(Sanitized)RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: NGA Records (Formerly NIMA)
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP78B04770A000900040031-6
• Release Decision: RIPPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 45
• Document Creation Date: December 28, 2016
• Document Release Date: October 27, 2004
• Sequence Number: 31
• Publication Date: January 1, 1966
• Content Type: REPORT

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Declass Review by NGA.
STAT
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 PYRGft
ApPFGyed
DESIGN DECISIONS
Precision optical viewers provide high resolution over a large subject area. But they
are costly, complex and inflexible when compared to this high-magnification electronic
viewer. It offers rapid, remote-control display and also permits image enhancement.
Zoom Viewer
Display from electronic film viewer shown with both negative and dif-
ferentiator controls energized.
Fig. 1. The Electro-Zoom viewer provides continuously
variable, in-focus system magnification of a 70-mm
transparency between 7 and 150 times. Further step
magnification up to 380 times is possible when viewed
on a 24-in. monitor. The limit of resolution is better
than 50 optical lines per millimeter at magnification
factors of 150 or more. A flying-spot scanner is used
as the image transducer., This relatively old and simple
technique converts a three dimensional scene-X, Y, f
(intensity)-into a two-dimensional (l, t) time sequential
video signal. A lens focuses the raster on the trans-
parency with the photo-multiplier directly behind the
film holder.
Jacob L. Breitbord
John Main
Itek Corp.
Lexington, Mass.
A NEW and inexpensive electronic film
viewer simplifies interpretation of aerial
and space-satellite reconnaissance photo-
graphs. The system offers many advantages
over more expensive and complex optical
viewers. Among them are :
Large screen display.
Multiple viewing at remote locations.
High magnification with minimum trans-
mission of energy through the film (par-
ticularly important in satellite photog-
raphy).
Ability to repeatedly view first-gener-
ation film without danger of loss or phys-
ical damage.
Full choice of positive or negative view-
ing.
Real-time video processing.
Availability of image enhancement tech-
niques.
Except for the
scanner tube and power
supplies, the system consists entirely of com-
mercially available television components.
It uses a magnification system that combines
optical minification and shrinking raster
techniques to provide apparent resolution of
up to 50 optical lines per millimeter at mag-
nification of up to 380 diameters.
By packing the relatively few active lines
generated by commercial television into a
small dimension, and by selecting scanner
systems, optics and film with the required
transfer characteristics, it becomes possible
to increase apparent, or usable, resolution by
a big factor.
Looked at in another way, the total num-
ber of active lines remains constant, but the
number of lines in a small increment on the
transparency can be increased by an order of
magnitude.
Electronic `Zoom' Control
Allows Variable Magnification
The viewer provides a relatively smooth
electronic magnification without defocusing.
The technique used is termed "electronic
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zoom" because the enlargement of the image
resembles that obtained with zoom lens sys-
tems.
The active vertical scanner lines are placed
closer together until they overlap and are no
longer resolvable on the face of the scanner
tube, thus filling in the ,dead space. Writing
speed in the horizontal direction decreases as
the raster is shrunk, and bandwidth require-
ments are correspondingly reduced.
A smooth, approximately 4-time magnifi-
W
0 60
Z
0 40
Fig. 2. The original scene is displayed undistorted
when the same sweep-wave forms, identically timed,
cause the electron beams of the scanner tube and
the display tube to be slaved together. The video sig-
nal coincidentally modulates the intensity of the dis-
play tube. Here is the system square-wave response.
Fig. 3. The scanner tube used in the Itek Electro-Zoom
Viewer is a Westinghouse 5CE P16 cathode-ray tube.
Spectral response of the phosphor is shown here. A
P16 (short persistence) phosphor is used on the scanner
tube-face. The light output from this phosphor decays
to 10 per cent of its initial brightness within 0.15 psec.
Using a shrinking raster technique and normalizing, a
line width of less than 0.00175 in. is measured for the
tube. The beam is electromagnetically deflected and
electrostatically focused. The face plate is optically
flat and non-browning. Final anode voltage is 20 Kv.
cation range is obtained in this manner.
Within this range, the smaller the line width
produced on the scanner tube, the larger the
magnification, and the greater the resolution
available to the viewer.
The zoom control shrinks the raster linear-
ly in, both horizontal and vertical directions
by decreasing the drive to the respective de-
flection yokes. A 3 x 4 aspect ratio is held
within 10 per cent at maximum raster size,
and to better than 3 per cent at minimum
raster size. Horizontal linearity is very good.
The saw-tooth of current through the yoke,
and the resultant linearity on the scanner
tube-face as displayed by a vertical bar pat-
tern, is well within 5 per cent. In the vertical,
the sawtooth of current through the yoke is
linear well within a 5 per cent tolerance. The
shrunken raster can be positioned over the
face of the scanner tube to approximately
?0.5 in. in the horizontal, and ?0.7 in. in
the vertical.
Several fixed stages of magnification, in
addition to the continuously variable zoom
control, are provided, for a total electronic
magnification of 12.
Photomultiplier Is Used
As Light Transducer
An RCA 6199 multiplier phototube is used
as the light transducer. This is a head-on, 10-
stage photomultiplier having an S-11 spec-
tral response (Fig. 3). In a laboratory mock-
up, it was shielded from stray magnetic fields
by two layers of shielding material-Mu-
metal and Conetic. The shielding was tested
by holding a permanent magnet with a
strength of 500 Gauss in contact with the
shield close to the photocathode. Motion of
the magnet had no visual effect on the video
output.
The shield is grounded for additional elec-
trostatic shielding; and sufficient space and
insulation are provided between the shield
and the glass bulb to prevent internal dis-
charge, which creates large noise spikes.
The dark-current signal (no incident light
on the photocathode) of the combination
photomultiplier and preamplifier is less than
0.3 my at the cathode-follower output. Light-
shielding structures minimize stray light
from external sources as well as scattered
light from the scanner tube; this keeps noise
to an acceptable level.
In order to decrease noise in the signal by
Fig. 4. Display with normal roster on scanner tube.
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a factor of four dynode supply voltage was
decreased from 1100 to 900 volts. Beam cur-
rent of the scanner tube was then increased
by a factor of 15 to compensate for the loss
in sensitivity.
A Conrac CGB-24 monitor (24-in.-diagon-
al) serves as a primary display; but the sys-
tem is designed to incorporate many different
models of standard television monitors. Dis-
plays 10 to 24 in. on the diagonal are avail-
able for direct viewing. Projection-type TV
viewers can also be used in the system.
Linearity, contrast and brightness of the
CGB-24 are more than adequate for system
Fig. 5. Display with zoom control energized, resulting
in a shrunken raster on the scanner tube.
Fig. 6. Incorporation of video processing increases
flexibility for the photointerpreter. A two-position
switch shifts a positive dispI y to a negative display.
This provides video from thefplate of the output tube,
which is 180 degrees out o phase with the polarity
of the signal from the photoultiplier output (negative
video). Here is the display with the negative control
energized.
Fig. 7. Display with both negative and zoom controls
energized.
Fig. 8. A simple differentiating network also is in-
corporated to provide a three-dimensional, bas-relief
display. A very short RC-time constant is inserted in
the video line. This network attenuates the low fre-
quencies drastically, but provides an increasing re-
sponse to the high frequencies. As a result, only the
sharp transitions appear on the face of the monitor
tube. The nonlinear phase function of this simple dif-
ferentiator creates the three-dimensional effect shown
here.
requirements. Bandwidth specifications of
?1 db at 10 me have been verified by labo-
ratory tests.
The Blonder-Tongue Labs, Inc., TVC-1B-
CG is used as the synchronizing pulse (sync)
generator. It is a.relatively simple and inex-
pensive unit. The horizontal sync pulses are
generated by a 15,750-cps oscillator, which
can be phase-locked to a 60-cps power line.
The vertical sync pulses are obtained by mul-
tiplying the horizontal by a factor of two to
31,500 cps; then counting down by factors
of 3, 5, 7, and 5, to 60 pulses per second. ^ ^
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COPY NO. AT
HUMAN FACTORS ASPECTS OF
PHOTO INTERPRETATION
by
STAT
December 15, 1965 - March 15, 1966
1
STAT
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1. INTRODUCTION
2. PROJECT ORGANIZATION AND PERSONNEL
3. AREAS OF INVESTIGATION
3.1 The Visual System as a Servomechanism
3.2 Visual Acuity
3.2.1 Factors affecting visual acuity
3.2.1.1 Luminance
3.2.1.2 Contrast
3.2.1.3 Adaptation
3.2.1.4 Wavelength
3.2.1.5 Optical variables
3.2.1.6 Eye movements
3.3 Screen Dither
3.4 Error Keys and the Effect of Prior Information on
Photo Interpretation
3.5 Display Format and Search Procedure
4. FUTURE TASKS
REFERENCES'
PREVIOUS PUBLICATIONS SENT TO PROGRAM MONITOR
EXAMPLES OF SCREEN MOTION
APPENDIX A - ARMED FORCES NRC COMMITTEE ON VISION
MEMBERSHIP LIST
Page
No.
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STAT
During the reporting period, efforts were directed toward extracting
limited and specific areas of concentration from a vast quantity of publi-
cations on the broad and general subject called "vision." This winnowing
process still leaves numerous areas of interest, so a shotgun approach has
been taken to discuss many of these points. It is hoped that through better
understanding of the psychophysical process of the visual system of the
human observer, the photo interpreter can be aided in his vital task of
reconnaissance and intelligence.
The project continues under the direction of
During the month of November 1965,
investigator succeeding
became principal
Since that time, the program
facility on two occasions to discuss and
define some fields of interest. These areas of investigation included the
compilation of lists of institutions, organizations or industries involved
in visual programs which might be applicable to the photo-interpretation
problem, display screen format, visual acuity, stereoscopy, flicker, and
monitor visited the
As a first attempt to indicate organizations and individuals involved
in vision research, a membership list of the Armed Forces National Research
Coucil Committee on Vision is included as Appendix A. The specialties or
fields of interest of many of the individuals, along with their professional
addresses, are included. Because of the very nature of this committee and
its association with the Armed Forces, it appears that this list could
provide a useful starting point. It is by no means complete, and this will
be evident in an extensive listing of bibliographies which will appear in
a subsequent report.
The areas of investigation covered below in this report include visual
acuity (and factors which influence acuity), viewing screen "dither," error
keys and the effects of prior knowledge, and display formats. The first
section is a brief introduction relating the human eye and visual system to
a servomechanism.
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3.1 The Visual System as a Servomechanism
The analogy between the human visual system and a photographic or tele-
vision camera has often been made. There are, of course, obvious similar-
ities but the analogy soon breaksdown, More recently, D. H. Fender (Ref. 1)
likens the eye and visual system to a servomechanism which appears to be
a much more accurate description. The eye as a servomechanism acts as a
device that controls variable physical quantities by comparing actual values
with a desired reference value, using differences to adjust the variable.
Continuing the analogy, Fender notes that the cone cells are most
closely packed in the fovea - the region of sharpest vision. For close
examination, the eyes move so that the image falls on the corresponding
areas of the two foveas. Each of the three pair of rotating muscles receives
signals proportional to the displacement of the image from the fovea.
Another control system brings the eyes to the correct angle of convergence,
while still another adjusts the focus by changing the shape (and therefore
the focal length) of the lens. This adjustment in focus - accommodation -
is not "calculated" from the angle of convergence but instead is achieved
by a steady "hunting" mechanism - like focusing a projector lens by hand
until accommodation has been steered to the sharpest focus.
Convergence and accommodation mechanisms are separate but cross-linked.
Information, derived by one is fed to the other, for example, information
in sharpest focus is fed across to the convergence mechanism. Another
feedback mechanism changes the diameter of the pupil and is linked to the
accommodative system because an increase in focal length requires an en-
larged pupil to keep the image brightness constant.
3.2 Visual Acuity
Visual acuity is, strictly speaking, the reciprocal of the visual
angle, a, subtended by the critical detail of a test object, where a is
expressed in minutes of visual angle. As this spatial resolving capacity
increases, that is the ability to discriminate fine detail increases,
acuity, 1/a, increases and the visual angle, a, decreases. The terms
acuity and resolution are generally used interchangeably and involve the
discrimination of two objects versus one. Detection, on the other hand,
involves discerning between one object versus none. A fourth term, recog-
nition, is more closely related to resolution, and involves a more specific
categorization than just detection.
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Boynton and Bush (Ref. 2) state that detection occurs when an observer
identifies an object of interest but can't categorize it further. Recog-
nition occurs when an observer identifies an object as belonging to a par-
ticular class of objects or as having particular attributes. This can be
broken down into increasingly specific categories. Recognition implies
prior experience since an observer cannot categorize a completely novel
object. Boynton and Bush indicated that in their experiments they were
unable to obtain evidence of detection without recognition for the types
of targets used. However, in examining, say, an aerial photograph, resolution
of two or more objects can occur without recognition of a specific category.
The limiting angular resolution of a typical human eye is generally
taken to be about 1 minute of arc. This amounts to a linear retinal image
of about 5 microns which corresponds to roughly 10 lines/mm at a reasonably
comfortable viewing distance of about 13 inches. This resolution value is
by no means constant and is in fact a function of a number of variables.
The eye is capable of very high vernier acuity, that is, resolution of the
offset between two straight edges placed end-to-end. For this type of
resolution test, the visual angle can be as small as about 7 seconds of
arc before the offset can no longer be seen. This angle is about one-third
the angular subtense of a single cone receptor. Wires having a subtense
only one-fortieth of a single cone can be detected under ideal circumstances.
3. 2. 1. 1 Luminance
As the luminance level of a target increases, visual acuity also in-
creases. Starting with the absolute threshold, visual acuity increases
and begins to level off when, at the scotopic-photopic (rod-cone) break,
acuity increases again and more or less levels off at about normal room
luminances. It has been noted that contrast discrimination also improves
in much the same fashion as acuity with increasing luminance, and that the
two may be related. While acuity is measured in terms of a spatial thres-
hold, and contrast discrimination in terms of a sensitivity threshold, it
appears that acuity is a special form of luminance discrimination (Ref. 3).
At a given luminance level, the higher the contrast the higher the
acuity. Conversely, as the contrast approaches zero, the separation
between two objects must be increased to be resolved. The minimum contrast
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for detection between a target and its background is often taken to be about
2 percent, but again this is only a very rough rule of thumb.
The luminance differences of a ground scene, photographed from high
altitudes, are generally quite small because of the contrast reducing
effects of the atmosphere. These effects can be minimized through the
proper selection of filters to attenuate the bluish veiling glare of atmos-
pherically scattered light, and by selection of film which can be processed
to a relatively high gamma (contrast).
If the spectral characteristics of a target complex and its background
are sufficiently well known, or can be guessed at with reasonable accuracy,
film-filter combinations can sometimes be chosen to provide the photo in-
terpreter a photograph with maximum target contrast. Unfortunately, more
often than not, target signatures are usually only very roughly known and,
except for some experimental situations, the majority of reconnaissance
missions using panchromatic film rely almost exclusively on minus-blue
filters, and these for their reduction of the effects of haze.
The function of edge gradients can be included in a section on contrast.
A number of people (probably starting with Mach in the 19th century) have
observed that perceived contrast is'formed over the boundary of an object,'
(Refs. 4, 5, 6) that is, the spatial-luminance transition connecting adja-
cent areas. If the gradient at the boundary of two different luminance
areas is shallow enough, these differences may not be detectable even if
the contrast is well above threshold. This phenomenon has led to the
development of many optical and electro-optical systems in an effort to
enhance these edge gradients in a photograph.
The human eye apparently performs an edge-enhancement function. The
retinal image of a sharply defined bipartite object field is a more or less
Gaussian distribution of energy. This image spreading is caused by a
number of things, including diffraction by the pupil, spherical and chromatic
aberration, scattered light and eye movements. Still, the edge-gradient
can be perceived as being very sharp. Mach first suggested that this per-
ceptual effect could be described by a second derivative correction applied
to the retinal image, and it is this type of function which is usually per-
formed in optical and electro-optical image-enhancement equipment.
If images are blurred and have significantly reduced edge-gradients,
search time increases,the duration of the visual fixations increases, and
the distance between fixations decreases (Ref. 5). This is an area where,
under some circumstances, contrast and image recognition can be improved
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dramatically. Yet, while there are numerous contrast-enhancement devices,
most of them being experimental, it has been pointed out (Ref. 7) that
optical enhancement should probably be left to the interpreter's discretion.
3.2.1.3 Adaptation
Acuity is highest where the fovea is adapted to the level of luminance
of the target. In general, acuity is optimized when the surrounding room
luminance is the same as that of the target (Refs. 8, 9). There is some
degradation when the surround is darker, and even more degradation when the
surround is brighter. As a practical matter for viewing images on a front
or rear-projection screen, room illumination should be somewhat subdued to
prevent stray light from reflecting from the screen, thereby reducing con-
trast.
3.2.1.4 Wavelength
The visual system, when daylight adapted, has maximum sensitivity to
green light at a wavelength of about 555 m4a. The dark adapted eye is most
sensitive to blue-green light near 510 m?. This change in sensitivity
between the photopic and scotopic modes is known as the Purkinje shift.
The optical system of the eye suffers from chromatic aberration, yet
black-and-white objects do not in general appear to be fringed with color.
This may be, partially explained by the sensitivity of the eye which tends
to ignore the fringes which actually do exist in the retinal image.
There is not a great deal of difference in visual acuity over a broad
band of wavelengths, providing the luminance at each wavelength is optimized.
Generally, in viewing images in filtered light, there is so little available
blue light energy, and the sensitivity to blue is so low, that visual acuity
is degraded. Where enough blue light, or red light, for that matter, is
available, acuity is about the same as it is for yellow-green light.
As mentioned in the section on contrast, the retinal image is affected
by diffraction, spherical and chromatic aberration, astigmatism, stray
light, hyperopia and myopia (far-sightedness and near-sightedness). If the
pupil is very small, that is, about 2 mm, diffraction effects in the normal
eye are the limiting factors for acuity. When the pupil is wide open at
7 or 8 mm, the aberration effects contribute most to image degradation.
Optimum acuity occurs when the pupil is about 4 mm in diameter, and gets
worse on each side of this value. The pupil seems to be set, at a given
luminance value, for just the right aperture to give maximum acuity.
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There have been numerous attempts to correlate the apparent sharpening
of a diffuse image falling on a relatively coarse mosaic of cones with the
observation that the eyes are constantly in motion. There are low ampli-
tude motions which range from about 30 cps to 7Q cps. On top of this are
slow motions of irregular frequency and extent, coupled with slow drifts
and so-called saccadic jerks at irregular intervals. It can be shown, as
in the section below on "screen dither,"that an image on a coarse mosaic
can indeed be sharpened if the mosaic is moved about. However, in the case
of eye movements. there appears to be increasing evidence that visual
acuity is as good as it is in spite of eye movements, not because of them.
The eye movements tend to keep the image from fading, for the neural system
throughout the body is most sensitive to changes or differences.
it is. by now, fairly well known that an image, which has been pro-
jected onto a coarse surface or viewing screen such as ground glass, can
be sharpened by moving the screen about in the plane of the image. The
coarser the screen, the more dram,4ic the improvement. The image is inte-
grated in time and undergoes a sort of statistical smoothing function which
sharpens the image.
An example of the effects of screen motion is shown in Figure 1. The
top picture is simply an aerial image as seen through a.microscope and
photographed by a camera attached to the eyepiece. The second photograph
was obtained by projecting the resolution target onto a metal capstan roller
and photographing the light scattered from the roller. This photo shows the
grainy structure of the roller, and the reduced resolution. The bottom
photo is similar except that in this case the roller is spinning during
photography. The difference is quite evident.
There are screens, such as the Polacoat LS60G material, available
which are capable of resolving upwards of 60 lines/mm. With this type of
screen, there is little improvement in image quality of high-contrast targets
when the screen is dithered, but there is significant low contrast improve-
Since areas of interest in an aerial photo are so often low contrast,
ment.
screen dither may be of considerable value in improving the perception of
this kind of detail.
McLachlan and Adams, in a letter to the editor of the Journal of the
Optical Society of America, have also illustrated the effects of moving
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screens. A copy of this publication is included in this report. Also in-
cluded is a copy of a patent issued in 1965 to Q. Parenti describing a
mechanism to move a viewing screen for increased resolution, and an abstract
of a paper by Carpenter on "Granularity of Rear-Projection Screens."
3.4 Error Keys and the Effect of Prior Information on Photo Interpretation
Varous researchers (Refs. 10, 11, 12) have pointed out the importance
of a photo-interpreter's prior knowledge in determining the probability of
detecting or recognizing a particular target. This probability depends, in
part, on his expectancies, that is, if he has been told to expect a certain
target. If an interpreter has been furnished with additional intelligence
he is much more likely to find a particular target. He is also more likely
to "invent" targets, that is, report targets which are not actually there
at all. It has also been shown that there are significant effects due to
the interference of erroneous information. An interpreter who has been
given false information is often seriously hampered in his search and de-
tection capability.
Martinek and Sadacca (Ref. 13)designed "error keys" and "rights keys"
to aid in image identification. The error key was designed to help inter-
preters avoid common misidentifications. This key resulted in a substan-
tial decrease in the numer of errors, with an attendent increase in accuracy,
but no difference in the number of correct identifications. The rights key
was produced by presenting photographs of the same quality and scale, taken
over the same type of terrain, as the photos to be interpreted. This key,
it was reported, had no significant effect on any aspect of performance
measured.
3.5 Display Format and Search Procedure
Work performed by Reilly and Teichner (Ref. 14) indicated that a square
field of view is generally superior to round ones for target detection.
This indeed is fortunate because aerial photography formats are almost
exclusively square or rectangular. Screens in viewers are often made about
20" by 30" or 30" by 30", which provides a single interpreter a fairly com-
fortable viewing field.
If a screen is made too small, concentration of area in the center
increases, durations of fixation increase, interfixation distances decrease,
and overall search efficiency decreases (Ref. 15). Even with so-called
"optimum" screen sizes, however, an interpreter tends to make a quick scan
throughout the field and then spend an increasingly greater amount of time
concentrating on the center.
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While this concentration on the central part of the screen may be
partly due to a natural tendency to look more or less straight ahead at a
viewing screen, the fact that the image quality is usually better at the
center of the format may also play a role. The image quality at the edge
of an aerial photograph is almost invariably worse than at the center
because of aberrations in the camera lens. These same afflictions affect
the viewer projection lens with a further loss in image quality. Finally,
screen illumination in the corners is often somewhat lower when viewed from
the center. With these factors affecting the image quality, particularly
toward the edges, it is not particularly surprising that an observer's
attention more or less naturally drifts to a region where he can"see" better.
Fry and Townsend (Ref. 16) found that machine-generated search patterns,
using a ring or outline square, which-give a complete and uniform coverage
are useful primarily when the targets are difficult to find. They also
reported that, under good visibility, free search is much preferred.
Apparently, under these conditions, peripheral vision plays a significant
role and that, on the average, free search represents a faster way of
finding a target. The artifical search patterns may serve as a useful
training aid. however.
Future areas of investigation will include stereoscopy, flicker, color
vision, and fatigue. During the next reporting period, the principal
investigator will attend the SPIE conference in New York on The Human in
the Photo-Optical System."
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1. Fender, Derek H.: Control Mechanisms of the Eye. Scientific American,
vol. 211, no. 1, July 1964, pp 24-33.
2. Boynton, R. M., and Bush, W. R.: Laboratory Studies Pertaining to
Visual Air Reconnaissance. WADC Tech. Rpt. 55-304, Sept. 1955.
Boynton, R. M.: Spatial Vision. Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 13,
1962.
4. Lamar, E. S., Hecht, S., Schlaer, S., and Hendley, C. D.: Size, Shape,
and Contrast in Detection of Targets by Daytime Vision. JOSA, vol. 37,
1947, pp 531-545.
5. Brainard, R. W., and Ornstein, G. N.: Image Quality Enhancement.
North American Aviation, Inc., AMRL-TR-65-28, Behavioral Sciences
Lab., Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, April 1965.
6. Perrin, F. H.: Methods of Appraising Photographic Systems, Part I.
J. SMPTE, 69, 1960, pp 151-156.
7. Blackwell, R. H., Ohmart, J. G., and Brainard, R. W.: Experimental
Evaluation of Optical Enhancement of Literal Visual Display. ASD
Tech. Rpt. 61-568, Oct. 1961.
8. Westheimer, G.: Visual Acuity. Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 16,
1964.
9. Lythogoe, R. J.: The Measurement of Visual Acuity. Spec. Rpt. Ser.
No. 173, Med. Res. Council, London, 1932.
10. Sadacca, R.: New Techniques in Image Interpretation Systems. Pre-
sented at the Seventh Annual Army Human Factors Engineering Con-
ference, 1960.
11. Sadacca, R., Castelmovo, A., Ranes, J.: The Impact of Intelligence
Information Furnished Interpreters. HFRB Tech. Res. Note No. 117,
June 1961.
12. Klingberg, C. L., Elworth, C. L.. and Kraft, C. L.: Identification of
Oblique Forms. RADC-TDR-64-144, The Boeing Co., Seattle, Washington.
RADC Display Techniques Branch, Aug. 1964.
13. Martinek, H. and Sadacca, R.: Error Keys as Reference Aids in Image
Interpretation. Tech. Res. Note 153, USAPRO, June 1965.
14. Reilly, R. E. and Teichner, W. H.: Effects of Shape and Degree of
Structure of the Visual Field on Target Detection and Location.
JOSA, vol. 52, 1962, pp 214-218.
15. Enoch, J. N.: Effect of the Size of a Complex Visual Display Upon
Visual Search. JOSA, vol. 48, 1958, p 836 (Abstract).
16. Fry, G. A. and Townsend, C. A.: The Effects of Controlling the Search
Pattern of a Photo Interpreter. RADC 'tech, Rpt., RADC TN-59-533,
Sept. 1959.
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2. Sykos, M.: Safety Considerations of Lasers, Univ. of Calif., Lawrence
Radiation Lab., Livermore, Calif., Jan. 14, 1963.
3. Straub, H. W.: Protection of the Human Eye from Laser Radiation,
Harry Diamond Lab., USAMC, Wash., D.C., July 10, 1963.
STAT
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0"111-im
11
0
10
9
1
FIG. I - ILLUSTRATION OF GRAIN REDUCTION EFFECTS BY MOVING
VIEWING SCREEN
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lengths associated with the three color components. Then
v a,(x,y) Ur(l)
represents the complex envelope at the space-time point (x,y,l)
due to that portion of the beam which has traversed the object,
while
E exp[-27ri(l+x)6v,/c]U,(t)
,-t
represents the corresponding complex envelope due to the refer-
ence beam. The resultant complex wave amplitude V (x,y,t) at
(x,y,t) in the recording plane is therefore
a
V (x,y,l)- E {a,(x,y)+exp[-27ri(l+x)Bv,/c]I
XU,(t) exp(-2rriv,l), (1)
where v1, v2, va are the midfrequencies corresponding to the three
primary colors.
Let us now make the usual assumptions that the optical field is
stationary, so that all the ensemble averages are time independent,
and that there is no second-order coherence between the three
color components, so that the average
(Ur*(i)L~,?(t))=J b,,,?. (2)
Then the mean light intensity I (x,y) recorded on the photographic
plate at the point (x,y) is
I (x,y) _ (Vr (x,y,l) V (x,y,t))
= E J,I Ia,(x,y)12+1+a: (x,y) exp[-2ai(l+x)Bv,/c]
+a,(x,y) exp[21ri(1+x)0v,/c3). (3)
After development of the photographic plate this record constitutes
the hologram.
Let us suppose that the amplitude transmission of the plate
at the point (x,y) after development and reversal is proportional
to I(x,y). If the plate is illuminated normally by a 3-color, polar-
ized, plane light beam of the same kind as before, of complex
wave amplitude
a
V'(t) U.'(t) exp(-2lrivd), (4)
.-1
then the waves emerging at the point (x,y) at time t will have a
complex amplitude V"(x,y,t) of the form
V"(x,y,t)= E 7, K.J,[1a,(x,y)12+1]U.'(1) exp(-21riv.I)
3 a
+ K.J,a, (x,y)U,'(t)exp(-2tri[v,(l+x)0/c+v.l])
The complex constants K1, K2, K3 represent transmission coef-
ficients of the hologram for the three primary colors, and probably
do not differ too greatly in absolute value.
As is well-known from the analysis of Leith and Upatnieks,2,3
the terms of the first double summation in Eq. (5) represent plane
waves travelling longitudinally, while those of the second double
summation represent various reconstructions with phase reversal
of the original wavefront, but at an angle to the longitudinal. The
terms of the third double summation in Eq. (5) represent the
genuine reconstruction of the original wavefront at other angles
to the longitudinal, and give rise to the virtual image. In the pres-
ent case 9 such terms are to be considered. The terms obtained by
putting rms correspond to waves of the three primary colors
travelling at an angle a to the longitudinal, which are correctly
recording plane
Flo. 1. Optical arrangement for recording holograms.
modulated by the appropriate amplitude transmission function of
the original object. Provided IK11, 1K21, and IK3I do not differ
too much, these three waves allow the virtual image of the object
to be seen in true color from a direction 0.
The terms obtained by putting rv-1s in the last double summa-
tion of Eq. (5) represent light waves of some color modulated by
the amplitude transmission function of the object corresponding
to a different color. If these waves were superposed on the previ-
ously mentioned ones they would clearly distort the color reproduc-
tion process. Fortunately, however, as can he seen from Eq. (5),
these waves do not propagate at an angle 0 to the longitudinal, but
at angles (vr/p.)B (with r;6s). Thus, if 0 is 30? and if v1, v2, va are
4.6, 5.5, 6.7X 1014 cps, respectively, the angles of propagation are
approximately 21?, 25?, 36?, 44?. Hence, provided the view of the
virtual image is restricted so as to exclude these directions, there
will be no distortion of the color reproduction. In practice the
aperture of observation is restricted in any case, and the foregoing
restriction is not likely to be serious.
It seems then that the hologram technique of Leith and Upat-
nieks should be capable of reproducing images in color, substan-
tially without modification.
I am indebted to R. L. Lamberts of the Eastman Kodak Com-
pany for a number of discussions of the problems of imaging by
the method of wavefront reconstruction.
*Work supported in part by the I1. S. Air Force Office of Scientific Re'
search.
D. Gabor, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) 197A, 454 (1949).
t E. Leith and J. Upatnieks, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 52, 1123 (1962).
3 L. Leith and J. Upatnieks, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 53, 1377 (1963).
4 H. Leith and J. Upatnieks, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 54, 1295 (1964).
G. W. Stroke and D. G. Falconer, Phys. Letters 13, 306 (1964).
Reduced Graininess of Moving Screens
DAN MCLACELAN, JR.,* AND HERBERT D. ADAMS
University of Denver, Denver, Colorado
(Revision received 22 July 1965)
IT is well-known that graininess on a screen is equivalent to a
background noise which deters the observer from extracting
a clear impression of an image that is intended to be projected
upon the screen. For example, a beaded screen such as is used for
the home projection of color slides gives sharper images when the
beads are as small as is practical; and a ground glass on a reflex
camera is more effective when the surface is prepared in an expert
way. In a manner not to be discussed here, the clarity of an image
on a grainy screen is a function of the number, site, and distribu-
tion of the grains or scattering points over the surface of ascreen.
On the assumption that the clarity of images on a screen is de-
termined largely by the effective density of scattering points, some
experiments were performed to show that the effective number of
points can be increased by changing the positions of the points
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 i
IYRGHT
Ftc. 1. Arrangement of anpnratus.
Turin a lime exposure. This was Clone by moving the screen on
t hich a sl al ionar' \ inr.tge was cast while it was bci ug lthol oc raphed.
.\ 1 S. National Bureau of Standards lest filet teas placed at
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Then two motors were attached to the ground glass at GS; one
moved the screen ' in. horizontally one revolution per minute and
the other moved the glass - in. vertically 12 rpm. The total
length of path traversed by each point on the screen was about
four inches. The resulting picture is shown in Fig. 3.
This experiment suggests that the effectiveness of a viewing
screen can be improved by motion. This might he particularly
useful for fluorescent screens as used for viewing in the electron
microscope or for direct viewing in medical x-ray fluoroscopy. Of
course, for direct viewing the motion would have to be produced
by high-frequency vibration to smooth out the effect for the
human eye.
* Present address: The Ohio State University, Department of Miner-
alogy, 116 West 19th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 432111.
Erratum
t
55, 203 (1965)
TRABKA, E. A. "Wiener Spectrum of Scans Obtained from an
Isotropic Two-Dimensional Random Field."
The lower limit of integration in Eq. (3) should be w instead of
0. Ref. 3 should be J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 16, 151 (1945).
Book Reviews
I nlargeon nt of image on gtound girt of I3urean of
Standard, te-t film.
I I' in I ig. I ;uul projected at a reduction of 1%15.4 on a ground
Mass scrim at (;S. To sec host badly the ground glass resolved
:lit, pattern, it t\as magnilicd 9.95X onto photographic 111111 at
1 II. 'I'll(- result:utt picture is shown in 1'ig. 2.
t
1r1G. 3. Enlargement of iutage on moving ground glass of Bureau of
Standards test film.
Optical Transforms
C. A. TAYLOR AND 1-I. 1.3PSON. Cornell University Press,
Ithaca, New York, 1964. Pp. 182. Price $7.50.
The application of. optical transforms to x-ray diffraction
problems is presented, by use of the close analogy between the
diffraction of x rays and the diffraction of light. This book de-
scribes a new research tool for x-ray crystallographers, while illus-
trating Fourier-transform ideas in general through the visual
medium of optical transforms. Two-dimensional models of crystal
structures can be made from holes punched in opaque cards
(masks). The diffraction pattern of an arrangement of holes
representing a single molecule is called the optical transform.
Optical equipment used in diffraction experiments is described,
together with the physical and photographic methods of mask
preparation. The authors discuss the transformation in both di-
rections between real and reciprocal space. The physical principles
of symmetry are illustrated in two dimensions by means of optical
diffraction. Fourier synthesis is described for reconstruction of the
images from the scattered light waves.
The book is profusely illustrated with figures and photographs
which show in detail the use of optical transforms. Fifty-four
plates are collected at the center of the book; the complexity
and beauty of these photographs clearly demonstrates the es-
sentially physical basis of x-ray crystallography. These photo-
graphs should also prove useful to persons engaged in teaching.
J. L. DONOVAN
Research Laboratories
Eastman Kodak Company
Rochester, New York 14650
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June 1, 1965 C. PARENTI 3,186,299
DEVICE TO INCREASE THE RESOLVING POWLI1 IN PROJECTIONS ON
A TRANSLUCENT SCREEN, PARTICULARLY FIT
FOR PiiOTOGRAMMETRIC APPLIANCES
Oiled March 21, 1962
Fig.2
INVENTOR.
C-tno Pareri t
BY
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BEST COPY
Available
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1
t
United States Patent Office
': H36,299
DE'-VICE TO INC>t> . '_if THE REcIlLVING 1'3WER
iN PRO sEC it-IONS ON Ah TRANSLUCENT SCREEN,
I'ARTICU1_.'ARLY El i< FOR P110TOGRAMMETRIC
r;k'I'LI:'s.i :IS
Ciao Parc" i, tdome, holy, assignor to Ottico Meccanica
_ zfi.tua Sa,c. p. Az., Rcme, Italy
1;:..! i01ar. 21, k962, Ser. do. 181,247
Claims prioki y, applic.:uun Italy, Ir. '22, 1961, 5,018/61
1 Claim. (Cl. 88-28.93)
illere are known in photokl'anllitetl:e and auroplroto-
granurictrle itistr'untentai[aus devices fur dlasecioc pro-
jection of images on plates or films on a translucent
screen, for the purpose of enlarging, them properly and,
observing them through transparency, to perform on Them
ip iaggs of measurements which in this way may reach a
high =,-de precision.
It is t icrefore necessary to obtain a considerable defi-
nition of the projected hoot,., joined to an almost uni-
foiin distribution of the luminous intensity of the screen.
it is knovin that the definition of the projected images,
is tile greater, the mote minute the roughness is of the
polish constituting the tr:dnslucent surface on which the
image (screcu) is formed; on the ether hand, however,
the possibility of having the optimum of the above-men-
ticncd uniformity of luminous intensify is the gic?: ter, the
greater within a certain limit, is the roughness of this
surface (diffusing capacity of the screen).
The purpose of this invention is to ensure a good defi-
nition of the projected images, also to maintain a con-
siderable uniformity of the distribution of the intensity
of the illumination of the screen. The description of the
invention may more easily be followed in reference to the
added illustrating design which represents, by way of a
not limited example, it preferred performance. In the
illustration:
FIG. I represents a screen mounted on a frame;
FIG. 2 is it section of the same according to the hatched
plan II-11 of FIG. 1.
Referring to the figures a screen is represented with
such roughness as to ensure a uniform distribution of the
luminosity of the image. Said screen is mounted on
frame 2 on the lower end of which are made two holes
3, while at the upper end two pivots 4 are fitted free to
turn in th,-ir proper seats.
On a supporting plate S the motor 6 is fitted of which
the turnh g shaft is made conjoint, by means of a joint 7,
with shaf . 8 turning in the bearings 9.
in the positions shown in the drawing two endless
screws 10 are keyed on shaft 8 in play with as many
helicuidal wheels 11. The pivots 4 fitted on frame 2 are
clutched in seats 12 eccentrically arranged in the helicoi-
dal wheels 11.
Two pivots 13 are fixed in the holes 3 and made con-
3,186,299
Patented June 1, 1965
2
joint wish plate 5. The arrangement of pivots 13 and
the size of the holes 3, taking into account the eccen-
tricity of pivots 4 with respect to the helicoidal wheels
11, are such as to allow the frame 2 and therefore the
5 formation plan of the projected image, a uniform circu-
lar movement of video the trajectory, by virtue of the
flanges of pivots 13, cvt;st:ultly will be on the hirer locat-
ed by the above-mentioned collection plan of the pro-
jected image.
to A cover 14, whilst it protects the mechanical parts in
movenicl)t, prevents the observer from seeing this, so that
the projected image on screen 1 appears to him clear and
perfectly defined. In fact, owning to the movement of
screen 1, the effect of the roughness of the translucent
15 screen, will be of less influence to the clearness of the
image acid therefore the image will turn out to admit the
relief also in the smallest details. Moreover, the con-
siderable grade of roughness which .it was possible to
adopt for iite translucent surface of the screen, will per-
20 Writ to observe the projected insane, endowed by lumi-
nous intensity almost uniform from the centre to the
riuu'gins of the drawing.
The variations of a constructive character which might
he applied to the described device will fall into the field
25 of protection of the invention every time that the same
inventiv, conception here exposed would be carried out
to reach equal or similar results.
What 1 claim is: -
An o,tical device, comprising a single translucent
80 screen having a rough surface and adapted to receive a
projecteu image, a frame carrying said screen and hav-
ing two upper corner portions and two lower corner
portions, two symmetrically disposed pivots mounted in
said upper corner portions, a supporting plate, a motor
35 carriedcy said plate, an elongated shaft driven by said
motor, i,vo endless screws keyed upon said shaft, two
helicoidal wheels meshing with said screws, each of said
pivots being eccentrically mounted in a separate helicoi-
dal wheel and being; rotatable therewith, said two lower
40 corner portions having circular symmetrically disposed
uniform holes, and two pivots mounted in said plate, the
two last-mentioned pivots engaging the side walls of said
holes and having diameters which are smaller than those.
of said holes.
45
References Cited by the Examiner
UNITED STATES PATENTS
50
1,969,909
8/34
Sinijian --------------
88-28.9
2,525,596
10/50
Finn ----------------
88-28:93
2,780,136
2/57
Erban ---------------
88-28.93
JULIA E. COINER, Primary Examiner.
NORTON ANSHER, Examiner.
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JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA
Vol. 53, No. 4, April 1963, p 522
WA20. Granularity of Rear Projection Screens. Vance J. Carpenter,
Bausch & Lomb, Inc., 635 St. Paul Street, Rochester 2, New York.
In the conventional use of a rear-projection screen, as exemplified
by a contour projector, the observer sees a granular structure which is
colored and which moves with the observer's eye. This effect has been
found to be dependent upon the numerical aperture of the projection system,
and it disappears when the N.A. is large. Results of measurements showing
this relationship will be given. A qualitative theory of the cause of
this phenomena will be proposed, and a means of eliminating it will be
suggested.
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ARMED FORCES NRC COMMITTEE ON VISION
Mempership List
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 Approved For Release 2004/11/30 : CIA-RDP78B04770A000900040031-6
Membership List
January 1, 1966
XECUTIVE COUNCIL
Chairman:
John L. Brown, PhD Visual acuity, spectral sensitivity,
Graduate School electro-physiology, effects of spect-
Kansas State University rally select adaptation
Manhattan, Kansas
'.t. Col. James F. Culver
School of Aerospace Medicine
Brooks AFB, Texas 78235
Richard Feinberg, PhD Aging studies utilizing fundus photog-
AM-12,.Clinical Research Branch raphy, critical flicker fusion,
Federal Aviation Agency pupillography, brightness contrast,
Washington, D. C. refraction, biomicroscopy, tonometry, etc.
Glen Hawkes, PhD
Chief, Basic Sciences Research Branch
U. S..Army Medical R & D Command
Office of Surgeon General
Washington, D. C. 20315
Visual acuity and protection in space
Elwin Marg, PhD Eye motility, electro-physiology of the
School of Optometry visual system, color vision, tonometry,
University of California accommodation
Berkeley, California
Walton L. Jones, MD, Code RBH
NASA Headquarters
Washington, D. C.
T. G. Martens, MD
Mayo Clinic
Rochester, Minnesota
Extra-ocular muscle imbalance
James W. Miller, PhD
Office of Naval Research
Code 454
Washington, D. C.
(Contract Monitor)
John H. Taylor, PhD Psychophysical methods, target detection
Visibility Laboratory and recognition, form discrimination,
Scripps Institution of oceanography spatial summation, visual search
University of California peripheral thresholds, small subtense
4aJolla, California color vision, vision underwater
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EX- OFFICIO
Executive Secretary,
Division of Behavioral Sciences:
Peter Hammond, PhD
National Academy of Sciences -
National Research Council
2101 Constitution Avenue
Washington, D. C.
Staff Advisor:
Conrad Mueller, PhD
Department of Psychology
University of Indiana
Bloomington, Indiana
Executive Secretary:
Milton A. Whitcomb, PhD
National Research Council
2101 Constitution Avenue
Washington, D. C.
NRC MEMBERS
Mathew Alpern, PhD Psycho-physiology of contrast in human
3536 Kresge Medical Research Bldg. eye, eiectro-physiology of retina,
University of Michigan pupil accommodation convergence
Ann Arbor, Michigan
Howard D. Baker, PhD
Department of Psychology
Florida State University
Tallahssee, Florida
Visual adaptation
Horac-.. !iarlow, PhD
Schoci o1c Optometry
University of California
Berkeley, California
William Bevan, PhD Visual form perception, scaling of visual
Vice President for Academic Affairs -dimensions, color vision
Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore, Maryland
H. Richard Blackwell, PhD Physiological optics, visual psychophysics,
institute for Research in Vision retinal disease, illumination, visibility
1314 Kinnear Road
Columbus, Ohio
Paul Boeder, MD
Department of Ophthalmology
University Hospitals
University of Iowa
Iowa City, Iowa
Ocular mechanics
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Goodwin Breinin, MD
New York University School of Medicine
550 First Avenue
New York, New York
Charles J. Campbell, MD
Eye Institute
635 West 165th Street
New York, New York
Carter Collins
Institute of Visual Sciences
Presbyterian Medical Center
2340 Clay Street
San Francisco, California 94115
Tom N. Cornsweet, PhD
Department of Psychology
University of California
Berkeley, California
Thomas G. Dickinson, MD
301 Doctor's Garden Building
1880, Arlington Street
Sarasota, Florida
Ocular motility, electrophysiology,
physiology, ophthalmology
Visual biophysics
Photochemistry of color vision, retinal
spatial interaction
Visual problems, high altitude flight,
visual standards for flight personnel
John Dowling, PhD
Woods Research Building
Johns Hopkins Hospital
Baltimore, Maryland 21205
Seibert Q. Duntley, ScD
Visibility Laboratory
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
University of California
San Diego, California
Jay M. Enoch, PhD
Cepartment of Ophthalmology
School of Medicine
Washin?r'on University
660 S. Euclid
St. Louis, Missouri
All phases of visual search detection
Visual search, retinal optics and
response characteristics
Thecdore W. Forbes, PhD
Deoartment of Psychology
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
Glenn A. Fry, PhD
School of Optometry
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
Head and eye movements in driving, highway
sign legibility and effectiveness, per-
ceptual problems in auto driving safety
Color vision (chromatic adaptation and
color blindness) visual performance
studies, accommodation-convergence
relations
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1
J. W. Gebhard, PhD
Applied Physics Laboratory
Johns Hopkins University
8621 Georgia Avenue
Silver Spring, Maryland
William Greenspon, OD
815 Heatherwood Road
Bluefield, West Virginia
Sylvester K. Guth, EE
Radiant Energy Effects Laboratory
Lamp Division
General Electric Company
Nela Park
Cleveland, Ohio
Rate discrimination for intermittent
photic stimulation
Visibility, visual performance, color,
physiological effects of light and
lighting
Rita M. Halsey, PhD
Department 591
Engineering Labs., IBM
Neighborhood, Road
Kingston, New York
E. Rae Harcum, PhD
Department of Psychology
College of William and Mary
Williamsburg, Virginia
James Harris
Visibility Laboratory
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
University of California
LaJolla, California
Gordon G. Heath, PhD
Division of Optometry
indiana University
Bloomington, Indiana
Eric G. Heinemann, PhD
Department of Psychology
Brooklyn College
Brooklyn, New York
Visual d!splays, color
Pattern and form detection and recognition
Detection theory and analytic formulations
applied to visual processes, problems of
visual search, and pre-display processing
to improve observer performance
Color blindness, night vision, accommoda-
tion--convergence relationships and
neural control, electrophysiology of
visual pathways
Spatial interaction, adaptation, space
perception
I
Richard M. He;d, PhD
Department of Psychology
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
Henry Hofstetter, PhD
Division of Optometry
'ndiana University
Bloomington, Indiana
Occupational vision, accommodation and
convergence relationships
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E. Porter Horne, PhD
Box 12353
University Station
Gainesville, Florida
Flicker-fusion--frequency and apparent
motion as related to perceptual processes
static and dynamic
r
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Dorothea Jameson Hurvich, PhD
Department of Psychology
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Robert Jampel, MD
College of Physicians > Surgeons
Columbia University
630 West 168th Street
New York, New York
Arthur Jampolsky, MD
Cirector, Eye Research Institute
Presbyterian Medical Center
San Francisco, California
Donald H. Kelly, PhD
ITEK Corporation, Vidya Division
1450 Page Mill Road
Palo Alto, California
Robert Kling, MD
Room 116
Georgetown University Hospital
3800 Reservoir Road
Washington, D. C.
John Krauskopf, PhD
7218 Beacon Terrace
Bethesda, Maryland
Herschel Leibowitz, PhD
Department of Psychology
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania
Color vision, psycho-physics, psycho-
physiology
Neuro-ophthalmology, physiology of eye
movements
Electromyography of ocular muscles, ocular
motor anomalies
Perception, psychophysiology, displays
John Levinson, PhD
Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.
Room 2D-514
Murray Hill, New Jersey
Arthur Linksz, MD
6 East 76th Street
New York, New York
Leo E. Lipetz, PhD
Institute for Research in Vision
1314 Kinnear Road
Columbus, Ohio
"Retinal response to light, temporal and
spatial
Color vision, space perception, sensory
disturbances in strabismus
Transmission of information by visual
system, mechanisms of light adaptation,
correlation of structure and function,
and retinal light scatter
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Alfred Lit, PhD
Department of Psychology
Southern Illinois University
Carbondale, Illinois
Irene E. Loewenfeld, PhD
Department of Ophthalmology
College of Physicians & Surgeons
Columbia University
635 West 165th Street
New York, New York
Depth discrimination, visual latent period,
applications of visual psychophysiology
and perception to human engineering
problems
The pupil (autonomic innervation), rela-
tions between pupillary activity and
vision
George Long, PhD
MOL Subdivision
Douglas Aircraft Company
Huntington Beach, California
Norman H. Mackworth, PhD
Harvard School of Public Health
Center for Aerospace Health & Safety
665 Huntington Avenue
Boston, Massachusetts
Recording of eye movements during visual
performance tasks
Leonard Matin, PhD
Department of Psychology
Columbia University
Schermerhorn Hall
New York, New York
Ailene Morris, PhD
Eye Research Institute
San Francisco Institute of Medical Sci.
2340 Clay Street
San Francisco, California
Visual search, psychophysics of visibility
engineering, visibility calculation, form
and pattern detection and recognition,
visual standards vs. visual efficiency und-
er various atmospheric conditions
Jacob Nachmias, PhD
Department of Psychology
College Hall
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
Thomas Nelsor, PhD
University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
Gunter K. von Noorden, MD
The Wilmer Institute
The Johns Hopkins Hospital
Ba:timore, Maryland
Kenneth N. Ogle, PhD
S3ction of Biophysics
Mayo Clinic
Rochester, Minnesota
Visual acuity, eye movements, space
perception theory of psychophysics
Flicker, brightness, form and orientations,
and traffic marking devices
Ocular motility disturbances, amblyopia,
mechanisms of eye movements, visual
physiology
Visibility of out of focus images.
Steroscopic depth from delayed Images in
the two eyes
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George N. Ornstein, PhD
North American Aviation, Inc.
4300 East Fifth Avenue
Columbus, Ohio
Albert Potts, PhD
Department of Ophthalmology
University of Chicago
Chicago, Illinois
Harris Ripps, PhD
Department of Ophthalmology
New Yori: ,,iiversity Medical Center
550 First Avenue
New York, New York
Heinrich Rose, MD
1651 Tulane Drive
Mountain View, California
Thorne Shipley, PhD Binocular vision, critical flicker fre-
Department of Ophthalmology quency, color vision, neurophysiology of
University of Miami School of Medicine the visual system
1638, N. W. Tenth Avenue
Miami, Florida
Ezra V. Saul, PhD
Institute for Applied Experimental
Psychology
Tufts University
Medford, Massachusetts
Robert Sleight, PhD Sign legibility, form perception, image
Applied Psychology Corporation interpretation
4113 Lee Highway
Arlington, Virginia
Olin W. Smith, PhD Development problems of depth, distance,
Department of Psychology size, motion perception and measures of
Cornell University visual acuity
Ithaca, New York
Stanley W. Smith, PhD
Institute for Research in Vision
Ohio State University Research Center
1314 Kinnear Road
Columbus, Ohio 43212
Harry G. Sperling, PhD Color vision theory, colorimetry, photos
Minneapolis Honeywell Regulator Company metry--temporal aspects of vist!al res-
Military Products Group ponse
2700 Ridgway Road
Minneapolis, Minnesota
Mathematical models of visual perceptual
processes, image enhancement techniques,
visual performance evaluation in military
target identification systems
Electroretinography, biochemistry and
toxicology of the eye, electronic process-
ing of ophthalmoscopic images
Photo-labile pigments of the retina
Visual orientation : space, depth per-
ception, eye protec :on against radiation,
vision in approach End landing, night
vision
Documentation of the vision literature and
pictorial communication
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Lawrence Stark, MD Neurological mechanisms underlying eyf
Bioengineering Department movement control systems: version, ver-
University of Illinois gence, lens and pupil. Bioengineering,
Chicago, Illinois 60680 cybernetics
Gerald Westheirner, PhD
School of Optometry
University of California
Berkeley, California
Oculomotor systerns--retinal image
U. S. ARMY
A I ter,,... i.a to LAi--, i ve Cc::,:
Col. Sidney L. Marvin, MC
Chief, Behavioral Sciences Branch
U. S. Army Medical R & D Command
Office of the Surgeon General
Washington, D. C. 20315
Electrical recording
Lt. Co1..Robert W. Bailey, MSC Dark adaptation, color vision, visual
Commanding Officer problems associated with aviation
U. S. Army Aeromedical Research Unit
Fort Rucker, Alabama 36362
Philip J. Bersh, PhD Image interpretation, visual displays,
Combat Systems Research Laboratory stereopsis
Room 1406
U. S. Army Personnel Research Laboratory
Washington, D. C.
Lt. Col. Roswell G. Daniels, MC All aspects having military or industrial
Occupational Health Branch application
John C. Armington, PhD
Dept.. of Sensory Psychology, NP Div.
WRAIR, Walter Reed Army Medical Center
Washington, D. C.
P1eventive Medicine Division
Office of the Surgeon General
Department of the Army
Washington, D. C.
E. Ralph Dusek, PhD Visual search from low performance
Scientific Adviser for aircraft--ground to air and air to
Military Performance ground
Headquarters
U. S. Army Research Institute
of Environmental Medicine
Natick, Massachusetts
David L. Easley, PhD
U. S. Army Armor Human Research Unit
Fort Knox, Kentucky
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Lt. Col. Richard Froemming, MC
Chief, Occupational Health Branch
Professional Services
Office of the Surgeon General
Department of the Army
Washington, D. C. 20315
Lt. Col. Billy C. Greene, MSC Visual standards, occupational vision
Office of the Surgeon General programming, eye/vision protective
Department of the Army devices (eye armor)
Washington, D. C. 20315
George S. Har':ar ,
Psychology Division
U. S. Army Medical Research Laboratory
Fort Knox, Kentucky
Stern sc oip c vision :space percept'
Col. Kenneth E. Hudson, MC
Hq. VII Corps
APO 107, New York, New York
Arthur Jones, PhD
Experimental Psychology Division
Army Medical Research Laboratory
Fort Knox, Kentucky
Contact lenses of military personnel
Leon T. Katchmar, PhD
Systems Research Lab.
U. S. Army Ordnance Human Engineering Labs.
Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland
John Kobrick, PhD
Headquarters
U. S. Army Research Institute
of Environmental Medicine
Natick, Massachusetts
Effects of environmental exposure vari-
ables upon visual performance; human
factors applications of vision principles
directed toward equipment design for Army
use, particularly QMC
Lt. Col. Charles W. Kraul, MC
Personnel and Training Directorate
Army Materiel Command
Department of the Army
Washington, D. C. 20315
Lt. Col. Robert W. Neidlinger, MC
Box 209
Letterman General Hospital
Presidio of San Francisco, California
Occupational vision programs
Lt. Col. Wayne R. Otto, MC Vision as associated with aviation,
Chief, Aviation Operations Branch physical standards for flyers, visual
Directorate of Plans, requirements for flying
Supply and Operations
Office of the Surgeon General, D/A
Main Navy Building
Washington, D. C. 20315
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Col. Jack W. Passmore, MC
Chief, Ophthalmology Service
Walter Reed General Hospital
Walter Reed Army Medical Center
Washington, D. C.
Lt. Col. Richard Phillips
U. S. Army Environmental Hygiene Agency
Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland
Edward H. Polley, PhD
Chief, Neurology Branch
Dire.. e of Medi ca 1 Res {:. ch
U. S. - my Chemical R & 0 Labs.
Edgewood Arsenal, Maryland 2 1010
Michael H. Siegel, PhD Color discriminati,:n, psychophysical
U. S. Army Chemical Center methodology
Edgewood Arsenal Maryland
Francis H. Thomas, PhD Training of visual search techniques or
U. S. Army Aviation Human Research Unit unaided eye
Fort Recker, Alabama
j. E. Uhlaner, PhD
Director, Research Laboratories
Personnel Research Office
Department of the Army
Washington, D. C.
Display panel--image interpretation
.iohn D. Weisz, PhD
Human Engineering Lab. - Bldg. 2427
Aberdeen Provinq Ground, Maryland
Robert S. Wiseman, PhD Recognition and detection capabilities,
Warfare Vision Branch improvement of night vision
U. S. Army Engineer R # D Labs.
Fort Belvoir, Virginia 22060
Joseph Leidner, PhD Relation of age function to vision
U. Army Personnel Research office ,.standards
Office of the Chief, R & D
Department of the Army
Washington, D. C.
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U. S. AIR FORCE
Carl P. Crocetti, PhD
Human Engineering Laboratory, RCSH
Rome Air Development Center
Griffiss AFB, New York
Capt. Herbert D. Fenske, USAF, MC
JSAF Hospital Andrews
Andrews AFB, Maryland 20331
Capt. Glenn P. Johnston, USAF, MC
Wilford Nall USAF Hospital
Lackland AFB, Texas 78236
Maj. Paul W. Lappin Eye protection against radiation, visual
Radiation Shielding Branch (MRBBR) problems in space
Biophysics Laboratory
6570th Aerospace Medical Research Labs.
Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio
,Maj. Donald G. Pitts, USAF, MSC Visibility and search, accommodative-
Physical Physiological Optics Section convergence relationships, ocular trans-
Ophthalmology Department mission and retinal burns, all aspects of
USAF School of Aerospace Medicine vision in space flight
Brooks AF6, Texas
Brig. Gen. Benjamin A. Strickland, or.
USAF, MC
Director Profess i .,na l Services
Office of the Surgeon General, USAF
Washington, D. C. 20333
J. S. NAVY
John A. Bartelt Aircraft exterior lighting, aircraft
Code RAAE-531 searchlights
Electrical Br. - Airborne Equipment Div.
Bureau of Weapons
Department of the Navy
Washington, D. C.
Capt. Sidney D. Bond, Jr., MC, USN Use of infra-red photography in evaluat-
U. S. Naval School of Aviation Medicine ing strabismus
U. S. Naval Aviation Medical Center
Pensacola, Florida
CGpt. Roland A. Bosee, MSC, USN Visual orientation, eye protection, night
Bureau of Naval Weapons (RA-15) vision, air crew station lighting
Department of the Navy
Washington, D. C. 20360
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Gloria Chisum, PhD
Vision Branch
U. S. Naval Air Development Center.
Johnsville, Pennsylvania 18974
Amos R. David Photopic and scotopic aspects in relation
U. S. Navy Department to U. S. Navy ship design and operation
Bureau of Ships - Code L09.3C
Standardization Societies Liaison Sec.
Washington, D. C. 20360
Victor Fields, PhD
Deputy Head, Psychologica ;:.search ?r
Personnel Research Divisic-
Bureau of Naval Personnel
Department of the Navy
Washington, D. C.
Personnel selection and nerfnrmance Pua)'!a-
Timothy Kenney
Safety Engineer
Bureau of Ships
Department of the Navy
Washington, D. C.
Cdr. Paul R. Kent, MSC, USN
Vision Branch, Research Division
Naval Submarine Medical Center
U. S. Naval Submarine Base
New London/Groton, Connecticut
JoAnn S. Kinney, PhD Color vision, night vision, temporal
Box 600 factors
USN Submarine Medical Center
USN Submarine Base
Groton, Connecticut 06342
Clinton H. Maag, PhD
Deputy Life Sciences Officer
Life Sciences Department, Box 31
U. S. Naval Missile Center
Point Mugu, California
Earl Miller, PhD Interaction between the visual and vesti-
Head, Physiological Optics Branch bular systems, space perception, evaluation
Medical Sciences Division of visual tests, vision as influenced by
U. S. Naval School of Aviation Medicine, unusual conditions in orbital and space
U. S. Naval Aviation Medical Center flight
Pensacola, Florida 32512
'Thomas I. Monahan, PhD
Head, Physics Branch (Code 9410)
U. S. Nava) Applied Science Laboratory
Naval Base, Brooklyn, New York 11251
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Helen Paulson, PhD
U. S. Naval Submarine Medical Center
`J. S. Naval Submarine Base, New London
Groton, Connecticut Ob342
Capt. Neal D. Sanborn, MC, USN
Head, Aviation Physical Qualifications Or.
Aviation Medical Operations Division
Bureau of Medicine and Surgery--511
Navy Department
Washington, D. C. 20390
Richard Tousey, PhD
Code 7140
U. S. Naval Research Laboratory
Washington, D. C.
Richard Trumbull, PhD
Office of Naval Research
Code 450
Washington, D.. C.
Capt. Ralph L. Vasa (MSC) USN
Code 3121
Bureau of Medicine and Surgery
Washington, D. C.
Visual standards, protective devices,
visual performance
Capt. H. G. Wagner, MC, USN
Director
Aerospace Crew Equipment Laboratory
Naval Air Engineering Center
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19112
Carroll White, PhD
Code 3380
U. S. Naval Electronics Laboratory
San Diego, California
Temporal factors in vision, eye movement
studies, visually evoked cortical
potentials and the electroretinogram
Myron L. Wolbarsht, PhD
Naval Medical Research institute
Bethesda, Maryland 20014
Color vision and organization of the
retina, comparative physiology and bio-
physics of photoreceptors and associated
neural elements, electro-physiology of
visual system
FEDERAL AVIATION AGENCY
Roland H. S. Bedell, MD
Georgetown Clinical Research Inst.
FAA, AM-130
3800 Reservoir Road
Washington, D. C.
Ophthalmology as applied to aviation-
glaucoma, vascular changes in eye, visual
standards
13
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.William Collins Color vision, color blindness, psycho-
civil Aeromedical Research Institute physics and interaction of the visual
:ederal Aviation Agency and vestibular systems
Aeronautical Center
P. 0. Box 1082
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
VATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
Stanley Deutsch, PhD Visual skills in aircraft and space
Chief, Man-Systems integration systems, visual performance measurement,
Biotechnology and Human Research psycho-physical methods
Office of Advanced Research & Technology
"-Iqs. NASA
4ashington, D. C. 20546
(Alternate to Dr. Jones)
William H. Allen
Mission Analysis Division
NASA Ames Research Center
Moffett Field,.California
Visual problems of operational space
flight, protective equipment
John Billingham, PhD
NASA Ames Research Center
Moffett Field, California
Siegfried Gerathewohl, PhD
Manned Space Division
office of Space Science & Applications
NASA Headquarters
Washington, D. C.
John D. Hilchey, PhD
Marshall Space Flight Center
Huntsville, Alabama 35812
Robert Jones, PhD
Manned Spacecraft Center
Houston, Texas 77058
R. Mark Patton, PhD
NASA Ames Research Center
Moffett Field, California 94035
Arthur W. Vogeley
Langley Research Center
Hampton, Virginia 23365
Roger L. Winblade
Code REC
NASA Headquarters
Washington, D. C.
14
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Wdg/Cdr. William Allan Crawford
Royal Air Force Staff
British Embassy
Washington, D. C. 20008
Mr. C. L. Crouch
Illuminating Engineering Society
United Engineering Center
345 East 47th Street
New York, New York
Dr. Charles A. Douglas
Photometry & Colorimetry Section
National Bureau of Standards
Washington, D. C.
Dr. D. F. Downing
Defence Research Staff
British Embassy
3100 Massachusetts Avenue, N. W.
Washington, D. C.
Dr'. Richard E. Hoover, MD
Veterans Administration
14 W. Mt. Vernon Place
Baltimore, Maryland
Dr. James H. Allen
Department of Ophthalmology
Tulane Medical School
1430 Tulane Avenue
New Orleans, Louisiana
Dr. Stanley S. Ballard
Department of Physics
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida
Dr. Robert M. Boynton
Department of Psychology
University of Rochester
Rochester, New York
Dr. Hermann M. Burian
University Hospitals
Iowa City, Iowa
Dr. Victor A. Byrnes
234 Beach Drive, N. E.
St. Petersburg, Florida
LI Al SON
Dr. J. Clement McCulloch
830 Medical Arts Building
170 St. George Street
Toronto 5, Ontario, Canada
Lt. Cdr. John M. O'Connell, Jr., USCG
Testing and Development Division
Headquarters U. S. Coast Guard
1300 E Street, N. W.
Washington, D. C.
5g. Cdr. H. D. Oliver
Medical Liaison Officer
Canadian Defence Liaison Staff
Washington, D. C. 20008
Dr. Ludwig von Sallman
National Institute of Neurological
Diseases and Blindness
National Institutes of Health
Bethesda, Maryland
Dr. Mary Warga
Optical Society of America,
1155 - 16th Street, N. W.
Washington, D. C.
Prof. Alphonse Chapanis
Department of Psychology
Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore, Maryland
Dr. Frederick Crescitelli
Department of Zoology
University of California
Los Angeles, California
Dr. Mason N. Crook
Institute for Applied
Experimental Psychology
Tufts University
Medford, Massachusetts
Dr. Russell DeValois
Department of Psychology
University of Indiana
Bloomington, Indiana
Dr. Stanley Diamond
490 Post Street
San Francisco, California 94102
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)r. Forrest L. Dimmick
i Mine Street
New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901
Dr. Glen Finch
AFOSR
ndependence & Sixth Street, S. W.
Washington, D. C.
Dr. Gerald Fonda
551 Millburn Avenue
Short Hills, New Jersey 07078
Jr. Charles S. Gersoni
A PA
1200 - 17th Street, N. W.
Washington, D. C. 20036
Dr. James J. Gibson
Department of Psychology
Morrill Hall
Cornell University
Ithaca, New York
Jr. Walter Gogel
Department of Psychology
University of California
Santa Barbara, California
Dr. Clarence H. Graham
Department of Psychology
Columbia University
New York, New York
Dr. Randall M. Hanes
Applied Physics Laboratory
Johns Hopkins University
8621 Georgia Avenue
Silver Spring, Maryland
Dr. William M. Hart
Director, Eye Research Foundation
3710 Old Georgetown Road
Bethesda, Maryland 20014
Dr. Albert E. Hickey, Jr.
President, ENTELEK, Inc.
65 State Street
Newburyport, Massachusetts
Prof. Charles W. Hill
Delta Regional Primate Research Center
Covington, Louisiana 70433
Or. J. Harry Hi l l
NASA Electronics Research Center
qnt r,-.n M7ac~r ti..~^atS
Mr. John M. Hood, Jr.
U. S. Navy Electronics Laboratory
Code 2122
San Diego, California
Dr. Leo H. Hurvich
Department of Psychology
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Maj. Gen. Aubrey L. Jennings,
USAF, (MC), (Ret.)
3733 N. Oakland Street
Arlington, Virginia
Dr. E. Parker Johnson
Dean of the Faculty
Colby College
Waterville, Maine
Dr. Deane B. Judd
Photometry and Colorimetry Section
National Bureau of Standards
Washington, 0. C.
Dr. John L. Kennedy
Department of Psychology
-Princeton University
Princeton, New Jersey
Dr. N. C. Kephart
Department of Psychology
Dr. H. Keffer Hartline Purdue University
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research Lafayette, Indiana
66th Street and York Avenue
New York, New York
Dr. Harry Helson
Department of Psychology
Kansas State University
Manhattan, Kansas
Dr. Heinrich Kluver
Division of Biological Sciences
University of Chicago
Culver Hall
Chicago, Illinois
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Dr. Henry A. Knoll
tiophysics Department
F.esearch and Development Division
Bausch and Lomb, Inc.
Rochester, New York
Dr. Hedwig S. Kuhn
7142 Hohman Avenue
Hammond, Indiana
Dr. Elek Ludvigh
Kresge Eye institute
690 Mullet Street
t,etroit, Michigan
Dr. Edward F. MacNichol, Jr.
Department of Biophysics
Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore, Maryland
Dr. Walter R. Miles
Box 100, Medical Research Laboratory
USN Submarine Base
Groton, Connecticut
Dr. Brian O'Brien
P. 0. Box 117
Pomfret, Connecticut
Dr. James O'Rourke
Department of ophthalmology
3800 Reservoir Road
Georgetown Hospital
Washington, D. C.
Dr. Floyd Ratliff
Kockefeller Institute for Med. Research
66th Street and York Avenue
New York, New York
Dr. Lorrin A. Riggs
Department of Psychology
Brown University
Providence, Rhode Island
Dr. Charles W. Shilling
Biological Sciences Communications Proj.
The George Washington University
2000 P Street, N. W.
Washington, D. C.
Dr. Louise L. Sloan
Laboratory of Physiological Optics
Wilmer Institute
The Johns Hopkins Medical School
Baltimore, Maryland
Approved
Dr. F. Dow Smith
Director, Optics Division
ITEK Corporation
10 Maguire Road
Lexington, Massachusetts
Dr. Philip 1. Sperling
Special Operations Research Office
American University
5010 Wisconsin Avenue, N. W.
Washington, D. C.
Prof. Everett M. Strong
Department of Electrical Engineering
110 Phillips Hail
Cornell University
Ithaca, New York
Dr. Kenneth Swan
University of Oregon Medical School
Department of Ophthalmology
Portland, Oregon
Dr. Wilson P. Tanner, Jr.
Department of Electrical Engineering
Cooley Electronics Laboratory
University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan
Dr. James M. Vanderplas
Department of Psychology
Washington University
St. Louis, Missouri
Dr. George Wald
Biological Labs. A-302
Harvard University
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Dr. Ralph Wick
American Academy of optometry
810 Mt. View
Rapid City, South Dakota
Dr. Ernst Wolf
Retina Foundation
20 Stanford Street
Boston, Massachusetts
Dr. Benjamin J. Wolpaw
2323 Prospect Avenue
Cleveland, Ohio
Dr. Joseph W. Wulfeck
Dunlap and Associates, Inc.
1454 Cloverfield Boulevard
Santa Monica, California
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INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENTS
1
Dr. M. Aguilar
Instituto de Optica
;errano, 119
Madrid, Spain
Prof. A. Arnulf
Institut d'Optique
3 Boulevard Pasteur
Paris XV, France
)r. Edgar Auer ba.:i1
Hebrew University
Hadassah Medical School
P. 0. Box 1 172
Jerusalem, Israel
')r. E. Baumgardt
O;recteur de Recherche
College de France
11,. Place Marcelin-Berthelot
Paris-.V, France
Prof. Dr. M. A. Bouman
Director, Institute for Perception
National Defense Research
Organization TNO
Kampweg 5
Soesterberg, Netherlands
Dr. B. H. Crawford
National Physical Laboratory
Teddington, Middlesex, England
Prof. R. W. Ditchburn, F.R.S.
J. J. Thomson Physics Laboratory
Whiteknights Park
University of Reading
Reading, Berkshire, England
Prof. Gosta Ekman
The Psychological Lab.
Teknologgatan 8
Stockholm VA, Sweden
Dr. Adriana Fiorentini
Instituto Nazionale di Ottica
Via S. Leonardo 79
Arcetri, Florence, Italy
Prof. R. G. Hopkinson
Bartlett School of Architecture
University College London
Gower Street
London, W.C.I. England
Prof. Yves le Grand
Musee d'Histoire Naturelle
57 Rue Cuvier
Paris 5. France
Prof. Erik P. G. Ingelstam
Head, Institute for Optical Research
Royal Swedish Institute of Technology
Stockholm 70, Sweden
Dr. KU iLi Motokawa
Professor, Department of Physiology
Tohoku University School of Medicine
Kitayobancno
Sendai, Japan
Prof. R. W. Pic:kford
Department of Psychology
Glasgow University
Glasgow, Scotland
Dr. M. H. Pirenne
Department of Physiology
Oxford University
Oxford, England
Dr. M. Richter
Unter den Eichen 87
Berlin-Dahlem (Western sector)
Germany
Prof. Dr. H. Schober
Institute for Medical Optics
University of Munich
Arnulfstrasse 205
Munich , 9, Germany
Dr. J. F. Schouten
-Inst. voor Perceptie Onderzoek
Insulindelaan 2
Eindhoven, The Netherlands
Dr. W. M. Vaidya
Optics Div., N.P.L.
Hillside Road
New Delhi 12, India
Dr. G. Verriest
79 Coupure
Ghent, Belgium
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Dr. Pieter L. Walraven
Dep. Director Institute for Perception
National Defense Research Organization TNO
Kampweg 5
Soesterberg, Netherlands
Dr. R. A. Weale
Department of Physiological Optics
Medical Research Council
Institute of Ophthalmology
Judd Street
London, W.C. 1. England
Wg/Cdr. T. C. D. Whiteside, RAF
institute of Aviation Medicine
Farnborough, Hampshire, England
19
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