravimetricheskaya Razvedka, 1951.
49. Iheyfets, X. E.: Issledovaniye Uprugikh Mayatnikov, Trudy TsIlIGAIN?
Vyp. 66, 1949.
50. Grushinskiy, N P.: Ob Ispollzovanii Gravimetrov dlya Opredeleniya
Punktov I i II Klassov, Sbornik 1TPS, Typ. 23, 1949, pp. 16-21.
51. Dobler, V. Primeneniye Aerosnimkov v Usloviyakh Masshtaba
'Carty 1:100,000, Geodezist, 1938, No. 5, p. 54.
a
32
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AWNtilf041,1391MW,9814M24 9(ifia
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53. Safronov, L. T. and Krovyakov, V. I.: Fotooborudovaniyo Samoletov, 1949.
54. Makarov Tu. G. and Rozhdestvin, N. P.: AarofotorazvedovatelinayaSlushba,
1947. iiranslation: F-TS-6798-RE.
55. Ask, Reynold E,: Elements of Photogrammetric Optics, Manta]. of Photogram-
metry, 1952.
56. Byull. Vs. Astronomo-Geodezicheskogo Obshchestva, No. 4(11), 1948.
57. Mikhaylov, A. A., Vestnlk Ak. N. SSSR, No. 3, 1951.
58. Fedorov, N. V., Oeodeziya, 1949.
59. Bayrashsvskiy, A. M.: Sudovaya Radiotekhnika i Badionavigatsiya, 1949.
60. Aseysv, B. P.: Fazovyys SootnoShenlya v RadiotekhnAke, 1951.
61. Vodoplyanar, F. A.: Radiolokatsiya, 1945.
62. Mandellshtam, L. I. and Papaleksi, N. D.: NoveyshAys Issledovaniya
Rasprostraneniya Radiovoln vdol' Zemmoy.Ptverkhnosti, 1945.
63, Nesmeyanov, V. N. and Romanovskiy, G. V.: Ferspektivy TekhniCheikogo
Sovershenstvovaniya Aerosmyemki, XX Let Sovetskoy Geodezii i Kartografii,
Vol. 1, 1939, pp. 307-320.
64. Shchegolev, A. la., Radionavigatsiya, 1946, p. 81.
65. Papaleksi, N. D.: Sobranlys Trudov, 1948, Articles No, 21, 25, and 29,
1945-47.
66. Issledovaniya Rasprostraneniya Radiovoln, Sbornik 2, 1948, Academy of
Sciences, SSSR.
67. Gerasimova, O. A,: Obzor Opytov Primeneniya Radiolokatsionnykh Metodov
Oblasti Kartografo-Geodezicheskikh Rabot za Granitsey,Sbornik NTPS,
Vyp. 20, 1948.
68. NAkonov, B. V. and Nikonova, E. K., Izvestiya Krymskoy Astrofizicheskoy
Observatorii, Vol. 9, 1952, p. 41.
69. Agafonova, L. D. and Nefediyeva, A. I.: Izvestiya Observatorii Engeligardta,
NO. 27, 1951.
70. Kaplan, J., American Scientist, Vol. 41, 1953, p. 56.
71. Ivanov-Kholcidnyy, G. Si, Izvestiya Krymsk. Astrofiz. Obs., Vol. 8, 1952,
P. 115.
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72. MelARMICI. L(?1,.IMaest1;11231942M3.: alet-liaPdPIRAYMCW@POAS/:3
73. Badallan, G. So, Soobsh. Byurakan. Obs., No. 8, 1951.
74, Mirsoyan, L. V.., Soobsh. Byurakan. Obs., No. 7, 1951.
75. Nonin, G. A. and Severnyy, A. B. Irv. Krymsk. Astrofiz. Ob., Vol. 7,
1951, p. 113.
76. Stavrukhin, A., Astr. Tsirk. AK. N. SSSR, No. 121, 1951.
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3Tj22njPIDltAMMEniSTRUNEBTS
In respect to instruments used for photogramnetry we are in a rather
favorable position because of the availability of two recent textbooks on this
subject written by acknowledged experts in that field: Skiridov(29) and
Drobyshev(2). There are also three other important and recent sources of in-
formation: a textbook by Vese1ovakiy(32), a chapter in Vol. 9 of the Soviet
encyclopedia dealing with geodesy and a supplement to Soviet instructions
for the compilation of themparascale of 1:100,000 which is devoted to these
instruments. There are also a large number of articles in various periodicals
and serials discussing particular instruments.
1. Photo Rectifiers
Drobyshev(2) describes five photo rectifiers which are designated as
follows:
Potoreduktor of CA. Popov
Potoepireduktor of F. Y. Drobyshev
Tototransformator MGI
Malyy fttotransformetor YTM
Bollshoy7ototransformator ITB
The first two of these instruments are merely enlarging and reducing pro-
jectors having no provision for tilt adjustment. Automatic focus is obtained,
in the first instrument, by means of a rhombic inverter and in the second., by
a can and follower. Both are extremely large instruments with limited uses.
The third instrument was developed at the Moscow Institute of Bugineers of
Geodesy and Cartography (MGI) and is & true rectifier although with a very
limited range. The adjustment of focal distances is obtained by a spiral can
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controlled by a foot disc. The arrangement is undoubtedly satisfactory but
takes up a great deal of room.
The fourth and fifth instruments are direct copies of the Zeiss small rec-
tifier, SEC-IT, and large rectifier, SE&I. It is of interest to note that
the Russian names Main. arid B011shoy in connection with these instruments mean
simply small and large, and the Russians do not claim to have developed these
instruments. On the other hand they do not say that they are merely copies of
the Zeiss instruments.
Nothing comparable to the Bausch and Lombtally automatic rectifier is
described.
2. Stereocomparatorse
Two stereocomparators are described by Drobyshsv: 1. Horizontallnyy Stereo-
komparator; 2. Naklonnyy Stareokomparator.* The first is exactly the same as
the Bulfrichi-Zeiss storeocomparator, which is no longer manufactured.
In the second inutrument, the plane of the photographs has been tilted to
make observations morn convenient for a seated operator. Also, the least read-
ing has been reduced from 0.02 to 0.01 mm.
Stereocomparatorn were originally developed, for work with terrestrial
photographs. They hare never been in favor in the U.S.A. and have been largely
replaced by semi-automatic plotting instruments in West European countries.
Drobyshev states that these instruments were used for terrestrial photo-
graphs during the 1904-1930-period, but since that time they have been used also
for aerial phetograPhs, which necessitated some Changes. The instruments are
obviously in routine Ise in the 'U.S.S.R., since they are described in their
catalogue of geodetic and photogrammetric instruments for 1949(15)
11111111MOMM
* See Figures 1, 2, and 3, pages 96, 97. 98 of Photographic Supplement, Appendix VII.
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manufacture stereocompsratOrs. The precision of measurement in each of these
instruments, 0.01 mm., is the same as that claimed for the Buntian device, al-
though the system used for obtaining this precision is different in each of
the three. In the Soviet instrument full length glass scales, read by means of
a mechanical micrometer, are used. This method does not make allowance for the
possible shrinkage of the film, as is done in the British instrument by means
of a scale superimposed on the original photograph in the camera at the time of
exposure.
It is stated that the collimation system of observation was applied by
Drobyshev seven years before it was adopted in other countries. This is doubt-
ful, since Pulfrich used the principle in the first Zeiss Stereocomparator built
in 1901.
3. Steremantometer of Drobythev*
This instrument performs the same function as the Abrams Contour Finder,
the Fairchild Stereocomparagraph, the Zeiss Stereotop, the Nistri Stereographome-
ter, or any combination of mirror stereoscope and parallax bar. The Soviet and
Zeiss instruments move the photographs with respect to stationary measuring
marks and stereoscope; the otners move the stereoscope and marks with respect
to stationary photographs. So far as results are concerned, one system is as
good as the other. The first results in a more compact but more complicated
instrument; the second is simpler and cheaper to construct. The Soviet device
introducesa luminous floating mark, probably a needless refinement in such an
instrument. Nistri has an attachment for producing an orthographic projection
* See Figures 4 and 5, Pages 99 and 100 of Photographic Supplement, Appendix VII,
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at constant scale. The latest model of the Zeiss has a device for approximately
correcting the effects of small tilts.
The Russian instrument is portable and is designed for use in field work,
expeditions, etc.
4. Stereometers
The three instruments in this group represent original Soviet contributions
to the subject. No comparable instruments are manufactured in the U.S.A. or in
Western Europe, where such instruments are designed for exact determination of
elevations and for tracing contour lines on photographs and used for compilation
of maps of scales of 1:50,000 to 1:25,000. All three Soviet designs are an ex-
tension of the principle of the stereocomparator based upon two premises:
1. Both, photographs will be maintained in the same plane regardless
of the tilts which may have existed at the time of exposure.
2. The line of sight of the optical viewing system will be kept
perpendicular to the plans of the photographs.
When tilted photographs are observed under these conditions, the observed
values of horizontal (x or height), parallaxes and vertical (y or orientation)
parallaxes will be in error. In order to correct these observed values the
photographs must be moved in the x direction, in the y direction, and about a
vertical axis not necessarily coinciding with the camera axis. These corrections
are applied by ingenious mechanical devices which automatically introduce the
required motions. In order to keep these devices simple, certain assumptions
are made; ie, primarily that the tilts do not exceed three degrees. The set-
tings of the correction devices are functions of the normal orientation elements.
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AppriotedpffateReittatteril 99903itiOeyeGhAvlitilii7110831411041110660004-3evices
on each photograph. Apparently such an instrument has not yet been constructed.
The three instruments described give only a partial solution, and further opera-
tions with the photographs are required in order to obtain complete map informa-
tion from them. These instruments undoubtedly perform the function for which
they were designed, but in view of the limited information obtained about them,
they seem to offer no advantages over the instruments in use in the west. They
are not adaptable for extension of control by bridging methods, and based on the
simplicity principle, it is doubtful that a high degree of accuracy could be
attained.
Topographic Stereometer of Drobrhev*
The end product of this instrument is elevations of ground points and/or
contour lines drawn by hand directly upon unrectified photographs. In this re-
spect it is roughly comparable to the Zeiss Stereotop or the Brock Stereometer,
except that rectified photographs are used in the Brock instrument. All of
these devices are subject to the limitation that each contour line is at a
different scale.
Stereometer of probyshev
This instrument is a larger and more precise model of the Topographic
Stereometer. It is adapted to use either glass platen illuminated from below
or paper platen illuminated from above. The y parallaxes are measured and the
least readings of the correction devices are smaller so that more precise values
of the orientation elements are obtained. Contour lines are drawn by a pencil
attached directly to the instrument rather than by hand. The precision of
measurement is stated to be 0.015 ma.
* See Figures 6 and?, pages 102 and 103 of Photographic Supplement, Appendix VII.
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This instrument is designed solely to determine the elements of relative
orientation of a steraopair by elimination of the y parallaxes at five points.
Elevations or contour lines are not determined.
5. InstrwamiLslAimss_ftticalIntersection
These are projection type instruments operating essentially on the same
principle as the Multiplex and Kelsh plotters. Again no new principles are
disclosed in Russian Literature, but several interesting innovations are described.
It is stated that stereoscopic vision is obtained by the use of polarized pro-
jectors and spectacles. Western experiments with this system have' not been
successful.
psul_j142mecITIEGAiK
This instrument was apparently designed primarily for research in various
means of viewing the stereoscopic model. It offers a correct solution but has
drawbacks for practical application. Variation between camera and projector
focal lengths and plate sizes results in different scales for horizontal and
vertical measurements. Absolute orientation is obtained by tilting the base
table which could make drawing inconvenient. The two projector instruments
cannot be used for bridging.
Detble Projector DPD-2 of Drobyshev
The instrument is designed for producing large scale topographic maps
(scale, 1:2,000 to 1:10,000) from contact diapositives. The projectors are
disposed in a horizontal position and the relative orientation is performed by ,
'introducing rotations to mirrors placed in front of the objectives. A similar
* See Figures 8 and 9, pages 104 and 105 of Photographic Supplement, Appendix VII.
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scheme was used in a German instrument designed by Gasser in 1915. 'Absolute
orientation is still obtained by tilting the drawing table with respect to the
fixed projectors.
The model may be viewed either by the anaglyph principle .or by means of
the blinking method. At present only Nistri applies the blinking method in a
production instrument. Experiments have been conducted in this country but
there is no unanimous preference for one method over the other.
In end product the instrument is comparable to the Kelsh plotter, but in
construction and operation it is much more complicated.
Soviet Multiplex
In photogrammetric principles and operation this instrument is exactly
the same as the instruments produced by Bausch and Lomb, Williamson, and others.
Optically, the ultra-wide angle coverage, 122?, and the use Of aspherical
condenser lenses are of great interest. A distortion-free objective of this,
angular coverage and the specified resolving power of 60 lines per millimeter
does not exist in western instruments. To be significant this lens must be
complemented with a camera objective of equal angular coverage.
6. Instruments of Optical-Mechanical Intersection
There are many different solutions possible in this category. Those se-
lected by the Russians for development into working models are the same as those
used in Western instruments. In pursuit of the national trend towards keeping
the photographs co-planar, a system is described in which existing photo tilts
are introduced by providing an adjustable joint in the space rods. A similar
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system was described f.n Swiss patents 2516bb 'and zbz4d1 by A. wild in lygo,
but no instrument using this scheme has been built.
Stereo Universal of Skiridov
This instrument, like the Kern Stereometer of the same designer, serves
solely to determine the elements of relative orientation of two photographs
by elimination of y parallax in five points. In this instrument the Photo-
graphs are tilted, While in the stereometer instrument the parallaxes are cor-
rected with the photographs maintained-co-planar. The use made of this limited
information is not described.. It is probable that it is used for the settings
of other instruments in which the photographs are actually plotted. Another
possible use is to au i in determining the positions of nadir points and iso-
Centers, after which the photographs may be used in radial triangulation with
results equal to those obtained in space triangulation..
Radial TriankUlator
The illustration, diagram of optical system, and description are precisely
applicable to the Zeiss nadial triangulator.
_m_LaSterebalimpilltjt:B and C-4 (Konahin)
The C-4 seems to be a description, of the Zeiss Stereoplanigraph 0-4, while
the S P B is the Rnscian copy of the same instrument. The photograph of the
instrument, the diagrams of the mechanical and optical systems dhow only minor
discrepancies from the Zeiss. However, the Russian model does employ luminous
measuring marks, not incorporated by Zeiss until the model 07.
Stereoscopic Universql_LastmakALAIRaglal
This instrument is an attempt to reduce the complexity of the stereoplani-
graph to speed up nap compilation. It is not a universal instrument as the term
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is understood here, since it is adaptable for use only with near vertical
aerial photographs.
In principle the instrument isacombination ofaKEKPlotter and a
vertical sketchmaster. The photographs are oriented in space by means of
angular and directional motions. The elements of relative orientation obtained
in the Stereo Universal and Kern Stereometer of Skiridov are probably used
for this purpose. The mirror stereoscope allows viewing of the entire model
at once. Half silvered mirrors give the impression of the model projected upon
the drawing table. Planimetry and contours are drawn by hand on this projected
model. The instrument could not be expected to give a high order of accuracy.
?
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GEODETIC INSTRUMENTS
Available information dealing with Soviet geodetic instruments is not as
up-to-date as it was with respect to instruments used in photogrammetry. De-
tailed descriptions later than 1940 are lacking and only a few general state-
ments about the performance of instruments have been found.
A general review of the situation as it was in 1948 is avai1able.(34)
The difficulty of construction of precise instruments requiring close co-opera-
tion of various industries is described. Soviet scientists and technicians had
to start from nothing and experiment with all sorts of alloys and optical devices.
It is of interest to aote that, according to the author, *the development of
Russian geodetic instrumentation was necessitated not only by sheer impossibility
to obtain from abroad the necessary number of instruments (presumably for finan-
cial reasons) but also by the poor quality of many of these instruments". Ex-
amples given include the 2* Universal Instruments of the German firm, "Askania",
which were found to ba quite unsatisfactory.
The author of this article regards the problem of construction of geodetic
instruments in the U.S.S.R. as solved. Greatest difficulty was encountered with
invar tapes and the problem was not yet considered as completely solved by 1948.
The optics used in geodetic instruments are described in great detail in
two articles by B. N. Begunov(35), but they refer to the year, 1937. At that
time no new devices were employed, but the description shows full comprehension
of details.
The important point to establish is whether the Russians show the necessary
critical attitude toward their _instruments or whether they are dominated entirely
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simply because it is their own. In the detailed description of instruments
available for the pre-war years there is certainly no trace of exaggerated
nationalism. Foreign-made and Soviet-made instruments are very thoroughly
tested and appraised on the basis of their merit. The tests are so uniformly
in favor of Soviet-made instruments that one might suspect that unfavorable
testa are simply not reported. This, however, is only a suspicion and may
perhaps be explained by the strict supervision at factories which do not re-
lease instruments unless they are really good. In the description of work of
industrial establishments unsatisfactory production is often mentioned and
counted as loss.
On the other hand, tests of Soviet-made instruments, when no comparison
with foreign-made instruments is involved, are usually quite frank in pointing
out the bad as well as good features of the instrument. As an example of this
attitude we may consider the tests of the Astronomic Universal Instrument, mark
AU, the first five of which were manufactured by the plant, "Aerogeopribora,
in 1935. They were tested by M.S. Zverev(36) one of the foremost positional
astronomers in the U.S.S.R., in his determination of astronomic co-ordinates
at Laplace points in a geodetic network in the Caucasus Mountains.. Points were
selected near sea-level as well as at high altitudes (up to 3,100 meters). It
was found that the instrument was of good stability, rotation about the vertical
axis was Smooth and regular, the system of illumination was excellent, and the
instrument withstood the rough treatment of mountain conditions. On the other
hand, this instrument Which performed satisfactorily at a temperature of 15?C
could not be rotated at all at a temperature of 30C, and the micrometer showed
undue sensitivity to changes in temperature. These defects were discussed with
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the manufaAVVietleF6t8RWAVE149416?/01127rd PASIRIPWW158U656/1366t1W56113
in later models. The general conclusion offered here is that with necessary
improvements the instrument will be gate satisfactory for astonomic determine,
tions at points of I-order triangulation.
Such treatment of the problem certainly does not indicate any undue emo-
tional attachment to Russian-made instruments. On the other hand, the Russians
show distinct intolerance to what they consider as excessive veneration of
Western technology. This attitude, so prominent at the present time, was in
evidence long ago. It probably originated as soon as the Russians came to the
conclusion that they could build instruments of as high quality as those made
abroad.
As an illustration of this attitude we may take the controversy about geo-
detic instruments which appears in "Geodezist" of 1937. K. N. Smirnov, Professor
of the Military-Engineering Academy, published an article very favorable to in-
struments manufactured by Zeiss and Wild. This article was objected to by S.V.
Yeliseyev, one of the Soviet specialists in instrument construction. A rebuttal
by Smirnov followed. The upshot of this controversy was something that would
appear rather strange to the Western reader. The chairman of geodesy and. astro-
nomy of the Academy, Prof. N.A. Urmayev, published in the same periodical(37)
an excerpt from the minutes of the meeting of the faculty in which the contro-
versy was reviewed.. It was found that Smirnov had not examined the problem.
with a sufficient amount of criticism. Re discussed only the favorable points
in the instruments of Zeiss and Wild, and not their defects, thus giving a dis-
torted picture of instrument production abroad. Smirnov was given a warning
to improve his work in a technical and aideological-political? sensa, as 're-
quired. of every Soviet scientist".
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ApproiitratzFrarRelmlattel.d999b19gli :jedilik-ER01379m010133440194COMPQAtitude.
A. Bases Auaratus. The essential part of the JAderin apparatus for
measuring the length of geodetic bases adopted by the Russians is the 24 meter
invar wire. The preparation of these wires involved considerable difficulties
and up to 1937 the Soviets depended entirely on the Carpentier wires made in
France.
The first attempts(38) to break this dependence on foreign industry was
made in 1937 when first samples of Soviet invar metal were manufactured at the
plant, "Electrostal",(in Noginsk, Moscow Region).
As is true of many industrial plants, "Elektrostal" maintains its own re-
search organization which in this ease may be considered as a research institute
of ferrous metallurgy. It is known that in 1934 there were no fewer than 220
people working in this institute(14) and their number is now undoubtedly larger.
Constant experimentation with all sorts of alloys is going on.
The first batch of liver wires was tested in the field in 1937 and turned
out to be unsatisfactory. However, during the next year, wires of a somewhat
different alloy gave a coefficient of expansion equal to 0.1 x'10-6 to 0.4 x 10-6
and their tests were considered quite satisfactory.
At the present time, the Russians consider that the problem of manufacturing
invar wires has been solved completely with the production of wires of any as-
signed coefficient of expansion.
It is of interest to note that the Russians are still experimenting with
this problem. They are manufacturing superinvar wires (the invar in which 5
percent of nickel is replaced by cobalt). These wires were tested(4?) under
field conditions in 1939 and 1945 and indicated a decided superiority over
ordinary invar wires in at least the coefficient of expansion (which turned
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out t o befT.P2r6cleSFIY. RVoignil VOISMI;ectik tI,0PI7c-9iONNIANONe0001 -3
not as desirable.
B. Astronomical Instruments. For the determination of astronomic posi-
tions for I-order triangulation the Soviets, until about 1937, had depended
entirely on foreign made instruments, expecially those of Hildebrandt and Wild.
In 1935 the plant, lAerogeopribor", began to manufacture Astronomical Univer-
sals (AU) with the minimum scale division of 5".
Soviet astronomical instruments are described in considerable detail in a
recent (1951) textbook in Practical Astronomy by K. A. Tsvetkov(41). These in-
struments are designed for the determination of latitude and time with different
degrees of precision depending on the order of triangulation or of astronomic
determination. The statement is made that the U.S.S.R. is completely independ-
ent of foreign instrumentation but no data on the exact performance of instru-
ments are given.
Universal instruments (that is, instruments for determination of both
latitude and time) most frequently mentioned are AU 2 10, U-5 and U-10. The
instrument, U-10., is described in somewhat greater detail than the others(42)
and is of the less precise kind to be used for II-order triangulation and as-
tronomic determinations in the Arctic. The task of design was to provide an
instrument of minimum size and weight and suitable for Arctic conditions.
The essential novelty of this instrument is the incorporation of a totally
reflecting prism at the objective end, a feature not found in any instrument
made in the West. This is essentially the 'broken-transit* idea, well known
and extensively used everywhere but the location of the prism is most unusual.
The instrument is evidently designed for observations of circum-senith stars
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byAtUrMetrIfogrAN@AnelM09#12 eamin9-EticomatteltAMSER301413 2" ,
and it is stated that estimates of one tenth of this division are easily made.
Work of this instrument in the Arctic region is considered quite satisfactory.
The Soviet transit used for the most precise determination of time appears
to be a very fineinstrument. It is manufactured by the plant, "Aerogeopribor*.
The Bamberg transit is considered quite obsolete. The interesting features of
the Russian instrument include the incorporation of ayrism at the objective
end (as in U-10) and striding level instead of a suspended level. The first
feature is definitely stated to eliminate difficulties of flexure. The second
improvement is of more debatable character.
There is no good description of the best Russian Universal Instrument AU
2/10 but there are several photographs of it which allow us to compare it with
the best western instrument of this type, the Wild T4. Both instruments appear
to be remarkably similar, the same dependence on the suspension level, the same
impersonal transit micrometer, the same orthodox broken type idea (not as in
Russian U-10) and apparently the same ultimate precision, perhaps somewhat in
favor of the Wild instrument. Given the type of work to be performed with an
instrument, it is perhaps impossible to expect any radical change in the design.
few improvements here and there are all that can be expected.
An essential part of any astronomic work is the Chronometer. It was im-
possible to find any description of Soviet-made chronometers except for the
general statement that Russian chronometers are being used and they are "not
inferior in quality to those made abroad *(1).
Many auxiliary apparatus used by the Soviets are described, but most of
them are not of any great interest from the instrumental point of view. How-
ever, it might be noticed that the Russians attribute much importance to the
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e personal equation of field workers and have developed
several, rather simple, apparatus for this purpose.
Constant Soviet attempts to improve the reception of time signals de-
serves special notice. They have developed for this purpose an apparatus
called the "stroboscopic chronoscope", which appears to be unknown in the
West. This apparatus is claimed to give the precision of time determination
up to 0.001 second. Stroboscopic effect allows the determination of the
speed of rapidly moving objects by using very short period flashes of light,
and is well known in industry. Its application to astronomy was developed
by P.S. Pavlov la 1937, This instrument requires considerable equipment such
as highly synchronized motors and highly regalated flashes of light and is
obviously not smelted to field conditions. However, it is intensively used
by the Russians in their time-service under laboratory conditions. The Shott
Pendulum clocks /Or the time service were duplicated by the Russians as early
as 1937. In recent times much experimentation has been done to adapt quarts
clocks for this purpose.
C. Surveying Instruments. The Russians are manufacturing many types
of theodolites of which marks TT-2/6 and OT-02 are extensively-used.
The first kimd is supposed to give precision in the measurement of
angles with a mesa error of 013 to 017. It is a rather heavy instrument
(weight 30 klg.) and it cannot be used on top of triangulation towers. For
this purpose the "optical theodolite", OT-02, with a precision of 1* and TB-1
with a precision of 2*, were developed. Their weight 1. 10 to 12 klg.
In a recent textbook by Ouse,) a statement is made that the optical
theodolites TB-1 and TB-2 were developed after 1947.
Again, a comparison with theodolites of this sort made by Wild and Kern
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do*Vgi IgrearteRVPIMAINNI4e;r9A-FILTwanoimmonatctoos000tiois6-
made instruments. Nor do the Russians claim any particular merit of their
theodolites except great rigidity and better optical system. Of particular
interest in the use of graduated glass circles in theodolites of mark OT is
the Soviet emphasis on weight reduction. This feature is also used. in Swiss
theodolites. The Russians apparently pay more attention to the practical
demands of surveying 'the,* to excessive precision required for both horizontal
and vertical circles. Such a notation as 2/6, refers to the smallest velum
of division 2* for the horizontal and 6* for the vertical circle. Unneces-
sary precision is always avoided to reduce costs and time of manufacturing.
The Soviets have developed the tacheometer type of theodolite which they
claim is much better than anything made abroad. This is the Stodolkevidh
automatic tacheometer, described in detail in the textbook by Chebotarev(45).
It is claimed that highly precise differences in elevation are obtained by
means of this instrument automatically by means of an additional mechanical
device which replaces the vertical circle. Such devices are well known in
the West. The Wild Precision Telemeter II41 is designed for exactly the same
purpose as the Stodolkevich adaption. The tacheometer model used mostly in
the U.S.S.R. is the TT50, which looks very similar to corresponding instru-
ments of Kern and Wild.
Much the same can be said of precision levels and other auxiliary I.*,
struments.
The general conclusion is that Russian geodetic instruments are probably
as good as those made in the West. The various features designed bylera and
Wild as improvements over their old work, such as internal focusing, graduated
glass circles, optical elerometers etc.,are also used by the Russians, and
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it is Alth5PolitkirsRifteieaweigistiogmhpeweRainsal$183144Q04600001-3
features from abread or developed them independently.. The Russians seem to
be designing specific'instruments for specific uses. They build not just a
theodolite, but a theodolite to be used in the Arctic regions or at high al-
titudes or for mine-surveying. From the point of view of actual use, con-
pactness and light weight may be more important considerations than is pre-
cision. Cases are mentioned Where surveyors were parachuted out of planes
in the remote regions of Yakutia to establish control points for aerial
surveys. Under such conditions orthodox equipment is of little use.
The Russian al:titude toward the west In this respect is extremely cri-
tical but not unreasonable. They give detailed tests of foreign-made theodo-
lites and find, for instance, that the Wild TheOdolite No. 159 gives a mean
error in the determination of angles of OT56, whereas the Aerogeopribor the-
odolite No. 3019 in the same task gave the probably error of only 0129. They
ascribe this to the greater rigidity and better optics of the Russian
theodol1te(46)
From such a statement the only legitimate conclusion is that Aerogeopribor
No. 3019 is better than Wild No. 159, but not that the Aerogeopribor instru-
ments are generally better than Wild instruments. However, the Russians have
undoubtedly performed many such tests and have come to the conclusion that
they can dispense altogether with foreign made instruments. We can be sure
that foreign made irstruments are well known in Russia and are studied very
carefully, and any epod features are very promptly incorporated into their
own instruments.
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DallUETALIJUMaagia
The Russians put tremendous emphasis on the application of gravimetry
to geodesy. This necessitates manufacturing of gravimetric apparatus on a
much larger scale than is customary in most other countries. Soviet models
are almost wholly based on apparatus manufactured abroad and the best avail-
able description in the textbooks(47, 48) by I.V. Sorokin (1950 and 1951),
one of the leaders in the field, gives no indication of revolutionary prin-
ciples in the construction of such apparatus, with the possible exception of
the gravimeter of Molodenskiy. There is, however, much evidence of Soviet
cleverness in adaptation and improvement of already well-known instruments.
Free Pendulum Apparatus. All pendulum apparatus for the determination
of gravity can be considered as a further development of the original pendu-
lum of Sterneck. At least 30 such modifications are known and the Soviets
do not claim originality in this respect. However, they have carried out
extensive experimentation and introduced many substantial improvements.
One such improvement was the adaptation of the unwieldy.Sttokrath four-
pendulum apparatus for field determinations. The original apparatus weighed
over 200 klg., the Soviet model only 30 klg. It was used extensively for the
pendulum gravity survey in Eastern Siberia, the Pamir Mountains and the Arctic
and had a claimed precision of 1 to 2 milligals, Such pendulums are made in
the shops of the Arctic Institute, but apparently they are used in all parts
of the territory of the Soviet Union.
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reached the U.S.S.R. in 1930. This instrument has been modified by the Soviets
in its unessential details (recording device), but apparently it is substan-
tially the same apparatus. It was used for submarine observations in the
Black, Japan and Okhotsk Seas.
Determinations made for the Caspian Sea, however, involved the use of
the Sorokin three-pendulum apparatus which was installed either on board a
tanker or on a barge towed by steamers. This apparatus is not described in
the literature except for a statement that it has brass pendulums. In all
probability it is some modification of the Vaning-Meinesz apparatus. Read-
ings are.said to he consistent if the weather conditions are favorable. It
is worthy of notice that a statement is made concerning an extensive gravity
survey of seas in 1949-50 with this apparatus. The Vening-Meinesz apparatus
is also used to make observations on land in regions subject to frequent
earthquakes.
Any kind of free-pendulum apparatus requires lengthy adjustments and the
period of observation is very long. Soviet instructions for observations
require continuous observations with the free-pendulum apparatus lasting at
least 12 hours. Both in the U.S.S.R. and in the West many attempts have been
made to develop an instrument that would reliably measure the force of gravity
in a few minutes. In the following paragraphs only equipment used by the
Soviets is described.
Fixed Pendulum Apparatus. This apparatus requires observations of the
vibrations of a rod which is fixed at one end and supplied with a weight at
the other. Its Imo was introduced into gravimetric practice by Father Lejay
who made observations of this sort in China, the Phillipine Islands and France.
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The principles of this instrument were further developed by G.J. Hunakovskiy,
so that the Soviets now refer to this instrument as the Rudakovskiy Pendulum.
The Soviets say that they do not consider this instrument as very prac-
tical since it requires very careful handling and all sorts of precautions
must be taken to insure dependable results. Very few such instruments are made
in the U.S.S.R. and they are used in the general gravimetric survey. The
theory and experimental results of observation with this gravimeter are de-
scribed by M.B. Kheyfets(49) Mean errors of determination are of the order
of 2 mlg.
Static Gravimeters. The Soviets evidently have experimented with gravi-
meters which depend on a principle different from that of a pendulum. As of
1939 they started using gravimeters of the Ising and Boliden types; after the
war, Mott-Smith, Reiland and Norgaard gravimeters. All of these were found
to be unsatisfactory for one reason or another, and at the present time,
Soviet gravimeters, GDR, MA and VIRG are said to be in almost exclusive use.
AKB:. This is the Molodenskiyigravimeter, apparently an independent
Soviet development. The essential part of this apparatus is a flat ring,
situated in the vertical plane. One point of this ring is attached to the
stand of the apparatus, the other is connected with an elaborate lever with
a weight. The difference in the force of gravity is measured by the pressure
of this weight on the ring. The precision of the gravimeter is stated to be
from 0.4 to 0.8 mlg. The weight of the entire apparatus totals about 25 kis.
The ring of the gravimeter is made of elinvar (L-invar, a steel-nickel
alloy with a very low coefficient of expansion). The ring and the lever are
in a special chamber, the temperature of which is controlled by a thermostat
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accurcotigpil?MhisorslftlealsbulS94408402f: C lircolgaP7WOM18244001119,99603GOA -3
for barometric compensation.
Readings by this gravimeter may be taken at any distance from the instru-
ments by means of a special device, observations requiring about 5 minutes.
This gravimeter is extensively used for the determination of gravity on
sea bottoms, the observer being situated aboard ship. No statement is made
concerning depth of such observations.
The Molodenskiy Gravimeter is advertised(20) as being made by the Zavod
Ministerstva Voorazhennykh Sil (Plant of Ministry of Armed Threes), a rather
interesting connection. The model described there is GKM-NIIPG-5, the weight
48 klg. The initials GKM mean: Gravimetr Kolitsevoy Molodenskiy (Ring
Gravimeter of Molodenskiy); NIIPG: Nauchno4ssledovatel'skiy Institut
Prikladnoy Geofiziki (Scientific Research Institute of Applied Geophysics).
Testing of the Molodenskiy gravimeters was carried out in 1949 by N.P.
50)
Grushinskiy( . There are evidently two types of these gravimeters; large
models, P0-0 and PG-1, and small models, GKM-5 (No. 17 and 37 were used)-.
They were compared with the gravimeters of Norgaard (Nos. 268, 270, 271 and
327). The results of the test are not given separately for the Soviet and
for the Norgaard instruments, since one gravimeter in each group was found to
be defective. Excluding these, we get
Norgaard mean error 0.12 mlg.
Molodenskiy *
0.67 mlg.
The comparison is thus in favor of Norgaard. This is admitted by the
Soviets. However, the Soviet instrument is undoubtedly serviceable and
gat,- adequate for relative gravity determinations.
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Appromal Fee1eaft41499/Mi2estsrell
n.71
70,0c110811AVOCAS613111/10made
by A.M. Lozinskaya. The improvements are in the astatization, lever, thermo-
stat,'etc. The weight of the gravimeter is 13 klg., and the precision of
determination, 0.3 mlg. It is stated that the adjustment of the apparatus
and the readings of gravity at a selected point, can be made within 3 minutes.
Metal SPring Gravimeters. These gravimeters feature a spring, the ten-
sion of which is modified by the change of gravity. The Soviets used such
gravimeters as those of Heyland and of Lindblad-Malmquist, but apparently
found them unsatisfactory. There is no record of Soviet development of this
principle.
Quartz Gravimeters. Fused quartz can be used in gravimeters instead of
metallic rings and springs but it has disadvantages in being very brittle and
being subject to large variation in the coefficient of elasticity depending
on temperature. This means a very careful protection of the quartz spring
which is taken care of by a sensitive thermostat and immersion of the spring
In special oil. The Soviet quartz gravimeter, VIRG, developed by Poddybnyy,
Samsonov and Serov at the Vsesoyuznyy Institut Razvedochnoy Geofiziki (All-
Union Institute of Prospecting Geophysics, abbreviation VIRG, hence the name
of the instrument) appears to be a very carefully made instrument capable of
a precision of 0.3 mlg. The weight of the entire instrument-is 22 klg.
The Russians admit that the principle of this gravimeter is very much
like that of the quartz gravimeter of Norgaard, but apparently their inven-
tion was made quite independently.
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? ?
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gravitational potential are used exclusively in geophysical prospecting but
are not of great importance from the point of view of geodesy. The Soviets
manufacture two types of these instruments, the so called Z- and C- variometers,
which appear to be more or less copies of the well known instruments first
designed by Schweidar. The Soviets do not claim any originality in this
respect.
Variometers of type S-20 are made at the plant of the Ministry of
Geology, SSSR.
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PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES AND CAMERAS
Many types of photographic cameras are manufactured at several Soviet
plants. Especially important is the optical-mechanical factory in Leningrad,
Optiko-Mekhanicheskiy Zavod imeni OGPU, usually referred to in Soviet litera-
ture as GOMZ (Optical-Mechanical Plant). This plant has attached to it a
large research laboratory in which problems of optics are intensively studied
from the constructional point of view. The factory itself manufactures opti-
cal instruments such as binoculars on a wholesale scale and also individual
instruments for research work. Industar Cameras Nos. 7, 13 and 17 manufactured
here, are used for meteor study (for astronomical purposes as well as in con-
nection with studies of upper atmosphere) and are claimed to be of high quality.
Much investigation and design of photographic cameras for photogrammetric
purposes was done at the Leningrad Institute of Aerial Surveys before its
merger with the Central Institute of Geodesy, Cartography and Aerial Survey
in Moscow (TsNIIGAiK). The best known designer there is M.M. Rusinov. Prac-
tically all outstanding lenses for photogrammetry? are of his design.
1. Photographic Lenses
Soviet development in photographic lenses, according to Soviet
writers followed approximately the same course as the development of other
apparatus. At first, there was absolute dependence on foreign-made lenses,
then came a more or less slavish imitation of Western production, and finally
complete independence of the West was attained.
One way to increase the field of view of cameras for aerial photography
is to combine several cameras into one unit. This introduces mechanical
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diffi exitIDIFIf suerk EP ER cilfigligulneTWtle WOMPr7g9412Pm3eV941 ueo 1-3
tographs obtained. The Soviets considered the 4-lens apparatus by Zeiss and.
the nine-lens camera by Ashenbrenner and by Fairchild. and, in fact, constructed
their own 9-lens equipment. However, later development of Russian cameras
has been concentrated on the use of single objectives.
Because of the difficulty encountered in systematizing heterogeneous
Soviet material in which all lenses, both Soviet and foreign made, are grouped
indiscriminately and the use of lenses not always indicated, it was decided
to list all of the lenses which can be identified. as of Soviet make. In the
following tables, I to V, the notation is as follows:
f mm: focal length of the lens in millimeters
: focal ratio
20 : angle of the field. of view
Res. Power: resolving power in the center and on edges whenever ascertained
Size of photo: in centimeters
Camera: this is known in comparatively few cases.
In combining the data for tables I to V, many minor discrepancies were
encountered. Results given in these tables represent our best efforts to
reconcile these discrepancies, using all information available here at the
present time.
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SERIES *RUSSAR*
Designer: M. M. Rusinov
Application: Photogrammetry; scale 1:100,000 and smaller.
Claims: much larger usable field of view than in any other lenses.
Dumber of components:
Mark fmm
6
f
2
Resolv.Power
Size of
PhOo (cm)
Camera
Center
Edge
Russar la
100
5.3
140?
12
. 18 x 18
Russar-5
120
4.5
104?
15
23 x 23
Russar-16
60
12
126?
Russar-19
100
6.3
1030
20
10
18 x 18
Russar-22
70
8.0
122?
26
4
18 x 18
Russar-25
98
6.8
1100
23
4
18 x 18
A Shch An-2
Etssar-25a
70
6.8
1220
20
10
18 x 18
Russar-26
Russar-29
70
6.8
122?
26
12
18 x 18
RMK C-5
Russar-30
120
6.3
120?
30
17
30 x 30
33/20-MAFA 33/12
Russar-31
Ru8sar-33
100
6.8
122?
30 x 30
Russar-Plasmat
210
3.5
700
A Shch AM-2
61
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SERIES ?INDUST/UP
Designer: unknown
Application: aerial surveying cameras, copy cameras
Claims: high resolving power, good illumination, small distortion
Number of componants:
Mark
Ind:taster-2
135
Industar-4
210
Indu8tar-7
105
Industar-10
50
Bee. Power Size of
47 20 Center -Edge Photo (cm)
4,-5-
4.5
3.5
3.5
460
Camera
30 13 x 18 AFANM
Industar-11 210-1200 4.5-9.-0
Reproduction
Camera for
Cartography
Industar-13
300
4.5
56?
23
18 x 24
NAPA-Q.3; APA-13
]3-EZ APA-1
Industar -17
500
5.0
32
18 x 24
NAFA-3s
Industar-22
511
3.3
46?
110
20
FED; &MIT
Reprod. App.
PU-2
Industar23
110
4.5
520
s 6 x 9
MOSKVA-II
Indastar-51
21.0
4.5
56?
16
13 x 18
AFA-IM; NATA-19
Industar-A
500
5.0
46?
30
30 x 30
LFA-3
MI333/500
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SERIES sURAN"
Designer: D. S. Volosov
Application: Aerial survey, possibly infra-red work
Claims: great speed
Number of components: 7
R. Power Size of
Mark fmm fi 20 genter Fidze PhOo_Seml_
Vran-4 250 2.5 540
Uran-9 250 2.5 54040 18 x 18
Uran-10 100 2.5 600
Uran-11 250 2.5 54?
TABLE IV
SERIES wYUPITER" (Jupiter)
era
Designer: unknown
Application: general photography, connection with aerial photography not clear
Claims: nothing specific -- just a good lens
Number of components:
5
Res, Power
Size of
an
er
C nt r
Tupiter,.3
52
1.5
24 x 36
KI/EV
Yupiter-8
52
2.0
45?
KIYEV
Yupiter-9
85
2.0
28?
KI YET
Yupiter-11
135
4.0
180
KI/EV
Tepiter-12
35
48
63?
KITET
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OTHER
OBJECTIVES
Res. Power
Size of
Mark
fmn
g/
20
Center
Edge
Photo (cm)
04mera
Rodina-2
46
8.2
140?
18 x 18
Photogrammetry?
Orion-IA
200
_6.3
940
424
30 x 30
AEA-33/20
Orion-1
Ortagoz
135
4.5
55?
FOTOKOR
Equitar
250
2.5
48?
Quarz
120
4.5
Liar-6
100
5.4
1000
Telemar-2
750
6.3
32?
30
30 x 30
A3A-33/75
Telemar-7
1000
7.0
240
28
30 x 30
APA-33/100
Telefotojl
400
4.5
24
13 x 18
Ortodinar
210
2.0
6?
Arktur
1E0
4.5
33
18 x 18
Iniar
3E6
3.0
Infra-rea
Arktik
518
Gelioe
1..35
Luch
180
Plictotransformer
YB
Tear
100
4.5
93?
60
40
18 x 18
Photogrammetry
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There is very little material available for comparison of Soviet lenses
with those made in the West. Veselovskiy(30), 1945, gives the following com-
parison of Rusear and Tafar with the Zeiss Topogon:
Table VI
SOVIET OBJECTIVES FOR PHOTOGRAMETRY
Objective
fmm
flEt
2$
Negative cm.
Res. Fower.Distorti,
Russar la
100
5.3
140?
18 x 18
12 5-7
Russar 5
120
4.5
104?
23 x 23
15
5-7
Russar-19
100
5.3
104?
18 x 18
15-20
5-7
Bussar-22
70
8
122?
18 x 18
15-20
1-2
Tafar
200
4.5
70
18 x 18
40-60
>1
Topogon
100
6.3
93
18 x 18
20-25
25-30
Off-band, this table shows the great superiority of Russian lenses over
the Zeiss lens and in fact the Russians are emphatic in stating this superiority.
However, some modification must be introduced into this claim in order to
arrive at a reasonable conclusion. This is done here by each lens separately.
Industar: this objective can be used for almost any kind of photographic
work. It is made in different models, but there is little detailed descrip-
tion of any of them. It is stated(3o) that this objective is part of the
aerial camera, APA-13, and has the focal length 300 mm., with the ratio f/4.5.
Apparently it has proved unsatisfactory for precise photogrammetry and is
seldom mentioned in the more recent literature on this subject. It appears
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to be a copy of the Zeiss, Tessar, and is admitted to be such by the Soviets
? is a very useful lens for various purposes and there is evidence ofexten-
sive experimentatinn with its design by the Soviets. Available data on the
Industars are given in Table II.
Tafar: the situation is approximately the same. This lens was used in
cameras of the TAPA t7pe. but in more recent literature it is rarely mentioned
and one gets the impression that it is of small importance. This may be in-
correct, since the leas is undoubtedly a gpod one.
Liar: Liar-6 was the first significant original contribution made by the
Soviets. It was designed by Rusinov and. Kozyrev in 1931 with a field of view
100?, 4/5.4 and f = 100 mm. It is stated that Zeiss succeeded in producing
its Topogon with the same field of view only in 1936. The Liar lens was de-
signed for use in aerial surveying (scale 1:100,000)(51) but later it was
almost wholly supplanted by Russar objectives.
-Rusinov is not the only designer of lenses for aerial photography at the
TsNIIGAM. Several other lenses for aerial photography are referred,toin
Russian literature but apparently they were proved unsatisfactory for mass
production. Such are, for instance, the lenses designed by Yeihova (f/18,
angle 1100) and Mindlina (4/14, angle
Russar. This is a really fine series of lenses and if the Soviet de-
scriptions axe to be trusted, they are among the finest wide-angle lenses in
the world.
The claim of excellent performance for the Russar lenses is confined to
their use in obtaining small scale aerial photography and can, be summarized
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NaKigiftliti9ifaRek#4,801%9PiggRoiCaPlaRgAlcA8MOnvl ?I.q0-?Agg iecause
of the following factors:
(a) The resolving power, while not as great in the center as in some
Western lenses, remains practically the same almost to the edge of the plate.
Curves of resolving power for Topogon, Orthometar, Russar-19 and Russar-15
are givenin source (I).
(b) .The falling off of the degree of illumination is not as rapid as
in other lenses, being proportional to Cos3P rather than to Cos. This
subject is discussed at some length by Volosov(5).
(0) Distortion is much smaller than in other lenses.
It is impossible to come to any definite conclusions in regard to these
claims without much greater effort that seems advisable in connection with
this project.
It is advisable that attention be paid to one fact that seems to indi-
cate that the Soviets themselves do not quite believe what they Say themselves.
This statement relates to experimentation with the Russar lenses, (the latest
known is Mark 33) all of which have approximately the same dharacteristics.
If the -original Russar 1 was as good as it is described by the Soviets to be,
continuous small changes in design would seem to have been unnecessary.
The Inclustar, Tafar, Liar and Russar lenses are the only ones mentioned
in sources (30) and (32) which refer to problems of photogrammetry and aerial
surveying. No other lenses developed in the U.S.S.R. are mentioned in the
professional journals, "Geodezist" and "Sbornik NIPS".
One is left with the
impression that the Soviets have succeeded in developing a very fine lens -
like Russar, but have little else at all comparable to the great variety of
photographic lenses in the Western world. This impression is altogether
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erroneAPP iiSUalgtratifogSgfiggaCkciWFWILOSAASSINCR4991Prif3
applications of photography, definitely indicate to the contrary. The Soviets
have designed many other lenses which appear to be of high quality and are,
in fact, stated to be superior to similar lenses made in other countries.
Some of these lenses can be used for precise photogrammetric work and in all
probability are so used.
This curious iiscrepancy in the description of the situation between the
two kinds of sources may be ascribed to the strict censorship of everything
that is in any way connected with military activity. It is quite impossible
to believe that the Russian photogrammetrists did not know of such lenses.
In the Russian encyclopedia, iGeodeziya", page after page is filled with
analysis of foreign lenses while the Russian lenses, Arktik, Uran and Orion
are not even mentioned. In the sources published by the military these same
lenses are praised as the finest product of the Soviet optical industry.
Alt attempt has been made to correlate Soviet lenses with similar lenses
made in the West.
The Soviet lens, Industar, appears to be very nearly the same as the
Zeiss, Tessar; the Soviet lens, Orion, is practically identical to the Zeiss
Topogon; the Soviet, Ortogos.is very similar to the Zeiss Dogmar; and the
Soviet, Urania forward side is quite similar to the American lens,Ektar.
The question is then raised as to who first.designed these lenses and
who was the imitator. There can be no question but that the Soviets copied
Zeiss lenses. The influence of American design is less obvious, and it is
possible that both the Uran and the Ektar lenses can be traced to some origi-
nal German planar. With the established fact of the originality of the Liar
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ApptdixedaFcOreRialeaae c12994109 / Pea IAA %-cOrig ?; %IP QMS191 -1)rk in
optics and are also very clever imitators.
However, we scarcely deal here with simple imitation. There is consid-
erable evidence of a Soviet attitude which is very critical of the products
of the West which would not permit the Soviets to accept the Western produ-
cers' claims on faith. Western lenses are very carefully discussed by
Volosov(5) and Tudorovskiy(6) . Volosov, for example, gives a detailed analy-
sis of the Eastman Kodak lens, Aeroektar. Be points out that the Aeroektar
is based on Rudolf's planar and takes exception to Eastman's claim that the
good performance of Aeroektar depends on the introduction of the new lanthammm
glass, EK32 and EK33 for the fifth and sixth positive components. Volosov
finds that replacement of these glasses by Soviet glass, TK11, results in
practically the same performance of the lens. He admits that the introduc-
tion of the new types of glasses is the greatest development in the last 60
'years but they Should be used only when they are really needed. Investiga-
tions of these new types of glasses are being carried on in the U.S.S.R. as
well as abroad.
The whole problem of ethics of imitation has no application here. The
Soviets take from the Western world what they consider useful. There is no
particular odium attached to copying foreign lenses and calling them something
else. The Bausch and Lomb lens, Metrogon (f/6.3; 20 = 93?) looks very much
like the Zeiss Topogon which has exactly the same focal ratio and field of
view. It is, however, definitely stated that the design of the metrogon is
based on that of the Topogon, so that nobody is misled . The justification
for the change in the name is that, if similar but not identical glass is
used in the lenses, it is necessary to recoripute the whole system. Following
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the formffaV?)YegieF?)1417.3VS.FIN.Rt?,..?.32, :e.W-113EZP-12ileciM2i09,1(Eq599-?1-3
tail, is not possible. In this sense there cannot be direct copying of lenses
and considerable creative work is necessary.
If we turn again to the Soviet situation we find that the Soviet reader,
especially a young student, is likely to get an exaggerated idea of Soviet
ability to produce good lenses. Prom all the mass of Soviet literature ex-
amined in preparatim of this report only one statement has been found., and
that in an astronomical sourceS11) in which the author mentions the Zeiss
lenses, Tessar and Dogmar, and says in parentheses that these lenses are
known in the U.S.S.R. as Industar and Ortogoz. It is curious that in some
sources the Zeiss Topogon is severely criticized while in others the Soviet
Orion (Which is nothing but a copy of the Topogon) is praised as one of the
finest lenses manufactured in the U.S.S.R. It is impossible to.decide with-
out a much more detailed study whether such an attitude is simply a manifes-
tation of nationalistic feeling or that the Soviets have succeeded in remov-
ing the defects of the original Zeiss design. Information collected on other
lenses is not extensive.
Orion: as stated before, this appears to be a direct copy of the Zeiss
Topogon. The Orion-la is used in the aerial camera, APA-33/20. The focal
ratio and the field of view are identical with those of the Topogon and Bausch
and Lomb, Metrogon, The transmission coefficient is 0.75.
The resolving power in the center is 35, at the edge, (that is 45? from
center) 4 lines/dim. The corresponding figures for the Metrogon are 55 and
28; that is, in respect to resolving power, the Metrogon is ler superior to
the Orion-la. Theze are no other data on the performance of the Orion lens,
VIA it is possible that further improvements have been made.
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uran: ktable z) this lea very complex lens with seven elements and a
rather small field of view. In comparison with the Ektar, its resolving
power is greater in the center but falls of more rapidly toward the edge.
The coefficient of transmission is 0.7; for the Ektar, 0.8. The field of
view of the Uran-9'is only one-half of that of the Ektar, and it is rather
puzzling?why the Soviets praise the Uran lens so highly, unless some further
improvements have been made. The range of achromatization suggests the use
of the Irian lens for red and infra-red work.
Arktur: Nothing is known about this lens except the data given in
Table 5.
prtagoz; This is a copy of the Zeiss Dogmar and is used in rotokor ?
cameras. No description of this camera is available, but the camera is recom-
mended for photography of meteors(56)
Arktik: Nothing is known about this lens except the focal length given
in Table 5.
The name suggests some connection with the work in the Arctic regions.
Telemar: these are telephoto-lenses used in the APA cameras. Data for
Telemar-2 and Telemar-7 are given in Table 5. Both of these have a narrow
field of view with fair resolution; Telemar-2 from 28 to 11 lines, and
Telemar-7, from 28 to 17 lines. There is another telephoto-lens listed in
Table 5, called the 73, which is apparently not of Telemar type, and may be
the British triplet of the same mark.
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izrAviettga:ReilmR710NONOFai WA! 11,?1 Wftelq8M991911099501401-3
is not even certain that this lens is of Russian manufacture.
:Thur. This objective is specifically designed for photography in the
infra-red and is mentioned only in one source(32). The data are given in
Table 5. It is of an ordinary triplet type with elements separated and nega-
tive lens in the middle. From the data in Table II, it is evident that
Industar-A has alsc been designed for the infra-red region. The design of
the Iniar seems to be quite analogous to the British Triplet, F-24.
.Rodinaell The name means, "Fatherland", a distinctly nationalistic conno-
tation, but in fact it is a pun on the name of the designer, V.S. Rodin. This
lens is mentioned in only one recent source (1) of 1952 and apparently is a
new development. It is a very wide-angle objective, highly praised and quoted
along with Russar-19, 22,.25, 25a, 29 and 33 as an aerial photography ob-
jective." This may or may not mean photogrammetry. The drawing of 40dina-2
in source (1) shows eight components, two of which are plane, parallel slabs
of glass. NO more detailed description is available.
Yupiter: This series of lenses (table 4) is used in the ordinary camera,
Kiyev, and due to residual distortion, is of no application to aerial photog-
raphy. For other lenses nothing is known beyond information contained in
table 5.
The general conclusion of the study of Soviet lenses is as follows: the
Soviets have some very excellent lenses of their own design and also many
lenses more or less based on foreign patterns. These lenses may 'be as good
or even better than the original Zeiss lenses. The Soviet boast, in this
* See Figure 10, page 106 of Photographic Supplement, Appendix /II.
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AWITMPFolefteittatt 499910113/b21AeRVPPOrG408VAOG0100000e04s3vtions
of their ability to produce first-class optical instruments. It is also ob-
vious that the data presented in this report are not complete and there may
be other types of lenses for various purposes about which we know nothing.
In this connection a significant remark is made in source (53). In discussing
the possible application of mirrors in aerial photography in place of lenses,
the authors point out that mirrors give a narrow field of view, but the high
quality of images obtained, "make us believe that mirrors will find their
application in aerial photography." Apparently there is some experimentation
in this direction.
The related problem of astronomical equipment may be considered here for
two reasons. The first is that there is less secrecy in the U.S.S.R. concern-
ing this subject than concerning equipment for aerial photography. The sec-
ond reason is that much closer contact between American and Soviet astronomers
has been possible than in the case of almost any other science. Some astro-
nomical equipment, such as image converters, may also well find its application
in aerial photography.
A report on Soviet astronomical equipment has been prepared by Dr. Otto
Struve, one of the outstanding American astronomers, and is, reproduced sub-
stantially as submitted as Appendix 6. The general tenor of Dr. Struvels
report is in good agreement with our appraisal of Soviet optical development.
The report is of interest also, because it is an absolutely independent
approach to the problem.
We may note here that in the recent general assembly of the Academy of
Sciences, U.S.S.R., A. A. Mikhaylov, director of the Pulkovo observatory,
definitely states(57) that Soviet astronomical equipment needs improvement
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so that tit
1-5001441,WROWNWV999YNAMIntAWBAPPYTAINDOURAN910001-3
physical observation "as they have already surpassed them in the ideological
and methodological respect." It would seem that the Soviets are conscious
of this deficiency in astronomical instrumentation, at least in regard to
large telescopes. The same idea was expressed-without any reservations at
the International Astronomical Union Assembly in September, 1952.
2. Color Filteu
Color filters, adapted for use with aerial photography by the Russians
are many but the situation in this respect is not very clear since different
sources give different data. Much experimentation is going on with filters
at the Optical Institute (GOI) and also at the Institute of Plastics (GIN
PLAsTMAS). Source (52) lists the filters used for aerial photography as
though they were standard whereas source (32) describes an entirely different
set of filters but only as applied to one particular camera, Tata-2. Table
VI/ contains information condensed from source (52):
Table VII
COLOR FILTERS' USED IN AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN l'ILM U.S.S.R.
Filter
Mark
Spectral Region in m?
Color
I
ZhS-16
450 - 560
Blue-Yellow
II
ZhS-18
490 - 560
Blue-Yellow
III
0S-12
530 - 600
Orange
IV
05-14
560 - 610
Orange
V
KS-14
620 - 609
Red.
The following infra-red filters are mentioned: No. 66, GOI with trans-
mission 780 - 900; KS-112, 600 - 1000, and KS-12, 900 - 1100 m?.
74
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The finest lens is of MO use unless it is incorporated in a camera.
This involves details of accomodation of the film, shutters with appropriate'
speeds, filters, etc.
MK and MAK-1. These cameras are reproductions of foreign apparatus (so
admitted by the soviets), the first being a copy of Zeiss, RNK 6-11, and the
second, of Eastman Kodak, K,1. However, the Soviets used the kisser lenses
in these cameras. These cameras were found unsatisfactory for many reasons
and, after some little use for aerial surveys on scales of 1:50,000 and
1:100,000, they were discontinued. Soviet cameras are known as LTA (Aero-
Toto.apparat = Aerial Photo Camera). For precise photogrammetry, AFA-13,
MAPA-17 and MLFA-2 are used.
AFA-13 was the first camera developed by the Soviets. It used the ob-
jective, Industar, was wholly automatic and weighed 30k1g. Because of its
long focus objective (30 cm.) this camera can be used only for large scale
photography on scales of 1:3,500 to 1:13,000.
MATA-13 is the further development of the preceding camera, AIA-13. The
long focus Industar objective is replaced by the short-focus Hussar (10 cm.)
to make it usable for surveys of scales of 1:25,000 to 1:100,000. The shatter
is manufactured by the COMO. Both vacuum and mechanical clamping are used
to flatten the film. Shutter speeds are 1/60 or 1/45 to 1/130. Efficiency
is 90 percent. The frame size is 180 mm. sq., using 190 mm. film in rolls of
22.5 meter-lengths and 150 exposures. Intervalpmeter works 10 to 120 seconds
and the gross weight of the camera is 80 klg.
Besides having fiducial narks, each negative has a statoscope and time
recording made by an additional objective.
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TAPEorreig M-sMARR 121V/RaIR; Aditirgailidi4.0833,4900406a601901 -3
ability of the shutter and of the electric motor (0.1 HP fed by a 12-volt
generator). Apparently there is also metering trouble and the method of im-
pressing fiducial marks cannot be considered satisfactory.
TAA-2 is identical with the preceding, except that it has only one ob-
jective, the Russar-19, with shutter speeds 1/25 to 1/100, and with 90 per-
cent efficiency. The size of the photograph is 23 x 23 cm. which, with the
size of the roll as 24 cm x 50 meters, gives about 200 exposures.
For aerial mconnaissance many other cameras are used. Most of them
are automatic and some of them appear to be of very fine design. Since there
is an English translation available(54) of a very thorough description of
most of these cameras, it does not seem advisable to go into great -detail
here and the most important data are given in Table IV. The Soviet notation,
AFA 33/20 means AFA-33 with a camera lens Of 20 cm. focal length. RAFA means
light .FA; that is, a camera for night work used with flares. AShch ABA
means slit camera, known in the U.S.A. as the shutterless strip camera.
(Table VIII
SOVIET ArRIAt RECOMISSANCE SHUTTERS
Capra lens
AEA- 33/20
AIL- 33/50
A7A- 33/75
ARA- 31/100
A7A, 3s
AFA,
APA-3i
Orion-la
ladastar A ,
Telemar-2
Telemar-7
Industar-k
Industar-51
Industar-17
NAPA-13 Industar-13
DA7A-13-EZ Indus tar-13
ILFA,19 Industar-51
A Shah A7A-2..(Russar-PIasmat
(ftssar-25
Kind. speeds Emeatia
Rotary 1/50, 1/100, 1/200
Louvre 1/75, 1/100, 31/300
Louvre 1/75, 1/100, 1/300
Louvre 1/75, 1/125, 1/200
Louvre 1/100,1/200, 1/300
Curtain 1/200,1/300, 1/400
Louvre 1/50
Loutre 1/50
Louvre 1/50
Rotary 1/50
70 percent
55 percent
-55 percent
55 percent
67 percent
60 percent
60 percent
80 percent
60 percent
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Approl fitieRsialasepliaikaith91052d164-1W12-(13.01AMON1140QAMIrbloned
in a 1947 source(54) but is described in the source dated 1949(53) which
mewls that it was presumably developed between these two years. It serves
the same purpose as the American apparatus, 5-7, but its constructional fea-
tures are quite different. The lenses, Bussar4lasmat and Bussar-25, are
mentioned only in this connection.'
In a source(58) Which does not deal specifically with photogrammetry,
the apparatus,A Shah APA-2, is described at some length as one of the finest
achievements of Soviet instrumentation. ' It was developed by V.S. Semenov
Who received a Stalin prize for its construction. The apparatus is definitely
used for reconnaissance under conditions of poor illumination and low alti-
tude when ordinary cameras are not usable. The record is obtained on con-
tinuous rolls of film, 10 to 45 meters long.
A214. This is a nine-lens apparatus designed by Drobyihev and used for
surveys on scales of 1:100,000 to 1:200,000. The focal length of all cameras
is 135 mm. with = 1:4.5. There is a synchronized Shutter with an effi-
ciency of 82 percent. The combined field of view is 140?, and the negative
size is 12 x 12 cm. The camera was designed and manufactured as earl,' as
1931, but it is not mentioned in recent literature and is apparently not used
currently. The Russian point of view is that the development of wide-angle
Busses objectives Wholly obviated the necessity of such cumbersome and ex-
pensive apparatus.
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RADICt INS TRUKENTS
Instruments for the determination of position of the impulse type, and
the continuous wave (C.V.) type have been developed by the Soviets but this
development is surratuaded by the utmost secrecy and it is very difficult to
come to any definite conclusion as to the efficiency and originality of such
instruments. The Lmpression is, however, that the Soviet development is
along the lines of C.V. rather than. the *pulse type.
Of the fact tlat instruments of this sort are being used in geodesy in
the U.S.S.R., there can be no doubt. The official directions of the GDCW
for the compilatioa of maps of scales of 1:200,000 and 1:100,000 specify the
use for control of *astronomic and radiolocation points. Astronomic points
should have mean errors not exceeding +110 in latitude and +0.61 in longitude.
They should be corrected for the deflection of the vertical on the basis of
gravimetric observations". Unfortunately nothing further is specified In
regard to "radiolocation pointsl.(29) Presumably they are expected to be of
the same precision as the astronomical points. Many other statements of the
same nature may be quoted but none of them is explicit enough to warrant a
detailed analysis.
The related subject, that of radio-location as used at sea as of 1949
is disCussed some:A:tat more thoroughly(59). This reference states that vari-
ous instruments for the purpose of radio-navigation were developed by L. I.
Mandellahtam, N.D. Papalekei and E. Ta. Shchegolev. These are the names
usually quoted in connection with the development in radio-location on the
surface of the earth. Instruments called aradiodalnomme and l'radiolag* are
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Napo:wad Fozdteleagati9S9109413.2o: 0160t-RDP19-84663AD06111005000aelt line.
Further, the system "Loran" is described but it is not clear whether it is
used in the U.S.S.R. The illustration showing action of Loran has for its
base, the map of the Eastern coast of America.
In 1930 Mandelishtam and Papaleksi obtained a patent for the determina-
tion of position by means of radio using the phase-method. This method is
based on the difference in phase of radio-waves received by the ship from
sending stations A and B (a family of hyperbolas). This is compared with an-
other system of hyperbolas based on the phase difference between the signals
from another pair of stations C and D. The intervals between the stations
are taken either as 100 or 200 km., depending on local conditions. On this
principle several instruments were developed by Mandelishtam and Papaleksi.
One of these instruments, the so-called Fazovyy Zond,"was copied by the British
and was called by them Decca or Navigator without any indication of the pri-
ority of Soviet scientists.*
There is no description of this "Fasovyy Zond" beyond the statement that
the main transmitting station is in the center of the triangle formed by the
three subordinate stations, and that this apparatus is more precise than the
"Navigator". At a distance of 200 to 300 km., the "Fazovyy Zone is supposed
to record positions "within a fraction of a meter". Observation is made visu,
ally as well as by a recording apparatus.
We have, then, from source (59) the names of three instruments used in
the U.S.S.R.,all of the C.W. type:
Russian Name --AMIIRJAS AEp.tgxj,mg,tL_geter
equivalent
lazovyy Zond Phase Sonde Decca
Eadiolag Lorac ?
Radiodallnomer Radio Nang. Measurer Lorac
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me Apftramagn FLY iiititaSei99fti99/42 tai4rauelast-008aaspocaop000l -3
angle of radio waves with the motion of one station in respect to the other;
it is essentially a navigational instrument and as such is of no interest for
geodesy.
The "radiodalinomer" is based on the measurement of a number of phase
cycles with the change of the wave-length of the sending station. This ap-
paratus is of potential use in geodesy.
The "fazovyy zond", from its description, is hardly applicable to geo-
detic purposes.
Aseyev, (60 in a book published in 1951, gives the theory of the inter-
ference method ("Pazovyy Zond") as well as the impulse method -of radioloca-
tion, (that is, the same principle as Shoran) but Aces not supply any descrip-
tion of instruments.
We have to consult pre-war -sources to get any details -at all about Soviet
instruments for radio-location. Vodoplyanov, in his book "Badiolokatsiya",
published in 1945, but which gives a statement that the situation described
there refers to prewar years, gives a few details about Soviet instruments(61)
The impulse range-finder of the Gouban type was developed at the Lenin-
grad Section of the Institute of Communications in 1932 and was described by
Bonch-Bruyevidh in that year. It ima used for the investigations of the iono-
sphere like the similar instruments of Breit and Tuve, and others. The appa-
ratus of Mandellshtam and Papaleksi is described Inn-a general way but is con-
sidered as a farther development of similar apparatus of Espenschied (1930)
and Alford (1937)-
The only data directly related to our problem have been _found in a book(62)
edited by Mandelseht9am and Papaleksi and published in 1945. Mae experiments
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Al*Itifet19f ease $9319likehindESIApPeMii 0 440PANDANWiabora-
tory of TeElIGAiK conducted a series of experiments in 1936-39 with the instru-
ments, RIR-1 and RIR-2 (Radio Izmeritell Rasstoyanty = Radio Range Distance).
These were apparatus developed by Mandelishtam-Papaleksi-Shchegolev and based
on the same principle as the "Radiodalinomee mentioned above. The develop-
ment of. RIR, and apparently of other similar apparatus, took place in the
Laboratory of Radio-Physics, Leningrad Industrial Institute and in the Labora-
tory of Oscillations, Institute of Physics, Academy of Sciences, 1114S..S.1L The
RIG-1 and RIG-2 apparatus was to be tested for geodetic applications and the
following tasks were set up:
(a) to reach a precision of from 5 to 10 meters in the measurement of
distances of 20 to 120 km. With a 5-meter precision in the first ease, the
relative precision would amount to 1:4,000; in the second, 1:24,000. The
highest precision hoped for would just about satisfy the requirements of
first order triangulation.
(b) to preserve this precision under all physical and geographical con-
ditions.
(c) to develop methods of determination of geodetic positions for topo-
graphic and geodetic work.
(d) to develop and manufacture apparatus suitable for use under difficult
conditions.
As the result of these tests, problems (a) and (b) were considered solved
and the apparatus was recommended for mass production.
The description of actual tests confirms this optimistic attitude.
The following results of determination of distances are quoted with their
mean error:
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Nara-Shalikovo
34,515 met.
+ 0.5 met.
1:70,000
Nara-Xubinka
21,761
0.6
1:36,000
Pugachev-Gorelyy
50,241
0.8
1:63,000
Gay
The only available description of the apparatus says that it is based on
the measurement of the difference in phase of radio waves between the sending
and refleating station; that is, apparently of the gradiodalinomern type, and
that the wave-lengths used were between 240 and 360 meters.
The small relative errors given above represent only consistency of
measures. There is no comparison between geodetic distances and distances
determined by the apparatus, RIG. In fact, the entire book is full of dis-
cussion about the uacertainty of the exact velocity of the propagation of
radio-waves. Unless this point is settled all distance determinations made
by mean* of radio-waves, are incorrect.
For the determination of distances at sea another apparatus, MPShdh-4
and MPShdh-6, was used. There are said to be similar to BIG. The letters
are abbreviations of the names of NandelishtamFapaleksi.Shchegolev. the _in-
ventors who, between 1932 and 1936, obtained eight patents on these devices.
The precision obtained by means of this apparatus is not very impressive. At
the distance of 113,740 meters between Cape Ray-Navolok and Island Ploskaya
Ludo, (White Sea), discrepancies between the geodetic distance and the radio
distance were from 10 to 160 meters, with a relative error of from 1:10,000
to 1:700.
Concerning CID exact performance of the Soviet radio-instruments in
actual geodetic practice, very little information can be obtained. Nesaeyanov
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Aji1ProoteakriergitpitiasailacienIMOPEe geltraillerfiriOrWilailiQQ0c11009011001miveying
methods state definitely that a precision of 1:10,000 at a distance of 30 klm.
has been achieved by the method of radio-wave interference, and that all in-
dications are that this method can be used for distances of up to 100-150 klm.
"In most regions radio-determinations in conjunction with astro-gravimetric
positions allow development of a reliable geodetic network without the con-
struction of trigonometric signals and reconnaissance work". Efficiency of
this method is considered to be greater than that of ordinary geodetic methods'.
Chebotarev,(56) in 1948, says that,"the measurement of distances by the
method of radio-wave interference has long ago been incorporated in geodetic
practice and we have certain achievements in this direction'.
A.7k. Shchegolevi(64) (not the inventor mentioned previously but appar-
ently his brother) in 1946, speaks of distances up to thousands of kilometers
that can be measured by radio-interference methods, obviously an irresponsible
statement for public consumption. He says further: 'The methods of radio
interference developed by us (apparatus HPShch) are used in problems in which
especially high precision is required: for hydrographic investigation of seas
and for geodetic work. Such instruments will be applied in aerial surveying
for the compilation of maps."
Fortunately we can more or less establish the precision in geodetic
measurements made by radio methods as of the date, 1945. In that year on May
12th, N.D. Pepaleksi delivered a paper on this subject at the meeting of the
TsII/GAIX(65). The statement of this scientist is of much more value than is
the indefinite boasting of popular writers.
It is evident from this paper that the problem of determination of dis-
tances by means of radio was taken up quite seriously by the Soviets. As early
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asDfge? rgveirV2PT992.
, f9ea ee18ia9ItTERIDzIati-MAP9119,E599?1-3
consider this problem. Many expeditions were sent out with the following in-
stitutions participating:
TsRlIGLiK (katuitilflyiyie of Geodesy; Aerial Survey
Leningrad Polytechnical Institute
Institute of Physics, Academy of Sciences
Hydrographic Department, GLAVSEVMORPUTI
Especially important was the ?recent* (1949) expedition to the Caspian
Sea where various types of apparatus were tested.
Papaleksi considers two pieces of equipment already described, both of
which are based on the interference method: Radiodallnomer and Radiolag, but
only the first one is recommended for geodetic 'work. We have for this
instrument:
D K (A111-4p)
X " ?4--
720Y/if
Af 0 difference of frequency
A41 mu difference in phase
Ap m. correction due to physical condition of ground.
The precision of the measurement of distance D is determined by two
factors:
(1) precision of apparatus and method (Af and Lor
(2) precision of determination of the velocity of waves, v,
entering into constant K.
After careful consideration of the problem, Papaleksi comes to the con-
clusion that there is no difficulty in controlling factor (1). It is only
necessary to go to shorter wave-lengths of the order of 1 or 2 meters and,
theoretically at boast, the instrument can be made as precise as needed. How-
ever, the other factor cannot be controlled because it involves physical
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AppeoyabEatt Release 1961filtigiR2 ier4rMIFe7,94/4741419P9)104N9Qalikell as
of the ground (conductivity and dielectric constant). Actual experiments
conducted by the TsNIIGAIK resulted in a precision of 10 to 15 meters regard-
less of distance, over homogeneous ground and only of a precision of 20 to 30
meters over dissected areas, water, etc.
Papaleksi sees further development of the method by using microwaves
(the line of sight limitation) and setting up apparatus on triangulation
towers (40 meters high) to get away from the disturbance produced by the
ground. Under such conditions geodetic distances of from 25 to 30 klm. can
be determined.
If we take the highest precision quoted by him (10 meters), and the dis-
tance 30 klm., the relative precision is then 1:3,000, quite unsatisfactory
for geodetic purposes. It is of the same order of magnitude as measures made
In the White Sea in 1939. Papaleksi is aware of this and says plainly that
the trouble is not with the instrument but with the variation in the velocity
--produced by natural conditions. He advocates that prompt efforts should be
made to solve this problem both theoretically and through experimentation.
In other articles he points out that the velocity' cannot be determined
with a precision greater than 1 2,500 and until more is known, geodetic mea-
sures cannot be made precise enough for practical purposes.
Such was the status of the problem in the U.S.S.R. in 1945. Undoubtedly
such experimentation on the determination of the velocity of propagation of
radio waves is going on in the U.S.S.R., but nothing is allowed to get into
print. In fact, a volume on the "Investigations on the Propagation of Radio-
wavess(66)
published in 1948, contains nothing but theoretical investigations,
the only Soviet experiment quoted there being of 1945. The difference between
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this yobliartaveeleFealielwei13991/10/86clelAtROM30430010001001M001-3
striking. More reccnt Soviet theoretical papers invariably quote experiments
on the progation of radio-waves made abroad rather than use their own results.
An interesting side-light on this problem is shown is a paper by 0. A.
Gerasimova, "Resume of experiments abroad in the application of radio-location
methods in geodesy said cartography"(67) published in 1948. The author states
that her report is based on 15 papers published in various foreign tedhaical
Periodicals. The author discusses in detail the Wright Field tests of Shoran
and the British GE. In all this detailed discussion there is not a word about
the Soviet apparatus and not a hint Whether the author considers the American
and British results satisfactory or unsatisfactory. It is quite different
from the 'anal boast that Soviet instruments are just as good or even superior
to those made abroad. It is evident that the subject of radio determination
of distances had bezome a state secret in the U.S.S.R. by 1948.
Since there is no detailed description of Soviet instruments later than
those of 1939, nothing can be said about their merits in comparison with simi-
lar instruments made in the West. It is, however, clear that theRussians
tried to adapt radio methods to geodesy at a much earlier date than was done
in the U.S.A., and undoubtedly further experimentation with new models of RIG
and HPShch-6 has been conducted with more satisfactory results than those
obtained in 1936-39.
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SOVIET_ ksnoN0341,9kL INSTRUIC, NTAT;OX
A considerable number of Soviet publications have been reviewed result-
ing in the following general conclusions:
a) Soviet instruments are of superior design in the field of photog-
raphy with short focus lenses and in the construction of medium size meniscus-
type Schmidt type telescopes. The Soviets have made no attempt to build any
large instruments, but it would appear that the technological progress made
since the end of the first world war has been sufficiently large to justify
the, belief that they could, without too much difficulty, build any instrument
up to about 200 inches in aperture.
Particularly impressive are the image converters which have been used in
practice in the U.S.S.R. but of which no detailed description has been found.
From the results on the spectrum of the night glow and the observations of
solar prominences at a wave length of 10,000 A, one would infer that they have
surpassed in this particular field any instruments now available in the United
States. Image converters for astronomical purposes are under construction at
the Terkes Observatory but thus far no results have been announced. In Paris
successful image converters have been built by Lallemand, but from the avail-
able descriptions one would be inclined to believe that the Soviet image con-
verters are superior in sensitivity and in wave length range.
The question of secrecy is one that becomes apparent as one systematically
surveys the Soviet literature. One has the impression' that the Soviets are
permitted to refer rather freely to astronomical instrument construction,
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provided AtOrtret1legthFnefteieaseledi969102ra1etA1.RDR39410$8A14010100.50001-3
pre-war Russian factories and scientific departments of various organizations.
On the other hand, instruments built in Germany by Zeiss or in U.S.S.R. by
German firms that were moved from the eastern part of Germany to the Soviet
Union are described without reference to the maker. In one ease an. impression
was formed that a modern instrument described by the Soviets was actually built
by Zeiss or by enginaers Who formerly were connected with Zeiss.
There is also an obvious tendency not to reveal the existence of any
radio instruments which almost certainly exist but Which have never been men-
tioned. in any of the articles on this subject. It is quite clear that the
Soviet radio astronomers, :for example, Shklovsky, have access to all the
modern techniques and that they are fully capable of exploiting these results.
The question Which remains open is whether they are able to rule diffrac-
tion gratings of the kind now being made in this -country at Johns Hopkins
University and-at the Mount Wilson Observatory. The only reference to a
grating spectrograph does not indicate the source. It may be an old grating
purchased outside of the U.S.S.R. before the war.
? With regard to photographic plates, it is obvious that they manufacture
several different kiwis but that most of their own emulsions are slower than
those made in the United States. The only-exception appears to be a photo-
visual emulsion developed by Martynov in collaboration with a U.S.S.R. plate
manufacturing concern.
Maqufacture of Optical Glass
a) l'or telescom
D. D. Maksutov(12) speaks of "pre-war experience.gained in the
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AffirenrsifFacilehlar 1P9IncgiectIMPRZ)911,Cne,qiCtin255-9rell2 heavy
flint, T 7-1)" which were not only as good as foreign makes of UV glass but
rather surpassed them in quality."
The optical constants of K-8 and 1-2 are as follows:
Glass
K-8
7-2
nc -1ID
0.51390
0.61160
nD - 1
------
0.51610
0.7022
2.4614g
0.7150
- 1
311
nir n Y
.52646
o
.2.52196 0.00806 64.o6
-0.5583
o628hh 0.63a69
? -- -0.6087
0.01684 36.60
This statement appears on page 57: 44 have previously used mostly glass 1-8
(for meniscus telescopes), but it should be possible to find some more favor-
able kind from among the many glasses made in our country.'
b) For mirror
It is probable that Maksutov has used some kinds of glass resembling
our pyrex, but be prefers metals.
Metals for Mirrore
Maksutov describes experiments made in his laboratory with different
metals and different forms of castings. Copper, then silver, and then stain-
less steel, were found to be free of the "edge-effect" due to changes in the
temperature. 'After 13 years of experimentation I have reached the firm con-
viction that it is impossible to obtain with glass a really high grade re-
flector, and that in the future, metallic mirrors will be largely used."
The largest mirror of metal described by Maksutov, has a diameter of
210 am. This mirror was made of stainless steel: EZh-2 steel with impurities:
Cr 13 - 15 per cent
11 0.6 "
Si 0.7 "
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0.13 - 0.23 per cent
Hardness -197 (Brine1 is scale)
The parabolic mirror vas made in three days, in 1937' There were no changes
until 1943, when it became astigmatic after having fallen to the floor from
a height of one meteru The problem of the internal _stresses has not yet been
adequately solved.
Aluminizing
These techniques were developed in the U.S.S.R.. in 1934. Better methods,
not described, are said to be under investigation. Also, the technique of
making non-reflecting coatings for transparent optical parts is fully described.
Maksutov states that his laboratory makes the best "plane and non-spherical.
surfaces.' He is prepared to extend the size of his mirrors to 3 meters.
Photoelectric Photomedm
B. V. Nikonov and. E. K. Nikonava describe(68) a new stellar photometer
which employe a Russian-made photomultiplier (VEU - 17) having Caesium-sulphide
photocathodes "which in its parameters surpasses the American made photomul-
tiplier 931-A." The precision of astronomical measurements with this instru-
ment is about the same as in the case of comparable American photometers.
The limiting brightness is not stated, but is probably also similar to that
of our own instruments.
L. B. Agafonova and A. I. Nefedlyeva(69) describe the old meridian circle
at Lamm. This instrument was built by Repsold in 1845, and it is still in
use. From this work it is possible to infer that no major fundamental
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telescopes.
Reliometers
These instruments have been long ago abandoned in most countries. At
Kazan - Engeihardt,A- A. Nefedlyev(69) describes current investigations Which
are in progress with a heliometer constructed by Repsold in 1874. In this
respect there has been no new development in the Soviet Union.
e_g2n2alla,
Writing in the American Scientist(70) about recent work on the night glow
of air, J. Kaplan remarked: ?Krassovsky, working in Russia, observed the 0-2
band at 9976 A, an accomplishment that must be noted with special interest,
when it is realized that the most intense infrared emission at 10,440A, first
observed by Stebbins, Whitford, and Swings in 1944, would require 1,000 hours
exposure of a hypersensitized Eastman 1-Z plate and an f/1 spectrograph hiving
a dispersion of 2000/A mm. Krassovsky accomplished his important observations
by using a prismatic spectrograph and Cs-0-Ag electron image converter.*
An image converter was also used by G. S. Ivanov-Kholodnyy(71) for re-
cording the infrared line of He I:). 10830 in solar prominences. The dis-
persion was 8 A/mm. No details of the converter are given.
A Schmidt telescope, constructed by Maksutov in 1937, for the Kazan-
Engelhardt Observatory is described by D, Ya. Martynov in Izv. Engelhardt-
Kazan, No. 27, 1951. The diameter of the correcting plate is 381.5 mm, that
of the spherical mirror is 517.7 mm; f/2.5. The plateholder contains a field-
flattening lens. The instrument is in all respects comparable to Schmidt
telescopes of similar, size in the U.S.A.
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I
Martynov, in a description of the Kazan-Engelhardt Schmidt telescope,
states that Agfa-Astro plates are used, also Ilford Fine Grain Ordinary HD 45 -
for blue-violet light. Apparently these are faster than Soviet made emulsions.
But in the red region he uses Soviet Panchromatic film ILD 900.
A photovisual emulsion similar in sensitivity (with respect to X) to the
human eye was developed by Martynov in collaboration with "the scientific
laboratory of factcry, No. 8." The sensitivity was very great (mag. 15.6 pv
in 10 minutes). Or blue sensitive Agfa Astro the same instrument gives mag.
16.0 in 5 minutes. As far as could be judged, German made color filters
Pg.
have been used in this work.
O. A. Melinikov has used Kodak 103a-0 plates with his new (1949) u.v.
spectrograph(72).
G. S. Badalian(73) uses Agfa Astro and-Panchrom. plates of German make,
with "Aurantia" filter, probably also of German make.
Iitrja2a,te_a_. T..?0cae
Sh. T. Khabibullin describes sudk a telescope(69). Its purpose is the
study of the physical libration of the moon..
The precision-coelostat was built by the Soviet factory, GOME. The ap-
erture of the plane mirror is 300 mm. The stability of the reflected ray was
guaranteed to ? 1", but actually gives only 5" to 7".
The photographic aplanatic objective of f = 8000 mm, f/65 was made ac-
cording to Kazan Oba. specifications, but the name of the maker is not given.
During the observations serious difficulties were encountered with the
-seeing.
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O. A. Mellnikov and B. K. Ioannisiani describe(72) a new slitless UV
spectrograph and its tests made at high elevations.
The telescope of 250 mm aperture consists of a parabolic mirror and
Cassegrain secondary, quartz Cornu-type prism and a quartz doublet lens,
aperture 46 mm, f = 280.1 mm.
Photographs.of the completed instrument resemble pre-war telescopes made
by Zeiss. The specifications were made by Mellnikov at Pulkovo and his col-
laborators. In 1946 *the Pulkovo Observatory requested B. K. Ioannisiani to
design the telescope The construction was completed in 1946-47 "in
the factory, with the close participation of P. V. Dobychin."
The tests were made at an elevation of 3250 meters in Armenia, in 1949.
The results indicate essentially what might have been expected: Somewhat im-
proved penetration into the UV region of stellar spectra, but never short of
A 3000. An identical instrument was built for the Byurakan Observatory',
but again the maker's name is omitted.
MatagmelikLaktmala
Bull. Stalinabad Astr. Obs, No. 2 (1952) mentioned the installation of
a new Zeiss astrograph "Triotar" (D = 92 mm, f/4.5)
G. S. Badalian(73) uses an "Ernostar" 5-inch astrograph of German make.
G. A. Monin and A. B. Severnyy(75) describe a new spectroheliograph con-
structed in the shop of the Simeiz Observatory. The solar image is formed by
a 20 es parabolic mirror and has a diameter of 8 cm. The collimator and
camera are 15 cm aperture mirrors with f = 6 meters. The dispersing unit is
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a P lalleA16064 CA rlk de Alb 9#429/e/9/6269t ROM D POTS 41'08 g)ita) ee111110 Oteith -3
grating Is not stated - probably it is not of Soviet manufacture.
Observations of meteors are mentioned by A. Savrtkhin(76) "For radio-
acoustic observations a receiver of the type "Record" was used. A vertical
antenna (aluminum tube 7 meters in length and. 50 ram in diameter) was connected
with the receiver. NO trace of acoustic effects was found in.the range of
short waves used (10 mgge) from meteors of apparent magnitudes, -1, -2, -3
and even -7.
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APPENDIX VII
PHOTOGRAPHIO SUPPLEMENT
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?
rig. 1 - Oblique Stereocomparator
("Naklonnyy Stereokomparator)
1. Carriage of Coordinates xi
2. Carriage of Parallaxes
Maretka Koordinat xis)
(0/Caretka Parallaksov0)
3. and 4, Movable Parts of the (0Podvishnyys Chasti
Objactive of the Binocular Obleyektivalinoku1yara0)
5. -Lmmyrable Binocular (IINSpodvishpyy Binokulyar0)
6. and 7. Claes Scales 6 and 7 ("Steklyannyys Shka17 6 i 719
S. Traasverse Seale 8 (0Poperechnaya shkala 80)
Note: This is called "shkala
in the text but appears
-as 11901 in the photograph.
9. Microscope 9 ("Mikrotkop 90)
10. Parallax Screw 10 (0Parallakticheskiy Tint 100).
Sources -Drobyshev. LV., iotogrammetricheakiye Pribory
instrusentovedeays. Moscow, 1951.
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Fig. 2 - Design of tha Optical,Lar.out for Beadings of Coordinates
and Parallaxes in the ollaklonnyy Stereokomparatoe.
(Oblique Stereocoaparator).
("ahem opticheskogo ustroystva dlya otsdhetov koordinat
parallaksov v naklOnnom stereokomparatores).
L. Scale xi;
2. Immovable Optical System
for Scale
3. Optical System of Carriage
of p (Parallaxes);
(0Shkala xi").
(Plepodvishnaya Opticheskaya
Sistema dlya Maly xis).
(00pticheskaya Sistema laretki pa).
L.
Seale of Parallaxes p;
(18hka1.a Parallaksov pg).
5.
Seale of
(0Shkala ye)
6.
Optical System for Scale
(mOptichetkaya Staten&
of
dlya Shkaly yin).
7.
Block of Three Prisms;
(oBlok is trekh prise).
8.
Microscope;
(!liikroskopo).
Sources Drobyshev, LV., Fotogrammetricheilaye Pribory i
Instrumentovedontye. Abscow, 1951.
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Pig. 3 - Cptical System of the Oblique Stereocomparator.
(00ptichetkaya Sistema Naklonnogo Stereokomparatoram).
1.
Pentagonal Prism;
(mPentaprismam).
2.
Small Objective;
(mItalyy Oblyektivm).
3.
Nark;
("Markel')
4.
Pentagonal Priem;
(mPentaprizmam),
5.
Objective;
(mObmyektivm).
6.
Primo
(mPrismam).
7.
Objective;
(00b0yektivm)
8.
Prism with live Reflections;
('Prisma g Pyatiyu Otrasheniyamim).
9.
Rhombic Prism;
(mRombicheekaya Prisms!).
10.
Ocular (Nyepiece);
(mOkulyarm)..
Satires: Drobyebev. letogrammetricheeklye Pribory
Instrumentovedeniye. Moscow, 1951.
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lag. 4 - The Drobythev Stereopantometer 011-1.
(NStereopantometr SPD-1 Drolveheva").
Sources latalog-Spravochnik Laboratorgfth
Priborov i Oborudovan4a.
MasWsix, 1949.
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1 8 A 2
1 0 gamurre, -4.
U--?a.,..._
= - - ft.. op ----' n wadi
P
i'l if
1
ii-, I
i
allill
1 4
4 15
laimaddisi.-Amotimmur
/3 2r
Pig. 5 - Working Parts of the Drobyshev Stereopantometer SPD-1.
1. Items 1;
(NStanina 1)
2. Carriage 2;
(01Aretka
3. Carriago 3;
(01Aret)a 319
Transparent Disks if;
NThe device is set up on a drawing board
=which has two windows, located counter to
the windows of frame 1, which serve for
the lighting of the negative.0
O41ong the X - X axis is located the
circular track for support of carriage 2,
which consists of a holder, of two rollers,
of a transverse track and of a supporting
ball-bearing roller. This carriage has
three points of support and moves along
the X- X axis.N
*Carriage 3, consisting of a holder and of
two rollers and a rod 5 with & pencil 6,
also has three points of support and moves
on carriage two along the Y - T sacis.0
?Carriage 3 Carries supports with trans-
(NProsr&chnyye Xrushki 41) parent disk. 4, in the center of which
are poiats which Are measuring marks.N
*5. Rod 5;
(ashtanga 50)
6. Pencil 6;
Maremiash
T. 1/ate 74
(Meeting.. 70)
See No. 3, above.
See No. 3, above.
*Plate 7, with a projection pressed by
roller 8 with the aid of spring 9, has
¶llax device.
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8. Bailer 8;
("Sol* 8")
9. Spring 9;
("Prushina 90)
10. Screw 10;
("Vint 10")
11. Plate 11;
("Plastina 119
12. Bailers 12;
("Baliki 12")
13. Spring 13;
("Prushina 13")
14, Screw 14;
("Tint 140).
See Noe 7, above.
See No. 7, above.
"Screw 10 pushes into plate 7 and.
measures the longitudinal parallax P
of the photograph, ty. way of moving
along the I - I axis of plate 11,
which has a projection which is
pressed by rollers 12.
See 10. 10, above.
See No. 10. above.
Yith the action of spring 13 screw
14 pushes into plate 7 and measures
the transverse parallax p by way
of moving the photograph along the
YI axis."
See No. 13, above.
Source: latelog-Spravochnik Laboratornykh Priborov i
Oborudovaniya. Xashgis. 1949.
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Fig. 6 - Topographic Stereoseter
(0Topograficheskiy Stereometr")_.
Source: Drobyabev. 7.V. - lotogrammetricheekiye Pribory
1. Instrumentoveden1Ye.
Moscow, 1951.
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lig. 7 - Design of Topographic Stereometer.
(0Skhena topograficheskogo Stereonetran).
Sources Drobyshev, 7.V. - lotogrammetrichaskiye Pribory
Instruaentovedeniye. Moscow, 1951.
1.
Base Carriage;
(00snovnaya Karetkan).
2.
Support of Longitudinal
('Support Prodollnykh
Parallaxes; '
Parallaksov0).
3.
Repeating Support;
(nPovtoritellnyy Support').
4.
Rod, Carrying Slide fk;
(0Stershens. Nesushchiy DvishekA0).
5.
Bodo Carrying Slide dil;
(0Stershens, lesushchiy Dvishok AP).
6. and 7. Rulers of Conver-
gent Device;
(nLineyki Konvergentnogo Ustroystvan).
8.
Correction Ruler;
("Korrektsionnaya Lineyka").
9.
Rotation Axel (Pin) of
(0100 Vrashcheniya Korrektsionnoy
the Correction Ruler;
Lineykin).
10.
Guide Roller;
(nVedushchlyRolik")-
e -Center of Rotation of Wire Bolder;
p-Sorew of Longitudinal Parallaxes;
roltua of Level of T-shape Device;
(nTsentr Vrashcheniya Niteder-
shatelyan).
(*Vint ProdollnykhParallaksovn).
(nDlinaRychagaT-obraznogo
Detroystvan).
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Pig. S - Kern Stereometer
(sKern-Stereomete).
Source: Drobyehev, 7.V. - Fotogrammetricheskiye Pribory
iInetrumentovedeniye.
, Moscow, 1951.
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3
H-
-
Pig. 5 - Design of Kern Stereoneter.
(0Skhema Kern-StereonetraN).
1.
Rack Screw;
("Vint Krenallyery0).
2.
Hand Pilot Wheel;
(NShturvalN).
3.
Wire-bolder;
(NNitederzhate109.
4.
Roller;
(NEolie).
5.
Correction Euler;
(0Korrektsionnaya LineykaN).
Note: The word at the top of the drawing is: Stereoscope
(NStereotkop").
Source: Drobyuhev. P.Y. - lotogramnetricheskiye Pribory
Instrunentovedeniye.
Moscow, 1951.
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Jig. 10 - Various Kinds of Aerial Survey Objectives.
(*Easliclugye Tidy Aerosoyeaocialyith ObNyelstivov.").
a (1 nussar-19";
b (I 6") - *Busier-25N;
? (a nio) ikassair-29";
d (0% - "Rodina-20;
? (11, g) - situssar-31".
Sources Kikhaylov. V. Va. - lotografiya i lerofotografiya,
Moscow. 1952, Goodesisdat.
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