A GEOGRAPHIC STUDY OF THE ISSYK-KUL' AREA

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP79-01009A000200010002-7
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 271
• Document Creation Date: November 9, 2016
• Document Release Date: June 1, 1999
• Sequence Number: 2
• Content Type: STUDY

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SECU IlblIQHMATicA4
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A Geographic Stu4y of the Issvkpaull Area
Summary (to include all major topics and conclusions developed in the palper)
1. Introduction
A. Purpose of report
B. Location of area
1. Physical
2. In relation to other parts of the USSR
C. Divisions of area
1. Lake
2. Immediate environs of lake
3. Hinterland
II. Lake Isnyk-Kull
A. General characteristics
1. Size and extent
2. Setting (including character of shoreline)
3. Water ingress and egress
4. Seasonal regime
B. Physical characteristics
1* Depth
a. Profile across lake
b. Shallow areas
c, Areas of greatest depth
d. Seasonal variations
2. Bottom conditions
a. Topography
(1) Beach gradients
(2) Lake bottom in general
(3) Significant bottom features
b. Sedimentation
(1) Character of sediments
? (2) Areas of current silt accumulation
C. Water characteristics
10 Salinity
a. Seasonal pattern
b. Variations from seasonal pattern (if any)
c, Chemical composition of salt
2. Temperatures
a. Horizontal distribution at various depths
b. Significant irregularities or variations
30 Circulation
a. Horizontal movements
b. Vertical movements
c. Significant variations from normal
40 Underwater visibility
D. Aquatic life
1. Vegetation NO CHANGE IN CLASS El
2. Animal life [ DECLASSIFIED
CLASS. CHANGED TO TS S 1/0
1110 Immediate environs of Lake Issyk- NEXT REVIEN DATEKull
A. Terrain AUTr H
1. Description DATE
ENTRATi As hindrance or aid, to movement
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D. Climate
1. Annual trend
2. Climatic elements according to seasons
a. Temperature
(1) Average distribution pattern
(2) Seasonal trend
(3) Diurnal ranges
b. Humidity
(1) Seasonal trends
(2) Diurnal ranges
CO Precipitation
(1) Average distribution pattern
(2) Seasonal trends
(3) Monthly means
(4) Frequency, duration, and intensity of rainfall
(5) Storms
(6) Surface runoff
(7) Snow and ice conditions
d. Wind
(1) Frequency from various directions
(2) Velocities
(3) Expectancy of radical change from normal state
(4) Effect on lake
e. Cloudiness, sunshine, and fog
f. Special phenomena (such as dust storms)
C. Natural vegetation
1. Types and distribution
2. Harmful varieties
3. Edible varieties
4. Adaptability for cover
5. As an aid or hindrance to movement
D. Animal life
1. Types and distribution
2. Dangerous types
E. Population
1. Numbers, distribution, and density
2. Ethnic composition
a. Physical description
b. Racial and cultural background
Co Language
d. Religion
3. Educational status
4. Political attitudes
5. Health
6. Population movements
F. Settlements
1. Types and distribution
2. Description of principal cities
3. Sanitation
G. Economy
10 Agriculture
a. Distribution of cultivated and grazing land
b. Types and distribution of crops and animals
c. Agricultural practices
7E,Ara.
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2. Industry
a. Types and distribution
b. Size of plants
c. Products and markets
H, Transportation facilities
1. Railroads
a. Points connected
b. Construction features
c. Terminal facilities
d. Traffic
2* Roads and trails
a. Points connected and degree of settlement
b. Construction features
Co Trafficability conditions throughout year
d. Frequency of use and traffic
Lake transport
a. Routes
b. Ports and their facilities
c. Type of craft
d, Traffic
4. Air transport
a* Routes
(1) Frequency of fliArbs
(2) Type of planes
(3) Traffic
t4 Airfields
(1) Type (military or civilian)
(2) Construction features
(3) Frequency of use
(4) Type of aircraft'
IV. The Hinterland
A. Brief general description
B. Terrain
1. General description
2, Uountain ranges
a. Physical characteristics
b. As hindrance or aid to movement
c. Passes
3. Valley areas
a. River valleys
(1) Physical characteristics
(2) As 'hindrance or aid to movement
b. Valleys without water courses
(1) Physical characteristics
(2) As hindrance or aid to movement
C. Climate
D. Natural Vegetation
1. Types and distribution
2. Harmful varieties
3. Edible varieties
4. Adaptability for cover
5. As hindrance or aid to movement
along route
4: KFIDENTAL
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E. Animal Life
1. Types and distribution
2. Dangerous types
F. Population
10 Numbers/3 density, and distribution
20 Language and reliBion
30 culture
4. Political attitudes
5* Population movements
G. Settlements
1. Types and distribution
2. Description of cities
30 Sanitation
H. Transportation facilities
1* Railroads
a* Points connected
b. Construction features
co Terminal and station facilities
do Traffic
2. Roads and trails
a. Description of road net
(1) Principal roads
(2) Adequacy of net for cross-country movement
b. Construction features according to road classifications
co Degree of settlement along main roads
d. Frequency of Use and traffic
3. Water transport
a. Rimers utilized
b. Type of craft
co Traffic
4. Air transport
a. Routes
. (l) Points connected
(2) Frequency of flight and traffic
bo Airfields
B Construction:featurescivilian)
3) Frequency of WO and traffic
(4) Type of aircraft ?
I. Economy
1. Agriculture
ao Distribution of cultivated and grazing land
bo Types of crops and animals
c. Agricultural practices
?
2. Industry
a. Types and distribution
b. Size of plants
c. Products and markets
V. Appendices
A. Climatic data
B. Gaps in intelligence
TED .M72/112.-,
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C. Sources and evaluation of sources
1. Evaluation of sources
2. Sources
VI, Graphics
1* Orientation map for entire area
2. Limnological map for Lake Issykp-Kull
3. Available city plans
4. Climatic charts
5. Diagnmn of terrain for entire area
6. Photography of area
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aRDP,9-01009090129.00.10002-7
soto
GEOGRAPHIC INTELLIGENCE REPORT
THE ISSYK-KUL9 -- CENTRAL TIE3 SHAN REGION
CIA/RR-GR-14 ?
June 1953
CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
A 1)/ 4 C3
QZ/4
a
Office of Research and Reports
?
DOCUMENT NO 5
NO CHANGE IN CLASS. 0
H DECLASSIFIED
CLASS. CHANGED TO: TS S Ot
NEXT REVIEW DATE
itt i AUT
'54"albAT Ai REVIEWER: 372044 I
Approved For Releastagle72 - CIA-RDP79-01009A000200010002-7
?
e?
proved For Release 1999/09/26 : CIA-RDP79-01009A000200010002-7
WARNING
This material contains information affecting
the National Defense of the United States
within the meaning of the espionage laws,
Title 18, USC, Secs. 793 and 794, the trans-
mission or revelation of which in any manner
to an unauthorized person is prohibited by law.
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CcaCii MAL
CO
summary o 0000 *coo o op o o o ?op o o o 0000000
I, Introduction
I/0 Lake Issyk-Kuls .???0 .?......... .... 0
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General Characteristics 0 00000 0.0
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Shoreline 0,0 0 . .?....? 0
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Depth and Bottom Conditions 0
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c, The Littoral of Lake Issyk40111 0
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20
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a. Temperature 0 ? .0 0000
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(3) Dangans 0 0 0 0
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(6) Sarts 0 ? 0 6 0
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c . . ?
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0 0000
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(1) Attitude of the Moslems
(2) Attitude of the Russians and Ukrainians 1.19
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50.
(d) ?rigor.levka , a? a a a a a a a
(0) Tanga 4 P * . ? 0 6 0 . A 4 *
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a, Railroads * 0 ? p-P. 0 0 f 0 0 0 D 00 ? 0
b0 Roads 0 0 *0 5.C 0 .0 0 0 0 '0.
76
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(1)
The Rybadhlye,Prshevallak Highways
Northern Route
82
(2)
The Rybachlyewprthevallak Highway,
$outhprn Route . 0 p 0 0 0 0 ,p.,0 0:
64
(3)
The Prshevallak,Narytkoal Road, ?
86
(4)
The Prunzeo?Rybachle Highway ? ? ? 0:
87
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The Rybadh!yerNaryni.Rashgar Highway,
88
C, Inland Waterways0 ? 0 0 ? ? o ? s' 0 4 0-
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do , Air TranSpiort ? 0 ? ? 6900.00000-0
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Air Routes 0 ? ? 0 ? ? 0 0 ? 0 0 0 0
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Air Fields 0 0. 0 0 0000000 0. 6
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(a) ,Prthevallak 0 0., ? ? 0 0 4.? 0 0 0
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(1,) Aptchive . . 000606000
94
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The issyk4cult Hinterland 0 0 0 0?.?0 W0600.0
95
It,. Physical Characteristics. 0 ? 0 0 0 ? 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0 .
95
1,
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a, Mountains 0 0 0 0 ? 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ? ? 0. 0
96
: (2)
North of Lake Issyk.ault . ? . 0 0 0
97
(a) The Zailiyakiy Alatqau
97
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(b) The Chumiliyakiye Eountains
99
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2* Settlements 0 0 OOOOO 0 0 0,0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50
a, Types and Distribution ? ?000000
(1) Russian and Ukrainian Settlements ,
(2) Native Settlements 0 ? 0 0 0 0 0 0
(3) Ytirta Encampments 0 ? ?
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b. Industry 00 0 0 ? 0 ? 0 0 0 0 0 0 * ? 0 0
(1) Fishing OOOOOOOOOOOO 71
(2) Lumbering 00?000000?000 72
(3) Ninfre . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ? 0 0 0 0 73
(4) Principal Indastrial Installations , 74
(a) Prthevaltsk 0000000000 75
(b) Rybachlye0000?0000?0 76
(c) Tyup 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 76
on 0000 0 0 0 0 0 0 63
(2) Grazing Lands and Animal Husbandry , 67
so
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b. Industry 00 0 0 ? 0 ? 0 0 0 0 0 0 * ? 0 0
(1) Fishing OOOOOOOOOOOO 71
(2) Lumbering 00?000000?000 72
(3) Ninfre . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ? 0 0 0 0 73
(4) Principal Indastrial Installations , 74
(a) Prthevaltsk 0000000000 75
(b) Rybachlye0000?0000?0 76
(c) Tyup 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 76
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,,1242.
(c) The tetmenf Range 160
(d) The Kirgizskiy Range ? tioao 101
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(4) Baits ..... . ? ? ? ? ? 0 ? 0 0
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co
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3.140
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3.140
(2) Russian and Ukrainian Villages ? ? 0
141
(3) Native Towns 0 0 0 0 ? 0 0 0 0 0 0
142
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11411
* 0 ? 0 0 ? 0 0 0 0
(5) 7Urta Encampments 0 ? ? e 0 0 0 0 0
145
(6) Kolkhozes and Sovkhozes 0 . . 0 0 0
3.145
b,
Description of Cities and Principal Towns
3.147
(1) Alma.Ata 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0
317
(2) Frunze 0 0 0 0 0 ? 0 0 ? 0 0 0 0 0 0
151
(3) Tokmak 0 ? * 0 ? 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
154
(4) Kant, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000 0 0 0 0
155
(5) NarYn 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
156
3.
Health and Sanitation 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
157
40
Economy 0 0 0 0 ? 0 0 0 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
161
a,
Agriculture 0 0 ? 0 ? ? 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
161
(1) Crop Cultivation 0 e 0 0 0 0 0 0 ? 0
161
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(b)
(c)
(2) Grazing
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The Chu Valley Region 0 0 ?
The Northern Highlands
Page
161
163
164
166
? ? ?
The Southern Highlands 9 ? 0 o
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(a)
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168
b.
Industry
, ? **** 0 OOOOOO 0
170
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Alma.Ata O *** ? ? ? ? to ? ? o
170
(a)
Munitions Plant and Torpedo
Factory # 175 0 0
171
(b)
Alma-Ata Nachinery Plant 6 00
172
(0)
Alma-Ata Electric Equipment 0 ?
173
(d)
Alma-Ata Locomotive and Coach
Repair Shop 0 0 0 0 0 0 ? ?
173
(a)
Alma..Ata Nhnicipal Thermal
Electric Power Plant . ? 0 0
174
(2) Frunze* 0 ? 0 ?? 0 0 0 0 0
174
(a)
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Plant . * ? 0 0 0 0 0 * o
175
(b)
Frunze Tool Plant ? . 0 00 o
175
(c)
Frunze Neat Combine 0 0 0 ? ?
176
(d)
Aircraft SubasseMbly and
Components Plant ? ?0 ?
176
(e)
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176
00 ?
(3)
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178
(4)
Kant * 0 0 0 OOOOOOOOO ? 0
178
(5)
NarYll ? o ? 0 ?OOOOO ? 0 ? ? o
179
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5*
APPENDIXES
A.4 , Gaps in InteO 1 1 gence . 6 6 6 0 6 ? ? 0- ? ? 0 0 0 a ? ? 0 198
B. Sources and Evaluation of 'Sources ??????????? 199.
10 Evaluation of sources * . .... ? . . ? .0 ? ? . ? 0 0 ? 199
Transportation ? * * ? ? ? 4 ? a ? a ? 4 * * *
a, Railroads ? 4 ? ? ? ? ? ? 40, 4 f ? ? 4. 4 4
180
180
(1)
The Alma-Ata Railroad Canter ? . *
180
(2)
The Frunse-Rybachlye Railroad Line .
bl,
Roads . . ? ??? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 0?? ? 0
.184
(1)
NittiOt Roads from AlmamAta ? , ? 4 ? ?
185
(a) Alma-Ata - Chilik .., Kagen*
AighwRV ? e ? ? ? ? * 4 a 4
185
(b) AAta - Iliyak Road ? a e 0
187
(C) Alma-Ata -arullso 4 ? 4 4. ? 0 4
187
(2)
The Frunae4Rybachlye Highway 0 0 . 0
189.
(3)
(4)
The Rftachlye-NarynoKashgar Highway .,
The Prthevaltak-Narybkol, Road.:*
191
c,
Inland Waterrimrs ? ? ? ? ? ?
193
d*
Air Tranaport ? ? ????????? 00
193
(2)
Air Routes
194
(2)
Airfields * ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? IP ? ? 0
194
(a) AlmappAta . ? ? ? ?
194
? ? ? ? ? 0 0 ? 4 ? 0 0
(b) Frunze196
(c) 114TYn ?????????????
197
2* Evaluation of Nap Coverage 4
? ? 4 0 ? ? ?????? ? 199
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30 Textual Sources 0 0
0 00 0 0 0 o 0 000 0 0 4/ 0
200
40 Map Coverage 0 0 000.000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 207
Maps ?
Iosyk-Kul9 Basin (CIA 9254)0 0 0.0 0
Folio u Page,
4.042.
0 0 0 o o o 0
0 63
The Wc-Kul9 -- Central Tien Shan Area (Photostat of VLAC
YI0s752:8=3-29-afriaTOF-Edditrons)., Confidential . 208
L4s IsFyk-plg (CIA 12545), Restrictilla .0. 0 , .00 208-
UQSOSORO Issyk-Ku10 -- Central Tien Shan Area; Avmi:%abla 14am,
"7?WrveFige-Frna'6717.134 "On'EFTTSCUTUU carzaSt
, 0 0 0 0 0 0 00000 0 0 * . 208
? .
Vaetern,Siberia (v46 Series N5029 unedited proof)
ifiraU) 0000uDec 000000 .0 0 .C/4.44.)
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Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Illustrations
Following Page
A view at the eastern extremity of Zaliv
Pokrovskiy. 0 . ......?.? ? 0 0 0000 6
Boulder-strewn western shore of Lake Issyk-Kul%
near Rybachlye... e?000'cooGoo.? ? 20
3. A view along the southern shore of Lake
Issyk-Kults with the Terskey foothills in the
background.... 0 21
4. Chu River through the. Bum Gorge. Note the
paucity of vegetation on the slopes ..0
5. A view of Kutemaldy River in spring. .
23.
. 0 0 o o 33
33
6. A turbulent mountain stream in the KungeyAla -Tau.
7. Kirgiz woman in festive dress. 0 0 0 0
Figure 8.
Figure 9.
Figure 10.
Figure 11.
Figure.12.
Figure 13.
Figure
0 0 0 0 00 42
Yurta encampment in a mountain pasture o0 ... 42
Kirgizi herders holding council in front of yUrta. 55
Rest home at ChOlponata.
.;;;. 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 0 0
Children vacationing at Cholponata 0 900 0
Cattle pasture in the foothills of the Terskey
Ala-Tau . 00 0 ?0 00 000 0 000? ??
Sheep pasture in the foothills of the Terskey Ala-
Tau 0000 0?0 000? 000 00000000
14. Unimproved dirt road along Issyk-Kul' shore vest
of Tamga . OOOOOO 0 . 0
Figure 150
Figure 16.
.Figure
Figure
0 0000.0 0 00
56
56
68
68
85
Construction work on the Frunze-Rybaohlye Highway. 87
Large steamers at Pristang Przhevallsk on Lake
Issyk-Knit. . 0 ? 0 00 ?? Oft 0 ?00O ? 92
17. Peak Khan!.Tengri, with the Inylgehek Glacier in
the foreground. . . . ........... 103
18. A small syrt on the Naryn Upland . ...... 106
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Figure 19.
Figure
y.211.212,14Latot
'A 371011 of the Nsryn Valley showing the river
terraces
20. Forest vegetation on the northern slope of the
ZailiyakiyAla.11au. Birch and Tien Shan spruce
are among the forest constitutents. There
appears to be a fruit orchard near the center
of the photograph. ? . .
Figure 21.
Figure
00 ?
Tien Shan spruce on the 41-0.1.iyaltly illa."2au. A
small mountain 3a ke. Lake Issyks is in the
foreground . . 0. . ?
22. Kazakh 'herdsman in conventional dress
Figure 23.
Figure 24.
Figure 25.
Figure 26.
Figure 27.
Figure 28.
Figure 29,
Figure 30.
Figure 31,
Figure 32.
Figure 33.
Figure 34.
Figure 35.
South Alma..Ata, fading the Zailiyskiy Ala-Tau.
Modern buildings in Alma.Ata
? 0 0
Main square and park it the center of Frunze ?
110
124
125
130
147
148
152
Vertical air view of workers f district at ,seuth-
west edge of Frunze, showing railroad station
(top left) and race track (left) p ? ? ? ? 153
Herd of Kirgiz heroes an pasture in the Chu
Valley p ? ? o ?0 ** ***** 0 0 o 166
Food-processing and grain-storage facilities in
Alma-Ata .......... ? . ? 9 0 ? 0 ?
Meat-processing plant (apasokombinat) in Frunze.
A characteristic mountain trail showing hazards
to movement
Camel caravan assembled at Alma-Ata for journey
across the Tien Shan Mountains . 0000000 185
The Frunze-Rybachfye Highway leading through the
Busan Gorge .. OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
Mounted patrol on the Kirgiz-Sinkiang frontier .
Typical mountain stream In the Issyk-Kulf-
Central Tien Shan Region
Military airfield?Alma-Ata North. 0 . ?
171
176
185
190
191
193
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,lAufaf4*4
a2T61:u
The losyk-Kule -. Central Tien Shart region occupies the M051#
exeriva and highest mount,sctn couny in the entire Soviet Ultiono
Elevac,ions in most of the area exceed 300C feet, Only a sma:1.1
area (iout%, of Lake Issyk-Kul has e:evatiors laver than 4000 feat()
Physitigrap-cical_ys the area consisto of alternating mountain ranges
trandLrg in ah oc:it-west directions, sepamted by ihtelrf(lon1;ane
depressions, Four mountain arcs mal:e up the basic orographio
framework, The northernmost am is fumed by the Zailiyekiy
Tau d Chu-Tliyskiye iTountains; the Ketmen Ranges, ths Kungey
Ala-T4us, and the Kirgizskiy Range form the second series of ranges,
The third linear systamo the Terskey Ala-Tm? lies immediatel-
south oS Lake Iosyk-Kulo, The fou:.:-th series of ranges,1 the hilt
Shaal-Tauaforms the international boundary between the USSR clad
the Province of Sinkiangs, China, The majw ihtermontane lowlaLlcs
are the Chu Valleys, the KarkaraiZegene Basins the Issyk-Kul9
the Kochkur Valley? and the Lover Naryn Valley.
At the bottom of the Issyk-Kul Basin lies Lake I3sy1c-Ku1)/,
very deep, nonfreezing, brackish lake. Its area is 2dtOO square
miles, roughly one-third that of Lake Ontario; its maximum dspti.?
2003 feat, is almost twice that of am of the Great Lake50
The cover of natural vegetation over most of the region is
g:Iase, Forests are confined to the northern slopes of tha moaYn.3
no:--th of Lake Issyk-Kulg an to the mountan slincs fornirtg the
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eastern walls of the /ssyk-Kult Basin, Because of the great
contrasts in altitude differences in vegetation are correlated with
altitudinal zones,
Since the Issyk-Kull -- Central Tien Shan region is an area
of high mountains, the climate is extremely diverse. The mildest
climates are characteristic of the Issyk-Kul' Basin, the Chu Valleys,
and the Alma.-Ata Lowland, The area south of Lake Issyk-Kul' has the
most severe climate, There subfreezing average temperatures can
be expected from October through July.
Sociologic and economic features of the Issyk-Kul' -- Central
Tien Shan region are closely related to the physical conditions.
Population throughout the region is unevenly distributed, with the
greatest concentrations in the intermontane valleys, The most
densely populated area is the Chu Valley; the Issyk-Kult Basin and
the Alma-Ata Lowland are a little less densely populated. The
mountain country north and south of Lake Issyk-Kull is sparsely
inhabited, being peopled mostly by groups of nomadic herders,
Throughout most of the region, the population is predominantly of
the rural type. The rural population consists mainly of Russian
and Ukrainian settlers in the Chu Valley and the Alma.Ata Lowland
and of Kirgiz and Kazakh nomads in the remainder of the region. The
urban population is predominantly Russian and Lrkainian and is
concentrated in Alma-Ata, Frunze, Tokmak, Przhevalfsk, Kant, Nary%
and Rybachilye,
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Throughout the mountain areas, a migratory type of animal
husbandry is the major economic activity. Crop cultivation is under-
taken mainly in the river valleys and intermontane lowlands. Wheat
is the principal food crops and barley, oats, and alfalfa are the
main fodder crops._ Industrial crops such as sugar beets, tobacco,
and hemp are: intensively cultivated in the Chu Valley.
Industrial activities are centered mainly in the cities of
Alma-Ata and Frunze. Industries include both heavy and light
marufacturing. Yinor industrial installations for processing local
agricultural products are located along the Chu River and in the
Issyk-Kull Basin. Fishing is being developed into an important
phase of the econagy along Lake Issyk-Kul'.
The transportation network within the area focuses on Alma-Ata,
Frunze, Rybacheyes and Przheval*sk. Alma-Ata and Frunze are major
centers of the Turksib Railroad system and are also important
terminals of several air routes leading into the area. Rybachlye
and Przhevallsk have the main port installations on Lake Issyk-Kult?
as well as being junction points of the principal highways and
roads of the region. Rybachlye is an ilfportant transloading
station between rail and road traffic and lake shipping,.
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I. Introduction
This study describes and analyzes selected elements in the
geography of the Issyk-Kule Central Tien Shan Region. It is
a. raughlI triangular area at the extreme eastern part of Soviet
Central Asia. Its extent is arbitrarily defined by the parallel
49?15N on the north, the meridian 74?301E on the west, and the
international boundary between the USSR and the Chinese province
of Einkiang on the south and east. These limitt enclose an area of
almost wholly mountainous terrain. (Map: The Issyk-Kule Central
Tien Shan Area).
The Issyk-Kule Basin and its hinterland are treated individually
in this study, although geographically they aro intimately interb.
dependent. The report is divided into throe basic paxts, The first
part is a discussion of Lake Issyk-Kule. It provides a degree of
orientation regarding the physical character and chemical composi-
tion of the lake, and the nature of its plant and animal life.
The second and third parts deal with the natural and cultural
features of the Issyk-Kule Basin and the mountainous hinterland
surrounding the basin. Attention is given to terrain, climate,
hydrograpbys, vegetation, animal life, population, health, sanitation,
economy., and transportation.
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II, Lake Issadc-Kul/
A. General Characteristics
1.1?11111.41.1.11?11.0 A.4
Lake Issyk-Kull occupies practically the entire bottom of
the Issyk-Kull Basin. It is encircled by two high mountain ranges,
the Kungey Ala.-Tau to the north, and the Torskey Ala-Tau to the south.
The Lake is roughly lenticular in shape and extends in an oast-west
direction (see map CIA 12545). Its length, between Pristan,
Przheval/sk at the eastern extremity and Rybachlye on the west, is
110 miles. A maximum width of 33 miles is reached across the central
part of the lake between Korundy on the north and the mouth of the
Tosser River on the south. The area of the lake surface is 204.00
square miles. The surface of the lake is 50170 feet above sea level.
Normally the lake level fluctuates only slightly throughout the year.
The annual amplitude of variation generally ranges from 4 to 8 inches
but occasionally roaches 10 inches. The highest level is observed
in August when the melting of mountain snow and glaciers is at a
maximum; the lowest level occurs from December through February.
The only extrusions of land are two willow-covered islets loss than
a half mile from the southern shore near the village of Tosser.
They are usually referred to collectively as Kayrak Island. Each
islet is about 330 feet long and a maximum of 50 feet wide.
D. Shoreline
The shoreline of Lake Issyk-Kult has little indentation.
The Tyup and Dzhargalen (Kara-Su) inlets along the extreme eastern
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shore are the largest embayments; each cuts inland for a distance
of approximately 12 miles. The northern shore of the Tyup Inlet
is broken by a number of deep, narrow estuaries of short streams
dropping from the Kungey Alapqau Range. The shores of the Dzhargalan
a Inlet are straight except for the mouths of the Aryk Dzhana and ArYk
Ak-Kurgan rivers, which cut the southern shore. The western shore
A of Lake Issyk-Kulg has no inlets. The northern shore is broken by
a number of small coves, which are open to the lake and afford
little shelter for lake craft. Along the southern &hems, Zaliv
Pokrovskty is the largest indentation, with a length of about 4 0
miles and a width of 3 miles (Figure 1). Its eastern extremity forms
a deep, lakelike body of water connected with the bay proper by a
vary narrow strait. Several rivers flawing from the Terskey Ala-Tau
Range terminate as small ambayments on the south shore. The largest
of these are the estuaries of the Ak-Terek and Ton rivers, known as
Zaliv Yurduk-Udzhar and Zaliv Ton, respectively. Each is a mile
long and a half mile wide,
Co The Hydrological Balance
Issyk-KulD is fed by more than 75 streams of various sizes
flawing from the Kungey AlaTaa and Terskey Ala-Tau mountains. The
largest are the Tyup and the Dzhargalan? which empty into the eastern
end of the lake, Fourl.fifths of the water entering Issyk-Kulg is
received from streams flawing dawn the Terskey Range and only one-fifth
from rivers of the Kangey Ala-Tauo The longest rivers and those
carrying the greatest amount of water drain into the eastern part of
6
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the lake. The pohargalan River has the highest yearly diecheA17,ee,
The streams flowing into the northern parb of the lakes although
smelle are comparatively numerous. No permanent rivers enter ths
western extremity of Lake Ise;y1c-Ka1u. The quantity of water carriee,
into the lake by streams amounts to 80000.0000 cubic yards a year,
This figures hovevers is based on relatively meager information and
many assumptions.
The balance of water supply in Lake Issyk-Kula is maintained
entirely by evaporations rather than by surface or subterranean
outlets. Several hypotheses favoring the existence of underground
outlets have been advanced but all have been satiefzetcrily refuted.
Since a fairly constant level is enie;4ined, loss of water through
evepoation is equal to the inta1/4e.
D. _ and Bottom Conditions
7.____SIJ2ke
Depths in Lake Isqk-lulv increase touard the southe,
centeal parts were a broad expanse ranges in depth from 2s150-20303
feet. This area of greatest depths stretches between the longitudes
of the mouths of the Ton and Tossor rivers, as far south as a point
7 miles from the south shore of T.Eaft-D1.4 and north to A point
roughly 13 miles from the north shore, From the north shore the
depth increases gradually tagard the long axis of the lake but from
the southern shore the increese is quite rapid. Between the Ak-Terek
and Dzharglodhek rivers0 Along the southern shores the greatest depths
are only 7 to 10 miles offshore and only 2 miles from the shore
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cl.e9thi;3 -exceed 650 feet? Within the same east-west exLent along the
northern shore0 the maxtmum depth ie much farther offshore. Thc
northern limit of the souths-cencral area of greatest ezoths lief 13
miles offshore? To the east of this deep areas the mItimum depth
is 20 to 25 miles off shored and to its Lrest0 15 to 20 rtales offshorso
The descent from %/bachle to a line between Toraygyn and Imani
Voroshilova appears to be gradu,21 and un5foriq eastward from the
Toraygn-Voroshilova line the depth increases rapidly?
The greatest knoffm depthD 20303 feet0 occurs in a, comparativelf
mall depression 8 miles north-nortteast of the village of Kadgi-EXyr
on the southern shose3 this depsession drops ap)roximate7V 130 feet
"Delou the adjacent bottom level. A reconsiary trough of gTeater
depths0 8 miles off the southern shored -ixtends for 15 to 20 miles
Gast of the south,central area of greatest dsptha. The lake is
shallowst at its western extremity? Except for the Tyo,p and
%hargalan inlets., depth info tion for the eater n ,ind of Iss3,k-Kni
beyond the lino Ananuyeva-Zaliv Pokrovskly is almost rfrel
:izoking. The depth is probably considerably less than 330 feet
throughout most of the area.
Available bat etric data are 7_n,sc_Uficient for a detailed
det,ermination of bottom relief. Bottom deposits are 1,argely grty,
stNomgly calcareous slime? At some points bottom samples Alm contain
si-tud. The mechanical analysis of a bott(m sEmple taken from a cepth
of 20303 feet showed the folloaing composition,.-
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Size of Particles
(rillimeters)
Percentage
5:eagle-
00250-0005t
2.6
o.o5m0olo
70o
o.olo-o.015
62.5
0.01o0001
16.1
Smaller than 0.001
11.8
2. Inlets
ee The Tyap inlet has A70 uneven bottom. Its depth rareee
from ebout 5 feet along the southeen shore to 33 feet at the eetuarioe
elms the rorthern ehore. A channel 33 feet deep rare from the
Mame* estuary out ted to 78? E. From 780 E.togard the main
bedy of the lakeD the bottom appea Te to drop more sheep5ey? VO depth
inToruation is available for tha 5 ntles between the Kurmenty
eotually and the inlet head.
The aehargalan inlet ha e aril-Them depth al: 16 feet near ?listen,
ProhevalGsk. From Peizteno Przhevelc-sk to the mouth of the Left
Dehaue River the bottom descends faiely repiay to a depth of ebout
r'30 feetq farther west the bottom elope becomes much noea gradve?..
Atth mouth of the inlet depth exceeds 165 feet.
The inlets along the northern shore are shallawee than thoee
of tha southern shore. Only the inlet at Geigor'3yevke exceeds 50
feet in depth. Uorther) inlets have a very gradual bottom slope
ixmard the open lak% end most of thea also have a secondary slope
from 'gest to eautf; ao that the greatest depth lies betgeen the elet
? center line and its eastern shore.
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Along the southern Shore most of the inlets are very deeps.agen
at their headed as a result of the :Sharp drop from the shores toward
the inlet center, The Ak-Tereks Tons Kikilikp and Dzhargylgcha
inlets are more than 130 feet deep. The depth in Zaliv Pokrovskiys
4 the shallowest inlet of the southern shores gronay does not
exceed 50 fest. Lake craft carefUIly keep to the middle of this
inlets indicatqng that the nearshore matere are shellaa.
E. Water Characteristics
20 Chemistry
e, salink0
The uater of Lake Issyk-Nula is brackish and not
suitable for drinking purposes. The salinity is about htlf that of
the Ara and Caspian seas. S-Jinity at various experimental statiors
on the open lake ranges betmeen 5.77 to 5.86 grams of salt per
kiloeram (liter) of waters and at the Tyup Inlet and its estuaries
between 2.2 and 505. For the apo: lakes variations in salinity:, both
verticgily and horizontally, are reportedly insigni2iceente
b. Salts and Cases
The Iasyk-Kulg waters contain a relatively large
amount of magnesium and more sulfates than chlorides (see Table 1).
Analyses indicate an absence of ferric oxides aluminum oxides silicon
dioxides nitric acids and emonia. The lake has a high oxygen content
at all depths. The saturation of all bottom waters with oxygen exceeds
73.6 percent, At a depth of 2.280 feet an oxygen content of 5.57 cubic
IO
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cant-A'asters per litex or more th2n 75 percent saturatLon? 114s bean
observed, Tho oxygen content /ar from 4078 to 6,95 cubic
centimeters per liter, In 1928 the no at maximym eawgen content
was determined to be between the depths of 80 and 165 feet, The
open lake hu no hydrogen sulfide zone; hydrogen sOfide has been
observed, houever9 at the bottom at tha Tyuo IniGt at eachuye?
and in the shallow water at the immediate northern shore?
Available chemical analyses arc giva in Table
Co Alkalinity
Determinations cf the concentration of hydrogen
ions shaq that the water of Issyk-Kulu is aikaline? At the surface
of the open lake a pH of 8.8 to 8,95 ia u,sually observed? In the
inlets of the northeast the pH values range between 6,2 aid 920
With depthp a decrease of pH is evident, although the values at
maximmn depth are wAthin 0?2 of the surface values? The even dls-
tribution of pH and high bottom Nialues are attributed to strong
vertical circulation, and the emdllent aeration of water to maxima
depth,
30
Tex
Observations of uater temperature are available for
only the summer months of a few years, - Measurements taken during
the period 6 July through 5 August 1928 are used in this ::eport, as
they are considered the most comprehensive and the most representatf:_vt:
:?or all of Lake Issyk-Kula (see Table 2)0
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-P"
O 0 IA
o -4=4 0
ara
0
CiA
O 10, c..3
0 T-0 6-1
(=1
0:,5
0
0
CZ
el
0
OD
It%
0\
rAD
4
Cc-4 44 n e0, V? V14 0 `11?
0 0 0 ? 0%
0 --1
0
co 8
O'
t.,.] k c?-?
IA 4 .
O 9-3
03 0.0 c- VI
0.0 0
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f4 Go 0 al C.-? a.-,....
0 0 0 ?.1" GO cf)
^I
01 0 ts.? c
. 4 IA
c tr-b
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7'4 4V1
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vs, 0 ota cm 0%
aa 0 ..Z' 0 es-
4, 5.-z4 0 let Ire
tao 0 0
.,?:,1 v.% 0 IA 4
O rm
..-..0
co
03
?.0
0
0 0 0
Ckt ISO
lA
az-.1
w.
0
r=4
cr'l
0
CV
es-
0
c=4
, ,
IA
c-4
0
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taN
c-il
8
0
cw
0'3
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8
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CM
8
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8
o
tr?
0 IA az
tni .1.1\
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0
8
8
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0
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00
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9
0 0
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0 8
.....1 00
0 0 0
ISN IA 00
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0,1 0 tv
3
0t13
?1? ' C...) en ,g,.,.2
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Considering the elevation of Lake IssykAUlgo the average summer
time surface temperature of 66?F is fairly high, Eater temperature
&ape somewhat rapidly from the surface to a depth-of 165 feet where
it averages 44?Fr, from 165 feet to 655 feet the temperature drops to
40.54'3 and from 655 feet to the bottom it remains fairly constant at
390F0 Lake Issyk-Kdlg does not freeze over in wintery but a narrow
strip of ice not over 2 feet thick forms along the shoreline?
The following table presents the only available statistics on
the water temperature of Lake IssykFlti?6
Table Rp_id02112211PQNPARKft-gtafg ,m&AUgnatana
/ean Jar-- 11136E7 WEigi.Tof-
Depthv,
Temperature Temperature T se:rat/re Determination
(Feet)
cLF
0
66
70.9
62.6
59
33
64.8
66.4
61.4
6
50
59.2
64.6
5301
5
66
52.9
56.3
49.8
4
82
49.4
53.1
47.8
6
164
43.5
44.8
4205
4
328
40.8
41.2
40.5
5
656
39.7
39.9
39.7
4
984
3997
39.7
39.7
3
1640
39.7
39.7
39.5
3
1968
39.5
3905
39.5
5
2280
39.5
39.5
39.5
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30 Tramparang,
40, -
T Ymsp a rangy' is faiay constant over most of the lake
Measured from the surface and using a white disc 13.(3 inches (35
centimeters) in diameter, it ranges betueen 43 and 50 feet during
',sumer. The nearahore area of the northern part of the lake is
olighZ4' less transparent than the southern nearahore st4p, Tramsr,
pry near the south shore averages 45 feet and near the no:Aq
shore 41 feet. The muddying influence of rivers is confined to -chei5'
islets and does not reach the open lake. In the comparatively
shalim western part of the lake, near Rybach27e0 the bottom can be
Hasa for slight' MOY0 than a mile from shore duaing calm weattor.
Transpayency probably increases daring the uirt:er when the stYcEms
carry less sediment into the lakes No data are available on the
1.3nits of visibility at specific depths The uaters are dark blae
in the open lake and greenish within' a feu hundred feet of the shore.
Aguatic Lffe
Little is /MOM about the plant and animil :ifs of Lake
Issyk-Kulg. The open part of the lake has far species of plankton.
Mmsos of Botryccoccus brauni are found at the surface at depths
below 50 =torso the diatom hinrora r.)aludosvar is wider dietri
lotted, Among the rotiferav the kraraea acuteata and Synchaeta:o.
. ?
are common. Among the copepoda the common varieties are Diaptomus
r.EaLms and 92.21ops viridis. Cladoc era are lacking.
c
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Amphipoda include the species Issykogammarus and several
species of genus Gammarus. The mollusks encountered are several
species of Lymnaea and amIllaykkulensis; the latter actually
belong to the species Eydrobia v.:entrosa common along the European
shores.
The species of fish caught commercially are: Carp (Cyprinus
carpio)0 nmarinkan (Schizothorax Erudaksaiensis issytkull)0 nosmantl
(Diptychus Aybowskii), IssykAulo dace (Leuciscus schmidti)v and
woheb'chekn (a small dace) (IlLesITITLIami..). Other fish in the
lake are the Issyk-Kulo gudgeon (ages.q.b.io ).atus), Issyk-Kule
loadhlPhoxinus issykkulensis)v Diplophysa and Disa
dorsalis. The Nemacbilus stoliczkai is caught in the streams.
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III, The Issyk-Kul Basin
A, nysical Characteristics
The Issyk-KulQ Basin is a deep, elongated, tectonic
depreesion completely ringed by high and rugged mountains. The
Kungey Ala-Tau Range, on the north, and the Terskey Ala-Tau, on the
south, converge east and west of Lake Issyk-Kuiv to form the canoe
shaped Issyk-KulD Basin, Lake Issyk-Kule] occupies practically the
entire bottom of the depression, Only at the extreme eastern end
of the basin is there extensive loeland, Elsewhere mountain barriers
rise within 8 miles from the lake shore. The length of the basin,
from the Beam Gorge in the west to the Santash Pass in the easts is
approximately 162 miles; the -width, from the upper reaches of the
Barskaun River in the south to the Kok-Belo Pass of the Kungey Ala-Tau
Mountains in the north, is about 75 miles. Ofa total area of approxi-
mately 89500 square miles, Lake Issyk-Kule covers 2,400 square miles
and much of the remainder is mountain slope,
lo Terrain
=02=19
ao Kungey Ala-T u Fountains
The Kungey Ala-Tau Yountains? north of Lake
Iseerk-Ku12, are a sharply dissected mountain barrier 180 miles longs,
which slopes very steeply on the south and more gradually on the meth.
The range as a whole is a massive high mountain wall, somewhat flattened
at the crest, with sharply defined peaks only in the center, The
crestal eons is archlike, having the highest elevations near the center,
In the western part, the Kungey rises to about 119000 feet; toward
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the center, at the headwaters of the Bolgshoy Kebin (Boloshaya Kemin)
and Chilik rivers, the elevation increases to about 139000 fe t;
farther east the elevation again decreases. At the Sary Bulak Pass,
? approximately on the meridian of the eastern extremity of Lake
Issyk-Kulg, the elevation is 11,000 feet. Beyond this pass, at the
TalOry-Su River9 the elevation increases to about 129100 feet, In the
v:i.cinity of Santash Pass0 at the eastern extremity of the Issyk-Kul
Basin, elevations drop to about 89200 feet. The lower eastern part
of the range wings slightly southeastward to join the Terokey Ala-Tae
Range, thus closing off the Issyk-Kulg Basin from the east. The
highest peaks of the range9 at the headwaters of the south-flowing
Choktal River, rise slightly above 17,000 feet (1ount Chokta19
179050 feet).
The western part of the Kungey Range rises about 50800 feet
above the level of Lake Issyk-Kul)' (5,170 feet); the cental area9
89000 feet above the lake; and the eztreme east, 39000 feet. Although
the numerous valleys cutting the Kungey are deep, they are relative2y
wide so that travel is not arduous. The mace rises eharply from
the lake shore9 with no belt of foothills. The Kungey is interrupted
only at the Chon-4ksu River valley? where a short soethern range
forms a spur toward the shore of Lake Issyk-Kulgo
Permanent snow covers the whole central part of the range and
the highest parts of the west. The permanent snowline ranges between
11,200 and 110900 feet. The central area also has a number of short
glaciers.
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b, Terskeyjaegau Mountains
The Terskey Ala-Tau, forming the southern border
of the Issyk-Kulv Basin, is the highest range of the entire Soviet
Tien Shan mountain system, Th: mega stretches in a west?east
direction across the entire central part of the study area, from a
point near Lake SionFZulu to the Khan-Tengri mountain node at the
international border with Sinkiang, The range is asymmetrical, havi?g
a long northern slope (20-25 miles) and a very short southern slope
(3.5 miles), The stretch from the Kochkur Valley to the upper course
of the Tyup River, in the eta forms the southern wall of the
Is3yk-Ku1t, Basin,
The altitude of the Terskey Ala-Tau gradually increases from
west to east, Throughout most of its extent the mountain barTie:'
exceeds 13,000 feet in elevation and in several hundred feet higher
than the Kungey Ala-Tau, The Terskey Ala-Tau also has many more
distinct peaks than the Kungey Ala.Tau, At the western extremity of
Lake Issyk-Kulq the crestal elevation is about lig500 fest, Eastward
the vange gradually rises to the meridian of Zaliv Pokrovskiy, at
the southeast corner of the lake, where the divide elevations lie
between 13,000 and 149800 feet, The highest and most inaccessible
part of the Terekey AlaTau lies betuesn the Pokrovskiy meridian
and the upper course of the Tyup River; here the divide elevations
generally exceed 149800 feat. A feu individual peaks rise above 16?000
feet, the highest being Mount Aleksandrovskaya (189012 fest), near
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the headuat re of the Karakol River. From west to east the Terskey
crest lies from 6,500 to 99800 feet above Lake Issyk-Ku19. The
southern slope of the Terskey Ala-Tau is very short and9 in general,.
rises only 1,500 to 29000 feat above the adjacent lowlands. As a
result9 from the Naryn Uplaod to the south, the Terskey Ala-Tau has
the appearance of a rough upland rather than formidable mountain
barrier.
East of the Barskaun River, the Terskey Ala-Tau appears to have
flattened summit from which mountain spurs branch off toward Lake
Issyk-Kulg. West of the Barakaun9 the crest becomes much more dis-
sected, and flat-topped summits are much smaller in area and rather
widely separated,
The Terskey Ala-Tau has a secondary lower crest about 3 miles
from the main crest, This secondary crest is especially pronounced
toward the east where several streams flow for a considerable distance
betueen the two ridges before cutting through the secondary crest
and flowing down to the lake. The Terskey Range lies farther from
the lake shore than the Kungey Ala-Tau and a definite foothill belt,
Through most of its extent the Terskey Al -Tau rises above the
permanent snowline9 which lies at 110800 to 12,200 feet, Small
glaciers (generally less than 3 miles in extent) are found at the
sources of most of the streams of the Terskey A1e-Tau9 but they are
most common on the southern slope. Facing Lake Issyk-Ku1e9 glaciers
are confined primarily to the area east of the upper course of the
3arskaun River.
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c? The Littoral of Lake Issyk-Kulg
The Issyk-Kulo littoral comprises three types of
terrain, Along the western and northern shores of Lake Issyk-Kul3?
the land slopes gradually upward from the lake toward the mountains.
The northern littoral reaches its maximum width of 7 1/2 miles between
1Kormedy and Ananoyeva3 its width near Rybachvye is 6 mileso and near
lece I -up Xnleee only 1 iilo0 Along the southern littoral, the Terskey
Teothine trail off almost to the lakeehoreo and the terrain is roughe
At tha eastern pert of the Issyk-Kule Basin, an extensive belt of
lcslaed extends from the lakeshore to the Kungey and Terskey ranges.
The entire uestern shore of Issyk-Kulg and part of the northern
ehore are bouLdevestreun, relatively leval9 and barrens especially
between Karashar and Toraygyn (Figure 2). Vegetation is restricted
to the coureee of the small streams crossing the littoral and to a
nerrew marshy strip at the immediate shoreline, East of Korumdy the
easteXand character rapidly disappears and a grass cover become
pecminent, Seutteeet of Rybachoyed the foothill Cora Bos-Barmak?
towering :t,000 fest above its surroundings juts out to break the
gradua slope toward the mountaine.
The northern banks of Lake Issyk-Kulg are composed of friableo
eandy? gravelly material, East of ehoktal, they rise from the lake
in tereace-like fashion? A marshy strip runs along the entire north-
ETU shore but varies in width and continuity, At Rybachgye, at the
western ed of the lake, the strip is about 10000 fest wide and
eppeare to consist of alternating marsh and sandy or pebbly ridges,
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Between Toraygynand Korumdy? the strip is much narrower and consists
of a series of small marshes. Just south of Koshkola? 25 miles
northeast of Rybachaye? there are two small ree&filled lakes between
the dioreline and the main road along the shore. These lakes are
about 100 feet wide and 1,000 feet long and are oriented in a north
-
south direction, East of Korumdy the elevation of the shore drops
er slightly and the marshy strip becomes more prominent. Near Chonuryukty
and Uytal the strip widens to several hundred feet, and east of
Kuturga it disappears.
The southern littoral of Lake Issyk-Kula includes a narrow strip
with little relief, similar to that of the northern littoral, backed
by a belt of foothills (Figure 3). Numerous rounded boulders are
scattered over the eastern part of the immediate shore strip. At
Imeni Voroshilova, Aktersk, and Tamga beaches of gray sand are
prominent.
In the area east of the Barskaun River the southern face of the
secondary Terskey ridge slopes dawn almost to the lake shore. The
area vest of the Barskaun River has a foothill belt that extends 10
to 15 miles from the lake shore. The foothills are ori nted in a
general east-west direction and have steep southern slopes and gentle
northern slopes. Summits reach as high as 500 feet above the level
of Lake Issyk-Kula. The eastern foothills have higher elevations and
are more agglomerated, but peaks in the west tend to stand out Dade
-
pendently. There are many hot springs, some of which are the sites
of health resorts. Fresh-water springs are also abundant.
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The eastern littoral consists of two wide gently sloping valleys,
the Dzhargalan and the Tyup, separated by a low divide that bisects
the littoral in an east-west direction. The divide begins in the
east as the Chubar?Zhan Range, where the Kungey and Terskey Ala-Tau
ranges converge, and ends in the west as a promontory jutting into
Lake Issyk-Kulo. Its elevation gradually lowers from east to west;
only the eastern half is rugged and high enough to be an obstacle 'to
movement on foot, The altitude of the Chubar-Zhan Range is 8,000
feet; westward this range merges with the Tosna Mountains, and finally
with the Ichke-Tosma Mountains, slightly more than 730 feet above
Lake Issyk-Kull. From the Ichke-Tosma Mountains, near the central
part of the eastern littoral, the divide broadens considerably and
tends to lose its distinctive hill character. The highest point has
an altitude of about 5,580 feet, The western part of the divide has
very few streams but is dissected by innumerable small dry ravines*
Two other mountains are located on the southeast shore of Lake
Issyk-Kull. Mount Orgocher9 about 5 miles east of Zaliv Pokrovskiy,
rises about 1,230 feet above its surroundings to an elevation of
6,650 feet; Mount Berbash, just south of Pristani Przhevallsk? has
an elevation of 59824 feet, which is about 500 feet above the adjacent
area, Both highlands have no vegetation and are dissected by small
dry, gorge-like valleys.
The Dzhargalan and Tyup valleys are broad and shallow with little
irregular terrain. In the middle reaches of the Tyup and Dzhargalan
rivers, there are soft, wet meadow lands. A strip of moist meadow
and marshlands also borders Lake Issyk.Kuly.
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d. Accessibility
The principal routes to the Issyk-Kult Basin lie
at its eastern and western extremities. The western routes follow
the Duam Gorge and the Kochkur Valley. The eastern routes go byway
of the Santash Pass,
The Mime Gorge is the easiest and most heavtly traveled route.
It serves as the principal connection between Soviet Central Asia and
the Issyk-Kulo Basin and is, in effect, the "true gateway" to both
the Issyk-Kult Basin and the mountains of the Central Tien Shan,
The principal caravan route southward to Sinkiang goes by way of the
Kochkur Valley, and the main caravan route leading eastward beyond
the USSR frontiers follows the Santash Pass.
The Buam Gorge makes a roughly semicircular cut, with the con-
cavity to the southwest? through the Kungey-Kirgizskiy mountain
barrier (Figure 4)0 The elevation ranges from about 60 feet above
the level of Lake Issyk-Kulq at the eastern outlet of the gorge to
about 40 feet below the Issyk-Kulo level at the western outlet?
Normal routes of travel from the Alma-Ata Lowland, on the north,
enter the Issyk-Kuls Basin by of the Buam Gorge and Santash Pass.
They detour eastward and westward for many miles to avoid crossing
two very high and rugged mountain barriers, the Zailiyskiy Alapqau
and the Kungey Ala-Tau, From Alma-Ata? direct travel across the
mountains involves an ascent of about 6,500 feet to the Zailiyskty
crest, a descent of about 6,000 feet from the Kungey crest to the
lake, mastery of two craggy, glaciated, mow-covered summit zones,
and the traverse of two short but rugged mountain slopes between
Zailiyekiy and Kungey crests,
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In approaching the basin from the north, travel over the extreme
eastern part of the Knngey Ala-Tau appears practicable. The compara-
tively low eastern extremity of the Kungey can be approached over
the relatively easy terrain of an intermontane lowland which is only
lightly populated. Several trails across the eastern Kungey lead to
the eastern part of the Issyk-Kulg Basin.
In approaching the Issyk-Kull Basin from the mountainous Narra
Upland in the south, the most difficult terrain of the journey is
encountered along the descent of 6,500 feet and more from the Terskey
crest to the shores of Lake Issyk-Kullo The easiest route is the
Rybachoye-Kashgar caravan route across the western part of the Naryn
Upland.
Numerous passes cut the Terskey? Kungey, and Zailiyskiy crests
and are used regularly by native nomadic herders. The glaciated
valleys near the summits are generally trough-shaped and fairly wide
at the bottom. Accumulations of morainic materials, sometimes
blocking the valley, are the major obstacles to movement on foot.
The most difficult parts of the routes to passes lie at the lower
slopes where the valleys are V-shaped and wild. The degree of dif-
ficulty and danger in negotiating passes depends largely on the weather,
Snowfalls conceal pits and chasms; after steady rains the abundant
deposits of loose rock fragments become very slippery. The crests of
moraines sometimes make fairly good routes of travel, however, since
they are frozen most of the time and generally provide a firm footing.
Thawing usually affects only a thin surface layer. Animal trails,
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although they may follow circuitous routes, provide a firm footing
for movement by humans and lead to points where a range can be
crossed more easily.
Most of the passes in the main Terskey Range are above 10,000
feet in elevation, ornore than 4,800 feet above the level of Lake
Issyk-Kule, Passes in the central and western Kungeys are a few
hundred feet lower, and those in the eastern part of the Kungey
Ala,-Tau are still lower. Santash Pass, at the eastern extremity, has
an elevation of 6,500 feet, only 1,300 feet above the level of Lake
Issyk-Kuloo
2. Climate
e. Temperature
The Issyk-Kulo Basin has an average annual tem-,
perature of 44?F. The winter climate is distinctly milder than that
of the rest of the Tien Shan mountainous region. Summers for the
most part are moderately cool, July is the hottest month with an
average temperature of 63?F; January is the coldest month with an
average of 23?F (see Table 3)0 These averages indicate that temper-
atures are practically ideal for human efficiency and comfort.
The average temperature for winter (December through February)
is 24?F. January is usually a few degrees colder than December, but
only slightly colder than February. Maximum daily temperatures at
freezing or below can be expected for about half of January and
February, although they occur as early as October, Through all of
December, January, and February, and much of November and /larch,
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Table 30 Temperature in the IssykAull Basin
Przheval,sk
Rybachye
Average
Temperature
Average
Temper ture
Average 0
Temperature ( F) for
Specific Times of Day
0700 1300 2100
of Days With
Minimwn'
Temperature
of 32?F or Less
verage er
of Days With
Maximum
Temperature
of 32?F or Less
-CD
January
23
18
31
/9
31
17
22
February
24
17
32
19
28
13
25
March
33
30
44
31
24
2
34
April
46
42
55
41
6
0
45
ay
54
So
62
48
1
0
53
June
60
57
69
55
o
0
61
July
63
60
73
58
o
0
65
August
63
57
73
57
0
0
63
September
56
50
67
50
0
0
56
October
43
38
53
38
9
1
145
November
34
29
42
30
25
2
314
December
26
22
34
23
31
lo
26
Year
1414
39
53
39
155
45
44
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minimum daily temperatures of 32?F or less are recorded, The lowest
temperature in available records is -3?F. Cold spells are generally
of short duration. Ear morning temperatures in winter are generally
several degre s below freezing; by early afternoon the temperature
rises to about 32?F; nightly temperatures drop to several degrees
below freezing.
In Merck, the average temperature rises 101)F, and temperatures
at freezing or slightly less can be expected only during the night
and early morning hours. The rapid temperature rise continues through
the end of ray? when the high summer averages are approached.
The average temperatures of the summer months (June through
August) also vary little, with July being warmest by a degree or
two, The mean seasonal temperature during the summer ranges from
about 57?F at 7:00 a.m. and 9:00 p.m0 to about 72?F at 1:00 p0m0
The highest temperature listed in available meteorological records
is 89?F.
Average monthly temperatures drop about 7?F in September and
continue falling rapidly through October and November. Early-morning
temperatures in November are below freezing.
Sine Issyk-Kul? Basin is a deep intermontane depression, the
temperature also varies with the altitude 0 The rate of temperature
rise with increased elevation averages 101?F per 330 feet, Frequently
in winter and on summer nights, the temperature on the mountain slopes
is significantly higher than at the bottom of the basin.
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b. Precipitation
Precipitation in the Issyk6Kul9 Basin increases
progressively from west to east. The western area is dry and desert
like, whereas the eastern is much more moist. Even in the east, the
total annual precipitation averages only 17 inches (see Table W.
In the west precipitation averages only 4 to 8 inches annually.
The months of November through Parch are almost completely devoid
of precipitation, About 75 percent of the yearly fall occurs from
Nay through August, with the maxim= in July. Rains generally
come as light showers; heavy downpours are infrequent. Upper.
atmosphere rains that do not reach the surface are not uncommon.
West of the line GrigoroyevkaTamgal a thin mantle of snow remains
on the ground for only a short period, The scant winter precipi-
tation generally consists of snow, but it does not form a persistent
cover.
The annual precipitation in the eastern end of the Issyk-Kulq
Basin averages 17 inches, with the greatest fall at the base of the
Kungey Ala-Tau Range. About 55 percent of the yearly total falls
from May through August, the monthly maximum in July, The seasonal
minimum occurs in winter. Both light showers and downpours occur
in the summers, often during the afternoon or evening. Thunderstorms,
sometimes accompanied by hail, can be expected on an average of 6
to 8 days during June, J1079 and August.
Only 10 percent of the yearly precipitation falls during Dec-
ember, January, and February. In winter, precipitation can be
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>
-a
-a _,,.._ ? ,...,?? ...._,......
3
<
CD
CL
.11
0
-1
X
t?-?
?* ? ii-i the EziSrk...i;:1111. a bisin
oi!
Pr2hevaPsk
CD
a
0
CD
W
O Average Percent Depth of Snow Cover
1.13TII., Average Average ET
m
ET
Precipi- Iiit'g Days (Inches) uo
m of Precipi= Prscipi. m
CD
CAD
CAD Month (Inches) pntal tation Snow 10. Days 10 Days 10 Days storms (Inches) (.1! _.
),
CAD
8
_.% tAtion Yearly Precipi - With First Second Third Thunder - tation %.
January 0.6 3.7 66. 6.6 6.7
CAD
CD Febmary o.5 2,5 5.7 5.7' 1.7
tip e
JP 2
March 007 4.0 5.9 . 4 4 .9 2.
X April .1.6 9.7 9.6 2.8. 0
c)
S?
"Zg
-a
May 2.4 /4.5 10.8 1.0 0
cb
22 130 10.4 006 o
_% juras ...
a _ ,
a
CD July- 2.7 16.0 10.,4 0.0 o
>
a
a August 1
.9 11c4 8.4 0.0 0
a
a September 1.3 7..9 6.5 0.4 ,
,-%
December 0.6 3.6 6.7 6.6 3.9
a
a
a- October 1.4 8.7 7.2 3.0. 0
a
a
K. ) November 0.8 5.0 6.5 5.0 -0.4
-Lo
7.1
6.3
1.8
0
0
0 ?
0
0
0
,,,
0
1.2
5 5
8.0
407
0.4
0
0
0
0
0
. 0
1.0
2.0
59
0
0
0 .1
009
0 .9
69
.
8.2
63
0
3.1
1.5
0.2
0.2
0
0
0. 1.
003
0.3
09 .
1.1
0.6
000e.:0;
'
--0
CA^ D
cb
-%
41. ?LA./v.
9 - f
al 4tatisties are for the period 1881-19020
28.3
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expected on? day out of every 5. During Decanber, January, and
February practically all precipitation is in the forn of snow. An
enduring snow cover begins to form toward the end of October and
lasts until the end of 'larch. From late December to mid-February
the depth of the cover averages 6 inches or more. The maximmn
depth, about 8 inches, is attained in late January.
co Winds
The prevailing winds associated with the cyclical
weather of the Issyk-Kull Basin are westerlies. The basic westerly
flaw is disrupted, however, by a system of local winds with a
distinct diurnal periodicity. These local winds are expecially
noticeable along the periphery of Lake Issyk-Kule and on the lower
mountain slopes, particularly from May through September. After
sundown, winds blow from the mountain slopes to the lake; at mid.
morning or late morning, the flow is reversed and winds blow from
the lake up the mountain slopes, Calms usually prevail in early
morning and toward sunset. The waters of Lake Issyk-Kult are almost
constantly in motion because of the confused pattern of wind flow,
At Rybachgye? westerly and southeasterly winds appear to be
dominant, At Przhevalitsk? southeasterlies predominate, and winds
from the north and northwest are the most infrequent. At Przhevallsk,
calms have been observed more frequently than winds from any single
direction, East winds coming through Santash Pass and west winds
traveling through the Buam Gorge are felt farthest out on Lake
Issyk-Kul
0 Upper winds, affecting mainly the surinnit areas of
mountains, are principallywasterlies?
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Throughout the year, the usual winds blow with little force.
At the eastern end of the basin they are only slight breezess with
velocities less than 8 miles per hour; in the west the velocities
are slightly greater. With the exception of the spring seasons
surface windss unlike the average situation elsewhere, attain their
highest velocities at night. In spring the strongest winds blew
during the afternoon. Upper winds are strongest at night througli.
out the year. Rybachgye has a constant breeze, but surface winds
in the east are less steady and calms are much more frequent.
The strongest and the steadiest winds blow from October through
February. During this period westerlies from the 'Buam Gorge or
easterlies from the Santash Pass sometimes blow for two or three
days, Occasionsliy tlese winds utdp up storms severe enough to
jeopardize even large lake craft. In the barren west the strong
westerlies cause sand and dust storms. Winds frequently carry aloft
enough sand and dust to make the weather unpleasant.
The basic pattern of summer winds is primarily an alternation
of light breezes and calms, The surface waters of Lake Issyk-Rulo
are quietest in June and July. In summer, localized storm winds
are occasionally generated with little forewarning, and waterspouts
sometimes form on thee-lakes but storms are rarely of long duration.
d. Cloudiness and Fog
Cloudiness is a significant weather factor only
in the eastern part of the Issyk-Kull Basin, Here, the mean
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cloudiness for the year is 40 to 50 percent, The cloud cover
exceeds six-tenths on only a few days of each month. Summer clouds
usually form near the mountain summits, about 10,000 feet above the
level of Lake Issyk-Ku120 In winter the cloud base lies 4,500 to
3,000 feet above the lake level,
At Rybach2ye clear skies are very commons, but scattered clouds
are usual. Clouds begin to form in the west and gradually lower
and increase in density toward the east, In summer, billowy cumulus
clouds are quite numerous over Lake Issyk-Kull?
Fog is most common over the lake in winter and is rare over
the land areas, Steam fog forms in patches over the lake and is
most likely near the narrow band of thin ice along the shoreline,
30 4ydrography
A dense net of streams flows down the slopes of the
Terskey and Kungey mountains toward Lake Issyk-Ku120 At the western
extremity of the Issyk-Kull Basin, however, only a few reach the
lake, The Terskey stroams cut deeply into the mountains, and many
of them flow through fairly wide valleys, The streams of the
Kungey Ala,-Taus though numerous, carry less water, cut less deeply
into the mountains, and are shorter than those of the Terskey
Alamaau? The longest streams flowing from the Kungey are the Bolo
slava Aksu (Aksuyka) and Malaya Aksu (Aksuyka)? Both enter the
Issyk-Kule Basin near Grigorlyevka. The longest streams in the
basin are the Dzhargalan (Kara Su) and Tyup2 which flow from the
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Terskay Ala-Tau into the eastern end of Lake Issyk-Kulv. The shortest
is probably the Kutemaldy? an intermittent stream flowing from the
Chu into the western end of the lake. Its waters are principally
overflew from the Chu, and it is full-flowing in spring only.
(Figure 5).
Most of the streams are fast-flowing and even torrential in
character. In their upper courses, the majority flow through trough..
shaped glacial valleys devoid of spurs. As the streams move out of
the glaciated areas, they cut much more sharply into the mountains,
and gradients increase rapidly. Short spurs appear in the valleys,
streams become winding, flaw becomes turbulent, and rapids and
waterfers become numerous (Figure 6). Control of rafts is virtually
impossible, and probabilities of raft destruction against large
rocks within the stream course are great. In the lowland littoral
of the lake the streams lose their wildness, currents become slow,
meanders form, and detrital materials are deposited?
Since most of the streams are of glacial origin, they are full
flowing throughout the year, with a maximum flaw, and even flooding,
in late summer. Daily variations are characteristic. The diurnal
increase in volume affects the fordability of streams. Maw streams
cannot be crossed for several hours daring the high-water period.
The high and low-water levels occur at different times of the day
at various points along a stream. Near the source the high-water
level comes about mid-morning, and in the lower courses it is most
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likely at night. Streams also swell considerably after a rainfall
and, though normally turbulent, can become raging flood waters.
The glacial streams carry a tremendous amount of fine sediments
which usually discolor the water and affect potability. Sediment
-
laden water may cause gastro-intestinal disturbances. If it becomes
necessary to drink from these streams, a pool away from the main
current wheremuch of the sediment has settled should be selected,
Discoloration by sediment also makes it difficult to select a
suitable place for fording, Depths cannot be readily determined
and the numerous loose, slippery rocks on the bottom cannot be seers,
In fording, a person mast feel" his way across and can easily lose
his footing on the rocks and suffer leg injury or be swept downstream
by the swift current,
Large eddies and even sandbars are other dangers to stream
travel. Bottom deposits at large eddies generally consist of fine
detrital materials similar to quicksand. Sandbars should be watched
for the same type of deposits. Possibilities of catching fish in
the cold upper courses of glacial streams are slim, although fish do
inhabit some of the small tributary streams of non-glacial origin.
4. Vegetation
The vegetation of the western part of the Issyk-KulEt
Basin contrasts strikingly with that of the east, The west has
barren shoreland and mountain slopes, whereas the east has short
grasses in the lowlands and a forest belt in the mountains. Density
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of the vegetation cover increases rapidly east of Korumdy on the
north shore and the Ton River on the south shore,
The vegetation of most of the Shoreland at the Rybachiya end
of the basin consists of sparse wormwood widely scattered among the
many boulders. A yarrow strip of marsh hugs the Shoreline of Lake
IssYk-KUlf? The lower course of the Kutemaldy River is also marshy?
Near the Chu River, the Kutemaldy valley becomes drier and is
bordered by a narrow band of high grasses. Over the mountain slopes
there is a spotty distribution of sparse grass cover. The principal
east-west trending valleys between the main and secondary Terskey
ridges, however, have a fairly complete cover of short grass,
East of Korumdy and Tamga, the northern and southern littorals
of Issyk-Kult have extensive stretches of shallow-rooted grasses,
The eastern lowland has a fairly complete, though discontinuous,
short-grass cover. Patches of meadow along the Tyup and Dzhargalan
rivers are high enough for limited concealment. The lowland is also
an important agricultural center. Fields of wheat, mustard seed,
barley, oats, and poppies are extensive? Truck gardens and orchards
are found around most of the villages of this area, as in other
parts of the basin, They produce squash, tomatoes, cucuMbers?
maize, poork.quality watermelons, apples, cherries, pears, plums,
and apricots?
A belt of Tien Shan spruce covers the mountain slopes between
the elevations of 6,500 and 9,800 feet. This belt begins at the
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upper reaches of the Ton Rivers encircles the eastern part of the
basins and terminates at the meridian of Korumdy. The forest cover
is densest along the river valleys cutting the Terskey slopes east
of the Barskaua River. Nest of the Barskauns the forest thins out
rapidly and covers a much narrower belts between 8000 and 90800
feet. Forests of the Kungey slopes are much less dense than on the
Terskey slopes and are limited largely to river valleys,
The Tien Shan spruce rarely forms a dense and extensive forest,
The forests are usually clustered on the mountain slopes amidst
open spaces of grassland and bare ground. Birch s mountain ash2 and
aapen also are intermingled with the Tien Shan spruce. The spruce
forest provides good cover and coneealment possibilities, and the
sparseness of the undergrowth facilitates penetration.
The high mountain elevations between the upper limit of forest
growth and the permanent swain? are largely in alpine meadows
covered with flowerings herbaceous plants from 12 inches high in the
lower reaches to approximately 4 inches near the snowline. Low
bushes and vineetype plants also grow near the forest boundary.
Above 120000 feats vegetation again becomes scanty and very sparse.
A feu plants are scattered on open slops betueen rocks2 and along
moraines in areas of thawing snow.
5. Animal Life
Wildlife is fairly abundant in the Issyk-Kuls Basin.
Birde are the most numerous. Sea gulls and the ravenlike cormorant
fly above Lake Issyk-Kulo. Quail and partridge inhabit the eastern
half of the lowland littoral. On the mountain s1opes2 the dipper
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frequents mountain streams; the wagtail, stone-martin, and nuthatch
are also numerous. The crow, woodpecker, flocks of mountain finch,
and black grouse live in the belt of spruce forests.
Large animals are encountered at high elevations, The Siberian
roe deer is fairly common in the spruce-forest one on rare
occasions a Siberian moose can be seen. Mountain goats roam the
craggy summit areas of the Kungey Ala-Tau and Terskey Ala-Tau.
The Tien Shan brown bear and wolf are the most common predatory
animals. The small animas include the marten and the ermine0
small burrowing marmots live in dispersed colonies over the alpine
meadows,
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B. Cultural Features
1. ?cpulation
a. Density, Distribution, ap.A.2211
The Issyk-Kulo Basin has an estimated population of over
509000 inhabitants, almost half of whom live in the urban settle-
ments of Przheval'sk and Rybach'ye. The basin is one of the most
densely populated regions in the Kirgiz SSR because of its highly
developed agricultural economy. Most of the people are engaged in
crop cultivation and animal husbandry, the remainder in fishing,
lumbering, and some mining.
Approximately 40,000 inhabitants live in the eastern half of the
basin. This densely populuted arca extends westward to Cholponata on
the north shore and to Taingu on the south shore of the lake and in-
cludes most of the rural and urban settlements of the IssykellW
Basin. Przhevalsk is the largest town, and its
population of 20,000 constitutes almost half of the total. In
the shore lands north and south of the lake, on the lower slopes
of the Kungey Ala-Tau Mountains and in valleys of the Tyup and
Dzhargalan Rivers, the minimum population density averages 65 persons
per square mile. The upper reaches of the Kungey Ala-Tau are bare
of population except for isol-ted shepherds and cattle herders. The
lower elopes and upper reaches of the Terskey Ala-Tau Range are
thinly populated, averaging lees then Iverson per squere mile.
The western half of the Iosyk-Kulg Basin is sparsely pop-
ulated. This area is largely unsuitable for agriculture booaus0
of its dry climate and limited water supply. Its population
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density ran,es from 1 to 25 persons per square mile. The least
populated area, except for the town of Rybachgye, extends around
the barren, boulder-strewn western littoral of the lake.
Rytachgye has approxim:Aely 5,000 inhabitants. Its position
as a transportation and traffic center in the Issyk-Kulg Basin is
largely responsible for this concentration. The mountainous
regions north and south of the lake are s arsel, inhabited,
mainly by a pastoral population.
The rural population is dominant in most of the Issyk-Ku/g
Basin. Xt consists mainly of farmers, herdsmen, and fishermen.
Farmers, predcminently Russians and Ukrainians, are settled mainly
in kolkhoz (collective farm) and sovkhoz (state farm) villaffes.
The herdsmen, mostly Kirgizi, are semipermanent settlers. They
are essentially pastoral in nature and live in permanent villages
only during the winter. Fr the greater part of the year the
men move with their herds, while the women, children, and older
people are left in the vinages to cultivate grain and fodder
crops for use during the winter. Prior to the S(Wlet social
reorganization, these people were strictly nomadic with no type
of permanent settlement. In the vast mountainous regions of the
hinterland there are still a lurge number of nomadic people.
Throughout the Issyk-Kulg Barin herders still maintain many of
their nomadic traditions, particuldrly in their standards of
living, social customs, and methods of livestock breeding.
Fishermen an
found in most of the small villages bordering
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the northern and southern shores of the lake. They are mainly
Kirgizi and are organized into clans.
Tho urban population of the area is restricted to the towns of
Przhevalvsk,Rybach'ye, and Tyup. Tae dorAnant uraan settlers
are Russians and Ukrainians, who are engaged mainly in commercial
and industrial activition
b. Ethnic, Physical, and Social Characteristics
Russians and Ukrainians form the largest ethnic groups in the
Issyk-Ku17 RasimQ Kirgizi are the dominant non-Slavic group.
Other ethnic groups include Dunguns, Taranches, Kalmyks, and
Sarts.
(1) Russians and Ukrainians
Russians and Ukrainians first settled here in large numbers
in the period 1860-65. Attracted by the fertile lands of the
basin, a second wave of colonists arrived in the period 1906-10.
'Under the
Eoviets, they were aottlod into kolkhozes and sovkhozes
to pursue socialized aviculture. In sovkhozes, Kirgizi and
other native Turkic peoples are aixed with Russians and Ukrainians,
who introduce the natives to more advanced methods of irrigation,
crop rotation, and livestock breeding.
Russians are usually of stocky build and medium height they
have round heads, light hair, and blue, gray or brown eyes.
Ukrainians tend to have swarthy complexions, dark !lair, and brown
eyesC
Both Russians and Ukrainians, as a rule, carefully maintain
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the social customs and traditions of their homelands. They are
proud of their Slavic herituLe and tend to have a superior attitude
toward the more baekwurd Kirgiz people. They command a leading
role in the local political adi.inistration, as well as in all
branches of the economy. This has created an interracial an-
tagonism which is of great concern to the Soviets. Communist
leaders are actively engaged in furthering mixed settlements
(sovkhozes), and encourage the Kirgizi to assume leadini: positions
now held by Russian or Ukrainian officials.
(2) Kb' izi
The Kirgiz people comprise the most numerous group of the
native population of the basin. They are also known as Kara
Kirgiz or Buruts. Kirgizi are not the original inhabitants of
the Issyk-Kulo -Basin but arrived there from the upper reaches
of the Yenisey. They are widely distributed in the Tyup and
Dzhargalan Valleys, and sizable numbers inhabit the lowlands and
mountain slopes north and south of Lake issytrAlaI?. Their main
occupation is livestock herding and breeding, with crop culti-
vation and fishing usually purely second-ry occupations. The
Soviets are settlir.g a considerable number of Kirgizi on collective
farms and in small communities (kyshlak) where they practice irri-
gation farming.
Turkic in origin, the Kirgizi have some Mongol admixture.
The people are of medium stature, with rather stocky build,
long arms, and short legs. They have 1-rge round heads, black
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3=94:4'0 light-brown Fkin, wide faces, almond shaped eyes, and
prominent noses. aigure 7)
Clam and family groups are the basic units of Xirgiz society.
Is the family organization women control the domestic life and
also perform the largest snare of the work. Certain characteris-
tics common to Asiatic nomads are prominent among the Kirgiz people.
They are not.d .!er their hospitality, carefree attitude, suscepti-
bility to foreign inflyence, great tendency to lying, their desire
or luxury, and tendency to excessiveneos. W lie their native
Intelligence is ratker high, the level of their formal education
one of the loreot in the Soviet Union. The girgizi, as a
whole are very rationalistic and extremely proud of their history.
Soviet rulers, aware of these nationalistic tendencies, tolerate
g5rgiz culture and social customs but greatly restrict their
tladitional nomie iife. Although most of the Itirgizi are still
allowed to engage in animal eusbandry and migrate with their live'
toch to seasonel mountain pastures, they are induced to main-
tain permanently ablished vilb.ges as their winter quarters.
WhiYLI out on pasture, however, the argiz herdsmen still practice
many of the traditional nomadic customs. The- usually live in
portable dome-shaped tents (yurts), and are grouped into a number
of encampments or "auls". (Figure 8)
-
(3 Dunens
The Dunganm, a Moslomeldougal group, settled in the south-
western part of the Issyk-Hur Basin around 18500 Dungans
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Figure 70 Kirgiz woman in festive dress?
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specialize in cultivating opium poppies and rice. Some are also
engaed in commercial activities particularly in the caravan
trade. Dungans are of short to medium stature, with a stocky
build and long torsos. They have round heads conspicously
broad faces with narrow foreheads and yellowish complexions.
Many of the Dungan social customs and living habits are of
Chinese origin. Their diet and language are Chinese
(4) Tranc-es
A small number of Taranches inhabit the area extending north-
eastward from Lake Issyk-Ku13. They are mainly engaged in farm:.
Ing, and live in r.ii1 villages. Their physical appe_rance is
orienta/. They have yollouish-wAte skin, broad heads, elongated
oval faces, and straight projecting noses.
Taranches are known for their fondness for music and drama.
They are hearty eaters and have a reputation for being le,zy and plea.
sure loving. Their group customs deviate considerably from those
of Moslem society. Women do not wear veils, and in general 'nave
more social freedom than 'those of most Turkic groups. Contrary to
the principles of Islamic faith, the family instituition is extreme-
ly unstable. Divorce is easily obtained.
. (5)
A small number of Kalmyks live in the eastern part of the
Issyk-Kulg Bas:In. Of Mongolian origin, they migrated into the
area about 1870. Wheram3tio Mongols of Central Asia are of Buddhist
faith, the Issyk-Kulc Kalmyks are Mohammedans.
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Physically, the Kalmyks are aluost pure Mongols. Prominent
features are their sort stature, round he-.s, broad flat faces, and
protrAing jaws.
The faaily system of the Kalmyks is patrilinetzl. Wrrin3e
is pormitted on1:7 within Eie ethnic bounds of the tribe. Their
standard of living and many of their social customs are similar to
those of the Kirgizi.
(6) Sarts
A group of people know as Sarts Inhabit the western part of
the Issyk-Kuln Basin. Originally, tho Surts were an ethnic
group descending from the Iranian Turk1;. They settled as urban
dwellers in places where an Aryan population was largely inter-
mingled with Turk and Arab invaders, and. in the course of time
the connotation of the term Sart change from an ethnic to a
social one.
Rusaians and Kirgizi ,slikc applied the name to all
Turkic people who settled in towns or larger villages where they
developed a distinct commercial so3iety,
Descendants of the original S.Irts have notable Aryan traits,
such as medium height, heavy beard, stoutness, and dark comp1ex-
25X6
c. Lagua
The principal languages si.oken in the Issyk-KWBasin are
Russian and Kirgiz, Both are used au official larguages by the
local administration,
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Russian is spoken by all Slavic groups as well as by the younger
Turkic people, Many of the older natives (Kirgizi? Dungans, Taranches,
Kaltyks? and Sarts) are also able to understand Russian and speak
it in broken fashion, Although Ukrainian is spoken in many villages,
Russian can be understood by the inhabitants,
Kirgiz, a dialect of the northwestern group of the Turko-Tatar
languages, is the predominant native language in the area, Kirgizian
differs from other Turkic languages in having long vowels, It is
closely related to Mongolian, particularly to Khakassian. Since
1940 the Kirgizi have adopted a Cyrillic alphabet, Prior to that
time a Latin alphabet originated by the Soviets in 1926 was used,
Other Turkic languages spoken in the area are the dialects of
the Taranches and Sarts, These are closely related to Uigur, The
original orthography of the Taranches and Sarts was based on Arabic
script, and there is no indication that they have adopted either a
Latin or a Cyrillic alphabet,
Kalmyks speak a Mongol dialect; they adopted the Cyrillic
alphabet in 1924. Dungans who formerly lived in Sinkiang and Central
China still speak Chinese.
d, Religion
The Russians and Ukrainians in the Issyk.Kulv
Basin belong to the Orthodox Christian Church, lso known as
nPravoslavny," Some of the Ukrainians, however, are Roman Catholics
or Uniats (Greek Catholic), As a rale religious worship is practiced
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only by the older people. The younger generations of Slays are
influenced by Communist teachings and have few if any religious
convictions.
The native population is predominantly of Moslem faith. Large
groups of Kirgizi, Kalmyks? and almost all of the Dungans are
orthodox Moslems. Their religious primciples and dogmas are deeply
rooted and are observed with fanatical devotion.
The Kirgizi belong to the Sunnite Mohammedans, who acknowledge
the first four Caliphs to be the rightful successors of Mohammed?
In their religious beliefs, Kirgizi are influenced by mysticism and
superstition, Pagan Shamanistic beliefs, talismans, and amulets
are common among the people. While moving with their livestock,
some of the Kirgizi are less strict in their Moslem practices and
forego many of the prescribed Moslem doctrines on personal clean-
liness, fasts, and type of clothing. The women are not veiled and
generally not secluded from the men, and they do not always strictly
observe the daily hours of prayer.
The Sarts appear as strict Moslems to foreigners, but they are
essentieny lax in their religious practices. Shrewd businessmen
in trade and commerce, they find maw of the Moslem rites difficult
to apply in pursuing their profession,
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Taranches are the least religious group among the Moslem
2mulation.
This stems from
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the fact that Taranchi church leaders (Mullahs) are more concerned
with material matters and authority than with the spiritual. Their
profession in the church is based on hereditary rights rather than
on devotion to religion. Traditionally of the upper class, they
have close ties with the social and political leaders of the group.
e. Political Attitudes
Political attitudes toward Soviet administration
and Communism differ considerably between the native Moslem popu.
lation, on one hand, and the large Russian and Ukrainian ethnic
groups on the other,
(1) Attitude of the Moslems
The Moslems of the Issyk-Kull Basin, in
general, are accustomed to a carefree and traditionally nomadic
life. As a result, they do not adapt themselves readily to the
settled life prescribed by the Soviets. Soviet efforts to increase
native interest in the workings of a socialized economy meet with
little success. Moslems are reported to show considerable lack of
enthusiasm for farming and industrial pursuits. Recent reports
indicate that in kolkhozes throughout the basin new radio relay
stations have been installed over Which Communist propaganda is
broadcast to Kirgiz peasants, The peasants seldom bother to listen
to the programs, however, and questions put to them in an effort to
evaluate the effectiveness of the propaganda?
Politically, the seeds of nationalism and independence still
exist in most of the Moslem groups, particularly the Kirgizi?
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Nationalist traditions are inherent in the cohesiveness of the Moslem
family life, The Soviets are fully aware of this fact and are
attempting to dissolve some of the family influence. They are
educating the younger generations in Communist philosophy and induce
them to participate in industrial and agricultural activities
controlled by the Government, Attempts are also being made to re-
write the history of the Kirgiz people,
Kirgizi and other Moslems in the area react unfavorably to
persistent Soviet attacks against their practices of the Shariat,
This Moslem code of laws permits polygyny, wife purchases and the
employment of preachers (Mullahs and Ishams), Native government
officials often lead the common folk in these religious observances?
Moslem discontent with Moscow is felt even in local Communist
Party organizations, Kirgiz Communists have been striving for more
self-rale and initiative in party activities. They are known
to object to the controlling power of Russian Communists who are
sent into the area to form political cadres and are unfamiliar with
local conditions? As a results many native Communists are purged
from their postss particularly in departments dealing with agitation
and propaganda,
The civilian life and social organizations of Moslems are
shadowed by Soviet internal security forces (MOB and MVD), It is
doubtful that the freedom-loving Moslems willingly accept these
restrictions, although they tolerate them with a certain amount of
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resignation, The Turkestan National Union (Turkestan Milli Birligi?
or TMB)?.an underground movement known to exist in Kirgizia, may
have some outlets in the Issyk-Kull Basin. The organization
strives to build an independent Tartar State which is to include
all Turkic-speaking peoples.
(2) Attitude of the Russians and Ukrainians
dr
The political attitude of both Russian
and Ukrainian groups depends largely on their social or political
position in the area. The group most loyal to the Soviet regime
is small but powerful, consisting of Soviet administrative officials,
Communist Party functionaries, and a number of technicians and
specialists who have voluntarily-moved into the area to develop and
expand local agriculture and industry, Members of this group hold
the key positions in all phases of the economy, They are staunch
Communists and are entrusted with the "reeducation" of the native
population.
A second group of Russian and Ukrainian settlers belongs to
the ?spets-pereselentein class. This category includes persons who
have been forcefully evacuated from their homelands under a system
of "special resettlemento? These people are either accused of
collaborating with the Germans during World War II or are considered
politically unreliable by the Moscow regime. The "spets-pereselentsi"
are usually employed as skilled industrial or agricultural laborers,
Their freedom of movement is severely restricted by constant surveil-
lance by the EVD. Politically, this group is less reliable than the
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first group and may be persuaded into collaboration against the
Communists. This is particularly true of the Ukrainians, who as
a result of their traditions and sentiment are known to have an
5 anti..Soviet attitude.
it*
Finally, there is a group of Russians and Ukrainians who are
forced laborers without am; freedom of movement. These people are
usually sentenced to hard labor for social or political crimes,
They are engaged in railroad and road construction or work in lumber
and mining camps. Such camps are believed to be in the Tamga and
Dzhargalan areas, Members of this group are politically least
reliable from the point of view of the Communists.
20 Settlements,
a, Types and Distribution
Settlements in the Issyk-Kule Basin are con-
centrated mainly in the lowland areas bordering the lake and in the
Tyup and Dzhargalan River valleys. Russian and Ukrainian settle-
ments are dominant throughout the area, particularly in the eastern
lowland. Native settlements, largely Kirgizi? are situated mainly
along the lakeshore and in livsstock-raising areas in the eastern
part of the basin. Health resorts and rest homes are other forms
of settlement found in the basin.
(1) Russian and Ukrainian Settlements
Russian settlements in the area include
the towns of Przhevallsk? Rybachlye? and Tyup? and the large
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communities of Cholponata, Origorlyevkas Sazanovskoye? Kuturga? and
Alekseyevka. In addition, there are numerous collective farms and
small villages with a predominantly Russian population, The largest
Ukrainian settlements are Eikhaylovka and Pokrovka. Other Ukrainian
villages and collective farms are distributed in the rich farming
area east of Lake Issyk-Kul, Russian and Ukrainian settlers are
also found in large nadbers on state farms (sovkhozes) Where they.
.gre mixed with native Moslem peoples,
'Russian and Ukrainian settlements resemble settlements in the
southern part,of:the European USSR. The towns of Przhevalfsk and
Rybachlye have a rectangular shape, with long, straight, wide streets,
In Przhevallsk? streets are bordered by irrigation ditches and rows
of poplars. Rybachlye has hardly any vegetation, As a rule, the
; . --- ?
streets are unsurfaced and become extremely muddy during rainy
seasons. Houses are constructed of colorfully-painted clay or mud
bricks, Intermingled with these are a few stone, tile, or brick
buildings. Soviet influences are noticeable in the commercial and
industrial districts, where there are newly built schools, libraries,
and party headquarters. Workers' hbusing projects and parks and
recreational facilities are other Soviet urban improvements, _Little
modernization is apparent in the remaining sections of the tawns.
Russian and Ukrainian villages, such as Kuturga? Grigortlevka,
and Mikhaylovka? are generally located on rivers or on principal
routes of transportation. The villages generally consist of a long,
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wide dirt road lined with houses of elm* or wood, Larger villages,
such as Grigorlyevka and Sazanovskoye, have several streets. Houses
are, as a rule, painted white and surrounded by a wooden fence,
Wooden houses are characteristic of Russian villages. Ukrainian
settlers prefer their traditional clay (mud) houses. The narrow
side of each house faces the street, The eaves are often supported
by wooden columns. A spacious yard surrounds both the house and
the stable shacks, A long garden behind the courtyard is generally
divided into flower, fruit, and vegetable plots. The garden is
enclosed by either a clay wall or a cane fence, Russian and
Ukrainian villages have a system of irrigation ditches running
through them, usually consisting of amain irrigation ditch parallel
with the village street or streets and secondary water ditches lead-
ing to each farmhouse, In some villages, irrigation ditches cut
across the village street at regular intervals and run alongside
the fruit and vegetable gardens,
In the eastern part of the Issyk-Kull Basin and in mountainous
zones north and south of the lake, the villages are generally
grouped into sovkhozes or kolkhozes. Villages of the kolkhoz type
differ little in appearance from the average Russian or Ukrainian
village in the area, Usually each kolkhoz village specializes in
a single type of economic activity, such as fishing, crop cultivation,
or animal husbandry, Russian or Ukrainian villages in sovkhoz
organizations have a large admixture of Kirgiz, Dungan, and Tartar
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elements, Villages of this type are found in 10 sovkhozes that
occupy large areas of the Issyk-Kull Basin. They are part of the
Soviet plan to integrate the native peoples into the system of
controlled socialized agriculture, particularly to indoctrinate
them in methods of irrigation, crop rotation, and livestock breeding,
Sovkhoz villages generally have more modern dwellings than nonl-
sovkhoz villages, up-to-date irrigation networks, and most of the
available motorized equipment and agricultural machinery, They also
have the services of farm-tractor and hay-harvesting stations
(MTS and MSS).
(2) Native Settlements
Native settlements in the logy-lc-Kul'
Basin are mainly villages inhabited by Moslems. Of theses the
Kirgiz villages are most numerous. Some of the larger Kirgiz
villages are Barskaun? Toraygyn, Choktal? Cholponata, Dzhergez? and
Sokolovka? Such villages are groupings of walled-in farmsteads
strung along a road, Each farmstead consists of the residences
associated farm buildings, and a fruit and vegetable garden. The
buildings are constructed of yellowish sun-baked clay. A community
irrigation ditch leads through each village and has feeders running
into individual farmhouse enclosures. The living quarters and an
assortment of buildings and sheds for housing livestock and storing
crops surround a square-shaped courtyard. In the forward part of
this cluster are the men's quarters, guestrooms? stables, and storage
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sheds for agricultural tools and implements. These are separated
by a high wall from the womentls quarters? which are located to the
rear, The outer walls of the living quarters are traditionally
without windows, Daylight is received through shutteri.type openings
facing the courtyard, Interior walls are covered with colorful
carpets and richly embroidered felting, Furniture is primitive,
Open hearths serve for cooking and heating, The people sit or squat
on very low, portable wooden platforms covered with felt or rugso
At the outskirts of Kirgiz villages may be seen groups of
dome-shaped felt-covered tents called nurtason Those tents are
used mainly by livestock herders who are in a transition stage from
nomadic to settled rural life, tqUrtasn are still used in mountain
pastures as temporary living quarters,
Dungan villages, typified by Orto-Tokay and Karashar? are
characterized by their awn special variety of mud huts9 with flat
roofs and small windows, The houses and little courtyards are
generally surrounded by sun-baked clay-walls, which often reach to
the roof tops, Plots of barley and opium poppies are frequently
cultivated on the flat rooftops, Dungan and Kirgiz villages include
a number of Sart settlers who are now engaged in agricultural
pursuits, Sart farmhouses are believed to be more advanced in con-
struction, interior layout, and furnishings than any of the other
native dwellings,
Taranchi and Kalmyk villages are in the eastern and northeastern
parts of the basin, Taranchi villages include Kurmenty? Taldy-Sul
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and Chonuryukty. Taranchi settlers reportedly also constitute the
largest ethnic group in Tamga? on the southern shore of Lake
Issyk.Ku19, Taranchi villages are small and consist of loosely
grouped individual farmhouses, mostly of clay construction. Kalmyk
villages are located chiefly along the foothills and at higher
elevations in the mountains. They are reportedly patterned after
Kirgiz villages.
(3) Yurta Encampments
YUrta encampments, or flAuls,? are frequently
encountered in the mountain pastures (Figure 8). These encampments
are seasonal settlements of the pastoral Kirgiz population. In
general they consist of a group of three to six yurtas? but on
some of the rich pastures encampments may occasionally include several
hundred yuxtas. The yuxtas characteristic of Kirgiz and Kazakh
nomads are circular tents consisting of a wooden lattice framework
covered with animal skins or felts (Figure 9).
The interior arrangement of a yurta is extremely simple. The
entrance is through a door flap, Against the opposite side of the
tent from this opening are the sleeping accommodations, These
consist of felt and brightly colored blankets, placed either on the
floor or on trunks. In the center of the tent is a fireplace, which
is usually a hole dug in the ground with a 1Rrge opening in the tent
above it. Household equipment, riding gear, and trunks are usually
found to the left of the door flap. To the right of the entrance
are cooking utensils and food supplies. Cooking is generally done
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Fizu.ee 90 KEirglzi hczldors holding countil
in froy.t of yur[mo
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in aaarge kettle suspended over the fireplace, A section in the
back of the tent separated by a grass mat is used exclusively by
women, YUrtas are well insulated against the cold and can be used
during the winter season, To retain interior warmth, snow is
shovelled against the outside walls of the tent and felts are
spread over the floor,
(4) Health Resorts and Rest Homes
The moderating influence of Lake Issyk-Kul9
on the climateaultliep,00rmargrbotwirgiave regpomdble for numerous
health resorts in the areao mainly in the eastern part of the basin.
A few of the resorts are the "Kurort Arasan" ( in the Aksu River
valley); the "Kurort Dzhety-Ogue (in the Dzhety60guz River valley),
which is especially known for its radioactive baths; the lake
resort of Koysara, known for its salt-water baths; and the hot
mineral springs in the Kisyl-Su Valley. According to Soviet claims,
several thousand persons visit the Issyk-Kulu resorts every year,
In addition to the health resorts, there are numerous rest
homes along the shores of Lake Issyk-Kulo and on the slopes of the
Terskey and Kungey Alap.Tau Ranges, These are visited yearly by
groups of adults or children who are permitted to spend their
vacation in the lake region. One of the rest homes known to serve
as a vacation place for children is at Cholponata (Figures 10 and
b, Description of Towns
Przhevalgsk? Rytoachfye? and Tyup are the only
settlements in the area that can properly be classified as towns.
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Figura 10. Rest ham at Cholponata.
Figure 11. Children vacationing at Cholponatao
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In the 1951 Administrative Territorial Handbook of the USSR,
Przhevalosk is the only settlement officially classed as a touzt
but all three are referred to as towns in Soviet scientific
and popelpr literature.
(1) Przheval'sk
The town of PrzhevalcIsk is located in the eaetern part of
the Iesyk-Mull Basins near the base of the Terskey Ala-Tau
Mountains0 It is the economic and cultural center if Issyt-Kulg
Oblast. The town is located about 7 miles southeast of its port
facilities, Pristano Przhevalskz situated near the mouth of the
Karakol River.
Przhevalosk was. built in 1369 as a military administrative
center for the Tsarist Army in Turkestan. The town was originally
known as Karakol and was renamed Przhevalosk in honor of the
Russian exp1orer9 11011,4 Przhevallsky. In recent years the Soviets
have maintained considerable numbers of troops in the area As
late as 1952p Przhevalosk was referred to as a garrison town for
? mountain troops entrusted mith security duties along the Kirgiz-
Sinkiang border? An EVD regiment is also reported to be stationed
there c DVD billets$ consisting of several barrack ap are located at
the southeastern outskirts of towno
The town has an estimated population of 20a0000predominant1y
Russians. The architecture is closely patterned after that of
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towns in the European USSR. It streets arc wide., unsurfaced?
and shaded by trees. The main streets run in a north-south
direction. In the center of town is a large park with Tien Shan
spruce trees. Large fruit orchards divide the town into several
sections. The city is known for its Agro-Neteorological Institutes
which is the oldest scientific emtablishment in the Kirgiz republic.
The town is being developed into a significant industrial center,
alt lough at present industrial installntions produce mainly for
local needs. There are a number of plants and small shops
engaged in producing clothing and consumer goods, other construc-
tion materials, alcoholic beverages, and starch syrup. Przhevalgsk
has a post office, located near the center of town, and telephone
communication with the port, Pristang Przhevalgsk,has been in
operation since l928.
Pristang Przhevalgsk is the largest port on Lake Issyk-Kulg.
It is the main shipping center for agricultural products, construe.o
tion materials, coal, and fish from the eastern part of the basin.
These commodities are transported across the lake to the trans-
3:Jading center of Rybachgye. Passenger and freight service from
Pristang Przhevalgsk is available almost everyday of the month.
The port also figures prominently in ship repair and maintenance.
(2) a_ba;p2,11mn
Rybach7ye? formerly known as Dachin, is located at the west-
ernmost tip of Lake Issyk-Kull. It is the administrative center
of Ba4/kchinskiy Rayon, which occupies the western part of the
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SEC=
basin. The town has approximately 5,000 inhabitants, most of
whom arc Russinas. Moslem minorities include Kirgizia Dun gans
and Sarts. Rybachlye is significant for its transloading facili-
ties between raga and road traffic and lake Shipping; Rybach/ye
has the second largest docking faeilities on Lake Issyk.Kull.
Almost all trade from the Issyk-Kul/ Basin to the hinterland
and other parts of the Kirgiz SSR is handled here. It is the
center of the fishing industry on the western side of the lake.
The town is roughly rectan3ular and covers a relatively small
area. The main streets or the town are parallel to the waterfront.
They are unsurfaced, wide, and lined with single-story houses of
stone construction. A hotel, several restaurants, and some smaller
stores selling consumer goods are reported to be in the center
of town, near the port area. Rybach/ye has only minor industrial
installations, including a meat-packing plant, a small power
station, a refrigerator plant, and several 7aneries0 Gasoline
storage tanks have been reported in the port area.
(3) Tyup
The town of Tyup, formerly known as Preobrazhenskoyel
is located in the eastern part of the basin near the mouth of the
Tyup River. Its population is mainly Russian. The latest
available po)ulation figure, 62245 inhabitants, dates back to
1927. Tyup is classified as a secondary port on Lake Issyk-Kull
and handles shipping of agricultural commodities and salted fish.
The two small wooden piers in the port area serve a granery and a
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of the inspectorate, salaspersonnel are to be subjected to physical
examinatiaa and must follow a prescribed code of cleanliness,
and food items must be properly cleansed, packaged, and refrig.
eratedo The enforcement of these regulations, however, is gen.
erally lax, and government stores often fail to maintain even the
minimum standards of hygiene.
Sanitary conditons in rural areas are extremely poor.
Village pharmacies, which serve both as medical aid stations and
sanitary indoctrination centers, are few in number and are
located mainly at kolkhozes and sovkhozes. Epidemics often
occur among the native population, particularly in remote
areas, There are hardly any sewage and garbage facilities for
rural settlers? Throughout villages and winter camps it is
not uncommon to see dirt, refuse, and waste material dumped on
the grounds outside of living quarterso This Is used as
food by dogs and eats and attracts large numbers of insects and
rodents? Diseases carried by lice, fleas, and bedbugs, are very
common. Body hygiene is particularly slack among peasants and
livestafeck herders. To maintain body warmth, clothes once donned
are rarely removed during the minter months. In the western
parts of the basin, where water is scarce, people are extremely
filthy?
Caution must be exercised in drinking well water, particularly
in the eastern part of the basin? Wells are uncovered and water is
often polluted? In the mountainous zones, drinking water is
obtained from rapidly flowing mountain rivers and is relatively free
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of harmful Imcteria. Glacial streams,., however, especially in the
higher mountains are not suitable for &sinking.
Various diseases areknown to be endemic in the areao
? Malaria is common in zones immediately surrounding the lake shore,
especially in the swampy districts of the Tyup and Dzhargalan River
valleys, Typhus, dysentery, and spotted and relapsing fever are
prevalent throughout the areao In agricultural districts the
Kirgizi type of wheat is reported to be a medium for spreading
plagues? Uheat is contaminated by the feces of infested rodents,
A
and inhaling of dust from infetted crops may cause disease.
./
Trachoma and frostbite are common among the livestock-raising
44 Economy
a? Agricillutre
The IssykoZula Basin is one of the leading agricultural areas
of the Kirgiz SSR. In the Issyk.Kulg Central Tien Shan region, .
it is surpassed only by the Chu Valley in agricultural production*
Crop cultivation and animal husbandry are the dominant economic
activities. They are most extensively developed in the eastern
part of the basin? Under the Soviets, bot_ have been collectivized
and are organized into kolkhozcs and sovkhozeso Sovkhozes conduct
experimental farming and are responsible for the technical developo
ment of crop cultivation and animal husbandry? There are 10
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sovkhozes in the area. The Tamchi and Issyk-Kull Zovkhozes are
located along the northern shore of Lake Issyk-Kult. Parts of the
Kok-ilaynak and Kockkorskiy Sovkhozes extend into the western part
of the basin. The Ulakhol and Ton Sovkhozes are located south of
the lake. The other 4 sovkhozes--Orgochers Karakollskii,
Sukho.Khrebtinskiy, and Santash?are in the southeastern and
eastern parts of the basin? (see map CIA 9254)0
(1) Crop Cultivation
According to recent Soviet sources the cultivated area of the
Issyk-Kul? Basin occupies about 352D000 acres. Of these 253#000
acres are irrigated farmland and 99,000 acres are ialterrace farms?
Cultivated areas include the narrow Shores north and south of the
lakes the alluvial fans of mountain rivers emptying into the
lake (such as the Turaygyr, Choktal9 and Ulakhol); the lower
slopes of the Kungoy Ala-Tau and the foothills of the Torskey
Ala.Tau; and several narrow valleys (Konurulen, Alabash)
lying between the foothills and the secondary range of the
Terskey Ala.Tauo
The western half of the Issyk-Kulo Basin is largely unsuit-
able for crop production. Around Rybach eye are laries barren,
rock strewn expanses. Crop cultivation is very limited eastward
to Cholponatal on the northern shore, and to Iossorp on the
southern shore? Dry farming is practiced in a few small rural
settlements along the lake littoral and on some mountain slopes
at elevations up to 70500 feeto
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/6661. eSeeleN .10d peAwddv
L-Z000 1.000Z000V600 1.0
43
42
Sour
76
77
.. ?
, V I k it .
il 1 4triv.) Semenovskoye
/
1,..0111L. itra
'tilalteWmilitt, ...Adirr_
Vaniiimimmi,
Ii. or ? Grigor'yev
, 4r ,itf
-4 hi 4/1fre A re_1,1?IPOT
..,___
. WIZ i I / 4
tfi 7 Rybah
I , 0, --- =----.=---j ---------/
MP . ',1,----7.-:,-; . - .-_--?.--------:/ - - - _ , _ : y i . _
----...;---'-Z----- --z_ifi.-.7-E
kr
-...,
,i.
?Kuttirga
Sary-Bulr
1 X
e: S. N. RYAZANTSEV, KIRGIZIYA, 1946
?z000? Approximate contour
.3947 Summit elevation
Attiiii:'? Glacier and firn field
?x? Principal pass
Highway
Improved dirt road
.LEGEND
A
Principal trail
Principal lake port
Coal deposit
Cement raw materials
Sovkhozes (State collective farm)
Forest
1 Kok-Maynak
2 Tamchi
3 Ulakhol
4 Ton
5 Issyk-Kurskiy
SOVKHOZES
6 Karakol'skiy
7 Santash
8 Orgocher
9 Sukho-Khrebtinskiy
10 Kochkorskiy
9254 2-53
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Approximately 90 percent of all the crops in the basin are grown in
the eastern half, Irrigated farmlands occupy the northern and
southern littorals eastward from Cholponata and Tossor. Grigorfyevka
and Sazanovskoye on the northern shore and Dzhety-Oguzovs Novo-
Voznesenskys Pokrovkas and Tarkhan on the southern shore are centers
of intensively cultivated areas. Terrace farming is practiced on
the nearby mountain slopes up to an elevation of 711500 feet. The
largest farming areas are located within the wide valleys of the
Tyup2 Dzhargalan, and Karakol Rivers. Numerous small tributariess
irrigation canals, and water ditches provide sufficient water to
this intensely cultivated region.
Irrigation networks usually consist of a trunk canal from which
smaller canals branch off at right angles at equal intervals. The
branch canals, in turn, are connected with numerous irrigation
ditches that channel water to the individual fields. In a less
widely used method of irrigations mountain streams are tapped by
a fan-shaped net of small water channelss which distribute water
to the fields. Efforts are being made to reconstruct the irrigation
systems of the Dzhargalans Tyyps Turgin-Aksu? Irdyks Dzhety-Oguzs
Karakols Zaluka-Dzhukas and Kyzyl-Su Rivera to increase the amount
of land under irrigation. According to Soviet planes this will
increase the irrigated area by 37,000 acres,
Grains and medicinal plants are the principal crops cultivated
in the Issyk-Kulf Basin. The basin is one of the best grain-producing
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regions in Kirgizia. The over-all area sawn in grain is approximately
247,000 acres.
Wheat is the main food crop of the local population, and makes
up the larger part of the total area under grain. Approximately
148,000 acres of wheat are cultivated, mostly in the eastern lowlaad.
Barley and oats are also grown in significant quantities; 62,000
acres are in barley and 37,000 acres in oats. These are prlearay
fodder crops, which are grown during the summer and stored as
supplementary fodder to winter pasturing. To a great extent, barley
and oats are cultivated in mountainous areas which are used as
livestock pastures. Cultivation of barley extends to the upper
limits of dry-farming, reaching an elevation of 7,500 feet in the
upper Tyup Valley.
Medicinal crops, such as opium poppies and oil-bearing plants,
are cultivated in large quantities in the area between Tyup and
Przhevallsk. The growing of opium poppies is controlled by special
government agencies and is handled almost exclusively by Kirgiz
farmers.
Mustard seeds, fruits, and vegetables are cultivated near
the larger villages particularly in the vicinity of Przhevallsk.
Industrial crops are currently being cultivated for experimental
purposes, Sugar beets are successfully grown southeast of Przhevaltsk,
The Soviets desire to develop the area into a large-scale sager-
producing region, similar to the Chu Valley.
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Farming methods range from Soviet-introduced mechanized plowings
sawing, and harvesting to native hoe tillage. Modern farming
equipment available to collective farms consists of machine tractors,
automatic seeders, and harvester combines, The machinery is
administered by machine-tractor stations (MTS) and hay-harvesting
stations (MSS). Machine-tractor stations are currently located
near Przhevallsk (Teplo-Klyacherika MTS), in Pokrovka (Dzhety.
OguzovETS)0 and in Sazanovskoye (Issyk.Kulf MTS), In addition,
several hay-harvesting stations have been established in the eastern
part of the basin, These stations are responsible for mowing of
natural and cultivated hayfields, Each station is snpplied with
mechanized equipment and the necessary maintenance installations.
Native implements used include a native-type plow (wooden hoe
blade with the pointed end reinforced by iron plates); a heart.
shaped, round hoe or "Ketmeny, which is used largely in truck
gardening; and a short-handled sickle. In more remote areas,
horses and oxen or heavy rollers are used for thrashing harvested
grain crops. The chaff is separated from the grain by the wind.,
In the eastern loWland? a triple or single plowing method is
used, depending on the size of the field under cultivation, In the
triple-plowing method, a small part of a field (usually heavily
weeded) is plowed in the fall (October-Novo:Mho:1r) and the remainder
of the field is plowed during the following spring season. The
plowed areas are left fallow until May and October, respectively,
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when a second plowing takes place. After the second plowing, the
seeding is done. At times, however, a heavy weed growth may develop
between the second plowing and the planting, so that a third
plowing becomes necessary. This method is unsuitable for large
farming areas, because the delayed planting often causes crop
failures due to autumn frosts, and also requires an excessive use
of farm labor and mechanized eqpipmento As a result, sovkhozes and
kolkhozes use the single-plowing method,
In the western part of the basin, fields under cultivation are
small and often cannot be planted for more than 1 year because of
the shortage of moisture, At best, a field may be cultivated for
2 or 3 years in succession and then must be abandoned unless some
sort of irrigation can be applied.
(2) .G.razingis_ana.Tal_Anim_a1rIusband
The Issyk-Kult Basin has 2,900,000 acres
of grazing land, more than 12 percent of the total grazing area of
the Kirgiz republic. Grazing lands are located in the narrow belt
of flat land surrounding the lake, on the slopes of the Kungey
and Terskey Ala-Tau Ranges, and on the alluvial fans of many of the
small mountain rivers.
The main grazing lands are found in the lowland area surrounOing
the lake. The western half of the basin, however, is arid and
suitable only for the hardier kinds of livestock, such as Sheep and
native horses. In winter, livestock herders usually move most of
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their animals to the richer pastures in the eastern part of the basin
or in the Kochkur and Susamyr Valleys? Some herds of sheep are sant
north to pastures in the Kungey AlamTau Range. The eastern part
of the basin has good pasture lands, but large.scale grazing of
livestock0 mainly beef and dairy cattle, is restricted to the winter
season, In summer much of the fertile land is used for crop culti-
vation. Winter grazing is centered in the Przhevalvsk and Dzhety-
Oguz areas and in the valleys of tha Tyup and Dzhargalan Rivers?
Summer grazing takes place on pastures located on the
mountain slopes:, particularly the high-grass subalpine pastures of
the Terskey Ala-Tau (Figures 12 and 13). The herds of some of the
collective livestock farms are driven across the Terskey Ala-Tau
to the high-altitude syrts of the Naryn Upland, where livestock are
generally pastured until late fall. With the approach of winter:,
the herds of cattle:, sheep, and horses are driven from their
mountain pastures down to the louland areas surrounding the lake,
The Issyk-Kulv Basin i$ one of the most important livestock.
raising regions in Kirgizia? The number of livestock in northern
Kirgizia is stimated at 700,000 head, almost half of all the live-
stock in northern Kirgizia and nearly one-fourth of that of the
Kirgiz SSR;
Sheep and goats (5500000 head) make up the greater part of
the livestock in the Issyk-Kulv Basin. Formerly:, sheep in the area
were mainly of a coarse-wooled, fat-tailed breed which yielded
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21*-'
Figure 12. Cattle pasture in the foothills of the
Terskey Ala-Tau,
Figure 13. Sheep pasture in the foothills of the
Terskey Ala-Tauo
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large quantities of meat and tallow. Sovkhozes along the south
shore of the lake are still breeding sheep of this type, but
emphasis has shifted toward fine.wooled sheep, Several crossbreeds
of fine-wooled sheet!) (Ramboei) 1et and Wurtemberg) are already found
in the area. These sheep provide less meat and tallow but yield
a fine quality of wool for textile manufacture.
Cattle (84,000 head) are concentrated in the eastern areas of
the basin, The breed has been improved in recent years through
crossbreeding with imported Swiss cattle. Dairy cattle, particularly
have been improved.
An estimated 68,000 horses are found in the western part of
the basin, They are known for their stamina in surviving winter
conditions with only meager quantities of natural fodder, Horses
are used by native herdsmen as work animals and as a means of
transportation,
Camels are brad in the eastern part of the basin, They are
used mainly for caravan transport across the Central Tien Shan
Mountains to tae Sinkiana Province of China,
By collectivizing the livestock-raising industry? the Soviets
have considerably improved the selection and utilization of natural
grazing lands as well as the distribution of supplementary fodder
for uinteri-pasturing areas. In the past, livestock were subjected
to mass starvation as a result of inadequate winter pastures and
the complete failure to provide herds with supplementary fodder,
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Experimentation in crossbreeding, as well as over-all respon-
sibility for development of the industry, is delegated to the
sovkhozes. In the western half of the basin, the sovkhozes of
Tamchi? Kok-naynak, Ulakhol, Kochkorskiy? and Ton specialized in
sheep raising, The Issyk-Kull Sovkhoz is noted for horse breeding.
Located in the eastern half of the basin are the Karakollskiy,
Santash? and Eukho-Khrebtinskiy Sovkhozes? which specialize in
beef and dairy cattle, and the Orcocher Sovkhoz, specializing in
sheep,
b, Industry
Industry in the Issyk-Ku].' Basin is baoed pri-
marily on fishing and lumbering. Yining is currently insignificant,
but promises to become an important branch of the economy, The few
industrial installations currently in operation are minor as
compared with those in the Chu Valley /egion. They are concentrated
mainly in the towns of Rybachgye and Przhevalgsk. Since the opening
of a highway and railroad line from Frunze to Rybachgye? the Soviets
have stressed the need for expanding industrial development in the
Issyk-Kulg Basin. Emphasis is focused on increased production in
fishing, lumbering, and mining. Expanded exploitation is planned
for molybdenum and wolfram deposits in the Sazanovskoye area and
for coal deposits around Dzhargalan and Tamga, To facilitate this
development, plans are being considered for the extension of rail-
road and road facilities to the mining areas. Przhevalgsk, the
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economic center of Issyk-Kulg Oblast; is being developed into an
industrial center capable of processing the agricultural resources
of the more intensively cultivated eastern littoral of the lake.
(1) Fishing
Commercial fishing on Lake Issyk-Kulg
supplies a large share of the local food requirements; and next to
wheat; fish is the most important commodity exported to other parts
of the Kirgiz SSR. The fishing industry is concentrated at the
western side of the lake; with Rybachgye as its center. Fishing
extends as far eastward as Choktal on the north shore and Ton on
the south shore of the lake. At the eastern side of the lake
fishing is conducted on a smaller scale. The settlements of
Grigorgyevka; rikhaylovka; Tyup; Pokrovskoye; and Przhevalgsk are
the chief centers of the activity.
Fishing is controlled by the Rybpromkombinat (Fishing Industry
Combine); which consists of 13 fishing kolkhozcs and includes
approximately 300 fishermengs families. Russians fish mainly in
the lake; whereas Kirgizi restrict their fishing largely to the
numerous mountain rivers emptying into the lake.
The annual fish catch ranges from 1;500;000 to 1,800,000 pounds.
Typea of fish caught include herring; dace (marinka); 'yeoman:0n carp;
trout; and nchegarkunion Trout and "chegarkunin were stocked
several years ago from Lake Cevan in Armenia. "Osman" and carp are
the most valuable commercial fish. Fish are caught during the
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entire y ar except December and January, During that period the
fish go down to great depths, usually far from the shorelines. The
largest catches are made during the spring season.
Large dragnets are used by fishermen for operations on the
lake itself'. For fishing along the numerous rivers emptying into
the lake, stationary nets attached to anchors, small dragnets,
handnets, and fish baskets are used.
The fishing includes a number of "salting points" located along
the northern and southern shores of the lake. The largest salting
installations are located at Grigorlyevkao
(2) Lumbering
Lumbering is also an important phase of
the economy of the Issyk-Kule Basin. Considerable timber, mostly
Tien Shan spruce, grows along the mountain valleys and slopes in
the eastern part of the basin. Several of the mountain rivers empty-
ing into Lake Issyk-Kulf are suitable for floating timber and are
used extensively for that purpose. Timber felled along the upper
courses of these streams is floated to lumber mills located near
the river mouths or along their lower courses.
The annual output of cat and processed lumber is approximately
5,300,000 cubic feet. This constitutes more than half of the lumber
milled in the entire Kirgiz ESR. Lumber is cut both for local
consumption and for shipment beyond the Issyk-Kulf Basin0 nest of
the lumber is shipped via Rybachlyel to centers in the Chu Valley,
particularly Frunze.
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There are 8 sawmills in the eastern part of the basin. One of
the largest is located on the lake shores according to one source,
approximately 7 1/2 miles east-northeast of Tamga. It covers an
area 490 x 330 feet 2 and consists of a 1-story wooden mill and 5
or 6 wooden warehouses, The mill receives spruces junipers and
some pine and poplar logs from the Terskey Ala.Tau. Three or four
truckloads of lumber are cut daily at the mill and shipped by boat
to RybaChoye.
Soviet plans for increasing lumbering activities in the basin
include the establishment of mechanized lumben-mining centers in
the vicinity of the Dzhergalochak River. These will have a combined
yearly production capacity of 32000,000 cubic feet of lumber.
(3) Mining
Mining in the Issyk-Kulo Basin is little
developed, with coal mining currently the main activity. Small.
scale exploitation is reported at the Dzhargalan and Sogutin
deposits.
The Dzhargalan coal fields are located along the upper course
of the Dzhargalan River, on the northern slopes of the Terskey Ala-Tau.
The mining area is about 40 miles from Przhevalosk, The reserves are
roughly estimated at above 100 million tons, consisting mostly of
lignite. At present there are only a few small shafts at the mines
of the Uglekok Artels with a yearly capacity of 10,000 tons. A new
mine that is reported as under construction is to provide up to
502000 tons of coal per year, Coal is transported viaa dirt road
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(constructed in 1939) to Pristane Przhevalgsk. It is used almost
entirely as fuel for lake steamers or in local industries at
Przhevaltsk. To increase output at the mines, the Soviets are
planning the construction of a narrow-gauge railroad from the pits
to Przhevallsk.
The Sogutin coal deposits are located near the south shore of
Lake Issyk-Kulg ill the area between Ton and Tamga. Reserves are
estimated at 150 million tons of bituminous coal and lignite.
Mining activity is not continuous. Small quantities of coal are
mined only periodieally. A coal mine has been reported in operation
approximately 6 miles southwest of Tamga and about 2 1/2 miles
southwest of the lake shore. The mine employs about 200 Soviet
prisoners and 300 civilians, and produces 4 or 5 truckloads of
bitumJnous coal mr day. Coal is hauled by truck to port instal-
lations at Tamga, where it is transloaded to lake steamers or barges
and shipped to Rybachlye.
In the summer of 1942, significant deposits of molybdenum and
wolfram (tungsten) were discovered along the northern shore of the
lake in the vicinity of Sazanovskoye. Although there is no definite
information indicating active exploitation, it is quite possible
that small quantities of ore are being extracted. The Soviets plan
to build a railroad line from Rybachfye through the mining region
to Przhevallsk.
(4) Principal Industrial Installations
The principal industrial installations in
the Issyk-Kult Basin are concentrated in Przhevaltsk and Rybachtye.
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Smaller installations are located at Tyups Grigortyvvkas Tamgas
and other points along the lake.
(a) Przhevaltsk
The town of Przhevaltsk is the
economic and industrial center of Issyk-Kul' Basin, A torpedo-
testing station is located at Pristant Przhevaltsk. A barbed-wire
enclosed installation located on the lake shore west of town has
been identified as the torpedo-testing station. The testing range
on the lake, reported to be 2.2 square miles in area, extends
westward from the stations and is enclosed by floating barriers*
In additions a much larger area adjacent to the testing range is
closed to navigation. Torpedoes to be tested are received either
assembled or in parts from the Alla-Ata Yunitions and Torpedo Plant
#1750 Shipment from Alma-Ata is ly rail via Frunze to Rybachtyes
and from there by boat to the testing station*
Pristant Przhevaltsk also has a ship-repair yard and facilities
for the construction of diesel and )ther types of notorshies? tugs,
and barges for the lake fleet. The 7ards at Pristant Przhevaltsk
are the largest on the lake. There .s also a fish-salting plant,
Industries in Przhevaltsks loccbed 7 miles southeast of the
ports produce mainly for local commotion. An oil and glucose
factory (producing starch syrup), a wine distillery, a brewery, a
woodworking mill, a construction-mt;erials plant, and several smaller
shops engaged in the manufacture o: clothes, footwear, and other
consumer goods are located in Pmeevaltsk, The woodworking mill
is also reportedly making furniture,
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According to Soviet plans, the industrial capacity of Przhevalges
is to be increased to meet the demand of the growing agricultural
and mining activities in the eastern part of the Issyk-Kull Basin.
(b) Rybachgya
Ryhachlrye is the main traffic center
in the basin. It is the transshipment station between railroad and
road traffic to and from the Issyk-Kull Basin and water traffic
between Rybachvye and Przhevalgsk, Almost all trade between the
Issyk-Kulo Basin and the hinterland, as well as with the rest of the
Kirgiz SSR, passes through here.
Ryhachoye has only a few minor industrial installations.
Soviet sources indicate, however, that facilities will be increased
in the near future. Currently a meat-canning combine, a refrigerator
plants a All electric power station, and several grain elevators
are in operation. The power station and grain elevators are located
in the pert area. Several oil-storage tanks are also reportedly
located here. A large dairy combine is believed to be under
construction.
(e) Tyup
A large cement plant with a yearly
capacity of 30,000 tons is located about 3 miles northwest of Tyup.
Tyup Also has a small shipyard, which is engaged mainly in minor
repairs and maintenance work.
(d) Grigorvyevka
The port of Crigoroyevka, located
about 4 1/2 miles south of GrigortysVka proper, has the largest
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fish-salting installation of Lake Issyk-Kult. Fish salted here are
shipped to other parts of the basin and to Frunze.
(e) Tamga
Located on the southern shore of the
lake, Tampa has minor fish-salting and fish-processing installations.
A large sawmill 7 1/2 miles east-northeast of Tamga produces 3 or 4
truckloads of lumber daily. This lumber is hauled to Things for
transshipment by boat to Rybachtye, The mill consists of a 1-story
wooden building where lumber is sawed and 5 or 6 wooden storage
buildings?
About 37 miles east of Tampa a large brickyard is reported in
operation, The yard is located a short distance from the settlement
of Kemsovaisk (not shown on available maps) and covers an area 165
by 110 yards. It consists of two 1-story brick buildings and an
open storage area, enclosed by a 6,foot barbed-wire fenc
Transportation
a. Railroads
Railroad transportation in the Issyk-Kult Basin
is limited to a small sector of the Frunze-Rybachtye railroad line.
This sector extends roughly from the railroad stop of Kok-flaynak
near the eastern exit of the Baam Gorge, to Rybachlye? It is approx-
imately 32 miles long, single tracked, of broad gauge, and steam
operated? The roadbed is well maintained and consists of impregnated
wooden ties placed on a ballast of crushed stone. The line was first
reported as completed and opened for rail traffic in 1952. The
remaining stretch to Frunze has been in operation since 19410
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The line runs parallel to and north of the Frunze-Hybachlye
Highway. Its western part is deeply cut into the steep and rocky
slopes of the Kungey and Kirgizskiy Mountains. In the open flat-
lands near the lake, the line crosses a barren rock desert. Rybachgye,
the terminal station, has the only railroad facilities in the basin.
These consist of the stone railroad station, a siding extending to
the port area, and two small buildings serving traffic and switching
operations. The railroad station also serves as the transloading
station between rail traffic and lake shipping.
Traffic to Ryhachlye consists mainly of freight shipments and
military supplies. Manufactured goods, construction materials,
cement, plumbing equipment, and processed sugar are some of the
commodities shipped. From Rybachilye they are distributed to various
lake-shore settlements. Military supplies arriving by rail are
consigned to the Soviet mountain troops stationed at Rybachvye,
Przhevalisk, and along the Sinkiang frontier. Torpedoes, either
assembled or in parts, are shipped from the torpedo plant at Almap.Ata
by rail to RyLachlys and from there by boat across the lake to the
testing area.
Westbound freight traffic from Rybachvye consists mainly of
grain, livestock, medicinal raw materials, and coal. The volume
of westbound freight movement appears to be less than that of east.
bound shipments. A postwar report indicates that during a 2-month
period 122 freight cars were loaded for shipment from Rybacheye,
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utile during the same period 603 incoming cars were unloaded at
the same station, The number of freight trains operating daily
on the rail sector is not known, but a 1951 report indicates that
at least one freight train a day in each direction was seen passing
the railroad station at Bystrovka in the Chu Valley. Little
information is availAble on passenger movement to Rybachgye. The
latest available Soviet Railroad Time Table (1950) lists only one
slow-moving passenger train operating daily in each direction between
Frunze (the Kirgiz capital) and Bystrovka, the nearest main station
outside the Issyk.Kulg Basin. This train service has probably been
extended to Rybachgye,
The construction of two additional railroad Lines is believed
to be under consideration by the Soviets. One broad-gauge, single-
track line is to run along the northern shore of the lake and connect
Rybachgye with Przhevalgsk, via Tyup. This line would also serve
the larger fishing settlements along the lakeshore and permit direct
shipment of Dzhargalan coal to Rybachgye and Frunze, An unconfirmed
report dated October 1951 indicates that construction of this line
was already under way near Rybachgye in 1947. Large groups of
forced laborers were seen blasting rocks, preparatory to laying the
roadbed, The second line under construction is a short, narrow
gauge line that will connect the Dzhargalan coal mines with Pristaug
Przhevalgsk? on Lake Issyk-Kulg? where coal can be transloaded to
lake vessels or to the Przhevalgsk-Rybachlye railroad, if constructed.
Another plan provides for a broadugauge line from Pristang Przhevalgsk
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to the coal deposits, From this line entire coal trains could be
moved by railroad ferries across the lake to the broad-gauge
terminal at Rybachlyee
b. Roads
The Issyk-Kul' Basin is connected by road with
the important industrial and agricultural regions of Kirgizia, such
as the Chul Fergana, and Naryn Valleys. Important roads also link
the basin with industrial Alma-Ata and provide travel routes to the
17inkiang Province of China, The four main roads of the basin,
classified by the Soviets as highways, converge at the lake port of
fiyhachtye. Two of the roads follow the north and south shores of
the lake and lead to Przhevallsk? The other two roads are essen.
tially sections of main highways leading into the Issyk-Kulf Basin.
These are the Frunze-Rybachlye Highways which connects the lake
area with the Chu Valley; and the Rybachfye-Narynm.Kashgar highway,
which links the basin with the fertile Naryn Valley and with Chinese
Sinkiang. In addition, one improved road leads south across the
Barskaun Pass in the Terskey Ala-Tau and another runs eastward to
Narynkol on the Sinkiang frontiere
Numerous unimproved dirt roads traverse the intensively cul-
tivated agricultural region bordering the eastern shore of the lals.
Most of these dirt roads radiate from Przhevalfsk and Tyup and lead
to small villages and collective farms,
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Many trails and paths lead from settlements along the northern
and southern littorals of Lake Issyk.Kull to livestock grazing
lands on the slopes of the Kungey Ala-Tau and Terskey Ala.Tau
Mountains. Trails also lead across the mountains to the Naryn.,
Dollshaya Kemin, Kegenl, Sharyn? and Chilik River valleys, and the
Alma-Ata Lowland, Some of the trails across the mountain ranges
wind through hazardous passes, At least one trail is considered a
strategic trade route between the Issyk-Kull Basin and Sinkiang,
China, Originating at Sam, 3 miles southwest of Pokrovka? the
trail crosses the Naryn Upland over the Ak-Be].' Pass (elevation
12,510 feet), Tozhiko Pass (elevation 12,215 feet) and Ishtyk Pass
(approximately 12,300 feet) and moves in a southwestward direction
to the Sinkiang border. After crossing the border over the Bedell
Pass (elevation 14,053.feet)0 the trail continues, in part, as a
dirt road to Uch.Turfan and Aksu,
Movement on mountain trails and paths is best during the
summer and fall season. During the winter snow often conceals pits
and crevices, making travel hazardous. Even under ideal weather
conditions, movement is very fatiguing and difficult, Same trails
and paths lead through mountain gorges which are blocked by large
morainic deposits. Most trails are suitable only for foot or pack.
animal traffic. Trails leading across the Kungey .Ala-Tau are some..
what easier to travel than those leading across the Terskey-Ala.Taa,
Up to date, only the Barskaun Pass (elevation 12,312 feet) in the
Terskey Alamaau has been successfymy widened to carry an improved.
motor road from Barskaun?
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(1) The Rybachlye.Przhevaltsk Highway Northern Route
The Rybachvye-Przhevallsk Highway skirts
the northern shore of Lake Issyk-Kull. It is the principal motor
road connecting the ports of Rybachlye and Przhevallsk and also
serves as a supply route to numerous fishing settlements along
the shore, An alternate highway, which connects Rybachlye with
Przhevallsk via the southern shore, is used less by motor transport
because the terrain is more ragged. From Rybach*ye? the northern
highway leads to Tyup and follows the northern shore of the lake
at distances ranging from several feet to approximately 4 miles
inland. The surrounding terrain is flat, since the slopes of the
Kungey Ala-Tau begin 1 to 6 miles from the shoreline. Grain and
potato fields and fruit orchards extend on both sides of the high.
way, except where the road borders the lake. At Tyup the highway
tarns southward to Prshevallsk. This stretch of the route in
general departs from the eastern and southeastern shores of the
lake, reaching inland for distances up to 14 miles. Only at the
eastern extremities of the Tp and Kara-Su inlets does the highway
run close to the lake shore. The surrounding countryside is hilly,
especially between the Tyup and Kara-Su divides. The road crosses
a densely cultivated area dotted with grain and potato fields and
fruit orchards.
The highway from Rybachlye to Przhevallsk is approximately
137 miles long, The width of the road is about 25 feet. There are
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no soft shoulders, but drainage ditches 1.5 feet wide border the
road on both sides. The road surface is of rolled gravel and permits
trucks and motorcars to travel at speeds up to 45 miles per hour.
The highway crosses about 23 streams flawing from the Knngey Ala-Tau
to the lake. The bridges are of wood and all but two are approxi-
mately 6.5 to 10 feet in length and about25 feet in width. The
two wooden bridges, both located a short distance northwest of Tyup,
are reported to be longer, with spans of 17 to 20 feet. The capacity
of the bridges is not known but they appear to be sufficiently well
constructed to permit loaded trucks to cross without slowing down.
Traffic on the highway consists mainly of shipments of agri-
cultural commodities (grain, livestock, and opium poppies), machinery,
fish and fish products, and some lumber. To a lesser extent the
road is also used for civilian and military travel. Civilian traffic
is mainly in the nature of local movement between lakeshore settle-
ments, Horse-drawn wagons are the best available means of travel.
Passenger cars are rare. Military traffic consists of the transport
of supplies between the military installations at Rebachoye?
Krasnogvardeisk (new military port on LakeIssyk-Kulv)0 and
Preheval2ak.
Several dirt roads branching off the main highway lead to port
facilities on the lake or to collective grain or livestock farms.
More of these are found in the densely cultivated area at the
eastern part of the Issyk-Kulo Basin. Six miles northwest of Tyup,
a dirt road leads to the east, skirting the southern slopes of the
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Kungey Ala-Tau for 30 miles to the Santash State Farm near the
Kyzyl-Kiya Pass. This read runs through the agricultural settlements
of Taldy-Su and Korumdy and several winter quarters for livestock-
raising sovkhozes, Dirt roads also radiate from Tyup, One leads
sourthwest to Nikolayevka, a second to the east, south of and
parallel to the Tyup River, to Tokboymn, A dirt road running south
from Tyup crosses the main highway in the Malaya Sary-Tyube Yountain
Range and turns eastward to Sovetskoye, South of the Malaya Sary-
Tyube Fountains a dirt road branches off the main highway and leads
to Mikhaylovka, where it turns southeastward and rejoins the main
highway 3 miles north of Przhevaltsk, At Mikhaylovka a motorable
dirt road follows the Kara-Su River eastward to the agricultural
centers of Cholpon, Otradnoye, Razdolvnaye, and Sokolovka, At
Sokolovha the road joins a main motor road leading from Przhevaltsk
to Narynkol on the Sinkiang frontier, Cholpon and Otradnoye are
small road centers from which unimproved dirt reads run southwest
to Przhevalesk? south to Teploklynchenka and Dzherges, and north to
Toktoyan.
Numerous trails and paths can also be followed from the main
highway to the shore of the lake and up the slopes of the Kungay
Alaplau to pasture areas. Some of the trails lead across the Kungay
Ala-Tau and Zailiyskiy AlaJ.Tau toward Alma-Atao
(2)iTheachge-PrzhevieRoutrne
An alternate motor relate between
Ryhachlyu and Przhevarak generally parallels the southern shore
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is gravel-surfaced, and has a road width of about 25 feet. Through.
out most of its course, this road runs from 4 to 8 miles inland and
passes through mountainous terrain. Two sections of the road, one
from kvhachgye to Karashar and the other from Tanga to Przhevalgsk,
cross relatively flat country. The only stretches where the highr.
way skirts the shoreline of the lake are in these sectors?
From Rybachly the highway leads in a sourtheast direction to
Karashar. It runs close to the shoreline, crossing a dry and barren
rock-desert. Leaving Karashar, the highway departs from the shore-
line and continues through the outer foothills of the Terskey Ala,Tau
Ranges to Tanga. This stretch of the road follows the general
contour of the lakeshore at distances ranging from 4 to 8 miles
inland. The surrounding area is sparsely populated. Larger
populated places near the road are Karashar? Aktersk (Ak.Terek)?
Kyzyltu? Bolshvik, okombayevskaye (Kunchigysh), and Tamga. From
Bolshevik and Eokombayevskoye, unimproved dirt roads lead north-
eastward across the foothills to Lake Issyk-Kulo. West of Kadzhi.
Say they unite into a single road, which follows the shoreline to
Tamga (Figure 14)0
The sector from Tamga to Przhevalosk crosses mainly through
flat terrain where both population density and agricultural activity
are much greater. The road passes through the larger communities
of Darskamn? Akterek, Chichan, Darkhan? Dzhangyz-Uryuk, Pokrovka?
and several other smaller settlements. Except for a 23-mile stretch
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between Tamga and Chichansi which runs close to the lakeshore, the
road is up to 8 miles from the lake.
Several roads branch off the main highway, A motor road leads
south from Derskaun to the Darskaun Pass, dirt roads north from
Dzhangyz-Uryuk and Pokrovka toward the lake. South of Bosbeshik
They join and continua northeastward, close to the shoreline, to
Przhevalgsk.
The southern route from Rybachlye to Przhevalgsk has consider-
ably less motor traffic than the northern route. Traffic is restricted
by the more difficult passage through mountainous terrain. Numerous
steep grade crossings, sharp curves, and poorly maintained bridges
reduce the speed of movement and to some extent limit the volume of
cargo carried. The freight shipped over this route consists mainly
of agricultural machinery and supplies destined for the cultivated
lands north and east of Prshevalgsk and agricultural products luch
as grain, fruit, wine, and opium. The only truck and automobile
repair shop along the highway is located at Pokrovka. It is known
as the nPokrovskaya Avtoremontnaya masterskaya."
(3)ielsiThePrzivaload
The Przhevallsk.Narynkolg Road is one of
two motorable roads that connect the Issyk-Kulg Basin with the Sinkiang
'Province of Chins.
Only a 32.mile sector of this improved motor road runs through
the Issyk-Kulg Basin, northeastward from Przhevaltsk to the Kyzyl
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Kiya Pass. The road has a very loosely packed gravel or stone stir-
face, It is believed to be a two-lane route?
The road crosses through one of the most heavily cultivated
and irrigated farming areas of the Issyk-Kulf Basin. The area is
also noted for its numerous livestock herds. Lxcellent grazing
land can be seen south of the road extending up the foothills of
the Terdkey Ala-Tau. In the vicinity of Przhevalfek the road is
bordered by extensive fruit orchards.
There is no information available as to the type or density
of traffic carried over this road which serves as an alternate trade
route to Alma-Ata via Karkaras Kegenfs and Chilik. Eountain troops
may be transported from rrzhevalfsks a garrison town, to Narynkolf
for frontier guard duty? Unimproved dirt roads and trails branch
off the main road at the agricultural settleftents of Teploklynchenkas
Dzhergoss Uovo-Voznesenovkas Sokolovkas and Sovetskaya,
(4) E.1222"ru.n_l_ellw'
The sector of the Frunze-Rybachfye Highway
within the Issyk-Kulf Basin extends ablut20 miles, roughly from
the exit of the Buam Gorge to Rybachfye. It is part of the strategic
highway to Frunze, which is the only motor route between the Chu
Valley and the Issyk-Kulf Basin. For most of its courses the road
parallels the Chu River to the south and the Frunze-Rybachfye Rail-
road to the north. The railroad lies at a slightly higher elevation
than the road (Figure 15).
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Figure 150 Construction work on the
Frunze-Rybach'ye Highway?
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? Within the lowland area west of Rybachlyeo the road crosses
extremely desolate terrain. At Rybachoye it makes junction with
the two motor roads that skirt the northers and southern shores
of the lake and with the highway that leads south, through the
hinterland areas to Kashgar in Chinese Sinkiang*
The highway is gravel surfaced and can carry heavy car and
track traffic, The volume of annaal freight traffic moving between
Frunze and Rybaohle is estimated at 50o000 to 60,000 tons. Freight
moving to Rybachuye consists largely of construction materials
nachineryo cement, and processed sugar. Commodities destined for
Przhevalosk or other places in eastern basin are eithor transloaded
at RYbach2ye to lake steamers or are shipped by truck along the
northern or southern shore roads.
Freight shipments from Rybachsye to Frunze included mostly
coalo fish, grain lumber, and meat prodacts.
The road serves also as an important military supply route
to mountain troops stationed at Rybacheye and Przhevallsk,
supplies are usually transloaded at Pybachlyn onto steamers or naval
power boats and shipped to the recently established military port
of Krasnogvardeisko reportedly in use since nay 19520
Fueling facilities for motor vehicles are located at Rybachtyel
but repago. facilities are available only in the Chu Valley at Kanto
Novo-Pokrovkao and Frunze.
(5) The Rybachoye-Naryn-Kashgar HighwaE
A strategic hierway extends southward
from Rybachgye and leads through the Naryn Upland to the Sinkiang
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frontier, Currently it in the only motorable road across the Naiyrx
Upland. Traffic moving between the Soviet Union and Chinese Sinkiang
is extromely heavy throughout the entire length of the road,
The sector within the Issyk-Kul2 Basin is approximately 14
miles long. Southwest of Rybachlye the road crosses a flat, barren
region largely devoid of vegetation and population. At the Bozbarmak
Nills? the highway enters the foothill\region of the Terskey Ala-Tau.
It bypasses the Bozbarmak Hills, runs east of the Chu River for a
short distances, then crosses the river and follows it through the
outer ranges of the Terskey AlaTau. In the vicinity of Orto-Tokay
the highway passes the southern perimeter of the projected Orto-
Tokay Reservoir.
The road is gravel or stone surfaced and is open for motor
traffic throuLhout the year. The width of the roadway is unknow%
but it has at least two traffic lanes and is wide enough for large
trucks to pass0
flaintainance of the road is reportedly good. Nuts occupied by
Kirgiz road-repair personnel are scattered along the route. Native
herdsmen participate in road repairs as well as in snow clearing.
co Inland Waterways
Inland waterway transportation in the basin area
is concentrated on Lake Issyk-liulf. The lake is an important route
for the shipment of supplies and bulk commodities from the industrial
region of the Chu Valley to the agricultural and mining region along
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the eastern littoral of the lake, Water transport also serves the
several larger fishing settlements along the northern and southern
shores of the lake, Navigation is mainly controlled by the Issyk-Kulg
Shipping Line, This state-owned organization, which has been
aperating for 20 years? has its headquarters at Frunze and a regional
office at Przhavaltsk, The main harbor installations operated by
the shipping line are located at Rybachtye and Przhevalgsko
Rybachtye is the main traffic terminal, where freight and
passengers are transferred from railroad and road carriers to lake
steamers? The wharves at Rybachgye have been sufficiently improved
to handle various types of cargo and vessels, Within the port area
are the following known instarations: a power station supplying
power to transloading machines, personnel quarters of the lake
merchant fleet, and a fueling depot for lake vessels,
Zois:;an? Prahevuloek, the port a Praheval:sks is located
about 7 miles northwest of the town of Przhevaltsk. It is the
largest port installation on the lake. In addition to handling
most of the freight and passenger traffic originating from Rybachlye,
the port figures prominently in ship repair and maintenance? The
ship-repair yard at Przhevaltsk is eqaipped to handle all types of
repairs and construction needs for the lake vessels. The only other
repair yard, which is much smaller, is located at Tyup on a deep
inlet of the lake, The wharves at Pristant Przhevaltsk have
mechanized loading and unloading equipment and handle grain, coal,
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fish9 and other prodacts, The port also handles some military
traffic for troops stationed in Przhevalgsk pro)er and for the
torpedo-testing station operating from the port area, /lost of the
military traffic is consigned to the military port opened in 1952
at Krasnogvardeisk. This port is on the eastern shore of the lake,,
al03116 miles northeest of Przhevalgsk? Additional smaller docking
facilities are located along the northernp easterns wid southern
shores of the lake. There are docking facilities along the northeL'2
shore at Chokta4 Cholnonatas Grigoryevka;Anan'yevka (formex4
Sauanovskoye)D and Kuturga. Tyup and flikhaylovka are important
stops along the eastern shore. Tyup has a minor ship-repair ynrd
capable of constructing small boats. The southern shore has snaller
landing facilities at Kichidzhargylthak? Akterek, Ton Tengas and
Pokrovka.
The Iasyk-Kulg Shipping Line handles both freight and passonge
traffic. Freight traffic averages 65n000 to 709000 tons per yearo
and the passenger traffic total is reported to reachabeatIlOs000
persons in a 2-year period. Freight t7affic from 13ybachgye consist
largely of merchandise agricultural machinery9 fertilizers
cements and construction materials0 fluch of the freight is shipped
to Przhevalgsk, GrigorgyevkaD and Tanga. Sone of this freight is
distributed among sovkhozess kolkhozess and machine-tractor statima
located near port facilities? The ports on the north and east
coasts are used primarily for the shipping of wheto fruits -cools
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gisk and fish.products to Rybachgye. Lumber and coal are the
main outgoing products frrm ports along the southern shore.
Passenger steamship sarvice on the lake was inaugurated in
1948. Passenger routes run from Rybachgye to Przhevalgsk along
the southern and northern skores of the lake. Via the south shore,
boats leave Rybachgye on the 3rd? 6th, 12th9 15th, 21st, 24th and
30th of each month and stop at Akterek, Tamga, Pokrovka, and ifoyl
Sara. Return trips by tho solth shore make the SMMO stops and leave
Przhevalgsk on the 1st, 4th? 10th, 13th, 19th, 22nd, and 28th of
the month. Trips via the north shore leave Rybach:ye on the 7th,
16th and 25th of each month. .T'..ops along the northern route are
at Cholponata? Grigorgyevka, Kutucgas and Tyup.
The merchant fleet consists oC several large diesel.operated
and coal-burning steamers, one or two tankers, a number of steam
tugs, and numerous freight barges, come of which are believed to be
motor powered (Figure 16). The large vessels are estimated to be
230 to 246 feet long and have drafts ranging from 16 to 23 feet.
Some of the vessels offer a combinaticn of freight and passenger
accomodations.
In addition to the regular merchant fleet, a sizable fishing
fleet is operated by the Issyk-KUlg Staamship Line. This fleet
operates primarily from fishing settlenents along the northern and
southern shores of the lake. It consi.its mainly of medium-sized
sting vessels and large raw boats. some of the newer fishing
craft are believed to be motor powered?
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Air .:ransport
Air transport facilities in the Issyk-Kulg Basin
are limited to two minor landing fields located at Przhevalesk and
Rybacl,?ye. 0.11y local and nonscheilled flights are maintained
betueo- the two fields and with Frunze, the Kirgiz capital Air
traffic, both passenger and freight, is carried only during the
summer months. Planes used are of the 01-47 and LI-2 types0
(1) Air Routes
The following air routes are reportedly
operating in the Issyk-Kule Basin:
1) Leaving Przhevalesk
a) Regional and unscheduled route:
Przhevalesk.Frunze
b) Regional and unscheduled route:
Przheval sk-Rybach 'yo
2) Leaving TOtacheye
a) Regional and unscheduled route:
RYbacheye,Frunze
b) Regional and unscheduled route:
Rybacheye-Przhevalgsk
(2) Airfields
(a) ?Przhevalgsk (Karakol)
The airfield is reported to be located
within the town limits and approximately 21 miles east of Lake
Issyk-Kulgo
The Przhevalgsk field is the terminus of regional and vinschec-nled
commercial air routes from Frunze and Rybacheye. LIO military use
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of the landing facilities has been reported as yet. The field is
accessible from the RYbachlye.Przhevalgsk Higbway and also the
secondary Saru-Kegeno Road. No information is available as to
runuay, surface, capacityl, or navigation facilities. The field is
not classified as the type of airfield capable of supporting
operations of light bombers, transports, and reciprocating or jet
-
engine fighters.
1?ybachaye_iInT4a21
This relatively unimportant civilian
airfield is reportedly located just north of the town of 4bachile0
The field is accessible from the Frunze-Rybachtlye-Przhevalisk high-
ways skirting the north and south shores of the lake and from rail-
road facilities in the port of Eybachoye.
The airfield is estimated to be 3,000 feet long and is oriented
in an east-west direction. The field has no runway; the landing
surface is of sand. It is capable of accommodating TE-type transporbs.
Open parking facilities are available. Telephone, telegraph, and
repair facilities are located within the town of Rybachle. There
are no hangers on the field, but two barrack.type buildings have
een reported.
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,The_lemrk?ika-U_Woktivlawl
A? bYgAMIARPedarAt70.-94)
The Issyk-Kule hinterland is essentially an area of high
mo itains. It includes the most rugged part of the Soviet Tien
Shan MountAinn which, next 1J)the Pamirs, fern the most extensive
and highest mountain, region in the USSR. Except for the Chu Valley
and the Alma...Ate Lowland, elevations over the entire area exceed
3,000 feet. South of Lake Issyk-Kule, only the western part of
the Waryn Valley is below 7,000 feet.
The physiogrAPhy is characterized by an alternation of soneuhat
earallel mountain ranges, extending from west to east and separated
by intermontane depressions. Four mountain arcs make up the basis
orograibic framework. The northern most are is formed by the
Zailiyskiy Ala-Tan and the 0hu-I1lyskiye Mountains; the Ketmene
acmge, the Kungey Ala-Tau, and the KirgizakLy Range comprise the
ascend series of ranges. These two arcs dominate the terrain
north Lake Issyk-Kule. The third linear system, the Terskey
Ala-Tau, lies inmediately south of lake Issyk-Kule. The fourth
aeries of ranges, the Kok Shaal-Tau, forms the southern boundary
of the Issyk-Kule - Central Tien Shan region. Many of the ranges
bear the name "ala-tau," a Kirgizian term menn5ng "nettled mountain,"
because of the spotty distribution of permanent snow over the mountain
crests..
The najor intermontane lowlands are: (1) the Chu Vallery, between:
the Churaliyakiye Mountains to the north and the Kirgizakiy Range to
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the south, (2) the Karkara-Kegeng Basin, east of the Zailiyskiy-
Mangey mountain mass, (9) the Kochkur Valley and the Lower Baryn
Valley, south of Lake Issyk-Kul', and CO the Alma-Ata Lowland, in
the extreme northern pert of the study area, running westward from
Alma-Ata along the northern base of the Zailiyskiy--Chu-Iliyekiye
mountain area The latter is the southern limit of the vast Ili
Intermontane depression stretching northward to lake Balkhash.
10
ae
The arrangement of the mountain ranges north of
Lake Zssyk-Kulg differs from that to the south. The two northern
nountain arcs are joined at their centers, just north of Lake
issyk-Kulg, and diverge toward their outer extremities. The highest
and most rugged ranges of the arcs comprise the central node and
are flanked on the east and west by secondary ranges of lower
elevations and by intermontane lowlands. The mountain ranges to the
south of Lake Isset-Kulg converge in the extreme east to form a
massive, heavily glaciated mountain knot, the Khan4iengri node,
above which rise some of the loftiest peaks in the entire Soviet
Union. Fest of the Khan-Tengri node, the mountain ranges fan out,
elevation declines, and intermontane depressions become wider.
The main ranges, the Terakey Ala-Tau and the Kok Shaal-Thu, run
along the northern and southern extremities of the area south of
Lake Issyk-Kulg. The area between the main ranges, which widens
abruptly toward the west, has a number of short secondary ranges
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trending in an approximate east-west direction. In this Study the
entire intermontane area between the Terskey Ala-Tau and the Kok
Shaal-Tau is called the Naryn Upland.
(1)1.2g...ajalamadja.0
The area north of take Issyk4Kul0 is
dominated by the Kttagey Ala-Tau and farther north the Zailiyskiy
Ala-Tau. The two ranges are joined near their central parts by a
short northwest-southeast trending range. Characteristics of the
Kungey Ala-Tau, which forms the northern limit of the Issyk-Kulu
Bagin9 are described in Section III.A.1.a. of this report. The
lou Chu-lliymkiye Range stretches across the northwest corner of
the Issyk-Ktle--Central Tien Shan region. The Ketmeng Range crosses
the northeast corner. Due west of Lake Issyk-Kulu lies the eaatern
extremity 'of the Kirgizskiy Range. The Zaillyskiy All-Tau and the
Chu-Iliymkiye mountains form a mountain barrier roughly 360 miles
long, with no apparent division between them. The deep
Buam Gorge is the only significant break in the mountain wall formed
by the Kungey Ala-Tau and the Kirgizskiy Range. The Ketmenu Range
is separated from the Mangey and Zailiymkiy systems by an expanse
of low1and9 the Karkara-Kegenu Basin.
(1) IfiLlIttLmiULJ.417Mtt
The Zailiyskiy Ala-Tau is an
aspmetrical range, having a long northern slope and short southern
slope. It rises about 6,500 feet above the adjacent Alma-Ata Lowland
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Within the upper elevations, the northern elope of the Zaillyskiy
drops sharply, but at lower levels it descends to the Alma-Ata
Lowland in a series of wide terracelike formations. The central
part of the range, cut by the meridian of Alma-Ata, is known as
the ebin (Kemin) Mountain node. It is the highest and most rugged
?
area, with a mass of sharp ridges and very steep slopes, which often
appear almost perpendicular. Most valleys are gorges, some as
deep as 1,500 feet. Several snow-capped peaks rise above the general
level of the watershed crest, which reaches approximately 12,500
feet. Talgar Peak, the best known peak in the area, has an elevation
of 14,500 feet.
To the east and west of the central node, elevations gradually
decrease. In the eastern part of the Zailiyakiy Ala-Tau, the summit
zone also widens considerably and loses some of its alpine appa ranee.
Prom a distance, the eastern area appears to consirit of a group
of elongated, tabular uplands separated by deep valleys. Although
these uplands appear level, they are actually quite rough as the
relief is in excess of 500 feet. The general elevation of the
watershed crest is 11,000 feet. The range proper ends abruptly at
the Chilik River. Beyond the Chink, the Zailiyakiy Ala-Tau continuos
In the form of law outliers. To the west of the Kebin node, the
Zaillyskiy Ala-Tau remains narrow, and the rugged alpine features
continue.
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A considerable part of the summit of the Zaillyskiy Ala-Tau is
covered with glaciers and permanent snow. Maximum glaciation occurs
in the vicinity of the Kebin node, where tongues of ice creep down
most of the valleys. From the Kebin node the glaciers decrease in
thickness and number to the extremities of the range Where they
disappear. The glaciers are not large and carry only a small
amount of detrital material. The largest, the Korthenevakiy glacier;
is 4, miles long. Many glaciers end as hanging glaciers, a few
hundred feet above the floor of larger, ice-free valleys. In the
region of the headwaters of the Turgan River sheet ice covers some
summit areas. The permanent snowline ranges between 115200 and
11,900 feet?
The Zailiyskiy Ala-Tan is separated from the Kungey Ala-Tau
by the deep, narrow valleys of the Bolts:hay Kebin (B0126haya Kemit0)
and Chink rivers. These rivers originate in the Kebin node and
flow in opposite directions, the BoltshoyKebin to the west and
the Chilik to the east.
(0)ciiiig te.M.s.?ka
The Chu?iliyakiye Mountains,
trending northwest-southeast across the northwest corner of the
Issyk-Kult7--Central Tien Shan region, are essentially a low,
unglaciated extension of the Zaillyskiy Ala-Tau Range. The
Chm.aliyakiye? unlike the Zaillyskiy Ala-Tau, are fairly well
dissected and seem to be an agglomeration of small ranges.
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The most contiguous as well as the highest and steepest part of the
range is at the southeastern end near the Kastek Pass, which is
considered as the break between the Zailiyskiy and the Chu-Iliyskiye.
Hare the average crestal elevation is approximately 9,000 feet,
and the highest point reaches 9,300 feet. The crestal zone rises
59800 feet above the eastern pert of the Chu Valley. Along this
whole eastern part of the Chu-nlyskiye, the southern slope is
quite steep and is cut by deep valleys. On the northern front there
is a steep drop to 4,300 feet; from 4,300 feet the descent to the
Alma-Ata Lowland is terracelike.
Northwestward, eleitations decrease, mountain slopes broaden
out considerably and become.-less steep, particularly in the south,
and the dissection of the Chu-Iliyskiye into a number of small
mountains becomes much more evident. The highest elevations rise
to 7,000 feet. West of the meridian of Tokmak, the Chu-Iliyakiye
are broken up into foothills, and the range finally merges with the
level steppe lands of Kazakh.
(e) The Ketmene Ranee
The Ketmeng Range is located in
the extreme northeast corner of the Issyk-Kule--Central Tien Shan
region. It is the western end of a mountain system that crosses
the international boundary into Sinkiang. The range is separated
the lowland expanse of the Karkara-Kegene Basin from both the
Khan,Tengri mountain node and the Zaillyskir-Kungey mountain mass.
The length of the range is about 90 miles, and the width of the
create' zone varies between 275 and 675 feet. The average altitude
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is about 8,500 feet and the highest points rise to 119500 feet. The
southern slope is steep but the northern one is gradual. At the
international border the Kara-Tau Ran a branch of the Ketmeno
prever9 strikes off southwestward toward the Khan-Tengri region.
(a) Pletkirgi
The Eirgizskiy Range (also known
as the Aleksandrovakiy Range) stretches for many-miles west of Lake
/ssyk-Kule to Dzhambul (42055'N9 720238E). Only its eastern extent,
which is also the highest and most rugged part, falls within the
Issyk-Kula--Central Tien Shan region. The Kirgizskiy Range is
separated from the Kungey Ala-Tau by the very deep Buam Gorge.
Within the hinterland, the altitude of the crestal zone ranges from
9,000 to bout 14,500 feet. In form, the eastern part of the
Kirgizskiy Range resembles the eastern part of the Zailiyskiy Ala-Tam,
as it is composed of a group of mountain uplands with somewhat level
lit171k
t zones separated by deeply incised valleys. Much of the
watershed crest is covered by short valley glaciers, most of which
move down the southern slope.
(2) avalb...(go,
The entire area south of Lake lssyk-Kulq is
essentially mountain country. Elevations are less than 7,000 feet
only in the Koehkur and the Naryn 7a114720motof the settlement of Naryn.
The principal mountain ranges are the Ttrskey Ala-Tau, immedia ly
south of the lake and the Kok Shaal-Taug which follows the international
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border with China* These ranges converge at the extreme eaten part
. of the Issyle.Kule Central Tien Shan region to became part of the Khan.
Tenlei mountain node* A number of small ranges trending in a general
east.west directions extend avor the vast Hawn Upland
between the Terskeylaa.Tau and the Kt* 8haa14au0 The Terikey
AlaTau a_ described in Section IIIokoleb0 of this report?
(a) .?,,,A2?0.AIRREL,A121...?
The Ihan-Tengri area, the highest
and most inaccessible part of the Soviet Tien Shan mountain systems
is located at the extreme southeastern corner of the IssYk-Kule-.i.
Central Tien Shan region, at the USSR-China border. Fram the boundarys
thT area extends westward for roughly 70 miles to the Ak-Shiyryak
Ranges which is crossed by the meridian at the eastern end of Lake
Issyk-Kule. This range runs in a northeast-southwest direction, counter
to the neighboring ranges.
Physiographicany the Khan-Tengri consiste of a series of narrows
closely spaced s east-west trending ranges s each bisected by the gorge
of the northF.south flowing Sary-ashaz River. The intervening valleys
effe steep-sided and narrow. From north to south, the principal ranges
of the Khan-Tengri are: (1) the eastern extremity of the Terdkey Ala-Taus
(2) the Sary-Dzhas Range and its continuation west of the river, the
KtylyuTau Ranges (3) The Inylechok Range and its western extensions
the Terekty Ranges CO the Kaindy and IShigard ranges:, and (5) the
eastern end of the Kok Shaal,'Tauo The ranges east of the Sary-Dzhas
are emeptionally rugged, having very steep slopes and narrow, jagged
crestal sones with numerous distinct peaks. Nagy of these peaks
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emoted 2,50000 feet in elevation. The hIghet points are Beak Enan-Teneeei0
220950 ;?"eet0 and 10 miles south0 Peak Pobeda0 240400 feet. The slopes
ef the ranges are eut by nmmerous shorts sametimes impassable gorges.
Eiperieneed alpine explorers report great difficulties in teaversirg
the area.
.5nm/fields are widespreads and small valley glac1ees0 2 or 3 mlleo
4
A long, are countless.. The most intense glaciation extende foe a. dietance
of 35 miles vest ef the international boandary9 TT6t, sever-al larger
glaciere attain considerahl 1engb0 .The 37-ni22 Rayltehek Glaciers,
immediately south ef the Sary-Dahas Ranges is the longest. Although
often regerded as singles it ie aetualiy two gleeiers separated by the
short0 linear Stalin Range above which Peak Khan-Tengri mejastiearese
towees (FigtuN 173, The glaciers generally carry a large amount of
morainie material that hides t tfae in many places.
West of the SaryeDmhas Eivee0 the mountain ranges mae :much lower
and lese rough and craggy. The seamite flatten eat to produce wide
erestal zones eurmounted by only a few sheep peaks. Sneel cever and
glaciation decreaee markedly but still are prominent's partieularly in
tha Terskey0 the Kok Shaal-Tau0 and Kueleu-Tau eanges. Crestal
elavations are abeve 120000 feet, and a few at rise eell high are
150000 feet. The crests of the range tower about 3f,000 to 3,500
feat abeve the adjacent val1eya9 which are mueh wider than those
4
east of the Sary-Dshaz River. The streams*crossing the relatively
vide and level valley bottoms are usually fordable. These streams
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brandh into several shallow channels and decrease markedly in velocity
as they leave the mountain slopes and hit the valley lowlands?
(b) ThaJWAWalava
The Kok Shaal-Tau is the southernmost
range system of the Issyk-Ku].g - Central Tien Shan region. It extends
from the Kban-Tengri node southwestward to Lake Chatyr6-Ku1g. The
international boundary between the USSR and China (Sinkiang) follows
its watershed crest.
The Kc k Shaal-Tau comprises short parallel ranges arranged in
echelon. It is an area of alpine relief, with steep slopes and craggy
emmits. Rivers cut steep-walled, narrow valleys to a depth of 19000
to 29000 feet., There are secondary hanging valleys from the sides of
which streams cascade for perhaps 50 feet to the stream coursing through
a main valley. Elevations in the western part of the Kok Shaa-Tau ge
up to 13,000 ar 149000 feet; in the east elevations are higher9 with a
few pedks slightly exceeding 189000 feet.
WicAWansl,
The Naryn Upland is a region of
secondary ranges It is bounded by the TerskeyAaa-Tau on the north
and the Kok Shaal-Tau on the south. The area widens considerably from
east to west. At the astern lim4t9 the )k-Shiyryak Range9 the width
is roughly 40 miles and at the western limit of the study areas, roughly
100 miles. Almost the whole length of the region is traversed by the
westward-flowing Naryn River?
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Aceeeding to face features the Narye Ueland hag mountainuous
steactuee, but in erofile it reeeMbIes an extensive high plateau abeve
which rioe a number of relatively low hortp oast-west tre ding ranges.
Some of the Iaeger secondary rang tee DzhetymeEePv tha Plarira3p
tho Dehumgol-Tau, the Borkolday;2 the Dehetymellea ths WeerneTTup anl
the At-keshi. The seeondary mountain rauge aee flateteyeped. Viewed
fram a distance, the oummit of each range app eare te folleu an unusually
even line0 end only meely do t wering peake belik the regularity e
the arestal zone. Th g ranges are veil dissected by deepp ehort (2
6 miles long), gorgelike valleye. A cap of peemaaeet onateielde anl
glaciere is dharacteriatic of most ef the range
Separating the secondary ranges are broad undulating ralleye
called syrtsp ebidh aee used as grazing lands by the native nomads
(Figure -18). The yyrts are the most striking Zeatuee ef the landscape.
They lie at a level of 109000 to 12,000 feet 3 the mountain ran ri
above the pert levels to height a of /39000 to 159000 feet. The relative
elevations between the syrts and the summit zonea of the Terskey Ala-Taa
and the Kok Shaal-Tau are similai.
et of tha ayrts are less than
15 miles.widep and each is crowed by a w1de9 aluggidhp meandering
stream. Local relief seldom exmeeds 150 feet. There are two kinds
of pyrt landscapea in the Naryn Upland. At the base of the TerskeyAeleeTan
the pyrts have much wet and marshy land and are dotted with small9
lakelike bodies of water. Sizable boulders are also very common.
The majority of syrts are located in the south, and are dry. Marshes
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are practically nonexistent, vegetation is ?parse, and the ground surface
is clayey. During periods of strong winds, blowing fine particles of
soil cause a dust haze. The numerous small, ovalu.shapod, flat,bottomed
dewessions becalm muddy or water-filled in spring, and are dry, hard,
and cracked in summer.
Movement through the Naryn Upland is not particularly difficult.
The level syrts, except in marshy areas, are suitable even for motor
traffic. Passes across the maw short ranges are numerous, easy to
negotiate. They lie only a few thousand feet higher than the syrts.
Mary are free of snow, and only a few have glaciers. Native nomadic
herders regularly drive their animals through most of the passes.
With a little clearing many could be made suitable for roads.
Nevement across the Ak-Shiyryek Range to the Rhan-Tengri country
is difficult. Only one pass cuts the range and its approaches are
blodked , hug morainic deposits. A few foot trails also 'provide
routes de travel for persons familiar with mountain travel0
bo kislaa
The greatest concentrations of population and
economic activity are in the intermontane lowlands.
21R.....11D11.
The entire lowland sloping augy free th9
northern base of the Zailiyakiy Ala-Tau and Chu-/liyekiye mountain
:ranges is arbitrarily termed the Alma-Ata Lowland. Two types of relief
are vident. Between Alma-Ata and Uzun-Agach the rise toward the '
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Zail4akiy Ala-Tau is rolling. Elevations near Aima.kta range betmeen
29000 and 2,500 feet; at the mountain base they increase to 2,8003,300
feet. Nest of Uzun4tgach9 the lowland descends from the Chm-Iliyekiye
Mountains in several very wide level terraces, and about half the area.
lies above 39000 feet. Elevations at the base of the mountains reach
4500 feet.
(2) Ditamaz
The Chu Valley lies between the Cha-niyskiye
Mamatains to the north and the Eirgizskiy Range to the south. The
Eumn Gorge at the narrow eastern end of the valley provides the principal
and easiest passage to mountainringed lake Issyk-Kulg. Westward
from the Bum Gorge to Frunze the valley widens to about 60 miles.
The elevation of the Chu River decreases from approximately 49500 feet
at tae eastern extremity of the valley to 2,000 feet near Geoogiyevka9
in the mest.
The Chu Valley has little local relief and slopes very gradua1/7
to t-ce northwest. At the base of the Kirgieskiy Range the numerous
mountain streams have built up a series of alluvial fans producing a
rolling type of terrain with a mamimum local relief of 175 feet. An
extensive net of irrigation canals and ditches crisscrosses these
alluvial fans. The terrain of the narrow strip between the Chu-Iliyakiye
Mountains and the Chu River consists of slight smells. Strips of
marsUand border the Chu River near Tokmak, north of Ivankova, and
south & Georgiyevka. The largest belt of swampland stretches for
about 8 miles along the north bank of the Chu. near Ivankovao
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(3) ml-arce bar -4A?saggig-kAts
The Earkara-Kegene Basin is bounded on
the south by the Terakey Ala-Tau and Kungey Ala-Tau ranges and on the
north by the Metmene and the low Kuuluk-Tau ranges. The elevation of
the basin, 6,200 feet, is approximately 850 feet above that of Lake
Issyk4Cu1e. in important caravan route from the Issykeaule Basin
follows the southern part of the Karkara-Kegene Basin.
With the exception of the low 0hule-Adyr Nbuntain, at the center
of the basin, the terrain is almost flat with a very gradual slops
touand the Kegene River. The Chule-Adyr tuts about 850 feet above the
surrounding, lowland. It has subdued and rounded forms of mountain
relief and is not difficult to cross. In fact, one of the principal
roads through the Karkara-Kegene Basin cuts directly across the 0hule-Adyr.
%we rivers floe rather slowly through the basin: (1) the Negene River,
which flows in a general east-west direction across the entire northern
extent of the basin, and (2) the Karkara River, a north-south flowing
tributary of the Regent? which crosses only the western part. Ebth
rivers are bordered by marshland. The marsh near the confluence of the
Negene and Karkara rivers, vest of the town ofIegene is extensive.
is meadows and marshes also occupy much of the valley of the upper
course of the Kegene. A small expanse of desert, known as %ski Kum-Takey?
is located roughly 3 miles north of the western part of the Chule-Ad?
Mountain. .
South of the Kegene Valley and beyond the lower foothills of the
Tershey Ala-Taa, there is a much sme/ler basing, the Tekes Basin, with
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chreacteristics similar to those of the Earkeee-Kegenq Basin.
(4) Xia.WItarkle
The long, narrow Kothkur Valley is the
easternmost intermontane depression between the Kirgizskiy Range and
the Terskey Ala-Taue It is separated from the southwestern part of the
:CseykeKt19 ein by a gorge cut by the upper course of the Chu River
'between the Kirgizakiy Range and the secondary ranges of the Terakey Ala-Thu.
The Kodhkue Valley is about 30 miles long and 5 milee wide. The elevatiom
along the axis of the depression is 5,200 feet and at the base of the
menntain slopes 6,500 feet. This valley also has a very gradual general
slope from west to east. The numerous streams flowing from the Short,
steep valleys dissecting the Kirgizakiy and Terskey slopes merge in
the Kochkur Valley to form the Chu, River where their waters leave the
valley. At many places along the streams, there are wide belts of
boggy neadows. Important routes of travel from .the 'soft-Kul(' Basin
to the Fergana Valley and southward across the likun Upland toward
Sinkiang go through the Koehkur Valley.
(5) bt,IMW_KaNna411EK
The lower part of the Naryn Valley, west
ef tile settlement of Nary% is similar to the pyrts of the Naryn Upland
tut liee at a lower elevation and is somewhat more complexly dissected.
The eelley is aver 50 miles long, and its bottom has a maximum width
of 5 miles. At its narrowest part, Naryn, it is onl, . a mile wide.
The elevation of the easternmost point, the to of Naryn, is 69800
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itese ia th at it 'lowers to 49600 feet. 2he land rises away frem
tt eieer tee-lard the mountains in a series of di tinct low river
toreacee (Figura 19)?
'ee valley wills are quite steep in the vicinity of Earyn, but
to the west, where the crests of borderine mountains recede fram the
velley bottom, their slopes become progressive/y more gradual. The
reuetain crests in the western prat of tha val1ey9 3 te 5 milee
from the Earyn River, rise to an altitude of about 21,600 feetp with
peaks exceedin- 12,500 feet. The Haryn Valley serves as one of the
majee gateeaye to the &rya Upland, and the town of Nae is ita
eeonamic hub.
2. MiaEe
The climate of the Issek-Kule hinterland is difficult
to deeeribe, since it is marked by great diversit7p duo chiefly t4 -
the moentainous relief. Climatic conditieno vaey with altitude and
eepoeure. The climate of an exposed peak differs from that of an
encloeed valley; nceth-facing s1opes9 away from the suet, are
dissimilar climatically to those facing south; andp climetic conditioas
along vindward slopes are not the same as along the leeward flanks.
Ma additian9 available meteorological data permit only broad generaliatioee. These are for four stations: Alera-Ata, Frunne9 Narynp
and tha Tien Shan Observatory. Data from the Alma-Ata station give
aa appeoximation of the climete of the Alma-Ata Lowland; the Prunes
data serve the same purpose for the Chu Valley; the Naryn data are
useful for the inteemontane valley at the western extremity of the
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?
Varyn Upland; and the data of .the Tien Shan Observatory give a rough
idea of climate in the interior of the ryn Upland. Direct inter-
polations from observed data must be Madevith caution because of the
effects of purely local coaditionso
st. bzpzpant
The hinterland has a continental temperatures
uith great variations between winter and summer and between day and
night. The highest average temperatures are recorded in the intermontaue
lowland areas along the northern part of the hinterland. The lowest
temperatures occur deep in the mountains of the Karyn Upland and
Khan-Tengri areas s in the central and southeastern parts of the
hinterland. Temperatures in the valleys at the western extremity of.
the area south of Lake Issyk-Kul9 are somewhat lower than those of the
northern lowlands but considerably higher than temperatures toward the
Khan-Tmgri area. Throughout the hinterland temperature inversiona
occur quite frequentlys particularly during winter and 04 summer
nights. With inversions,' the temperature on the mountain slope is
significantly higher than at the valley bottom. Temperatures also
change with altitude. The average changes with both increases and
deoreases of elevations is 1.10? per 330 feet. This figure varies
somewhat with the seasons. In winter it is slightly smaller and in
sinters. somewhat larger
In the northern lowlands winters (December through February)
are colds and spring, brings rapidly rising temperatures and recurrent
cold spells. Summers (Jim through August) are warm to hots and the
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warmth of autumn often gives way to winter cold quite suddenly.
Extended periods with freezing or subfreezing temperatures do not set
in until late November. At Alma-Ata the average annual temperature
is 44.60F. Jim is the hottest month with an average temperature
of 7IPIP. January is the coldest month with an average of 150F.
During winter the daily temperature usually ranges between 50F and
300F. The absolute winter maximum is 590IP and the absolute minimum,
-300F. Average monthly temperatures are below 25?F from November
through March. In summer, A daily temperature range between 55?F
and 80?F can be expected! Although the average June temperature
slightly exceeds the July level, the highest dai4 maxima are reached
in July! The absolute summer maximum is 1000? and the absolute minimump
39NP. From Flay thru September the average monthly temperature exceeds
650? (Table 5).
. At Frunze, in the Chu Valley the average annual temperature is
49?F. The average mehthly temperatures range from about 20?F in
February to about 76?F in jhly. The average for winter is 23.20F?
and for each month of winter is below freezing. No specific data are
available on the mean of the daily minima and maxima but they
approximate those of the Alma-Ata station. The absolute winter maximum
is 67?F and the absolute minima% -374:1% As at Alma-Ata, temperatures
rise quickly in the spring. Within the hinterland, the Chu Valley
has the hottest summers. The average summer temperature is about
740F0 A dry heat is characteristic. Frunze has recorded summertime
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temperatures as high as 1000F and as low as 348F. Afternoon temperatures
of 750F to 850F contrast strikingly with night temperatures of 55?F
to 650F (Table 5)0
Although the temperatures recorded at Naryn are not characteristic
of those in the intermontane valleys in the western Naryn Upland,
they serve as an approximate guide. In generals summer temperatures
are only slightly lower than in most other valleys, but winter
temperatures appear to be noticeably lower. At Naryn the average
arnual temperature is 37?F. The annual range is wider than for the
nerthern lowlands, owing chiefly to the much more severe winters.
January, the coldest month, has a mean temperature a 2cFs whereas
Silly and August, the warmest months have an average of 630F. The
absolute maximum is 94PF and the minimum, -330F. Cold weather lasts
for most of the year. Days with subfreezing minimum temperatures can
be expected in early October and continue through May. The months of
November through March have average temperatures of about 1307, and
the three coldest months, December through February, are bitterly
cold with an average temperature of -207 The lowest average daily
maximum, 100F, is in January, but February has the lowest mean daily.
minimum, In winter, the temperature has reached a high of
430? and a low of -330F.. Summers are usPellymoderately warm. The
means of the daily maxima in Ally and August, the warmest months, are-
na? and 730F respectively, and of the minima, 49?? and heR
Occasionally the temperature rises to the eighties, and a high of 94?F
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has been. recorded. In June and July on the other hand, night
teuperatures occasionally drop to the thirties. The lowest simmer
minimum recorded is 280P (Table 5),
In the interior of the Baryn Upland and Khan-Tengri regions
temperatures vary considerably from place to place. Per this vast
area the only data available are records for a. three year period
of one meteorological station, the Tien Shan Observatory (4501134
78014'0E; elevation 11,800 feet). These data cannot be regarded as
characteristic of the Nary n Upland and Khan-Tengri regions, btt
with proper allowances for local conditions reasonable estimates og'
expected temperatures can be made. Average temperatures should
become lower from east to west, at least on broad intermontane
depressinns (syrts), with the general decrease in elevation.
?
The temperatures should fall between Naryn, on the west and at a
lower altitude, and the Tien Shan Observatory. Toward the 'Khan-
Tengri mountain node temperatures should decrease. . Even in the
vicinity of the observatory temperatures on the lower wide flat
syrts should be a few degrees,: in summer as much as 5?, warmee
than at the observato27, which is located in a narrow glacial valley
only about 4 miles from the Petrov Glacier?
The Varyn Upland--Khan-Tengri area is a region of excessive and
long-continuing cold. In the Soviet Union, analogous temperature
conditions are found on the Aretic island of Noveya Zemlya. At
the Tien Shan Observetory, during the three years of record average
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monthly temperatures were subfreezing from October through May -
inclusive. September too may be considered a month of freezing
temperatures, as its average was only 32.90F. melt temperatures
of freezing or below were normal for the entire year. The average
daily minimum rose above 320F only in July and even than it stood
at a frigid 33.60F. About two-thirds of the days of the year had
below freezing average temperatures. From November through March
the average daily maximum was about 170F. This average rose to
about 45?F from Nhy thru September and reached its highest points
5203Fo in JUly.
The months of December, January, and February were intensely
cold at the Tien Shan Observatory. The average for the coldest
nonths, January and February, was -4.2?F. Winter cold is better
expressed by the range of daily temperatures. In January the daily
temperatures ranged from an average minimum of -18.8OF to an average
naximum of 10.90F. The lowest temperature recorded was -36.6?F.
Summer afternoons were somewhat Chilly but nights were definitely
cold with temperatures near freezing. A contrast in sensible
temperatures was also noted between sunny and shaded places. The
naximum temperature observed was 67.10F, and the minimum 7.7?F
(Table
The temperature- difference between Naryn and the observatory
amosanted_to,534o 100 during the coldest months and increased to
200 to 25o in summer.
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Table 50 Temperature of the Issyk-Kulg Hinterland
( in Deo"es Fahrenheit)
A. Average: Monthly Temperatures
Month
January 15.0
FebruEry 160,0
March 30.5
April 4605'
H*7 59.0
June 72.0
JOIr 7005
August 68.5
September 59.5
October .44.5
Nbeyemter 31.5
December 22.5
Year 44.6
St,...jaza
22.3
1908
36.7
51.6
61.5
7001
75.5
72.6
62.8
50.6
3700
27.5
Tien Shan
Ma. Observat
200
5.6
24.3
44.2
53.8
59.4
6304
63.2
54.5
4160
-248
8.2
2
22.0
29.3
37.0
41.9
38.3
32.9
2005
10.8
2.2
49.0
37.0
19.8
alc, Statistics for Tien Shan Observatory are for a 3-year period min,
19304932.
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Bo Average Daily Maxima and
Alma-Ata
Month Max7-rin
Minima
Station a/
Min,
Tien Shan
Observatory
Naryn
Max,
Iffi?
Arno
January
February ,
23
23
7
9
10
-8
11
9
.19
.17
March
38
23
32
14
27
April
55
38
Si
31
33
5
May
68
50
62
42
41
14
June
76
56
68
46
46
31
July
81
60
74
49
52
34
August
So
57
73
48
45
28 ?
September
71
48
67
41
41
26
October
55
34
51
29
35
3
November
40
23
35
16
22
-1
December
30
2.5
17
o
14
.16
No data are available for Frunze,
3.17 al
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C. Absolute
Month
Maxima and
Alma-Ata
Minima
Station
Waryn
Max' in
Tien Shan
Observatoi
lax. -ano
Frunte
Max, 141n,
Max.
,Min.
January
53
-30
55
-37
35
-32
14
-37
February
58
-25
62
4.3
41
.33
22
-37
March
76
.18
73
1
62
-32
42
-28
April
87
13
82
24
76
-4
46
.19
mAY
96
31
96
28
89
27
55
.6
June
100
41
93
34
91
28
67
9
July
100
45
100
48
94
37
65.
22
August
97
39
99
47
92
33
59
a
September
' 94
28
93
33
84
25
59
5
October
85
6
83
.17
75
6
68
-14
November
74
.,16
74
.4
59
-13
35
-18
December
59
-25
67
-13
43
-30
31
-33
4.1i It IS as p rams. ISMIO
Year
100
.30
100
.37
94
-33
68
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Ytse:LTOT(2.
:fa the Xssyk-Kul tintiand tha
cf 2repitatAon is direct4 eMeted by the conplicatrd
msture e,:vaditxons9 1etempopatures,
iv dif'Zer,nt a/-eas. The whole hinter:land is essentiar,y dry,
117::.) greatest plfeciritation is in the area nmrth. of Lake issyk-iivld?
E;1 th f;,.znval tota averages slightay more than 20 inchae,
:ix, the Chu. Valley. -t Frunoe9 ard in .'r.he Rarkarn-Ke de-aeessf,at
it about 15 toches. Over most of the area Eeuth of L.-.1:w
the ::veilipiietion is no mecca lhai' 12 inches. Because of the laic
cIfa,xxra4;ion iate assooiatec: with the 3ow -semperatures this arer,
da-3, phy3iolog1c:ally as the 3(A, J.,eeipitation totals
iight indicate. Yield research men have described the clFintc.1 nf
ECOJ of the svrts near the southern base of the Terskay. Ala-Tau as
de7pite the loq precipitation n The precipitation also increases
uti altitude and. windward slopes are urtter than those facing
'Lecwar,,
.p.rotipitation also varies from yo\nr to year, especfolly
the stlialer,, This variability is prone:mood in thaswea south
of .14.1ks Issyk,Itul
The season of nia5,T,rarr precipitation swings from the sprint: in
the northers. part of the hinterland to the sizer deep in the
FICATAtaiW3 of the liaryr. Upland ane. Elitan-Tengri,, in the north a. slight
qecDndis,..ry :29zzirum is observed toard the end of the year,but no
trae;i paidelccurs south of Lake Issyk-aull
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At Alma-Ata $0 3pax=cent of the yearly preApitation falls from
March to JUneD inciwitTe; the ainiest months are April and Maya
with 3 1/2 io2oS aoro of peipitaton. The secondary maximum
occure during .October and Nom-Aber:, Blightly more than 1 inch of
precipitation per month falls during winter and during the late
orrnmer and early fell pario:I.
At Frunze 40 peecent of the anewal total falls during the months-
of March through MaD the monthly gantimum9 2.6 indhes, occurs in ?
April. A minor secondary maximwe comes during November and December.
The wet months are followed by a definite dry period.
At Earyn the maximum shifts to the months of May through July
when about 5 inches of precipitation, or close to half the annual
average, is received. netra August through llarth, precipitation
overages only a half inch per month.
Judging by the three years of observations at the Tien Shan
Observatory, the interior of the Earyn Upland has 4, great preponderance
0 summer precipitation, with 60 percent occurring during the period
cf June through August. In the eastern part of the Earyn Upland and
in the Ehan-Tengri area very little precipitation falls from about
Cotober through ?larch.
c? &or q201.4,00
Snow conditions in the Zssyk-Kule hinterland
remain almost totally uninvestigated. Few statistics are available,
and descriptive materials by scientists are the primary source of
information. Only general approximations of snow conditions can
le given.
,a? 120 .0.
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The pattern of distribution and duration of snow cover and even
the period of snowfall are extremely variable and complex because
of the mountain structure. Throughout the hinterland most of the
precipitation in the cold months falls as snow. The snow particles
are small and, over the area south of Issyk-Kulg, even powdery
Over the northern lowlands there is an enduring winter cover from
the latter part of November to the middle of April. The snow lies
at a more-or-less even depth but is thickest apparently over the
Alma-Ata Lowland where its depth exceeds 6 inches during most of'
January and February. The maximum depth of cover in the Chu Valley
and the Karkara-Kegenv depression is described as 6 inches in late
February.
The snow layer is exceptionally variable in different areas
south of Lake Issyk-Kulg. The depth of cover is thickest in late
February and early March, and over most of the large valleys probably
does not exceed 6 inches. Toward the west, in the Naryn Valley
and others that are somewhat open to the west, the depth increases
to 12 inches or more. Occasional snowfalls can be expected as late
as May or as early as September. In some of the enclosed valleys,
such as the Kochkur Valley, an the other hand, the snow cover is
sparse and remains on the ground only a few days. Winds blow the
snow from the exposed slopes of the mountains to the valley areas.
Over the Khan,Tengri areas and also over much of the area east of
770T4recipitation for the entire year is principally in the form
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? sncu. E7en during the hottest months:, July and August, the
rulifler of days with snow is apparently greater than tha rnmber of
dLys with rain.
m May to September precipitation may change
frad ruin to sleet or snow, or vice versa, several times during the
course of a day snow is absent from the syrt or lowland, areas
frog about late April through October.
d. ffirdA
The general circulatLon is dominateLl by
? stor:Lywin6s. Above about 10000 fact, westerlies prevail througholt
tLe year. At the surface the general pattern of circulation is
eLs-mpted by winds of local origin. Mountain end valley breezeo
bra c11aractsiisti,3 of the entire hinterland. Nighttime minds
bo-r6ounsioe 2ountsin breezes)r and daytime minds bleu upslops
breeTes). These local uids are mos': aommon during the
? half: of the gear and strongest in the larger and deeper inter-,
ac:narc loultn_ north of Lake Xasyk-Nulo
Throughout the year winds attain :tiqatv highest ve1ocities during
Jp.in sftcrnocn. Might winds over the whole hinterland ars, on the
L.-s:?age probably no more than light breezes with velocities between
2 ts 5 miles psr hour. Afternoon winds probably reach avaz-tage
-,c1.)citias close to 10 miles per hour 3 ollt,)r the syrts cf>tho
t;an':,ral Tien Shan region these winds sometimes whip up dust. Th;.3
-rericdicity of wind Teleoities is less distinct during the
cii rkiaths. Occasionally winds of wale 2orce; around 92 ile per
hou are experieucedF, but calms are frequent:
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so CleAlellaMANLAIK
Normally the atmosphere of the Issyk-Kulg
hinterland appears to be semi-clear9 with a cloud cover of approximat4:
50 percent Minimum cloudiness occurs in August? September? and
October, when the cover for about half the days of each month drops
to less than 20 percent. The period of MaXIMUM1 cover differs
boteeen the areas north and south of lake Issyk-Kulg. North of the
3eke the greatest number of cloudy days occurs during December and
,lanuary when roughly one-third of the days have a mean cloudiness
of 80 to 100 percent. South of Lake Issyk-Kulgl; at Naryn9 the period
of =XIX= eloudiness is observed from March through Nay. Over the
remaindor of the area the maximum shifts to May and June. aoudine
ib groatee, in the middle of the day., Cloud formations are usual
rear the mountain summits; the crests that carry* glaciers are almost
conAnually enveloped by clouds,.
Fug
is rare and is no particular obstacle to visibility in the
intermontame vereys. Light fogs are most likely during the early-
morning hours from October through April.
30
Eismta-...A22
The cover of natural vegetation over the mountainous
hinterland is extremely diverse and arranged roughly in altitudinal
zonee. There are also variations within each of these zones depending
upou local conditions. By fare the larger part of the area is in
graselaed,. The generally high elevations and aridity preclude
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extenegme development of forests. Forests are almost lacking in.
ihe entire area south of the crest of the, Terskey Ala-Tau range ad
zee confined largely to the northern slopes of the ZeiliyakAy Ala-Tate
',"kfuellis1dy09 and largizskiymountain ranges (Figure 20). Cultivaticn.
has significantly disturbed the natural cover only in the Chu Valley
and the Alma-Ata lowland?
/ Vertical zonation of vegetation is best developed over the area
north of Lake Issyk-Knlg, where relative eleeations between moneitain
crests and intormontane basins are greatest. Along the northern
slopes of the mountains four major altitudinal provinces can be.
distinguished: (1) woodlandegrassland9 (2) spruce forest, (3)
luniper brushwood, and CO alpine meadowe Above the alpine meadoe
lies the region of perpetual anew and glaciers where vegetation.
is scanty and extremely limited in species. The southern slopes of
the ranges are grass-covered9 and only the deeper valleys are
forested. The Ketmenvrange'is else lar.ely grass-covered. The
lowland bottoms of the Chu Valley and the KarkarteKegeng depressium
have a cover ofshallow-rooted9 short grasses. From a distance the
ground appears to have a continuous covers, but actually much of it
is bare. There are also patches of wormwood shrub. 'eArts of the
stream banks consist of moist meadows with high grasso
ladespread development of the woodland-grassland belt is confined
largely to the Zaillyskiy--Chu-Iliskiye mountain wall, Me bele eesee.
feam the lower elevations to about 51500 feet. In the Chu ValleYp
along the Kirgizskiy Range the belt is largely grassland with a
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-2eT tad frlit trees and brush thiekets, generally near etreams.
Thee eatural oover io intermingling of open wtedlandsy thiclete
and0,-.asslaeda. The tiee. in the woodlands ars not closely spaced.
Hild zpple and Apricot are especiallyenumerous. Maple is alco
ezureen, and stands of a
and birch grow near the upper limit af
sena. The aany thickets inclelle several varieties of thorny
'evaheee, such as the barberry? the buC1cthorn9 and the hawthorn3
ge-assiande consist primarily f herba*e,ous plants 3 tt 5 feet
hid& graasss are most abundant in the upper part of the
belt. The beautifaliflowering plants of the meadows., seth as
risy peenyp @moue, and violety attract attenticn in the spring.
Sarah grovee and honeysuCkle thiokets ax a found. An tha valleys e
the larger streams?
Mestward from Alma-Ata and in the Chu Valley the louer part of
gre ueedland-grasalerd =a has been sastazadally modified by
agrieeltural activity. 'Wheat and barley fields cover muth of these
areas; sugme bests and hemp are proWment in the Chu MILay, and
orcharde ara widespread in the vicinity of Alma-Atao
The spruce forest sone is best developed at elevations of
5,33Q to 8t00 feet.on the northern faces of the Zailiyakiy A1a-J2su
ead Ramey Ala-lau. In the same altitudinal belt on. the southera
ale:pee of the mountains most of the surfaee is covered by grasses
eliah
ou to a height of 2 feet. Light forests of Tien Shan
epTuce growing iA open parklike fashion are typical (figure 21).
125
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S RC: ier,
? ri
( ?
c
. ? ?
r .
7.1
rti
???i.
s????'
fi
7 .
?-?;
?
ri ?
r-
4'1
? ,4 c
L'4
r?-al
ra0
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The area between the patches of forest is covered by high grass and
beush. Brush is more prevalent in the dense undergrowth of the
lover part of the zone, with gooseberry, several varieties of honey-
suckles sweetbrier, and ivies being dominant. Birch, aspen, and
mountain ash are also interwoven with the Tien Shan spruce. They
are lower in height and too few in number to dominate the forest.
At about 74500 feet the number of trees and bushes in the undergrowth
falls sharply leaving high grass as the principal ground cover.
In the 500 to 600 feet above the spruce forest zone Nes juniper
brushwood zone) 0 squatty juniper bushes are the most striking
vegetation feature, although subalpine meadow is more extensive.
Oe the junipers, the voila (Juniperus turkestanica), indigenous to
Central Asia, is by far the commonest. The branches spread horizon-
tally and remain close to the ground forming a low, creeping bush.
The fass, grows Individually and in thickets intergrown with
honeysuckle. Herbage of the grasslands grows to about 3 to 5 feet
and forms a dense, complete cover. Maly flowering plants, sueh
as the asters, geranium, and violet, are represented in the meadows.
The zone of alpine meadows begins at 90000-9,200 feet and
extends to the lower limit of permanent snow. At the lower part of
the zone the meadow growth is 8 to 10 inches high and the surface
of the ground is fairly completely covered. In the upper limits of
the zone much bare ground is visible; on south-facing slopes about
half the surface is bare. Plants are short, most of them not over
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4 to 6 inches high. The alpine meadows have a high proportion of
flowering plants, notably the cowslip, violet, globeflower, and
buttercup.
The vegetation cover south of Lake Issyk-Kulf is largely sparse
grass. Forests are very widely scattered and form on4 small patches
in some of the deeper mountain valleys. Only the Lower Naryn Valley
has a substantial amount of forest. Much of the valley is overgrown
with a mixed forest consisting mostly of spruce, birch, and popular.
The level surfaces of the syrts have a dull appearance, with much
bare ground, throughout the year. In general, vegetation is patchy
and covers only 10 to 15 percent of the ground surface. The dry
syrts have grayish, woody- wormwood shrublets, about 3 to 4 inches
high at the most, intermixed with several varieties of short grasses.
Stream courses are usually bordered by a belt of brush growth.
Some of the northern syrts also have more moist, extensive tracts
with a dense grass cover. Salt incrustations at the surface are
common in the dry areas.
troa.= ?
Most of the animal life is found on the slopes
of the mountain ranges north of Lake Issyk-Kulf. South of the lake,
the cold climate limits the species as well as the number of animas.
Of all the fauna, birds are most prevalent.
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Over the northern lowlands and the lower slopes of the Zaillyskly
Ala-Tau, Kirgizskiy, and Ohu-Myskiye mountains, birds are numerous,
particularly the starling, jackdaw, lark, oriole, pigeon, and windhavera
Many game birds inhabit the area, particularly the zone of open
woodland-grassland at elevations between:3,000 and 4,500 feet;
these game birds include the quail, partridge, black grouse, and
pheasant. Rodent-type small mammals, such as the porcupine, dormouse,
various types of wood and field .mice, and the hamster, are also
present. These mammals remain at the lower elevations, and evaa
mice are no longer found at an elevation of about 10,000 feet.
The carnivores include the weasel, fox, badger and wolftbut are not
particularly abundant. The wild boar is also occasionally seen.
Larger animals are confined to the higher elevations, generally
above 8,000 feet. The alpine jackdaw, the craw, and the Himalayan
mountain turkey are among the commonest birds. The Himalayan mountain
tarkey is most characteristic in craggy, snowy summit zones.
Among the large mammals inhabiting the high elevations are the
mountain goat and the wild sheep. In some places, mountain rams
are numerous. The wolf and fox also penetrate the alpine meadows.
The marten and the ermine, though now scarce, are hunted for their
Par. The Tien Shan brown bear and the Siberian roe deer also live
at the higher reaches of the mountains. The Tien Shan area is the
only place in the USSR where the snow leopard is still plentiful.
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On the Naryn Upland, south of Lake Issyk-Kuloy animals are not
abundant even though hunting is important to the economy of the
small population. The sno.-covered and glaciated eastern part of
the Khan-Tengri is very inhospitable to animals. Here animalsy
appear to be almost totally absent. Scientists have stated that
animals were only rarely seen during the normal course of their
field research. On the Earyn Upland probably the commoneet animal
is the marmot, a short-legged rodent. It is also the animal of
greatest commercial value. Colonies of relict suslik (ground
squirrels) are scattered through the area. This Is not the species
of suslik that lives on the plains of Kazakh and European Russia.
Foxes p badgers y and panthers also inhabit parts of the area. In
general, there are few insects and they do net hamper travel,'
The lark plover, and raven are numbered among the birds?
Ducks and mountain geese can be seen above the lakes Chatyr-Kulv
and Sop-KulE and over the small lakes along the southern 'case of
the Terskey Ala-Tau.
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PWaEL122
a. Density? DisLribution,
and Types
Tho population of the Issek-Kull hinterland is estimated at
1,000,000. Approximately 720,000 inhabitants are concentrated in
three regions that comprise a,out one-fourth of the land area.
These heavily populated regions are the Chu Valley, the Alma.A.ta
Lowlandl and the naryn and At-Bash River valleys.
The Chu Valley is the most densely populated area. It has
an estimated total of 300,000 inhabitants, settled mainly along
the Chu River and the Frunze4bachtye Railroad. The average
density is 175 persons per square mile. More than half the
population is settled in urban communities, the largest of which
are Frunze (140,000), Tokmak (20,000), and Kant (13,000)0
The Alma.Ata Lowland has an estimated populAtion of 400,000,
but it is less densely populated than the Chu Valley, however,
averaging about 95 persons per square mile. Alma-Ata? the
capital of the Kazakh SSR has 292,000 inhabitants.
In the Naryn and At-Bash River valleys, the densely populated
areas are around the town of Naryn and the settlement of At-Bashi.
About 20,000 inhabitants are located here. Nary% the largest
settlement, has a population of 5,000. Within an 80-mile stretch
extending east and west of Naryn$ the population density averages
45 persons per square mile. The region around At-Bashi Jo somewhat
more densely popalitedl averaging about 95 persons per square mile.
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The remaining three-fourthe of the hinterland is very
sparsely easuIxted. The int nor mountain ran ,es of the
Uaryn Upland are largely uninhabited except for isolated nomadic
groups in the alpine pastures. The upper reaches of the Kuneey
and Zailiyskiy Ala-Tau ranges are also bare of habitation. The
valleys of mountain rivers provide limited areas suitable for
livestock grazing and famine, and are sparsely populated by
groups of rural settlers. The valleys of the Cholok.Kapchieay,
Irtash, and Ak.Say? all tributaires of the Naryn River, average
about 2 persons per square mile. Settlements here are mainly
summer or winter quarters of native cattle herders. A similar
paeu7atlxi5.ensity is found throuOiont the valleys of the
iiochkur and Kara-Su Rivers, and in the basins of Lakes Son-Kull
and Chatyrogull. The valleys of the Chilik, Sharyn, and Kogan'
Rivers are more heavily dopul'ted, averagine about 13 persons
per square mile.
Throughout most of the hinterland the rural type of popula-
tion predominates, consisting to a large extent of pastoral
nomads. These people, mainly Kireizi and Kazakhs, move with
their herds between traditionally established pasture grounds,
where, as a rule, they live in temporary yurta encampments.
Each ata3 or encampment, has its traditional grazing lands,
usually used jointly by several auls. The seasonal migration
is performed in stages, each stage characterized b: short daily
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advances; the length of which depends on the size of the herds
involved and the cvellity and extent, of available grazing land.
The longest period of encampment is during the winter season*
Hinter quarters are chosen in sheltered areas such as lowlands
or river valleys. With the coning of spring the nomads move
frau their minter canps toward the mountain pastures. Spring
quarters ("kokteus") are generally located in the foothill
regions. As the snowline retreats, the herdsmen move into higher
mountain zones. They establish their summer camps, or "dzhaylyaus"
above the forest zone and in the syrts. Summer camps are maintained
for only a short period. With the beginning of falls the monads
descend into lower mountain zones where they establish fel)
quarters ("kusen"). These quarters include a number of fields
where Grass is sown by the poorer members of the tribe. The
agration cycle is completed with the approach of winters when
the clans return to their winter quarters.
Under the 6oviet regime, scae of the nomads in the area have
assumed more sedentary characteristica In place of the traditional
yurta eneampnent used as winter quarters, they have established
permanent villages in which the winter season is apent. These
villages usnally belong to a livestock kollthoz Women, children,
and older people remain in the villages dering the migration
season and cultivate food and fodder crops in adjacent fields0
llountain pastures are chosen at relatively close distances from the
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villaees. Livestock on pasture are often provided uith supele.
mentary fodder gram in the village hayfields.
The settled rural population of the hinterland is distributed
mainly in the agricultural districts of the Chu Valley and the
Alma.Ata Lowland. Small concentrations of rural settlers are also
found in the Naryn and At-Dash Velleys. These people are primarily
engaeed in farming, raising food and industrial crops. Rural
settlers are grouped either in individual villages or in kolkhozes
and sovkhozes. Russians, Ukrainians, Kirgizi, and Kazakhs pre-
doninate among the settled rural population. The Russians and
Ukrainians are found in areas where conditions of terrain and
climate are similar to those of their homelands. They are mostly
irrigation farmers and specialize in growing sugar beets, tobacco,
and fiber plants. Most of the Kirgiz rural settlers are in the
Chu Valley, where they live to a large extent in kolkhozes and
sovkhozes. The Russian and Ukrainian farmers who are frequently
found in the Kirgiz oettlements arc put there by the Soviets to
indoctrinate the forner nomads in new menthods of crop rotation,
irrigation, and harvestine. In the northern parts of the hinter
lands Kazakhs predominate. They are settled in mall v131 ages and
collective farms and are nainly engaged in livestock breeding.
They still are to a Great degree seminomadic. Although their com.
munities (auls) are permanently established, the nen still migrate
with their livestock to mountain pastures in Zalliyskiy Ala-Tau.
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In the vicinity of the Issyk-Kull Basin the rural population
includes smaller number of Sart, Tarenchi, and Dungan settlers,
uho are engaged mainly in cultivating fruit orchards, medicinal
plants? and rice.
Since 1,IorldWar17,0 the settled rural population of the hinter-
land has increased somewhat owing to the resettlement of Volga
Germans and North Caucasians in the area. About 20,000 Volga
Germans are distributed throughout the Alma-Ata area and in the
Chu Vsrley. Bystrovka (population 5,000) is reported to have a
predominantly German poplantion. In the vicinity of Alma...Ate are
31)0118,000 North Caucasians, mostly Kalmyks, Karacheis, and Balkarians who were accused of collaboratin with the German invaders
and were forcibly settled in kolkhozes and sovkhozes. A limited
number of Baits (Lithuanians, Latvians, and Estonians) are also
found here s they serve mainly as agricultural expertso
The urban population of the hinterland is largely concentrated
in the cities of Alra.Ata and Frunze and in the towns of Telmak,
Kant, and Naryn. Other smaller urban settlements are located in
the, foothill region of the Zaill7jskty Ala-Tau and in the Chilik,
Sharynl and Kocent River vnlleys. 'lost of the urban settlers are
Russians or Ukrainians? In Alrkta and Frunze there is a large
uincrity of native settlers?
A.-small portion of the hinterland population consists of
forced laberers, but little information is available on penal
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labor camps in the area.
Prisoner of War Camp 70h0 in Alm-Ata
was still in operation in early 1949, housing 300 to 600 Carman
PUls and an unknown number of Japanese. Since January 19500
however, the camp is believed to be used for penal and forced
labor. About 3,000 convicts have been reported in the Alma.Ata
area. The number of forced laborers in the Chu Valley area is
believed to be even greater; such labor gangs have been used to
build the railroad extension from Bystrovka to Rybachtye. Plans
for further extension of railroad and road facilities in the Chu
and IssyR-Kull areas undoubtedly include the extensive use of
forced labor.
b. Ethnic, Ph,rsical and Social Characteristics
The population of the hinterland is characterized by a great
diversity of ethnic groups, each with its individual social
customs and physical traits. Historical, political, physical,
and economic influences are responsible for this conglomeration
of peoples. Representative groups are Russians, Ukrainians,
Kirgizi, Sarts, Taranchis? Kalmyks, and Dungans. Their cultural
characteristics are the LaEle as those of the corresponding groups
in the Issyk.Kull Basin. The KirEizi, many of whom are still
nomadic, represent the largest croup. Additional ethnic croups
found mainly in the Issyk-Kult hinterland are Kazakhs and smaller
numbers of Uzbeks, Volga Germans, and Baits, A negligible number
of North Caucasians are also found in the area.
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(1) Kazakhs
The area north of the Kazakh- Kirgiz boundary is predaainantly
inhabited by Kazakhs. The Kazakhs are of Turkic origin. They
are florr-oloid in physical appearance ith medium stature and
stocky build. Ethnically& they are closely related to the
Kirgizi and Kara-Kalpaks. Their most striking features arc small
black$almond-shaped eyes $ broad flat noses $ high cheek bones
flat faces, and a relatively dark complexion. (Figure 22)
Kazakh social structure is based on an elaborate faatily
systemplelich prevails in spite of Soviet efforts to break the
strong family ties. Class distinction among the Kazakhs is
determined first on the basis of hereditary caste and secondly
by economic position within the community. Although private
ownership on a large scale is illegal by Soviet standards
wealth among the Kazakh s is still often based an ownership of
cattle$yurtas$ and size of minter quarters and garden plots.
According to ancient Kazakh traditicol a passing traveler
is entitled to stop at any manls hut (kibitka) and remain in-
definitely. The host is responsible for the welfare of nav
stranger who suceunbs to starvation or exhaustion within the
vicinity of the camp or village. Theoretically even enemies have
the right to 'ospitality. In order to avoid the burden of this
obligation, Kazakh ca:ap sites arc generally located at a distance
from frequently traveled routes. As a rule travelers take
advantage of this custom only when forced to by necessity,'
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Figure 22. Kazakh herdsman in conventional dress.
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(2) Uzbeks
Uzbek settlers are encountered in the Chu Valley, where they
live in mixed villages and kolkhezeso The Uzbeks are not a clearly
defined ethnic group, although they are generally considered as
being of the Turko.Tatar strain, mixed with Persian stocky
Uzbeks are well built and average about 5 feet 6 inches tall
They have oval heads and yellowish faces with fairly prominent
chock bones dark eyes and jet-black hair a Ilost of the men
have completely shaven heads, and the women wear their hair in
tresses wrapped around their heads?
Most of the older women are veiled, and it is considered an
insult for a stranger to look upon a womanis unveiled face
or to unveil it The women and children have to do most of the
work* They farm and make carpets while the fathers and husbancts
remain idle or do some hunting or sheep breeding. The people
are very hospita'aeo To refuse an invitation to a home is
taLen as evidence of animosity Women usually have to leave
the room when a guest enters. The master of the house enter*.
tains the visitors while the wife or wives prepare tea and foods
which are served through the room curtains. The Uzbeks are
fond of music,'
(3) 2:222_Germans and North Caucasians
Volga Germans are tall, blonds and robust? North
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Caucasians inaudingKalrayks, Karachaisg and Balkariansg are
hybrids of Hongoliang Turkic, and Japhetic.spealdng peoples?
They are of medium stature with round heads, broad, flat
facesg and slanted eyes, Some of the North Caucasians are
Sunnite flosloms and are traditionally hostile to Christians,
Socially, these people are very backward? Women h:ve infer-
ior status in the family and are responsible for all of the
heavy work? The Balkarians are considered friendly and gays
bat rg,tr be reduced to brigandage in periods of poverty?
(4) Baits
B alts are generally of medium to tall stature and
heavy butldg with long bodies and welldeveloped arms and
shoulders? As a rule they have light hi P0
nationalistic and cohesive?
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c* Lan,,ua-e and fleli4aon
The languages and religions of the various ethnic groups in
the hinterland correspond to those of the same croups found in the
IssykKij.11 Basin* Kirgiz, Russian, and Kazakh arc the Predominate
languams, with Kirgiz spoken over most of the area. The Kazakhs
speak a Turkic dialect related to Kirgiz and to Osman Turkish*
The Latin alphabet ori-i nally introduced by the Soviets was
replaced in 1940 b7 a Cyrillic alphabet. Although Moslems? the
Kazakhs are less strict in observing the practices of Islam
a la=ity attributed partly to nomadic living*.
? The Uzbeks also speak a Turkic dialect and have an ortho-
graphy based on the Cyrillic alphabet. Most Uzbeks are Moslems
of the Sunnite Mohammedan group and are influenced by mysticism.
The Germans and Baits have mAintained the languages and
religio nso
d* Political Attitudes
The political attitudes of the popnl ation of the Issyk-Kulg
hinterland are identical with those preys:Mug in the Issyk-Kule
Basin,, The Ka*akha in the northern hinterland share the general
Moolem attitude toward the Soviets; howevero manifestations of
political unrest have been more strongly expressed by this
group. A political body called "Centkom LeEpartErup" (Central
Committee of Political Groups), with headquarters at Alma.mkta,
has the task of pacifying Kazakh agitation.
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20 Settlements
a, 2422212pu Distribution
Two basic types of settlements are found in the hinterland?
Slav cities, towns, and villages comprise the first and more
important group? In organization andtypecConstraction they
resemble Russian and Ukrainian settlements in the European U35IL0
Soviet improvements and architectural ihfluences are most dominant
in these sett1ements0 The second croup of settlements consists
of native towns, villages, and yurta encampment 0 The towns and
villages, in particular, are sinilnr to the ik)slem settlements
throughout Soviet Central Asia and large areas of the Ucar East?
In addition to these two basic croups, there are in the arca a
Anmber of kolkhozes (collective farms) and sovkhozes (state farM8),
which developed with tile introduction of Soviet collective agri.,
culture. Kolkhezes consist of one or several villages with
either a Russian, Ukrainian, or native population* Sovkhozes
also include one or more rural settlements, but frequently are
of a mixed population*
(1) Russian Cities and Towns
Most of the Russian urban settlements are located in the
Chu Valley and in the Alma.Ata Lowland* They are usually of
square or rectangular shape. Streets are generally wide and
bordered by rows of poplars? liostly not surfaced, they turn
into mud tracks and ruts during rainy season s? Individual
dwellings are mostly constructed of clay or mud bricks, often
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colorfully painted,110uses are separated from each other by low
mud walls enclosing fairly large garden plots? In comuorcial
districts and along main thoroughfares, stoAe, tileoor brick
structures are elommono These goner:4,11y include the official and
cultural buildings of tile Soviet Government, the local and
Ilunicipal administration, and the Communist Partyo
Soviet improvements in street building, architectural
designe, and public utilities arc most noticeable in the cities
of Alma?Ata, and Frunze and the towns of Tolanear: and Kant, where
many of the main streets are laved uith asphalt or macadamo
Impressive public buildings, such as libraries, schools, theaters,
and cultural institutes, arc located in the centers of these
towns? Lare residential sections ,are calparatively modern
and offer facilities of more or loss western standards?
lIewwor3cersg settacnontr n.r.c being constructed near large
industrial enUerprises, narticularly sugar plants as in Kanto
According to Soviet cla5els, sone of those settlements already
have several thousand inhabitants? The number of skilled workers
has increased proportionately. In the early twenties Frunze
had only a Lou hundred industrial workers whereas in 1945 several
thousand persons have been reported world.= in industrial en..
terprises there,
(2) Russian and Ukrainian V1]ies
Russian and Ukranian villaLes also resemble villaL;es of
central and southern European Russia. In the narrow sections nf the
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Chu, Naryn, and Kochkor Valleys, the elongated villages extend
along the rivers, the major roads, or the Frunze.Rybachlye Rail.
road. In the -wide, flat areas of the Alma.Ata Lowland and Chu
Valley, the villages are square or rectangular. Southwest of
Alma-Ata and Frunze,. where Russians and Ukrainians settled in
already densely populated areas, their villnges are irregular in
shape.
Flost villages consist of one unimproved dirt street lined-
with poplar or elm trees though'some villages may have two or
three streets. Village characteristics and irrigation systems
are the same as those found in the villages of the Issyk EUlt
During years of Soviet rule, many of the larger Russian villages
on the Frunze.Rybachlye Railroad line and on main roads of the
hinterland have developed into rayon centers. Their streets are
considerably improved, and new buildings housing schools and village
stores are not uncommon. Freouently these villages also have
mathine.tractor stations as well as other small industrial enter.
prises. According to otaviet claims some of these villages, such
as Voroshilov, have populations larger than 10,000. The formerL7
unmixed Russian population 4011 coptalei? Ttrkie elements, such as
Kirgizil Dungans, Uzbeks, and Kazakhs.
(3) Native Towns
There are feu native touas in the hinterland. The best examples
of native urban settlements are the ancient Eoslem sections of
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Frunze and Almaaata; the touns of UzuoaLgach and Kara Kystak? in
the foothills of the Zailyskiy Alar.Tau; Kogan', at the western end
of the Ketmeno ranges; and Naryn and Atbashi in the Baryn and At.
Bash River Valleyo
Townsl as a rule, are larger settlements that have developed
near routes of transportation or in productive areas with good
natural irrigation* Native tours in general are patterned after
Moslem settlements throughout the Near and Middle East* In the
center of such towns is usually found the bazaar sections where the
main trade routes leading into town intersect* This section com-
prises a number of badly arranged, narrow, and unsurfaced streets,
frequently covered with reeds or planks, and hardly wide enough
tor two large pack animals to pass* The sides of the streets are
lined with =tisane workshops, merchandise vendors o shops, team
houses, and an occasional bathhouse. Buildings in the bazaar section
are generally constructed of fire-resistant materials such as tile,
stone, or claya The bazaar section of some native towns has a large
square, usually surrorrded by dilapidated buildings used for reli-
gious and commercial purposes.) Surrounding the bazaar sectian are
the residential areas with large homes and gardens, caravan resting
places, burial mosques, and large cemeteries. In some cases, the
residential area is encircled by a high clay wall, which was used
in the past as fortification*
Some of the larger native towns, such as Naryn, and the floslem
sections of Frunze and Alma-Ata, ahou signs of Soviet cultural and
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architectural influences* Communist cultural centers are located in
the busy sections of town. Some public utilities, usually electri-
city or running water, are avai)able in limited quantities*
(4) lamlalaP.P.
Among native villages of the hinterland, the Kirgiz and
Kazakh settlements (kishlaks) are predominant* Their location and
design depend largely on the availability of water. In lowland
areas with adequate irrigation networks (Chu Valley, AlmapAta
Lowland), the numerous Kirgiz or Kazaatvillages are of irregular
shapes. In the mountain foothillq? they are more scattered and
are mainly elongated street settlements along mountain streams*
In the interior mountain regions, where areas suitable for settleop
ment are considerably restricted, the few existing villages are
small and are located on terraces, alluvial fans, and mountain
slopes
Village streets are generally unimproved dirt tracks. During
rainy seasons they are extremely middy and are best traveled on
horseback. In mountain villages, the streets frequently have a
mixed dirt, rock, and tone surface. Farm quarters in both Kirgiz
and Kanakh villages deviate little from those of Moslem villages
distributed throughout Soviet Central Asia and described under
settlements in the Issyk-Kull Basin4
Dungan villages are located in the Chu valley and in areas
adjacent to the Chinese frontier* Some of the larger villa es
are Alexandrovka, south of Frunze, and Ililyanfan and yashanalog
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in the Kantskiy Rayon. Village streets are narrow and unsurfacedo
Farm.steads are built of sun.haked bricks and enclosed by a high mud
wall. Living quarters, utility shacks, and stables are grouped around
an interior courtynxd. All of the buildings have flat roofs, which
are frequently used as garden plots to grow barley and opium
poppies. Vegetable gardens and rice paddies of individual farm-,
houses are located outside the villages. The interior axrangea,
ment of Dungan farmhouses is modeled after that of houses in
northern China.
In the Chu Valley also are a small number of Uzbek villages?
One of the larger Uzbek settlements is the Iskra Kolkhoz. Uzbek
farmhouses are constructed of sun-dried clay and are surrounded by
a high mud wall. There are no windows facing the street, and only
a small, narrow opening serves as entrance from the outside. Each
house has a courtyard which provides daylight tothe indtvidual
rooma.
(5) ..._altSeMjiaYurt
Turta encampments are the dominant form of settlement of
nomadic and seminomadic Virgizi and Kazakhs. The grouping,
construction and organization of these encampments follow the same
pattern as those described under the Issyli Kul' Basin?
(6) Kolkhozos and Sovkhozes
Most of the kelkhozes in the hinterland are located in the
Chu and Earyn Valleys and the Alma-Ata Lowland. They generally
consist of one or several larger villages with a predominent
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Russian, Kirgiz, or Kazakh population. The Kenosh kolkhoz in
the Ivanovskiy Rayon of the Chu Valley is one of the larger collec-
tive farms in the area* According to Soviet sources, this kolkhoz
(originally the village Oktyabrl) is a large ranch.,type operation,
consisting of three sheep...raising farms, two horse-breeding farms,
and one farm each for raising cattle, camels, hogs, and poultry*
Collective farmers aro engaged mainly in crop cultivation and
livestock raising* Their methods of farming and animal breeding
are more advanced than those used in noncollective villages*
Crop rotation is widely practiced in the kolkhozes*
In mountainous areas, kolkhozes are considerably smaller* As
a rule, they consist of a single village with 5 to 10 farmsteads*
The populntion is predominently native and is engaged in animal
husbandry*
Sovkhozes are located mainly in the Chu Valley* They consist
of several large villages with a mixed population of Russians,
Ukrainians, and natives* Sovkhozes serve as experimental farms
for newly developed methods in crop cultivation, irrigation, and
livestock breeding* They are efficiently operated and are supplied
with agricultural machinery*
In the northwestern part of the Chu Valley is located the
Novolubtrest Sovkhoz* This is one of the largest sovkhozes in the
area and specializes in cultivating fiber plants* It consists of
the villages of Dzhanti.Dzher, Dzhanti.Pakhta, Nizhne-Chu, and
Vasiigyev* In the foothill region of the Chu Valley are the
cattle-raising savkhozes of Imeni Frunze, Alamedin, Kegety, and
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Shanisi, and the sheep.raising savthoz of KzyItOktyabr. The
Ineni Frunze sovkhoz also specializes in neat packing0
The number of sovkhozes throughout the remainder of the
hinterland is extremely small. Moteworbhy are two sheep.raising
sovkhozes located in the Kochkar and Dzhumgol River Valleysp
cnd a horse,.breeding savkhoz in the Maryn Valley
b. Description
AlaamAta and Frunze are the only cities in the hinter..
land. The most important towns in the arca are ToLmakt, Kant3,
Lnd Waryne,
(1) Alma-Ata
The city of Alma.ata is located near the northern foothills
of the ZailiyskiyAla.Tau, about 43 miles north of Lake Issyk4u1.t
(Figure 23)0 Alma Ata (formerly known as Verny) is the capital
cf the Kazakh MR. Its total population is estimated at 300,000.
In areal AlmapAta covers about 54 square niles and is epprodc.
mately rectangular in shape. The Vesnovkao a small stream, flaws
through the city area. The Malaya Almatinka River skirts the
eastern edge of Alma-Ataa and the Doltshaya Almatinka (the largest
etream in the area) flows along the western outskirts of the town.
The Boahaya Almatinka and the Vesnovka discharge into a reservoir
..AIna*Ata in Kazakh means tLather of apples." It is so named
?because of the numerous apple Ordhard$ throughbut the city Alna..Ata
is considered to be the fruit-growing center of Soviet -;entral Asia.
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SEMIT
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?-)
E--
.47
?tel
cti
t-Q
I3LO
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4-4
+3'
+3
a
tri
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a)
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an
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located about 4 1f2 miles northwest of town. Formerly the city
was separated into two parts, the old (southern) and the new
(northern) city. The two parts are now connected by housing
developments, industries, and a single-track railroad line, The
present city was largely build after 1910, when an earthquake almost
aompletely destroyed the old city of Verny, Alma-Ata has a rmmber
of impressive public buildings and modern apartment houses con-
structed of stone or reinforced concrete (Figure 24)* Streets,
as a rule, are wide ( approximately 33 feet ) and form almost
?square city blocks. "Stalin Prospekt" is the main thoroughfare*
This avenue is asphalt surfaced and electrically lighted. Other
main streets that have asphalt or stone surfaces and electric lights
? are: Ulitsa /lira (formerly Issyk-Kultskaya); Ul. Tashkentskva?
which crosses the Vesnovka and Bollshaya Almatinka Rivers; 1J10
Xemsamoleskaya? which bridges the Vesnovka River; Ul. Kalinin and
Ul. Kirov? business streets; and Ul, Dzerlhinski, Ul. Uspenski?
Ul, Furmanski? Ul, Karl harx, Lenin Prospekt? Ul, Artillereyskaya?
Ul. Gogo)), and Ul, Laxim Gorki. The main squares in Alma-Ata are
the Red Square, located in center of town, the Opera Rouse Square,
and the large square located in front of the railroad station known
as Alma-Ata II. There are also two large parks, one of which cone-
tains the city zoo,
Urban transportation within the city limits is maintained by
streetcars, buses, trolley buses, and taxis. Alma-Ata has three
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streetcar lines, The first line begins at Plant No. 175 (Torpedo
Plant) and runs to the railroad station, Alma-Ata If, via
romsomolskaya Ulitsa and Ulitsa Karl Harm. Another line, also
beginning at Plant No, 175, takes the same route to the railroad
station, Alma..Ata II, but it continues to a grain silo located
about 1 mile southeast of the railroad station Alma-Ata I, The
third streetcar line also starts at the factory, but merely circles
the southern part of tawn. The streetcar depot is located within
the compounds of Plant No. 175, One bus line runs every half hour
between the railroad stations of Alma-Ata I and II, Three other
bus lines operate at regular intervals between Alma...Ate and the
towns of Kaskelen, Ili, and Talgar. In addition to the regualar
buslines, there is a trolley-bus line, which circles the center
of the city. Numerous taxicabs of the nPobedan type have been seen
in Alma-Ata since 19490
Since World War II, Alma-Ata has developed into an important
industrial center. This growth is attributed largely to the evacuation
of numerous industrial plants from the threatened areas of the
European USSR to Alma-Ata. The main infinstrial area is located in
the west-southwest part of the city. The northeast section of tam
is also being developed into an industrial area, At present Alma-Ata
is one of the most important torpedo-manufacturing centers in the
Soviet Union, It also contains a heavy machine-building industry
(including railroad shops), spinning mills, fruit-preserving and
meat-packing plants, a wine distillery, tobacco factories, tanneries,
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and saumills. South of Alma-Ata, several hydroelectric stations
and dams have been constructed on the Bolshaya Almatinka" Paver.
Sewage and water systems are inadequate, but the city has adequate
telephone and telegraph service, Other installations locateavithin
Alma,Ata include an electric equipment plant and a series of bo
electric power stations. Local industry supplies many of the oer.
ponent parts used in the torpedo assembly. Manufactured torpedos
are tested at the Przhevaltsk testing station on Lake Issyk-Kult,
2ndustrial workers, numbering approximately 20,000, consist of
skilled and semiskilled Russians and Ukrainians, and Mongolian and
Kirgiz laborers.
Alma-Ata is also considered the cultural center of the Kazakh
SCR. It has a university, established in 19280 and 8 higher
educational institutions, 2 specializing in pedagogy', 1 in mining
and metallurgy.) 1 in medicine, 2 in agriculture?,and 1 in law.
The city has 19 technical and other special schools, as well as 25
scientific research institutions. The latter function under the
supervision of the Academy of Scienoes of the Kazakh SSR, In addition,
Alma-Ata has a Kazakh branch of the Lenin Academy of Agriculture,
a large public library and regional museum, Kazakh and Passian opera
houses, theaters, and public parks.
,Located on the strategic Turksib Railroad, Alma-Ata is a
significant transportation and trade center. The Turksib has greatly
facilitated the economic and industrial development of Alma.Ata
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by linking the city with the grain- and lumberh-prodacing areas of
Yestern Siberia? the cotton regions of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, and
the industrial regions of the Central Urals. Raw materials, such
ore, coal, and lumber, are brought into the city by rail fran
Karaganda, Alma-Ata has a lively trade in such commodities as
cattle meat, butter, livestock products, fruit, and fish. Owing
to its proximity to the Chinese border, Alma-Ata is an important
trade center between the USSR and the Sinkiang Province of China.
A civilian airfield is located in the northeastern section of
the city. Scheduled air routes of the Civil Air Fleet lit* the
city with noscow? Frunze, Tashkent, Karaganda, and Novosibirsk.
(2) Frunze
Frunze., the capital of the Kirgiz SSR,
lies in the center of the Chu Valley on the lagovey-Rybachqye
branch of the Turksib Railroad, It spreads over the alluvial fans
cf the Alareh and Alamedin Rivers (tributaries of the Chu River).
Frunze is the fourth largest city in Soviet Central Asia, and has
an estimated population of 140,000, The city was built in 1673 as
a Russian fortress and named Pishpek, In 1925 the city was renamed
for the Bolshevik general, n. V. Frunze.
The city is built around a number of straight streets and avenues,
which, as a rule, lead in a north-south or east-vest direction,
Ulitsa Dzherzhinskogo? one of the main avenues of Frunze, running
in a north-south direction, connects the center of the city with
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the Frunze railroad station, located about 3 miles south of the
main part of town. The avenue consists of two asphalt-paved
:nadways? each for one-way traffic,. The law buildings along the
avenue are concealed during summer by rows of poplar trees planted
a3ong the sidewalks, Several never 2- or 3-story buildings fazing
1110 Dzerzhinskogo include the Kirgiza4-Filia1 AkademiiNauk SSR
C,Kirgiz Branch of the Acadamy of Sciences of the USSR), the
Respublikanskaya Prokuratura (Republic Prosecuting Magistracy), and
ho Tsentral/nyy Telegraf (Central Telegraph Office). The center
of town is modernized, having most of the surfaced streets, a large
city square, and the main government buildings, libraries, and
theaters (Figure 25),
Tim main east-west streets of Frnme are the Ulo Lenin% 1)10
Frunze, Ul. Stalina (along the main trolley-bus line), Ul, Toktogula,
and Ul, Pionerskaya. The main course of the old Semirechenskiy
Trakt coincides with the present Ul. Lenina. Ulitsa Frunze is
ftnawn to be only partly surfaced, dirty, and without electric
:lighting. Parts of this street are flooded with liquid waste from
the Dunicipal Dairy. Traffic isknown to stop at dusk along entire
sections of the avenue, In the westermand eastern outskirts of
Frunze, these streets merge into a motorable highway, which leads
to Taahkent to the west and to Lake IsaYk-Kull to the eaat.
Other streets in Frunze are Ul, Gertsenal Ul? Sovetskaya, Ul.
Pervomayskaya, Ul, Voroshilova, Ul, KaganoVicha,.. Ul, Pubhkina, Ul.
Zapadnaya" and UL Lsva Tolstogo,
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There is a great 'deal of green vegetation throughout the city,
Poplars and oaks are planted along most of the streets. Orchards
are located in many sections of town, In the northeastern section
are several parks of elm trees,
Frunze has become an important industrial center for the pro
-
classing of agricultural products from the Chu Valley and other
astricts of Kirgizia. Frunze accounts for about 65 percent of the
total industrial production and has over 30 percent of the total
rumber of industrial workers in the Kirgiz SSR (Figure 26), Indus-
trial enterprises within the city include a large and modern meat
combine, a mi31 combine, a leather plant, a tobacco fermentation
paant? a liquor distillery, and a brewery. Metalr.working plants
produce parts for tractors, machine tools, hydroelectric turbines
forkolkhoz electric power stations, and various agricultural
rachines, implements, and tools. A hemp and jute industry has been
established to manufacture rope and fabrics from the fiber plants
grown in the Cha Valley. There is also a sewing and clothing
factory, Numerous smaller industrial enterprises include the brick
plants of Krasniy Stroitell and Novo-Pavlov.
Frunze is the cultural center of the Kirgiz SSR, It has
several higher educational institutions, Russian and Kirgiz theaters,
a regional museum, and a number of scientific and cultural research
organizations? The latter group includes individual institutes for
. history, language and literatures biology, geology, epidemiology,
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Figure 26. Vertical air view of workers ? district at southwest edge of Frunze, showing railroad station (top left)
and race track (left). Frunze Publication, l942.
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D
and microbiology-0 There are also research agencies working on
livestock, fruit, vegetable, and tobacco raising. Most of the
scientific institutions are under the jurisdction of the Kirgiz
branch of the Acadegv of Sciences of the USSR.
Frunze is also an important transportation and trade center.
The Lugovay Rybachlye sector of the Turksib Railroad crosses the
Chu Valley from west to east, passing through Frunze. To the east,
the line reaches Lake Issyk-Kulg? providing a combined rail.water
traffic route from Frunze to Przhevaltsk? To the west and southwest,
the line connects Frunze byway of Dzhambul? Tashkent, and Kokand
with the highly industrial and agricultural Fergana Valley. Trunk
highways (partly asphalted or gravel improved) connect Frunze with
the principal industrial or cultural centers of Kirgizia, such as
Dzhalal-Abad, Osh? Kzyl-Kiya, Kant, Tokmak,Rybachgyel, and Naryn,
Scheduled civil air routes lead from Frunze to Alma-Ata, and also
to Tashkent and Dzhusaly from which connection can be made for
Lbscow. Regional and nonscheduled air routes also link Frunze with
secondary airfields at Narn, Rybachlye, Przhevaltsk? Dzhalal-Abad?
and Dzhambul,
(3) Tokmak
The town of Tokmak is located near the
southern bank of the Chu River approximately 37 miles east of Frunze.
An increase in the agricultural activity of the Tokmak area has
caused a great influx of Russian, Ukrainian, and some Dungan
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people, numbering about 202000, Tokmak has become the second
largest urban settlement in the Chu -Valley. Its industries are
largely concerned with the processing of fiber plants and wool.
A cannery and beet-sugar refinery are located in the suburb of
Oktyabrskiy. In addition, there are an auto repair plant and a
hydroelectric station (Tokmak GES) within the town limits.
Tokmak has adequate transportation facilities for its beet-
sugar and wool trade. The Lugovoy-Frunze-Rybachlye railroad line!,
-4h1ch passes through the southern section of town, handles a
sizable volume of the freight traffic moving in or out of Toknak.
The remaining freight traffic is by road..,, The main highway leading
from Frunze to Rybachtye and Przhevaltsk passes through the center
of town: where it becomes the main thoroughfare. Improved dirt
roads also connect Tokmak with the settlements of Kegety2 Kara-
Kunuz? Krasnogorka: and the health resort of Issyk-Ata. One of
the main streets in town is the Ulitsa Sadovaya. On this street
is located the Tokmak Technical School for the Mechanization and
nectrification of Agriculture*
(4) Kant
Kant is located some 11 miles east of
Frunze. It is a rayon center and has a population of approximately
130000. Road and railroad facilities connect Kant with Frunze in
the west and with the Issyk-Kult Basin in the east. The economy
of the city, like that of Tokmak, is based primarily on the sugar-
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beet industry and truck gardening, Two sugar mills have been in
operation since 1932. Other industrial installations include a
cement plant, a rayon industrial combine9 and the main supply and
repair shops of the Kirgiz rinistry for Auto Transport (rinisterstvo
Avto-transport9 Kirgiz SER), Cultural and medical institutions
known to exist in, the city are two secondary schoo1s9 two workers
c1ubs9 a radio receiving and wire relay station (radio uze171)9
a polyclinic and a hospital. Recent information indicates that
a garrison of mountain troops has been stationed in Kant along the
Frunze-Rybachgye highway and railroad,
(5) Naryn
The town of Naryn is located south of the
left bank of the Naryn River and approximately 50 miles southwest
of Lake Son-Kulg. Naryn has a population of approximately 59000
and is the administrative center of the Tien Shan Oblast of the
Kirgiz SER.
In the past Naryn vas known as the village of Narynsk9 located
on the trade route from Kashgaria to the Chu Valley, It had
considerable importance as a fortress9 and a small Cossack detach-
ment was stationed here. After the Revo1ut1on9 Narynsk was
developed into a town and renamed Naryn.
The town consists of several main streets running parallel
to the river. The streets are lined with one-story houses9 which
are surrounded by gardens. The houses have flat roofs and adobe
walls. The number of buildings in the city is relatively small,
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On maw of the numerous open tracts between different parts of
the city crops of wheat and barley are grown.
Local industrial activities include sawmilling? brick makingv
and tanning. There are several small craft artels in town,
Located on the strategic auto road linking Rybachlye? Naryn, and
the Sinkiang border, Naryn serves as a supply point and trading
center for the seminomadic and nomadic population of the area.
411; An improved dirt road that leads westward from Naryn is suitable
for automobile traffic as far as the settlement of Dyulvberdzhin
(the administrative center of Aktalinskiy Rayon). The road
continues in an unimproved state to Kazarman, center of the Togus?
ToraussklyRayon, but this section is not suitable for motorized
traffic,
Naryn is also believed to have a secondary airfield for
nonseheduled flights from Frunze.
3. Health and Sanitation
Public health administration and sanitary regulations
in the hinterland are highly centralized and relatively modern in
concept, but their enforcement is usually inadequate.
Improper diet, poor living conditions, natural conditions
favorable to breeding germs, unsanitary practices, and inadequate
medical attention facilitate the spread of diseases among the
rural and nomadic population,
Rodents, insects, and community wells are the chief carriers
of the large number of contagious diseases common to the area.
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Valeria is prevalent in the mosquito-infested, swampy flood
plains of the Chao Kegent? Tekes? and Naryn Rivers and near Lake
Son-Kull, Fleas and ticks, which are widespread, are carriers of
typhus and relapsing fever. The hinterland is especially noted
for tick typhus, Worm infestation is prevalent among the cattle.
breeding population. In regions along the .Chinese border, cases
of plague and cholera have been reported. Kirgiz wheat is claimed
to be a source of the plague; the wheat becomes contaminated from
the feces of infected rodents, and the disease may be acquired by
inhaling dust from such wheat. Dysenteries and diarrheal conditions
are commonly csUsed by head, body, and crab lice, as well as
numerous types of bedbugs and cockroaches. The bite of the "Karakute,"
a poisonous spider found in loamy river-bank areas, produces pains
in the abdomen, head, and limbs. It also causes depression, thirst,
and chills, and may induce paralysis of the nerves. Unsanitary
storage of food and drinking water by nomadic peoples results in
numerous intestinal disorderskand diseases,
Other contagious and infectious diseases known to exist in
the hinterland area are trachoma, scabies, venereral diseases,
spotted fever, and leprosy0
redical services ara free, but standards of medical care are
at a low level because of inadequacies in personnel, hospitals,
and medical supplies. Although the Soviets have raised health
standards in the larger populated centers by establishing new
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hospitals, sanitariums, and health resorts, their efforts are
still far below requirements in the vast rural areas of the
hinterland.
Eodern hospital facililities are available in Alma.Ata and
Frunze. These establishments are provided with adequate medicaL
equipment and qualified staffs of doctors and nurses. Two military-
civilian hospitals, a maternity clinic, and a scientific medica:,
research laboratory are located in Alma-Ata. All "workers" are
permitted to enter and receive treatment without restrictions.
In addition there are reported to be X-ray and prophylactic estab-
lishments. According to Soviet claims, Frunze has the following
medical institutions s (1) 75 city and republic medical and
prophylactic establishments, including an X-ray center; (2) a
station for blood transfusions; (3) several hospitals (of unknown
size and capacity); and (4) establishments for consultations on
mother-child care0
nedical and hospital services are of much poorer quality il
smaller towns Each as Tokmak, Kant, and Naryn than in Frunze and
Alma-Ata. Facilities of this type in the towns usually consist
of inadequate and ill-constructed buildings with meager furnishings,
little and often poor medical equipment, and a harassed staff
handicapped by cbntinued shortages of essential medicines.
Several health resorts (Kurorts) and convalescent homes are
operated in the hinterland. These are primarily located at mineral
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hot springs in the northern Eoothills of the Kirgicskiy Ala,-Tau
Mountains. The health resorts of Issyk-Ata and Ak-Su are well
known for their snaitariums and rest homes where practically all
types of chronic diseases (tuberculosis, rheumatism, nervous
disorders) are treated. Other health resorts are being developed
at mineral springs in the Tien Shan Oblast; of these the Dzha1
Boaoshty mineral springs located in the northern foothills of
the Atbash Mountains, are the most important?
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4. Economy
The economic activity of the issyk-Kul' hinterland
includes both agriculture and industry, but agriculture i dominant
with Tespect to area and number of people involved.
a. Agriculture
The Issyk-Kule hinterland contains three agri-
14
cultural sub-regions which are: The Chu Valleys The Northern High-
landn, and The 3outhern Highlands,
(1) Crop Cultivation
(a) The Chu Valley ion
The Chu Valley is consf.dered to be
0.72e of the bast grain-producing areas of the Kirgiz SER. About
90 percent of the total cultivated areas approximately 250,000
areso is used for the growing of grain crops. The remainder of
the cultivated area (some 28,000 acres) is in industrial cropso
such as sugar beets and fiber plants. Irrigation farming predomi.
nate 3 throughout most of the cultivated area, Wheat is the principal
food grains and comprises about 70 percent of all the grain crops.
Th 3 other grains include barley and oats, which are used as fodder
crops. Most of the sugar beet farms are located in the Frunze.
Kant4lokmal: regions along the Frunze-Rybacheye railroad. Sugar
refineries at Frunze, Kanto Tokmak, and Kaganovich'process more
than 27,400 short tons of sugar beets per day,
The irrigated regions north and south of the Chu River
specialize in growing fiber plants, particularly hemp. The largest
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fields under cultivation are located in areas irrigated by the
Georgiyevskiy and At-Eashinskiy Canals, Fiber plants are used
for the manufacture of ship lines, canvas, fish nets, sugar bags,
and fine fabrics, Four large sovkhozes (Vasillyev, Dzhungi-dzher?
Nizhne-Chue? and Dzhanti-Pakhtin) annually cultivate about 150000
acres of fiber crops. An additional 5,000 acres of fiber crops are
planted annually by the Dystrimekiy and Keminskiy kolkhozes located
in the eastern part of the Chu River valley,
East Of Frunze, rice is an important crop on kolkhozes with
a predominantly Dungan population, Frunze and Tokmak are known
for large-scale cultivation of fruit orchards, vineyards, and
vegetable gardens.
The cultivation of grain and industrial crops will supposedly
be increased substantially with the completion of the Great Chu
Canal Project. This project includes the Orto-Tokoi Reservoir and
a large irrigation-canal system embracing the Western and Eastern
Great Chu Canals, The Orto-Tokoi Reservoir is located below the
outflow of the Chu River from the Kochkar Valley. According to
plans0 the reservoir is to irrigate an additional 1740000 acres for
the cultivation of industrial crops, The Western Great Chu Canal
begins at the village of Kens.Bulune south of Tokmak? The total
length is to be 90 miles, The first 31 miles have been comp1eted2
and the canal reaches ap)roximately to Voroshilov; the remainder
is under construction, The Eastern Canal begins near the settlement
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of Dzhany-Alysh? above Tokmak, and the total length is estimated
at 76 miles, The canal runs south of the Chu River and terminates
in the region of Ctalinskoye (Eelovodski)?
(b) The Northern Highlands
The Northern Highland agricultural
region is located north of Lake Issyk-Kullo It covers, in general,
the area between the Chu-IliysktplEountains and the Sinkiang
frontier, including the snail part of the Chu Valley north of the
Kirgiz-Kazakh SSR boundary,
The over-all area under cultivation in this region is estimated
at 6500000 acres, in the Chu Valley, the Alma-Ata Lowland, and the
Chilik and Kegenl Valleys. Some 60 to 70 percent of the cultivated
area is sown in grain? winter wheat, barley, oats, and rice. Wheat,
barley, and oats are grown up to elevations of 5,300 feet. Wheat
is the principal food crop and constitutes about half of the total
grain planted, Barley and oats,which occupy about 20 percent of
the cultivated areas, are used mainly as concentrated fodder for
livestock, In highland areas barley and alfalfa are cultivated
up to elevations of 6,000 feet. In addition to these basic crops,
rye, millet, pumpkins, rice, and vegetables are grown on irrigated
fields, particularly around Alma-Ata, The Alma-Ata Lowland is also
famous for its fruit, especially apples, grapes, and watermelons,
The principal industrial crops, raised mainly in the Chu Valley
area, are sugar beets and tobacco, Sugar beets are planted on some
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32,000 acres and yield approximately 750 bushels per acre. Cul-
tivation of tobacco in the area has been increasing since World
War II. Tobacco patches are generally found in conjunction with
fields of sugar beets. According to 1948 data, the area cultiva
ted In sugar beets and tobacco in the Alma...Ate Oblast amounted to
5,500 and 9,200 acres, respectively.
Irrigation farming is practiced throughout the rimer valleys
and lowland areas. Postwar Soviet irrigation policy provides
that temporary feeder canals be dug each spring before plowing
and be filled in each fall after harvesting. This policy is
aimed at reducing the nuMher of small garden plots available to
farmers (each garden plot usually has access to a feeder canal)
and increasing the average size of collective farms.
Dry.5farming is practiced at elevations up to 6,000 feet.
The principal crop is fodder.
The Soviets are introducing dairy and poultry farms in the
more heavily populated areas. A large poultry farm in. Tastakt
a suburb of AlmapAtas is claimed to have a yearly capacity of up
to 1%000 fowls.
(0) The Southern 'Wands
The high mcmrctain area south of
Lake Issyk-aull is referred to as the Southern highlands. The
difficult terrain features of this region considerably restrict
the extent of cultivation. The total cultivated area is estimated
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at 183,000 acres, Crop cultivation is limited mainly to the
Nary% Kodhkur, At.Bash* and Ak.Say River venom and to the
basins of Lakes Son.Eble and Chatry.KU110
Crops grown in the area consist primarily of Wheat and bar.,
Both crops are used for human food as well as for supple.
notary* livestock fodder. They are cultivated vainly an.irrigated
fields in the bottom lands and on the lower slopes of river valleys.
The total irrigated area under wheat and barley cultivation is
same 170,000 acres.
Dry-farm production of barley, alfalfa, and clover is prac.
ticed on mountain slopes and alpine pastures above 6,500. feet in
elevation. Above this elevation, however, the barley is under'.
sized or dies before it matures, because of the Short growing
season. Some dry6farming is also practiced in the bottom lands
of river valleys.
Crop cultivation in the eastern half of the Southern Highlands
(Which includes the Upper Naryn Valley and Inylichek Nount4ibm cam.
plex) is relatively insignificant? The area it vory sparsely
populated and used primarily for grazing. The small amount of
crops grown by the pastoral population consistsaminly-of fodder.
Recent ezperiments with growing barley in the Upper Nary% Terek,
and Inyllichek Valleys have proved successful. Through experimental
farms in the Issyk.gull Basin* the Soviets are_attezapting to .
cultivate fodder crops in the ChololoZapchigay, Irtash* KUylvu?
and Inylgchek River valleys.
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(2) Grazing Lands and Animal Husbandry
(a) The Chu Valley rtegion
The ahu is a significant
livestock-rat sing ares4 Approximately 60 percent of the 202000000
acres of land in the valley is used for grazino, This includes
the slopes of the Kirgiz AlapiTau and Chu-Illytkiye Com as well
as large stretches of flatlands that are not under cultivation
(Figure 27)*
The greater pert of the grazing land in the Chu Valley is
.used for spring and fall pasturing;* *During the summer and winter
seasons& livestock:are driven to pastures in the Chup.Illyskiyeand
Kirgizskly Mountains* The most important summer grazing areas are
in the Susamyr Valley* Livestock kolkhozes and soVkhozes own
most of the pasture lands in the Chu Valley* Pastures in the
Susogyr Valley also are frequently used for winter grazing*
The total number of livestock in the Chu Valley is approximately
5700000 animAlt, of which sheep and goats account for 35000000 cattle
for 19300000 and horses for 700000* .Over 30,000 head of cattle and
more than 60,000 sheep and goats are distributed =tactile large
livestock sokhozes of Imeni Frunze0 Alamedin0 Kegetya0 Shams10
and Kgy1-Oktqa1r0. All of these soVkhozes are located along the
northern slopes of the EirgizskiyAlai-Taue The soVkhoz Imeni .
Frunze also has large grazing areas northwest of Frunze,
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$40,111,1,4
Ow v411111,040
,
,pf,11,1111M,H1d1.1i,
..,1,11111101,
Figure 270 Herd of Kirgiv, horses on pasture in
the Chu Valley
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(b) The Ilerthern 140.1ands
Suitable grazing 'rinds are found
an the northern slopes of the ZaiLtvskiy Alaiaaa and Kungey Ala4au,
in the bottan lands and on the slopes of the Chilik* Chary% Kegens9
and Tekes River Valleysp and in the upper zones of the KetmeW
Mountains. The Zailtyskty and Kungey Ala.Taa Ranges have numerous
high.altitude pastures ranging from 9,200 to 10,000 feet in elevation*
The crewing period for high...altitude pastures in the Zailirskiy
Ala-Tau ranges fran 2 to 5 mouths, The Great Kdbin Vallev* sand.*
miched between the Kungey Ala...Tau to the south and the Zaillysidy
Ala-Tau to the north, provides extensive summer grazing along the
bottom lands and lower slope The Chilik and Keg ens River valleys
are used by native sheep and cattle herders as minter pastures?
7Urta encampments are found throughout these valleys*
Animal hutbandry is the most important branch of the rural
ecanagr of the areao As in, the Chu Valley and the Southern High.
lands9 ;trim, husbandry is based primarily on the breeding of
sheep9 cattle, and horses* Hog raising has doveloped increasingly
since World War /lo To a small degree, camels also are raised*
mainly in areas adjacent to the Sinkiang border?
Sheep raising dominates the animal husbandry of the region.
The total number of sheep (including goats) is estimated at same
150,0000 Special emphasis is given to the development of fine
-
fleeced and samicoarse-fleeced Sheep* By crossing the local lkwino
Sheep with the wild Akhar mountain ramp the Kazakhs developed an
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improved breed, the naharomerino0" which is better adapted for
all-year grazing on mountain pastures? This Sheep yields high...
quality wool and mutton and attains considerable weights?
(c) The Southern Highlands
The Southern Highlands include same
of the most important grazing lands of the hinterland? Numerous
intermontane valleys (yrs) and mountain meadows provide rich
pastures for large herds of livestock? The area supports almost
one-fifth of all the sheep, goats, and horses lathe Kirgiz SSlim
Grazing lands in the Southern Highlands are basically of
? two types (a) high-altitude pastures* which begin at. an average
elevation of 9000 feet p and (0) low-altitude pasturesp which are
usually located in the lower river valleys and lake basins of the
area? .
Hich.altitude pastures are mainly used for summer and fall
grazing? The richest of these pastures are located in intermontane
valleys at elevations above 10,000 feet? The grazing period in
them valleys ranges from 2 to 3 months? Harry high-altitude
pastures are of little use because of their small grazing area and
the difficult approach? Some of the hicPoeltitude pastures are
generally free of snow cover, and these are also used for winter
grazing? Pastures in the valleys of the Tyulek0 Karakudzhurp
Karasaz0 Orchalyp and Bolgart Rivers are widely used for minter
graviro, Herds of cattle and horses are also driven to pastures
in the Kuylyn0 Kaindy0 Inylicheko Ak...Shiyrakp and Sarydzhas River
valleys?
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Cattle, horse, and hog breeding is practiced mainly in
gated areas in the lowlanda and an lower mountain slopes. The
nudber of cattle and horses is estimated at 65,000 each, Hogs
nudber approximate:2Y 45,0000 The AuliyewAta breed of cattle
particalarly is common throughout this area4 Domestic horses are
famous for their stamina and endurance under severe climatic
conditions. This hardiness enables native herdsmea to graze
their horses on highsialtitude winter pastures that are often
covered with layers of ice and saow and offer meager quantities
of natural fodder,
The Soviets are making an effort to induce collective farms
in the area to breed more than one type of livestock, The hope
is to increase the number of animals in the area and better
utilize natural fodder resources,
The pnincipal loweltitude pastures are located in the Darya
and Kodhkar Valleys, Grazing lands in the Naryn Taney are smtb.a
able rtuttnly for summer, fall, and spring pasturing, Summer pastures
are usually found an the upper Slopes of the valley where the
meadows are adequate for largeNscale graving, Fdll and spring
pastures are located an, the lower, southern slopes of the valle5r0
Livestock driven onto these consist mainly of horses and Sheep,
Some minter pastures are also found in the Upper Naryn Valleys,
but livestock .kept in this part of the valley must be supplied
with supplementary fodder throughout most of the winter months,
Most of the livestock in the-Yarrn IN11ey is driven to winter pastures
In the high, enclosed val eys of the Tyulek and Karakadzhur Rivers*
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The Kochkar Valley has many pastures in the bottom lands or on the
lower mountain slopes suitable for summer, fall, and winter grazing*
Other low-altitude pastures are found in the At-Bash, Orpa, and
Ak-Spy River valleys in the vicinity of Lakes Son-Kull and Chatry.Kult.
These are suitable fall and winter pastures for horses, sheep, and
goats.
At present, livestock in the Southern Highlands total about
84000000 Goats account for an additional 1140,000. More than 80
percent of all livestock is owned by kolkhozes and sovkhozes; the
remainder is still owned by nomadic herders, There ,are three large
livestock breeding sovkhozes; in the area. Two 44hepe are abeep-L
breeding farms in the:lochkur and Emhutgol reeoni-and the third
is a large horse-breeding farm in the vicinity of Naryn.
b. Industry
Industrial development in the hinterland is
concentrated mainly lathe cities of Alma-Ata and Frunze? Sparse
population and lack of adequate transportation facilities have
greatly restricted the expansion of industry throughaut most of
the region? Minor industrial installations are located in the
tOMS Of Tokmak, Kanto and 14827M0 In addition, there are several
clothing and dhoe factorieso as well as sugar mills and fruit
canmeries strung along the Lugovoy-RAachlye railroad in the Chu
Vdlleyo
? (1) Alroamilta
? The city of Alma-Ata has developed into
an important industrial ember since Worldlier II. The evacuation
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of industrial plants from the war.threatened areas of the west
contributed largely to the rapid industrial growth of the cityo
Alma-Ata is one of the most important torpedo-aanufacturing canters
in the Soviet Union. There are also industrial plants that manuc.
facture munitions and armaments such as artillery Shells, bombe,
and mortars. Other plants in the metropolitan area produce dheuicas.
(including oxygen and carbonic acid), cement, aircraft, ball bearings,
pumptmotors, woolen textiles, clothing, and shoes., Processing
installations include meatpacking combines, a fruit and vegetable
combine, sawmills, grain elevators, tobacco factories, an oil
refinery, and a sugar refinery (Figure 25)0 The in industrial
section of town is in the west...southwest part of the city, although
the northeast section is also gaining in prominence as an indus-
trial areao Information on the principal industrial installations
is as follows:
a) ainitions Plant and Torpedo Factor" #175.....This plant, also
known as nwrod. #175," is probably the largest industrial
eatablishuent in Alma...Atao It is located in the northwestern
outskirts, 1 mile southwest of the Alma-Ata Railroad Station
and Yards II* An 8.foot...high brick wall sarrounft the indu&.
trial installations, which consist of numerous individual
shops rather than one integrated planto Two separate Indus.-
tries, the Almap.Ata streetcar barn and repair shop and a
tobacco plant and machine shop are also located within the
over-all compound of Plant #150
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The plant ranks third in importance among the six torpedoc
producing installations in, the USSRe Its estimated production
is approdnetely300 torpedoes annually? Minor items produced
include parevaness parts for casoline-burner stoves, torpedo
parts, buoy, anchors for water nines, aerial bombs (since
1948), and tool sets for torpedo servicing an shipboardo The
plant employs approximately' 3,500 workers in three 6-hour
shifts*
Completay assedbledtorpedoess without explosive charges, .
are reported to be shipped tram the Alma-Ata plant to Voroahilovs
north of Vladivostok, for the use of the Soviet Fifth and
Seventh Fleets. In addition to this primarr output, cond...
derable quantities of torpedo parts, particularly torpedo headss
are supplied to the Makhach Kala Ammunition Plants nvigetel
182011 and Torpedo Plash "Dvigatel 181" at Ieningrade Torpedoes
are also sent to the testing station of Prwhevallsk on Lake
Issyk-Kulls Which works in close calMlimmalon with Plant #1750
b) Aima-Ata Machinery Plant coAlma-Atinakiy Zaire(' TYazhologo
Ilashinostroyextiyan (AT111).This heavywmachinery plant is located
approximately. 5 miles northeast of the Alma-Ata Railroad Station
and Yard U. The plant is of moderate size It produced
Ammons during the last ware Russian civilians and same
Japanese prisoners of war were known to be employed on three
Uhour shifts dai370 The main installations of the plant are'
a foundry and casting shop where machinery frames and bases,
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tractor parts, farm implements, and meat grinders are cast
fram scrap 1=0 Other parts include two machine shops, a
blacksmith shop, and a shovelamanufacturing section. The -
"AZTEP Plant is reportedly also manufacturing an undetermined
number of -vehicles, tank gears and wheels, entrenching Shovels,
and numerous small househOld utilities. Raw materials and
finished products are shipped by means of a single-track
railroad spur comae:UN:the plant with the Alma.Ata Railroad
Station and Yard Ir.
c) AlmamAta Electric Equipment Plant("Trans-sigua")-Parbis installac.
tic n is reportedly one of the larger plants in the Kazakh SSR.
Its exact location is not known, but it is most likely situated
in the we-southwesternpart of to The plant produces
telephone, aircraft, motorovehiele and railway.signal equipmeut,
is well as electrical appliances and a wide variety of machine
tools. During the war it produced parts for military vehicles
and army personnel equipaent. The plant consists of about 10
brick buildings of assorted sizes, which contain a forging
shop and galvanizing and assembly plants. Seas 2,000 persons
are employed by the TranS.eignal Plant.
d) Almamkta Locomotive and Coach Repair Shopm.This shop is considered
to be the main locomotive aad coach repair shop far the Turksib
Railroad System. Repairs are also undertaken for railroad
equipment of other operating railroads. The plant employs same
6,000 workers in three 6-hour shins.
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e) Alna.......ttl.limi.c.......ThermalL.......lectricPowerPlant--The location
of this important installation is known only by its coordia.
mates: 43017IN, 76?561E0 The installation has an estimated
capacity of 241000 kw, which surpasses the combined capacities
of all small hydroelectric powerplants in the vicinity of
AlmcmAta. Practice-1.74y all the power requirements of the
industrial plants within the city limits are furnished by
this plant. The fuel used by the paant is hard coal. It
also receives power via underground cables fram a transfoluar
station and several smaller hydroelectric power plants an
the BollshazmiLlmatinka Rivero
(2) Frunze
Frunze is one of the largest industrial
centers of the Kirgiz SSIL Available statistics indicate that
Frunze accounts for 65percent of the total industrial production
and over 30 percent of the induatrial workers of the SSRo Its
plants and factories are engaged mainlr in the processing of agri-
cultural raw materials grown in the Chu Valley Region. Prior to
WcaldWar II industrial enterprises within the city included a
large meat combine, a nill combine, a metal-working plant, sewing
and furniture factories, tobacco and cigarette factories, and a
leather and clothing plant. During the warp several plants were
added to the industrial complexp including one producing cast-iran
equipment, an aircraft subassemblies and camponents plant, two armzuni-
tion plants, and several hemp.jute and fabric.crocessing plants.
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The following are the most significant industrial instal 1 ations
in the Frunze areat
a) Errtm_...L.e ural Machine Plant Imeni "11xTb.is plant
is located in the western section of the city. The plant,
includes an engineering shops assembly shops machine shop,
and found.ry. An additional foundry and a power station are
reportedly under construction. Available sources indicate
that the plant employs about 18500 workers, some of whom may
be classified as forced laborers. The principal products are
harvesters, mowing machines, horse-drawn rakes, and a variety
of machine tools and spare parts for agricultural machinear.
Finished machine products mainly serve the needs of the Eirgiz
rural economy, althoueh many are sent to collective farm
throughout Soviet Central Asia. Principal raw materials,
such as steel and pig iron, are received by rail frac indue-
tries in the Urale and the Noscati region. A ninglememack,
broad...gauge spur line connects the plant with the ruin rail
line through Frunze.
b) Frunze Tool. Plant ruraentalt zyy Zavod").--It is believed
that this plant is the same as the one called "Fr,mze Avtotraktor
Zavod." In addition to marmfacturing screw-cutt:Ing lathes,
the plant repairs autos, tractors, and tracks. As of 1939 the
plant employed some 1,000 persons, a number which is believed
to have increased since World War IL Durin the war the
plant was used as a major tank-repair station. Postwar
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production of rifles and. cartridges has bean attributed_ to
this plant, but bas not been confirmed.? A single-track,
broad-gauge rail spur leads from the plant to the main rail
line passing through Frunze,
c) Frunze IIeat Conine "I sokombinat" -.This plant was constructed
in 1931 for the processing a agricultural raw materials in
the Chu Valley Ilee..on, Since that date the combine was expanded
Into a number of large installations with modern equipment?
The (*robin? consists of sausage, meat-canrdng, and jar plants,
as well as a large cold-storage installation? Livestock are
sent to the meat...combine from all parts of northern Kirgizia
(Figure 29)0
a) Jircraft ubassemblies and C onents Plant--This factory was
evacuated from lioscow in 19420 At that time it was engaged in
the manufacture of aircraft subassemblies and aircraft cezipaaent
parts? The last available informaticn indicating its existence
in Frtmze is dated 1947, and it is not clear whether the
plant is still in aperatice?
e) Venni rinattiot Plant also known as Og Armament Plant
This plant, located south of the 1711.road stations, produces
mrmil-arms and artillery arrommition, Since World War II the
plant has expanded in size and productive capacity, Available
reports indicate that. it was supplied with new machinery in
19450 In 1946 se 3,000 workers were employed, A second
munitions plant is located in the western part of town between
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the main highway and railroad leadit'ig westward to Dzhambul.
This plant has not been sufficiently identifieda but it appaars
to be a subsidiary of the Voyenni Ammunition Plant()
Other sige.ficant indusdies in Frunze include a mill combine
with a rice.processing plant; a tobacco-curing plant yhich procasses
tobacco grown in the Ta/as and Fergana Valleys; a liquar distillery
and hoswerya a leather plant; an antimonyamarcury combine; a chemic
cal and pharmaceutical plant that produces camphor', strychninea
caffeinea glucose, arscraica and calcium chloride; a farniturez and
cart.making combine; thee brick plants that produce 50 million
bricks annmallya two of which are identified as the Krasm4 Stroitell
and Novo.PavLya Plants; and a sewing and clothing factorya whiCh
supplies clothing to various parts of northern Kirgiais. Frunze
has also a number of small local workshops engaged ma1n147 in serving
the urban population*
The flascow "Lebedev" Institute has recently establiahed an
atomic research department in Frunze p but its location ia not knowa.
The Institute is supervised by the "laavost Komplabn (Soatheast
C.01.2.ex of Laboratories)a Department of the Alademy of Science*
The Frunze departmant specializes in mathematical and physical
research an atomic energy. It also serves as a central laboratory
for the atomic research centers in the ast.Pakdala and Dalkhash
Dees in. the Kazakh SSR0
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(3) Tokmak
Tokmak? 37 miles east of Frunze, is under-
going an increasing industrialization, Its position an the Lugavoy-
Rybackgya railroad and the increasing agricultural activity surrounding
the city has resulted in the development oZ several industrial installa.
tions. Mont of the indastry located in Tokmak is engaged in. proces-
sing agricultural materials such as sugar beets, fiber plants, mei,
fruits, and vegetables? Installations are, in the main, concentrated
in the suburb of Oktyabreskiy and reportedly include a sugar rein..
ery, a woolamashing plant, a fruit cannery, two nachine shops (one
of which has been cited for machine-gun production), and an asbestos
and peat deposit station. In addition, an auto repair plant and
a power station (Tokmak GES) are located within the city limits?
(14) Kent
InSuBtrial installations in Kant, as in
Tokmak, are based primarily on sugar-beet processing and truck
gardening. Sons of the products are transpozai to Frunze? Twj.
sugar mills have been in operatiaa in Kant since 1932, one of which
is believed to be a sdbsidlary of the Frunze sag reginery. Other
induatrial installations known to exist within the toun limits
include some larger supply and repair shops of the Kirgiz Miry
for Auto Transport, a amn11 thermoelectric power plant, a cement,
plant (referred to as the Chuvski Plant), and a rayon imiustrial
combine. Three miles east of Kant, in the village of Dmitriyevskoye?
is a large sugar refinery that processes large quantities of
sugar beets grown in the agricultural region surrounding Kanto
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(5) liSSE -
Naryn has several mail establishments the7,
s',EXVTO local needs only, A matorwvehicle repair shop sec:vices
CGICIPAWCiai truCke and autombhilesthat use the pybachlyeKftshpfir
-4. 31dfttiv,. Other installations repouted in Naryn are a dairy-proencts
cumbalei. several saumiilst a tannewl, atrial:gm-do several prtivs
a elsp ant; a lvdroelectric plant uith a capacity of 500 ktlouattso
A-
Rscant information indicates the existence of a 7-aolfmm-collecting
oston,
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50
Tix9tion
Railwads
Railroad facilities in tha hinteeland are limited
to tho Alm/.Ata area and the Chu Valley, In the vicinity of AluaaAta
these facilities COrlaSt of the Almalaa railroad Centex and a shorq.,
=motion with the Turkstb Trunklineo A Tamnecx line of
t%e Turksib Railroad rums through the Chu Valley, fmc Lugovogr too
keof-2cheye0 This part of the line,, completed after World War Ile
vital to the economic development of the kinterlans2o It goes
through Prtaize, Tokmak., amt.!, and Bystrovlat and lea through tka
Ilar?Olf B1WM Googe, the only mmuitain pass between. nogthera Kirezia,
a-2d the Issykraale Basin ? Tho Lime connects the Chu. Vaney and
the ",1495.11 Irith the industrial centers or the Fergana Valley, the
Kaznets 11,,,nin9 and the Ural Nountainso
(1) The Almaa.Voa, IiLoad qente17,
ThsAllmac.Ata rsilpoad centeg. is one of
the p7incipal rail installations slaag the TurkostanSiberianfrimk=
lin, It consists of two railroad stations (Alma-Ata I and Almaa
Ata 11) connected by a cingleack railroad line, a mediumasized
reft.lroad yard, several engine shedst; and a uheel shopo lumeroac
spap lines lead from this center to major indusioial installaUonso
Railroad Station Alma-Ata 1 is located norn of the city proper,
at tho fizaction between the Turksib and a single-track, broad-gage
line ?els miles long that leads south to the city railroad terminalp
the AimaAta Railroad Station and Yards 110 Station AlmnFAAta
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is beUeved to have 8 tack .%) 3 of vhich are used fae passengar
tmgf2.c0 It also has several sidings leading to engine *lads ald
ur.neel shops, Turksib rail traffic passing through the station iF
relative3y heavy, Freight trains 20 to 25 cars long rapozilimay
pum in each direction about every half-hour, Freight Dieing ir
the direction of Novosibirsk:includes assembled trucks (Us and
mc6els), ?lip rail eamenta bricks# pig-irou 1ngotsjan6
food Aemso Freer, consigned to western regions (Tasbkmt and
the Ezropsan USSR) consistsp. in the min, of large amounts of urod
(rosty logs), brcun and bard coal, large quantities of fur, an&
potatoes, Passsnger trains stopping at Almamata I (accordfmg te
the 1p5o Railroad Timetable) are the Iloscow Expresso mhida makes
rouai trip per week9 and a slow passenger train operating once
dai./y in each direction? Passeneer movemerl at tha station is
supevvisad by civilian guardsg, utereas armed uniforimi guards coil-
trol freight operations,
The single.track line between Alma-Ata I and Alat.Ata II
pv.ranels me of Alma.Atags main thoroughfares, over -dhich streetcargl
run to a point about a mils southeast of Station Alma-AtaloTim
passerger trains and 10 to 12 freight trains a de47 move in each
dixsation orer this like,
Railraid Station and Yards Alma.ktz II handles both pas=ngar
acd 11-ight traffic() It prdbalAy has 10 or 11 tracks, Several af
these lead to industrial installations in the city, including the
Munitions Plant and Torpedo Factory #1751) the Nachinery Plant "11,7,T116"
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the railroad locomotive and car repair shop, a powerplant, and cthers?
The terminal railroad eation also has locomotive sheds and fueling
facilities?
Freight trains arriving at Station Alma-Ata II carry baled
cotton, lumber, cement, limestone, tObacco, assembled trucks, coal,
saksaul (a dried desert plant widely used as fdel), pigAron bars
and ingots, and iron pipes? Outgoing freight trains carry consignments
of cigarettes, canned meats and fruits, cotton textiles, heavy
machine parts, flywheels, and other locally manufactured products.
(2) 2h2.Frurmo-RauroE......J1LAem_.__._.A.Une
The Frunze-ybachlye line is one of the
it significant transportation routes in the hinterland? Approzi-
metely 105 niles long, it is a sector of a single-tracked, broad
gauge line that branches off from the Turkeib at Lugovoy. From
Lugovoy to Rybachlye is 201 miles?
The line was completed to Frunze in 1924. In 1932 it was
extended to Kant, and the Kant-Bystrovka section was completed 137
JOU. The final sector, between Bystrovka and Bybachgye, was
-mpozted as completed in 1952. The line has become vital to the
economic development of the Chu Valley and the IssykuZula Basin.
Grain and lumber Shipments fron the basin have doubled since the
opening of rail traffic, and a lively trade has developed with the
industrial centers of the Fergana Valley, the Ural Mountains, am
the Hoscow area. The Soviets plan to extend the railroad from
Rybachvye to Frzhevalesk along the northern Shore of the lake.
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Calf) -1)7.-ka?'7,-1ps.2, fin the 5:so: ....,laz3.20.,Sntral,
,92a_171 Pegiert la--.Etrad l'i'vonzeo Thay CCEISie) Of V, laconz,
fittopn talgink-; their) :-.,:olangoc7-,ock Ks7/7.,,a:3,2 shvp TtattteArig
fac:=,::.:1:',-.4.7ceso and a fgaz-37:', yclvec: A E:or0I.en,-un
:voc5.7.-.t foz- cos.6ms EnS :Ileecf,S61 tha
0:c? PitearjalS:c .13eliTru tin(3.'..i..:TaT,Lovi4?: distwate og
be'ilIMZ, the RaMZe,,,TiNtadtcla `1...EM4/ zre, 1.;:he
Stops alimg T?721is s7e051:,oh 2,:?e ?
, ani the Timm t-k?aw?s, thz,
trAT:2'-?. 53yEirxeziiiciLa tia Poat, V(.253
`tarrhra:px tatif,ArranZt 62.29.w. as s4A90 railmsd
Eyatoon, miles east, (.e. T.?171.1wva,,-.;; cppztosuliv
:Ar1,3fe,a7,7r: 2 11E9eatit o? 1-121 set ??%;34.41zaap The r4;atiw,
bg
8766MS e. thAre. gra dampia ads:Utica :-'6o tarz) X133.1",'41 lir3c
1ie Burl G6f20 the =2d:bed (nt d.c"7 i t1.14,3
&:"6 slidatly h5,g1ray elevahion tW11 the 3ra2zs--
5t,:bac7:10,wXc Th a :mute has mrly zirpra29 and up End
aess-.0 The arastanze of twirmlz Kti3 -MUD, `,73poT.F4ed %Stl'AF11;.
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2I'Llit,E and 'vegetables, fish from Lake. Issyk-Kulcv and some coal
from, the Dzhargalan fields. According to 1951 reports? at least
one freigM., train MS passing Bystrovka daily in each direction?
Passenger serTice as listed in the 195'0 Soviet Tine Table
consists of one train a day in each direction bemoan )Trenze and
B3,st:k.sevica0 The fE ai-ae se:7vice is believed to have been extended. to
1.11,7-bachEiye:0 Passenger traffic rest of Fmnre, on the Lugovoy.Frunze
socter? considerabliy hseavier? Daily roundf-tr:7.p service is offemd
.bzy two slow trains and one fest treS.n?
b? Roads
The road net in the hinterland consists of
several: highways of various der:rs of adocluacys, a fer). short imroved
dirt :cads and a: great number of rountain paths and trails? The
best. Toads are n the vicinities of Alma-Ata ejkl Frun.ze? Main
roads from Alma-Lta lead 1) north to Il:;_ysk? 2) ITOSt to 111:..lunse? and
east to Kegen5 via Talgar and Chilik` ? A highway passing thraugh
? nainze leads eas'eward through the Chu Valley end Buam ':.1m:bg.e to
fzrbachsyej there it branches into three main routes? One of these
lead e to Kashgar in Sinkiang; the other two skirl: the nor:Zorn rad
southern shores of Lake Ismic-Kulgi.) respectively? leading to
Phevalg5ke
Other improved dirt roads in the area emanate from Frunze,
Tolmak, rfaryn, and Przhevalvsko Two improved roads lead 'tiestuard
from Kochkorka and Narya? respectively? to the industrial center of
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Daharalabad, outside the study area. A third road originating at
Przhevalvsk cuts across the northeastern part of the hinterland
to Charm via Kegenv and Podgornaye, Unimproved dirt roads, magy
of which are little more than uinding paths used primarily for
driving cattle to pasture or to market, connect autlying communities
with economic centers. These primitive roads are found chtelly in
mountain valleys?
Bartow trails and paths are the only means of travel over
mountain crests or through deep canyons. The degree to which
these are used by local traffic depends largely on the difficulty
in traversing the associated mountain passes (Figure 30).
Several of the trails in the area are used as caravan routes
(Figure 31). The trail running southward via the Ak.Belv, TozhAko,
Ishtyk? and Dedelv Passes is considered an important caravan route
to Sinkiang,
.(1) Major Roads from Alma.Ata
. (a) Alma.Ata Chilik Kegenv Highws
Only the eastern and western sections
of the Alma-Ata . Kegenv Highway are located within the
study area. The western section extends from Alma-Ata to Talgar
and the eastern section from the settleMent of Kegenv to the Sharyn
River, The longest stretch, 94 miles, from Talgar to the Sharyn
4?- River, lies outside the Issyk.Kulv Basin . Central Tien Shan Region.
The section between Alma-Ata and Talgar is 22 tiles long, Its
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Figure .3c) A characteristic mountain trail2 showing hazards to
movement?
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Camel caravan assembled at Alma-Ata
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surface is asphalt, and it is approxinately 20 feet wide. About
11 niles east of Alma-Ata, the highway narrows for a short distance
to less than 10 feet, and tracks can pass each other heavenly with
extreme difficulty. A drainage ditch parallels the road for a
distance of 12 miles from Alma.Ata.
Several important installations are located along this sector
of the highway. At the northeastern outskirts of Alma-Ata? military
barracks south of the road reportedly house an artillery unit.
Approximately 3 miles northeast of Alia-Ata, about 300 feet north
of the roadais a notor-vehicle repair shop, A small powerplant 'and
a water reservoir are located 13 miles east of the city.
The highway reenters the hinterland at the Sharyn Liver (approxi-
mately 430)51/N; 78?562E). From that point it leads due south to the
low Kuulak-Tan Nountainsa at the base of which the road turns sharply
eastward and continues parallel to the mountains. Near ihe Termelik
River the road crosses the Kuuluk-Tau and leads southward to Kegenti.
The distance by road between the Sharyn River and Kogent is approxi-
mately 50 miles. At Kegenla a junction is made with two improved
dirt roads? which lead south to Karkara and southeast to Akbenta
reepoctively.-
Traffic from Alma-Ata to Kegent consists mostly of truck move-
ments. Nuch of the eastbound freight goes beyond Kegenta via Narynkel,
to Kuld-zha in Sinkiang Province. Freight westbound to Alma-Ata
consists mainly of fruits and vegetables.
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CO Alma-Ata . Iliysk Road
This improved dirt road runs north-
northeast fram Alma.Ata to Iliysk? a distance of approxilately
46 miles. Only an 5-mi1e stretch of the road lies within the
Issyk-Kult . Central Tien Shan Region. The road parallels the
railroad line connecting Stations Alma.Ata I and II. Within Alma.
Ata the road is paved with steno; buyond the city limits it is of
rolled crushed stone, Its width is approvimAtely 20 feet, Drainage
ditches are reported on each side of same sections of the road. A
streetcar lino follows the road and terminates at a grain silo
about a mile southeast of Station Alma-Ata I. On the east side of
the road approximately 2 miles north of the outskirts of Alna-Ata
are three large, wooden, grain warehouses. About 3.2 miles north
of Alma.Ata the railroad crosses the mad, and barrier gates are
operated manually at the crossing. From this level grade crossing
the read parallels the railroad as far as a second level crossing
5.5 miles north of Alma.Ata,
Traffic is heaviest in tho section leading from Alma.Ata to
the airfields north of the city0 nost];y military and civilian
vehicles engaged in operations connected with the aLrfield use this
road,
(c) Alma-Ata . Frunze Road
From Almd.Ata a road runs westwards
skirting the foothills of the Zailiyskiy:Ala.Tau and Chn.Iliyskiye
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Yountainso It cuts across the Cha-Iliyskiyellanges over the Chaggy
Pass (elevation 14,000 feet) and continues southwestward to Frunze.
The road is 147 miles long and is the shortest motor route between
Alma-Ata and Frunze. The surface is gravel except in the sector
from Alma,Ata to Kaskelen, which is paved :rith stone. It has a
width of 23 feet. Heavy truck traffic and poor maintenance have
resulted in considerable surface damage, and in 1949 the road was
reported to be in bad condition. Plans for reconstruction include
asphalt surfacing.
Between Alma-Ata and Kaskelen the road passes over two large
bridges. One of tiese? located 5 miles west of Alma-Ata, can be
bypassed, hauever; available sources illaicate that trucks can easily
ford the stream about 32 feet north of the bridge by crossing over
an artificially built, underwater gravel causeway, The bridge has
concrete...reinforced girders. The road surface across the bridge
is 23 feet wide, and there is a 3-foot sidawan: on each side.
Westward from Kaskelen the road runs relatively close to the
foothills of the zailiyskty Ala-Tau. The 46-mile stretch to Targan
is bordered on both sides by collective farms. One of these is the
Koikhoz Layskiy? some 11 miles west of Kaskelen, Fabrichnyy, Uzuni.
Agach? and Samgy are larger settlements along the route. From Targan
to the Chagay Pass the road passes numerous winter quarters of the
seminomadic Kirgiz and Kazakh cattle herders. Except for the small
villages of Kurdgy and Otar-Rgaytys, there are no permanent settle-
Ments along the route. The Chaggy Pass (elevation 1,800 feet) is
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easily crossed. It is sufficiently wide for the road to maintain
its 23.foot width. Crossing the Chu-Illyskiye/lountains? the road
follows a southwesterly course as far as the settlement of Syugaty?
thence swings southward to Frunze. The road crosses the Chu River
at the large settlement of Geergiyevka.
Traffic along the entire'Alma.Ata Frunze sector consists
mainly of tracks. East of these are Zis.5 models (3 tons), Zis.150
(4 tons - 1948 models), and 0az-150 (1/2 to 2 tons, a new model
coj lad from American Studebaker tracks). Freight carried consists
chiefly of agricultural products being distributed to local kolkhozes.
(2) 21112....1.waY._
This strategic highway is the only motorable
route connecting the Chu Valley with the Issyk-Kull Basin. For its
length of approximately 107 miles, the highway parallels the Frunze.
Rybachtys railroad line. Track and automobile traffic between
Frunze and Rybachtye is extremely heavy.
At Frunze, the highway connects with the Tashkent - Alma-Ata
Road. Fron Frunze eastward to Tokmak, along a stretch of about 36
miles, the highway is asphalt surfaced. The road passes through a
thickly populated agricultural area. Along the first 9 miles from
Frunze, rural settlements merge together in a ribbonlike pattern.
Near the town of Kant (11 miles east of Frunze) and beyond, the
sugar.beet? alfalfa, and grain fields border the road on both sides.
The outlines of the Kirgizskiy Eountains to the south and the Chu-
IllyskiyeRanges to the north can be seen, at first faintly, but
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bre clearly? as the highway approaches Tokmak. From Tokmak eastward,
the highway is earfaced with gravel and, according to the Soviets,
quite suitable for heavy automobile and truck traffic. As the road
enters the mountainsi-cultivated fields are smaller and populated
places farther apart. The road ascends the foothills of the Kirgiz
Alam.Taa Rages and enters the narrow and hazardous Bum Gorge
between the Chu River to the north and the Frunze.Rybachlye railroad
line.to the south and at a slightly higher elevation. The road
allenment through the Gorge is highly irregular, with numerous sharp
curves and steep grade crossings (Figure 32). At apPrarimAte.liy
the middle of the Nam Gorge, the road crosses the Chu River by a
bridge 33 feet long and 26 feet wide. This appears to be a singlelane bridge of wooden constraction with two brick abutments. There
are no piers in the river because of the very swift current* The
water clearance of the bridge is 6.5 feet, There are catwalks on
each side of the roadway. The bridge is closed to night traffic.
No road tunnols are reported in the Gorge.
There are some repair and fueling installations along the
highway. At Frunze, repair and maintenance of tracks and civilian
'care are handled by the Frunze Tool Plant, ninstramentalimy. Zavod."
A motor repair shop is also located in the eastern outskirts of
Frunze at Novo.Pokrovka. The main car repair shops of the Iiinistry
of Automobile Transport (rinisterstvo Avtotransport) for the Kirgiz
SCR aro located at Kant. Another auto repair shop is located in
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0
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Tekmak, Fueling stations are located at Fine, Tokmaks Kant, and
4ybachtye0 In addition large gaaoline tanks are believed to be
located near the railroad station in Bystrovkao -
Within the Chm Valley, nufterous unimproved dirt roads and
paths branch off the highway and lead to neighboring sovkhozess
kolkhozess and winter quarters, Most of the better branch roads
radiate southward from Frunze and Tokmak? A Soviet newspaper report
indicates that construction of a new motor road leading south from
Frunze to the high mountain valley of Sasagyr has been completed*
The health resort of Arasans located about 40 miles southeast of
Frunze in the narrow valley of the Issyk.Ata Rivers is connected
by A dirt road with Novo PokrovekOye (a suburb of Frunze) and with
Ivanovka, Several dirt roads connect Tokmak with outlying agricultural
districts at the Kegety and Shansi River valleys in the Kirgizskiy
Range,
(3) The Wye Naryn.. Kashgar Highway
This highway is currently the main truck
route crossing the Naryn Upland, It connects the railhead of Rybachlye ?
with the city of Kashgar in Chinese Sinkiang. The distance from Hybachsye
to the Sinkiang border, at the Turagart Pass (elevation 130307)0 is
approximately 210 miles. The highway surface is gravel or stone
up to the Sinkiang Border, In Sinkiang the road is of unimproved
dirt construction, The road is open all year for motor traffic
and is used by the Russian mountain troops guarding the Chinese
Border (Figure 33)p The exact width of the road is not known, but
it is wide enough to permit two trucks to pass each other,
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faintenance along the entire route from Rybachlye to the
Sinkiang frontier is good. Huts occupied by personnel of the road..
repair service are scattered along various stretches of the road.
Native herdsmen also participate in road repairs and help keep
traffic lanes open during the winter season,
Improved branch roads meet the main highway only at Kochkorka
and Naryn. At Kochkorka an improved dirt road branches off the
highway and leads in a southwesterly direction to Dshalal.Abae6 the
third largest city of Kirgizia. This branch road is a significant
trade route;betweem the Issyk-Kult Basin and the Fergana Valley*
From Kochkorka to Nary% the road passes through the Gorge of the
Dshuvanaryk River and crosses the Dolonskly Pass (elevation 10,040
feet). At Naryn a surfaced branch road leads westward to
Dyullterdzbin. From Nary% the main, highway cuts through the Naryn.
Tau fountains and the Atbashin River valley. The route is charac-
terized by steep grades and sharp and hazardous curves. The
settlement of Atbash is the largest ?amanita' between Naryn and
the Sinkiang boundary. At Atbash, the highway turns to the south-
west, following the course of the Kara-Koyun River, Near the
western end of the Atbash fountain Range the road turns southward
and leads to the winter pastures of the Ak-Say Syrt and Lake Ghatyr.
Kat, passing the lake along itssyuth shore and reaching the Sinkiang
border at the Turugart Pass.
(4) The Przhevallsk Narynkoll Road
This improved motor road is significant
because it offers a secondary approach to the Sinkiang Province of
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China. The Prihevallsk Narynkoll Road has an approximate length
of 107 miles, only 75 miles of which are in the hinterland. The
road has a loose gravel or stone surface and is believed to have
two lanes.
The road enters the hinterland through the Kyzyl.aya Pass
(approximate elevation 70200 feet) and leads northeastward to the
settlaments of Karkara and Akbent. Numerous tombs and burial mounds .
are found along the route from the Kymyl.Kiya Pass to Akbent. From
Akbent to Narybkoll the road skirts the foothil1s of the Bas Ogly-
Tau Ranges and follows the Tekes Valley to Narynkolt. At Karkara
and Akbent improved dirt roads branch off from the Przhevaltsk.
Narynkolt Read and lead to Kegento
c, Inland Idateriva
The narrow, swift, and unregulated channels of
the principal rivers of the hinterland prevent any type of commercial
navigation (Figure 34). A 1947 source states that a planned dam
across the Chu River may permit navigation by small comMercial craft.
Flat-bottom boats or lumber. rafts may be Used by the native popul.
ation along certain stretches of the Chu and Naryn Rivers. There
are no reports of navigation on Lakes Son4alt and Chatyr.Kalto
d. Air Transport
Air.transport facilities in the study area are
centered at Alma-Ata and Frunze. These cities. have airfields with
scheduled and unscheduled airlinetraffic. They are also used by
the Soviet Air Force for training purposes.
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?
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(2) Air Routes
The following ItAeroflot " routes use the
air terminals at Alma-Ata: Alms.Ata. Karaganda Kustanay (alter.
nate route through Akmolinak); Alme..Ata - Omsk . Sverdlovsk . Moscow;
Alma.Ata Semi-Palatinsk . Novosibirsk:, (alternate route through
Taldy.Kargan); AIma.Ata Tashkent, Two unscheduled (or regional)
routes also operate from Alma-Ata: Alma.Ata Ustt.Kamenogorsk..
Seml.Palatindk Leninogoreks and Alma-Ata . Panfilov TeldrKurgan -
AyaguzklY 7 Bakhty.
Aeroflot" routes utilizing the Frunze air realities are:
Frunze - Alme.Ata;'Frunze Dzhuse.ly Uriltsk Penza = Motcow;
Frunze -Tashkent? The unscheduled ( or regional) routes operating
from Frunze are: Frunze Neryn; Frunze Przhevaltsk; Frunze --
Rybachlye Przhevaltsk; Frunze . Osh; Frunze Debelel-Abad; Frunze?
Talas
(2) Airfields
The hinterland area has five airfields?
Three are at Alme.Ata, one at Frunze, and a minor landing fields
used mostly for local flights, at Naryn0
(a) Alma-Ata
The Alma-Ata (Fort?VernY,) kirfield
IS located about 6 miles northeast of the Alma.-Ata II Railroad
Station and approximat4y 2 -miles northeast of Station Alma-Ata I?
This field is the terminus of the Moscow - Alma...Ate air routes and
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one of the most important airfields in the hinterland. It is also
used lw the Soviet Air Force and is capable of supporting sustained
operations of light transport, reciprocating engine fighters, and
possibly limited operations of jet"fighters. Its graded earth
runway is approximately 4,500 feet long and is oriented in a north-
soutla direction, The field has a large steel and concrete hangar
and several graded taxiways. Communication facilities at the field
consist of ground-to.air radio, telephone, telegraph, and a wireless
station. Storage facilities, workshops, and several supply sheds
are located on the southern part of the field. Access to the field
is by the Alma-Ata - Iliysk railroad and road.
The Alma-Ata North Airfield is located about 7 miles northo,
northeast of the Railroad Station Alma4ta II, just west of the
Alma-Ata - Illysk Highway and railroad line, From the Alma-Ata I
Station the distance is 2 miles. This is a relatively important
military airfield of the Alma-Ata area and has been used for para.
troop training, In addition to reciprocating fighters and TE
transports, the field may be used for limited jet-fighter operations
(Figure 35).
The sodded runway has an estimated length of 40000 feet and
runs in a north-south direction. Open parking is available.
Communication facilities consist of air-ground radio and telephone.
There are no hangars, but three brick barracks for military personnel,
an administrative building, and some underground installations have
been reported.
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The Alma.Ata Northwest Airfield is reportedly located 6 miles
north of the Alma.Ata II Railroad Station, and]. mile west of the
Alma.Ata Illy* road and railroad. The airfield is used exclusively
by Soviet Air Force and has bemused in connection with para.
troop training in the Alma-Ata area.
No information is available as to the runway except that the
surface is sodded. Also no information is available regarding
communication facilities, supply, and fixed installations, such as
hangars, shops, full depots, and administrative buildings.
M Frunze (!ishpek)
This airfield is reported to be 1 or
2 miles south of Frunze. It is the terminal of the Eoscow
Lynbertsy Civil Air Route. The airfield was used for pilot training
during World War II, but at present it is used chiefly by civilian.
type aircraft. The field is capable of supporting sustained oper.
ations of light transport, reciprocating engine fighter, and
possibly- jet fighter planes,
The field has an estimated runway of 4,000 feet. The surface
is sodded. Its capacity is limited to planes of types 11.12 and
11.2. Only open parking is available*
Radio facilities at the field consist of an air.ground station
where messages can be sent in voice or code. Some storage and main
organizational facilities are reported, also the existence of a
building for passenger traffic and several workshops.
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(c) Naryn
The Naryn Airfield is reported to be
located within the town limits of Nary% on the Atbashi.Rybachlye
main motor road, It is the terminus of the passenger and mail
air service between Frunze and Naryn. The field has no known
military significance? It is used by civilian planes of the 11.2
claps and maybe capable of supporting operations of light transports
and reciprocating engine fighters.
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? II 10:4.5,*
A. Gaps in Intelligence
A substantial proportion of the materials used in this study
was taken from basic geographic sources. Only a very limited
amount of current data concerning peoples, industry, health and
sanitation, and transportation is available for the Issyk.Kull
Central Tien Shan region, and much of the information was
necessarily taken from rat intelligence documents.
Some of the most critical gaps in current intelligence are
in population figures and information on the status of people
from the European USSR forcibly resettled in the region. Popula-
tion figures in most cases are no more than rough estimates*
? Although the quantity of data available for the waters of
Lake Issyk.Kul' is insufficient for a detailed analysis, only
those data were included for which the methods and conditions of
observation were given in some form.
Climatic data for the Naryn Upland and Khan-Tengri areas are
also inadequate. Only short-period observations are available for
two meteorological stations. Observations from one of these
stations, the Tien than Observatory, are for 3 years -- a very
short period on which to base averages.
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IL Sovrces and Evaluation f Sources
1. EveheVion of Sogrcerk
A large part of the information included in this study has
been taken from Russian scientific publications and texts.,
Scientific publications were need for the bulk of the data an
physical characteristics; most of these were published between
1925 and 1935, although a few are as recent as 1990 and some as
early ati 1904. These publications are considered completely
reliable, however, since the physical factors involved have
undergone no substantialchange over the period covered.
A great deal of the basic information for the sociologic and
economic conditions in the region was also taken from scientific
publications. For more recent data, however, Soviet texts and
semipopular regional studies and documents of U. S. intelligence
organizations were used. Raw data from intelligence documents
were substantiated wherever possible, but a great deal could not
be checked! Although Soviet texts and semipopular regional studies
are generally reliable, they tend to overemphasize plans and it .
is sometimes difficult to determine the exact status of features
described.
2. gbelpation of Man Coverase
.NO uniform large-scale topographic coverage for the entire
Issyk-Kul'--Central Tien Shan region is available (see map CIA 12568),i
Unedited proofs of the Army Nap Service series 11502 at 1:250,000
are the largest-scale American maps that cover the larger part
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of the region. Reproductions of these proofs, at a slightly smaller
scale, are included with the report. The AMS N502 series provides
no coverage of the Khan-Tongri node nor the area along the Kok Shaal4on
Range. Coverage at 1:200,000 is available for most of the region
through a coMbination of Russian and German maps. An old Russian '
series at 1:84,000 gives coverage of the leak-Kulp Basin and
much of the western part of the Naryn Upland. This series is
probably more artistic than accurate, since topographic research
undertaken in the area at the time of its publication was not
sufficient to provide the amount of detail that the maps portray.
Only one chart showing detailed information- for Lake Issyk-Kal0
isavailatae. This Chart, published in 1937 by the Administration
of Naval Communications of the Workers' and Peasants Red Army
(UMS RKKA), is based on information gathered in the years 18949
1914, 1928, and 1930. Depth information appearing on the nap
CIA 12545 has been taken from thischart.
The maps listed can be Obtained through the CIA Map Library.
3, TOrbudl_Eources
Alisov, B. P., median/ape Oblasti i Ravonv SSSR
(Climatic Zones andRegions of the USSR)?,Goeudars vennoye
telPstvo Geografichedkoy Literatury, Moscow, 19470
2. Balzak, S. Sop Vasyutin, V. F., and Men, la. G.,
Economic Geograohv of the IISSR, (translation), MacMillan Co.,
New York, 1952.
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Approved For Release 1999/09/240MA-RDP79-01009A000200010002-7
3. Belotakiy, Mop iiridadERem,ubUk (The Kirgiz
Republic), Gosudarstvennoye Sotsialuno-Ekonomicheskoye Izdatelustve,
Nescow? 1936.
4. Benzin& Johannes, waulaa, Verlagsanstalt Otto
Stollbergp Berlin, 1943.
5. Berg, L. S., Vizicheskaya Geografiya i Klimatologiya
Ozera Issyk-Kulya!' (Physical Geography and Climatology of Lake
Issft-Ku109 ZIglImmle4tat (Geography), Knizhka 12 Izdatelustve
Akademii Nauk SSSR? Moscow, 1904.
6. rg? L. S. "Gidrologiclieskoye Issledovaniy Issyk-
Kulayt 1928 Coda" (Hydrological Study of Issyk-Ku12 in 1928)y
LaymIlma 2212duatummaGidroloaleeskoeo IaltlIgIt (Bulletin
of tile Government H-drological Institute) 9 Izdatelostvo Akademli
Nauk SSSR? Moscow, 1930.
7. Berg, L.S., (tr-nsla.
tion), MacMillan Co Mel, York, 1950.
B. Berg, L.S., and ot re,l'agykkulltkava Alm:111km
1028 Gods Issyk-Kule Expedition of 1928), L.Aatelostvo
Akademii Nauk SSSR? Moscow, 1930.
9. Bobrinskiy, N.A., Zhivotniv Mir i Priroda SSSR ( Animal
Life and N,ture of t'se USSR), Izdatelistovo MoskoVskogo Obshcl-estva
Ispvtateley Prirndy, Moscow, 1948.
10. Bykova? N.B., and Zavadovskiy? A. Kh.? Tvaot-Shan',
Verkhoveya BoVshogo Naryna (TyanI-Shan, VI? Upper Course of tl'e
Bol?shoyNaryn Rivx)? Izdeelestvo Akademii Na-k SSSR? Leningrad,
1935.
.203..
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Approved For Release 1999/M1261T CIA-RDP79-01009A000200010002-7
? 11. Central Intelligence Agency, National Intelligence
Survey 269 U.S.S.R.? Chapt2r 119 Section 259 "Tourist" 194q. (Secret)
12. Central Intelligence Agency, National Intelligence
Survey 26, U.S.S.R., Chapter Section 311 "Railroads"; Section
32, "Highways"; Section 33D "Inland "at:ruays"; Section 379 "Civil
Air"; 1950. (Confidential).
13. Central Intelligence Agency, National Intelligence
'Survey 269 U.S.S.R., Chapt2r IV: Section 41, "Popul,tion ; Section
429 "Characteristics of the People"; Section 43, "Religion,
Education, and Public Information"; Section 459 "Health and
Sanitation"; 1949. (Secret)
14. Generalstab des Heerest Abteilung fur Kriegrkarten
und Vermessungsuesen (Gener,1 Staff of the Army, Dep-rtment for
Military Maps and Surveving.--Mil-Geo ) Militargeographische
Angaben ubar das Asiatische liussland: Kazakstan-Turkertan
(Militiry-Geographic Data on Asiatic Russia: Kazakhstnn-TUrkestan)t
Berlin, 1942.
15. Gregory, J. S., and Shave, D. W., Ib9 UoSnSTAAA.
iiAgiggraphical Survey.' George G. Harrap & Co., Ltd., London, 1944.
16. Grigorgyev, A.A., eflitort KaZa.kLatani-gba511211a.=
azikoz,giariadakayaibaraktatiateta (Kazav.hstnn, The General
Physical-Geoprinhical Characteristics), Izdatellstvo Akadem!i
Nank SSSRv Moscow-Leningradt 1950.
202
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Approved For Release 1999/09/gfcheA-RDP79-01009A000200010002-7
17. Gryushe, P. A., Geoloeicbeskava Kerte Srednev AziS
(Geological Map of Central Asia), Gosudarstvennoye Nauchno-
Tekhnicheskoye Izdatellstvo Neftyanoy i GornoToplivnoy Litoratury,
M08c0w4.19400
18. InformatisionnooStatisticheskiy Otdel pri Sekretnriata
Prezidiuma Verkhovnogo Eoveta SEER, SEM Administrativno-Territorieilenove
Dellniva ,(Admi.Aattative4Territoriel DivIsions.of the USSR)?.
Izvetiyri.Sovet&O.Deputatov Trudyashchikhasyu ESSR, Moscow, 195/i
19. Jerre, Georges, The Soviet Union. The ktnd ad
people, Longmans, Green & Co., New York, 1952.
20. Karnaukhova, Ye., Kazakhstan, Novaya Baza SvekloseyanAza
i SVeklosakharnay Promyshlennosti (Kazakhstan, A New Bnse of Sugar
-
Beet Culture and Sugar-Beet Industry), Isdatelistvo Akmiemii
Nauk SEER, Moscow 1944-
' 21. Kartavov? H. M., "Chuyskaya Dolina Tyant-Shanya"
(The Chu Valley of the Tien Shan), Voprosy Geograffii (problems
of Geography) Gosudarstvennoye Izdatelistvo Geograficheskoy
Literatury, Moscow, Vol. 20, pp. 69-98, 1950.
22. Kashchenko? B.P.? and others, Po Nashey Rodine (Across
Our Country), Gosudarstvennaye Uchebno-Pedagogicheskoye Izdatel'stV0
Ministerstva Prosveshcheniya REFER, Moscow, 1949.
23. Keyser, N.A., Materialy Dlya Istorii, MorfOlogli i
Gidrologli Oz. Issyk-Kul' (Materials for the History, Morphology,
and Hydrology of Lake issyk-Kule), Izdatelostvo Sredne-Aziatskogo
Gosudarstvennogo Universiteta, Tashkent, 1928.
- 203 -
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Approved For Release 1999/09/2Ebia4-RDP79-01009A000200010002-7
24. Kolarz, Walter, Russia and li9r Colonies, George Philip
and San, London, 1952.
25. Korovin, Ye. P., Rastitelv nest' Sredney ARV. i
Yozhnoeo Kazakhstana (The Vegetation of Central Asia and Southern
Kazakhstan)4 Obyedineniye Gosudarst.vennykh Izdatelosv, Sredneazistskoye
Otdeleniye, Moscow, 1934.-
26.. Kuznetsov-Ugamskiy,11.N., Motlovina Ozera Izzyk..Kulya
kak Geograficheskoye Tseloyem (The Basin of Ieks Izzyk-Kulv as a
Geographic Entity), Trudy Geomorfologicheskoeo Instituta (Works of.
the Geomorphological Institute), Vol. 1, Izdatelostvo Akademii Na*
SSSR? Moscow, 1931.
27. Leimbach, Werner, Die Sowletunion, Nutur. YOUC Uald
Wirtscteft (The Soviet Union, Physical Features, People, and Economy)9
Franckhosche Verlagshandlung, Stuttgart, 1950.
28., Lorimer, Frank, The Population of the Soviet Union:
History Ind Prosrects, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. asp
1946.
29. Lust Ya. Ye., and others, Ppmashniye Zhivotnvve
Kireiziv (Domestic Animals of Kirgizia), Izdatelvstvo Akademii
Nauk SSSR, Leningrad, 1930.
30. Machatschek, Fritz, Landeskund von Russisch Turkestan,
(Regional Geography of Russian Turkestan), Verlag Von J. Engelhorns,
Stuttgart, 1921.
31. Matthews, W.K.0 Languages se the U.S.S.R., The Univel4ty
Press, Cambridge, 1951.
204 4`1'
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Approved For Release 1999/09/2C&M-RDP79-01009A000200010002-7
32. ELniqtersi;vo Futcy Soobrh,..netiyc LiSSR. Otia1
145-a2,D,t."-k Mol,h1Ylsklit
c:he?la?, 7_97c_Goda,ieai
litinisok of Pagsenger OommLnicatfkoup Summer, 1950)c, GaleearstveiaqvA
Transportnoye AleleznodorovIncje hext'Etvo, Nosv::of 1()50c
Murzayev, L K Geogra.710:e6koy
Now-nklatura Kirg.).r,av !4.anI-SlAnye (Geograrhic Terw and )cxen,
elature of the 1ii or the Tien Sha '.14Xiiqp
gz(Mario';eAkozo Obshohegty4.151-.7talLIn thain- jd..ozt Geograaloal
Society), Izilaelatvo Akad3raf. %tic S58-R, Vol, 72? Yo3r PP- 314,
319v LaningTad, 1940.
, Era-zas,ev, E. N. TfyilrAlm (C'eatra'i AEI
hdLvo AkEdenii AaIsk &SSE, Mosow:,
'35? P"16VP H. IY.9 12R-11511,n GsPEMKITO-?SsR (zot.3:11.
GaegapLy or the USSR, :ZzehteIcstim Aks6ErAi:,. Vsu]c Kazakhskoy
Alma-Atao 1948,
36. Eakitnikc7,YD A. N-t TOPIY141!MYTIMA!
IssA!5-,111,,Agv, 4oUovIDA (The Ceiltral Sile and the IsEyk-
KvY Baal:4,1 Izdatelustv E