RHODESIA HANDBOOK

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP79-00891A000700060001-0
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 44
• Document Creation Date: December 9, 2016
• Document Release Date: April 23, 2001
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: December 1, 1970
• Content Type: REPORT

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ahodesia
Hard book
Secret
N2 98
No. 0592
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WARNING
This document contains information affecting the national
defense of the United Sttitcs, within the meaning of Title
18, sections 793 and 794, of the US Code, as amended.
Its transmission or reve'k tiny, of its contents to or re-
ceipt by an unauthorized person is :prohibited by law.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
I. GEOGRAPHY
Page
Location and boundaries 1
Area 1
Topography 1
Natural resources 1
Human resources 1
II. ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
Growth rate and trends 1
Income distribution 1
Main sectors of the economy 1
Government economic policy 2
Foreign assistance 3
Foreign trade 3
Balance of payments 3
Financial system 3
III. POLITICAL SITUATION AND TRENDS
Historical 1
Structure of government 2
Political dynamics 3
Political problems 4
Political 5
IV. SUBVERSION
Communist activity 1
The nationalists 1
V. LEADING PERSONALITIES
Other prominent politicians 1
African nationalist leaders 2
Leaders of the security forces 3
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VI. ARMED FORCES
Organization and manpower 1
Mission and capability 1
Military budget 1
Logistics 1
Defense agreements 1
Training 2
Paramilitary organizations 2
VII. FOREIGN RELATIONS
Approach to foreign policy 1
Relations with the United Kingdom 1
Relations with South Africa and Portugal 1
Relations with African states 2
VIII. US INTERESTS
IX. CHRONOLOGY AND TABULAR DATA
MAP
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INTRODUCTION
Since its unilateral declaration of independence from Britain in Novem-
ber 1965, Rhodesia's white minority government has successfully withstood
worldwide hostility. The UN trade embargo has hampered economic growth
and crippled Rhodesia's tobacco industry, but economic sanctions have not
been strictly and uniformly enforced. As a result, the UN efforts have failed
to bring the rebel government to terms. After five years, in fact, the
country's basically strong, well-developed economy has begun to rebound.
With a good year in agriculture, the economy grew by 11 percent in 1969
and exports rose for the first time since the declaration of independence.
Although the new Conservative government in Britain intends to reopen
negotiations with Rhodesia, the Ian Smith government is under little com-
pulsion to bargain and indeed seems determined to pursue the course it has
already set out for itself in a new constitution, which embodies white rule.
Ironically, although UN sanctions have taken their toll on the economy,
they have actually speeded up development in some sectors. Spurred by
import restrictions, Rhodesia's manufacturing sector has grown at a rapid
pace. Even agriculture, which has been the hardest hit by sanctions, has been
forced to diversify, making Rhodesia self-suficient in several agricultural
products. Although the tobacco industry will remain depressed, sanctions are
likely to become less and less effective as the demand grows for other
Rhodesian products, particularly its minerals.
The Rhodesian Front (RF), which first came to power in 1962, con-
tinues to dominate the country's politics. Although the RF does not rule
completely unopposed, its white critics were Lnable to win a single seat in
the 1970 general election. A few black opponents were elected, but they
represent very few Africans and serve mainly as window dressing in a white
controlled parliament. The great majority of Africans have no role in the
political system, and passively accept white dominance.
Although the African townships were the 'ocus of violence and African
Nationalist political activity in the early 1960s they have been relatively
quiet since the government banned the nationalists' parties and placed their
leaders in detention in mid-1964. The efforts since then of the nationalists?
the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe African
National Union (ZANU)?to mount a sustained insurgency from Zambia
have been completely frustrated. In fact, their guerrilla fighters have been so
badly mauled by Rhodesian security forces that from late 1968 until late
1970 there have been no major guerrilla incursions.
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Although South Africa and Portugal maintain close informal ties with
Rhodesia, no state has extended formal diplomatic recognition to the rebel
colony and nearly every country has at least formally complied with the UN
trade embargo. Whatever hopes the Smith government may have had of
breaking out of its isolation were given a further setback when the United
States and several other countries in its train withdrew their missions from
Salisbury after Rhodesia became a republic in March 1970.
Rhodesia maintains a 3,000-man army, a 1,080-man air force, and a
7,000-man police force that can be brought into play during times of
emergency. The armed forces and police are well trained in counterin-
surgency.
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I. GEOGRAPHY
Location and boundaries
Rhodesia is located in south-central Africa. Landlocked, it shares a
1,875-mile border with Zambia, Portuguese Mozambique, South Africa,
Botswana, and at one point, South West Africa.
Area
Rhodesia is about the size of Kansas and Oklahoma (151,000 square
miles) and extends for maximum distances of 475 miles north to south and
515 miles east to west.
Topography
Flat to gently rolling plains, between 2,000 and 3,000 feet above sea
level, cover most of Rhodesia. Scattered hills, dissected plains, and rugged
mountains lie along its eastern and northern borders. Because of its height
above sea level, most of the country has a modified tropical continental
climate with distinct rainy and dry seasons and moderate seasonal variations
in temperature. The rainy season generally runs from November through
March and the dry season from April through October.
Natural resources
Agriculture?With the rapid rise of mining and manufacturing output in
the last few years, agriculture has declined in importance, although it still
accounts for about 15 percent of Rhodesia's national income. Tobacco,
sugar, cotton, wheat, corn, and rice are important cash crops, but tobacco,
Rhodesia's largest foreign exchange earner before UDI, and sugar have been
hit hard by economic sanctions. The country is largely self-sufficient in food,
although there are severe food shortages among Africans in rural areas during
prolonged dry spells.
Mining?Rhodesia is well-endowed in minerals. It exports asbestos, gold,
copper, chromite, iron, nickel, lithium, coal, and other ores in lesser quanti-
ties. Rhodesia has no known oil deposits.
Human resources
Population composition?In March 1969 the non-African population of
Rhodesia was about 252,000-228,000 whites, 15,000 Coloreds, and 9,000
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Asians?and the African population was over 4,800,000. The white popula-
tion is predominantly British. The Mashona (Shona) tribal group makes up
about three-quarters of the African population; the Matabele (Ndebele)
make up most of the rest.
Distribution?The population is fairly evenly distributed across the
country. Nearly 75 percent of the white population and an even higher
percentage of Coloreds and Asians, however, lie in urban areas. Four out of
five Africans live in rural areas. The two largest towns are Salisbury
(400,000) and Bulawayo (250,000).
Demographic trends?The white population is increasing by about 2.2
percent a year while the African population is growing by 3.5 percent or
more a year.
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II. ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
Growth rate and trends
By 1969 Rhodesia had weathered the worse of international economic
sanctions. The trade embargo had its greatest impact in 1966. Tobacco, until
then Rhodesia's largest foreign exchange earner, and some other agricultural
products were particularly hard hit. Three years later, however, the economy
showed definite signs of recovery. National income rose for the third year in
a row, rising above the 1965 level for the first time in 1968 and increasing by
about another 11% in 1969. Exports rose in 1969 for the first time since
Rhodesia declared itself independent.
This strong showing was due to the growing skill of Rhodesian business-
men in evading sanctions, and expanded output in 1969 in agriculture,
mining, and manufacturing. Tobacco is likely to remain depressed for some
time, but the demand for other Rhodesian goods, especially its mineral
products, will probably increase steadily over the next few years. The
economy as a whole is expected to grow by at least 5% a year through 1975.
Income distribution
Rhodesia has the second most highly developed economy in Africa?
second only to South Africa. The gap, however, between haves, mostly
whites, and have-nots, mostly Africans, is large. In 1969 white wage earners
averaged about $3,400 a year, or almost ten times as much as African
workers ($345). Most Africans, of course, still earn a living from subsistence
farming.
Main sectors of the economy
Agriculture?Prior to 1965, agriculture ac:counted for about a fifth of
the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 40% of Rhodesia's total export
earnings. The tobacco and sugar industries, which together produced about
60% of the country's marketed agricultural output, however, have been
crippled by sanctions. To keep farmers on the land and to lessen the
financial burden it has incurred by subsidizing tobacco prices, the govern-
ment has encouraged farmers to diversify. This has led to self-sufficiency in
corn, dairy products, fruits and vegetables, anc some other items. Although
the government will have to continue to subsidize tobacco farmers, the main
long-term problem it faces is converting more of the burgeoning African
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population to commercial farming. White-owned farms still produce over
90% of the country's cash crops.
Manufacturing?Spurred by import restric:tions, the result of economic
sanctions, manufacturing has become Rhodesia's largest and fastest growing
sector. Metal products, food, and textile and clothing make up almost half of
this increased output. Expansion has not been without a price as costs and
prices have risen as a result of the smallness of the domestic market, the
initial cost of machinery, the high salaries of skilled technicians, and the cost
of training unskilled staff. Rhodesia's import substitution industries have
also caused a drain on precious foreign excharge reserves through their need
for machinery and raw materials. If and when normal external trading
resumes, however, most of Rhodesia's new industries will probably be highly
competitive.
Mining?Although the mining industry now accounts for only about 6%
of the national income, it is expected to grow by leaps and bounds during
the 1970s. The government claims that output will increase from about $80
million to $240 million a year. Rhodesia now produces gold, asbestos,
copper, coal, iron, tin, and lithium, but extersive exploration is under way
for a variety of other minerals. Known nickel deposits alone are expected to
bring in an additional $24 million a year when fully exploited.
Construction?Rhodesia has been experiencing a "building boom" since
1966. Much of this demand has been generated by the desire of Europeans
for new housing. Two thirds of the building plans in 1968 were for residen-
tial property with the rest split between industry, commerce, and others.
Government economic policy
The Rhodesian Front government has taken an increasingly direct role
in regul,ating the economy since 1965. It has established stringent import-
export and foreign exchange controls, and under the Emergency Powers Act
(1966) the government exercises almost unlimitedcontrol over the operations
of some foreign-owned companies in Rhodesia. To strengthen the economy
the government has promoted diversification in agriculture and industry, and
has tried to shore up those sectors hurt by sanctions. It has established price
supports (and quotas) for tobacco and has provided diversification loans,
fuel and fertilizer subsidies, drought relief assistance, tsetse fly control, and
irrigation program for farmers. To encourage the growth of domestic light
industries the government has provided loans and tax incentives, has set up
import controls and tariffs to exclude certain goods and in some instances
has even guaranteed a monopoly to certain concerns.
Rhodesia
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Foreign assistance
Rhodesia has never depended on foreign aid. When it was a part of the
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland it took out a loan from the Interna-
tional Bank for Reconstruction and Development to help construct the
Rhodesian Railway system and the Kariba power complex. Various countries
and private foundations have also given small amounts of aid for programs
helping the rural African. And, since 1965, South Africa has extended credit
to cover Rhodesia's occasional foreign exchange shortages.
Foreign trade
Both imports and exports dropped sharply in 1966 following the
implementation of economic sanctions. Because South Africa and Portugal
have been unwilling to cut off their trade with Rhodesia and in fact have
allowed Rhodesia to export its goods through disguised channels, imports
have gradually increased and exports, although they continued to decline
through 1968, finally rose in 1969. Exports are still below the 1965 level,
but they are expected to grow as sanctions become less and less effective.
The pattern of Rhodesian trade has also undergone significant changes
in the last five years. Until Salisbury broke away from Britain nearly a
quarter of the country's trade was with the UK; nowthis trade is minuscule.
Trade with Zambia, which bought about 30% of Rhodesian exports in 1965,
has also dwindled. On the other hand, South Africa has become Rhodesia's
best market, taking about one third of Rhodesian exports regularly. Most of
the rest of its trade which is carried on clandestinely, is with West Euro ean
countries?
Balance of payments
Sanctions have had a noticeable effect on Rhodesia's balance of pay-
ments, leading to deficits in total current and capital transactions in 1966
and 1968.
Financial system
Rhodesia has a well-organized, flexible money and credit system. The
Reserve Bank of Rhodesia functions as a central bank, issuing currency,
buying and selling local and treasury bills at discount, buying and selling
precious metals and foreign exchange, controlling commercial banks, acting
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as banker to the government, and granting loans on behalf of the govern-
ment. In addition, Rhodesia has four commercial banks and many other
credit institutions, including a savings bank, six finance companies, three
building societies, a land agricultural bank, arid five development corpora-
tions?which provide credit to the private sector. The currency is the
Rhodesian dollar (R$1=US$1.40).
Rhodesia
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III. POLITICAL SITUATION AND TRENDS
Historical
The first white settlers came to Rhodesia in 1890 in the Pioneer
Column organized by the Kimberley diamond magnate and avowed imperial-
ist Cecil Rhodes. Although his Chartered Company granted each man the
right to a 3,000-acre farm, the pioneers came in search of gold, not land.
Gold was found, in small amounts, and is still mined today, but the great
gold fields Rhodes dreamed of never materialized. In fact, in the 33 years
that the company governed Rhodesia, it never paid a single dividend to its
stockholders.
Armed with the maxim machinegun the company "police" easily sub-
jugated the local African tribes, the Mashona and the more warlike Matabele.
But in 1896 both tribes rose in revolt, and the Mashona fought a bloody
guerrilla war that took nearly a year and a half to put down. Held in
subservience, the African subsequently became a cheap and ready source of
labor?at first for white-owned farms and domestic service, and later on for
Rhodesia's mines and factories.
In 1922 the British government, in one of its economizing moves, gave
Rhodesia's 30,000 or so whites the choice of union with South Africa or
becoming a self-governing colony. They chose self-government. In addition
to responsibility for Rhodesia's foreign affairs, London retained the power
to intervene on behalf of the African. But for almost 40 years Britain never
did so, and political power became firmly entrenched in the hands of the
white minority. In 1931, for example, the Rhodesian legislature passed the
Land Apportionment Act, which divided Rhodesia almost equally between
whites and blacks. Not surprisingly the whites allotted the more fertile land
to themselves.
Whatever resentment the Africans bore the white man, however, re-
mained largely below the surface until the late 1950s when, as African
nationalism began to sweep the continent, the political attitudes of blacks in
Rhodesia began to change too. Inspired by the success of other nationalist
movements in Africa, Rhodesia's own nationalists began to call for "one-
man, one-vote" and to some extent they were successful in amassing a
following, particularly in urban areas. Their own internal bickering and
violent clashes between some of their followers, however, made the national-
ists an easy target for repression. By 1964 the government had banned their
organizations and had placed their leaders in detention.
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As Africans became more active politically, the whites reacted by
moving further and further to the right. The white voter's acceptance of the
1961 constitution, which provided for eventual African majority rule,
seemed to be a triumph for racial moderates. But in 1962 the Rhodesian
Front party, playing on white fears of social integration and black rule, came
to power. Its avowed goal was to gain independence under white rule. After
frustrating and often bitter negotiations with the British government, which
refused to grant independence until the principle of ultimate African ma-
jority rule was guaranteed, the government of Ian Smith unilaterally declared
itself independent on 11 November 1965. In March 1970 it finally put into
effect a constitution institutionalizing white rule.
Structure of government
Executive?Under its present constitution Rhodesia is a republic with a
president as head of state and a prime minister as head of government. The
president is chosen by the Executive Council, or cabinet, for a five year term
and may serve two terms. In addition to summoning, proroguing, and
dissolving parliament, he appoints the Prime Minister and his ministers. Thus
the outgoing cabinet appoints the president who in turn appoints the new
cabinet. Of course as long as one party firmly holds the reins of power, as is
the case in Rhodesia, this constitutional anomaly makes little difference. The
Prime Minister and his Executive Council function much the same as the
cabinet in the British system.
Legislature?The legislature consists of a Senate and a House of Assem-
bly. The Senate has 23 members?ten Europeans elected by an electoral
college made up of European members of the House; ten African chiefs
selected by the Council of Chiefs; and three persons of any race appointed
by the president. The Senate has only delaying powers. Real legislative
authority resides in the House of Assembly whose powers are virtually
unchecked by the Senate or the courts, which have no constitutional power
of review. At present the Assembly has 50 non-African members elected by
registered non-African voters (Europeans, Asians, and Coloreds), eight Afri-
cans elected by registered African voters, and eight Africans chosen by tribal
and rural councils. Although the number of African representatives is sup-
pose to increase gradually until parity between Africans and non-Africans is
reached, the conditions for achieving parity are so strigent that it is a long
way off.
Judicial?The legal system is based on Roman-Dutch law. The judiciary
is headed by a Chief Justice of the High Court, which has two divisions?the
appellate and the general division. The appellate division is the superior court
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of record and the Supreme Court of appeal. The general division has
jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases. Judges are appointed by the President
after consultation with the Prime Minister. There are also tribal courts
presided over by chiefs and headmen that have jurisdiction in civil and
criminal cases involving Africans in the Tribal Trust lands.
Local government?There is a variety of local government authorities.
In urban areas, for example, there are: Village Management Boards, ap-
pointed and subsidized by the Minister of Local Government and Housing;
Town Management Boards, elected by the residents, which have some power
to levy local taxes; and, elected Municipal Councils, such as in Salisbury and
Bulawayo, which are relatively free of central government control. African
townships are generally under the administration of the Municipal Council.
In addition, there are District Commissioners, appointed by the Ministry of
Internal Affairs, who oversee chiefs and headmen and rural councils in
African designated areas. There are also local community boards and coun-
cils in rural European areas.
Political dynamics
The Rhodesian Front?The ruling Rhodesian Front (RF) party has
dominated Rhodesian politics since it came to power in 1962. Although it
won only a small parliamentary majority in that year, by the time of the
1965 elections it had grown so strong that it garnered over 80% of the vote
and took all 50 predominantly white constituency seats. In the April 1970
general election it again took all 50 seats.
One fundamental reason for the RF's strength is the fact that it
articulates the basic goals and values of Rhodesian whites. These include the
preservation of white society in Rhodesia; the permanent establishment of
"civilized government," meaning a white-controlled government; the mainte-
nance of segregated neighborhoods and social facilities; and the security of
white land tenure, employment, and wage privi eges. Rhodesia's economic
and political isolation since its declaration of independence in 1965 has only
united the white population more firmly behind the RF government.
Ian Smith?Another source of RF strength is the popularity of Prime
Minister Ian Smith. Smith is a tough, determined, dedicated man who is
fixed in his beliefs and ideals. He was one of the founding members of the
RF and in 1964 he became Prime Minister. A year later he led Rhodesia to
independence and into rebellion. Since then he has become a symbol to
most whites of their independence. He has vowed that there will be no
African government in his lifetime and he has declared that "The White man
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is master of Rhodesia. He has built it and he intends to keep it." In this he
echoes the feelings of a good many whites.
Opposition elements?Since 1965 opposition to the RF has been weak
and fragmented. The major daily papers, most white church leaders, many
prominent businessmen, some white politicians, and the small blackparlia-
mentary opposition all opposed UDI. Those whites and blacks, however,
who continue to criticize the course Prime Minister and his party have set for
Rhodesia can marshal little support within their own racial communities.
Support for white political moderates has all but disappeared as reflected by
their poor showing in the last two general elections. And even though the
African population outnumbers the whites by more than 20 to 1, Africans
have remained generally passive, either out of fear of government repression,
indifference, or loyalty to their traditional tribal chiefs. The only Africans
with any potential mass appeal are the nationalists and their parties are
outlawed and their leaders are in detention, restriction, or exile.
Political problems
Race relations?Some observers believe that Rhodesia is a racial time
bomb. They point to the already large ratio of blacks to whites and to the
fact that the African population will double in ess than 20 years. Projected
land shortages, in a country where a small white minority owns almost half
the land, and more severe African urban unemployment, when most skilled
jobs are now reserved for whites, they argue, will lead inevitably to an
explosion. They may be right, but as long as the African continues passively
to accept white domination as he does now, then political upheaval is
unlikely. To maintain control, the Smith government has strengthened its
security forces, and has sought to bolster the rcle of the tribal chiefs. It has
also recognized the need to promote economic development in tribal areas,
but so far it has taken only modest steps in this direction.
Isolation?The government has also had to combat the sense of isolation
Rhodesian whites have experienced since independence was declared. So far
a sort of siege mentality has flourished which has only reinforced white
support for the government, although there has been some disgruntlement
among those who have born the brunt of economic sanctions. Over the long
run, however, its effects are much more difficult to gauge and could become
a problem.
Church-State conflict?Under the 1969 Land Tenure Act the churches
were required to register on 1 September 1970 as "voluntary associations" in
order to continue running their schools and hospitals in African areas, and in
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order to conduct multiracial church services. The churches, however, refused
to register, arguing that they were not subject to regulation by the state and
that they could not comply in good conscience with a law that was
"racialistic and un-Christian." After meeting with church leaders in late
August, Prime Minister Smith announced that the churches would be al-
lowed to carry on their work in African designEted areas without registering,
but that they would have to apply for permits by February 1971 to continue
their multiracial activities. Unless the churches have privately agreed to
this?which seems unlikely?nothing has been settled yet.
Police
Police?Rhodesia's national police force?known as the British South
Africa Police (BSAP)?is efficient and well-trained. In addition to its normal
police duties, the BSAP assists the army in courterinsurgency operations and
the Central Intelligence Organization in countersubversion. The BSAP has
been particularly instrumental in penetrating arid destroying the nationalist's
clandestine networks within Rhodesia. Its force is 7,000 strong, including
4,500 Africans.
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IV. SUBVERSION
Communist activity
Although the Smith government fancies itself a "bulwark against Com-
munism," there is no imminent Communist threat to Rhodesia. There is no
Communist Party of Rhodesia. The nationalists of course do receive arms
and money from Communist countries?ZAPU mainly from the Soviet
Union and ZANU from Communist China?but their allegiance to Marxism
goes little beyond their mouthing revolutionary rhetoric.
The nationalists
The Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe
African National Union (ZANU)?Rhodesia's main African nationalist
groups?represent the only active subversive threat to the white regime.
Proscribed and operating from exile in Zambia, they have sought by guerrilla
raids to sap the strength and confidence of the government. In this effort,
the OAU's African Liberation Committee, and the Soviet Union, Communist
China, Cuba, the UAR, Algeria, and Tanzania have supplied ZAPU and
ZANU with arms, training, and funds. The nationalists, however, show no
signs of becoming a major threat. They are poorly led and organized and are
bitterly split. Moreover, they have little organized indigenous support.
ZAPU, which may have about 800 trained guerrilla fighters, has been
by far the most active of the two groups. In mid-1967, it formed a loose
alliance with the African National Congress of South Africa. After that the
two groups infiltrated four large groups of '100 or more guerrillas into
Rhodesia. Each time, however, the Rhodesian army and police were well-
informed of ?their plans and inflicted heavy losses on the guerrillas. Except
for a minor raid on a border police post and the Victoria Falls airport in
January 1970 there have been no incursions from the end of 1968 to the end
of 1970.
Rhodesia Dec 70
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V. LEADING PERSONALITIES
Chief of State: Clifford W. Dupont
After Rhodesia became a republic in March 1970, Clifford Dupont's
election to the presidency was almost a foregone conclusion. One of the
founders of the Rhodesian Front and reputec to be one of the main
formulators of its principles, he has acted as the country's chief executive in
place of the British governor since independence was declared in 1965.
Before that he held several ministerial posts and served for a time as Deputy
Prime Minister and co-president of the Rhodesian Front. He gave up most of
these posts in mid-1964 because of poor health, but because of his popular-
ity within the party he was raised to the largely ceremonial post of Officer
Administering the Government in November 1965. Dupont was born in
London in 1905.
Head of Government: Ian Douglas Smith
Son of an early settler, a gentleman farmer, RAF pilot and war hero,
Prime Minister Ian Smith is the personification of qualities held in high
esteem by most white Rhodesians. Friendly, straightforward, unexcitable,
self-assured, he is firmly wedded to a sense of values he would not think of
changing. Smith entered politics in 1948 and, on the strength of his anti-
Communist views and his opposition to African participation in government,
he was elected to the Rhodesian legislature. Later he won a seat in the
parliament of the federation, which then linked present day Rhodesia,
Zambia, and Malawi, and in 1958 he became the cnief parliamentary whip of
the governing party. In 1961, however, he resigned in opposition to the 1961
constitutional proposals and helped found the Rhodesian Front party. After
the 1962 election he became Minister of Treasury and Leader of the House
and in 1964 Prime Minister. Despite almost world-wide hostility and UN-
imposed economic sanctions against Rhodesia, Sm th continues to follow the
policy he reaffirmed in a July 1967 speech: "We will never deviate. Our
independence is something which we have and something we have no
intention of ever relinquishing. We are going quietly on our way building a
constitution for Rhodesians by Rhodesians which I believe in the end will be
the correct answer for Rhodesia." Smith was born in Rhodesia in 1919.
Other prominent politicians
Desmond W. Lardner-Burke: Lardner-Burke has been Minister of Jus-
tice and Law and Order since June 1964. One of the most extreme right-
wing reactionaries in the cabinet and strongly anti-British, he was one of the
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earliest and most forceful advocates of a unilateral declaration of independ-
ence. Although he apparently knows little about international Communism
or developments elsewhere in Africa, at times he seems almost obsessed with
the threat of Communism in Africa. He was born in Kimberley, South Africa
in 1909, and moved to Rhodesia to practice law in 1933.
John J. Wrathall: John Wrathall has been Minister of Finance since May
1965 and Deputy Prime Minister since September 1966. He is also one of the
two deputy presidents of the Rhodesian Front. A well-known chartered
accountant, Wrathall is a capable technician. He is level-headed and practical,
rather than doctrinaire, and a moderate by Rhodesian standards. Since his
appointment as deputy prime minister, however, he has taken more extreme
stands in public to appease his right-wing critics in the RF. He was born in
Lancaster, England in 1913 and came to Rhodesia in 1935.
John Hartley Howman: One of the most moderate members of the
cabinet by reputation, Howman became Minister of External Affairs and
Defense in September 1968. He has held several portfolios including Infor-
mation, Internal Affairs, Local Government, and African Education. Al-
though he resigned from his cabinet post when Winston Field was ousted
from the prime ministership in 1964, he rejoined the cabinet after the 1965
elections and has become a firm supporter of Prime Minister Ian Smith.
Howman was born in Rhodesia in 1918.
African nationalist leaders
James Chikerema: Although Joshua NkornD is the titular head of the
Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU), Chikerema has run ZAPU since
Nkomo's was placed in restriction by Rhodesian authorities in 1964. An
early activist, Chikerema himself spent four years (1959-63) in detention.
After Rhodesia broke with Britain, he conver:ed ZAPU into a guerrilla
organization. After years of frustration, however, ZAPU has become increas-
ingly faction ridden under his leadership. Since an open split with some of
his colleagues in early 1970, Chikerema has reportedly been seeking a
reconciliation with ZANU leaders. He was born ir 1925.
Herbert Chitepo: Chitepo has been the acting head of the Zimbabwe
African National Union (ZANU) since early 1966. Its president, the Rever-
end Ndabaningi Sithole, has been incarcerated in Rhodesia since late 1964.
Although ZANU is smaller than ZAPU and has engaged in little if any
guerrilla activity since 1966, Chitepo has been able to hold ZANU together
and gain recognition and aid from the Organization of African Unity.
Although he is considered pro-West, Chitepo is a dedicated nationalist who is
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willing to seek and accept aid from any source He was educated in South
Africa and the United Kingdom, and was a practicing lawyer for several
years. He was born in 1923.
Leaders of the security forces
Major General Keith R. Coster: General Coster became Commander of
the Rhodesian army in June 1968. From 1937 to 1954 he served as an
officer in the South African Army. He then joined the Federal army in 1955
and became a officer in the Rhodesian Army after the breakup of the
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. He became a strong supporter of the
Smith government after November 1965. Coster is a tough and apparently
capable officer. Although he believes Rhodesia should maintain the capa-
bility to conduct punitive raids into Zambia against guerrilla staging camps,
he has opposed such action so far as unwarranted and unnecessary. He was
born in South Africa in 1920.
Syd F. S. Bristow: Before his appointment as Commissioner of Police in
June 1970, Bristow was in charge of the Special Branch, dealing with
security matters, and Deputy Chief of the Central Intelligence Organization.
He is a solid career policeman although of only moderate intellect. He was
born in South Africa and joined the Rhodesian pplice force in 1939.
Rhodesia
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VI. ARMED FORCES
Organization and manpower
Rhodesia's armed forces consist of a 3,000-man army, a 1,080-man air
force, and a 7,400-man Territorial Reserve Force. About 1,000 Africans
serve in the army with the Rhodesian African Rifles. The Territorial Force is
all white.
Mission and capability
The army and air force, whose primary responsibility is counterin-
surgency, are very effective. Because of its size the army could not handle a
widespread rebellion among Africans or defend Rhodesia from attack by a
modern division size force, but neither is a likely possibility. In times of
emergency both the Territorial Force and the 7,000-man police force, which
has a paramilitary capability, have been mobilized to serve with the army.
Military budget
As a result of increased insurgency and rising armament costs, and a
conscious effort on the part of the governmery: to ensure the loyalty of its
defense force immediately after independence, defense budgets have steadily
increased since 1965. Pay increases went to all the forces in early 1966.
From 1966 to 1969, defense spending increased by about a third to $41
million, or 11.8% of the national budget. The police receive the largest share
of defense allocations, 47%; the army gets 29% and the air force 24%.
Logistics
The arms embargo has made it more difficult to replace worn out parts
and to procure new military equipment, but Rhodesia has been able to get
most of what it needs from South Africa and from French and West German
arms dealers.
Defense agreements
Rhodesia has no formal defense agreements, but its intelligence officials
do meet regularly with the Portuguese and SoLth Africans to discuss insur-
gent groups, and its air force has provided some support on an ad hoc basis
to Portuguese forces operating in Mozambique.
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Training
The Rhodesians do most of their own training. The major emphasis in
all phases of training, in the regular army as well as the Territorial Force, is
on counterinsurgency. The Rhodesians send some army and air force person-
nel to military schools in South Africa for specialized training.
Paramilitary organizations
In addition to its regular duties, the police--known as the British South
African Police?are involved in intelligence operations, border surveillance,
and counterinsurgency operations with the army. They are quite capable.
Rhodesia
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VII. FOREIGN RELATIONS
Approach to foreign policy
Rhodesia has been treated, at least publicly, as a pariah by most of the
world since November 1965. No stale has extended diplomatic recognition
to the rebel colony?not even South Africa and Portugal?and an increasingly
restrictive trade ban has been applied against it. Whatever hopes the Smith
government may have had of breaking out of this isolation were given a
further setback when the United States and several other states withdrew
their missions from Salisbury after Rhodesia became a republic in March
1970. A number of countries, however, continue to trade secretly with
Rhodesia, and Salisbury will probably concentrate mainly on expanding its
trade ties whenever it can over the next few years.
Relations with the United Kingdom
British efforts to force Rhodesia to "return to legality" have proven
completely ineffective. The Labor government of Prime Minister Harold
Wilson refused from the start to resort to military force and sought instead
to end the rebellion by negotiations and the gradual tightening of economic
sanctions. Although the Conservatives, who are more sympathetic to the
Rhodesians, are now in power, their approach to negotiations is unlikely to
differ significantly from the Laborites. The Conservatives have stated that
any settlement must be in accord with a statement, called the five principles.
The first principle?guarantees of unimpeded progress to majority rule?is
anathema to the white Rhodesians, and now that the economy seems to have
weathered sanctions, a negotiated settlement seems even more remote than
before.
Relations with South Africa and Portugal
The support of South Africa and Portugal has been crucial to the
survival of the Smith government. Without their assistance Rhodesia could
not have withstood UN economic sanctions. Ironically, both countries dis-
approved of Rhodesia's unilateral declaration of independence because they
feared that it would focus unfavorable world attention on themselves. They
were even more fearful, however, that sanctions might work and then be
applied against themselves, so they refused to support the UK and UN trade
embargoes. Since then cooperation between the three states, particularly in
security matters, has increased noticeably. In August 1967, South African
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helicopters and police units took part in counterinsurgency operations in
Rhodesia and some 300 South African police are now stationed there
indefinitely. Rhodesia in turn has provided transport, reconnaissance, and
probably combat aircraft support for Portuguese forces in Mozambique. The
Rhodesian, South African, and Portuguese security services also meet regu-
larly to exchange intelligence on the insurgent groups.
Relations with African states
Zambia?Zambia's President Kenneth Kaunda is unalterably opposed to
the white-minority government in Salisbury and has been doing everything
he can to reduce his country's economic dependence on Rhodesia. Although
Zambia has been able to cut its imports from Rhodesia by more than 70
percent, the Rhodesian Railway still carried most of its imports and 35 to 40
percent of its copper exports. Zambia is also dependent on the Kariba dam
for electrical power.
In the face of Zambia's outspoken hostility, the Smith government has
remained outwardly calm. Prime Minister Smith has been urged by some of
his advisers to order commando strikes against guerrilla bases in Zambia, but
he has preferred to rely so far on the implied threat of economic sanctions to
force Zambia to moderate its actions and to hold the guerrillas in line.
Other African states?Although African states have been unable to bring
about the fall of the Smith government as they would like, they have been
instrumental in getting the United Kingdom and the United Nations to take
concerted action against Rhodesia. In 1966 and again in 1968 they played an
important role in getting the UN Security Council to invoke economic
sanctions against Rhodesia. Frustrated by the political ineffectiveness of
sanctions, however, they have repeatedly urged stronger steps, including the
use of military force to bring down the Smitn regime and the implementa-
tion of economic sanctions against South Africa and Portuguese Mozam-
bique, but these proposals have been defeated in the Security Council time
and again.
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VIII. US INTERESTS
After Rhodesia declared its independence the US continued to operate
a small consulate in Salisbury, but when the country became a republic in
March 1970 the consulate was closed.
There are about 1,000 US citizens, mostly missionaries and their
families, living in Rhodesia.
Rhodesia receives no aid from the US, although it owes some money
for an AID loan granted in 1954 to the Federation of Rhodesia and
Nyasaland to build the Rhodesian Railways.
US trade with Rhodesia?never great?has decreased to almost nothing
since November 1965 and is now composed mainly of pharmaceuticals,
foodstuff for charity organizations, and some printed matter.
Several US companies, including Union Carbide Corporation (in
chrome), the Foote Mineral Company (in chrome), and Corning Glass (in
petalite), have investment interests in Rhodesia. According to the Rhodesian
Government, total US private investment amounted to about $56 million in
1965. Because of trade restrictions many US subsidiaries are now being run
by Rhodesian officials by authority of the Emergency Control Act.
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IX. CHRONOLOGY AND TABULAR DATA
Chronology of Key Events
1889 Queen Victoria grants Cecil Rhodes' British South
Africa Company a Royal Charter for Rhodesia.
1890 First white settlers arrive in Rhodesia.
1923 October Southern Rhodesia becomes a self-governing colony
of the United Kingdom.
1953 September Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland is inaugurated.
1961 July Referendum approves proposals for new constitution.
December New constitution is promulgated.
December Newly formed Rhodesian Front wins general elec-
tions; Winston Field becomes Prime Minister.
1965 May Rhodesian Front (RF) sweeps general election.
November Prime Minister Smith issues unilateral declaration of
independence (UDI). United Kingdom initiates eco-
nomic and political sanctions.
1966 April UN Security Council authorizes United Kingdom to
blockade Mozambique port of Beira to stop oil sup-
plies from reaching Rhodesia.
December Prime Ministers Smith and Wilson hold talks aboard
H.M.S. Tiger at Gibraltar. UN Security Council in-
vokes selective mandatory sanctions against Rhodesia.
1967 August First African National Congress-ZAPU incursion.
1968 May
UN Security Council irvokes comprehensive eco-
nomic sanctions against Rhodesia.
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IX. CHRONOLOGY AND TABULAR DATA
Chronology of Key Events
1889 Queen Victoria grants Cecil Rhodes' British South
Africa Company a Royal Charter for Rhodesia.
1890 First white settlers arrive n Rhodesia.
1923 October Southern Rhodesia becomes a self-governing colony
of the United Kingdom.
1953 September Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland is inaugurated.
1961 July Referendum approves proposals for new constitution.
December New constitution is promulgated.
December Newly formed Rhodesian Front wins general elec-
tions; Winston Field becomes Prime Minister.
1965 May Rhodesian Front (RF) sweeps general election.
November Prime Minister Smith issues unilateral declaration of
independence (UDI). United Kingdom initiates eco-
nomic and political sanctions.
1966 April UN Security Council authorizes United Kingdom to
blockade Mozambique port of Beira to stop oil sup-
plies from reaching Rhodesia.
December Prime Ministers Smith and Wilson hold talks aboard
H.M.S. Tiger at Gibraltar. UN Security Council in-
vokes selective mandatory sanctions against Rhodesia.
1967 August First African National Congress-ZAPU incursion.
1968 May
UN Security Council invokes comprehensive eco-
nomic sanctions against Rhodesia.
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October
1969 June
Prime Minister Smith and Prime Minister Wilson hold
talks once more at Gibraltar on British warship
H.M.S. Fearless.
Rhodesian electorate approves formally declaring
Rhodesia a republic and adopting the framework of a
new constitution in referendum. United Kingdom
announces the resignation of its governor, Sir
Humphrey Gibbs, and tne closing of its mission in
Salisbury and of the Rhodesian mission in London.
1970 March New Constitution goes in':o effect.
April Rhodesian Front sweeps general election.
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1 January
Last Monday in May
7 July
8 July
12 September
11 November
25 December
26 December
LAND
Tabular Data
Holidays and Significant Dates
New Year's Day
Good Friday, Easter Saturday, Easter Monday
Whit Monday
Rhodes' Day
Founder's Day
Pioneer Day
Independence Day
Christmas
Boxing Day
Selected Factual Data
151,000 sq. mi.; 40% arable (of which 6% cultivated); 60% available for
extensive cattle grazing; European alienated lands (farmed by modern meth-
ods) 37%, African 46%, national land 7%, 6% not alienated (1970)
PEOPLE
Population: 5,257,000; males 15-49, 1,221,000; 750,000 fit for mili-
tary service; average number reaching military age (18) annually, 60,000
Ethnic divisions: 96% African, 3% European, less than 1% Coloreds and
Asians
Religion: 51% syncretic (part Christian, part animist); 24% Christian;
24% animist; a few Muslim
Language: English official; Chishona and Sindebele also widely used
Literacy: 25%-30%; of whites, nearly 100%
Labor force: 48,000 wage earners (1968); 663,000 Africans (including
many migrants from Zambia and Malawi), 85,000 Europeans; 35% agricul-
ture, 25% mining, manufacturing, construction, 40% transport and services
Organized labor: most European wage earners are unionized, but only a
small minority of Africans
GOVERNMENT
Legal name: Colony of Southern Rhodesia
Capital: Salisbury
Political subdivisions: 11 magisterial districts
Rhodesia
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Type: typical parliamentary governmental structure; declared inde-
pendence (illegally) from U.K. 11 November 1965
Legal system: Smith government implemented a republican constitu-
tion on 2 March 1970 which institutionalized white rule
Government leaders: Prime Minister Ian Smith and President Clifford
Dupont
Suffrage: extremely complicated franchise designed to give highly dis-
proportionate weight to white vote based on iqcome, property holdings, and
education; under new constitution there will be separate roles for Africans
and non-Africans
Elections: must be held every 5 years
Political parties and leaders: Rhodesian Front, Prime Minister Smith;
main parliamentary opposition, all black National Peoples Union, Gordon
Chavanduka; the Republican Alliance, Dr. James Redmond; Centre Party,
Pat Bashford
Voting strength (1965 elections): Rhodesian Front won 50 seats in
Parliament
Communists: negligible
Other pressure groups and leaders: African nationalist organizations
banned from political activity?Zimbabwe African People's Union, Joshua
Nkomo; Zimbabwe African National Union, Ndabaningi Sithole; these lead-
ers detained by government; exiled leaders in Lusaka, Zambia, are James
Chikerema (ZAPU) and Herbert Chitepo (ZAN U)
ECONOMY
GDP: $1,223 million (1969 est.); $230 per capita; real growth rate
2.2%
Agriculture: main crops?tobacco, corn, sugar, cotton, citrus fruits;
livestock; self-sufficient in foodstuffs except wheat
Major industries: mining and steel, textiles
Electric power: 1,187,000 kw. capacity (1969); 5,580 million kw.-hr.
produced (1969); 1,160 kw.-hr. per capita
Exports: $272 million (f.o.b., 1968), including net gold sales and
re-exports; tobacco, asbestos, copper, clothing, meat, chrome, sugar
Imports: $290 million (f.o.b., 1968); textiles, machinery, petroleum
products, wheat, transport equipment
Major trade partners: South Africa, Portugal, and Portuguese territories
Aid: no substantial military or economic aid
Monetary conversion rate: 1 Rhodesian dollar=US$1.40 (official);
0.714 Rhodesian dollar=US$1
Fiscal year: 1 July - 30 June
Rhodesia
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COMMUNICATIONS
Railroads: 1,610 mi. narrow gage (3'6"); 26 mi. double track
Highways: 48,000 mi.; 3,650 mi. paved, 18,350 mi. crushed stone,
gravel, stabilized soil, or improved earth; 26,070 mi. unimproved earth
Inland waterways: 175 mi. on Lake Kariba
Pipelines: crude oil, 10 mi. (part of Beira-Urntali line; not operating)
Airfields: 258 total, 170 usable; 7 with permanent-surface runways; 1
with runway over 12,000 ft., 22 with runways 4,000-7,999 ft.
Civil air: 18 major transport aircraft
Telecommunications: system is one of the best in Africa; consists of
radio-relay links, open-wire lines, and radiocommunication stations; principal
center Salisbury, secondary center Bulawayo; 112,100 telephones; 135,000
radio and 48,000 TV receivers, 7 AM, no FM and 2 TV stations
DEFENSE FORCES
Personnel: army 3,000, air force 1,080 (123 pilots), police 7,000
Major ground units: 3 brigade headquarters, 2 battalions, 1 special air
services squadron (company)
Aircraft: 98 (54 jet), including 25 jet fighter bombers, 15 jet light
bombers, 14 jet trainers, 32 prop, 12 helicopters
Supply: dependent upon U.K. prior to declaration of independence on
11 November 1965; since then South Africa has been principal supplier
Military budget: for fiscal year ending 30 June 1970, $45,006,000;
13.1% of total budget
Selected National Intelligence Survey (NIS) Material
The following sections of the NIS are relevant:
NIS Area 57B (Rhodesia) General Survey (Feb 70)
Sec 23S Meteorological Organization and Facilities (Jan 68)
Sec 41 Population (May 69)
Sec 43 Religion, Education and Public Information (Apr 68)
Rhodesia
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Sec 44 Manpower (Sept 68)
Sec 57 Subversion and Insurgency (Jul 67)
Sec 61 Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (Jan 70)
Sec 62F Fuels (Aug 69)
Sec 62P Electric Power (Aug 69)
Sec 65 Trade and Finance (Sept 69)
NIS Area 57 (Rhodesia plus present day Zambia and Malawi)
Sec 21 Military Geographic Regions (Apr 50)
Sec 23 Weather and Climate (Dec 55)
Sec 24 Topography (Dec 59)
Sec 45 Health and Sanitation (Dec 68)
Sec 63 Minerals and Metals (Dec 67)
Gazetteer (Apr 56)
Rhodesia
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POPULATION
Persons per square mile
O 10 25 50
O 4 10 /9
Persons per square kilometer
SOURCE: Census of 1956
.West Nicholson
AIDA U Selected Shona-speaking group
Other tribal group
LUSAKA
LAND APPORTIONMENT
i !Tribal trust land and native
purchase areas
European area
Unreserved area
National park, game or forest
reserve
Vila do
Zumbo
M aza bu ha
Kataba
K
Kuribuariba
Dow
Mulobezi
Choma
Mount Darwinr::::
.Rusarnbo
Mtoko
- -
Copper Queen
3005.
oe
Ma ./
SOUTH-WEST AFRICA
Ifni. Ter,/
Ka?ungula
asane
Livingstone
Victoria Falls
Meets
/
se,?yC:ARAMA
PLATEAU Gokwe.?,
MAFUNGABysl
PLATEAU ,
Chakarl.r.
(
Gatoom
Beatrice
iffel Flats
ON
Brom
Machek
Maran?llas
SOUT
Headlands
YANGAN1
8514
Rusape
Main Camp,
Kwenda
Wats mba
Pe alonga
NORTH
Sawmills
.3865
NYARE/WE?
5588
Eastnor.-- Lonely Mine
Tjolotjo.
Somab la
T daait
M1.15AP
7042 1,
1411/Setter
6344.
Bembes"
Gaths
Mine
Glencova
Fort RbTOn
any Junction
1
j:Lancaster
Bannockburn
For:tVictori
Lake
Kyle
4,Bikita
imbabwe
_11:1 fif GADIKIGADI
C
Salt pans)
? ( 1
/
ort
ort Usher
Balla qeila
ILLS '
.4848
Shaban
Mti4,0
.4239
Chiping
Mount Setrn-4.a.._
igmqte
`-5
Es rungabera
SOUTHERN RHODESIA
(U.K.)
International boundary
Province boundary
? National capital
cx,e10 Province capital
Railroad
Surfaced road
Unsurfaced road
Airfield
76737 2-70
Populated places
0. Over 200,000
o 10,000 to 50,000
? Under 10,000
Spot elevations in feet
Scale 1:2,170,000
50
Statute Miles
25 50 75
Kilometers
Gwanda
Buffalo
Range
Francistown
mine*IATABIELE
Sta)UT
DmIN isTE{7 FROM TEIUL
ILegion mine
ash,:
WAY0)
Nuen
Makiautsi
Malvernia
Messina
0
)
?1.
BOUNDARY REPRESENTATION 15
NOT NECESSARILY AUTHORITATIVE
Approved For Release 2001/05/17 : CIA-RDP79-00891A000700060001-0
Gwelo.
.a.law.yo Victeria
VEGETATION
TREES DOMINANT
Li Broadleaf evergreen forest
Broadleaf deciduous forest with
many grassy openings
GRASS DOMINANT
Grassland
Tall grass savanna
Short grass savanna
Contour (in feet)
MINING
pi Goldfield ( -I- mine)
F--7 Coalfield (* mine)
Cr Chromite
Cu Copper
Fe Iron deposit ( Fe mine)
Li Lithium
Mg Magnesium
Ni Nickel
Sn Tin
Tungsten
Ls Asbestos
1:1 Limestone
= Mica
1111 Phosphate
* Pyrite
Great Dyke
Wanki
hirundu
Cu
ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
AGRICULTURE
Tobacco
Wattle and
lumber
Tea
Corn
Cattle
Citrus crops and
sugarcane
Cotton
MANUFACTURING
hi Oil refinery ( oil pipeline)
? POL storage
.1if Iron and steel industry
I Copper refinery
Ferrochrome smelter
0 Machinery and metal products
gab Automotive assembly plant
Int Rail shops and yards
J Electrical equipment
1W Textiles
0 Tires
Y. Shoes and leather goods
0 Pulp and paper products
O' Chemicals and explosives
G. Phosphate plant
? Fertilizer plant
Hydroelectric plant
-4 c
?
SinolaShaniva
Cr )
SALISBURY
.Marandellas
)Mg Cr
Ni-
Cr
QCr
FaQue ue
elukere'?'
1.;
Plumtree
?
West
Z.I's Nicholson
Li
cFoil Victoria
Fe
Beitbridge
Chiredzi
Approved For Release 2001/05/17 : CIA-RDP79-00891A000700060001-0
Secret
Secret
Approved For Release 2001/05/17 : CIA-RDP79-00891A000700060001-0