DEVELOPMENT OF A SOLID FUEL RATION CAN HEATING UNIT

• Document Type: CREST
• Collection: General CIA Records
• Document Number (FOIA) /ESDN (CREST): CIA-RDP78-03639A001200080001-3
• Release Decision: RIFPUB
• Original Classification: K
• Document Page Count: 139
• Document Creation Date: December 27, 2016
• Document Release Date: September 19, 2012
• Sequence Number: 1
• Publication Date: September 15, 1954
• Content Type: REPORT

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DEVELOPMENT OF A SOLID FUEL
RATION CAN HEATING UNIT
Final Report
15 September 1954
FOR
RA, A L e - Ft-
y
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
QUARTERMASTER RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT CENTER
NATICK, MASS.
CONTRACTS DA44-109-qm-1278 AND DA44-109-qm-1518
DEPARTMENT OF CONTRACT RESEARCH
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT DIVISION
WYANDOTTE CHEMICALS CORPORATION
WYANDOTTE, MICHIGAN
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(opy
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N? 10
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DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
QUARTERMASTER RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT CENTER
NATICK, MASSACHUSETTS
CONTRACTS DA44-109-qm-1278 AND DA44-109-qm-1518
WYANDOTTE CHEMICALS CORPORATION PROJECTS 397A AND 397B
DEVELOPMENT OF A SOLID FUEL RATION CAN
HEATING UNIT
FINAL REPORT
15 SEPTEMBER 1954
Work Performed By
Arthur L. Austin
John J. Sebenick
David V. Burchfield
Richard C. Lyon
Eport Written By-
Arthur B. Ash
Arthur L. Austin
Arthur B. Ash, Supervisor, Chemical Projects
Ronald A. Gtdham, Manager of Contract Research
William F. Waldeck, Director of Research and Development
Department of Contract Research
Research and Development Division
70-0-1-11V-DATE TC:(17:str-V76-67:64:7_
ORM COMP7e, /CPI TYPE ..d0
011111 CLASS Al PAGE9f---_ REY CLASS
JUST NEXT REV "7-' AUTH: Ha 1012
WYANDOTTE CHEMICALS CORPORATION
Wyandotte, Michigan
c?-?
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FOREWORD
This final report was prepared pursuant to the provisions of Army Contracts
DA44-109-qm-1278 and DA44-109-qm-1518? and covers the period 22 October 1952
to 7 July 1954. The objectives of these contracts are set forth in Appendix
I, p. 82. The work was performed by Mr. Arthur L. Austin and Dr. John J.
Sebenick? assisted in the production of the 1000 units by David V. Burchfield
and Richard C. Lyon, under the general direction of Mr. H. Earl Tremain and
(subsequent to 1 April 1954) Mr. R. A. Graham. The report was written by
Dr. Arthur B. Ash and Mr. Arthur L. Austin with final editorial assistance
by Dr. Leslie R. Bacon. Technical guidance on behalf of the Quartermaster
Corps was supplied by Mr. Theodore Kapala. The ready assistance of these
and others Who have contributed to this effort is gratefully acknowledged.
ii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
IIFOREWORD 0 00000 00000000000000000000000 00 ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS 0 . 0 . . 0 0 . . . 0 . . . . ........... iii
IITABLES 0 . . . . ....... . 0000000 0?0 0 ........ viii
II FIGMES Followina
Page 101
ABSTRACT. 0000000 000000000000 .......... 0 1
IISUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .........00.0.0.0. 4
IIINTRODUCTION 0 . . 0000 0000000000000000000000 9
FUEL FORMULATION STUDIES .. ...........?... 0. 11
IIEVALUATION OF CARBON-CONTAINING FUELS
Orlin( THAN WOOD CHARCOAL . 00000000000000000 00 11
ICOKE . . . . . .. 0 ................... 13
LIGEOSUIFONATE . . . 0 . 00000000000000000 13
IANTHRACITE COAL . . . . .0 0000000000000600 14
BITUMINOUS COAL (POCAHONTAS) 0 . 00000000000000 14
IDISCO . . ..... . . . 00 000000000000000 14
IICHAR FEED 0.............. 15
COMBUSTION CATALYSTS OTHER THAN COPPER CHROMITE . . . . . 00 0 0 15
IIFORMULATION STUDIES INVOLVING CHARCOAL, DISCO AND CHAR FEt)
FUELS WITH MANGANESE DIOXIDE AS TH8 COMBUSTION CATALYST . 0. . . 17
STUDY OF MINOR COMPONENT VARIATIONS INVOLVING
TfiREE FUELS AND TWO GRADES OF MANGANESE DIOXIDE . 20
SUPPLY OF AIR FOR THE COMBUSTION PROCESS . 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 0
BINDING MATERIALS 0.00.0 0 . 0 000 00000000000 25
iii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
(Continued)
Page
DRYING AND BAKING THETUEL FORMULATION . 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
26
POSSIBLE SUBSTITUTES FOR WIRE BAKING
SCREENS, LIMES FOR MOLDS . 0 0 0 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
28
DEVELOPMENT OF IGNITER FORMULATION . 0 0 0 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
30
EVALUATION OF FUEL FORMULATIONS BY REPRESENTATIVES
OF TRE QUARTERMASTER CORPS . 0 . 0 . 0 0 Cr 0 0 0 0 0
MEMORANDUM REPORT OF 10 JUNE 1953 . 0 0 0 0
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
60
0
33
33
MEMORANDUM REPORT OF 18 DECEMBER 1953 0 0 0 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
34
MEMORANDUM REPORT OF 28 MAY 1954 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
0
6
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
35
FINAL DESIGN OF HEATING UNIT . . 0 0 . . 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
38
.
.
.
.
0
0
0 0
0
0
38
SFLECTION OF xfiE BASIC DESIGN OF lUE UNIT . 0 .
STUDIES OF BRIQUET LINKING MATERIALS 0 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0?
0
0
39
FINAL LINK BELT DESIGN . . . 0 0 . 0 0 . 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
4o
SELECTION OF FUEL FORMATION . . . . . . . . .
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
41
'OILER STRIP 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
42
ATTACHMENT OF THE HEATING UNIT TO Ail. RATION CAN
0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
43
PRE-MANUFACTURING STUDIES . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
44
PREPARATION OF STARCH PASTE 0 . ? 0 . 0 . . . .
.
.
.
.
0
0
. 0
0
45
MILLING OF FUEL FORMULATION COMPONENTS . 0 . 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
45
MIXING THE FUEL FORMULATION . 0 . . . 0 0 0 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
45
FORMATION AND LINKING OF _ME BRIQUETS 0 . . 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
47
FUEL PASTE EXTRUSION STUDIES . . 0 . . 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
48
CASTING THE BRIQUETS IN PRE-FORNED.MOLDS 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0
0
49
COMPRESSION MOLDING 0 . . 0 . . . 0 0 0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
51
OTHERMETHODS OF-FORMING., . . . . . . . . .
.
.
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
52
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
II(Continued)
IIBAKING
IIPREPARATION
IIPACKAGING
IRAW
IIPREPARATION
IIMIXING
IBAKING
IIAPPLICATION
IIRAW
IIErkECT
IIMANUFACTURING
IIRATION
Page
52
52
53
53
56
OF THE FUEL BRIQUETS . 0 000000000000000
OF THE IGNITER STRIP0 . . . 00000000000
ATTACHMENT OF THE SPRING FASTENER 0 . 0000000.0.00
0 . 0 0 0 0 000000 00000000000000
MANUFACTURE . ................... OOOOO 0.
MATEHIALS.00. 0 0 00000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 000
56.
MANUFACTURING OPERATIONAL SEQUENCE AND EQUIPMENT 0 . 0 . . 0 . . 0 ,
58-
58'
DESCRirTION OF 21:11, MANUFACTURING PROCESS 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
OF THE STARCH PASTE . 0 0000 000000000
59'
MILLING OF THE FUEL EMULATION COMPONENTS. . . . . . . . . .
59 -
OF Tut FUEL FORMULATION . 0 0 . . . 000000000
59
FORMATION AND LINKING OF THE FUEL BRIQUETS. . 0 0 0 00000
60
OF nib BRIQUETS 0 . . . 0 . 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
61
OF THE IGNITER STRIP . . . . . 000000060
61'
ATTACHMENT OF THE SPRING. FASTENER . . . 0 0 0 . 0 OOOOO 0
61-
MATERIAL AND MANUFACTURING COSTS . 0 . . . . 0 0 0 . 0 0 . . .
62'
RAW MATERIALS COSTS 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0000000 0 0 000 0 0
64
OF POSSIBLE LOWER COPPER CHROMITE COSTS . 0. 0.
67
tTtECT OF USE OF MANGANESE DIOXIDE INSTEAD OF
COPPER CHROMITE CATALYST . . .0.0.0 .0......
68
MATERIALS COSTS FOR DISCO-MANGANESE DIOXIDE FORMULA LS-140
68
COSTS FOR A MASS PRODUCTION PROCESS . . . 0 0 . 0
69
ANALYSIS OF THE RATION HEATING UNIT IN TERMS OF THE CONTRACTUAL
DESIGN OBJECTIVES. RECOMMENDATIONS FCR FUTURE WORK . . . . 0 . . .
71
HEATING UNITS IN TERMS OF Iiih DESIGN OBJECTIVE . 0 . 0 0
72
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
(Continued)
(2) a. THE RATION HEAT IN UNIT SHALL OFFER MEANS OF HEATING
Page
RATIONS BY CHEMICAL ACTION OFFERING MAXIMUM SECURITY
72
SMOKE . o o 0 . a a . 0 0 . .
0
0 .
72
SPARKING 0
73
SPUTTERING. a 0 0 0 a 0 0 0 a a 0 0 0 0 0
0
0 0
74
ODOR . a a a a 0 0 0 0 0 a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
0 0
74
(2) b. IHE RATION HEATING UNIT SHALL BE EASILY IGNITABLE
WITH ONE BOOK MATCH FROM 125? F. TO TEMPERATURES
AS LOW AS MINUS 65? F. . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
0 0
75
(2) co THE RATION HEATING UNIT SHALL NOT BE ADVERSELY
AFFECTED BY EXPOSURE TO WATER; HIGH OR LOW HUMIDITY
OR LOW ATMOSPHEHIC PRESSURE a a . 0 . . 0 0 0 .
0 0
75
(2) do THE RATION HEATING UNIT SHALL BE STABLE AND
USABLE UNTIL CONSUMED a a a a 0 0 0
0
0 0
75
(2) e. Jadt RATION HEATING UNIT SHALL HAVE A STORAGE
LIFE OF NOT LESS THAN FIVE YEARS 0 . . . . 0 . .
o
. .
75
(2) f. ink, RATION HEATING UNIT SHALL BE NON?TOXIC . 0 0
0
0 0
75
(2) go THE RATION HEATING UNIT SHALL BE NON?FRIABLE
WHEN SUBJECTED TO MILITARY SHIPPING OR HANDLING .
0
0 0
76
(2) h. ilit RATION HEATING UNIT SHALL NOT BE EASILY
EXTINQUISHED BY GUSTS OF WIND . a a . 0 . a a.
76
RECOMMENDATIONS 0 . 00000000000 0 0 000 0 OOOOOO
78
APPENDIX I ? SCOPE OF CONTRACTS. STATEMENTS OF WORK
82
CONThACTNOaDA111O9iTh1278a.a aaaa a a . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
0 0
82
CONTRACT NO. DA44-109?qm-1518 0 a . 0 0 0 0 0 .......
83
,APPENDIX II ? STUDY OF MINOR COMPONENT VARIATIONS INVOLVING
THREE FUELS AND TWO GRADES OF MANGANESE DIOXIDE . . ?
0
. .
85
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 0 . . 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
0 0
87
DISCO?MANGANESE DIOXIDE FORMULATION STUDIES . 0 . . . . .
.
. .
88
CHAR FEED ..- AFRICAN ORE MANGANESE DIOXIDE FORMULATION STUDIES. .
88
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TABLE OF COBlEn2S
-Wed-
WOOD CHARCOAL - MANGANESE DIOXIDE (TECHNICAL GRADE
age
A
AND AFRICAN ORE) FORMULATION STUDIES . 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
0
88
APPENDIX III - EVALUATION OF FUEL FORMULATIONS BY TILE
QUARTERMASTER RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT LABORATORIES
0
0
91
MEMORANDUM REPORT OF 10 JUNE 1953 0 0000000000000
0
91
MEMORANDUM REPORT OF 18 DECEMBER 1953 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0
0
0
93
MEMORANDUM REPORT OF 28 MAY 1954 . 0000000000000000
95
APPENDIX IV - REPLY TO LETTER REQUEST FOR MANUFACTURING
INFORMATION FROM TRE CHAMBERS BROTHERS COMPANY . 0 0 100
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TABLES
Table
No.
EN..t
1 - STANDARD FORMULATION DEVELOPED UNDER CONTRACT
NO. DA44-109-qm-433 0.0-.0 . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12
2 - SCREENING STUDY OF SIX CARBON FUELS . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13
3 - EVALUATION OF COMBUSTION CATALYSTS . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16
4 - COMPARISON OF VARIOUS GRADES OF MANGANESE DIOXIDE
AS COMBUSTION CATALYSTS . . 0 . 17
5 - COSTS OF THREE GRADES OF MANGANESE DIOXIDE . 0 17
6 - WAILTI RATE-OF-HEATING STUDIES WITH CHARCOAL,
DISCO AND CHAR FEED FUEL FORMATIONS . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 19
7 - HEATING OF 12-OUNCE RATION CANS OF BEANS WITH
TWO DISCO FORMULATIONS . 0000000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20
8 - "BEST" FUEL FORMULATIONS FROM LATIN SQUARE DESIGN STUDIES .
9 EFTECT OF CLEARANCE BETWEEN 'nit FUEL BRIQUETS AND
TO RATION CAN ON THE RATE OF HEATING . 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
23
24
10 - MAIERIALS TESTED TO DETERMINE EASE OF RELEASE
OF FUEL AFTER BAKING . 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 28
11 - FUEL TYPE IGNITER FORMULATION . 0000000000000
12 - COMPOSITION OF tat FINAL FUEL RECIPE .
31
47
13 - STRENGTH OF COMPRESSION -MOLDED CHARCOAL-FORMULATED
FUELBRIQUETS . . 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 51
14 - MANUFACTURING RAW MATERIALS ..... . 0 .......... 57
15 - MANUFACTURING OPERATIONAL SEQUENCE AND EQUIPMENT. 0 0 0 o 0 0 58
16 - COST QUOTATION FOR HEATING UNIT COMPONENTS . . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 65
17 - COST OF RAW MATERIALS PER 100 LBS. OF FINISHED
FUELFORMULATION 0 0 . .... 0 . . . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 66
18 - UNIT COST OF RAW MATERIALS . . . 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 67
19 - UNIT COST ESTIMATE FOR A MASS PRODUCTION PROCESS . 0 0 0 0 0 69
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11TABLES
(Continued)
Table
IIBoo Page
20 - EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN FOR FORMULATION EVALUATION . . . . . . . . 86
II21 - HEATING STUDIES WITH DISCO FUEL AND TECHNICAL
GRADE MANGANESE DIOXIDE CATALYST FORMULATIONS . . . 0 . . . 0 89
II 22 - HEATING STUDIES WITH DISCO FUEL AND AFRICAN ORE
MANGANESE DIOXIDE CATALYST FORMULATIONS . . 0 . . . 0 0 . . . 89
II 23 - HEATING STUDIES WITH CHAR FEED FUEL AND AFRICAN ORE
GRADE MANGANESE DIOXIDE FORMULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . 90
24 - HEATING STUDIES WiTh WOOD CHARCOAL AND AFRICAN ORE
IIGRADE MANGANESE DIOXIDE FORMULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . 90
25 - HEATING STUDIES Wiiii CHARCOAL-BASED FUELS,
IIELECTRICITY AND BOILING WATER . . . . 0 . 0 . . . . . . 0 . . 99
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FIGURES
Figures are collected at the end of the reports following page 101
Figure
No.
1' - 12 OUNCE C.-RATION WITH TWO HEATING UNITS OF 14 LATEST DESIGN IN PLACE
2 - RATION HEATING UNIT BEFORE ASSEMBLY
3 - READCO SIX-QUART DOUGH MIXER
4 - MOLD FOR CASTING PLASTISOL FORM
5 - BRASS FORM FOR MAKING PLASTISOL FUEL UNIT MOLDS
6 - BRASS FORM AFTER DIPPING IN PLASTISOL FOR MAKING PLASTISOL FUEL UNIT MOLDS
7 -.PLASTISOL FUEL UNIT MOLD
8 - FLOW DIAGRAM OF inE MANUFACTURING PROCESS
9 - PLASTISOL FUEL UNIT MOLDS IN RECESSED WOODEN MOLD SUPPORTS
FIBERGLAS CORDS AND ASBESTOS IGNITER CORD IN
PLACE PREPARATORY TO FTLTING FUEL UNIT MOLDS
10 - SCREENS LOADED WITH FUEL UNITS PRIOR TO BAKING
11 - SCREENS LOADED WITH FORMED FUEL UNITS IN AN AIR CIRCULATING
OVEN FOR DRYING AND BAKING
12 - RATION CAN BEATING UNIT SHOWING COIL SPRING AND METHOD OF ATTACHMENT
13 - DOUGHBOY BELT TYPE HAND SEALING MACHINE MODEL PHS-D
14 - PACKAGED RATION CAN HEATING UNIT
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ABSTRACT
Research and development efforts directed to the preparation of improved solid
fuel units for heating assault and other. ration cans in the field are described.
One thousand units have been produced for field evaluation comprising a circum-'
ferential design of 11 briquets linked together with Fiberglas cord and secured
to the can by means of a coil spring attached to loo7%ed ends of the Fiberglas
cord. Ignition is by use of a match applied to an igniter spot on and between
the fifth and sixth briquets, the ignition being propagated around the unit by
means of an igniter strip applied to the inner surface and to a surface embedded
asbestot cord linkage; an igniter formulation was developed for the purpose.
Ignition by use of a book match at -40? F. has been demonstrated. The units
burn without failure in gusts of wind.
The units display some visible activity; as evidenced by smoke and sparking,
for approximately 15 seconds at 700 F. and 60 seconds at -40? F. and there is
some odor during this ignition period. There is no visible activity following
the ignition period. Carbon monoxide, present in the combustion gases to the
extent of 0.3 to 1.7%, constitutes the only toxic hazard; caution in confined
areas is recommended.
The units are hermetically heat-sealed in Kraft paper-backed aluminum foil. A
storage life of at least five years is anticipated in the moisture-proof pack-
age, and the units should be capable of ordinary military handling and trans-
portation without damage..
The raw materials used in the best formulation are Air -Float charcoal, iron
powder, potassium and sodium nitrates, sodium acetate trihydrate, ammonium
bicarbonate, potato starch and copper chromite (catalyst).
1.
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2.
Six carbon fuels were evaluated'as less expensive and less critical substitutes
for charcoal; two products of the low temperature distillation of Pittsburgh coal,
Disco and Char Feed, were found to be satisfactory. Six compounds were evaluated
as less expensive and less critical substitutes for copper chromite combustion
catalyst; manganese dioxide in its various grades was found to be satisfactory.
Extensive formulation studies were performed to establish optimum compositions
for Disco, Char Feed and manganese dioxide-containing formulations. The chromite
formulation however still continues to give slightly the best performance. Var-
ious binding materials were studied; potato starch gave the best results. Wire
and Fiberglas cord were evaluated as briquet linking materials; Fiberglas cord
proved satisfactory. Design of the unit requires provision for admittance of
air between individual fuel briquets and briquets and can for optimum results.
A very limited effort to utilize the fuel paste in extrusion molding was un-
successful; the problem appears surmountable, however. Compression molding
improved the breaking strength of the briquets but the loss in porosity resulted
in a product which sparked and sputtered during combustion. Hand-loaded molds
were adopted for forming the briquets of the 1000 delivered field test units.
The eight-step manufacturing process employed for the 1000 field test units is
described; only readily available and inexpensive equipment was employed. The
pilot plant design is illustrated by means of a flow diagram and photographs
showing the equipment and major operations.
Material costs are estimated at $0.0469 per unit which includes a cost of
$0.022 for the spring fastener. Unit manufacturing costs for a plant design
using a hypothetical mass production process, employing extruding and linking
equipment, are estimated at $0.0532 with a spring fastener and $0.0312 without
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30
a spring fastener; these figures are based on an annual Production of 11,520,000
units.
Recommendations are offered and discussed for work directea at further improve-
ments in the combustion and physical characteristics of these units and reduction
of their cost, as well as toward improved forming techniques for large scale pro-
duction.
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SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
1. One thousand solid fuel ration can heating units of a circumferential
linked belt design have been manufactured, packaged, and delivered to
the Quartermaster Research and Development Center, Natick, Massachusetts.
2. The heating units consisted of 11 briquets, each 1-9/16 x 3/16 inches.
The briquets were linked with two lengths of embedded Fiberglas cord and
a third strand of asbestos treated with igniter formulation. The units
may be attached to ration cans by means of a coil spring joining looped
ends of the Fiberglas cords.
The once-folded units were packaged in Reynolds Metals Company heat-sealed
barrier material RM 245 (Kraft paper-backed aluminum foil); the pouch
units have a tested shelf life of one year and an anticipated shelf life
of five years or more (hermetically sealed).
4. The units meet the following design objectives to the maximum practicable
extents (1) maximum security in use (minimum smoke, sparking, sputtering
and odor), easily ignitable with book match from 125? F. to a -65? F.
(tested at -4o? F.), packaged unit not adversely affected by water or low
atmospheric pressure, stable and usable until consumed, a storage life of
not less than five years, non-toxic in use (0.3 to 1.7% carbon monoxide
found in the combustion products) non-friable in military shipping and
handling, and not easily extinguished by gusts of wind.
At -40? F. ambient temperature the units are capable of heating 150 g,
of water from -40? F. to 130? F. in 16 to 18 minutes; visible activity
occurs for approximately 6o seconds as evidenced by smoking and sparking.
4.
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5.
6., At 70* F. ambient temperature the units are capable of heating 150 g.
of water from 70? F. to boiling4n 8 to 10 minutes; visible activity
occurs for approximately 15 to 20 seconds as evidenced by smoke and
sparking.
7. The composition of the fuel formulation employed for the 1000manufactured
units is as follows:
Production
Formula
DrrBais
Production
Formula,
Starch-Free
Formula Basis,
Parts
B Wt.
Charcoal
954
38.16
51.02
55.00
Iron powder
189
7.56
10.11
10.50
Potassium nitrate
261
10.44
15.96
14.50
Sodium nitrate
165.6
6.62
8.85
9.20
Sodium acetate trihydrate
95.6
5.74
5.00
5.20
Copper chromite
68.4
2.74
5.66
5.80
Ammonium bicarbonate
68.4
2.74
3.66
3.80
Starch ) As 10%
(
70
2.80
3.74
Water ) dispersion
(
650
25.20
2500.0
100.00
100.00
1.00.00
8. A satisfactory fuel type igniter formulation of high oxidizer content
was developed: charcoal, 25%; sodium nitrate, 27%; potassium nitrate?41%;
sodium acetate trihydrate? 4.5%; and ammonium bicarbonate, 4.5%. Water
is added to make up a paste of a consistency suitable for application.
The quantity of igniter formulation applied to the briquets was found
to be critical. Best results were secured with the application of a
strip 5/8-inch in width around the interior circumference of the link
belt unit, following the course of the asbestos igniter cord, and the
application of an approximateli5/8-inch diameter igniter spot on the
exterior surface between the fifth and sixth briquets.
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6.
10. The materials cost per unit is $0.0469,iacluding a cost of $0.022 for
the coil spring fastener, but not including costs for cartons and
shipping cases.
11. Depending on the fuel formula chosen, the cost of the coil spring amounts
to W757% of the total materials cost. The greatest opportunity for cost
reduction lies in the search for or development of an alternate tension-
ing device.
12. The production of 1i8, 000 units per day (11,5200000 annually) using a small
extruder with attachments for linking is estimated to cost approximately
$0.0532 per unit with coil spring fastener and $0.0312 per unit without
any spring fastener.
13. In a search for less expensive and less critical fuels, six carbon
containing materials were screened as potential replacements for wood
charcoal: Coke, lignoSulfonate, anthracite coal, bituminous coal,
Disco (from 1ow7temperature distillation of a high-volatile content
coal) and Char Feed (Disco-derived).
14. Disco and Char Feed fuels were considered satisfactory replacements for
wood charcoal, although these materials produced slightly more stoke
than charcoal.
15. In a search for less expensive and less critical combustion catalysts,
six compounds were evaluated as potential replacements for copper
chromite: ferric nitrate, barium dioxide, lead oxide (PbO), magnesium
nitrate, nickel oxide and manganese dioxide. Manganese dioxide proved
to be an effective substitute.
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16. Formulations containing Disco and Char Feed fuels and manganese dioxide
combustion catalyst were developed which performed satisfactorily in
rate-of-heating studies; these formulations were then optimized in com-
ponent variance studies.
17. Manganese dioxide catalyzed formulations required a greater air supply.
The additional air was obtained by a minimum 1/8 inch clearance between
the briquets of the circumferential link belt unit and the ration can.
The copper chromite catalyzed formulatiods require only 1/16 inch
clearance.
18. Two prepasted wheat starches and polyvinyl alcohol were found to be
inferior to potato starch paste as a binding agent.
19. The quantity of starch paste required was found to vary inversely with
the extent of grinding and milling of the fuel formulation components.
20. Compression molding increased the breaking strength of the fuel briquets
moderately; but due to loss of porosity the coMbustion characteristics
were unfavorable.
21. Wire proved unsatisfactory as a linking material for the fuel briquets;
expansion during heating permitted the unit to slide down the sides of
the can. Fiberglas cord proved to be a satisfactory linking material.
. Time-temperature fuel briquet baking studies established the following
schedule for the wood charcoal-copper chromite formulation employed
for the manufactured units: one hour at 70-75? C. followed by four
hours at 105? C.
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8.
23. A baking period of more than four hours at 110? C. was not deleterious,
but the baking temperature of 110? C. should not be exceeded. A baking
temperature above 110? C.- for copper chromite-containing formulations
resulted in increased sparking; a temperature of 115? C. was the upper
limit for manganese dioxide catalyzed formulations. Smoke and odor were
not affected by the baking temperature.
24. The details of the pilot plant employed 'or the production of the vnits
are presented; eight manual operations were performed using readily
available equipment: laboratory hammermill? six quart dough mixer,
polyvinyl chloride Plastisol molds, air' circulating oven and a belt
type heat sealer for packaging.
25. Suggestions on equipment and operation of a plant in which five people
should turn out about 48,000 fuel units per eight hour day (11,520,000
units per year) are offered. To accomplish this operations must be
highly mechanized. Apparatus for automatically molding fuel briquets,
including the operations of imbedding the three cords, cutting to length
and joining the Fiberglas ends into loops, applying the igniter formula-
tion, and attaching the tensioning device, remains to be designed;
indications were obtained that the problems could be solved.
26. The cost estimates of (12) are predicated on the solution of the mechan-
ical problems involved and an investment of $80,000 for standard and
special machinery, tools and equipment, including installation.
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INTRODUCTION
Wyandotte Chemicals Corporation, under small successive contracts with the
Office of the Quartermaster Corps, undertook an extended investigation com-
prising research, development and manufacture of 1000 solid fuel units for the
heating of rations in the field. Work under the initial contract DA44-109-qm-
433 has been summarized in a final report dated 15 November 1951. Work com-
pleted under the two succeeding contracts DA44-109-qm-1278 and DA44-109-qm-
1518 forms the subject matter of this single final report.
Under the initial contract a carbon-containing fuel was developed which burned
without flame and with a moderate amount of smoke and odor. The composition
contained Airfloat Grade wood charcoal as the heat source, iron powder to
minimize disintegration of the ash, a low melting eutectic mixture of sodium
and potassium nitrates as oxidizer, sodium acetate to reduce sparking (by
providing a liquid phase during the initial combustion), ammonium bicarbonate
to develop porosity, copper chromite as an oxidation catalyst to lower the
Ignition temperature and ensure complete combustion, and potato starch as
binder to provide a mechanically sound briquet structure.
The fuel composition was successfully tested in the form of a linked belt
which encircled the cylindrical surface of la-ounce cans of C-rations. A
single linked unit weighing 37 g. heated a laounce can of beans with pork
and tomato sauce from 33? F. to an average temperature of 133* F. in approx-
imately 10 minutes. A 20-minute combustion time in still air was demonstrated
and the heat content of the unit indicated that successful heating could be
achieved from initial temperatures much lower than 33? F.
Under the two subsequent contracts the investigation was extended according to
the defined scope of the contracts as reproduced in Appendix I of this report.
9.
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10.
These contractual objectives included studies of certain components of the fuel
formulation and a search for less expensive and less critical fuels and combustion
catalysts. Binding materials were to be investigated to improve the moisture
resistance and the strength of the fuel briquets and compression molding was to
be studied as a possible means of improving the strength characteristics of the
fuel briquets. Improved means of linking the individual briquets were sought and
packaging materials were to-be investigated. The production of 1000 units, meet-
ing the specifications set forth in Article 1-(a)-(2) (See AppendixI)? was re-
quired. Finally, a design of a pilot plant for the production, packaging and
packing of small quantities of the heating units was to be supplied.
Work was initiated in October 1952 and the 1000 heating units were delivered
in June 1954. The various laboratory experimental studies directed at a fuel
formulation best meeting the requirements with respect to cost, criticality of
materials and performance will be reported first. This phase includes studies
of various carbon fuels, combustion catalysts, formulation screening studies,
secondary air requirements, binding materials and baking procedures. The dev-
elopment of an igniter formulation is given. Three Memorandum Reports (Appendix
III) covering evaluation studies of selected fuel formulations by representatives
of Quartermaster Corps are then discussed.
Work relating to the production of the 1000 delivered units is presented in
three major sections: Design of the Production Unit, Pre-Manufacturing Studies,
and Manufacture. Extrusion methods, compression molding and hand-loaded molds
were studied as means of forming the fuel briquets. Cost analyses are presented
for several heating unit formulas using a hypothetical mass production process.
Finally, the ability of the heating unit to meet the design objectives is dis-
cussed and a list of suggestions and recommendations directed toward further
improvements is presented.
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FUEL FORMULATION STUDIES
Screening studies were performed to find potential replacements for wood char-
coal fuel and copper chromite combustion catalyst. Alternate fuels and cata-
lysts were then studied in various formulations, together with variations in
other components, in order to arrive at the most efficient combinations. The
necessity for providing additional air in the combustion'through proper spacing
of the fuel from the ration cans was demonstrated. Binding materials and
baking methods were studied.
In many of these studies, the fuels and catalysts under test were substituted
into the standard formulation developed under contract DA44-109-qm-4530 as
shown on page 42 in the Summary Report of 15 November 1951. The composition
of this formulation is shown in Table 1. This is similar to but not exactly
the same as adopted for making the 1000 heating units (compare formula on
page 5).
EVALUATION OF CARBON-CONTAINING FUELS OTHER THAN WOOD CHARCOAL.
Airfloat Charcoal currently is priced at about $77 per ton, and in a period
of national emergency the material could become a critical item. Accordingly,
lower-priced and less critical acceptable substitutes for charcoal were sought.
The following materials were selected for initial screening: coke, ligno-
sulfonate, anthracite coal, bituminous coal, Disco and Char Feed (containing
10% volatile matter). The fuels were incorporated in the standard formulation
of Table I and tested in the form of discs as reported in Table 2.
11.
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12.
TABLE 1
STANDARD FORMULATION DEVELOPED UNDER
CONTRACT NO. DA44-109-qm-433 *
Component
Parts
By Wt.
Anhydrous Basis
With Starch,
Starch-Free
Formula Basis,
Fuel (Wood charcoal, Airfloat grade)
40
49 O 68
52,63
Iron powder, 325 mesh
8
9.94
10.53
Potassium nitrate
11
13,66
14.47
Sodium nitrate
7
8.70
9.21
Sodium acetate trihydrate
4
4.97
5.26
Ammonium bicarbonate
3
3.73
3.95
Copper chromite
3
3.73
3.95
Starch ) As 10%
4.5
5.59
Water ) Paste C
40.5
121.0 100.00 100.00
* Also tested under designation CR-1036-I-4 - see page 36.
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Fuel
Coke
Lignosulfonate
TABLE 2
SCREENING STUDY OF SIX CARBON FUELS
Cost/Ton
12.5
Anthracite coal 8.00
Bituminous coal 8.00
Disco
Char Feed (10% VM)
Coke.
Coke is an unsatisfactory fuel for the present application. Its ignition
temperature is too high for match use and the fuel did not continue to glow
after an initial combustion period.
Odor.
Heavy-burns
very rapidly
Satisfactory-
Black, sooty
9.25 Medium
Satisfactory
13.
Estimated
Extent of
Combustionp%
Objectionable;
nauseating.
Acrid for 3 min.
Acrid for entire
combustion
Acrid but 16ss
than anthracite
'41Faint
70%
60%
90%
90%
Lignosulfonate.
Lignosulfonate is a by-product of the sulfite paper process. It is ?a carbon-
aceous material consisang of 60%.lignosulfonate and 2
0`,
carbon. Smoke evolu-
tion and sparking were excessive during test and a very obnoxious odor was
noticed during the initial combustion period. It is doubtful if this material
could be satisfactorily and economically purified to fulfill the design
objectives.
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14.
Anthracite Coal.
The anthracite coal formulation failed to glow after the ignition combustion
period until copper nitrate was added as a catalyst. This formulation then
raised the temperature of 125 ml. of water initially at-43? F. to 158? F.
in 15 minutes. The temperature of 158? F. was maintained for 10 minutes. How-
ever, the briquets became coated with a hard powder which acted as an insulator,
limiting the air supply and preventing optimum heat transfer to the can. Work on
this fuel was discontinued when it became apparent that a great deal of time and
effort would be required in order to arrive at a satisfactory solid fuel
formation.
Bituminous Coal (Pocahontas).
Formulations based upon bituminous coal (Pocahontas) evolved excessive smoke
during the initial combustion period. This was expected in view of the high
volatiles content of the coal. In an unsuccessful effort to decrease the rate
of smoke evolution, fuels were formulated to lengthen the duration of the
initial combustion period. Increasing the ratio of the nitrate to soft coal
in the formulation reduced the amount of smoke, but the fuel then burned with
a luminous flame, unsatisfactory for the present application.
Disco.
Disco, priced at $9.25/ton, is produced by low temperature 'distillation (8500 F.)
of a high volatile content, Pittsburgh seam coal. About No;poo tons are manu-
factured annually by Pittsburgh Consolidation Coal Company. The heating value
of the fuel is 12,810 B.T.U. per pound. Analysis of the fuel on a dr basis
is as follows: volatiles, 18.7%; fixed carbon, 70.14; ash, 10.9%*; sulfur,
2.1%.
* Ash analysis is as follows: Si02, 47%; A1203, 27.3%; Fe20s, 17.9%,
CaO, 3.1%; MgO, 0.5%; other oxides, 3.0%; alkalies, 14%.
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15.
While, as noted in Table 2, smoke formation was excessive, the material appeared
to be satisfactory in other respects. Accordingly, the material was evaluated
further in studies reported later.
Char Feed.
Char Feed is an experimental product prepared at our request by the Pittsburgh
Consolidation Coal Company in an effort to reduce the degree of smoking encount-
ered with Disco. The product was produced by heating Disco for 15 minutes in
the presence of an inert gas. The resulting product contains 77.2% fixed carbon
and 10% volatile matter. The heating value is 12,380 B.T.U. per pound. As noted
in Table 2, the product appeared quite promising, yielding less smoke during the
initial combustion period than Disco and was selected, along with Disco, for
further testing as reported later.
Subsequent to these screening studies, a Char Feed containing but 5% volatile
matter was obtained. This material produced briquets of porous structure with
good initial burning characteristics. After a high initial heat output, how-
ever, the fuel cooled very rapidly. Further work with this material was dis-
continued as it became apparent that considerable effort would be required to
establish whether or not a satisfactory formulation could be obtained.
comBuorioN CATALYSTS OTHER THAN COPPER CHROME.
Work performed under the Contract DA44-109'.411-435:-cmfir1ned thewknoeffedt of
copper chromate as a combustion catalyst in charcoal formulations. Faster
heating rates were obtained and combustion was more complete than when no
catalyst was employed. The improved burning characteristics result in part
from a reduction in the ignition temperature of the fuel.
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The limited production and relatively high cost of copper chromite ($1.00-
1.25 per pound) led to a search for less expensive catalysts. Manganese
dioxide, nickel oxide, magnesium nitrate, lead oxide (Pb0)_ barium dioxide,
(Ba02) and ferric nitrate were evaluated in the standard formulation shown
in Table 1, replacing the copper chromite. The results appear in Table 3.
TABLE 3,?
EVALUATION OF COMBUSTION CATALYSTS
(In Standard Formulation of Table 1)
Catalyst Wt. % Used Observation
Ferric nitrate 4 Flashing and sputtering during initial
combustion period.
Barium dioxide 6 Acted as a refractory; combustion
about 70% complete.
Lead Oxide 6 Acted as a refractory; combustion
about 70% complete.
Magnesium nitrate 4 Excessive flashing and sputtering
during initial combustion period.
Nickel oxide 6 Acted as a refractory; combustion
about 70% complete.
Manganese dioxide 6 fective as a replacement for copper
chromite; combustion about 90% complete.
Manganese dioxide was the only compound which warranted further consideration
as a catalyst to replace copper chromite. The other materials either caused
undue flashing and sputtering during the initial combustion period or acted
as refractories, preventing complete combustion. Accordingly, three grades
of manganese dioxide were tested: reagent, technical and African ore. Their
performance is shown in Table 4 and their costs in Table 5. No significant
difference in the catalytic activity of the three grades was apparent.
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17.
TABLig 4
COMPARISON OF VARIOUS GRADES OF MANGANESE DIOXIDE AS COMHUMION CATALYSTS
(In Standard tormulation of Table 1)
Time to Raise
300 MI. Water
Mn02 Grade
Wt. % Used
to 158?F .,Min.
Extent of CoMbvation
Reagent
4
12.5
Combustion 90% complete
Technical (85%)
6
16.5
Combustion 90% complete
African Ore (84-87%)
6
11.5
Combustion 90% complete
TABLE 5
COSTS OF THREE GRADES OF MANGANESE DIOXIDE
Grade Cost, $/lb.
Reagent 1.08
Technical 0.28
African ore 0.05
In addition to its low cost, African ore is readily available in tonnage lots.
Accordingly this material was studied as a possible replacement for copper
chromite catalyst as reported in the next section.
FORMATION STUDIES INVOLVING CHARCOAL, DISCO ANDCHAR FEED FUELS WITH
MANGANESE DIOXIDE .AS THE COMBUSTION CATALYST;
The fuel evaluation screening studies, reported above, indicated that Disco
and Char Feed were potential replacements for charcoal as fuel and tat
manganese dioxide, in its various grades, was a promising alternate com-
bustion catalyst for copper chromite. Accordingly, five formulations were
prepared in the form of discs for heating studies.
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18.
Comparative water-heating tests are reported in Table 6 for three charcoal,
Disco and Char Feed formulations using manganese dioxide as the combustion
catalyst. In addition, two tests with very similar Disco formulations (small
variation in nitrate contents and ratio) applied to heating 12-ounce ration
cans are reported in Table 7. Although these five tests showed clearly that
Disco and Char Feed formulations employing a manganese dioxide combustion
catalyst could perform satisfactorily with respect to rate of heating, multiple
tests showed poor reproducibility.*
Subsequent experience indicates that poor reproducibility- may be.
attributedto variationsAdue to hand mixing and inadequate clearance
between the briquet and can for air supply for manganese dioxide
catalyzed formulations.
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19.
TABLE 6
WArEE RATE-OF-HEATING STUDIES WITH CHARCOAL,
DISCO AND CHAR FEED FUEL FORMULATIONS
Test: 300 ml. of Water Initially at 40? F.
Ambient Temp.: 32? F.
Formula
Fuel Used:
Ingredient
60 grams
Composition,
Wt 0,g . Wt. %
Measured Temp., ?F; After
10
Min.
15
Min.
20
Min,
30
Min.
A
Charcoal
53.0
50.0
110
195
180
160
Iron Powder
10.0
9.4
KNO3
14.5
13.7
NaNO3
9.2
8.7
BaC2H302.3H20
368
3.6
IIH4HCO3
3.8
3.6
Mn02 (tecta.)
6.0
5.6
Potato Starch*
5,7
5.4
106.0
100.0
Disco
53.0
54.3
180
200
200
185
KNO3
13.0
13.3
NaNO3
8.3
8.5
Nac2H3o2.3H20
6.0
6.2
Mn02 (tech.)
10.0
10.3-
NH4HCO3
5.0
5.1-
Potato Starch*
2.3
2.4-
97.6
100.1-
Char Feed
53.0
48.5
160
200
200
175
Iron Powder
10.0
9.2
KNO3
14.5
13.3
NaNO3
9.2
8.4
NaC2H302.3H20
5.0
4.6
NH4HCO3
5.0
4.6
Mn02 (tech.)
10.0
9.2
Potato Starch*
, 2.4
2.2
109.1
100.0
* Dry basis; used as a 10% solution
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Formula Ingredient
TABLE 7
HEATING OF 12-OUNCE RATION CANS OF BEANS
WITH TWO DISCO FORMULATIONS
Initial Can Temp.:
Ambient Temp.:
Fuel Used:
100? F. below zero
30? F.
60 grams
Composition,
Wt., g. Wt. %
20.
Observations During Heating
11 Disco
KNO3
NaNO3
Mh02 (tech.)
7000
17.4
11.0
13.0
75.0
13.6
8.6
10.2
15 min.
Small amount of frozen
beans in center of can.
20 min.
BH4HCO3
7.0
5.5
Tempo along wall, 160?F.
NaC0302.31120
6.0
4.7
Temp0 in center of can,
Potato starch*
3.0
2.4
Temp0 upon mixing beans, 125?F.
1270 ij:-
100.0
Disco
70.0
54.4
15 min.
KNO3
18.1
14.1
Small amount of frozen
NaNO3
11.4
8.9
beans in center of can.
Mh02 (tech.)
13.0
10.1
20 min.
NH4HCO3
7.0
5.4
Temp. along wall? 135?F.
NaCH302.3H20
6.o
4.7
Temp0 in center of can, 80?F.-
Potato starch
3.1
2.4
Temp. upon mixing bean, 112?F.
T2137
100.0
30 min.
Temp. along wall, 145?F.
Temp0 in center of can, 90?F.
Temp0 upon mixing beans, 1 .51!:-
s:
Dry basis; used as a 10% solution
_SILIdy_91A1122E_2211ponent Variations Involving Three Fuels and Two Grades
At this pointt seemed desirable to attempt to optimize the formulations
with respect to each fuel and the technical and African Ore grades of man-
ganese dioxide, using the standard test for rate-of-heating of 300 ml. water.
A Latin Square experimental design was prepared involving the eutectic mix-
ture of nitrates (approximately 61% potassium nitrate and 39% sodium nitrate),
sodium acetate trihydrate and manganese dioxide (technical and African Ore
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21.
grades independently) at four weight levels, the weight of fuel and ammonium
bicarbonate being held constant. The drying time was held constant and the
hand-mixing technique was performed as uniformly as possible. Iron powder
was omitted from the design but was added as a separate component independently
to test its effect on the rate of heating.
The experimental procedure and results of the studies are set forth in Appendix
II, the design of the experiments being shown there in Table 20. The positive
results of the studies, i.e., those formulations which achieved boiling of the
water, are shown in Tables 21, 22, 23 and 24.
The following series of tests was conducted:
1. Sixteen duplicate tests with Disco fuel and technical grade man-
ganese dioxide; iron powder omitted. (Table 21).
2. Sixteen tests with Disco fuel and African Ore grade manganese
dioxide without added iron powder and 16 identical tests with
10 g0 of added iron powder. (Table 22).
Sixteen tests with Char Feed and African Ore grade manganese
dioxide without added iron powder and 16 identical tests with
10 g. of added iron powder. (Table 23).
4. Sixteen tests with charcoal and technical grade manganese
dioxide without added iron powder (data not shown; none
achieved boiling of the test water).
5. Two tests with charcoal and African Ore grade manganese
dioxide with 10.5 g. of added iron powder. (Table 24).
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22.
In performing these tests, the formulations were cast as approximately one
square centimeter pellets; these were held firmly against the can with ordin-
ary fly screen. This procedure permitted easy preparation and rapid testing
but as the work progressed it became evident that the surface presented to the
air was inadequate, combustion being slow and incomplete. This factor, as
well as possible difficult-to-assess variations occasioned by hand mixing,
led to poor reproducibility which tended to cloud the test results. While it
is felt that the effect of the small variations in composition were not con-
clusively evaluated, the general results and observations with respect to
rates of heating listed below appear valid:
1. Disco fuel and Char Feed are satisfactory substitutes
for wood charcoal.
2. Iron powder is not essential to the Disco or Char Feed
formulations although charcoal formulations appear to
perform somewhat better with added iron powder.
No substantial difference between technical grade and
African Ore grade manganese dioxide was observed.
4. With manganese dioxide as a catalyst, charcoal formulations
appear to require more air than do Disco and Char Feed
formulations.
5. Formulas utilizing manganese dioxide as a catalyst appear to
require more air than formulas using copper chromite as a
catalyst.
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Items 4 and 5, based on the present work, and taken in conjunction with prev-
ious experience, offer a reasonable explanation for the relatively poor per-
formance of the charcoal-manganese dioxide formulations.
The formulations which performed best for each form of fuel according to the
data presented in Appendix II were for Charcoal LS-1-I, for Disco LS-141 and
for Char Feed LS-14. The compositions on a weight percent basis are shown in
Table 8.
TABLE 8
"BEST" FUEL FORMULATIONS FROM LATIN SQUARR, DESIGN STUDIES
Fuel Component, Weight Percent
Ingredients
Charcoal
Disco
Char Feed
(LS-1-I)
(LS-14)
(LS-14)
Fuel ,
51.0
57.3
57.3
Iron powder
10.1
--
MD OW
Potassium nitrate
13.3
14.0
14.0
Sodium nitrate
8.4
9.0
9.0
African Ore manganese dioxide
4.8
5.4
5.4
Sodium acetate
3.8
6.5 .
6.5
Ammonium bicarbonate
3.6
5.4
5.4
Potato starch *
5.0
2..4
2.4
100.0 100.0 100.0
* Dry basis; added as 10% aqueous solution
The charcoal formulation is similar in composition to the recommended formu-
lation of the final report of 15 November 1951 (See Table 1), with manganese
dioxide replacing copper chromite as a combusion catalyst.
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SUPPLY OF AIR FOR THE: COMBUST= PROCESS.
The desirability of utilizing air .as efficiently as possible to carry on the
combustion of the charcoal-copper chromite formulations after ignition and
expenditure of the oxidizing agents in the formula had been recognized in
work performed under the initial contract DA44-109-qm-433. The need for
providing sufficient air had led to consideration of individual fuel briquets
(greater surface exposure) in a wrap-around link belt unit, as opposed to
methods involving heating only the ends of the ration can. However, time had
not permitted studies involving clearance between the briquets and the ration
can. In view of the poor reproducibility and poor heating efficiencies of
certain formulations studied, it seemed likely that access of air from both
sides of the briquet might be quite important, particularly with formulations
involving manganese dioxide catalysts.
To establish the importance of clearance between the fuel briquets and the
ration can, fuel briquets were prepared in which the necessary clearance
was provided by protusions. Representative data are given in Table 9 for
the charcoal-manganese dioxide formulation LS-1-I shown in Table 8.
TABLE 9
EFFECT OF.CLEABANCEL BETWEEN fHE FUEL BRIQUETS
AND THE RATION CAN ON THE RATE OF HEATING
Charcoal-Manganese Dioxide Formulation LS-1-I of Table 8
Temperature, ?C.
Approximate Clearance, In.
Time, Min.
0
1/163/32
1/8
0
22
20
20
22
5
70
68
68
82
9
85
84
88
100*
12
88
90
96
15
89
90
97
* Reached boiling in 8 minutes
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25.
The data of Table 9 indicate that the rate of heating with the charcoal-
manganese dioxide formulation increases markedly as the clearance between
the fuel and the ration can is increased, very acceptable results being
secured with 1/8 inch clearance. On the other hand, with copper chromite-
catalyzed formulations, near peak performance was obtained with only a 1/16
-
inch clearance. Further testing confirmed these findings and indicate that a
manganese dioxide combustion catalyst approaches closely the performance of
copper chromite in test formulations provided an adequate air supply is
available. This is generally borne out by the evaluation of copper chromite
and manganese dioxide units in low temperature tests carried out by repre-
sentatives of the Quartermaster. (See Appendix III, page 91-).
BINDING MATERIALS
Work under contract DA44-109-qm-455? had shown that a binding agent was
essential to finish the fuel formulations as coherent solid masses of usable
form. Potato starch had been employed for this purpose. While this material
was generally satisfactory, a cooking period was required to convert it to a
paste and the final briquets were not moisture-resistant without a protective
wrapper.
To eliminate the cooking period, two prepasted wheat starches, Beatergel and
Supergel, obtained from Stein Hall, Inc., were investigated. Several grades
of duPont polyvinyl alcohol were also studied as a possible means of improving
the moisture resistance of the briquet. These candidate binder materials,
including potato starch, were dispersed in a wet slurry of the standard
formulation (see Table 1) and briquets approximately 2!-1/2 inch x 1 inch x
1/4 inch were then molded and dried. The briquets were evaluated with respect
to mechanical strength and combustion characteristics..
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26.
The prepasted wheat starches produced fuel briquets which were inferior to
those formed from potato starch both from the viewpoint of strength and
burning characteristics.
Polyvinyl alcohols showed no improvement over the potato starch in increasing
the moisture resistance or strength of the briquets. A slight aldehyde odor
was detected during initial combustion.
With units using potato starch as a binder, the required strength character-
istics are met and the units can be protected from ambient moisture by
packaging. In view of the generally favorable characteristics of potato
starch, more expensive substitutes were not studied further.
DRYING AND BAKING THE FUEL FORMULATION.
The drying of the molded fuel paste is an important step in obtaining
briquets of the desired burning characteristics. After removing most of
the water introduced with the starch paste binder, baking decomposes the
ammonium bicarbonate incorporated in the formulation, producing a porous
structure essential for spark reduction during the initial combustion period.
Earlier work under contract DA44-109-qm-435 employed a one-hour drying period
at 70-75? C., followed by a four-hour bake at 105? C. Work performed under
the present contracts confirms the advantage of low-temperature preliminary
drying. A temperature of 105? C. for the initial drying period appears to
cause the salts in the formulation to migrate to the surface of the fuel
with subsequent increased sparking when the units are ignited.
A final four-hour bake at 105? C. has proved to be sufficient for complete
drying and for the decomposition of ammonium bicarbonate. A vented air-
circulating oven is considered necessary in order to remove the ammonia
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27.
produced during the baking operation and to eliminate ammonia odor during
ignition. Baking the units for periods up to 24 hours at 105? C. does not
noticeably affect the burning characteristics of the fuel.
The possibility existed that baking the units above 105? C.' (folloWing
the one hour drying period at 70-75?.) would decrease the baking time required
and might be advantageous from the production viewpoint. Accordingly, experi-
ments were carried out to determine the highest practical temperature at which
the units could be baked and retain the desired burning characteristics. The
following observations summarize these studies:
1. Baking at 125? C. increased the sparking of both the manganese
dioxide- and the copper chromite-catalyzed units, even when the
initial bake was carried out at 70? C. This effect is probably
due to the dehydration of the sodium acetate trihydrate in the
formulation at temperatures above 120? C. When dehydrated, the
sodium acetate is no longer a low melting salt necessary for
spark reduction.
2. Manganese dioxide units baked at 115? C. showed no increased
tendency to spark.
3. Some of the copper chromite units dried at 115? C. burned
with a visible flame for approximately thirty seconds after
ignition.
4. The amount of smoke and odor produced immediately following
ignition was not noticeably affected by baking at increased
temperatures.
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28.
It was concluded that 115? C. for the manganese dioxide- and 110? C. for the
copper chromite-catalyzed units are the maximum temperatures at which the fuel
can be baked without impairing the burning characteristics of the units.
Possible Substitutes for Wire Baking Screens. Liners for Molds.
From the inception of the original program under contract DA44-109-qm-4531 the
paste formulations were oven-dried on wire screens. After completion of the
bake, the fuel was then released from the screen by gentle flexing.
For manufacture of the heating units, it was considered likely that the briquets
might be cast into molds and dried intact in the molds. Accordingly, various
materials were investigated as possible mold materials or mold liners to per-
mit ready release of the briquets from the mold after drying. The results
obtained with a number of materials are shown in Table 10.
TABLE 10
MATERIALS TESTED TO DETERMINE EASE OF RELEASE OF FUEL AFTER BAKING
Material
Aluminum (sheet)
Holland Cloth
Wax paper (Cut-Rite)
Koroseal
Teflon
Silastic
Polyvinyl Chloride
Plastisol molds
Results
Briquets broke on attempted release.
Ready release. Leaves residue. Surface of
the fuel very irregular.
Ready release. No distortion of surface of
units. Smoke from wax pick-up.
Ready release.
Ready release.
Ready release
Ready release
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29.
While several materials appeared satisfactory, the investigation was discon-
tinued after observations showed that drying units with only one surface ex-
posed increased sparking during the period of initial ignition of the fuel.
The increased sparking was considered to be caused by the tendency of the
salts of the formulation to migrate to the one surface exposed to air.
As will be discussed later, polyvinyl chloride Plastisol molds were ultimately
adopted for casting the fuel, the link belt heating units being released at once
from the molds in the wet form and placed on screens for drying and baking. The
shape of the briquets was retained during the drying process.
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DEVELOPMENT OF IGNITER FORMULATION
The development of a solid ration-heating fuel under contract DA44-109-qm-433
established the advantage of employing an igniter compound to insure the rapid
propagation of ignition around the briquets composing the link-belt circumfer-
ential heating units. In this earlier work, a dilute starch solution containing
potassium chlorate and sodium chromate was used 20 g0 of potassium chlorate
and 12 g0 of sodium chromate were added to 100 ml. of 10% starch solution. Sat-
isfactory results were obtained when an asbestos cord was soaked in the igniter
solution and dried the asbestos cord being used as the middle strand in exter-
nally lacing the fuel briquets together. However, this igniter solution could
not be adapted to the embedded Fiberglas units developed in the present work.
Incorporating an asbestos cord, soaked with igniting solution, on the surface
of the units prior to baking the fuel paste proved to be completely ineffective.
Emplacing the asbestos fiber on the surface of the paste when the units were
constructed and then coating the cord with igniting solution after the bake
was completed also yielded erratic results.
A series of experiments was undertaken to determine the conditions controlling
the effective employment of the potassium chlorate-sodium chromate igniting
solution. These experiments indicated that the main factors involved were
the freshness of the solution, its method of application, and the length of
baking time. If the igniting solution was applied before baking, the solution
was absorbed by the main body of the fuel and ignition was not propagated
around the heating unit. In addition, the efficiency of the igniter stip
was also seriously decreased by heating for more than an hour at.105? C.
30.
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31.
Ageing also adversely affected the igniter solution. Upon standing for a com-
paratively short period of time, crystals begin to form which gradually increased
in size. Application of a solution containing crystals to the fuel briquet
frequently resulted in an igniter strip carrying separated crystals of the
igniter compounds. Under these conditions, propagation of ignition was found
to be erratic.
The adverse factors associated with the potassium chlorate-sodium chromate
igniter system could not be eliminated and other formulations were studied.
Tests indicated that a charcoal formulation of higher nitrate content than
that of the fuel formulation had distinct possibilities. Further work dev-
eloped an igniting compound which, when painted on as a thin paste to an
asbestos cord embedded near the surface of the heating unit and across the
surface above the embedded cord, smoothly propagated ignition around the entire
heating unit within five to seven seconds under room conditions. Consistent
results were obtained with the formulation shown in Table 11.
TABLE 1.3,
FUEL TYPE IGNITER FORMULRTION
22SEMEEL.
Weight, g.
wt.
Dry
,Charcoal, Airfloat
5
23
Sodium nitrate
6
27
Potassium nitrate
9
41
Sodium acetate tr hydrate
I
11.05
Ammonium bicarbonate
1
4.5
Water*
8
* Water content may be adjusted to obtain a desired
consistency.
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The Quantity of igniter solution applied to the card and briquets was found to
be critical. Excess solution caused the units to crumble, and: too little
failed to provide the desired rapid propagation of ignition. Limiting the
application of the igniter compound to a narrow strip on each briquet, follow-
ing the course of the embedded asbestos cord, avoided the problem of excessive
use and yet the quantity was adequate for propagation of the ignition to all
fuel briquets. A strip, roughly 3/8 .in. in width, as applied by hand with a
small paint brush, proved satisfactory in practice.
The fuel type igniter formulation of Table 11 successfully passed low temperature
tests conducted by Quartermaster representatives. Appendix III contains a full
report of these tests with charcoal-manganese dioxide (CR-1036-H) and charcoal
copper chromite (CR-1036-I-4) formulations. This igniter formulation accord-
ingly was adopted for use in the final manufacture of the units. Additional
details may be found in the manufacturing section of this report.
Also of interest is a composition, designated as Igniting Compound 1-36, ob-
tained from the Diamond Match Company, Oswego, New York. A lighted match
touched to an igniter spot of this compound ignited the fuel block readily at
low temperatures.
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EVALUATION OF FUEL FORMULATIONS BY
REPRESENTATIVES OF THE QUARTERMASTER CORPS
on completion of the various fuel formulation studies reported in the pre-
ceding sections, samples of selected formulations were supplied to the project
officer for evaluation and testing. Three separate studies were performed and
the results obtained appear in Memorandum Reports dated 10 June 1953, 18 December
1953 and 28 May 1954. These reports are reproduced in Appendix III, pages 91
to 99. The essential features of the investigations are presented below
MEMORANDUM REPORT OF 10 JUNE 1953.
The following three formulations were submitted for test:
A. Char Feed - African Ore Manganese Dioxide; Formula LS-14, Table 8.
B. Wood charcoal - African Ore Manganese Dioxide; Formula LS-1-I,Table 8.
C. Wood charcoal - Copper Chromite; Formula of Tab]. 1.
These circumferential heater units were constructed in accordance with the
interlaced Type 1 design shown in Figure 12 of the Summary Report for contract
DA44-109-qm-433.
The purpose of the tests was to establish.relative ease of ignition at 00 F.
and 70? F. and the relative degree of sputtering, sparking, and smoke
emission. The conclusions of the OQMC observers were as follows
1. The wood charcoal-copper chromite formulation was "Superior to
the other two since it ignited quicker, produced fever and less
violent sparks, and emitted the least amount of smoke".
2. The Char Feed-African Ore manganese dioxide formulation was
rated second. It produced the most smoke and the largest
sparks; it burned readily, however.
33.
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,
?
3. The third formulation-; wood charcoal-African Ore manganese
dioxide, was the least acceptable since it came apart during
the combustion process.
311.0
At a later date, wood charcoal-African Ore manganese dioxide and wood charcoal-
copper chromite link belt units were furnished OQMC for low temperature (-40* F.)
evaluation. These tests are reported in the next section.
MEM0RA1\DUM:REP0RT-0F 18 :DECEMBER 1953.
Two charcoal formulations;?,one.yith copper chromite combustion catalyst and
one with African Ore manganese dioxide were submitted for thermal efficiency
tests at -40?.F. The copper chromite unit was designated CR-1036-A and two
manganese dioxide units were designated CR-1036-B-1 and B-2. Formulation
CR-1036-A-1 was the old charcoal-copper chromite formulation shown in Table 1.
Formulations CR -103643-1 and Ei.2 were identical in composition and correspond
to "best" formulation LS-1-I shown in Table 8. The B-1 formulation was baked
72 hours and B-2 was baked 15 hours; both at 105? C. The test specimens were
in the form of link belt units and clearance between the briquets and ration
can was provided by means: of 1/8 inch protrusions. In addition, a trioxane
fuel from Van Brode Milling Company of Clinton; Massachusetts, was included
for comparison.
As set forth in Appendix III page 91 the fuels and the 150 ml of water (ice)
in 6 ounce assault caps were conditioned at -40* F. and the tests were con-
ducted at -4o0 F. The following test observations were recorded: time for
complete ignition, maximum temperature (of water) attained and the time to
reach this temperature, smoke, sputtering and odor.
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The conclusions were as follows:
"The thermal efficiencies of the fuels arranged in descending order
are: Trioxane, CR-1036-A-1? CR-1036-B-1 and CR-1036-B-2.
? "The carbon wrap-around fuels sputtered and pieces broke off. Approx-
imately 10-15% of the fuel broke away from the main body of the fuel
due to sputtering. The smoking was not excessive. Odor will probably
play an important part in acceptance of this fuel. These formulations
seem to produce an acrid, unpleasant odor while in the process of
ignition. Once ignited, however, the odor and smoke disappear."
Following this report, effort in the laboratory was directed toward reduction
of sputtering and improving the low temperature performance of the fuel.
Additional samples were submitted for a third series of tests.
MEMORANDUM REPORT OF 28 MAY 1954.
Tests similar to those in the previous tests were conducted in which certain
changes were made to improve the low temperature properties. The number of
briquets was increased from 10 to 12 and the new fuel type igniter formulation
of Table 11 was applied. As before, link belt units were submitted in which
clearance for secondary air was provided by means of 1/8 inch protuberances,
and wires embedded in the briquets were used as the linking material. Two
fuel formulations (CR-1036-H-3 and CR-1036-I-4) were submitted in which the
eutectic nitrate content was increased in one of the samples (CR-1036-H-3)
to provide better low temperature burning characteristics. A repeat test was
also carried out with CR-1036-B-3, of the same composition as CR-1036-B-2
and B-3 of the previous test.
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The three formulations tested were as follows:
1. Charcoal-Manganese Dioxide; CR-1036-B32 labeled ordinary fuel
(formulation LS-1-I of Table 8).
2. Charcoal-Manganese Dioxide; CR-1036-H-3 (same as "best"
formulation LS-1-I of Table 8, except that the eutectic
nitrate content was increased by 10%).
3. Charcoal-Copper Chromite; CR-1036-I-4 (identical to original
formulation developed under contract DA44-109-qm-433 as shown
in Table 1).
Tests were conducted at -i-0? F. and +700 F., using frozen rations in both cases,
and the following observations were recorded: ignition time, time to thaw,
temperature at thaw, maximum temperature attainec4 time to attain the maximum
temperature, odor, and smoke. The full report is presented in Appendix III,
page 95.
The following conclusions were reached:
A. Fuel CR-1036-I-4 appears to have the best characteristics.
The fuse ignited rapidly and smoothly. It burned with the
least objectionable odor and smoking.
B. The time necessary to heat the water to 130? F. waS 16-18 minutes.
C. Some objectionable points were the amount of smoking of all
circumferential fuels during the ignition; the fuse was not
secured well enough; the wire binding was not satisfactory
because upon heating it expanded and the fuel slipped down
the sides of the ration can.
D. This type fuel appears_ to be more adequate for heating food cans
at very low ambient temperature where the food in the can is
frozen throughout. Other types of fuel which heat only the bottom
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37?
of the can will burn the food before it can be loosened enough
to mix with some type of utensil.
In general the results were considered reasonably satisfactory. The heat
output of the three units was substantially equal (page 99 ). Certain ob-
jectionable features were noted under Item C. The fuse problem was surmounted
by additional studies as shown on page 42 in the Design Section under the heading
of "Igniter Strip", The wire binding Was replaced by Fiberglas cord as discussed
on page 39 in the Design Section under the heading "Studies of Briquet Linking
Materials", The question of smoke may require further attention. Smoke is
evolved for. 15 to 60 seconds, depending on the ambient temperature. Total elim-
ination of smoke and odor would require more extended research. This is discussed
more fully later
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FINAL DESIGN OF BEATING UNIT
The extended fuel formulation studies reported in previous sections had
established a number of important factors relating to the fuel. At this point
effort was directed toward finalizing details on the 1000 heating units to be
produced. A fuel formulation was selected and a basic design was established.
Further necessary design studies were performed and studies of techniques and
equipment to be used in the final manufacture of the units were conducted.
Studies more directly concerned with the manufacturing problems are discussed
subsequently under ,"Pre-Manufacturing Studies".
SELECTION OF UE BASIC DESIGN OF THE UNIT.
Because of their superior heating performance, only ration-heating units of a
circumferential type were considered for the design of the final units.
Four circumferential designs were investigated to determine the type of unit
most practical for field use
1. Single screen - briquets molded on a wire mesh.
2. Double screen - folded screen filled with pellets.
3. Screen cell - double screen with pellets contained in individual
pockets to allow more flexibility than the folded screen design.
4. Link belt.
The best unit (Type I) developed under contract DA44-109-qm-433 had utilized
an externally-linked belt design. Ten briquets were externally laced together
with asbestos cord; the fracture of one briquet prevented propagation of the
?
ignition around the units. Accordingly the various screen designs listed
'above were considered. The 'use of screens offered greater strength and
support, reducing the likelihood of breakage. However, screen units have
7:1
38.
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39.
greater weight, higher cost, are more difficult to package and they were found
less efficient heaters under the earlier contract studies.
Consideration of these factors led to a decision to adopt the link belt design
for the production units. The asbestos cord would be replaced by a more satis-
factory (and less critical) linking material, if possible. The fabrication
problem would be evaluated in pre-production studies, reported later. The search
for replacements for asbestos cord is reported below.
Studies of Briquet Linking Materials.
Initial effort to find a material to replace asbestos cord for linking the
briquets was concentrated on wire. A number of types of flexible wire, in-
cluding Anaconda Magnet Wire No. 300 were found to offer promise for linking as
well as attaching the link-belt unit to the container. Certain disadvantages
were also observed. On repeated bending, wires of the required small diameter
had a tendency to break. Finally0 the evaluation of the wire-linked units in
low-temperature (-40? F.) studies (see Appendix III, page 96) revealed that the
wires would elongate on heating; allowing the unit to slide down the side of the
ration can.
Effort was then directed toward the use of fiber glass cord. Studies with
Owens-Corning Company Fiberglas cord, Types EC-9-3-U or EC-9-3-N, indicated
that these materials have excellent tensile strength, withstand repeated
bending and flexing without rupture, are stable to reasonably high temperatures,
and the elongation is less than that of wire. Although the tensile strength
is sharply reduced by exposure to the high temperature incurred during combustion
of the briquets, the unit remains in place throughout the combustion period.
(Refrasil? a similar product, lacked sufficient tensile strength to hold the
unit intact through the combusion period).
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Fiberglas Type EC-9-3U is uncoated whereas Type EC-9-3-N has a light coating
of Neoprene. Both products are 0.034 in0 in diameter. The Neoprene-treated
material is easier to handle as the fiber does not fray when it is cut. The
Neoprene coating does not add noticeably to the odor or the smoke of the burn-
ing units. The product is quoted at $1.38 per pound and there are about 300
yards to the pound. Both coated and uncoated Fiberglas cords were incorporated
in the production units, the majority with the Neoprene-coated material.
In the final design, two Fiberglas cords were embedded within the briquets and
served to connect the 11 briquets* together in a unit. The exact design of the
final unit is shown in the next section.
Final Link Belt Design.
Originally the units were designed to heat 12-ounce ration-containers. For
this purpose, 10 briquets, 2 cm. 6 cm. x 0.5 cm. were linked together. To
enable the units to be used with assault rations, the briquets were reduced
to a size approximately 25/32 in. x 1-9/16 in. x 3/16 in. One more briquet
was add .-d to the unit to give better heating performance at low temperatures.
The molded length overall is therefore 8-19/32 in. (8.6-in.). For heating
standard C-ration containers at low temperature, the can height permits two
units to be wrapped around the upper and lower halves of the can (See Figure
1) .`
As discussed earlier, maximum heating efficiency requires that secondary air
be available between each briquet and the ration can and hemi-spherical
* At various stages of development 10-, 11- and 12-briquet heating units "
were used. The final design carries 11 briquets although some of the
photographs indicate other numbers.,
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41.
protrusions approximately 1/4 inch in diameter were accordingly incorporated
into the briquet design.
Two 12-inch lengths of Fiberglas cord, either Owens-Corning Type EC-9-3-U or
Type EC-9-3-N, 0.034 inch in diameter, were embedded in the fuel briquet near
the ends. A third 11-inch length of asbestos cord for the igniter was also
embedded in the briquets near the inner surface between and parallel to the
two Fiberglas cords. Figure 2 is a drawing showing the structural details.
SELECTION OF FUEL FORICIATION.
The fuel formulation studies reported in the earlier sections were aimed at
finding substitutes for wood charcoal fuel and the copper chromite catalyst.
In both cases, less expensive and less critical materials were sought. Disco
and Char Feed were shown to be reasonably satisfactory alternates for wood char-
coal and manganese dioxide in its various forms was shown to be a suitable re-
placement for copper chromite. In general, however, wood charcoal-copper
chromite formulations are slightly superior to other combinations tested as
indicated by data and experience at Wyandotte and tests conducted by the
Quartermaster Corps (see Appendix III). The advantages, however small, of the
charcoal-copper chromite formulations are as follows:
1. Smoke emission is less.
2. Duration and extent of odor during ignition are less.
3. Ignition is faster and fewer and less violent sparks axe produced.
4. Burning characteristics are smoother and more uniform.
5. Disintegration during burning is less.
6. Heating efficiency is as good or slightly better.
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42.
While items 1 and 2 are subjective in their evaluation and the differences in
the other cases are relatively small (and subject to modification by design
factors), the decision was reached jointly with Quartermaster Corps personnel
to employ, for the final manufactured units, the charcoal-copper chromite formu-
lation CR-1036-I-4, the composition of which is almost identical to the original
formulation on a starch-free basis (compare formulas on pages 12 and ).
Iron powder is included in the final formulation. Iron powder adds to the
strength of the briquet. This is an important feature of the link belt design
and appears to be essential in the present case. The presence of iron powder
also results in a firmer ash,
IGNITER STRIP.
A strip for the propagation of ignition around the unit was incorporated in the
design as a means of rapidly utilizing the full heating capacity of the units.
The igniter strip was deemed especially important for low temperature use. The
composition of a suitable igniter strip is given in Table 11, page 3 . The
igniter formulation was originally painted on an asbestos cord embedded on the
outer surface of the unit. In this position, when the unit was wrapped around
the container, there was a tendency for the cord to break free from the fuel.
To overcome this difficulty, the cord was embedded near the interior (side
adjacent to the can) surface of the briquets, the cord being exposed in the
space between the briquets. The wet igniter formulation is applied by brush
as a narrow strip approximately 3/8 inch wide over the embedded cord and,on
the cord between briquets. The belt is then turned over and an igniter spot
approximately 3/8 inches in diameter is applied between the fifth and sixth
briquets. The units are then air dried for two hours and then rebaked at
1050 C. for two hours.
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14.3.
ATTACHNENT OF THE HEATING UNIT TO THE RATION CAN.
In work under initial contract DA44-109-qm-433, the link belt units were secured
to the ration cans by twisting the ends of embedded wires together. The low
temperature (-40?T.) evaluation of these units by the Quartermaster Corps, how-
ever, as reported in Appendix III, revealed that the wire would elongate and
permit the unit to slide down the sides of the ration can.
The following methods of preventing slippage of the unit were considered:
1. Projections from the briquets: wire or preformed protuberances.
2. Wedges to slip under the unit prior to ignition.
3. Suspension of unit from top of container.
4. Spring to provide enough tension to prevent slippage.
As indicated before, Tiberglas cords embedded in the briquets were selected to
link the units together. It was decided to tie the ends of these cords to-
gether in two loops, one at each end of the linked briquets and secure the
two ends circumferentially around the ration can by means of a spring to pro-
vide sufficient tension to prevent slippage of the unit down the can. While
this technique was incorporated in the final design, it was recognized that
hand-tieing of the ends of Fiberglas cord is unsuitable for a mass production
process.
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PRE-MANUFACTURING STUDIES
Having established a basic design, attention was directed toward the selection
of methods and equipment for manufacturing the units. While the present con-
tract required delivery of but 1000 units, consideration was given to the
possible future large scale production of the units. In selecting the link-belt
circumferential design, it was recognized that fabrication of the units would
present certain difficulties.
The following sequence of operations was tentatively established:
1. Preparation of the starch paste.
2. Milling of the fuel formulation components.
3. Mixing of the fuel formulation.
4. Formation and linkage of the briquets.
5. Baking of the briquets.
6. Application and baking of the igniter strip.
7. Attachment of spring fastener.
8. Packaging.
Pre-manufacturing studies described below were carried out for each step in the
sequence of operations listed above. Various pieces of equipment available in
the Wyandotte research laboratories and Pilot Plant were tested for utility,
and troublesome operations were studied until the technical difficulties were
surmounted. Techniques and procedures were established. The amounts and grades
of materials, equipment and other operational details finally used for the
production operation will be summarized later in the Manufacturing Section of
this report.
14.
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45.
PREPARATION OF STARCH PASTE.
The potato starch paste previously selected as binder for the dry.ingredients
composing the fuel formulation was prepared by adding nine parts of cold water
by weight to one part of potato starch. The mixture was then heated with
stirring on a steam bath until a nearly transparent paste was formed. The
paste should then be chilled to room temperature and if not used the same day
stored in a refrigerator prior to use to prevent bacterial deterioration. Pre-
servatives which Would be non-hazardous during fuel combustion may be added if
necessary.
A total of 700 g. of a lI paste was required per unit operation, as discussed
below under the mixing operation. The equipment required for these operations
include a steam bath, stirring motor and a suitable container (2.1 beaker) for
the paste. A conventional double boiler could serve. For large scale operations
a jacketed steam-cold water kettle of appropriate size would be indicated.
MILLING OF FUEL FORMULATION COMPONENTS.
Certain components of the fuel formulation required a reduction in particle
size to produce readily a good working fuel formulation paste: potassium
nitrate, sodium nitrate, sodium acetate trihydrate and ammonium bicarbonate.
A Raymond Hammermill was available and this rapidly and efficiently produced
fine powders of these materials. Over 95% of the powder passed thron-h a
100 mesh screen in one pass through the unit. This mill and maximum mesh
size were standardized for the 1000 unit operation.
-MIXING THE FUEL FORMULATION
Initial mixing of the fuel formulation components was studied with a one
quart dough mixer. The unit proved satisfactory and a Readco six-qpart dough
mixer, shown in Figure 3, was used for the final operation. These studies led
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46.
to the following composition for the final production operation.
1. The following ingredients were dry-blended for 30 minutes:
Component
YLL.AL
Wood charcoal, air float
954.0
Iron powder
189.0
Potassium nitrate
261.0
Sodium nitrate
165.6
Sodium acetate trihydrate
93.6
Copper chromite
68.4
Ammonium bicarbonate
68.4
1800.0
2. To the above, 350 grams of 10% potato starch were added and
the blending continued for 10 minutes.
3. An additional 350 g. of 10% potato starchwere added and the
blending was continued for 10 minutes.
After 30 minutes of dry blending (step 1), the powders were not always thor-
oughly dispersed (this type mixer is very inefficient for dry blending).
However, mixing for 10 minutes with a portion of the potato starch paste, as
indicated, resulted in good dispersion in all cases.
The amount of starch paste needed for the desired consistency was found to
vary with the type of mixing employed, period of mixing and, to a lesser extent,
the age of the paste. Predicted from hand mixing, 930 g. of starch paste would
have been required for a standard batch of fuel formulation containing 954 grams
of charcoal. Predicted from studies with a one-quart dough mixer, 810 grams
would have been required. From the studies with the six-quart mixer, the value
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47.
of 700 grams shown above was established. This leads to the principal diff-
erence between the old standard formula of Table 1 and the final formula.
Its composition, calculated in various ways, is shown in Table 12.
TABLE 12
COMPOSITION OF tat FINAL FUEL RECIPE
Component
Production Formula
Parts
by
Weight
Excluding
Starch
With
Starch
Charcoal
954
38.16
53-0
51.02
Iron powder
189
7.56
10.5
10.11
Potassium rtitrate
261
10.44
14.5
13.96
Sodium nitrate
165.6
6.62
9.2
8.85
Sodium acetate trihydrate
93.6
3.74
5.2
5.00
Gopper dhromite
68.4
2.74
3.8
3.66
Ammonium bicarbonate
68.4
2074
3.8
3.66
Starch
70.0
2.80
3.74
Water
630.0
25.20
2500.0
100.00
100.0
100.00
FORMATION AND LINKING OF IhE BRIQUETS.
Professional opinion relating to the manufacturing operation, with particular
reference to step 4, the formulation and linkage of the briquets, was solicited
by a letter request for information forwarded to three equipment companies and
discussions were held with a fourth company. These were:
1. H. W. North Company, Erie, Pennsylvania
2. Arthur Colton Company, Detroit, Michigan
3. Chambers Brothers Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
4. Sprout Waldron and Co.1Inc.?Muncy? Pennsylvania
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48.
The primary problem, indicated in the request for information, was a means of
forming the briquets with the Fiberglas cords embedded therein. The informa-
tion received from these machinery and equipment companies indicates that
they believe standard equipment can be adapted to the production of the units.
The reply from the Chambers Brothers Company was particularly informative and
is reproduced in full in Appendix IV (page 100 ). Thus confirmation of the
feasibility of mass production was obtained and a certain amount of useful in-
formation was secured.
Because of the limited funds available, however, the approach to the immediate
production problem of 1000 heating units was limited to available or low cost
equipment. In the light of the information received and a consideration of
the problem2 two methods were evaluated for forming the fuel briquets. These
are as follows:
1. Extrusion of the fuel paste.
2. Casting the briquets in pre-formed molds.
Fuel Paste Extrusion Studies.
Attempts to extrude the fuel paste by means of a Royles rubber extruder were
not successful. The following problems were encountered:
a. Loading the extruder was a slow and labor-consuming task with
the type of paste used in the fuel formulation.
b. An increase in the fluidity of the paste during extrusion
increased the difficulty of forming the briquets.
c. The paste cannot be met at the point of extrusion by
conventional conveyors.
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49.
An investigation was made of the possibility of producing the units by means
of a cylinder and piston using a hydraulic jack to supply the power for ex-
trusion. As the fuel was extruded by this method) cracks developed along the
sides of the ribbon of paste. Nozzles of various shapes were evaluated in
an attempt to avoid crack formation. A straight taper at the end of the
nozzles as well as straight taper with outward flaring failed to prevent the
cracking. The drag of the paste on the surface of the cylinder probably
accounted for at least a portion of the cracking.
In view of the above results, work with the extrusion technique was dropped
and effort was concentrated on casting procedure. However, an extrusion
process is desirable for large scale manufacturing and further studies would
probably resolve the technical problems shown above.
Casting the Briquets in Pre-formed Molds.
Exploratory work to determine the feasibility of using molds to produce the
units was carried out with wooden forms. The work indicated that this method
of forming the briquets and embedding the connecting fibers was a promising
one for the production of 1000 units.
A brass form was then constructed from which molds were cast for the production
of the units. These molds were cast from a polyvinyl chloride, Plastisol, No.
370-102 yellow, obtained from the B. F. Goodrich Company (American Anode).
The thickness of the Plastisol forms depended on the temperature to which the
brass form was heated and the length of time it was left in the Plastisol.
The design of such a brass form is shown in Figure 4 and a photograph in
Figure 5. In producing the Plastisol forms the following procedure was used:
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50.
1. The brass form was heated for 30 minutes at 325? F. and then
dipped into the Plastisol for 2 minutes. A photograph of the
dipped form is shown in Figure 6.
2. The coated form was then baked at 325? F. until cured;
approximately 30 minutes were required.
3. After being cooled in.cold water, the Plastisol mold was
freed from the brass form by cutting along the edges of the
form with a sharp knife or razor blade.
Notches were cut in the Plastisol mold for the purpose of embedding the con-
necting fibers and for the emplacement of the igniter strip. A photograph of
the mold is shown in Figure 7. The briquets were then formed by loosely
filling the mold (with supporting sides) with fuel paste and then working the
formulation firmly into the mold with a spatula. The fibers linking the
briquets were kept under tension to position them at the proper depth.
A number of experiments were conducted to determine the best method of free-
ing the briquets from the Plastisol molds. Baking the fuel in the molds per-
mitted ready release from the forms, but the tendency of the fuel to emit
sparks upon ignition was increased.
In the case of freeing the wet briquets from the mold, directing a blast of
air at the back of a mold perforated with a number of small holes gave poor
release results. This experiment, however, was carried out with available
laboratory air pressure directed at a small area of the surface. Using
higher pressure applied over the entire surface of the mold, it is believed
that this method might successfully release the paste.
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51.
Experiments revealed that when the paste had the right consistency, the units
release readily from the molds. If too 'much paste was inadvertently used,
the tendency for the briquets to distort when released by manual flexing was
greatly decreased by slowly stripping back the form while directing a low-
pressure current of air against the form at the point of release.
Based on the results obtained with Plastisol forms, the decision was reached
to use this method of forming the briquets and embedding the connecting fibers
in the manufacturing process. For the construction of the contract units two
forms were assembled and filled simultaneously. The amount of paste was
regulated to enable the units to be released directly from the molds on to a
wire screen for insertion into the baking oven. Additional details are pre-
sented in the Manufacturing Section.
Compression Molding.
The effect of compression molding upon the strength of the fuel briquets was
investigated. Formulations of Charcoal, Disco and anthracite coal were molded
in a Carver press at pressures varying from 100 to 2500 psi. Breakage tests
were conducted using an Instron Compression Testing machine. Data for the
charcoal briquets are reported in Table 13 which shows that maximum resistance
to breakage was found at approximately 2000 psi. Similar results were obtained
with the Disco briquets, the anthracite briquets being somewhat weaker.
TABLE 13
STRENGTH OF COMPRESSION-MOLDED
CHARCOAL-FORMULATED FUEL BRIQUETS
Molding Pressure, Psi.
Break Point Psi.
None
6.8 - 11.5
1000
7.5 - 11.25
1250
10.0 - 15.5
1500
6.5 - 13.75
2000
10.5 - 20.5
2500
9.5 - 15.0
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52.
Although compression molding increased the strength of briquets as much as
50% in some capes, the resulting unfavorable burning characteristics made
the use of pressure in briquet formation undesirable. Sputtering, flashing,
and disintegration of the formulations occurred during the initial combustion
period in all briquets formed by compression molding. The addition of ammonium
bicarbonate, to the formulation normally)eads to a porous product Which permits
free escape of the gaseous products of combustion. Apparently this desirable
porosity is largely eliminated by compression molding.
Other Methods of Forming.
The use of a finned drum designed to simultaneously form the briquets and embed
the connecting fibers was given consideration. Because of the cost. of con-
structing the equipment and the uncertainty of its capabilities, this method
was not investigated experimentally.
BAKING OF THE FUEL BRIQUETS!
Optimum baking conditions had already been established, as reported earlier
(page 26 ) For the production operation 36 fuel units, with embedded
Fiberglas cord, were supported on hardware cloth after release from the mold.
The loaded screen was then dried for one hour at 70? C. and then baked for
four to fifteen hours at 105? C. in a Model CW 32 Blue Line Air Circulating
Oven.'
PREPARATION OF THE IGNITER STRIP.
The igniter formulation and its method of application have been discussed
sufficiently before (page 42).
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53.
ATTACHNEVT OF THE SPRING FASTENER.
As discussed on page 43, the use of a small coil spring, attached to the
looped ends of the embedded Fiberglas cords, was selected as the means of
securing the link belt heating units to the ration can. The springs used
for the manufacture of the final units were obtained from the American Spring
Company, Holly, Michigan.
The springs are 3/4 inch in length overall and 5/32 O.D. in diameter and have
a 3/8 inch body of music wire, as shown in Figure 12. They were manually
attached to the Fiberglas cords linking the fuel briquets just prior to
packaging the units,
PACKAGING?
Studies under contract DA44-109-qm-433 had shown that exposure of the fuel
briquets to 75% relative humidity for 24 hours at 77? F. caused serious im7
pairment of the heating efficiency of the fuel. Efforts under the present
contracts Were Unsuccessful in finding arvotherwise suitable moisture-resist-
ant binding material (see page 25). Further, the fuel contains other Water-
soluble components which add to the problem. Some form of packaging is re-
quired in any event and it was decided to consider moisture-resistant pack-7
aging after the final design of the unit had been established.
A study of packaging materials was accordingly undertaken.. As a rigorous
test of protection the packaged units containing indicating-Drierite were
placed in a desiccator partly filled with water.
Effort was primarily toward utilization of heat-sealed polyethylene pouches
and heat-sealed aluminum films. The polyethylene pouches were not sufficiently
effective, the Drierite turning red due to moisture in a few days and within
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?
540
two weeks the unit C0104 not-be.ignited. In addition, the pouches were some-
what difficult to open.
Attention was given '46 heatTsealable aluminum foil laminates using informa-
tion secured fromReynolda *teas Company. Tests were performed with Reynolds
RM-112 material COnsisting of a thin layer of aluminum backed with cloth. This
laminate was heat,-sealabe at l4.2? F. but was withdraWn from commercial pro-
duction, Units packaged in this manner were subjected to the desiccator test
for three months followed by 24 hours at 50 mm. (reduced) pressure) without
1.0
deterioratign.
These teats Indicate that a-properlY designed hermetically-sealed package will
give excellent ehelf-life characteristics. Storage for one year in a dry
atmosphere did not result in noticeable deterioration, and low temperature
ignition tests were satisfactory. After exposure of the packaged unit for
24 hours at a temperatWe Of ?65? r., ready ignition was obtained at -5? F.
Similarly after a P4014.QUP exposure at -400 F., ready ignition was secured
at -400 F. (Pee Appendix III, page 99 , for the -400 F. studies). However
RM-112 is no longer available commercially and only a few of the production
units were ultimately packaged with this material.
As a replacement for RM-U2, RerV4ds,Metals Company supplied Barrier Mater-
ial RM-245. This consists of 40 pound Kraft paper laminated to 0.001 inch
aluminum foil backed by 0.001 inch plastic film (apparently polytheylene)
which permits heat sealing.. Testa-on R11-245 indicated equivalent moisture
resistance to that attained by the RM-U2 material and most of the production
units were packaged with this material. The packaged unit is considered to
possess the following'charcterptics:
followed by
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55.
1. Not adversely affected by high or low humidity or low
atmospheric pressure.
2. Stable and usable until consumed.
3. Long storage life; duration unknown but probably greater
than one year.
4. Non-friable when subjected to normal military shipping
of handling.
Attention should be called to the desirability of vacuum pouch packaging since
pouches may be exposed to low pressure conditions in air transport. Machines
which can accomplish this are available from Bartelt Engineering Company of
Rockford, Ill, and probably others. Facilities were not available to us for
vacuum packaging the 1000 units produced. The removal of unnecessary air
should diminish the size of cartons and cases needed, and prevent their
rupture or distortion by expansion of the pouches when subjected to reduced
pressure conditions.
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MANUFACTURE
With the establishment of a design and the finalization of procedures for all
steps in the manufacturing process, actual production of the 1000 units was
undertaken. All -details of the design and the manufacturing steps have been
covered in previous sections except those related to the assembly of the unit.
However, pertinent details related to the manufacturing operation will be in-
cluded below. The subject matter will be presented under the following
headings:
1. Raw Materials.
2. Operational Sequence and Equipment Employed.
3. Description of the Manufacturing Process.
RAW MAxERIALS.
All raw materials, except water, which entered into the production of the 1000
fuel units are itemized in Table 14.
56.
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Materials
TABLE 14
MANUFACTURING RAW MATERIALS
Description
Source
57.
Potassium nitrate
Sodium nitrate
Copper chromite
Sodium acetate
trihydrate
Ammonium bicarbonate
Charcoal
Iron plastic
sponge, powder
Potato starch
Fiberglas EC-9-3-N*
Asbestos cord
Springs
Moisture-proof
packaging material
A. Fuel Formulation Components
Granular, commercial grade
Imported, commercial grade
Commercial grade
Air Float, 90-95%
passing 300 mesh
- 325 mesh
B. Other Items
0.034 inch diameter
Cat .No. 1-455, 1/16 inch
3/8 inch body - Music wire
RM-245 ** 40 lb. Kraft/
.001 Foil/.001 plastic
laminate
Allied Chemical and
Dye Corporation
Allied Chemical and
Dye Corporation
Harshaw Chemical Company
Allied Chemical and
Dye Corporation
Fisher Scientific Company
Hardwood Charcoal Company
Plastic Metals, Inc.
Paisley Starch Company
Owens-Corning Glass Works
Fisher Scientific Company
American Spring Company
Reynolds Metals Company
* *
RM-1121 no longer available, was employed for a few units.
EC-9-3-U was used in some units.
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58.
MANUFACTURING OPERATIONAL SEQUENCE AND EQUIPMENT
The eight major steps in the production of the units, together with the equip-
ment requirements, are listed in Table 15.
TABLE 15
MANUFACTURING OPERATIONAL SEQUENCE AND EQUIPMENT
Operation Equipment Employed
1. Preparation of Starch Paste
Steam bath, laboratory stirring
motor, stirrer and container
(2 1. beaker).
2. Milling of Fuel Formulation Components Raymond Hammermill, 100 mesh screen
3.
Mixing of Fuel Formulation
Readco Six-Quart Dough Mixer
4.
Formation and Linkage of the
Plastisol forms, wood supports for
Fuel Briquets
forms, table, oven and hardware
cloth
5.
Baking of the Briquets
Model CW 32 Blue Line Air
Circulating Oven
6.
Application of the Igniter Strip
Beaker and spatula, paint brush,
oven
7.
Attachment of the Spring Fastener
Pliers
8.
Packaging
Doughboy Belt Type Hand Sealer,
Model PHS -B
DESCRIPTION OF Tilt MANUFACTURING PROCESS.
The unit design, methods and technique are those established in the design and
pre-manufacturing studies. A flow diagram for the porcess is shown in Figure
8 and important details of the process and equipment are illustrated by
photographs.
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59.
1. Preparation of the Starch Paste.
Seven hundred grams of potato starch paste were required per batch
of 34 heating units. Slightly larger batches were prepared by
adding nine parts of cold water to one part of potato starch in
a 2 1. beaker. The mixture was heated on a steam bath and
stirred with a laboratory stirring motor until a nearly transpar-
ent paste was formed. The paste was cooled and stored in a
refrigerator if not immediately used. The operation required
about one hour.
. Milling of the Fuel Formulation Components.
The following components were passed separately through a Ray-
mond Hammermill and sifted through a 100 mesh screen: potassium
nitrate, sodium nitrate, sodium acetate trihydrate, and ammonium
bicarbonate.
3. Mixing of the Fuel Formulation.
The components of the fuel formulation were blended and mixed
In the Readco six-quart dough mixer (Figure 3) according to
the following batch recipe:
a. Dry-blend the following ingredients for 30 minutes:
Component111:21512L,
grams
Charcoal
9511.
Iron powder
189
Potassium nitrate
261
Sodium nitrate
165.6
Sodium acetate
93.6
Copper chromite
68.4
Ammonium bicarbonate
68.4
1800.0
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b. Add 350 grams of 10% potato starch and blend
for 10 minutes.
c. Add 350 grams of 10% potato starch and blend
for 10 minutes.
The wet formulation was placed in a 2 1. beaker until required
for casting in the molds. The above batch was sufficient for
the production of 36 units containing 11 briquets each, includ-
ing some wastage.
Formation and Linking of the Fuel Briquets.
Two Plastisol forms were placed in recessed wooden supports on
a work table as shown in Figure 9. The asbestos cord and the
two Fiberglas cords were placed in the grooves in the form, and
tension applied to the cords to hold them taut.
The wet fuel-formulation paste was placed in the Plastisol
forms and leveled in the forms to the height established by
the wooden supports.
The connecting Fiberglas cords between the two forms were cut
and the two forms released at once on to the oven screens.
This operation was repeated until 36 (usually) units were
prepared. The oven screens, loaded with units prior to
baking, are shown in Figure 10. The units shown cOntain
12 briquets of which one was removed prior to drying and
baking.
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Baking of the Briquets.
The loaded oven screens were placed in an air-circulating oven as
shown in Figure 11. The units were baked at 70? C. for one hour
and then at 105? C. for a minimum of four hours.
6. Application of the Igniter Strip.
The units were placed on a second screen with the inner surface of the
briquets face up. The igniter paste was applied with a paint brush
following the asbestos cord from end to end and across the face of the
11 briquets in a strip about 3/8 inch wide. The units were then in-
verted and an igniter spot painted on the outer surface between the
fifth and sixth briquets. The units, on the screen, were then
baked in the oven for two hours at 105? C.
7. Attachment of the Spring Fastener.
The units were removed from the oven. The ends of the glass cords
were tied in a square knot and the connecting spring was manually
attached to each unit. A view of the final unit showing how the
spring was attached is seen in Figure 12.
8. Pouch PackaginL.
In production the Reynolds Metals Company Barrier Materials RM-112
or RM-245' were cut from roll stock into 6 inch by 7 inch sheets and
formed into 3 inch by 7 inch pouches by heat sealing the long edges
together and one end. The operation was carried out at a sealing
temperature of 500? F. using the Doughboy Belt Type Hand Sealer,
Model PESD shown in Figure 13. The spring-linked heating unit,
once folded between the fifth and sixth briquets, was insered in the
pouch followed .by sealing on the remaining edge. The final packaged
unit is seen in Figure 14.
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RAW MATERIAL AND MAACTTJ1UIi COSTS
EStimates of raw material and total manufacturing costs for the ration heating
units are detailed in the following sections. The effect of ;oms variations
in fuel formulas upon the raw material costs will be shown.
In computing production costs the following principal assumptions will be used:
1. A production of 48,000 fuel units per day, equal to 11,520,000
units per year of 240 eight-hour working day
2. An investment of $80,000 in essential production equipment,
not including buildings.
3. Investment money available at 5 percent interest rate.
4e Five year amortization of production equipment investment.
5. Material costs at the levels indicated in Tables 17 and 18.
6. Utilities charges of $225 per month.
A labor complement of five persons fully Ogloyed in handling
all production work.
8. An average labor rate of $1.80 per hour and no overtime work.
go Overhead costs (to include indirect labor costs, investment in
real estate or rentals, maintenance, taxes, insurance, office,
acdounting? travel and administration expense, carrying charges
on Materials inventory, etc., but without profit) - 200 percent
of direct labor.
62.
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10. Continuous full time employment of personnel and machines.
11. No changes in labor rates, materials or other costs.
12. No changes required in product or method of production adopted
requiring additional (net) time or capital.
? 13. No investment in research or development, either to improve
the product or its manufacturing process (this stage of
development has not yet been attained).
14. An average freight cost of $2.00 per 100 popnds from f.o.b.
points for chemicals and materials used.
15. A three percent allowance over purchase price to cover freight
from f.o.b. points and wastage mother materials used (springs
excepted - losses and freight assumed negligible).
16. A loss of 3 percent of the chemical raw materials purchased as
a result of spillage, dust losses, powdering and breakage of
fuel briquettes.
17. All ammonium bicarbonate in the formula volatilized during baking.
18. Each finished fuel unit to carry an average of 45 grams fuel.
19. No costs have been estimated for printing, cartoning, casing or
boxing the fuel units for shipment as the requirements have not
been indicated.
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64.
RAW MATERIALS COSTS.
Cost quotations for all chemicals and other materials, obtained from suppliers
or from 6 September 1954 listing: in "Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter", apiear
in Table 16.
The 1.c.l, cost for Idaho potato starch is not quoted by Oil, Paint and Drug Re-
porter but col. and i.e.].. quotations given for Maine potato starch show a diff-
erence of $0.015 per pound. The c.l0 price of Idaho potato starch has been in-
creased by this difference to obtain the estimated i.e.].. cost of $0.078 shown.
To the full extent practicable the quotations cited are for the procurement of
a 1-2 month supply of each material for the indicated production schedule of
48?000 units daily. Manufacturer prepared to make firm committments or
purchase in larger units should obtain better prices on some items.
Using the figures Of Table 16, raw material cots for the fuel component
(chemicals) have been calculated in Table 17 for the formula employed in manu-
facturing the 1000 test units. The cost is based on 100 lbs. of raw materials,
corrected for freight charges and finally by ammonium bicarbonate (3.66 percent)
and wastage losses (3 percent) estimated. The data indicate a chemical raw
material cost of $14.13 per 100 pounds of useable fuel ,plus $0.20 for igniter.
For a single link belt unit containing 11 briquets carrying 45 grams of fuel
(0.0992 pounds), the unit raw material cost is $0.0140. Individual component
costs are itemized in Table 18 and the total cost for a single unit is shown
to be $0.0469 as follows:
Cost/100 lb. Percent of
Unit Cost Packaged Fuel Material Cost
30
47
23
100
Fuel and igniter components $0.0142
Springs 0.0220
Other components -LEE
Totals $0.0469
$14.33
412.18
10.19
$47.30
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TABLE 16
COST QUOTATIONS FOR HEATING UNIT COMPONENTS
BASIS: F.O.B. WORKS
Cost
A. Chemicals
Wood charcoal, Airfloat grade
Iron plastic sponge - 325 mesh powder
$77/ton
0.185/1b.
Potassium nitrate, granular, bbl., 20 ton lots
9.75/100 lbs.
Sodium nitrate, imported, bags, c.l.
53.00/ton
Sodium acetate trihydrate, commercial, dr., 1.c.l.
0.125/1b.
Ammonium bicarbonate, dr., 1.c.1.
0.075/1b.
Copper chromite, Harshaw Chemical Company
1.25/1b.
Potato starch, Idaho, bags, c.l.
0.063/1b.
1.c.l.? estimated
0.078/lb.
. Other Materials
Asbestos cord, 5 ib. at $2.60/1b., less 10%
2.34/1b
Fiberglas (315 yards/lb.)
1.28/1b.
Springs (lots of 10,000)
22.00/1000
RM-245 Aluminum Barrier Material.
0.21/sq.yd.
C. Alternate Chemicals
Disco (from low temp. dist. of coal)
Pittsburgh Consolidation Coal Co.
Manganese dioxide, African, 84-87%
2paper bags, 5-20 ton lots
Potato starch, Maine, bags, c.l.
1.c.1.? spot
9.25/ton
91.00/ton
0.0725/1b.
0.0875/1b.
* Quotations from Oil, Paint and Drug Reporter, 6 September 1954
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TABLE 17
COST OF RAW MATERIALS PER 100 LBS. OF FINISHED FUEL FORMULATION
Material
$/Lb.
Dry Fuel Formula
Dry Igniter
Formula
Lb.
Cost
Lb.
Cost, f-
Charcoal, Airfloat grade
0.0385
51.02
1.96
23
0.89
Iron powder - 325 mesh
0.185
10.11
1.87
Potassium nitrate, commercial
grade, granular
0.0975
13.96
1.36
41
4.00
Sodium nitrate, imported,
commercial grade
0.0265
8.85
0.23
27
.72
Sodium acetate, trihydrate,
commercial grade
0.125
5.00
0.63
4.5
.56
Ammonium bicarbonate
0.075
3.66
0.27
4.5
634
Copper chromite
1.25
3.66
4.58
Starch (dry weight)
0.078
Lyit
0.29
Totals
100.00
11.19
100.0
6.51
Allowance or freight from
f.o.b. point
2.00
2.00
Cost/100 lbs. chemicals purchased
13.19
8.51
Cost/100 lbs. fuel, after losses:
14.13
$13.19/(1 - .0366 - .03)
0
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TABLE 18
UNIT COST OF RAW MATERIALS
Fuel Unit: 45 g. or 0.0992 lbs.; 10 Si Unit s/100 lb.
$
Material
Cot/nit,
Fuel ($14.13/100 lbs.)
0.0140
Igniter ($8.51/442000 units2 estimated)
0.0002*
0.0142
Spring ($22.00/thousand in 10,000 lots)
0.0220
Asbestos igniter strip ($2.35/1b.; 0.001 lbs./unit)
0.0024*
Fiberglass ($1.28/1b.; 315 yards; 2 ft./unit)
0.0028*
Reynolds RM-245 Packaging Material
($0.21/sq. yd. 5.5 x 6 = 33 sq. in./unit)
0.0055*
0.0327
Total Cost
0.0469
Includes allowance of 3% to cover freight from f.o.b0 point and wastage.
0 It is believed that stock used for packaging each unit may be reduced
from the 6 x 7 inches previously used to 5.5 x 6 inches.
Effect of Possible Lower Copper Chromite Costs.
Copper chromite has been quoted at $1.00 to $1.25 per pound, and the preceding
calculations were made on the $1.25 basis. This is the most costly chemical
ingredient but the effect of a cost reduction to $1.00 per pound is not large
as seen by comparison of the last And the following tabulations.
Unit Cost
Cost/100 lb.
Packaged Fuel
Percent of
Materials Cost
Fuel and igniter compounds
$ .0132
$13.35
29
Springs
.0220
22.18
48
Other components
.0107
10.79
Totals
$ .0459
$46.32
100
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68.
Effect of Use of anese Dioxide instead of Copper Chromite Catalyst.
Replacement of copper chromite in the sane formula by manganese dioxide (African)
at 4.55 cents per pound would lower the formula cost considerably but might not
be as satisfactory in service. The results follovg
Percent of
Materials Coit
22
52
26
100
Unit Cost
Cost/100 lb.
Packaged Fuel
Fuel and igniter components
$0.0095
$ 9.61
Springs
0.0220
22.18
Other components
0.0107
_12z12.
Totals
$0.0422
$W513
Materials Costs for Disco-Manganese Dioxide Formula LS-14.
Calculations based on Formgla LS-14 (Table 8) for a Disco-African Ore mangan-
ese dioxide composition gives a further opportunity for cOst reduction at some
sacrifice in desirable burning properties (compared with the copper chromite
forMUla) already discussed. The results follow
Cost/100 lb. Percent of ?
Unit Cost Pacaged Fuel Materials Cost
Fuel and igniter components,
Springs
Other components
Totals
Copper chromite-
.- (at 41.25/1b.) formula,
. Difference
$0.0061
$ 6.15
15.7
0.0220
22.18
56.7
0.0107
10979
27.6
$0.0588
$39-10
100.0
.0.0469
47.50
0.0081
8.20
It is seen at (1) the .fuel Components contribute but 15.7k0-50% of 00
materials cost of the units, and (2) the greatest opportunity for saving
lies in the_ spring component used which, contributes from 47 to 56.7% of the
materialscost9
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69.
MANUFACTURING COSTS FOR A MASS PRODUCTION PROCESS.
In Appendix IV a letter from the Chambers Brothers Company is reproduced which
indicates that present day equipment 'could be adapted for the forming and
linking operation. It is indicated-that, if extrusion characteristics are
good, a single machine could extrude a 100 ft0 column per minute. This should
produce at least 100 units per minute or 48,000 units per eight-hour day.
Problems associated with incorporating the Fiberglas linking cords and asbestos
igniter were also considered by the Chambers people. While the mass production
process would require a certain amount of additional research effort with the
fuel formulation to obtain an extrudable mix and considerable problems of
machine adaptation for carrying out several unique operations must be met, it
is believed that actual manufacturing costs can be held within the levels to
be indicated, after meeting the further necessary development costs.
TABLE 19
UNIT COST ESTIMATE FOR A MASS PRODUCTION PROCESS
Basis: 48/000 units per day for a 240 day
working year - 11;5200000 units annually
Item Cost, $/Year
Standard equipment $30,000
Special equipment 50,000
$80,000
Amortization
$
16,000
Interest, average during amortization
2,400
Material cost ($0.0469/unit)
5400288
Utilities - steam, heat, power, light
2,700
Direct labor, (five operators at $1.80/hr.)
17,280
Overhead at 200% of labor 34,560
Total $613,228
Unit costl$ 0.0532
Unit cost, without spring 0.0312
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70.
On the basis of Table 19, a unit cost of 0.0532 is indicated. If the spring
is omitted, the unit cost is reduced to $0.0312 (slightly higher if wire re-
places the spring. These costs may be subdivided as follows: ,
Item
With Spring,
UnitLit
Without Spring,
Materials cost
0.0469
Manufacturing 'Cost
Equipment Investment Costs 0.0016
Utilities
Labor.
Overhead
0.0002
0.0015
0.0030
0.0469
0.0249
0.0249
0.0016
0.0002
0.0015
ooco63
0.0030
mo63
Charcoal-Copper Chromite Formula, Total
0.0532
0.0312
Disco-Manganese Dioxide Formula
0.0451
0.0231
Difference
0.0081
0.0081
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ANALYSIS OF THE RATION HEATING UNIT IN TERNS
OF THE CONTRACTUAL DESIGN OBJECTIVES.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK
As stated in the introduction, this final summary report covers work per-
, formed under two contracts: DA44-109-qm-1278 and DA44-1097qm1518. The
"Statement of Work" for each of these contracts has been reproduced in
Appendix I of this report.
Under contract DA44-109-qm-1278 the six following studies in particular were
to be performed: Work on compression molding method binding materials, fuel
catalysts, fuels other than wood charcoal, new linking materials, and methods
of commercial production of the fuel units. Reference to the Summary and
Conclusions (page 4) and to the body of the report show that each of these
phases was investigated and definite conclusions were reached. Compression
molding of the fuel briquets improved the strength moderately but reduced
the porosity necessary for smooth combustion. Three binding materials other
than potato starch were tested and found to be inferior to potato starch; a
moisture-resistant binding agent was not found. Moisture-proof packaging
appears practicable and is recommended. Manganese dioxide was found to be
an acceptable and less expensive combustion catalyst, but not quite as satis-
factory as copper chromite. Disco and Char Feed (derived from coal) could be
used in place of charcoal but in their present form would not be equally
satisfactory. Various types of wire and other materials were investigated
for linking the briquets and Fiberglas glass cord was found to be the most
satisfactory. Finally commercial production of the unit was investigated
and a detailed analysis of estimated costs was performed.
71.
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Under contract DA44-109-qm-1518, as set forth in Article 1, "Statement of
Work", the contractor-was required to furnish labor, services, personnel,
materials, tools, equipment, facilities and supplies, as well as perform
all the necessary investigations toward the manufacture of 1000 acceptable
fuel units. Commercial packaging was to be studied and a pilot plant was to
be designed for the production, packaging and packing of small quantities of
the units, Reference to the Summary and Conclusions and to the body of the
report indicate.that,these.cOntractual requirements were met. The 1000 fuel
units were manufacturedvpackaged and delivered and a pilot plant design was
furnished in the Manufacturing Section of this report.
RATION ggATINO,VNIT$ IN TERNS OF THE DESIGN OBJECTIVE.
The extent to whiqh, the ration heating units supplied to the Quartermaster
Research and Development Center fulfill these objectives will be discussed
below and certain suggestions will be offered.
(2) a, The Ration Heating Unit Shall Offer Means of Heating Rations b
Chemical Action Offering Maximum Security.
The units supply heat 'by the coMbustion, of a fuel containing carbon. Maximum
security is considered to include abSence of smoke, sparking, sputtering and
odor. While these combustion characteristics are interrelated to a consid-
erable extent, an attempt will be made-to discuss each property individually.
Smoke. The tendency of the present units to evolve smoke has been
noted in the OQMC evaluation of- the units (see pages 33-37 and 91-99 ).
Smoke is evolved from the ration heating unit only during the initial codbust-
ion period immediately following ignition. During steady state combustion,
no smoke is evident, the unit burning quietly with a dull red glow without
flame. The amount of smoke evolved has not been quantitatively measured; it
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is considered by Wyandotte observers to be moderate. The duration of smoke
emission under average temperature conditions (70* F.) is about 15 seconds,
increasing to about one minute at -4o? F.
The achievement of an entirely smokeless formulation would require additional re-
search effort. Smoke is associated with incomplete combustion but at very low
temperatures cloud formation from moisture condensation might possibly occur.
During the initial heating period, when the bulk of the unit is cold, unburned
components of the fuel are volatalized and entrained with the gaseous products
of combustion. Modification or purification of the charcoal, if practical, might
reduce smoking; a reduction of the volatile matter would be one objectiv . Fur-
ther improvement of coal-based carbons such as Disco or Char Feed may be possible.
Investigation of the organic nitrates currently being studied in the propellant
field as formulation components is a possible area of research. Coating of the
fuel particles, before or after baking, with a high oxygen content fuel (non
luminous flame) might reduce or eliminate smoking. These means of reducing
smoke, if effective, would probably also improve other burning Characteristics
such as sparking.
aania.g. There is a small amount of sparking associated with the present
unit, immediately following the ignition period and rougiily paralleling the
smoking period. As discussed under the initial contract No. DA44-109-qm-433
report of 15 November 1951, reduction of sparking was achieved by the incor-
poration of low-melting components to effect a liquid phase during combustion.
Formulations containing sodium chromate, for example, sparked markedly less
than when sodium chromate was absent. Due to its reported toxicity, sodium
chromate was eliminated from consideration and sodium acetate trihydrate was
employed as an acceptable substitute. Although sparking was not eliminated
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by an increase in the sodium acetate content, a further search for low-melting
phase components Which are also oxidizing agents, would appear to be desirable.
As stated2 effort aimed a reduction of smoke content along the lines suggested
above would quite likely also improve the sparking characteristics.
Some reduction in sparking was also achieved as a result of the improved
milling and blending achieved in the pre-manufacturing studies; this also
minimized a tendency to sputter as noted in the next section. Efficient mix-
ing reduced the amount of starch paste required. The decreased water content
of the wet formulation led to decreased migration of salts during the baking
period and reduced sparking. This is correlated with the evident increase
in sparking caused by an increase in nitrate oxidizer content.
auttering. Sputtering is used to de cribe rratic and rough burning
with hot fragments being emitted from the surface of the unit. Although
some of the earlier formulations suffered from this deficiency2 the final
contract units are considered to be satisfactory in this respect. Reduction
of sputtering with resultant smooth combustion was achieved, it is believed,
by a more thorough milling and blending of the fuel components..
Odor. There is a certain amount of odor durixat inAtAal combustion
of the unit, roughly paralleling the emission of smoke. The odor has been
defined as acrid by OW observers (See Appendix III). On the basis of
tests conducted at Wyandotte in open laboratory areas, it ic concluded that
the odor is not objectionable 4ven when standing next to burning units. In
a confined area, with a number of units operating; the odor might be object-
ionable. As with smoking, odor is associated with incomplete combustion and
elimination of smoke would also probably eliminate odor. On the other hand
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the development of objectionable odor might possibly serve to indicate con-
ditions under which objectionable concentrations of carbon monoxide gas might
accumulate. See section (2) g.
(2) b. The Ration Heating Unit Shall be Easi Ignitable With One Book Match
from 125? F. to Temperatures as tow as Minus 65?F0
Match ignition has been successfully applied from ambient (70? F.) temperature
to -40? F., as shown by the OQND evaluations reported in Appendix III. It is
believed that match ignition will be successful over the desired temperature
range of 65? to +125? F.
(2) c. The Ration Heating Unit Shall Not be Adverse Affected by .osure
to Water, High or Low Humidity or Low Atmos beric Pressure.
Experimental data reported in the body of the report indicate that the packaged
unit is stable to exposure to water, high or low humidity and to low atmospheric
pressure. Vacuum pouch packaging is recommended for consideration.
(2) d. The Ration Heating Unit Shall be Stable and Usable Until Consumed.
-The ration heating unit is a stable solid product containing components Which
are not mutually reactive prior to ignition.
(2) e. The Ration Heating Unit Shall Have a Storage Life of Not Less Than
Five Years.
Storage life studies of over one year indicate no detectable deterioration or
loss of efficiency. It is believed that the storage life will be five years
or more.
(2) f. The Ration Heating Unit Shall be Non-Toxic.
The ration heating unit is considered to be non-toxic in manufacture and handl-
ing.. During combustion, the only known primary toxic product is carbon
?
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monoxide. The question of carbon monoxide evaluation was discussed in con-
siderable detail in the final report under contract DA44-109-qm-433 dated 15
November 1951/ as applied to the formulation u ed in the present units. It
was calculated that the combustion of four 37 gc units in a volume of 1000
cubic feet produces a concentration of less than 400 parts per million of
carbon monoxide, The present unit weighs 45 g.; the calculated concentration
under the same conditions is between 400 and 500 ppm. This concentration can
be inhaled for one hour without appreciable effect according to Patty
("Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology". Vol. II/ Interscience Publi hers, Inc.,
New York/ 1941, p. 616)0 It was concluded that there would be little or no
danger in use of these fuel units out of doors or in reasonably well ventilated
dwellings. It is conceivable that in unventilated caves, dugouts, cellars, or
,
gas-tight tents that dangerous carbon monoxide concentrations could be built
up, particularly if several fuel units were burned. Therefore, as with any
carbon fuel, those must be considered potentially dangerous and care and judg-
ment Should be exercised in their use,
(2) g. The Ration Heating Unit Shall be Non-Friable ylltajp_guseted to Military
Shipping or Handling
The beating unit in its pouch/ when further properly cartoned and boxed or
cased, is believed to be satisfactory with respect to military shipping and
handling. Pouches can be dropped without breaking pouch or fuel unit. The
briquets can be broken by hand and an increased briquet strength would be a
desirable but not an essential feature.
(2) h. The Ration Heating Unit Shall Not be Easi_4pctinguished by Gusts
of Wind.
The ration heating unit burns smoothly without failure in the presence of
gusts of wind.
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This discussion has centered primarily on the desirability of improving the
combustion characteristics of the fuel as related to smoking, sparking and
odor. The required degree of improvement is small and the objectives of future
research along these lines have been stated in relation to an ideal ration can
heating unit,
Other possible improved characteristics may be considered. Thus, improved
resistance to moisture absorption and water repellency of the unpackaged unit
would be a desirable although not an essential objective. New binding agents
might be considered for this purpose including sodium silicates of several
Na20SiO2 ratios, gum guar, gum acacia polymerizable emulsion resins, and
nitro polymers.
Another approach to the problem would be the investigation of suitable spray
coatings for the final unit. Various spray systems could be investigated and
studies in this area would be aimed at the following objectivesg
1. Moisture resistance and water repellency.
2. Reduction in smoke and sparking during the ignition period.
3. Elimination of dusting during handling.
The investigation would include solvent solutions and aqueous emulsions of
vinyl polymers such as polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl acetate, polystyrene and
others. Nitropolymers and various additives could be incorporated in the
spray system. Low molecular weight water insoluble soaps, Silicones and many
other approaches should be considered.
possible improvements in the igniter formulation and its application to the
units was discussed above in connection with the smoking problem. Additional
research into this problem was indicated to be desirable to attain an igniter
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formulation which will give still more rapid ignition at very low temperatures
and a minimum amount of smoke and li t at normal temperatures.
With respect to the mechanical features of the unit, it is felt that the
Fiberglas cord is suitable as the linking agent and that the asbestos cord
is an essential feature of the zniter strip. A spring appears to be the
most desirable means of holding the unit to the can although it is the most
expensive component of the system. A suitable spring may very well be avail-
able at a unit price less than the 2.2i quoted for the present spring.
Certain problems associated with projected mass production of the unit have
been discussed in the Pre-Manufacturing and Cost Sections of this report.
Quantity production of units iill require the use of an extrusion or other
mass production technique. It seems certain that further study could develop
a mix possessing the necessary flow properties for an extrusion process.
Improvement of,the wet mix used in the manual operations employed for the
contract units i also desirable. The present briquets lack a finished
appearance and each briquet is not sharply cut to a uniform shape. An im-
proved wet mix would have as another objective the elimination of surface
cracks, possibly through improved milling and blending and a reduction of
the water content. Reduction of the present tendency of the wet mix to
adhere to the molds occasionally would also result in an improved appearance
of the finished product.
RECOMMENDATIONS.
The following areas of future research are suggested as a means of achieving
certain improvements in the present unit with respect to physical character-
istics and ease of production.
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79.
. Studies of the Reduction in Smoking S arking and Odor of the Fuel During
the Initial Combustion Period.
1. Modification of the charcoal.
a. Special purification.
b. Reduction of the volatiles content.
c. Coating of the charcoal particles: high oxygen
content material; polymeric nitro compounds.
2. Further modification of coal-based fuels.
3. Fuel formulation studies.
a. Evaluation of low melting components Which may be
oxidizers to provide an improved liquid phase
relative to that from sodium acetate trihydrate.
Examples: Perborates; persulfates; perchlorates.
b. Search for binary nitrate eutectic depressants
other than sodium chromate.
c. Incorporation of additive quantities of polymeric
organic nitro compounds; polyaminoethyl cellulose
perchlorate and other new products associated with
the solid propellant field.
4. Study of the effect of improved milling and blending on the
combustion characteristics of the fuel briquets.
5. Studies of spray coating of the finished product.
a. Solvent Solutions or aqueous suspensions of
polymeric compounds.
b. Incorporation of polymeric nitro compounds or
other additives into the solvent or aqueous
suspensions.
6. Studies of igniter formulations.
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B. Studies to Improve the Moisture Resistance, FriabilAt2n1A41411%
Properties of the Final Unit.
1. Investigation of new binding agents and their mixtures with
potato starch.
a. Solvent solutions of various substituted vinyl and
other polymers (vinyl chlorides and agents forming
toxic or irritating agents on ignition excluded).
b. Aqueous emulsions of substituted vinyl and other
polymers.
00 ?Incorporation of additives in aqueous polymer
emulsions to improve smoking and other properties.
2. Spray coating of the finished product with a solvent solution
or aqueous suspension of vinyl polymers, silicones, metallic
soaps.
3. Effect of extrugion methods upon the strength and friability
of the briquets (See below).
C. Studies of Improved Manufacturing Methods.
1. Studies of the wet paste characteristics to acquire a
plastic mass capable of extrusion and handling in
production equipment.
a. Studies of the effect of improved milling'and blending.
b. Studies of the effect of additives to improve the
extrusion (and molding) characteristics of the
plastic mass, such as sodium or potassium silicates
of several R20:6102 ratios, low molecular ',might
water insoluble soaps, inclusion of talc, etc.
2. Studies of small scale extrusion equipment with special
reference to working out problems relating to incorporation
of the Fiberglas and asbestos cords.
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a. Methods of incorporating the cords, cutting fuel
unit and cords to length, and mechanical handling
of fuel units.
3. Development of means for applying igniter spot and strip.
4. Development of means to eliminate hand-tying of the
Fiberglas cords), folding the units and attaching
the springs.
D. Study of Means of Attaching the Unit to Ration Cans.
1. Search for less expensive spring attachments.
E. Packaging Studies.
1. Much more extensive studies including both accelerated and
long time tests of alternate laminates are recommended.
All modifications of the fuel composition, application of
coatings which show promise of improved characteristics,
eventually should be subjected to finished unit perform-
ance tests under normal and adverse test conditions. The
effects of prospective methods of manufacture similarly
should be ascertained before making heavy investments
in equipment.
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APPENDIX I
SCOPE OF CONTRACTS. STATEMENTS OF WORK.
The scope of the two contracts under which the work presented in this final
detailed report was done is reproduced below from Article I of each of the
two contracts. Sections related to reports are omitted.
CONTRACT NO. DA44-109-qm-1278
"ARTICLE 1. Statement of Work.
(a) Scope. Contractor shall, commencing on the 22nd day of
October 1952 and continuing until the 21st day of October 1953, furnish
labor, materials, services, personnel, machinery and equipment, tools,
facilities and supplies necessary for and shall conduct studies, experi-
mental investigations and tests on the Solid Heating Units (Carbon) to
improve the characteristics of the fuel units developed under previous
Contract No. DA44-109-qm-433 and to investigate means and methods for low
cost commercial production of the fuel units, and in particular shall:
(1) Investigate compression molding methods to increase the
strength characteristics of the fuel blocks.
(2) Study binding materials for use in both compression and
non-compressiOn molding techniques with a view toward
improving moisture resistance and strength.
Investigate fuel catalysts with the objective of finding
one which involves use of less critical and less expensive
material than the copper chromite presently used.
(3)
82.
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83.
(4) Study the use of less critical materials, such as powdered
coal, in lieu of charcoal as the heat source.
(5) Study the use of wire or other less critical material in
place of asbestos for linking the fuel tablets together.
(6) Investigate means and methods for commercial production of the
fuel units, including the preparation of a detailed cost analysis.
CONTRACT NO. DA44-109-qm-1518
"ARTICLE 1. Statement of Work.
(a) Scope. Contractor shall, commencing on the 8th day of July
1953, and continuing until the 7th day of January 1954, furnish necessary
labor, services, personnel, materials, tools, machinery and equipment,
facilities and supplies and do all other things necessary for and conduct
studies, experimental investigations and tests with a view toward:
(1) Development of equipment to furnish 1000 acceptable fuel units,
packaged and packed in suitable material which will comply, in
as far as practicable with the design objectives, in paragraph 2
and shall, to the extent practicable:
a. Investigate commercial packaging and packing materials
and means for use in the packaging of resultant proffuct.
b. Design a pilot plant for the production, packaging and
packing of small quantities of the heating units.
c. Produce and furnish 1000 acceptable units properlk packaged
and packed to be used for further laboratory and field
evaluation.
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84.
(2) The resultant fuel units shall comply with the design object-
ives enumerated below to the maximum practicable extent:
a. Shall offer means of heating rations by chemical action
offering maximum security.
b. Shall be easily ignitable with one book match from 125' F.
to temperatures as low as minus 65? F.
c. Shall not be adversely affected by exposure to waters,
high or low humidity or low atmospheric pressure.
d. Shall be stable and useable until consumed.
e. Shall have a storage life of not less than five years.
f. Shall be non-toxic.
g. Shall be non-friable when subjected to military shipping
or handling.
h. Shall not be easily extinguished by gusts of wind.
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APPENDIX II
STUDY OF MINOR CONPONENT VARIATIONS INVOLVING
THREE FUELS AND TWO GRADES OF
MANGANESE
DIOXIDE
Some results of preliminary fuel formulation studies aimed at establishing
satisfactory compositions involving charcoal, Disco and Char Feed fuels and
copper chromite and manganese dioxide combustion catalysts have been presented
(pages 17-20).
The fuel formulation studies reported-here aimed at optimizing formulations
involving the components listed above with respect to rate of heating, sat-
isfactory formulations having already-been developed. These satisfactory
formulations upon which the studies are based are compositions A, B and C
of Table 6, page 19.
In view of the large number of component variables, it was decided to utilize
a Latin Square experimental design to reduce the number of experiments
needed. The experimental design used is shown in Table 20. Three ingred-
ients, the eutectic mixture of nitrates, sodium acetate and manganese
dioxide, were investigated at four weight levels while other factors such
as weights of the ingredients, mixing time, mixing technique, and drying
time were held constant. To illustrate the operation of the design, For-
mula 14 of Table 20 involves the use of 21.3 g. of nitrate eutectic, 6.0 g.
of sodium acetate, 5.0 of an unspecified grade of manganese dioxide. The
overall composition of Formula 14 of Table 20, is shown on page 87 on both
a weight and weight percent basis.
85.
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TABLE 20
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN FOR FORMULATION EVALUATION
Fuel: 53.0 g.
Ammonium Bicarbonate: 5.0 g.
10% Potato Starch: 21.5 g.
Component and Weight in Grams
A. Disco and Char Feed Fuels
Sodium Sodium Sodium Sodium
acetate acetate acetate acetate
4.0 6.o 8.0 10.0
Nitrate
Mn02
Mn02
Mn02
Mn02
Eutectic
5.0
7.0
9.0
11.0
22.6 gins.
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
No. 4
Nitrate
Mn02
Mn02
Mn02
Mn02
Eutectic
7.0
9.0
11.0
5.0
23.7 gins.
No. 5
No. 6
No. 7
No. 8
Nitrate
Mn02
Mn02
Mn02
Mn02
Eutectic
9.0- -
- 11.0
5.0
7.0- --
24.9 gins.
No. 9
No. 10
No. 11
No. 12
Nitrate
Mn02
Mn02
Mn02
Mn02
Eutectic
11.0
5.0
7.0
9.0
21.3 gins.
No. 13
No, 14
No. 15
No. 16
B. Airfloat Charcoal Fuel
Charcoal: 53.0 g.
Ammonium Bicarbonate: 3.8 g.
10% Potato Starch: 52.0 g.
Sodium Sodium Sodium
acetate acetate acetate
4.o 6.0 8.0
Nitrate Mn02 Mn02 Mn02
Eutectic 5.0 7.0 9.0
22.6 No, 1 No. 2 No. 3
Nitrate Mn02 Mn02 Mn02
Eutectic 9.0 5.0 7.0
25.9 gins. No. 7 No, 8 No., 9
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87.
Component
litoy g,
ISILI
Disco
53.0
57.3
Nitrate eutectic
21.3
23.0
Sodium acetate trihydrate
6.o
6.5
Manganese dioxide
5.0
5.4
Ammonium bicarbonate
5.0
5.4
Potato starch (dry basis)
2.2
2.4
92.5
100.0
Iron powder was not included in the design, but was added later to certain
selected compositions as shown in the tables giving the results of heating
studies. The' experimentalprocedure employed in the preparation of the fuel
pellets and the rate of heating tests are described in the next section.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE.
The dry ingredients were thoroughly mixed and then kneaded with the 10% starch
paste to make a homogeneous mass. The paste was then spread on a 1/16 in0
screen to a depth of approximately 1/16 in. This was scored and put in a
drying oven for 24 hours. During the first hour, the fuel was heated at 70? C.
The temperature was then raised to 100? C., and maintained at that temperature
for the balance of the period. Gentle flexing freed the pellets, approximately
one sq cm0 in size, from the screen after cooling.
The rate of heating tests involved 300 ml0 of water at 25? C. contained in a
twelve ounce ration can. Sixty grams of fuel were used for each test. Ord-
inary fly screen folded together held the fuel pellets firmly against the
can of water. The following data were recorded; time required to reach
50? C., time required to reach boiling point, duration of boiling, and time
required for the temperature to fall from 100? C. (after boiling had stopped)
to 95? C.
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88.
DISCO -MANGANESE DIOXIDE FORMULATION STUDIES.
Sixteen formulations of the composition designated in Table 20, Group A, were
evaluated using Disco as the fuel ingredient and technical grade manganese di-
oxide as the combustion catalyst. Six of these compositions achieved boiling
of the water and complete data for these six tests are shown in Table 21.
A similar series of tests was performed in which African Ore replaced the tech-
nical grade of manganese dioxide. In the latter case, four formulations without
iron powder and three with iron powder achieved boiling of the water; data for
these seven formulations are shown in Table 22,
CHAR FEED-AFRICAN ORE MANGANESE DIOXIDE FORMULATIONS STUDIES.
Sixteen formulations of the compositionPdesignated in Table 20, Group A, were
evaluated using Char Feed as fuel and African Ore grade manganese dioxide as
combustion catalyst. Four of these formulations without iron powder and five
containing added iron powder achieved boiling of the water; data for these seven
formulations are shown in Table 23. Formulation LS-14 without iron powder and
formulation LS-6-I with 10 goof added iron powder gave the best heating char-
acteristics.
WOOD CHARCOAL-MANGANESE DIOXIDE (TECHNICAL GRADE AND AFRICAN ORE)
FORMIATIOW STUDIES.
Nine formulation studies with Airfloat Charcoal as fuel and technical grade man-
ganese dioxide as combustion catalyst were carried out according to the Latin
Square experimental design shown in Table 20, Part B. No iron powder was added.
The results were disappointing in that none of the formulations achieved boiling.
On this basis, it appears that manganese dioxide is not as effective a catalyst
as copper chromite for charcoal-based fuels. With 10% added iron powder, as
shown in Table 24, the results (LS-1-I) were considerably improved. This is in
contrast to formulations based on Disco and Char Feed in which the addition of
iron powder had only a minor effect, if any, on the rate of heating.
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TABLE 21.
HEATING STUDIES WITH DISCO FUEL AND TECHNICAL GRADE
MANGANESE DIOXIDE CATALYST FORMULATIONS
Iron Powder: None
Test: 300 ml. of water at 25? C.
Formulation Wt.: 6o g.
Time toReach Time at Time fromB.P. to
Formulation No. Boiling, Min. Boiling Min. 95? C., Min.
LS-2 17.5 10.0 5.3
Ls-3 20.5 11.0 6.8
Ls-4? 16.5 9.0 6.o
Ls-6 20.5 9.0 6.3
1s-8 17.8 5.7 7.0
Ls-14 20.7 4.3 7.0
TABLE 22
HEATING STUDIES WITH DISCO FUEL AND ,AFRICAN ORE
MANGANESE DIOXIDE CATALYST FORMULATIONS '
Time to Reach Time at
Formulation No. Boiling, Min. Boiling, Min. 95? C.; Nin.
Time from B or . to
. No Iron Powder Added
LS-6 12.5 9.0
LS-8 19.0 6.5
LS-11 16.7 4.7
LS-14 11.5 15.5
B. 10 g. Iron Powder
Added
7.0
8.3
9.0
5.5
4.0
4.5
3.5
6.0
3.3
4.7
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TABLE 23
HEATING STUDIES WITH CHAR FEEDFUEL AND AFRICAN ORE
GRADE MANGANESE DIOXIDE FORMULATIONS
Test: 300 ml. of water at 25? C.
Time to Reach
Time at Time from B.F. to
Formulation No.
Boiling, Min.
Boiling, Min. 95? C., Min.
A.
No Iron Powder. Added
IS-4
17.0
11.0
6.5
LS-8
20.7
4.25
5.5
LS-11
19.0
8.5
8.5
LS-14
15.0
13.5
5.0
B.
10 g. Iron Powder Added
LS-2-I
21.0
4.5
7.0
is-4-1
17.2i
14.7
4.25
Ls -6-i
15.7
13.7
5.0
LS-11-I
19.0
8.5
8.5
LS-14-I
27.5
5.0
8.5
TABLE 24
HEATING STUDIES WITH WOOD CHARCOAL AND AFRICAN ORE
GRADE MANGANESE DIOXIDE FORMULATIONS
Formulation No.
LS-1-I
LS-2=I
Test: 300 ml. of water at 25? C.
Iron Powder: 10.5 g.
Time to Reach
Boiling, Min.
16.0
14.5
Time at
Boiling, Min.
Time from B.F. to
95? C., Min.
8.5 4.5
9.5 4.5
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APPENDIX III
EVALUATION OF FUEL FORMULATIONS
BY TBE
QUARTERMASTER RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT LABORATORIES
CHEMICALS AND PLASTICS DIVISION
Philadelphia Quartermaster Depot? U. S. Army
Philadelphia 45, Pa.
Three memorandum reports, covering the evaluation of various fuel formulations
submitted by Wyandotte, contain the following:
MEMORANDUM REPORT OF 10 JUNE 19231
SUBJECT: Ease of Ignition of Fuel, Ration Heation
A. PURPOSE
To determine relatively, the ease of ignition, and amount of sparking,
sputtering and smoking of three samples of fuel, ration heating.
B. MATERIALS
Samples were compounded by the Wyandotte Chemical Corporation. Samples
were identified as:
A. Char Feed, African Ore Mh02
B. Wood Charcoal, African Ore Mn02
C. Wood Charcoal, Copper Chromite
C. PROCEDURES
1. The fuel was ignited at temperatures of 0? F. and room temperature
(amb. 70? F.). Five portions, measuring approximately 3/4 inch in length were
tested from each sample at each temperature. All figures are an average of
the five portions tested.
91.
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92.
2. The ease of ignition was determined by measuring the time that it
took each sample to ignite after a flaming match was put to it. The time was
measured with a stopwatch.
3. The amount of sparking and sputtering is a subjective evaluation.
At room temperature the samples were laid on a copper wire screen measuring 3/4
inch in diameter and suspended 1/2 inch above a large white sheet of paper. The
distance that the residues of the sparking and sputtering landed from the samples
was measured and averaged. This gave some idea of the intensity of the spark.
This could not be done at 0? F. due to the strong draft present.
4. The amount of smoke produced was also a subjective evaluation
by three individuals.
D. CONCLUSIONS
1. The sample composed of wood charcoal and copper chromite (Sample
C) was superior to the other two since it ignited quicker, produced fewer and
less violent sparks, and emitted the least amount of smoke.
2. Sample A, Char Feed and African Ore Nh02, was the next best type.
The sample produced the most smoke and largest sparks but burned readily.
3. Sample B, Wood Charcoal and African Ore Mn02, was the least
acceptable since it either flew apart violently or merely fell apart at the
boundary of the burning section and the non-burning section.
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93.
E. DATA
See chart below (Note '4 Chart slightly condensed).
TIME OF IGBLVION SECS. 4T_ILIL_SPUERARICING WOKE EMISSION
FUEL 0 F. R.T. 0 F. R.T.
0 F. R.T.
A 7 - 18 4 - 7
Avg. 11.3 Avg. 5.25
4-14
Most
Most;
pieces
flew out
to 10 in.
3 - 5 Violent, Violent,
flys apart flys apart
3 - 7 3 - 4
Avg. 5.0 Avg. 3.5
Least,
even
burning
Least,
sparks
fly to
4 ins.
Most
Less than
A but more
than C ?
Least,
very
little
MEMORANDUM REPORT OF 18 DECEMBER. 1953.
SUBJECT Ration Heating Units
I. PURPOSE
To determine the thermal efficiency of Ration Heating Units
and Trioxane at -4o? F.
II. MATERIALS
1, Ration Heating Units - Charcoal
a.
b.
CR-1036-A-1
CR-1036-B-1
CR-1036-B-2
2, Trioxane
Most
Less than
A but more
than C
Least,
very
little
Van Brode Milling Company, Inc., ClintonlMass,
III. CONCLUSION
The.thermal-efficiencies of the fuels arranged in descending
order are Trioxane, GR-1036-A-1, CR-1036-B-1 and CR-1036-B-2.
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The carbon wrap-around fuels sputtered and pieces broke off.
Approximately 10-15% of the fuel broke away from the main body
of the fuel due to sputtering. The smoking was not excessive.
Odor .will probably play an important part in acceptance of this
fuel. These formulations seem to produce an acrid unpleasant
odor while in the process of ignition. Once ignited, however,
the odor and smoke disappear.
IV. TEST PROCEDURE
One hundred and fifty mls0 of water were placed in each of four
6 oz0 assault cans; the water, cans, fuels and remaining test
apparatus were conditioned at -110? F. until the water became
solid (overnight). The carbon ration heating units were
wrapped around the cans. They were then ignited between the
fifth and sixth briquets and the time for complete ignition was
noted. The water was stirred constantly until a maximum temp-
erature was reached. This was recorded along with the time
taken to attain that temperature.
The procedure for trioxane was similar to that noted above.
The can of ice, however, was melted by placing it above a
burner fabricated from a 12 oz0 ration can containing one
fuel bar.
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95.
V. RESULTS.
test
. Maximum
Time for temp.
complete reached
ignition 'F.
Time to
reach
maximum
temp.
Smoke___Sputtering
Odor
Table 1.
Type
of
Fuel
- 4o? F. efficiency
Condition
Temp0 of
CR-1036-A-1
-4o
2'
- 45"
129
21' - 30"
Yes Yes
Acrid
CR-1036-B-1
-40
1
- 57"
83
270
- 30"
Yes Yes
Acrid
CR-1036-B-2
-4o
5'
- 8"
31
118 - lo"
Yes Yes
Acrid
Trioxane
-4o
to,
5"
130
8'
= 5"
None None
H2OC
MEMORANDUM REPORT OF 28 MAY 1954.
SUBJECT: Circumferential Fuel, law-temperature efficiency
I. PURPOSE
Tb obtain the relative efficiencies of several different formul-
lations of circumferential fuel and common methods of heating.
II. MATERIALS
A. Circumferential Fuel, three formulations
1. Fuel marked Mh02, 3rd lot charcoal, 39.5 gns.
1 hr. at Bo? C.
4 hr. at 105? C.
1 hr. at 105? C.
2 Fuel labeled CR-1036-H-3
3. Fuel labeled CR-1036-I-4
4. 550 watt, Boo ml. flask heater, 110 V.,
Wm. Boekel & Son, AFT 6128-A
5. 5 gal. pot containing water and maintained at a
boil by use of three (3) Meker Burners
6. Combat Rations, Meat Can
Corned Beef Hash 2 ea.
Lima Beans & Ham 1 ea.
Pork & Beans 1 ea.
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96.
7. Bunsen Burner
8. Calibrated Rochester Dial Thermometers
III. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
A. Fuel CR-1036-I-4 appears to have the best characteristics.
The fuse ignited rapidly and smoothly. It burned with the
least objectionable odor and smoking.
B. The tine necessary to heat the water to 1300 was 16-18 minutes.
C. Some objectionable points are the amount of smoking of all
circumferential fuels during the ignition; the fuse is not
secured well enough; the wire binding is not adequate for
upon heating it expands and the fuel slips down from the ration can.
D. This type fuel appears to be more adequate for heating food cans.
at very low ambient temperature where the food in the can is frozen
throughout. Other types of fuel which heat only the bottom of the
can will burn the food before it can be loosened - - with some
type of utensil.
IV. RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Another type of binder other than metal wire should be
employed, possibly glass rope or glass tape.
B. The igniter fuse strip must be embedded in the fuel farther to
prevent it from coming loose and thus impairing its efficiency.
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97.
C. The fuel should be made at least one section longer in
order that it will leave less of a space around the ration
can. This can be done by adding one more section or by
making the sections smaller and adding several more.
V. PROCEDURES
A. Low ambient temperatures (-4(r F)
The fuels and items to be heated were conditioned for at
least 24 hours before, testing. Then the fuel was tightly bound
around the can and ignited. A match was held against the fuel
or igniter until either the fuel ignited or the match burned
too low, and then another match was used. The ice and water
formed was stirred with the thermometer.
The electric heater was used with a special well-covering
which enabled practically all the heat to be concentrated on
the bottom of the ration-containing ice. The bottom of the
ration can was at a distance of 3/4 of an inch from the heater.
B. Room temperature athbient (70?)
The electric heater was used in the same manner as it
was for low ambient temperature studies.
The bunsen burner was placed so that the cone of the flame
was approximately 3/4 inch below the bottom of the ration can
containing ice.
The five (5) gallon pot, with three (3) tkker Burners under-
neath, was used - - so that When the frozen ration cans were
suspended in them the water would continue to boil uninterrupted.
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98.
The ration cans were removed from the freezer and within 10-15
secs0 were placed in the boiling water. A wire was fastened
around the can and the can was suspended about halfway in the
boiling water.
VI. RESVLTS
The three circumferential fuels were listed in the table in the
order of their degree of ease of ignition, smoking during
ignition, and production of an acrid odor during ignition.
The fuel listed first was most objectionable on all points,
the third fuel listed was the least objectionable on all points.
The temperatures in column 7 (Maximum temperature) is the temp-
erature of the food after it had been mixed. The temperature in
parenthesis is the temperature as close as could be gotten near
the center, especially if the center were still frozen.
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ii
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APPENDIX IV
REPLY TO LETTER REQUEST FOR MANUFACTURING INFORMATION
FROM ThE CHAMBERS
BROTHERS COMPANY
Fifty-Second Street Corner of Media
Philadelphia 31, Pa.
August 31, 1953
Wyandotte Chemicals Corporation
Wyandotte Michigan
Attention 2 Mt. Arthur L. Austin
Dear Sir
We certainly appreciate receiving your inquiry of August 21st for
a special machine to make the briquet unit shown on the drawing that you
sent us.
From the description of the general consistency and plasticity of
the material that you describe, we believe that there is no major problem
in handling the manufacture of this Wait by extrusion in a lengthways direct-
ion, This, of course, involves a relatively small extruding machine that
would have inserted in the die a bridge with three core stems through which
the glass fiber thread would be lead into the column as it was extruded.
Out def the die we visualize a flanged roller running over the column
with 45 degree projections from the face of the roller that would indent
the column as specified. If extended threads on both ends of the unit are
not required, every tenth projectionwould be a cutting blade which would
sever the fibers and deliver the pieces to a conveyor belt as individual
units. If the fibers must be extended for tying this heater around a can,
we believe that it would be simpler to devise the mechanism that mould strip
the material from two extra lengths than it would to manufacture the unit
with the strings exposed.
With a relatively small and inexpensive machine, these units could
be produced at an extremely high rate of speed, in fact beyond our conception
of any type of handling device to stack them on a dryer or handle them sub-
sequently until hardened.
The extruding machine could be built with a small mixing tub or
not as desired. The mixing tub does offer one advantage of an efficient
feed to the extruding augers and we have designs of such a machine prepared.
Under no circumstances can the manufacturing machine be a large extruder
making these in multiples at least as far as we can se.. A rather high
volume production would be obtained through a battelfce small units that
might even successfully feed a very wide drying oven in a continuous stream.
100.
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101.
We have not worked out anything with respect to stripping material
to leave threads at each end exposed, but wanted to write you first so that
you could have our reactions to the problem that you propose to us. We
would also like to know the relative strength of the glass fibers to know
whether they would lead through the bridge and stem assembly simply by the
enclosing friction of the extruded column.
If extrusion characteristics are good, a small extruder could very
readily exceed a production rate of over 100 ft. of column per minutes. This
is a matter of actual past experience and it is quite easy for us to visualize
that this rate might very possibly be exceeded substantially. We do want
you to know that our firm is distincly interested in this development and if
there is anything further that we can do, please let us know. The enclosed
bulletins illustrate primarily, special extruding machines that we have
successfully applied to other than the clay or refractories industry and our
experience in this field indicates that your problem can be solved.
Yours very truly,
CHAMBERS BROTHERS COMPANY
/s/
L. S. Bettison, Pres.
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FIGURE 1
12-OUNCE C-RATION WITH TWO HEATING UNITS
OF THE LATEST DESIGN IN PLACE
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11.1 IMO Declassified and Approved For Release 2012/09/19: CIA-RDP78-03639A001200080001-3 1111. 1111111 11111
EMBEDDED GLASS FIBERS
ASBESTOS FIBERS
-- Co---
_ _
- (9)- ----0-----0--
_
---0----0-
____
-
___
-
_
-0-
__
-0--
-
-0--
______
-0--
--
0-
-0-
-
- 0
_
-0--
---0-
_
-
-
___
-0- -
- -0-
__ _
- -0- -
-0- -
- -0
32
THIS SIDE AGAINST CAN
FIG. 2. RATION HEATING UNIT
BEFORE ASSEMBLY
22-114222-1/
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6"
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INE 11111 Declassified and Approved For Release 2012/09/19: CIA-RDP78-03639A001200080001-3 MI 1.111
1/16" RIVETS WITH . 1/4" x 1/8" HEADS
PRESSED FIT FLUSH
I I
? 20? 0.0625" HOLES
I I
25/32"
"c-1/16
1/4"
25 /64
3/16"
MATERAL ? BRASS
FIG. 4. MOLD FOR CASTING PLASTISOL FORM
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FIGT.TE 5
BRASS FORM FOR MAKING PIATISOL
FUEL UNIT MOLDS
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6
BRASS FORM AFTER DIPPING PLASTISOL
FOR MAKING PLASTISOL F7R.
MOLDS
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FIGURE 7
PLASTISOL FUEL UNIT MOLD
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Potato Starch
Water
Potassium Nitrate
Sodium Nitrate
Sodium Acetate Trihydrate
Ammonium Bicarbonate
Asbestos Cord
HAMMER MILL
IDOUGH MIXER
i FUEL PASTEI
Charcoal
Iron Powder
Copper Chromite
IGNITER APPLIED!
Fiberglas Cord
I OVEN
SPRING ATTACHED I
PACKAGING
STORAGE
Igniter
Components
IGNITER FASTE1
Spring
RM-245 Aluminum
Foil
FIG. 8. FLOW DIAGRAM OF THE MANUFACTURING'
PROCESS
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FIGURE 9
PLASTISOL FUEL UNIT MOLDS IN
RECESSED WOODEN MOLD SUPPORTS
FIBERGLAS CORDS AND ASBESTOS IGNITER CORD
IN PLACE PREPARATORY TO FILLING FUEL UNIT MOLDS
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FIGURE 10
SCREENS LOADED WITH FUEL
UNITS PRIOR TO BAKING
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FIGURE 11
SCRtEDIS LOADED WITH FORMED FUEL UNITS IN AN AIR
CIRCULATING OVEN FOR DRYING AND BAKING
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FIGURE 12
RATION CAN HEATING UNIT SHOWING COIL SPRING
AND METHOD OF ATTACHMMNT
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FIGURE 13
DOUGHBOY BELT TYPE HAND SEALING MACHINE
MODEL PHS-D
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MOTOR (HB619)
HEATER BARS
(H 491)
!PULLEY 1
SHAFT GEAR
MB 201)
4E4!
1PINION (HB202)1
ROLLERS
MTH .
FLANGE
(H13 219), '
CARRIER
CHAINS (HB560)
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FIGURE 3.4
PACKAGED RATION CAN HEATING UNIT
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