MAPPING AND CHARTING RESEARCH LABORATORY A REPORT ON SOVIET CARTOGRAPHY

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP79-00201A000100010001-6
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: S
• Document Page Count: 117
• Document Creation Date: December 22, 2016
• Document Release Date: October 31, 2012
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: January 15, 1954
• Content Type: REPORT

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rf
..GI
"tY
MAPPING
AND
O
CHARTING
RESEARCH
"?. LABORATORY
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MAPPING AND CHABTIBG BNSHARCH LABORATORY
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A BRPOBT ON SOYIHT CARTOGRAPHY
January 15, 1954
S
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List of Abbreviations and Reference keys Used in the Mapping and
Charting Research Laboratory Technical Reports Dealing with Bibliographic
Materials on Soviet Science.
i. DLC: As262.A62 = Library Call Number at the Library of Congress
prefixes other than "DLC" are those used in
the Union List of Serials.
2.I_ List No. Refers to a numbered list of approximately
300 Soviet, scientific serials and periodicals,
for each of which a selected table of contents
prepared for use by this project, is available.
3. M.F. No. - Refers to the number of the OSU-MCBL microfilm
on which the reference may be found.
~ard No. - = Refers to the "Institute", "Personnel",
"University", or "Bibliographic" card, etc.
on which the reference data are recorded.
5. Folder No. - Refers to photostated material of two types:
(1) Folder No. Red 67 (R 67) for instance, is
a reference photostated directly from an original
manuscript or book, the original of which could
not be made otherwise available to this Laboratory;
(2) Folder No. Purple 67 (P 67) is a photostat
printed from microfilm already available at the
Laboratory.
6. SPSU "Serial Publications of the Soviet Union",
published by the Library of Congress.
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Page
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
I. INTRODUCTION ...............................................
1
II. AREA AND RATE OF DEVMLOPMERT OF SOVIET MAPPING ("SnIES"
MAPS).
A. Area of the Soviet Union Mapped on Scales Larger
than 1:1,000,000 .....................................
4
B. Area and Hate of Compilation of each of the
Major Soviet Map Series ...............................
7
1. 1:2,500,000 map of the U.S.S.R. ..................
7
2. 1:1,500,000 map of European U.S.S.R . ..............
7
3. The 1:1,000,000 series ............................
g
4. The 1:500,000 series ..............................
11
5. The 1:200,000 series ..............................
12
6. The Soviet 11100,000 series .......................
12
7. The 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 series ..................
14
III. STATISTICS ON SOVIET MAP PRODUCTION .......................
16
IV. NOTES ON SOVIET MEDIUM-SCALE TOPOGRAPHIC SERIES............
19
A. 1:300,000 Soviet Map Series ...........................
19
B. The Soviet 1:500,000 Series ...........................
25
V. SOVIET A
TLASES ............................................
26
VI. MATIIFMAT
ICAL CARTOGRAPHY IN THE SOVIET UNION ..............
33
A. History of Development Under the Soviets ...............
33
1.
Projections .......................................
33
2.
Cartometry ........................................
40
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B.
Map Projections Used in the Soviet Union ..............
42
C.
Contributions to Mathematical Cartography Made by
the Soviets ..........................................
43
VII.
SOVIET GEOLOGICAL MAPPING ................................
45
A. Rate and Scope of Development ........................
46
B. History of Development after the October Revolution...
49
C. Major Administrative Control of Geologic Mapping
(1920-present) .......................................
51
D. Types of Geologic Maps Published by the Soviet Union..
52
E. "Standardization" of Soviet Geological Maps...........
53
F. Geomorphological Mapping .............................
59
VIII.
FORESTRY MAPS OF TI SOVIET UNION ........................
61
IX.
SOVIET TRANSLITERATION AND TRANSCRIPTION OF
GEOGRAPRICAL NAMES .......................................
67
1.
"AUTHORSHIP" IN SOVIET CARTOGRAPHY .......................
72
LIST OF REFERENCES .......................................
80
APPENDIX I. Notes Concerning Soviet Cartographic Personalities....
87
A. GUGE ..................... ...............
88
B. Miscellaneous Associations .......................
94
APPENDIX II. Outline of Development of Geological Mapping
in the Soviet Union ................................... 100
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SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Information contained in this report represents only the very minimum
of possible Soviet cartographic achievement. In addition, it is fragmentary
for several reasons:
(1) Since 1945 the Soviets have banned the publication to the public
of all mapping data considered to be of strategic or military
importance.
(2) Of the cartographic information published in large quantities
in the Soviet Union, (theoretical, educational and technological)
only a small percentage reaches the United States.
(3) From this small percentage of available material, only those
items considered to be of most significance have been analyzed
for this report.
Despite the lack of adequate information, the following are in the nature
of a summary of Soviet achievements in the cartographic field since 1919,
(exclusive of geodesy and geodetic gravimetry) with most of the development
taking place since 1935:
(1) At least 50% of the area of the U.S.S.R. has been covered with
aerial photography for mapping purposes.
(2) The U.S.S.R. has been totally sapped on scales of 1:1,000,000,
1:2,500,000 and smaller.
(3) About 60% of the total area is covered by topographic maps on
scales of 1:500,000 or larger.
(4) The Soviets, by 1950, had compiled and published geological maps
on scales of 1:1,000,000 or larger covering approximately 95% of
their total area.
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I
(5) Soviet geological maps on the scale of 1:2,500,000
entirely cover the area of the U.S.S.R.
(6) The number and variety of political-administrative
and school maps of the U.S.S.R. appear to exceed
by far the number of similar maps published in the
U.S.A. (For the period between 1945 and 1952 alone,
Soviet maps of this type numbered 12,000,000).
(7) The Great Soviet Atlas (two volumes) is on a par in
quality, content and design with most of the great
European atlases and, without question, is far superior
to any atlas published in this country.
(8) The Soviet field of "mathematical cartography" is a
striking example of the degree to which the Soviets
have systematized and presented well-known facts which,
for the most part, remain in a disorganized state in
Europe and the U.S.A.
(9) At least 18 major textbooks of cartography have been
published by the Soviets since 1945, many of which if
translated, would be useful to cartographic education
in this country.
In quality, Soviet maps vary according to scale, area, compiling agency
and time of compilation. On the whole, however, one can say that apparently
they have not yet achieved the goals of standardization, uniformity, and
quality that they have set for themselves. Small scale (1:1,000,000 and
smaller) Soviet maps rank in quality on a par with those of other nations
who utilize lithographic reproduction processes. Large scale Soviet maps
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axe. ` b` e rt~ r
available in this country vary in quality and no over-all general statement
can be made.
By combining the information contained in this report with that in other
reports by this Laboratory dealing with the organization of Soviet cartography,
Soviet cartographic education and Soviet photogrammetry, a picture of a rapid-
ly-growing, dynamic and rather effective cartographic science evolves, - a
science and technology which would be extremely dangerous to underestimate
or overlook.
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Several factors must be considered in any attempt to systematize and
analyze Soviet progress in mapping its own territory. The first, and per-
haps best-known but least appreciated fact, is the enormous size of the
area of the Soviet Union. Authorities diagreee on its exact measurements.
Volkov, in his book, "Printsipy i Metody Kartometrii", gives a figure of
21, 646, 490 km2 (1939 boundaries) and 21,827,000 km2 (1940 boundaries);
earlier measurements by de Tillo, Shokalskiy and Strel'bitskiy, are quoted
as 21,540,000 km2, and a 7th and 8th grade atlas of the U.S.S.R., published
in 1951, gives the figure of 21,916,900 km2, (1939 territory).
The second fact is that the Soviets release statistical data in several
ways; in percentages or in terms of various other units of measurement.
Therefore, the first step in any analysis must be the reduction of all data
to a standard unit of measurement.
The third fact is that Soviet cartographic data are fairly detailed and
complete up to 1939. Information for the war years is fairly comprehensive
but such less detailed and after 1945 specific data are almost entirely lack-
ing except on small scale coverage and non-military topics.
The fourth fact to be considered is the complexity of the Soviet organi-
zation of scientific, technical and production facilities. (See the Mapping
and Charting Research Laboratory Report on the "Organization of Soviet Geo-
desy and Cartography").
The fifth item of note is the fact that since 1945, Soviet mapping data
have been classified as top secret and very little information has been allowed
to "leak".
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The sixth and final fact is that only a small percentage (about 10%)
of technical and scientific periodicals, monographs and books on cartographic
subjects is currently available in this country.
The present report attempts, except as noted in the text, to correlate
basic facts selected from open source Soviet material only. No claim is
made, however, that these facts represent all the information which can be
obtained from such references because thousands of pages still remain to be
studied. The list of references submitted at the end of this paper contains
only those papers from which critical data have been taken. It is hoped that
analysis of this partial coverage may serve as a basic picture of Soviet map-
ping against which covert data and additional open source information can be
compared and evaluated at a later date.
Further, contents and conclusions of this report mast be considered in
conjunction with other reports on specialized fields of Soviet cartography
prepared by this Laboratory (reports on photogrammetry, geodesy, education,
organization, instrumentation, etc.) None is an entity in itself and each
is dependent on all others in any attempt to acquire a really comprehensive
picture of Soviet cartography - using the general term in the sense of the
United Nations' definition.
Specialized fields of Soviet cartography selected for analysis were
chosen for one or more of the following reasons:
1. For "intelligence" value (area of coverage and rate of development).
2. Because they represented fields of endeavor most emphasized by the
Soviets as being of importance to their "national economy" or
"development". (Atlases, school, geological and forestry maps).
3. Information in the particular field or fields was relatively
abundant and available.
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Many phases of Soviet cartography have been almost entirely neglected.
Some of these fields are:
1. Specifications for maps of various "series' - omitted because
studies have already been made in this field (NIS, JIB, etc.)
2. Kilitary cartography - because very little information is avail-
able in overt literature.
3. The tremendous field of techniques, procedures and instrumentation
of map production - omitted because of lack of time and adequate
personnel.
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II. AREA AND BATE OF DEVELOPMENT OF SOVIET MAPPING
A. Area of the Soviet Union Mapped on Scales Larger than 1:1,000,000.
(1:500,000 and larger scales).
Prior to the revolution, the "topographic coverage of Russia
did not exceed 10% of the total area of the country, (19) and"existed
for about 2,326,000 km2". (30)
Nine sources provide statistical information pertaining to the
total amount of area covered by Soviet maps on scales of 1:500,000 or
larger. Numbers in parantheses refer to the list of references at the
end of this report.
1. An unsigned editorial (27) published in 1940 gives the following:
For the period, 1919-1933 - 11.5% (covered by maps on scales
from 1:10,000 to 1:200,000) or approx-
imately 2,489, km2.
For the period, 1918-1939 - 18.1% or approximately 3,919,000 km2.
2. Zakatov, (1) in 1939, quotes the figure for the period, 1918-1939,
as 4,141,900 km2. Aerial surveying
for the period between 1933 and 1939
totalled 2,136,000 km2 and the GGU
alone between 1919 and 1932, had cover-
ed an area of 818,731 km2 with aerial
photography.
3. Yegorov, (2) in 1945, says that by the end of 1939, an area covering
1/5 of the total area was covered by
topographic surveys; - or, approximately
4,300,000 km2.
JL -
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4. Sudakov, (5) in an article published in 1944, makes the statement
that in the period between 1920 and 1944 approximately 8,000,000 km2
had been topographically mapped on scales of 1:25,000 to 1:200,000,
of which 7,280,000 knt were on 1:50,000 and 1:100,000 scales (7,000
sheets) and 720,000 km2 on 1:25,000, 1:10,000 and 1:200,000 scales.
5. Sudakov, (30) in another article published in 1944, gives figures
which are at variance with those above, probably because of the
inclusion of some re-surveys and also because of the inclusion
of maps on the scale of 1:500,000:
Area in
k
1919
to
1 4
1925
to
1929
1930
to
1
1935
to
1 8
1939
to
1943
Total
Topographic
112,200
328,800
482,000
701,600
4,883,100*
6,007,700 kffi2
Surveying
(325.800
(4,383,100)
Aerial
-
-
1,000,000
1,788,700
2,229,100
5,017,800
Surveys
No. of topo-
graphic sheets
-
-
-
1,082
6,352
7,434
published
*Figures in parentheses represent area covered by new surveys;
the larger figure includes re-surveys of some areas.
6. Baranov, (15) in 1943, says that the work of the topographic services
totaled 1,208,000 km2 (105% of the plan for that year) and that
1,414 topographic sheets were made ready for publication.
7. Garayevskaya's textbook of cartography, (19) published in 1952,
states that for the period between 1945 and 1952, the area
covered by triangulation and topographic surveys amounted to
4,000, 000 km2.
Gosudarst. Geodes. Upravleniye (1:25,000 --1;50
2,000).
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8. Chebotarev, (18) in 1948, stated that the
government's post-
war plan included the aerial surveying of an area of
1,000,000 km2 per year.
9. An article by Krinchik and Zlatkin (29) published in 1939
says that for the period between 1931 and 1935, an area
of 1,000,000 km2 of territory had been surveyed by aerial
methods and that in 1938, aerial photo coverage was
500,000 km2.
Allowing for overlapping coverage caused by re-surveys and re-compilations,
a conservative estimate as to the total area of the Soviet Union covered by
topographic maps on scales of 1:25,000 to 1:500,000, up to 1952 would be
12,000,000 km2 or almost 60% of the area.
Up to the end of 1943, aerial photographic coverage apparently was
5,017,800 km2. Chebotarev's statement that 1,000,000 km2 would be the plan
for yearly completion of aerial surveys might appear to be somewhat unrea-
sonably high. However, if we assume it to be a reliable average figure then
something like 14,000,000 km2 of aerial photo coverage existed in 1952 for
the area of the Soviet Union.
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B. Area and Rate of Compilation of Each of the Major Soviet Map Series.
1. 1:2,500,000 Map of the U.S.S.R.
a. Planimetrie map.
Salishev (12) and Ziman (17) describe this 32-sheet map
covering all of the U.S.S.R. as being completed in 1939-
b. Hypsometric MR.
Zarutskaya and Zenkovich (13) report in 1951 that the hypso-
metric map of the U.S.S.R. was compiled and printed in the
period between 1945 and 1949.
c. Geologic map.
A geological map, covering all of the U.S.S.R., was compiled
and printed in the period between 1939 and 1940, according to
Vereyn in 1946. (Blue lines of this map are available
at the Army Map Service).
2. 1:1,500,000 Map of European U.S.S.R.
a. Planimetric ma .
Apparently there have been at least three editions of the
planimetric version of the 1:1,500,000 map of European U.S.S.R.
because Salishchev (12) says that a "revised edition" in twenty
sheets was published in 1934. Ziman (17) says that there was
also a 1939 edition published by the First Cartographic Factory
in Leningrad.
b. Hypsometric.
Salishchev (12) states that the hypsometric edition of this map
was compiled and printed during the period between 1930 and 1941.
* See the section on geological mapping in this report
for additional information.
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3. The 1:1,000,000 series.
Soviet cartographic literature abounds in descriptions of and
praises for this series
The notes that follow
are more or less in the nature of a summary of the rate of devel-
opment of the series and a description of the many uses to which
the Soviets have put these maps. This series is also of interest
for other reasons; namely, because this is the largest scale map
25X1
25X1
series compiled by the Soviets known to cover the entire territory
of the Soviet Union and because the United States has enough of its
coverage to enable us to evaluate the validity of many of the Soviet
descriptions of it.
In this latter respect, their often-repeated statement to the
effect that Soviet maps of "this series represents the largest and
most uniform series ever contributed to the general system outlined
for the International Map of the World" is only partly true. Soviet
coverage does include the largest number of sheets compiled by any
one nation, but their "uniformity" and "standardization" is obviously
an exaggerated description, at least as far as can be judged from
editions available here which number up to as many as eight per sheet
in European U.S.S.R. In this connection, one very interesting and
significant point might be made here. It is this: that even though
Soviet literature is replete with descriptions of this series, and
even though that literature emphasizes the use made of it by Soviet
military forces during the war and describes a few reprints, no stat-
istical data reported in the literature even approaches describing the
actual conditions concerning the number of re-compilations, revisions and
reprints that are known to exist - as evidenced from the character
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and number of Soviet sheets captured by the Germans and later
re-taken by our own forces. This fact serves to emphasize and
validate statements made in earlier reports of this Laboratory
to the effect that data from open source material represent the
very minimum measurement of Soviet development.
According to Salishchev, (12) work on this series was started
by the YTU in 1918. (Two planimetric sheets which did not conform
to the specifications for the International )slap of the World).
Work was carried on by the various agencies which later became
the GUGK who, Salishchev says, compiled 80 sheets in 1932 and 50
in 1937. Zakatov (1) says that by 1937. 84.5% of the area of the
Soviet Union had been covered with maps on this scale.
The year 1940 appears to have been critical in the development
of this series. According to Ziman (3) the plans of operations in
the topographic services included completion of a large proportion
of the uncompiled sheets during this year. This emphasis, he says,
was "very necessary because these maps are vitally needed in the
development of national economy. for use as a general strategic map
for the Army, are basic for both civil and military aviation, and
as bases for soil*, geological **and botanical series".
To this end, according to Ziman, (6) all of the cartographic
agencies within the structure of the GUGK, the VTS, the Academy
of Sciences and several of its institutes, the Geographical Society,
* Ziman Cates that the work of compiling the 1:1,000,000
soil maps of the U.S.S.R., was started in 1939 at the Pochvennyy
Institut (Soil Institute) of the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R.,
under the leadership of L.I. Prasolov.
** For a description of the compilation of the 1:1,000,000 geological
series, see the section on geological mapping in this report.
_c'_
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the Mining geology groups, the Bydrometeorological Service and the
Glavsevmorput' were asked to contribute compilation assistance for
the years between 1940 and 1945. Salishchev (12) states that new
specifications were issued in 1940, (presumably for the use of these
several contributing groups).
The following data represent the available information concerning
the activity of organizations compiling sheets of this series in
1940 or later:
(a) Sukhodrev (8) says that 48 sheets were assigned in 1940
to the Leningrad, Moscow, Tbilissi, Tashkent, Sverdlovsk
and Omsk map factories of the GUGK,
(b) The GUGK completed 49 sheets in 1940, (7)
(c) The Sverdlovsk map factory completed three sheets in 1940.(9)
and
(d) Baranov,(15) reporting on mapping activity in 1943, states
that 62 sheets were compiled in 1942.
One of the most interesting quotations concerning these maps belongs
to Salisbchav,(12) who stated in 1944 that up to this time a total of
232 sheets had been compiled and that the series was now completed.
This is in disagreement, of course, with announcements made in the
Soviet press which reported completion of the 180-sheet series in
1944. There are at least two possibilities which might account for
the "232-sheets". The first is that he included the many sheets
known to have been compiled by the Soviets which covered areas out-
side the limits of their own territory. (31 sheets in Romania,
Finland, Norway, Poland, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, China, Manchuria,
Czechoslovakia and Mongolia alone). The second possibility is that
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this figure includes re-compilations. The former explanation
appears the more reasonable because the number of known re-
compilations would total to a figure much larger than 232.
4. The 1:500,000 Series.
The chronological history of the development of the 1:500,000
series, as recapitulated from the open source literature consulted
for this report, is much less complete or up-to-date than for the
1:1,000,000 series.
Salischev O says that the work of compiling this series was
started in 1931, during which year 38 sheets were completed.
(Later reprinted during World War II for the Soviet Air Force.)
He continues by saying that in the period between 1932 and 1934,
57 sheets were completed; between 1935 and 1938, 88 sheets were
done; and in 1938, 78 more sheets were compiled by the VTO and
the GUGB - a total of 261 sheets.
Zakatov,(1)on the other hand, says that by 1937, 43.5% of the
U.S.S.R. had been covered by sheets of this series and that the
plan for 1939 included the preparation of 228 sheets to be com-
piled from field observations. Yegorov (2) says that in 1939 the
coverage totalled 700 sheets (or coverage for slightly more than
1/2 of the area of the U.S.S.R.) The only available open source
reference which gives information for later work on this series
is that of Ziman (17) in 1939 in which he states that the plan of
operation for the topographic services during the third 5-year
plan included the attempt to complete this series before the
1:1,000,000 program. All available evidence points to either
Soviet inability to accomplish this plan or to a change of program.
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5. The 1:200.000 Series.
Information available from open sources offers even less stat-
istical date on the rate of development of this series.
A review of the work of the VTU published in 1927 (14) reports
that this organization had been working on this series since 1923.
Salishchev (12) continues the description of this work by the YTU
and says that ins
1927 - 50 sheets were compiled which were later used as
a base for a road map.
1931-1935 - 60 sheets (in 6 colors) were completed.
He also reports that the Main Geodetic Administration did the
following work on the series:
1933-1938 3440 sheets
1938 approximately 100 sheets
Obviously, the above data are not sufficiently up-to-date or
complete to warrant an estimate based on open source material
only of current Soviet map coverage on this scale. Map coverage
of this map currently available in this country, however, indicates
that about as much of the U.S.S.R. was covered by 1941-42 by this
series as was covered by the 1:500,000 series.
6. The Soviet 1:100,000 Series.
For many years the 1:100,000 maps of the Soviet Union have been
called by them "the standard map". In recent years, information con-
cerning work progress on this series has been highly classified and
care has been taken to reveal as little specific information as possible
about it. For this reason, an attempt has been made to collect all
t?
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possible statistical data on this series from open source references-
for this report. Such data are often included in statistics along
with information on other large scales and it is nearly always im-
possible to separate statistics for one from another. Results of
our search are far from satisfactory but they are submitted for
possible integration with covert information not available at this
Laboratory or with statistical data appearing in NIS studies.
changed to the metric system
(19)
VTU compiled 26 sheets
(12)
About 7,000 sheets compiled
The Northwest Aerogeodetic
(5)
Establishment compiled 444 sheets
covering an area of 424,500 km2. (23)
1940 The Glav. Geod. Upravleniye (Main
Geodetic Administration) issued new
1U3-12R
120 to l
1 8-1 44
1912-1934 The VTS compiled 107 sheets. (12)
1923 Along with maps on the scale of
1:25,000 and 1:50,000, chief work
of the VTU. (12)
1923 Old system of measurements (versts)
1940
1940
map specifications for the series. (12)
Mashaishvili (21) says that these speci-
fications were very rigid.
The GUGK started working on compilation
of sheets of this series. The war
necessitated a curtailment of this
activity, however. (20)
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1943
1946
1948
7,048 sheets of this series were
compiled. (12)
In this year an official order from
the 4UOK declared that the completion
of the mapping of the U.S.S.R. on this
scale was to be the most important work
to be accomplished by them. (22) When
this order was issued, the time necessary
to complete this work was estimated to be
ten to thirteen years. or 1956-57-
The Northwest Aerogeodetic Establishment
compiled ?1 sheets, covering 96,273 km2. (24)
The East Siberian Aerogeodetic Establishment
compiled sheets (approximately 40-45)
covering 50,802 km2. (25)
It would appear that something of the order of at least 7,280 sheets
of this series have been completed. The number of these sheets which
are re-drafts or revisions is not known.
7. The 1:25,000 and 1:50,000 Series.
Detailed statistical data on these two map series are almost non-
existent in open-source Soviet literature except as it is included
in descriptions of other large scale map coverage. For the 1:50,000
series we find the following:
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1919-1934
1933-1938
725 sheets were compiled by the VTS (3 color editions)
sheets were compiled by the VTS (3 color editions)
(mostly planimetric)
Total 1,198 sheets
(12)
For the 1:25,000 - the following:
1919-1934 215 sheets were compiled by the VTS (one color editions)().
Obviously, there is a large discrepancy between these data and cover-
age known to exist at the end of the war on these scales, covering as
it does most of European U.S.S.R.
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Open source Soviet cartographic literature contains abundant statistical
data on Soviet map production up to 1939. After this date production figures
are either very vague or non-existent. However, some idea of the rapid
growth of the technological phases of Soviet cartography can be obtained from
a study of those figures for the years between 1918 and 1938, as follows:
Year
No. of copies Sheet
of maps pro- 1,000
duced
s per
rubles
Cost in
rubles
Rubles
per
worker
Average
NO.
workers
1918
36,000,000
(2)
1919
14,000,000
(2)
1920
11,046,231
(2)
1926
5,712,000
(16)
1927
6,892,oo0
1929
10,902,000
(15)
392
1931
36,000,000
(16)
1,959.000
1932
41,000,000
(16)
2,366,000
4,745
1933
59,000,000
(i6)
3,500,000
5.572
1933
50.356.000
(15) 2,
900
1934
(16)
6,605
1935
(16) 4,
96o
7.768
659
1936
(16) 11,
179
16,208
690
1937
76,000,000
(16) 12,1
1114
12,444,000
19,759
663
1938
135,000,000
(16) 25,
247
25,247,000
42,369
596
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Ziman (17) offers some revealing statistics on four years of work
No, of production
workers
No. of sheet runs
1935
100,000,000
1936
144,000,000
1937
143
461,ooo,ooo
1939
187
561,000,000
1939
242
636,000,000
(plan)
* Number of sheet runs times the average number of colors.
Pochebut (10) offers a brief glimpse of the composition of the First
Map Factory in 1933:
Map compilation division 110 workers
Production-lithographic division 490 workers
Globe-making establishment 120 workers
Total 720 workers
Plan for 1934 1,021 workers
Still another interesting item concerning map production is contained
in a paper by Krempol'skiy (11) written in 1938 in which he describes a
"record" established at the Second Hap Factory in 1938 when the 1:25,000,000
map of the Arctic compiled by the GUGSK was produced on three presses of the
"Drukmakaont" type in 100,000 copies in a period of 60 hours.
Another interesting phase of Soviet map production concerns the output
of Soviet, small-scale school maps.
Gandzha (4 says that one of the most emphasized items in the first
five-year plan (1929-1932) was the need to produce school maps in quantity.
*
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No production statistics for this type of map appear in the sources examined for
thetirst five-year plan (1928-1932) but apparently the plan was carried forward,
especially in the period between 1935 and 1937 (the last three years of the
second five-year plan) and continued at an every-increasing rate through the
years of the third five-year plan until the war and, after the war, to the
present time.
Incomplete statistics on this development are as follows:
Ysar
school maps
Administrative Ma
1935
395.000
32,000
(17)
1936
573,000
520,000
(17)
1937
1,639,000
567,000
(17)
(4-sheet maps in
editions of from
300,000-400,000
copies)
7,287,000
(16)
1938
(6-8 sheet maps
in editions of
from 300,000-
400,000 copies) 8,161,261,000
(16)
3,247,000
1,320,000
(17)
1939 (plan)
2,335-000
1,474,000
(17)
(In this year, according to Ziman, (17) three-fourths of all
Soviet map printing facilities were engaged in printing school
maps for 47,000,000 students).
1945 - 12,000,000 political-administrative and school maps were printed.
to
1952
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A. 1:300,000 Soviet Map Series.
Standard topographic map series on scales ranging from 1:10,000
to 1:1,000,000, compiled and printed by the Soviet Union prior to World
War II have become relatively well-known throughout the cartographic agen-
cies of this country largely because of the variety and number captured by
the Germans and subsequently recaptured by American and British forces.
Manuals and instructions for the compilation, editing and printing of most
of these map series are also available. Since the end of the war, however,
almost no Soviet maps on scales larger than 1:500,000, and only a few sheets
of the 1:500,000 and 1:1,000,000 series compiled by the Soviets after 1942
have been received in this country. Up-to-date information as to Soviet
activity in compiling sheets of all of their standard series must be gleaned
in a piecemeal fashion from a large variety of sources from which all but the
most innocuous statements are generally carefully deleted.
From such sources,) came 25X1
the news that the Soviets had embarked after the war on a program of com-
piling a new series of medium-scale topographic maps on the 1:300,000 scale.
Why the Soviets should prefer the rather awkward scale of 1:300,000 over the
1:250,000 is not obvious, unless they were governed by the need to produce
fewer sheets at probably less cost to their budget. Whether the Soviets had
copied the idea from the series on that scale compiled by German agencies
(Deutsches Heereskarte) during the war or whether the idea was their own is
not known. The two series, however, are quite different in several aspects;
namely, nomenclature, grid, contour interval, etc. Apparently the Soviets
have an ambitious scheme to compile what might be called a strategic planning
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map and have selected this scale as the one most suited to their purpose
(as against our series of this same type on the scale of 1:250,000). It
is also quite possible that they plan to use this series for aviation pur-
poses, again much as we use the 1:250,000 series compiled here in the United
States.
Open source literature available at this Laboratory contains no infor-
'2FX1
by 1947, 90 sheets had been completed.
Again, open source literature found to date offers only limited clues
as to the exact extent or location of areas the Soviets plan to cover with
compilations of this series. One such indication may be found in the descrip-
tion of the series which appears in a 1952 textbook on cartography written by
Garayevskaya, (19) in which special treatment is recommended for specific areas
including areas extending at least from the Carpathian Mountains on the west
to the plains and mountain systems of Central and Eastern Siberia and from
the Caucasus on the south to the northern (?) sections of European U.S.S.R.
Garayevskaya's account is the most detailed description of this series yet
found in open source material.
According to the author, this aeries will be used to "assist in terrain
studies necessary in planning the peoples economy", to "assist in planning
large engineering projects", to "aid district administrative and economic
offices" and also "to be used in the compilation of maps of smaller scales".
The following general specifications are contained in Garayevskaya"s descrip-
tion:
(1) Projection, grid and nomenclature.
The projection used is that of Gauss, computed in six degree zones.
Sheets are keyed to the International Map of the World nomenclature, nine of
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these sheets covering the area of one of the 1:1,000.000 sheets. 8aoh map
covers an area 1?20' in latitude and 2? in longitude. North of 64? sheets
are combined and are 4? in longitude. Sheets are designated by Roman
numerals (I - IX), followed by the appropriate International Map sheet
number (IV-K-38). The geographic grid has an interval of 20' along the
parallels and 30' along the meridians. On combined sheets meridians are
divided into 1? intervals. Mathematical features of the map consist, in
addition to the geographic grid, of initial points and a system of coor-
dinates of 10-kilometer intervals.
(2)
Source Materials
Source materials used to compile sheets of this series consist of,
a. Sheets of the 1:100,000 series.
b. Sheets of the 1:200,000 series, where the 1:100,000
are not available.
c. Catalogs of geodetic and astronomical control points
and traverse determinations.
d. Most recent maps available showing boundaries, roads
and populated places.
e. Hydrographic maps on the scales of 1:25,000 to 19300,000-
f. "Official reference books".
Additional information is obtained from special type maps, aerial photo-
graphs and geographic literature.
Other specifications for this rather detailed series are as follows:
(3) Drainage systems.
Drainage patterns are supposed to be represented in as detailed and
legible fashion as possible. Representation of shorelines l ines and other shore and
off-shore features should be accurately drawn so as to represent their true
type or characteristics. All islands, shoals and submerged rocks should be
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depicted both in oceans and lakes. All lakes and water reservoirs having
areas of more than .5 square millimeters (apparently at drafting scale)
should be shown and symbolized according to the nature of its water (salt,
brackish, etc.) Other lakes may be represented if they have some special
significance in the area. Mineral springs and wells located beyond the
limits of towns, cities and villages should. be symbolized. All streams
whose length exceed .5 centimeters (again, apparently at drafting scale)
should be shown. Streams not meeting this specification may be shown if
they serve to portray the terrain more accurately. Utmost attention should
be paid to representation of the sinuosity of river channels, shore charac-
teristics, rapids and falls. Navigable portions of rivers and streams should
be indicated. Irrigation canals and associated construction features are
symbolized. Bathymetry of both oceans and lakes are symbolized by contour
lines. lydrographic features and facilities are labelled.
(4) Populated places.
Populated places are classified according to their type; ie.,
whether industrial or agricultural, or of administrative importance. and
on the number of inhabitants. The name of the capitol of the U.S.S.R. and
those of the federated and autonomous republics, should be designated by
special type. Names of other administrative centers are underlined,
All populated places should be shown. In those instances where the
density of towns or cities is too great, names of the smallest centers should
not appear.
(5) Communication network.
Special attention is given to alignment and classification of
components of the land communication network.
All railroads and railroad construction features are shown. 'Geouge
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of track is indicated bj use of tae. (Why this should be emphasized so
strongly in the U.S.S.R. where gauge of track is so uniform is not obvious
unless they plan to cover satellite countries with this series).
Roads are classified as (a) arterial highways (autostrada) and
main-highways (magistral); (b) normal gravel(macadam) roads; (c) improved
dirt roads (graded); (d) ungraded dirt roads; (e) winter roads and (f)
pack trails and paths. (Again, why there should be so much emphasis on
super-highways which are certainly few in the Soviet Union is not clear
unless they plan to cover territories outside of the Union or to build
more such roads).
Roads of the hi er classifications are shown in as detailed a
fashion as possible. In areas of difficult accessibility or in lightly
populated regions all types of communications are shown.
(6) Relief representation.
Relief is represented by contour lines. The contour interval
varies with the area; in European U.S.S.R., western Siberia, the plains
of central Asia and certain other areas, it is 20 meters; in areas of med-
ium relief with steep slopes such as the Carpathians, Xopet-Dag, the Yab-
lonovyy Khrebet, the interval is 40 meters; for very high mountain areas
such as the Caucasus, Pamirs. Tyan'-Shan' and Altay Mountains, the interval
becomes 90 meters. Where the area permits and additional relief information
is desirable, additional intermediate contours may be at 1/2, 1/4 or any
arbitrary portion of the prescribed interval. For relief forms which can
not be depicted to scale, such as karat, rock outcrops, talus slopes, etc.,
individual conventional symbols are employed.
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(7) Soil and vegetation syymbolization.
Soil and vegetation cover are indicated by conventional symbols.
Such features as woods, scrub, vines, swamps, marshes, cane, bulrushes,
salt pans, meadows, tundra, steppe, sands, salt flats, gravelled areas,
gardens, vineyards, plantations, etc. fall into this category.
(9) Boundaries.
The following types of boundaries are symbolized: national,
federated and autonomous republics, krays, oblasts, autonomous oblasts,
national okrugs and all administrative boundaries.
(9) Landmark features.
The following landmark features are included on maps of this
series: churches, mosques, Buddhist lamaseries and all historical monuments.
In those areas of light population, individual tombs and cemeteries are
shown.
Sheets of this series are compiled on the scale of 1:240,000,
using what the Soviets call the "photo-mechanical method", (Color separation?).
In this case, three manuscripts (pulls) are prepared.
The first includes populated places, the road network, boundaries,
outlines for areas of the soil-vegetation cover, the grid, the neat lines of
the map and the geographical names. (Black pull).
The second pull includes drainage symbols, - rivers, swamps, salt
pans, contour lines and type used to designate these areas. (Brown and blue
pull).
The third is printed in green symbolizing the "fill" for wood and
vegetation covered areas.
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B. The Soviet 1:500,000 Series.
Garayevskaya's book also describes the 1:500,000 Soviet series in
considerable detail. Since this series is well represented coverage-wise
in this country (at least for those sheets published before and during the
war) her description is of less technical interest than her summary of the
1:300.000 maps. However, certain elements of her description may be of some
significance, as follows:
Her statement of purpose for the map (essentially the same as for
the 1:300,000 series) is translated as follows: " - for preliminary planning
of large industrial and transportation projects. In addition, the map serves
as basic source material for special maps and maps of smaller scales". Later
on in the description she states, "the maps should show .............. isogonic
lines and regions of magnetic anomalies". (Not generally needed for planning -
engineering maps but perhaps for "special" maps).
Still later, series symbolizations for roads and railroads and even
relief, are outlined in far greater detail than those on the larger scale
series at the 1:300,000 scale. And finally, she states in her concluding
paragraph describing the 1:500,000 series, that the "isogonic lines and
aerial navigation data (not previously mentioned) should be drafted on a
separate board.
Other features of this series as described by Garayevskays apparently
agree in general with symbolizations shown on less recent sheets available in
this country.
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One of the most remarkable developments in Soviet cartography is the
wide variety, number and excellence of Soviet atlases. Since the Soviets
have made no secret of their intense planning for and establishment of
educational facilities in all of the sciences, (See OSU report, "Soviet
Education in Geodesy and Cartography") it is not surprising to find that geo-
graphic and cartographic education there has been abundantly supplied with
such educational tools as atlases and their cartographic companions, edu-
cational wall maps. As much as an American cartographer dislikes to admit
it, the obvious fact is that the Soviets have done a better job than we in
this respect, probably due to the fact that the Soviets emphasize geography
more. Soviet school atlases are well-designed for educational use, are graded
as to detail, information and appearance for the lower grades, middle schools
and, of course, for university and general uses the Great Soviet Atlas of the
World in two volumes, is one of the finest in the world, comparing very favor-
ably with the best English, French, German, Italian and other European atlases.
Several, more or less related, facts about Soviet atlases serve to em-
phasize the scope and intensity of Soviet activity in the cartographic-educa-
tion field:
(1) New editions of several school atlases are published every few
years and educational, political and economic maps are re-issued
and revised each year, or have been since the end of the war.
(2) Editions are printed in many copies. For instance, the "Geogra-
ficheskiy Atlas dlya 7-go i 9-go Klassov Sredney Shkoly" (The
Geographical Atlas for the 7th and Sth Classes of Middle School")
was published in 1951 in 135,000 copies.
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7) rL
(3) This same atlas illustrates another point which is that
candidates in the geographical sciences are often the
people assigned to responsible positions in the planning
and execution of such work. In this case the atlas was
prepared under the direction of M.I. Nikishov, a candidate
for a higher degree at the TsNIIGAi$ of the GUGB. Other
instances which illustrate this point are the "Forestry
Atlas" and the "Climate Atlas" which also were compiled
as graduate theses or as a part of graduate work. These
facts answer, in part, the question, "Have the Soviets
been able to train younger people to replace "the old
masters" or the "older, Tsarist-trained scientists"?
Judging from the above two, widely different fields of
cartography, the evidence is that in the realm of atlas
production at least, the Soviets have been able to produce
personnel who are capable of significant contributions.
The section entitled, "Atlas", in the Soviet Encyleopedia (31)lists
many types of atlases which have been produced by the Soviets, some of which
are not presently available in this country. This source states that the
Soviets have compiled geological, soil, botanical, economic, political, natural
resources, water power, industrial, agricultural, forestry, transportation,
educational, linguistic. touring and military atlases. The following are men-
tioned by title:
A. Atlas SSSR (Atlas of the U.S.S.R.), published by the GUG& in 1947.
Senderova, (32) in an article printed in 1949, writes an interesting
account of the development of pocket-type atlases in the U.S.S.R. and describes
the history of the production of the Atlas SSSR in considerable detail. The
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1947 edition appears to have been an outgrowth of the 1934 edition, edited
by V.A. Kamenetskiy which included some 10,000 place names and the 1939
edition which had included only 6,000. The "new" (1947) edition, 14 x 22 cm.
format, was revised primarily from the 1945 edition of the L;2,500,000 series
of maps and included approximately 30,000 populated places on 44 multi-color
maps. Personnel engaged in this work were N.I. Blinova, V.G. Brugger, I.I.
Krimer, V.A. Safronova, A.A. Tsareva and V.I. Cheremnykh. N.N. Baranskiy
and T.N. Gumbina were the scientific consultants. Revision and compilation
work was accomplished in approximately 44 months. Reviews of the Atlas by
Khursenko (33) and Driatskaya (34) provide detailed descriptions of its con-
tents.
B. Karmannyy atlas mira (Pocket Atlas of the World) 1940.
Senderova's article mentioned above (32) describes a karmanyy (pocket)
atlas of the U.S.S.R. but this apparently refers to the 1939 edition of the
Atlas SSSR. Therefore, sources (31) and (32) are in disagreement.
C. Klimaticheskiy atlas Rossii (Climate Atlas of Russia) published by
the Glavnoye Geofizicheskaya Observatoriya (GGU). Pastuch (35) in 1946 pub-
lished a paper which reviews the history and program of this atlas from its
first edition in 1900 by the Glavnoye Fizicheskaya Observatoriya to its most
recent compilation by the GGU between 1945-1949 as the first volume of the new
atlas which covers the European part of the U.S.S.R. (Part II will deal with
Aziatic U.S.S.R.). Climatic maps included in this volume are on the scales of
1:10,000,000, 1:15,000.000, 1:30,000,000 and, in those areas where terrestrial
relief is significant to climate, on 1:5,000,000. Projections used are the
equi-angular, conical and Gauss. The format of the atlas is 39 x 58 cm. and
consists of 385 pages. Candidates of Science, Ye. P. Arkhipova, O.A. Drozdov,
V.V. Orlova, N.F. Nakorenko, V.M. Mikhel', H.V. Zavarina and Ye. Ta. Sherbakova
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at the GGO (Otdel Klimatologii) participated in the program. Scientific
supervision was supplied by Prof. Dr. Ye. S. Rubinehteyn.
D. Atlas promyshlennosti SSSR (Industrial Atlas of the U.S.S.R.)
published in 1930"` This atlas is available at the Library of Congress.
E. Atlas ever eticheskikh resursoy, (Atlas of Power Resources) pub-
lished in 1933-1935 by Gosenergoizdat. (The date 1930 is given in the
Soviet Encyclopedia). According to Cherdantsev (36) the proposal to com-
pile this atlas was made in 1930 by G.M. Krzhizhanovskiy. Individuals
responsible for the atlas weret supervising editors, - A.V. Tinter,
G. M. Krzhizhanovskiy and G.I. Lomov; the cartographic editor was, M. A.
Tsvetkov, assisted by M.I. Kagan and Ya. S. Zenkis.
F. Atlas Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respubliki.
(Atlas of the Soviet Socialist Republics), published in 1929.
G. Atlas Moskovskoy oblasti (Atlas of Moscow Oblast') published in 1933-
H. Atlas Leningradskoy oblasti i Karel'skoy ASSR.
(Atlas of Leningrad Oblast' and the Karelian Autonomous Republic)
published in 1935-
1. Bolshoy Sovetsk Atlas Kira, (Great Soviet Atlas of the World),
printed in 1937? (Too well known to require descriptive comment).
J. Atlas Ofi tsera, (Atlas for Officers), printed in 1947. No further
information available.
K. Semenov (37) and Isakov, (3g) writing in 1951, provide descriptions
of still another atlas and one of considerable significance, the Morskoy Atlas,
(Marine Atlas) published in 1950-
0 Other sources, such as Tsvetkov, give the date as 1931; Garayevskaya, 1929.
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This atlas is the only up-to-date marine atlas published in the world *
and, if available for American use, and if it equals Soviet descriptions,
represents a really significant contribution to world cartographic knowledge
and literature.
On the suggestion of Academician Yu. M. Shokal'skiy, plans to compile
this work were initiated in 1939 and had been approved before World War II.
Agencies cooperating in the effort were the Academy of Sciences, the War
Department, the Navy Department, the GUGK, the All-Union Geographical Society,
the Glavsevmorput' and the Hydrometeorological Service. Although work on it
was interrupted by the war, it was continued afterward and the first volume,
consisting of 420 maps and charts, was published in 1950.
Charts are divided into ten area groups, the Arctic Ocean, Bar East,
northern Pacific, etc. Each group contains a general map on the scale of
1:10,000,000 which gives a general picture of the coastlines and seas in the
area. The charts following each general map show the same area but in greater
detail. Each has an index which contains general information on ice conditions,
currents, tides, and sea levels.
The atlas also includes charts of small areas that are not readily access-
ible for navigation on scales which range from 1:250,000 to 1:2,000,000.
Some of the charts included in this volume were compiled especially for
this work and were published for the first time here"; - Arctic, Antarctic,
Southern Oceans and the Caspian Sea, (showing the new shorelines which resulted
from the lowered sea level).
General charts in the atlas show submarine contours in coastal areas at
2, 5, 10 and 20 meters. Off-shore areas beyond the continental shelf are
depicted by 1000-meter intervals. Oceanic deeps and submerged ridges and
* The latest editions of the Philipp's Mercantile Atlas was in 1939-
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mountains are shown.
All terminology and transcription has been made according to a rigid
standard. All names are shown in the Russian language and "several Russian
geographical names which bad been intentionally changed by foreign editors
have been eliminated and names for bays, islands, etc., which were in reality
discovered by our compatriots, have been given appropriate Russians names".
Prof. I.S. Isakov, L.A. Demin, V.I. Vorob'yev, K.V. Pavlov, A.N. Baranov,
(Chief of the GUGK), S.A. Lukonin, V.P. Gerasimenko and V.A. Petrovskiy
received the Stalin Prize, lot class, for their work on this atlas. (37)
Isakov (39) Head of Voyenno-Morskaya Akademiya imeni Voroshilova since
1939 attributes the success of the first volume to the "cooperation of many
scientific institutes and especially to the fact that it had been done under
the supervision of several famous scholars; L.S. Berg, Academician A.A. Grigor'-
yev, Academician V.V. Shuleykin, Professors I.A. Vitver, B.P. Orlov, B.A. Salish-
chev, N.N. Matusevich, S.V. Kalesnik, V.V. Kavrayskiy, V. Ye. Yegor'yev, N.N.
Zubov, L. Ya. Ziman, Ye. Ye. Shvede and others.
The main work was done by the experts of the GUGK under the supervision
of the GUGK and its chief, A.N. Baranov and by the Hydrographic Office under
the supervision of V.F. Tribute.
Plans for the second volume include classifications for submarine relief,
ocean deposits and shorelines. Individual maps will show earthquake and vol-
canic zones and the structure of the earth's crust. Climatological maps to
be included will represent winds, atmospheric pressure, precipitation, etc.,
as well as maps showing seasonal currents and temperatures.
The third volume is supposed to involve matters of military and naval
interest such as the naval history of the U.S.S.R.
"J1
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L. Solov'yev's, Atlas of Cartographic Projections, was apparently
released after the publication of the third volume of the Encyclopedia
because it was not mentioned in its article on atlases. (For details on
this Atlas, see the section of this report on mathematical cartography).
M. A much older, but interesting atlas not. described in the Ency-
clopedia is the vegetation atlas described by Il'inskiy in 1934, (39)
"Atlasa rastitel'nosti zemnogo shara", (Atlas of World Vegetation).
This atlas is another illustration of major work done by graduate students
because Il'inskiy prepared this atlas as his graduate thesis.
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A. History of Development under the Soviets.
1. Projections.
Two references, one written in 1939 by Solov'yev, covering the
period 1919-1939, (40) and the other in 1949 by Ginzburg, covering the period
1929-1949, (41) summarize the major events in the history of the development
of civilian Soviet mathematical cartography. For the most part these descrip-
tions refer to projections developed for the needs of civilian economy and
contain few references to military applications. Ginzburg makes no reference
to the role played by Russian mathematical cartographers before the Soviets
came to power and Solov'yev passes over the Russian phase very lightly by
saying that . . . "civil needs of Tsarist Russia relative to cartographic
projections were so insignificant that to speak of serious development of
mathematical cartography for economic needs in Russia is not possible", and
he continues, .... "it can be asserted that the practical and theoretical
inheritance received from Tsarist Russia in the field of cartographic pro-
jection construction came about almost wholly as a result of the experience
of the pre-Revolutionary military service". Further, he attributes the
accelerated development of this field under the Soviets wholly to expanded
economic needs and ever-increasing demand for educational maps necessitated
by Soviet aims toward better education for its people. On the other hand,
A.S. Chebotarev, (19) in a paper published in 1949 credits the Russian
scientists, P.L. Chebyshev and D.A. Grave, as the men who put Russian mathe-
matical cartography on a solid foundation and says that "Soviet scientists
have considerably enriched the content and have added its teaching engineer-
ing character".
E ;'
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The abbreviated chronological summary of steps in development of Soviet
mathematical cartography considered by them to be of most significance, is
derived from the two, above-mentioned sources and from miscellaneous sources
published after 1949.
1922 - F. N. Krasovskiy published a book, entitled "Novyye kartografiches-
kiye proyektsii" ("New Cartographic Projections"). Up to this time V.Y.
Vitkovskiy's book, "Kartografiya" ("Cartography") published in 1907, had been
the standard Russian textbook on the theory of cartographic projections.
Krasovskiy's book, published by the Vyssh. Geodez. Upravlea., analyzed the
theoretical problems associated with the construction of those projections
which would be best suited for 1:4,000,000 and 1:10,000.000 maps of the
U.S.S.R., and proposed the use of two projections:
1. Equi-distant, conical projections without area distortion
but with a scale variation along the parallels in the cen-
tral part of the zone.
2. Equi-distant, conical projection without area distortion and
which gives (a) the least square sum of the distortion along
the outer parallels for any given country and (b) scale equality
along the outer parallels.
1925 - Professor Krasovskiy elaborated and improved the latter projection
(42). The Soviets claim that this improved version is an original contribution
and always refer to it in later literature as the "Krasovskiy projection".
12.E - Geodezicheskiy Komitet Gosplana (Geodetic Committee of the Gosplan)
set forth a resolution concerning the introduction of the use of the Gauss-
Krueger plane rectangular coordinates throughout the Soviet Union. Up to this
time there had been no uniform use of such coordinates although there had been
some utilization of the Soldner rectangular coordinates.
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fly.. :; .. .
12.39 - As a result of the adoption of the Gauss-Krueger system, three
major publications appeared. The first was prepared by Krasovskiy, Zvonov
and Larin and gave tables, formulas and introductions to the computation of
Gauss-Krueger coordinates for zones between 35? and 700 latitude. The second
volume by N.N. Matusevich and Yushchenko appeared in the same year and included
tables, formulas and computations for Gauss-Krueger coordinates. The third
book was by N.I. Kell' and emphasized applications for Gauss-Krueger coordin-
ates.
- Special Chair of Mathematical Cartography established at the
MIIGAiK.
1 ,- A. M. Virovets published tables of conversion of Gauss-Krueger
coordinates. Prof. V.V. Kavrayskiy published his famous treatise, "Issledo-
vaniya po matematicheskoy kartografii" (Investigations in Mathematical Carto-
graphy) in which he gave methods of obtaining constants for equi-distant,
equal-angle and equal-area conical projections having minimum mean square
distortions of distances. This work is considered as being of great practical
significance for use on small scale maps of the U.S.S.R.
l9al- V. Kahan and other authors published tables for non-logarithmic
computation of Gauss-Krueger coordinates.
V.V. Kavrayskiy published his textbook, "Mathematieheskatiya Kartografiya"
(Mathematical Cartography). This text was, and still is, considered by many
authorities as being the most outstanding of its type written and published
in the Soviet Union.
1935 - Prof. M.D. Solov'yev published his textbook, "Posobiye po teorii
kartograficheskikh proyektsiy". (Guide to the Theory of Cartographic Projections).
This book was written for use by students of cartographic-geodetic VTUZY.
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Prof. N.A. Urmayev published his monograph, "Proyektsiya kart masshtabov
1:1,000,000 and 1:500,000 (A Projection for Maps on 1:1,000,000 and 1:500,000
Scales) and, with other authors. "Konicheskaya proyektsiya v primenenii k
marshrutnym poletnym kartam (The Conical Projection Adopted for Use in Aviation
Strip Maps).
1936 - Prof. V.V. Kavrayskiy published tables of rectangular coordinates
on the Gauss-Krueger projection for platting kilometer grids on topographic
maps.
G.A. Ginzburg published his work, "Proyektsii dlya kart mira" ("Projections
for World Maps"). This paper suggested some new projections and was his doctor's
dissertation.
- At the suggestion of the TaNIIGAiK, Prof. M.D. Solov'yev and Dot-
sent F.A. Starostin, made projection studies for a school, physical map of
the U.S.S.R. on the scale of 1:22,000,000 to be included in an atlas for
begineers' schools. This investigation led to the derivation of eight separate
projections, the most significant of which was an oblique perspective-cylin-
drical projection proposed by Solov'yev which was later adopted for use in
3rd-and kith--grade atlases and for the 1:5,000,000 political maps of the U.S.S.R.
(1938). Shortly afterward Professors Solov'yev and Urmayev and Dotsent Star-
ostin broadened their projection study to include maps ranging in scale from
1:5,000,000 to 1:20,000,000. Seven variations of the oblique perspective
cylindrical projections resulted and the use of this projection became firmly
established for use on small scale maps of the U.S.S.R.
The first volume of the Great Soviet Atlas of the World (BSAM) was pub-
lished in which certain "new" projections were used; namely, the Eckert-Goode
and a modified Goll projection.
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A paper presented by Soviet delegates to the VIII and IX conference of
the Baltic Geodetic Commission entitled, "Nekotoryye issledovaniya v oblasti
matematicheskoy kartografiiN (Some Research in the Field of Mathematical
Cartography), included the following papers:
(a) "Sposoby vychisleniy kartograficheskikh setok dlya aviatsionnykh
marshrutnykh kart". (Methods of Computing Cartographic Grids for
Aviation Strip Maps).
(b) MTablitsy proyektsii Gaussa-Kryugera dlya shirokoy polosy i eye
primeneniye" (Tables on the Gauss-Krueger Projection for Broad
Belts and their Applieatiom), published by the TsNIIGAiK.
Solov'yev published, "Perspektivno-tailindricheskiye proyektsii".
(Perspective-Cylindrical Projections) and "Vidoizmenennyye formuly proyektsii
Bonna" (Modified Formulas for the Bonne Projection).
In this year, Solov'yev published his well-known textboo, "Kartogra-
ficheskiye proyektsii" (Cartographic Projections) designed for use of
civilian students enrolled in cartographic-geodetic VTUZY.
Solov'yev (and others) published a paper entitled, "Issledovaniya
primeneniya astronomicheskikh tablits v kartografii v tselyakh perekhoda
of geograficheskikh koordinat k koordinatam kosykh sistem". ("Investigations
on the Use of Astronomical Tables in Cartography for Converting Geographic
Coordinates to Oblique Systems")
- A. Dinchenko published a paper entitled, "Proyektsiya Chebysheva
dlya Sovetskogo Soyuza" (The Chebyshev Projection for the Soviet Union).
The publication of ten school wall maps resulted in a series of in-
vestigations by the TsNIIGAiK on various types of projections for specialized
maps. Solov'yev worked on the problem of a suitable choice of projection
for representation of the Arctic area. Solov'yev, Urmayev and Starostin worked
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on the problem of projection for aviation maps, and suggested four possible
choices. Other research by this group included studies for projections of
world maps.
Ginzburg published an article, "Dve novyye proyektsii dlya kart mire"
("Two New Projections for World Maps") in Sbornik nauchnykh trudov lhar'kov-
skogo inzhenerno-stroitel'nogo instituta, No. 4.
G. N. Liodt published a monograph entitled, "Sravnitel'naya otsenka
dostoinstva proyektsii Molvveyde i Ekkerta dlya postroyeniya mirovykh kart"
("Comparative Analysis of the Value of the Molveide and Eckert Projections
in the Construction of World Maps").
V. Taich published a paper, "Ob odnoy serif ekvivalentnykh proyektsii"
("Concerning One Series of Equivalent Projections").
Prof. B.P. Ostashchenko-Kudryatsev's paper, "Obshchaya teoriya ekvival-
entnykh konieheskikh proyektsii", ("General Theory of Equivalent Conical Pro-
jections), appeared.
A. Ya. Graur published his volume, "Matematicheskaya kartografiya"
("Mathematical Cartography").
Urs yev did intensive work on projections for maps on 1:500,000 and
1:1,000,000 scales.
IM-1~9,- Urmayev and Starostin carried on extensive studies into
projections to be used for world maps.
During this same period Kavrayskiy developed a general theory for
elliptical, pseudo-cylindrical projections. Urmayev evolved conformal,
pseudo-cylindrical projections and Ginzburg concentrated on investigating
projections whose parallels were area of circles.
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Volkov, Starostin and others of the staff of TsNIIGAiK started work
of compiling the "Atlases kartograficheskikh proyektsiy" (Atlas of Carto-
graphic Projections).
1939-12jL4 -- TsNIIGAiK published, "Kartograficheskiye tablitsy" (Carto-
graphic Tables). These tables were the first to refer data to the Krasovskiy
ellipsoid and most of the work was done by Solov'yev and Volkov.
1943 - Solov'yev, Volkov and Salmanova prepared cartographic tables
which referred data to the TsNIIGAiK ellipsoid (43).
1944 - Work on the projection to be used on the political map of the
world was accomplished at the TsNIIGAiK.
The TsNIIGAiK also worked out the projections for a pocket atlas, a
school atlas for use in the "middle schools", a series of administrative
maps of several krays and oblasts and a series of school maps.
1944.45 - The Laboratoriya Matematicheskoy Kartograf ii of the TsNIIGAiK
(Laboratory of Mathematical Cartography) under the directorship of Ginzburg,
started work on a series of complex mathematical cartography problems. Among
these was an intensive study of the theory and applications of azimuthal pro-
jections. Investigators working on this problem came to the conclusion that
approximately two-thirds of the land areas of the earth's surface could be
represented adequately by using azimuthal projections where f?- = K sin Z
K
(when R = 1).
1945 - Krasovskiy and Izotov published tables of rectangular coordinates
for the Gauss-Krueger projection (44).
1946 - Solov'yev published his textbook, "Kartograficheskiye proyektsii".
(Cartographic Projections). (53)
The "Atlasa kartograficheskikh proyelctsii", started before the war, was
completed and published. Ginzburg gives a rather detailed description of this
B *N
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atlas which is of special interest because, in so far as is known, no copy
is available in the United States. In consists of 70 schematic diagrams
which illustrate various projections. Each type of projection is accompanied
by descriptive text and a graphical representation of deformation. The Atlas
also contains tables of rectangular coordinates for many points. Certain
variations of major projections are given which illustrate the comparative
differences between them. 0ne section is devoted to the projections used
to represent the U.S.S.R., its republics, the northern polar regions, the
area of the Sevmorput', land areas, oceans and world maps.
1,949 - Kell' (45) published a paper dealing with the use of azimuthal
projections iL photogrammetry.
1949 - Ginzburg (46) published a paper dealing with the selection of
projections for hemispheric maps.
Kayrayskiy (47) prepared an article on the measurement of distances from
maps on the Mercator projection.
1952 - Solov'yev (48) published a manual on mathematical cartography.
This book apparently is intended to be a laboratory manual to be used to
supplement Solov'yev's textbook on projections.
2. Cartometry
The cartographical science called "cartometry" by the Soviets
apparently was not recognized either as an integral part of mathematical
cartography or as an entity in the Soviet Union until after World War II,
Ginzburg (41) says that the first significant cartometric work in the Soviet
Union was performed by D.A. Larin in 1930. This study, the first of many,
involved methods of precise measurement of the area of the U.S.S.R. The
chief Soviet proponent of cartometric investigation, however, has been
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N. M. Volkov who has published a long series of articles and at least one
book dealing with various phases of cartometry. (See Volkov's papers on
the precision of maps, (49) on a specific aspect of cartometry,(50) 1949
and on cartometry as an aid to geographers, (51) 1946). Volkov's book,
"Printsipy i metody kartometrii", (Principles and Methods of Cartometry)
was published by the Geographical Institute of the Academy of Sciences in
1950.(52) This volume represents an attempt to systematize all cartometric
work done in the U.S.S.R. up to this time.*
Briefly, Volkov's work may be divided into five general categories:
The measurement of area, the measurement of lines, morphometric measurements
and, to a lesser degree, an evaluation of the effects on map measurement of
paper deformation, and of cartographic devices or instruments used in obtain-
ing measurements from maps.
Volkov's analysis of line measurements (shorelines, rivers, boundaries,
etc.) is of considerable interest and value to cartographers. However, the
practical aspects of relationship of line measurement to lengths of degrees
of meridians or parallels on various projections and the problem of measure-
ment of distance of great circle routes are omitted from his text. Other
applications, such as measurements for aero-navigation purposes are also
omitted.
* The author seems to avoid direct references to area-and line-measurement
studies carried on under the Tsars or those by European cartographers.
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B. Projections Used in the Soviet Union.
A list of projections used on maps of the Soviet Union, if complete,
would be very extensive and varied and no attempt is made to accomplish this
in this report. Certain projections, however, appear to be in general use
for maps of various scales and purposes.
Projections used for the medium and large scale "series" maps of the
GUGK are: (adopted in 1939)
1:1,000,000 - Modified polyconic of the International Map of the World.
1:500,000 - Gauss-Krueger
1:300,000 - Gauss-Krueger
1:200,000 - Gauss-Krueger
1:100,000 and larger - Gauss Krueger
Projections used for small-scale maps are, of course, more varied and
depend on the size and location of the area covered and the purpose of the
map being compiled. The 1:2,500,000 series, (geological, planimetric and
hypsometric) is compiled on the Kavrayskiy conical, equidistant projection
having a standard parallels at 47? and 6210 North. The 1:1,500,000 map
covering European U.S.S.R. is on the Krasovskiy equidistant, conical pro-
jection.
The Solovayev oblique perspective cylindrical projection is widely used
for educational, administrative and political maps of the U.S.S.R. on the
1:5,000,000 scale. It is a special adaptation of the Goll projection
(cylinder tangent to the earth at the equator) and is derived from a
cylinder which is secant and oblique and which divides the U.S.S.R. into
two halves where the cylinder interests the parallel.
Projections used in atlases also vary considerably, -those most often
used, however, are about the same as used by other nations for similar maps:
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- the Lambert azimuthal, the Mollweide, Aitov, Eckert, Mollweide-Goode,
Eckert-Goode, Goll, Postel, Sanson, Bonne and Grinten.
Naval and aviation maps are usually compiled on the cylindrical Mercator
projection, although the oblique cylindrical projection has been used recent-
ly.(53) Urmayev also investigated the use of conic projections for aviation
maps.
C. Contributions to Mathematical Cartography made by the Soviets.
There can be no doubt but that the Soviets have accomplished extensive
research and development in the field of mathematical cartography. They have
apparently done this work in an orderly and practical way; first, by examination
of the problems and needs involved; secondly, by establishing scientific pro-
jects to determine possible solutions to those problems; thirdly, by collect-
ing and systematizing world knowledge on the subject; fourthly, by planning
a program of textbooks, manuals, atlases and other aids to a coordinated train-
ing program and lastly, they have succeeded in contributing a few productions
in this field, which are non-existent in the cartographic literature of the
rest of the world (Atlas of Cartographic Projections) and other valuable,
though not unique productions. (Tables for computing various cartographic
projections, as well as modified projections which are well adapted for maps
of the U.S.S.R.)
The so-called "new" projections of Kracovskiy, Kavreyskiy and Solov'yev
(Modified Goll) fall into this latter category. Basic rules for and types of
projections are rather limited in number and the number of possible adaptations
and combinations are very numerous. Therefore, to say that these projections
represent absolutely original scientific contributions to mathematical carto-
graphy would be open to question. It can be said, however, that these projections
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are or were "new" to Soviet usage and that they are well designed to depict
the U.S.S.R. area.
One of the especially interesting and useful phases of Soviet research
on map projections is the many studies that their scientists have made on
deformation and distortions of area or of distance for numerous projections.
The "Atlas of Cartographic Projections" by Solov'yev is described as contain-
ing many graphical representations of this feature and Gedymin's, "Cartography",
available in this country contains two plates of this type included as a part
of its supplementary volume
Comments of the same nature can be made concerning Soviet "cartometry".
The only "new" aspects are its name and its systematic approach. Volkov's
work, "Principles anti Methods of Cartometry" is definitely a contribution in
the field of mathematical cartography because it describes and systematizes
so many of the various phases of map measurement and makes them available in
one volume. (52)
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Russian and Soviet geologists and geologic mapping have, especially
since the Revolution, been one of the most important factors in the rapid
development of the Soviet economy. Statements by both Lenin and Stalin
emphasized the necessity of industrial development and an ever-expanding
economy. The 9th Congress of the RKP implemented this philosophy by de-
claring that the primary need was to develop the fuel and metallurgical
industries. Initial steps taken to get this program underway included a
reorganization of the industrial set-up. (Vysshiy Sovet Narodnogo Khoz-
yaystva, which had included the Geological Committee, now changed the
Committee into the Tsentral"noye Upravleniye Promyshlennykh Razvedok) and
an increase in the development of coal and ore areas. Here, field surveys
were of primary importance and topographers, surveyors and geologists shared
equally in the reconnaissance program, upon which the future of all industries
depended. From 1920 onward, continuous pressure was exerted to develop mining
and metallurgical resources. Reconnaissance and geologic mapping went on at
an every-increasing pace, following a coordinated and well-planned scheme of
development. Known deposits of critical materials were re-surveyed on larger
scales and previously unexplored and unexploited deposits were found, mapped
and developed. Thorough knowledge of geological mapping after the Revolution,
then, offers one of the best sources of information and a measure by which
it is possible to estimate the scope and rate of development of those natural
resources available in the U.S.S.R.. without which their rapid economic develop-
ment could not have taken place.
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A. Scope and Rate of Development
Precise and detailed information concerning the rate and scope of
Soviet geologic mapping activity is available up to 1945- After this
date, open-source information is more fragmentary. Such information as
is available in Soviet open source literature is contained in the stated
aims of the last two, five-year plans. (Fourth, 1943-1948; and fifth,
1948-1953)? Figure 1 is a graphical representation of the amount of area
of the Soviet Union covered by geological maps. Figure 2 represents the
rate of development of post-Revolutionary geologic mapping.
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USSR area covered by_ geo%giCa/ maps
% area covered by geol. MAPS
90 -
Fig. /.
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Rate of deve%pmenl- J USSR geological mapping.
40%-
Fig. 2
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' T
B. History of Development After the October Revolution.
Data used to produce the above figures were chiefly obtained from two
references; the first, by V.A. Aprodov (54) and the second, by Ya. S. Edel'-
steyn.(55) Together these two sources present a rather detailed history of
the more important stages of development of Soviet geological cartography.
Other references, such as textbooks of cartography for mining engineers by
Zvonarev and Popov, (56) (57) include further information of interest to
students or workers in one or more of the specialized fields of geology.
(See the List of References for additional sources). Since most of the sig-
nificant progress in geological mapping has been made since the Revolution,
(up to 1917, general geologic maps for the U.S.S.R., published on various
scales, sheet lines, etc., had been prepared for only 10% of the area and
another 0.45% with detailed geologic maps (54) no further mention will be
made in this report of this earlier period.*
A fairly complete, itemized chronological list of developments in this
field is included in Appendix II. This list may be of considerable interest
and value to users in the specialized fields of geological mapping, and to
cartographers and geographers wishing to obtain knowledge of map coverage of
specific areas. However, an abbreviated and selective list of the following
highlights in Soviet geological mapping development is considered sufficient
for the purposes of this general report, as follows:
* The Great Soviet Atlas, (58) Vol. 10, page 503, 1952, states, "During the
period between 1882 and 1918 about 10.25% of the territory had been mapped
geologically."
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1919-20 First significant attention paid to the importance of
structural geology and mapping.
1922 Aerial reconnaissance used for geological observations and
mapping on the Apsheronskiy Peninsula and in the Baku area.
1923-24 Electro-magnetic methods used in tracing sub-surface structures.
1925 Electro-magnetic methods widely used from this time on especially
for locating oil deposits.
First large scale (1:500,000) geological map. of the Kuznetsk
coal basin.
1926 Since this date, systematic use of aerial photo methods in
compiling aero-topographic maps for geological purposes.
1932 1:2,500,000 Quaternary deposit maps of European U.S.S.R., completed.
Logachev makes first experimental, small-scale geological maps using
aero-magnetic methods.
1933 1:2,500,000 geological map of European U.S.S.R. (revised).
1934 Added new courses in higher schools (VUZY) of geology.
1935 Micro-magnetic techniques used for 1:50,000 scale geological
mapping in western Siberia.
1937 First volume of the Great Soviet Atlas published.
1938 Decision to compile a 1:1,000,000 geological series covering the
U.S.S.R.
Began systematic use of aero-transport and radio communication.
1939 Began systematic use of automobiles in field work. (This greatly
accelerated geological mapping).
1940 1:2,500,000 series of geological maps of the U.S.S.R. completed.
"Electro-sond" methods used for identifying sub-surface structures
for small scale surveys.
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1946
1947
1:5,000,000 VSEGEI map of the U.S.S.R., completed.
97 of 174 sheets of the 1:1,000,000 geological series
completed.
1950 Norms established for aero-geological work (SUSN).(59)
C. Major Administrative Control of Geologic Mapping (1920-Present).
MINISTERSTVO GEOLOGII
(Ministry of Geology)
1920 - Vysshiy Sovet Narodnogo Khozyaystva (VSNKh) which included Geolog-
1930 -
1931 -
1935 -
1939 -
1946 -
1953 -
icheskiy Komitet (Geolkom), reorganized into Tsentral'noys Uprav-
leniye Promyshlennykh Razvedok (TsUPR).
Glavnoye Geologo-Razvedochnoye Upravleniye (GGRU).
Vsesoyuznoye Geologo-Razvedochnoye Ob"yedineniye.
Glavnoye Geologicheskoys Upravleniye NKTP (GGU).
Komitet po delam Geologii pri SNK SSSR.
Ministerstvo Geologii.
Divisions of Ministerstvo Geologii were distributed among five
Ministries;
(1) Ministerstvo Metallurgicheskoy Promyshlennosti (Metallurgical
Industry).
(2) Ministerstvo Ugol'noy Promysh lennosti (Coal Industry).
(3) Ministerstvo Khimicheskiy Promyshlennosti (Chemical Industry).
(4) Ministerstvo Neftyanoy Promyshlennosti (Oil Industry).
(5) Ministerstvo Promyshlennosti Stroitel'nykh Materialov
(Industrial Construction Materials).
Other Ministries under which geological mapping is done are the Ministerstvo
Neftyanoy Pro myshlennosti (Ministry of Oil Industry) and Ministerstvo Chernoy -
and Ministerstvo Tevetnoy - Metallurgii (Ministry of Ferrous - and Ministry of
Non-Ferrous Metallurgy) and several mining prospecting agencies.
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D. pee of Geologic Mamie Published by the Soviet Union.
Soviet geologic maps are of ten general kindst (54)
1. Geologic-stratigraphic
2. Lithologic-petrographic
3. Structural-tectonic
4. Quaternary deposit maps
5. Environmental (fascies)-paleogeographic
6. Geomorphologic
7. Hydro-geologic
9. Mineral resources maps
9. Engineering-geological
10. Various geophysical maps
Generally speaking, maps of each of the above types are prepared on
scales determined according to the size and type of area being sapped.
Several maps are of sufficiently large scale, have sufficiently standardized
nomenclarure, sheet lines, sheet numeration and symbolization, and cover large
enough areas to call then "series" type maps. Such series are on the scales
of 1:1,000,000, 1:500,000, 191000000, , 1:50,000, 1:255,000, 1:10,000, 1:5,000,
1:2,000 and 1:1,000.
The 1:5,000,000 and 1:1,000,000 maps are general geologic maps and are
used to portray the geology of large areas such as countries. Regional-
type geological maps, portraying the general geology of parts of oblasts,
krays and republics, are printed on 1:500,000 or 1:200,000 scales. Detailed
geologic maps on scales of 1:50,000 to 1:100,000 are used to represent all
types of detailed geological information of mining regions, water supply
maps and other similar types of economic or industrial interest. Still
larger scales of 1;1,000, 1:2,000 and 1:5,000 are prepared of detailed geo-
physical and geological maps of mineral deposits, mining and oil install-
ations, hydro-geologic areas of importance, etc.
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E. "Standardization" of Soviet Geological )laps.
As with so many other Soviet sciences, geologists and cartographers
have made determined efforts in the last twenty or so years to effect com-
plete standardization in their geologic mapping techniques and procedures
in all phases of the work. Norms have been established for the composition
procedures and work requirements of field parties (1) and for aero-geological
groups. (59) as well as for many other specializations. Standard specifications
have been established for all of the "series" geological maps and efforts have
been made to assure that maps produced at one plant match in every respect
those produced in every other establishment.
(1) One of the most interesting features of this standardization
attempt is the emphasis which has been placed on the treatment of relief
even on geologic maps (larger scales). This fact should be kept in mind
because it is one of a group of more or less related features which, if
properly correlated, indicate that the Soviets may have prepared what is
known in Western terminology as military-geology maps. No positive direct
evidence of this action is available to this Laboratory at this time from
open source literature.
Another interesting item of note is the fact that, although the Soviets
have established standard contour intervals for depicting relief on their
geologic maps, they have also provided for a certain elasticity in this
respect by allowing upper and lower limits for contour intervals depending
on the type of terrain being mapped and upon the geomorphologica]. type of
area. Bor instance, 1:1,000,000 scale geologic maps may have a contour in-
terval of between 10 and 20 meters in the plains type of terrain"` and between
* The Soviet term Mravnina" means not only the American term, "plain", but
also means any lowland or flat terrain such as plateau - any area of little
relief.
C, C7
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50 and 100 meters in mountainous country; 1:50,000 scale maps may have a
contour interval of from five to ten meters in plains country and of 25
to 50 meters in mountains; for 1:25,000 scale maps, compilers may use a
contour interval varying from two to five meters in plains country and
from ten to 25 meters in mountainous areas; and on 1:10,000 scale maps,
contour intervals may vary between one and five meters in plains country
and from five to 25 meters in the mountains. This feature of Soviet
mapping is decidedly desirable from a geomorphological point of view and
also means that military users, especially those in engineering divisions,
would find such maps of more value than they would otherwise.
(2) A second phase of the Soviet's standardization attempts deals
with what they call "nomenclature". This term includes the American terms,
"Sheet numbering" and "Sheet referencing system", (sometimes referred to as
"indexing system".) Since the Soviet system is so well-known, a detailed
description will not be included here. Suffice to say that the International
Map of the World sheet numbering system forms the basis of their nomenclature,
with larger scales being numbered in the sam way as standard topographic series.
The only, and very insignificant, departure from this system occurs in the fact
that certain of their northernmost 1:1,000,000 sheets have been combined in
several ways, decreasing the number in the series from 180 in the topographic
series to 174 in the geological series.*
(3) A third, and probably the most important feature for us to recognize
in the Soviet standardization plan deals with their utilization of colors and
symbolization. (Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6) illustrate differences between Soviet
and American geologic maps.
* An index to the 1:1,000,000 geological series of the U.S.S.R. appears
in reference No. 1 as Appendix No. 6 (Aprodov).(54)
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Comparison Between the Legends of
American and Soviet Geologic Maps
Sedimentary Rocks
(Osadochnyye porody)
Quaternary system
(Chetvertichnaya sistema)
U.S.A.
Quaternary, Ochra orange
undifferentiated
Continental
Ochra orange
Marine
Volcanic Lemon yellow
Tertiary system
(Tretichnaya sistema)
Tertiary.. Yellow ochre
undifferentiated
Note: If there are two or more forma-
tions in the same system, they
Cretaceous, Olive green
undifferentiated
may be distinguished by different
patterns of straight parallel
lines of the same color.
Cretaceous system
(Melovaya sistema)
Jurassic system
(Yurskaya sistema)
Jurassic, Blue-green
undifferentiated
Triassic system
(Triasovaya sistema)
Triassic,
marine and Light peacock-
continental blue
Permian,
marine
Permian system
(Permskaya sistema)
Baby blue
U.S.S.R.
Chetvertichnaya Baby blue
neraschlenennaya
Neogen Lemon yellow
Paleogen Deep chrome
Melovaya
neraschlenennaya
Yurskaya
neraschlenennaya
Triasovaya
neraschlenennaya
Permskaya
neraschlenennaya
Sea-green
Yellow ochre
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Sedimentary Rocks
U.S.A. U.S.S.R.
Devonian system
(Devonskaya sistema)
Carboniferous system
(Kamennougoltnaya sistema)
Carboniferous, Kamenougoltnaya Light, or
undifferentiated Blue neraschlenennaya medium grey
Devonian Grey purple
Silurian system
(Siluriyskaya sistema)
Silurian Purple
Ordovician
No Equivalent in U.S.S.R. Included
in Silurian System as Lower Series
Cambrian system
(Kembriyskaya sistema)
Cambrian Brick red .] Kembriyskaya (Lilac) Mauve
Devonskaya Terracotta
Siluriyskaya Chromium green
Pre-Cambrian system
(Do-kembriyskaya sistema)
Do-kembriyskaya Brick red
Metamorphic Rocks
(Metamorficheskiye porody)
Metamorphic rocks are designated
by short dashed symbols, irregu-
larly spaced. These dashes may
be in black ink or in color over
a basic tint of lighter shade.
Metamorficheskiye Olive
porody
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~N1 N ~ v ,:.?
Igneous Rocks
Magmaticheskiye porody
Note: Colors for igneous rocks are more
brilliant than those used for sedi-
mentary series. No particular
colors are prescribed, but pink
or red are preferred.
Miocene volcanic Apricot
Tertiary intrusive Carmine
Quaternary volcanic Lemon yellow
Cretaceous basic
intrusive
Carboniferous
volcanic
Carboniferous
Devonian granite
Pre-Cambrian
granite & gneiss
NeraseblenenuM Carmine
(Undifferentiated)
Shchelochnyye Cadmium orange
(Alkaline)
Kislyye i sredniye Bordeau red
(Acidic & neut?a1.)
Osnovnyye
(Basic)
Ultraosnovnyye
(Ultrabasic)
Neraschlenennyye
Italian blue
Cobalt blue
(Undifferentiated) Geranium (light)
Kislyye Geranium (dark)
(AAidi)
Osnovn
(Basic
Nile green
Fatsiy (Facies):
VV V
V V
V V V
~ia
r r r r
r r r r
r r r r r
Morskaya i flishevaya
(Marine and "flysch")
Kontinental'naya i lagunnaya
(Continental & lagoon)
Uglenosnaya
(Coal-bearing)
Metamorficheskaya
(Metamorphic)
Neraschlenennaya
(Undifferentiated)
Kislyye effuzivy i ikh tufy
(Acidic effusives and their tuffs)
Osnovnyye effuzivy i ikh tufy
(Basic effusivee and their tuffs)
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# t i-~ L+~ 4 ?1 ~ i~
fir 'tw1MX
Sample Legend
of a Soviet Geologic Map-Scale, 1:1,000,000
(Southern Urals)
Q2
Cr2
Contemporary Bab
blue
y
Quaternary rocks
Neogen Lemon yellow I
Cretaceous s
stem
y
Kungur series
Yellow ochre
undirferenrtihed
Upper series
Light, or
Middle series medium grey
Lower series
Upper series
Middle series Terracotta
Lower series
S2
Cm2
Upper series
Lower series
(Ordovician)
Upper series
Chromium
green
(Lilac)
Lower series Mauve
Metamorphic, Lower Olive
Paleozoic & Pre-Cambrian
Upper series
Gabbro, gabbro-diorite Blue
Intrusive diorite Baby blue
Peridotite Cobalt blue
Fault lines
Note: Practice is not uniform as to colors used in
the U.S.S.R. and other countries and each
geological map is usually accompanied by an
index and a color legend.
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Several features are noteworthy here, of which the most out-
standing is the difference between the colors used to show for-
mations of various geologic periods. The difference between the
symbols used in depicting lithologic characteristics of rock for-
mations is not as great as the differences in color, but it is a
feature which is more or less standard in this country and one
with which American geologists should be acquainted should the
occasion arise that they might need to use original Soviet geo-
logic maps. Recent geologic maps of the U.S.S.R. are not available
in sufficient quantity to allow complete analysis of their "standard-
ization" and individual legends should always be consulted.
F. Geomorphological lapping.
Russian literature is replete with references to textbooks,
monographs and periodical articles dealing with the geomorphology
of the U.S.S.R. The argument as to whether geomorphology is a geo-
graphical or geological subject goes on apace there just as it has
done and still is in other countries, and their arguments appear to
be those used by other scientists in this field. The preponderance
of the research and social and economic emphasis, however, seems to
be on the geographical side, probably because this type of work fits
so well into the Soviet theme of "control of nature".
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In general, it may be said that the Soviets employ two types of
approaches in their geomorphological mapping. The first may be termed
the area approach and the second is based on classification of landforms.
Illustrations of this statement are innumerable but two volumes appear
to be among the best illustrations of these approaches:
1. Geomorfologicheskoye Rayonirovaniye SSSR (60) (Geomorphological
Regions of the U.S.S.R.) Akademiya Nauk SSSB, Trudy komissii
po yestestvenno-istoricheskoau rayonirovaniyu SSSR, Tom II,
Vyp. 1, 1947 (illustrating the first approaches
2. A.I. Spiridonov, Geomorphologicheskoye kartografirovaniye (61)
(Geomorphological Mapping), Gosudarstvennoye izdatel'stvo geo-
graficheskoy literatury 1952 (illustrating the second approach).
The first references uses 16 geographical areas as illustrations of
types of geomorphological regions, analyzes the characteristics of each
and discusses in detail the various types of geomorphological mapping used
to depict the unique features of each to the best advantage.
Spiridonov, on the other hand, divides all types of geomorphological
maps into several categories;
(1) morphographic, (2) morphometric, (3) maps divided according to
various categories of relief forms, (4) maps showing the genetic
types of relief, (5) age of relief and (6) similar kinds of maps
compiled on a basis of their connection with two or three sets of
characteristics.
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A study of Soviet forestry maps and cartography is useful for several
reasons. First, forestry is one of the major items emphasized in Soviet
economy; secondly, the degree of development of such a specialized field
of cartography illustrates the importance of the subject to planning and
development; thirdly, such a study reveals and re-emphasizes the degree
of coordination exercised by the Soviet government between its economic,
technical, research and educational branches.
A. Development of Soviet Forestry Cartography.
Time or space do not permit a complete history of the development of
Soviet forestry cartography. Readers interested in this subject will find
that a book written by M.A. Tsvetkov in 1950 is very complete and informa-
?
tive.(62) The following notes more or less summarize information of most
interest for purposes of this report.
According to Tsvetkov no general, up-to-date (1950) relatively large-
scale forestry maps exist which cover the entire territory of the U.S.S.R.
Such maps as do cover the entire area may be found in three atlases;
(1) the Atlasa Eromyehlennosti SSSR, (Industrial Atlas of the U.S.S.R.)
Vyp. 4, 1931, compiled by the Upravlen. lee. Narkonles RSFSR, containing 18
sheets (1:7,000,000 - 1:20,000,000) pertaining to forestry or the forestry
industry in several areas of the Union; (2) In 1934 the Narkomat Tyazheloy
Promyshlennosti (Ministry of Heavy Industry) published an industrial atlas,
HPromyshlennostl SSSR na nachalo 2-y pyatiletkis, (The Industry of the
* This book contains a remarkable amount of information on the organization
of agencies, institutes, commissions, etc. and their abbreviations - en-
gaged in forestry and forest cartography. There are also many references
to other economic and industrial establishments and organizations.
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SECRET
U.S.S.R. at the Start of the Second Five-Year Plan) which contained four
tables referring to various phases of the forestry industry; (3) the BSAM,
Vol. 1, printed in 193$, also contained four, small scale forestry maps
(1:7,500,000 to 1:30,000,000).
The first, larger-scale, general forestry map to be compiled by the
Soviets appeared in 1923. This map was the "Karta lesov Yevropeyskoy chasti
RSFSR", printed by the Vyssheye Geodezicheekoye Upravleniye VSNKh (prede-
cessor of the GUGK) on the scale of 1:4,000,000. This map was followed by
a succession of general, area-type maps on various scales and published by
various agencies:
(1) European U.S.S.R., 1:6,800,000, Byuro Lesnoy Statistiki i
Kartografii Tsentral'nogo Upravleniya Lesami NKZ RSFSR, (1924-26).
(2) European U.S.S.R., 1:6,300,000, Upravleniye Lesami NKZ RSFSR (1926).
(3) European U.S.S.R., 1:2,520,000, Teent. Upravl. Lesami (1926)
(Used a VTO base map).
(4) Asiatic U.S.S.R., 1:10,000,000 (1926-1929).
(5) Forestry Industry of European U.S.S.R., 1:1,500,000,
Teent. Uprav. Lesami NKZ RSFSR (1929).
(6) Aziatic U.S.S.R., (Industrial Map, showing forests)
1:5,000,000, Tsent. Uprav. Lesami NKZ (1931)-
(7) European U.S.S.R., 1:1,800,000, Otchet.-ekon. sektor PEU
Narkomles. (1931)
(8) Western-Siberian Area, Buryat-Mongolian ASSR, Tuvinek Republic
and Eastern Siberia kray, 1:2,000,000, Promles Zapsiblestrest
(1932).
,r
R
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Regional forestry maps published between 1921 and 1946 were compiled
on many scales and by several agencies. Most maps of this classification,
were schematic and generalized. Areas so mapped included the Urals, the
Central Volga area, Baykal, Yrimor'ya, the Tatar ASSR. the Trans-Caucasus
region, Yakutia, the Chuvash ASSR, north and south Sakhalin and Siberia.
B. Furpose of and Requirements for Soviet Forestry Maps.
Methods of compiling forestry maps in the Soviet Union are geared to
the particular use for which they are devised, such as forestry management,
economic planning, etc. A study of problems associated with the compilation
of maps showing various phases of forestry development and geography was
carried out by a special commission of the Forestry Institute of the Academy
of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. In January of 1945 this commission set forth
the following general requirements for forest maps:
(1) Forestry management and the lumber industry needs a uniform
forest map of the U.S.S.R.
(2) Forestry maps are most needed to provide information on forest
resources, management and lumbering. It is also necessary that
tracts be mapped and allotments for taxation be established. In
addition, the economic functions of forestry measurements, con-
struction of woods roads, lumber yards and "mechanization stations",
should be undertaken.
(3) Forest maps are also needed for routine planning and management.
(4) Forestry maps will aid in establishing look-out posts for fire
protection, shipping points. permanent lumber yards, workers'
camps and the exploitation of new forest areas.
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(5) Such maps are necessary for over-all planning in the lumber
industry and forest management of the entire U.S.S.R.
For (2) and (3) large scale maps, such as surveyors sheets, aerial
photographs, photo mosaics and forest plate may be used.
For (5) general maps of small scales covering all or large parts
of the U.S.S.R. are recommended.
For (4) regional maps of medium scale are suggested.
Other suggestions included the "use of the 1:1,000,000 nomenclature
and sheet lines, and the customary break-down into 1:500,000, 1:200,000
and 1:100,000 scales".
"Forest maps should also be designed for educational purposes. There-
fore, they should be so designed that woods symbols do not obscure those of
other features"......
"The problem of compiling forestry maps of the U.S.S.R. involves the
preparation of
(1) General forest maps of the U.S.S.R. and of its large forest areas,
(2) Regional forest maps,
(3) Atlases of forest maps.
0. Choice of Projection for Forester Maps.
The projection selected for use in compiling the forestry map for
all of the U.S.S.R., is that of 8avrayskiy having standard parallels at
47? and 620 north. (Same as used for the 1:2,500,000 State series).
For forestry maps covering only the European part of the U.S.S.R., the
Krasovskiy projection with standard parallels at 73?28144" and 39?49124"
north is recommended. Other, larger scale maps are to be compiled using
the same projection as the State series maps published by the GUGK.
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Two chapters in Tsvetkov's book are of possible interest to U.S.
government agencies. The first is an extensive description (Chapter II)
of the forestry cartography of the satellite nations of Poland, Romania,
Czecho-Slovakia, Bulgaria, Austria and Albania. The second (Chapter III)
discusses the forestry maps of capitalistic countries (U.S.A., Canada,
Germany, France and its colonies and Sweden.
Tsvetkov's book also includes two plates of interest, the first
(reproduced as Fig. 7 of this report) is a map showing scales recommended
for use in the compilation of forestry maps in various areas of the U.S.S.R.
and the second is a proposed symbol sheet, in color, to be used in the com-
pilation of general forestry maps (4 types of areas) and regional forestry
maps.
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47T/I AC IC0E
MOPE
Co
YCnOBHbIE 0603HA4EHHA
MACWTA6
1.600000
MACWTA6
I : 1000000
tig. 7 - Divisions of the U.S.S.R. according to seales for regional forestry maps.
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Soviet maps compiled before World War II give very little evidence
of the use of a standardized system of transcription of geographical names.
Cartographers here in the United States become well aware of this situation
whenever they attempt to determine correct spellings of geographical features
and place names. Situations frequently occur where as many as four or five
variations in the spelling cf city or town names appear on Soviet map sources.
Whenever this condition is further complicated by the well-known Soviet habit
of changing the name of a city or town, the situation becomes a significant
cartographic problem.
The reason for the wide discrepancies in place name spelling, especially
on those maps compiled during the first twenty years of Soviet control, be-
comes readily apparent when one realizes that prior to 1935 the Soviets had
failed to establish either a facility or regulation to govern transcription.
Up to this time sole responsibility in this matter, even on official govern-
ment maps, had been assigned to the responsible cartographer or editor of the
map. The accuracy of place names, then, depended entirely on the personal
experience, knowledge and training of the individual responsible for the
entire compilation.
Efforts to change this hit-or-miss system began to appear about 1935
according to Vinogradov (63) when the Otdel Transkriptsii of the GUGSIC NKVD
(Transcription Division of the GUGSK) was established. This division was
officially given the responsibility of providing correct place names to be
used by all cartographic agencies. It is interesting to note that Soviet
authorities had made an extensive study of the American Board of Geographical
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Names before recommending that a single agency be established to perform
this work for the Soviet Union and their action appears to have been patterned
almost entirely on American experience.
At about the same time the Nauchno-Issledovatel'skiy Institut, Bol'shoy
Sovetskiy Atlas Mira--NII BSAM-- (The Scientific-Research Institute of the
Great Soviet Atlas of the World) prepared and published a list of rules and
specifications to be used in the transcription of place names appearing on
the maps included in the two volumes of the Atlas.
Adrianov, (64) writing in the Geodezist of 1937, briefly describes
similar scientific research done by the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R.
in the field of toponymy and says that their work utilized data obtained by
the NII BSAM and the NT Otdel of the GUGSK described above. The end product
of the Academy's research was the compilation of a Soviet Dictionary of Geo-
graphical Names.
Up to 1940 other agencies of the Soviet government who participated in
research of this type included the Gosudarstvennyy Gidrologicheskiy Institut
(State Hydrological Institute) which undertook the standardization of place
names in the Barents Sea area, including Novaya Zemlya and Spitzbergen, the
Articheskiy Institut (The Arctic Institute), the Glavsevmorput' (Main Admin-
istration of the North Sea Route), the Narodnyy Komissariat Voyenno-Morskogo
Plots (NK VMY) (People's Commissariat of the Military-Marine Fleet) and the
Nauchno-Transkriptsionaya Chast' (Scientific Transcription Section) (NTCh) -
formerly called the NT Otdel of the GUGK.
As of 1940 the NTCh was the sole authority responsible for correlating
results obtained by all cartographic groups and for decisions on the final
standardization of place names. Apparently preliminary attempts in this
direction had not been too successful up to this time because Kudritskiy (65)
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in 1940 describes a comparative study of the place names appearing on four
of the most important Soviet cartographic compilations produced in the
period between 1935 and 1940, in which wide divergencies in name treatment
appeared:
(1) 1:2,500,000 Linguistic Map of the U.S.S.R. (1939)-
(2) BSAM atlas sheets (1937)-
(3) NTCh list of geographic names.
(4) 1:5,000,000 Hypsometric Map of the U.S.S.R. (1940)
During and immediately after World War II, several agencies published
numerous articles dealing for the most part with studies of transcription of
names and terms peculiar to specific areas of the U.S.S.R. A paper by Mur-
zyev published in 1946 (66)illustrates the type of work done in this field
and describes special comparative toponymic studies made on land from terms
used in various parts of the Union (Kazakhstan, Turkmen, Kirgiz, Mongolia,
Eastern Siberia, the Soviet Arctic and the Caucasus).
One of the most recent toponymical studies published by the Soviets
is a paper by Zaychikov (67)printed in 1951 dealing with the toponymy of
Korea. This article contains a short historical description of the deri-
vation of Korean names and the method to be used in transcribing Korean
place names and geographic features. Two appendices, the first of which
lists approximately fifty Korean geographic terms and Russian equivalents
and the second, listing and showing approved transcription of approximately
seventy-five Korean populated places, may be of considerable interest to
cartographers using Soviet maps of Korean territory.
Positive evidence as to the success or failure of Soviet cartographers
and geographers to standardize and systematize Soviet place names and geo-
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graphic terminology is difficult to obtain since a mere handful of small-
scale maps represents the total collection of Soviet maps compiled after
the war available to us. Study of these maps, however, indicates that a
certain amount of confusion still exists although definite improvement is
indicated. Soviet literature points to the fact that considerable effort
and study has been expended in this field during the past few years.
In general, Soviet practice is to use the best possible phonetic
transcription for all place names (tribal or otherwise) in the Soviet
Union and, for cities in areas outside the U.S.S.R., (on hemisphere, atlas
or world-maps) transliterated equivalents for place names approved by the
nation or nations concerned. This practice agrees, in general with that
employed by our own Board of Geographical Names.
Up to this time, we have been unable to find in Soviet scientific
literature any Russian-English transliteration table specifically designed
for the use of Soviet cartographers. The table which follows is the only
one located to date and may or may not be standard for mapping purposes.(6s)
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THE LATIN ALPHABET
(JIATHHCHHR AJITAI3HT )
Source: Ly6khina, I. V. and Prof. Petrova, F. N., editors - Slovart
Inostrannykh Slov.
Third Edition. Moscow, Gosudarstvennoye Izdateltstvo Inostrannykh
i Natsionaltnykh Slovarey, 1949, p. 502.
English Letters Russian Transcription Additional Remarks
Typewritten Typewritten
Aa a I. Ligatures
Bb 6 AE ae , (E ae (Russian Transcrip-
Cc x/u tion = 3 e).
Dd A
Ee 3/ a 2. Digraphs
Ff au ch6 eu ph6 qu rh6 th6j
Gg r . as x 3B c) xB p T
Hh ri
Ii if 3. Bifurcations
Jj j2 c = u before se , e, i, oe , y;
Kk x otherwise - x
Ll .n gu = I B before vowels; other-
Mm
M wise = ry
Nn H s = 3 between vowels; other-
00 0 wise = c7
Pp n tY = uH before vowels, but not
Qq x after s-, t-, z-; otherwise = Tx;
Rr p in Greek words always - TH
Ss 0/3 ex = 3X3 before vowels; other-
Tt T/u wise = 3xc.
Uu. y
Vv B
Ww B3
Xx S c /'X 3
Yy H4
Zz 35
1Gg = Russian literary r (sonorous x); Hh - Ukrainian r (aspiration).
2The syllables ja, je, jo, ju = st, e, 8, lo.
3Not found in Latin; Germ., Fr. = B; Eng. close to Russian y.
4y - Germ. ft.
5z = contracted a3.
61n Greek words. The old pronunciation was: ch, ph, th = aspirated
x, n, T, (like the final letters in Russian xax, non, TOT ; rh = voiceless (?)
p (IILTp, pTyTb ).The combinations ae, oe ( - ae, oe) were ard, oa, became
A, 6.
'The combinations is, ns, rs may be transcribed also by x3, H3, p3,
for example cycneH3opHx" but eycneHcHq (equal to -ns- in Latin: suspen-
sorium, suspensio).
Fig. 8
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X. "AUTHORSHIP" IN SOVIET CARTOGRAPHY
One of the most important phases of the analysis of Soviet capability
in the cartographic fields in the evaluation of their cartographic per-
sonnel. Since no up-to-date Soviet counterpart of "Who's Who" or "American
Men of Science", is available, information about Soviet scientists, their
activities, education, scientific affiliations, etc. must be obtained in
round-about ways. The field of Soviet cartography is no exception.
One of the methods which may be used is to study designations of
"authorship" frequently found on Soviet maps and atlases. The translation
which follows was made from a paper by K.A. Salishchev (69) printed in
1946. It is submitted as a part of this report because it appears to be
the best written and most informative description of the term "authorship"
available in Soviet literature and also because it may be of service to
American cartographers using this method to obtain biographic intelligence.
The fact that the Soviets use the device of authorship as encourage-
ment and incentive for better work is also of considerable interest because
American practice, especially in the military agencies, has been to omit
this feature. Private organizations have occasionally credited the work
of compilation or editing, and the U.S. Geological Survey has credited
the work of topographers but by and large, individuals designing, com-
piling and editing maps and charts have received little public recognition
here in the United States.
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A geographical map as a product of a creative idea, resulting in a
new depiction of the landscape, is considered a production of the author.
Therefore, the laws of the U.S.S.R. permit circulation of geographical
maps under the author's copyright.
Who is considered the author of a map? An inexperienced person would
give a conventional answer such as., the person or persons whose signature
appears on the map. Unfortunately, names are absent on some maps, while
others carry the signatures of a group of specialists participating in the
creation of the map; that is, compilers, draftsmen, editors, and employees
who put the map into its final form. In this way, names sometimes appear
on the map which in no way represent authorship of the map. Thus, on official
maps of Canada only two names invariably are printed; that of the Home Secre-
tary of Canada and his assistant. Certain Soviet topographic maps of 1918-
1920 carried only names of individuals who were participating in that edition
of the map; that is, the printer who traced the contour lines or the pressman
who printed the contour lines.
But for us authorship is not determined by a conventional question. It
is the stimulus of a huge and perpetual creative force. We are sure that full
and correct use of the term "authorship" can be extremely effective in carto-
graphy-Who should be considered the author of a map? There is no doubt con-
cerning authorship of an original map when it is produced from beginning to
end by one man. However, the determination of authorship is somewhat compli-
cated when the map results from collective work.
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The production of a map's original is a complicated process, diffi-
cult, variegated and dissimilar in its individual parts. The scientific
activity of a map's compilation demands extensive knowledge and keen creative
sense. This must be combined with technical capacities of a specialized tech-
nical character. Cartographers working in this area require comparatively
modest training defined by an accepted combination of methods and operations
in the field of cartography. Therefore, the creation of a map by one person
from its inception to its completion represents a rather rare occurence at
the present time.
The present trend is to get the maximum production of a map and yet re-
duce expenses and shorten the time of production while still striving to
attain highest quality. This necessitates a division of labor and distri-
butes the operations among many workers according to the various stages and
phases of map compilation.
In the first place, it is expedient to set aside consideration of the
work whose purpose is the preparation of secondary editors' originals. Copy-
ing work which requires competency in high quality tracing is essential in
this stage of map creation. It is reasonable to give this work to those
cartographers of limited training, but possessing a mastery of cartographic
tracing.
In an earlier stage of map making, which is the production of the com-
piler's original, a cartographer of more significant and profound training
is needed. He must also posses scientific training in order to facilitate
the selection and generalization of those elements of a map which reflect
the fundamental features and peculiarities of maps in reference to depiction
and scale.
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This stage is closely associated with the preliminary editorial work.
For this reason, it is often the custom in contemporary cartographic pro-
duction to credit the design of an original map to various persons. The
first person, that is, the designer of the map, is usually called the editor,
but the cartographers who produce the original are called the compilers of
the map.
Similar division of labor is necessitated by the significant volume
of unit technical work connected with the compilation of a map. Also,
there is a desire to free most highly trained specialists from this type
of work in order to shift their experience, first to that stage in the
creation of a map which requires creative genius, scientific ideas and
the skill and training of the cartographer editing the work, and secondly
to enlist the cartographer's skill in guiding operations in the total pro-
duction of the map. Especially significant is the division of labor in
the production of series maps. This is true when the volume of collected
works greatly surpases that of edited works, as well as when a large number
of cartographers participate simultaneously in the production of a map. In
this case, a greater division of labor is possible by giving to the secondary
technical worker the responsibility for purely technical production (such as
plotting of grids) in the making of an original. Division of labor is the
most effective means of using the skills and strengths of specialists in
different fields, all of whom are working toward a certain goal or standard
in the preparation of a map.
Naturally, the question arises: is it possible to give all partici-
pants in the production the title of "author"? If not, then which of them
can be credited with the title? As a rule, the first question must be
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r h yf_-
pp 9 k 4
answered in the negative. As we have seen, this division of labor directs
the activities of some cartographers into channels of scientific and tech-
nical areas, while others fall into more limited areas with duties strictly
stipulated by documents, instructions, forms, outlines, technological pro-
jects, etc. Cartographers whose work falls in the latter category cannot
claim authorship. It is evident that in order to be able to form an opin-
ion about the authorship of a map which represents the result of collective
effort, the total must be divided into individual phases and each of these
must be evaluated independently according to the degrees of creative capacity
necessary for its successful accomplishment.
This division of work helps in the apportioning of the author's work
among the various participants in the compiling process. Let us examine
the typical interpretations of the author's task:
(1) There is the editor who designs the map using his own initiative
for the project. In this case the editor is actually the author of the map,
although the graphic work in the production of the original is done by another
cartographer. This work, however, is limited by its technical aspects.
(2) There is the editor who prepares the design and directs the compi-
lation. In this interpretation the role of the highly qualified cartographer
is such that he determines the content and form of the map as well as the
plan and methods of its production. In order to assure high quality map
making as indicated in the design for the original, it is necessary for the
editor to share in the work of map compilation. In literary production the
person who prepares and arranges the contents of an edition is called the
editor. Likewise, in cartography it is customary to call such a person the
editor of a map. The tasks are very similar, for the editor assumes the
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responsibility for the author's work as well as the many technical opera-
tions involved in map creation. The editor of a map is likened to a "gen-
eral" to whom are subordinated all types of "cartographic weapons". If
they are driven, at his command, on the right course, they arrive at the
designated target. In like manner, the selection and generalization of
the contents of a map are the responsibility of the compiler. Thus, the
compiler is directly responsible for any part of the creative work, such
as the author's original. Because of this, he has the right to claim
partnership in the authorship of the map. In the field of literature this
is typified by the inscription usually found on such an edition, "written
by X in collaboration with Y".
(3) There is the editor of the series map whose task is the general
arrangement and supervision of the whole production, while the detailed out-
lines of the individual sheets are done by various compilers. This is sim-
ilar to such literary productions as dictionaries, encyclopedias and other
cooperative publications which are compiled by a group of authors under the
supervision of one person, the editor. The compiler of each sheet in the
series is similar to the writer of each literary article for which he can
claim authorship. The responsibility for the supervision and direction of
the entire literary edition is assumed by the editor to whom is credited
the copyright of the edition.
(4) In the creation of a map, usually of a special type, the partici-
pants are the author, the editor and the compiler.
The first of them evolves the plan or design and makes the original,
the second checks the original and directs the production of the map, while
the third carries out the technical tasks stipulated in the original. In
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such a production, the "authorship" belongs unreservedly to the originator
of the map, while the editor of a map is similar to a literary editor*, al-
though the field is broader.
VARIANTS IN THE TERMINOLOGY
NOW USED IN CARTOGRAPHIC
PRODUCTION
PROPOSED TERMINOLOGY
1. Editor - directs the map pro- 1.
duction while following the
content of the original.
2. Editor - prepares the content 2.
and directs the compilation of
a map, but the selection of con-
tent and representation of con- 3.
tent is the responsibility of
the compiler.
3. Editor of a series map - makes 4.
all general arrangements and
directs the whole project, but
the detailed contents of the 5.
individual sheets are done by
compilers.
4. In the creation of a map of a
special type the participants
are: the author, the editor,and 7.
the compiler. The first prepares
the design and the original, the
second checks the original and
directs the production, and the
third performs the technical duties.
*No person editing any type or work acquires the right of
except in cases described in the third variant.
For producers of individual sheets
compilers of sheets.
For the author of the program and
the originator of the design -
author.
For the controller and director
of production - responsible editor.
piler of the map.
For the planner of the program
and supervisor of the operation
scientific editor of the map.
For the planner of the program
and original compilation - author
of the map.
For the planner of the program
and the supervisor of the oper-
ation - author of the map.
For the person responsible for
the original compilation - com-
6.
authorship
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The above described variants in terminology demonstrate that the
meaning, "the editor of a map", in contemporary cartographic production
is not precisely defined. This meaning is used for the person carrying
out duties similar to those of a literary editor, with the exception of
the last variant described above which is indrequently used to describe
the practical author of a map. Thus, the existing terminology needs to
be defined with greater precision as it applies to the final project.
(5) When the cartographer completes the task of graphics and color-
ing in the final operation of map making, thus contributing to its novelty
and originality, he has the right to qualify as co-author of the map by
virtue of his contribution to the final production.
(6) An appraisal of the work must be studied with special care in
topographic, large scale surveys when the cartographer not only organizes
the production, but supplies the methods of production. This applies when
he furnishes the original data and determines in detail the content of a
map and the production techniques, using instructions and directions. A
cartographer of this type of production is entitled to claim authorship.
The question of authorship in cartography demands attention not only
because of the lack of clarity in definition, but also because a custom
has grown up which tends to forget the author.
The moral right of a cartographer, which is being violated at every
turn, is to affix on a map and subsequently on the public consciousness,
the fact of his authorship. Even in the Soviet State many maps of ex-
ceptional individuality in content and final form are published without
the author's name. That means that authorship, a stimulus of tremendous
and eternal force, has not yet been genuinely set into motion.
7n _
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LIST OF REFERENCES
1. ZAKATOV, P. S. Topograficheskaya sluzhba v SSSR (1919-1939)
(The Topographic Service of the U.S.S.R. --
1919-1939) 20-Let Sovet. Geod. i Karto-
graf ii, Sbornik statey No. 1, pp. 202-217,
1939?
DLC QB2g1.Dg
2. YEGOROV, K.D.
3. ZIMAN, L. Ya.
4. GANDZHA, A. N.
5. SUDAKOV, S. G.
6. ZIMAN, L. Ta.
7. T. M.
Kartografiya v gody grazhdanakoy voyny.
(Cartography During the Civil War Years).
Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. VIII, pp. 93-104, 1945.
OSU MCRL.
Khorosho podgotovit' bol'shiye kartogra-
ficheskiye raboty 1940 g. (How Well the
Great Cartographic Work Will Be Done in
1940). Geodesist, No. 10, pp. 8-15, 1939?
DLC QB296.R813.
Sostoyaniye kartograficheskikh rabot v
SSSR i perspektivy ikh razvitiya. (Content
of Cartographic Work and Prospects for Its
Development). Trudy Perv. Vses. Geogr.
S"yezda, Vyp. 4, pp. 7-10, 1934.
DLC G56.V8
0 topograficheskoy izuchennosti Sovetakogo
Soyuza. (On the Extension of Topographic
Coverage of the U.S.S.R.). Sbornik N'I'PS,
Vyp. VI, PP- 3-30, 1944. Red t6.
Nekotoryye voprosy razvitiya sovremennoy
kartografii. (Certain Problems of the
Development of Contemporary Cartography).
Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. XXI, pp. 99-111, 1948.
DLC Slavic Unclassified
Polgoda raboty kartograficheskoy promysh-
lennosti GUGK. (A Half Year's Work of the
Cartographic Industry of the GUGK).
Geodesist, No. g, pp. 19-22, 1940.
g. SUKHODREV, I. B. Gosudaratvennaya karts SSSR v masshtabe
1:1,000,000 dolzhna byt' zakonchena v erok.
(The State Map of the U.S.S.R. on the
1:1,000,000 Scale Should Be Completed on
Time) Geodesist, No. 10, pp. 4g-50, 1940.
DLC QB 296.R813
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~~ ~ Z t A' s S?m.
9. VRUBLEVSKIT
Rabota Sverdlovskoy kartfabriki nad Gosu-
daratvennoy kartoy SSSR v masshtabe 1:1,000,000,
(Work of the Sverdlovsk Map Factory on the
State Map of the U.S.S.R. on the 1:1,000,000
Scale) Geodeziet, No. 11, pp. 45-46, 1940.
DLC QB296.R813.
10. POCHNBUT, A. N. 0 kartograficheskikh rabotakh 1-oy fabriki
Vaes. Kartograf. Tresta. (On the Cartographic
Work of the First Factory of the All-Union
Cartographic Trust) Trudy Per,. Vses. Geogr.
S"yezda, Vyp. 4, p. 39, 1934?
DLC G56.v8
11. KREMPOL'SKIY, V. Sto tyayach kart za 60 chasov. (One Hundred
Thousand Maps in 60 Hours) Geodeziet, No. 8,
pp. 84-85, 1938.
DLC Q,B296.R813.
12. SALISHCHEV, K.A. Vazhneyskiye truly Sovetskoy kartografii za
25 let. (Significant Studies of Soviet Carto-
graphy for 25 years) Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. VI,
pp. 3-29, 1944. OSU-MCRL.
13. ZARUTSKAYA, I. P. and Gipsometricheskaya karta SSSR v m. 1:2,500,000.
ZENKOVICH, V. P. (Hypsoaetric Map of the U.S.S.R. on the Scale
of 1:2,500,000) Izvestiya Akad. Nauk, Ser.
Geograf., No. 1, pp. 74-79, 1951.
DLC Slavic Unclassified.
15. BARANOY, A. N.
16. MILENKI, S.G.
17. ZIMAN, L. Ta.
Otchetnaya vystavka rabot Voyeeno-Topo-
graficheskogo Upravleniya GURKKA (1923-27 gg).
(Review of Progress of Work by the Military-
Topographic Administration GURKKA - 1923 to
1927) VTU, p. 21, 1927.
DLC UG470.R95
Geodeziya i kartografiya v dni otecheetvennoy
voyny. (Geodesy and Cartography During Two
Native Wars) Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. 11, pp. 1-4,
1943. OSU-MCRL.
Leningradskaya kartograficheskaya fabrika.
(The Leningrad Cartographic Factory) 20-Let
Soy. Geol. i Kartograf., Sbornik statey No. 2,
pp. 70-77, 1939.
DLC QB281. DS
Sovetskaya kartografiya na pod"yeme. (Soviet
Cartography on the Ascendancy) 20-Let Soy.
Geod. i Kartograf., Sbornik Statey No. 2,
pp. 7-32. 1939.
DLC QB281.D8
R1
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18. CHEBOTAREV, A. S.
19. GARAYEYSKAYA, L.S.
20. PODOBEDOV, N. S.
21. MAZHMISITYILI, A. I.,
CHERDANISEV, G. N.,
FILOVENKO, A. S.,
DURNEV, A. I. and
PROKOF'YEV
22. -------
23. ZENIN, G. I.
24. ZAYTSEV, N. M.
25. KREBTOVA, L. I.
26. Pavlov, V. E.
27. -----
Dostizheniya Sovetskoy geodezii i karto-
grafii. (Achievements of Soviet Geodesy
and Cartography) Byull. Vses. Astron.-
Geod. Obshch., No. 4(11), pp. 3-9, 1948.
DLC Slavic Unclassified.
Kartografiya (Cartography). Izdatel'stvo
Geod. i Kartogr. Lit., Pp. 55-62, 19552.367 pgs.
K voprosu o sozdanii gosudarstvennoy topo-
graficheskoy karty v masshtabe 1:100,000
(On the Question of Producing the State
Topographic Map on the Scale of 1:100,000).
Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. VIII, pp. 92-93, 1945?
OSU-MCRL.
Gosudarstvennaya topograficheskaya karta
v masshtabe 1:100,000 (State Topographic
Map on the 1:100,000 Scale). Sbornik NTPS,
Vyp. III, pp. 3-19, 1944.
DLC Slavic Unclassified.
Prikaz po Glavnomu Upravleniyu Geodezii i
kartografii, No. 194, 15 June, 1945. (Order
of the Main Administration of Geodesy and
Cartography) Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. XIII, p. 82,
1946. Acic.
Stereotopograficheskiye raboty v Severo-
Zapadnom aerogeodezicheskom predpriyatii.
(Stereotopographic Work of the North-West
Aerogeodetic Establishment) Sbornik NTPS,
Vyp. XIII, p. 68-71, 1946. ACIC.
Sozdaniye karty masshtaba 1:100,000 rav-
ninnoy mestnosti. (Creation of a 1:100,000
Map in Flat-Lying Areas) Sbornik NTPS, Vyp.
XVIII, pp. 24-32, 1948. ACIC.
Sozdaniye karty masshtaba 1:100,000 na gornyye
rayony. (Creation of a 1:100,000 Map in a
Mountainous Region) Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. XVIII,
pp. 40-45, 1949. ACIC.
Raboty Yakutskogo Aerogeodezicheskogo predpri-
yatiya, (Work of the Yakut Aerogeodetic Estab-
lishment) Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. XIV, pp. 62-80,
1946. ACIC.
Vsemerno rasshiryat' ploshehadi topografiche-
skikh s"yemok, (Extending the Area of Topogra-
phic Surveys by Seven Times) Geodezist, No. 10,
pp. 1-4, 1940. DLC QB296.R813.
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~.? Ara
~ ~ ...~_
28.
VEREYN, A. I.
K desyatiletiyu deyatel'nosti Leningradekoy
kartograficheskoy fabrigi (1936-1946 gg?)
(On Ten Tears of Work at the Leningrad Map
Factory -- 1936-1946). Razvedka nedr, No. 4,
pp. 43-48, 1946.
DLC TN4.R23.
29.
KRINCHIK, A. F. and
ZLATKIN, Ya. E.
0snovnyye etapy aeros"yemochnykh rabot v SSSR.
(Basic Stages in Aerial Surveying in the U.S.S.R.)
20-Let Sovetskoy Geodezii i Kartografii, Sbornik
statey No. 1, pp. 296-306, 1939?
DLC QB291.D8
30.
SUDAKOV, S. G.:
Razvitiye gosudarstvennoy geodezicheskoy slu$hby
SSSR za 25 Lot (1919-1944). (The Development of
the State Geodetic Service of the U.S.S.R. over
Twenty-five Years - 1919-1944) Sbornik NTPS,
VYP? 5, PP- 3-24, 1944 OSU Red #5
31.
Bol'shaya Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya, 1950, PP- 375-376, Tom 3-
32.
Senderova, Ye. M.:
Maly atlas SSSR, Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. XXIII,
pp. 4L4s1949 (Pocket Atlas of the U.S.S.R.)
33.
Khursenko, A.Z.;
Atlas SSSR, (Atlas of the U.S.S.R.) A Review,
Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. XXIII, pp. 95-97, 1949.
34.
Driatskaya, T.M.:
Atlas SSSR (Atlas of the U.S.S.R.) A Review,
Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. XXIII, pp. 97-101, 1949.
35.
Pastuch, V.P.:
Klimaticheski Atlas SSSB (Climatic Atlas of
the U.S.S.R. , Meteorologiya i gidrologiya,
Informatsionnyy Sbornik No. 3, pp. 28-35,
1946.
36. CHERDANTSTV, G.N.: Atlas energeticheskikh resursov SSSR. (Atlas
of Power Resources of the U.S.S.B. Sotsialis-
ticheskaya rekonstruktsiye i nauka, Vyp. 4,
pp. 133-136. 1935.
37. SEMEN01, S.: Morskoy Atlas, (Marine Atlas). Nauki i Zhizn',
No. 11, pp. 76-4 8 , 1951-
39- ISAKOV, I. S.: Pervyy tom morskogo atlasa (First Volume of
the Marine Atlas). Izvestiya Akad. Nauk,
Ser. geograf., No. 1, pp. 72-74, 1951-
19. IL'INSKIT, A.P.: Atlas rastitel'nosti zemnogo shara.(Atlas
of the Vegetation of the Earth Trudy Perv.
Vses. Geogr. S"yezda, Vyp. 4, PP- 31-32, 1934.
DLC G56.V8
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40. SOLOV'YEV, M.D.: Razvitiye matematicheskoy kartografii za
20-Let (Development of Mathematical Carto-
graphy over 20 years). 20-Let Sov. Good.
i Kartogr., Sbornik Statey No. 2, pp. 129-
137, 1939?
DLC QB281.DS
41.. GINZBURG, G.A.: Issledovaniya TsNIIGAiK po matematicheskoy
kartografii (Investigations of the TsNIIGAiK
in the Field of Mathematical Cartography),
Geogr. Obshch. SSSR, Trudy Vtor. Vses. Geogr.
S"yezda, Tom III. pp. 26-33, 1949-
42. KBASOVSKIY, F.: Vychisleniye konicheskoy ravnopromezhutochnoy
proyektaii. nailuchshe prisposoblennoy dlya
izobrazheniya dannoy strany. (Computation of
the Conical Equidistant Projection, the Best
Way to Represent the Land Mass of Our Country).
Geodezist, No. 6-7, 1925, pp. 5-20.
DLC QB296.R813
43. SOLUVYEV, M.D., Kartograficheskiye tablitsy. Ellipsoid
VOLKOV, N.M. and TsNIIGAiK. (Cartographic Tables for the
SALMANOVA, T.D. TsNIIGAiK Ellipsoid), Trudy TsNIIGAiK,
Vyp. 41, 1945 (96 pp). Not available in
U. S.
44. KRASOVSKIY, F.N. and 0 formulakh i tablitsakh dlya vychisleniya
IZOTOV, A.A. pryamougol'nykh koordinat Gauss-Krugera
(On the Formulas and Tables for Computing
Rectangular Coordinates of Gauss-Krueger).
Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. VIII, 1945, OSU-MCRL.
45. KELL'. N.G. Primeneniye azimutal'nykh proyektsiy dlya
resheniya i issledovaniya fotogrammetriche-
skikh zadach (Use of the Azimuthal Projection
for the Solution and Investigation of Photo-
grammetrical Problems). Izv. Akad. Nauk,
Ser. Geograf. i Geofiz., T. XII, No. 2, 1948.
DLC AS262.A6246
46. GINZBURG. G.A.: Mathematicheskaya osnova shkol'nykh kart
polushariy (The Mathematical Basis for
School Maps of the Hemisphere) Trudy TsNIIGAiK,
Vyp. 6. 1933 NNA707
47. KAVRAYSKIY, V.V.: Ob izmerenii rasstoyaniy po merkatorskim kartan
(On Measurement of Distance from Mercator Maps)
Uchen. Zapiski Vyssh. Arkt. Uchilishche,
Glavsevmorput', 1949.
DLC Slavic Unclassified.
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ET
4S. SOLOV'YEV, M.D.: Prakticheskoye posobiye po matematicheskoy
kartografii (A Practical Manual for Mathe-
matical Cartography) Geodezidat, 1952.
pp. 2-179. OSU-MCRL
DLC GAllO.S6
49.
VOLKOV, N.M.:
0 tochnosti karty
(On Map Precision).
Trudy TsNIIGAiK, Vyp. 47, 1946.
50.
VOLKOV, N.M.:
Novyy sposob izmereniya dlin rek po kartam.
(New Methods of Measuring the Length of
Rivers on Maps). Izv. AN, ser. geograf. i
geofiz., T. XIII, No. 2, 1949.
51.
VOLKOV, N.M.:
Kartometriya na sluzhbe v geografii.
(Cartometry in the Service of Geography).
Problemy Fiz. Geografii., Vyp. XII,
pp. 141-157, 1946.
52.
VOLKOV, N.M.:
Printsipy i metody kartometrii.
(Principles and Methods of Cartometry).
Inst. Geografii, Akademiya Nauk, 1950-
327 pp.
53.
SOLOV'YEV, M.D.:
Kartograficheskiye proyektsii (Cartographic
Projections). GUGK. 417 pp. 1946 OSU-MCRL
54.
.PRODOV, V.A.:
Geologicheskoye kartirovaniye (Geologic
Mapping) Gosudarstvennoye izdatel'stvo
geologicheskoy literatury. Moskva, 1952,
371 pp.
55. EDEL'SHTEYN, YA. S.: Geologicheskoye kartografirovaniye SSSR.
(Geologic Cartography of the U.S.S.R.)
XX-Let Sovetskoy Geodezii i Kartografii,
1919-1939. Sbornik Statey 2, 1939, PP-
207-217-
56. ZVONAREV, K.A.: Kartografiya (Cartography) Ugletekhizdat.
Moskva, Leningrad, 1951, 212 pp. (Textbook
for students of VUZY, specializing in
Mining Engineering).
57. POPOV, I. V., Metodika sostavleniya inzhenerno-geologiche-
XATS, R.S., skikh kart. (Methods of Compilation of Engineer-
KORIKOVSKAYA, A.K., ing Geology Maps). Vses. Nauchno-Issledov.
LAZAREVA, V.P.: Institut Gidrolgeol. -i inzhener.-geologic.,
Ministerstva Geologii, Moskva, 1950, 47 pp.
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58.
59.
Bol'shaya Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya, Vyp. 10, 1952.
Spravochnik ukrupnennykh smetnykh norm na geologo-razvedochnyye raboty
(SUSN), Vyp. VIII, Aerogeologicheskiye raboty. Ministerstvo Geologic,
Moskva, 1950. 208 pp.
60. Geomorfologicheskoye rayonirovaniye SSSR, (Geomorphological Regions
of the U.S.S.R.). Trudy Komissii po yestestvenno-istoricheekoma
rayonirovaniyu SSSR, Akademiya Nauk SSSR, Tom II, Vyp. 1, 1947,
172 pp. (A.A. Grigor'yev, Editor).
61. SPIRIDONOV, A.I.:
62. TSVNTKOV, M.A.:
Geomorfologicheskoye kartografirovaniye
(Geomorphological Mapping) Geografiz,
1952, 186 pp.
Lesnyye karty i metodika ikh sostavleniya.
(Forestry Maps and the Method of Their
Compilation). Institut Lesa, Akademiya
Nauk SSSR, 1950. 211 pages. Published
in 3,000 copies (6,000 copies printed of
symbol sheets for various scales of forestry
maps).
63.
VINOGRADOV, N.Y.;
0 reglamentatsii transcriptsii eo ra.-
ficheskikh naimenovaniy. pp. 16:-19.
On a Rule for the Transcription of Geo-
graphical Names). Geodezist, No. 4, 1939-
64.
ADRIANOV, V.N. and I.V.:
0 g_eograficheskikh nazvaniyakh na kartakh
i
kart kart groaficheskikh shriftakh p. 35
? pp ? 3-339
.
___
ton Geographical Names on Maps and on Carto-
graphic Type). Geodezist, No. 6, 1937-
65.
KUDRITSKIY, D. M.:
0 transkripteii. (On Transcription).
pp. 47-51. Geodezist, No. 12, 1940.
66.
MURZAYEV, E.M.:
Toponimicheski a paralleli. (Toponymical
Nquivalents . Izvestiya Teesoyuznogo Geo-
graficheskogo Obshchestva, No. 5-6, 1946.
pp. 525-530.
67.
ZAYCHIKOV, V.T.:
K to onimike Korei. (On the Toponomy of
Korea). Izv. Ak. Nauk SSSR, Seriya gee-
graficheskaya, 1951, No. 2, pp. 29-40.
68. Slovar' inostrannykh sloe. Gosudarstvennoye izdatel'stvo inostrannykh
ii natsional'nykh slovarey. Moskva, 1949, pg. 802. 69. SALISHCHEV, K.A.: Avtorstvo v kartografii
(Authorship in Cartography).
Sbornik NTPS, Vyp. XIV, pp. 46-49,
1946.
86
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NOTES CONCERNING PERSONALITIES TARING PART IN VARIOUS CARTOGRAPHIC
FIELDS IN THE SOVIET UNION.
Information contained in this appendix concerns miscellaneous 25X1
items concerning a few Soviet cartographers or scientists from assoc- 25X1
iated fields who have participated in Soviet cartographic activities. Gener-
ally speaking, these data include references to affiliation with one or more
of the Soviet cartographic agencies or establishments or to the award of prizes
or other forms of recognition for outstanding contribution in several fields
of cartographic endeavor.
97
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A. GLAVN07E UPRAVLENIYE GEODEZII I KARTOGEAFII (GUOK).
1. AICOPOVA, Knarik Sergeyevna. Cartographer at the Tbilisi Map Factory.
Awarded the Order of "Mark of Honor" in
1948 for fulfilling government assign-
ments.
2. ANISINOVA, Mariana Sergeyevna. Senior Editor of Upravleniye Kartogra-
ficheskoy Promyshlennosti. Awarded the
Order of "Mark of Honor" in 1948 for
fulfilling government assignments.
3. BARANOV, Aleksandr Nikiforo- Head of the Glavnoye Upravleniye Geodezii
rich i Kartografii pri Sovete Ministrov SSSR.
Awarded the "Order of Lenin" in 1948.
Stalin Prize let Class held jointly with
a staff of eight for scientific work in
preparing The Sea Atlas" Vol. 1, "Navi-
gational-Geographical Charts", published
in 1950-
4. BTLOGLAZOVA, Olga Aleksan- Engineer of a may factory of the Glavnoye
drovna. Upravleniye Geodezii i Kartografii pri
Sovete Ministrov SSSR. Stalin Prize 2nd
Class for scientific work on the "Hypso-
metric Map of the U.S.S.R." on the scale
of 1:2,500,000, published in 1950 in
collaboration with four co-workers).
5. DOBOSHINSKAYA, Irina Borisovna. Senior Scientific Co-worker. Also associated
with Tsentral'nyy Iauchno-Issledovatel'skiy
Institut Geodezii, Aeros"yemki i Iartografii
(TsNIIGAiK) (Central Research Institute of
Geodesy, Aerial Surveying and Cartography).
Awarded the medal, "For Labor Valor", in
1948 for steadfastness in the fulfillment
of government assignments.
6. KOS'KOVA, Yevgeniy Mikhay- Head of the Division of "Maintenance" Maps
lovna. ("Naehal'nik Otdela Dezhurnykh tart GUGE").
Associated with the Tsentral'nyy Kartografo?-
Geodezicheekiy Fond (Ka tgeofond) (The
Central Cartographic-Geodetic Foundation).
Awarded the medal, "For Labor Valor", in
1948 for steadfastness in the fulfillment
of government assignments.
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7. KOYALENKO, T.P.
Cartographic Technician. Associated
with Severo-Zapadnoye Aerogeodezicheskoye
Predpriyatiye (Northwestern Aerogeodetic
Establishment). Contending for title of
"best cartographic technician" in 1948,
with an average production rate of 238%
of the quota with excellent quality of
work.
8. LAPSHINA, Tat'yana Mikhaylovna. Cartographer. Methods Editor. Awarded
the Order, "Mark of Honor", in 1948 for
fulfilling government assignments. Pub-
lished a short paper in Geodezist in 1940
which indicated her association wl th the
1:1,000,000 mapping program in the Soviet
Union.
9. LARIN, Dmitriy Aleksandrovich. Cartographer. Senior Editor. Awarded the
"Order of Labor's Red Banner" in 1948, and
singled out for outstanding work in ful-
filling government quotas.
10. MARKOVA, Lyubov I1'inichna. "Responsible" Editor of Omskaya Kartogra-
ficheskaya Fabrika (Omsk Map Factory).
Awarded the Order of Lenin in 1949.
11. MEL'NIKOVA, N. Ye. Cartographic Engineer. Omskaya Kartfabrika
(Omsk Map Factory). Contending for title
of "Best Cartographic Engineer" in 1948,
with an average production rate of 167%
of the quota with a high quality of work.
12. NECHAYEV, Aleksey Konstan- Printer at the Omsk Map Factory. Awarded
tinovich. the Order, "Mark of Honor", in 1948 for
fulfilling government assignments.
13. NECHAYEV, Vladimir Konstan- "Copier" - "Draftsman", (Kopirovshchik).
tinovich. Omskaya Kartfabrika (Omsk Map Factory).
Awarded the medal, "For Labor Valor",
in 1948 for steadfastness in the fulfill-
ment of government assignments.
14. NEMTSEV, Sergey Vasil'yevich. Crew Foreman. Associated with Moskovskoye
Aerogeodezicheskoye Predpriyatiye (Moscow
Aerogeodetic Establishment). Awarded the
Order, "Mark of Honor", in 1948 for immed-
iate practical participation in surveying
of areas previously unstudied.
15. NIGMETOV, Khatiy.
Aerial Surveyor. Associated with Moskov-
skoye Aerogeodezicheskoye Predpriyatiye
(Moscow Aerogeodetic Establishment. Con-
tending for title of "Best Aerial Surveyor"
in 1948, with an average production rate
of 222% of the quota with high quality work.
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16. OGANESYAN, Aykush Khristoforovna. Cartographic Engineer. Associated
with Tbilisi Map Factory. Awarded
the Order, "Mark of Honor", in 1948,
for fulfilling government assign-
ments.
17. PLYUSHINA, Olga Nikolayevna. Head of the Map Compilation Section
of the Omsk Map Factory. Awarded
the "Order of Labor's Red Banner"
in 1948 for outstanding work in ful-
filling government quotas.
18. SEYPUL'NIK, Mariya Konstantinovna. Head of the Drafting Section, Omskaya
Kartfabrika (Omsk Map Factory).
Awarded the medal, "For Labor Valor",
in 1948 for steadfastness in fulfill-
ment of government assignments.
19. SHUVALOV, Dmitriy Yakovlevich Associated with Omskaya Kartfabrika
(Omsk Map Factory under GUGK). For-
merly - Offset Printer of Omsk Map
Factory, now (1949) Shop Foreman of
Preparation of the Final Drafts of
the Scientific-Editing Map Compila-
tion Section. Awarded the "Order of
Lenin" for printing maps of excellent
quality, as reported in 1949.
20. SOLDATOV, Sergey Nikolayevich. Cartographer. Senior Editor. Nauchno-
Redaktsionnaya Kartosostavitel'skaya
Chast' GUGE (Scientific-Editing Map
Compilation Section of GUGK). Awarded
the Order, "Mark of Honor", in 1948
for fulfilling government assignments.
Author of an article in Geodezist, 1940,
which indicates participation in the
Soviet 1:1,000,000 mapping program.
21. SOLINA, Varvara Vasil'yevna. Transfer technician ("Probist-perevod-
chik"). Omskaya Kartfabrika (Omsk May
Factory). Awarded the medal, "For Labor
Valor", in 1948 for steadfastness in the
fulfillment of government assignments.
22. SUZDAL'TSEVA, Nina Antonovna. Senior Editor. Tbilisi Map Factory.
Awarded the Order, "Mark of Honor", in
1948 for fulfilling government assign-
ments.
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23. SVINARENKO, Mariya Ivanovna. Senior Engineer. Upravleniye Bartogra-
ficheskoy Prongyshlennosti (Administration
of Cartographic Industry). Awarded the
Order, "Mark of Honor", in 1948 for ful-
filling government assignments.
24. VERESHCHAGINA, Iraida Kon- Cartographic Engineer. Omsk May Factory.
stantinovna. Awarded the Order, "Mark of Honor", in
1948 for fulfilling government assign-
ments.
25. YAKIMOVA. Musa Aleksandrovna. Responsible Editor,("Otvetstvennyy Redaktor").
Omsk Map Factory. Awarded the Order, "Mark
of Honor", in 1948 for fulfilling govern-
ment assignments.
26. ZARUTS$AYA, Irma Pavlovna. Cartographer. Senior Editor. Awarded
the "Order of Labor's Red Banner" in
1948 for outstanding work in fulfilling
government quotas. From at least 1938
to 1951, published articles all referring
to work done in the field of relief re-
presentation on small-scale maps.
27.
Zhudro, Aleksandra Nikolayevna. Senior Technological Engineer. ("Starshiy
Inzhener-tekhnolog"). Upravleniye Karto-
graficheskoy Promyshlennosti (Administra-
tion of the Cartographic Industry).
Awarded the Order, "Mark of Honor", in
1948 for fulfilling government assignments.
28.
KROTKOVA, N. S.
Draftsman. Moskovskoye Aerogeodezicheskoye
Predpriyatiye (Moscow Aerogeodetic Estab-
lishment). Contending for title of "Best
Draftsman" in 1948 with an average produc-
tion rate of 254% of the quota with high
quality work.
29.
ARBUZOVA, Anna Terent'yevna.
Cartographic Engineer. Scientific-Editing
May Compilation Section of the GUGK.
Awarded the Order, "Mark of Honor!, in
1948, for fulfilling government assignments.
30.
DOLGOVA, Antonina Ivanovna.
Cartographer. Scientific-Editing Map-
Compilation Section of the GUGB. Awarded
the Order, "Mark of Honor", in 1948 for
fulfilling government assignments.
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1I I 4
31. DUKHNOVSKIY, Aleksey Vasil'- Geodetic Engineer. Head of the Middle-
yevich. Asian Aerial Geodetic Establishment.
Awarded the "Order of Labor's Red Banner"
in 1948. Cited as one of a group making
outstanding contributions to mapping in
the U.S.S.R. by his direction of topo-
graphic-geodetic work in areas of diffi-
cult physical and geographical accessi-
bility.
32. GOROKHOV, Ivan Grigor'yevich. Senior Editor. Upravleniye Kartogra-
ficheskoy Promyshlennosti (Administra-
tion of the Cartographic Industry).
Awarded the medal, "For Labor Valor".
in 1948 for steadfastness in the ful-
fillment of government assignments.
33. GUNBINA, Tat'yana Nikolayevna. Senior Editor of the Administration of
the Cartographic Industry. Awarded the
"Order of Labor's Red Banner" in 1946,
for outstanding work in fulfilling gov-
ernment quotas.
34. KLTAGINA, Klavdiya Sergeyevna. Final Form Designer of Maps ("Oformitel'
Kart"). Scientific-Editing Map-Compila-
tion Section of the GUGK. Awarded the
medal, "For Labor Valor", in 1948 for
steadfastness in fulfillment of govern-
ment contracts.
35. KOZLOV, Filipp Matveyevich. Cartographer. Editor. Scientific-
Editing Map-Compilation Section of the
GUGB. Awarded the Order. "Mark of Honor".
in 1948 for fulfilling government assign-
ments.
36. KRESLIN, Yekaterina Reyngold'- Cartographic Engineer. Scientific-Editing
dovna. Map-Compilation Section of the GUGK.
Awarded the Order, "Mark of Honor", in
1948 for fulfilling government assignments.
37. SPIRIDONOVA, Yelena Nikola?- Polygraphic Engineer. Scientific-Editing
yevna. Map-Compilation Section of the GUGK.
Awarded the Order, "Mark of Honor", in
1946 for fulfilling government assignments.
38. TEPLOVA, Sofiya Nikolayevna Cartographer. Senior Editor. Scientific-
Editing Map-Compilation Section of the GUGK.
Awarded the Order, "Mark of Honor", in 1948
for fulfilling government assignments.
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39? TBET'YAKOVL, Lidiya Yefimovna. Cartographer. Editor. Scientific-
Editing Map-Compilation Section of
the GUGK. Awarded the Order, "Mark
of Honor", in 1948 for fulfilling
government assignments.
40. KIRILLOV, Y.K.
41. MOROZOV, V.A.
Transfer-Printer ("Probist-pechatnik").
Contending for title of "Best Prober
Printer" in 1949 with an average pro-
duction rate of 224% of the quota.
Chief Engineer. Omskaya Kartografiche-
skaya Fabrika (Omsk Map Factory).
Proposed a method of preparing mechan-
ically printed forms by a deep offset
process, employing a transfer of the
drawing onto the offset machine from
the original printed forms.
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B. MISCELLANEOUS ASSOCIATIONS, OR ASSOCIATION NOT GIVEN.
1. BOBROV, Ivan Valdimirovich. Director of Donetskiy Nauchno-Issledo-
vatel'skiy Ugol'nyy Institut (Donets
Coal Scientific Research Institute).
Awarded the Stalin Prize 2nd Class,
together with six co-workers, for his
work in the compilation of a geological-
coal, chemical map of the Donets Basin.
2. BOL'SHAKOV, Dmitriy Nikolaye- Awarded the Stalin Prize, 3rd Class,
vich. March 13, 1952, for "development of a
geographical map" along with 14 other
people. A.P. Makovkin was leader of
this project.
3. CHERDANTSEV, G. N.
Corresponding Member of Akademiya Nauk
Uzbekskaya SSR. Specializes in the econ-
omic-geographic aspects of cartography
and was apparently associated with the
Soviet, "Atlas of Power Resources".
4. DEMIN, Leonid Aleksandrovich. Engineer-Captain 1st Rank. Awarded the
Stalin Prize lot Class, jointly a staff
of eight for their scientific work on
"The Sea Atlas", Vol. 1, Navigational-
Geographical Charts, published in 1950-
5. DVUZHIL'NAYA, Nina Mikhaylovna. Senior Scientific Co-worker of the Donet-
skiy Ugol'nyy Institut (Donets Coal In-
stitute). Awarded the Stalin Prize 2nd
Class, together with six co-workers for
work in the compilation of a geological-
coal, chemical map of the Donets Basin.
6. KAMENETSKIY, V.A.
Professor, Chairman of Compilation and
Editing of Maps, Moskovskiy Geodezicheskiy
Institut, 1936. Author of article, pub-
lished in 1934, dealing with map classifi-
cation.
7. KONOVALOV, Yevgeniy Nikol- Awarded the Stalin Prize 3rd Class, March
ayevich. 13, 1952 for "developing a geographical map"
along with fourteen other people. A.P.
Makovkin was the leader of this project.
9. KOSLOVSKIY, Anton Ivanovich. Awarded the Stalin Prize 3rd Class, March
13, 1952, for "developing a geographical
map" along with 14 other people. A.P.
Makovkin was the leader of this project.
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9. KUSHCH, Paul Porfir'yevich. Awarded the Stalin Prize 3rd Class,
March 13, 1952, for "developing a
geographical map" along with 14 other
people. A.P. Nakovkin was the leader
of this project.
10. KUSTOV, Vasiliy Grigor'yevich. Awarded the Stalin Prize 3rd Class,
March 13, 1952, for "developing a
geographical map" along with 14 other
people. A.P. lakovkin was the leader
of this project.
11. MAKAROV, Aleksey Ivanovich. Awarded the Stalin Prize 3rd Class.
March 13, 1952, for "developing a
geographical map" along with 14 other
people. A.P. Makovkin was the leader
of this project.
12. MAKAROV, Aleksandr Klavdiyevich.Awarded the Stalin Prize 3rd Class,
March 13, 1952, for "developing a
geographical map" along with 14 other
people. A.P. Makovkin was the leader
of this project.
13. MAKOVSIN, Aleksandr Pavlo- Awarded the Stalin Prize 3rd Class,
vich. March 13, 1952, for "developing a
geographical map" along with 14 other
people. A.P. Makovkin was the leader
of this project.
14. MALOVICHKO, A.K. Associated with the Novosibirskiy In-
stitut Inzhenerov Geodezii, Aerofotos"-
yemki i Kartografii (Novosibirsk Institute
of Engineers of Geodesy, Aerial Surveying
and Cartography). Published "Sposob Ans-
liticheskogo Prodolzheniya Gravitatsionnykh
Anomaliy" (Method of Analytical Extension
of Gravity Anomalies) and has also pub-
lished an article on map projections.
15. MEL'NIKOV, Aleksandr Sergevich. Awarded the Stalin Prize 3rd Class, March
13, 1952 for "developing a geographical
map" along with 14 other people. A.P.
Makovkin was the leader of this project.
16. PARIYSKIY, N.N. Associated with the Seysmologieheskiy
Institut Akademii Nauk SSSR (Seismolog-
ical Institute of the Academy of Sciences
of the U.S.S.R.) Author of several articles
on problems of deformation of the earth's
crust, gravity. and preparation of maps
showing gravity anomalies.
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17. POKHVALENSKIY, V.L. Author of "0 Starenii Topograficheskikh
Bart" (Aging of Topographic Maps). Can-
didate of Technical Sciences in 1951?
Associated with the Moskovskiy Institut
Inzhenerov Geodezii, Aeros"yemki i Karto-
grafii (MIIGAiK) (Moscow Institut of Engin-
eers of Geodesy, Aerial Surveying and Carto-
graphy). Cartographic Faculty, 1949.
Author of: "Organizatsionno-Metodicheskiye
Voprosy Proizvodstvennogo Obucheniya Stu-
dentov, Obzor Statey, "(Organizational and
Methodological Questions of Production
Training of Students, A Survey of Articles).
18. POLETAYEVA, Sh. S. "Assistant" at Moskovskiy Inatitut Inzhenerov
Geodezii, Aerofotos"yemki i Kartografii
(Moscow Institute of Geodesy, Aerial Survey-
ing and Cartography). Author of: "Osobennosti
Sostavleniya Morskikh Navigatsionnykh Kart"
(Peculiarities of Marine Navigation Charts).
1951-
19. PRASOLOV, Leonid Ivanovich. Member of Akademiya Nauk SSSR in 1935-
1975- Awarded the Stalin Prize for work in the
geography and cartography of soils, 1945 (t).
Director of Pochvennyy Institut, (Soil In-
stitute) of the Academy of Sciences, U.S.S.R.,
and author of many articles on soil cartography,
1934-1949.
20. RAYZER, P. Ya.
21. ROMANOVKA, K.V.
22. SOLOV'YEV, M.D.
Associated with the Leningradskaya Voyenno-
vozdushnaya Inzhenernaya Akademiya (Lenin-
grad Military Aeronautical Engineering Acad-
emy). Author of an article on aerial sur-
veying, photogrammetry and cartography in
the U.S.S.R. for the period 1934-1949.
Cartographical Engineer. Associated with
Moskvoskoye Aerogeodezicheskoye Predpriy-
atiye (Moscow Aerogeodetical Enterprise).
Noted in 1949 for outstanding work.
Professor, Dr. of Technical Sciences,
Chairman of Mathematical Cartography,
Moskovskiy Geodezicheskiy Inatitut (Moscow
Geodetic Institute), 1936. Author of many
books and monographs on mathematical carto-
graphy.
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23. SUKHOV, V.I.
24. TSVETKOV, K.A.
Professor. Doctor of Technical Sciences.
Associated with Moskovskiy Institut Inzhen-
erov Geodezii, Aeros"yemki i Kartografii
(MIIGAiK) (Moscow Institute of Geodesy,
Aerial Surveying and Cartography). By
competition (1948 or 1949) elected to the
vacated post of Chairman of the Kafedra
Sostavleniya i Redaktirovaniya Kart of
MIIGAiK, (Chair of Compilation and Edit-
ing of Maps). Author of: "Analitich-
eskiy Metod Generalizateli" (Analytical
Method of Generalization), "Izobrazheniye
naselennykh punktov SSSR na topografich-
eskikh kartakh (Representation of Populated
Places in the U.S.S.R. on Topographic Maps),
etc.
Professor, Doctor. Associated with Moskov-
skiy Institut Inzhenerov Geodezii, Aeros"-
yemki i Kartografii (MIIGAiK) (Moscow In-
stitute of Engineers of Geodesy, Aerial
Surveying and Cartography), 1947- Same
connection, 1936, Chairman of Astronomy.
Represented MIIGAiX at 2nd Latitude Con-
ference, Moscow, November 16-17, 1949.
Chair of Astronomy, MIIGAiK; joined staff
in 1997-
25- SILENOK, Aleksandr Ivan- Awarded the Stalin Prize 3rd Class, March
ovich. 13, 1952, for "developing of a geographical
map" along with 14 other people. A.P. Makos-
kin was the leader of this project.
26. SVETOVIDOV. Dmitriy Awarded the Stalin Prize 3rd Class, March
Fedorovich. 1952, for "developing a geographical map"
along with 14 other people. A.P. Makovkin
was the leader of this project.
27. TOKAREV, Arkadiy Roman- Awarded the Stalin Prize 3rd Class, March
ovich. 13, 1952, for "developing a geographical
map" along with 14 other people. A.P.
Makovkin was the leader of this project.
25. TRUSHNIKOV, Vasiliy Mikhay- Awarded the Stalin Prize 3rd Class, March
lovich. 13, 1952, for "developing a geographical
map" along with 14 other people. A.P.
Makovkin was the leader of this project.
29. VASILEVSKIY, Viktor Ignat'- Awarded the Stalin Prize 3rd Class, March
yevich. 13, 1952, for "developing a geographical
map" along with 14 other people. A.P.
Makovkin was the leader of this project.
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30. YPGOROV, Aleksandr Stepan- Aerial Surveyor. Moskovskoye Aerogeo-
ovich. dezicheskoye Predpriyatiye (Moscow Aero-
geodetic Establishment. Awarded the
"Order of Labor's Red Banner" in 1948.
Praised as one of the oldest and best-
known aerial surveyors in the U.S.S.R.
and as outstanding in the amount and
quality of work.
31. GINSBURG, G.A.
"Candidate" of Technical Sciences. Assoc-
iated with the TeNIIGAiK (Tsentral'nyy
Nauchno-Isaledovatel'skiy Institut Geodezii,
Aeroa"yemki i Kartografii (Central Scien-
tific-Research Institute of Geodesy, Aerial
Surveying and Cartography). Publications
include: "Psevdotsilindricheskaya Proyekt-
siya TsNIIGAiK), and "Dve Novyye Proyektsii
Dlya Kart Mira" (Two New Projections for a
Map of the World), and other articles deal-
ing with map projections.
32. AGORAS. N.N. Associated with the TsNIIGAiK (Tsentral'nyy
Nauchno-Issledovatel'skiy Institut Geodezii,
Aeros"yemki i Kartografii) (Central Scien-
tific-Research Institute of Geodesy, Aerial
Surveying and Cartography). Publications
include; "K Voprosu o Primenenii Tsvetnoy
Mongosloynoy Plenki v Poligrafii" (The
Question of Use of Color Multi-LeV er Film
in Polygraphy).
33? SADCHIKOV, S.F. Supervisor ("Rukovoditel"). Otdel' karto-
graficheskoy poligrafii TeNIIGAiK (Carto-
graphic Polygraphy Section of Central Scien-
tific-Research Institute of Geodesy, Aerial
Surveying and Cartography). The cartogra-
phic polygraph section worked out a method
of preparing mechanically printed forms by
means of a deep, off-set process.
34. NAZAROV. Ye. A. Lecturer ("Dotsent"). Author of the book,
"Kure Chercheniya", (A Course in Drafting).
35? YENDRZHIYEVSKIY, r._ Brigade Leader ("Brigadir"). Severozapad-
noye Aerogeodezicheskoye Predpriyatiye
(Northwestern Aerogeodetic Establishment).
Geodezicheskiy Otryad No-37 (Geodetic De-
tachment No. 37). Brigada Chertezhnikov
Kartograficheskogo Tsekha (Drafters Brigade
of the Cartographic Shop). Noted for out-
standing work in 1949.
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36. BLOM, G.I.
37. BRATSLAVSKIY, Ya. L.
Author of, "0 Markiruyushchikh Gorizontakh
i Stratigrafii Tatarskikh Otlozheniy Gor'-
kovekogo Povolzh'ya" (Marking Contours and
Stratigrapbj of the Tartar Deposits of the
Volga Region Near Gor'kiy).
Head of a shop, shop foreman, Moskovakoye
Aerogeodezicheskoye Predpriyatiye (Moscow
Aerogeodetic Establishment). Nauchno-
Redaktsionnaya Bartoaostavitel'akaya Chast'
(Scientific-Editing Map-Compilation Section).
Noted for outstanding work in 1949.
39. GAMALEYEV, Nikolay Takovle- Awarded the Stalin Prize 3rd Class, March
vich 13, 1952, for "development of a geograph-
ical map" with 14 other people. A.P.
Makovkin was the leader of this project.
39? EDEL'SHTEYN, A.V. Publications include: "Za Luchshuyu Proiz-
vodstva i Novuyu Tekhnologiyu" (Improve-
ment of Production and New Technology) and
other articles dealing with map production
and printing problems.
40. ADRLANOV, V.N.
Lecturer "Dotsent". Chairman of the Final
Drafting and Publishing of Maps ("Oform-
leniye i Izdaniye Kart"), Moskovskiy Geo-
dezicheskiy Institut (Moscow Geodetic In-
stitute), 1936. Author of several articles
dealing with map standardization and carto-
graphic type.
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OUTLINE OF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GEOLOGICAL MAPPING
IN THE SOVIET UNION
Note: Numbers in parentheses; (54) - refer to corresponding items in the
_..~ bibliography.
(54) 1919-1920 Studies of open pit and mining geology began. First
significant attention paid to structural geology.
(54) 1920 9th Congress of RKP(B) - pointed out need for enlarging
the fuel and metallurgy industries.
The Vysshiy Sovet Narodnogo Khozyaystva (VSNKh), which
included the Geological Committee (Geolkom), organized
the Tsentral'noye Upravleniye Promyshlennykh Razvedok
(TsUPR) which started to develop coal and ore areas.
1:42,000 geological map of the Donbas, (Donetsk Coal
Basin) by L.I. Lutugin.
(54 and 55) 1:420,000 - compiled, composite geologic map of the
Donbas area. Additional field work in the Kuzbas, Yakut
and other coal areas.
(55)
(54)
1921 1:1,000,000 - map of the stratigraphy and structure of the
Caucasus area.
1922 184,200,000 - (2nd Edition) map of Aziatic U.S.S.R.
Revised stratigraphy, and continental and marine deposits
shown.
1:10,500,000 - General outline map of the geology of
Aziatic U.S.S.R.
(55) 1:6,300,000 - Geological map of European U.S.S.R.
(Revised later in 1926).
(54)
1923 V. N. Veber - published the first Soviet manual of
geological mapping.
1922-1923 S. R. Zuber, used aerial reconnaissance to make geological
observations in the neighborhood of the Apsheronskiy Penin-
sula and Baku. His work "proved validity of aerial recon-
naissance for locating and mapping folds, faults and other
tectonic structures".
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(54)
1924 13th Congress of the RKP(b( emphasized necessity for
rapid development of their metallurgy industry. Planned
survey of the Urals begun and surveying of other mining
areas was increased.
(54) 1924 Geolkom, Moskva otdel (Moscow division) of the Geological
Committee started work on symbolization for geological
maps of Quaternary (Post Tertiary) deposits.
Two schemes were proposed; the first, prepared by A.M.
Zhiraunskiy, used stratigraphic principles; the second,
proposed by G.F. Mirchink, utilizes petrographic -
genetic divisions.
(54)
(54)
(55)
P.M. Leontovskiyts textbook, "Prakticheskiye kurs gornoy
geometrii", ("Practical Textbook of Mining Geometry"),
published.
Electro-magnetic methods began to be used as aid in tracing
sub-surface contacts.
1925 1:4,200,000 geological map of the Aziatic part of the
U.S.S.R., revised from the first edition of 1917, was
issued.
1:500,000 - first "large"-scale, detailed geological map
of the Kuznetz Coal Basin. "Proved the value of repre-
senting on a map the structure of all similar coal basins
in the U.S.S.R."
(54)
(54)
Since 1925 - magnetic methods have been widely used. In
1925, the use of these methods in discovering oil-bearing
salt domes in the Emba region were successful.
1926 Plenary session of the TsK VP(b) again emphasized the need
to expand the output of metals for industry. The Geolkom
(Geological Committee) was merged with the TsUPR (Central
Administration of Industrial Prospecting.
15th Conference of the PKP(b) demanded an increase in the
output of non-ferrous metals and of fuels.
(54)
(54)
(54)
(54)
Since 1926, systematic use of aerial photography in com-
piling aero-topographic maps for geological use.
1927 Beginning of wide-spread prospecting and surveying of
Eastern Siberia, Central Asia and the Caucasus.
Pamir Expedition, under leadership of D.V. Naliokin.
First geological map of the Kuzbas on a scale of
1:504,000 completed.
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(54)
(54)
V.A. Obruchev published a manual for geological
mapping entitled, *Polevaya Geologiya" (Field
Geology). This book used as a text for many
years.
1927 P. K. Sobolevskiy applied the device of using geo-
metric representation of ore bodies for use in
mining and estimating of mineral and ore reserves.
(55) 1927 1:650,000 geological map of Turkestan.
(55) First volume of the famous, "Ocherki po geologli
Sibiri", published.
(54)
Chertvertichnaya Komissiya, Akademiya Nauk (Quartenary
Commission of the Academy of Sciences) organized.
(54) 1925 S.F. Malyavkin proposed that three types of geological
maps should be compiled from geological surveys:
a. Stratigraphic
b. Lithologic
c. Post-Tertiary deposits (both stratigraphic
and lithologic).
(54)
(54)
(54)
(54)
(54)
(54)
Vsesoyuzo Geolog. SNyezd reported that a 1:2,520,000
geological map of the Quaternary deposits would be
prepared covering all of Kuropean U.S.S.R. and that
larger scale maps of this type would be prepared for
some sections in the area.
A.A. Polkanov started to derive methods for the
mapping of intrusive structures.
X. K. Razumovskiy worked out method of depicting
actual dips of rocks from apparent dips using the
Vul'f (Wolfe) stereographic projection method.
By October 1, 1925, 11.5% of the territory of the
U.S.S.R. had been geologically mapped.
Decision that the existing geological maps on the
scale of 1:420,000 were inadequate and that larger
scale, more detailed maps were necessary.
Electrometric, magnitometric and seismic methods
used for geologic mapping (Apsheron Peninsula and
Kabristan).
(54) 1929 Aerial photographic survey of some 440 km2 in
Central Asia searching for coal deposits.
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(54) 1929 Extensive program of detailed geological mapping
started.
(54)
1930 17.9% of the territory of the U.S.S.R. geologically
mapped. Aerial photo survey of the Fergana Valley
covered 900 km~ area.
16th Congress of VIO'(b) demanded even greater expansion
in geological mapping. As a result, the Glavnoye Geo-
logo-Razvedoehnoye Upravleniye (GGRU) (Main Administration
of Geological Prospecting) was created.
(54)
1:1,000,000 geological maps of the Urals and of the
Caucasus Sourco(555) says that these Ural maps were
published in 1931.
V.A. Obruchev published a book on the geology of the
goldbearing areas of Takutiya, which included a
1:12,000,000 geological map of the area.
(55)
The Neftyanoy Institut (Oil Institute) published &
1:750,000 geological map of the eastern shores of
Northern Kamchatka.
(54 and 55) 1932 Second International Conference of the Association on
(54)
(54)
(54)
the study of the Quaternary Period in Europe. "Soviet
Geologists demonstrated that Soviet geological maps of
Quaternary deposits are superior to all others". (54)
1:2,500,000 Quaternary deposit maps of European U.S.S.R.
Used 15 divisions, genetic types.
17th Conference of VKP(b) issued instructions for the
Second Five-Year Plan, emphasing the role of the Geo-
logical Administration.
A.A. Logachev made the first experiments in using aero-
magnetic methods for small scale geological mapping.
(54) Textbook by A. Ye. Gutta, "Kura gornoy geometrii", (A
Textbook of Mining Geometry).
(54) 1:2,500,000 geological map of the Uzbek SSR.
(~4) 1933 Systematic compilation of "s
ynoptic") outline geological
maps of the U.S.S.R. began. More than 30 such published
during this year, including
(a) Kola Peninsula and Kareliya
(b) Kazakhstan
(c) European U.S.S.R.
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Ye. V. Melanovskiy published his work entitled.
"Geologicheskiye Karty, ikh chtoaiye i postroyeniye".
(Geological Maps, Their Interpretation and Compilation).
(54) K. P. Kalitekiy published a work on structural mapping
in the field of oil geology called "Pozzemnoye Kartire-
vaniye". (Sub-Surface lapping).
(55) 1:2,500,000 geologic map of European U.S.S.R., revised
from the 1915, 60-verst map.
(54) 1934 17th Congress of VKP(b) approved the second five-year
plan and gave emphasis to need for prospecting for new
mineral resources.
(54)
(54)
New "composite" (compiled from all sources) geological
maps prepared:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Geologic-petrographic may of the Armyanskaya SSR.
Geologic map of the Kirgiz SSR
Geologii map of the Western Sayan area, etc.
Many new courses in all higher schools (VUZ) of geology
given in the U.S.S.R.
(51+) A.A. Polkanov published a work entitled, "Geologicheskiye
issledovaniya v rayonakh magmaticheskikh i metamorficheskikh
pored" (Geological Investigations in Areas of Magmatic and
Metamorphic Rocks). This book included a short description
on methods of structural mapping in igneous reek areas.
(54) Aero-photographic surveying in the vicinity of Bol'shoy
Balkhan, produced "exceptionally valuable results for
mapping exposed, folded structure".
(54) 1935
(54) 1935
(54)
Tsentral'nyy Institut Aeros"yemki (Central Institute of
Aerial Surveying) organized an expedition to Turkmen to
study geologic structures from the air and to determine
the feasibility of this method of geological mapping.
1:1,500,000 compiled geologii map of the Ukraine.
1. Ya. Furman published a textbook dealing with boring
techniques in oil drilling and included descriptions of
their representation in cross-sections, diagrams, maps,
etc.
(54) P.A. Yeliseyev published a book entitled, "Strukturayy
analiz intrazivnykh massivov", (Structural Analysis of
Intrusive*).
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(54)
(55)
(55)
West Siberian Geological Trust started detailed
geologic mapping on a 1:50,000 scale and employed
at this time micro-magnetic techniques.
1936 18200,000 geological map of Altay Okrug by TsNIGRI.
1:2,000,000 geological map of Kareliya.
(54) and (55)
1937
(54)
1937
(54)
(55)
(55)
(54)
1939
17th International Geological Congress, I.M. Gubkin,
chairman. At this Congress the new and complete
1:5,000,000 geological map of the U.S.S.R. was
shower.
Leningradskiy Gornyy Institut (Leningrad Mining
Institute) organized experimental aero-surveying
of the river basins of the Vishera and Kolva
rivers in the northern Urals. These surveys
demonstrated the feasibility of using this method
for geological mapping even in tayga (forest)
areas.
43% of the U.S.S.R. geologically mapped - "four
times more area than in 1917".
A.A. Predtechenskiy proposed the "isoline" method
of structural geology mapping.
1:1,000,000 geological map of Leningrad Oblast'
1:200,000 geological map of Allsy--Tun.
First volume of the Great Soviet Atlas of the World
published in which a new tectonic map, a map showing
the Quaternary deposits, and a schematic map depict-
ing geomorphology and mineral resources of the U.S.S.R.
were included.
work in detailed geologic mapping.
Third five-year plan started, increasing amount of
(54) and (55) All-Union conference on the 1:1,000,000 geological
map of the U.S.S.R. decided to start compilation of
this series (174 sheets)*.
(54) 1938 VSEGEI made micromagnetic surveys in Gornaya Shoriya
and Stepnoy Kazakhstan, establishing that vertical
geological contacts could be located by this method.
* Using in general the International Map of the World sheet layout but
combining certain sheets. See Appendix 6 of Reference (54).
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(55)
(54)
(54)
1:2,500,000 geological map of the Soviet Arctic.
Aero-transport and radio communication used from
this time on.
1939 18th Congress of Vx?(b) emphasized further need
for additional work locating raw materials.
Glavnoye Geologicheskoye Upravleniye was reorganized,
to become the $omitet po delam Geologii pri SXX SSSR.
(Committee for Geological Affairs).
(54) and (55)
(54)
(54)
(54)
(54)
(54)
(54)
(54)
(54)
Geological maps covering large areas of the U.S.S.R.
compiled:
(a) Urals (510 - 61?031 H. Lat.) - showing several
petrographic types within each system.........
"A big step ahead".
(b) Southern U.S.S.R., 1:1,500,000 geological map,
showing petrographic details of intrusive and
metamorphic rocks as well as Tertiary deposits.
B.V. Orlov - aerial geologic reconnaissance of the
Tyrnyauzskiy ore district of central Caucasus. His
work more or less set the standard for aero-photo-
graphic geologic mapping.
Use of automobiles in geological reconnaissance and
mapping started in this year. Important because its
use greatly accelerated mapping.
A. V. Pek prepared a book entitled, "Treshchinnays
tektonika i strukturnyy analiz", (Tectonics of Fracture
and Structural Analysis) which established methods of
structural analysis of igneous rocks.
1940 1:2,500,000 series of geological maps of U.S.S.R.,
completed.
"Several sheets of the 1:1,000,000, completed"
V. A. Malyutin, investigating the ghabarnin Serpentine
massif in the Urals, worked out a "new grapho-analytical
method to investigate rock fracture by the aid of stereo-
graphic grids.
Depth "electro-sond" methods used in several areas in
conjunction with small-scale geological surveys.
65.89 U.S.S.R. covered by geological maps.
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(54)
1941 Marked by the beginning of compilation of detailed,
"larger-scale" structural geology maps:
(a) 1:1,000,000 - Urals
(b) 1:1,000,000 - Caucasus
New resources found and industry moved eastward.
(54) 1942 Geologic map compilation started in 1942 for newly
developed areas in Kazakhstan, Urals, Altay, Eastern
Siberia and Central Asia.
A.A. Logachev and A. Ye. Kulugin improved geophysical
mapping methods.
(54)
(54)
(54)
1945 Geological map of the Caucasus
Lithological map of the Kirgiz SSR
Quaternary Deposits of the Ukraine SSR, etc.
72.8% geological map coverage of the U.S.S.R.
(7% during war years!)
1946 Fourth five-year plan called for geological mapping
of an area of 3,000,000 km2 of which 1,300,000 km2
were to be mapped on 1:200,000 scale.
100,000 km2, to be mapped on 1:50,000 scale.
The Komitet po delam geologii pri SNK SSSR was re-
organized into Ministerstvo Geologic (Ministry of
Geology).
1:1,500,000 VSEGEI geological may of European U.S.S.R.,
(Originally planned to be on a 1:2,500,000 scale)
completed.
(54) 1947 97 of the 174 sheets of the 1:1,000,000 geology map
of the U.S.S.R., completed.
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1949 Kollegiya of the Ministerstvo Geologii decided
to begin large-scale operations in aero-geo-
logical mapping.
1950 Reference book of norms for all kinds of geo-
logical work issued.
(Ukru nennyye smetnyye normy, (SUSN) issue
viii.~59)
1953 After Stalin's death, all functions and facilities
formerly under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of
Geology, were distributed among five ministries as
follows;
(a) Ministerstvo Metallurgicheskiy Pron%yshlennosti
(Ministry of Metallurgical Industry).
(b) Ministerstvo Ugol'noy Promyshlennosti
(Ministry of the Coal Industry).
(c) Ministerstvo Khimicheskiy Promvehlennosti
(Ministry of the Chemical Industry).
(d) Ministerstvo Neftyanoy Promyshlennosti
(Ministry of the Oil Industry).
(e) Ministerstvo Proniyshlenn. Stroitel'nykh
Materialov.
(Ministry of Industrial Constructional
Materials).
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