AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC-INTERPRETATION TECHNIQUES FOR WATER-QUALITY ANALYSIS
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MEMORANDUM FOR
A~l
~("! e
- 4"li
Declassification Review
by NGA/DoD
FORM N0. REPLACES FORM 10-101
I AUG 54 IoI WHICH MAY BE USED.
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AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC-INTERPRETATION TECHNIQUES
FOR WATER-QUALITY ANALYSIS
by
25X1
Submitted for presentation
at the
1965 Annual Meeting of the
American Society of Photogrammetzy
March 30, 1965
Washington, D. C.
25X1
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Aerial photographic interpreters are in a unique position
to act as "water pollution detectives." As a professional group,
we probably study more land area than do members of any other
profession.
while there are literally thousands of different kinds of
water pollutants, they can be grouped into a restricted number
of categories based on type of source, nature of pollutant,
ecological effect on the receiving water, damage which is done,
or change in the appearance of the receiving water itself.
This paper sets forth two existing partially-overlapping
pollutant classification systems, defines some of the termi-
nology which is used in water quality analysis, outlines and
illustrates some of the "signatures" of different types of
pollutants, and spells out some of the basic !ground truths."
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No.
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ABSTRACT ii
LIST OF FIGURES iv
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. SAPROBRIC ZONATION OF STREAMS 5
3. TYPES OF WATER POLLUTANTS 6
4. MUNICIPAL WASTES 6
5. POLLUTION FROM COMBINED SEWAGE SYSTEMS 9
6. ORGANIC INDUSTRIAL WASTES 10
7. INORGANIC INDUSTRIAL WASTES 12
8. NEW CHEMICAL WASTES 14
9. LAND DRAINAGE WASTES 14
10. IRRIGATION RETURN FLOWS 15
11. URBAN LAND DRAINAGE 15
12. AGRICULTURAL PESTICIDES 15
13. AGRICULTURAL FERTILIZERS 16
14. POLLUTION RESULTING FROM RECREATION AND NAVIGATION 17
15. OTHER SPECIAL TYPES AND SOURCES OF POLLUTION 19
16. PHOTO REQUIREMENTS FOR WATER-QUALITY ANALYSIS 20
17. REPORTING WATER-QUALITY INFORMATION 22
18. SUMMARY 23
19. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 24
REFERENCES 25
FIGURES 1 THROUGH 22
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l.- Nasty looking outfalls discharging into American streams
are all too common a sight. This figure illustrates
blood-red wastes discharging into a California stream.
2.- Subsurface outfall discharging into a stream in New York state.
3.- Saprobic zonation diagram showing the chemical and bio-
logical effects which are induced below an outfall when
polluting wastes enter a stream.
4.- A section of the beta Mesosaprobic zone downstream from
the outfall shown in Figure 2.
5.- Raw sewage being discharged into the Potomac just upstream
from Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D. C.
6.- Raw sewage being discharged into the Anacostia River, just
a few miles from the Capitol of the United States.
7.- Plume of treated sewage effluent being discharged into the
Potomac just across from Washington National Airport.
8.- Plume of pollution entering San Francisco Bay.
9.- "False" color infrared appearance of foul-smelling sewage
treatment plant trickling filter. Bed of trickling filter
images in red tones.
10.- "False" color infrared appearance of sewage treatment plant
trickling filter which does not smell bad. Bed of trickling
filter does not image in red tones.
11.- Combined outfall discharging into Anacostia River from Naval
Gun Factory.
12.- Paper mill wastes discharging into Upper Mississippi River
at Grand Rapids, Minnesota.
13.- Mouth of coal mine in West Virginia from which sulfuric acip
is draining.
14.- Effects of sulfuric acid drainage near flooded coal mine vent
as seen from the air.
15.- Sediment pollution into San Francisco Bay near Foster City,
California.
16.- Sediment pollution in Potomac River upstream from Washington,
D.C.
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17.- Red appearance of algae, imaged in "false" color infrared
film.
18.- Urban land-drainage wastes polluting lake in Western
Minnesota.
19.- Mass of dead fish resulting from hugh fish kill in Potomac
River, summer 1963.
20.- Dense mass of algae choking surface of Clear Lake, Lace
County, California.
nine-lens multiband panel illustrating appearance of
pond in different portions of the spectrum.
22.- Subsurface rooted vegetation imaged in reddish tones as
shown in "false" color infrared film using Kodak Wratten 2A
filter.
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AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC-INTERPRETATION TECHNIQUES FOR
WATER-QUALITY ANALYSES
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1. INTRODUCTION
Water pollution is America's shame. Figure 1 shows one of
the hundreds of noxious outfalls which discharge/ into ,-American
stream$, Some rivers are so seriously polluted that they are
totally unfit for many legitimate uses. The consequences of water
pollution include:'
(1) Disease transmission through infection.
(2) Poisoning of man and animals.
(3) Detrimental effects on aquatic life.
(4) Creation of objectionable odors or unsightliness.
(5) Cause of unsatisfactory quality of treated water.
(6) Impairment of shellfish culture (disease transmission).
(7) Excess mineralization.
(8) Destruction of aesthetic values.
As an example of a seriously polluted river, the Anacostia,
not far from here, occasionally goes septic. This occurs because
raw sewage is occasionally bypassed from the Washington Suburban
Sanitary Commission's sewer lines, and discharged raw into the
Anacostia, rather than being routed into the District of Columbia's
Blue Plains Sewage Treatment Plant.
A few years ago, New York City was described as being "an
island entirely surrounded by sewage.ii2 Fortunately, some of this
mess has been cleaned up.
Many of these problems exist because of lack of general
public awareness of conditions - and in many instances, because
the sources of pollution are unknown, or because the consequences
of pollution are not appreciated by those whom we elect or appoint
to take care of such things.
I suggest that we, as specialists in the field of aerial
reconnaissance, can perform a potentially life-saving service, and
that the lives we save may be our own. In our profession, we
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probably study more land area than any other professional group.
I suggest that we extend our studies so that they include detec-
ting and reporting potentially dangerous water pollution conditions
which may exist along streams in areas which we may be studying
for other purposes. I suggest, then, that we act as "water pollu-
tion detectives."
Aerial photographic-interpretation techniques can serve a
valuable role in helping to protect our national water resources.
A vast amount of aquatic ecological information can be imaged
photographically. Perhaps in no other way can large water areas
be examined, and the interactions which occur in them be studied
as thoroughly.
Aerial photographic-interpretation techniques add to, but do
not replace, existing field and laboratory analysis methods. Lab-
oratory methods, which depend on the use of test tubes, water
sample bottles and microscopes, are made even more valuable.
Critical areas which require field work can be located more rapidly.
Both time and money can be saved by reducing field work, leaving
more time and money for confirming laboratory analyses, and more
important, more for taking corrective action.
If aerial photographic-interpretation techniques are to be
used effectively for water quality analyses, it is wise first to
review the terminology which is used to define certain water-
quality conditions, and review the extent and causes of some of
the more serious water-quality problems which exist in the United
States. Water-quality analyses depend upon recognition of amor-
phous images. Minor tone differences may indicate significant
differences in water quality. Both the capabilities and the short-
comings of photographic methods of collecting water-quality data,
which in turn requires a review of the selective spectral-energy
absorbtion and transmission regions of water, should be reviewed.
Last, we have to know to whom water-pollution observations
should be reported so that effective remedial action can be taken.
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The term "water quality" refers to the physical, chemical,
and biological characteristics of water. The physical charac-
teristics of water include temperature, density, viscosity,
color, clarity, and similar data. Chemical water-quality charac-
teristics include the presence and amount (if present) of organic
and inorganic substances in solution, and the way that these sub-
stances are bonded or dispersed within the molecular structure
of water. Biological water-quality characteristics include the
types and numbers of organisms which are present.
Physical, chemical, and biological characteristics inter-
act. Even slight changes in one characteristic may induce a
chain reaction of synergistic or antagonistic responses which
will alter water quality. An example is the chain of reactions
which take place when the temperature of water is raised.
Biological activity is accelerated,~which in turn speeds up
removal of dissolved oxygen, nutrient chemicals, and other sub-
stances which are required for aerobic life processes. If bio-
logical processes continue until the dissolved oxygen is exhausted,
aerobic organisms may be replaced by anaerobic types. Organisms
in bottom mud may stimulate thermogenesis, adding more heat to
the water.
"Water pollution" and "contamination" have rather restricted
water-quality definitions. Water pollution is defined as the
"adding to water of any substance, or the changing of water's
physical characteristics in any way which interferes with its use
for any legitimate purpose.j3 "Contamination" has a more serious
definition. Polluted water which is contaminated is toxic to
higher mammals, including humans.
Natural waters are frequently referred to as being "hard"
or 'soft." Hard waters are waters which are richer in nutrients,
and have more lime dissolved in them. Such waters are termed
"eutrophic." Soft waters are referred to as being "oligotropic."
These waters are usually clearer, and usually support different
types of organisms. Lakes and streams in which the water is clear
and brown are termed dyastrophic, or "underfed."
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Many water-quality problems stem from the fact that water
must be reused. As long ago as 1960, all of the water consumed
by the 118 million persons then served by municipal water systems,
which were dependent on surface water resources, was reported to
have been "used" at least once before arrival in homes for drink-
ing. During droughts, some cities, Ottumwa, Iowa, and Chanute,
Kansas, for example, have been forced to use "closed" systems.4
A closed system is one in which sewage effluent is routed into
the city water works with little or no dilution. Fortunately,
these two examples represent unusual conditions.
Few, if any, effluents can be treated so as to render them
completely innocuous; even the most satisfactory effluent is not
of the same quality as the river (or other) source from which it
was drawn.5
Five principal types of effects may-stem from different
kinds of polluting effluents.6 These effects are: (1) contami-
nating, toxic, or poisonous effects; (2) addition of suspended
solids; (3) de-oxygenation (removal of dissolved oxygen);
(4) addition of non-toxic salts; and (5) heating of the water.
Pollutants have been classified into 8 general type categories?
and into 11 general, partially overlapping, type and source
categories8 by the U. S. Senate.
Chart No. 1 has been prepared to list pollutants as classi-
fied by both systems, and to illustrate how these classification
methods overlap.
Many different types of pollutants may issue from a given
type source, and some pollutants may cause, more than a single type
of undesirable effect when released in water resources. Sanitary
engineers are confronted with the problem of providing safe treat-
ment methods for handling more than 400 new kinds of wastes each
year, as a consequence of our technological capability to pro-
duce almost 10,000 new products each year.9 Note in Chart No. 1
that one of the major non-consumptive uses of water (cooling) did
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not seem to fit any of the categories, and that the author has
taken the liberty of adding "other" to the Senate Public Works
Committee listings.
2. SAPOBRIC ZONATION OF STREAMS
Let us examine a typical oligotropic stream into which an
effluent is discharged, and see what sort of water-quality changes
occur downstream.
Figure 2 illustrates an underwater outfall from which a
mixture of treated domestic and industrial wastes are discharged
into a stream in New York state. Figure 3 is a diagram which
illustrates how the water quality downstream from such an outfall
is affected. Using the German "saprobeinsystem", the zone immedi-
ately downstream from such an outfall is usually grossly polluted,
and is termed the "polysaprobic" zone. Further downstream,
settleable solids sink to the bottom, and dissolved oxygen begins
to return to the water. Oxygen is added by contact with the air,
aided by currents and turbulence in the stream, and by the photo-
synthetic activity of green plants and algae. As the dissolved
oxygen content increases, the types of organisms which are present
in the water are replaced by other types. If the zone immediately
downstream from the outfall was septic, anaerobic organisms prob-
ably existed in the polysaprobic zone. As oxygen levels increase,
these types are replaced by aerobic populations. The reach of the
river in which these changes take place is termed the "zone of
recovery, 11 or "mesosaprobic" zone. The mesosaprobic zone down-
stream from the outfall illustrated in Figure 2 is shown in Figure 4.
The mesosaprobic zone is normally divided into an upper, or
alpha zone, and a lower, or beta zone. In the alpha zone, many
bacteria and often fungi, simple animals, but very few algae are
found. Further downstream, in the beta zone, mineralization has
proceeded further, and conditions are more favorable for aquatic'
life. Many of the simpler algal populations, some of the more
tolerant animals, and some rooted plants may occur. The conditions
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illustrated in Figure 4 are in the lower, or beta zone of the
stream, evident from the heavy growth of green algae in the water.
The zone in which complete recovery occurs, if it occurs at
all, is termed the "oligosaprobic" zone. Mineralization has nor-
mally been completed, and dissolved oxygen levels are back to the
saturation level. A wide range of aquatic plants and animals
have become re-established. This does not mean that the stream
is again oligotropic. The added minerals may have changed the
character of the stream so that it is now a eutropic, or hard
water stream.
By careful photo-interpretation analysis, it is frequently
possible to identify polysaprobic, mesosaprobic, and oligosa-
probic zones, from the ecological changes in the water and along
the banks. Classic zonation may not occur, of course. Several
outfalls spaced along a stream may extend'a polysaprobic zone
from the zone below the first outfall all the way to the mouth
of the stream, or may repollute waters from a mesosaprobic zone
back to a polysaprobic zone.
3. TYPES OF WATER POLLUTANTS
Referring again to Chart No. 1, most of the listed types of
pollutants create identifiable "signature" conditions in water,
or alter the aquatic environment in special ways so that the
presence of specific kinds of pollutants is indicated.
4. MUNICIPAL WASTES
Municipal outfalls may be of several different types. They
range from outfalls from modern sewage treatment plants which
provide almost complete reduction of wastes, to outfalls from
which raw, untreated sewage is discharged.
Effluents may range from clear water, to effluents which
are brightly colored, as shown in Figure 1. The effluents may
also be almost the same color as the water into which they are
being discharged. Figure 5 illustrates the appearance of raw
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sewage being discharged into the Potomac River at a time when
sewage lines were being repaired. Note the number of seagulls
which are present. The gulls have been attracted by the small
fish which in turn were attracted by the added food supply.
Figure 6 shows the appearance of another outfall as seen in
pan-minus-blue aerial photography, during this same sewage re-
pair project. Note that while the raw sewage appeared to be
the same color as the river water, a much different tone is
apparent in the pan-minus-blue coverage.
Outfalls from sewage-treatment plants are frequently located
on the bottoms of the streams into which effluents are discharged.
The effluent is frequently warmer than the receiving water, and
usually tends to rise to the surface. This is particularly true
if the effluents are clear. Clear waters usually photograph
black or at least in dark tones in pan-minus-blue aerial photog-
raphy, because the longer wavelengths of visible light are
absorbed.
The effluent from the Blue Plains Sewage Treatment Plant in
the District of Columbia is an excellent example. The outfall
is located on the bottom of the usually muddy Potomac almost
across the river from Washington National Airport. The effluent
is usually quite clear, and being warmer, rises to the surface.
Figure 7 illustrates the typical appearance of the effluents from
this outfall. Blue Plains is reputed to be one of the best
treatment plants in the country. The most seriously polluted
section of the Potomac, however, is just below this outfall, and,
on one of my field trips in this area, vast numbers of an extremely
rugged type of snail were found dead. The presence of dead
organisms is an indicator of the severity of pollution.
Sometimes a very obvious polysaprobic zone develops below
an outfall. Figure 8 illustrates a particularly nasty poly-
saprobic condition below the outfall of the sewage treatment
plant serving a community on the shore of San Francisco Bay
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within the Approach Control zone for the San Francisco Inter-
national Airport. Note the oily-gray appearance of the grossly
polluted water.
Extensive white streaks and patches are sometimes seen in
the water below municipal treatment plant outfalls. Depending
upon the film and filter combination which was used to obtain
the aerial photography, these streaks and patches may be caused
by large populations of sewage fungus, or by lime which may have
been added to the water.
Effluents from municipal treatment plants may be very rich
in nutrient materials, and may stimulate the growth of several
Phyla of algae. This was shown in Figure 3.
Many water-pollution problems which stem from sewage treat-
ment plants in the United States exist because the facilities
are overloaded. For example, if a forward looking community of
10,000 persons installs a treatment plant which is 90-percent
effective, the effluent which is discharged contains about the
same amount of wastes as if 1,000 persons discharged raw sewage
into the receiving stream. If the population later rises to
100,000 persons, and the treatment facilities are not enlarged
proportionately, the effluents which are discharged contain as
much waste material as if treatment facilities had not been in-
stalled in the first place. Conditions are probably worse, in
fact, because the partially treated wastes frequently have greater
nutrient value than do untreated wastes.
Some very interesting observations have been made using
Kodak Ektachrome Infrared Aero Film, Type 8443, an improved
type of "camouflage detection" film. It has been observed that
the trickling filters of some treatment facilities, particularly
those which are overloaded, reflect a considerable amount of in-
frared, as shown in Figure 9, while trickling filters which are
operating more efficiently do not, as shown in Figure 10.
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5. POLLUTION FROM COMBINED SEWAGE SYSTEMS
Combined sewage systems are those in which storm drains are
connected with sanitary sewers. If all of the wastes are routed
to sewage-treatment facilities, few problems can be anticipated.
Unfortunately, complete treatment is rarely provided.
In earlier times, sanitary wastes were discharged directly
into lakes and rivers without treatment. With the development
of sanitary engineering, community progress may have followed
one o:f two lines. Bypasses may have been installed so that,
under normal flow conditions, all wastes were routed to treat-
ment plants, but when rainfall exceeded certain limits, the
excess flow was discharged through stormdrain outfalls, without
treatment. The second line of development was, of course, in-
stallation of separate sewage lines for sanitary wastes. These
separate systems are not subject to overflow in the same way as
are the systems in which bypasses are installed.
During the transition period, sewer lines may have become
"lost," however, so that in some cities, in spite of the exist-
ence of modern treatment facilities some wastes may still be
discharged "raw."
Most of the major cities which are still served by combined
systems have taken steps to route all wastes into treatment
facilities. In most of these cases, improvement has not been
voluntary on the part of the City Fathers. In the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act of 1956 as amended in 1961, the Congress
has provided for some rather severe punishment if an Enforcement
Action is lodged.
Washington, D. C., for example, as of a few years ago had
71 combination outfalls, including one which discharged into the
Tidal Basin. Figure 11 illustrates the appearance of one of
these outfalls discharging effluent into the Anacostia adjacent
to the Naval Gun Factory. An Enforcement Action was averted by
the District, by initiating "Project C" to route all wastes to
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Blue Plains. This project, in my opinion, is under very capable
guidance, and should be completed by 1966. An Enforcement Action,
however, may be warranted if the project is not completed by 1966.
If this is necessary, the Public Health Service and the District's
435 member "city council" will be in a very odd position, to say
the least.
Many of the signature clues for the detection and identifi-
cation of combined sewage outfalls are the same as for municipal
outfalls. A difficulty in locating many of them exists, however,
because they flow heaviest during bad weather, when photography
cannot be obtained.
6. ORGANIC INDUSTRIAL WASTES
Organic industrial wastes include wastes from meat-packing
plants, pulp and paper mills, animal wastes from stockyards and
feedlots, and similar sources.
Identification of sources of wastes in this category depends
on identification of the type of industry or facility. When this
has been done and the outfalls have been located, the search
should be extended downstream for evidence of saprobic zonation.
Organic industrial wastes usually place an additional biological
oxygen demand on the receiving waters, and create effects much
like those caused by raw sewage.
At this point, let me state that most industries try to pre-
vent adding wastes to waters which create adverse conditions.
Most industries try to keep toxic wastes out of waters on moral
grounds. Others, I'm afraid, only because they feel that the
most permanent way of losing downstream customers is to kill
them, or because they fear legal action. In spite of the best of
efforts, however, accidental spills have been known to happen.
Wastes from cattle feedlots, which belong in this category,
were reported to me as being one of the most serious pollutants
of streams in Kansas. Photo interpreters who are studying areas
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in Kansas who locate sources of feedlot pollution are urged to
report their observations to:
The Kansas State Board of Health
Division of Sanitation
Topeka, Kansas
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Salmon packing wastes are considered to be one of the more
serious types of pollutants in this category which degrade
Alaskan rivers and coastal waters. Photo interpreters who are
studying Alaskan terrain are urged to report observations of
such wastes in recent aerial photographic coverage to:
Department of Health and Welfare
Division of Public Health
Alaska Office Building
Juneau, Alaska
The volume of wastes from the pulp and paper industry is
staggering. Until installation of a clarification system to
remove fiber and clay wastes a few years ago, the West Virginia
Pulp and Paper Company plant at Luke, Maryland, discharged
22-1/2 tons of wastes into the North Branch of the Potomac every
day.
Pulp and paper wastes are considered to be one of the most
serious sources of pollution to waters in Maine and Wisconsin.
Photo interpreters who are studying areas in Maine or Wisconsin
are urged to report observations of pulp and paper mill wastes
to:
Maine: Department of Health and Welfare
Water Improvement Commission
State of Maine
Augusta, Maine
Wisconsin: Director, Committee on Water Pollution
State Office Building
Madison, Wisconsin
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7. INORGANIC INDUSTRIAL WASTES
Wastes in this category again include some from the pulp
and paper industry. They also include sediments from hydraulic
mining, salts, such as those which are contained in connate
waters which may be released in oil drilling operations, metallic
wastes from plating and refining operations, acid mine drainage,
and wastes from similar operations.
Bleaching agents are used in the manufacture of paper to
produce paper of uniform color. After use, these bleaches are
usually discharged directly into streams, without treatment.
Figure 12 illustrates waste bleach being discharged in the
Mississippi River at Grand Rapids, Minnesota, from the Blandin
Paper Company plant in the summer of 1961. At that time, the
wastes turned the entire Upper Mississippi a sickly green for
several miles downstream. The normal color of the Mississippi
in that region is about the color of strong black tea, a color
which is characteristic of dyastrophic waters.
Salt pollution from'oil drilling operations has been cited
as one of the more serious pollutants of streams in Arkansas,
and the category which appears to have been the subject of more
litigation, from the number of cases which appear in legal
records concerning water pollution in the United States, than any
other type of industrial pollution.
Petroleum photogeologists who observe salt pollution from
drilling operations entering streams are urged to report their
observations to the oil companies. Oil companies, in general,
do try to do what is morally right about correcting water pollu-
tion problems. They have also been among the heaviest losers
in legal actions.
Connate waters usually carry an extremely heavy load of
salt, which may leave a white encrustation along streams.
Metallic wastes pose many serious problems. Chromium wastes,
for example, when discharged into sewage treatment plants, kill
the bacteria upon which these systems depend for biological reduc-
tion of wastes.
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No signature clues have been developed by this investigator
for identification of chromium toxicity on trickling filters, but
perhaps other members of the photo-interpretation community will
give some thought to the problem. An answer may lie in the appear-
ance of trickling filter beds as imaged using infrared or camou-
flage detection film.
Acid mine drainage is one of the most serious pollutants in
the eastern half of the United States. An estimated 10 MILLION
tons of sulfuric acid oozes from strip mines and from abandoned
shaft and tunnel mines each year in the region extending from
New York State to Alabama, and west to include parts of Missouri
and Illinois. Figure 13 illustrates drainage from an abandoned
mine in Preston County, West Virginia. Figure 14 illustrates
a ventilation hole from a nearby abandoned shaft mine as it
appeared in March 1963. The total acidity of the stream into
which these wastes discharged measured between pH3 and 4, much
too acid to sustain a healthy aquatic population.
An interesting signature clue for identification of sources
of acid mine drainage is evident in Figure 14. The acid appears
to accelerate the decomposition of overburden, creating very
fertile soil. The only sources of lush, green stream bank and
aquatic vegetation observed on this flight were near the sources
of acid drainage.
Two additional clues which sometimes indicate sulfuric-acid
drainage are (1) yellow or reddish-yellow stains on stream bottoms.
These are iron stains which remain after the biochemical decompo-
sition of pyrite and/or marcasite; and (2) the water sometimes
appears greenish. The greenish coloration was probably caused by
a green algae, probably a minute form belonging to the Phylon
Chlorophyta. Green algal forms predominate in waters which are
chemically neutral, of course, so this clue must be used with
caution.
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8. NEW CHEMICAL WASTES
Most of the estimated 400 new wastes with which sanitary
engineers must learn to cope each year are in this category.
As photo interpreters, it is suggested that the best we can
hope to do is to examine areas downstream from chemical manu-
facturing and processing plants, and report ecological changes
which we may detect. Since these wastes are new, many of the
ecological changes which they may induce are unknown, and
reports of unusual effects which are observed may aid in develop-
ing methods for their treatment.
9. LAND DRAINAGE WASTES
Land drainage wastes may include leaves and trash which are
washed into streams, and whose biological reduction by natural
processes may induce de-oxygenation. Organic chemical exotics
in the form of pesticides, fertilizers, weed killers, agricul-
tural lime, and sediments are included in this category.
Millions of tons of top soil are washed away each year, clogging
navigational channels, smothering organisms which live on the
bottoms of streams, and blocking the penetration of light into
waters. When sunlight is blocked so that it cannot reach green
aquatic vegetation, photosynthetic action, which helps replenish
the supply of dissolved oxygen is stopped.
Figure 15 illustrates a typical outfall from which land
drainage wastes are being pumped. This outfall discharges into
San Francisco Bay from a land filling project. Marshy tidal
lands are being filled to make room for the next generations'
houses.
Most land drainage wastes enter streams from creeks which
flow through farm land. Figure 16 illustrates topsoil being
carried downstream along both sides of the Potomac above Washing-
ton, D. C. Sediments are considered to be the most serious
pollutant in the Potomac, and stem largely from this source and
from sloppy land-development practices by builders.
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10. IRRIGATION RETURN FLOWS
Irrigation return flows may contain fertilizers, pesti-
cides, insecticides, salts which are leached from the soil, and
sediments. Fields which are being irrigated are quite easy to
identify, of course, and interpreters may do well to note where
these flows are entering streams. Since those flows frequently
contain highly nutritious substances, rank growths of algae and
aquatic vegetation may be present.
Algae and other growths in water can be imaged very dis-
tinctively using Kodak Ektachrome Infrared Aero Film, Type
8443. Figure 17 shows a characteristic infrared response in
water from this type of source.
11. URBAN LAND DRAINAGE
Harry, the Happy Home owner, probably uses more fertilizer
per square foot of cultivated area (lawn) than any farmer does
for a marketable crop. The excess fertilizer which Harry puts
on his lawn washes away, is added to the residue left by city
litter bugs, and pollutes streams which it enters via storm
sewers. That portion which enters combined sewage systems may
receive some treatment, but the majority of the wastes are
carried directly into streams or lakes.
Storm drains through which considerable volumes of nutrient
rich water are discharged may have luxurient growths of algae and
aquatic vegetation adjacent to them. Figure 18 illustrates these
effects near such an outfall close to a swimming beach on the
shores of Big Stone Lake, at Ortonville, Minnesota.
12. AGRICULTURAL PESTICIDES
Agricultural pesticides may be found in land drainage wastes,
irrigation return flows, and in urban land drainage. Pesticides
are toxic substances. One type, Endrin, which is used to kill
field mice, is deadly to fish in quantities as dilute as one part
in three billion.
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Pesticides have been blamed for virtual extinction of com-
mercial fishing in the lower Mississippi River.10 Evidence
partially confirming that Endrin was responsible has recently
come to light. A chemical manufacturer - Velsicol Chemical
Corporation in Memphis, Tennessee - changed its techniques for
disposing of Endrin wastes so that residue no longer enters the
river. No fish kills have occurred since this was done.
Detection of masses of dead fish in the water may be accepted
as initial evidence that toxic substances are present in the
water, or at least. that something is seriously wrong.
Figure 19 illustrates a portion of the huge fish kill which
occurred in the Potomac Estuary in the summer of 1963. Since
the dead fish are usually very small, they will rarely be seen,
except in large-scale photography which has been obtained using
extreme resolution films and high-resolution camera systems.
Fish kills which may be detected should be reported immedi-
ately to cognizant health authorities, and to department of fish
and game personnel. These groups will take necessary action to
determine cause, and, if necessary, warn water-treatment plant
operators downstream so that remedial action, if possible, can
be taken.
Fish kills provide one of the better indicators of the
possible presence of toxic substances in the water.
13. AGRICULTURAL FERTILIZERS
Agricultural fertilizers in limited quantities may accele-
rate productivity of natural waters, stimulating natural purifi-
cation. Green algal growths and green aquatic vegetation
release oxygen by photosynthetic processes. Problems arise,
however, when excessive growths develop. Photosynthetic activity
may continue through most of the night, followed by a period
before dawn when the green aquatic growths remove, rather than
add oxygen to the water. If this occurs, and the dissolved oxygen
levels become too low to support desired biological organisms
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for even a few minutes during a period of several months, the
ecology of the stream may be altered. Most types of fish, for
example, will die very rapidly if the dissolved oxygen level of
the water drops below about four parts per million. Serious
continuing damage to the fish population may develop if the
dissolved oxygen level is lowered to the point where the fish are
"uncomfortable." For comparison, we humans live in an atmos-
phere which is about 21 percent oxygen. We can normally sur-
vive in an atmosphere in which the oxygen content is as low as
18 percent, but with difficulty. While acclimatization is possi-
ble, we will "migrate" out of such an atmosphere as rapidly as
possible, as will fish, when the dissolved oxygen level in water
drops below about seven parts per million. Trout, which can
exist only in oligotropic waters, require even more oxygen, and
are almost always found in water colder than 700 F which is
saturated with oxygen.
Excessive growths of algae and aquatic vegetation may cause
additional long term effects on streams. When they die, addi-
tional oxygen is required for their decomposition.
Aerial photographic-interpretation techniques may be quite
successfully used to map out places where runoff from fields is
entering lakes and streams, and for mapping areas where dense
growths of vegetation and algae have developed. Figure 20 illu-
strates how dense green algal growths may become. Note that
speed boats have cut paths through the algae which look much like
ski trails in new snow.
14. POLLUTION RESULTING FROM RECREATION AND NAVIGATION
Outboard motor exhaust may introduce complex chemical sub-
stances into water which are much like those which create smog
and other air pollution problems. These substances have an
adverse effect on fish life." This is one of the reasons why
the use of outboard motors is prohibited on some lakes, particu-
larly if the lakes are also sources of municipal water supply.
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Oil spillage from large vessels may be a very serious
pollutant. The seriousness of oil pollution is internationally
recognized, and has stimulated adoption of an international
treaty, to which the United States is signatory, prohibiting the
discharge of oil at sea.
Oil on the surface of the lower Detroit River during the
months of March and April 1960, contributed to the death of more
than 12,000 canvasback, redhead, and blue bill ducks. A film of
oil only 0.00008-inch thick will cause ducks to drown. The oil
penetrates through the outer layer of feathers, and causes the
inner layer of down to mat, so that the ducks loose buoyancy. A
layer of oil this thick is quite visible as an iridescent layer
on water.
In studies which were made in 1946 and 1948, it was disclosed
that 16,280 gallons of oil were being discharged into the lower
Detroit River each day. 12
This amount of oil is sufficient to create a film 0.00008-inch
thick over 12.21 square miles of water surface.
In the winter of 1962, while participating in a Civil Air
Patrol training exercise, the author observed four swans which
were trapped in an oil slick on the Potomac River below the
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad repair facilities at Brunswick,
Maryland. This was duly reported, but what action was taken to
rescue the birds is not known. It is suspected that no action
was taken, because once waterfowl become trapped in an oil slick,
little can be done to save them. Most of the ducks which were
rescued from the lower Detroit River, for example, later died
when efforts were made to wash the oil from them.
Oil on the water is quite easy to identify by visual aerial
observation, but may be misinterpreted as a natural slick in aerial
photography, unless it is observed to extend from an outfall or
from a ship.
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Observations of oil being discharged from ships should be
reported to the U. S. Coast Guard, in view of our treaty obliga-
tions. Outfalls from which oil is being discharged should be
reported to cognizant water-pollution control authorities.
15. OTHER SPECIAL TYPES AND SOURCES OF POLLUTION
As stated, this category was added to the established classi-
fication systems to define better specific types of pollutants.
One of the major types of water demand in this category is water
for cooling. The heating of water and subsequently returning it
to a stream may be beneficial, at least under certain circum-
stances. Warming of water may prevent ice from forming, creating
an air-water interface so that oxygen can be taken up by other-
wise oxygen deficient ice-locked waters during winter months.
Mild warming of waters may stimulate natural purification,
by accelerating biological activity. Warm water will hold less
dissolved oxygen in solution, however, and since biological
activity is accelerated, oxygen is consumed faster. This may
cause streams to go septic.
Some types of fish cannot survive at all in warm water, both
because they are intolerant of heat, and because they require
certain organisms for food which are even more intolerant of heat.
Brook trout, for example, cannot exist in a stream in which the
water rises to 800 F for just 1 day out of a year.13
Heated coolant water which is being discharged from outfalls
may be identified in aerial photography because of the physical
and perhaps the biological effects which it has on the water down-
stream. Heated coolant water may appear as a light-toned area
in an otherwise dark-toned stream. This appears to be a reliable
indicator in pan-minus-blue aerial photography. The anomolous
light tonal indicator is much more evident in coverage which has
been obtained using special filter combinations, however. It is
frequently very vivid, for example, in coverage which is obtained
using a filter which transmits only that portion of the spectrum
longer than 650 millimicrons, using a panchromatic film.
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The physical conditions in water which permit this anomou-
lous appearance probably stem from higher reflection from the
interface between denser subsurface water and the warmer, less-
dense surface layer. Heated coolant water will ride on the sur-
face of a stream. Since the warm water is less dense than the
cooler water, more light will penetrate into it. The light will
be refracted less while passing through the warmer layer. Phyto-
planktonic organisms, usually transparent species, concentrate
along the interface. These organisms, together with, perhaps,
a denser layer of colloidal particles in suspension, cause some
of the light to be scattered and reflected back up toward the
camera. Bioluminescence may be a contributing factor, also.
A different form of surface wave may develop in the less-
dense surface layer. Wavelets which are formed are usually
smaller, wave fronts may advance at a slightly different angle,
and wave slopes may be different. As a result, surface glitter
patterns may be suppressed (or accentuated) in the heated water,
but not in the receiving water.
16. PHOTO REQUIREMENTS FOR WATER-QUALITY ANALYSIS
Much valuable water-quality information can be obtained from
the analysis of normal pan-minus-blue aerial photography but, for
most types of analysis, large-scale coverage which has been ob-
tained using special film and filter combinations is desirable.
Figure 21 is a multiband panel which was obtained using the Itek
Multiband Camera which illustrates tone differences in a pond.
The tonal differences in this instance are probably caused by
different phyla of algae, primarily Blue-Greens and Yellow-Greens.
Visible light, as it passes through water, is both absorbed
and scattered. If the type of analysis to be performed requires
that imagery of subsurface objects be obtained, a filter which
transmits only the green, yellow, and orange portions of the spec-
trum is recommended, for use with black-and-white panchromatic films.
Best results, however, have been obtained using aerial color film
with a Kodak Wratten 2A filter (or equivalent) with a polarizing
filter.
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Some excellent examples of aerial color photography from
which much valuable water-quality data might be obtained have
been published in Photogrammetric Engineering (November 1963
and September 1964).
Very unusual and quite spectacular results have been ob-
tained using Kodak Ektachrome Infrared Aero Film, Type 8443.
Some illustrations of the results which can be obtained using
this film have been shown. When this film is exposed through a
Kodak Wratten 2A filter, which transmits the violet and blue
light which is excluded by the Kodak Wratten 12 and 15 filters
which are normally used, reddish and magenta responses are imaged
from sessile vegetation and algae to some depth below the surface.
This is illustrated in Figure 22, and was shown in Figure 17.
Fish kill analyses require large-scale coverage using ex-
treme resolution films and camera systems. Panoramic cameras
are recommended. This recommendation is made because of the
small size of the images which must be identified. A fish kill
survey is much like counting cigarettes, scattered on the water,
from perhaps several thousand feet in the air.
An interesting observation was made in the course of the
survey which was conducted of the fish kill in the Potomac
Estuary in the summer of 1963. In coverage which was obtained
using Kodak Ektachrome Infrared Aero Film, Type 8443, some
of the dead fish which were irra ged had a reddish tinge, while
most of them were bluish. It is suspected that the difference in
color indicated differences in state of decay, which, of course,
might be an indication of time since death, from which the rate
of mortality might be determined.
An estimate of the extent of this fish kill was made using
a technique about which comments from the photo-interpretation
community will be appreciated.
Dead fish and floating debris on a water surface will col-
lect in confluences which are created by wind, currents, and con-
vection movements. Individual fish in a mass which may be several
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hundred yards long and several feet wide can rarely be counted
accurately, obviously. The technique used by this invetigator
was to photograph as many areas as could be sighted in which the
dead fish were still dispersed on the surface, determine the
average distance between them, from this calculate the average
number of dead fish per acre, and assume that the total number
of dead fish approximated this number times the number of acres
in the area in which dead fish were sighted. Comments on the
validity of this technique will be appreciated.
While large-scale coverage is preferred for most types of
water-quality analysis, some interesting information can be
obtained from extremely small-scale coverage, obtained using
extreme resolution films. Current patterns, for example, are
sometimes easier to map in coverage at scales smaller than
1/100,000, 20 times smaller than the scale preferred by this
investigator for analysis of mortality distribution in fish kills,
for example.
17. REPORTING WATER-QUALITY INFORMATION
The names and addresses of a few of the persons to whom
observed indications of water pollution should be reported have
been given. Complete listings of state and interstate water pol-
lution control authorities in the United States may be obtained
from the Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control, U. S.
Public Health Service.
Water-quality reports should contain as much information as
possible. Ground data, if possible, should be obtained. Critical
ground-truth data include, as a minimum:
(1) Water temperature
(2) Amount of dissolved oxygen
(3) Acidity (pH)
(4) Relative turbidity between effluent and receiving waters.
If possible, bacteriological data, including standard 5-day
BOD data, and total bacteriological and chemical analysis data
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should be obtained. If dead fish and/or dead snails in large
quantities are observed, these should be reported, as should
odor, presence of trash, debris, foam, oil, and discoloration.
The bottoms of some streams which are very low in dissolved
oxygen may have a reddish color which will disappear when one
stamps on the bank or throws a stone into the water. These
may be bloodworms, busily cleaning up stream bottom wastes. If
present, they should be reported.
If water samples are collected, care must be taken not to
further contaminate them. Narrow-mouthed, glass-stoppered
bottles, 250 to 300 milliliter capacity should be used. Bottles
should be held completely underwater while filling them, so that
no bubbles of air enter. Air bubbles can cause errors in dis-
solved oxygen measurements. A preservative solution consisting
of 0.7 milliliter concentrated sulfuric acid (H2S04) and 1.0 mil-
liliter sodium azide (NaN3) should be added to the samples to
arrest biological activity. Sample bottles should be packed in
ice, if possible, and gotten to a laboratory within 8 hours.
For most purposes, water samples should be representative
of average conditions; however, a few samples of the water which
appears to be most polluted may aid in identification of sub-
stances whose presence in extremely dilute quantities is harmful.
18. SUMMARY
Aerial water-quality reconnaissance methods can help protect
out national water resources by speeding up, reducing the cost of,
and making field work more productive. Investigators who examine
water in test tubes or by the drop on microscope slides cannot
"see" whole rivers and lakes, nor can investigators studying
aerial photography taxinomically classify the aquatic organisms
which are present, or conduct qualitative and quantitative chemi-
cal analyses. The two investigators can work together as a team,
however, to their mutual benefit.
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I suggest that we, as potential "aerial water-pollution
detectives" volunteer to be members of such teams.
19. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Much of the research contributing to this paper was sup-
ported by Research Grant WP-181, and by Demonstration Grant
WPD 20-01-1963, from the Division of Water Supply and Pollution
Control, Public Health Service. Additional support has been
obtained from the Vidya Division, Itek Corporation, Palo Alto,
California, from the Congress of the United States, and from
the many state and interstate water-pollution control groups who
have assisted in collection of data.
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1. Erickson, Harold M., M.D. (Dep. Dir. State Dept. of Public
Health, Berkeley, Calif.): The Nature of Water Pollution.
Proc. of the AMA Congress on Environmental Health Problems,
Chicago, Illinois, May 1-2, 1964, p. 84.
2. Coker, R. E., M.D.: Streams, Lakes and Ponds, Univ. of North
Carolina Press, p. 150.
3. Senate Select Committee on National Water Resources, 2nd Ses-
sion, 86th Congress, Committee Print No. 9, p. 1.
4. Senate Select Committee on National Water Resources, Com-
mittee Print no. 30, p. 27.
5. Hynes, H. B. N.: The Biology of Polluted Waters, Univ. of
Liverpool Press, p. 64.
7. Senate Select Committee on National Water Resources, Com-
mittee Print no. 9.
8. A Study of Pollution - Water. A staff report to the Com-
mittee on Public Works, United States Senate, 1st Session,
88th Congress.
9. As reported by Mr. Poston, Region IV, U. S. Public Health
Service.
10, New York Times, Mar. 31, 1964.
11. A Study of Pollution - Water. A staff report to the Com-
mittee on Public Works, United States Senate, 1st Session,
88th Congress, p. 19.
12. Proceeding, Fourth Conference on Great Lakes Research, 1961.
The Univ. of Michigan, Great Lakes Research Division,
Institute of Science and Technology, p. 11.
13. Tarzwell, Clarence M., Ph.D.: Some Important Biological
Effects of Pollution Often Disregarded in Stream Surveys.
Purdue University Engineering Bulletin, Proc. of the 8th
Industrial Wastes Conf., May 4, 5, 6, 1953, Taft Sanitary
Engineering Center, USPHS, Cincinnati, Ohio.
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POLLUTION CLASSIFICATION CHART
SENATE COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC WORKS, 1ST SESSION, 88TH CONGRESS
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CHART NUMBER 1
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Figure 1.- One of the hundreds of outfalls which discharge into
American streams. The effluent from this outfall is blood-red,
and is probably a metallic waste. No chemical or biological
data are available.
Figure 4.- Section of
the beta Mesosaprobic
Zone downstream from
the outfall shown in
Figure 2. Arrows
point to masses of
green algae.
Figure 2.- Treated mixed
domestic and industrial
wastes entering a stream
in New York State. Note
that the nasty discolor-
ation extends for a con-
siderable distance down-
stream in a relatively
intact plume.
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SAPROBIC ZONATION
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POLY-
MESOSAPROBIC
OLIGO-
OUTFALL SAPROBIC
ALPHA
BETA
SAPROBIC
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AGE
A
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DISTANCE DOWNSTREAM
FIGURE 3.- DIAGRAMMATIC PRESENTATION OF THE EFFECTS OF AN
ORGANIC EFFLUENT ON A RIVER AND THE CHANGES AS ONE PASSES
DOWNSTREAM FROM THE OUTFALL: A & B PHYSICAL AND CHEM-
ICAL CHANGES, C CHANGES IN MICRO-ORGANISMS, D CHANGES IN
LARGER ANIMALS.
NOTE: ADAPTED FROM HYNES, BIOLOGY OF POLLUTED WATERS.
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Figure 5.- Raw sewage
being discharged into
the Potomac River just
upstream from the Lin-
coln Memorial in Wash-
ington, D.C. During
1963, raw sewage was
discharged from this
and 70 other outfalls
along the Potomac and
Anacostia Rivers an
average of 5 days each
month, as cited in a
report issued by the
Senate Public Works
Committee.
I
Figure 6.- Bypassed raw sewage
being discharged into the Ana-
costia River from the lines of
the Washington Suburban Sani-
tary Commission, as pictured
in pan-minus-blue aerial photog-
raphy. Note also the filthy
scum of oil at A. Less than
a month after this picture was
taken, the Anacostia went
septic.
Figure 7.- Effluent from the
Washington, D.C.,(Blue Plains)
sewage treatment plant. Blue
Plains provides perhaps the
best treatment possible with-
in the current state-of-the-
art, yet the Interstate Com-
mission on the Potomac River
Basin reports that the section
of the river just downstream
from this outfall (into which
the Washington Suburban Sani-
tary Commission plans to dis-
charge additional sewage efflu-
ent) is the most polluted
section of the entire 386-mile
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Figure G.- Sewage treatment
plant which discharges into
the San Francisco Bay.
Mildly stated, this plant
has a serious odor problem
during warm weather. The
tone and color of the
receiving waters is an oily
gray, an appearance which
is characteristic of some
badly polluted waters, par-
ticularly turbid waters
which are low in dissolved
oxygen.
Figure 9.- Beds of trickling
filters of overloaded treat-
ment plants, especially
those with serious odor prob-
lems like this one near
Milpitas, California, re-
flect considerable amounts of
infrared energy. The cause
of this condition is not
known to this investigator -
yet. (Note: This condition
is quite vivid in imagery
obtained using Kodak Ekta-
chrome Infrared Aero Film,
Type 8443, from which this
illustration was copied.)
t
Figure 10.- Union Sani-
tary District sewage
treatment plant near
Fremont, California.
This plant has no appreci-
able odor problem - and
no infrared reflectance
from the bed of the trick-
ling filter. (Original
photograph obtained using
Kodak Ektachrome Infrared
Aero Film, Type 8443.)
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Figure 11.- Outfall near the Naval Gun Factory (a combined
outfall) discharging into the Anacostia River.
Figure 12.- Spent sulphite wastes from the Blandin Paper Company
plant at Grand Rapids, Minnesota being discharged into the Upper
Mississippi River. Sickly green sulphite wastes and scummy paper
fiber discolored the entire river for several miles downstream
when this picture was taken in'the summer of 1961.
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t
t
Figure 13.- Mouth of an abandoned tunnel mine in Preston County,
West Virginia, from which sulfuric acid is draining. Bottom of
stream has characteristic yellow iron stain.
Figure 14.- Flooded vent from abandoned shaft coal mine in Garrett
County, Maryland. Vegetation near mine entrances and in strongly
acid waters, frequently appears brilliant green, even during cold
weather. Area at head of arrow is brilliant green in original
color photograph. This photograph was obtained during March 1963.
Note snow on ground.
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Figure 15.- Arrow points to drainage from hydraulic dredge filling
in tidal marsh near Foster City, California. Note sediment pollu-
tion.
1
Figure 16.- Sediment pollution from sloppy soil conservation practices
along both shores of Potomac River above Washington, D.C. Sediment
pollution is considered to be the most serious pollutant in the Poto-
mac. Note that almost all of the silt-laden water along the north
bank enters the coolant water intake of the thermal electric gene-
rating station (Dickerson, Potomac Electric Power Company). Whether
the grinding effects of this silt reduce the life of generating
equipment - and indirectly raise the cost of electricity - is not
known.
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Figure 17.- Algae in stock watering pond reflecting characteristic
infrared reflectance, as pictured using Kodak Ektachrome Infrared
Aero Film, Type 8443. '
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Figure 18.- Drainage of clear, fertilizer-rich water from storm
drain into muddy Big Stone Lake, Ortonville, Minnesota. Note
the mats of floating green vegetation.
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I
Figure 19.- A portion of the evidence in the huge fish kill which
occurred in the Potomac Estuary in the summer of 1963. An esti-
mated 78,000,000 fish, 90 percent of which were 3-year-old female
white perch, littered the surface of the Potomac for 80 miles
downstream from Washington, D. C.
1
Figure 20.- Heavy bloom of green algae choking the surface of Clear
Lake, Lake County, California. The algae in Clear Lake has gotten
out of hand because of drainage from faulty septic systems and
fertilizer-rich runoff from fields and orchards. Note that the
algae is so heavy that boat wakes look much like ski trails in new
snow. A Kodak Wratten 61 (green) filter was used with Kodak High
Definition Aerial Film, Type 3404 (Estar thin base), to accentuate
the app - Pr FO&5r/1 i/ atiMR60 B6 AO00200040008-9
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Band 3 - 515-570 mp, Band 4 - 525-605 m4 Band 8 - 810-900 mp.
Pan Film M Pan Film IR Film
Band 9 -2 ND to
eliminate visible
light IR Film
M 19 /6 3
Figure 21.- Note the tone changes in pond A. The lighter the tone,
the greater the reflectance in the portion of the spectrum. Tone
changes in this instance probably indicate different algal phylon,
ranging from blue-greens through reds. Note also the tone reversals
in different bands near points B, C, D, and E.
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Figure 22.- Healthy green sessile vegetation in brackish water
images in slightly reddish or magenta tones in Kodak Ektachrome
Infrared Aero Film, Type 8443, when it is exposed using a Kodak
Wratten 2A filter. This capability is helpful for detecting
and mapping out that vegetation which contributes to the oxygen
budget in streams and lakes. It may also contribute to better
understanding of the effects of impoundment on water quality.
The enhancement of the vegetation is helpful in detecting possi-
ble sources of nutrient-rich polluting substances.
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